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THE" 


CURIOSITIES    OF    INDUSTRY 


ANI> 


THE  APPLIED  SCIENCES. 


BY      / 

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GEORGE    :j>ODD, 

AoTHOB  OF  "Days  at  tbue  Factoweh,"  <tc. 


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LONDON: 
GEORGE  ROUTLEDGE  &  CO.,  2,  FARRINGDON  STREET. 


1862. 


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PREFACE. 


vy 


A  FKw  words  will  explain  the  object  of  the  present  volume. 

It  is  not  intended  to  treat  systematically  of  the  relations  which  are  borne 
by  Manufactm-ing  Industry  to  Natural  Productions,  to  Mechanical  and 
Chemical  Science,  to  the  Fine  Arts,  to  Commercial  and  International  Tariffs, 
or  to  Social  and  Co-operative  Arrangements.  Nor  is  it  intended  to  describe 
in  technical  form  the  processes  and  the  localities  of  our  great  departments  of 
manufacture.  The  author  of  this  volume  gave  a  popular  view  of  those  pro- 
cesses and  localities,  in  a  series  of  "  Supplements  "  to  the  Penny  Magazine,  in 
the  years  1841-2-3-4 ;  the  substance  of  which  was  afterwards  embodied  in 
six  small  volumes,  under  the  title  of  British  Manufactures. 

The  title  '  Curiosities  of  Industry'  will  pretty  clearly  explain  itself.  Many 
processes  are  curious  without  being  novel ;  many  are  both  novel  and  ciuious ; 
laaoy  reveal  to  us  the  store  of  strange  and  valuable  things  which  science 
pr^iiints  to  those  who  know  how  to  apply  it  in  aid  of  industry ;  many  ai'ise 
out  of  the  discovery  of  new  materials ;  and  many  more  by  new  applications 
of  old  materials.     Of  all  such  ai'e  these  '  Curiosities '  composed. 

Each  paper  or  essay  being  complete  in  itself,  they  may  be  arranged  in  any 
order  at  pleasure.     In  this  volume  they  are  placed  in  the  order  of  publication. 

G.  D. 


mmmmift 


^W 


CONTENTS. 


I.  Glass  and  its  MANcrAcroHE. 
II.  Ikon  and  its  MANtirAonm*. 

III.  Wood  and  its  Awmoatiokb. 

IV.  OAtouiATiiro  and  Ksaiannujia  Macrihik 
y.  IKOIA  Bdbbui  and  QoitA  Peboba. 

VL  iKDUanUAL  APPUOATIONS  of  EutCIUOTTY. 

VII.  Qoho:  IN  THE  Mine,  the  Mutt,  and  the  Workshop. 
VIII.  Papeb:  its  Appuoationb  and  its  Novbltum. 
IX.  Pbintino  :  its  Modkbk  VAWEma. 
X.  Cotton  and  FiiAX :  a  Cohtrabt. 
XL  CoBN  AND  Bhbad  :  What  thet  Owe  to  Maohinebt. 
XII.  A  Ship,  in  the  Ninbtbehth  Centdby. 
'  XIII.  FiBE  AND  Light  :  Coi<tbivahc«  fob  thmb  PBODoenoN. 
XIV.  Wool  and  Silk,  Pcit  and  Peathebs. 
XY.  Th«  Chbhistry  of  Mandfaotubbb. 
XVI.  SnuM-PowER  AXB  Waxeb-Powhu 


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PBODUCnON. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


i 


The  lata  Mr.  Disraeli,  in  his  celebrated  '  Curiosities  of  Literature.'  employed 
the  temi  "CuriosUua"  to  designate  A  Miscellany  of  Intebestino  Facts. 
The  '  Curiosities  of  Industry,'  altliough  discursive  in  its  character,  forms  a 
Supplement  to  the  CYCMPiBDLA,  having  regard  to  the  more  precise  industrial 
information  wliich  has  preceded  it,  whether  in  connection  with  Science,  Art, 
Geographical  Knowledge,  or  Social  Economy.  It  treats  of  Industry,,  imder 
its  Novelties  and  Rarities  ;  its  comparative  Condition  in  all  Counthies  ;  its 
Progress  at  Home,  especially  during  the  present  emtunf ;  its  essential  adaptation 
to  Cheapness  of  Production  ;  and  its  extension  under  a  systam  of  Universal 
Intercourse.  In  the  realms  of  Science,  of  the  Arts,  of  Natural  History, 
of  Manufactures,  of  Commerce,  of  Social  Economy,  there  are  abundant  new 
and  euriotu  materials  that  may  be  presented  both  to  the  desultory  reader  and 
the  diligent  student,  m  a  form  at  once  inviting  and  instructive.  The  present 
time  is  more  favourable  to  the  formation  of  such  a  collection  than  any  former 
period.  The  great  Book  of  Nature  and  of  Art  has  been  fully  opened  to  our 
view — and  even  "  those  who  run  may  i-ead"  its  wondrous  pages. 

The  '  Curiosities  of  Industry,'  although  of  general  interest  as  a  disdnct 
work,  forms  a  Supplement  to  the  •  National  CYCLOPiSDiA,'  and  to  the 
•  Cyclopedia  op  Industry  of  all  Nations.' 


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'^jawwliiiuiu  ^^mtmrn^mmmmim 


CURIOSITIES    OF   INDUSTRY. 


GLASS  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURE. 

That  most  beautii\il  of  all  manufkotured  subatancos,  OUui,  is  well  fitted  to 
commence  this  Industrial  series.  In  few  branches  of  industiy  have  more  re> 
maricable  changes  taken  place  during  the  present  century  ;  in  no  other  do  we 
Bee  exemplified  more  powerftilly  how  much  the  mischief  predominates  over  J^o 
benefit,  in  govenimont  interferences  with  manuftiotures ;  in  no  other  mav  wo 
observe  more  distinctly  how  the  manufacturers  of  one  country  derive  advan- 
tage by  studying  the  works  produced  m  other  countries. 

The  "  Ouriosities "  of  industrv -belong  to  all  ages;  but  it  is  with  especial 
reference  to  the  lust  fifty  years  tnat  many  of  them  will  be  here  noticed.  We 
wish  to  show,  by  a  rapid  glance  over  the  intervening  period,  in  what  way  1851 
differs  flpom  1801,  in  respect  to  any  special  department  of  industry.  Have 
there  been  any  new  raw  materials  inb^duced ;  and  if  so,  has  the  addition 
been  made  by  improved  legislation  or  by  the  exercise  of  inventive  talent  ? 
Havs  there  been  improvements  in  the  general  routine  of  manu&cture,  either 
by  the  invention  of  new  machines,  or  by  the  application  of  new  manipulative 
processes?  Have  there  been  any  new  applications  of  the  manufactured  mate- 
rial to  the  every-day  wants  of  society,  either  by  rendering  it  cheap  and 
abundant,  or  by  employing  it  as  (v  substitute  for  some  other  material  ?  Hat 
the  progress  of  improvement  been  less  or  more  rapid  in  our  own  countiy  than 
among  our  neighbours?  Such  are  the  questions  which,  if  even  confined  to 
the  past  fifbr  years  of  the  present  centuiy,  will  yield  us  an  abundance  of 
"  Omiosiiies,  without  necessitating  any  systematio  description  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  manufacture :  for  them  we  may  refer  to  the  Gycloptediaa  to  which 
the  present  work  may  be  consideted  as  «  Supplement.  If  any  of  these  subjects 
receive  Illustration,  as  doubtless  ihey  may,  firom  the  Oreat  Industrial  Congress 
of  1861 — tf»at  epoch  in  the  world's  history — we  shall  not  fWl  to  avail  ourselves 
of  such  valuable  testimony;  but  the  present  papers  have  no  especial  relation  to 
imy  temporary  collection  of  works  of  industry :  they  chiefly  relate  to  the  ad- 
vanc^menfas  which  have  rendered  such  tm  'EshMtionpostms. 

Let  us  now  review  the  industry  of  the  Glass-worker,  under  the  aspects 
noticed  above. 

Raw  Matebiaus — few  recent  Additions. 

It  would  be  a  yeiy  fair  assumption  on  the  part  of  the  reader,  that  as  im- 
proveiinents  have  been  made  In  so  many  departments  of  the  glass-manu- 
facture, advices  would  to  an  equal  extent  bo  made  in  the  materials  em- 
ployed, elth€ll*  as  to  theif  variety  or  their  quality.  But  this  has  not  been  the 
case.    The  truth  is,  that  the  substances  so  employed  are  very  few  and  simple, 

.B  9 


■  ■iPE!!«";SJW«W'r^»'™ 


4  0LA88   AND    ITS   MANUFACTURE. 

and  do  not  admit  of  so  many  probable  Hources  of  improvement  as  the  moro 
numerous  a»d  complex  nmteriids  of  many  otlier  branchen  of  manufacture^ 
Bilica.  Hoda,  potash,  lime,  oxide  of  lead-l»ero  we  have  nearly  Uio  sum  total  of 
th«  «lementj4  out  of  which  Kbws  is  made.     HotUe-glasH  has  more  luno  thai, 
anv  other  ulasH  ;  plivtn  rIiws  has  moro  silica ;  flint-glass  ha.s  more   oxide  ot 
lead;  and  to  these  diffciences  lu-e  probably  mainly  owing  die  choractfinsti.! 
dualities  of  the  seveml  kinds  of  glass.      I'he  alumina,  tlio  manganese,  the 
oxide  of  iron,  and  the  other  substances  which  are  employed  in  very  small 
ciuontity,  are  to  remove  colour,  or  to  import  colour,  or  to  modify  m  some  way 
liie  (.ualities  of  the  manufactured  article ;  but  tlicy   are  not  essenUal  to  lU 
prodtwtiou.    There  would  certainly  be  seen  some  modihcation.  some  addition; 
fcut  a  collection  of  glass  making  ingredients  at  the  present  day  presents  a 
tolerably  close  resemblance  to  such  iw  would  have  been  presented  halfo-cen- 
tury  ago.     If  we  take,  for  instance.  Mr.  Ansley  Pellatfs  very  mt^resUng  group 
of  Klass  materials  at  the  ExhibiUon.  wo  find  the  silex  hi  the  fonns  of  washed 
and  burnt  sand,  the  alkali  ui  the  fonn  of  carbonate  of  potash,  and  the  oxides 
of  lead  and  manganese;  and  three  such  series-silex,  alkali,  and  oxides- 
would  similarly  have  been  seen  in  an  earlier  coUection.     It  is  in  Uie  minor 
detaUs  of  each  series  Uiat  improvements  have  been  and  aie  now  bemg  sought. 
For  instance.  How  can  silex  be  obudned  in  great«st  purity?  is  a  quesUon 
important  to  the  glass-maker.     Sand  is,  next  to  flint.  Uie  most  fiumhar  form 
in  which  silex  is  presented  to  us.     Band  from  Lynn,  from  St.  Helens,  ft:om 
Leighton   Buzzard,   and   from   many  othpr  places,   is   employed   by   glass- 
makers;  Isle  of  Wight  sand  is  almost  pure  silex;  sand  lately  brought  firom 
Wenhain  Lake  (the  remarkable  ice  depot)  has  been  fomid  equally  pure ;  and 
sand  from  Australia  has  been  shown  to  be  so  peculiarly  well  fitted  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  finest  gUss,  that  it  has  been  deemed  commerciaUy  advan- 
taceous  to  freight  vesaeis  with  this  substance  alone.     Hints  and  hard  rocks, 
8i«)po8ed  to  be  rich  in  sUiceous  matter,  have  been  tried  m  a  gjround  state ; 
but  no  form  of  silica  has  been  found  suitable  except  that  which  is  m  sandy 

'^ut'^even  here  we  have  a  striking  fact.  An  English  vessel,  free  to  carry  any 
carao  which  presents  itself,  brings  common  sea-sond  a  distance  of  sixteen 
thousand  miles  from  AustroUa  to  England,  in  order  that  the  glass-maker  may 
have  a  fitting  siUceous  material  for  his  manuiacturo ;  and  wa  may  be  qmte 
certain  tiiat  tiiis  would  not  be  done  unless  the  manufacturers  were  wilhng  to 
pay  an  adequate  price  for  this  humble  import.  i.      i.^  •     j 

The  soda  required  in  many  manufacturing  operations  used  to  be  obtamed 
chiefly  from  the  ashes  of  burnt  plants,  such  as  kelp  and  barilUi;  but  when  the 
Excise  duty  on  common  salt  was  removed  in  1825.  this  abundant  material 
became  the  som-ce  whence  soda  is  obtained  for  most  practical  pmroses  m  this 
country  The  glass-niakers  have  not  failed  to  direct  their  attention  to  tins 
source:  but  potash  is  a  more  generally  usefiil  alkaU  to  them  than  soda;  and 
the  ashes  of  plants  yield  tiie  alkali  in  a  form  ratiier  more  suitable  Oian  any 
other. 

Glass  Duties— thbib  Effects  on  Science  and  Abt. 
Legislation,  bad  or  good,  has  not  materially  affected  the  supply  of  raw 

materiol  to  the  glass  maker.  x    •  i.    r  *u^  ^a 

But  when  we  extend  our  observation  beyond  the  mere  matenols  of  the  mar 
nufactur«,  and  gltmce  at  tiie  manufacture  itself,  we  find  that  legislation  baa 


rovemont  an  the  moro 
ncho8  of  manufaftiire. 
nearly  the  Hiiin  total  of 
<  huH  mora  Uino  thaii 
H»  has  uioro   oxido  of 
viiia  the  characteriHtic; 
ft,  Uio  inangaiie«e,  thei 
m|tloyed   in   very  Hmall 
to  modify  in  Honie  way 
re  not  eHsential  to  ita 
fication,  some  addition ; 
(resent  day  presents  a 
n  prt^Hented  half-a-cen- 
I  very  interesting  group 
in  tile  forms  of  washed 
potash,  and  the  oxides 
t,  alkali,  and  oxides  — 
n.    It  is  in  the  minor 
1  ai-e  now  being  sought. 
;  purity?    is  a  question 
Jie  most  familiar  form 
from  8t.  Helen's,  from 
is  employed  by   glass- 
nd  lately  brought  firom 
)und  equsdly  pure  ;  and 
y  well  fitted  for  the  pro- 
id  comroei-cially  advan- 
Flints  and  liard  locks, 
ried  in  a  groimd  state ; 
t  that  which  is  in  sandy 

vessel,  free  to  carry  any 
id  a  distance  of  sixteen 
hat  the  glass-maker  may 
;  and  we  may  be  quite 
acturers  were  willing  to 

ins  used  to  be  obtained 
id  bariUa;  but  when  the 
this  abundant  material 
practical  purposes  in  this 
it  Uieir  attention  to  this 
to  them  than  soda;  and 
r  more  suitable  than  any 


JCE  AND  Aht. 

ected  the  supply  of  raw 

lere  materials  of  the  ma- 
find  ih&t  legislation  has 


OIJISS   ANn    ITS   MANOFACTTJBE.  f 

been  t<io  bufty  during  Ujo  last  luilf-contuiy  to  be  left  unnoticed.  Rarely  has 
tliere  been  an  example  of  fiscal  legislation  on  which  opinions  have  colucided 
so  completely  as  in  respect  to  the  pernicious  etfects  of  tlui  glass  duties ;  and 
rai-ely  have  predictions  concerning  the  aclvantages  of  a  nifonu  been  more  fully 
realized.  Ihe  able  author  of  tlie  Troatiso  on  tlie  (Jlass  Moimfacture  in  iMrd- 
iwr'$  Cyclopadia.  writing  just  twtnity  years  ago,  naid,  "  Whenever  tliis  nuiasuni 
(the  removal  of  the  glass  duties)  shall  be  accomplished,  it  con  hardly  fail  U) 
induce  such  an  extension  of  tlie  manufacture  us  will  prove  generally  bonetioiai 
to  the  community.  The  abolition  of  tliese  duties  wotild  be  accompanied  by 
the  still  further  advantage  of  removing  all  tliose  vexatious  regulations  and  re- 
strictions under  which  the  maimfacture  is  now  carried  on,  and  which  will 
cease,  as  a  matter  of  course,  when  tlio  article  is  no  longer  an  object  of  revenue. 
It  is  princii)ally  owing  to  these  restrictions  tliat  ho  nmch  foreign  glass  i.s  now 
brought  into  tliis  country  in  tlio  face  of  what  may  be  considered  an  amply  pro- 
tecting duty.  Foreign  manufacturers  are  allowed  to  moke  any  and  every  article 
out  of  that  quality  of  glass  which  will  most  cheaply  and  advantageously  an- 
swer the  end  ;  while  our  own  artists  are  forbidden  to  form  certain  objects,  ex- 
cept with  more  costly  materials,  which  pay  the  higher  rat/>8  of  duty.  Nor  is 
this  restriction  only  commercially  wroni:?,  since  it  forms  itter  of  just  com- 
plaint on  tlie  part  of  chemists  that  tlusy  ore  luiable  to  procure  utensils  fitted 
for  effecting  many  of  the  nicer  operations  connected  with  their  science ;  be- 
cause the  due  protection  of  the  revenue  is  thought  to  require  that  such  uten- 
sils shall  be  formed  out  of  that  quality  of  glass  alone  which,  apart  from  all 
considerations  of  price,  is  otherwise,  from  its  properties,  really  unfitted  for  the 
purpose.  Belaxations  are  indeed  sometimes  made  on  this  head  in  particiuor 
cases  by  the  Commissioners  of  Excise ;  but  the  trouble  necessarily  attending 
applications  to  a  public  board  is  greater  than  can  be  compensated  by  the  tiifling 
money  advantage  that  con  result  in  each  case  to  the  manufacturer ;  and  the 
interests  of  science  are,  consequently,  made  to  suffer." 

The  peculiar  mode  in  which  this  strangely  short-sighted  legislation  worked 
out  its  pernicious  results  will  be  noticed  presently ;  but  one  of  the  most  ob- 
vious of  the  results  themselves  was  shovm  in  the  Excise  returns  of  dutv. 
While  foreign  countries  were  gradually  improving  tlieir  manufacture,  ours  was 
stagnating;  and  the  duty  furnished  a  sensitive  barometer  t-o  mark  this  differ- 
ence. The  facta  adduced  by  Mr.  Porter  ('  Progress  of  the  Nation")  are  really 
astonishing  as  illustrative  of  this  point.  In  1801,  with  a  population  of  sixteen 
millions,  the  quantity  of  glass  used  (as  shown  by  the  Excise  duty)  was  325,689 
cwts.;  and  m  1888,  with  a  population  of  twenty-five  miUions,  the  quantity 
had  onhr  increased  to  863,468  cwts.  Between  1827  and  1845  the  average 
price  oi^the  glass  articles  in  most  common  use  fell  about  25  per  cent;  but  no 
thanks  to  the  Excise  for  this :  it  arose  from  economical  and  improved  modes 
of  working.  Science,  commerce,  manufacturing  art,  domestic  comfort,  archi- 
tectural beauty — all  were  benefited  by  the  happy  revolution  of  the  month  of 
September,  1845,  when  the  glass-makers'  premises  were  reUeved  from  the 
burden  of  the  Exciseman's  visits. 

It  would  be  hardly  credible,  were  there  not  abundant  evidence  to  testify  it, 
how  enormous  was  the  mischief  brought  about  by  the  late  laws.  The  Report 
of  the  Oommiesioners  of  Excise  Inquuy,  in  1835,  is  full  of  instruction  on  this 
point;  and  we  cannot  do  better  than  select  a  few  items  as  illustrations. 

Mr.  Dollond,  the  eminent  optical  instrument  m^er,  wrote  a  letter  to  the 
Commissioners,  in  which  he  stated  that  he  had  been  long  attempting,  in  con- 
junction with  the  leading  glass  manufacturers,  to  produce  glass  fitted  for 


^^ 


Q  GLASS  AND    ITS  MANUFACTDBE. 

scientific  purposes.  With  Messre.  Chance,  especially,  he  made  experimente 
S"h  ledTthe  production  of  a  superior  kind  of  glass ;  but  af^e  eleventh 
hour  the  Supervisor  of  Excise  stepped  in.  and  forbade  aU  further  progress 
as  the  novS  would  interfere  with  the  technical  ascertainment  of  the  amount 
of  duty  ta  fa«t,  it  was  a  matter  simply  of  thickn.ss^  for  the  optician  required 
ck?s  ttiicker  Uikn  the  excise  would  permit.  Mr.  DoUond,  then,  with  the  aid 
STfrkid  JtSd  up  a  small  fum««e,  Vxpressly  and  solely  with  a  v»ew^  rnake 
exi'erimente  on  a  smaU  scale;  but  this  f  ^l^^r  J^^^^^^^  ^^  ?^^^^^^^^ 
from  the  Excise  authorities.  "  I  do  not  wish  '  says  Mr.  foUond,  <»  escape 
from  paying  duties  or  any  chai-ges ;  aU  I  wish  for  is.  to  be  avowed  to  rne^e 
my  experiments  free  fn.m  interference,  or  what  are  «*»«*,  ^^^^J^^^^^i^/t; 
or  systems  laid  down  to  prevent  roguery.  I'!/^-*^^  "^^^t^^^l^/,  Zae 
glass  as  I  require  is  made  and  sold  at  a  considerable  price;  a*!f  *fO«f  X« 
tScopes  which  are  at  present  so  much  talked  of.  are  made  with  that  glass. 
I  a^Sng  to  buy  it  at  almost  any  price;  but.  ««;*  requires  exti^me  care 
ii  Se  manSfactm-e^t  caanot  always'be  piocm-ed.  It  would,  therefore,  be  a 
(Tivat  advanta<»e  if  it  could  be  manufactured  at  home. 

^  Mr.lZStikin.  who  was  at  that  time  the  Secretmy  to  the  Socie^  o.^. 
gave  abmidant  evidence  tending  to  the  same  point.      He  dearly  elucidated 
Ese  three  questions-why  wHl  not  ordinary  flintglass  suffice  for  opticel 
pZos^?  how  could  it  be  made  fitted  for  that  object?  and  why  may  it  not 
Ko  made  fitted?    In  the  first  place,  all  flint.gla«s  contams  oxide  of  lead 
which,  fr^  its  great  specific  gravity,  will  not  mix  intimately  and  equally  wifli  . 
fte  other  ingred^ts ;  and  the  result  is,  that  the  refraction  of  the  t^ys  o*  hgh^ 
will  be  greater  at  one  part  of  the  mass  than  m  another;  «on8eq«/°fy'/"«!^ 
glass  is\nsuitable  for  delicate  optical  pmposes.  /^>  .^^^^^V^nl^LS 
be  ground  to  powder,  and  intimately  mixed  so  as  to  brmg  about  homogene  y 
hiluSut  the  m.ass,  the  distortion  may  be  removed;  and  thw  maybe  still 
SI-  caused  by  three  or  four  grindings  and  meltings     But  (and  here  was 
Z  blot  which  rfiowed  the  defects  of  the  system)  the  Excise  claimed  a  new 
duVon  the  glass  et^ery  Um.  it  was  remeUed;  and  unless  the  maker  were  wilhng 
to  Submit  to  this  exaction,  his  improving  process  became  n"U  ^^  T"^*.     Mr 
Aikin  stated  that  the  glass  used  for  optical  pturoses  m  Ffn^e  .G*™^/'  ^l 
Switzerland  was  better  than  that  made  in  England,  and  could  be  sold  at  a 
cheaper  price ;  a  state  of  things  which  he  coulS  only  attribute  tojlie  Excise 
regulations.     The  duplication  of  the  duty  on  the  duplication  of  the  melting 
hrbeen  adverted  to  above;  and  the  obstacles  to  e'Tf '°>«^t«l,'^««r.^rr« 
equaUy  formidable.    "  Soon  after  my  appointment  as  Secreteiy  ^  tj«  S^^^^ 
J  Arts  "  savs  Mr  Aikm,  "  I  built  a  small  fm-nace  capable  of  making,  perhaps, 
1  o^'eiSIpo^dH?  glass  at  a  time,  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  ge 
action  of  some  of  the  causes  that  affect  the  quality  of  optical  glass^    On 
mSoning  the  cireumstance  to  the  late  Mr.  CaiT,  then  solicitor  to  the  Excise 
Tnd  S  whom  I  was  personally  acquainted,  I  received  such  an  answer  as 
determined  me  to  give  up  my  intention."  _ 

This  same  diiJiculty  of  obtaining  the  pcrmiss  on  of  the  Excise  to  make 
any  tort  of  experiments,  lay  at  the  root  of  multiplied  evils  ««d  ineo^veniences 
Snected  witfi  the  mam^acture.  Glass-stalnet^  and  l^^^^f .  J'.^J  ^^ 
known  that  the  old  glass— mdependent  of  its  nch  colours— was  better  fitted 
S^r^o  W-«  fof  Z  exerciL  of  this  beautiful  art ;  they  think  Aat  ^e  old 
glass  was  harder  and  less  fusible  than  the  modem,  and  thus  ^fter  able  to  beai 
Repeated  firings  in  the  enamel-kihis  ;  but  any  attempt  niade  by  ^em  to  cwnj 
out  systematic  experiments  on  the  subject,  with  a  view  to  determme  the  exact 


I 


mmtmmm 


,  he  made  experiments 
iss ;  but  at  the  eleventh 
de  all  further  progress, 
tainment  of  the  amount 
or  the  optician  required 
llond,  then,  with  the  aid 
ely  with  a  view  to  make 
rated  by  a  cold  negative 
fr.  Dollond,  "  to  escape 
to  be  allowed  to  make 
jailed  established  rules, 
!e  and  Switzerland  such 
3  price ;  and  those  large 
re  made  with  that  glass, 
it  requires  extreme  care 
It  would,  therefore,  be  a 

ry  to  the  Society  of  Arts, 
He  clearly  elucidated 
glass  suflSce  for  optical 
act?  and  why  may  it  iwt 
contains  oxide  of  lead, 
imately  and  equally  with  , 
iction  of  the  rays  of  light 
ther;  consequently,  such 
,  however,  the  glass  may 
iring  about  homogeneity 
[ ;  and  this  may  be  still 
igs.    But  (and  here  was 
he  Excise  claimed  a  new 
,8  the  maker  were  willing 
ame  null  and  void.    Mr. 
in  France,  Germany,  and 
,  and  could  be  sold  at  a 
y  attribute  to  the  Excise 
plifcUion  of  the  melting 
perimental  research  were 
I  Secretary  to  the  Society 
pable  of  makhig,  perhaps, 
pose  of  investigating  the 
ity  of  optical  glass.     On 
en  solicitor  to  the  Excise, 
eived  such  an  answer  as 

1  of  the  Excise  to  make 
I  evils  and  inconveniences 
and  painters  have  long 
colours — was  better  fitted 
rt ;  they  think  that  the  old 
id  thus  better  able  to  beai- 
pt  made  by  them  to  carry 
3W  to  determine  the  exact 


GLASS   AKD   ITS   MANUFAOTURE.  f 

cause  of  the  difference,  was  frusti-ated  by  the  Excise.  Among  the  almost 
ludicrous  results  which  followed  from  these  obstructions,  was  the  scientific 
reputation  acquired  by  the  humble  Eloronce-oil  flasks.  It  appears  that,  under 
the  late  laws,  no  gi-een  glass  bottles  were  allowed  to  be  made  under  the  size 
denominated  '  six-ounce  ;'  it  appears  also  that  flint-glass,  of  which  alone  small 
bottles  were  permitted  to  be  made,  is,  by  virtue  of  the  oxide  of  lead  used  as 
one  ingredient,  unfitted  to  resist  some  of  the  strong  acids  prepared  by  the 
chemists ;  and  the  chemists  were  thence  driven  to  the  use  of  the  flasks  in 
which  Florence  oil  is  imported,  the  glass  of  such  flasks  containing  no  lead. 

Another  aspect  which  the  subject  presented  was  this — that  a  manufacturer, 
even  if  he  obtained  pei-mission  of  the  Excise  to  make  experiments,  could  not 
do  so  without  divulging  the  secret  of  any  new  invention  he  might  have  in  his 
thoughts,  were  the  invention  patented  or  not. 

Mr.  Apsley  Ptllatt  stated  to  the  Commissioners  that  a  very  large  lens  could 
not  be  made  at  all  in  England,  even  of  the  same  quality  as  smaller  lenses ;  for 
the  Excise  allowed  melted  glass  to  be  laded  out  into  cold  moulds  only; 
whereas  a  large  mass,  for  a  lens  of  considerable  size,  could  not  be  properly 
cast  unless  the  mould  were  heated.  The  same  manufacturer  gave  a  curious 
illustration  of  tlie  effects  of  the  law  in  respect  to  barometer  and  thermometer 
tubes,  llie  Excise  required  that  tUl  articles  should  be  passed  through  the  lear, 
or  annealing  oven ;  but  it  was  fovmd  that  the  interior  of  these  delicate  tubes 
became  smoked,  and  consequently  unfitted  for  their  purpose,  by  such  an  ordeal; 
and  the  EngUsh  manufacturers  had  either  to  abandim  the  ipanufacture  alto- 
gether, or  to  get  the  officers  to  connive  at  an  arrangement  whereby  the  duty 
might  be  paid  without  subjecting  the  tubes  to  the  injurious  process.  There 
was  alfo  assigned  a  reason  why— let  the  manufacturers  and  the  glass-stainers 
be  ever  so  skilful — they  were  not  permitted  to  produce  coloured  glass  so  good 
as  was  obviously  within  the  scope  of  theu-  ability ;  tiie  red  and  amber  tints 
require  tliat  the  glass-pot  should  be  opened  frequently,  that  the  mak^r  may 
teat  the  progress  ;  but  under  the  Excise  regulations  a  glass-pot  could  be  opened 
only  at  certain  inten'als. 

Glass  DnriEs — their  Commercial  Effects. 

The  scientific  and  artistic  results  of  Excise  restriction  ware,  as  above  noticed, 
obsei-vablo  chiefly  in  the  quality  of  optical  glass,  and  the  quality  and  colour  of 
stained  glass.  The  commercial  results  were  very  varied,  and  some  of  them 
strange  enough.  The  lear,  or  annealing  oven,  in  which  flintglass  ia  annealed 
after  making,  has  a  window,  and  a  wire  within  the  window,  concerning  which 
the  Excise  were  veiy  rigorous;  for  the  duty  was  charged  on  the  whole 
contents  of  the  lear,  wheUier  injured  or  not.  Mr.  Pellatt  told  the  Commis- 
sioners that  on  one  occasion  one  of  the  Excise  officers,  in  a  frolic,  "  thi'ew  a 
piece  of  glass  at  another,  which  broke  the  window  of  the  leai\  The  super- 
visor observing  it  a  few  minutes  afterwards,  and  taking  out  part  of  the  glass 
and  pushing  back  the  wire,  pronounced  the  lear  to  be  insecin-e,  and  reported 
accordingly.  A  prosecution  was  instituted.  After  incurring  about  £60  law 
expense,  the  crown  solicitor  dropped  tlie  case,  finding  that  his  own  witnesses 
would  afford  him  no  chance  of  success.  As  the  crOwn  paid  no  costs,  we  had 
to  defray  the  whole  expense  of  tliat  prosecution." 

The  impossibiUty  of  collecting  the  flint-glass  duty  in  a  fair  and  equitable 
manner  was  made  apparent  in  many  ways.  Mr.  Powell,  a  Bristol  manufac- 
turer, said  to  the  Commissioners,  "  I  do  not  see  what  legislative  protection 


■l' 


-^ 


8 


OLASS  AND   ITS   MANUFACTUBE. 


can  be  given  to  the  flint-glass  tiade,  unless  there  were  officers  almost  as  thick 
as  the  tiles  on  houses  ;  for  there  ai-e  thirty  manufacturers  in  London  at  this 
moment,  unknovm  to  the  Government,  employed  in  melting  up  what  we  call 
cuUet,  or  broken  glass,  such  as  the  stems  of  gcblets,  bottoms  of  tumblers,  the 
thick  parts  of  decanters,  and  so  on ;  they  can  be  melted  in  a  garret,  and  made 
up  into  saltcellars,  cruets  and  castors,  bird-boxes,  smelling-bottles,  and  a 
variety  of  articles  used  by  perfumers ;  and  it  is  done  to  a  very  large  extent." 
Mr.  Pellatt  called  these  obscure  makers  Little  Goes;  and  stated  that  the 
little  goes  had  ruined  the  trade  in  the  smaller  articles  of  flint-glass,  "  by 
making  an  inferior  article  of  what  is  termed  cullet.  I  have  seen  saltcellars 
retailed  at  M.  each,  weighing  half-a-pound  each,  which  is  the  full  amount  of 
the  duty." 

The  battle  between  the  Excise  and  the  manufacturers  was  often  a  strange 
one.  A  drawback  of  6».  M.  per  square  foot  (afterwards  lesserved  to  3».  9d.)  was 
allowed  on  plate-glass  when  exported ;  and  two  manufacturers,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  this,  made  piate-glass  so  thin  that,  when  exported  and  allowed 
the  drawback,  they  gained  largely  by  it  The  Excise  then  made  com- 
plicated laws — that  3ie  duty  should  be  by  weight;  that  the  drawback 
should  be  by  the  foot;  that  plate-glass  should  not  be  exported  if  less 
than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick;  and  that  (to  prevent  crown-glass  from 
having  the  drawback  privileges  of  plate-^ass)  no  crown-glass  should  be 
made  thicker  than  one-ninth  of  an  inch.  Thus  was  the  trade  hampered  for 
many  years  by  laws  rendered  necessaiy  (or  alleged  to  be  necessary)  by  the 
dishonesty  of  two  persons  :  a  pretty  clear  proof  that  the  whole  system  rested 
on  an  imsound  basis.  Then  again,  in  order  that  plate-glass  might  not  interfere 
with  the  levying  of  the  duty  on  flint-glass,  it  was  enacted  that  no  plate-glass 
should  be  made  above  a  certain  thickness ;  this  restriction  prevented  an 
eminent  manufacturing  firm  from  carrying  out  a  contract  for  supplying  a  very 
lai'ge  lens  for  one  of  the  northern  lighthouses.  When  the  reader  is  told  that 
one  kind  of  glass  paid  a  duty  of  7».  per  cwt.,  while  another  pMd  98*.,  and  that 
three  other  kinds  occupied  three  intermediate  stages,  be  will  see  how  much 
inducement  manufacturers  had  to  substitute  one  kind  for  another,  and  how 
much  technical  struggling  would  arise  between  them  and  the  executive. 

The  year  1846,  however,  arrived,  and  with  it  the  removed  of  the  Excise  duty 
on  glass.  Then,  and  then  only,  did  the  EngUsh  manufacturer  begin  to  feel 
himself  a  free  agent,  in  a  position  to  make  experiments  tending  to  the  advance 
of  his  manufacture.  There  is  thus  a  curious  feature  in  respect  to  the  half- 
centiu-y's  progress ;  more  has  been  eifected  in  the  last  five  years  of  the  period 
than  in  the  preceding  forty-five  years.  It  has  shown  itself  in  respect  to  plate- 
glass,  to  sheet-glass,  to  flint-glass, — indeed  to  nearly  eveiy  department  of  the  art. 
Let  us  tidte  OtiW's '  Cnrstal  fountain,'  for  instance — a  fountain  that  will  presently 
be  known  to  persons  from  almost  every  comer  of  the  world  aa  a  distinguished 
-  ornament  to  the  Palace  of  Lidustiy.  This  fountain  is  certainly  one  of  the 
most  ambitious  specimens  which  the  art  has  yet  put  forth ;  and  the  result 
shows  that  the  ambition  has  not  "  o'er-leap'd  itself,"  for  there  are  certainly 
few  productions  in  the  Exhibition  more  honourable  to  English  art  The 
glassy  structure  is  S7  feet  in  height  and  weighs  about  four  tons — nearly 
9000  lbs.  There  must  of  course  be  numerous  pieces  of  metal  used  to  sup- 
port the  structure  ;  but  these  have  been  so  skUfully  overlaid  with  richly-cut 
glass,  that  they  ai-e  virtually  hidden,  and  their  opacity  detracts  little  or  noUiing 
from  the  brilliancy  of  the  whole  stnictiu-e. 

Plate-glass  has  fully  kept  pace  with  flint-glass  in  the  march  of  improvement. 


L 


)fficer8  almost  as  thick 
rs  in  London  at  this 
siting  up  what  we  call 
toms  of  tumblers,  the 
[  in  a  garret,  and  made 
melling-bottles,  and  a 
>  a  veiy  large  extent." 
,■  and  stated  that  the 
jles  of  flint-glass,  "  by 
[  have  seen  saltcellars 
is  the  full  amount  of 

)rs  was  often  a  strange 
lessened  to  Us.  9d.)  was 
lufacturcrs,  taking  ad- 
exported  and  allowed 
cise  then  made  com- 
t;  that  the  drawback 
t  be  exported  if  less 
vent  crown-glass  from 
srown-glass  should  be 
lie  trade  hampered  for 
)  be  necessary)  by  the 
le  whole  system  rested 
lass  might  not  interfere 
ted  that  no  plate-glass 
istriction  prevented  an 
ict  for  supplying  a  very 
the  reader  is  told  that 
)ther  paid  98«.,  and  that 
ae  wiU  see  how  much 
1  for  another,  and  how 
nd  the  executive, 
aovid  of  the  Excise  duty 
lufiitcturer  begin  to  feel 
tending  to  the  advance 
in  respect  to  the  half- 
five  years  of  the  period 
tself  in  respect  to  plate- 
[7  department  of  the  art. 
mtaiu  that  will  presently 
tvorld  as  a  distinguished 
is  cei-tainly  one  of  the 
b  forth;  and  the  result 
for  there  are  certainly 
)  to  English  art     The 
bout  four  tons — nearly 
I  of  metal  used  to  sup- 
overltud  with  richly-cut 
letracts  little  or  uouiing 

march  of  improvement 


m 


If- 


OLASS  AKD   ITS   HANUFACTDBIi:.  Q 

Mr.  Blake,  manager  of  the  Thames  Plate-Glass  Works,  and  Mr.  Bessemer, 
have  patented  inventions  for  extensive  improvements  in  the  manufacture  ;  and 
improvements  of  a  minor  kind  have  been  introduced  by  other  inventors.  The 
result  may,  to  some  extent,  be  seen  at  the  Great  Exhibition ;  we  there  see 
plates  of  glass  which  have  been  so  coloured  as  to  imitate  polished  woods  and 
marbles;  we  see  in  McLean's  looking-glass  the  largest  specimen  of  a  bril- 
lisntly-fiwned  glass  ever  executed  in  this  country ;  but  the  quiet  and  modest 
un&amed  glass,  at  the  west  exti-emity  of  the  nave,  has  the  i-eputation  of  being 
the  larjest  and  the  finest  known  specimen  of  British  plate-glass :  it  measures 
nearly  19  feet  by  10. 

Revived  Taste  :  Stained  and  Coloubed  Glass. 

Among  the  agencies  which  have  tended  to  the  increased  employment  of 
glass  in  artistic  works  must  undoubtedly  be  included  the  partial  revival  of 
mediaeval  taste  in  ecclesiastical  decorations.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
stained-glass  windows  in  churches  met  with  much  fierce  opposition ;  while  in 
the  eighteenth  they  encountered  neglect  and  indifference ;  and  as  there  was 
thus  httle  or  no  demand,  the  skill  which  could  furnish  a  supply  became  nearly 
lost.  Hence  it  has  arisen  that  the  artists  in  this  department,  at  the  present 
day,  have  had  to  study  anew  the  principles  and  practice  of  their  art.  It  has 
been  remarked  by  competent  critics,  that,  in  the  specimens  which  exemplify 
the  progress  of  the  artists,  the  defects  as  well  as  the  beauties  of  the  medieeval 
productions  are  attempted  to  be  imitated,  as  if  the  revived  art  had  not  yet 
strength  to  walk  alone.  In  the  Great  Exhibition,  the  quaint  and  stiff  drawing 
of  rnan^  of  the  figures  in  tlie  stained-glass  specimens  is  apparent  enough ; 
yet  it  IS  impossible  not  to  obsene  that  great  beauty  of  coloimng  is  dig-., 
played,  and  it  is  under  this  aspect  alone  that  we  allude  to  the  subject  here. 
In  the  Medieeval  Court  the  stained  glass  has  too  littie  Ught  behind  it  to  dis- 
play the  colours  well ;  but  in  the  gallery,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  foreign 
nave,  a  particularly  happy  arrangement  has  been  adopted  for  the  varied  ex- 
amples of  stained-glass,  British  and  foreign,  whereby  tiiie  colours  and  general 
execution  ai-e  developed  with  surprising  distinctness.  The  fine  window,  too,  in 
the  centre  of  the  foreign  nave,  well  exhibrts  the  skill  in  colouring  and  in  the 
distribution  of  Ught  end  shade  which  its  artist  possesses.  Any  improvement 
in  the  colours  of  stained  glass,  whether  in  the  recovery  of  the  rich  ruby  tint 
of  the  middle  ages,  or  by  the  invention  of  new  combinations,  would  tell 
favourably  on  the  glass  manufacture  in  general ;  for  we  have  yet  seen  only  a 
little,  in  this  country,  of  the  application  of  colom-  to  glass  in  miscellaneous 
manufactm-es.  The  practice  of  polychrome,  or  many-coloured  decoration  in 
buildings,  is  in  its  infancy  among  us  ;  and  it  is  hardly  possible  yet  to  conjec- 
ture what  new  aspects  of  beauty  may  in  future  be  developed. 

A  question  that  suggests  itself  at  the  present  time  is — May  not  glass-staining 
be  made  available  for  a  wider  range  of  pictorial  illustration  than  it  has  ordi- 
narily been  applied  to  ?  The  ecclesiastical  structures  of  the  middle  ages  are 
those  to  which  we  are  most  indebted  for  specimens  of  this  beautiful  art ;  and 
in  such  buildings  sacred  subjects  are  necessarily  adopted.  Our  modem 
English  glasB-stainers  confine  themselves,  for  the  most  part,  either  to  sacred 
subjects,  or  to  mere  ornamental  foliage,  stars,  arabesques,  Ac. ;  but  the  north- 
east gallery  of  the  Great  Exhibition  shows  us  tliat  our  neighbours  embrace  a 
wider  range.  Look  at  MM.  Marechal  and  Gugnon's  '  St.  Chai-les  Borromeo 
giving  the  Saci-ament  to  the  Victims  of  the  Plague ;'  and  their  '  Portrait  of  a 

B  8 


'     ';) 


I 


10 


OLAflfl  AND   ITS  MANUFACTURE. 


Burgomaster;'   at  Geyling's   'Girl  at  a  Window;'  and  at  Bertm.9  'Dante 
w3ow;  in  the  centfal  ^ve-these  ai^  of  vari'Mi  excellence ;  but  they  show 
ZToZm  beside  sacred  subjecU  may  Buitobly  be  chosen.     Mr.  Bailhes 
'Queen  ETizabelh  listening  to  ie  reading  of  Shakspere.'  ^^/'fgg^f ;« "^^^ 
ing  out  how  exlmustless  a  store  Shakspere  hmiself  would  be  to  the  amstio 
fflL-stainer.    A  monument  to  tlua  delicate  art.  and  a  monument  to  the  great 
SmmS  might  be  formed  by  a  scries  of  dmmatic  f  "-'^^^  ^;^«  .?;S^; 
m  need  not  go  so  far  as  to  designate  such  supposed  specimei  i  "vifa^ihed 
po^t^'- (in  imitation  of  a  modem  Ge»-man  definiUon  of  arclut«cture  aa  bemg 
?Se£  music  ") ;  but  it  may  well  deserve  a  thought,  whether  our  glasa- 
stTercould  not  sirike  out  a  uL  path  for  themselves,  mstead  of  iollowm^^ 
in  the  wake  of  mediaeval  artists.     What  glorious  subjects  might  tlie  Great 
Exhibition  itself  suggest,  to  be  depicted  in  a  range  of  "  storied-wmdows ! 
MfB^S^Hmit  hL  well  shown  that  the  »  poeUy  of  science  "is  sometWng 
more  than  a  mere  name ;  it  can  be  felt  as  havmg  a  living  warmth  hi  it     Ana 
Tis  iere  likewise  a  poetiT  of  industry,  which,  if  appreciated  by  one  who  is  at 
the  s^c  time  a  glass-stelner,  might  prf4uce  results  ot  smrpnsmg  force  and 

^Whether  fiiture  experimenters  will  verify  the  resiilte  """'^^^  ^f^^^*  f  «J ' 
but  M  Bontemps,  in  a  paper  communicated  to  the  British  Association  at  the 
B^Jm^aghim  meeiing  in  1849.  made  known  ««r  ■  ""P'^'^T*' JiS';Li  £ 
veiy  closely  the  labSurs  of  the  chiss-stainer.  It  is  f  n««^y  f,"™'*'^^^;* 
diZrent  metallic  oxides  impart  liffercnt  colours  *«  g^^  =  J"*J.:,  ^^j!!^;^ 
asks-How  do  qiumtity,  and  tims,  and  temperature,  affect  the  result  >  May  not 
^a^lyS^lfouJs  bel^duced  by  one  oxide,  varied  by  these  "ontmgencies  ? 
He  sLght  industriously  for  true  answers  to  these  questions  He  states  ti^at 
oil  the  colours  of  the  spectrum  maybe  produced  by  oxide  of  ion  that 
purple,  brownish-red.  yellow,  and  green  may  be  produced  by  <>*"'«  of"^*"" 
Sse  •  and  that  the  oxides  of  gold,  of  silver,  and  of  copper.  severaUy  pro- 
CmaS  different  colours  in  glass -the  detei-mining  causes  being,  the 
quantiTy^f  oxide  employed,  the  temperatu«  attained.  ^^.^^..^ZTtr^ 
3be  process.  Here  we  find  sketehed  in  ouUine  an  unbounded  field  for  fiiture 
S^eri^Tters ;  and  science  will  belie  itself  if  it  do  not.  by  and  by.  enable  our 
ZTSeTcWhether  M.  Bontemps'  views  be  correct  or  not)  to  ejoal  any- 
Ainff  produced  by  tlie  mediteval  artists,  so  far  as  colour  is  concerned. 

tU  above  i-emarks  concerning  stained  glass  refer  to  ^'fFov^ments  sought 
bv  a  revival  of  taste  or  fashion  in  that  department,  rather  than  to  the  effects  of 
Seal  changes.     So  far  as  the  actual  manufacture  of  the  gUiss  is  concerned 
^ladvancfment  lately  made  ha.,  not  been  considerable ;  it  is  m  the  co^Wnation 
S  cSouring  materials  with  the  glass  that  tlie  talent  of  the  glass-stainer  finds 
most  scope^or  its  exercise,    l^ot  a  few  of  the  recent  miprovementa.  or 
Stempts  at  improvement.  «late  to  a  combination  of  ,f  """^J"  «^«  gj«^ 
employed.     We  allude  not  here  to  stahied  glass.  usuaUy  so  called ;  but  to 
Snment>,  of  a  more  special  character.     Take  the  question  simply  of  eohur^ 
H^re  we  find  that  the  Bohemians,  however  far  they  may  be  below  our  level 
S  mal^actm^s.  are  able  to  impart  to  glass  a  richness  of  colour  ^hich  our 
'     gL^-makera  ha^e  (until  lately)  endeavomed  in  vain  to  equal ;  the  ruby  tmte 
SpeciallY  are  marked  for  their  brilhancy.    All  colours  m  glass  are  produced 
Ke  adnifxture  of  some  or  other  of  the  mmierous  metellic  oxides;  and 
Kugh  it  is  \^ovm  that  oxide  of  gold  is  used  by  tlie  Bohemians  m  the 
richer  red  tint«  of  the  best  specimens,  yet  for  some  reason  or  other  (or  mo  e 
probably  from  a  combination  of  reasons    our  manufacturers  have  rarely 


L 


OLASS  AND   ITS   UANDFACTUBE. 


11 


i  at  Bertini'$  'Dante 
illence ;  but  they  show 
hosen.  Mr.  Baillie'a 
'  is  suggestive  aa  point- 
iidd  be  to  the  artistic 
nunument  to  the  great 
scenes  thus  depicted, 
d  specimei.  j  "  vitrified 
f  architecture  as  being 
;ht,  whether  our  glass- 
s,  instead  of  following 
jects  might  tlie  Great 
)f  "  storied-windows  !  " 
science"  is  something 
ng  warmth  In  it.  And 
iciated  by  one  who  is  at 
of  surprising  force  and 

■s  remains  to  be  seen; 
tish  Association  at  the 
periments  which  touch 
[eneroUy  admitted  that 
lass;  but  M.  Bontemps 
It  the  result  ?    May  not 
ly  these  contingencies  ? 
itions.     He  states  that 
ly  oxide  of  iron;    that 
luced  by  oxide  of  man- 
»f  copper,  severally  pro- 
ling  causes  being,  the 
id,  and  tlie  duration  of 
>ounded  field  for  fiiture 
t,  by  and  by,  enable  our 
It  or  not)  to  eq'oal  any- 
ir  is  concerned, 
to  improvements  sought 
ler  than  to  the  effects  of 

the  glass  is  concerned, 
;  it  is  in  tlie  combination 
if  the  glass-stainer  finds 
eoent  improvements,  or 
of  colours  in  the  glass 
sually  so  called;  hut  to 
uestion  simply  of  colour. 

may  be  below  our  level 
less  of  colour  which  our 
to  equal ;  the  ruby  tmte 
•8  in  glass  are  produced 
us  metallic  oxides;  and 
y  the  Bohemians  in  the 
reason  or  other  (or  more 
anufactinrers  have  rarely 


quite  equalled  those  tints.  It  is  evident,  however,  to  any  one  who  has  glanced 
over  recent  productions,  that  sedulous  endeavours  are  now  being  made  to  do 
all  that  our  neighbours  are  able  to  do.  The  '  ruby '  chandelier,  and  the 
'  Alhambra '  chandelier,  placed  in  the  Great  Exhibition,  are  steps  in  a  style 
of  art  which  may  lead  to  results  both  briUiant  and  tasteful. 

The  production  of  glass  mosaics  is  a  very  remarkable  appUeation  of  colourad 
glass  to  pictorial  purposes.  When  Napoleon  had  possession  of  Itniy,  he 
ordered  a  mosaic  copy  of  Lionardo  da  Vinci's  celebrated  picture  of  the  '  Last 
Supper'  to  be  made,  the  same  size  as  the  original,  viz.  ^0  feet  by  13.  The 
artist  was  Giaoomo  Baffaelh;  and  the  men  under  his  direction,  eight  or  ten 
in  number,  were  engaged  at  it  for  eight  years ;  this  mosaic,  which  now  belongs 
to  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  cost  £7500.  The  picture  was,  we  believe,  formed 
of  cubes  of  coloured  earths  and  stones ;  and  therefore,  however  clever  and 
effective,  it  does  not  belong  to  our  present  sulyect.  The  glass  mosaics  in  Ihe 
Great  Exhibition,  though  few  in  number,  are  of  distinguished  merit,  and  ai-e 
comprised  among  the  scanty  contributions  from  the  once  mighty  Eome.  No 
nation  among  the  ancients  equalled  the  Italians  of  the  last  two  or  three  cen- 
turies in  the  production  of  mosaic  glava  pictures ;  for  the  ancient  mosaics  were 
for  the  most  pai-t  in  some  kind  of  stone,  clay,  or  pottery-ware,  whereas  the 
finest  modem  specimens  are  glass  copies  from  pMntings  of  the  highest  class. 

The  production  of  glass  mosaics  requires  unwearied  patience,  combined 
with  much  skill  and  taste.  In  the  first  place,  the  materials  of  glass  are  mixed 
with  various  colouring  materials,  ohiefiy  metallic  oxides,  so  as  to  foi-m  opaqu6 
coloured  enamels;  these  enamels  are  cast  into  slabs  or  flat  cakes;  and  the 
slabs  are  cut  into  very  small  cubes  or  rectangular  pieces.  Not  only  is  every 
colom*  imitated,  but  every  gradation  of  tint  in  each  colour;  insomuch  that,  at 
the  great  mosaic  establishment  at  Bome,  maintained  by  the  papal  govern- 
ment, they  have  no  less  than  thirty  thotuand  different  tints  of  coloured 
enamels,  all  classified  and  registered.  With  these  Uttle  coloured  cubes  a 
pictiM«  is  built  up,  copying  some  celebrated  work  of  the  Itahan  or  other 
masters.  The  pieces  are  inserted,  one  by  one,  in  a  bed  of  cement  which  dries 
to  extreme  hardness;  each  piece  is  ground  at  a  kind  of  lathe  to  the  exact 
shape  required  by  the  particular  tint  In  each  part  of  the  picture ;  and  when 
the  picture  is  completed  by  this  extremely  slow  process,  the  surface  is  ground 
down  and  polished.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  describe  the  result  thus  pro- 
duced ;  the  reader  can  only  appreciate  it  by  looking  at  the  actual  specimens 
themselves.  Let  him  examine  the  views  of  St  Peter's,  the  Ooliseuni  at 
Rome,  the  Boman  Fonmi,  the  Temple  of  Peestum,  the  Harbour  of  Genoa, 
the  Bay  of  Naples,  the  copy  of  Gneroino's  •  John  the  Baptist,'  Ac,  in  the  Italian 
compartment  of  the  Great  Exhibition  (mostly  table-slabs):  he  will  there  find 
that  the  minutest  touches,  the  most  delicate  tints,  are  imitatod,  and  in  somd 
instances  with  siuprising  success.  It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  these 
colours  are  not  mere  surface  tints,  not  merely  '  skin-deep ;'  they  permeate  the 
substance  of  the  glass,  each  little  fragment  having  the  same  tint  all  through 
its  thickness.  If  it  were  possible  to  turn  the  whole  series  of  pieces  upfeide 
down,  without  disturbing  their  relative  positions,  a  second  pioture  would  be 
presented  exactly  like  the  original,  only  vnA  a  reversal  of  right  and  left. 

The  ^'  si^ecunens  of  glass  mosaic  described  by  Winckelmann  and  Count 
Caylus  /■  1  last  century,  seem  to  have  been  of  a  somewhat  different  kind, 
for  they  pr<;sented  a  complete  picture  on  each  surface.  They  consisted  of 
coloured  glass  fibres  fitted  togetiier  with  the  utmost  exactness,  and  cemented 
by  fusion  into  a  solid  mass.    Of  these  two  specimens,  each  of  whicl>  was 


VHH 
T 


••iMw«mpMHMiWia**>^ 


jg  0LAS8   AND   ITS   MANUFACTOnE. 

.b„„.  an  inch  long  b,  .  «  "' -  iltioHJ' r/ackf  t'"L™»  J"^ 
and  distincUy.  either  the  circ  e  «f  *^«  P"P*i,«;  **'^^^^  about  the  same 

injuring  Hie  tints  of  any  one  fibre. 

Decorative  and  Silveiied  Glass  Work. 

To  rel^.  however,  to  decomtive  gla.8  -ork^^i^^^'Jf^'^rMrt^^^^^^ 
to  Sur  own  day.     Two  remarkable  ""^fj^  jj^^^^^^J^^^^ome  extent  been 
few  yea«  ago   founded  on  proce^e^^^^^  and   CrystaUo 

pi-actised  by  the  Bohemians.  ^f«»«  T. J^.""  piags-makers  excited  surprise 
Engraving.  About  a  century  ^o,  the  J^^^^^^^^^SSS  J^^^^  «  coatiig  of 
by  producing  bas-relief  casts  of  busts  and  ^«J^;^clo^J^         ^^^.J^  ^f 

white  flint^glass ;  and  it  ^"^/^  «^"«^"  f^  Ae  des^^^^^  result,  theVe 

one  of  the  patents  menUoned  above.     1  o  P/otwce  uie  u 

Slnded  for  incmstation  must  be  made  of  ^T^thS^  wTdi  IHs  to  h!  in- 

make  the  two  substances  a^ere,  «"t;?  wS  of  fowing  in  air  as  in  the 
blower  draw,  out  the  au:  from  V^^^J^^^^^^^!^,  ^d  to  form  one 
ordmary  manufacture),  thus  causmg  <l^«gl^«  ^  'CTcut  and  polished  to 
continuous  substance  wi^  the  cameo  J^^^  ^J'^eimtiM.  for  the  day 
any  desired  form,  the  effect  produced  «  strAmg  ^JJ^^^J^^  ^  ^le  midrt 
caJieo  or  bust  has  the  W«f««»%°^S^St  arf  Sc'rTSl^  a  more  ex- 

bj'^ir^'^i^o'pre^u"!^^  ^^-  -' 

forma  a  glassy  layer  to  enclose  it.  .      CrustaUo  Enmomuf,  consists  in 

The  other  noveltr  mentioned  above^  tnLli?s   and  expressing  them  m 
taking  facsimiles  o   ^'^t^^^' ^les  from  i^^^^  «^  ^^e^ 

intasUo  on  hollow  glass  vessels.     1ms  process  is  wun  j  hadces  of  reci- 

Sous  copies  ^f  t^r«,tSwr"  Th;  S^f  or'cif  rsprinwSl 
ments.  or  «™suiK>n  decanters  or  table  gl^s.     Ane  ^^^ckdust,  and 

over  first  with  Tripoh  poAvder,  then  with  Jne  d^  pi«*  ^ 

then  with  coarse  powder  °f  ^«  «^«  f  ^^^^'^f  ^'ater  f r^Sich  the  sandy 
and  at  the  same  time  exposed  to  %,^*»^  "^^^d  in  the  iron  mould  in 
layere  become  sohdified  mto  a  cast.    This  cast  is  piacea  m  ui 


> 


■^tamilimmMM\Hn^<^-ni 


m^f 


«•••"•'- 


.t-iva 


aiJVSS   ANP   ITS   MANUFACTUHE. 


18 


exliibited,  on  a  dark 
ck;  the  outlinea  were 
he  effect  very  striking, 
irent  glass;  the  most 
traced  more  accurately 
)r  the  apparently  scaly 
1  was  about  the  same 
»,  and  yellow  colours, 
id  volutes,  beads,  and 
ed  a  similar  object  was 
er  fibres  of  glass,  laid 
exposed  to  a  heat  just 
without  disturbing  or 


Work. 

ging  more  particularly 
ented  by  Mr.  Pellatt  a 
e  to  some  extent  been 
nutation  and   CryttaUo 
makers  excited  surprise 
jsed  within  a  coating  of 
at  became  the  subject  of 
iesired  result,  the  figure 
lat  will  require  a  higher 
a  which  it  is  to  be  in- 
ish  is  found  to  possess 
material  from  a  plaster 
iiaUy.     A  mass  of  trans- 
,en,  and  the  clay  cameo, 
is  pressed  or  welded  to 
being  closed,  the  glass- 
jrcing  in  wr  as  in  the 
Uapse,  and  to  form  one 
aa  is  cut  and  polishetL  to 
d  beautiful,  for  the  clay 
ver,  isolated  in  the  midst 
incrusted  in  a  more  ex- 
similar  hollow  vessels, 
ssel,  a  small  piece  of  semi- 
ie  cameo  in  its  place  and 

!o  Engiaviitg,  consists  in 
nd  compressing  them  in 
iveniently  adopted  where 
such  as  badges  of  regi- 
!  die  or  cast  is  spriiikled 
laster  and  brickdust,  and 
it  is  placed  under  a  press, 
iter,  by  which  the  sandy 
ftced  in  the  iron  mould  in 


which  the  Klass  vessel  is  to  be  made,  and  becomes  an  mtegral  part  of  the 
vessel  so  pSduced;  but  by  the  application  of  a  little  watx^r  the  cast  is  sepa, 
3  ^dCves  ar^  intaglio  impression  upon  Uie  glass  ^  shaq)  as  the  on^nal 
T    The  Zt  or  cake  thus  used,  however,  seldom  suffices  for  a  second  im- 

^'Thrmention  of  the  Bohemian  glass  manufacture  brings  U>  mind  a  curious 
example  of  the  mode  in  which  commerce  seeks  out  it«  markets,  and  makes  hght 
Srtlnce  which  often  sepai^tes  the  producers  from  the  consumers  In  the 
Great  Exhibition  is  a  glass  case  of  a  veiy  instructive  kmd,  contammg  speci- 
mens of  S  or  n^-ly  A  the  commodities  brought  to  Livei-pool  m  U.e  common 
r^e  oflmle.  Each  specimen  is  labeUed  with  its  commercial  or  local  name 
uTenirname(if  an?),  the  comitry  whence  i™P«'^'l- Sf/^^^  *^„f  £ 
anolied  and  the  quantity  imported  mto  Liverpool  in  1849.  Among  the 
fis'so  depSued  are  B^oheu'iian  glass  beads,  of  all  sizes  and  colom.;^nd 
the  route  bv  which  they  reach  their  desUnation  is  cunous.  Ihey  fand  then 
wrv7rom  Bohemia  noiiward  to  Hamburg,  or  southward  to  Trieste;  they  are 
rhTDpTatoneorbothof  those  ports  to  Liverpool ;  they  are  shipped  agam  from 
LWeW  t^  tiis  .  e.  -  .oast  of  Mrica,  where  they  are  baitered  with  the  natives 

for  ivorv  calm  oil,  or  other  commodities.  ,        ,    ,.         ^ 

tS  vSho   a.;  attracted  by  the  brUliantly-coloured  and  diversely-oma- 
mented  sp^dmens  of  glass  which  now  appear  in  the  London  shops,  may 
SMw  Tat  such^articles  were  a  staple  manufacture  >« Jenice  m  die 
Sentt^d  seventeenth  centuries,  and  that  much  "^  f '^  ™?^«™Xt ting 
mprfi  revival  of  a  partially  forgotten  ai-t.     Mr.  Pellatt,   in  Ins   interesting 
SioXes  of  Glass  Making,'  enmnerates  the  following  among  the  tasteful 
A      nrodSons  of  U^r  Venetian's.    The  Ve,u>tian  ball  has  an  exterior  of  Uans- 
^      SS  coburless  glass,  enclosmg  glass  of  many  different  colours  fused  into 
Sne  mass     The  VenetUin  Jil^ree%hich  consists  of  spir^y-twisted  plain  and 
oTour^d  enilel  glass,  w^^uch  used  by  tlie  Veneti^s  for  ^e  «t^--^-"- 
classes    Boblets    &c.;  and  when  placed  together  side  by  side  in   alternaw 
fZ^  ifwa^  manufUm-ed  into  tezzas.  vases,  and  oUier  oi-namental  articles^ 
ml^r^gZ  consists  of  a  great  variety  of  ends  ^^^S'SSloSnSs  o 
sectionaUv  at  right  angles  with  the  filagree  cane  to  form  small  lozenges  or 
SEr^d  tiele,  when  placed  side  by  side,  and  massed  together  by  tra,^ 
nZnt  fflass   have  the  appearance  of  an  innumerable  senes  of  flowers  or 
KSs'lS  ornamental  v'a^es,  &c     Mosaic  ,«a.,  was  VroiuceAhy ^e^^ 
small  canes  of  variously-coloured  opaque  or  ^^''P^f  *  f  ^^VLrS 
lengths   ranced  sectionaUy  together  in  groups,  so  that  the  ends  may  lonn 
CToS  Twhich  are  patterns  of  flowers  or  arabesques;  Mid  these,  bemg  cut 
ErtTsversely  or  Obliquely,  form  slabs  of  -/ -^--^J^f'such  Lnd  were 
TiesB  the  same  pattern  being  met  with  at  every  cuttir.g.     Ot  sucU  kina  were 
Ttw^  sp"rmLs  describe'd  by  Wmckelmann.     Sr,^eU  ^^^JJ^^^^"^, 
ftised  lenaths  of  coloured  glass  roUed  one  into  another,  so  as  to  unitate  cm 
nSil  or  £  stones.     vL  di  trim  is  fine  lace-work,  with  intersectmg  Imes 
of  Thit^  enlel  or  transparent  glass,  forming  a  --p'^<>lJ^'^^^^f;/:,^^ 
sections-  the  centre  of  each  has  an  air  bubble  of  unilorra  size.     The  I^ro»tea 
rmSirregularly-veined  marble-Uke  projecting  dislocations,  ^^t^i  int^f'^"'"^ 
fZv^    It!s  piiced  by  plunging  Uie  white-hot  glass  mto  cold  water,  and 
then  reheatbig  md  reblowing  it;  although  it  appears  oovered  with  fractures 
S'r  gC  is  perfectly  sonorous.     Mr.  Pellatt  says  that  tlie  art  of  '"'^"^g  ^^^ 
Si^s  was  knoSn  and  practised  only  by  the  Venetians,  until  revived  by  hun  a 
few  years  ago  at  the  Falcon  Glass  Works. 


L 


11  GLASS   AND   ITS   MANUFACTUBH. 

The  silvered  glass  produced  by  tho  metiiod  of  Mr.  Hole  ThompsoQ  is  a 
product  of  singular  beauty.  Whether  in  the  form  of  cups  or  goblets,  of  tazzaa 
or  wine-coolers,  of  epergnes,  ewers,  condelabi-a,  inkstands,  salt  or  sugai'-boxes, 
of  flat  mirrors  or  of  mirror  globes,  it  exhibits  a  brilliancy  of  hue  tliat  can  hardly 
fail  to  an*est  attention.  It  is  to  the  conibinutioii  of  colour  witli  nilicriity  that 
we  owe  this  result.  Some  months  ago,  Mr.  Donaldson,  in  advocating  tlie  uho 
of  this  material  for  architectural  decoration,  especially  in  tlie  adornment  of 
shop-fronts,  stated  tliat  the  influence  of  the  silver  on  the  coloiu'  gave  rise  to 
tints  almost  unknown  before,  and  such  oa  no  combination  of  the  ordinary 
colouring  ingredients  could  imitate.  It  may,  in  this  resjiect,  be  compared  to 
the  Diorama,  which  differs  from  other  pictui-es  in  being  viewed  by  reflected 
and  transmitted  light  conjointly ;  the  glas?  presents  the  reflective  power  of  tho 
silver  with  tlie  transmissive  or  transparent  piwer  of  the  coloured  medium.  The 
most  conspicuous  products,  perhaps,  are  the  niirror  globes,  which  present  every 
variety  of  brilliant  colour,  and  have  a  size  from  two  inches  to  tliirty  inches  in 
diameter ;  but,  excellently  as  these  illustrate  Uie  combination  of  effects  just  alluded 
to,  they  are  not  so  delicately  beautiful  as  articles  of  more  diverse  form,  where 
endless  nutincet  are  produced  by  tho  different  angles  at  which  the  hght  is 
reflected  to  the  eye.  So  much  more  brilliant  is  the  argentine  reflection  tlian 
that  j)roduced  by  the  mercury-amalgam  at  tlie  back  of  a  looking-glass,  tliat  it 
is  contemplated  to  employ  this  glass  in  many  useM  ways  for  optical  and 
scientific  instruments. 

Without  going  minutely  into  details,  a  few  words  will  suffice  to  explain  the 
relation  which  this  new  method  bears  to  those  oi-dinorily  adopted.  In  pre- 
paring a  looking-glass,  a  sheet  of  tinfoil  is  laid  down  smoothly  on  a  flat  tablo ; 
Uquid  mercury  is  poured  on  it,  the  plate  of  glass  is  laid  on  tiie  mercury,  and 
heavy  weights  are  Itud  on  the  glass ;  while  the  supei-fluous  mercury  is  gra- 
dually expelled  by  the  pressure,  the  remainder  combines  chemically  with  the 
tinfoil,  and  forms  with  it  an  amalgam  which  adheres  pretty  closely  to  the 
surface  of  the  glass;  when  seen  from  the  other  side,  this  amalgam  yields 
the  brilliant  white  reflection  familiar  to  us  in  looking-glasses.  But,  briUiant 
as  is  this  reflection,  it  has  often  been  thought  that  a  yet  more  lustrous  effect 
would  be  produced  by  the  use  of  real  silver;  and  a  patent  for  this  object 
was  procured  by  Mr.  Drayton,  about  eight  years  ago.  According  to  this 
patent,  the  plate  of  glass  is  covered  witli  a  solution,  in  which  the  chief  in- 
gredient is  nitrate  of  silver ;  and  when  this  solution  has  been  left  undisturbed 
for  a  certain  time,  metallic  silver  separates  from  it,  and  becomes  precipitated 
on  the  glass ;  the  remaining  solution  is  poured  off,  and  the  film  is  secured 
by  a  resinous  varnish.  In  the  later  silvering  process  a  somewhat  similar 
nitrate  solution  is  employed,  but  with  a  different  precipitating  agent.  The  re- 
markable feature,  however,  is,  that  the  glass  is  made  doubU,  Mid  the  Uquid 
is  poured  into  the  cavity  between  the  two  surfaces,  so  that  no  protecting 
varnish  is  necessary ;  and  aa  the  twin  thicknesses  may  be  of  different  coloured 
glass,  on  extensive  range  of  new  effects  becomes  obtainable. 

The  etching  or  engraving  of  glass  presents  another  pleasing  variety.  By 
Mr.  Kidd's  recently-patented  process,  a  species  of  embroidery  of  great  beauty 
is  produced.  In  this  method,  the  devices  or  patterns  are  cut  on  the  und»r 
surface  of  the  glass,  and  the  small  facets  are  silvered ;  the  result  is,  that 
innumerable  tiny  mirrors  throw  up  reflections  in  every  direction.  This  is 
the  case  where  colourless  transparent  glass  is  employed;  but  where  multi- 
coloured glass  is  used,  mtuiy  novel  combinations  present  themselves..  There 
may,  for  mstance,  be  a  basis  or  primary  layer  of  transpaient  glass ;  then 


"^^-i 


I. 


GLASS   AND  1TB  MANUFACTUBK. 


15 


.  Hale  Thompson  is  a 
lips  or  gobleU,  of  tazzas 
1(18,  salt  or  auKai'-boxea, 
^  of  hue  tliat  can  hardly 
lour  witli  silicring  Ihat 
1,  in  advocating  tlie  uho 
y  in  the  adornment  of 
the  colour  gave  rise  to 
tnatioQ  of  the  ordinary 
esi^ect,  bo  compared  to 
ng  viewed  by  reflected 
>  reflective  power  of  the 
loloiired  medium.  The 
lea,  which  present  every 
ches  to  thirty  inches  in 
ion  of  effects  j  ust  alluded 
ore  diverse  fonn,  where 

at  which  the  light  is 
'gentine  reflection  tlian 

a  looking-gUiss,  Uiat  it 
I  ways  for  optical  and 

1  suffice  to  explain  the 
arily  adopted.  In  pre- 
uoothly  on  a  flat  tablo  ; 
id  on  the  mercury,  and 
•fluous  mercury  is  gra- 
les  chemically  with  the 
18  pretty  closely  to  the 
i,  this  amalgam  yields 
-glasses.  But,  briUiant 
yret  more  lusti-ous  effect 
I  patent  for  this  object 
yo.     According  to  this 

in  which  the  chief  in- 
is  been  left  undisturbed 
id  becomes  precipitated 
md  the  film  is  secured 
3S  a  somewhat  similar 
litating  agents  The  re- 
I  double,  and  the  liquid 

so  that  no  protecting 
be  of  different  coloured 
lable. 

pleasing  variety.  By 
•roidery  of  great  beauty 
3  are  cut  on  the  tmder 
ed;  the  result  is,  that 
sry  direction.  This  is 
lyed;  but  where  multi- 
Bnt  themselves..  There 
ransparent  glass;  then 


on  opaque  layer  of  while  glass  is  poured  upon  this;  and,  lastly,  a  layer  of 
mbv  £  on  the  white;  the  united  aiickness  may  be  t^ion  cut  U,  any  depth 
S^wTth  any  device,  and,  whether  .ilve..d  or  not,  a  "f  '  f  P^y/ ^ -- 
results  Specimens  of  Kidd's  embossed  glass,  as  well  as  ot  Uie  silvered 
iXured  S«  «r«  ^*  ^«  '"^'.^-^^'^  '"  *^«  ExhibiUon.  and  cerUmly  form 
notable  features  among  its  novelties.  .     •  ^  i     ,  „  ^r..\^ 

Our  American  brethren  seem  to  have  been  the  first  to  mtooduce  a  mode 
of  manufacturing  glass  by  ytmmg,  being  one  of  the  very  few  varieUcs  m 
which  homing  is  not  req44d.  A  metal  die  and  plunger  are  prepared.  Ue 
former  to  give  the  exterim-  pattern,  and  the  latter  the  mterior  pattern  to  the 
aSe  2ut  to  be  made;\he  ball  of  melted  glass  is  dropped  mto  the  che 
„r  mould,  and  tlie  plunger  or  matrix  is  brought  down  upon  it  by  the 
ever  handle  of  a  simple  kind  of  press,  and  the  glass  is  thus  mstanUy  fomed 
nt^  the  desired  shape.  The  process  is  said  to  bo  cheap  and  expeditious, 
but  to  require  much  skiU.  If  the  quantity  of  glass  be  too  large,  {he  ove i- 
plus  gives  considerable  trouble;  If  too  litUe,  the  artiolo  is  spoded :  d  U  e 
die  aSd  phmgor  be  too  hot,  the  glass  will  adhere  to  them ;  it  too  cold,  the 
smf^e  of  th!  glass  becomes  cloudy  and  imperfect.  It  is  by  some  such 
pmcess  as  thi8,^ut  still  more  simple,  that  ghus  droi>»  for  chandeliers  are 
ordinarily  formed.  Lumps  of  glass,  made  expressly  for  this  purpose  are 
softened  by  heat,  and  shaped  in  twin  bi-ass  dies;  but  the  mfenor  kmds  are 
mSoiVom  thick  tumbler  bottoms,  or  waste  glass.  The  arms  of  chandehers 
also,  are  pressed  by  twin  dies,  the  upper  die  behig  fixed  to  the  plunger,  and 
the  under  one  to  the  bed  of  a  lever  press.  •   ,       j   i,„„„*ifi.i 

A  mode  of  decorating  glass,  which  leads  to  many  yaned  and  beautiful 
results,  is  that  carried  on  by  the  patent  of  Messrs.  Powell  In  manufactures 
of  Uiis  description,  after  the  glass  is  made,  and  before  it  has  cooled,  a  device 
in  intaglio  is  impressed  by  a  die,  just  as  in  making  impressions  m  wax,  and 
into  thi  cavities  ^hus  foimed  melted  glass  of  another  colour  «  I«»f  d;  when 
cold,  the  surf-ace  is  properly  ground  and  polished.  It  is  difficult  to  "nagme 
the  play  of  colours  thus  produced;  for,  besides  the  contrast  between  the  two 
kinds  of  glass  employed,  there  are  aU  the  multiplied  tints  which  result  from 
prismatic  reflection,  according  to  the  angle  at  which  each  small  smrface 
presents  itself  to  the  eye. 

SCIKNTIFIC    EeLATIONS    OF    GlASS-MaKINO. 

But  we  must  now  direct  our  attention  to  a  few  improvements  more  soUdly 
advantageous   than  those  which  owe   then-  atti-actions  to  colours,  mosaics, 

silverinff,  or  embossing.  ,  .       v  i 

Ever?  day's  experience  tells  us  tJiat  tliere  is  a  pei-petual  reaction  between 
the  different  depai-tments  of  knowledge.  Every  science  and  art  receives 
benefit  for  every  benefit  which  it  confers ;  it  "  gains  strength  m  giving. 
If  science  aids  the  glass-maker,  so  does  the  glasa-m^er  lend  his  ^  to  the 
students  of  science.  A  curious  exemplification  of  this  has  appeared  within 
the  last  few  years,  in  connection  wiUi  the  beautiful  palm-house  at  Kew, 
chiefly  through  the  instrumentAhty  of  Mr.  Robert  Hunt.  To  explam  it.  we 
must  remind  the  reader  that  ordinary  solar  light  consists  of  rays  ot  three 
colours,  red,  yellow,  and  blue ;  and  that  of  these  three  the  red  have  ge  most 
heating  effect,  the  yellow  the  most  light-giving  effect,  and  the  blue  the 
strongest  chemical  effect.  When  combined  in  the  ordmary  raUo,  the  smis 
rays  produce  the  regular  or  natural  effects  (whatever  they  may  be)  on  vege- 


•sg* 


L 


16 


OtASS   Ann   ITS   MANUFACTUBB. 


tation;  but  if  artificial  means  be  adopted  to  change  this  ratio,  special  effecU 
result.     Mr.  Hunt  employed  coloured  glass  to  determine  these  effects ;  for,  in 
each  itind,  the  glaHH  u-aiisniita  one  portion  of  Uie  solar  raj's  more  abundanUy 
than  the  rest,  and  owns  what  is  called  its  '  colour '  to  this  property.     Under 
yrllow  glass,  he  found  Uiat,  generally  speaking,  die  gonuiimlioii  of  seeds  is 
prevented;   and  that,  even   hi    cases  where   it   has   commenced,    tlie    plant 
speedily  dies.     On  the  other  hand,  in  a  later  stage  of  development,  these  rays 
seem  to  contribuUs  to  Uie  vigorous  growth  of  the  plant.     Under  red  Klass,  if 
the  seeds  ai«  well  watched  and  watered,  gonnination  takes  place;  but  the 
plant  shows  a  sickly  constitution,  and  the  leaves  are  partially  blanched.     It  is 
curious  that,  according  to  Mr.  Hunt's  observations,  Uiose  plants  which  naturally 
bend  towards  the  white  light  of  day,  seem  to  shun  red  light  by  benduig  away 
from  it ;  but  that  when  they  arrive  at  the  flowering  stage,  the  plants  welcome 
the  red  rays  more  than  the  blue  or  yellow.     Under  blue  glass,  the  gemimation 
of  seeds  and  the  growth  of  young  plants  are  accelerated  m  a  reinaikable 
manner ;  but  if  this  kind  of  stimidus  be  conUnued  beprond  a  certam  tune, 
the  plant  increases  in  bulk  without  a  corresponding  uici-eose   in   sUengUi. 
Mr  Hunt,  in  others  of  his  published  works,  has  applied  the  term  actimnn  to 
the  peculiar  principle  and  effects  of  the  blue  rays ;  and,  m  connection  witli 
those  views,  he  expresses  an  opmion  that  these  experiments  on  Uie  effe^Jt 
of  coloured  glass  on  plants,  "  seem  to  point  to  a  very  great  pracUcul  apph- 
ctttion,  in  enabling  us  in  this  chmate  to  meet  Hie  necessities  of  plants,  natives 
of  the  tropical  regions.    We  have  evidence  (at  least  so  it  appears  to  me)  from 
these  and  other  results,  tliat  tlie  germination  of  seeds  in  spring,  the  flowenng 
of  plants  in  summer,  and  Uie  ripening  of  fruits  m  autumn,  are  dependent 
upon  Uie  variations  in  Uie  amount  of  acUnism  or  chemical  mfluence  of 
light  and  of  heat,  at  Uiose  seasons,  in  Uie  solar  beam."    These  intfc.estmg 
fwits,  it  is   true,   belong  to  ttie  optical  and  organic  sciences  raUier  Uian 
to  Uie  glass  manufacture ;  but  it  is  impossible  not  to  see  how  mutually  ben^ 
licial  such   discoveries  must  be  to   Uie  two  friendly  powers -science  and 
industrial  art;  and  the  new  pahn-house  at  Kew  affords  at  once  a  case  in 
point     When  a  UtUe  manganese  is  present  m  glass,  U  conects  Uie  colouring 
action  of  the  iron  which  usually  exists  in  Uie  sand;  but  Uie  whitened  glass 
thus  produced  is  found  to  admit  Uie  heat  of  Uie  solar  rays  to  a  greater  degree 
Uian  ordinary  glass ;  and  Uie  plants  in  a  pahn-house  or  hothouse  so  glazed 
are  found  to  suffer  a  scorching  effect  iiyurious  to  Uiem.     Mr.  Robert  Hunt, 
appreciating  both  the  good  and  the  bad  aspects  of  Uiis  modification,  has 
exercised  his  ingenuity  iu  retaining  the  former  and  dispersing  Uie  latt«r; 
he  recommended  Uie  use  of  a  litUe  oxide  of  copper  instead  of  oxide  of 
manganese ;  and  Uie  pahn-house  at  Kew,  glajied  wiUi  glass  so  Unted,  has  been 
found  to  possess  Uie  advantages  without  Uie  disadvantages  ot  what  we  maj 
term  the  manganese  system.  ,       .  / 

The  manufacture  of  glass  suitable  for  optical  purposes  has  been  (as  we 
have  before  noticed)  unduly  pi-essed  down  in  England  by  Uie  pernicious 
Excise  laws,  only  recenUy  removed;  and  we  have  to  wait  for  future  times  to 
Bhow  Uie  fuU  effect  of  Uie  removal.  The  production  of  glass  fitted  for  Uie 
constniction  of  lenses  for  large  telescopes,  is  a  work  of  such  extreme  dithculty, 
that  those  who  excel  in  it  become  celebrated  Uiroughout  Euiope,  and  Uieir 
names  find  a  place  m  the  records  of  science.  Thus  Frauenhofer,  of  Mumch,  has 
a  world-wide  fame  (among  men  of  science  at  least)  for  having,  among  other 
works,  produced  the  object-lens  for  Uie  great  telescope  at  Dorpat.  His 
Buccessor,  Utzschneider,  mauitains  hia  reputation  for  pi-oducmg  optical  glass 


ds  ratio,  special  effects 
e  thene  enecta;  for,  in 
ravs  more  abundantly 
this  property.  Under 
unniimliuu  of  aeedn  is 
onuneiiced,  tlio  plant 
evelopment,  thene  rayit 
t.  IJnder  r*d  glasB,  if 
i  takes  place;  out  the 
rtially  blanched.  It  i» 
I  plants  which  naturally 
light  by  bending  away 
ge,  the  plants  welcome 
I  glass,  the  gemtiuation 
rated  in  a  i-emarkuble 
«yond  a  certaui  time, 

mci'ease  m  sti'engtli. 
d  the  term  actiniam  to 
nd,  in  connection  witli 
mments  on  the  effect 
•y  great  practical  appli- 
sities  of  plants,  natives 
it  appears  to  me)  from 
in  spring,  the  flowering 
mtumn,  are  dependent 
chemical  influence  of 
n."    These  iutt.'esting 

sciences  rather  than 
see  how  mutually  bene- 
f  powers— science  and 
\rM  at  once  a  case  in 
t  con-ects  the  colouring 
but  the  whitened  glass 
■ays  to  a  greater  degree 
or  hot-house  so  glazed 
3m.  Mr.  Robert  Htmt, 
'  this  modification,  has 

dispersing  the  latter; 
er  instead  of  oxide  of 
;las8  so  tinted,  has  been 
ntages  of  what  we  xnay 

poses  has  been  (as  we 
land  by  tlie  pernicious 
wait  for  future  times  to 
I  of  glass  fitted  for  the 

such  extreme  difliculty, 
;hout  Europe,  and  tlieir 
lenhofer,  of  Munich,  has 
tor  having,  among  other 
scope  at  Dorpat.      His 

producing  optical  glass 


1 


OtASS   AND   nm   HANUrAOTURE. 


17 


free  from  stria  or  streaks;  Ouinand,  FrauenhSfor's  pupil,  carrie<l  a  shore  of 
the  same  reputation  to  Paris;  tnd  Bontemps,  Guinand's  successor,  is  at 
tlie  present  day  taxing  his  skill  to  equal,  if  not  to  excel,  his  predecessors. 
Is  it  not  lamentable  tliat,  until  the  year  1846,  English  gloss-makers  wore 
almost  wholly  prevented  ftx)m  competing  for  these  honourable  distinctions? 
Until  recently,  the  dioptric  lenses  for  lighthouses,  on  tlie  principles  laid 
down  by  Fresnel  and  Brewster,  hav«  been  chiefly  manufactured  on  the 
Continent ;  but  our  English  makers  are  now  endeavouring  to  enter  into 
honourable  competition  with  their  neighbours.  It  is  most  encouraging  to 
find  tlio  Astronomer  Royal  speaking  as  follows,  at  the  recent  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  at  Ipswich : — "  The  removal  of  tlie  vexatious  fiscaJ  inter- 
ferences with  the  manufacture  of  glass,  and  the  enterprise  with  which  Mr. 
Chance  as  manufacturer,  and  Mr.  Simms  and  Mr.  Boss  as  opticians,  have 
taken  up  the  construction  of  large  object-glasses,  promise  to  lead  to  the  most 
gratifying  result«i.  Already  Mr.  Simms  has  partially  tested  object-glasses  of 
13  inches'  aperture;  and  one  of  16  inches  is  waiting  not  for  the  flint,  but 
for  the  crown  lens.  Mr.  Ross,  it  is  understood,  has  ground  an  object-glass  of 
2  feet  aperture,  but  it  has  not  been  tested.  The  facility  of  procuring  large 
object-glasses  will  imdoubtedly  lead  to  the  extensive  construction  of  graduated 
mstruments  on  a  larger  scale  than  before." 

The  manufacture  of  glass  tubes  for  a  multitude  of  purposes  is  among  the 
most  notable  results  of  the  removal  of  the  Excise  duty.  Such  articles  could 
scarcely  have  been  made  with  any  chance  of  remunerative  profit  under  tlie 
harassing  restrictions  of  the  old  laws ;  but  several  patented  processes  are  now 
at  work,  by  which  glass  pipes  arc  made  for  the  flow  of  water,  corrosive  acids, 
gas,  Ac.  In  the  Mineral  Section  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  at  the  extreme 
southern  side  of  the  British  department,  many  specimens  of  this  glass  tubing 
may  be  seen. 

As  there  are  many  circumstances  which  show  how  the  scientific  principle  of 
annealing  or  tempering  improves  the  quality  of  manufactured  articles  in  glass, 
so,  conversely,  does  the  manufacture  afford  striking  exemplifications  of  this 
principle.  If  we  were  to  speak  of  natural  magic  in  glass  making,  we  might 
perhaps  select  the  Bologna  phiah  and  the  Rupert  drop$  as  exam^ilps  of  its  exer- 
cise; for  assuredly  there  are  few  thing;^  in  this  art  so  utterly  perpi<  ring  to  on 
observer.  A  Bologna  phial  is  a  phial  of  any  convenient  shape,  which  differs 
from  an  ordinary  phial  only  in  being  much  tliicker  at  the  bottom  than  the 
sides,  and  in  having  been  suddenly  cooled  in  the  open  air  instead  of  slowly 
cooled  in  an  anneaUng  oven.  The  result  on  its  susceptibiUty  to  fracture  is  most 
extraordinary.  It  will  bear  a  heavy  blow  or  severe  pressure  from  any  blunt 
instnmient  uninjured;  but  if  any  hard  and  angular  substance— even  so  small 
as  a  grain  of  flint  or  sharp  sand — be  dropped  mto  it,  the  bottom  of  the  phial 
will  crack  all  round  and  drop  off.  A  smdl  fragment  of  diamond  has  even  been 
seen  to  pass  through  the  thick  bottom  with  apparently  as  little  resistance  as  if 
it  dropped  through  a  cobweb.  Instances  have  been  known  in  which  one  of 
these  phials  has  been  struck  by  a  mallet  with  a  force  sufficient  to  drive  a  nail 
into  most  kinds  of  wood,  without  fracture ;  while  a  two-grain  fragment  of  flint, 
dropped  gently  into  the  phial,  cracked  and  severed  &e  glass.  The  Bupert 
drops,  or  Prince  Rupert's  drops,  are  small  solid  pieces  of  green  glass,  which 
have  been  dropped  while  red-hot  into  cold  water,  and  which  take  the  form  of 
rounded  lumps  elongated  by  a  tail.  The  roimd  part  will  bear  a  hard  blow 
without  fracture ;  but  if  the  smallest  particle  of  tiie  tml  be  broken  off,  tlie 
whold  flies  into  innumerable  fragments  as  fine  as  dust    It  has  been  even 


L 


18 


OIJkM   AND  ITS   MANtlFACTURM. 


■hown  tliat  if  thm  r^xpflriinout  bo  performed  whilo  the  rIw-i  tlrop  w  m  ft  wino- 
botUe  fllle«l  wiUi  water,  by  Ui.i  aid  of  a  !....«  pair  of  nijip-oi,  th«  coii.miiwioi.  hv 
the  exnloaiou  (fi>r  M  almo»t  amount,  to  an  exi.lotioii)  in  no  violent  as  U>  breivk 
the  bottSs  and  scattar  tha  wnt-r  in  ftll  dir«ctloni.  All  Qieiie  itmnKe  r««ulu  are 
due  to  a  petuliar  ineq«wlity  in  Uu.  condiUon  of  th«*  glass.  ariHiim  Irom  tho 
•udden  cooling ;  but  it  has  not  y.-t  Urn  clearly  ascfrtain.d  whereui  th<j 
taeciuality  consiatH.     \t  any  rate,  it  in  a  phononionon  eqnaUy  Strang.*  ana 

Were  we  to  dwoll  upon  the  many  ciu-ions  nlationa  which  g?  •  beam  to 
wrientitlo  principles.  «llW  ag  a  consenuonco  of  tliem,  '  a^  wi  u  »  ^waru« 
their  development,  it  would  take  us  far  Wyon.l  our  limi  •  \\  ^  may  nowever 
mention  a  circumstance  very  little  known  in  common  lif  .  tl>ni  there  are  cer- 
liiin  kinds  of  glass  which  may  be  diMolvtd  in  wui.  r.  All  gla.«  is.  chemicaUy, 
a  sdicate  of  som.^  alkaline  or  metallic  oxid.  ;  aiv!  •  ording  to  the  "»»>"«»' 
this  oxide,  so  does  the  quality  ;.f  tl.«  glass  Uilk..  1»  potiish  or  ...da  be  the 
wibstanoe  combined  with  Uio  silicic  acid  or  silica,  without  any  third  ingredient. 
a  glam  is  produced  which,  Uiougli  presenting  Uie  usual  vitxeous  asi«ct,  is 
easily  dissolved  in  water.  It  is  cidlecl  whtbU  gUm,  .md  is  employed  a»  a  kmd 
of  paint  for  paper,  cloth,  wood.  Ac,  to  prevent  or  retard  then-  inflammation  on 
Uie  contact  of  an  ignited  body. 

.,,..,      ...       Nuw  Applications  OF  Glass. 

In  respect  to  the  every-day  wants  of  society,  we  find  Uiat  glass  «  /"^""jj^ 
working  out  the  scheme  which  we  noticed  as  marking  the  progress  from  1801 
to  1851      The  raw  materials,  it  is  tnio,  have  not  been  largely  mcrcased  in 
aumber  or  kind  ;  but  commerce  has  given  ns  a  few  (such  as  Austrahan  Hand), 
science  a  few  (such  as  an  exlonded  knowledge  of  the  metallic  oxides),  and  legis- 
lation a  few  (such  as  cheapening  tho  alkalies).     The  manufax^tunng  procesws 
have,  from  the  reasons  so  many  times  alluded  to,  only  of  late  shown  any  markwl 
improvement ;  but  these  improvements  lie  in  many  difterent  patlis,  aU  ot 
which  are  now  being  pursued  simidtaneously.     There  are  new  but  simple  ap- 
paratus  brought  into  ase;  there  are  new  combinations  of  the  pnma^  mgre- 
dients ;  there  are  new  mixtures  of  metalhc  oxides  to  impart  colour ;  there  are 
hnwroved  rules  a.lopt«d  concerning  the  temi.erature,  the  dumtion,  and  the 
mMiipukUv«  details  of  each  process;  and  there  is  a  common-sense  tendency 
to  enipkw  a  few  foreign  workmen  when  (but  only  when)  the  English  haiids  are 
not  skiUwl  in  any  particular  department.     But  it  is  in  the  applxcatxon^  glass 
to  practieal  purposes  that  we  most  clearly  see  the  recent  progre.^i.     lher«  i« 
borti  an  increased  use  v      re  *.  has  long  been  used,  and  a  new  use  as  a  subsu- 
^ttte  for  other  materials  -..l-  u*ag  due  to  the  increasec^  cheapness  and  ex- 
cellence of  the  glass  rr    "e  .    ,     »      ^     i  i 
The  use  of  glass                  .-      -1  and  ofhur  purposes  has  mdwnl  extended 
with  striking  rapidity  since  the  change  in  the  Excise  duties.     I^t  tis  take  the 
shop-bill  of  one  among  many  London  manufacturers  of  those  articles,  wad 
alance  thi-oueh  ita  contents.     First  we  find  patent  rough  plate-glass,  an  eighUi 
of  an  inch  thi.3k,  obtainable  in  sheets  up  to  a  size  of  ten  or  twehre  superficial 
feet,  for  conservatories  and  skylights,  and  saleable  at  threepence  to  tenpence 
nerfoot.     Horticultural  8heet.gla.9s  for  conservatories  is  "  made  so  as  to  ub- 
Viate  the  scorchmg  effects  of  the  sun's  rays."    Rough  plate-glass,  intended  lor 
roofs  and  floors,  is  made  fi-om  a  quaiter  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
thiclmess  •  so  strong  are  the  thickest  of  these  specimens,  that  they  are  walkort 


I 


OLASa    AND    ITS    riANtllACTCBE. 


10 


)  glan^  <lrop  i**  in  A  win«v 
>l><'rfi,  tlie  ctmi'Hwjioii  l»y 
<  BO  viol«*nt  M  to  bietiK 
lliese  atrariKe  reaulU  nr« 
glosA,  ariHiDK  from  the 
wwrtauK'd  wherein  thfl 
1011  I'qually  hUiui^o  and 

ta  which  g?  •  l»«»ni  to 
I,  or  »!  loi  ii'i'  >  wanlH 
lits.  Wj  may  iiowevfr 
Mf>,  thfli  there  are  cer- 
AU  Kla.^.^  i«.  chrraicttUy. 
oitliiiR  to  tho  iiatiirn  of 
If  poUwh  or  iodtt  be  ttie 
out  any  third  inj^redient. 
usual  vitreouH  osjtect,  in 
i  i»  employed  na  ii  kind 
rd  their  inflamraation  on 


d  tliat  gla.<ia  is  gradimlly 
;  the  progresfi  from  1801 
seen  largely  increased  in 
rach  as  AuBtralian  Hand), 
iioUUlic  oxidos),  and  legis- 
i  manufacturing  proceasoH 
of  late  Bhown  any  marked 
ly  ditVercoit  patlis,  all  of 
e  are  new  but  simple  ap- 
ons  of  the  primary  ingre- 
1  impiu-t  colour ;  there  aro 
e,  the  duration,  and  tho 
i  common-sense  tendency 
len)  the  English  hands  are 
in  the  application  of  glass 
ecent  progress.     There  is 
md  a  new  use  as  a  aubati- 
reasef*  cheapness  and  ex- 

loses  has  indued  extende<l 
I  duties.  I-«t  us  take  tlie 
rers  of  those  article^,  and 
)ugh  plftte-glass,  an  eightli 
■  ten  or  twelve  superticial 
it  threepence  to  tenpence 
»  is  "  made  so  as  to  ob- 
jh  plate-glass,  intended  for 
to  on  inch  and  n  half  in 
mens,  that  they  are  walked 


over  by  thmwanda  of  pedcslriana  In  tl»n  busy  atro«t8  of  I^ondon,  hi  apoto 
where  ligfit  Jpi  nM(uired  to  be  thiH)wn  into  an  underground  cellar,  (ilaas  tilen 
ar«  ma<U)  oi  rough  plate  from  oue-oighlh  to  one-half  un  inch  in  thickneaa.  and 
of  Hh«ot-gl»as  from  nixtcen  to  Uiirfy  two  oun<!e«  per  aqvuuo  foot ;  and  glaan 
*\nt»n,  <»iillf.l  with  iioieii  for  fixing,  lu-u  niiuiu  of  iiuiilaf  matBrials.  tUass 
shelvea,  with  or  without  rained  ••dgos,  and  from  two  t<>  six  Inchea  in  width,  «n\ 
sold  by  the  foot  of  length.  For  immediato  horticultural  or  daily  UR»)  we  Hnd 
bee  gloHJiM.  propagating  gloasea,  cucumber  glahsea,  hyacinUi  and  llowc^r  di8h«« 
ftn«l  glaasoa,  cnKUS  glasses,  wall-fniit  gla8B»5s,  fniit-prot«!ting  glaaaea,  paadi 
and  grape  glosses,  fcm  aliades,  milk  trays  and  pans,  creampota.  and  numoroiw 
other  articUs.  'i'luu  there  are  niimberlesH  us^liil  implemouLs  which  >ftn  witli 
ditticulty  be  brought  under  any  common  dosignulion,  but  which  all  tend  to  ex 
emplliy  the  increasing  use  ot  Rlass ;  perforateii  «!'««  for  ventilation,  syringea 
for  injections.  chemisU'  pill  slabs,  cornice  polos,  ])ipos  for  convoymg  lupuda— 
am  each  of  them  types  of  large  classes  of  articles  now  made  of  tins  material. 
In  it»spect  to  the  ability  of  English  workmen  to  oiiual  tliose  of  foreign  countrlea 
in  the  niechanical  departmentit  of  tlie  glass  manufacture,  Mr.  Poxton  adduced 
tin  instructiv.i  instance  some  time  ago.  In  <mti  of  the  many  public  explanar 
tions  which  he  has  given  concening  the  Hxhibition  and  itn  wonders,  he  dwelt 
(among  other  Uiingn)  on  the  appn-ht-nded  injury  which  foreign  workmen  might 
Inflict  on  those  of  this  country.  "  He  would  state  a  tack  within  his  own  know 
ledge  tYonchmen  wore  celebrated  for  omamentwl  gloss.  The  eatablishment 
of  Messrs.  CJhance  employed  a  number  of  I-'ronchmen  lor  a  particular  branch 
of  the  trade,  the  making  of  glass  shados.  By  degrees  tho  English  workmen 
in  the  establishment  became  as  jiroticient  in  tho  lut  as  Uie  Fruuoh;  and  about 
a  fortnight  ago  a  trial  of  skill  took  place  between  them.  The  esfabhshment 
received  order*  for  an  enormous  gloss  shade.  A  Frenchman  trie^l  his  skill, 
and  failed;  an  Englishman,  who,  previous  to  the  importation  of  the  fVench, 
was  unacquainted  with  the  ai-t,  tlien  made  an  effort  to  acoompllih  the  xmk, 
and  8ucceedt;d  at  the  first  attempt." 

The  Glass  Work  of  the  CnrsTAt  Palace 

That  the  already  renowned  Crystal  ralaco—that  eighth  wonder  of  the 
world,  which  could  have  contained  six  out  of  the  seven  old  wondei-a  under 
its  roof— could  not  have  been  built  half-a-doacn  years  ago,  is  a  truism  which 
we  have  before  adverted  to;  and  without  dwelling  more  on  ttiis  point,  it 
will  alwB>'s  r<  main  a  matter  of  interest  to  note  the  arrangements  by  which  the 
palace  hm  been  built  The  manufacture  by  Messrs.  Chance  of  the  aores  of 
gloss  which  the  building  contahis,  was  in  itself  an  industrial  feat  worthy  of 

Tho  neighbourhood  of  Birmingham  produced  botli  U\e  h-on-work  and  the 
glass-work  for  Uie  Exhibition  buUding.  Messrs.  Chance's  establishment  is 
situated  in  a  suburb  caUed  Hpon  Lane,  surrounded  by  the  smoking  chimneys 
of  various  factories.  It  is  a  vast  place,  covering  on  area  about  equal  to  that 
of  the  Crystal  Palace  itself,  but,  unlike  it,  scattered  and  disjointed,  with  no 
two  buildings  alike,  and  no  symmetry  of  arrangement.  Like  many  other 
of  our  manufacturing  establishments,  it  has  grown  with  the  growth  ot  trade ; 
it  has  ext<jnded  its  Ithiits  to  embrace  more  and  more  buildings,  as  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  maiiufacture  required,  and  has  not  had  timd  to  put  on  those 
outward  adornments,  or  to  adopt  those  symmetrioal  arrangements,  which  a 
wholly  modem  building  might  present.     This  veiy  circumstance,  however, 


I 


w^ 


Jl 


20 


GLASS   AND   ITS  MANTIFACTURE. 


Ml 


gives  it  a  peculiar  interest;  for  the  bwlding  embodies  within  itself  an 
ep'tomp  of  the  history  of  the  manufacture— rapid  growth,  wide  extension, 
intense  activity,  gradual  adaptation ;  these  distmguish  both  the  building  and 
the  manufacture.  Messrs.  Chance  originally  confined  their  attention  to  one 
or  two  kinds  of  glass,  but  they  have  now  a  thousand  peraons  employed  m 
making  crown,  sheet,  plate,  shade,  and  coloured  glass ;  and  during  the  pro- 
duction of  the  glass  for  the  Crystal  Palace,  the  number  of  operatives  was  far 
greater.  How  wonderful  are  the  gliss  shades  deposited  by  this  firm  at  the 
Exhibition,  and  how  remarkable  that  these  shades  ai-e  made  by  the  same  pro- 
cess as  the  glass  for  the  building  itself!  It  is  now  about  twenty  years  since 
Messrs.  Chance  intioduced  into  this  country  the  mode  of  making  sheet-glass, 
adopteu  before  that  time  by  the  French  and  Belgians;  and  the  manufacture 
has  gradually  become  an  important  one.  Anything  more  striking  than  the 
details  of  the  manufacture  can  hardly  be  met  with  in  the  whole  range  of 
industry.  The  workman  dips  his  iron  t'.be  into  the  semi-viscid  glass,  and 
taked  up  a  quantity  amounting  to  12  or  14  lbs. ;  he  rolls  the  mass  on  a 
wooden  block,  till  it  assumes  a  cylindrical  form ;  he  appUes  his  mouth  to  the 
other  end  of  the  tube,  and  blows  until  the  mass  assumes  a  hollow  ovo'.d 
form;  he  whirls  this  round  his  head,  or,  rather,  in  a  vertical  circle  10  or  12  feet 
in  diameter,  and  elongates  the  ovoid  mto  a  cylinder  with  rounded  ends;  he 
re-heats  the  glass  two  or  three  times  during  these  processes,  to  maintain  the 
proper  consistency,  and  at  length  the  remo+e  end  of  the  hollow  mass  gives 
way,  and  we  have  before  us  a  cylinder  of  glass,  attached  only  at  one  end 
to  the  tube.  In  respect  to  the  glass  for  the  Ctystd  Palace,  the  cylinders  were 
made  somewhat  more  than  4  feet  in  length.  The  cylinders  ai-e  dissevered 
from  the  tube,  and  are  cut  lengthwise  with  a  diamond ;  they  are  placed  in  a 
kiln,  where  the  heat  gradually  opens  the  fissure,  and  there  is  finally  presented 
a  flat  piece  of  glass,  which  can  be  cut  to  any  smaller  size. 

It  is  sufficiently  notable  that  the  glass  for  the  Exhibition  should  be  so 
produced ;  but  that  the  shadus  which  are  deposited  in  one  of  the  galleries 
should  also  have  been  produced  by  the  same  whirling  process,  almost  passes 
belief.  Under  the  immediate  pressure  of  the  immense  demand,  Messrs. 
Chance  invited  over  a  few  skilled  workmen  from  France  and  Belgium ;  but 
the  English  hands — urged  by  this  proximity  to  do  then-  best— have  learned 
to  equal  their  rivals ;  and  ttie  shades  here  spoken  of  are  of  English  workman- 
ship:—72  inches  by  13,  62  inches  by  26,  88  inches  by  18— such  are  the 
enormous  dimensions  of  three  of  these  shades.  The  exact  form  is  given  to 
the  shade  by  pressing  the  blown  cylinder  gently  into  a  mould  of  the  required 
shape,  while  the  glass  is  yet  soft.  Never,  surely,  is  material  more  under  the 
command  of  the  workman,  than  glass  imder  that  of  the  glass-blower. 

The  account  wldch  Mr.  Paxton  has  more  than  once  given  of  the  origin  of 
his  plan  of  the  Giystal  Palace  may  be  here  briefly  adverted  to,  so  far  as  it 
illustrates  the  availability  of  glass  as  a  building  material.  In  1828,  when  his 
attention  was  first  directed  to  this  subject,  the  forcing-houses  and  hothouses 
at  Ghatsworth  were  formed  of  coarse  thick  glass  and  heavy  woodwork,  which 
rendered  the  roofe  dark  and  ^oomy.  His  first  reform  was  to  lighten  tlie 
rafters  and  sash-bars  by  bevelling  off  their  sidesi.  A  second  improvement  was 
that  of  cutting  grooves  for  the  reception  of  the  glass,  by  which  there  is  much 
less  exposure  (than  by  the  old  method)  of  the  putiy  to  the  destructive  action 
of  heat  and  moisture.  The  use  of  iron  in  various  structures  ha>ing  by  that 
time  become  very  general,  Mr.  Paxton  proc-eeded  to  inquire  whether  iron 
aashes  and  rafters  would  be  available  for  glass  sU-uctures;  but  th«  result  of  his 


GLASS   AND   ITS   MANUFACTURE. 


21 


odies  within  itself  an 
•owth,  wide  extension, 
both  the  building  and 
their  attention  to  one 
I  peraons  employed  in 
;  and  during  the  pi-o- 
ir  of  operatives  was  far 
ted  by  this  firm  at  tlie 
nade  by  the  same  pro- 
lout  twenty  years  since 
of  making  sheet-glass, 
;  and  the  manufEicture 
nore  striking  than  the 
in  the  whole  range  of 

semi-viscid  glass,  and 
)  rolls  the  mass  on  a 
[>hes  his  mouth  to  the 
isumes  a  hollow  ovoid 
tical  circle  10  or  13  feet 
yith  rounded  ends;  he 
cesses,  to  maintain  the 

the  hollow  mass  gives 
Etched  only  at  one  end 
ace,  the  cylinders  were 
yhnders  are  dissevered 

;  they  are  placed  in  a 

ere  is  finally  presented 

ze. 

diibition  should  be  so 

in  one  of  the  galleries 

process,  almost  passes 
ense  demand,  Messrs. 
nee  and  Belgium;  but 
leu'  best — ^have  learned 
«  of  English  workman- 
B  by  18 — such  are  the 

exact  form  is  given  to 
i  mould  of  the  required 
taterial  more  under  the 
e  glass-blower. 
3  given  of  the  origin  of 
dverted  to,  so  far  as  it 
al.  In  1828,  when  his 
[-houses  and  hothouses 
heavy  woodwork,  which 
irm  was  to  listen  tlie 
icond  improvement  was 
by  which  there  is  much 

>  &e  destructive  action 
ructures  haxing  by  that 

>  inquire  whether  iron 
»s;  but  th«  result  of  hia 


inquiries  was  unsatisfactory,  for  he  found  that  such  iron  framings  were  more 
costly  than  wood,  that  the  sashes  were  liable  to  become  disjointed  by  expan- 
sion and  contraction,  that  the  glass  would  be  fi«ctured  by  such  disjointing, 
that  the  temperature  of  metal  framings  varies  more  than  tliat  of  wood,  and 
that  the  repairing  of  injmies  would  be  less  simple  and  expeditious.  The  com- 
bination of  wooden  rafters  and  frame-wuik  with  iron  sash-bars  was  then  tried, 
but  the  advantages  did  not  equal  the  disadvantages ;  and  Mr.  Paxton  has  since 
that  period  imiformly  adhered  to  the  employment  of  wood  in  immediate 
contact  with  glass.  His  next  investigation  led  him  to  the  "  ridge  and  fiurow  " 
system  of  glass-roofing.  In  most  glass  structures  employed  for  horticultural 
purposes,  the  lean-to  roof  inclines  downwards  towards  the  south,  in  order  to 
catch  the  heat  of  the  sun ;  but  a  consequence  of  this  is  (especially  if  lie  sash- 
bars  be  thick  and  clumsy)  that  the  east  and  west  or  morning  and  evening  sim 
exerta  very  little  power  within  the  structure,  while  the  midday  heat  is  received 
in  all  its  fierceness.  To  obviate  this,  Mr.  Paxton  contrived  the  ridge  and 
furrow  arrangement,  at  such  angles  as  to  increase  the  reception  of  morning 
and  evening  rays,  and  check  somewhat  the  midday  rays.  He  built  a  pine- 
hoise  in  1833,  and  a  greenhouse  in  1834,  on  this  principle;  and  in  1836  he 
constructed  a  curvilinear  hothouse,  60  feet  in  lengtli  by  26  in  width,  with  an 
elliptical  roof  on  tlie  ridge  and  furrow  principle,  tJ^e  sash-bars  being  of  wood : 
this  was,  in  fact,  the  first  germ  whence  the  indescribably  beautiful  transept 
arch  at  the  Giystal  Palace  proceeded.  When  the  great  conservatory  was  com- 
menced at  Ghatsworth  in  1837,  Mr.  Paxton  av&iled  himself  of  the  use  of  a 
machine  for  shaping  and  planing  the  sash-bai-s.  He  also  availed  himself  of 
the  sheeti-glass  which  Messrs.  Chance  had  by  tliat  time  brought  into  use ;  and 
it  was  by  his  suggestions,  and  offers  of  purchase,  that  the  firm  redoubled  their 
effoi-ts  until  sheet-glass  fovu*  feet  in  length  could  be  made :  this  enabled  Mr. 
Paxton  to  employ  grooving  instead  of  overlapping  in  glass  roofs,  a  system  to 
which  the  Ciystal  Palace  owes  no  small  portion  of  its  efficiency.  The  next 
step  was  to  make  the  ridge  and  furrow  rafters  horizontal,  instead  of  inclined, 
as  they  are  in  the  Ghatsworth  conservatory ;  and  three  buildings  were  con- 
stmcted  with  roofs  on  this  principle,  viz.  a  conservatory  in  Darley  Dale,  an 
ornamental  glass  covering  m  a  conservatory  wall  at  Ghatsworth,  and  the  new 
Victoria  Begia  house  in  the  same  princely  domain.  Tlie  last  of  these  three 
buildings  was  constructed  in  1850;  and  it  was  while  the  subject  was  thus 
fuUy  occupying  his  mind,  that  the  happy  idea  of  the  glass  palace  occurred  to 
Mr.  Paxton,  and  enabled  him  and  others  to  surmount  obstacles  which  seemed 
likely  to  overwhelm  all  parties  concerned. 

To  describe  this  wonderful  i"oof,  these  sixteen  acres  of  glass,  is  barely 
necessary ;  for  the  dfuly  and  weekly  journals  have  made  the  subject  familiar  to 
almost  every  one.  Yet  we  cannot  rightly  understand  the  relation  which  the 
glass  manufacture  bears  to  it  without  recapitulating  a  few  details. 

First,  then,  we  have  in  the  roof  a  structure  of  such  unusual  lightness  that 
the  whole  weighs  but  3J  lbs.  per  square  foot,  glass  and  wood  included.  This 
slightness  of  pressure  on  the  girders  and  cdlumns  beneath  has  been  a  point 
of  considerable  importance  and  value;  for  it  enables  the  builders  to  rely 
securely  on  a  degree  of  strength  in  those  parts  which  would  be  quite  incon- 
sistent with  ihe  pressure  of  an  ordinary  roof.  In  the  remarkable  "  ridge  and 
furrow  "  principle  of  this  roof,  the  Paxton  gutters,  as  they  are  called  (we  stay 
not  to  investigate  the  claims  of  other  parties  to  the  invention),  are  rasged 
parallel  at  distances  of  8  feet  apart ;  and  ihe  ridges  are  midway  between  the 
gutters,  both  gutters  and  ridges  running  east  and  west    The  ridges  are  so 


BMMlMlijMM 


L 


OS 


GLASS  AND   ITS  MAHOFAOTDBE. 


crooved  as  to  receive  the  glass,  and  the  furrows  are  hoUowed  to  furnwh  chan- 
nels  along  which  ram-wat«r  can  descend  to  Uie  hoUow  columns.  Ihe  sash- 
bars,  which  extend  north  and  south,  are  5i  inches  in  length ;  and  it  is  at  the 
Bides  of  these  slender  sash-bai-s  that  the  grooves  are  made  which  mainly 
support  the  "crystal"  roof.  The  glass  panes  extend  north  and  south;  but 
in  Ae  waggon  vault  of  the  transept,  owing  to  the  remarkable  conbmaUon  ot 
the  ridgeand  furrow  system  with  the  circular  curve,  the  line  of  direcUcm  is  a 
curious  Oiie ;  the  sash-bara  are  here  set  at  an  oblique  angle,  m  "  hei-rmg-bone 
fasliion,  in  order  to  assist  ttie  conduction  of  the  water,  and  to  prevent  its 
lodging  agamst  the  lower  putty  bed  of  each  pane  of  glass  over  which  it 
trickles.  Each  piece  of  glass  measures  49  mches  by  10  inches;  and,  as  aU 
are  exaoUy  of  the  same  size,  any  •  misfitting'  wai  quite  out  of  the  question. 

The  mode  of  glaaing  these  ahnost  innumerable  sashes  was  as  foUows  :--llie 
ffutters,  tho  ridges,  and  the  principal  rafters  being  fixed  in  their  places,  one  ot 
Sie  long  or  49-inch  edges  of  a  sheet  of  glass  was  inseiled  into  the  groove  of 
the  principal  rafter;  a  sash-bar,  measuring  1  mch  by  H,  and  double  grooved 
was  then  put  on  to  tho  other  long  edge  of  the  glass ;  the  sash-bar  was  next 
brought  iovm  and  secured  at  the  top  to  the  ridge,  and  at  the  bottom  to  the 
edge  of  the  gutter;  the  lower  edge  of  the  glass  bemg  bedded  upon  a  layer  ot 
putty  three-quarters  of  an  inch  broad,  a  sUght  blow  to  the  lower  end  brought 
the  upper  edge  of  the  glass  home  mto  the  groove  m  the  ridge.  The  glass 
being  then  pressed  do^vn,  tho  putty  was  made  good  n  the  grooves  extoraally. 
In  glazmg  the  wrtieal  iiaihe$,  which  form  in  part  the  waUs  of  the  building. 
Pieces  of  glass  were  employed  about  equal  in  dimension  to  those  in  the  root ; 
5ie  glass  was  slipped  down  between  the  saah-bars.  Both  in  the  roof  and  m 
the  vertical  sashes  provision  was  made  for  mendmg  or  r^plaomg  broken  panes 
by  causing  one  groove  to  be  cut  deeper  than  the  other,  so  that  the  glass  might 
be  shpped  m  fiom  one  side,  and  puttied  into  its  exact  place. 

But  the  glazing  of  the  vaulted  transept  was  the  masterpiece.  Scarcely  anythmg 
tlse  m  the  buUding  called  for  the  exercise  of  more  caution  and  mgenmty,  on  ac- 
count of  Uie  curvatures  which  the  vault  presents.    In  the  lower  pait  of  thecn-- 
cular  arcs,  where  the  direction  of  the  ridges  and  furrows  does  not  depart  far  from 
the  porpendicvdar,  ladders  and  temporary  scaflbldings  enabled  the  glaziers  to 
piwceed  with  tlieir  Icbours;  but  as  they  ascended,  ordmary  means  became  in- 
sufficient, and  a  very  ingenious  box  or  stage  was  constructed  for  their  acoom- 
modation     This  box  moved  on  wheels  m  Uie  line  of  the  gutters ;  it  was  sus- 
pended fiom  the  lead  flat  which  runs  along  the  summit  of  the  transept,  and 
was  lowered  to  any  pait  of  the  curve  at  which  the  glaners  were  at  work,  being 
brought  sufficiently  close  to  the  curved  ribs  and  gutters  by  ro^  and  tackle 
The  riazing  of  the  flat  roof  of  the  nave  was  Uttle  (if  at  all)  lass  difficult  than  that 
of  the  tmnsept.  owing  to  the  absence  of  any  supporting  terrace  or  passage  on 
which  the  glaaers  might  stand.    The  ever-ingenious  contractors  devised  a  ma- 
chine  («rf  which  seventy-four  were  constructed),  each  capable  of  accommodaUng 
two  glaziers.    The  machine  consisted  of  a  frame  of  deal  about  eight  feet  square, 
with  an  opening  in  its  centre  sufficiently  large  to  admit  supphes  of  dass,  sash-bars, 
putty,  Ac ,  to  be  hoisted  through  it  from  Ae  ground  beneath ;  Ae  stage  rested 
on  four  small  wheels,  which  travelled  on  the  Paxtm  gutters  (the  width  of  tiie 
laaohme  being  made  exactiy  equal  to  the  space  from  glitter  to  gutter);  and  the 
machine  then  spanned  over  one  ridge  and  two  slopmg  sides,  bemg  a  litUe 
hiKher  then  the  ridge.    The  workmen  were  protected  m  bad  weather  (of  which 
thev  had  a  fuU  wintry  share)  by  a  canvas  awning.    The  men  sat  at  one  end  of 
their  stage,  and  pushed  it  along  about  a  foot  at  a  time  as  their  hibours  pro- 


ollowed  to  furnish  chan* 
jw  columns.  The  sash- 
length;  and  it  is  at  the 
ire  made  which  mtunly 
1  north  and  south;  but 
narkable  oombination  of 
bhe  line  of  direction  is  a 
mgle,  in  "  hening-bone" 
ater,  and  to  prevent  its 

of  glass  over  which  it 
y  10  inches ;  and,  as  all 
e  out  of  the  question, 
les  was  as  follows : — The 
»d  in  their  places,  one  of 
eiled  into  the  groove  of 

H,  and  double  grooved, 
I ;  the  sash-bar  was  next 
md  at  the  bottom  to  tlie 
5  bedded  upon  a  layer  of 
bo  the  lower  end  brought 
u  the  ridge.  The  glass 
a  the  grooves  externally, 
he  walls  of  the  building, 
ion  to  those  in  the  roof; 

Both  in  the  roof  and  in 
r  replacing  broken  panes, 
r,  so  that  the  glass  might 
t  place. 

rpieoe.  Scarcely  anything 
ition  and  ingenuity,  on  ac- 

the  lower  part  of  the  cir- 
ra  does  not  depart  far  from 
B  enabled  the  glaziers  to 
rdinaiy  means  became  in- 
nstructed  for  their  acoom- 
f  the  gutters ;  it  was  sus- 
omit  of  the  transept,  and 
aziers  were  at  work,  being 
tters  by  ropes  and  tackle. 
i  all)  less  difficult  than  that 
ting  terrace  or  passage  on 

contractors  devised  a  ma- 
capable  of  accommodatiiig 
eal  about  eight  feet  square, 
supplies  of  glass,  gash-bars, 
beneath ;  the  stage  rested 
1  gutters  (the  width  of  the 

gutter  to  gutter);  wad  the 
oping  sides,  being  a  little 
d  in  bad  weather  (of  which 
rhe  men  sat  at  one  end  of 
i  time  as  their  labours  pro- 


GLASS   AND   ITS   MANUFACTURE. 


as 


[ 

I  ceeded ;  they  inserted  and  puttied  the  pones  of  glass  one  by  one,  and  thus 
travelled  widi  their  machine  from  the  transept  towards  tlie  east  or  west  end. 
So  dexterous  did  the  glaziers  become  in  the  use  of  these  machines,  that  eighty 
of  them  put  in  upwards  of  18,000  panes  of  glass,  equal  to  more  than  62,000 
square  feet,  in  one  week.  The  greatest  quantity  put  hi  by  any  one  man  in  ono 
day  was  108.  For  repairing  tlio  roof,  a  machine  has  been  contrived,  the  wheels 
of  which  rest  upon  the  ridges  instead  of  upon  the  gutters. 

We  feel  strongly  tempted  to  add  to  the  above  details  a  description  of  the 
very  curious  apparatus— first  employed  by  Mr.  Paxton,  and  then  improved  by 
Mr.  Birch — for  making  and  grooving  tlie  sash-bai-s ;  but  these  relate  to  working 
in  wood  (on  instructive  subject  in  itself)  rather  than  in  gloss,  and  scaicely  fall 
in  with  tlie  object  of  the  present  paper.  In  respect  to  the  humble  material, 
ptUty,  employed  in  tins  unexampled  specimen  of  glazing,  its  chief  point  of 
interest  is  the  largeness  of  the  quantity  called  for :  it  waj»  consumed  not  simply 
by  pounds  or  by  hundredweights,  but  by  tons.  If  some  of  this  putty  has  proved 
treacherous,  and  has  admitted  a  sprinkling  of  rain  into  the  interior  of  the 
building,  we  may  well  excuse  it,  and  wait  patiently  until  the  industrious 
glaziers  have  mmle  all  weatlier-proof.  Let  us  put  to  ourselves  this  question, 
and  think  well  before  we  answer  it — If  brick,  stone,  and  mortal"  had  been  the 
materials  for  the  Exhibition  building,  instead  of  iron,  glass,  and  putty,  would 
the  yeai'  1851  have  witnessed  the  Great  Exhibition  at  all? 

Many  have  been  the  doubts  and  queries  respecting  tlie  thickness  of  the 
gloss  employed  in  the  Crystal  Palace.  At  one  of  the  meetings  of  the  Society 
of  Arts,  questions  were  put  to  Mr.  Fox  on  this  subject,  to  which  he  replied 
nearly  as  follows : — He  "  Uiought  the  glass  quite  strong  enough,  or  he  would 
have  made  it  stronger ;  because  he  had  to  keep  the  gloss  ui  repair  for  twelve 
months.  But  tliere  was  one  important  point  connected  with  ^ass  which  few 
considered  when  they  put  questions  respecting  it :  they  only  asked  what  thick- 
ness it  was.  Now  its  thickness  was  very  important,  but  the  width  was  equally 
80.  If  they  got  a  piece  of  glass  of  a  certain  thickness  and  width,  and  found 
that  hailstones  broke  it,  let  them  reduce  tlie  width,  and  they  would  &id  uiat  it 
would  bear  the  fbroo  of  the  hailstones.  Now  the  pones  used  were  10  ounces 
to  the  foot,  49  inches  long  by  10  m  width.  Dming  the  last  twelve  yeai's  they 
(Messrs.  Fox  and  Henderson)  hod  used  upwuxls  of  thirty  acres  of  glass,  spread 
all  over  the  kingdom,  a  great  deal  of  it  being  used  at  the  royal  dockyturds  and 
at  railway  stations.  It  had  almost  all  been  I6-oimce  glass,  and  some  was  as 
low  08  l3-ounce;  and  although  it  was  spread  over  twelve  years,  they  had  had 
no  difficulty  witli  it  whatever.  But  if,  instead  of  10-inch  width,  they  had 
made  it  16,  they  would  have  had  it  broken  in  every  hailstorm."  This 
evidently  goes  to  the  root  of  the  matter;  tl.e  thickness  may  be  safely 
diminished  in  about  the  same  ratio  as  the  vridth ;  and  experience  alone  con 
show  what  is  the  requisite  thickness  for  a  given  width.  The  contractors,  from 
Uie  terms  of  their  ^reement,  hod  obundont  reasons  for  wishing  to  make  the 
gloss  strong  enough  to  resist  hailstorms. 

The  Crystal  Palace  system  of  glazing  (if  we  may  so  designate  it),  in  which 
the  roof  imd  the  skyhght  are  one,  seems  likely  to  meet  with  many  valuoble 
developments.  A  former  in  the  West  of  England  hos  recently  roofed  with 
gloss  a  bam  more  than  100  feet  long  by  about  30  in  width.  The  expense  hos 
been  far  less  than  that  of  a  slate  roof,  while  the  anticipated  odvontages  ore 
many,  and  have  been  thus  commented  on : — "  The  boms  may  be  applied  to 
drying  com  during  a  cotching  horvest.  The  com  con  be  placed  in  the  bom 
immediotely  upon  being  reaped,  where  it  will  have  the  benefit  of  the  sun  when 


i 


il<i»i|-MiiiS«irBii»r,  i 


iJw.t-. 


M 


GLASS   AND    ITS   MANUFACTURE. 


it  shines  be  protected  from  the  showers,  and  also  dried  by  artificial  heat  if 
renS'Mid  Sen  stacked  in  ricks  under  a  covered  stack  yard^  Ih.s  ^v.U 
Stkrild  to  be  immediately  plougl^d  up  and  -o^l^^^^X^J- 
Le.  which  will  prepare  the  land  for  another  cereal  crop  the  ^if^^y^n 
BA  fhftt  he  (the  fai-mer)  anticipates  three  crops  xn  two  years.  It  Uie  iveatern 
^-Tis  here  coS  and  if  the  farmers  anticipations  are  i-eally  sound,  he w.11 
SSha^r  ca^  to  bless  tl»e  Cystal  Palace,  and  those  who  have  been 
inatnimental  in  rendering  the  construction  of  it  possible.  ,  .  •   ■„    *    , 

S?re  conSnrof  the^Hyde  Park  structure,  many  of  tiiose  which  dlustmte 
ihfl  il.S  mSacture  have  already  been  adverted  to ;  and  die  mdustoous  visitant 
S  thaTrpTrSTcollection  wiU  have  no  difficulty  in  ca^lmg  others  to  mmd^ 

S  daS  tTuseM  purposes.  ^France.  Belgium.  Germany,  Austna^aU  send 

mmrBmmM 

cLlSts-l^coTo,^,  Tn  form,  in  durability,  -  ^^-P"-"^, ^J^^ ^S' 
S  to  give  honour  where  honour  is  due :  it  is  not  only  the  most  just  pohcy 
but  in  the  end  it  will  also  be  the  most  proiitable. 


ried  by  artificial  heat  if 
stack  yard.  This  Avill 
i  sowed  with  turnips  or 
crop  the  following  year ; 
i  years."  If  the  Weatern 
are  really  sound,  he  will 
i  those  who  have  been 
ble. 

of  those  which  illustrate 
id  the  industrious  visitant 
n  calling  others  to  mind, 
et  with  Messrs.  Hartley's 
de  of  an  inch  and  a  half 
so  large  and  thick  as  to 
filled  witli  molten  glass ; 
exhibiting  the  glass  in 
series  for  sheet  glass,  in 
a  ruby  cylinder  of  glass, 
and  various  applications 
many,  Austria — all  send 
ghly  curious.     A  French 
id  an  imitation  of  flowers 
er  materials  would  have 
idant  specimens  of  fitting 
bstance. 

sturers  have  had  no  Excise 
1  impulse  by  tlie  removal 
cmg  course.  France  once 
ce  and  Belgium  taught  us 
)ur  teachers.  If,  iii  flint- 
seful  forms  and  deUcacy  of 
to  bring  the  EngUsh  work- 
hemia,  or  Italy,  or  France, 
nd  with  our  glass-makers, 
•ity  exists,  and  how  it  may 
id  a  foreign  neighbour  who 
heapness — let  us  not  hesi- 
only  the  most  just  policy 


IRON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURE. 


If  we  glance  at  the  aspects  which  tlie  iron  manufacture  has  presented  between 
1801  and  1851 — ^tlie  first  half  of  an  eventful  century — we  find  that  changes 
and  advancements  have  been  made  in  tlie  processes  and  the  application,  rather 
than  in  the  materials.  In  trutli  it  could  hardly  have  been  otherwise ;  for  iron, 
absolutely  pure  iron,  is  one  of  the  small  number  of  simple  chemical  substances, 
not  compoiuuled  of  any  other  two.  In  the  forms,  however,  which  the  metal 
assimies  when  manufactured,  there  are  always  small  quantities  of  carbon  and 
otlier  substances  combined  witli  it;  and  as  these  substances  impart  valuable 
qualities  to  the  u'on,  busy  researches  have  been  made  to  detennine  the  exact 
relation  between  the  substances  and  the  qualities.  So  far,  tlien,  materials 
have  undergone  modification ;  but  it  remains  true,  as  noticed  above,  that  pro- 
cesses rather  tlian  materials  maik  the  course  of  recent  improvements. 

The  glass  manufactme,  as  was  expl^ned  in  the  former  article,  had  an  up- 
hill struggle  against  the  legislature  imtil  within  the  last  half  dozen  years ;  and 
all  attempts  at  improvement  were  nearly  paralyzed  untU  that  struggle  reached  a 
successful  issue.  This  has  not  been  the  case  in  respect  to  iron.  The  legisla- 
tion concerning  this  impoitant  metal  has — happily  for  all  parties — been  small 
in  amount.  The  miner  may  dig  and  the  roaster  may  calcine,  the  smelter  may 
reduce  and  the  foimder  may  cast,  the  blacksniitli  may  forge  and  the  whitesmith 
may  file — without  obstruction,  or  at  any  rate  without  the  unwelcome  visitation 
of  the  exciseman.  The  duties  on  tlie  import  of  foreign  uon  or  iron  manufac- 
tures, or  on  the  export  of  those  of  British  produce,  have  not  dining  the  present 
century  been  very  heavy ;  and  altliough  tlio  spread  of  Ubei-al  commercitd  views 
has  been  felt  in  this  as  in  other  departments  of  industiy,  yet  it  is  not  in  such 
direction  that  we  ai-e  to  seek  for  the  main  cause  of  the  i-ecent  great  advance- 
ment in  the  manufacture  now  mider  notice. 

It  is  not  intended  (as  has  been  already  annoimced)  that  this  series  of  papers 
should  contaui  systematic  descriptions  of  the  manufacturing  processes,  or  of 
the  local  centres,  of  industry ;  for  such  details  we  refer  to  the  two  Cyclopsedias, 
and  shall  assume  that  the  reader  has  a  general  every-day  acquaintance  with 
them.  Almost  every  one,  for  instance,  who  is  competent  to  imderstaud  even 
a  common  newspaper,  is  aware  that  the  south  of  Wales,  the  centre  of  England, 
and  the  south-centre  (if  we  may  so  designate  it)  of  Scotland,  are  the  chief  seats 
of  the  British  iron  manufacture.  But  when  we  go  beyond  these  primary  facts 
we  find  abundance  of  "  Curiosities,"  both  in  the  localization  and  the  pi-ocesses 
of  this  all-irnportaQt  branch  of  industry. 

Local  Pecouabities. 

Stituige,  indeed,  are  the  changes  which  have  occurred  in  the  chief  seats  of 
this  manufacture.  Who,  among  the  thousands  who  know  Sussex  as  an  agiicul- 
tural  and  pleasure-touiing  county,  have  detected  or  could  detect  any  indication 
that  it  was  once  an  iron-making  district?  Yet  such  was  once  its  chai-acter. 
The  sand  which  Sussex  presents  m  such  laigo  quantity  contains  a  rich  per- 

c 


iMimit^ 


mm 


A. 


3  inON   AND   ITS   MASUFACTCnE. 

cenlaco  of  iron ;  on.!  this  iron  used  fomorly  to  bo  extmcto.l  by  «T)ioUing  on 
Jhc  spot     If  the  reader  should  ask  wheUicr  tlic  sand  is  less  fcninignmus  than 
fo™?Y  or  (if  not)  ^vhy  Uie  manufacture  hn.s  fallen  off.  tl,e  ans^ver  is  a  sin  .le 
uSficant  one'  uiil  the  last  centuiy  all  iron  >vaH  sn.elted  m  tins  county 
'  inSr^'vith  charcoal,  and  this  ch,ucoal  w.w  unifomily  niade  from  the  trees 
thi^hlrew  n  orneai-Uie  iron  district;  but  this  practice  has  b'-^"  "^fly  «»■ 
neSdeTby  the  use  of  coal  and  coke.    A  timber  t^iee.  the  growUi  "f  ^  ce^ntury, 
E  be  consumed  in  a  few  Aveeks  or  even  days  in  smelting  opemtions    the 
SumpruT  much  more  rapid  than  die  growth ;  and  it  tl^"!*  l^«*Pf  "^^^J^J 
?h«3^c  of  charcoal  for  tlio  BmeWng  of  iron  was  one  cluof  cRiwe  oi  the 
S^rdeetoictionTour  ancient  woods     Evelyn  maao  a  kind  of  sorrowmg 
Stot^St  Nat^.  for  having  "  thought  tit  to  produce  th.«  wasting  «re 
Ze  XnSy  in  wood-lands  th£i  any  oUier  ground,  and  to  emich  ou 
forests  to  their  own  destruction;"  and  he  utters  a  •' deep  execmtion  ot  ir 
Ss  and  iron  masters  also."    If  he  could  have  lived  to  see  die  day  when 
Sut;x  by  iScomuTg  t"o  diinly  supplied  widt  timber  iVie  .  ^uld  cease  to  be 
torSSted  S^'uon  mills  aid  iron  masters,"  he  might  have  softened     is 
Sema     Smoky  and  dirty  as  our  iron  distiicts  may  be,  tney  do  not  m  die 
rSrTd^y  involve  Souttig  down  of  trees  for  charcoal  fuel ;  and  we  are  so 
faT  better  offTan  Evelyn  in  his  Sylvan  days.     Sussex  has  no  coal  and  Ae 
tn  rn^Xure  left  diVcounty  when  smelting  widx  coa^  or  coke  began  to 
wne^ode  smelting  with  charcoal.      Sussex  has  uon  without  cool,  DurhMn 
hTc^l  (n^'y)  wUhoutiron;  and  die  iron-smelting  «Pfra^'«"%^VtZ£ 
Si  eZr  cmmS—Tliis  gives  us  a  clue  to  die  circumstances  which  detenmnc 

^iteSof°'i^Ve?tposited  in  die  Great  Exhibition  iHnsUadng  d. 
eeneml  iron-making  resources^  die  United  Kingdom,  together  w.di    he  sta. 
Sc^inftJmation  concerning  diem  given  in  dio  Official  Illustmted  Catalo^o 
teMl  TZreut    From  dxenco  we  learn  dmt  tlie  gro.s  annual  P^-oJje  of  ^ 
^w  reaches  die  enormous  quantity  of  two  and  a  quwler  nuUions  of  tons .  o 
Sonoudi  Wales  yields  liout  700.000.  Scodand  000,000,  Stalfordslur^^^^^^^^ 
ite  neighbourhood  600,000.  whUe  die  remauider  is  made  up  of  small  contaibu- 
tfons  fSm  S?us  comties.    It  is  not  simply  die  possession  o   i^<^^^ovo 
Sch  Kives  us  so  gi-eat  advantages  in  diis  mighty  departinent  of  >»dustiy 
but  die  coal  is  so  abundant  and  in  such  near  proximity  to  die  uron,  and  die 
£ne^d  SUtoS  necessary  to  facilitate  die  smelting  ai^  al^  bo  .^fyj^ 
nlTed  dmt  nearly  all  die  irm  can  be  smelted  in  die  disUict  where  it  is  luised, 
ffdiefxpi^e  of  bulky  carnage  is  diereby  notably  l^^^^^tave^.Sf  ,"^^"  X 
Ti  die  coS  districts  should  ever  be  exhausted,  however,  we  have  «till  a  supp^ 
in  numeious  counties  belonging  to  odier  geological  fomations.  J^e  prod^ 
erf  die  British  iron  manufactme  in  1760  was  only  80,000  tons;  m  1800  it  had 
Tnc^ied  tolsO^OO ;  in  1835.  600.000.     In  1826  ibe  duties  X\TlS^^ 
Son  of  forei,^  iim  were  eidier  removed  or  rendered  nommal ;  die  British 
iron  w^  left  to  work  ita  own  wav,  according  to  it»  own  peouhar  properties 
ScforS  tr  became  freely  obtamable  for  such  pvu^oses  a.s  it  is  most 
fitted  for   Sid  mder  die  influenci  of  diese  unshackled  movements  the  manufac- 
^Z^Z'Zn  in  die  astonishing  way  noted  abova    In  tb«  fi%J^^™- 
to  1800  it  increased  sbc-fold ;  in  die  fifty  years  subsequent  to  l^^J,**"^™ 
twelve-fold  upon  die  quantity  for  diat  year,  or  seventy-two  fold  "Ponjhe 
ouantHv  for  1750 !    It  is  in  trudi  among  the  most  astonishing  instances  of 
?ZsKro^e-  -bich  our  countiy  e&iibits.     Taking  die  Mmild-d  I-^ 
Works,  at  Oalder,  as  ji  type  of  progress  generally,  we  fand  diat  m  1805  forging 


Imctod  1>y  Rmolting  on 
s  leas  fi'misi"o"M  tl^fi" 
tlie  answer  is  a  simple 
smelted  in  this  country 
nly  made  from  the  trees 
ne  has  been  nearly  su- 
he  growtli  of  a  century, 
nclting  operations ;  the 
d  it  thus  happened  that 
one  chief  cause  of  Uio 
lo  a  kind  of  sorrowing 
in)duce  tliis  wasting  ore 
nd,  and  to  emich  our 
deep  execration  of  iron 
)d  to  see  tlie  day  when 
ftiel,  would  cease  to  he 
[jjght  have  softened  his 
r  be,  tiiey  do  not  in  the 
3oal  fuel ;  and  we  are  so 
sex  has  no  coal,  and  the 
coal  or  coke  began  to 
I  without  coal,  Diu-ham 
perations  are  not  located 
stances  which  determine 

:hibition,  illustrating  tlie 
1,  together  witlx  tlie  star 
ial  Illustrated  Catalogue, 
is  annual  produce  of  iron 
rter  millions  of  tons ;  of 
)0,000,  Staffovdsliire  and 
ide  up  of  small  contribu- 
ossesaion  of  the  ii-on  ore 
department  of  industiy ; 
mity  to  tjie  kon,  and  tlic 
r  ai-e  also  so  amply  sup- 
isU-ict  whei-e  it  is  raised. 
Lessened.  If  tlie  iron  ore 
er,  we  have  still  a  supply 
>rmat»on8.    The  produce 

000  tons ;  in  1800  it  bad 
le  duties  upon  the  intro- 
red  nominal ;  the  British 
own  peouhar  properties, 

1  purposes  as  it  is  most 
I  movements  the  manufac- 
[n  the  fifty  years  previous 
luent  to  1800  it  increaped 
venty-two  fold  upon  the 
i  astonishuig  instances  of 
aknig  the  Monkland  Iron 
I  find  tluvt  in  1805  forging 


IBOM   AKD   ITS  MANUrACTORE.  g 

and  rolling  only  were  carried  on  by  tlie  aid  of  water  power;  that,  in  1836, 
taking  advantage  of  the  excellent  iron  ore  in  the  neighl)oiuhoo«l.  smelting  was 
commenced;  and  that  in  1851  the  works  comprise  nine  blast  furnaces,  at 
which  00,000  tons  of  pig-u-on  and  40,000  tons  of  maUeable  iron  are  produced 
annually,  employing  2500  miners  and  workmen,  and  nfionhng  school  accom- 
modation for  1400  children.  The  Dowlws  Works  at  Meilhyi-  Tydvil  present 
still  more  stiiking  proofs  of  recent  advancement 

If  we  look  at  the  distiibution  of  the  mining  and  smolting  operations,  as 
given  in  the  authoritAtive  work  above  quoted,  we  find  tlie  following  facts  :— 
Tha,t  portion  of  the  South  Wales  district  which  has  Merthyr  'rydvil  as  its 
mining  metropolis  has  13  principal  iron  works,  with  70  furnaces;  the  Ponty- 
pool  district  lias  7  works,  with  33  furnaces;  the  Tredegar  district  has  10  works, 
*"<»^^.'u™aces;  the  Neath  district  has  6  works,  and  30  furnaces;  the  Pen- 
tyrch  district  6  works,  and  11  furnaces ;  and  the  Rhnabon  district  3  works,  and 
5  furnaces.  There  ai-e  a  few  smaller  works  not  here  included,  and  some  of  tho 
furnaces  we  out  of  blast ;  but  without  going  into  particulars  in  tliese  matters. 
It  may  suffice  to  state  tliat  in  1848  the  number  of  iron  furnaces  in  Great  Britain 
was  estiiaatcd  as  follows: 

England a86 

Wales 207 

Scotland 180 

023 
The  English  furnaces  are  smaller  than  those  of  Wales  or  Scotland,  and  do  not 
>ield  so  much  iron  per  week. 

From  the  specimens  at  tlie  Exhibition  we  may  see  how  numerous  are  the 
veins  or  beds  of  iron  ore,  how  varied  are  their  appearance,  and  what  strange 
local  names  are  given  to  tliein.  We  find  the  Sfwp  vein,  the  black  pirn,  imd  the 
Ihree-quarter  hnlh;  the  hliick  band,  tlie  spotted  pin,  and  the  little  pin;  the  big  blue, 
the  htth  b^,  and  the  lumpy;  the  jenkin  pirn  and  tlie  penny  pieces,  tlie  bluejlats 
and  the  Bristol  diamonds,  tlie  dog  tooth  and  the  bacon  fiitch,  and  numerous 
othOTS,  the  etymology  of  which  it  would  be  no  ea.sy  matter  to  determine. 
l!iach  of  the  iron  districts  has  some  peculiarity  or  other,  which  gives  it  com- 
mercial importance.  The  Ystalyfera  iron  is  associated  with  anthracite,  which 
aflects  the  smelting  process.  The  iron  ore  of  the  Pentyi-ch  district  is  princi- 
pally hseraatite;  but  as  Wales  produces  every  kind  of  coal,  from  tlie  bituminous 
to  anthracite,  it  can  readily  smelt  any  kind  of  ore.  Plentiful  as  the  ore  is  in 
South  Wales,  the  coal  is  still  more  abundant ;  and  that  countrj'  will  probably 
long  continue  to  be  (what  it  has  been  for  the  last  few  years)  the  gi-oatest  iron- 
mnnufaoturing  district  in  the  worid.  In  the  North  Wales  district  both  Ibe 
iron  and  tlie  coal  seams  are  thin,  but  good.  The  Shropshire  iron  is  good,  but 
small  m  quantity.  In  Staffordshire,  where  coal  was  first  used  in  the  smelting 
of  iron  m  1019,  the  iron  made  is  better  in  quality  than  tliat  of  Wales,  and 
equal  in  quantity  to  the  Scotch.  North  Staffordshire  produces  a  much  larger 
quantity  of  good  iron  ore  than  can  be  smelted  ^vith  the  coal  of  the  same  dis- 
tnct,  and  considerable  supplies  are  furnished  to  otlier  districts.  The  Yorkshire 
iron,  from  Bowling  and  Low  Moor,  is  especially  celebrated  for  its  toughness, 
rhe  iron  ores  of  the  Lake  district  are  very  abundant,  and  the  finest  in  the 
kingdom ;  they  are  eagerly  purchased  by  smelters  elsewhere.  Tlie  Forest  of 
Dean  iron  ore  is  especially  fitted  for  the  making  of  tin  (or  rather  tinned  iron) 
plates,  and  is  sent  into  Wales  in  large  quantities  for  this  purpose.  There  is  a 
small  quantity  of  ore  among  the  primitive  rocks  of  Devon  and  Cornwall,  better 

0  a 


I 


i 


A  IIION   AND   ITS   MANUFACTURfi. 

bestow  something  more  than  a  mere  passmg  glance  on  them. 

Modern  AoENi'8--rHE  Hot  Blast,  the  Steam  Hammer,  etc. 

Tt  is  mifortmiately  by  no  means  common  for  an  inventor  to  li>^  Ui  see  his 
coJn^"  rSb/his  inventions  and  ^mself^ec^ted  as  ^-  "--^or. 

"-i^^X^  rte^u^  ^Jot^o^a  W:§£z 

IZfLiLVhichpKHluccd  about  36,000  toM  of  pigiron  «g»m.t  660,000 

Slr^ncv  hasbeen  more  influential  than  any  other  m  the  matter.    Mr.  M^  J« 
agency  Has  Ofen  moi  ^         present  in  a  remarkable  hght 

ifTmest^S     In  1831.  when  the  hot  blast  was  coming  pretty  extei^tve^y 
Tnto  Tse  £0  quantities  wa-e  iJ  tons  of  coke,  8  tons  of  calcmed  ore,  and  J  ton 


.aiT'ii  iviiiii'iiiiii  ifiiiriiTfr-" 


MMMlBIWHtMlMriMiMIMMM 


lere  are  difficulties  in 
'  kind  of  iix>n  «ro,  liko 
iet  most  suited  lor  it 

ies  of  iron  depend,  not 
ut  also  on  the  ext«nial 
.  writer  in  one  of  tl»e 
mself  and  otbera  that 
Old  London  Bridge." 
1  down  to  make  room 
lie  piles  were  shod  was 
itjon  of  the  moist  clay, 
uid  a  malleability  which 
jr  tons  of  it  were  bought 

xhibition,  in  connection 
r  Vale  district,  beneatli 
atity.     The  Ebbw  is  a 
id  Glamorgan  counties ; 
in  a  large  scale.     The 
laracter  of  tlio  counUy, 
s;  and,  being  made  to 
)rks  beneatli,  the  shafts, 
lanying  this,  a  model  of 
irks.  These  two  models, 
ron-ore  deposited  in  the 
;tion  to  those  who  can 
n  tliem. 

lm  Hammek,  etc. 

ventor  to  live  to  see  his 
•eciated  as  Uie  uiventor; 
In  1827,  the  year  pi-e- 
tland  had  only  eighteen 
pig-iron  against  660,000 
een  the  progress  in  the 
30tland,  ahnost  inconceiv- 

market  240,000  tons  of 
oust  not  be  supposed  to 
iie  substitution  of  the  hot 
>arly  vmderatood  that  this 
the  matter.  Mr.  Mushet 
nt  in  a  remarkable  light 

a  century,  consequent  on 
Iduced  are  of  the  greater 
hment,  and  thereby  afibrd 
},  just  before  the  introduc- 
3sary  for  tlie  production  of 
of  calcined  ore,  and  J  ton 
coming  pretty  extensively 
of  calcined  ore,  and  ^  ton 


mmmmmmm 


IRON  AND   ITS   MANUFACTURE.  ft 

of  limestone :  tlic  air  of  the  blast  being  heaUul  U)  a  temperature  of  400'  or 
even  600"  Fahr.  In  1839,  when  tlie  moUiod  had  become  nioro  fully  esta- 
blished, and  when  tlie  heat  of  blast  was  raised  to  the  temperature  of  melting 
load,  tlie  quantities  were  if  tons  of  coal,  IJ  tons  of  calcined  ore,  and  i  ton 
of  limestone.  It  is  thus  seen  how  gieally  tlie  consumption  of  coal  is  les- 
sened by  the  use  of  Uie  hot  blast.  What  is  the  philosophy,  the  scientific 
rationale,  of  the  hot  blast,  is  still  a  subject  of  discussion  and  inquiry ;  wo  may 
give  a  homely  illusti-ation  bv  supposing  a  common  bellows  to  be  supplied  with 
hot  air  instead  of  cold,  and  Uie  fire  excited  to  a  much  higher  degree  of  heat 
than  if  cold  air  hod  been  empk.yed;  but  if  wo  furtiier  suppose  Uiat  the  coal 
in  the  fire,  and  the  coal  which  heated  Uie  air,  ai-e  together  less  in  quantity 
than  that  wliich  would  produce  Uie  same  eflect  on  Uie  old  meUiod  of  bellows- 
blowing,  wo  shall  have  an  idea  of  Uie  important  (juestion  which  is  engaging 
Uio  attention  of  mauufacturei-s.  o  o    o 

It  would  give  an  erroneous  view  of  Uie  subject,  however,  to  attiibute  to  Uio 
hot  blast  the  inti-odu.  (i.,ii  of  vast  extensions,  wiUiout  noticing  oUier  matters 

which  facUitatcd  those  e.\ten8ion8  hi  oUier  ways.  A  few  such  must  be  hero 
noticed. 

It  was  towaids  Uie  close  of  the  last  centuiy  Uiat  Uio  capital  improvement 
was  introduced  of  bringing  malleable  iron  into  Uie  fomis  of  burs  and  rods 
by  passing  it  between  grooved  rollers  instead  of  simply  hammeiing  it  on  tho 
luiyil;  but  it  is  m  Uie  present  century  that  the  invention  has  worked  out  its 
sti-ikmg  results.  The  inventor,  however— like  too  many  oUier  inventoi-s— 
lacked  a  sufficient  retmn  for  his  mgenuity :  he  spent  his  fortune  in  tho  enter- 
prise, and  died  poor.  Mr.  Cort  inti-oduced  and  patented  Uiis  method  in 
1784;  and  bis  son  petitioned  Pariiament  in  1812  to  make  some  return  for  Uie 
vast  national  benefit  which  had  by  Uiat  time  accrued  from  Uie  invention  ;  but 
it  does  not  appear  Uiat  any  fruits  resulted  from  the  application. 

AnoUier  improvement— and  one  Uiat  certainly  must  take  rank  among  Uie 
Curiosities  of  Uie  Iron  Manufactm-c— was  Uie  inti-oduction  of  iron-shtting  mills 
into  tins  counti-y.  Until  Uie  mvention  (just  noticed)  of  roUers  for  making 
bai-s  and  rods,  all  bars  above  Uiree-quartei-s  of  an  inch  squaie  were  made  by 
the  tedious  process  of  hammering  at  Uio  anvil ;  while  sizes  below  Uiat  hmit 
were  produced  by  sUtting,  which  supei-seded  a  much  less  efficient  process. 
Coleridge,  in  his  '  Letters,  Conversations,  and  Recollections,'  gives  the  foUow- 
ing  narrative:—"  The  most  e-xti-aordmaiy  and  best  attested  mstance  of  enUiu- 
siasm  existing  in  conjunction  wiUi  perseverance,  is  related  of  Uie  founder  of 
the  Foley  family.  This  man,  who  was  a  fiudler,  living  near  Stourbridge,  was 
often  witness  ol  Uie  immense  labour  and  loss  of  time  caused  by  dividmg  the 
rods  of  iron  necessary  in  Uie  process  of  making  nails.  The  discovery  of  Uie 
process  caUed  splitting,  in  works  called  splitting  mills,  was  first  made  m 
Sweden  ;  and  the  consequences  of  this  advance  in  art  were  most  disastrous  to 
Uie  manufacturers  of  iron  about  Stourbridge.  Foley,  Uie  fiddler,  was  shoitly 
missed  from  his  accustomed  round,  and  was  not  again  seen  for  many  years. 
He  had  mentally  resolved  to  ascertaui  by  what  means  Uie  process  of  splitting 
of  bars  of  iron  was  accomplished ;  and  without  communicating  his  mtention 
to  a  single  human  bemg,  he  proceeded  to  Hull,  and  Uience,  wiUiout  funds, 

J  1.^.  ^,  passage  to  Uie  Swedish  uon  port.  Arrived  in  Sweden,  he  begged 
and  fiddled  his  way  to  Uie  iron  foundries,  where,  after  a  long  time,  he  became 
a  universal  favomite  wiUi  Uie  workmen ;  and,  fiom  Uie  apparent  entire  ab- 
sence of  mtelhgence,  or  anyUiuig  like  ultmiate  object,  he  was  received  into 
Uie  works,  to  every  port  of  which  he  had  access.     Ho  took  Uie  advantage  Uius 


t 


r 


I  i 

*  I 


Hi 


0  mow  Am  ITS  manotacttbe. 

off^«d.  «n.l  having  «tor«l  hU  m«n.oTy  with  «^-"f """  ""  i^'jil^^.f  r> 

r 'TaL  l!^iU  n,««lU  to  Mr.  KniKht  and  .uiothor  !>«-"  "^.'^^"-^^^^^^^^^^^ 
hn«.l  'with  whom  ho  was  aHHOciatca.  and  by  whoiu  Uiv  n.-i^enMirj  '>""""'"" 
tl''or«?J tr;  ^aohinory  provided.  When  at  h.gth  -7^^^-^.  ^  /- 
pared,  it  was  louud  U>at  tiie  niachnieiy  would  not  act;  at  «» '"^^  ^*  "'J  y"; 
M«wor  tho  nolo  .nd  of  its  erection-it  would  not  split  the  bar  of  iron.  *o  "y 
SildtJi  n  and  it  was  concluded  that  nhaino  and  ""rtiflcation  at  h*- 
ftZTha^  driven  him  away  for  evor.  Not  so  -.  again,  though  "o^n^^^^^  ™°^ 
s3lv  he  found  his  way  to  the  Swedish  iiK)n  works,  where  »'«  ^"»  ""'"J.'^f 
n?^S^  ov'ftdlv^id  to  mio  more  of  tlieir  fiddler,  he  was  lodged  m  the  spht- 
ZS  itself  Here  wis  the  very  end  «.d  aim  of  his  life  attemed  bevond 
S^irhopc.  ilo  oxannncd^the  works,  and  ve-T  -n^-^^,^^^^^^^ 
cause  of  his  failure.  He  now  made  drawmgs  or  rude  fra^^.  ""^  J^!;; 
abided  an  ample  time  to  verify  his  observaUons  und  to  impress  "^'°  ^'f^ 
^!tSyon\m  nund.  ho  nfode  his  way  to  the  P^''*-, ^tlTlnT.rrSrcff 
to  En.'land.  This  time  he  was  completely  Huccessful.  and  » JjJ'^J'^"™ .*?. 
hisl^Senco  enriched  himself  and  greatly  b«.cfited  his  «°';«^^^- Jj^  , 
(adds  CJoleridgO  "  I  hold  to  be  tlia  most  extmordmaiy  matanco  of  credible 

devotion  in  modem  times."  .  , ,      ^        t  ^^^^,.  nf  TJnamvth  as 

It  is  no  more  Uian  Just  to  name  iho  mighty  stcam-hammei  oJ^'^T^^ 
oneof  STe  m^s  whereby  the  iron-manuf.uture  has  been  lately  advanced 
The  iitiblTiXr  with  which  this  machine  falls  upon  the  gowmg  masses 
if  Trortakl  fk,Ke  furnaces  greatly  ex,,edites  the  process  of  m.u.ulacture 
OnTe  ^ccaLion  of  the  visit  made  to  ^imingham  by  the  Commissionen^^^^^^^^ 
Juries  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  a  steam-hammer,  at  Messrs.  l-ox  and  Hender 
8o"s  esUiEuu^t,  was  made  to  perform  it,  part  among  the  wonders  «l  tho 
Iv    ^u  we  may  be  pretty  certain  that  tl.e  contx«lling  workman,  the  captain 
Jf'the  haillmr^d  n'ot  Z  to  exhibit  the  -«t«™7 'l-'^rJ^^Shio 
of  tliat  uppai-atu*-tho  delicate  and  genUe  crackmg  of  a  nut  by  a  macnmo 
which  could  almost  crush  an  elephant 

MODEHN   EXPEIOMENTS,   AND  THEIR  ReSI'I.TS. 

One  of  ttie  noUble  improvements  introduced  in  recent  years  is  a  com^''"^ 
Uon  of  many  Ms  of  irJn,  to  ensure  the  good  qualities  of  each ;  and  aj^^^r 

orr«Sl  it  cives  toughness  and  strength;  while  it  antimony  be  added  to  tiie 
iZ  ^i^e Sice.  i*t  unparts  a  st^ely'l.ardness ;  so  that  quahties  c«i ^  m- 
duced  BuiUble  to  the  different  kmds  of  sei-vice  which  each  part  is  to  r^d^ 
-  Sit  is  remarkable  iliat  these  clianges  ar«  wiwght  by  ^^^^^^^^^ 
1  xmr  cent  or  less  of  Uie  additional  metal.  On  the  other  hand,  the  auamon 
ifTor  J  per  irt.  of  iion  to  brass  has  recently  been  found  to  produce  a  mo 
^aluab  e  SsSSto  for  bell-met>d.  gun-metal,  and  «J«»>l"^»P°""i=;^^ 
Ruos,  large  screws,  propeller  vanes,  mill  brasses  railway  beann^,  bd^s,  and 
Ser  Seles,  oio  now  made  of  a  metai  ia  which  copper,  zmc.  tin,  and  iron 


1 


md  on  nil  tho  coml«in»r 
OH  lu'  li»«l  ai)!)©*"-!!.  no 
[uihI  ho  coinnnmioaliHl 
omon  in  tho  n<fiKhhour- 
Jr!  n.-ceH-iiirv'  buJ!(li!i!J!« 
^h  overylhing  wrh  pre- 
at  ftll  (jvente  it  di<l  not 
the  l«r  of  Iron.  Foltiy 
ud  mortiflcation  ot  Iuh 
though  Romevrhiit  more 
,  where  ho  waa  rccelvod 
was  lixlpctl  in  the  split- 
lig  lift!  attainod  bevond 
iry  soon  diacovorod  Uio 
ie  tracings ;  and  havhi^,' 
o  improHS  them  clearly 
and  once  more  returned 
il,  and  by  tho  rfiSidts  trf 
hiB  cotintrymen.  This" 
ary  instance  of  credible 

hammer  of  Nnsmyth  as 
s  been  lately  advanced, 
ipon  the  gUjwinK  masscH 
))roco88  of  miuiufacture. 
the  Commissioners  and 
flessrs.  Fox  and  Hender- 
nong  the  wonders  of  the 
fig  workman,  the  captain 
"  magiciuc  mystiiriouHe  " 
of  a  nut  by  a  machine 


Resi'i.ts. 

eccnt  years  is  a  combinft- 
lies  of  each ;  and  anoUier 

It  is  supposed  tliot  the 
J  delicate  ornaments  are 
ali^e  arsenic.     Manga- 

Calaraino  (caibtmate  of 
certain  kinds  it  produces 
L  into  the  iron  of  a  wheel 
mtimony  be  added  to  tlie 
tliat  qiialities  can  be  in- 
1  eacli  part  is  to  render. 
;ht  by  so  small  a  ratio  as 
'other  hand,  the  addition 
1  found  to  produce  a  most 
dmilar  compounds;  large 
ilway  bearings,  bells,  and 
ippcr,  sane,  tin,  and  iron 


IKOM    AND   ITd   MAMUKACTVUK.  f 

idl  tidcn  part ;  the  pn>portionK  ore  varied  according  as  toughness,  hnrdnesH, 
.soiiomus  power,  or  HUMCoptil)ility  of  receiving  a  polish,  are  ruipiircd ;  hut  tho 
conibiuwi  choaitness  and  ellioiency  of  the  new  alloys  am  now  becoming  vei-y 
iippareiit.  Thero  are  sevural  IniHs  In  Uie  E.xbibilion  of  tiiiu  tone,  nia«le  of  im 
imn-iUloyud  metal,  whiuli  is  only  half  tlie  prico  of  bell -metal.  Ilotumiiig  to 
iron  niaiiuluctuixtH,  pro|>erly  so  called,  it  is  fomid  that  Uussian  HJKOt  iron 
(ubundaiU  spe<;imeus  of  which  are  to  be  seen  in  tlie  Exhibition)  is  said  to  bo 
superior  m  qiudity  to  must  pro<iuoed  in  England ;  a  pticuliar  iibrous  in>n  in 
itxpiired;  tmd  thiti  hbivus  iptality  is  given  to  tho  Uussian  iron  [an  is  suppowMi) 
by  the  prenenee  of  a  liltlo  plioH()honis  and  a  littlu  silica  in  the  oiv,  luid  by  the 
ucquisitiou  of  a  littlu  ciu-bon  ti-oni  tho  wood-fuel  used  in  smelting.  Huch  are 
tliu  discuv'eries  which  cliemistry  is  gradually  enabling  us  to  niaki; :  when  wo 
know  ttio  causes  uf  iltiloronco,  wu  may  perrJianou  make  tliuso  ditferenoes  dis- 
appeal'  at  pleasure. 

All  the  world  knows  tliat  improvements  in  manufiictiu'e  toad  to  eoonomiim 
material.  What  a  capital  result  it  will  bo,  if  future  e.xpcrimentH  shoubl  esta- 
blish tho  soundness  of  a  principle  which  was  brought  before  tlio  Hritish  Asso- 
ciation in  1  »■')<>,  coiuieuted  witli  iron  furnaces  I  When  iron  is  sinelteil  in  one 
of  the  huge  blast  funuices  of  Houth  Wales,  four  tons  weight  of  gaseous  pro- 
ducts are  sent  utf  into  the  air  fur  every  ton  of  iron  smelted ;  and  tliese  gases 
ciuiy  witli  them  lui  inunonst;  amount  of  heat  Cannot  they  be  roblied  of 
some  of  this  heat,  and  tlie  heat  be  applied  to  useful  puiposes?  Hut'li  is  the 
({uestioM  now  at  issue ;  and  Mr.  Budd,  of  Uie  Ystalyfera  Iron  Works,  answers 
it  in  the  aftimiativc.  He  does  not  allow  tlio  lieated  gas«;s  and  smoke  to  escape 
inime<liately  at  tlie  top  of  tlie  fumaeo ;  but  ho  imprisons  them  in  a  series  of 
Hues,  where  tliey  wa  mode  to  heat  the  air  for  the  hot  blast,  and  to  produce 
tlio  st4!ani  which  is  to  impel  tliis  hot  blast  into  the  himace ;  and  when  these 
services  are  rendered,  he  finally  lilKtrates  the  partially  cooleil  gases.  At  Dun- 
dyvan  Works,  in  Scotland,  owing  to  the  enormous  quantity  of  gases  which 
the  Hootch  coal  gives  otf,  we  are  told  that  tlie  waste  heat  from  one  furnace  is 
actually  sufUoient  to  heat  the  blast,  and  tu  raise  tho  steam  for  throe.  Mr. 
Bud<l  even  tliinka  that  tlie  wanto  heat  of  one  Hcotoh  furnace  is  sutfioient  not 
only  to  heat  and  sujiply  the  bliust  for  that  furnace,  but  to  convert  the  pig-iron 
into  biM'-iron  in  other  furnaces ;  and  he  seems  to  ontei-toin  no  doubt  that  the 
ingenuity  of  our  northern  nei^j^ibours  will  point  oat  the  vray  to  reolir^  tlieso 
advantage.  He  states  tiiat,  even  now,  upwards  of  a  ton  of  coals  is  saved  in 
smelting  a  ton  of  iron  at  Dundyvan,  by  making  the  heat  of  the  furnace  do 
more  work  before  being  permitted  to  take  its  aerial  Hight;  but  tliia  is  so  enor- 
mous an  amount,  that  it  seems  to  i-equlre  veritication.  Mr.  Budd  may  yet, 
however,  live  to  see  his  prediction  v(  rified,  that  "i\imaoe  heat  will  be  let  out, 
like  mill-power,  for  bimiing  bricks  and  other  slmilai-  purposes." 

In  these  days  when  tlic  famed  Koh-i^oor  is  undergoing  oritioism  alike  iVom 
all  quarters,  iroitt  the  duke  to  the  dustman,  and  when  Spanish  jewels  and 
Russian  jewels,  Indian  jewels  atxl  Tunisian  jewels,  are  being  giwed  at  by  mil- 
lions of  persons,  it  may  bo  interesting  to  bear  in  mind  ^at  the  diamond  ha.s 
on  some  oooasions  been  use<l  to  convert  iron  into  steel.  A  somewhat  stortluig 
and  costly  experiment  this  I  One  of  the  points  of  dilfefence  between  steel 
and  bar-iron  is,  ftat  the  former  oontains  more  carbon  thMi  the  latter;  and  ta 
tho  diamond  odnsists  of  absolutely  pure  carbon  (so  fhr  as  experiments  have 
hitlierti>  determined)  it  has  been  thought  worth  while  to  try  whether  Iron  can 
be  imbuetl  with  tlie  requisite  dose  of  corlron  from  this  soui-ce.  In  the  infknt 
stage  of  th«  first  FrMioh  revolution,  when  considerable  activity  was  displayed 


||!rrfriri»w-i»:--"iaKs<^'3s?vr7 


Jtm 


I  tUON   A»m   ITH   MANITfAnrtrRK. 

nmong  Uio  Mciontlfic  men  of  that  oonntry.  M.  CU>n«t  oommnniontflil  to  tJio 
National  InHtitiiUi  tlio  roHuH  of  lui  pxporiment  hi»  nuuU  in  thin  ilircction  ;  iiml 
»horily  afUirwanlH  (Inyton  Morvwau  repeate<i  tho  cxpwimnnt.     A  wnall  «liu- 
mond  y/m  waectad,  and  we(l«e«l  with  iron  filingH  into  an  iron  muiblo  of  deli 
nit«  weight,  the  ratio  between  tlic  w«ight  "f  the  dinniond  and  that  of  the  iron 
ha-ing  be<'n  previoiwly  d«tormine<l  on;   tho  iron  cnicibhi  wan  placed  in  ii 
Heeond  cni<ihlo  of  HeH«iun  earth;  this  into  a  third  enicible  of  tlie  Hanie  Huh- 
Htance  (with  a  layer  of  siliri'ouH  sand  between  the  two);  and  thi»  into  a  highly 
heated  furnace.     After  an  hour'H  heating,  tlie  diamond  and  the  iron  were 
found  to  have  diHappearod,  anil  a  globule  of  Hteel  to  have  been  formed  from 
tJiem,  the  weight  of  which  wanted  only  a  few  graiuH  of  that  of  tlie  ingredient>t 
conjointly.     Much  controversy  arose  from  tliis  diamond  oxperimcnt ;  but  Um 
costlinoBH  of  tlie  precious  gem  deteri-ed  all  but  two  or  thn^e  persons  from 
rep«mting  it.     Mr.  Mu8h«it  was  one  who  tflok  up  the  subject  eagerly  ;  and  he 
mentions  tl>e  names  of  ladies  who,  taking  an  interest  in  tlie  issue  of  the  expc 
riment,  tmnsferred  some  diamonds  from  their  jewel  caskets  to  the  enicible,  or 
at  least  placed  tiiem  in  his  hands  for  this  purpose.    To  imagine  the  Koh-i-noor 
transfonned  into  one  component  material  for  a  knife,  a  saw,  or  a  fde,  might 
seem  a  very  woeful  imagining — a  sort  of  descent  from  the  sublime  to  tho 
ridiculous ;  but  it  wouUl,  in  fact,  elucidote  in  a  signilioaiU  way  Uie  diflorenco 
between  cummercial  value  and  chemical  value. 

RKCEirr  Applications  of  Iron  in  thb  Abts. 

It  is  in  the  application  of  iron  to  new  purposes,  or  in  the  extension  of  it« 
use  in  others,  tliat  the  progress  of  the  la.st  half-century  has  been  most 
marked,  and  presents  the  greater  number  of  curious  features. 

The  Birmingham  and  Hardware  departments  of  tlie  Groat  Exhibition  arc 
truly  remarkable  manifestations  of  the  extent  to  which  tho  manufacture  ot 
iron  and  steel  is  now  carried.     There  is  a  very  world  of  grates  and  stoves, 
dazzlingly  bright,  displaying  their  painted  china  tablets,  their  ormolu  decoror 
tions,  their  encaustic  tiles,  their  foliage  and  flowers  of  burnished  st^el,  their 
Moresque  and  diapered  patterns,  their  small  busts  and  statuettes,  and  Uieir 
delicate  white  marble.     There  is  tlie  unrivalled  cutlery  of  Sheffield,  which 
some  tovms  in  our  own  countnr,  and  some  countries  abroad,  are  attempting  to 
imitate,  but  nowhere  wiUi  fiUl  success;  the  knives,  the  razors,  the  scissors, 
the  weapons,  the  tools,  the  needles,  tlie  saws,  the  files— these  are  the  commo- 
dities which,  not  only  in  Messrs.  Rodgers's  Sheffield  trophy  in  the  English 
nave  (with  its  half-grain  of  steel  wrought  into  twelve  pairs  of  scissors),  but  in 
the  larger  and  more  diversified  Sheffield  compartment,  exemplify  tho  remark- 
able degree  of  skill  now  attained  in  this  department  of  industry.      But  if 
Sheffield  attracts  us  by  the  brilliancy  and  excellence  of  her  steel  goods,  Bir- 
mingham teUs  a  still  more  extraordinary  talc  concerning  the  diversity  which 
marks  her  manufactures  in  metal.     Taking  no  account  (because  they  do  not 
belong  to  the  subject  of  this  paper)  of  the  varied  Birmingham  i)ioducts  in 
copper,  zinc,  brass,  pewter,  lead,  tin,  gold,  silver,  and  other  metals,  how  end- 
less are  the  forms  into  which  Uie  industry  of  that  town  has  brought  uron  and 
Bteel!     Bedsteads,  chain-work,  trays,  fire  fiumiture  and  stoves,  safes,  swords, 
fire-arms,  saucepans,  kettles,  locks,  keys,  saddlers'  ironmongery,  needles,  fish- 
books,  pens,  nails,  screws— it  is  quite  in  vain  to  attempt  anyUiiug  like  an  enu- 
meration.    One  of  the  exhibitors  has  shown  how  effective  is  now  the  process 
of  rolling  iron  intp  v^ry  thin  leftv^s  pr  sheets ;  he  has  produced  a  book,  con- 


M«riMlkt 


MMMka 


•Jb 


;  flommnniratfld  to  Uifl 
I  in  tliin  direction  ;  luxl 
'riinont.     A  small  diu- 
in  iron  cniriMo  of  «l«'ti 
lul  an«l  that  of  the  iron 
iciblo  wftM  iilttPftd  in  ii 
icihln  of  thi)  Hnme  Hub- 
;  and  thiti  into  a  hiKhly 
nd  and  tho  iron  wnni 
lavo  V)een  fonned  from 
'  that  of  Uie  ingredi«»iit« 
id  oxparimcnt;  bnt  tin) 
or  thmo  persons  from 
ubjcc't  ofiRorly ;  and  Im 
n  Uj«  iwHun  of  the  ex|«'- 
wket*  to  thn  crucible,  or 
I  imapftno  the  Koh-i-noor 
1,  u  Haw,  or  a  fde,  miRht 
om  the  Hnblimo  to  thct 
licant  way  the  ditfurenco 


E  Ahtb. 

in  the  cxtonHion  of  itH 
ontury  htm  been  moHt 
uaUires. 

ho  Great  Exliibition  are 
ich  tlio  manufacture  of 
Id  of  grates  and  stoveu, 
Lb,  their  ormolu  decoror 
if  burnished  steel,  theu- 
and  statiicttcH,  and  their 
tleiy  of  Sheffield,  which 
ibi-oad,  are  attempting  to 
tlie  raz-ors,  the  sciBsotH, 
J — these  are  tho  commo- 
[1  trophy  in  the  English 
paijs  of  scissors),  but  in 
It,  exemplify  tho  remark- 
nt  of  industry.  But  if 
of  hor  steel  goods,  Bir- 
Tiing  the  diversity  which 
mt  (because  they  do  not 
Sirmingham  i)roducts  in 
i  other  metals,  how  end- 
im  has  brought  iron  and 
nd  stoves,  s^es,  swords, 
mmongeiy,  needles,  fish- 
npt  anytliiug  like  an  enu- 
3ctive  is  now  the  process 
IS  pi-oduced  a  book,  con- 


iBON  AWT)  rra  MANrrArirnr..  »f 

Hinting  of  forty-four  leaves,  or  eighty-eight  pftg»w,  of  shoot  iron,  measuring  about 
live  itichoH  by  Uiro«\  and  so  thin  tliat  the  whole  woiglis  only  two  and  a  Imlf 
ounces.  Home  of  these  protluctioim  belong  especially  to  Binningham ;  some 
find  tlieir  hoad  quart^'ni  rather  at  Wolvorhampton.  VValsall,  Dudley,  or  otliei's 
of  the  remarkable  group  of  Uiwns  lying  north  and  west  of  the  "  toy  shop  of 
Europe."  If  wo  sjieak  of  lock:i  and  keys  and  safes,  a  very  world  of  coinpluta- 
tion  lies  before  us.  Though  Hoiith  Htaffordshire  protiucos  more  locks,  perhaps, 
tlian  all  the  r««t  of  tlie  kingdom  together,  it  is  impossible  to  forget  the  names 
of  (Jhubb  and  Bnunali  and  Monlan.  with  their  Kohinwr  cagris,  their  iiiyiio- 
permutation  keys,  their  unponotrable  locks,  and  tlieir  incombustiblu  safes. 
Home  of  the  lotiks  and  safes  lue  really  curious  specimens  of  careful  workman- 
ship. There  is  the  qtuulrnple  Im-k,  consisting  of  four  distinct  locks  in  one. 
all  acted  upon  at  the  same  time  bv  a  single  key  wiUi  four  bits.  Thero  lu-e 
locks  which  show  llm  principle  of  all  the  "  (letoctors"  patented  by  Mr.  (Jhubb 
during  tlio  last  half-contury.  Not  tlie  least  interesting  is  a  collection  of  lock-  * 
makers'  tools,  and  mmlels  of  tlie  principal  ap]>aratiis  used  by  those  artilicers. 
Nor  is  it  right  to  forgot  the  challenge  of  tho  United  Stales'  locksmitli,  who 
offers  us  a  store  of  gold  if  wo  can  open  the  casket  which  contains  it.  Nay — 
almost  while  the  pnisciit  page  is  being  written — this  samo  loiiksmifh  has 
stiu-tled  his  British  compeers  by  picking  a  lock  which  they  deemed  notrto-be 
picked.  It  would,  indeed,  be  one  of  the  "  Curiosities  "  of  the  Groat  Exhibition, 
to  lead  to  tlie  development  of  a  now  |)ick-lock  theory ! 

But  tliose  details,  which  relate  to  clover  mechanical  working  in  producing 
the  countless  iinplenionts  of  iron  at  tlie  present  day,  scarcely  come  within  tlio 
scope  of  tliifl  paper.  It  is  tlie  cnpninlity  of  being  so  applied,  and  tlic  oxt^tnsion 
of  that  capability,  that  we  wish  htnts  to  draw  attention  to. 

Tho  substitution  of  wrought  ii-on  for  cast  iron  in  bridges  is  one  of  the  most 
notable  changes  introduced  within  the  last  few  years.  This  change,  though 
not  originated,  was  gi'oatly  mlvanced  by  tlio  experiments  relating  to  tho 
Britarmia  Tubular  Bridge.  Those  experiments  showed  that  a  H(piare  fonn  of 
tube  is  stronger  thtm  a  circular  or  an  elliptical  form,  conti-ary  to  what  many 
persons  would  have  supposed;  and  they  also  proved,  tliat  if  the  top  weic 
con-ugated,  or  else  formed  of  a  number  of  minor  tubes,  tlio  strength  would  h.i 
greatly  increased.  This  discovery  at  once  suggested  u  motlitied  form  of 
tubulm*  girder  adapted  to  shorter  spans ;  and  we  now  find  such  girdtsr-bridgos 
being  formed  all  over  England.  Mr.  Eau-baim,  tlie  talented  engineer,  tf> 
whose  experiments  this  advancement  is  mainly  due,  says  in  one  of  his 
scientific  papers, — "The  strengtli,  ductility,  and  comparative  lightness  of  the 
material  are  the  important  elements  of  these  girdera;  and  their  elasticity, 
retention  of  form,  and  other  properties,  render  them  infinitely  more  secure 
tlian  those  composed  of  cast  iron,  which,  from  tho  brittle  nature  of  tlic 
material,  and  imperfections  in  the  castings,  are  liable  to  break  without  notice, 
and  to  which  the  wrought-iron  girder  is  not  subject.  This  is,  however,  pro- 
bably of  less  importance,  as  the  wrought-iron  girder  will  be  found  not  only 
cheaper,  but  (when  well  constructed,  and  upon  the  right  principle,)  upwards 
of  three  times  the  strengtli  of  cast  iron."  I'he  reader  will  easily  recognise 
these  wrou^t-iron  bridges  when  they  meet  his  view;  they  are  composed 
chiefly  of  plates  of  iron  rivetted  to  each  other,  and  to  thicker  pieces  of  what 
(from  their  sh^e)  are  called  T  and  L  iron. 

Of  the  mighty  structure  just  named,  the  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge  over  tho 
Menai  Stinut,  it  presents  itself  fortli  to  the  world  as  one  of  the  grandest 
examples  of  the  use  of  iron.     Unlike  tlio  principle  of  Soutliwark  Bridge,  in 

0  3 


^ 


JL. 


40 


IRON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTOEK. 


which  cast-iron  arches  press  upon  abutments— unlike  Tetfords  Menai  Bnd^e, 
in   which  wrought-iron  chains  support  tlie  roadway    by   suspension-this 
tubular  bridtre  ^  formed  ahnost  entirely  of  riveted  iron  plates,  strengthened 
St  and  L  irons;  it  bears  its  own  weight  and  the  weight  of  the  trams 
vliich  pa«8  upon  or  through  it,  by  tlie  tmstwortliiness  of  its  uon  plates  and 
riveto      There  it  hangs,  suspended  in  mid-au<  at  a  height  ot  a  hundred  feet 
above  the  water,  supported  at  certain  points  on  lofty  towers,  but  presenting  an 
unsuDOorted  length  of  nearly  600  feet  from  tower  to  tower,  ai\d  compmmg  in 
SrKTnot  Sich  less  th^an  1500  tons  of  iron!    The  plannmg  and  exeou- 
tion  of  Zh  a  work  would  appear  te-riWy  daring,  we«  we  not  ™«^«  fe™J>^^ 
with  the  experiments  and  the  processes  of  reasomng  whereon  the  scheme  relies. 
The  labouTof  Mr.  Eaton  Hodgkinson  and  Mr.  Faurbairn  seem  veiy  dry  Mid 
uninteresting  to  non-professionai  persons;   the  sto-ength  ot  materials,   the 
SSilf  i«ti,  the  toughness  of  tubes,  the  elasticity  of  plates,  ihe  adhosion 
S"riv°  L--«U  sound  ver?  mechanical  and  cmmon-place;  yet  it  w  to  researches 
on  these  and  kindred  subjects  that  we  owe,  not  perhaps  the  «mple  con«9p- 
lion  of  the  tubular  bridge,  but  that  tiusty  rehanco  which  rendered  its  reahaa- 

^'Tron'Siotwa  take  rank  among  the  novelUes  to  which  this  invaluable 
metal  is  now  applied.    Most  readers  have  some  amomit  of  acqoamtance  with 
Se  gld  stSLres  at  Eddystone,  Bell  Rock,  and  Skei-ryvore ;  and  wiU 
raadifymidei-stand  how  valuable  it  would  be  if  such  work»--or  wther  works 
to  ^Iswer  the  same  object-^ould  be  carried  to  f  ^«^««tined  spot  piec^me^ 
but  nearly  in  a  finished  state,  and  reqmro  only  to  be  put  tog^er.    S«ch  is 
one  ofthe  many  favourable  features  of  the  modem  iron  hghthouses.    We 
beSefe  irwaTS^tl  Brown,  the  engineer  of  the  Brighton  Chain  Pier,  who 
first  made  a  formal  proposition  to  this  effect,  in  respect  to  a  lighthouse  on 
S^  WotfR^k  near  Laids  End;  but  the  fiwt  actually  made  was  for  Jam^ca, 
in  1842;  it  consisted  diiefly  of  thick  castriron  plat<«  meted  t«g«^«f>  J^  few 
others  have  since  been  bkt;  and  there  seems  reason  to  J'e^'^Jt  *^*^^« 
greTsuccess  attending  the  use  of  wrought-iron  sheete  m  the  J|b^«  ««d 
SWer  bridges,  wlU  leal  to  the  substitution  of  this  matenal  for  cast-iron  plates 
ffihSS     The  kon  lighthouse  made  by  Messrs.  Fox  and  Henderson 
Sr X  E^andia  Company,  ?n  1850.  and  which  is  70  feet  high,  is  ^clpaUy 
fomed  of  cast-iron  places;  but  the  UghthouSe  made  ^y  Mes»J*-  W^^  ^^^ 
the  piesent  year  for  the  American  Government,  and  hitondetl  for  Florida, 
consists  chiefly  of  corrugated  wrought-iron  sheete.  ^„*.,i»^  i,;-i, 

Not  the  lei^t  curious  among  tHe  iron  novelties  ''"ch  out  rttttiin|,  hi^i- 
oressure  ace  has  produced,  are  the  inm  htum  for  OallfomiA.  Bnck  and 
mortar  are^too  slow  for  tile  gold^diggew.  who  canno* -spare  time  for  such 
dSerTM  building;  they  a^  off  to  tiie  "diggings"  bylmsof  tiiousaftds, 
SSS  Aeir  dweutgs  .^d  warehouses  to  come  to  them  «.  oe»rfy  re«dy- 
madrrpossiblo.  Let  us  describe  one  of  ttie  many  iron  houses  shipped  at 
LhJnX)!  for  St.  Fwncisco.  It  is  90  feel  long,  10  wide,  imd  §  W^  to  the 
J^STf  the  a«.hed  roof.  It  is  divid^inl«mally  into  two  ^^':r^^\^^, 
two  doors  and  two  windows;  and  tii^rO  are  v«itilatlng  hol^w^til  sWiM 
shutters.  The  walls  and  roof  are  of  tiiin  iwo  plates,  bolted  to  T  fihaped  ^r- 
pendiculars;  Mid  tiiere  is  provision  for  festenteg  a  wooden  Imhig  cm  the 
interior.  The  doors  are  sheets  of  iron  fixed  in  wrought.m)n  Mmes;  and  tiie 
shutters  to  the  windows  are  simUariy  fi-amed.  There  is  an  iron  stove  In  ea«h 
room,  fitted  both  for  wurnitti  and  for  cooking.  Now  the  ^e^t^tf ^^Jjy 
of  such  a  house  is.  tiiat  it  may  be  Seftt  out  m  pieces,  and  bolted  togfetiier 


'elford's  Meniu  Bridge, 
by   suspension — this 
m  plates,  strengthened 
3  weight  of  the  trains 
of  ite  iron  platas  and 
Ight  of  a  hundred  feet 
mm,  but  pre«enting  an 
vifsr,  oixd  comprising  in 
le  planning  and  exeou- 
I  wo  not  madd  famUiav 
jreon  the  scheme  relies, 
aim  seem  very  dry  and 
ngth  of  materials,   the 
of  plates,  the  adhasion 
j;  yet  it  is  to  researches 
laps  the  simple  concep- 
ioh  rendered  its  realim- 

I  which  this  invaluable 
ut  of  aequaintance  with 
I  Skerry vore;  and  will 
work*— or  rather  works 
estined  spot  piece-meal, 
put  together.  Such  is 
n  iron  lighthouses.  We 
ighton  Chain  Pier,  who 
pect  to  a  Ughthottfi*  on 
y  made  was  for  Jamaica, 
riveted  togeUiWf.  A  few 
ison  to  believe  that  the 
aets  in  the  tubular  and 
.terial  for  cast-iron  platm 
ers.  Fox  and  Henderson 
)  feet  high,  is  principally 
e  by  MessM.  Wriker  iti 
id  intendetl  for  Florida, 

rhlch  our  ratttioff,  hl^- 
04lifomiA.  Brick  and 
10(1  eipare  time  for  such 
8"  b^  tens  of  thousMids, 
0  (liem  B6  nearly  wiady- 
'  irwi  houses  shipped  at 
wide,  find  %  high  to  the 
JO  two  rooms,  which  have 
latlng  holes  with  swivel 
,  bolted  to  T  shaped  per- 
i  wooden  linlttg  on  the 
ght-iron  frames;  and  the 
B  is  an  iron  stove  in  each 
r  the  greatest  peculiarity 
ices,  and  bolted  together 


IRON  AKI>   ITS  MAKUFACTDRE. 

with  great  expedition.  Such  a  one  as  is  here  described  weigns  about  2^  tons, 
and  costs  JEeo  to  £70;  and  three  or  four  men  can  put  it  up  and  bring  it  into 
habitable  order  in  as  many  days;  for  every  piece  is  marked,  every  boltrholo 
made,  and  every  bolt  and  nut  provided.  In  a  less  ambitious  fonn,  outliouses, 
stables,  piggeries,  and  sheds  aie  made  in  the  same  way.  Warehouses  of  con- 
siderable dimensions  are  similarly  manufactured.  Perhaps  one  of  the  largest 
iron  houses  yet  built  was  one  which  Messrs.  BelUiouse,  of  the  Eagle  Foimdry 
at  Manchester,  sent  to  California  a  year  or  two  ago.  It  was  27  feet  high  by  M 
wide,  two  stories  in  height,  and  containing  eight  rooms.  Pjsides  the  general 
structural  arrangement,  there  was  a  wood  lining  for  eveiy  room,  and  a  corru- 
gated galvanized  iron  covering  for  the  exterior.  The  interior  fittings  wo.ro 
said  to  be  equal  to  the  avei-age  of  houses  of  the  same  size  in  Frngland,  and  yet 
to  be  so  formed  as  to  bo  tmnsportable  in  pieces  to  tlieir  destination. 

We  must  not  foi^et  that,  if  uon  has  become  a  substitiute  for  stone  and 
brick  in  some  particulars,  it  also  presents  a  formidable  rivalry  in  others  to 
hemp.  Chains  for  cables,  and  wires  for  ropes,  are  extending  most  widely  in 
use;  they  render  navigation,  mming,  and  other  important  avocations,  less 
dangerous  and  more  eflTective  than  heretofore. 

One  of  the  most  notable  advancements  in  tlie  iron  manufacture  in  recent 
years  has  been  the  introduction  of  galvanixed  tinned  iron  for  on  almost  in- 
numerable variety  of  pui-poses.  This  consista  of  iron  plate  coated  with  tin, 
not  by  the  ordinary  tin-plate  process,  but  by  galvanic  deposition.  It  seiTes  as 
a  substitute  for  plain  iron,  for  tin-plate,  for  zinc,  and  for  lead,  under  certain 
special  circumstances.  It  is  stronger  and  more  durable,  for  many  purposes, 
than  load  or  zinc;  it  is  better  than  plain  iron  where  rust  is  to  bo  avoided;  it 
is  superior  to  lead  and  zinc  in  warm  climates,  inasmuch  as  it  does  not  expand 
and  contiBct  to  so  great  a  degree;  and  it  is  said  that  tlie  New  York  Firo 
Insurance  Offices  will  insure  houses  at  a  lower  premium  if  covered  with  this 
material  than  wiUi  any  other.  Withinside  a  house  and  without,  in  vessels 
and  in  utensils,  in  towns  and  in  the  countiy,  in  mMiufactures  and  in  domestic 
economy,  we  now  find  this  substance  employed.  Here  wo  meet  witli  gal- 
vanized tinned-iron  corrugated  plates  for  roofing,  and  for  the  sides  and  doors 
of  "  California  houses ;"  in  another  form  there  aie  plain  plates  for  the  same 
purpose;  roofs  for  sheds,  roofe  and  sides  for  storehouses,  and  many  similar 
purposes.  The  roof  of  the  Merchants'  Exchange  at  New  York,  and  that  of 
Ae  new  Cathedi«l  at  Antigna,  have  lately  been  formed  of  the  sMne  material, 
besides  roofs  of  many  buildings  in  this  country.  Then,  besides  tiie  sheet 
form,  there  are  roimd  and  square  bars,  hoop-iron,  wire,  tubes  and  pipes,  nails, 
rivets,  bolts,  screws — all  formed  of  iron  thus  protected  by  the  galvano-tin 
process.  There  is  this  advantage  also,  which  is  unattainable  by  the  ordinary 
tin-plate  process,  ^at  avticles  can  be  tinned  after  they  are  made  hi  the  prc^r 
form  of  iron,  provided  tliey  arc  of  small  dimensions.  We  ought  to  have  stated 
above,  that  the  plates  are  really  a  combination  of  three  metals;  for  in  the  first 
"   "     "  .  •       .         •     .         ...    i^jjj  ^  solution  of 

rinc  is  obtained 
„ ,  dipping  the  sheets  into  molten  *inc.    TTie  iouvie-boards,  or  rather  louvre- 

Slates,  which  regulate  tiie  ventSlatiott  of  the  Great  Industrial  building,  are 
jrmed  of  the  material  now  under  notice. 
That  many  of  our  novelties  and  attractions  in  iron  result  ft*om  improved 
and  improving  taste  is  now  pretty  evident.     The  schools  of  design  have  not 
been  unfruitful  in  good  results.    It  is  generally  admitted,  by  those  who  were 
in  a  position  to  form  a  judgment,  that  the  French  Exposition  of  1844  exei^ 


MHM 


i 


m 


IRON  AND   ITS  MANUFACTtmE. 


cised  a  ixmerful  influence  on  the  iron-founders  of  this  countiy.    Wliatevcr 
may  be  STvalue,  in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  of  the  protecUon  which  U^e 
French  Government  Uirows  around  home  manufactures,  the  beauty  ot  the 
ornamental  iron  castings  displayed  at  tliat  Exposition  was  universally  aclaiow- 
Sed     Enchsh  manufacturers  felt  that  their  position  was  rendered  cntical , 
and%ince  thSt  time  a  marked  hnprovement  has  been  witnessed  m  one  depart 
ment  of  manufacture  which  appeals  m  a  peculiar  way  to  Enghsh  habite .  we 
Xde  to  stoves,  grates,  iir^plilces.  and  fire  furniture.     It  is  unquesUonable 
SLgl^d  h^^recently  m^ade  a  gi^at  advance  in  the  ornamental  detaJs  ot 
Sese  productions.     The  Coalbmok  Dale  Company's  dome,  or  «"mmer-hous«; 
or  whatever  it  may  most  fittingly  be  designated,  m  the  nave  of  the  Great 
Exhibition,  is  uerhaps  the  most  remarkable  specimen  of  casUng  «onti-ibuted  by 
^English  fim.     The  dome  itaelf.  supported  by  six  rustaclookmg  columns 
from  which  oak  branches  and  leaves  spread  out  beneath  ttie  dome,  exlubits  a 
5  C^  oi  skiU  in  casting,  independent  of  such  merit  as  it  may  possess 
as  an  fistic  design.    But  we  may  here  ask,  as  has  been  asked  by  o^«^. 
"why  should  this  Sistmg  be  bronzedl"    Many  cmakers  say  tliat  we  are  hvmg 
in  S  age  of  shams;  it  may  be  so;    but  at  any  rate  it   is  wordi  ^hde  to 
avoid  shams  as  far  as  we  can.     Papier  mache  w  good,  and  iron  is  good ;  but 
when  the  first  puts  on  the  semblance  of  sohdity  which  belongs  to  wood 
and  the  latter  the  tints  which  belong  to  bronze,  there  is  a  sort  of  trickery  with 
which  the  mmd  is  not  quite  satisfied-an  utt^nng  of  (not  b^  com)  but  com 
which  is  needlessly  ashamed  to  show  its  own  honest  face.     Why  is  not  a  goo 
iron  casting  beautifiil  in  an  unadorned,  unbronzed  state  ?    AusUia,  Berlin,  and 
France,  have  all  sent  us  castings  in  which  the  u:on  integrity  of  smface  (sQ  to 
speak)  is  fillly  preserved.    Our  founders  can  now.  if  they  give  faur  p  ay  to  then 
oVm  skiU.  produce  fine  castings  either  of  iron  or  of  bronze;  but  they  surely 
undervalue  then-  art  when  they  give  a  bronze  cosmetic  to  ti:ue  uon. 

Iron  Wobk  of  the  CafSTAL  Palace. 

The  Cntital  Palace  does  not  come  formally  within  Uie  scope  of  this  paper; 
yet  it^  ^possible  not  to  see  how  strikmgly  tiiat  structm-e  »U«8ti«tes  tiie 
Sid  advancE  m  the  use  of  iron.    The  Royal  Commissioners  m  March,  1860. 
ZtedXgestions  and  plans  for  an  Exhibition  building  from  ^/.quarters ; 
^d^L  foUowing  month  no  fewer  than  233  desigis  ^-^^  ^"l*  "J; ^^g^J" 
Ittid  France.  Belgium.  Holbmd.  Hanover,  Prussia,  HMnburgh,  Switzerland, 
SerTcom^ted!    But  all  wer«  equally  laid  aside     "Every  possibte 
variety  in  style,  iTdecoration,  material  in  constiruction.  and  system  m  an-anae- 
S?were  st^nuou.sly  recommended  by  the  authors  of  tie  respective  de- 
?^ZZ  ^r«ltim'atimi  sought  for;^  and  yet  the  Buildmg  Com^jJ*^ 
"Sved  at  the  unanunous  conclusion  that,  able  and  admirable  ««  ma"y  f 
these  designs  appeared  to  be.  there  was  yet  no  single  one  so  a«co"J««t  w^« 
SrnecuUar  ob&  in  view,  either  in  the  prmciple  or  detajl  of  ite  arrange- 
mente!^  to  wirrant  us  in  recommending  it  for  adoption."    T^o  of  the  most 
™^kable  phms  sent  m  were  by  M.  Horeau,  of  V^,  and  Messrs.  Tumm-. 
of  Dublm.-both  iUustrative  m  a  marked  degree  of  the  proppsed  use  of  iron. 
M  nSeau's  plan  comprised  one  immense  hall  or  shed.  2000  feet  long  by  about 
floS,ynl  several  small  detached  buUdmgs.    The  mtenor  was  divided 
into  five  avenues  by  iron  columns,  which  supported  arclied  ribs  foi-  th«  i;oof 
The  whole  construction  was  to  be  free  of  stone  and  wood;  the  foundation  of 
brick,  the  favade  of  metal  and  glass.  Uie  floor  of  asphalte.  tlie  roof  chiefly  of 


a  countiy.    Whatever 
)  protection  which  the 
es,  the  beauty  of  the 
as  universally  acknow- 
was  rendered  critical ; 
itnessed  in  one  depart- 
to  EngUsh  habits :  we 
It  is  imquestionable 
B  ornamental  details  of 
ime,  or  summer-house, 
the  nave  of  the  Great 
casting  contributed  by 
rustic-looking  columns, 
th  the  dome,  exliibits  a 
lorit  as  it  may  possess 
been  asked  by  others, 
i  say  tliat  we  are  living 
1  it  is  wortli  while  to 
and  iron  is  good ;  but 
lich  belongs  to  wood, 
I  a  sort  of  trickery  with 
not  base  coin)  but  coin 
ce.    Why  is  not  a  good 
s  ?    Austria,  Berlin,  and 
tegrity  of  smface  (sq  to 
ey  give  fair  play  to  their 
t)ronze ;  but  they  surely 
to  true  iron. 

ACE. 

the  scope  of  this  paper; 
structure  illustrates  the 
sioners,  in  March,  1860, 
ilding  from  all  quarters ; 
gns  were  sent  in.  Eng- 
Hambui-gh,  Switzerland, 
tside.  "Eveiy  possible 
I,  and  system  in  an-ange- 
rs  of  the  respective  de- 
lie  Building  Committee 
I  admirable  as  many  of 
le  one  so  accordant  with 
or  detail  of  its  arrange- 
ion."  Two  of  the  most 
ris,  and  Messrs.  Turnei-, 
he  proposed  use  of  iron. 
1, 2000  feet  long  by  about 
rhe  Ulterior  was  divided 
irched  ribs  for  the  roof, 
wood ;  the  foundation  of 
lalte,  tlie  roof  chiefly  of 


IRON  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURE. 


13 


thick  glass;  and  the  whole  was  to  be  so  formed  of  repetitions  of  similar 
Dflrts  Uiat  it  could  readily  be  increased  or  diminished  in  length.  Messrs. 
CerTproposed  building  was  about  2000  feet  long  by  400  wide ;  the  root  in 
on^pa^  nsi^  about  120  feet  above  the  floor;  the  interior  t«  be  fonned  into 
three  avenues  by  pillars  and  semicirculai-  ribs;  the  general  construction  ot 
the  buUding  to  be  chiefly  in  wrought-iron  plates ;  a  large  amount  of  glass  to 
be  introduced  in  the  iron  roof;  and  a  glass  dome  to  surmount  tlie  crossmg  ot 

the  nave  and  ti-ansept  ,  ■,  ^,      t>  -u-   ^  n  ^ 

Yet,  as  we  have  said,  all  the  plans  were  rejected;  and  the  Bmldmg  Com- 
mittee concocted  one  of  their  own,  derived  from  the  hints  suggested  by  tho 
others  They  endeavoured  to  combine  the  following  qualities  in  their  buud- 
ing— economy  of  construction;  facihties  for  the  reception,  classification,  and 
display  of  goods;  facilities  for  the  circulation  of  visitors;  arrangement  for 
crand  points  of  view;  centraUzation  of  supervision;  and  some  stnkuig  fea- 
ture to  exemplity  the  present  state  of  the  science  of  construction  in  this 
country  The  sti-ucture  was  to  be  supported  on  iron  columns,  with  a  very 
light  exterior,  and  an  iron  roof;  and  at  Uie  centre  was  to  be  a  dome  of  sheet 
iron  200  feet  in  diameter.  The  Committee  explained  fiiUy  the  advantages 
which  seemed  to  them  to  attach  to  such  a  builduig;  but  tiie  public  received 
the  plan  with  very  genei-al  disfavour ;  and  it  will  ever  remain  a  curious  specu- 
lation what  could  or  would  have  been  done  if  Mr.  PaxtonV  happy  idea  had 

not  suggested  itself.  . ,      ,,    ti     u  ^v^ 

On  ti^e  occasion  of  the  well-earned  comphment  paid  to  Mr.  Fox  by  a  pubhc 
dinner  from  his  townsmen  at  Derby,  he  gave  some  exceedmgly  stoking  UIus- 
trations  of  the  difficulties  and  daring  of  the  project  so  successfuUy  carried 
tiiroueh       On  June  22,  1850,  Mr.  Paxton  communicated  his  remarkable 
plan  to  Mr   Fox.      On  June  28,  whUe  tiie  Royal  Commissioners  were  m 
perplexity  concemmg  the  numerous  but  unpromising  bmldmg-plans  which 
were  before  Uiem,  Mr.  Fox  went  to  Birmingham,  to  put  m  hand  tiie  drawings 
and  specifications  upon  which  his  tender  would  be  based.     On  July  2  Mr. 
Cole  (one  of  tiie  Executive  Committee)  visited  Bumingham,  witii  a  view  oi 
offering  any  suggestion  which  might  smootii  tiie  patii  for  tins  novel  project; 
and  ak)ut  Uie^e  time  tiie  addition  of  tiie  transept  (not  mcluded  m  Mr. 
Paxton'B  original  plan)  was  suggested  by  Mr.  Hendei-son,  and  approved  by 
Mr  Paxton.     The  arched  form  of  tiie  ti^sept  roof  was,  we  beheve,  an  after- 
fhoiiffht  by  Mr.  Fox  himself.    Mr.  Fox  states  tiiat  just  before  his  tender  was 
sent  in  he  "  walked  out  one  evening  mto  Portiand  Place ;  and  tiiere  setting 
off  the  1850  feet  upon  tiie  pavement,  found  it  tiie  same  lengfli  withm  a  lew 
yards:  and  tiien,  consideruig  tiiat  tiie  buildmg  would  be  tiiree  times  tiie 
widtii  of  that  fine  8ti«et,  and  tiie  nave  as  high  as  tiie  houses  on  eitiier  side,  1 
had  presented  to  my  mind  a  pretty  good  idea  of  what  we  were  about  to  under- 
take] and  J  confess  tiiat  I  considered  tiie  difficulties  to  be  smroounted  m 
constructing  tiiai,  great  palace  were  of  no  ordinaiy  kind ;  but  feelmg  confident 
tiiat  witii  great  energy,  good  arrangements,  and  a  hearty  co-operation  on  ttie 
part  of  our  extorsive  and  well-disciplined  staff,  it  might  be  accomplished,  and 
^upon  it  depended  in  all  probability  tiie  success  of  tiie  Exhibition  we 
deterrained  to  undertake  tiie  responaibiUty ;  and  tiie  opening  on  tiie  Ist  May 
has  proved  tiie  correctoiess  of  our  conclusions."    The  tender  was  sent  in  on 
tiie  lOtii  of  July;  tiie  ai-ched  roof  of  tiie  tiransept,  as  an  atlditional  teature, 
was  suggested  to  tiie  Coramissionei-s  on  ti>.e  15tii;  and  tiie  tender  w^  ac- 
cepted on  tiie  26tii,  subject  to  tiie  contincency  of  the  Commissioners  obtain- 
ing a  royal  charter.    It  affords  a  proof  of  tiie  abidmg  rehance  which  aU  tiie 


I 


MM 


f 


14  IRON   AND  ITS  MANUFACTURE. 

parties  felt  in  tho  soundness  of  the  gi*eat  scheme,  that  not  only  did  Messrs. 
Fox  and  Henderson  undertake  tho  contract  before  the  Commissioners  were  in 
a  position  to  give  legal  cei-tainty  to  it,  but  they  actually  incurred  liabilitieB  to 
ttjo  extent  of  50,000?.  under  the  same  uncertainty;  the  tender- was  accepted 
on  July  a8,  but  many  months  elapsed  before  the  CommiHsioners  obtained 
their  charter,  without  which  tlie  contract  was  not  a  legally  binding  one. 

The  tender  having  been  accepted,  the  planning  of  all  ttie  minor  details,  and 
tho  propuratiou  of  tho  working  diawuigs,  became  tlie  next  stage  in  the  arduotis 
undertaking.  "  The  drawings  occupied  me,"  says  Mr.  Fox,  "  about  eight«en 
hours  each  day  for  seven  weeks  ;  and  aa  they  came  ft-om  my  hand,  Mr. 
Henderson  immediately  prepared  the  iron  work  and  other  materials  required 
in  tlie  construction  of  the  building."  As  the  girders  and  trusses  were  made, 
they  were  subjected  to  a  tost  four  times  gi-eater  than  their  sti'ength  would  over 
have  to  beai-  in  practice,  so  as  to  dissipate  aU  anxiety  on  this  point.  On  the 
aeth  of  September  tlie  first  iron  column  was  fixed  in  its  place.  "  From  this 
lime,"  Mr.  Fox  adds,  "  I  took  the  general  management  of  the  building  under 
my  charge,  and  spent  all  my  time  upon  the  works,  feeling  that,  imlesa  the 
same  person  who  had  made  the  drawings  was  also  present  to  assign  to  each 
part,  as  it  arrivcid  upon  the  groimd,  its  proper  position  in  the  structure,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  finish  ttie  building  in  time  to  ensure  tlie  opening  on 
ihe  Ist  of  May."  The  contractors  speedily  got  tile  operation  into  such  Roo<l 
ti-ain,  tliat  they  were  able  each  day  to  fix  as  much  iron  work  as  would  be 
required  for  the  roofs  of  the  Derby  station,  one  of  the  largest  railway  stations 
in  the  kingdom. 

The  iron-work  of  this  building,  this  curiosity  of  Indwstiy  and  daring 
enterprise — this  "huge  mass  of  transparency,"  as  it  has  been  designated — 
may  be  briefly  described  in  the  following  words. 

The  building,  as  almost  every  one  is  now  aware,  i»  about  1851  fedt  long  by 
408  wide.  There  is,  besides  tiiis,  m  additional  projecting  portion  on  tiic 
nortii  side,  936  feet  long  by  48  wide.  Very  near  the  centre  of  the  length,  at 
a  point  determined  by  tii»^  presence  of  certain  las^e  trees,  tiie  bnilding  is 
crossed  by  a  vaulted  ti-ansept,  408  feet  long,  79  wide,  m\A  108  high ;  and  other 
trees  in  various  parts  of  the  area  have  determined  the  formation  of  five  open 
courts.  The  total  area  of  the  building  is  about  six  tittles  that  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral! 

It  is  a  notable  feature  in  the  buUdinjg,  that  24  feet  is  a  nnit  of  horiaontal 
measurement  tt:i\.iighout  every  pait.  AU  the  various  avenues  which  leaxl  east 
and  west  through  tlie  structure  aj-e  84,  48,  or  78  feet  in  width ;  the  tran9q)t  is 
T2  feet  wide;  the  galleries  ai?e  94  feet  wide;  tiie  reflwshment  courts  «re  48 
feet  wide ;  the  various  "  comts"  which  form  such  admirable  exhibition  Wioms, 
such  as  the  Medisevd,  the  Carriage,  tiie  Sheffield,  th6  Binnhtgham,  flie 
Timlsian  Courts,  &c.,  are  48  feet  wide;  the  extemal  paartitionmg  presents 
8-feet  compartments ;  the  elegant  iron  railing  which  sunoimds  the  bnilding 
has  its  stimdards  or  posts  8  feet  ojjart;  the  ridge-and-furrow  roof  hna  tile  ridges 
8  feet  apart  All  ttiese  numbers  are  either  multiples  or  sub-multiples  of  24 ; 
and  it  has  been  found  that  the  calculations  necessary  in  a^usting  the  materials 
have  been  greatiy  feciUtated  by  this  simplicity  of  ratio.  This  sjTnmetiy  is  ob- 
tjdned  by  placbig  all  the  hollow  iron  columns  which  form  the  skeleton  of  the 
building  at  distances  of  24  feet  f^art,  except  in  those  places  where  the  widei- 
avenues  or  com-ts  require  a  space  of  48  or  73  feet.  For  the  most  part,  the 
building  is  seen  to  be  divided  into  bays  or  compartments,  exactiy  24  feet 
square. 


MMMk 


'  .'iMft'<;»jfg*^iWi 


fit  not  only  did  Messrs. 

CommissionerB  were  in 
ly  incurred  liabilitieM  to 
he  tender  was  accepted 
jommiHsioners  obtained 
;ally  binding  one. 
11  ^e  minor  detailo,  and 
text  stage  in  the  ardnouH 
r.  Fox,  "  about  eighteen 
lie  ft'om  my  hand,  Mr. 
other  materials  require*! 
and  trusses  were  made, 
heir  strength  would  ever 
f  on  this  point.     On  the 

its  place.  "  From  this 
it  of  the  building  under 

feeling  that,  unlesa  the 
esent  to  assign  to  each 
ition  in  the  etructure,  it 

ensure  tlie  opening  on 
peration  into  such  gowl 
iron  worii  as  would  be 
9  largest  railway  Btatious 

of  industry  and  daring 
k  has  been  designated — 

about  1851  fecit  long  by 
rojtMiting  portion  on  the 

centre  of  the  length,  at 
Ite  trees,  die  bnilduJg  is 
and  108  high;  and  other 
le  formation  of  five  open 
»  thtiea  that  of  St.  Paul's 

et  is  a  unit  of  horissontal 
avenu«i3  which  lea«l  east 
in  width  i  the  titm9€5>t  is 
ifreshment  courts  «»«  48 
nimble  exhibition  itKrnis, 
1,  ih^  Bii-mhigham,  the 
iil  partitioning  presents 
1  surrounds  the  mtilding 
(urrow  roof  han  the  tidgcs 
«  or  sub-multiples  of  24 ; 
in  Jousting  the  materials 
0.  This  tymtaetiy  is  ob- 
;  fortn  the  skeleton  of  the 
5  places  whei-e  the  widei- 
For  the  most  part,  the 
ftrtments,  exactly  24  feet 


*, 


IBON   AND   ITa   MANUFAOTtJBE. 


15 


The  lower  coliunns  Bi-o  10  feet  high;  the  upper  17;  and  there  are  con- 
necting pieces,  a  feet  high,  fmm  the  lower  to  the  higher  ranges.     These  con- 
necting pieces  furnish  the  means  for  fixing  the  upper  columns  to  tlie  lower, 
and  also  for  fixing  the  gii-dors  which  stretch  across  from  column  to  column. 
Home  of  the  giirlers  are  cast  hx>n,  some  wrought ;  but  all  have  the  same 
pattern  or  design,  which  combines  strength  with  lighmess.     The  girdei-s,  nj 
their  turn,  support  the  gallerieH,  which  extend  east  imd  west  in  four  paraUel 
Uiies,  and  nortli  and  south  in  ten  subsidiary  or  partial  lines.     The  stones  ot 
coliunns,  one,  two,  or  tliree  in  number,  determine  the  height  of  the  A-arious 
parte  of  the  building.     There  is,  for  example,  a  strip  Vi  feet  (3  bays)  wide,  on 
the  southern  side  of  the  building,  which  is  only  one  colunm  m  height ;  tlien 
there  is  another  strip,  also  of  72  feet,  two  cohimns  in  height ;  then  the  mag- 
nificent central  compartment,  120  feet  (5  bays)  wide,  three  columns  in  height; 
the  two  nortliem  compartments  of  73  feet  each,  similiu-  to  tlie  southern, 
are  one  and  two  columns  in  height  respecUvely.    The  extra  building  on  the 
extreme  norUi  is  riso  one  column  m  hei^t.    These  vanous  heights,  mclud- 
ing  the  connecting  pieces,  amount  to  about  %i,  44,  and  64  feet. 

The  roof-(jirders  lue  of  cast  iron,  except  those  which  exceed  24  leet  in 
lemith;  each  giixier  weighs  18  owts.,  and  has  been  tested  to  the  extent  of  nme 
tout- much  beyond  what  it  wiU  ever  have  to  bear.     They  present  ft  light, 
open,  treUis-like  aspect,  which  adds  much  to  the  graceful  elegance  of  the 
interior  of  the  buUduig.    Those  roirf-girders,  or  trusses,  which  are  48  and  li 
feet  long,  to  span  the  wider  avenues,  are  formed  of  wrought  vton-,  they  con- 
sist of  Son  bars,  rivebjd  at  intervals  of  eight  feet  to  uprirfit  standards  ;  some 
of  the  diagonals  are  of  iron,  to  give  the  requisite  strength  ;  while  the  otliere 
are  of  wood,  to  give  uniformity  of  appeaiance.    The  girdei-s  or  trtisses  oi  li 
feet  lencth  have  a  camber  or  rise  of  about  10  inches  in  the  centre,  which 
impart-s^ditional  strength.    The  72  and  48  feet  trtisses  weigh  respectively 
35  and  18  cwts.    There  are  four  of  the  long  tnisses  beneath  Ae  lead  flats  at 
the  sides  of  the  tmnsept,  which,  on  account  of  the  great  weirfit  to  be  borne, 
aro  deeper  and  heavier  tlian  the  rest;  two  of  them  weigh  120  cwts.  and  tJie 
others  IttO  cwts.  each.     AU  these  trtisses  (t.  e.  girders  above  24  feet  in  lengtli), 
about  370  in  number,  were  buUt  together  on  the  ground ;  the  vanous  bais 
bein.*  joined  together  with  red-hot  rivets,  of  which  25,000  wen^  used.     Ihc 
riwtTholes  wei«  made,  some  by  boring  and  some  by  punchmg--e8pecially  the 
latter;  one  of  the  powerful  punching  machines  employed  at  the  works  was 
capable  of  punching  three  thousand  holes  in  a  day  through  thick  iron  plate 

The  cdlumns— those  llghteome  vertical  supports  which  assist  m  mmg  Such 
a  beautlftjl  netrWoA  perspective  to  the  hiterior— ha^^)  a  tliree-fold  office;  they 
bear  up  the  galleries,  they  bear  up  the  loof,  and  thev  form  diannels  for  mn 
water  They  aio  aU  of  the  same  diameter  externally,  but  the  thickness  of  met^ 
varies"  aecoilng  to  the  statength  requited.  The  contour--fbur  curvet  sei«rated 
by  f6ur  flat  surfaces—wa*  suggested  by  Mr.  Batt^,  the  architect,  and  has  been 
univeisally  admired.  The  two  ends  of  each  colimin  have  projectiohs  called  «h(5«, 
which  affoni  means  for  riveting  the  columti  abi^e  and  Below.  Jh^  ?J^^^f 
enonnous  number  of  3300  of  tliese  columns,  varying  fifom  17  to  18  feet  m  height. 
The  comwctinq  pieces  and  the  base  pieces,  also  of  iron,  afford  the  mewis  for 
fixing  the  columns  tirmiy  in  the  desired  positions.  The  eolmnns  m  the  dif- 
ferent stories  do  not  rest  upon  eacli  other,  end  to  end;  Uiey  are  separated  by 
a  space  of  about  3  feet,  which  is  occupied  by  a  lioUovj  connecting  V\f^.f  ''f^ 
iron  The  connecting  piece  has  fianges  and  nvct-holes,  which  enable  it  to  bo 
firmly  fastened  to  the  Column  bencattl,  the  column  above,  and  the  girders  at 


•1 


1 


16 


IRON   AND   ITS  MANUFACTURE. 


the  sides.  No  part  of  tlio  structure  required  nioro  careful  workmanship  than 
this,  as  strength,  pei-pendicularity,  and  absence  of  leakage  were  necessary 
conditions.  The  base  pieces  he  beneath  the  lowest  range  of  columns.  Each 
base  piece  consists 'of  a  vertical  hollow  shaft,  a  broad  horizontal  bed  plate  at 
the  bottom,  strengthening  shouldei-s  rising  from  the  bod  plate,  and  side  sockets 
for  joinmg  to  the  horizontal  water  pipes.  These  base  pieces,  of  which  there 
are  1074,  are  bedded  very  firmly  in  the  ground,  as  the  whole  weight  of  tlic 
building  rests  upon  them. 

The  gallery  (firders  are  much  more  numerous  than  the  roof  girders  before 
described;  tliey  are  2150  in  number,  and  are  of  cast  iron,  all  24  feet  in  length 
by  3  feet  in  depth.  They  not  only  support  the  galleries,  but  stretch  across  the 
nanower  avenues  of  the  building,  from  column  to  column,  where  a  bindin}? 
strength  is  required.  They  have  projections  at  tiieir  ends  which  fit  into  re- 
cesses in  the  connecting  pieces,  and  by  which  they  are  secured.  Every  girder, 
before  being  used,  was  tested  by  a  powerful  hydraulic  machine ;  it  was  cal- 
culated that  the  greatest  weight  each  gu-der  woidd  have  to  bear  is  7^  tons; 
but  every  girder  was  tested  to  15  tons,  jmd  it  was  found  that  80  tons  was 
insufficient  to  break  one  of  them. 

The  galleries,  the  tj-ansept,  tlie  staircases,  the  flooring,  and  the  exterior,  con- 
tain too  little  iron  to  call  for  notice  in  this  place.  There  are  some  horizontal 
iron  pipes,  however,  which  play  an  important  part  in  tlie  builduag.  The  sixteen 
or  eighteen  acres  of  roofing  present  an  enormous  surface  for  rain-fall,  and  it  is 
most  essential  that  the  water  shotdd  have  easy  chatmels  along  which  to  find  its 
way.  It  first  falls  on  the  sloping  glass,  then  along  tlie  Paxton  gutters,  u-en  in 
a  channel  along  the  tops  of  the  roof  trusses,  then  down  the  hollo  >v  columns ; 
and  when  it  reaches  the  base  pieces  at  tlie  foot  of  the  colimins,  other  provision 
has  to  be  made  for  it.  Ii-on  pipes,  6  inches  in  diameter,  are  fixed  into  the 
sockets  of  the  base  pieces,  and  extend  in  parallel  lines  east  and  west ;  they 
discharge  the  water  into  large  drains,  which  eventually  convey  it  to  the  sewer. 
The  whole  weight  of  iron  work  in  tlie  building  is  said  to  be  about  4000  tons. 
Two  of  the  mightiest  works  of  oui-  ago  present  Sie  following  corapaiison : — 
Crystal  Palace,  1851  feet  long,  4,000  tons  of  iron  work. 
Britannia  Bridge,  1513  „  10,000 
There  are,  perhaps,  no  two  modem  buildings  in  the  country  which  present 
greater  contrasts  than  tliese  astonishmg  stiiictures — the  one  to  contain  (at  most) 
two  railway  trains  at  a  time ;  the  other  to  contkiin  millions'  worth  of  Uie  world's 
industry  and  tens  of  thousands  of  tlie  world's  people—the  one  destined,  pro- 
bably, to  endure  for  sages ;  the  other  yet  in  doubt  whether  its  life  may  not  be  a 
very  bi^ef  one — ^the  one  stiff  and  inelegant ;  the  other  full  of  giticeful  Unes, 
tints,  and  combinations — ^the  one  so  costly  as  to  impoverish  its  owners ;  the 
other  so  happily  circumstanced  as  to  pay  for  itself  in  a  short  period  of  tliree  or 
four  months — ^the  one  occupying  several  yeai-s  in  construction ;  the  other  not 
much  more  than  as  many  montlis.  They  resemble  each  other,  however,  ir  this 
(and  the  resemblance  is  a  marked  feature  in  our  age),  Uiat  iron  uistead  of  stone 
forms  the  main  material,  and  that  engineers  instead  of  architects  have  con- 
ceived and  worked  out  the  plans. 

Foreign  Iron,  at  the  Great  Exhibition.  ^ 

'  The  production  and  application  of  iron  in  foreign  States,  whether  illustrated 
or  not  at  tlie  Great  Industiial  Gathering  of  Nations,  ai'e  not  less  fuU  of  cmious 
and  mstructive  features  than  those  of  our  own  country. 


mtm 


roful  workmanHhip  than 
loakago  were  necessary 
iiige  of  columns.  Each 
horizontal  bed  plate  at 
(1  plate,  and  side  sockeU 
e  pieces,  of  which  there 
the  whole  weight  of  tlie 

the  roof  girders  before 
ron,  all  24  feet  in  length 
!8,  but  stretch  across  the 
)lumn,  where  a  binding 

ends  which  fit  into  ro- 
3  secured.  Every  girder, 
ilic  machine ;  it  was  cal- 
lave  to  bear  is  7|^  tons; 
found  tliat  80  tons  wivs 

ig,  and  the  exterior,  con- 
ere  are  some  horizontal 
le  building.  The  sixteen 
nee  for  rain-fall,  and  it  is 
is  along  which  to  find  its 
3  Paxton  gutters,  U'-en  in 
wn  the  hollo  >v  oolunins ; 
colimins,  other  provision 
leter,  are  fixed  mto  Uie 
ues  east  and  west ;  they 
Y  convey  it  to  the  sewer, 
id  to  be  about  4000  tons, 
lowing  corapaiison : — 
I  of  iron  work. 

e  country  which  present 
le  one  to  contain  (at  most) 
ions'  worth  of  the  world's 
—the  one  destined,  pro- 
thor  its  life  may  not  be  a 
ler  full  of  graceful  luies, 
jovetish  its  owners ;  the 
a  short  period  of  tlu-ee  or 
tstruction ;  the  other  not 
ch  oilier,  however,  ir  this 
that  iron  utstead  of  stone 
d  of  architects  have  oon- 


ntBITlON. 

States,  whether  illustrated 
re  not  less  full  of  ciu-ious 

y- 


TBON   AKt)   ITS   MANTTFACTOIIB. 


17 


It  is  pleft.sant  to  see  how  careful  our  foreign  neighbours  hnvo  been  to 
caiTy  out,  to  the  best  of  their  means  under  the  circiimstances,  the  behests 
of  tSio  Royal  Commissioners  concerning  classification.  Each  coimtiy,  witli 
n  few  exceptions,  has  collected  specimens  of  its  raw  materials  of  manufacture ; 
and  among  such  specimens  iron  and  its  ores  do  not  fail  to  find  a  place. 
The  United  Stntes  have  many  fine  specimens  of  iron  ore,  especially  from  the 
busy  Ohio  district.  There  is  also  manufactured  iron  presented  to  our  notice, 
in  the  forms  of  plate,  sheet,  bar,  rod,  wire,  nails,  &c.  The  gigantic  empire  of 
Riufia  is  peculiarly  circumstanced  in  respect  to  these  matters.  It  has  been 
well  observed  that  "  the  want  of  a  great  middle  class,  and  of  self-dependent 
(and  therefore  independent)  working  classes,  causes  the  arts  and  manvrfactm-es 
to  be  dependent  on  imperial  ukases  and  the  encouragement  and  example  of 
the  government  officers,  or  else  upon  the  magnates,  whose  command  of  labour 
enables  them  to  undertake  new  operations  on  a  large  scale."  Hence  we  find 
that  a  large  proportion  of  the  specimens  at  the  Great  Exhibition  have  been 
sent  from  some  of  the  imperial  establishments ;  others  from  the  great  princos 
of  the  empire.  Prince  Demidofl"  has  sent  various  specimens  of  iron  hi  the 
mw  and  tlie  reduced  stai«s ;  the  collection  of  iron  plates,  bolts,  bars,  rods, 
Ac,  is  by  no  means  insignificant,  considering  the  unfavourable  circumstances 
attending  tlie  transhipment  of  heavy  goods  from  an  ice-bound  cour  uy.  The 
ZoUverein — that  mysteiious-looking  woi-d,  which  pui!/les  so  many  visitors,  and 
which  the  Executive  would  do  Well  to  elucidate  by  a  subsidiary  inscription — 
presents  us  witli  a  goodly  collection  of  the  iron  and  steel  which  Prussia, 
Saxony,  and  the  other  German  States  can  produce.  The  Harz  Mountains, 
many  places  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  many  othei-s  in  various  pai-ts  of  the 
ZoUverein  or  "  Customs  Union"  territory  of  Germany,  produce  excellent  iron, 
which  is  smelted  and  worked  up  at  vaiious  establishments ;  while  Solingen 
has  acquired  the  name  of  the  Sheffield  of  Germany.  Wo  find  specimens  of 
the  ore  and  tlie  metallic  iron ;  sheets,  and  other  partially  nianufactm-ed  forms 
of  iron ;  neat  and  useful  iron  castings  from  the  Harz  estabhshments ;  a  most 
interesting  series  of  specimens  which  show  all  the  stt^es  of  progress  from 
crude  ore  to  highly-polished  steel;  a  varied  assemblago  of  cheap  eveiy-day 
iron  and  steel  tools  and  goods,  such  as  screws,  nails,  tiles,  saws,  locks,  keys, 
bolts,  chains,  axes,  hatchets,  skates,  swords,  rat-traps,  hand-mills,  and  all  Uio 
usual  cuUeiy  articles ;  and  the  clean  and  wholesome  enamelled  iron  ware,  so 
valuable  an  adjunct  in  domestic  cookeiy. 

But  the  Berlin  cast-iron  ornaments — did  the  art  of  working  in  this 
metal  ever  reach  a  higher  pitch  than  in  the  delicate  productions  thus 
designated?  It  is  scarcely  credible  that  the  exquisite  bi-ooches,  buckles, 
and  other  specunens,  deposited  in  the  northern  half  of  the  ZoUverein 
compartment,  can  be  made  of  such  a  rough  material ;  yet  such  is  the  case. 
The  delicate  gold  and  sUver  threads  of  the  filagree  works  of  the  middle  ages 
hardly  excel  them  in  minute  beauty.  Amt-r,",  is  not  exceeded  by  any  foreign 
country  in  the  specimens  of  iron  which  she  has  contributed  to  the  Great 
Exliibition.  When  we  consider  how  many  kingdoms  and  states  are  included 
under  that  almost  misapplied  word  Austria,  we  need  not  wonder  that  some 
among  them  should  yield  fine  iron  ores  and  creditable  iron  manufactures ; 
but  it  could  scarcely  have  been  expected  that  such  vmily  of  feeling  would  have 
been  displayed  as  this  miique  Exhibition  indicates.  The  iron  ores  of  diflierent 
parts  of  the  empire  are  not  only  of  fine  quality,  but  in  great  abundance ;  and 
the  art  of  smelting  (aided  by  the  plentiful  supply  of  charcoal  timber  as  fuel)  is 
scarcely  exceUed  in  any  part  of  Em-ope.     The  specunens  of  iron  plates,  sheets, 


MIliMM 


iStHmttm 


L 


18 


IHOM   A«U   IW  MANUKAC-njaHii 


bars,  rodH,  wiio,  &c.,  are  numerous  and  good.     It  w  worth  whde.  toO;J«  «>"% 
a  little  closely  the  fine  castings  from  tlie  Mettemich  Ii-on  Works,  cue  o    tl  o 
Lhomian  esUblishn.onte ;  Ae  taU  aerman  stoves    decorated  ^"''•^ 'l"l  f ''^ 
and  weU-lormod  stotucUos.  the  fuU-siied  cast  of  the  Crucrfixion,  as  weU  as 
oUier  «^angH  of  a  varietl  kind,  exhibit  a  high  degree  of  mont     Ajuong  Uio 
cutlery  of  Austria,  we  have  an  abundwice  of  scythes  and  «!««^f.  «*/,^'« ' '^ 
is  said  no  fewer  than  T,0<)O,(KK>  ar«  nianufacturod  annually  in  AusUi*  1t<»|>«>. 
and  exported  thence  to  various  parts  of  Uie  world.     ii^iiMii  has  not  lailod 
to  sh?w%y  her  contributions,  that  the  iron  of  tho   Liege  d«trict  m  well 
smelted,  and  woU  worked  up  into  oounUess  articles  ol  dady  use  and  omainent. 
That  the  iron  smelting  ammgements  of  Fr<vm  are  not  veiy  extensive  is  not 
hor  fault;  nature  has  not  gifted  her  so  bountifully  as  many  neighbouring 
countries  with  tho  cmde  ix^n;  and  the  Great  Exhibition  clearly  shows  Oiat. 
in  other  metals,  she  excels  her  productions  in  h-on.     In  respect  to  .Spa««.  it 
is  vexinff  to  know  that  such  fine  iron  as  her  mountains  confaun  m  ot  htAlo  valuo 
to  her,  on  occount  of  tho  wretched  state  of  the  countiy  ni  respect  to  roads 
and  canals,  wliich  renders  it  so  difficult  to  transmit  heavy  pnuluoe  from  one 
part  of  tho  country  to  anoUier;  a  few  specimens  of  Bpan«h  iron  ore  have 
been  sent  to  the  World's  Fair;   and  those  who  know  what  a  reputation 
Toledo  swofd-blades  onco  had,  can  only  regret  that  we  have  so  few  oppor- 
tunitios  of  judging  the  qualiUes  of  Spanish  staeL 

There  is  one  country,  Smdm,  from  whonA  it  was  ospeciaUy  unportant  that 
we  should  receive  good  specimens  of  iron  and  its  ores;  and  it  is  gratitymg 
to  know  that  such  has  been  the  case.  These  specimens  are  by  for  the  most 
to  bo  priced  among  the  few  from  that  ooaatiy.  Many  users  of  t-nglish  cutlery 
are  not  aware  that  tho  host  varietiea  are  made  from  Swedish  iron,  which— 
from  some  cause  not  yet  weU  underetood— produces  bettor  steel  than  any 
Eiifflish  iion.  Among  the  Swedish  specimens  are  hicluded  eTerythrag  which 
can  Illustrate  tfie  mining  oJiaraeteiiBtics  of  Uia  ore.  such  as  bits  of  the  8u^ 
rounding  rock,  the  rock  intennixed  with  ore,  tho  several  kinds  ot  ore,  analyses 
of  tho  nwtallic  contents  of  these  several  ores,  &c.  There  are  also  plates^  tubes^ 
files  and  other  ai-tioles  manufectured  in  Sweden,  showmg  that,  thou^ 
the  lufttoml  is  of  Uie  host  quality,  the  manufiicture  is  not  of  a  very  high 
order. 

CoMMi:;RciAL  Valub  of  Ibon,  m  Ceotbai-  EuaowB." 

The  dainty  little  cast-iron  ornaments  of  Berlin,  alluded  to  above,  are  asso- 
ciated in  a  peculiai  way  with  the  all-unportant  struggle  between  Napoleon  and 
Prassia.  There  is  something  very  touching  in  the  narrative  of  tlie  growth  ot 
this  branch  of  industry.  So  overwhelming  was  tho  force  which  the  ambitious 
comiueror  was  able  to  bring  agwnst  Prussia,  that  the  services  of  all  wore  ener- 
getically called  for  against  the  common  enemy ;  the  country  needed  the  strong 
arms  of  her  sons,  and  the  silver  and  gold  of  those  who  had  sUver  and  gold  to 
give.  The  matrons  and  maidens  of  hi^  birth  or  good  fortome  sent  their 
trmkets  and  jewels  to  the  royal  treasury  to  recmlt  the  exhausted  exchequer ; 
and,  in  return  for  them,  they  received  rings,  crosses,  and  other  (»mam«its  in 
cast  iron,  which  bore  the  inscription  Ich  gnfc  GoW  um  Eiam,  "  I  gave  gidd  for 
iron."  These  humble  ornaments  were  at  the  tune  very  highly  priaed  from  the 
cireumstances  attenduig  their  acquisition ;  and  even  at  the  present  day  ttie 
families  of  the  original  possessors  value  and  preserve  them  as  honounrtile 
reUos,  as  badges  of  a  trao  uobihty— Uie  nobility  of  feeling.    The  Sudden 


|^MM~»' 


MH 


orth  while,  too,  to  study 
i-on  Works,  out)  of  tl»o 
lecorated  with  iloUcuto 

Cruoifixiou,  as  well  ju* 
J  of  merit  Among  tlw 
and  sickles,  of  whioh  it 
lually  in  AusUi*  IVoiMJr, 

UeUfiim  haa  not  failotl 
i  Liege  district  if*  wtiU 
daily  utie  and  ornament 
not  very  extensive  i»  not 

as  many  neiglibouriug 
iUon  dearly  shows  that, 
In  respect  to  iSpnin,  it 
I  contain  is  of  little  valuo 
itry  in  respect  to  road* 
heavy  produce  from  one 
:  Si>ani8h  iron  ore  have 
jiow  what  a  reputation 
;  we  have  ao  few  opinw- 

efipecialiy  unportant  tliat 
)re8 ;  and  it  is  gratifying 
lens  are  by  tar  the  most 

usera  of  En^ish  cutlery 
\  Swedish  iron,  which— 
98  better  steel  than  any 
icluded  everything  whioh 

such  as  bits  of  the  su^ 
nral  kinds  of  ore,  amdyses 
ere  are  also  plafces>  tubes, 
,  showuig  that,  though 
;«  is  not  of  a  very  high 


lAL  EUBOWE.' 

luded  to  above,  arc  aaso- 
[le  between  Napoleon  and 
larrative  of  the  growth  of 
force  which  the  ambitiouK 
I  services  of  all  wore  ener- 
eountry  needed  the  strong 
'ho  had  silrer  and  gold  to 
r  good  fortune  sent  their 
the  exhausted  exdiequer ; 
,  and  other  omunents  in 
n  Ei»m,  "  I  gave  gold  for 
ery  highly  priaed  from  tho 
<n  at  the  present  day  the 
lerve  them  as  honourablo 
of  feeling.    The  sudden 


IBON   AKt)   IT»   MASUTACTOBB. 


19 


eloTfttion  of  such  ornaments  into  distinction  gave  a  great  impoUw  to  every- 
Uiing  conncct^^d  witii  their  niniiiifu<tur«.  'J'he  caetingrt  were  not  conhneil  U> 
more  triidtets.  but  conipiised  busts,  ba«-roliof«,  mouuniontiil  idubs.  and  oUutr 
works  of  ai-t  Some  pewons  attribute  the  unequalled  exeell.nre  ot  these 
eastings  to  the  fine  quality  of  the  Silesian  iron ;  some  t«  tlio  carefully  mode 
mixture  of  sand  and  clay  of  which  the  moulds  are  formed ;  noma  to  the  Bkill 
(lisphyed  in  the  casting  process;  but  it  is  pobable  that  many  causes  contri- 
bute to  the  result  „  r.  , ,  ■  rj,  e  \t^ 
Dr.  Friedenl>erg,  in  his  German  translation  of  Babbagos  Eeonemy  oj  Ma- 
ehineruandManuf(tettire»,  gives  some  curious  information  coijcemmk;'  the  Ijmlm 
caatuigs.  Such  are  the  fineness  and  delicacy  of  the  seimrato  arabe(M,uea, 
rosettes,  medaUions,  Ac.,  of  which  the  larger  ornaments  are  composetl,  Ui.it  »t 
sometimes  requires  nearly  10,000  of  them  to  make  alb.  weight  Ihc  gray 
iron  from  which  they  are  made  may  be  taken  as  Iwing  worth  alwut  tu.  p«>r 
cwt:  and  the  following  table,  drawn  up  from  Uie  i.riof-list  ot  a  Berlun  manu- 
facturer a  few  years  ago,  will  sh  v  to  what  an  almost  incredible  height  Un» 
value  per  cwt  is  increased  :->- 


Artieks. 


Buckle;;,  8^  hiches  long  by  2^  broad  .  .  . 
Neck-chams,  18  inches  long  by  1  broad,  in  40  ^ 

pieces 5 

Bracelets,  7  inches  long  by  a  broad,  in  7»  7 

pieces     3 

Diadems,  7^  inches  high  by  6^  broarl .  .  . 
Scvigne  points,  2^  inches  long  by  H  ^^ToaA  . 
Sevigno  earrings,  3  inches  long  by  |  broad,  7 

in  M  pieces 3 

Shirt  buttons •.     .     .     . 


Number  to 

Price, 

Pricts 

1  owt 

eMh. 

per  cwt 

$.    d. 

Jt 

9,640 

a    ti 

3B0 

2,310 

6     0 

003 

2,090  7 

I)ftii's 

8     C 

880 

1,100 

1«     0 

907 

9,020 

4     ft 

2029 

10,460 
pairs 

6     3 

2713 

88,440 

0     8 

2948 

mm 


We  here  find  that  iron  in  the  form  of  shirt  buttons  commanded  a  market  at 
a  price  nearly  10,000  times  as  great  as  that  which  it  sold  for  as  gray  iron !  And 
about  tlie  year  1820,  when  the  fashion  was  at  its  height  the  value  was  still 
greater;  for  these  m)n  ornaments  then  sold  for  neariy  their  weight  m  gold. 
The  great  saleable  value  of  these  productions  has  led  to  a  result  similar  to 
that  which  so  many  other  branches  of  industiy  exliibit :  obscure  manufacturers 
make  moulds  from  the  casts  which  otiiers  had  been  at  the  expense  of  designing 
and  modelling,  and  produce  faiferior  and  cheap  specimens  from  theee  moulds. 
The  real  Beriin  castmgs,  worthy  of  the  name  (such,  we  may  presume,  as 
those  which  grace  the  Great  Exhibition),  must  always  command  a  high  price, 
if  sold  at  aU,  from  the  extraordi»ary  care  required  m  their  production. 

It  would  be  instruetive,  in  an  eoonomicid  pomt  of  view,  if  the  priefn  of 
useful  articles,  as  displayed  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  coidd  be  compared  at 
leisure.  There  are  so  many  elements  which  combine  to  make  up  mercantile 
value,  that  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  them  singly ;  but  their  resultant— their 
combined  efiect— is  shown  in  the  price  at  which  the  dealer  is  willing  to  part 
with  his  merchandize.  We  may  be  well  assured  that  it  is  worth  while  for  a 
manufacturer  in  one  country  to  be  fully  informed  of  these  particulars  in  respect 


MM 


MMHMM 


•lWM,t*W»*i«WWW"*»"*»"" 


do 


IHON    AND    ITS    UAMUFACTUBE. 


to  foreign  countries.     If  he  can  equal  his  neighbours,  a  close  comparison  and 
study  will  enable  hun  to  determine  how  to  do  so ;  if  he  can  not  equal  tliom,  a 
knowledge  of  the  reasons  will  save  him  fi-ora  much  fruitless  outlay.     It  is  in 
this,  as  in  so  many  other  respects,  that  tlio  Ureat  Exhibition  will  render  ser- 
vice.    l*ml>fthly  th»)  CoramissionerH  exercihed  a  wise  discretion  in  forbidding 
the  price-ticketing  of  the  exhibited  specimens ;  but  we  shall  gradually  lunpiiro 
information  on  diose  points  in  other  ways.     If  we  take  up,  for  example,  tlio 
Official  Priced  Catalogue  of  the  Haxon  section,  we  find  English  sums  of  money 
quoted  opposita  tlie  names  of  the  chief  articles  displayed ;  they  are  the  prices,  wo 
presume,  at  which  tlie  Saxon  agents  in  this  countiy  would  be  empowered  to  sell 
such  commodities.   Here  we  find  (confining  ourselves  to  tlie  unniediate  subject  of 
this  jmper)  tinned-iron  saucepans  and  cooking  vessels  in  considerable  numbers ; 
there  are  Saxon  vessels,  Bavarian  pots,  coftee-pots,  stew-pans,  frying-pans,  Ac. 
A  hulf-litre  cooking-pot  is  marked  at  J)Jd.;  a  Utre  coffee-pot,  4jd.;  a  four-litre 
stew-pan,  witli  handle  and  lid,  IfljU.;  a  frying-pan,  23d.;  and  so  on.     The 
vessels  are  tinned  after  the  sheet-iron  has  been  brought  into  shape ;  and  tlieir 
capacity  is  estimated  by  the  litre,  equal  to  about  If  puits  English.     Now  here 
is  a  case  for  those  conversant  vriib.  retail  ironmongery.     Are  these  articles  well 
made,  and  ai-e  they  dearer  or  cheaper  tlian  similar  articles  in  England  ?    Be 
the  answer  what  it  may,  it  is  certain  to  render  service  in  some  way  or  other. 
Then  we  find  iron  spoons  at  2d.  per  half-dozen.     The  clasp-knives  sent  from 
the  same  comitry  are  of  the  better  and   more  ornamental  kind ;  tliey  vary 
from  Ua.  to  12».  each,  according  to  the  number  of  blades  and  the  degree  of 
finish ;  but  it  would  be  more  interesting  to  know  how  much  the  Saxon  peasants 
give  for  their  rough  homely  knives. 

The  ZoUvereiu  Catalogue  presents,  in  like  manner,  the  means  for  instituting 
comparisons  between  ourselves  and  the  buHv  states  of  Northern  Germany. 
Among  the  entries  are  case-liardened  iron  rollers,  at  20  dollars  per  centner ; 
cliisek  as  low  as  15  groschen  per  dozen;  files  and  rasps,  11;  scissors,  16; 
butter-knives,  38;  plane-irons,  27  groschen  per  dozen;  up  to  much  higher 
prices  according  to  size  and  quality.  We  may  here  state  that  the  Prussian 
dollar  or  thaler  is  worth  about  tlu-ee  shillings  English,  that  tliere  ai-c  twenty 
groschen  in  tlie  dollar,  and  that  tlie  Prussian  centner  equals  about  110  lbs. 
It  is  obvious  tlittt  a  conipai-ison  between  the  prices  above  named,  and  Uiose 
cliarged  by  our  own  manufacturei's,  can  be  usefully  made  by  those  only  who 
ore  practically  concerned  in  these  matters.  The  delicate  little  Berlin  castings, 
such  as  brooches,  &c.,  are  priced  from  a  groschen  to  a  dollar  each ;  but  it 
would  be  vain  to  compare  these  with  EngUsh  prices  imtil  England  produces 
something  equal,  which  she  assuredly  never  yet  has  done. 

From  Uie  lately  published  Official  Austrian  Catalogue  of  the  Great  Exhibi- 
tion, we  gather  some  valuable  uiformatiou  concerning  the  iron  jniniug  of  tliat 
extensive  empire.  There  were  produced  in  the  year  184B,  about  3,200,000  cwts. 
of  pig-u'on,  of  which  Biytia  and  Hungary  contributed  together  about  one-half; 
of  oast-iron  there  was  about  450,000  cwts.,  all  from  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Silesia.  It  spears,  therefore,  that  the  kingdoms  or  provinces  in  which  the  iron 
is  mined  and  smelted  in  greatest  abimdance,  are  not  those  which  take  the  lead 
in  producing  u-on  castings.  The  pig-iron  is  smelted  in  about  260  furnaces,  and 
melted  for  castings  in  about  60  cupola  and  reverberating  fiimaces.  From  the 
pig-u-on,  besides  a  portion  converted  into  castings,  about  300,000  cwts.  of  steel 
are  made  amiuolly.  Both  in  malleable  iron  and  cast  iron,  Austria  exports 
more  Uian  she  impoila,  a  sufficient  proof  that  she  is  favourably  circumstanced 
in  respect  to  this  really  impoilont  element  of  national  weoltlt.    The  number 


L 


iWMMMililMII 


lAOM   AND   ITS   MAMUFAfiTUHB. 


ftl 


A  closo  coinpariHon  aiid 
I  can  not  €'<|ual  Uiom,  a 
uitleHS  outlay.     It  ia  in 
libitiua  will  cender  ser- 
iiacretion  in  forbidding 
shall  )j;radually  ac<iuiru 
ike  up,  for  example,  tlio 
EngliHh  sums  of  money 
1 ;  they  are  the  prices,  wo 
ild  be  empowered  to  sell 
tlio  immediate  subject  of 
L  cousidcrablu  numbcrH ; 
iw-pans,  frying-pans,  &c. 
ae-iHit,  ijd.;  a  fouT'litre 
S3d.;  and  bo  on.     The 
it  into  shape ;  and  tlieir 
atB  English.     Now  here 
Are  uieso  articles  well 
tides  in  England?    Be 
e  in  some  way  or  other. 
I  clasp-knives  sent  from 
imentol  kind ;  tliey  vary 
iudes  and  the  degree  of 
uuch  tlie  Saxon  peasants 

the  means  for  insdtuting 

of  Northern  Germany. 
t  20  dollars  per  centner ; 

rasps,  11 ;  scissors,  16; 
en;  up  to  much  higher 

state  that  the  Prussian 
b,  that  tliere  ai-c  twenty 
er  equals  about  110  lbs. 
above  named,  and  tliose 
made  by  tliose  only  who 
iate  little  Berlin  castings, 
to  a  dollar  each;  but  it 

until  England  produces 
lone. 

j[ue  of  the  Great  Exhibi- 
5  the  iron  ininiug  of  that 
J48,  about  3,a00,000  cwts. 
I  together  about  one-half; 

Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
"ovinces  in  which  the  iron 
(hose  which  take  the  lead 
a  about  260  furnaces,  and 
ing  iiimaces.  From  the 
>ut  300,000  cwts.  of  steel 
ast  iron,  Austria  exports 
favourably  circumstanced 
ml  weoltlt.    The  number 


of  persons  employed  in  tlio  Austrian  dominions  in  lft48,  in  rnishig  iron  ore, 
Hnielting,  casting,  forging,  steel  making,  and  manufacturing  connuodities  in 
iron  and  stoel,  wiw  about  15(),0(M»;  and  tlie  value  of  tJio  commwlities  so 
produced  was  about  70,000,000    H<»rin8   (about   iJ7,000,000).      It  may  hero 
Imj   stated,  that  tlie  cwt.  spoken  of  is  the   Austrian   cmttmr,  equal  to  about 
12;3  lbs.  English.     Tho  following  iluUils  aie  interesting,  for  thev  relate  to  tlio 
productive  industry  of  a  country  with  which  we  have  hitlierto  been  too  little 
acquainted : — "  Of  tho  different  branches   of  this  (the  iron)  department  of 
manufacture,  tlioso  tliat  are  conducted  on  a  largo  scale  seem  to  deserve  most 
iittention;  among  tliese,  tho   first  Uiat  presenU  itself  to  our  notice  is  tlie 
manufacture  of  scythes,  sickU^s,  and  chaff  cuttoj-s.     The  pwxluce  of  I7»  scytlie 
factories  was  4,00(t.000  scythes,  1,000,000  sickle'i,  and  90,000  chaff  cutters, 
valued  at   6,000,000   floiins;  these  articles,   on   account  of  tlieir  excellent 
quality,  liave  found  their  way  into  all  parts  of  tlie  world.     The  manufacture 
of  pans,  boilei-8,   and  kettles,   carried   on   in   50   establishinenta,  turns  out 
!i5,000  cwt.  of  articles,  valued  at  676,000  florins.     The  manufacture  of  wire 
is  of  greater  importance,  and  is  earned  on  at  100  factories,  producing  about 
80,000  cwt.,  value  1,864,000  florins.     The  manufacture  of  mils  is  also  very 
extensively  carried  on,  and  amounts  to  60,000  cwt.,  valued  at  970,000  florins. 
The  smaller  workshops  appropriated  to  other  manuliictures  in  iron,  produce 
files,  knives,  hatchets,  shovels,  swoixl  blades,  gun  barrels,  and  various  other 
aiticles,  to  the  value  of  4,800,000  florins ;   they  give  employment  to  more 
than  60,000  persons  (of  whom  about  15,000  are  inastei-s),  and  support  160,000 
individuals,  including  the  members  of  the  families  of  tliose  employed." 

It  might  at  first  seem  strange  that,  while  England  can  produce  every  kind 
of  iron  implements  at  extremely  low  prices,  Austria  should  be  able  to  export 
by  millions  the  scytlies,  and  sickles,  and  reaping  hooks  needed  by  the  farmer. 
But  in  this,  as  in  many  other  cases,  we  must  look  at  the  quality  of  the  ore 
met  with,  and  the  means  for  obtaining  iron  from  the  ore.  Now,  in  Btyria 
(one  of  the  component  members  of  the  Austrian  Empire)  tliere  is  a  peculiar 
and  veiT  abundant  kind  of  spathic  iron  ore,  a  semi-crystallme  cai-bonate  of 
the  luetai ;  and  it  is  proved  that  the  steel  made  from  the  iron  of  this  ore 
is  excellently  suited  for  the  kind  of  semces  required  in  the  cutleiy  implements 
here  named. 

Economical  pEctJUAKiTiEa  in  Gebmajjy  and  America. 

The  rise  of  the  iron  manufacture  in  Rhenish  Prussia  is  becoming  astDnish- 
higly  rapid.  Smelting  and  forging  establishments  on  a  very  large  scale  are 
multiplying  fast.  Let  us  take  Mr.  Banfield's  account  of  a  visit  which  ho  paid 
to  tlie  iron-works  of  Messrs.  Haniel,  at  Oberhausen,  a  few  years  i^.  Near 
the  works  are  cottages  which  the  fii-m  had  built  for  the  workmen ;  the  build- 
ings ai-e  well  planned  and  constructed,  and  are  made  over  to  the  workmen 
at  prime  cost,  to  be  paid  for  by  small  deductions  from  their  wages  during 
a  series  of  years ;  this  comprises  the  best  elements  of  a  Building  Society, 
without  its  defects.  In  respect  to  the  value  of  the  land  near  the  works, 
Mr.  Banfield  makes  a  striking  remark :  "  It  is,  perhaps,  not  too  much  to  say, 
that  every  fresh  pair  of  rolls  (rollers  for  makuig  bar  kon)  erected  at  Ober- 
hausen, would  add  the  value  of  a  dollar  an  acre  to  every  estate  whose  owner 
had  sense  enough  to  draw  his  profit  from  it."— {Industry  of  the  Rhine.)  Tho 
Oberhausen  works  stand  on  about  as  much  giound  as  the  Low  Moor  works, 
in  Yorkshire.     The  cenU-al  pai-t  is  occupied  by  the  rollmg  mill,  round  wliich 


i 


w:>rtr-tmmr 


L 


M 


IBOM  A»y  ITH  MANUVAGTUHK. 


nowly  fortv  pu«l>ULng  fumaccB  are  ranged,  eftch  witlj  its  luunniei-  and  pair 
of  rollB.      NiwuivUj  H  »U>aiu  Iwimuer  wiu  inH\KUir<"«l  in  Uu^mo  worltH  ttlnumt, 
Ob  WKJii  OH  iu  Englftiiil.     Wuikintfu  of  many  difforeijt  imtioiiH  are  rmployod. 
Uid  ou  Uii»  point  Mr.  Bwifiwld  iMukei*  tbe  loUowing  observutionH ; — '•  Wht-ii 
the  driU  <>«  go<><l,  Uttuu  in  soiuotituuB  an  iulvautage  in  tltiM:  tor  tlio  Qatioual 
rivalry  in  awakuuod,  tuid  urgeu  tho  mtm  to  do  their  bcHt  tor  the  Hako  of 
tli«  good  uttujo  of  tjieir  oouiiU-y  as  well  aw  of  Uioir  own.     The  high  wage* 
puid  U)  puddlorH  tuid  rollers,  antl  Uio  priwout  neceuKity  for  employing  t»trang€mi, 
owing  to  tlio  uuddivnnuss  of  tlio  dumand  that  grew  out  of  tlie  spreail  of 
niUwoys,  w  a  utrong  inctjntive  to  U>o  GcmiaiiH,  who  nmk«  great  oxertion« 
to  *'«t  tlioniselveii  to  the  tank,   and  of  course  now  huccimkI.      The  oidy 
Huporiority  iu  the  atriuigo  workmen  lies  in  tlieir  having  sotm  large  worku 
in  England  or  in  Belgium,  and  knowing  tbe  methods  used  In  tliom.     But 
now  tliat  milU  arc  oreoting  all  over  Gormany  on  quite  as  large  a  Kcale  a» 
the  lingUsh,  there  will  be  a  nuhool  to  train  them  in  at  home.    We  could 
not  help  thinking,  ou  viewing  tlie  acene,  tliat  aomo  a«lvantage  might  be 
derived  ft-om  that  kmd  of  masonic  hoBpitolity  which  prevailed  ui  the  Middle 
Ag08,  ami  which  tmcouruged  men  to  visit  other  countries,  with  tlieir  trade  as 
a  patjtiport  and  letter  of  credit,  whicli  ensured  them  a  good  reception  wherever 
Uiey  wont     It  Ik,  perhaps,  natuj-al  that  Ktrange  workmen  in  Gennany  shoidd 
be  well  received  whore  they  appear  a»  toach«r« ;  hut  it  is  creditable  to  every 
counUy  iu  whicli  hospitality  ia  dictated  by  good  feeling."    A  singular  fact 
met  Mr.  Bantield's  view:  a  wate^miU  was  buUt,  in  the  infancy  of  the  works, 
to  give  motive  power  to  the  machinery,  but  it  is  now  wholly  employed  in 
gr'mding  com  for  Uie  1000  persons  employed  m  tlie  estabhHhment.     The 
proprietoi-9  have  built  a  refectory,  where  they  sei-ve  such  of  tlw  workpeople 
OS  ai-e  willing  to  avail  themselves  of  Uie  accommodation  with  provisions, 
at  a  low  price,  on  a  system  which  keeps  dear  of  the  knavery  of  our  truck- 
system.     It  is  another  goo«l  f«ature  at  these  works,  that  all  the  workp<!oplo 
deposit  something  weekly  in  a  Bavmgs  Bank,  as  a  reserve  for  times  of 
difficulty. 

As  a  contiast  to  the  fine  an-ongement  of  the  establisliment  just  noticed, 
we  may  glance  at  Mr.  Bonfield's  description  of  a  mining  and  smelting  work 
nooi-  Siegeu,  managed  on  what  we  may  call  tlie  peasant-proprietor  system. 
The  Eisenzeche  Mine  is  situated  in  a  valley;  its  atlit,  which  runs  upon  tlic 
vein,  is  about  an  EngUsh  mile  in  length.  There  is  no  provision  for  horse- 
power, but  a  tram-road  is  used  to  run  out  tlie  stuff.  AJound  the  entrance 
heai>8  of  cwre,  of  two  tons  each,  he  nicely  piled,  each  with  a  wooden  cross  stuck 
in  it,  mai'ked  witli  some  kind  of  miners'  heraldry— «uch  as  a  ship,  a  tree, 
or  an  initial,  to  indicate  that  it  belongs  to  one  particular  shareholder  in  tlie 
mUie.  The  mine  belongs  altogether  to  small  mmers,  and  is  worked  by 
themselves,  under  tlie  direction  of  mining  officers.  From  the  piece-meal 
aiid  primitive  ioo^.e  in  which  the  operations  are  ooiiduoted,  the  profits  of 
tlie  miners  amount  to  no  more  than  very  moderate  wi^s.  In  a  smelting 
work  not  far  from  the  mine,  there  is  a  furnace  m  the  middle  of  a  large 
casting  house,  which  affords  shelter  to  tlie  numerous  smelters  and  their 
gossiping  neighbours.  As  the  result  of  a  timid  caution  lest  the  mines  should 
be  too  soon  exhausted  of  their  treasures,  each  smelt-work  is  limited  to 
a  certain  number  of  days  in  each  week;  and  each  miner  attends  to  smelt 
his  own  little  store  on  the  prescribed  days.  Notliing  can  he  more  oppdsed 
to  tlie  organiijed  system  of  a  modem  establishment  than  the  proceedings 
of  these  smelters — these  children  of  antiquated  usages.      Each  man  has 


HHMMf 


llMMa 


L 


Ji  itft  hamnicr  auil  pair 
I  in  UicNu  wurkit  ulnioHt 
ut  iiiUtoiiH  are  omploywl. 
;  obM«rYaUoii8 ; — "  When 
iu  iliw:  lor  tlio  oaUoDul 
nt  bcHt  tur  the  aako  of 
own.  Tho  hiRh  wftRcs 
'  for  employing  HtranKoi-N, 
w  out  uf  tlie  Hpreatl  of 
10  nmkH  great,  uxertionH 
w  Bucoewl.  Ti»e  only 
iiiving  soon  liu^e  workii 
mIh  used  in  tlieni.  But 
luita  m  liu^u  a  scale  iw 
ill  at  homo.  \V«  could 
>uio  ailrautAgo  nii^^ht  bo 
prevailed  in  Uie  Middle 
tries,  with  tliuir  trade  oa 
mjod  reception  wherever 
niuu  in  Gennany  ahoidd 
it  is  credjtttble  to  cvorj- 
jeliug."  A  singular  fact 
ho  infaaov  of  the  works, 
now  wholly  employed  in 
Lbe  estabhshnient.  Thu 
Buch  of  the  workpeople 
lodatiou  with  provisionH, 
JO  knavery  of  our  truck- 
that  all  the  >voriip<!oplo 
a  reaorve  for  times  of 

tablishment  just  noticed, 
wing  and  Bmclting  work 
easant-proprietor  system, 
dit,  which  runs  upon  tlie 
i  no  provision  for  horsc- 
r.  Around  the  entrance 
vith  a  wooden  oross  stuck 
— euch  as  a  ship,  a  tree, 
icular  glioreholder  in  tiie 
iners,  and  is  worked  by 
1.  From  tho  piece-meal 
conducted,  the  )>rofits  of 
Le  wages.  In  a  smelting 
in  the  middle  of  a  large 
rous  smelters  and  their 
Lion  lest  the  mines  should 
smelt-work  is  limited  to 
[»  miner  attends  to  smelt 
ng  can  be  more  opp6sed 
nt  than  the  proceedings 
asages.      Each  man  has 


IltOM  AKO  ITS  UAKUFACTUIUt. 


88 


liis  own  small  hhod  ftdl  of  ore,  aitd  anotlior  Hh«*d  fidl  of  rhftrcoal ;  and  all 
llioHO  litUo  ♦wotionx  are  hud<lled  i.T«gula»ly  round  iho  fuinacn.  Il»ir<!  ho 
HiUi,  uidetw  fritzMU  out  by  the  cold  uf  winUn-,  bniaking  up  iiis  ore  willi  a 
iiiuimicr;  bin  lu'vcr  failing  pi|i<'  (to  li^'bt.  wbif.b  nticcsMitaUi*  frequent  trips 
U)  tl»e  funiaco  i/iid  gives  an  op|H>rtuuily  U»r  g«wMip)  hangs  tu  his  lips.  W'bin 
hiH  tuni  oouiow,  he  wheels  his  ore  to  ujo  iuniium  mouth  uudm  the  «U|»r- 
inUjndenoe  of  tiio  llultnunai»ter,  or  furnace  niaoter,  and  conti-ibutos  his  <^uoU 
of  charcoal  and  broken  ore  to  Iho  fiery  Iwap.  Ho  claiuu  a  {lortion  't  tho 
omeited  contonta  of  the  fiuiiaco,  and  assisU  in  bringing  it  into  Kaieablo 
form.  "The  peasant  owners  (of  tlio  land  (u-ound  Hii-gen)  aie  also  share- 
holders in  mines,  and  in  Uio  forests  arour»d,  which  supply  the  charcoal 
consumed.  'J'hey  manage  to  divide  tlioir  time  ImjIwcou  the  mine,  tho  forest, 
Uie  furnace,  and  their  land,  in  such  a  mimner  as  to  be  unctsasiugly  employed, 
and  tliey  calculate  closely  enough  in  isolated  speculations;  but  tlio  giiuid 
calculation  of  all,  the  bem'fit  coui'en-ed  by  division  of  labour,  is  luiknown  \o 
this  couununity."  One  of  the  unfuvourablo  consetpionces  of  tliis  pat<!l»-work 
system  is,  that  each  small  speculation  bus  its  own  shafts,  atlits,  galleries,  Ac, 
willwut  any  relation  to  tliose  of  iU  neighbours,  so  tliat  nmch  more  diggiug, 
dragging,  and  lifting  are  bestowed,  tliau  tho  extent  of  tho  mineral  veins 
renders  uecessaiy. 

'I'herQ  was  a  paper  communicated  to  llie  Franklin  Journal  a  year  or  two  ago 
which  is  worthy  of  notice  as  showing  how  apparently  minute  tu-o  tlie  circum- 
stances which  detenu  ine  the  power  of  one  counti-y  tt>  equal  or  excel  anotlier 
in  exporting  manufactured  goods.  The  subject  relates  to  iron ;  luid  tlie 
vniter,  a  Mr.  H.  i'aii-baim,  lamenU  the  inability  of  tlie  United  HUUm  to  keep 
out  English  iron,  notwitlwtanding  tlie  abundance  of  ii-on  and  coal  iu  tliat 
widc-Hpreading  region.  The  pith  of  his  argument  is  found  in  the  fact,  as 
stated  by  him,  that  tlie  smelting  works  have  been  iiyudiciously  built  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  great  coal-dtiposits ;  so  that  tlie  coal,  ch<'ap  at  tlio  pit's  mouth, 
becomes  costly  by  the  time  it  has  reached  Uie  furnace  moutli;  wliile  a  "inanu- 
ttctiivtr  of  i-aihroad  iron  in  Wales  smelts  his  pig-iron  fi-om  the  ore,  puddles  and 
re. ill. .s  the  iron  Into  bars,  and  mills  the  bars  into  railing  iron— fvU  witli  tlie 
coils  dug  at  tiie  door  of  his  establishment,  witli  tlie  same  ateum-engine 
diroughout  all  tho  processes  (perhaps?),  by  Uie  same  supervision,  in  a  shorter 
space  of  time."  The  result  was  Uiat,  in  1849,  English  railway  iron  undei-sold 
Pennsylvania  iron  in  Pennsylvania  itself.  But  Mr.  Faiibaim  Uiiidts  that  Uiis 
state  of  things  must  pass  away,  if  large  smelting  works  were  established  in 
the  iron  and  coal  district  of  Pottsville.  "  From  hard  siliceous  iron  oro  only  a 
tough,  unmalleable,  and  cold  short  iron  can  be  made ;  and  Uie  richer  hemaUto 
ores  are  i.ndisnensable  for  admixtm-e  wiUi  the  siliceous  ores  of  Pottsville  or  of 
Wales.  But  in  Wales  these  hematite  ores  can  only  be  obtained  from  Uie 
north  of  England,  and  their  expense  is  so  great,  Uiat  Uiis  circunistwice  now 
threatens  Uie  most  serious  consequences  to  Uio  trade  of  Wales.  A  ton  of 
hematite  ore  cannot  be  brought  from  Ulverstone  to  MerUiyr  Twydwell  (Tydyil) 
at  a  cost  of  less  Uian  28«.  per  ton;  luul  yet  so  important  is  it  to  have  hematite 
for  admixture  with  Uie  native  ores,  Uiat  the  character  of  Uie  Welsh  railway 
iron  is  rapidly  degenerating  in  foreign  markets,  by  reason  of  Uie  impossibility 
of  affording  the  importation  of  Uiesc  ores  at  the  prices  for  railroad  which  can 
only  now  be  obtained,  in  consequence  of  Uie  low  prices  established  in  the 
Clyde."  Starting  from  these  two  data— that  Uie  Welsh  iixm  masters  cannot 
pay  for  hematite  if  they  sell  at  low  prices,  and  that  Uicir  iron  will  lose  its 
saleable  qualities  if  it  do  not  contain  hematite,  Mr.  Fairbaira  draws  favour- 


M 


u 


IRON   AND   ITS  MANUFACTURE. 


able  auguries  for  his  own  countiy,  in  the  circumstance  that  hematite  is  to  be 
met  with  at  no  great  distance  from  the  coal  and  iron  disfxict  around  Potte- 
ville;  and  tliat,  if  smelting  works  were  established  there,  Pennsylvania  might 
defy  both  Wales  and  Scotland. 

Whether  the  above  train  of  reasoning  be  soimd  or  not,  it  is  quite  demon- 
strable that  the  proximity-  of  a  coal-mine  to  a  smelt-work  is  of  great  importr 
ance  to  the  latter.     Mr.  Fau-baim  weU  illustrates  this  point,  which  forms  part 
of  the  commercial  philosophy  of  manufactures,  in  Uie  foUowmg  remarks:— 
"  Only  tlie  finer  branches  of  iron  manufacture  can  exist  in  cities,  or  m  locali- 
ties distant  from  the  supplies  of  coal.     In  Liverpool  there  are  large  foundries, 
and  a  great  steam-engine  busmess  is  carried  on  ;  but  the  heavier  parts  of  the 
en-'ines  are  brought  from  places  in  the  Midland  Counties,  and  only  the  finer 
parts  of  the  work  are  manufactured  in  Liverpool ;  whilst  m  London,  though 
myriads  of  people  are  employed  in  manufactures  of  which  iron  is  the  raw 
material,  yet  it  [the  employment]  is  in  cutleiy,   in    fine   castings,  and  the 
thousand   divisions  of  business  in  which  the  raw  material  does  not  enter  so 
largely  into  the  manufactured  articles  as  does  the  skill  of  the  artisan,  the  pre- 
sence of  the  meiropoUtan  mai-ket,  the   fashion,  foreign  demand,  and  mwiy 
other  considerations  which  favom-  manufacturei-s  in  cities  and  towns.     But 
a  bai-  of  railway  iron  was  never  made  in  Liverpool  or  in  London,  and  none 
can  be  profitably  made    in    Philadelphia,  which    is   the   Liverpool  of  the 
United  States.     Foundiies,  cutleries,  and  other  skiUed  iron  manufactures  ot 
endless  varieties,  might  be  estabUshed  with  the  greatest  advantage  m  Phila- 
delphia; but  tlie  pig-iron,  the  bar-iron,  railway  bai-s,  beams  for  steam-engines, 
and  all  other  heavy  and  compaiatively  cheap  iron  and  iron  manufactures,  pnly 
can  be  furnished  from  the  places  where  fuel  is  to  be  obUiined  at  the  lowest 

Tlie  few,  brief,  scattered  notices  of  iron  and  the  iron  manufacture  in  foreign 
countries  which  have  found  a  piece  in  tlie  present  sheet— trifling  as  they  may 
be  smgly— all  tend  to  illustiate  the  value  which  we  ought  to  place  on  a  know- 
ledge of  the  proceedings  of  industrj'  in  other  lands  besides  our  own ;  such 
knowledge  may  be  made  up  of  "  cm-iosities,"  but  it  is  not  less  knowledge  oii 
tliat  account.  And  if  the  Eoyal  Commissionei-s  should  cany  out  the  proposed 
plan  of  making  a  permanent"  collection  of  specimens — tiny  bits  for  the  gieat 
assemblage— we  may  hope  that  uon,  foreign  as  well  as  British,  rough  ore  as 
well  as  polished  bars,  will  not  be  forgotten. 


e  that  hematite  is  to  be 
on  distjict  around  Potts- 
ere,  Pennsylvania  might 

not,  it  is  quite  demon- 
vork  is  of  great  import- 
1  point,  which  forms  part 
le  following  remarks: — 
ist  in  cities,  or  in  locali- 
diere  are  large  foundries, 
tlie  heavier  parts  of  tiie 
nties,  and  only  the  finer 
vhilst  in  London,  though 
f  which  iron  is  the  raw 

I  fine  castings,  and  the 
iterial  does  not  enter  so 

II  of  the  artisan,  the  pre- 
3ign  demand,  and  many 
I  cities  and  towns.  But 
or  in  London,  and  none 
IS  the  Liverpool  of  the 
led  iron  manufactures  of 
eatest  advantage  in  Phila- 
beams  for  steam-engines, 
d  iron  manufactures,  pnly 
be  obtained  at  the  lowest 

on  manufacture  in  foreign 
leet— tiifling  as  they  may 
)ught  to  place  on  a  know- 
1  besides  our  own ;  such 
is  not  less  knowledge  on 
uld  cany  out  the  proposed 
IS — tiny  bits  for  tiie  gieat 
1  as  British,  rough  ore  as 


WOOD  AND  ITS  APPLICATIONS. 


There  is  a  battle  going  on  among  the  materials  of  manufactures.  From 
time  to  time  tlie  old  familiar  products  of  Nature's  work  have  to  contend 
against  new  aspirants  for  public  favom-;  and  the  new  comer  occasionally  bears 
off  the  palm.  Sometimes  metal  has  to  yield  up  one  of  its  positions,  which  is 
taken  possession  of  by  wood ;  and  wood,  on  the  other  hand,  has,  in  no  smdl 
number  of  cases,  been  obliged  to  yield  to  metal.  Then,  again,  although  it  is 
said  there  is  "  nothing  like  leather,"  yet  the  gutta-percha  dealers  confidently 
dispute  tliis  maxim ;  and  the  workers  in  papier-mache  no  less  resolutely  enter 
the  domain  of  the  workers  in  wood.  Staffordshu-e  claims  for  its  "Parian" 
clay  statuettes  a  place  by  tlie  side  of  those  made  in  Paiian  mai-ble ;  and  tlie 
cement  artificei-s  will  not  admit  that  marble  and  stone  are  more  beautiful  or 
more  durable  than  the  produce  of  their  labours. 

But  such  is  tlie  right  path  towards  excellence.  These  imweaiied  .trials  de- 
velope  properties — often  beautiful  as  useful — in  natui-al  substances,  which 
would  remain  unknown  if  the  old  prescriptive  notions  were  too  closely  ad- 
hered to.  It  is  true  that  tlie  new  attempts  occasionally  fail,  and  tliat  the  un- 
successful experimenter  is  made  to  smart  for  the  failure;  it  is  tme  also  that 
offences  against  good  taste  sometimes  mark  the  novelties,  by  a  certain  incon- 
gruity between  the  material  employed  and  the  pvupose  of  tlie  article  pro- 
duced ;  but  diese  matters  always  adjust  themselves  after  a  tune— society  prmies 
otf  the  redundancies,  and  avails  itself  of  whatever  amount  of  good  may  result 
from  the  seturch  after  what  is  new. 

Wood  is  among  the  natural  products  which  have  been  singularly  exposed  to 
these  mdustrial  contests  (if  tliey  may  be  so  termed).  As  a  material  for  build- 
ing, it  supersedes  all  others  in  an  early  stage  of  society  ;  but  it  gives  way  to 
brick  and  stone  as  forests  become  cleared.  As  a  fuel,  it  is  every  year  yielding 
more  and  more  to  coal.  As  a  material  for  engineering  and  large  works  of 
constmction,  its  use  is  now  most  sensibly  lessened  in  favour  of  tha,t  of  iron. 
As  a  material  for  decomtive  furniture,  or  for  fine-art  productions,  it  has  to 
contend  against  the  rivalry  of  papier-mache,  of  cement  composition,  of  ja- 
panned iron,  of  sj  mped  leather,  of  carton  pien-e,  of  guttarpercha. 

Yet  wood  is  more  abundantly  used  than  at  any  former  period,  and  for  more 
diveree  purposes.  If  any  circumstance  shakes  its  supremacy  in  one  quaiter, 
it  speedily  finds  room  for  exercise  in  anotlier.  There  is  a  natm-al  and 
deeply-seated  cause  for  this :  if  the  worker  m  wood  is  disturbed  in  his  voca- 
tions by  competition  from  a  worker  in  anotlier  material,  he  has  abundant 
reason  for  tiymg  to  strengthen  his  position  in  other  directions;  and  his 
ingenuity,  shaipened  by  self-interest,  points  out  the  way. 

Timber  op  all  Nations:  Great  Exhibition. 

The  first  half  of  the  present  century  has  witnessed  many  of  the  revolutions 
noticed  above.  It  has  seen  tlie  substitution  of  other  materials  for  wood  in 
many  manufactures  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  moi-ked  by  tlie  appli- 


'■*■ 


L 


d 


WOOD  AND   ITS   APPLICATIONS. 


nation    to  useful  purposes,  of  kinds  of  wood  before  almost  unknown ;  and 
espedku^  Zt  L7n  characterised  by  a  great  extension  due  to  the  use  of 

^'^SXf  slyTSrSds  concen.ing  timber  itself,  before  speaking  of  the 

"  Trtip'iel^rhtSo..to  work  on  '  Tm.mg.-  gives  a  ve.7  minute 

d..Sption3  classification  of  the  various  kinds  of  wood  used  ni  the  Aats 

Ho  fiiVt  ?oSs  out  the  well-kno^vn  structural  difference  between  e-vogemmi 

Ido^^is   wWch  leads  to  a  separation  of  all  kinds  of  trees  mto  two  gieat 

^up     "rflAe  tn.e  wood»  («L   they  are   sometimes  termed)  are  -ogens ; 

ShS  the  endogens  include  the  grasses,  bamboos,  palms,  &e.     In  the  coun- 

Ses  .Jhe^  b^boos  and  palms  s^  indigenous,  the  smaUer  stems  are  u  ed  as 

;  bes  forle  conveyance  of  water,  and  tlie  larger  pieces  as  JO>«t.^£. ,  J"  ♦^^*' 

Tger  kinds  of  palm,  the  fibi-es  appear  like  f  ««*%«;:  ^^f^f^^^S^^n 

substance  similar  to  cement  or  pith.     The  natives  of  the  ^'^'"'^'^^^l^w 

ni/.k  out  the  fibres  from  some  of  the  palms,  and  use  them  aB  naUs  ,  m  some 

siecimenrthev  Li  as  hard  as  rosewood.     Some  of  the  smallest  palms  are 

rpTteTinrthrcount^  for  walking^ticks,  -^%«;«  ^7- ^^  tS 

nnd  Penanc  canes.     Of  the  foiur  or  five  himdred  varieties  ot   paim  trees 

known^rixisronly  a  veiy  small  number  are  impoi-te<l  into  this  comitry. 

S  Um-wSdB   sS^  im^^^^      are  sparingly  employed  for  cabinet  and  ma.-- 

nnetr^wOTk  for  bilUard  Jues,  for  snutf  boxes,  &c.     The  tmst^d  palm  walking 

^SclT^AeTenSms  or  midribs  of  the  leaves  of  the  fate  Palm;  they 

are  tli^d  when  green,  and  stretehed  witli  heavy  weights  unti    they  are  tho- 

are  '■y'/^^"  ^''"^\^|'r,/„ „  fruit  of  many  of  this  group  of  plant*  is  apph<jablc 

rt  J  f^the^r  ;i?ch^  tS^^  or  ««can«*,  whose  substance  i. 

Sr  nS  ntll^2,'t^rtops  of  wdking  sticks,  and  other -all^^ets  ;  ^e 

S  With  respect  to  the  simple  wants  and  pnmitiye  arts  of  the  people 
among  wfLrthepahns  and  baiLboos  grow,  the  uses  of  tliose  Pl^n*^  are  ei^ 
numerous-  of  the  ooros  nimfera,  or  cocoa-nut  palm,  for  example,  the  fmit  is 

ShTand  ^t;Se  inter^ovefwith  the  medW  -?«  or  intermpted  by 
£  f  L  Wi^  elastic  and  easily  rent:  such  are  --'XVood  £: 

^.h    \-c  ■  but  if  tlie  fibres  ai-e  more  crossed  and  interlaced,  liie  wood  Ik 
romes^'e;s'ttt,td  ml  rigid  and  tough :  such  are  oak,  b-^  J^^^^^ 
*P  .  nnd  if  the  fibres  be  entangled  to  a  still  greater  degree,  they  proauce  uu 

t  ;;X^  totgircro^^^^^^       --h  -  «H"'  "?r  nf  HoUS 

mode  of  classification,  tmced  wiUi  some  minuteness  by  Mr.  Holtzapttel, 


1 


L 


almost  unknown ;   and 
ision  duo  to  the  use  of 

before  speaking  of  llie 

g,'  gives  a  very  minute 
ft'ood  used  in  the  Ai-ts. 
nee  between  exogem  and 
of  trees  into  two  gi-eat 
8  termed)  are  exogens ; 
palms,  &c.     In  tlie  coim- 
maller  stems  are  usetl  as 
ces  as  joists,  Ac.     In  the 
or  wires  embedded  in  a 
■  the  Isthmus  of  Darien 
them  as  nails  ;  in  somo 
)f  the  smallest  palms  ar*; 
r  the  names  of  partridge 

varieties  of  palm  trees 
)0i-t«d  into  this  countiy. 
»yed  for  cabinet  and  mar- 
Ihe  tmsi  d  palm  walking 
i  of  the  date  palm ;  they 
;ight8  until  they  are  tho- 
up  of  plants  is  appliQablc 
a  nut,  whose  substance  is 

other  smjill  objects  ;  the 
V  used  in  England  for  a 
lie  shell,  which  is  turned 
hell  of  which,  being  hard 
IS  and  pai-GSols,  small  toys, 
aitive  arts  of  tlie  people 
!S  of  tliose  plants  are  vety 
,  for  example,  tlie  frait  is 
;e,  the  leaves  are  used  for 
Item  yields  wood  fittetl  for 
portions  of  the  plant  aio 

mder  the  more  important 
itself.  The  fibres  do  nol 
ty  and  distance ;  these  two 
et>veen  hard  and  soft  wmds 
sewood,  &c. ;  and  the  latter 
lat  which  springs  fi-oni  the 
iidinal  fibres  be  tolerably 
ar}'  rays  or  interrupted  by 
icli  are  laiiee-wood,  hickoiy, 
d  interlaced,  the  wood  be- 
ai-e  oak,  beech,  mahogany, 
sr  degree,  they  produce  the 
,  ligiuim-vittE,  &c.  Another 
ness  by  Mr.  Holtzapffel,  is 


WOOD   AND  ITS   APPTJCATtOWS. 


6 


that  which  is  determined  by  the  beauty  of  the  surface  presented  by  woods. 
The  hiotit,  occasioned  by  the  junction  of  a  branch  with  the  stem ;  the  curls, 
produced  by  the  confiised  filling-in  of  the  space  between  the  forks  or  spring- 
ings  of  the  bi-anches,  as  in  the  yew ;  the  flnarled  appearance  of  the  roots, 
formed  at  the  points  of  junction  of  the  rootlets  or  arms  of  tlie  root  witli  the 
body  of  the  root  itself,  as  in  walnut- wood ;  the  pollard  growths  of  the  oak  and 
other  trees,  which  owe  tlie  beauty  of  their  grain  to  a  crowding  together  of  the 
little  germs  tliat  produce  the  numerous  slioote  at  the  top ;  the  ripple-mark  sur- 
iiice,  occasioned  by  a  serpentine  form  of  the  grain,  as  in  satin-wood  and  syca- 
more ;  the  bird's-eye  pattern,  occasioned  by  a  i)eculiar  compression  of  the  grain 
in  isolated  spots,  as  in  some  kinds  of  maple ;  the  -.ilrer-grain,  which  results 
from  a  marked  distinctness  in  the  medullary  rays,  as  in  the  plane,  sycamore, 
and  beech — all  give  rise  to  variations  in  the  appearance  of  tlie  surface  of  wood, 
which  are  the  mainspring  of  tlie  beauty  obsenablo  in  cabinet  work.  Anotlier 
and  verj'  obvious  mode  of  classifying  woods  is  in  respect  to  tlieir  colour. 

Mr.  Holtzapffel  gives  a  tabular  view  of  all  the  kinds  of  wood  commonly  used 
in  tliis  countiy.  The  list  includes  nearly  eighty  species  of  trees,  without 
naming  the  varieties  of  each  species.  He  classifies  them  according  to  the 
sei-vices  which  tliey  are  calculated  to  render.  One  group  includes  huildiiu/ 
woods,  subdivided  into  those  fitted  for  ship-building,  for  bouse-carpentiy, 
and  for  hydraulic  engineering ;  anotlier  group  includes  the  woods  most  useful 
for  machinery  and  mill-tcork,  subdivided  according  as  Uie  wood  is  suitable  for 
irame  work,  for  rollei-s,  for  teeth  of  wheels,  or  for  foundrj*  patterns;  a  tliird 
group  comprises  the  turnery  woods,  subdivided  uito  common  soft  woods,  hai'd 
woods,  and  Tunbridge-wai'e  woods ;  a  fourth  group  is  made  up  of  furniture 
woods,  separated  into  common  and  best ;  a  fifdi  group  comprises  omamentnl 
foreign  woods ;  a  sixth  group  consists  of  r/yc-woods,  arranged  according  to 
colour;  while  a  miscellaneous  group  is  foimed,  subdivided  according  to  the 
elasticity,  the  toughness,  the  even  grain,  or  tlie  durability  of  the  wood.  Of 
fourse  many  kinds  of  wood  find  a  place  in  two  or  more  of  these  groups ;  but 
the  table  is  valuable,  inasmuch  as  it  brings  together  before  the  eye  the 
names  of  all  tliose  woods  which  resemble  each  other  in  some  one  manufac- 
turing quality.  This  tabb  is  followed  by  a  Catalogue  raisonnee  of  the  woods, 
aiTanged  in  alphabetical  order,  in  which  the  principal  uses  of  eveiy  kind  is 
placed  opposite  to  its  name. 

But  we  have  at  the  present  time  something  better  than  a  mere  book  to 
appeal  to  for  instniction  on  these  matters.  The  Great  Exhibition,  in  tliis  as 
in  otlier  points,  is  quite  a  storehouse  of  educational  wealth;  we  cannot 
choose  but  learn,  unless  the  ^^sit  degenerate  into  a  mere  idle  lounge.  The 
numerous  collections  of  specimens  of  wood,  illustrating  the  capabilities  of 
different  counb-ies  and  disti-icts,  are  in  a  high  degree  interesting.  They 
show  some  among  tlie  sinews  of  industry,  the  materials  of  a  nation's  wealth ; 
tliey  point  out  whether  Uie  ship-builder  or  the  house-builder,  the  coach- 
maker  or  the  fiimiture-maker,  the  tasteful  can-er  or  tlie  patient  inlayer,  can 
best  be  supplied  with  the  substance  on  which  his  skill  and  labour  are  to  be 
bestowed ;  and  on  tlie  determination  of  tliis  question  depends  much  of  the 
industrial  organization  of  the  district.  That  which  a  country  can  best  produce 
is  that  which  its  inhabitants  are  most  likely  to  bring  profitably  into  use ; 
and  timber  trees  are  as  subject  to  this  law  as  any  other  natural  product. 

Some  of  the  collections  alluded  to  above  are  confined  to  pai-ticulai*  districts, 
each  of  which  is  illustrated  by  a  pai-ticular  collection;  but  othei-s  relate 
rather  to  the  varied  products  which  become  grouped  together  in  our  great 


I 


-nr 


T 


:«fPi 


1 


^  WOOD   AKD  ITS  ATPUCATIONS. 

e^poria  Of  commerce.   TakeJorexy^e.^e^^^^^^^^^ 

by  the  Dock  Commissxoners  jf  ^  and  of  Lw«rpoo^  ^P^^  neaUyprepared 

of  those  two  great  towns;   ^'""^ .^^rJ^xJ^iJi  aJoxmt  of  which  reaches 

specimens  of  the  woods  miported  tJiere,  the  ^t^  ^^^."^J    ^^^.^  j^,,„„t  fifty 

xL4y  150.000  loads  amiualiy;   ^^''^i^Sed  a^d  described.     Not 

specimens,  similarly  prepared,  but  ^"°J\fX^,t  HanS^  of  Hull.     Here 

iL  interesting  are  the  ^P^^'-^f «  ^e  ^^  i7S"  apSTcable  to  the  wants  of 

we  find  timber  from  every  P*"*  «f  *«  J«'^?;  "TjE  the  tough,  the  soft. 

eveiy  kind  of  worker  m  wood.     Ihe  h'^'^'  *^«/^^Xd  the  wood  for  rough 

the  Lotted.  tl.e  straiuhtgi^ned  f .J^^^i^Xrhexe  Ulustrated.     AH 

senice,  and  tlie  wood  for  tiisteful  •i««<'™*t°^-*;\„^^^  (mcludinsj! 

our  best  known  EngUsh  timber  trees;  many  ^^^^^^^^bu  W^^^^       formed)! 

the  Cuban  sabim,  of  which  the  stau^  ^i^he  ch  ef  Sids  of  dye-woods-an, 

of  satinwood.  of  rosewood,  of  tubpwood    tfie  chiet  ,g^^«  «   J      comprises 

here  presented  to  view  ^^^J  ^^f^J^.X^aped.^p^^^^^^^  and  labked; 
neai-ly  200  specimens,  aU  of  which  are  "^'^"y  °""P  ,,' -\„s  g^ch  one  lettered 
they  are  even  fashioned  like  quarto  and  octavo  ^^^^  f^^^  collection  is 
3  tlie  name  of  tlie  wood  which  conipo^es  it^  Mr.  S^^f^'^^^'^^.^ion ;  it 
stiU  lai-ger,  and  ai-ranged  m  ^  »«f^«^  ^^^^nly  ale  the  names  given, 
comprises  no  less  than  700  ^P^cnnens    and  not  only  a^^^  ^J  ^^^^ 

W  and  scientific,  but  «lso  the  imtwe  counU-y  the^wei^^^^  insU-uctive, 

the  prmcipal  uses  or  pecuhanties.  lo  render  inem  suu 
theyU  aiUged  geographically,  ^^.^J^^^jJ^f^Sut  a  more  immediately 
-fhe  coUecUon  sent  by  Mr.  C^^^^f  J^  ^^."^^  ^^  of  English  forest  woods, 
valuable  mterest.  It  consists  ^^^^^y  ^^^^^'S  "  v^sftor^  >vho  have  access  only 
and  fourteen  of  English  orchaid  ^^««^«:  J^fde^  niach  information 
to  tlie  smaUer  catdogues  of  the  Exhibition  are  a^^^^^  mugtiatod  cat^ilogue. 
given  by  the  ediibitoiN  and  piinted  m  the  toge^^   o  .^^  ^ 

hie  uses  to  which  each  kmd  of  wood  ^^J^^J^^^^^^'f  — Ha^el,  wc 

convenient  form,  in  the  last-mentioned  <=^<J^S^^.^^; '"'0^4^  feels,  pea  sticks, 
ai-e  told,  is  semceable  for  «™all  tm-nejy,  ^^,^8  ^^J'^^ket  bats  hat  found- 
Ac;  Elder,  for  shoemakers   f  gs.  &c      Wj,  wi  ^  ^^^^^^^ ,  ^^^^ 

ations,  plait  for  ladies'  bomiets,  &c. ,  »y r,^'  [^^^  Li^e,  for  pianoforU^ 
beam,  for  wheel.cogs,maUet8.skitties.  and  hard  tmner^^^  f^^  ^^^^^ 

keys,  musical  i^^^^^'^t^U.^^^L  Fh  O^^d  yZ  the  list  of  uses  is. 
In  respect  to  Ash.  Beech.  Birch,  Em,  Fir.  ^»«'  "JJ"  f  ^    valuable  qualities 

as  ma?  be  supposed,  very  ^f^^^^^^^^iti^^^.^Bpec^^^^^^  foreign  haid 
possessed  by  those  woods.  Messrs.  ^JT^^^^^^l""^  They  are  applicable  to 
^oods  are  rendered  intelhgible  m  a  «f  "[^^^"^^^r  purposes,  anf  comprise 
cabinet^work.  tmnerv.  machinery,  and  numerous  otha^pn^       •    ^^^^^  ^j 

Box.  B»-ilwood   eL       L         \^*^^  contiibuted  tiie 

many  other  valuable  kmds.     It  is  tins  nnn  uy  wi  inches  in  diameter, 

enonnous  circulai-  slab  of  Honduras  mahogany  seven^t  ^^Xo^y  extensive 
Messrs.  Lawson's  collection  of  the  ''««j«/^^^~Xm  ^^^^^^  and 

and  valuable  are  the  timber  U-ees  P««Xlo  ^h^wSS^  engineers,  and 
howgi-eat  tiie  semce  rendered  theieby1«shipwrig,^^^^ 

otiieis.     Everything  that  can  be  done  ^f^^JJ^^iJi'"'^^^  to ;  not  only 

may  tell  its  o^  tale,  seems  to  have  been  *^«"S^  of  tlie  specimens 

are^the  botanical  names  and  tiae  <^o'ii™«"  ,^"g^i"a^'^d  size  of  tiie  ti-cc 
given,  but  also  tlie  French  and  Geiinan  ^"^"^  J-^^ief  ^S  may  have  dis- 
Sience  the  specimen  wa«  cut,  «"*!  »"y  1?^,^ ti  e  wo'd  states, 

tinguished  it,  are  noted;  a...    1  order  to  show  uie  woou 


L 


itnictive  specimens  sent 
,  as  part  of  die  imports 
y-tlu-ee  neatly-prepared 
lount  of  which  reaches 
)ol  wc  have  al>out  fifty 
d  and  described.     Not 
[aiTisou  of  HuU.     Here 
)pUcable  to  the  wants  of 
)le,  the  tough,  the  soft, 
ted,  the  wood  for  rough 
fe  here  illustrated.     AH 
of  mahogany  (includinj^ 
on-building  are  formed), 
lands  of  dye-woods—arc 
I'he  collection  comprises 
I,  polished,  and  labelled; 
imies,  each  one  lettered 
r.  Sanders's  collection  is 
y   more   information;  it 
dy  are  the  names  given, 
veight  per  cubic  foot,  and 
■m  still  more  insU-uctive, 

elf.  ,.      , 

[  but  a  more  immediately 
i  of  English  forest  woods, 
tors  who  have  access  only 
ived  of  much  information 

or  illusti-atcd  catalogue. 
e  are  tabulated  in  a  very 
For  example  : — Hivzel,  vo 
,s,  cotton  reels,  pea  sticlis, 
r  cricket  bats,  hat  found- 
butchei-s'  skewers ;  Hom- 
nei7 ;  Lime,  for  pianoforte 
s,  carving,  and  so  forth. 
dYew,  the  list  of  uses  is, 

of  Uio  valuable  qualities 
wecimens  of  foreign  haid 
ay.    They  are  applicable  to 
iier  pm-poses,  ancf  compiise 
indalwood,  Zebrawood,  and 
n  has  been  contributed  the 
1  feet  six  inches  in  diameter, 
tlaud  shows  how  extensive 
I-  northern  neighbours,  anc 
Wrights,  to  engineers,  atul 
lis  collection  a  book  which 
fully  attended  to ;  not  only 
h  names  of  tlie  specimens 
he  age  and  size  of  the  ti-oc 
lities  which  may  have  dis- 
lie  wood  in  different  states, 


WOOD   AND   ITS   APPLICATIONS. 

two  pieces  of  most  of  the  specimens  oi'e  hinged  togetlier,  the  one  polished 
and  the  other  unpolished. 

Some  of  our  colonies  have  also  striven  to  show  tliat  their  store  of  forest 
wood  is  rich  and  ample,  only  wanting  commercial  energy  to  bring  tliem 
largely  into  use.     The  "Canadian  timber  tiophy" — a  rough  gi-oup  surrounded 
by  brilliant  neighbours — gives  us  not  merely  diiintily-cut  pieces,  but  whole 
planks  and  logs  of  the  timber  grown  in  tliat  countiy.     It  is  here  observable, 
tliat,  altliough  tliere  ore  many  varieties  of  beautiful  niaiking  and  tints,  the 
woods  are  generally  more  applicable  to  builduig  and  engineermg  tlian  to 
ornamental  purposes ;  in  respect  to  woods,  as  to  the  plmnuge  of  bu-ds  and 
tlie  colours  of  flowere,  tlie  sunny  soutli  produces  more  brilliimcy  tlian  the 
cold  north.     Africa  illustrates   tliis  principle ;  for  among  tlie  articles   sent 
from  tlie  Cape  ■  of  Good  Hope  is  a  case  containing   about   forty  specimens 
of  African    wood,  which    exhibit    much   more   depth  of    colom-   than   tlie 
average  of  northern  specimens.      The  British  Guianian  specimens  lue  full 
of  interest,  from  the  variety  which  they  exhibit  and  the  novelty  which  tliey 
comprise.     The  greater  number  of  tliese  woods  ai'e  almost  entirely  unknown 
in  this  country:  the  time  may  come,  when  our  i  ustly  and  atlonied  furniture 
(for  many  of  the  specimens  are  furniture  woods)  will   derive  their  material 
from  this  little  explored  colony.     The  names  given  to  tlie  woods  show  how 
little  they  have  yet   become   fainiliaiised  in   England: — kakarUla,   uamara, 
wallaba,    camara,     mtouri,    yaniri,    itikinhurahaUi,    koqwrcttabaUi,    tmeroneroo, 
warracoori — we  shall  have   to  leara  to   pronomice   such   names.      Trinidad 
furnishes  specimens  of  its  lignum-vitte,  ironwood,    cedai-,  and  otlier  trees ; 
and  it  is  observable,  tliat  many  trees  come  under  illustration  which  yield 
well-known  gums  and  juices — such  as  ynm-anivie,  copaiba,  and  fustic.     Our 
fai'-distant  possessions  in  the  East — such  as  India,  Ceylon,  Austiia,  and  New 
Zealand — have  all  transmitted  specimens  of  tlieir  forest  and  orchard  woods. 
The  Indian  varieties  came  from  vrnious  pai'ts  of  the  British  territories ;  from 
Ceylon  we  have  "  forty  specimens  of  ornamental  and  house-building  timber;" 
from  Van  Diemen's    Land  we   find   hlue-yum   timber,  fit  for  ship-building; 
stringy-bark,  for  house-building ;  black  wood,  for  cabinet  work ;    sassafras,  for 
flooring,  turning,  and  cai-ving;  and  so  forth;  while  New  Zealand  has  sent 
some  of  its  woods  half  round  tlie  world  to  tlie  World's  Exhibition.     There 
are   many  reasons  why  the  woods   of  India  should  be  interesting  to  the 
artificers  of  Uie  mother  countiy,  on  account  of  the  varied  qualities  which 
they   present.      The   many  hundred    specimens    deposited   in  the    Indian 
department,  comprise  of  coui-se,  among  Uieir  numbfjr,  tlife  teak  wood,  which 
has  become  so  valuable  in  ship-building ;  as  well  as  ebony,  cedar,  tamai'ind, 
blackwood,  wellkuan,  little  kuan,  and  almost  entirely  unknown  woods.     The 
labels  give  a  gi'eat  mass  of  information  concerning  the  botanical  and  Indian 
names,  tlie  weight  per  cubic  foot,  the  available  qualities  (whether  "  easy  to 
work,"  "  hai'd  to  work,"  &c.),  and  other  particulai"s. 

Many  foreign  comitries,  too,  have  enriched  tlie  assemblage  with  numeroas 
specimens  of  then*  native  gi-own  woods.  France,  for  example,  has  contri- 
buted about  a  himdred  specimens  from  Algeria,  of  vaiious  foi-ms  and  sizes, 
but  mostly  polished.  Spain — little  able  as  she  is,  in  her  present  depressed 
commercial  state,  to  take  pai-t  in  tliese  industiial  displays — has  fonvai-ded  a 
valuable  collection  of  woods  from  her  impoilant  colony  of  (]uba;  tliey  aie 
neatly  prepared,  and  labelled  witli  the  oi-dinai-y  names,  and  were  sent  to  Uiis 
country  from  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Madrid.  Spain  has  also  contiibuted 
a  13  specimens  from  the  Philippine  Islands,  each  specimen  cut  into  a  cube 


L 


g  WOOD  ASD  ITS  An^tTOATtOMS. 

legion.      tVom  Portugal  there  ib  a  jdl  and^  ^^  "5^J^„«^^"lf  MalrhauHer, 
The  Austrian  (iovemment  has  fonMudea,  n om  m.  dibu  ,   uk-  npat 

piecfH  about  a  fcmt  in  length. 

The  Maladies  of  Timdeu,  and  tiu'  Remedies. 

The  present  century  has  been  .narked  (a.  i;;^  ^^1^,^  *f  >{  S^'r'^ -i 
very  ac  ive  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  wood,  the  ''^^.'^''^'^f, "/ ;Jf  „,  ^f  those 
IIZ,  the  dera^eTnentB  to  which  the  fibres  ^/^^^J^k  model's  relo^^^^ 
derantrements  on  carpentry  and  ghip-building,  and  tne  »es^  "'"^'       ,     ,    . .  j^. 

the^vll     The  Che  Jst«  ak  tl.o  V^^y^^'^^^ll'^^l^Zetl^^^^^ 

aid  in  the  solution  of  various  P^^^ems  connectedj^^^^^  ^,^^^^ 

"Z^Z^S^^XJ^^^^tJS^^  distance  between 

" iCreTive tenta::^  curious  facts  ascertained  concerning  the  q^^alities  .>f 

differed  utds'TLber^s  affected  by  Vo^^yf^XTue^it'Z^^^ 
cumstances.  Woo<l  taken  iiom  ne^  the  heart  of  a  trunk  ^^J^^'^^^^^^^^^^t 
weaker  tlian  that  from  an  intermediate  f«^'«"'/l7,3^^  a  tree  grown 
are  stronger  than  the  parte  near  the  junction  of  <J^«J~  is  harder  hSvier, 
In  dry  soil,  otlier  tilings  being  equal,  produces  timber  J^^icl/s  harden  hca^, 
finer Vained,  sU-onger.  and  of  a  deeper  yellow  ^fl^^*;.  ♦1^*';;*^«^;^5  become  of 
soil.  Some  woods  lose  but  littie  weight  m  ««»  ™»"^ '/T ".^densaUon  of 
gi-eater  specific  gravity  than  ^f  ^••'' „^^  JSrHuT  n  mL  c^" 

Eirriigt.vxn\3^rs^^^^^^ 

"ts  r^ir^s:^:^^:^:^^  that  i>-tigations  h^e 
S^^-inroSrss 

brought  into  familiar  imiguage.     All  trees  ''^"^J",:;^™  ^^^^^ 

albumen,  which  contributes  to  die  sustenance  «f  f «  P^^"  '  J^^^  ^hiTalbumen 

is  feUed,  and  the  trunk  and  branches  converted  mto  timber,  tins  aiuum 


L.  - 


iiritl»iililH<ti1il«i 


I 


led  to  us  about  Uiirty 
Uil  wood  found  in  that 
B  group  of  specimens, 
snert,  of  Miulcrliiiuser, 
)lour,  lemnrkably  neat 
y  well  fitted  for  cheap 
•d  a  few  rough-looking 
lftngua}»e.      ProfeHsor 
;ing  mode  of  exhibiting 
if  wood ;  his  oollocticm 
so  as  to  show  the  grain 
»en  the  leaves  of  which 
mens,  so  as  to  exhil)it 
;tlv,  we  may  notice  that, 
poduco  froin  tlu^  Uniteil 
mostly  in  quadnuigular 


Lemedies. 

ig  that  it  should  be)  by 
iicture  of  its  fibres  and 
■ect,  tlie  effect  of  these 
best  mode  of  removing 
sen  asked  to  lend  th'eir 
I  these  subjects ;  the  aid 
)er  of  those  which  show 
tuol  assistance  between 

nceming  the  qualities  of 
moisture,  and  otlier  cir- 
•unk  or  near  the  bark  is 
i  the  parts  near  the  root 
M-anches.  A  tree  grown 
which  is  harder,  heavier, 
than  if  grown  in  a  damp 
ig ;  some  will  become  of 
lore  by  condensation  of 
,  in  most  cases  the  wood 
ig  the  diminution  almost 

1  that  hivestigations  have 
les  often  furnished  of  this 

■  a  pile-timber  which  had 
toft;  it  is  honey-combed 
ntegratiou  tliat  it  may  be 
t  be  more  or  less  familiar 
•I.  the  caiise  of  this  decay 

■  scientific  strictness  and 
thin  their  poi-es  a  kind  of 
plant ;  but  when  tho  tree 
ato  timber,  this  albumen 


WOOD   AMD   ITB  AVPLICATIONH.  • 

becomes  an  evil  instead  of  a  good-a  source  of  mischief  which  woiUd  willingly 
'rScn^d  with.  When  tlfo  dbun.en  is  moist  (which  ^^^)^^^;^ 
timber  is  scuHoncl),  it  has  a  fndeucy  to  ent^r  uiU)  a  sort  o  lenuent«ti  on . 
d  is  Htttt«T.  lamences,  th.,  alb.nnen  b.^cmes  a  favourite  rchsh  lor  cerUiui 
ni  mhnr.\X  fmlhwith  bore  for  then.selves  invisible  p.vssagcs  Unough 
ewri.t^  attain  U.e  object  of  Uiar  search ;  Uicse  passages  admit  au-  am 
moist  re  vv^.ich  so  m-X  upon  the  chemical  constituent  of  tlie  sap  as  to  at  old 
fk  nd  .  f  soil  in  which  n  inute  panusitical  plai>ts  grow ;  Uieso  plants,  sprouting 
out  li;;  r.k.s  for  themselves  tlnough  Uie  wood,  and  m-- -  J'^  "^  ^ - 
dnirol-  .uul  the  holes  by  degrees  become  so  largo  as  to  lenlei  aietimbu  a 
2re  sklton-a  dry  s,.ongo  of  IVagile  fibres.  This  is,  we  behevo,  tiie  modem 
exnlanation  of  dry  rot,  or  sometliing  near  it.  ,     .    , 

^^ZT^LeL  ai.d  timber  dealers,  timber  sawyei-s  and  timber  users  nro 
not  likely  U,  sit  down  quietly  and  let  decay  do  its  work  «>"»«l««tecl     1  ley 
av  not  have  known  in  past  times  all  Uiat  is  now  knovyn  concommg  tlio 
Se  of  c  Cy,  lut  they  had  certain  theories  which  led  them  to  Uy  expen- 
r«  s      Indefotiguble,  indeed,  have  been  Uie  attempts  to  find  out  somo  che- 
ical  mo'..  of  protecthig  timber  from  niinous  decay.     As  last  as  one  motliod 
was  tS  ^.l   bund  to  fail,  anotlier  .tart«d  up,  and  to  tins  mitir.ng  energy 
ve  owe  the  ..-collent  methods  now  in  practice.     It  is    na  m  so  nnuiy  otlicr 
n'tftiK^s)  tin  first  half  of  tJ.e  present  century  tiiat  ho^  chielly  borne  witness  to 
Ell    but  Uie  lost  century  effected  something  in  the  niattc.     I^-  H^f- - 
commended  sulphate  of  copper  as  a  Ht*!ep-presenative  lor  wood.     Di .  1'  n d) ^o 
S  tuXuh.hate  of  iroi   which  rendered  good  service  in  the  wood  ot  some 
i'mber  tnsesSn  Jamaica.     Colonel  Congreyc.  in  1784,  l-P-f^^-^^;; ; 
tion  of  oil  of  tar  as  a  coating  for  wood.     Towaida  the  close  oi  the  ctntuiy 
Hh  Sa  nuel  Be  itham  patented  a  mode  of  extracting  the  air  from  tie  pores  of 
wood    Ld  forcing  chmnical  agenU,  into  the  pores  Uius  vacated :  this  wa^  a 
genu  fm     which  many  subsequent  metliods  have  been  denved.  but  it  faded  ot 
SLtion  mider  the  Inventors  hands.     Then  came  ^.-"J^^^^^f^^^^^^^^^ 
respecting  the  substance  to  be  cmployed-coarse  whole  oil,  oil  ot  J  ^'f^ 
unslaked  lime,  pyroligneous  acid,  &c.     Some  bmied  tlioir  timber  for  a  win  o 
1  ot  sai id-  some  put  it  m  chambers  fiUed  wiUi  heated  air;  sonie  exposed  it  to 
"tout  son,;  cTatedtlie  surface  ^  indeed  tho  plans  proposed  durmg  die  eariy 
it  of  die  present  centmy  were  so  numerous  tl.at  wo  may  consider  tho 
present  adopted  methods  to  be  improvement^  radier  Uian  "ov^l^^s 

How  to  get  rid  of  tlie  albumeu,  or  how  to  niodify  it^tins  is  d/«  "  1    > 
It  cannot  be  driven  out;  and  if  dried,  it  lu.s  a  tendency  again  to  absorb  moistme 
Hei^e  chemists  have  recommended,  and  practical  men  haN^  adopted,  modes 
of  renderiuKtiie  albumen  imobd,h,  by  combining  it  chemically  witli  some oUier 
llSice  Cg  nmle  insoluble  it  defies  moisture.     Then  arose  tlieques  lorj 
!^mat  chemical  agent  shall  be  employed?     Sir  Humphiy  Davy  suggested 
coiTOsf^  sS  nateTMr.  Kyan  ha.,  adopted  this  plan  under  some  modification 
S    SeUiell  prefers  Jreosoto  oil;  Mr.  Payne  employs  s^phate  ot  "•"X'lhemkai 
while  Sir  W  Uiom  Burnett  selects  chloride  of  zmc.    But  supposuig  the  chemital 
Son  belnmTtliere  are  yet  other  difficulties  to  surmount ;  tjese  solutions 
cMmot  reach  tie  pores  of  tiie  wood  mitil  tiie  air  ha.s;^been  expelled,  and  for  a 
Im  ^t  n  '  tl  ,  difficulty  baffled  the  experimentei-s.     Tho  plan  now  adopted  is 
iX  ngS^^^      The  timber  is  pW  in  a  very  strong  cylmder,  provided 
3i  a  Son  air-pump  and  a  pressure  liquid-pmnp:  tiie  air  is  pumped  out  of 
tie  pores,  and  the  liquid  solution  (whatever  it  may  be)  is  then  pmnped  in. 
The  TidusUial  Eihibition  has  its  fuU  share  of  specimens  illusti-ativc  of 


is 


rr^MillnMillf  "iHim 


'"Ml 


d  WOOD    ASM    ITS    APPLICATIONS. 

these  vahiablo  and  ingenious  opemtionn.  Sir  William  IJumctt,  for  instonce, 
exliibitH  Hpeciiupns  of  "  IJiimettizod  and  nn-BumcUiz<Ml  timber,"  as  ])roofs  of 
the  diflferent  way  in  which  damp  affocts  wood,  according  as  it  has  or  lias  not 
been  steeped  in  the  chloride  solntion.  There  are  also  pieces  of  canvas,  cotton, 
woollen,  and  raw  hides,  tested  to  demonstrate  the  efficacy  of  the  process.  In 
order  to  complete  the  series,  there  are  bottles  containing  the  preservative  liquid, 
and  drawings  of  the  machine  employed  to  inject  the  liipiid  into  the  pores  of 
the  wood.  Mr.  Hofhells  system  is  illustrated  in  an  analogous  way.  Ho  ex- 
hibits specimens  of  wood  saturated  with  oil  of  tar  by  a  process  which  he  de- 
signates "creosoting;"  pieces  of  creosoted  sleepers,  which  have  been  used  for 
some  years  on  railways  without  undergoing  any  decay ;  pieces  of  wood  in  an 
unprepared  state,  showing  the  ravages  of  the  Teredo  iinraUs  and  other  insects ; 
and  other  proofs  of  contrast  between  decay  and  soundness,  tencUng  to  illus- 
trate the  subject  under  consideration.  In  the  Mecklonborg  section  of  the 
Exhibition  there  is  an  interesting  group  of  specimens  put  together  in  tlie  form 
of  a  ship ;  the  pieces  have  been  impregnated  with  pyroligneous  acid,  and  the 
object  is  to  show  that  inferior  kinds  of  wood,  if  treated  in  this  way,  may 
render  good  service  in  ship-building. 

There  is  a  slightly  different  philosophy  involved  in  Messi-s.  Davison  and 
Symington's  deskcatiwj  process  for  timber.  Here  the  pores  of  the  wood  are 
thoroughly  dried  by  means  of  hot  air,  aided  by  a  rapid  cuirent.  If  a  beam  of 
timber  were  shut  up  in  a  vessel  of  stationary  hot  air,  it  would  be  baked ;  if 
there  were  a  little  current,  but  not  sufficient,  the  wood  would  be  stewed;  and 
this  baking  and  stewing  have  accompanied  many  modes  of  di7ing  timber 
by  heated  air.  The  new  metliod  obviates  the  evil,  by  caiTying  off  all  the 
nioisture  from  the  wood  through  the  agency  of  a  rapid  current.  Mr.  Newton 
has  sent  t»  the  Exhibition  specimens  of  wood  which  have  been  exposed  to  the 
desiccating  process.  Each  specimen  is  inscribed  with  various  particulars  con- 
cerning its  dimensions,  the  time  during  which  it  has  been  exposed  to  Uie 
desiccating  process,  &c.  Even  timber  which  is  considered  to  be  well  seasoned 
by  the  ordinwy  method  loses  ten  per  cent,  of  its  weight  on  further  desiccation, 
thus  showing  how  much  moisture  has  still  been  left  in  tlie  wood.  An  im- 
portant consequence  results  from  tliis  more  perfect  diying ;  the  wood  being 
rendered  more  homogeneous,  vibrates  more  equally  imder  the  influence  ot 
sound,  and  forms  more  efficient  sounding-boards  for  nnisical  instruments. 
Mr  Willis's  great  organ  is  made  from  wood  thus  seasoned.  Another  rmex- 
pected  benefit  is,  that  new  beauties  ai-e  developed  in  the  grain  of  die  wood : 
many  cheap  kinds  of  wood  being  found  to  present  a  colour  and  surface  more 
attractive  than  when  imperfectly  dried  by  the  usual  means. 

It  was  an  extraordinary  conception  of  a  French  physician,  Dr.  liouterie,  to 
send  these  anti-d17-1-.it  agents  into  the  pores  of  Uie  livuvf  tree  itself.  He  has  a 
method  of  causing  the  tree  to  imbibe  certain  liquids  in  the  same  way  as  it 
would  ordinaiy  moisture.  The  liquid  kills  the  tree,  but  the  timber  is  rendere.l 
antiseptic.  There  is  no  knowmg  yet  how  much  this  method  may  be  capable 
of  effecting;  for  the  inventor  claims  the  power  of  impaiting  any  colotir  or  any 
odaur  he  pleases  to  wood  by  analogous  means. 

The  carbonization  of  wood  by  high-pressure  steam  is  one  of  the  apparent 
paradoxes  of  recent  times.  How  can  steam— a  moistening,  wettuig  vapour— 
unpart  a  scorched  or  carbonized  quality  to  wood  ?  It  seems  controiy  to  all  our 
nsuol  experience.  The  tmtli  is,  that  in  our  eveiy-day  processes  steam  has  a 
temperature  very  little,  if  anything,  above  that  of  boUing  water  (a  U  talir.); 
and  at  that  temperature  wood  would  be  soaked  but  not  scorched;  whereas 


w.i^irt"**i»rtrfrWii'Hlrtiiai**ffifa* 


wool)    AND    ITrt    APl'UC'ATIONH. 


•0 


linnictt,  for  iuHtHTice, 
(I  tiinbor,"  us  proofs  of 
;  as  it  hiiH  or  has  not 
lieces  of  canvas,  cotton, 
cy  of  the  process,  [n 
the  preservative  liquid, 
iqnid  into  the  pores  of 
nalogons  way.  Ho  ex- 
i  process  wliich  he  dc- 
idi  have  been  used  for 
;  pieces  of  wood  in  an 
vailn  and  other  insects ; 
Iness,  tending  to  iUns- 
Itiuborg  section  of  t\w 
ut  together  in  tlie  form 
ohgneous  acid,  and  tlio 
ated  in  this  way,  msiy 

1  Messrs.  Davison  an<l 
pores  of  Uie  wood  are 
cuiTent.     If  a  beam  of 

it  would  be  baked;  if 
I  would  bo  stewed ;  and 
lodes  of  di7inK  timber 
by  caiTying  otf  all  the 
I  cniTont.  Mr.  Newton 
ive  been  exposed  to  the 
various  particulars  con- 
is  been  exposed  to  tlio 
3red  to  be  well  seasoned 
t  on  further  desiccation, 

in  the  wood.  An  im- 
liiying ;  the  wood  being 
imder  the  influence  of 
r  nnisical  instruments, 
isoned.     Another  unex- 

the  grain  of  tlie  wood : 
olour  and  auiface  more 
Bans. 

y^sician,  Dr.  Bouterie,  to 
ituf  tree  it.inlf.  tie  has  a 
i  in  the  same  way  as  it 
it  the  timber  is  rendered 
method  may  be  capable 
ai-ting  any  colour  or  any 

is  one  of  the  apparent 
ening,  wetting  vai>our — 
ieems  contraiy  to  all  our 
y  processes  steam  has  a 
iling  water  (212°  Falir.) ; 

not  scorched;  whereas 


high-pi-esHuro  steam  is  heat«'d  to  a  far  greater  degree,  and  the  damp  (piahty 
(if  it  may  be  so  tenned)  is  overpowered  by  the  hot  ijuulity.  M.  VioletU;  com- 
umnicated  a  j.aper  to  the  Academie  dos  Sciences,  in  IHIH,  in  which  he  pointed 
out  the  curious  rtjsults  of  tliis  highly-heated  steam  upon  wood,  and  showed 
that  these  results  enable  us  to  prepare  charcoal  of  any  desired  quality.  If 
wood  is  exposed  to  tenq)ei'atureH  varjing  from  40()''  to  700°  Fahr.,  it  becomes 
charred,  or  converted  into  charcoal,  vaiying  from  light  brown  to  deep  black ; 
lUid  those  ditterei.t  qualities  of  chai-coal  ai-o  applicable  to  dilferent  useful  pur 
poses,  in  making  gxmpovder  and  other  substances.  Now  it  is  found  tha'^^ 
steam-heating  enables  the  charcoal  burner  to  produce  and  maintain  a  iletinite 
temperature,  antl  thereby  tx)  manufacture  a  definite  kind  of  charcoal  at  plea- 
sure. M.  Violette  raises  the  steam  to  the  desired  degree  in  a  boiler,  pusses  it 
througli  a  tube  to  a  cylinder  containing  i»iecc3  of  wood,  allows  it  to  act  by  its 
heat  on  the  wood,  and  to  carry  away  the  distilled  products  of  the  wood  when 
it  escapes  from  the  cylinder.  The  -jharcoul  becomes  Uuis  not  merely  browned 
or  blacked  to  a  pre-ananged  degree,  but  it  is  rendered  more  like  pure  carbon 
by  the  abstraction  of  various  volatile  ingredients.  There  is  something  highly 
scientific  in  tliis  conception. 

Besides  tlio  collections  of  woods  noticed  in  former  paragraphs,  many  speci- 
mens are  to  be  found  in  the  Exhibition  illustrativo  of  some  process  or  other 
to  which  the  wood  has  been  subjected.  Mr.  Stow,  for  example,  has  specimens 
of  wood  which  have  been  stained  witliout  the  aid  of  boat  or  moisture,— a  process 
said  t<i  be  applicable  equally  to  plain  and  to  carved  wood.  An  exhibitor  from 
Swansea  shows  us  a  piece  of  Welsh  oak,  prepared  by  a  peculiar  process  as  a 
substitute  for  fiuicy  wood.  Another  group  of  specimens  comprises  cheap 
woods  which  have  been  stained  with  certain  liquid  solutions,  and  tlien  var- 
nished •  the  exterior  woodwork  of  tlie  Ciyslal  Palace  has  been  thus  treated, 
and  illustrates  the  mode  in  which  deal  may  be  decked  out  more  cheaply  and 
expeditiously  than  by  painting  luid  graining.  The  imitations  of  marble  m 
wood  and  of  cosUy  woods  in  otliers  of  humbler  kind,  are  numerous  m  the 
Exhibition,  but  too  familial-  to  need  notice,  except  that  some  of  them  display 

remarkable  beauty.  ,        .  ,  .       .  r 

Wood  like  many  otlier  substances,  is  now  brought  within  the  scope  ot 
pressing' power.  The  rolling  mill,  so  extensively  adopted  for  metals  of  almost 
every  kind,  is  also  applied  to  wood ;  but  not  for  the  same  purpose ;  tor  while 
metals  are  sought  to  be  made  thbutcr  by  the  process,  wood  is  made  hard^'r.  A 
patent  was  obtained  a  yeai-  or  two  ago  with  this  object  in  view,  wood  being 
much  stronger  when  compressed  or  condensed  by  pressure.  In  one  machine 
pieces  of  wood  for  makuig  wedges  are  compressed  so  forcibly  between  two 
Ilies  as  to  have  a  definite  angle  given  to  Uiem,  and  great  hardness  to  Uie  sub- 
stance of  die  wood ;  in  another  machine  small  pieces  of  wood  are  compressed 
into  tlie  proper  forms  for  railway  pins  luul  ship's  ti-eenails;  in  a  third  machine 
T)lanks  »u-e  pressed  throughout  their  whole  lengtli  by  passing  between  rollei-s 
Let  it  but  once  be  detemiined  that  wood  so  treated  becomes  strengtliened,  and 
we  shall  witness  abundant  variety  in  the  application  of  the  principle. 

Steam-Power  Carpentry. 

As  the  present  century  has  witnessed  many  additions  to  tlie  number  of 
woods  applied  to  useful  and  ornamental  pm-poses,  and  many  excellent  modes 
of  preserving  timber  from  decay,  so  has  it  been  equally  prolific  in  new  modes 
of  fashioning  timber  for  practical  uses. 

Do 


jttmmm*^ 


10 


WOOD  AND   ITS   API'LIOATION*. 


Tho  "  top  maw^or  "  at  present  is  cei-tainly  iho  steam-onRUje,  and  snch  soems 
likely  to  contiiiut'  to  be  the  cane.  Yeiir  nt'Un-  yt'ar  hUiiuu  [lower  brcoinun  mon* 
and  ni(»re  cniplDyod  in  cutting  bulky  tiinbor  into  planks  ainl  sUvc^.  It  in  «iiid 
Umt  there  jmo  no  fewer  Uiun  seventy  steam  aaw-inills  in  and  near  tlie  mo- 
tropolis.  These  suporsodo  to  an  unequal  degree  tJie  labourH  of  hiuid  sawycrn ; 
Uie  latter  ai-e  groupotl  in  four  classes — uud)er  sawyers,  imrd-wood  «awy..rs, 
c<»oper«' sawyern,  and  ship  sawyers;  and  the  sUmni-engine  is  ai)i»lit!able  to 
some  of  tliese  kinds  of  labour  nioro  tlian  fxi  oUiers.  The  haixl-woml  sawyer  iian 
to  exl libit  much  taet  and  skill,  sinc.*^  tlie  valuable  furniture  aiul  cabinet  woods 
t)ji  which  he  is  employtsd  have  to  be  economized  as  nuich  as  possible.  Tho 
coopc  rs'  sawyers  cut  the  staves  for  casks,  a  kind  of  work  which  is  now  somu- 
tirnes  accoraplisliud  by  cask-making  machmes.  Tho  ship  sawyer  cuts  tho 
curiously  twisted  timbers  for  a  ship,  the  cui-ved  surfaces  of  which  require 
nmch  care  on  tho  jiiut  of  tlie  sawyer.  Hut  the  conunon  timber  sawyer,  who 
prei)ai'i'M  the  deals  and  other  common  woods  for  carpentry  anil  Himihu-  pur- 
poses, is  tlie  (me  whoso  laboms  are  most  likely  to  be  superseded  by  «liuub 
agency;  tlie  work  is  coai-se,  haixl,  monotoiuMis,  and  reciuires  very  httlo 
tliouglit. 

From  tlio  earliest  times  of  which  wo  know  anytliing  definite,  tho  sawing  ot 
timber  has  been  perioruied  pretty  much  in  tlie  same  way :  th(^  paintings  and 
bas-rehefs  in  Egypt  tell  us  thus  much.     The  top  man  and  the  pitman,  tlie  pit 
and  tlie  scaffold,"  are  what  they  have  been  for  centuries,  with  veiy  little  nioditi- 
cation.  •  Eveiy  one  must  see  that  the  labour  at  a  saw-pit  is  of  a  very  severe 
kind.     In  one  of  the  remarkable  papers  published  in  tlie  Morniiuf  Chronicle, 
some  montlis  ago,  on  the  Labourers  of  London,  a  sawyers  estimate  of  bis 
daily  physical  exertion  is  given.    In  the  fii-st  plsuie,  he  says  tliot  his  saw  weighs 
from  60  to  70  lbs.,  that  it  is  about  7  ft.  in  lengtli  of  blade,  ond  tJiiit  he  and 
his  partner  make  about  10  strokes  a  muiuto ;  this  is  o.i\ml  to  70  I'eet  ])(;r 
minute,  or  4200  feet  per  hour,  or  4^,000  feet  in  a  day  of  10  hours— in  otlier 
words,  two  men  lift  00  to  70  lbs.  nearly  B  miles  high  in  the  course  of  a 
day's  work.      But  tliis  is  only  half  the  labour,  perhaps  less  tlian  half ;  in  the 
iij)  stroke  the  men  have  only  to  lift  the  saw,  but  in  the  down  stroke  the  teetli 
cat«h  like  so  many  ;diarp  hooks  in  tlie  tubstance  of  the  wood,  and  te»u-  it  away 
by  rnpin  force.     The  sawyer  was  too  unlearned  to  estimate  the  amount  of  this 
force,  but  he  bad  heanl  "  a  scientitio  man  calculate  and  reckon  "  tliat  it  was 
eqnuX  to  lifting  80  lbs.     If  tliis  be  coiTect,  it  more  than  doubles  tlie  former 
figures,  and  presents  a  formidable  appeiu-anee.     Even  supposing  tlie  «awyer 
and  his  scientific   informant  to   have   been   not   stiictly  occm-ate,  tJiei-e  is 
abundant  room  for  thinking  Uiat  the  labour  must  be  severe,  and  that  it  is  u 
kind  peculiiu-ly  fitted  to  be  brought  within  the  scope  of  steam  power. 

For  a  few  years  before  and  after  the  commencement  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, horse  power  was  occasionally  used  to  facilitate  the  labom-  of  sawing ;  but 
it  was  about  forty  years  ago  that  tlie  firet  steam  sawmill  wivs  established  near 
London.  The  horse-mills  were  abandoned,  partly  through  the  opposition  of 
die  sawyers,  but  more  effectively  through  tlie  system  being  nou-remunemting. 
The  steam  mills  have  proved  to  be  efficient  and  advuntjigeous,  and  have  been 
increasing  in  number  yeoi-  by  year.  In  most  st<mni  saw-mills  thei-e  are  tlire<! 
frames  of  about  nine  saws  each :  this  may  be  taken  as  im  average.  Tho 
BUaight  saws,  which  have  a  reciprotal  or  up  and  down  motion,  make  150  to 
IHO  cuts  in  a  minute  ;  while  the  circular  saws,  usually  from  18  to  3ti  inches  in 
diameter,  have  a  revolution  of  1600  to  aOOO  times  in  a  minute — a  speed  which 
enables  them  to  cut  through  wood  with  groat  ease  and  rapidity.     The  teeth 


1 


WOOD   AND   JTH   APrUCATlONH. 


11 


np;u)e,  and  mich  soemH 
II  power  liKuumus  mt)ro 
I  uiui  Htavt'y*.  It  iri  Huid 
t  ill  and  iioiir  tlte  iiui- 
(ours  "f  hiiiid  HawvfiM  ; 
m,  hard-wood  wiwytrs, 
iti^inn  iH  at>|)licnblt5  to 
e  haixl-wocxl  KHwycr  Iiim 
turti  luul  ciibinet  woods 
inch  fut  jxmHiblo.  Tho 
rk  which  is  now  wiik - 
Bhip  Hiiwyor  cuts  tho 
faces  of  which  require 
ion  timber  Hftwyer.  who 
peiitry  lUid  Hitiiiliw  pur- 

0  HUpurHcdcd  by  dinnli 
id   requires   very   littlu 

■:^  definite,  the  aawinf^  of 
viiy :  th(^  piiintinKs  and 
uid  the  pit-man.  tlie  pit 
,  with  vci-y  little  niodifi- 
w-pit  is  of  a  very  severe 

1  the  Mnrniiiff  Chnmicle, 
awyer'a  estimate  of  bis 
jftya  tliat  bin  saw  weighs 

bliide,  and  Unit  he  ami 
is  equal  to  70  feet  per 
y  of  lU  hours — in  otlior 
ligh  in  tlie  course  of  a 
)8  less  tlian  half ;  in  tlio 
>  down  stroke  tlie  teotli 
B  wood,  and  teiu'  it  away 
mate  the  amount  of  this 
and  reckon  "  tlmt  it  was 
Ihan  doubles  the  former 
;n  supposing  tlie  «awyer 
ictly  accurate,  tliewi  is 
3  severe,  and  that  it  in  u 
)f  steam  power, 
ent  of  the  present  cen- 
e  labom-  of  sawing  :  but 
lill  was  established  near 
hrough  tho  opposition  of 
being  nouremuuei'ating. 
itjigoous,  and  have  been 
saw-mills  there  ai-e  tlire<; 
■n  as  an  average.     The 
wn  motion,  make  150  to 
'  from  1»  to  3t5  in<hes  in 
I  minute — a  speed  which 
iuid  rapidity.    The  teetli 


are  much  fmor  than  in  the  saws  use,lby  pit-sawyers,  mid  ^;>^';f '^ «;,  ^JX of 
l„.in«  Hubi.!ct  U.  more  reguUu'  .uid  precise  u.aion,  they  ii.hhI  n«   be  mmU,  o 
sudih  K  Iv-wrought  st^el  as  pit^saw'.  and  an.  on  that  acco.mt  .lieaper;  and 
cut  tS  a  given  quai.lity  of  Umber,  a  ma.l.in...  saw  requir.^  shan.eumg  le 
;;;.lutly  tl'n  a    ..t-Haw'-tliree  l'''-t->f  .^av,  nUige  whij  the  ^ 
l-i«  ov,"  tlie  old      kmnuif  the  .rurious  calculatioiw  conn,  'led  with  this  hui.jtu. 
1;;.:  ;;,  'tlli^^evo;..  ttth  of  an  I8.inch  c.iculai-  saw.  worWuig  at  average  speed 
for  ten  hours  a  day.  tmvels  (»0(»  inUes  m  that  time. 

But  .wurnaro  the  forms  int..  which  a  -••'«'»;"''ll  l^*'"^  "1'"^^'','*  If  *"',';' 
sawing  lind.er.      It  is  ui  fact  now  entirely  a  machine  process  ui  this  .  om  Uy. 
Th.  laU  Sir  M.  1.  Bnmel-that  exlraordh.ary  man.  whose  mventive  mmd  i  lo- 
i     ,d  Hud;  .niiUul  results  m  a  prof.  ssiomU  career  of  ludl  a  -"tu^---      « 
parent  of  the  saw-mill.     He  invented  it  about  »''''^y,J;' '^,  Z^' ; '"^^^^^^^^^ 
nvention.  lu.d  leiised  Uie  use  of  the  patent  t..  many  ddle  lei.   i  e^  ns^        J* 
was  for  timber-sawing  oiUy  ;  but  his  ever-active  mmd  did  i.ot  iail  t«  sec  i no 
IribS  of    he  method  to  veneer-H.    i«g.     He  "P^'^^VV^'"  .t, 
,  Icavour  'to  surmount  unexpected  .litHculues  which  presented  th«  n^lve      1  e 
l^i  I  sunnount  them,  and  veneer  saws  have  ever  sin.'e  remaunMl  nearly  .«  ho 
leli  rr      He.  wiU.  one  or  more  parties,  established  a  -"-r  -wuig-niiU  at 
Balt.i-sea:  the  mill  is  still  at  work,  but  has  passed  into  othe    h.uids. 

It  iH^ally  a  beautiful  example  of  mechanical  action  which  is  presented  by 
this  vnieer  sawing  So  mierringW  .""o  U.e  thui  plates  cut.  let  tho  gram  ot  U.o 
wrJ'l^hanT;;; loft.  stmigHt  or^wist..d.  U.at  the  use  of  veneers js  be— g 
more  aiid  more  extensive  every  year.  Not  merely  mahogany  and  ro8owoi)a. 
Torrl^Zving-rooni  funii^l  butsatin-wood,  Ainboym^^^^^^^ 

tulip-wood,  ebony,  Coi-omandel-wood.  maple,  cedar,  ^^'''^''^'r^'^^^.' jf'"]^:''^'^^^^ 
^^  other  loreiii  woods,  are  simihu-ly  cut.  ^^^y- «'\"^"  ^^'Itil"^^ 
ehii  ash  birch,  walnut,  sycamore,  Ac,  are  wrought  uito  tlun  hlms  by  sum  ax 
„,L  iX,  ogH  of  wood,  when  about  to  midorgo  the  sawmg  pi-ocess  are 
Srrirought  to  a  tolerably  clean  surface  by  the  ad.^  or  the  plane,  '"hI^«  ^"''^ 
fimilvttttrd  into  a  fmme.  The  veneer-cuttuig  saws  areot  enoruKms  si/e.somo 
oi™  Li  mU  ing  to  seventeen  feet  in  diameter;  they  are  circulai-,  and  i«<e  bu  It 
up  of    evx'ml  pi' ces  of  steel,  for  it  is  found  Uiat  a  single  Pl^.^J>- f  J,f^S 

tJ  become  .listorted  by  the  heat  generated  ^»"'»«  ^^T'^^^"  ..J.^.'SlTiL  niliw 
the  saws  is  most  extrm)i-dinaiT  for  its  exivctness.  Let  us  consider  that  as  n  any 
f^  fiZn  verei^  ar^^^^  cut  in  an  inch,  and  that  any  deviation  Iro.n 

;Ji  Em  would  render  them  ragged  imd  useless ;  we  can  ^;-  ^Xuy^  t^ie 
nicety  of  arrangement  is  reipired.     The  saws  rotate  with  great  ^^loc  ty ,  U  e 
oa  moves  on  by  automatic  inachineiy  to  meet  the  saw-cuts ;  the  saw-dust  ialls 
tS  Krouml  in  line  powder :  and  tlfe  ai'oma  from  the  wood  (tor  each  kind  ot 
woo^TCtL  own  pecldiai-  aroma  when  heated  by  J-'^^^-^/^^'n' we   arS 
the  anaitment     Thus  is  veneer-cutting  now  conducted;  and  when   we   aro 
Sid  tiiart^rmachine  can  cut  nearly  twice  as  many  veneers  m  an  mch  as  he 
most  skilful  sawyer,  we  see  ample  reason  for  the  change  m  Uie  working 
■olinv  of  this  taule     The  English  usually  adopt  tlu,  metho.l  iu  re  described ; 
lut  oXeConS^t  a  singufar  mode  is%ractised  of  -Uing  y onunmn. 
v,.r.eer  in  a  spiral  fonn ;  tlie  English  plan  wastes  a  litUe  more  wood,  but  yields 
stnServeiSer  th™  the  foreign.     There  i    a  fihn  of  iyoi-y  v;eneer  m  the 
SdStSes   department  of  Z  ExhibiUon.  forty  f-Uong  by  a  foot  m 
width  •  produced  by  cutting  tlie  tusk  spmiUy  or  m  snail-ldie  lashion 
^Se  most  other  Jteam-power  operaUons.  timbejvsawing  "^""dei^™^^ 
than  it  was  onco  thought  capable  of  efffcctmg.     The  elder  Brunei  thought  he 


I 


^0mmmmm 


L 


w 


WOOD   ANT>   1TB   AFPt.KATIONH. 


i 


had  wi-onght  n  Rrrmt  work  (nml  it  ir/n  n  fftmi  work)  when  ho  nhoweil  how  to 
■•w  11  hiiRo  lop;  into  pliiiikH  by  Htcnin  iiowor;  Imt  nioih-ni  inv<>ntx»i>«  iiio  not 
■atiHlied  with  this;  Uu-y  wish  to  iniiko  rnxiki'd  Hiiw-onts  iis  well  an  Htmight,  tor 
the  production  of  HhipH*  tin»h»>rH;  und  thfy  hiivo  ftttninnd  thrir  ohjott.     About 
t.hr»H>  yortr«  ft}»o,  tliere  wuh  k  legn!  cntit/^Ht  botw«wn  two  invputorn,  iu»  EngUnh- 
man  and  an  Arnorican,  an  to  tlieir  rcHpectivo  ri^htH  to  new  timber-Hawing 
mechaiiiHtn:  into  th«  nieritu  of  tho  hti^atod  (pn'Htiou  wo  do  not  enter;  hut  it 
is  interesMtiK  to  noto  that  l)oth  inventors  \m\  prixhiced  machines  for  making 
either  straight  or  crooked  suw-cuts  in  timber.     Mr.  Cochran's  machine  (one  of 
those  here  alhided  u>)  is  a  very  compUcat«!d  piece  of  apparatus ;  the  fixing  of  a 
log  of  timber,  the  slow  moveinent  of  the  log  as  the  cutting  proceeds,  and  the 
reciprocating  movement  of  tho  saws,  are  all  effectively  miuiaged.     Hut  when 
the  log  is  to  he  cut  in  a  tx)rtuous  fomi,  for  ship-building  and  other  pui-poses, 
there  is  provision  for  giving  a  rotatory  or  i)artially  rotatory  motion  to  tlie  log; 
and,  what  is  still  more  remarkable,  the  saw  is  made  to  shift  or  oscillate  so  as 
to  cut  successively  in  many  ditferent  <lirections :  nay,  there  may  even  be  two 
saws  working  at  once,  the  one  cutting  straight  and  the  otlier  curvilmear. 
This  machine  has  been  worked  at  Woolwich  Dockyard ;  and  we  believe  it  is 
now  luidergoing  that  ordeal  of  lengthened  trial  which  must  necessarily  pre- 
cede any  general  adoption  of  such  contrivances.     It  is  said,  tluit  at  the  Earl 
of  Rosse's  fii-st  soirSe,  as  President  of  tlie  lloyal  Society,  a  model  of  this 
timber-cutting  machine  was  exhibited;  and  that  the  Prince  Consort  cut  a 
miniature  ship's  tunbers  with  it  to  test  its  action : — a  pleasant  apprenticeship 
this,  for  one  who  was  destined  to  be  tlie  founder  of  the  greatest  industrial 
jubilee  the  world  has  ever  witnessed. 

Not  only  is  the  giant  power  of  steam  now  applied  to  the  fashioning  of 
wood  for  the  purjjoses  of  tlie  cari)ent«r  and  the  joiner,  but  there  are  establish- 
ments expressly  appropriated  to  Uiis  puqiose.  These  are  much  inoro 
modem  than  steam  saw-mills,  and  contain  machinery  of  a  more  complicated 
kind ;  most  of  them,  however,  comprise  machine-worked  saws  as  well  as 
planing  and  moulding  machines.  Until  uhout  twelve  or  fourteen  years  ago, 
the  few  planing  machines  in  use  were  wrouj^'ht  by  hand,  but  the  all-embi-acing 
steam  engine  is  now  applied  with  much  better  effect.  The  same  movement 
sets  to  work  the  saws  for  cutting  bomds  to  the  proper  widtli,  adzes  for 
bringing  the  board  t«  regidar  tliickness,  and  planes  for  smoothing  tho 
surface ;  and  it  is  said  (and  may  readily  be  believed)  that  tlie  boards  so  pre- 
pai-ed  are  flatter  and  smootlier  than  those  planed  by  hand.  In  tlie  moulding- 
miUa,  as  they  are  called,  the  operations  are  of  greater  nicety,  for  the  wood  has 
to  be  fashioned  to  those  architectural  forms  which  constitute  mouldings,  such 
as  are  used  by  carpenters,  joiners,  and  others.  The  cutting  tools  are  sniall 
pieces  of  steel,  fashioned  to  tlie  shape  of  the  mouldhig,  and  fixed  to  a  rapidly- 
revolving  axis;  the  wood  is  brought  to  the  action  of  these  cutters,  and  a 
perfect  shower  of  little  fragments  of  wood  is  all  that  tells  us  what  is  going  on, 
for  the  revolution  is  too  rapid  to  allow  the  movement  and  action  of  the  cutters 
to  be  traced. 

The  gieat  lesson-book  in  Hyde  Park  affords  its  teachings  on  this  subject  as 
on  others.  There  are  five  different  kinds  of  wood-working  machines  exhibited 
by  Mr.  Fumess.  One  is  a  morticing  machine,  intended  to  cut  holes  for  the 
tenon-and-mortice  mode  of  joining  timbers.  There  is  a  second  morticing 
machine,  moved  by  the  foot  instead  of  by  steam  power,  and  fitted  t»  cut  holes 
from  an  eightli  of  an  inch  to  two  inches  in  width.  A  tliird  is  a  tenoning  machine, 
for  cutting  those  projections  which  constitute  tenons ;  each  tenon  is  com^ 


L 


wAatawwaiiar  ■— niMir 


MjmiliHirmi*wti^f: 


WtM)l»   ANO    l»   A»'rr,lCATIt)KH. 


l!l 


f»n  hfl  nhoweil  how  t»» 

t'ln  invcntotH  luo  not 
HH  well  as  HtriiiKht,  lor 
(I  Unir  »jl)jott.  About 
invontorH,  iu»  EngliMh- 
U)  n«w  timber-Hawing 

0  do  not,  enter;  but  it 
machines  for  niakini^ 

hiiin's  niiu'bino  (one  of 
)aratnM;  the  fixing  of  ii 
ting  prooeetls,  luul  tlie 

monftffed.  But  when 
ig  and  other  l>ui-poHeH, 
tory  motion  to  the  log; 

Hliift  or  oscillate  so  as 
;here  may  even  be  two 

the  other  cm-viliiiear. 
I ;  and  we  believe  it  is 

1  nuist  necessarily  prc- 
s  said,  tluit  at  the  Earl 
ciety,   a  model  of  this 

Prince  Consort  cut  a 
[)leivHant  apprenticeship 
the  greatest  industrial 

il  to  the  fashioning  of 
but  there  are  establish- 
hese  are  nnich  more 
of  a  more  complicated 
>rked  saws  as   well  as 

or  fourteen  years  ago, 
I,  but  tlie  all-embracuig 
The  same  movement 
iroper  widtli,  adzes  for 
168  for  smoothing  tlio 
that  tlie  boards  so  pre- 
land.  In  the  moulding- 
iiicety,  for  the  wood  has 
istitute  mouldings,  such 

cutting  tools  are  small 
;,  and  fixed  to  a  rapidly- 
of  these  cutters,  Mid  a 
Us  us  what  is  going  on, 
ind  action  of  the  cutters 

hings  on  this  subject  as 
king  machines  exhibited 
ed  to  cut  holes  for  the 
is  a  second  morticing 
',  and  fitted  to  cut  holes 
rd  is  a  tenoning  machine, 
is;  each  tenon  is  com^ 


I.U'tely  shap.'d  at  one  opemlion.  A  fourth  is  a  iilnniwi  machine,  for  givmg  a 
ll.it  and  Mniooll.  suiiace  to  planks  .«•  lu.y  otii.r  pie.'es  of  wood  ;  th-  powers  .. 
this  machine  are  so  easily  adjustablo  iw  t..  be  easily  applied  to  tmd.ers  ot  all 
.lijnensions— from  four  to  fifty  IVu-t  in  Imgth,  from  eight  to  torty  tiurhes  m 
widUi.  and  from  a  quarter  of  an  incai  to  thirty  inches  in  thickness,  A  littli  is 
AmnuUluui  mii.lnne,  to  impart  to  wood  the  mrhitectural  tonn  ot  nimildnigs. 
which  are  usually  wrought  by  the  (■ari)enter  with  the  aid  of  hand-planes ;  it 
may  be  applied  to  the  making  of  sash-bars,  or  the  cutting  ot  gnioves  or  the 
lorming  of  any  hollows  or  protuberances  which  are  to  extend  unitormlv  ahmg 
the  grain  of  the  wood;  and  it  is  applicable  eith.'r  to  hard  or  sott  woods,  with 
a  sliglil  udjustmeut.  .        ,,        ,  t- 

Besides  various  English  mmdiines  of  this  kind,  there  is  a  l-ronch  mac  line, 
called  the  '  Menuiserio  Mocaniipie,' or  Mechanical  Joiner,  which  both  planes 
and  fonns  mouldings  in  woo<l,  by  plane-irons  fixed  to  an  axis  which  revolvoH 
a  thousand  times  in  a  minute. 

WOOD-WOKK    Of   THE    CuVSTAt.    PAt^ACE. 

So  intiniatAily  did  the  achievement  of  Messrs.  Fox  and  Henderson's  va.st 
enterprise  depend  upon  the  employment  of  miu-hinocaiT.nitry,  that  we  cannot 
select  a  bt^tter  place  tlian  Uie  present  U)  notice  a  few  of  the  "  Curiosities  con- 
nected with  the  wood-work  of  the  Crjstal  Palace.  In  a  struct.uro  which  con- 
tains 6()(»,00()  cubic  feet  of  wood,  and  in  which  the  ground  tloor  and  the 
galleries  contain  1,000,000  square  feet  of  Hooring  boards,  the  execution  ot 
the  carpeiitiy  must  needs  have  b»)cn  an  inijwrtiuit  matter.  ■       ,    , 

The  Hash-biUTJ  of  this  notable  structure  nw.  to  be  measured— not  simply  l»y 
dozens  or  scores  of  miles— but  by  hiuidreds ;  for  the  total  length  is  rather 
more  Umn  '400  miles!  This  may  seem  almost  inconceivable  at  hi-st;  but  it 
we  glance  upwards  when  walking  along  the  centi-.d  nave,  or  view  the  tour 
facades  in  the  exterior,  wo  shall  begin  to  reali/,o  the  startling  tact.  Great 
indeed  was  the  need,  when  these  hundreds  of  miles  ot  wood-work  were  to  be 
shaped  in  such  a  short  space  of  time,  Uiat  the  mighty  aid  of  the  steam-engine 
should  be  sought.  Mr.  Paxton  on  his  part,  and  Messrs.  Fox  and  Henderson 
(m  Uieii-8,  brought  the  resources  of  mechanism  to  bear  on  the  subject ;  and 
the  sash-bar  contrivances  were  not  among  the  least  curious  ot  the  many 
Curiosities  of  Industry  displayed  in  this  memorable  building. 

Each  sash-biu-  was  originally  a  four-scpiare  piece,  measuring  an  inch  by  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  width  mid  .lepth ;  but,  during  its  passage  through  the 
machine,  all  Uie  four  edges  were  bevelled  otf,  and  giooses  cut  m  two  opposite 
sides  A  plank  entered  at  one  end  of  the  machine  :  a  number  oi  iinislied  sii-sli- 
bars'came  out  at  the  other.  In  tlio  first  place,  the  plank  encountero.l 
numerous  cuttere,  above  and  below,  which  made  as  many  pairs  ot  grooves  as 
there  were  bai-s  to  be  produced  from  one  plank ;  while  otlier  cuttei-s  inaile  the 
angular  incisions  which  were  to  constitute  the  bevelling.  The  plank  ne.xt 
came  in  conhict  with  a  set  of  paiallel  circular  saws,  by  which  it  was  speedi  y 
ripped  up  into  separate  bars.  About  three  hundred  planks  were  thus  eut  into 
silsh-bai-s  by  one  machine  in  a  day.  The  bars  were  then  cut  to  lengths  ot  lorty- 
nine  inches,  and  ti-ansmitted  to  Hyde  Park,  where  other  ingenious  machines 
fitted  them  for  the  exact  plac^es  they  were  to  occupy.  Ihey  were  cut  most 
accurately  to  a  imifonn  length ;  a  notcrh-piece  was  cut  out  near  one  end.  to 
form  a  shoulder  for  resting  against  tlie  gutter;  the  ends  were  bevelled  oil  to 
the  required  angle ;  and  nail-holes  were  drilled  in  the  proper  places  lor  lasten- 
ing  Uie  bars  to  the  gutter  and  ridge. 


H 


I  i 


• 


L 


14 


WOOD  AND   ITS  APrUCATIONa. 


The  various  angles  at  which  the  component  pieces  of  wood-work  in  tlie  roof 
meet  each  other  required  the  gi-eatest  nicety  of  adjustment ;  and  we  accord- 
ingly find  tliat— Avliether  we  look  at  the  sash-bars,  tlie  ridges,  or  tlie  glitters— 
there  were  many  curious  contrivances  adopted.  The  ridges  stretch  m  long 
mibrokcn  lines  froju  east  to  west,  and  are  obviously  much  less  m  quantity 
than  the  sash-bars  ;  they  extend,  in  fact,  about  sixteen  miles.  But  liiey  are 
much  thicker  and  stronger  than  the  bars.  They  wore  formed  out  oi  pieces  ot 
timber  three  inches  square,  which  were  passed  tlirough  an  ingenious  machmo 
capable  of  cutting  grooves  for  tlie  reception  of  the  upper  end  of  the  respective 
panes  of  glass  ;  and  the  top  of  tlie  piece  of  wood  was,  by  the  same  machine, 
moulded  into  an  ornamental  foi-m. 

But  the  "  Paxton  gutters"  required  more  machme-work  for  tlieir  consti-uc- 
tion  than  even  tlie  sash-bars  or  the  ridges.     These  gutters  extend  east  and 
west,  midway  between  tlie  lidges  ;  tliey  seive  to  support  the  lower  cud  of  tlie 
sash-bars  ar  ^  of  the  panes  of  glass,  and  at  the  same  time  to  aflord  clear 
channels  for  rain-water  on  the  exterior  of  the  buildmg,  and  for  condensed 
moisture  on  the  interior.     The  shape  thus  required  to  be  given  to  them  is  ii 
very  singular  one ;  and  nothing  less  than  the  exercise  of  great  mgenuity  could 
have  enabled  the  contractoi-s  to  produce  twenty  miles  of  such  gutters  as  last 
as  they  wore  wanted.     Each  of  these  gutters  has  a  hollow  trough  on  the  to]) 
for  rain-water,  a  small  channel  or  groove  on  each  side  for  condensed  moisture, 
and  bevelled  ledges  at  the  top  to  serve  as  resting-places  for  the  glass;  all  ^ese 
nicely-adjusted  hoUowmgs  and  bevellings  were  effected  by  machinerj-;  rjid  tlic 
gutter  had  also  to  possess  the  requisite  quahties,  as  a  rafter,  to  span  the  aiitice  ot 
twenty-four  feet  from  one  roof-girder  to  anoUier.     The  mechanism  for  produc- 
ing these  results  was  varied  and  powerful.    In  the  first  place  the  baulks  of  timber, 
roughly  sawed  by  the  usual  process,  were  planed  on  all  their  fom-  surfaces  by 
Mr.  Fumess's  Planing  Machine  (lately  noticed)  at  the  <  ihelsea  Saw  Mills. 
Each  timber  was  then  passed  to  the  gutter-cutting  machme,  the  ma-b'nrry  of 
which  was  very  curious.     A  number  of  cutters,  variously  shaped,  were  placed 
one  behind  another ;  and  as  the  timber  was  urged  on  towards  them,  it  was 
subjected  to  the  action  of  eacii  one  in  succession  ;  one  cutter  made  a  firat  in- 
cision for  tlie  rain  trough,  another  deepened  and  curved  it,  others  made  the 
bevelled  top  edges,  and  others  the  lateral  condensed-water  channels ;  so  that 
bv  the  time  the  timber  had  passed  through  the  machine  it  assumed  the  forni 
of  a  Paxton  gutter.     (This  term  is  a  familiar  one,  and  we  use  it ;  though  it  is 
not  the  best  that  might  be  chosen.)    The  machine  continued  its  work  until  it 
had  produced  a  length  of  gutter  which  would  extend  pretty  nearly  from  the 
Crystal  Palace  to  Windsor  Castle.  . 

The  transvei-se  gutters  form  another  part  of  the  roof  timbers ;  but,  as  then- 
construction  mvolved  only  common  cari)encry  operations,  we  need  not  stop  to 

describe  them.  ..u  x  %   j 

Mr.  Paxton  stated  to  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  a  paper  read  before  that  body, 
that  he  had  tried  many  methods  in  order  to  determine  the  most  smtable  ^oors 
for  the  pathways  of  horticultural  structures.  He  found  stone,  close  boarding, 
and  other  methods,  objectionable,  and  ultimately  determined  m  favour  of  open 
boarding,  with  spaces  between  the  boards  tlirough  which  dust  may  disappear. 
The  flooring  boards  of  the  Hyde  Park  structure  are  one  mch  and  a  half  thick, 
laid  half-an-inoh  apart,  upon  joists  nine  inches  and  a  half  by  seven  mches, 
which  rest  upon  lai-ge  timbers  or  sleepen?  thirteen  by  three  and  a  quarter 
inches,  at  intervals  of  eight  feet  apart,  the  half-inch  apertures  between  the 
boards  afford  an  escape  for  the  dust  from  five  or  six  million  pairs  ot  feet. 


I 


WOOD   AND   ITS  Ari'LICATlGNS. 


15 


r  wood- work  in  the  roof 
tment ;  and  we  aceord- 
idgcs,  or  tlie  gutters — 
ridges  stretcli  in  long 
much  less  in  quantity 
1  miles.  But  Uiey  am 
formed  out  of  pieces  of 
I  an  ingenious  machine 
!r  end  of  the  respective 
hy  the  same  machine, 

3rk  for  their  constiiic- 
;utters  extend  east  and 
•t  the  lower  end  of  tlio 
le  time  to  afford  clear 
ng,  and  for  condensed 
)  "be  given  to  thcni  is  a 
f  great  ingenuity  could 
of  such  gutters  as  fast 
illow  trough  on  the  top 
for  condensed  moisture, 

I  for  the  glass;  all  these 
by  machinery;  ?.nd  tlao 

fter,  to  span  the  space  of 
mechanism  for  produc- 
ace  the  baulks  of  timber, 

II  their  four  surfaces  by 
he  Chelsea  Saw  Mills, 
chine,  the  ma'-b^rory  of 
isly  shaped,  were  placed 
n  towards  them,  it  was 
!  cutter  made  a  first  ia- 
ved  it,  others  made  the 
water  channels ;  so  that 
ine  it  a.s8umed  the  form 

we  use  it ;  though  it  is 
itinued  its  work  until  it 
pretty  nearly  from  the 

f  timbers ;  but,  as  their 
ns,  we  need  not  stop  to 

■  read  before  that  body, 
I  the  most  suitable  floors 
id  atone,  close  boarding, 
•mined  in  favour  of  open 
ich  dust  may  disappear, 
ne  inch  and  a  half  thick, 
a  half  by  seven  uoiches, 
by  tliree  and  a  quarter 
apertures  between  the 
six  million  piurs  of  feet. 


The  "Great  dust  question"  he  treated  as  follows :—"  Before  sweeping  tho 
floors  of  the  great  buildmg,  tlie  whole  will  be  sprinkled  with  water  Irom 
a  moveable  hand  enguie,  which  will  bo  immediately  foUowed  by  a  sweeping 
machine,  consisting  of  many  brooms  fixed  to  m  apparatus  on  light  wheels, 
and  drawn  by  u  shaft.  Through  the  interstices  left  between  the  boards  tho 
dust  passes.""  The  reader  will  perhaps  remember  diat  the  designer  has  since 
jocosely  thanked  tlie  lady  visitors  on  tho  "live-shilling  days  "for  havmg  swept 
his  floor  so  clean  witli  tlieir  tiuiling  dresses.  „        .i 

The  bewildering  acreage  of  flooring  requh-ed  niachme-aid  as  well  as  tho 
sashes  and  the  girders.  A  veiy  ingenious  adzing  and  planing  machine  was 
employed.  It  planes  one  side,  while  at  the  same  time  it  adzes  or  removes 
iiTegularities  from  the  other  side.  To  effect  Uiis.  die  plank  is  ina,de  to  move 
slowly  over  a  table ;  and  while  so  moving,  two  adze-cutters  work  upon  tho 
upper  surface,  and  three  i)lAne-irons  upon  tlie  lower ;  and  to  complete  the 
automatic  action  of  tlie  machine,  two  circular  saws  rip  the  plank  to  the  exact 
width  required,  before  it  leaves  the  table.  The  flooring  of  the  galleries  is 
much  more  nicely  constructed  thtm  that  of  the  ground  story,  suice  it  is  neces- 
sary to  prevent  dust  from  falling  between  the  boards  upon  the  costly  treasures 
beneatli.  To  ensm-e  this,  no^  Only  are  the  boards  fitted  close  together,  but 
both  edges  of  each  board  are  „  oovod,  and  u-on  tongues  or  plates  are  inserted 
in  the  gi-ooves.  .         ,  .       n 

Even  the  handrailing  for  the  gaUeries  called  for  tlie  exercise  of  a  veiy  inge- 
iiioua  machine,  which  was  worked  within  the  buildhig  itself.  This  railmg  is 
made  of  mahogany,  and  is  of  cylindi-ical  ibi-m.  The  mahogany  was  brought 
to  the  building  in  broad  thick  slaba  or  planks ;  it  was  fii-st  cut  inta  quadran- 
gular lengUis  by  circular  saws,  and  tlie  saws  next  gave  an  octagonal  form  by 
bo.."l  off  tlie  four  comers.  Each  piece,  twenty-four  feet  long,  was  then 
passed  tiirough  a  hoUow  cylinder,  near  tlie  entrance  of  which  were  four  cuttei-s 
rf^'-i'-Ti  '/  with  great  rapidity  ;  and  tlie  maliogany  was  by  these  cutters  brouglit 
to  a  cyh'idrical  shape  and  a  very  smooth  surface.  „,     ,  ^  , 

The  beautiful  transept-arch  has  very  little  iron  in  it.     Wood  tonns  nearly 
Oie  vhole  material  of  tlie  opaque  skeleton  of  this  noble  work.      The  main 
support  is  afforded  by  sixteen  semicircular  timber  ribs,  placed  twenty-tour  teet 
apart  and  having  a  span  of  no  less  than  seventy-two  feet.    Between  every  two 
adjacent  ribs  are  minor  ribs  of  timber,  eight  feet  apart,  not  intended  to  render 
iiny  considerable  support  to  the  structure,  but  to  give  holding-ground  txi  the 
lidges,  the  Paxton  gutters,  and  the  sash-bai-s.     The  making  of  these  wide- 
stretflhing  timber  ribs  involved  nothing  more  than  mere  cai-penter  s  work :  it 
was  in  tlie  general  conception,  and  in  tlie  raismg  of  them  t«  their  places,  that 
the  inventive  talent  of  the  constructors  was  displayed.     If  we  were  to  take  a 
section  of  one  of  the  ribs,  wo  should  find  that  it  consists  of  six  pieces  of  wood 
and  two  of  iron,  presenting  an  area  of  eighteen  inches  by  eight.     Ihe  minor 
ribs  for  the  ridges  and  furrows  are  also  formed  of  several  pieces  each,  bent 
round  to  the  curve  and  bolted  together ;  but  much  less  ponderous  than  the 
main  ribs.     The  hoisting  of  tJiese  ribs  was  one  of  the  most  difficult  tasks 
among  the  many  which  the  contractors  had  to  meet.     They  were  made,  or 
built  togetlior,  on  tlie  ground,  and  hod  ia  be  raised  t»  a  height  exceedmg  a 
hundred  ftst.    As  the  span  is  very  great  in  proportion  to  the  thickness,  two 
ribs   were  fastened   together   at  Uieir  proper  distance   apart  to   stitien   or 
strengthen  them ;  and  the  mass  of  framing  which  had  thus  to  be  lifted  mea- 
sures seventy-two  feet  in  one  direction,  sixteen  in  another,  and  thirty-six  high. 
Each  rib  was  i-aised  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  transept,  and  then  moved  on 


T" 


10 


\V001>    AND   ITS   APrLlCATlONS. 


rollers  northward  or  southward  fo  its  destined  place — the  centi-al  rib  being 
the  last  one  raised.  It  was  the  labour  of  one  hour  to  raise  the  first  rib  ;  and 
this  hour  (on  the  4th  of  December)  was  one  of  great  anxiety  and  interest  to 
commissioners,  designer,  contractoi-s,  foremen,  and  workmen ;  for  the  enter- 
prise was  one  of  equal  novelty  and  daring.  The  success  was  complete ;  and 
the  12th  of  the  month  witnessed  the  raising  of  the  lost  rib. 

Wood  in  its  Every-Day  ApPLiCATioNs. 

In  die  first  paper  of  this  series,  a  little  was  said  concerning  the  excellent 
effect  produced  on  tlie  glass  manufacture  by  the  removal  of  tlie  Excise  duty. 
A  less,  but  still  important  improvement  will  result  from  tiie  recent  change  in 
the  timber  duties.  If  Canada  asks  to  be  sheltered  under  the  wing  of  the 
mother  coimtry,  by  favoritism  in  respect  to  these  duties,  it  is  for  tlie  states- 
man to  decide  on  an  answer  to  this  demand ;  the  worker  in  wood  ignores  the 
claim,  and  will  have  nought  to  say  to  it.  He  wants  tlie  wood  of  Bntam,  ot 
the  Baltic,  of  British  America,  and  of  other  comitiries ;  he  is  willing  to  pay 
tlie  proper  commercial  price  for  tiiem,  and  will  then  apply  each  kind  to  the 
purpose  for  which  it  seems  best  suited.  Nothing  less  than  freedom  of  this 
kind  will  fully  determine  the  relative  qualities  of  wood. 

Ship-building  seems  likely  to  be  influenced  by  this  sort  of  freedom  m  the 
selection  of  timber.  Not  only  are  Indian  teak  and  African  ironwood  now 
attractmg  attention,  but  an  interesting  volume  has  lately  been  published, 
pointing  out  the  advantages  attending  the  use  of  mahogany  in  sliip-bmldmg. 
Even  the  repeal  of  tlie  Navigation  Laws  may  tend  in  the  same  direction ;  ior 
cm-  shipowners,  imder  the  mfluentie  of  foreign  rivahy,  will  eagerly  avail  them- 
selves of  any  researches  into  tiie  qualities  of  timber,  calculated  to  render 
thek  vessels  stronger  or  cheaper.  In  tiie  constmction  of  viaducts  for  rail- 
ways, timber  has  rendered  most  valuable  service ;  but  as  a  material  for  paving 
in  streets,  it  has  been  "  tried  and  found  wanting." 

In  our  private  dwellings,  and  in  household  furniture,  novelties  have  been 
mtroduced  m  respect  both  to  the  material  and  the  processes.     The  variety  oi 
woods  employed  for  our  tables  and  chairs,  our  sideboards  and  pianos,   is 
greater  tiian  it  was  twenty  or  thirty  yeai-s  ago.     Especially  is  tiiis  obsei-vable 
in  respect  to  fancy  woods,  veneered  on  othere  of  less  value.     The  cai-penter  is 
still  die  artificer  who  fasliions  die  rough  woodwork  for  a  house,  and  the  coai-se 
ai-ticles  of  fm-niture  :  the  cabinet  maker  (the  "  tischler  "  of  die  Germans  and 
the  "  ebenist "  of  the  French)  is  still  the  fabricator  of  die  more  cosdy  articles 
of  fm-niture :  but  bodi  are  now  aided  by  machinei-y  where  handwork  used  to 
snlfice.     The  baulks  of  timber  ai-e  ripped  into  planks  by  steam-saws  for  tiie 
one,  and  die  logs  of  mahogany  and  rosewood  are  cut  into  veneei-s  by  st«ani- 
saws  for  the  odier.     Sooner  or  later  diis  system  will  assuredly  spread.     Mr. 
Cubitt's  fine  establishment  at  Pimlico  illustrates  die  mode  in  which  the  fac- 
tory system  is  becoming  applicable  to  building  operations.     It  is,  in  fact,  a 
house-factory,  on  a  grand  scale.     There  ai-e  joiners,  cai-pentei-s, .  bricklayers, 
masons,  painters,  plasterers,  smidis,  engineers,  moulders,  brickmakers,  sculp- 
toi-s,  architectural  draughtsmen— all    are   employed   by   the   establishment, 
manufacturing  houses  by  wholesale.     Confining  our  attention  to  the  subject 
of  diis  paper,  we  may  mention,  tiiat  in  accordance  with  the  vast  scale  on 
Avhich  operations  ai-e  conducted  by  this  fimi— whole  streets  of  doors,   ot 
sashes,  &c.,  are  made  consecutively,  said  laid  aside  in  the  diying  rooms  till 
wanted.    Eveiy  kind  of  work  at  which  steam-machinery  can  usefully  be  em- 


■ittiMMiii^*HMM«diidi: 


wiMii^wimiMii  i*9r^ -"-'%'^^ 


WOOD    AND    ITS    APPLICATIONS. 


17 


—the  centfal  rib  being 
raise  the  first  rib  ;  and 
Einxiety  and  interest  to 
orkmen  ;  for  the  enter- 
less  was  complete ;  and 
t  rib. 

[ONS. 

)nceming  the  excellent 
aval  of  tlie  Excise  duty. 
)m  the  recent  change  in 
under  the  wing  of  the 
ies,  it  is  for  the  states- 
lev  in  wood  ignores  the 
the  wood  of  Britain,  of 
8 ;  he  is  willing  to  pay 
I  apply  each  kind  to  the 
Bss  than  freedom  of  this 
1. 

sort  of  freedom  in  the 
I  African  ironwood  now 

lately  been  published, 
hogany  in  ship-building. 

the  same  direction ;  ior 
,  will  eagerly  avail  them- 
er,  calcSat€d  to  render 
ion  of  viaducts  for  rail- 
;  as  a  material  for  pavuig 

u-e,  novelties  have  been 
rocesses.  The  variety  of 
leboards  and  pianos,  is 
cially  is  this  obsei-vable 
value.  The  cai-penter  is 
r  a  house,  and  the  coarae 
sr  "  of  the  Germans  and 
f  the  more  costly  articles 
vhere  handwork  used  to 
iks  by  steam-saws  for  the 
at  into  veueei-s  by  steani- 
.1  assuredly  spread.     Mr. 

mode  in  which  tlie  fac- 
lerations.  It  is,  in  fact,  a 
,  cai-pentei-s, .  bricklayers, 
Iders,  brickmakers,  sculp- 
l   by   the   establishment, 

attention  to  the  subject 
!  with  the  vast  scale  on 
lole  streets  of  doors,  of 
in  the  diying  rooms  till 
linery  can  usefully  be  em- 


ployed, is  wi-ought  by  tliat  means ;  the  timbei-s  are  sawed,  the  boards  are 
planed,  the  sashes  are  gi-ooved,  the  mouldings  are  shaped — all  by  steam 
power. 

The  Great  Exhibition  has  given  us  much  valuable  information  concerning 
the  employment  of  wood  hi  furniture  in  foreign  countries.  Some  of  the 
woods  are  Very  different  from  those  employed  in  England ;  some  are  wrought 
in  a  more  heavy  and  massive  stjle  than  would  be  admired  here  ;  while  others 
are  lightsome  to  a  degree  which  we  are  not  accustomed  to.  It  may  with 
safety  be  asserted,  Uiat  only  a  relatively  small  number  of  English  persons 
were  prepai-ed  te  expect  from  Vienna  such  furniture  as  the  firm  of  Carl  Leistr 
ler  has  contributed  to  our  Exliibition.  Austria — partly  from  her  insufficiency 
of  sea  coast  and  of  commercial  harbom-s,  and  partly  from  political  causes — 
has  but  a  small  amount  of  tmding  intercourse  with  tiiis  countiy ;  and  it  is  the 
select  few  only,  of  our  countiymen,  who  have  visited  tlie  Viennese  at  their 
own  homes.  The  suite  of  rooms  has  therefore  come  upon  us  as  a  surprise ; 
and  it  is  certainly  one  worthy  of  study.  The  dming-room,  with  its  dining-table 
for  forty  pei-sons,  its  sideboard,  its  set  of  chairs,  and  its  inlaid  flooring ;  the 
library,  with  its  two  magnificent  bookcases,  its  table,  chairs,  and  inlaid  floor- 
ing ;  the  drawing-room,  with  its  loo-tables  and  work-tables,  its  comer  and  side 
tables,  its  revolving  pictiu-e  stand,  its  c1mii"s,  and  its  inlaid  flooring ;  the  bed- 
room, with  its  sumptuous  but  heavy  bedstead,  its  chairs,  stools,  "  prie-Dieii," 
s.,ra,  tables,  Italian  cupboards,  and  inlaid  flooring ;  the  ante-roam,  with  its  oval 
table,  loo-table,  &c. — ^all  sei-ve  to  illusti-ate  tlie  beauty  of  the  wood  employed, 
the  excellence  of  the  workmanship,  and  the  difference  between  EngUsh  and 
Austrian  furniture  in  general  arrangement  The  parquetiy  flooring  is  a  hard 
and  polished  substitutt;  iv.r  the  carpets  of  English  houses.  This  kind  of  ma- 
nufactm-e,  we  are  tcld,  "has  lately  increased  in  an  extraordinary  degree. 
Vienna,  Piague,  Budweis,  Plass,  Dobrzisch,  and  also  Demies  in  Hungary, 
supply  works  of  this  kind  in  large  quantities,  and  of  increasing  perfection." 
The  floorings  are  sold  complete,  or  in  squares  of  considerable  dimensions. 
The  catalogue-prices  represent  them  at  50  to  160  floruis  per  100  square  feet 
[lOd.  to  2s.  9(/.  per  square  foot). 

While  looking  at  these  highly-finished  specimens  of  Vienna  workmanship, 
it  is  interesting  to  see  what  the  Official  Austrian  Catalogue  says  of  tlie  cabinet 
making  of  that  country.  "Architectural  caipentiy  [this  designation  has 
rather  more  meaning  in  it  than  ovn*  term  cabinet-work]  is  carried  on  in  the 
towns  on  a  vei-y  considerable  scale.  Aitliough  several  lai-ge  establishments  of 
tliis  kind  exist  in  the  more  populous  paits  of  the  empire,  tlieir  productions 
are  not  calculated  to  meet  more  than  the  local  demand  for  them.  Within 
these  very  few  yeai's,  a  factory  I  is  been  established  at  Vienna,  to  produce 
dooi-s,  lintels,  and  window  fi-ames,  &c.,  both  by  machuiery  and  by  himd ;  and 
being  in  connection  with  a  factojy  of  iidaid  floorings  and  a  fumiture  ware- 
house, fonns  a  poilion  of  the  splendid  establishment  of  Messrs.  Carl  Leistler 
and  Son,  which  for  taste  and  workmanship  stands  without  a  rival." 

Of  Uie  white  wood  carved  fumiture  of  Switzerland ;  of  the  Jersey  sideboard, 
with  its  bold  carvings  of  King  John  and  his  barons ;  of  the  Kenilworth  buffet, 
with  its  elaborate  Shaksperean  scenes  ;  of  the  exquisitely  can'ed  cabinets^d 
tables  from  Florence ;  of  the  cabinet  and  inlaid  fimiiture  from  various  foreign 
countries ; — we  have  no  space  here  to  treat.  There  are  other  matters  which 
rather  claim  attention  m  this  place. 

A  word  or  two  respecting  Turning.  This  art,  like  most  other  mechanical 
occupations,  becomes  divided  imd  subdivided  as  tlie  wants  of  society  incresise, 


WOOD    AND    1T»   APPLICATIONS. 

and  the  prii.ciplo  of  the  division  of  employments  becomes  recognised^    Tims 
the  rjenLl  turner  produces  the  pilars.   P0«t9,  legs,  knobs,  and  otlierart^^^^^ 
rcnnired  by  cabinet-makers  and  upholsterers;  the  hardwoo,!  punier  oxci uses 

w  KSi  he  manufactured  tile  small  turned  centres  or  -res  ot  tass^  s  -] 
similar  articles ;  the  bobbin  turner  produces  the  millions  ot  snial  bobbms  ai  1 
reds  on  which  yams  and  threads  are  sold  ;  the  phtmher's  toner  is  a  worker  u 
hard  woods  he  employs  beech,  elm,  ash,  box.  and  other  »iard  woocl^^^i 
Sng  suckers  and  buckets  for  pmnps,  lead-dressers,  '""l^f  «f  • ;«  ^^^^t^ 
number  of  implements  used  in  vai-ious  mechanical  Uiules ;  Ao  bnishimTAti 
mS  the  soft-wood  broom  he«ls,  brush  handles,  &c  There  aie  other 
minor  divisions,  employed  upon  special  branches  of  wood-working. 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  stiam^ehgine  is  gradually  puttmg  m  ^t^  claim  to  be . 
come  a  xmiversal  artiticer,  a  substitute  for  bone  and  muscle.  The  piece  ol 
wo^d  whSi  is  being  turned  must  have  a  rotatoiy  motion  given  to  it,  and  this  is 
relT^hich«tea,n.poweri8mostfittedtofi^^^  Under  all  ordinary cucum- 
SLces  u7e  tiuner  maintains  the  requisite  rotation  by  pressing  his  loot  on  a 
ctr  or  tldle:  this  is  the  unskilled  labom-,  the  mei-e  exorcise  of  muscda 
^rce  which  comes  legitimately  within  the  range  ot  steam-power,  lo  guide 
rUiSlfisavery^differeniaffair;  here  -  ^ Tt"  «J'«' "  ^^lle  Snt 
and  something  approaching  to  taste,  are  needed.  Yet  «^X  .mL^the  ma 
of  steam  claims  entiy;  steam-power,  as  we  have  said,  v^hoUy  turned  &e  ma 
hoaany  hand-railing  which  nms  round  the  galleries  of  the  CrysUU  1  aisce , 
aSReS^-e  indications  that,  wherever  large  quantities  of  one  pattern  ue 
Xuir^d  the  same  most  pliant  but  most  irresistible  power  will  become  n.ore 
and  more  an  adjunct  to  tlie  labom^s  of  the  turner. 

Turning  has  its  "curiosities"  like  every  otlicr  ti-ade.  It  is  said  that  the 
comZ^  minted  sham  bamboo  bed-room  chairs  aro  tmned  very  largely  m 
SnShamshire.  This  is  by  no  means  a  mamifacturing  county ;  Mid  it  may 
Sern^odd  diat  such  a  branch  of  industiy  should  be  so  located:  but  when  wo 
find  thithose  chairs  ai^  made  chiefly  of  beech  and  |l^at  Buckmghamshi  e  s 
somewhat  famous  a.  a  beecivgrowing  county  a  little  ^'g^*  »«  « JJJJ^"  '  ^^t 
mav  help  us  to  solve  the  puzzle.  Anotlier  of  tlie  curiosities  of  this  tiarte  is 
worth  nothig  In  turning  large  articles,  the  foot  of  the  turner  ha.s  not  powe 
Tuffioient  to  keep  the  lathe  in  motion ;  he  employs  a  "wheel-turner  to  do  tins 
?o7him ;  and  it  is  found  that  blM  men  ai-e  prefeiTed  for  f "« -^vice  to  oUie^s, 
as  the  concentration  of  tlieir  attention  to  one  object  enables  t  kui  1x)  turn  toe 
Xel  with  more  regularity  than  those  who.  having  the  pnvdege  of  sight,  aio 
ftnt  to  use  that  privilege  in  gAzing  about  them.  „    ,  .  ,         i 

^TheZcess  Sf  tmiiing  involves  a  number  of  "  prettinesses'  which  render 
it  raKa  favourite  among  amateur  workmen.  Lords  and  right  honourables, 
cler™  i^d  students,  are  ranked  among  those  who  have  p  ayed  at  work  m 
SSon;  and  the  late  Mr.  Holt^aptfeVs  elaborately-mustrated  i^at^ 
was  written  quite  as  much  for  amateurs  as  ^^  shop-workmen  Na^it  appea^ 
that  regal  dignity  itself  has  found  enjoyment, m  front  of  «^«  1^*^«-  ^^  "  ! 
XVI  we  believe,  played  at  locksmiUiery  rather  than  turning ;  but  one  of  our 
own  monarchs  seems  to  have  been  learned  in  wheels  and  treadles,  chucks  and 
Se"s  Mr.  Heniy  Mayhew  states  that  an  old  working  turner,  gossipmg 
ovS  he  reminiscences  of' his  tmde,  said,  "  I  have  given  gent  emen  lessons  m 


turning. 


Many  gentlemen,  and  some  peers,  ai-e  very  good  ivory  turners. 


ilililiriiiliiillinTlHilriiri 


<ilj»iiiillili lii'iiMwi 


■  -■■ilK  *^.r 


mes  recognised.  Thus, 
mobs,  and  other  articles 
rdmuid  turner  exercises 
vine  boxes,  skittle  balls, 

hard  woods ;  tlie  tasnel 
imo,  alder,  and  chestnut, 

or  cores  of  tassels  and 
18  of  small  bobbins  luul 
-ra  timier  is  a  worker  in 
I  other  hiu'd  woods,  in 
I,  mallets,  wedges,  an<l  a 
riwles;  the  brush  turner 

&c.      There  aie  other 
food-working. 
iitting  in  its  claim  to  be- 

muscle.  The  piece  of 
ion  given  to  it,  and  this  is 
nder  all  ordinary  cucum- 

pressing  his  foot  on  a 
ere  exercise  of  muscular 
steam-power.  To  guide 
rate  eye,  ft  delicate  touch, 
;et  even  here  the  genius 
d,  wholly  turned  the  ma- 
i  of  tlie  CrysUd  Palace; 
tttities  of  one  pattern  uo 

power  will  become  n.ore 

ade.  It  is  said  that  the 
iro  tm-ned  very  laigely  in 
uring  county ;  and  it  may 
so  located ;  but  when  wo 
that  Buckinghamshire  is 
light  is  thrown  m,  which 
iriosities  of  this  trafle  is 
the  turner  has  not  iwwer 
"wheel-turner"  to  do  this 
I  for  tliis  service  to  otliers, 
enables  tin  in  to  turn  tlie 
the  privilege  of  sight,  we 

irettinesses"  which  render 
ds  and  right  honourables, 
10  have  played  at  work  in 
)orately-illustrated  treatise 
workmen.  Nay,  it  appeois 
'ont  of  the  lathe.  Louis 
1  turning ;  but  one  of  our 
3  and  treadles,  chucks  and 
(vorking  turner,  gossiping 
;iven  gentlemen  lessons  hi 
ery  good  ivory  turners.    1 


WOOD   AND  ITS  APPLIOATIONS. 


19 


gave  lessons  to  a  gentleman  who  had  the  lathe  and  all  the  turning  tools  and 
apparatus  tliat  old  George  III.  used  to  work  with.      It  cost  f^CX)  at  a  sale.     1 
liave  seen  some  of  the  old  King's  turning,  and  it  was  very  fair.    WiUi  industry 
he  might  have  made  40s.  or  50«.  a  week  as  a  hanl-wood  and  ivory  turner. 
—There  is  something  especially  rich  in  this  last-named  estimate  ot  kingly 

Among  miscellaneous  manufaotures  in  wood  which  receive  illustration  at 
the  World's  Exhibition,  is  that  of  cedar  pemnh.  It  is  placed  before  us  in  an 
inti^lli^ible  form  by  the  specimens  and  apparatus  deposited  by  Mr.  Morroii. 
Here  wo  find,  first,  the  black-lead  or  plumbago,  in  the  forms  in  which  it  is 
brought  from  Cumberland,  or  Goi-many,  or  other  places  ;  and  we  see  the  same 
substance  when  cut  into  thin  plates.  Cedar-wocxl.  from  North  Amenca  is 
sho^^'n  in  various  stages,  as  a  veneer,  and  as  bottoms  and  tops  for  pencils.  We 
see  the  machine  for  cutting  tlie  groove  in  one-half  of  the  pencil,  and  the  halt 
so  grooved  ;  the  slab  of  blacklead  inserted  in  the  groove,  and  the  raachmo  lor 
l)ringing  it  to  a  smooth  even  surface  ;  the  tops  of  the  pencils  separately,  and 
the  tops  when  glued  to  the  bottoms ;  the  machine  which  rounds  the  fom--8ided 
pencil  into  a  cylindrical  form,  and  pencils  in  various  stages  of  this  roundmg 
process ;  the  tool  which  finishes  the  end,  and  pencils  in  ditlerent  stages  of 
finishing;  the  machine  for  stamping  Uio  maker's  name  on  pencils,  and  Oie 
finished  pencils  so  stamped. 

The  Toy  and  Lucifer  Thade  of  GEnMANv. 

The  importance  which  trifles  assume  when  they  become  grouped  in  mil- 
lions, is  i-ecognised  not  only  by  a  well-known  Scotch  proverb,  but  by  the  ever)'- 
day  experience  of  each  of  us.  Liici/er-matches  are  as  good  exemplifacations  oi 
it  as  anytliing  we  might  hit  upon.  What  can  be  more  humble  than  this  tiny 
bit  of  wood?  And  yet  when  we  ai-e  told  that  one  single  saw-mill  m  London 
cuts  up  400  large  timber  trees  annually  into  splints  for  matxihes,  we  find  tliat 
the  lucifer  mounts  to  a  position  of  gi-eat  coininercuvl  importance.  Many 
forms  of  machme  are  used  in  this  process  ;  bu'-  all  of  them  comprise,  as  pai-t 
of  their  mechanism,  a  system  of  knives  or  cutting  edges,  placed  as  far  apart  as 
the  thickness  of  each  splint.  In  one  of  these  machines,  the  wood  is  first  cut 
into  quadrangular  blocks,  which  are  act«d  upon  by  a  long  range  ot  sha^ 
narallcl  knives  ;  and  tliese  knives  work  with  such  rapidity,  that  30,000  splmts 
can  be  cut  in  a  minute!  These  splints  are  sold  to  the  match  makers,  not 
simply  by  bundles,  but  by  hoqsluiad,^.  An  accoimt  ha.s  been  recorded  ot  a  con- 
simiment  from  a  London  saw-miU  to  a  Bristol  match  maker,  ot  tliu-ty  hogs- 
heads, each  containing  five  hundred  bundles,  each  bundle  containmg  seventy- 
two  boxes,  and  each  box  fifty  splints.  Let  the  reader  calculate  tiio  nnmencal 
amount  cf  this  curiosity  of  match-making.  .„     ,    ..         c 

The  Great  Exhibition  has  not  failed  to  supply  us  with  cunous  illustrations  ot 
the  wood-match  trade  of  Gemmny.  In  the  ZoUverein  section  we  find  Peter 
Harass's  matches  ajid  boxes  for  matches.  The  cheapest  unadorned  match- 
boxes are  sold  as  low  as  sixteen  eilbergroschen  per  1000,— rather  less  than  U. 
per  100  '  From  this  minimum  they  ascend  to  five  or  six  th&lers  per  thousand, 
accordinc^  to  the  degree  of  decoi-ation.  Raw  matches, two  m-Uos  m  length, 4m- 
tipped  with  composition,  are  five  thalers  per  1,000,000 ,  .  i-out  1400  for  one 
fiwthing  This  exemplifies  what  the  Thmingian  distinct  ot  Saxony  can  jjro- 
ducG  in  the  match  department.  Wilhelm  Meyer,  of  Mecklenber,,,  exhibits 
bundles  of  matches  mado  by  a  machine,  which  enables  him  to  leshion  JOO 


^mmmutk 


■I'BMif  iif tii.vr'-""-^'-  -■'"""■■  '^■'■■^""■■■^-^ 


90 


WOOD   AND    ITS   APPMCATI0N8. 


well-made  nmtches  by  a  single  movement  of  tlie  hand,  and  1,000,000  m  four 
hours.  He  seems  to  have  a  method  of  preparing  wood  to  a  semi-charcoal 
state,  if  we  may  so  express  it ;  for  among  his  specimens  are  several  pieces  of 
roanted  wood,  s'ix  or  eight  inches  in  length,  uitended  for  (luick  ignition  m  fur- 
naces ;  he  has  also  "  smokeless  wood,"  for  cigar-hghts,  about  six  mches  m 

la  tiie  Austrian  department  we  find  Fiirth's  cmious  collection  of  Congi-eve 
or  lucifer  matches,  made  at  Shuttenhofen  hi  Bohemia;  Uiese  quite  eclipse  our 
English  productions  m  variety  and  ingenuity.      They  are  cylindrical,  vertical, 
oblong,  hexagonal ;  some  open  like  a  pocket-book,  some  like  a  telescope,  sonu; 
like  a  cigar-case,  some  like  a  snutf-box  ;  in  some,  a  mouse  is  crouchmg  over 
a  recess  containmg  the  maU-hes  ;  while  in  otliers,  Geneml  Tom  Thumb's  head 
is  moveable,  and  reveals  the  matches  beneath.     But  M.  Furth  does  not  con- 
fine his  attention  to  the  plain  wooden  eveiy-day  lucifers  :  his  curious  assem- 
blage comprises  other  light-giving  trifles.     There  are  cigar rm-zunder,  or  cigar- 
hghts,  paper  pipe  lights,  wood  splints,  boxes  of  amadou,  or  Gennan  tmder, 
wax-taper  matches,  friction  shavings,  and  round  thin  splints  without  tlie  tips 
of  chemical  composition.     The  prices  of  these  articles  aj-e  wortli  noticing : 
they  are  almost  fabulous.  The  cheapest  boxes,  conUiining  eighty  lucilers  each, 
are  Uiree  ki'eutzere  (about  one  penny)  per  dozen ;  and  even  "  ladies'  lucifer 
matches  "  ai-e  obtainable  at  seven  kreutzers  per  dozen  boxes.     A  case  contain- 
ing fifty  boxes  for  100  each  (without  tlie  lucifers)  is  ten  kreutzei-s,  tliree  boxes 
for  less  tlion  a  farthing,  and  the  case  given  in  addition.     The  "  round  thai 
wood  for  lucifer  matches"  is  catalogued  at  prices  which  seem  to  out-cheapen 
all  other  cheapnesses :  we  might  suspect  tyiiographical  eiTor,  were  tliere-not 
different  entries  to  balance  each  other.     Bittner,  a  lucifer  maker  at  Neudoi-f, 
in  Bohemia,  has  match  splints  at  ^  kreutzer  per  bundle  of  1000,  or  2-250 
for  one  farthmg.     But  Furth  goes  beyond  this  ;  he  has  bmidles  of  26,000  lor 
five  kreutzers,  which  is  equivalent  to  3850  for  a  fartliing ! 

Besides  Fiirth's  and  Bittner 's  collections,  there  are  othei-s  from  other  parts 
of  the  Austrian  dominions  :  from  Pollak  and  Preschel  of  Vienna,  from  Hofi"- 
mann  of  Wisogzan  in  BoLoinia,  and  from  De  Majo  of  Triesch  in  Moravia,— all 
of  which  illustrate  the  marvellous  price  at  which  these  tiny  igniters  can  be 
sold.  De  Majo  even  goes  beyond  (or  rather  below)  Furth  in  cheapness  ;  for 
he  sells  "  a  case  of  fifty  boxes,  each  containmg  100  lucifere,"  for  tlmteen 
kreutzers,  about  fourpence  English !  ,         i     • 

The  same  circumstance  which  enables  tlie  Germans  to  produce  cheap  luci- 
fers, is  also  mstrumental  towards  the  production  of  the  carvings  and  the 
chUdren's  toys,  which  are  brought  in  such  immense  numbers  from  tlie  hiUy 
regions  of  North  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland.  The  forests  supply 
abundance  of  timber  at  very  low  cost ;  and  the  peasant  mountaini^ei-s,  simple 
and  frugal,  employ  their  leisure  hom-s,  and  the  time  of  tlieir  children,  in 
fabricating  these  articles.  Dealers  are  sure  to  be  found,  who  will  drive  a  trade 
in  these  trifles  in  some  countiy  or  other.  Toys  occupy  a  fittmg  place 
among  the  collections  sent  to  the  Great  Exhibition.  The  assortment  displayed 
by  Miiller  of  Oberieutensdorf  in  Bohemia,  is  among  tiie  specimens  which 
illusti^te  tho  cheapness  of  such  productions  in  that  country.  Some  of  these 
toys  are  made  of  metal,  "i-  have  metal  in  tlieir  composition;  but  for  the  most 
pMt  they  are  of  cai-ved  v,i^o4,  packed  in  chip  boxes.  Among  these,  some  ai-e 
catalogued  as  low  as  si;,  i  ieutzers  (twopence)  per  dozen  boxes  ;  nay,  there  ai-e 
even  entries  at  twenty  .iiie  ki-eutzei-s  per  (jrots,  equivalent  to  about  fourteen 
boxes  of  toys  for  op.:  ^enny !     From  this  mmimum,  almost  inconceivably  low 


-«a,.«Mnl»IH«»>1»l'«illl«illillllirdllW 


WOOD  AND   ITS   APPLICATIONS. 


SI 


1,  and  1,000,000  in  four 
wood  to  a  senii-charcoftl 
ens  are  several  pieces  of 
or  (juick  ignition  in  fiu- 
its,  about  six  inches   in 

1  collection  of  Congi'eve 
, ;  tliese  quite  eclipse  our 

are  cylindrical,  vertical, 
ne  like  a  telescope,  sonic 
mouse  is  crouching  over 
leral  Tom  Thumb's  head 
;  M.  Fiirth  does  not  con- 
fers :  his  curious  asseni- 

cigarren-ziinder,  or  cigar- 
idou,  or  Gennan  tinder, 
1  splints  without  the  tips 
cles  ai'e  wortli  noticing : 
ning  eighty  lucifei-s  each, 
and  even  "  ladies'  lucifer 
I  boxes.  A  case  contain- 
:en  kreutxers,  tliree  boxes 
ition.  The  "  round  tliin 
hich  seem  to  ont-cheapen 
lical  eiTor,  were  tliere-not 
lucifer  maker  at  Neudorf, 

bundle  of  1000,  or  2'250 
has  bundles  of  25,000  for 
ing! 

B  othei-s  from  other  parts 
tiel  of  Vienna,  from  Hoff- 
f  Triesch  in  Moravia, — all 
these  tiny  igniters  can  be 
I  Fiirth  in  cheapness  ;  for 
00  lucifei-s,"  for  tliirteen 

J18  to  produce  cheap  luci- 
of  the  carvings  and  tlie 
a  numbers  from  the  hilly 
nd.  The  forests  supply 
saut  mountaineere,  simple 
ime  of  tlieir  children,  in 
md,  who  will  drive  a  trade 
^•s  occupy  a  fitting  place 
The  assortment  displayed 
)ng  the  specimens  which 
coimtiy.  Some  of  these 
position ;  but  for  the  most 
Among  these,  some  are 
izen  boxes  ;  nay,  there  ai-e 
[uivalent  to  about  fourteen 
1,  almost  inconceivably  low 


ilirntilHHiiilMttf-IOT 


as  it  is,  there    is  a   regidai-   gradation  upwards    to    eighty -four  florins  per 
dozen,  or  1 3.1.  Sil.  per  box. 

The  'Art-Union  Journal'  a  few  yeai-s  ago  gave  some  curious  mformation 
concerning  the  better  kind  of  caned  Gennan  toys :  "  The  best  Gennan  toys 
come  from  tlie  town  of  Sonneberg,  on  tJio  soutli-eastem  frontier  of  tlie  forest  of 
Thuringia.  It  has  a  population  of  4tJ00  inhabitants,  of  which  tlie  greater 
pai-t  are  employed  in  tlie  trade.  The  principal  toy  merchants,  numbering 
about  tliirty,  provide  themselves  witli  goods  from  many  hundred  different 
makers  of  common  articles,  resident  in  Uie  town  and  its  vicinity  ;  these  again 
are  funiLshed  by  tlie  neighbouring  villagers  with  tho  requisite  raw  inat«rials 
in  wood,  such  as  musical  boxes,  &c.,  which  are  fitted  up  and  pauited  by  the 
makera  ui  tlie  town.  Every  year  about  25,000  cwts.  of  these  goods  are  ex- 
ported to  almost  eveiy  part  of  the  worid  ;  but  the  manufacturers  are  restricted 
to  the  use  of  wood  or  paste,  or  these  two  materials  combined.  The  fac- 
t*iry  from  which  the  best  toys  are  derived,  is  that  of  Adolph  Fleischniann, 
who  employs  none  but  first-rate  workmen  ;  and  it  is  astonishing  to  notice  the 
many  atlmirable  productions  tliese  mieducated  artists  bring  out ;  models  and 
groupuigs  of  figm-es  tliat  would  cast  no  discredit  on  the  atelier  of  a  Baily  or  a 
WcstiTiincott 

Children's  wooden  toys  have  tlieir  political  eccmomy  as  well  as  more  im- 
posuig  matters.  If  the  peasants  of  the  Black  Forest  end  of  Numberg  can 
make  boxes  of  "  Noali's  arks,"  .valry  soldiei-s,  fann-yai-ds,  sheep-folds,  skit- 
tles, tea-sets,  and  so  forth,  cheaper  than  even  tlie  cheap  produce  of  the  toy- 
makers  of  London,  the  former  will  tend  to  diive  the  latter  out  of  Uie  mai-ket 
—so  says  political  economy,  and  so  say  the  practical  toy-dealers.  The  result 
is,  that  the  London  wood-cutters  work  up  tlieu-  wood  uito  otlier  forms  ;  they 
make  rocking-horses,  kites,  drums  and  tambourines,  swings,  velocipedes,  half- 
penny caits  and  halfpenny  money-boxes,  penny  mousetraps  and  penny 
puppet-shows,  dolls'  houses  and  dolls'  bellows,  and  knick-knacks,  large  and 
small,  which  it  would  be  no  easy  matter  to  enumerate.  It  seems  that  the 
English  toy-makers  produce  the  best  dissected  puzzles,  and  the  best  large  toys 
of  the  rocking-hoi-se  genus ;  tlie  French  take  the  lead  in  mechanical  or  clock- 
work toys ;  tlie  Swiss  command  the  market  for  white-wood  cottages  and 
models;  while  tlie  Germans  beat  all  others  in  well-carved  toys,  and  in  the 
cheap  boxes  of  toys  just  alluded  to.  If  it  were  needed  to  view  the  politico- 
economical  aspect  of  wooden  toys  any  further,  we  might  say  tliat  tlie  London 
Gazette  and  the  Stock  Exchange  price-list  are  as  sensitive  baiometei-s  to  Uio 
toy-dealers  as  to  greater  men ;  for  if  tlie  head  of  a  family  finds  his  worldly 
affiiirs  not  so  bright  as  usual,  Dick  must  go  without  his  new  cart  or  kite,  and 
Polly  must  wait  awhile  for  hor  doll's  bedstead. 

Wood  as  a  Fine-Arx  Material. 

The  car\'mg8  just  noticed  point  to  a  distinct  aspect  which  working  in  wood 
presents.     It  is  a  material  whereon  taste  and  art  may  find  exercise. 

The  service  which  box-wood  renders  to  wood  engravers  is  due  to  its  hard- 
ness, smoothness,  and  homogeneity  of  substance.  The  book-pictiu-es,  or  pic- 
tm-e  books  of  the  Chinese  ai-e  cut  in  pear-tree  wood ;  and  it  is  probable  tliat 
this  and  other  woods  were  used  by  the  early  Em-opean  engravers ;  but  box- 
wood is  almost  imiversally  employed  at  present  for  this  pmiiose.  The  surface 
is  brought  to  a  beautiful  degree  of  regulaiity  and  smoothness ;  and  a  very 
ingenious  mode  is  adopted  of  screwmg  two  or  more  blocks  togctlier  edge  to 


93 


WOOD   AND   1T8   APPLICATTORS. 


edge,  to  make  onpi  block  of  larpe  size.  It  ia  certiiinly  a  signal  jn-oof  of  the  skill 
witli  which  tluH  joining  is  ofloclod,  tliat  the  hugo  cnU  in  the  '  llliistrated  Lon- 
don News,'  some  of  which  nieaHure  42  inches  by  M,  are  printed  from  bbjcks 
built  up  pieco-nieal  with  smaller  pieces. 

Snorchinif,  Hud  pnnmrn,  have  botli  been  employed  to  bring  the  surftice 
of  wood  to  a  pictorial  condition.  Tlie  learned  name  of  Xiilopyrof/raphy 
("  hotrwootl-drawing")  has  been  recently  applied  to  what,  in  humbler  pbmse, 
is  called  poker-paintinfj.  When  a  hot  iron  is  applied  to  tlie  surface  of  wood, 
it  chai-s  or  scorches  the  wood  wherever  it  toiiches ;  and  if  the  operator 
possesses  artistic  taste,  he  can  so  manage  these  charred  lines  as  to  give 
them  a  pictorial  arrangement.  There  are  some  sjtecimens  of  this  kind  in 
the  Great  Exhibition,  which  display  suri)riBing  skill ;  especially  where  the 
surface  is  chaiTed  all  over,  and  tlien  serdped  to  produce  the  picture,  as  in 
mezzotint;  copies  from  Landseer's  pictures,  and  other  subjects,  have  been 
thus  produced  with  much  boldness  of  effect.  The  production  of  designs 
by  pressure  depends  upon  a  singulai-  circumstance;  if  wood  be  pressed  by 
suitable  instruments,  it  does  not  recover  its  original  evenness  of  surface  until 
it  has  been  steeped  in  water.  The  artist  produces  a  sort  of  design  on 
wood,  by  strong  pressine  in  particular  parts ;  he  planes  down  the  protuberant 
portions,  and  then  f  oaks  the  whole  in  water ;  this  brings  up  the  pressed,  or 
hardened  lines,  which  therealler  stand  up  as  a  sort  of  bas-relief.  It  is  impos- 
sible, however,  to  produce  such  effectual  results  by  this  as  by  the  charring 
process. 

But  it  is  in  cai-ving,  properly  so  called,  that  wood  is  chiefly  employed  as  a 
Fine-Art  niaterial. 

In  minute  caning,  Greece,  Spain,  India,  and  Switzerland,  all  put  forth 
remarkable  specimens  in  our  Exhibition,  besides  those  from  the  better  known 
European  countries.  The  small  carvings  from  Greece  are  in  a  yellowish 
wood  somewhat  resembling  box,  and  all  relate  to  sacred  subjects ;  the  details 
are  virrought  witli  great  delicacy  and  minuteness-  -so  much  so  indeed,  that  in 
some  of  the  bas-reUefs  there  are  nearly  twenty  h«ads  witliin  the  space  of  a 
square  inch.  In  Spain  the  can-ings  of  a  minuta  kind  are  chiefly  in  ivoiy. 
Th(!  Indian  specimens  comprise,  besides  tliose  in  ivorj',  others  in  sandal-wood, 
a  deep-tinted  wood  which  shows  off  tlie  minute  details  of  ornamentation  to 
great  advantage.  The  Italian  n  cimens  of  cai-ving  are  chiefly  in  connection 
witli  the  exquisite  Florentine  cabinets  and  tables,  before  mentioned.  As  for 
the  cai-ved  cherry-stone,  with  its  •  St.  George  and  the  Dragon,'  and  its  twenty- 
five  Lilliputian  heads,  we  may  pass  it  over  as  a  toy.  The  Swiss  specimens 
are  in  a  light  and  soft  kind  of  wood,  and  the  designs  are  of  a  light  and  cheer- 
ful chaiwter;  flowei-s,  foliage,  village  occupation,  herd-keeping,  chamois  hunt- 
ing, are  among  tlie  subjects  depicted  by  tlio  Swiss  caners.  It  has  been  said, 
that  "  a  Swiss  peasant  takes  to  cai-vuig  wood  as  naturally  us  ducklings  to  tlie 
pond."  In  tlie  long  winter  evenings,  in  the  long  summer  days,  the  earvuigs 
are  in  progress,  either  when  no  other  work  can  be  carried  on,  or  when  the 
caiTcr  is  simply  tending  his  herd  on  the  mountain  sides.  Walking  staffs, 
pipes,  drinking  vessels,  forks  nnd  spoons,  "  merry  Swiss  boys,"  undaunted 
William  Tells — ^nothing  comes  amiss  to  these  Swiss  cai-vers,  who  contrive  to 
throw  a  force  and  expression  into  all  they  produce. 

How  wondeiful  are  the  Bavarian  can-ings  from  Siegen  and  Oberammergau ! 
Kilian's  model  (for  such  it  is)  of  Lionardo  da  Vinci's  '  Last  Supper '  is  a  truly 
remarkable  production  ;  for  it  n  a  carrying  out  of  the  great  painter's  concep- 
tion from  the  region  of  pMntmg  to  that  of  sculpture.    The  model  ia  about 


.i^'.-Jrt.'.U—  ■■■;^.  ^.Utiili 


AHi«MMNiMMMIwM«Ma 


«iii>miMiii«ii 


WOOD  AHD  rra  appt.icattons. 


as 


mffn&l  proof  of  tlio  fikill 
II  thu  '  IlliiHtmted  lion- 
wu  printed  from  blocks 

to  bring  the  surface 
line  of  XHlopi/rof/raphij 
lut,  in  hnmbler  i)hms(\ 
to  tlie  surface  of  wood, 
i;  and  if  the  operator 
mrred  lines  as  to  [five, 
uimens  of  this  kind  in 
;  especially  where  the 
iuce  the  picture,  as  ia 
er  subjects,  have  been 

production  of  designs 
if  wood  be  pressed  l)y 
enness  of  surface  until 
es  a  sort  of  design  on 
s  down  the  protuberant 
ings  up  the  pressed,  or 
bas-relief.  It  is  impos- 
this  as  by  the  charring 

is  chiefly  employed  as  a 

fitzerland,  all  put  forth 
(  from  the  better  known 
ece  are  in  a  yellowish 
ed  subjects ;  the  details 
nuch  so  indeed,  that  in 
s  witliin  tlie  space  of  a 
nd  are  chiefly  in  ivoiy. 
',  others  in  sandal-wood, 
ils  of  ornamentation  to 
,re  chiefly  in  connection 
fore  mentioned.  As  for 
)ragon,'  and  its  twenty- 
The  Swiss  specimens 
ire  of  a  light  and  cheer- 
-keeping,  chamois  hunt- 
vers.  It  has  been  said, 
rally  hh  duckhngs  to  tlie 
imicr  days,  the  carvuigs 
carried  on,  or  when  the 
I  sides.  Walking  staffs, 
Swiss  boys,"  undaunted 
carv'ers,  who  contrive  to 

jen  and  Oberammergau ! 
'  Last  Supper '  is  a  truly 
le  great  painter's  concep- 
3.    The  model  is  about 


fifteen  inches  long,  six  wide,  and  five  high ;  and  all  the  figures  are  given  in 
full,  or  "  in  IIk!  round, "  with  great  cxprossion  and  di'licacy.  When  m'.  fin<l 
that,  f-von  in  such  a  cheap  district  as  the  hilly  country  of  Biegen,  the  artist 
prices  this  caning  at  two  hundred  thalei-s,  we  may  roiwlily  believe  that  the 
workmanship  must  be  very  eliilM)rate.  'I'he  domestic  scenes  reprosonUul  in 
the  carvings  of  Krbel.  from  the  same  district,  are  equally  beautiful ;  lliey  ru- 
voal  incidents  of  Baviu-ian  peasant  life,  and  show  at  the  same  time  how  excel- 
lently linden  or  lime-tree  wood  is  adapted  for  cai-ving. 

Among  the  visitors  to  the  Great  Exhibition  many  have  doubtless  seen  the 
curious  caiTed  ivoiy  balls  deposited  in  the  ('hinese  section.  These  balls  (or 
others  of  a  similar  kind)  have  l)een  a  source  of  wondennent  ever  si-'-e  they 
were  first  brought  to  Europe.  How  could  or  did  the  little  bolls  get  within  the 
outer  one?  It  seems  to  surpass  the  prestidigitation  even  of  Robert  Houdin 
himself.  We  find,  in  the  first  place,  a  most  delicately  caned  and  perforatcMl 
ball,  say  four  or  five  inches  in  diameter ;  within  this  is  another  ball,  concen- 
tric with  it,  but  perfectly  detached  from  it,  luid  caned  with  a  wholly  different 
design  ;  within  this  is  a  third,  similarly  concentric  and  detached,  and  having 
a  particular  pattern  of  its  own  ;  witliin  this  is  a  fourtli,  of  which  a  similar 
chai-acter  may  bo  given  ;  luid  so  on,  to  Uic  extent  of  two  or  three  more  gnula- 
tions.  It  seems  to  be  generally  admitted  that  the  whole  are  ciu-ved  froni  one 
globuliu-  piece  of  ivoiy  ;  and  the  question  arises,  by  what  means  can  the  inner 
caning  and  tire  inner  severances  (so  to  speak)  be  effected ?  All  kinds  of  theo- 
ries have  been  started  in  ex]>lanation  of  the  method  ;  biit  the  most  genenilly 
received  seems  to  be,  that  tlio  workman  must  employ  hent  tools,  which,  after 
tlie  face  of  Uio  ball  has  been  cut  to  a  certain  depth  in  cei-tain  poi-ts,  work  la- 
tomlly.  There  are  some  plain  specimens  m  tlio  Exhibition,  turned  or  caned 
in  box-wood  by  Mr.  Mitford,  which  seem  to  show  that  the  principle  of  tlio 
metliod  has  been  mastered  in  England. 

An  attempt  is  being  now  made  (and  certainly  not  before  it  is  needed)  to  im- 
prove Uie  artistic  qualities  of  the  carved  figme-heads  for  ships.  Many  of 
those  now  executed  are  ridiculously  poor  in  conception.  Viewed  in  a  right 
spirit,  the  figure-head  is  a  symbol  of  the  ship's  qualities,  or  at  least  might  so 
be  made.  As  tlie  binding  of  a  book  might  include  in  its  colour  and  decora- 
tion some  emblems  or  symbols  of  the  subject  to  which  the  book  relates,  so 
might  a  ship  receive  a  name  more  significant  than  those  stupid  and  unmean- 
ing designations  often  adopted,  and  the  figure-head  might  be  made  to  carry 
out  the  same  idea  of  significancy.  But  even  if  the  present  style  of  figure- 
heads were  continued,  surely  a  little  higher  tone  of  art  might  be  infused  into 
them  ;  tlie  foremost  portion  of  so  noble  a  sti-ucture  as  a  ship,  the  part  which 
jjoldly  fronts  the  broad  ocean  and  its  waves,  is  worthy  of  the  display  of  talent 
and  even  genius.  There  is  a  figure-head  in  the  Exhibition,  much  supc  lor  to 
the  ordinary  specimens. 

Caning  seems  to  be  a  favourite  kind  of  art-workmanship  among  self-taught 
persons.  A  stoiy  is  told  of  a  toll-jratc  keeper,  who,  sittuig  by  the  fire  in 
his  toll-house  on  a  winter's  night,  with  his  knob-stick  in  his  hand  and  his  dog 
by  his  side,  sought  to  beguile  the  time  by  a  trial  at  amateur  cai-ving.  He  be- 
gan cutting  away  at  the  knobbed  end  of  his  cudgel ;  gxadually  he  picked  out 
the  fonn  of  the  dog's  head ;  then,  looking  closer,  the  ears,  eyes,  muzzle,  ruid 
grisly  coat,  he  caught  the  expression ;  and  again  and  again  took  up  the  work, 
and  cut  and  caned  and  scrajjed  and  touched,  until  it  seemed  almost  as  if  the 
very  stick-head  might  of  itself  play  watch-dog  at  the  gate.  The  new-caught 
art  was  never  again  laid  aside,  but  the  turnpike  was ;  for  tlie  man  became 


kifcttea'.jai^: 


M  WOOD   AND    n-S   AFPUCAnO^I*. 

keeper  of  u  iiiuiieutn,  whei-u  maiiy  productiong  of  his  own  chisel  were  ad 
niitted. 

Mtiiiy  circumstances — a  revive<l  taHtc  for  inoditevol  decomtums  among  the 
ntuUur — have  led  to  a  graut  advoncumont  in  E'<  Vmh  carving  within  Uih  liwt 
*'<  .V  years.  Hince  U»e  time  of  GrinUng  (Jibboiis,  the  names  of  cm-vers  have 
seldom  fomid  u  plaice  in  records  of  fiiie-art  ucliitiveinents ;  but  sucli  is  not 
now  the  case.  The  name  of  Uogors  attiu^lied  to  a  B]>ecimen  of  carving  is  a 
Hoi-t  of  gutu'onteo  of  excellence  ;  and  there  are  many  otlicr  names  rising  into 
note.  The  royiil  cradle,  made  of  box-wood,  is  one  among  many  fine  speci- 
nieus  by  the  artist  just  named,  displayed  in  Uio  IndustiitU  E.xhibition  ;  and 
tho  names  of  Pt^r'v,  Austin,  Batsford,  itc.  lue  associated  wiUi  a<hnirable  spe- 
cimen a  aie  oa.AH.  department  of  lut.  '1  he  doml  pheiwimts,  by  Waller,  show 
Low  astonishingly  such  a  material  ois  wood,  in  the  hands  of  a  man  of  talent 
and  tjistc,  may  be  made  to  imitate  pluniHj4<  The  vwious  models  of  build- 
ings in  wood,  cork,  and  piUi,  tlumgh  displaying  much  uigenuity  and  patience, 
aie  too  simply  mechanical  to  be  treated  as  cmvings.  in  Uie  sense  in  which  tlie 
word  is  here  used. 

Machinery  is  now  applied  to  caning,  as  to  most  other  meclianical  pmcesses. 
The  steam-engine  does  ahviost  eveiything  but  thini,  and  if  it  shoidd  one  day 
be  employed  to  worit  a  cidculating  nuK-hine — if  tlio  geniu  of  Watt  should 
combine  witli  tliat  of  Babbogo  to  work  a  table  of  logaritlnns  by  a  taw  puffs  of 
steam  and  a  few  movements  of  a  piston  (more  mdikely  things  have  happeneil 
within  llie  last  few  years),  we  might  tlien  almost  designate  tlio  steam-engine  a 
thinking  nuicliine.  It  is  a  Inunbler  operation,  however,  which  we  have  now 
under  notice — tliat  of  applying  tho  regulai',  precise,  uniform  action  of  hteam- 
power  to  assist  tlie  caner  in  effecting  those  pa'its  of  his  work  which  require 
most  cutting  and  least  t^iste.  The  p'n.iuted  process  due  lo  Mr.  Jordan,  now 
extensively  at  work  in  producing  canings,  of  which  a  considerable  quantity  in 
t)ne  pattern  is  required,  resembles  the  sawing  and  planing  machines  in  tins — 
tliat  the  tools  are  fixed,  while  die  wood  is  fed  or  conducted  up  to  it.  A  pattern 
of  the  work  to  be  eaived  is  first  modelled  by  tlie  artist,  and  after wai'ds  copied 
hy  tlie  uiiu'hine  m  wood  witli  perfect  accuracy,  and  in  such  a  mtuiner  tliat  two 
or  three  copies  ai"e  made  simultaneously ;  die  calling  thus  prepared  by  tlie 
machine  is  then  sent  back  to  tlie  ai'tist,  who  intioduces  by  hand  the  finishing 
touches.  The  caiving  machine  tlius  does  not  exactly  superaede  th,  Uistefid 
caner ;  it  is  liis  labourer,  employed  to  effect  tlie  rough  cutting,  which  calls  for 
more  hand-work  tlian  head-work.  There  is  something  like  a  legitimate  union 
of  powers  at  work  upon  the  new  Parliament  House,  where  Jordan's  maclune 
produces  ciu-vings  too  extensive  for  Bogers's  fingers,  and  Rogers's  hand  and 
eye  and  muid  produce  results  too  tasteful  for  Jordan's  machine. 

In  the  Hyde  Paik  collection  we  have  proofs,  furnished  by  the  beautiful 
specimen,"  exhibited  by  Mr.  Faulding,  tliat  fret-work  and  otlier  ornamental 
designs  can  be  cut  by  machine-saws  with  great  nicety  and  precision. 

Sketchy  and  slight  as  the  descriptions  given  in  Uiis  sheet  have  been,  tin 
rnay  yet  sene  to  show  how  gi-eat  is  now  tlie  activity  displayed  in  all  the  op< 
rations  connected  witli  working  in  wood,  notwithstanding  the  rivalry  presented 
by  new  claimants  to  public  favour. 


■  irWmiii  ninli 


}wn  clustil  were  ad 

icorutionH  amontj;  the 
'\  iug  within  thu  loHt 
U11C8  of  ciuTcrs  havo 
ttu;  hut  Huch  is  not 
men  of  carving  in  a 
^r  muu«!S  rising  iiilu 
i>ij}{  many  fine  Hpeci- 
■iiU  Exhihitiou  ;  and 
witli  tulmirahle  Hpe- 
uitH,  \>y  Waller,  show 
s  of  a  man  of  tAlent 
UH  modulH  uf  huild- 
jenuity  luid  patience, 
le  aeuse  iu  wliich  the 

neclianical  procesaes. 
if  it  should  one  day 
iihi  of  Wutf  Hhould 
iins  i)y  a  fe>%  puffs  of 
lungs  have  happened 
te  till*  steam-engine  a 
,  which  we  have  now 
briu  activ>n  of  steam- 
8  work  which  require 
I  lo  Mr.  Jordan,  now 
isidorahle  quantity  hi 
ig  machines  in  diih — 
d  up  to  it.  ApattoiH 
md  afterwards  copieii 
;h  a  mtumer  tliat  two 
hiiH  prepared  by  tlif 
by  hand  the  finishing 
uperaede  thv  tasteful 
itting,  which  calls  for 
ke  a  legitimate  union 
ere  Jordan's  maclnne 
1  Rogers  s  hand  and 
ichine. 

hed  by  the  beautiful 
nd  otlier  ornamental 
ad  precision. 

sheet  have  been,  tht 
laved  in  all  the  op» 
I  tlie  rivalry  presented 


ir»rP«iilrWl^- 


CALCULATING  AND  REGISTERING  MACHINES. 


We  are  about  to  give  a  popular  view  of  a  range  of  machines,  tho  object 
of  which  is  to  perform  some  kind  of  calculating,  enumerating,  or  regis- 
tering operations :  something  which  imitates  the  thinker  ratlier  than  the 
labourer,  or  at  least  ossistH  tho  former  ratlu^r  tlian  the  latter.  In  the  (ireat 
Exhibition  there  is  not  a  section  of  tho  building  but  yields  illustration,  more 
or  loss  direct,  of  such  mechanism. 

Among  tho  "Curiosities"  which  it  is  the  object  of  this  paper  to  notice, 
some  sort  of  classification  will  be  desirable.  Those  contrivances  which  may 
with  any  correctness  be  called  cnUnUatimj  or  arithiimtieal  macliines  will  be  first 
passed  hi  review ;  while  those  possessing  merely  a  power  of  reffiitry  w  ill  come 
later  under  notice. 

Calcclation  :  MENTAr,  Errors  and  Mechanical  Remedies. 

There  are  circumstances  of  a  very  peculiar  kind  often  obs«'r^'able  in  long 
and  uitrioate  processes  of  calculation.  Men  whose  minds  are  strongly  bent  on 
tliis  kind  of  labour,  and  who  ai'e  profoundly  sk'dled  in  it,  do  yet  commit  mis- 
takes of  a  most  vexing  character,  often  seriously  compromising  other  opera- 
tions on  which  they  ore  engaged.  The  mind  wearies,  tlie  attention  becomes 
distracted,  the  eyes  become  dim,  and  the  thinker,  in  spite  of  himself,  ceiuses  to 
think  and  act  Avith  tho  same  precision  aa  before.  Hence  arises  the  query — 
can  wheels  and  axles,  which  never  tiro,  be  made  to  think  for  tlieir  master  ?  If 
tliey  can  tliuik  at  all,  or  ratlier  if  tlioy  can  imitate  the  results  of  human 
tliought,  they  can  do  tliis  as  freshly  after  twelve  or  twenty  liours  as  at  tlie 
beginning;  not  having  the  ficklt  less  of  volition,  their  blundci-s,  if  any  tliere 
be,  can  be  calculated  and  adjusted.  It  is  not  surprising,  tliinefore,  tliat  tlie 
,i])plication  of  mechanism  to  processes  of  calculation  should  from  time  to  time 
have  eu  Imaged  attention. 

It  muy  be  interesting  to  note  a  few  examplts  of  the  mental  and  typographical 
difficultie>  felt  in  insuring  accuracy  in  such  matters — tlie  typographical  diffi- 
culties beuig,  of  course,  such  as  occur  in  printing  the  calculated  results,  and 
not  necessarily  involved  in  tlie  calculating  processes  themselves.  It  was  tlie 
necessity  of  accuracy  in  scientific  tables,  and  tlie  difiit  ulty  of  obtaining  (bat 
accuracy,  that  led  to  tlie  conctption  of  Mr.  Babbagf 's  celebrated  calculating 
machine.  Those  who  know  even  a  little  of  science  are  aware  tliat  tabulated 
numbers  enter  largely  into  tlie  working  materials  of  such  studies ;  but  it  is  in 
astronomy  and  navigation  that  tliis  chiefiy  appeaiH 

Dr.  I:ai'di!er  gave  some  curious  information  concerning  such  tables,  in  a 
paper  \.  blished  in  the  Edinburnh  Heviev  in  1834.  The  use  of  a  Numerical 
Table  is  i  save  practical  men  the  trouble  of  making  computations  for  them- 
selves, by  iiaving  such  computations  made  once  for  all,  and  printing  them  for 
the  use  of  liiose  who  may  be  (  iicemed  in  such  matters.  The  "Ready 
Reckoner"  <rf  a  thrifty  housewife  ia  often  a  tabulation  of  results  which  she 


I 


|{  OAiCULATINO   AND    nKOISTElUNO    HACIIINE8. 

could  not  calculate  if  she  would;  but  tho  "  Interest  Tablo"  of  a  banker  gives 
re8iiltH  which  he  would  not  wiUinKly  ho  h'ft  to  nilculiito,  tliougli  ho  hiw  tht; 
skill  to  ilo  so.  These  two  (luulilios  undeilio  all  niunericiil  tuhles :  such  talilfs 
oilhor  ertV'ci  what  we  cunnot,  or  tliey  Have  time  in  that  which  we  t-iui  etliHt. 
Thta-o  ;u-o  Multiplicathn  'rabies,  Square  and  Cube  V»uyr  TftbloH,  Squani  and 
Vitbe  lioot  Tables,  Tablea  of  still  higher  fumn  ami  Kooto,  and  others  rt;hitinK 
to  common  arithmetic.  In  IVussia  there  is  a  printed  Multiplication  Table  as 
fur  us  100(1  times  1000.  Then  tliere  are  tlio  various  Trigonometrical  Tables, 
Buch  as  tl»e  TabUw  of  Simx,  C'o-sitm,  TutiijcnlH,  Siriintx,  An-n,  Amjles.  Another 
class  (consists  of  Tables  of  Lu<janlhmi,  applied  to  nundjers  of  vaiious  kinds. 
Then  tliero  are  tl»e  various  Tables  reipiireil  by  surveyors,  architecta,  engineer*, 
builders,  carpenters,  gangers,  tuid  otliers,  in  tlie  course  of  their  duties.  A 
more  special  class  is  tliat  which  comprises  Tables  i>f  InU-rest,  DikuuhI, 
Excluimjea,  AnauituB,  Life  AHSuranco.  But  it  is  in  connection  with  Astroiwmy 
and  Navigatit)n  that  Tables  are  most  urgently  requii-ed;  and  they  are  here  so 
numerous  tliat  wo  cannot  even  give  their  names. 

Now  it  is  in  preparing  and  pcifocting  such  tables  thai  mechanism  is  believetl 
to  bo  available.  Iron  is  made  to  think,  and  U)  record  its  thoughts.  Under 
ordiiuuy  circumstances  both  tlie  thinker  and  the  recorder  commit  blunders 
which  tho  most  sedulous  care  fails  to  ri>move.  A  remarkable  proof  of 
tliis  was  given  in  tlie  jjreparation  of  Mr.  IJabbage's  Table  of  Logarithms  by 
tho  usual  raethwl.  After  compuUtiou,  Mr.  Babbage's  table  was  compared 
witli  those  of  Callet  and  Vega,  and  errors  corrected ;  it  was  compared  again 
witli  tho  tables  of  Collet,  Vega,  and  Hutton,  and  further  corrections  mmle ; 
the  revised  sheets  were  again  compared  witli  Vega,  Collet,  and  Briggs;  they 
were  tlien  stereotyped,  and  the  proofs  compiu-ed  with  the  tables  of  Vega  and 
Gardner,  and  by  two  computers  with  that  of  Taylor.  And  yet,  even  after  all 
this,  a  few  errors  wero  detected  in  tlie  stereotype  plates  themselves.  Some- 
times two  or  more  of  the  printer's  types  fall  out  of  their  places,  and  he  re- 
adjtists  theni  as  he  thinks  tlioy  were  before ;  but  if  he  blunders,  it  may  require 
a  shaq)  and  practised  eye  to  detect  the  misplacement.  No  books  contain  so 
many  errata  as  numerical  tables ;  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  erratum 
itself  contains  an  error.  The  oddest  example  of  this  kind  of  cross-purposes 
occurred  some  years  ago  in  tlie  Nautical  Almanac,  whore  it  was  necessary 
to  give  an  erratum  of  the  erratum  of  the  errata  of  a  particulai*  Table  of 
Logarithms. 

One  mode  of  lessening  the  liability  to  these  errors  is  to  treat  the  computers 
themselves  somewhat  in  the  light  of  component  parts  of  one  great  machine. 
Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  instawio  of  this  kind — this  treatment  of  a  man 
as  a  edculating  implement — was  furnished  by  tlie  system  on  which  the  gi'eat 
French  Tables  were  prepared.  About  the  year  1792  the  French  government 
planned  a  series  of  the  most  extensive  mathematical  tables  ever  known ;  they 
were  chiefly  logarithmic  and  trigonometrical  tables,  and  were  intended  to 
assist  in  the  preparation  of  the  decimal  system  of  weights  and  measures, 
which  has  since  been  introduced  in  that  countiy.  The  distinguished  savant, 
Prony,  was  intrusted  with  this  great  work ;  and  he  directly  saw,  that  even 
with  the  aid  of  three  or  four  able  mathematicians,  the  whole  of  his  Ufe  would 
not  suffice  for  tlie  completion  of  the  tables.  While  pondering  on  this  matter, 
he  chanced  to  light  upon  a  copy  of  Smith's  Wealth  of  Natiom,  and  to  open  it 
at  the  part  where  the  author  gives  his  well-known  illustration  of  the  advan- 
tages resulting  from  division  of  labour.  The  principle  advanced  by  Adam 
Smith  is,  that  if  a  nmnber  of  men  divide  ascertain  amount  ©f  work  among 


[E8. 

lo "  of  a  banker  givcrt 
l^  though  hu  haH  tliu 
III  tiililcs  :  Huch  tublt'H 
,  which  wo  full  littect. 
■r  Tahli'S,  Squani  axul 
t»,  and  nUioni  relutui^ 
riiUipUcution  TiibU)  us 
•if^oiioiiu'lricul  TublcH, 
(((■*,  Amihu.  AiioUki' 
bors  of  vaiioiw  kimlH. 
,  arohitecta,  onKineitrii, 
le  of  tlieir  duties.  A 
of  Intcrent,  Discount, 
sction  witli  A8tix>tM)iny 
;  aiid  iJhcy  are  here  so 

mechanism  is  believiul 

it«  thoiightH.     Under 

rder  ct)nimit  blunders 

remarkable   proof   of 

ible  of  lioguritluiis  by 

s  table  WU8  compared 

t  was  compared  aguin 

her  corrections  math' ; 

diet,  and  Brings ;  they 

he  tables  of  Vega  and 

And  yet,  even  after  all 

;s  theniHelves.     Honie- 

leir  places,  and  he  re- 

lundors,  it  may  require 

No  bookH  contain  so 

p[)en8  that  the  erratum 

kind  of  cross-purposes 

iore  it   was   necessary 

a  particulai*  Table  of 

t  to  treat  the  computers 
of  one  great  machine, 
his  treatment  of  a  man 
em  on  which  the  great 
(he  French  goYemment 
ftbles  ever  known ;  they 
and  were  intended  to 
weights  and  measures, 
e  distinguished  savant, 
iirectly  saw,  that  even 
whole  of  his  life  would 
ndering  on  this  matter. 
Nations,  and  to  open  it 
ustration  of  the  advan- 
ple  advanced  by  Adam 
Amount  ©f  work  among 


flALm.ATTKO   AWn   IlRniSTKniNO    MACIUNKI. 


8 


them,  in  such  n  way  that  each  shnll  lake  that  which  host  suits  his  skill  and 
strength,  the  work  will  be  better  and  more  (piickly  done  than  if  ull  tiike  alike, 
equal  shares  and  equal  kinds.  The  factory  sysfem  de()enils  esKcntially  on 
thin  pnnciplu ;  an<l  Prony  saw  that  it  would  also  be  advantageous  to  his 
purpose.  He  detenniJicd  to  have  a  sect  of  nu'ntiil  factor)-,  in  which  Rome 
should  think  more  than  work,  and  others  work  more  than  think;  by  which 
means  he  was  able  to  avail  himself  of  u  rougher,  hmnbler,  cheaper  cla.ss  of 
assistants  than  would  otherwise  be  possible. 

The  plan  was  thus  carried  out.  Three  degrees  of  mathematical  talent  were 
deti'iinined — one  possessed  only  by  analysts  of  the  highest  order,  a  second 
possessed  by  uvenigo  mathematiciuns,  and  a  third  wiiich  involved  nothing 
more  than  the  commonest  ndes  of  arithmetic.  The  thrive  classes  may  be 
said  to  have  l.-orne  some  su<'h  relation  to  (>aih  other  as  architects,  master 
buildei-s,  and  workmen.  The  first  class  was  represented  by  live  or  six 
persons,  who  entered  into  a  prolound  uivestigation  of  vaiious  mathematical 
doctrines  and  processes,  to  select  tliose  which  were  most  readily  adapt<'d  U> 
simple  numerical  calcidation  by  many  individuals  engaged  at  the  same  time. 
The  s«'cond  class  comprised  seven  or  eight  mathematicians,  who  took  the 
instructions  given  by  the  gi-eat  analysts,  and  brought  them  into  such  a  form 
as  to  be  intelligible  to,  and  within  the  practical  scope  of,  iJie  tliird.  The 
third  class,  comjjnsing  what  wo  have  likened  to  a  calculating  machine,  con- 
sisted of  about  a  hundred  persons;  nine-tenths  of  them  knew  nothing  of 
arithmetic  beyond  addition  and  subtmction ;  they  received  certain  veiy  simple 
rules  from  the  set-ond  class  (the  reasons  for  which  they  were  incompetent  to 
understand),  and,  guided  by  these  ndes,  they  computed  the  whole  of  tlie 
tables  by  simple  addition  and  subli-action.  Adam  Hmith's  theory  was  here 
well  home  out ;  for  not  only  did  these  humble  computers  relieve  the  skilful 
mathematicians  from  a  wearisome  labour,  but  it  was  found  tliat  they  wevo 
usually  more  coirect,  on  account  of  the  uniformity  of  tlio  work  intrusted  to 
tliein.  A  similar  thing  was  observed  in  connection  with  the  great  Ordnance 
Suivey  of  Ireland,  where  numbers  of  Irish  boys  were  met  \viUi,  able  and  gla«l 
to  make  the  simple  detailed  computation.y  at  a  hal/imnii/  a  trianffle,  morw 
unifonnly  coirect  tlian  if  computed  by  higher  .skilled  and  higher  paid  mathe 
maticians. 

Kut  it  is  only  in  the  application  of  mechanism,  of  manufacturing  industiy, 
to  the  furtherance  of  aritlnnetical  calculation,  that  tliose  matters  come  pro|)erly 
under  notice  here.     To  such  applications,  therefore,  we  procied. 

Such  mechanical  aid  as  is  here  alluded  to,  has  been  more  or  less  appuctl  ui 
many  countries  at  ditFerent  times.  The  Almaai  of  the  ancients  was  a  frame, 
across  which  a  few  wires  were  stretched,  and  on  these  wires  were  stnmg  beadi 
of  different  colours ;  each  bead  represented  a  numeral,  ami  the  rank  or  order 
of  the  beads  represented  tlie  rank  or  order  of  tlie  digits.  The  original  ubacua 
is  attribut'id  to  I^thagoras,  but  it  is  considered  tJiut  this  may  have  been 
nothing  more  than  what  is  now  called  a  Mitlliplicntion  Table.  The  abacus  of 
beads  and  wires,  just  described,  was  used  by  tlie  Greeks ;  the  Romans  adopted 
a  form  in  which  pins  were  used  for  heads  and  gi'ooves  for  wires.  The  abacus 
used  by  tlie  Chinese,  and  called  Schwan-pan,  consists  of  seveiid  brass  wires 
extending  from  tlie  ttip  to  the  bottom  of  a  frame,  and  divided  in  the  middle 
by  a  cross-piece  from  side  to  side ;  the  beads  are  so  strung  on  the  wires,  tliat 
each  wire  has  two  beads  in  the 'upper  part  and  five  in  the  lower;  and  all  the 
beads  have  different  values  assigned  to  them  according  to  their  positions. 

E  a 


4  CALCULATING   AND    REGISTERING   MACHINES. 

A  more  efficient  mode  of  facilitating  tlio  multiplication  and  division  of  laige 
numbers,  by  mechanical  means,  was  invented  two  ctinturies  and  a  half  ago  by 
Napier  of  Merchiston,  the  inventor  of  logarithmic  arithmetic ;  ho  called  tlie 
art  Rhahdology,  and  the  mstmment  came  to  bo  called  Napier  s  Bows.  These 
bones  or  rods  consist  of  five  oblong  pieces  of  wood  or  any  other  convenient 
material,  divided  each  into  nine  litUe  squares ;  each  squai-e  is  resolved  mto 
two  triangles  by  diagonals ;  and  the  numbers  of  the  multipUcation  table  are 
written  in  these  squares  in  such  a  manner,  that  Uie  '  units'  figure  is  found  m 
Uie  right  hand  ti-iangle,  and  the  '  tens'  figure  in  the  left  hand  triangle  of  the 
same  square.  It  would  be  difficult,  without  diagrams,  to  explain  the  mode  ot 
effecting  multiplication  by  these  pieces ;  but  the  pieces  ai-e  ranged  side  by 
side,  in  an  order  determined  by  the  figures  of  the  multipUcand  and  the 
multiplier,  and  tlie  answer  is  found  at  the  intersection  of  a  vertical  with  a 
horizontal  line — ^m  a  mode  similar  to  that  in  which  most  tables  are  consulted. 
Analogous  m  principle  to  Napier's  bones  or  rods  are  tlie  vai-ious  kinds  ot 
Sliding  Rule,  so  familiar  to  engineers  and  workmen.  Whether  it  be  tlie 
common  Carpenter's  sUde-rule,  Bevan's  Engineer's  nile,  Henderson's  double 
slide-rule,  the  Excise-officer's  mle,  the  Grazier's  rule,  or  any  of  those  for  per- 
foi-mhig  moi\!  abstruse  calculations,  the  principle  of  action  is  nearly  tlie  same 

that  of  placing  two  or  more  rows  of  numbers  side  by  side,  and  finding  the 

required  result  at  certain  junctions  of  graduated  lines. 

But  these  are  rather  ai-ithmetical  imtmments  tlian  machines;  they  ai-e  an 
extension  of  arithmetical  tables ;  t'nd  though  it  has  been  said  by  one  who  ably 
advocates  tlie  mcreased  use  of  the  sUdhig  rule,  that  "  for  a  few  shilUngs  most 
persons  might  put  into  their  pockets  some  hundred  tunes  as  much  power  of 
calculation  as  they  have  in  their  heads,"  yet  tliese  insL'uments  are  not  of  a 
kind  to  call  for  further  notice  here.     The  apparatus  invented  by  Pascal,  how- 
ever, was  really  a  calculating  machine,  and  was  perhaps  the  first  of  its  kind. 
This  distinguished  man  was,  in  eai-ly  life,  an  assistant  to  his  father  in  an 
official   situation  m   Normandy :    the   duties   of    the   office   involved   much 
numerical  calculation ;  and  young  Pascal  conceived  the  idea  of  shortening  the 
labour  by  means  of  a  machine.     It  consisted  of  a  series  of  wheels,  canying 
cylmdiical  barrels,  on  which  were  engraved  the  ten  numerals  from  0  to  9. 
One  wheel  was  for  '  units,'  one  for  '  tens,'  and  so  on ;  each  wheel  was  so  con- 
nected with  the  one  to  the  left  of  it,  that  when  the  former  passed  from  9  to  0, 
the  latter  was  necessarily  advanced  one  figure,  or  made  to  rotate  one  tenth  ot 
a  complete  circle— thus  was  tlie  familiar  process  of  '  carrymg'  effected.     Mul- 
tiphcation  was  wrought  by  a  series  of  additions,  and  ("vision  by  a  series  of 
subtractions,  and  the  wheels  were  turned  by  hand  to     ring  them   into  the 
proper  relative  positions.     It  is  exactly  two  centuries  a^o  that  this  machine 
was  constructed;  it  was  distinguished  neither  for  correctness  enough,  nor 
quickness  enough,  to  bring  it  into  permanent  use;  but  it  contained  the  gemi 
which  has  chai-acterised  all  later  machines  of  the  same  class.     Pascal  himself 
simply   spoke  of  his   mvention   in  the  following  way: — "The  arithmetical 
machine  produces  effects  which  approach  nearer  to  thought  tlian  those  which 
the  lower  animals  produce ;  but  it  does  nothing  which  can  clauu  for  it  the 
animal  power  of  volition."    Leibnitz,  Grillet,  Sk  Samuel  Moieland,  and  other 
ingenious  men,  mvented  various  calculatmg  machines  during  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centmies ;  but  all  these  projects  have  fallen  into  obUvion. 


...      I    i-|r,a'liPl 


■™*» 


iES. 

.  and  division  of  lai'ge 
•ies  and  a  half  ago  by 
inetic;  he  called  the 
apier's  Bones.  These 
any  other  convenient 
uare  is  resolved  into 
iltipUcation  table  are 
its'  figure  is  found  in 
t  hand  triangle  of  tlie 
)  explain  the  mode  of 
8  ai-e  ranged  side  by 
nultipUcand  and  the 
.1  of  a  vertical  witli  a 
t  tables  are  consulted. 

tlie  vai'ious  kinds  of 

Whether  it  be   the 

;,  Hendei'son's  double 

r  any  of  those  for  per- 

on  is  nearly  tlie  same 

side,  and  finding  die 

nachbies;  they  ai-e  an 
1  said  by  one  who  ably 
jr  a  few'  shillings  most 
les  as  much  power  of 
truments  are  not  of  a 
rented  by  Pascal,  how- 
I  the  first  of  its  kind, 
it  to  his  father  in  an 
office   involved   much 
idea  of  shortening  the 
les  of  wheels,  carrying 
lumei-ali:,  from  0  to  0. 
Bu;h  wheel  was  so  con- 
ler  passed  from  9  to  0, 
!  to  rotate  one  tenth  of 
rrying'  effected.     Mul- 
'■  vision  by  a  series  of 
ring  them  into  the 
a^i>  that  this  machine 
rrectness  enough,  nor 
t  it  contained  the  germ 
!  class.     Pascal  himself 
y: — "The  arithmetical 
ought  than  those  which 
h  can  clauu  for  it  the 
el  Moreland,  and  other 
during  tlie  seventeentli 
alien  into  obUvion. 


CALCnLATlNO   AND   REGISTERINO    MACHINES.  6 

Babbage'h  Calculating  Machine. 

Of  all  machines  invented  for  these  purposes,  none  have  approached  Mr 
Babbages— in  tlie  admirable  talent  exhibited,  in  the  cost  incurred,  in  the 
amount  of  correspondence  to  which  it  has  given  rise,  in  the  time  bestowed 
upon  its  production,  m  the  mental  anxiety  which  it  has  caused  to  its  inventor 
ana  m  the  strange  ending  of  its  career. 

It  was  in  April,  1823,  that  official  notice  was  first  taken  of  this  marvellous 
invention,  by  an  application  from  the  Treasuiy  to  the  Royal  Society,  for  the 
opinion  of  that  learned  body  on  a  plan  proposed  by  Mr.  Babbage,  "  for 
applying  machinery  to  the  pmposes  of  calculating  and  printing  mathematical 
tables.  13ut  the  matter  was  known  to  scientific  persons  at  im  earlier  date. 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  the  President  of  the  Society,  had  been  familiar  with 
Mr.  Bahbages  labours;  and  Mr.  Babbage  wrote  a  letter  in  July,  1S22,  which 
was  addressed  formally  to  Sir  Humphrey,  but  was  intended  virtually  as  a  means 
of  making  the  invention  pubhc.  He  said,  "the  intolerable  labour  and 
tatiguing  monotony  of  a  continued  repetition  of  similar  arithmetical  cal- 
culations, first  excited  Uie  desu-e,  and  afterwards  suggested  the  idea,  of  a 
machine,  which,  by  the  aid  of  gi-avity  or  any  other  movmg  power,  should 
become  a  substitute  for  one  of  tlie  lowest  operations  of  human  inteUect " 
It  may  seem  strange  to  many  pei-sons  so  to  designate  arithmetical  processes  ; 
but  such  they  really  become  to  men  of  lofty  analytical  genius;  for,  as  was 
before  observed,  it  is  found  that  a  mere  computer,  a  man  or  boy  who  only 
knows  the  first  four  rules  of  ai-ithmetic,  can  compute  arithmetical  tables  more 
quickly  and  more  accurately  than  an  accomphshed  mathematician— so  much 
does  it  assume  the  character  of  mechanical  routine  work,  when  the  exact 
mode  of  proceeding  is  once  laid  down.  Mr.  Babbage  seems  to  have  con- 
ti-ived,  even  before  that  time,  many  diffijrent  machines  for  performing  different 
mathenaatical  operations ;  they  were  mostly  plans  drawn  on  paper,  but  one  or 
two  had  advanced  to  a  working  condition. 

So  early,  mdeed,  as  June  1823,  Mr.  Babbage  had  read  a  paper  before  tlie 
Astronomical  Society,  in  which  he  alluded  to  the  fact  that  mmiy  of  the 
members  were  acquainted  with  liis  views  on  this  subject,  and  then  announced 
that  his  labours  had  attained  a  favom-able  result.  He  mentions  certain  tables 
of  numbers,  and  adds—"  These,  as  well  as  any  others  which  the  enpine  is 
competent  to  foi-m,  are  produced  almost  as  rapidly  as  an  assistant  can  write 
tliem  down.  The  machu^e  by  which  these  calculations  are  effected  'is 
extremely  simple  in  Us  kind,  consisting  of  a  smaU  number  of  different  parts 
frequently  repeated.  Li  the  prosecution  of  this  plan,  I  have  contrived 
methods  by  which  tji)e  shall  be  set  up  by  the  machine  in  tlie  order  deter- 
mined by  the  calculation ;  and  the  arrangements  are  of  such  a  nature  that,  if 
executed,  there  shall  not  exist  tlie  possibility  of  enor  in  any  printed  copy 
of  tables  computed  by  tliis  machuie."  This  is  a  high  character  for  an 
inventor  to  give  to  his  own  machine,  but  there  is  eveiy  reason  to  think  that 
It  mvolves  no  exaggeration.  In  December  of  tlie  same  yeai-,  Mr.  Babbage 
communicated  a  second  paper  to  the  same  learned  body,  in  which  he  stated 
that  he  had  not  made  any  notable  progress  in  his  machine,  but  that  he  had 
tested  its  powers  in  a  singular  way.  Ho  fomid  tliat,  in  considering  the 
arrangements  of  its  paiis,  a  different  mode  of  adjusting  them  would  produce 
tables  of  a  new  species,  altogetlier  different  fi-om  any  witli  which  he  was 
acquainted— in   otlier  words,   the   machine   could   work    a    problem   which 


I 


I 


■I 


T 


ilimi ii  iiiMi  if  III  I  liiiin  iMiMiiiiiiiiiii»MwiMlgWliMli»t»( 


-J 


,.'»" 


« 


OALCDLATING  AND   REaiSTERINO   MACHINES. 


J-i 

"t; 
■I'l' 

i  ; 


mathematicians  could  not;  he  investigated  the  matter,  and,  mstigated  ov 
guided  by  the  machine,  succeeded  in  getting  over  a  difficulty  Avhich  had 
perplexed  him  many  years  before,  in  tlie  solution  of  a  problem  connected  with 
tlie  game  of  chess.     The  machine  became  a  tutor  to  the  machinist. 

When  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  T.  C.)  Colebrooke  presented  the  Society's  gold 
medal  to  Mr.  Babbage,  in  18^4,  he  compared  the  purport  of  the  machine  with 
other  mechanical  contrivances.  "  In  other  cases,  mechanical  devices  have 
substituted  machines  for  simpler  tools  or  for  bodily  labours.  The  artist 
has  been  furnished  with  command  of  power  beyond  human  strength,  joined 
with  precision  surpassing  any  ordinary  attainment  of  dexterity.  He  is  enabled 
to  perfonn  singly  tlie  work  of  a  multitude,  with  the  accuracy  of  a  select  few, 
by  mechanism,  which  takes  the  place  of  manual  labour,  or  assists  its  eff'oits. 
But  the  invention  to  which  I  am  adverting  comes  in  place  of  mental  exertion : 
it  substitutes  mechanical  perfonnance  for  an  intellectual  process ;  and  that 
nerfoi-mance  is  effected  witli  celerity  and  exactness  imattainable  in  ordinary 
methods,  even  by  incessant  practice  and  vmdiverted  attention.  The  invention 
is  in  scope,  as  in  execution,  imlike  anytliing  before  accomplished  to  assist 
operose  computations.  Mr.  Babbage's  mvention  puts  an  engine  in  the  place 
of  the  computer;  the  question  is  set  to  the  instmment,  or  the  instniment 
is  set  to  the  question;  and,  by  simply  giving  it  motion,  the  solution  is 
^vrought  and  a  string  ui  answers  is  exhibited.  Nor  is  this  all;  for  the 
machine  may  be  rendered  capable  of  recording  its  answer,  and  even  multi- 
plying copies  of  it."  ,  •  v     i 

But  to  return  to  the  record  of  official  proceedings,  without  which  the 
histmy  of  this  remarkable  invention  would  be  unintelUgiblc.  The  letter 
addressed  to  Sir  H\imphrey  Davy  having  been  printed,  and  a  copy  sent  to 
the  Treasiu-y,  it  led  to  the  application  by  the  Government  to  the  Royal 
Society  for  that  learned  body's  opinion.  Men  of  unquestioned  scientific 
attainments  formed  themselves  into  a  Committee  for  investigating  the  subject. 
The  names  of  Davy,  Hei-schel,  Young,  Wollaston,  Bond,  Kater,  Brande,  Baily, 
Combe,  Brunei,  Colby,  and  Davies  Gilbert,  formed  tliis  memorable  and  un- 
equalled Committee ;  which,  thus  cor  :5tituted,  after  examining  the  whole  subject, 
reported,  "  That  it  appears  to  this  Conmiittee  tliat  Mr.  Babbage  has  displayed 
great  talent  and  ingenuity  in  the  consti-uction  of  his  machine  for  computation, 
which  tlie  Committee  thmk  folly  adequate  to  the  attainment  of  die  object 
proposed  by  die  inventor,  and  that  they  consider  Mr.  Babbage  as  highly 
desen'ing  of  pubUc  encouragement  in  the  prosecution  of  his  arduous  under- 
taking." Mr.  Babbage's  reason  for  applying  to  the  Government  was,  that  the 
full  accomplishment  of  his  plans  would  entail  gi-eater  expense  than  his  own 
private  resources  would  bear ;  and  that,  as  he  had  no  pui-pose  of  emohiment  in 
view,  he  appUed  for  national  assistance  in  completing  a  national  benefit.  It  is 
said  that  Dr.  Young  differed  from  the  rest  of  the  Committee  ;  he  thought  the 
invention  unquestionably  a  meritorious  one,  but  he  "  conceived  that  it  would 
be  far  more  useful  t(>  invest  the  probable  cost  of  constructing  such  a  calcu- 
lating machine  as  was  proposed,  in  the  funds,  and  apply  the  dividend  to 
paying  calculators."  However,  tlie  Report  of  the  Committee  being  favourable, 
the  Treasury  agreed  to  take  up  the  subject. 

ITnfortimately,  tbere  seems  from  the  first  to  have  been  a  want  of  precision 
in  the  mode  of  conducting  the  an-angements  between  the  Government  and 
the  inventor.  In  the  new  palace  of  the  parliament,  no  one  seems  to  know 
who  has  control  over  the  expenditure ;  and  in  the  fai-  more  wonderful  calcu- 
lating  machine    there  was  a  somewhat  analogous  train  of  misatisfactory 


lES. 

r,  and,  instigated  oi' 
difficulty  which  liad 
oblem  connected  with 
I  machinist, 
ed  the  Society's  gold 
i  of  the  machine  with 
chanical  devices  have 
labours.  The  artist 
iman  strength,  joined 
terity.  He  is  enabled 
uracy  of  a  select  ft;w, 
,  or  assists  its  eftbits. 
ce  of  mental  exertion : 
lal  inocess, ;  and  that 
ittainable  in  ordinary 
ilion.  The  invention 
cconiplishcd  to  assist 
ti  engine  in  the  place 
nt,  or  the  instniment 
)tion,  the  solution  is 
I"  is  this  all;  for  the 
iwer,  and  even  multi- 

3,  without  which  the 
ilhgiblc.  The  letter 
J,  and  a  copy  sent  to 
rnment  to  the  Royal 
nquestioned  scientific 
^estigating  the  subject. 
,  Kater,  Brande,  Baily, 
s  memorable  and  un- 
ning  the  whole  subject, 
Babbage  has  displayed 
chine  for  computation, 
linment  of  the  object 
r.  Babbage  as  highly 
of  his  arduoiis  mider- 
remment  was,  that  the 
expense  than  his  own 
iT^ose  of  emohunent  in 
national  benefit.  It  is 
littee;  lie  thought  the 
oneeived  that  it  would 
tructing  such  a  calcu- 
apply  the  dividend  to 
littee  being  favourable, 

m  a  want  of  precision 
1  the  Government  and 
o  one  seems  to  know 
moi'e  wonderful  calcu- 
rain  of  unsatisfactoiy 


CALCULATING   AND   REGISTEBISO   MACHINES.  7 

results.  Mr.  Babbage 's  fu-st  direct  negociation  witli  tho  Govei-nment  was 
verbal  instead  of  wi-itten,  whence  ai-ose  misconception  of  tlie  meaning  of 
either  party.  A  few  months  after  the  Report  of  the  Committee,  the  Treasury 
I'  directed  the  issue  of  £1500  to  Mr.  Babbage.  to  enable  him  to  bring  hia 
invention  to  perfection,  in  the  manner  recommended "  by  the  Royal  Society ; 
but  as  tho  recommendation  did  not  lay  down  any  plan,  terms,  or  conditions, 
the  mventor  was  left  to  fomi  plans  of  his  own.  The  machine  which  hail 
before  existed  was  nothing  more  than  a  model ;  but  the  calculatuig  machine, 
to  be  regarded  as  public  property,  was  commenced  by  Mr.  Babbage  hi  1823, 
and  its  construction  continued  steadily  for  hm  yeare.  Drawings  of  tlie 
most  elaborate  and  delicate  kind  were  made,  and  skilful  machinists  were 
cinployed  to  C!)nstract  the  wheels  and  other  mechanism  from  these  drawings. 
Not  only  had  the  best  skill  to  be  employed,  but  workmen  had  to  be  educated 
specially  for  the  work,  and  entuely  new  tools  had  to  be  invented,  so  ex- 
tiaordinary  was  the  nicet  requu-ed  in  every  part  of  the  apparatus.  Money 
was  advanced  from  time  to  time  by  the  Govenmient,  and  paid  for  materials 
and  labom',  under  the  audit  of  tlu-ee  distinguished  engineei-s — Messra.  Brunei, 
Donkin,  and  Field.  Mr.  Babbage  himself  received  ho  remuneration  for  tlio 
mental  labour  and  tlie  time  bestowed  by  him  on  his  gi-eat  work ;  all  went 
to  tliose  who  were  assisting  him. 

Yeara  rolled  on,  and  money  was  advanced  from  time  to  time  by  the  Treasury, 
but  the  machine  was  not  yet  completed ;  and  the  House  of  Commons,  tlie  keeper 
of  tlie  public  purse,  began  to  exhibit  a  little  restiveness.  The  Govemment 
wished  to  know  how  matters  were  proceeding ;  and,  in  December,  1828,  a 
second  Treasmy  letter  to  the  Royal  Society  was  written,  begging  tlie  Comicil 
"  to  institute  such  inquiries  as  would  enable  them  to  report  upon  the  state  to 
which  the  machine  had  arrived ;  and  also  whether  tlie  progress  made  in  its 
construction  confirmed  tliem  in  the  opinion  which  tliey  had  formerly  ex- 
pressed, that  it  would  ultimately  prove  adequate  to  the  important  object  which 
it  was  intended  tf)  attain. "  Up  to  tliat  time  4*6000  had  been  expended  on  tlie 
machine ;  but  neither  tin;  inventor  nor  any  one  else  was  able  to  state  how 
much  more  would  be  required.  A  second  Committee  was  appointed  by  the 
Royal  Society,  in  which  were  tlie  distinguished  names  of  Herschel,  Roget, 
Sabine,  Gilbert,  Baily,  Bi-miel,  Kater,  Donkm,  Penn,  Rennie,  Barton,  and 
Warburton.  The  substance  of  the  Report  agi-eed  to  by  the  CJomraittee  was, 
"  that  the  progress  made  in  the  machuie  was  as  gi-eat  as  could  be  expected, 
considering  the  numerous  difficulties  to  be  overcome  ; "  and  that  the  Commit- 
tee "  bad  no  hesitation  in  giving  it  as  their  opinion,  that  the  engme  was  likely 
to  fulfil  the  expectations  entei-tained  of  it  by  its  hiventor."  The  Comicil  of 
the  Society  adopted  the  Report ;  the  Govemment  accepted  tlie  opinion  given ; 
and  more  money  was  advanced. 

The  Treasury  grants,  however,  became  few  and  far  between  ;  and  in  May, 
1839,  it  became  necessaiy  to  look  clearly  at  tlie  financial  ditliculty;  A  sum  of 
£7000  had  by  that  time  been  spent  on  the  machine,  of  which  the  Treasury 
had  provided  only  £3000,  the  rest  having  been  borne  by  the  inventor  ;  and  it 
was  found  that  at  least  £4000  more  would  be  required.  An  application  was 
made  to  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  then  in  office,  and  £3000  was  advanced 
from  the  Treasmy.  Anotlier  sum  of  £«00  was  afterwards  advanced.  In  De- 
cember, 1830.  the  Govemment  made  a  third  application  to  tlie  Royal  Society, 
which  led  to  the  appointment  of  a  thu-d  Committee,  required  to  report 
•'  Whether  tlie  work  is  proceeding  in  a  satisfactory  mmuier,  and  without  unne- 
cessary expense,  and  what  further  sum  may  probably  be  necessary  for  coiu- 


'■1 


W 


8 


CALCULATING   AND   BEGISTEIIINQ   MACHINES. 


pleting  it."  The  language  used  by  the  Committee,  after  a  minute  investiga- 
tion, was  nearly  an  echo  of  tlie  former  reports — admiration  of  the  plans, 
satisfaction  with  the  progress  made,  sanction  of  the  financial  payments,  re- 
liance on  the  ultimate  completion  and  success — these  were  Uie  burden  of  the 
Report ;  they  recommended  that  a  building  should  be  constructed  for  the  ma- 
chine near  Mr.  Babbage's  residence ;  they  stated,  on  tlie  authority  of  Mr. 
Brunei,  that  a  sum  from  iBOOO  to  £12000  would  be  required  to  build  the 
structure  and  to  finish  the  machine ;  and  they  proposed  that  £-2000  to  £2500 
should  be  appropriated  annually.  The  Govenunent,  as  before,  received  fa- 
vom-ftbly  the  Report  of  the  Royal  Society  ;  a  building  was  constructed  to  con- 
tain the  maclnne  and  the  working  drawings,  and  operations  recommenced 
in  1831. 

Calamity,  however,  was  at  hand.  Wlien  about  £17,000  had  been  expended, 
difficulties  arose  with  the  machinist  who  had  constructed  all  tlie  apparatus. 
He  made  claims,  which  were  resisted ;  and,  as  no  compromise  could  be  arrived 
at,  he  withdrew  all  his  skilled  workmen — and,  what  was  worse,  he  removed  all 
the  valuable  tools  which  had  been  employed  m  tlie  work.  Mr.  Weld,  who  de- 
tails these  proceedings  at  some  length  in  hin  History  of  the  Boyal  Society,  says, 
tliat  this  removal  the  machinist  "  had  a  right  to  do ;  startling  as  it  may  appear 
to  the  unprofessional  reader,  it  is  nevertheless  the  fact,  that  engineers  and  me- 
chanics possess  the  right  of  property  to  all  tools  that  they  have  constmcted, 
although  the  coat  of  constmction  has  been  defrayed  by  tlieir  employers." 
This  was  the  finishing  blow:  the  works  were  suspended. 

About  this  time  Mr.  Babbage  Avas  developing  the  conception  of  a  still  more 
complete  machine  than  that  which  had  caused  him  so  much  anxious  labour : 
one  tliat  would  work  mathematical  problems  of  a  far  higher  order.  His  for- 
mer one  he  called  a  Difference  Enijine;  tlie  new  one,  if  tJae  conception  should 
ever  be  realised,  he  proposed  to  call  an  Analytical  Engine.  He  considered 
that,  even  if  he  could  obtain  his  tools  and  his  workmen,  it  were  wortli  con- 
sideration whether  to  finish  the  old  machine  or  to  begin  a  better.  He  applied 
to  the  Government  on  the  subject  in  1834  and  1835,  but  nothing  was 
done  ;  he  also  made  his  views  kiiown  to  some  eminent  Italiaji  philosophei-s. 
Nine  years  passed  over,  from  1833  to  1842 ;  the  ins  and  the  outs,  in  politics, 
changed  places  more  than  once ;  but  no  more  Treasury  grants  were  made, 
nor  definite  aiTangements  arrived  at.  In  1842  Sir  Robert  Peel  expressed  a 
disinclination  to  spend  more  public  money  on  the  machine,  but  he  offered  to 
waive,  on  the  part  of  the  Govemnient,  all  right  of  property  in  it,  if  it  could 
be  completed  by  private  enterprise.  Mr.  Babbage  wished  tlie  drawings  end 
the  machine  to  bo  still  considered  as  pubV  property,  and  he  declined  to  take 
them  to  himself. 

Heie  is,  virtually,  the  close  of  the  history  of  this  wonderful  machine ;  for 
nothing,  we  believe,  has  since  been  done  to  foi-warl  it  In  1843,  on  applica- 
tion from  the  tmstees,  tlie  Government  placed  the  machine  smd  drawings  in 
the  Museum  of  King's  College.  The  machine  is  capable  of  doing  a  small 
portion  of  the  work  for  which  it  was  planned,  and  this  witli  absolute  preci- 
sion ;  but  the  mechanism  for  its  higher  powers,  and  for  piinting  its  results, 
have  not  yet  been  constructed.  In  respect  to  the  second,  or  Analytical  Engine, 
it  exists  only  on  paper ;  yet  this  paper  extends  to  one  hundred  large  drawings, 
and  four  or  five  hundred  large  sheets  of  plans  and  details — showing  tlie  vast- 
ness  of  the  enterprise.  The  extraordinary  part  of  the  matter  is,  that  even 
new  tools  and  new  modes  of  working  in  metal  have  to  be  devised.  "  A  long 
series  of  experiments,"  says  Mr.  Weld,  "  have  been  made  upon  the  art  of 


K8. 

ir  a  minute  investiga- 
iration  of  the  plans, 
lanciul  payments,  ve- 
re  tlie  burden  of  the 
Qstructed  for  the  ma- 
Lhe  authority  of  Mr. 
equired  to  build  the 
that  i;2000  to  JB25()0 
before,  received  fa- 
ts constructed  to  con- 
•ations  recommenced 

I  had  been  expended, 
ed  all  the  apparatus, 
imise  could  be  arrived 
ivorse,  he  removed  all 
Mr.  Weld,  who  de- 
le  Royal  Society,  says, 
ling  as  it  may  appear 
lat  engineers  and  me- 
ey  have  constnicted, 
by  tlieir   employers." 

eption  of  a  still  more 
nuch  anxious  labour : 
igher  order.  His  for- 
tbe  conception  should 
gine.  He  considered 
n,  it  were  wortli  con- 
a  better.  He  applied 
15,  but  nothing  was 
;  Italian  philosophei-s. 
d  the  outs,  in  politics, 
iry  grants  were  made, 
)ert  Peel  expressed  a 
line,  but  he  offered  to 
)erty  in  it,  if  it  could 
ed  the  drawings  and 
id  he  declined  to  take 

nderful  machine ;  for 
In  1843,  on  applica- 
:ihine  and  drawings  in 
ible  of  doing  a  small 
witli  absolute  preci- 
r  piinting  lis  results, 
,  or  Analytical  Engine, 
indred  lai'ge  drawings. 
Is — showing  tlie  vast- 
3  matter  is,  that  even 
be  devised.  "  A  long 
lade  upon  tlie  art  of 


-iim/6i^BBBj^^ 


CALCULATING   AND    HE01STERIN0   MACHINES. 


9 


shaping  metals ;  and  the  tools  to  be  employed  for  that  purpose  have  been  dis- 
cussed, and  many  drawings  of  tliem  prepared.  The  great  object  of  these 
inquiries  and  experiments  is,  on  the  one  hand,  by  simplifying  the  construc- 
tion as  much  as  possible,  and,  on  the  other,  by  contriving  new  and  cheaper 
meaus  of  execution,  ultimately  to  redwe  the  expense  within  those  hraits 
which  a  private  individual  may  command." 

We  have  gone  connectedly  but  rajjidly  tliro'.igh  the  thirty  yeare'  history  of 
this  invention — certainly  not  thirty  years  of  peace  to  the  distinguished  in- 
ventor ;  but  we  have  said  nothing  of  its  mechanisn  ,  nd  modo  of  action.  This 
is,  in  tmth,  no  easy  matter.  To  explain  the  principle  on  which  the  machuie  is 
based  would  require  mathematical  details  lying  beyond  the  scope  of  the  pre- 
sent article.  It  may  be  stated,  however,  Uiat  the  differences  between  numbers 
in  a  Table  are  the  elements  out  of  which  Mr.  Babbage  constructs  tlie  Table 
itself;  and  on  this  accoimt  he  calls  his  apparatus  a  BiffereiKe  Engine.  I'or  in- 
stance, in  a  Table  of  square  numbers,  1,  4,  9,  16,  25,  aO,  &c.,  tlie  difference 
between  the  first  and  second  is  3,  between  the  second  and  third,  6 ;  and  so  we 
get  a  series  3,  5,  7,  9,  1 1,  &c.  Again,  this  series  of  first  differences,  if  viewed 
in  a  similiu-  manner,  presents  us  witli  another  and  remarkable  series,  2,  2,  2,  2, 
Sic.  It  is  found  that  almost  all  numerical  tables,  when  thus  analysed  into 
successive  orders  of  ditl'erences,  end  at  last  in  a  very  simple  series,  consti- 
tuting the  materials — the  atomic  elements,  so  to  speak — which,  by  addition, 
will  produce  all  the  numbera  required  in  the  table.  The  process  of  addition 
lies  at  the  root  of  the  whole  method. 

Now  the  question,  how  to  accomplish  this  by  mechanism,  was  that  which 
Mr.  Babbage  set  himself  to  solve.  The  first  term  of  the  table,  and  tlie  fii-st 
term  of  each  order  of  differences,  being  given,  the  whole  table  can  be  con- 
sti-ucted  from  those  elements ;  and  dials  were  made  to  indicate  these  numbers. 
There  are  rows  of  dials  to  represent  the  successive  orders  of  differences,  and 
rows  to  represent  tlie  succesbive  digits  in  a  number ;  and,  by  an  extraordinary 
assemblage  of  mechanism,  the  wheels  to  which  tliese  dials  are  attached  act 
upon  each  other  in  an  order  detci-mined  by  the  original  adjustment — by  the 
tune  to  which  this  mental  organ  is  set.  Each  dial  has  on  its  edges  the  set  of 
digits  from  0  to  9.  There  are  axes  on  which  Uie  dials  revolve  ;  teeth  to  the 
wheels  behind  the  dials ;  bolts  which  act  on  or  uito  these  teeth  :  wedges  to 
withdraw  the  bolts ;  and  shoulders  which  regulate  the  action  of  the  bolts  on 
the  teeth- wheels — <ill  this  determines  the  process  of  addition.  Then  there 
are  ratchet-wheels  behind  the  dials ;  claws  which  catch  in  tlie  teeth  of  these 
ratchets  ;  hooks  which  fasten  or  unfasten  the  claws ;  spiral  springs  which  draw 
back  tlie  claws  when  unfastened ;  triggers  which  set  tlie  hooks  in  action ; 
thumbs  or  studs  which  govern  the  triggera  ;  and  fingers  on  the  revolving  axes 
which  move  tlie  claws — all  to  manage  Uie  proc?is  of  carnjiny,  well  known  to 
every  schoolboy  in  his  addition  sums.  In  the  tliird  jdace,  there  are  rollers 
resting  oetween  curved  surfaces ;  cones  resting  on  conical  apertures ;  and 
other  pieces  of  mec'-  irism — for  verifying  or  ensuring  accuracy  in  the  results, 
ijastly,  there  are  siia,..  ^^ieces  on  the  axes  of  some  of  the  wheels  ;  levera  to  be 
acted  upon  by  these  pieces  to  ten  different  heights,  according  to  the  numerals ; 
N  ;"3  at  the  other  ends  of  tlie  levers;  ten  punches  in  each  sector,  having 
the  inised  chai-acter  of  the  ten  numerals ;  a  bent  lever  which  acts  upon  a  par- 
■:'  liar  punch  in  a  particular  position  of  the  sector;  a  copper  plate  on  which 
liie  punch  may  make  an  indented  ir-ipression ;  levers  for  moving  the  plate 
while  anotlier  punch  is  coming  into  action — these  are  for  printing  the  results ; 

E  3 


^""X. 


timmtmntmrnmay 


10 


CALCULATING   AND   KEOIBTEBINO   MACIIINEH. 


or,  rather,  for  producing  stamped  copper  plates,  which  may  either  be  printed 
from  or  may  act  as  moulds  from  which  stereotype  casts  can  be  taken. 

Although  Dr.  Lardner  has  much  skill  in  describing  mechanism,  it  occupied 
twentv-five  pages  in  the  Edinbun/h  Revieiv  for  him  to  describe  the  action  ol  the 
calcukting  machine;  and  there  were  some  features  which  he  gave  u|. 
altogether  as  hopeless,  without  a  mass  of  diagi-ams  which  nobody  would 
look  at  but  practical  men.  Some  of  the  apparatus  and  modes  of  action 
are  indeed  extoordiniu-y— none  more  so  tlian  tliat  for  ensuring  accuracy 
in  the  calculated  results.  If  the  machine  does  its  work  a  littk  in  error, 
it  is  rubbed  into  good  conduct  by  tlie  friction  of  adjacent  mechanism,  on  the 
pruxciple  of  sympathy  which  makes  pendulums  vibrate  alike,  or  men  m  a  m"b 
huzza  alike  ;  but  if  the  machine  begins  to  do  its  work  venj  wrongly,  the  wheels 
become  locked,  and  refuse  to  rotate.  They  will  progress  nghtly,  or  not  at  all : 
they  repudiate  a  slovenly  course.  This  is  perhaps  approa«hing  as  near  tlie 
region  of  volition  as  steel  and  brass  ctm  accomplish. 

It  was  not  that  all  these  wonders  were  produced  by  ilie  actual  machine, 
or  rather  model,  constructed  by  Mr.  13abbage :  but  that  tlieir  possibility  and 
mechaniciU  as  well  as  tlieoretical  correctness  were  proved  by  tiie  Uiousand 
square  feet  of  drawings  prepaied  by  him.  ,     ,^.  ^  ir     •         a 

The  above  details  relate,  as  we  have  mentioned,  to  the  Difference  hngim.  A 
few  words  must  be  added  concerning  tlie  younger  sister  of  tliat  contrivance. 
The  Ancdyticcd  Engine  seems  to  embrace  withm  its  exti-aordmaiy  powers,  com- 
plicated arithmetical  operations  of  an  almost  unbounded  character ;  and  it 
appears  to  be  the  opmion  of  the  inventor,  that  thi.s  engine  could  not  only 
perform  operations  beyond  the  scope  of  tlie  Difference  Engine,  but  could  pei-- 
foi-m  more  quickly  that  which  the  latter  is  capable  of  effecting.  An  ec- 
couiit  of  the  new  conception  was  published  in  the  BMiollisqm  UniveraeUc,  m 
184!i ;  and  was  tlience  translated  (by  Lady  Lovelace,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Wakl) 
for  Taylor's  Scientijic  Metnoirs. 

For  sLxteen  or  eighteen  years  the  Analytical  Engine  has  lived  upon  paper, 
and  in  the  fertile  brain  of  its  inventor ;  but  as  it  has  not  yet  assumed  tlio 
mechanical  form,  any  further  notice  of  it  Ues  beyond  tlie  scope  of  this  aiticle. 
If  it  ever  see  the  light  of  day  (which  every  lover  of  science  imd  mechanical 
skiU  would  ardently  wish),  Mr.  Babbage  must  next  add  an  iron  labourer  to  tlic 
iron  thinker,  by  setting  a  steara-engme  to  work  the  handle ;  we  could  then 
manufacture  aiithmetical  tables  like  yaids  of  cotton. 

Eecent  Akithmetical  Machines. 

Any  comment  on  the  circumstances  which  have  for  so  lengthened  a  period 
rendered  tlie  above  extraordinaiy  inventions  ban-en  of  results,  besides  bemg 
painfrl  and  unsatisfactoiy,  would  he  beyond  tlie  scope  of  the  present  paper. 
We  tlierefore  propose  U)  take  a  glance  at  recent  and  humbler  performances  m 
ihe  same  line  of  mechanical  art.  •    i    •  * 

That  arithmetical  machines  of  any  kuid  have  as  yet  come  extensively  mto 
use  is  more  than  can  be  safely  affirmed.  Thit  is  no  reason,  however,  for  a 
suspension  of  ingenuity  on  the  subject.  The  ,  agulaiity  and  precision  o 
modem  mechanism  ai-e  quaUUes  singularly  analogous  to  those  which  calculated 
tables  and  quantities  ought  to  present ;  and  practical  men  feel  that  this  analogy 
wUl  vet  produce  its  good  fruit.  Ingenious  machinists  ai-e  gropuig  dieir  way 
in  seai-ch  of  these  favouiable  results ;  and  it  wUl  be  haid  if  some  among 
them  do  not  hit  upon  liie  right  path. 


l. 


ly  either  be  printed 
an  be  taken, 
chaiiisni,  it  occupied 
ribe  tlie  action  of  the 
which  he  guve  ui» 
vliich  nobody  would 
nd  niodea  of  action 
)r  ensuring  accuracy 
orlc  a  little  in  error, 
,  mechanism,  on  the 
ike,  or  men  in  a  mob 
/  wrongly,  the  wheela 
rightly,  or  not  at  all : 
Loaahuig  as  near  tlie 

tlio  actual  machine, 

tlieir  possibility  and 

ved  by  the  Uiousand 

Difference  Eiiffiiie.  A 
r  of  tliat  contrivance. 
)rdinaiy  powers,  corn- 
ed character;  and  it 
igine  could  not  only 
Engine,  but  could  pei-- 
of  effecting.  An  »c- 
iotheque  Univeraelle,  hi 
1  stated  by  Mr.  Wald) 

has  lived  upon  paper, 
not  yet  assumed  Uie 
)  scope  of  this  aiticle. 
ience  and  mechanical 
m  iron  labourer  to  the 
andle ;  we  could  then 


>  lengthened  a  period 
results,  besides  being 
of  tlie  present  paper, 
mbler  performances  m 

come  extensively  into 
reason,  however,  for  a 
uity  and  precision  of 
those  which  calculated 
n  feel  that  this  analogy 
are  groping  dieir  way 
hard  if  some  among 


CAIXJULATING   AND    KEOISTEEING   MACHINES.  ft 

Among  the  English  and  foreign  inventors  who  have  applied  their  inge- 
nuity in  this  channel,  may  be  named  M.  Colmar,  a  Director  of  the  Sun  Fire 
(Office  at  Paris,  who  has  invented  a  calculating  machine  which  he  calls  the 
Arithmometre.  It  has  been  invented  more  tlian  thirty  yeai-s,  but  there  ap- 
peal' to  have  been  many  improvements  recently  intioduced  in  it.  The 
claims  put  forth  for  tlie  machine  are  tlicse : — tliat  provided  a  person  knows  the 
numerals,  and  follows  the  printed  instructions,  he  can  work  sums  in  ad- 
dition, subtraction,  multiplication,  division,  and  square  root,  without  having 
learned  tliose  rules ;  or  tliat,  if  he  knows  tliem,  he  may  work  more  quickly 
and  more  correctly  with  tlian  without  the  apparatus.  The  machine  is 
contained  in  an  oblong  Iwx,  from  fourt.een  to  twenty-two  inches  long,  accord- 
ing to  tlie  extent  of  its  powers.  There  are  as  many  slides,  each  working  in  a 
groove,  as  tiiere  are  places  of  figures ;  and  each  groove  is  numbered  witli  ten 
tigm-es,  from  0  to  9.  There  are  as  many  round  holes,  in  a  brass  plate,  as 
thej-e  are  possible  places  of  figm-es  in  die  result  to  be  produced ;  and  be- 
neath each  hole  may  appear  any  one  of  the  ten  numerals.  The  machine 
is  adjusted  to  any  particular  problem,  or  the  "  sum  is  set,"  by  moving 
some  among  tlio  many  slides ;  to  determine  which  of  tlie  shdes,  and  how  far 
along  tlie  groove  each  shall  be  moved,  depends  on  the  terms  of  the  question ; 
these  slides  work  upon  certain  wheels  and  levers  undenieatli,  which  cause 
tlie  proper  figui-es  to  make  their  appearance  at  tlie  row  of  holes  ui  the  brass 
plate. 

There  is  anotlier  French  machine,  by  M.  Maurel,  differing  in  tlie  working 
details,  but  founded  on  the  same  principle  of  gi-aduated  sliding  bai-s  or 
rods. 

Baranowski's  Ready  Beckoner,  lately  invented  in  America,  is  a  much  more 
simple  machine  dian  those  for  arithmetical  processes  generally.  It  is  intended 
for  questions  in  which  sums  of  money  are  concerned ;  such  as  days'  wages  at 
so  much  per  day,  prices  at  so  much  per  lb.,  or  interest  at  so  much  per  cent. 
Let  us  describe  a  wages  machine.  We  see  an  upright  box,  with  a  handle  at 
the  bottom,  rows  of  figures  up  the  front,  and  a  number  of  small  slide.-s  moved 
by  studs.  Near  the  top,  concealed  within  the  box,  is  a  paper  on  which  rates 
of  wages  are  printed,  from  l«.  to  42«.  per  week ;  there  is  a  small  opening  in 
front  of  tliis  paper,  and  by  turning  the  handle  any  requii-ed  rate  of  wages  be- 
tween those  limi(«  is  brought  to  the  opening.  Suppose  it  be  24s.  per  week ; 
then  "  ^48."  appears  at  the  opening,  and  the  machine  is  in  a  condition  to  show 
the  amount  of  wages  earned  in  any  fractional  number  of  days  and  hours,  at 
that  rate.  Let  it  be  four  days,  five  hours ;  we  draw  aside  a  little  slide  "t  "  four 
days,"  and  another  at  "five  houi-s;"  these  reveal  openings,  at  which  appear 
printed  figm-es  representing  the  sums  of  money  to  which  tlie  earnings  amoimt. 
If  the  time  were  fom-  days,  five  horns,  and  thi-ee  quaiters,  tliree  slides  would 
have  to  be  moved,  three  sums  woidd  appear,  and  these  diree  would  have  to  be 
added.  Whether  time  be  saved  by  tliis  mechanism  is  a  question  for  each  com- 
puter to  decide  tor  himself.  Another  appUcation  of  the  machine  is  for  calcu- 
lating goods  tolls  at  so  much  per  ton ;  the  rate  per  ton  appears  at  the  top,  while 
the  tons,  cwts.  and  lbs.  appear  at  the  sides,  'Hid  ti>t^  residt  is  arrived  at  on  the 
same  principle  as  in  the  wt^es  machine.  It  is  obvious  that  the  principle,  if 
useful  at  all,  is  capable  of  wide  application. 

When  we  hear  and  read  of  Polish  Jews,  wh  ore  apt  to  think  i-ather  of  shrewd 
barterers  than  of  ingenious  machinists ;  yet  one  of  the  articles  deposited  in 
the  Eussian  department  at  the  Great  Exhibition  by  a  Jew  of  Waisaw,  named 
Staffel,  is  a  highly  ingenious  mechanioal  contrivance.     It  is  a  machine  for 


i 


n 


CALCULATING   AW)    HEGI8TERINO   MACHINES. 


working  sums  in  arithmetic,  and  is  said  to  perform  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  and  division,  with  great  quickness  and  mierring  coirectness ; 
it  goes  even  further  tlian  this,  for  it  can  calculate  powers,  roots,  and  fractions. 
Extemully  the  niivchine  is  small  and  rather  plain,  but  its  internal  construction 
must  necessaiily  be  complex.  It  is  an  oblong  brass  box,  about  four  ijiches  high. 
On  the  upi)er  face  are  the  words  "  adilitio,"  "  subtractio,"  "  multiplicatio," 
"  divisio,"  riingcd  in  ii  semi-circle ;  and  to  whichever  of  these  an  index  is 
turned  by  a  smiiU  handle,  the  machmc  is  tlien  in  a  state  to  perform  that 
piuticuliu-  rule  or  operation.  We  see  seven  small  holes,  witli  moveable  plates 
beneath  them,  nuirked  by  numerals ;  seven  similai-  holes  in  the  peripheries  of 
seven  little  vertical  wheels ;  and  tliirteen  number-holes,  if  we  may  so  designate 
them,  in  another  piece  of  appaiatus.  Each  set  of  seven  holes  has  a  traversing 
movement,  but  the  longer  series  is  immoveable.  The  principle  of  the  opera- 
tion is  somewhat  as  follows  :— tlie  two  smaller  frames  are  adjusted  to  tlie  con- 
ditions of  tlie  question,  so  as  to  represent  two  sums  to  be  added  or  two  to 
be  nmlti[)lied,  &c.,  and  tlien,  on  turning  a  handle,  the  answer  appears  at  the 
thirteen  holes  of  tlie  otlier  frame.  Every  one  of  the  twenty-seven  holes  has 
ten  nmnei-als  (0  to  9)  belonging  to  it,  and  any  one  of  these  ten  may  appear 
at  tlie  opening,  accorduig  to  tlie  adjustment  for  the  solution  of  each  question. 
The  machine  can  multiply  seven  figures  by  seven  figures  (or  millions  by 
millions),  and  can  display  analogous  powers  in  the  other  arithmetical  pro- 
cesses. 

There  is  one  little  feature  in  tlie  machine  just  described  which  seems  to 
approach  neaier  to  tlie  volition  or  judgment  of  an  intelhgent  being  tlian  even 
the  calculating  itself.  The  machine  corrects  certain  errors  into  which  the 
computer  might  himself  inadvertently  fall.  For  instance,  if  the  machine  is 
set  to  subtract  a  larger  number  from  a  smaller,  or  to  divide  a  number  by  ano- 
tlier  lai'ger  than  itself,  tlie  machine  cannot  and  will  not  do  it :  it  rings  a  bell, 
and  then  stops  work.  The  mechanism  by  which  this  singulai-  result  is 
brought  about  is  small  but  intiicate;  it  shows,  however,  how  many  mental 
processes  may,  to  a  cei-tain  extent,  be  imitated  by  wheels  and  levers. 

Dr.  Rotli's  Atdomatvn  Calculator,  introduced  about  ten  years  ago,  has  tlie  same 
kind  of  assemblage  of  slides,  studs,  wheels,  &c.,  as  chai-acterise  most  of  these 
contiivances.  In  one  of  its  forms  it  simply  registers  the  number  of  strokes  or 
rotations  m  a  machine,  but  in  its  more  complete  shape  it  solves  questions  in 
addition,  multipUcation,  &c.  Analogous  in  character,  too,  tliough  differing  in 
details,  is  tlie  Calculating  Machine  introduced  to  the  notice  of  the  British 
Association,  in  1849,  by  M.  Slovinski,  a  Pole;  it  can  perform  multipUcation 
sums  up  to  millions  multiphed  by  millions. 

NdMBERINO   AND    REGISTERING    MACHINES. 

The  reader  can  hardly  fail  to  perceive  that  there  is  a  general  family  likeness 
among  these  vai'ious  aiithmetical  and  calculating  machines,  however  they  may 
differ  in  details.  Instead  of  furtlier  amplification  on  this  point,  therefore,  we 
will  talk  awhile  of  another  class  of  ingenious  contiivances,  wherein  a  principle 
of  registry  is  involved.  By  this  principle  a  piece  of  appai-atus  not  only  per- 
forms its  destined  work,  but  preserves  a  record  of  tlie  quantity  of  work  done : 
it  is  an  accountant  as  well  as  a  workman. 

One  of  the  French  machines  at  the  Great  Exhibition  is  called  the  Timbre 
Additioneur.  It  is  intended  for  stamping,  and  numbeiing  and  registering  the 
articles  stamped.     Different  stamps  or  dies  may  be  used  in  the  same  machine, 


iddition,  Kubtraction, 
uierring  coirectneHS ; 
,  roots,  and  fractions, 
internal  construction 
jout  four  inches  liigh. 
tio,"  "  multiplicatio," 
)f  these  an  index  is 
tate  to  perform  that 
witli  moveable  plates 
in  the  peripheries  of 
we  may  so  designate 
loles  has  a  traversing 
rinciple  of  the  opera- 
!  adjusted  to  tlie  con- 
I  be  added  or  two  to 
iswer  appears  at  the 
enty-seven  holes  has 
hese  ten  may  appear 
ion  of  each  question, 
[ures  (or  millions  by 
iier  arithmetical  pro- 

ribed  which  seems  to 
gent  being  tlian  even 
rrors  into  which  the 
ee,  if  the  machine  is 
ide  a  number  by  ano- 
de it :  it  lings  a  boll, 
lis  singulai'  result  is 
ir,  how  many  mental 
and  levers. 

ears  ago,  has  the  sarae 
cterise  most  of  these 
number  of  strokes  or 
it  solves  questions  in 
o,  tliough  differing  in 
notice  of  the  British 
erform  multiplication 


PES. 

eneral  family  likeness 
es,  however  they  may 
is  point,  therefore,  we 
s,  whei'ein  a  principle 
paiatus  not  only  per- 
mntity  of  work  done : 

is  called  the  Timbre 
ig  and  registering  the 
in  the  same  machine, 


OALCtJLATINO  AND   BEOrSTEHINO  MACIITNES. 


13 


and  exchanged  at  pleasure.  It  is  intended  for  n>imbering  and  stamping  such 
documents  as  bills,  letters,  share  certificates,  &c.,  and  is  designed  for  the  use 
of  bankers,  railway  companies,  the  Stamp  and  Post  Othces,  and  such  like 
establishments.  The  machine,  in  its  ordinary  fonn,  presents  a  flat  table  or 
stand,  with  a  vertical  box  at  the  back  of  it.  Within  this  box  are  wheels  acting 
one  on  another,  and  at  the  top  are  dials  to  indicate  how  many  times  the  wheels 
have  revolved.  A  lever  projects  from  the  front  of  the  machine,  to  which  is 
attached  tlie  die  or  stamp.  A  small  inking  t»vble  is  provided ;  and  tlie  lever 
has  a  range  of  movement  given  to  it,  which  enables  the  die  to  be  brought  do\vn 
first  on  the  ink  and  then  on  tlie  paper  to  be  stamped.  As  many  times  as  Uiis 
movement  occui-s,  so  miuiy  are  the  revolutions  or  movements  made  by  the 
wheel-work;  and  the  hidex  hands  show  this  result  on  the  dial  faces.  The 
machine  seems  to  be  capable  of  counting  in  manjr  different  ways,  when  llie 
stamping  part  of  the  apjiaratus  is  removed  and  a  tew  adjustments  are  made ; 
it  may  count  the  passengers  thiough  a  turnstile,  or  the  revolutions  of  a  coach 
wheel,  or  the  length  of  yam  spun  by  a  machine,  or  tliat  of  cloth  woven  by  a 
loom,  or  the  revolutions  of  a  fly-wheel  or  of  a  water-wheel. 

Many  a  curious  knot  of  persons,  who  have  assembled  round  the  Paging 
Machine  at  the  Exhibition,  have  tliere  had  an  opportunity  of  witjiessing  an 
analogous  prmciple  at  work.  There  is  a  handle  or  lever,  an  inking  apparatus, 
and  a  train  of  wheels  with  raised  numbers  on  their  edges.  When  the  lever  is 
pressed  down,  one  of  the  numbers  comes  in  contact  with  the  ink,  and  then 
with  the  paper";  and  on  raising  the  lever-handle  the  number-wheels  are  moved 
round  a  small  space,  so  as  to  present  a  new  number  for  the  next  mking  and 
printmg  process.  The  vai'iations  of  this  exceedingly  pretty  operation  ai-e 
numerous. 

M.  Baranowski's  ticket-printing,  numbering,  and  registering  machine,  is  a 
contrivance  displaying  considerable  ingenuity — much  more  so  than  his  Ready 
Reckoner.  A  number  of  blank  cai-ds  are  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
machine ;  a  handle  is  turned,  and  forthwith  the  cards  make  their  appeai-ance, 
one  by  one,  at  the  bottom  of  the  machine — printed  from  an  adopted  form, 
numbered  firom  1  to  2000  or  more,  consecutively,  and  leaving  a  registry  as  they 
quit  the  machine.  This,  it  is  said  by  the  inventor,  can  be  done  at  the  rate  of 
6000  per  hour.  The  printing  may  be  in  one  or  two  colours,  and  may  be 
cpiickly  adjusted  to  any  desu-ed  form.  All  this  is  eflfected  by  a  machine  com- 
prised within  tlie  limits  of  twelve  mches  long,  nine  wide,  and  eight  high.  The 
mechanism  displays  much  cleverness.  The  tj-pes  are  aiTanged  on  the  cir- 
cumference of  small  wheels,  placed  vertically ;  and  on  pressing  down  the  frame 
which  contains  the  wheels,  by  a  sort  of  piston  or  plug,  the  types  come  in  con- 
tact with  paper  or  pasteboard  placed  beneath;  but  before  doing  so,  the 
movement  causes  a  tiny  inking  ^"^Uer  to  work  quickly  over  the  face  of  the 
types,  and  thus  enable  them  to  prmt  their  impress  in  black  iuk.  If  this 
wei-e  all,  every  ticket  would  be  printed  exactly  alike  ;  but  by  means  of  cogs 
and  notches,  and  ratchets,  the  type-wheels  make  part  of  a  revolution  after 
each  impression,  so  as  to  present  a  new  figure  for  the  next  movement.  If  the 
tickets  are  printed  in  two  coloui-s,  tliere  must  be  two  inking  rollers,  one  for 
each.  So  much  nicety  is  there  in  the  mechanism,  that  each  machine,  small  as 
it  is,  costs  about  a  hundred  guineas. 

Another  apparatus  of  somewhat  analogous  character,  is  Edmondson's  Rail- 
way Ticket  Machine,  extensively  used  by  railway  companies.  It  consists  of  a 
series  of  -.vheels,  together  with  a  stamping  and  cutting  instniment.  The 
pasteboard  material  is  introduced ;  it  is  cut,  printed,  numbered,  dated,  regis- 


"¥ 


L 


14 


cALcvLAnaa  and  keuihikbino  hachimh. 


i 


t«rf!d,  piuiked,  imd  soitoti,  with  siirprining  quu-kncss  and  accuracy — indeed  it 
mmt  bo  accurate ;  for  Huch  a  iiiachin.'  could  not  act  at  uli  unless  it«  varums 
nuiVGments  succeeded  eiM-.h  other  in  profxr  order. 

The  Kiune  gPutnU  principle  lieti  at  uu-  loot  of  many  iiiHtruuientH  patented 
or  inti-odiiced  witliin  tlie  liist  few  ynurs  Thus,  Mr.  Lewtliwaite's  jnsichine, 
invented  in  1847,  and  intended  for  numbering  railway  or  pawnbrokers'  tickets, 
or  paging  hooks,  or  for  priiitiaig  any  consecutive  series  of  numbers,  1ms  its 
type-wheels  and  driving-wheels,  it^j  levers  and  studs,  and  other  complex  me- 
chanism ;  hut  tliere  is  still  tlie  movement  of  a  wheel  one-teiiih  of  a  i-evolutiuii 
after  each  pressure,  and  other  wheels  which  revolve  each  i  ivtcnth  as  fast  as 
its  neighbour. 

A  wider  oxtansion  is  given  to  tlie  use  of  such  machines  when  tliey  are 
individually  simpler  in  action :  tliat  is,  they  are  applicable  to  a  greater  number 
of  purposes.  8up})ose,  lor  instance,  it  be  merely  U)  record  the  number  of  times 
that  a  certain  operation  is  couductd,  without  any  printing  or  KUnii)ing  pro- 
cess, we  ha^o  at  once  an  instance  in  a  contri\ance  for  which  Mr.  Whittin 
obtained  a  puteul  a  year  or  two  ago.  It  comprises  toothed-wheeln 
ratchets  and  ratchet-wheels,  a  dial  plate,  and  index  hands,  and  it  is  ui- 
tended  to  he  applied  to  tlic  ti-aj>-door  of  a  ship's  coal- weighing  machine, 
to  register  the  number  of  times  tJiat  tlie  door  of  tlie  shoot  has  been  opened 
for  the  discharge  of  cioai.s.  Supposing  the  appai-atus  to  he  effective,  a  slight 
modification  would  enable  it  to  register  the  filling  of  measures  of  grain,  or 
the  number  of  times  that  a  porter  or  canier  has  ci-osscd  a  plank  with 
goods. 

It  may  veiy  safely  he  df>ubted  whether  anything  so  delicate  as  galvtmic  ap-. 
paratus  would  beur  tlie  loiigh  usage  of  on'inibuses  and  cabs;  otlierwise  the 
tlu  ry  of  Mr.  Pownall's  "  Patent  Register "  may  be  sound  enough.  Tlie  oh- 
ject  of  tlie  apparatus  is  to  place  a  check  upon  iVmey- takers  in  public  vehicles, 
or  at  the  entrance  of  tlieati-es,  briil„'es,  piers,  and  pubhc  gardens.  As  ap- 
plied to  lui  omnibus,  a  tsmall  galvanic  battery  and  a  regLstering  apparatus  are 
placed  under  the  lloor  of  the  carriage ;  every  time  a  person  treads  upon  the 
step,  a  galvanic  circuit  is  established  \\itli  the  battery ;  and,  by  a  train  of  wheel- 
work,  an  index  wheel  is  maile  to  revolve  to  die  extent  of  one  tooth  or 
notch.  By  tliis  means,  as  many  notches  are  traversed  as  there  have  been 
persons  enter  the  omnibus  ;  or  rather,  as  the  exit  as  well  as  tlie  entrance  of  a 
passenger  marks  one  notch,  the  actual  number  is  doubled.  There  is  a  num- 
bering dial,  on  which  an  uidex  hand  shows  the  result.  Whether  a  pair  of 
omnibus  servants  could  "  drive  a  coach  and  six  "  through  such  a  contrivance, 
we  would  not  venture  to  predict. 

Mr.  Walker's  Operameter,  invented  several  years  ago,  was  intended  by  him 
to  measure  oj-  register  the  amount  of  work  pertbiined  by  certain  machuies  in 
the  woollen  monufactm-e.  The  apparatus  had  a  shaft  which  could  be  con- 
nected with  tlio  gig-mill,  tha  sheaiing  machine,  or  otlier  machuies  employed 
in  that  department  of  industry ;  tliis  shaft  necessarily  rotated  as  fast  as  the 
machine  to  which  it  was  applied ;  and  the  shaft  gave  motion  to  a  ti-ain  of  wheel- 
work,  witli  a  dial  face  and  mdex  hands  to  denote  tlie  number  of  revolutions 
made  in  a  given  time.  The  index  hand  thus  became  a  measure  and  recorder 
of  tlie  amount  of  work  done. 

To  register  tlie  height  of  the  tide  at  tidal  harbours  is  also  among  tlie 
valuable  services  which  self-acting  tell-tale  machines  oi-e  fitted  to  render. 
Let  us  take  the  Sunderland  Tide  Gauge  as  an  example.  Here  there  is  a 
vertical  tube   into  which  the  water  rises   to  a  height  depending  on  the 


L 


■MM 


i:h. 

accuracy — indeed  it 
ill  iiiili)8M  ita  variouH 

nHtruu)ent«i  patented 
jwtliwaitHs  inaeiiinfi, 
{mwnbrokers'  tjckets«, 
of  iiuinbcrs,  lius  Uh 
<l  otlior  complex  me- 
tenth  of  a  i-evoliitioti 
I  (>iM;-tc-ntli  08  fa^t  as 

lines  when  tliey  ai'o 
I  to  a  greater  number 
[  tlio  numlier  of  timoH 
in(^  or  hUiiiping  pro- 
r  which  Mr.  VVhiHin 
•iseH  t(M>tlic(l-whe«;l^ 
Minds ,  and  it  i»  in- 
al-weigljing  machine, 
loot  Ims  been  opened 
be  efiective,  a  slight 
tieasurea  of  gmiii,  or 
foHsed  a  plaidc  witli 

licate  as  galvanic  ap-. 

cabs ;  otlierwiae  tlie 
d  enough.  Tlie  ob- 
rs  in  public  vehicles, 
io  gardens.  Ah  ap- 
stering  apparatus  are 
son  treads  upon  the 
1,  by  a  train  of  wheel- 
ont  of  one  tooth  or 
as  there  have  b«en 
as  tlie  enti-ance  of  a 
d.     There  is  a  num- 

Wbethcr  a  pair  of 
ti  such  a  Goutrivance, 

ras  intended  by  him 
certain  mochuies  in 
nrhich  could  be  con- 
'  macliiues  employed 
tated  as  fast  as  the 
)n  to  a  train  of  wheel- 
unber  of  revolutions 
neasure  and  recorder 

is  also  among  tlie 
I'e  fitted  to  render, 
le.  Here  there  is  a 
\.  depending  on  the 


(UtCUf.ATlNO    AMD   REOISIKHINO    MACHINES, 


15 


luiif^t  of  the  ti(l<(.  On  a.;  wmiiMfe  of  this  cohiiun  of  water  is  a  light  fli,  t, 
which  ris(!s  and  sinks  with  it;  a  copper  wire  from  the  float  rises  upward  to  a 
Uiiin  of  wheels  luul  rolUfs,  which  rotate  in  one  or  otluir  direction,  according 
us  the  float  rises  i.r  sinks.  l-Vora  one  iiller  to  another  i)asseB  a  web  of  wire 
"auge,  on  whi'h  iwe  printed  in  largo  charmiterH  the  various  depths  from  high  to 
low  wattr;  and  two  fixod  pi>intei-»  or  hands  also  show  the  number  of  feet 
imd  half-feet  of  depth  of  watci.  at  any  hour  of  the  tide,  on  tlio  bar  at  the 
entranct!  of  Sunderland  Harbour.  There  are  tlius  rendered  visible,  to  tlioso 
moat  neu.lv  conct'ino*!,  aii'l  at  idl  hourn,  die  height  of  the  tid<!  and  the  depth 
of  wattn-  oil  the  bar.  But  this  instrument  leaves  no  peniumeut  record  behind  ; 
it  iiJii-ates  but  does  not  regisl.  There  aio  otJier  tidal-gauges,  however,  which 
render  this  I'm tJier  s<i\ic(!.  The  construction  of  such  instiuments  is  some- 
what as  follows: — We  will  imagine  then  are  tlio  tube,  tlie  rising  luid  falling 
column  of  water  in  the  tube,  and  tlie  float  on  the  sm-fat^e  (if  tiie  waUu- ; 
we  must  also  suppose  tJK'ro  is  a  cylinder,  having  regulai-  motion'' given  to  it 
by  clock-work,  tuid  having  its  siurfoce  covered  w  mIi  paper  rulod  in  a  particular 
fashion.  There  is  a  wue  extending  IVoni  the  lloat  to  a  rack  which  holds 
a  pencil;  and  tliis  pencil  jjiesses  against  tlie  paper.  Now  the  resu't  of  this 
arrangement  is,  tliat  tlie  pencil  marks  a  line  round  the  cylinder  .is  tlie  latter 
revoht-s,  and  (Uonij  tl;e  cylinder  ns  die  tide  rises  or  falls ;  so  tliat  the  exact 
height  at  every  and  any  period  of  time  is  permanently  registered. 

The  registeruig  meteorological  and  philoso))bical  luitrunients  have  now 
become  a  veiy  numerous  and  vaiied  class.  They  put  in  a  pennanent  form 
tlio  record  of  tlio  information  which  tliey  convoy.  Heat,  nioi  uire,  baro- 
metrical pressure,  min,  wind — all  now  register  tlie  timeh  and  (piantities  of 
their  occunence.  Let  us  illustrate  this  by  one  example  Mr.  David  Napier 
patented  an  ingenious  barometer  hi  1H48,  mteiided  ■  mark  the  variation 
of  atmospheric  pressure  tliroughout  an  entire  [leriod  twenty-four  lioui-s. 
Connected  with  the  baiometer  tube  is  a  vertical  spindh',  lich  cairies  a  curd 
having  on  its  smface  a  number  of  radial  lines  and  coi,  'Uti-ic  circles;  the 
radial  lines  represent  fractions  of  inchcLi,  and  tlie  concentix;  circles  represent 
portions  of  time.  Above  tlio  caid  is  a  lever  carryuig  a  vortical  pricker,  which 
is  mado  to  rise  and  fall  nt  cei-tain  regular  hitervals  of  time,  and  to  travel 
from  the  inner  concentric  circle  to  tlie  outer  one  once  hi  twenty-fom-  hours. 
On  tlio  vertical  spmdle,  and  uiulemeath  tlie  card,  is  fastened  a  grooved 
wheel,  round  which  is  passed  a  cord ;  a  counterbalance  weight  is  attached  to 
one  end  of  tlie  cord,  while  the  other  end  is  made  fast  to  a  float  resting  upon 
a  column  of  liiercmy  in  a  tube.  The  card  has  a  fixed  pouit  representing 
29-5  inches,  which,  at  commencement,  is  placed  undemeatli  tlie  pricker. 
As  tJie  column  of  mercmy  rises  or  falls  hy  thfi  vtuying  pressure  of  the 
aUiiosphere,  tlie  printed  card  will  ti-avel  to  tlie  left  or  the  right  accordingly ; 
and  I  lie  variation  of  height  will  be  indicated  by  the  distance  of  tlie  punctured 
luies  from  the  staiting  point,  on  either  side. 

Kegistry  of  TiMi:,  Space,  and  Speed. 

Many  curious  varieties,  hi  the  machmes  which  register  or  tell  tlieir  own 
tale,  are  presented  by  those  whose  duties  are  related  more  or  less  to  tiitu, 
space,  and  speed.  In  one  case  it  is  tjie  speed  of  a  pedesUian,  in  another  tliat 
of  a  can-iage,  in  a  third  that  of  a  locomotive ;  a  fourtli  attends  rathei  to 
the  total  distance  travelled,  than  to  the  mte  of  progress ;  while  another  kmd 
registera  the  tune  which  has  elapsed  between  two  events,  without  attending 


li  OALOrtATINO   AND   nRniRTRRINn   KAOIUKlii 

MMr  to  Hpacp  or  to  Rp«'e(l.     A  fow  ♦ixiiniplps,  tukcn  at  raiKloni,  will  illiis- 
trate  An  sort  of  nmchinoH  hero  ki^pt  in  vu<w. 

'rmvc'Ik'i-M  lUf!  IVorn  time  to  tiiiio  iviniiidfil  in  the  iiHual  RourcpM  of  iiiConn- 
atiou  of  tho  inoritH  .i.i.i  iihoh  of  "  I'liyiuiH  PfMlonic-tcr,  for  thf  wiiist<-oat 
|w*tiket."  Ft  i»  II  Hiimll  l)iit  ingmiiouH  liiHtAnce  mpiiMiiring  and  r(!giHt«Mnng 
TuachitU'.  al)oiit  tho  Hizo  aiul  shapo  of  a  wat<!li.  The  aittion  is  very  peculiar. 
Every  <nu)  knows  that  each  Htop  of  a  jiedoHtrian,  or  of  a  horso  jogging  at 
rt(gnlar  Npeed,  is  accotniianied  by  a  Hudden  jerk,  or  ninking;  and  it  is  Jho 
Herios  of  these  jerks  whieii  tlio  machine  regisUfrs.  There  is  a  small  lever, 
with  a  pivot  at  one  end  ami  a  weight  at  tho  other;  this  is  ho  nearly  balanced, 
that  tlie  slightest  movement  canses  it  to  sink,  an<l  tlie  sti'ps  of  the'  pedestrian 
tluis  keep  tho  lever  in  regidar  and  Ht^»a<ly  oscillation,  'i'here  is  a  small 
asMentblage  of  wheels,  pinions,  and  dials,  by  which  tho  nimiber  of  oscillations 
is  registered;  and  tliis  ntmiber  multiplied  by  the  length  of  pace,  or  st«p, 
gives  the  total  distance  walked  over  in  a  given  time.  By  a  little  ingenious 
a<ljiiHtment,  the  instniment  is  rendered  applicable  t.)  (carriage  travelling. 

The  somewhat  too  learned  names  of  mitimetrtti  chronomHer,  and  veto- 
crntimeter,  are  given  by  Mr.  Whishaw  to  an  a[)paratus  recently  invented  by 
him.  Tho  velocity  with  which  a  railway  train  is  moving  is  the  element  to 
be  deteraiined  by  this  machine.  There  is  a  dial-face  connected  with  a  clock, 
and  a  ring  snrrounding  tho  dial ;  tills  ring  is  gi-aduated  to  quarters  of  a  mile 
if  for  use  in  England,  or  to  some  aliquot  part  of  u  kilometre  if  for  use  in 
Fi-ance.  The  ztM-o  mark  on  the  ring  ia  broiight  opposite  to  the  index-hand 
on  tlie  dial,  at  the  commencement  of  tlie  period  during  which  tho  velocity  is 
to  be  detennined,  which  should  be  when  tho  train  is  opposite  one  of  the. 
mile-posts ;  then,  on  arrival  at  tlic  next  post  (on  English  railways  these  posts 
aro  a  quarter  of  a  mile  aptut),  the  index  hand  and  the  zero  point  will  bo 
found  to  have  separated,  and  the  amount  of  tliia  sepoi-ation  furnishes  tlie 
means  of  determining  tho  velocity  of  the  train. 

Belonging  to  tlie  same  family  of  machines,  though  prcxluced  in  a  different 
countiy,  is  M.  Redier's  horographe.  Wheilier  this  apparatus  has  been  brought 
into  pnvctical  use  on  tlie  Fi-ench  railways,  we  do  not  know,  but  the  inventor 
seems  to  have  aimed  at  a  veiy  complete  range  of  registry  movements.  The 
object  is,  to  trace  the  progress  of  a  railway  train  throughout  its  whole  coui-se. 
There  is  one  machine  which  tests  the  speed  of  tlie  locomotive.  Let  tlie 
engineer  determine  the  speed,  the  number  of  miles  or  kilometres  per  hour,  at 
which  the  locomotive  is  intended  to  travel ;  he  puts  a  stud  into  one  of  eleven 
holes,  which  are  marked  from  twenty  to  two  hundred  and  forty  turns  of  the 
driving  wheel  per  minute,  and  he  thus  notifies  one  of  eleven  dirt'erent  rates  of 
speed.  K  tlie  required  speed  is  kept  up,  an  index  hand  maintains  a  vertical 
position ;  if  the  speed  is  too  gi-eat,  the  index  turns  to  the  right ;  if  too  slow, 
a  reverse  movement  takes  place.  There  is  anotlier  apparatus  which  prints  on 
a  sheet  of  paper  tlie  exact  time  of  anival  at  each  station.  France  has  also 
produced  an  ingenious  machine,  by  a  different  inventor,  we  believe,  which  is 
busily  employed  while  the  train  is  in  motion.  A  sheet  of  paper  is  placed 
in  an  oblong  box ;  and  on  this  paper  is  indicated  once  a  minute,  and  also  at 
the  completion  of  each  kilometre,  the  speed  and  the  distance  travelled ;  it 
also  shows  the  time  of  an-ival,  and  tlie  duration  of  stoppage  at  each  station. 

In  one  sense  almanac  clocks  may  be  included  among  registering  machines. 
By  these  we  mean  those  complicated  watches,  clocks,  and  chronometers  which 
indicate  so  many  astronomical  phenomena.  For  many  centuries,  and  in  many 
countries,  these  specimens  of  ingenuity  have  been  produced.      They  are 


t  random,  will  illuH- 

]  BourceM  of  iTiform- 
r,  for  thf^  wiiiHtcoat 
ling  niid  rttgiHUtring 
tion  is  very  i)«culiar. 
a  honi€i  jof^ging  at 
iking;  una  it  in  tho 
3re  in  a  Minnll  Iomt, 

i  HO  IHHUly  bllllHU'lMJ, 

'|)M  of  the  podestmn 
'i'here  in  a  Hinall 
iniber  of  osciUatioiiH 
th  of  paoo,  or  step, 
5y  a  little  ingenious 
luge  travelling. 
ronomt'ttr,  and  veto- 
•ecently  invented  by 
g  is  the  element  to 
inected  with  n  clock, 
I)  quarters  of  a  mile 
nnietre  if  for  uso  in 
e  to  the  index-hand 
which  the  velocity  ia 
opposite  one  of  the. 
railways  these  poHts 
i  zero  point  will  be 
ration  liiniishes  tlie 

jduced  in  a  different 
us  has  heen  brought 
)w,  but  tlie  inventor 
y  movements.  The 
)ut  its  whole  course, 
comotive.  Let  tlie 
ometres  per  hour,  at 
id  into  one  of  eleven 
id  forty  turns  of  the 
ven  different  rates  of 
maintains  a  vertical 
B  right ;  if  too  slow, 
atus  which  prints  on 
n.  France  has  also 
we  believe,  which  is 
t  of  paper  is  placed 
minute,  and  also  at 
istance  travelled;  it 
ge  at  each  station, 
egistering  machines, 
chronometers  which 
iituries,  and  in  many 
educed.      They  are 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  canadien  de  microreproductions  historjques 


CALCULATING   AND    REGISTERING    MACHINES. 


17 


mostly,  however,  little  more  tlian  toys,  for  the  slightest  derangement  (and 
derangement  is  very  likely  to  occm*  among  such  small  and  intricate  mecha- 
nism) will  affect  all  the  phenomena  at  once ;  and  eclipses  will  fail  to  appear 
(as  eclipses  are  wont  to  fail  in  cloudy  weather)  at  the  proper  time.  It  is 
mipossible  to  walk  through  our  Great  Exhibition  without  meeting  with 
numerous  spechnens  of  tins  class — chiefly  in  the  French  clock  department. 
One  of  the  prettiest  examples  is  a  chronometer  about  three  inches  in  diameter, 
the  face  of  which  contains  dials  enough  to  indicate  twelve  different  phe- 
nomena respecting  seconds,  minutes,  hours,  days,  months,  sun-rise,  moon's 
age,  moon's  phases,  &c. 

The  Liverpool  Albion  announced  a  few  montlis  ago,  that  Dr.  Henderson 
of  Uiat  town  had  been  engaged,  since  1844,  in  producing  a  clu-onometer 
which  would  excel  cverytliing  of  tlie  kind  ever  made.  If  tlie  announce- 
ment be  one  half  true  the  instrument  will  be  indeed  a  marvel,  and  society 
will  be  eager  to  welcome  it  when  finished.  According  to  this  account,  the 
clock  will  show  the  minutes  and  hours  of  the  day;  the  sun's  place  in  tlie 
ecUptic ;  the  day  of  the  month  peipetually,  and  take  leap-year  into  account ; 
the  moons  age,  place,  and  phases;  tlie  apparent  diurnal  revolution  of  the 
moon ;  tlie  ebb  and  flow  of  the  sea  at  any  port  in  the  world ;  tlie  golden 
number,  epact,  sohu-  cycle,  Eoman  indiction,  Simday  letter,  and  Julian 
period ;  tlie  mean  time  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  on  evei-y  day 
of  the  year,  with  its  terms,  and  fixed  and  moveable  feasts.  The  day  of 
the  week  will  also  be  indicated,  and  the  year  will  be  registered  for  10,000 
yeai-8  past  or  to  come.  The  quickest  moving  wheel  will  revolve  in  one 
minute,  tlie  slowest  in  10,000  yeai-s.  Furthermore  we  are  told  that  tliere 
ai'e  170  wheels  and  pinions,  and  that  the  machine  will  go  100  yeai-s  without 
winding  up. 

Mr.  Carey's  measui-ing  machine  is  one  among  numerous  examples  of  this 
kind.  It  is  mtended  to  record  the  number  of  revolutions  made  by  llie  wlieel  of 
a  carriage.  The  appai-atus  is  very  small,  and  is  buckled  by  sti-aps  to  one  of 
the  spokes  of  the  wheel  neai*  the  nave ;  it  of  course  follows  the  cuned  course 
of  the  part  of  tlie  wheel  to  which  it  is  attached ;  and  once  in  each  revolution 
it  causes  a  wheel  to  be  advanced  one  tooth ;  so  that  the  number  of  teeth  ad- 
vanced determines  the  number  of  revolutions  made  by  the  wheel.  It  was  a 
contrivance  sometliing  like  this  in  principle,  though  differing  in  details,  which 
James  Watt  devised  for  registering  the  number  of  strokes,  of  a  steam-engine. 

The  turnstiles  at  the  Ciystal  Palace,  at  tlie  ends  of  toll-paying  bridges, 
and  at  Uie  enti-ances  of  many  pubhc  buildings  and  exliibitione,  are  excellent 
examiiles  of  registering  appai-atus.  The  older  method  of  testing  the  honesty 
of  money-takei-s  was  by  issuing  tickets  or  checks,  the  return  of  which  would 
show  how  much  money  had  been  received ;  this  plan  is  stiU  adopted  at  the 
theati-es ;  it  requires  two  sen-ants  instead  of  one,  and  is  not  proof  against 
collusion.  Now,  in  the  mechanical  turnstile,  the  instrument  presenes  a 
record  of  the  number  of  times  it  has  turned  on  its  axis ;  and  the  money-taker 
must  be  prepai-ed  to  account  for  a  sum  of  money  coiTesponding  to  the 
number.  Some  of  the  precautions  protect  tha  money-taker  against  the  public, 
while  some  protect  the  proprietora  against  the  money-taker.  In  the  first 
place,  there  is  a  vertical  framing,  capable  of  rotating  on  a  vertical  axis ;  it  can 
only  rotate  in  one  direction,  and  only  one  person  can  pass  it  at  a  time.  The 
framing  or  turnstile  cannot  rotate  at  all  until  tlie  money-taker  presses  his  foot 
on  a  lever ;  and  directly  the  i)assage  is  made,  tlie  lever  is  allowed  f^ain  to 
drop,  and  tlie  turnstile  is  locked.     This  movement  causes  a  movement  in  a 


I 


J  8  C'ALCCLATINO   AND   BEOISTEWNG   MACHINES. 

tooUicd  wheel  to  aii  extent  of  one  tooUi;  and,  as  this  registeiing  apptu^tus  is 
beyond  the  reach  of  tlie  money-taker,  he  has  notlung  less  to  dolhan  to 
account  for  money  to  the  extent  of  the  number  of  wheel-teeth  which  have 

^^heTeU-tnl^^  class  of  machines  aie  more  or  less  complete,  according  as  they 
renister  the  infoi-mation  tliey  give.     An  alamm  is  a  tell-tale,  so  far  as  the  emis- 
sion of  sound  is  concerned ;  but  tiie  sound  goes  off  m  empty  air,  and  leaves  no 
record  behmd.     Where  a  night  guard,  policeman,  or  watehman  is  requu-ed  to 
show  tliat  he  has  been  vigilant  in  his  rounds  or  watchmgs,  he  must  leave  a 
record  of  his  presence  at  a  particuliu-  spot  at  particular  mt«rvals.     A  veiy 
mgenious  mode  of  effecting  this  is  by  M.  Ai-eias  Fendule  Indicateur,  or  Tell- 
tale Clock.     It  is  used  by  the  night  pohce  on  many  of  the  Irench  radwajs, 
and  in  many  public  estabUshments  where  vigilant  guard  is  required,     l^et  us 
suppose  that  a  guard  or  policeman,  be  his  duties  what  tliey  may,  is  required  to 
show  that  he  was  at  a  particular  spot  every  quarter  of  an  hour  during  his 
nicht  patrol;  a  sort  of  table-clock  is  placed  at  that  spot,  and  at  mtervav.s  ot  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  he  presses  his  linger  on  a  button  or  stud    which  is  the 
only  part  of  tlie  appai-atus  at  his  command.     Beyond  this,  he  knows  or  does 
noUiingin  the  matter;   but  when  the  clock-case  is  opened  next  day  by  a 
superintendent,  a  circular  graduated  card  is  found  to  be  pierced  with  as  maiiy 
small  holes  as  the  guaid  had  made  pressures  on  the  stud;  and  the  card  also 
shows  the  exact  hour  and  minute  when  each  hole  was  pierced.     Ihe  me- 
chanism is  vei-y  simple;  the  circular  card  or  paper  is  made  to  rotate  by  con- 
nection with  the  hcur-wheel  of  the  clock,  and  the  button  or  stud  acts  upon  a 
shai-p  needle  which  pierces  the  card.     If  the  card  is  not  pierced  opposite  a 
particular  quarter  of  an  horn-,  tlie  conclusion  is  drawn  tliat  the  guard  has 

failed  in  vigilance.  ,  .      ,  .  ,       .i.  v. 

Of  the  teU-tale  varieties  of  apparatus,  as  used  in  thu  coimtiy,  they  may  be 
ceneraUy  chai-acterised  as  particuhir  apphcations  of  clock-work,  lake,  lor 
instance,  Messrs.  Smiths  Detector  Clocks,  one  of  which  has  been  placed  in  the 
Great  Exhibition.  This  apparatus  has  been  used  lor  some  yeai-s  m  ^oldbath 
Fields  Prison,  to  register  tlie  punctuality  (or  othenvise)  of  the  night-wateh- 
man  The  registering  appai-atus  consists  of  a  revolving  cu-culai-  fmne,  htted 
with' springs  and  pins ;  the  watchman  is  required,  at  certain  mtarvals  ot  time, 
to  touch  a  little  piece  of  mechanism  which  preser\^es  o  record  of  his  presence. 
The  principle  is  obviously  neaily  analogous  to  that  noticed  above. 

Registey-Balances  :  Gold-aveighino  Machines. 

3  There  are  some  kinds  of  balances  which  show  much  elegance  of  action, 
inasmuch  an  they  not  only  determine  the  weight  of  commodities,  but  either 
preserve  a  record  of  that  weight,  or  separate  into  different  parcels  those  which 
differ  ever  so  mmutely  in  weight.  The  common  weighing  machmes,  whether 
having  a  dial-face  and  mdex-hand  or  not,  do  not  register  permanently  the 
result  obtained;  as  the  indications  are  destroyed  dkecUy  tlie  weighed  com- 
modities are  removed.  There  ai-e  contiivances,  however,  m  which,  either  by 
a  ti-ain  of  wheel-work,  or  by  a  pencil  passing  over  paper,  the  appai-atus  pre- 
serves its  own  record.  .  , 
-  But  tlielexquisitely  dehcate  goU-weighing  machines  are  those  which  are 
more  pardcularly  intended  to  bo  brought  under  notice  here.  One  such  is 
Mr  Kershaw's  Micrometer  Sovereign  Balance;  it  was  registered  about  the  year 
1848   when  the  Bank  regulations  respecting  'light  gold'  attracted  so  much 


L 


s. 

steiing  apparatus  is 
leas  to  do  tlian  to 
el-teeth  which  have 

te,  according  as  they 
!,  so  far  as  the  emis- 
)ty  air,  and  leaves  no 
Imion  is  requii-ed  to 
igs,  he  must  leave  a 
r  intervals.     A  veiy 
s  Indicateur,  or  Tell- 
he  French  mlways, 
is  required.     Let  us 
sy  may,  is  required  to 
an  horn-  diuing  his 
Bud  at  intervals  of  a 
•  stud,  which  is  the 
13,  he  knows  or  does 
ened  next  day  by  a 
)ierced  witli  as  many 
i ;  and  the  caid  also 
I  pierced.     The  me- 
ide  to  rotate  by  con- 
t  or  stud  acts  upon  a 
ot  pierced  opposite  a 
tliat  the  guard  has 

country,  they  may  be 
»ck-work.  Take,  for 
18  been  placed  in  the 
nae  yeai's  in  Coldbath 
i)  of  the  nightrwaUih- 
cii'culai'  fi-ame,  fitted 
Am  intervals  of  time, 
3cord  of  his  presence, 
ed  above. 

CHINES. 

h  elegance  of  action, 
nmodities,  but  either 
It  parcels  those  which 
ng  machines,  whether 
ster  permanently  the 
Hy  tlie  weighed  com- 
ir,  in  which,  either  by 
er,  the  apparatus  pre- 

are  those  which  are 
3  here.  One  such  is 
stered  about  the  year 
Id'  attracted  so  much 


I 


,mmmimtmnvmmmt9mmm-mmifm:-f!t&imm' 


CALCULATING   AND    REOISTEMNO   MACHINES. 


1« 


attention.  This  ingenious  little  machine  consists  chiefly  of  a  beam  or  steel- 
yard placed  horizontally,  imd  supported  on  a  knife-edged  fulcrum  near  its 
centre.  Near  one  end  of  the  beam  a  few  threads  of  a  screw  are  cut,  upon 
which  a  micrometer  wheel  turns  freely.  The  rim  of  this  wheel  is  divided  into 
degrees,  which  mark  half-grains  in  weight.  The  coin  to  be  weighed  is  placed 
rpon  the  other  end  of  the  beam,  and  if  it  be  of  correct  weight,  an  index  bal- 
conies exactly  opposite  the  zero  or  0  point  of  the  micrometer;  but  if  tlie 
weight  be  deficient,  the  micrometer  wheel  is  tiuned  round  (by  which  the 
leverage  power  of  the  beam  is  slightly  modified)  until  equilibrium  is  obtained ; 
the  degree  at  which  the  index-bar  now  pomts,  uidicates  how  many  half-grains 
the  sovereign  is  deficient  in  weight.  The  machine  is  not  intended  to  deter- 
mine the  weight  of  a  sovereign,  but  the  deficiency  of  weight  in  a  light  sove- 
reign.    By  a  little  adjustment  it  is  made  appUcable  to  half-sovereigns. 

Baron  Seguicr's  Gold-weighing  Machine,  a  specunen  of  which  has  been 
placed  in  the  Exhibition,  and  which  is  priced  by  the  makers  at  40U0  francs 
(ei60),  is  a  somewhat  complicated  piece  of  apparatus.  It  presents  to  view  a 
sort  of  vertical  wheel,  witli  a  hopper  or  receptacle  to  feed  the  wheel  witli  coins ; 
tliere  ftre  two  channels  from  the  bottom  of  the  wheel,  along  which  the  corns 
proceed  to  certain  levers  and  balances.  The  action  of  the  machine  is  some- 
what as  follows : — The  coins  are  put  into  the  hopper,  and  a  range  of  pins  on 
the  edge  of  the  revolving jwheel  causes  the  coins  to  sepaiate  into  single  file, 
and  to  descend  one  by  one  to  a  stage  below.  If  the  coin  be  of  current  weight 
(which  must  be  determined  for  each  covmtry,  and  the  machine  arranged 
accordingly),  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  it  from  sliding  down  an  mclmed 
trough  into  a  pai-ticular  box  or  receptacle.  But  if  the  weight  be  eitlier  over  or 
imder  the  proper  limit,  the  coin  is  ingeniously  dri'-  r  aside,  to  the  right  or  tlio 
left,  according  m  the  weight  is  too  great  or  t.  .  small.  This  is  cleverly 
managed:  the  coin  falls  upon  a  balanced  beam,  which  remains  horizontal  if  the 
weight  be  conect ;  but  if  the  beam  be  thrown  out  of  balance  by  a  light  or  a 
heavy  coin,  one  of  two  little  studs  is  raised,  which  guides  it  into  its  proper 
receptacle.  Thus  Uie  coins  become  separated  into  three  groups  merely  by 
turning  a  handle.  x     n  ^ 

The  Indian  coin  machine,  designed  by  Captain  J.  T.  Smitli  for  the  Cal- 
cutta govei-nment,  is  larger  than  that  of  Seguier,  and  is  intended  for  weigh- 
ing rupees.  There  are  ten  levere,  with  a  small  cylinder  suspended  from  the 
short  end  of  each :  these  cylindei-s  dip  into  distilled  water.  Ten  coins  are 
placed  in  scales  at  the  long  ends  of  tlie  levei-s,  one  to  each  lever ;  and  accord- 
ing as  each  coin  is  heavy  or  light,  so  will  it  raise  the  cylinder  at  the  other  end 
of  the  lever,  more  or  less  out  of  the  water.  If  we  suppose  that  tlie  coins  are 
80  badly  made  as  to  exhibit  ten  different  degrees  of  error,  whetlier  in  excess 
or  deficiency,  and  if  the  machine  be  constructed  with  minute  accuracy,  then 
the  ten  little  cylmders  would  be  raised  to  ten  different  heights  out  of  tlie 
water,  and  ten  gi-oups  of  coins  would  be  established.  Unless  the  workman- 
ship be  very  delicate,  tliis  method  i  inst  be  of  doubtful  correctness. 

Mr.  Cotton's  machine  seems,  by  general  consent,  to  be  deemed  the  most 
delicate  ever  yet  constructed  for  weighing  gold  coin.  Its  precision  is,  mdeed, 
most  exquisite.  If  ever  a  "  well-balanced  judgment"  could  be  an  attiibute  of 
steel  and  brass,  we  have  it  here :  a  child  can  turn  the  handle,  but  the  mpchme 
judges  for  itself. 

In  the  transactions  between  the  Bank  of  England  and  tlie  public,  the 
weighing  of  gold  coin  has  been  a  most  anxious  and  tedious  process.  As  be- 
tween the  Bank  and  Uie  Mint,  tlie  labour  is  not  so  minute ;  for  200  sove- 


'**,■ 


I 


L 


{W 


CALCULATING    AND   HEOISTERINO   MACHINES. 


w 


reims  being  first  accurately  weighed,  all  the  rest  are  weighed  in  groups  of 
200      The  Mmt  officers  are  aUowed  a  deviation  of  twelve  grains  in  about 
fifty  sovereigns ;  but  they  generally  work  to  within  half  of  this  amount  ot 
error;  and  if  the   groups  of  sovereigns   are   correct  widun  the   prescribed 
limits  no  closer  wuiglung  is  adopted.      In  the  transactions  between  the  Bank 
and  tlie  public,  however,  matters  must  be  treated  in  more  detail.     It  is  no 
satisfaction  to  Smith  to  know  tliat,  if  his  sovereign  is  light,  Brown  has  a  cor- 
rect one  and  Jones  a  heavy  one,  so  that  therefore  the  Bank  is  just  m  the 
aggregate;  each  one  demands  that  hU  sovereign  should  be  of  proper  weight, 
iflnce  arises  an  important  part  of  the  daily  routLne  at  the  Bank.     Mr.  Cotton 
was  led  to  the  conception  of  his  beautiful  machine  by  observing  the  injustice 
which  the  Bank  sometimes  unconsciously  inflicted  on  its  customers,     bove- 
reigns  which  were  issued  from  one  counter  at  the  Bank  aa  being  ot  lull 
weight,  were  refused  at  anotlier  counter  as  being  light.     The  scales  may  not 
have  been  equahy  dehcate,  or  tlie  liabUity  to  eiTor  on  the  pait  of  the  weighers 
(the  "personal  equation,"  as  astronomers  would  term  it)  may  not  have  been 
exactly  equal.     An  expert  weigher  could  weigh  about  700  sovereigns  in  an 
hour  by  tlie  old  balance  ;  but  tLe  agitation  of  the  air  by  the  sudden  opening 
of  a  door,  the  breathing  of  persons  near  the  apparatus,  tlie  fatigued  state  ot 
the  hand  and  eye  of  the  weigher— aU  led  to  minute  eiTors. 

Mr  Cotton  having  determined  on  tlie  plan  of  a  machine  which  should  be 
quicker,  easier,  and  more  exact  tlian  the  ordinaiy  gold  balance,  procured  tlie 
services  of  Mr.  Napier  to  put  his  views  into  a  practical  form  ;  and  the  result  is 
entu-ely  satisfactory.     The  machme  is  a  pretty,  delicate,  hght  aflau:— much 
more  so  than  those  hithei-to  noticed.     There  is,  in  the  fii-st  place,  a  small 
vertical  tube,  in  which  a  pile  of  twenty  or  thirty  sovereigns  is  placed,  m  single 
column.     The  lowermost  sovereign  rests  upon  a  moveable  plate ;  when  a 
handle  is  turned  by  the  attendant,  the  plate  moves  sideways,  and  the  sove- 
reign is  brought  upon  an  exquisitely  sensitive  balance ;  if  the  weight  ly  cor- 
rect, a  htUe  lever,  arm,  or  pusher,  gives  the  edge  of  the  sovereign  a  smai-t 
impulse,  and  drives  it  off  into  a  box ;  but  if  the  weight  be  deficient  e^n  m 
the  most  minute  degree,  another  pusher  attacks  the  sovereign  on  a  difterent 
side  and  drives  it  into  another  box.    As  the  handle  is  continued  m  motion, 
two  or  three  sovereigns  may  be  m  different  stages  of  the  weighing  process  at 
one  time.     Those  who  have  seen  this  machine  at  work  at  the  Great  JiiXhibi- 
tion  may  well  marvel  at  the  deUcacy  witli  which  tlie  movements  of  the  sove- 
reign are  controlled.  .  ., 

As  the  Bank  of  England  does  not  take  cognizance  of  gold  coins  which  aie 
too  heavy  (perhaps  the  Mint  authorities  do  not  give  them  occasion  tor  so 
doing),  this  machine  merely  separates  sovereigns  into  two  groups,  the  fuU  and 
the  Ught;  and  it  does  not  indicate  by  how  much  the  light  sovereign  is  defa- 
cient.  It  is  tlierefore  only  by  actual  trial  that  the  deUcacy  of  the  machine  has 
been  tested;  if  a  difference  of  even  a  hundredth  of  a  grain  existed  between 
two  sovereigns,  it  is  said  that  this  machine  would  detect  it.  On  a  rough 
average,  30,000  sovereigns  pass  over  the  Bank  counter  every  day ;  each  ma- 
chine can  weigh  10,000  sovereigns  in  six  hours  ;  and  there  are  six  machines ; 
so  that  the  Bank  can  weigh  aU  its  issues  of  gold  by  tiiese  means,  and  have 
reserve  power  to  spare.  One  of  the  machines  is  adjusted  for  half-sovereigns. 
Between  1844  and  1848  there  were  forty-eight  million  gold  corns  weighed  by 
these  machines  at  the  Bank;  and  the  bankers  and  private  persons  place  un- 
doiibting  reliance  on  the  correctiiess  of  the  process.  Each  machme  reqmres 
an  hour's  cleaning  once  a  week;  the  machmes  cost  about  £300  each,  and  are 


,:jmiwti"!)Tniiwwin»-!iii^ 


L 


lES. 

veighed  in  groups  of 
velve  grains  in  about 
ilf  of  this  amount  of 
vitliin  the   prescribed 
ns  between  ihe  Bank 
nore  detail.     It  is  no 
ight,  Brown  has  a  cor- 
3  Bank  is  just  in  tlie 
I  be  of  proper  weight, 
he  Bank.     Mr.  Cotton 
observing  the  injustice 
its  customers.     Sove- 
Bank  as  being  of  full 
The  scales  may  not 
le  pai-t  of  the  weighers 
it)  may  not  have  been 
700  sovereigns  in  an 
by  the  sudden  opening 
s,  tlie  fatigued  state  of 
ors. 

hine  which  should  be 
.  balance,  procured  the 
fonn ;  and  the  result  is 
Ette,  light  affair — much 
le  fii-st  place,  a  small 
giw  is  placed,  m  single 
oveable  plate;  when  a 
sideways,  and  the  sove- 
I ;  if  the  weight  is  cor- 
the  sovereign  a  sraai-t 
it  be  deficient  even  in 
sovereign  on  a  different 
is  continued  in  motion, 
tie  weighing  process  at 
k  at  the  Great  Exhibi- 
movements  of  the  sove- 

of  gold  coins  which  are 
3  them  occasion  for  so 
two  groups,  the/«M  and 
e  light  sovereign  is  defi- 
eacy  of  the  machine  has 

grain  existed  between 
detect  it.  On  a  rough 
iter  every  day ;  each  ma- 
there  are  six  machines ; 

Uiese  means,  and  have 
isted  for  half-sovereigns. 
1  gold  coins  weighed  by 
rivate  persons  place  un- 
Each  machine  requires 
,bout  £900  each,  and  ore 


CALCULAtlNO   AND    REOISTEHINO    MACHINES.  8t 

said  to  be  peculiarly  free  from  liability  to  disarrangement.  Besides  satisfying 
the  Bank,  the  bankers,  and  the  public,  tliese  machines  save  £1000  a  yeai'  to 
the  Bank  in  weighers'  wages. 

Ml8CELL.\NE0tT8    CONTRIVANCES    FOB   KeOISTERINO. 

There  are  many  other  little  registering  contrivances  on  which  we  would 
gladly  say  a  few  words  ;  and  as  it  is  difficult  to  class  them  in  any  pai-ticular 
way,  we  will  make  use  of  the  ever-convenient  designation  "  Miscellaneous." 

How  to  register  votes  at  a  division  is  a  problem  tliat  has  not  much  trou- 
bled our  House  of  Commons ;  but  tlie  National  Assembly  of  France  has 
deemed  it  expedient  to  introduce  a  Voting  Machine  for  tliis  pui-pose.  This 
machine  seems  to  answer  two  ends — it  prevents  tampering  wilJi  the  ballots  or 
voting  plates,  and  it  enables  Uie  numbei-s  on  either  side  to  be  added  up  with 
great  ease.  In  the  House  of  Commons  the  "  ayes"  have  it,  or  the  "  noes," 
according  to  circumstances ;  but  in  France  the  system  o^  the  ballot  is  adopted 
— the  relative  advantages  of  the  two  methods  we  need  not  touch  upon.  The 
National  Assembly  has  recently  voted  30,000  francs  for  tlie  apparatus  of  tlie 
voting,  or  rather  vote-registering  machine  now  imder  notice.  The  whole 
operation  is  exceedingly  cmious,  and  worth  detailing. 

In  tlie  first  place,  at  the  commencement  of  each  sitting,  or  when  tlie  mem- 
bei-s  enter  the  chamber,  each  member  has  given  to  him  a  small  box,  contaui- 
ing  ten  ballots  or  voting  plates.  Theso  ballots  are  oblong  slips  of  thin  steel, 
about  two  inches  long,  and  pierced  witli  a  hole  in  the  centre ;  five  aie  white 
steel  for  the  "  pour  "  or  "  aye  "  vote,  and  five  are  blue  steel  for  the  "  conU-e  " 
or  "  no  "  vote.  Each  ballot  is  inscribed  with  the  name  of  tlie  member,  and 
also  with  a  number  attached  to  that  member's  name  in  the  register  of  the 
Assembly.  Each  ballot  has  also  certain  notches  on  the  edge,  but  the  blue 
ballots  ai-e  differently  notched  from  the  white.  The  membere  have  tlius 
materials  for  five  votes  during  the  same  evening,  and  for  choosing  their  side 
in  each  vote. 

Next  we  have  to  look  at  the  Voting  Urn  or  Machine.  This  is  a  kind  of  up- 
right box,  held  by  a  handle  like  that  of  a  pewter  measure ;  it  is  made  of  wood, 
and  is  about  three  inches  square  by  a  foot  in  height.  The  right-hand  half 
is  painted  blue,  the  left>hand  white.  At  the  top  are  two  funnels  or  mouths, 
opening  into  tlie  interior,  pamted  white  and  blue  respectively,  and  marked 
with  P  and  C  for  pour  and  contre.  Each  funnel  is  gi-ooved  in  pattern  with  tlie 
ballot-notches,  so  that  a  blue  ballot  can  only  descend  tlie  blue  funnel,  and  a 
white  ballot  the  other.  In  the  interior,  below  each  funnel,  is  a  vertical  stem 
or  staff,  on  which  the  ballots  become  threaded,  one  on  anotlier,  as  they  fall 
into  die  m-n:  tlie  stem  being  of  similar  shape  to  tlie  oblong  hole  in  each 
ballot. 

Now  for  the  process  of  collecting  the  votes.  The  National  Assembly  is 
divided  into  twelve  sections ;  and  there  are  twelve  voting  mus,  each  marked 
with  ilie  number  of  a  section.  When  a  debate  is  concluded,  and  Uie  votes  aie 
to  be  taken,  the  twelve  urns  are  taken  by  an  equal  nmnber  of  persons,  who  go 
round  to  the  members  where  tliey  are  seated.  Each  member  selects  a  blue  or 
a  white  ballot  from  his  box,  as  he  pleases,  and  drops  it  into  the  proper  funnel 
of  the  urn ;  he  cannot  put  in  two  if  he  would,  nor  could  he,  either  inadver- 
tently or  by  design,  introduce  a  ballot  into  the  wrong  compaitment.  The 
urns  ai'e  taken  to  the  president,  and  placed  all  in  a  row  on  a  table. 
By  a  little  adjustment  each  mn  or  box  is  hfted  off",  and  displays  die  ballots 


T 


^- 


L 


ft 


OAI.Cm.ATINO   AND  RKSISTBRTNO   MAcmiNRS. 


threaded  on  the  two  upright  stems;  and  by  a  cunous  contrivance  the  same 
movement  lock$  tJie  baUots  on  the  Htem.  By  the  Hide  of  each  8tem  la  a 
graduated  scale,  which  enables  the  Bcrutineers  to  tell  in  an  instant  '^"^  many 
baUots  there  are  in  each  pUe.  When  the  numbers  are  declared,  t^ie  locked 
piles  of  ballots  are  taken  to  anotlier  room,  where  tliey  are  unlocked,  and  tlio 
vote  of  every  individual  member  registered  in  a  book  The  ballots  arc  Uum 
distributed  (as  a  compositor  wotdd  distribute  his  type),  and  each  members 
set  is  laid  apart  by  itself  for  use  on  another  evening.  All  thi« ''f''*  «""|f ; 
what  intricate  and  tedious;  but  the  Assembly  seems  to  be  satished  witli  the 
contrivance,  as  being  an  advance  on  the  fonuer  system. 

The  distrilmtion  of  tyjm  has  just  been  alluded  to;  and  we  may  here  remark, 
that  Tvpe  Composing  Machines  can,  in  a  certain  sense,  be  considered  registering 
machines,  for  they  leave  a  record  of  the  woric  done  in  the  rows  of  arranged 
type      In  M.  Sorensen's  remarkable  Danish  invention  for  the  same  purpose 
there  is  a  nearer  approach  to  what  we  may  designate  mechanical  thought; 
since  the  tyT.es,  after  being  used,  distribute  themselves  on  merely  turning  a 
handle;  and  not  only  so,  but  place  themselves  in  the  proper  position  m  .the 
composing  machine.     The  consideration  of  tliis  matter,  however,  lies  some- 
what beyond  our  present  pm-pose.  ,   •  a     w    ^^A 
Those  curious  specimens  of  mechanical  ingenuity,  lochs,  were  bnefly  alluded 
to  in  a  former  paper,  as  illustrative  of  the  spread  of  tlic  iron  manufacture; 
and  we  might  shnilarly  learn  a  lesson  from  tliem  in  relation  to  our  present 
subiect.     Many  of  the  best  locks  are  registers:  they  are  recorders  or  tell-tales 
of  any  attempts  ma.le   to  pick   them,  whether  successful  or  unsuccessful. 
There  is,  in  such  cases,  some  small  piece  of  mechanism  or  other  which  be- 
comes displaced  whenever  the  lock  is  tampered  with ;  only  it^  own  key  can 
open  it,  Mid  when  other  keys  or  other  implements  are  used    they  produce 
some  damage  or  displacement  which  remains  as  a  record  ot  the  tact     inere 
is  something,  too,  in  the  permutation  locks,  which  imparts  to  them  a  little  ot 
the  character  of  calculating  machines— not  sufficiently  so,  however,  to  need 
any  furtlier  notice  here.     We  may  well  understand  how  the  famous  locksmiths 
of  the  day  would  regard  the  successful  picking  of  their  mtncate    ocks.     Iho 
American  artizan  who  has  given  so  bold  a  challenge,  and  undertaken  so  bold 
a  ta.sk  on  this  point,  has  many  anxious  and  critical  eyes  upori  him. 

Electro- telegraphy  involves  much  of  the  registry  principle.  Ihis  may  be 
illustrated  by  an  example.  By  Mr.  BakewelFs  ingenious  contxivances  any 
person's  handwriting  can  be  exactly  copied,  at  any  distance,  tivrough  the 
Eiel^m  of  the  tele^phic  wires.  At  one  end  of  the  line  is  the  transmitting 
apparatus,  and  at  the  other  the  recipient  apparatus  includes  a  sheet  ot  papei 
which  has  a  dark  tint  imparted  to  it  by  a  senes  of  closely-ruled  l^e^.  The 
words  of  the  message  are  written  at  the  one  station,  and  at  tiie  other  station 
tJie  same  words  ar^reproduced,  at  the  rate  of  500  letters  per  mmute,  on  the 

sheet  of  dark  paper,  in  a  pale  tint.  ,    ,      ,         v  ♦^lo  u.  \r««r 

The  American  BM  telegraph,  used  at  some  of  the  large  hotels  m  New 
York  and  other  United  States  cities,  and  in  the  magnificent  Attantic  steamers 
of  CoUins's  Hne,  is  a  registering  apparatus,  in  so  far  as  ^records  the  nanie  ot 
the  bell  which  was  last  rung.  It  has  no  connection  with  electncal  arrwige. 
ments.  There  is  an  upright  case  or  box,  two  or  three  feet  square,  through  the 
top  of  which  descend  bell  wires  from  all  the  rooms  placed  m  connection  with 
the  apparatus.  Withm  tlie  case  is  a  bell,  the  hammer  of  which  js  moved  by 
pulling  any  of  tlie  wires;  but  this  is  not  all;  for  at  the  mstant  the  bell  is 
Lick,  a  small  white  semicircidar  plate  in  the  front  of  the  machme  is  turned 


L 


K8. 

ontrivftnce  the  same 
B  of  each  Htetn  is  a 
in  instant  how  many 
declared,  tlie  locke<l 
ire  unlocked,  and  the 
The  ballots  ai-o  tlicn 
and  each  member's 
All  tliis  reads  some- 
he  satisfied  wiUi  the 

we  may  here  remark, 
considered  registering 
the  rows  of  arranged 
for  the  same  purpose 
mechanical  thought; 
on  merely  turning  a 
roper  position  in  |the 
,  however,  lies  some- 

»,  were  briefly  alluded 
he  iron  manufactine ; 
dation  to  our  present 

recorders  or  tell-tales 
iisful  or  imsuccessfiil. 
ni  or  other  which  be- 
only  its  own  key  can 
■e  used,  they  produce 
rd  of  the  fact.  There 
•ts  to  them  a  little  of 

so,  however,  to  need 
the  famous  locksmiths 

intricate  locks.  The 
id  undertaken  so  bold 

upon  him. 

nciple.  TTiia  may  be 
ious  contrivances,  amy 
distance,  through  the 
ine  is  the  transmitting 
dudes  a  sheet  of  paper 
isely-ruled  lines.  The 
tnd  at  the  other  station 
ters  per  minute,  on  the 

3  large  hotels  in  New 
icent  Atlantic  steamers 

it  records  the  name  of 
,vith  electrical  arrange- 
feet  square,  througli  tiie 
iced  in  connection  with 
of  which  is  moved  by 
the  instant  the  bell  is 

the  machine  is  turned 


CAlCtJLATTNO   AND   nr.OISTBBlNO   MACIItMES.  M 

half  round,  and  reveals  tlie  number  of  the  room  whence  the  bell  was  nmg,  or 
the  message  to  be  delivered.  There  aie  eighty  or  a  hundred  of  tlieso  plates, 
and  may  be  any  number  more  or  less ;  each  has  either  a  number  or  u  word  or 
two  written  so  as  to  be  concealed  and  revealed  by  it  alternately ;  the  numbers 
are  those  of  tlie  rooms,  while  the  wonls  are  such  a«  "  Wait(!r,"  "  Boots,"  "  Hot 
Water,"  and  otliers  indicating  the  daily  wants  of  hotel  and  cabin  visitors.  One 
bell  serves  for  all ;  and  when  this  bell  is  heai-d,  one  of  the  httle  plates  will  be 
foimd  to  be  moved  so  as  to  reveal  the  message.  There  is  int<>mal  mechanism 
to  connect  each  wire  with  its  appropriate  number  plate,  and  also  with  the  bell. 
A  small  handle  at  the  bottom  of  the  case  re-adjusts  all  the  plates.  It  is  ob- 
vious that,  by  numbering  and  inscribing  the  plates  accordingly,  such  a  bell 
apparatus  might  be  adapted' to  mcrcimtilo  and  warehousing  establishments. 

There  is  something  ingenious  in  tlie  mode  which  Mr.  Blaycock,  of  Carlisle, 
has  recently  proposed  for  regulating  the  supply  of  gas  to  lamps,  according  to 
the  lengtli  of  night  at  ditt'erent  periods  of  the  year.  The  «i)panitus  is  intended 
for  use  witli  illuminatod  clock  dials.  On  the  longest  day,  a  gas-valve  is  so 
adjusted  as  to  sujtply  gas  for  a  very  short  night — the  shortest  in  the  year ; 
every  succeeding  night  the  supply  becomes  increa.sed  in  quantity  to  aboi?t  the 
extent  that  tlie  night  lengthens,  until,  at  midwinter,  the  supply  is  most  (con- 
siderable. The  instrument  then  requires  re-adjustmont,  which  enables  it 
gradually  to  shorten  its  supply  of  gas  during  half  a  year,  until  the  minimum 
is  again  reach,  l.  The  light  p.ita  itsdf  out  at  sim-rise,  or  some  desired  perioii 
near  it,  by  the  exhaustion  of  its  supply  of  gfw  ;  and  the  quantity  of  tliis  supply 
is  determined  by  the  extent  to  which  the  gas-cock  is  opened,  tliis  extent  being 
itself  governed  by  the  works  of  the  clock. 

It  would  take  us  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  subject  to  dilate  upon  the 
contrivances  for  teaching  the  blind  to  read,  cipher,  Ac. ;  but  there  has  been 
sent  to  the  Great  Exhibition  a  raac^hine  by  M.  Foucault,  himself  a  blind  man, 
which  has  a  peculiar  registering  power  and  is  exceedingly  ingenious.  A  blind 
man  is  enabled  to  write  his  thoughts  by  this  contrivance,  even  though  he  may 
nevor  have  learned  to  form  a  letter :  heimnt^  instead  of  writes.  This  machine 
exhibits  thirty  or  forty  vertical  brass  rods,  ranged  in  two  rows.  At  the  top  of 
each  rod  is  engraved,  in  bold  relief,  a  letter  of  the  alphabet,  or  a  grammatical 
stop  or  sign ;  and  at  the  bottom  is  a  corresponding  letter,  stop,  or  sign,  formed 
of  ordinary  type.  A  piece  of  blackened  paper,  with  white  paper  beneath  it,  is 
placed  underneath  the  rods,  and  on  the  pres.sure  of  any  rod  a  black  type- 
printed  mark  appears  on  the  white  paper.  But  to  make  tlie  ari-angement 
available  for  successive  lines  of  writing,  contrivances  of  a  most  uigenious 
character  are  introduced.  Although  we  have  spoken  of  the  rods  as  being 
vertical,  the  lower  ends  converge  so  tliat  all  the  types  moke  their  impression 
at  one  point ;  and  if  tlie  paper  were  not  moveable,  the  impressions  would  be 
superimposed  on  that  point ;  but  the  paper  has  a  slow  lateral  movement  for 
successive  lettei-s  and  words  in  one  hue,  and  a  vertical  movement  for  succes- 
sive lines  in  tlie  page.  Suppose  the  poor  blind  student  wish  to  write  or  im- 
print the  word  "  France,"  he  presses  with  his  fingers  on  tlie  six  con-esponding 
rods,  which  bring  the  six  typos  m  proper  order  on  Uie  paper ;  they  fill  converge 
to  tlie  same  point,  but  as  tlie  paper  has  a  gentle  side  movement  after  each 
contact,  tlie  blackened  type  impressions  assume  the  proper  order  for  fonning 
the  word. 

One  of  tlie  oddest  calculating  or  registering  machmes  (if  we  may  so  desig- 
nate it)  is,  perhaps,  Mr.  Clark's  Eureka,  which  was  the  subject  of  much  news- 
paper gossip  half  a  dozen  years  ago.    It  multiplied  Latin  words  into  hex- 


li 


I  ti*'nnfm 


L 


m  OALCOIJITINO  AHD   BEaiSTEBlNO   MACIUNES. 

ameters.   instead  of   ningle   numerals    into  larger  quantities.     Mr    Cloik'H 
Z^Sne    so  far  as  it  could  produce  hexameters  at  all,  produced  them  a^l 
Ster  one  uuifo^  type.     Each  of  his  hues  consisted  of  six  words,  one  to  each 
foS    hi  each  IhTe  the  first  word  was  an  adjective  of  three  syllables,  Uie  second 
a  noun  of  tirsyllables.  the  fonillx  a  verb  of  three  syUables,  and  so  on^ 
AuTe  sL  words  agreed  in  gender.  nun.ber,  person,  and  case,  so  t^  to 
fom  collectively  a  sentence;  a^d  all  the  lines  were  analogous  m  structure 
It^ems  so  far  as  the  construcUon  of  Uie  machine  has  been  described,  as  if 
Jtese  words  wer^  treated  as  so  many  dice  or  dominoes,  or  rather  as  so  many 
tickets  hfa  Totteiy.     Put  in.  we  will  say.  h.df  a  do«>n  adjecUves  ot  suruhu- 
cramma  cal  fonnrhalf  a  dozen  nouns,  half  a  dozen  verbs,  and  so  forth ;  then 
t^TZ  hanS  or  rattle  the  box,  or  go  through  the  necessary  hocus-pocus ; 
Sv  draw  ont  an  adjective,  then  a  substantive,  tiien  one  of  each  of  the  oU  er 
four  kinr.  •  words;  and  these  six,  placed  in  line  in  certain  order,  would 
fo^  a  correct  hexameter.     We  do  not  present  this  as  the  actual  process,  but 
m^ely  Ta  means  of  showing  how.  by  permutations  among  a  dehmte  number 
S  word7  many  times  that  number  of  hexameter  hues  mav  b^  produced     The 
common  S  of  pennutation  shows  us  that,  even  with  only  six  words  ol  each 
S  neadv  two  hundred  changes  may  he  produced  witiiout  depaiting  from 
thAexametir  form;  and  if  the  numbers  are  greater,  the  changes  maybe 
madeirosf  inexhaustible.     It  is  in  tliis  sense  that  the  machine  may  be  said 
rmaiit^le  verses  in  any  desired  quantity.    Mr.  Clark  descnbmg  his  ma^ 
chine^n  the  pages  of  the  Athe^^um,  said  that  it  is  "neither  more  nor^^^ss 

than  a  nractical  illusti^tion  of  tiie  law  of  evolution •   ine  macnme 

iZtahis  Mtei?  rrhabeticol  arrangement;  out  of  Uiese.  through  tiie  me- 
Zm  of  numbed  re^ndered  tangible'by  being  expressed  by  indentinres  on 
Si  work  Uie  iiistirument  selects  such  as  are  requisite  to  form  tiie  verse 
Tonceiv  J; 't^  compon^it.  of  words  united  to  form  hexameters  bemg  alone 
prevfouSy  calculated,  tiie  harmonious  combination  of  which  will  be  found  to 
be  practically  interminable." 

The  metal-working  processes,  by  which  all  tiie  machines  noticed  in  this 
Bheetha^e  been  produced,  do  not  need  special  description.  The  fashioning  of 
wheels  ph^ons.  levers,  and  otiier  delicate  bits  of  mechanism,  comes  withm 
Sie  o?diS^  Uours  of  tiie  machinist  and  tiie  clock-maker.  It  is  to  tiie 
mpnSl  Sr  exhibited  m  tiie  mventions.  and  to  tiie  imitation  of  mental  power 
Zpkye^dT  tiie  action  of  tiie  machines  tiiemselves.  tiiat  tiie  reader's  attention 
is  hero  dh-ected 


1 


S8. 

ntities.  Mr.  Clai-k's 
,  produced  them  all 
ix  words,  one  to  oach 
wyllables,  tlie  second 
ylliiblos,  and  so  on. 

and  casp,  so  as  to 
idogoiw  iu  structure, 
been  described,  as  if 
ir  rather  as  so  many 

adjectives  of  similar 
IS,  and  so  forth ;  then 
icessary  hocus-pocus ; 
e  of  each  of  the  other 

certain  order,  would 
,e  actual  process,  but 
Hig  a  definite  number 
ay  b6  produced.  The 
nly  six  words  of  each 
thout  depai-ting  from 

the  changes  may  be 

machine  may  be  said 
ik,  describing  his  ma- 
leither  more  nor  less 

The  machine 

lese,  through  the  me- 
sed  by  indentures  on 
lite  to  form  the  verse 
ixameters  being  alone 
vhich  will  be  found  to 


ichines  noticed  in  this 
on.  The  fashioning  of 
uhanism,  comes  within 
i-maker.  It  is  to  the 
itation  of  mental  power 
it  tlie  reader's  attention 


INDIA  RUBBER  AND  GUTTA  PERCHA. 


We  are  about  to  bespeak  the  reader's  attention  to  'two  very  remarkable  sub- 
stances, which  have  ^vrought  no  inconsiderable  revolution  in  industrial 
arrangements  witliin  the  last  few  years.  They  are  brethren  in  origin,  and 
brethren  in  many  of  their  (jualitics ;  yet  they  differ  stifticiently  to  leave  an 
indepcn  \ent !  mgo  of  action  for  each.  Chemists  tell  us  tliat  the  constituents 
arc  almost,  identical,  comprising  about  seven-eighths  carbon  to  one-eighth 
hydrogen  ;  but  that  gutta  percha  contains  also  a  little  oxygen,  which  seems  to 
be  wanting  in  India  rubber.  Both  are  elastic,  both  are  tough ;  but  if  we  say 
that  india  rubber  is  more  elastic  than  tough,  and  gutta  perclia  morn  tough 
tlian  elastic,  we  shall  probably  place  tliem  on  their  proper  relative  footing. 


INDIA  RUBBER. 

It  is  curious  to  observe  tlie  incongruity  often  existing  between  a  substance 
or  an  agent  and  tlie  name  by  which  it  is  known.  This  name  was,  in  many 
cases,  given  to  it  when  its  properties  were  but  little  developed,  and  becomes 
ill-fitted  as  a  designation  at  a  later  period  of  its  history.  "  Electricity,"  for 
example,  is  a  word  nearly  equivalent  to  "  amber-science,"  and  was  given  to  Uie 
wonderful  agent  to  which  it  relates  because  the  electric  properties  of  amber 
happened  to  be  those  which  first  drew  attention  :  if  philosophers  had  now  to 
re-designate  the  science,  they  would  certainly  dethrone  amber  from  its  high 
position.  Taking  a  humbler  example,  we  may  deem  the  name  of  "  India 
nibber "  to  be  fairly  open  to  the  same  scrutiny ;  this  substance  was  first 
known  to  us  as  a  rubber  for  obliterating  pencil  marks,  and  it  was  brought  to 
Europe  from  those  parts  of  South  America,  the  natives  of  which  were  (and 
often  still  are)  vaguely  called  Indian.  If  a  name  were  at  the  present  day 
given  to  the  substance,  which  should  chai-acterise  its  more  important  qualities, 
it  would  not  be  "nibber,"  either  Indian  or  otlierwise,  but  something  expres- 
sive of  elasticity.  What  may  be  the  meaning  of  the  native  name,  caoutchouc, 
we  do  not  know ;  but  as,  by  taking  a  little  liberty  with  the  vowels,  this  may 
be  made  a  "  word  of  two  syllables,"  it  has  an  advantage  over  the  longer  and 
more  clumsy  designation  "  India  rubber,"  which,  in  such  a  business-like  age 
as  the  present,  might  be  woitli  attending  to. 


The  India-Rubber  Thee  and  its  Sap. 

The  extensive  use  of  india  rubber  is  entirely  of  modem  growth ;  dating 
back  about  a  quarter  of  a  century.    But  the  substance  itself  has  been  long 


1 


mmmmmmim 


Q  INDIA  RUnDER  AND  OUTTA  PKnCHA. 

known,  ruid  tmiployo.!  in  Hniull  .luuntitus  in  nu.nt  Enropoaij  countries.     In 
5  rrc  pS  it  in  unliko  itn  youn«c...n.panion  gulu  porc-l.a  winch  ha.  no  y| 

h"  n  it^  tonth  year.     One  pmi.«''^y  '"'  '1'"^"'^  '''^''  '"">t  ''";.'"^  ''^"^ '  iomdu, 
pmai,UoXH\nbHta.ico:  .uu\  .md.  oi"  thoHo  KUcco«Kivoly..h»cover«.l  proportios 
m-  h......  n.mh,  the  bmiin  of  a  n.nv  class  of  .uanufactunng  openitions. 

In  a  wu.k  hy  Toiqucclan.a.  a  Spaiunh  wiiUM-.  who  descni^ed  dio  huhuiis  ot 
Sou  i   An  1.-J  aWul »  cu.»tury  J>U  u  half  ago.  wo  w«  UJd  tiM  thero  was  a 
rr;u\^ia"h  th?  IndianH  mwJ H»^ahnM,  md  which  yi,4d.J  a  Rumniy  h.p.xl 
Sd  h   ingh  oBtin.ation  hy  Uien..     "  To  ohtm..  it."  ho  Hays  •'  U.oy  ^^;'""J  ^  ' 
Ze  wiUi  an  axe  or  a  cutlaHH  ;  and  from  these  woundH  U.e  li.iuor  dropH.      1  lu> 
jTt'vo    collet  it  in  round  vosselH  of  different  Hi.os.  calkd  n»  tho.r  la,.gnage, 
S/i,  but  by  u«  culaha»lu^».     to  th«-«  Uioy  aUow  it  to  ^ttk,  m  rowid  ball-, 
Hio  L  u,OHt  couvoaient  for  the  ^uivoHe.  U>  which  they  a.c  -I-"   *«  2^'  ^s 
Uicu.      When  quite  «et,  they  boil  theui  m  water,  m  which  «Uto  die  gmn  is 
cZd  Ji'    hlxi  the  natives  appear  to  have  beeu  m  nowise  piulicular  us  to 
the   ui  of  collecting;   Uieii'  naked  bodies  formed  a  convemeut  core  o 
mould  m.  which  to  collSct  the  maU>ri.d  ;  for  Uiey  nmoaied  themselves  with  ho 
Za  a,?a  removed  the  incmnUtion  when  diy.     The  naUves.  we  uro  uifon  c 
bv  t  irw,it«r,mftdebrea8t-ulatesof  thick  l«yo»  of  Uie  gum;  tliey  exUacUid 
Z    i  which  ;**  much  m.ea  in  medicine;  they  made  ela«Uc  balls  winch  were 
used  iT.  cStain  g*me«:  and  their  practical  jokers  or  meriy  amkew*  slxod 
"henseUer  with   pieces  of  the   gum.  the   elantlcity  of  winch   gave   nse   to 
ludicrous  contort,  ms  and  bomidings.      The  Hpaniardn  «peeddy  leam«l  to 
oJii^SaL  Uie  waterproofing  <iuaUties  of  tliis  Hingulai'  subsUmce.  by  applymg 

''  1 1^^  ;!;"tLifwtk  of  M.  Torquedama.  or  by  some  other  description 
>vritten  about  the  same  time.  Uiat  iudia  rubber  fi'^^V'f^^?,^""^*;^'"  ^;^2^- 
The  true  nature  of  the  substance  and  the  tree  which  yields  it  wa«.  lu>wevei, 
first  ascertained  by  tlie  French  Academiciaa«  who  visited  South  America  m 
ms  S  was  described  to  the  A.^ademy  by  Condaniiae  m  U.e  toUowing  ye«. 
Emopeans  liad  long  before  been  struck  witli  tlie  odd  appeai-ance  of  U  e  Ian- 
tZ^Zles.  birds^aud  other  forms  into  which  the  gum  ha,l  been  fashioned 
by  the  ooUectors ;  but  they  wer«  now  able  to  know  somethmg  concenung  the 
uL  whence  it  Exudes,  ind  the  manner  erf  obtaining  it.  Besides  the  J«e 
caoutchouc  tree,  there  are  many  others  which  yield  a  gum  nearly  "!««*»«»; 
S  india  rubber ;  among  Uiese  a«3  the  Murapha  elmttm,  the  hmis  md^a,  the 
Artocarpus  iiUeqrifolia,  and  the  Urceola  eimHca.    ,  ,.  e      ^ 

^  ThTmethod  of  obtaining  india  rubber  for  the  onlmary  ptrposes  of  com- 
merce does  not  differ  much  from  that  dewribed  by  the  old  Spanish  wnter. 
The  subLice  as  it  comes  to  us  is  mosUy  dark  in  colour,  but  this  hue  ans^ 
from  the  mode  in  which  it  is  prepared  for  market ;  lor  the  juice  itself  is  m  Iky 
in  Consistence,  and  nearly  white  in  colour.  The  trees  are  u^^^Uj  P»«™«^  ^ 
the  rainy  season,  at  which  time  the  juice  is  most  abundant  li  the  juwe  be 
recei^Jdin  botttes.  and  be  well  corked  immediately,  it  may  be  preserved  m  a 
Siuid  or^mi-Uquid  state  for  a  considerable  time ;  but  the  ""^t've^  bave  no 
object  in  so  doing.  They  go  to  Uie  forest  early  m  the  mornmg.  tap  fe  trunk 
wSh  a  small  pickaxe,  and  fix  a  cup  of  soft  day  beneath  tlie  wound ;  m  the 
cveni^gTbout  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  the  mUky  juice  is  found  in  the  cup 
S^s  the  true  or  American  ilidia  rubber;  the  Asiatic  species  will  yield  fitty 
to  sixty  pounds  per  tree  in  one  season,  but  this  is  of  mfenor  quality.  Ihc 
£i^  when  Ls  collected  by  the  natives,  is  spread  in  a  thin  layer  on  clay 
ibrns,  Soned  m  any  way  that  the  rude  taste  of  the  eollectore  dictate. ;  this 


.1 


ff 


INDIA  ACSBCIt  AND  OOTTA  PIKCHA. 


opoMi  conntrieR.     In 
111,  which  hiw  not  yot 
)!•  hiw  \n'*>u  t(ii\nil  t<) 
(UHCovereil  i)ri)i»trtioH 
^  operatioiiH. 
•ributi  ilio   liiirnum  of 
x>lil,  that  tht)i«(  wfts  II 
Ided  n  gummy  liiidid 
ly^,  "  Uioy  wound  thi! 
le  Uquor  drop.     Thu 
d,  in  their  lanKuajJse, 
4jltU)  in  round  btiUit, 
ley  we  about  to  ajiply 
jich  Btttle  the  guin  in 
•wise  piu'ticular  ok  to 
a  oonvcuieut  core  or 
d  themuelves  with  tlio 
lives,  we  ai-e  informed 

gum  ;  tliey  extracttid 
astic  balls  which  were 

merry  andrewu  hliod 
■  which  gave  rise  to 
,H  speedily  learned  to 
lubsUmco,  hy  applying 

some  other  description 
uue  known  iu  Europe, 
yielda  it  was,  liowevor, 
idd  BoutU  America  in 
s  in  Uie  following  year, 
appeai'auce  of  tlie  lan- 
in  had  been  fasliioned 
aething  concerning  th4 
it.  B«aide8  the  true 
\  gum  nearly  identical 
t'rt,  the  Ficus  indka,  the 

inary  ptu'pows  of  com- 
he  old  Spanish  writer, 
ur,  but  this  hue  arises 
the  juice  itself  is  milky 

are  uaually  pierced  in 
daut.  If  the  juice  be 
may  be  preserved  in  ft 
,t  the  natives  have  no 
morning,  tap  the  trunk 
ath  the  wound ;  in  the 

is  found  in  the  cup. 
c  species  will  yield  fifty 
t  inferior  quality.  The 
in  a  thin  layer  on  clay 
coUectore  dictates ;  this 


layor  U  dried  by  tho  hoat  of  a  smoky  fir« ;  another  lay«r  ii  applied ;  anothflr 
drying  foli<iwH — and  ho  on,  until  ti  'outing  of  conHidtTiible  tliicknesi!!  is  ob- 
tain«(l.  'I'liis  coating  may  b«  punctured  or  stamped,  or  piwtsrd  with  any  de- 
vice, at  pleasure:  and  tbiiM  are  Moniriinum  prodnce<l  birds  tho  getnis  or  speciei 
of  which  it  would  batflo  the  skill  of  an  Audubon  or  n  Wilson  to  det4;rminoi 
When  ail  in  diy,  the  lilay  iiiOuM  iil'  eore  is  rlUnht^d  to  fingliients,  tho  ft-ag- 
montfl  removed,  and  the  India  nibber  shell  liberated.  Ho  smoky  is  tho  Hre  at 
wliich  th«  juice  i^  <lried,  that  a  Iwdtle-form  jiiece  of  India  nibber  may  be  cha- 
racterised as  an  altpmation  of  layei-s  of  gum  and  soot. 

Numerous  arti  the  purjmseH  to  which  this  singular  subHtance  is  apjilied  in 
th»i  countries  of  its  proiluctlon.  The  Indians  fashion  it  into  nulely-shaped 
boots,  for  the  rainy  sea.soii.  The  inhnbitants  of  t^uiUi  apply  it  as  a  coating  to 
doth,  to  make  rainproof  ttirpanlins  or  coverings.  It  is  formed  lnf.o  flambeaux, 
which  yield  a  beautiful  light,  aciionnianied,  however,  by  an  odour  which  is  n(jt 
usually  g»ivt«)ful  to  Euroiiean  nostrilH :  it  is  said  that  a  flambeau,  two  feet  long 
by  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  will  bum  twelve  houi-s. 

But  It  Is  in  Kuropo  that  the  ipialities  of  india  rubber  have  chiefly  become 
ascertained.  It  is^  now  reoognisetl  as  tho  most  pliable  and  elastic  of  known 
substances ;  while  It  is  so  tenacious  that  it  cannot  be  broken  without  consi- 
derable force.  All  that  was  then  required  was,  to  find  out  some  solvent  which 
would  bring  it  to  tlie  liquid  fonn,  ho  as  to  enable  it  to  be  applied  as  a  varnish, 
a  cement,  or  a  prot(!Ctive  coating  ;  this  our  chemists  liave  succeeded  in  doing, 
and  the  residt  Is  a  very  '^ido  extension  to  Uie  useful  applications  of  tlie  gum. 


India  Rdbeeb  PnocESsEs:  EiAsricrrY. 

The  India  nibber,  or  caoutchouc,  now  imported  to  the  enormous  extent  of 
BIX  or  seven  himdrud  thousand  pounds  annually,  reivohes  this  country  in  masses 
of  varied  shaj)*,  but  mostiy  of  a  dark  colour.  In  it«  im[>orted  state  it  is  used 
for  very  few  pui-poses ;  considerable  modifications  being  necessary  for  its  adap- 
tation to  practical  sennce.  It  requires  to  be  tnuisfonnetl  into  cakes,  or 
sheets,  or  tissues,  or  tube*,  or  solutions,  preparatory  to  its  ultimate  \ise ;  and 
this  transfonnation  requires  operations  of  a  somewhat  peculiar  kind,  owing  to 
th«  nacflssity  of  randering  tho  whole  mass  homogeneous  in  substance. 

The  bottles,  and  masses,  and  fitigraenta,  as  imported,  have  much  inequality 
in  texture,  and  are,  moreover,  contaminated  with  much  dirt  and  refuse.  To 
separate  these  the  india  rubber  is  first  cut  into  \  ery  small  fragments,  and  then 
steeped  in  warm  water,  by  which  ttie  dirt  is  procii)itated.  The  fmgments  ai-e 
dried,  and  are  then  thrown  into  a  kind  of  kneading  machine,  where  innnense 
pressure  is  employed  to  bring  them  to  one  homogeneous  mass.  There  is  in 
this  kneading  process  evidence  afforded  of  a  very  remarkable  differonce  be- 
tween gutta  percha  and  india  rubber ;  the  former  (as  will  be  explained  in  a 
later  jmge)  requires  to  be  heated  to  a  soft  state  before  being  placed  in  the 
kneadmg  mill ;  but  the  india  rubber,  tliough  put  in  cold,  becomes  so  hot  by 
the  agitation  that  it  could  not  be  safely  touched  by  the  hand ;  it  is  necessary 
to  supply  the  machine  with  cold  water,  which  is  made  newly  to  boil  by  the 
Ctdoric  driven  out  of  the  elastic  mass.  So  thoroughly  is  the  mass  pressed, 
rolled,  pricked,  cut,  and  kneaded,  by  tlie  severe  turmod  which  it  undergoes, 
that  all  dirt,  air,  water,  and  steam  are  expelled,  and  it  presents  tlie  appearance 
of  a  dark-coloured,  Uniform,  smooth  mass.  It  is  put  into  cast-Iron  moulds  of 
great  strengUi,   and  brought,  by  hydraulic  or  screw  pressuro,  to  the  form 

F  3 


■•|i>r»Tir*»iiirifiifli 


■HMII 


MWWM 


_L 


4  IKDIA  KUBBER  AND   GUTTA  PEBCHA. 

of  blocks,  slabs,  or  cylmdei-s,  accordiug  to  tho  purpose  to  which  it  is  to  be 

"^'Set  blocks,  or  other  masses,  occupy  the  transition  «?*g«  ^f^jv^«°  *f^ 
preparatoiT  and  tlie  finishing  processes ;  tlie  mdia  rubber  '^  J^^^^^^^'^l^ 
Ssable  state,  but  not  mto  useful  fonn.  It  is  as  a  .heet  and  as  a  thread  that  t  c 
nrnteiM  meets  its  most  extensive  apphcation  ;  and  both  of  ihem  ai-e  made  by 
cutdig  from  tlie  blocks  and  slabs.  A  block  is  cut  into  sheeU  by  an  mgemous 
machi^ie,  m  which  c  shai-p  ki^ife-edge  has  a  rapid  yibratoiy  motion  ma 
horizontal  plane,  so  adjusted  as  to  cut  a  tliin  film  from  a  block  of  india 
Sbei  supplied  te  it  by  a  steady  a.otion.  The  knife  requires  to  be  kept  coo 
by  a  flow  of  water,  or  it  would  adhere  to  the  india  mbber.  In  Uiis  way  tiin 
sheets  may  be  cut,  or  thicker  sheets  from  which  stationers  india  iiibber  may 
be  obtuTJd,  or  sheets  of  any  Uiickness.  gi-eat  or  smaU,  accordmg  to  tho  pm- 

^""TheTplmtion  of  the  material   into  shreds  or    nan-ow  strips  is  a  very 
pretty  operation,  exhibitmg  much  nicety  of  manipuktion.     A  continuous  strii. 
nay  be  cut  from  a  bottle  or  any  other  ciu-ved  mass  of  Uie  '"^la  rubber      Tho 
bottom  of  the  bottle  is  cutoff,  and  is  pressed  into  a  round  and  tolerably  fla 
fonn      The  cake  tlirs  fashioned  is  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  horizontal  shaft,  or 
latiie-axis,  and  is  made  to  revolve  wiUi  great  rapidity;  and  while  so  rotatmg 
a  cJci  knife,  rotating  at  a  high  speed,  cuts  through  tlie  substance,  and 
^vLces  steadU;  towai-df  tlie  cenu-e  of  the  disc  ;  thereby  «fP'^™tmg  the  disc 
Tv  cake  mto  one  contmuous  spu-al  Hiread.  This  thi-ead  can  be  ea^^l^  dmm^^^«"^ 
sti-aightly,  and  can  even  be  separated  into  iwo  or  more  finer  tlireads  by  dm^ng 
it  tlirough  a  hole  where  one  or  more  sharp-cuttmg  edges  encounter  it.     It  a 
bottle  or  any  other  hoUow  piece  of  india  nibber  can  be  drawn  over  a  cyhndei 
of  uiiiform  diameter,  it  may  be  cut  into  a  continuous  thread  by  a  modification 
of  the  same  machine ;  the  cylinder  being  made  to  revolve,  a  -steel  cutter  i. 
placed  a«ainst  it,  and  as  the  cyhndcr  has  a  slow  longitudmal  motion  given  to  it, 
CSm  is  cut  ;pirally  from  'end  to  end-just  on  tl.e  same  principle  as  a  wor 
orXad  is  cut  on  a  bit  of  iron  by  the  screw-cuttmg  machine.     Machines  ot 
this  kind  were  mvented  in  France  more  than  twenty  yeare  ago;  but  the 
machines  used  in  our  own  countiy  are  of  English  mvention  and  of  later 

"^'tf  we  glance  among  the  stores  of  the  india-rubber  manufacturers  and 
retailers  at  tlie  pi^sent  day,  we  find  that  bmids  and  cords,  webs  and J^Mids 
form  no  mconsiderable  portion  of  the  wai-es  exposed  for  sale.  These,  in 
most  ca^es.  require  tliat  the  india  rubber  should  be  fii-st  made  into  blocks  or 
cri  nex  cut  into  sheets,  and  then  sepai-ated  mto  threads  or  cords  or  narrow 
stiHps  Supposmg  these  preliminaiy  cuttings  to  be  effected,  the  making  of 
bvafds  and  w^ebs  if  exceedingly  curious,  for  it  mvolves  a  combination  of  he 
hulia  rubber  with  other  mate'rik.  Let  us  briefly  tmce  the  p™es  In  die 
first  place  the  narrow  cords  are  sti-etched  by  a  kind  of  wheel,  and  kept  ex-^ 
tended  till  nearly  deprived  of  their  elasticity,  and  til  they  fonn  a  thread  of 
the  desired  Uuc4ess.  The  thread  is  then  put  into  aj>m«f»i^-«^«cfttn«,  which  is 
acomphcated  and  veiy  ingenious  apparatus,  vsliereby  a  «|}f ''♦l^f «  «f  ^^,'^""^^^ 
silk  flax  or  worsted,  is  wound  round  the  mdia-i-ubber  thread.  In  such  a 
machine  several  tlireads  are  twisted  round  each  oth^-,  from  toee  to  nearly 
Ey  in  number;  each  tln-ead  has  its  own  bobbin,  and  aU  tlie  bobbms  revolve 
round  a  common  centi-e,  givmg  out  their  threads  in  the  Proportions  and  order 
required.  The  visitors  to  the  Great  Exhibition  have  had  opportunities  ol 
seemg  some  such  machine  at  work.  Generally  speakmg,  the  braidmg-machine 


P 


1 


MtMWM 


mmmm^ 


se  to  which  it  is  to  be 

tion  stage  between  tlie 

ibbev  is  brought  into  ii 

and  as  a  thread  that  the 

ith  of  these  ai-e  made  by 

0  sheets  by  an  ingenious 
i  vibratoiy  motion  in  a 

iVom  a  block  of  india 
i  requires  to  be  kept  cool 
libber.  In  tliis  way  tliin 
ionera'  india  iiibber  may 
dl,  according  to  the  pur- 

naiTow  strips  is  a  very 

tion.    A  continuous  strip 

[■  tlie  india  rubber.     The 

round  and  tolerably  flat 

1  of  a  horizontal  shaft,  or 
;  and  while  so  rotating, 

ough  the  substance,  and 
areby  sepamting  the  disc 
id  can  be  eswiily  drawn  out 
3  finer  tln-eads,"  by  th-awing 
edges  encounter  it.  If  a 
be  drawn  over  a  cylinder 
i  tliread  by  a  modification 
revolve,  a  «teel  cutter  is 
tudmal  motion  given  to  it, 
same  principle  as  a  worm 
g  machine.  Machines  of 
'enty  yeare  ago ;  but  tlie 
h  uivention  and  of  later 

ubber  manufacturers  and 
d  cords,  webs  and  bands, 
osed  for  sale.     These,  in 
3  fii-st  made  into  blocks  or 
threads  or  cords  or  naiTOW 
le  effected,  the  making  of 
ves  a  combination  of  »Iie 
uce  the  processes.     In  Uie 
nd  of  wheel,  and  kept  ex- 
till  tliey  fonu  a  thread  of 
i  braiding-machine,  which  is 
jby  a  sheathing  of  cotton, 
ubber  tliread.     In  such  a 
ther,  from  tluee  to  nearly 
and  all  tlie  bobbins  revolve 
I  the  proportions  and  order 
liave  had  opportunities  of 
Jiing,  the  braidmg-machine 


INDIA   BUBBEIl   AND   OUTTA   PERCIIA.  9 

is  employed  in  making  stay-laces,  bmid,  upholsterers'  cord,  &c. ;  but  it  is  also 
applicable  in  making  Sie  numerous  elastic  cords  and  webs  which  owe  their 
elasticity  to  india  mbber.  When  an  envelope  of  cotton,  silk,  Hox,  or  woixtcd 
has  been  given  to  tlie  tliread  of  india  rubber  by  tlie  braiding-machine,  the 
threads  ai-e  laid  as  warp  in  a  loom,  and  woven  into  the  n^quired  kind  of  wc'b, 
whatever  it  may  be.  Then  comes  a  curious  development  of  tlio  pi-opcrtios  of 
the  material ;  in  tlie  prelmiinaiy  stretching,  tlie  india  mbber  was  niatle  some- 
what stiff  and  unyielding;  but  by  now  exposing  it  to  the  action  of  a  hot 
smoothing-iron  upon  a  table,  the  elasticity  is  restored,  tlie  riband  or  web  con- 
tracts hi  length,  and  the  sheatliing  or  envelope  corrugates  or  wruikles  up  on 
tlie  surface.  The  web  thus  produced  is  very  soft  and  elastic.  Tho  waii) 
threads  may  be  alternated  witli  othere  of  non-elastic  character  ;  an<l  tlie  weft- 
tln-eads  may  be  either  elastic  or  non-elastic,  so  that  any  desired  degree  of  elas- 
ticity may  be  obtained. 

Wliy  a  jpiece  of  india  rubber,  when  it  has  been  somewhat  modified  by  heat 
and  chemical  action,  should  be  deemed  culeanized,  it  is  for  the  uiventor  to  say. 
Vulcan  may  have  been  the  god  of  fire,  and  may  have  "forg'd  tlie  tlnmderbolLs 
of  Jove ;"  but  he  must  have  done  sometliing  much  more  important  than  dress 
up  a  bit  of  india  rubber  to  deserve  his  mytliological  fame.  However,  let  us 
take  Uie  name  simply  as  tho  expression  of  a  fact,  that  fire  or  heat  has  been 
brought  to  bear  upon  Uiis  substtmce  as  a  means  of  affecting  its  qualities 
The  method  was  invented  by  Mr.  Hancock  seven  or  eight  yeai-s  ago.  and  it 
has  been  the  means  of  giving  a  wide  extension  to  Uie  use  of  india  rabber. 

This  vulcanized  india  rubber  is  in  fact  a  compound  of  sulphur  witli  tho 
vegetable  gum.  When  a  sheet  of  india  mbber  is  immei-sed  in  liquid  sulphur, 
a  marked  change  takes  place  in  its  qualities ;  the  sulphur  acts  upon  tlie  gum 
and  combines  with  it ;  and  indeed  the  two  may  dmost  be  said  to  form  a  new 
substance.  The  methods  by  which  the  combination  is  brought  about  are 
varied,  but  the  effect  is  in  all  cases  very  remai'kable.  The  sti-ength  of  the 
india  inibber  is  increased  to  an  extraordinaiy  degree.  The  elasticity  is  ren- 
dered more  permanent,  analogous  in  some  respects  to  that  of  gutta  perclirt. 
The  now  substance  will  absorb  essential  oils  without  mjury,  whereas  such  oils 
would  dissolve  india  rabber.  It  retains  its  properties  at  a  temperature  so  low 
that  india  mbber  would  be  too  much  hardened  for  use  ;  and  at  a  temperature 
so  high  that  india  mbber  would  be  desti-oyed.  Later  expeiimentere  have 
found  that  antimony,  and  many  otlier  substimces,  may  similarly  be  combined 
with  india  mbber ;  and  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  many  useful  novelties 
are  in  store  for  us  in  this  "  vulcanized  "  direction. 

One  very  remarkable  manifestation  of  the  elastic  properties  of  this  sub- 
stance is  to  be  met  with  in  Mr.  Shaw's  novel  india-rubber  air-gun.  This  gmi 
requires  no  gmipowder  whatever,  and  is  so  far  a  veiy  economical  production ; 
but  its  wonders  do  not  cease  here ;  for  it  has  no  au'-pump,  no  reservoir,  no 
valves.  We  might  marvel  how  it  would  be  possible  to  discharge  a  missile  by 
such  means,  wei-o  it  not  that  the  inventor  shows  the  mode  in  which  he  brings 
india  rubber  to  his  aid.  The  air  which  expels  tlie  ball  is,  it  seems,  powerfully 
compressed  at  the  moment  of  discharge  by  a  piston  acting  within  a  cylinder, 
and  moved  with  great  force  and  rapidity  by  the  sudden  conU-action  of  a  spiing. 
This  spring  is  composed  of  a  number  of  vidcanized  india-mbber  rings,  and 
is  capable  of  being  distended  or  sti-etched  by  hand  in  a  convenient  way. 
The  ball  is  propelled  with  a  force  equal  to  that  exerted  in  an  ordinaiy  air-gun  ; 
and  with  much  facility  and  precision.  It  certainly  seems  strange  tliat  such 
an  ingtrmuent  should  possess  sufficient  projectile  power  to  flatten  a  bullet 


1 


•e^ 


e  nroiA  atJBBEa  akb  octta  pebohh. 

pi-opelled  from  it;  but  Mr.   Shaw  has  displayed  at  the  Great  Exhibition 
bullets  so  flattened,  as  companions  to  the  gun  itselt  annlications 

Tt  i«  not  easv  to  say  whether  the  most  numerous  and  important  appncauons 
of  th  8  rinS  substance  depend  on  it.  use  in  the  fox-ni  o    thread  or  that 
of  a  UouXhJtL  ;  each  \vL  its  advantiiges.  which  keep  it  distinct  from  the 
Im-     When  once  it  was  discovered  that  india  rubber  maybe  di«soWed  m 
net^ieum  in  naphtha,  or  in  oil  of  turpentine,  it  was  speedily  seen  that  a  new 
a  exi;^  spher.  of  utility  was  ^yen  to  it.  /-^nuffic'^t'wT  JS 
from  this ;  that'^any  fragments  or  odds  and  ends  wdl  suffice  ^^^^^  l^^g^ 
and  well-orepared  pieces.     The  coarsest  pieces  as  imported,  the  waste  nom 
ZlTneaE operations,  and  the  parings  and  cuttings  from  other  manufnj- 
turin"?perlions,  are  placed  in  a  close  iron  vessel,  to  which  the  I'q^'d  ««lyent 
is  Sed     A  brisk  agitation  is  kept  up,  and  tiie  heat,  thereby  generated  m  the 
cla^S  cum  warms  the  liquid  and  increases  its  solvent  power,  until  at  lengtii 
ie  whole  ofT?  gum  is  dissolved.     This  operation  is  conducted  on  a  some- 
whaHxtensive  scaS^;  for  tiie  iron  vessel  is  large  enough  to  contem  more  than 
half  a  ton  of  India  n^bber,  which  requires  three  days  of  constant  agitation  for 
comple^ solution.     The  liquid  thuVproduced  has  a  consistency  which  fits  it 
to  be  usid  as  a  varnish,  or  IL  a  waterproofing  medium,  or  as  a  cement,  or  for 
many  oSer  pui-poses  ;hich  the  sagLity  and  Self-interest  of  manufacturers 
hfive  enabled  them  to  discover. 

^     '  India  Rtjbbeb  Processes:  WATERPEOOFraG. 

Besides  the  cutting  up  of  solid  india  rubber  into  the  varied  forms  of  shoes 
andot^rS^Scles;  Lides  the  spinning,  and  braiding,  and  weaving  Area^ 
Z  tiiese  substances  into  coids  and  elastic  webs;  there  ''^ T^^^^^aZ^Z 
consumption  of  tiiis  material  in  imparting  waterproof  and  airproof  qualities, 
to  woven  fabrics,  which  would  otherwise  be  wantmg  in  such  ^rtues 

The  world-renowned  "Macintosh"  capes  and  cloaks,  and  ottier  ram 
resSc  R^miVnts,  do  mdeed  deserve  most  if  not  all  the  encomiums  passed 
^f?hem  It  £  true  timt  they  check  tlie  exit  of  perspiration,  and  have  one 
Tt^  other  inconveniences,  but  they  are  .b.'^-e  companions  neverti^de^ 
Mr.  BaiUie  Fraser,  in  the  nai-mtive  of  his  rapid  and  «o««ewhat  perilous  wmter 
ioumev  from  Constantinople  to  Persia,  a  few  years  ago,  sa^  •—  ""' °f 
iuTftira  alone  would  have  made  a  i>ocr  defence  against  ram  or  fiUlmg  snow,  I 
had  p^ovTS  myself  with  a  good  Macintosh  india  rubber  cloak,  wh^^^^ 
nnw  aid  worthy  service."  Many  a  traveUer  has  been  able  to  make  a  smulai 
Sold^eL  mether  t^e  plain  cotton  ;  Macintosh"  garments  are 
Sued  to  be  superseded  by  the  "Siphonia,"  or  otiier.  novelties  of  later 
intox)duction,  tiie  wearers  must  determine.  „,«♦,«»! 

The  manufactiu^  of  the  Macintosh  clotii  is  a  smgular  one.  The  mater  ai 
is  merely  two  layers  of  cotton  cemented  witii  liquid  mdia  ™bber;  bui^e 
LXn  is  so  weU  effected,  that  the  three  become  to  all  intenta  ?nd  P«i^««f 
S  The  stout  and  well-woven  cotton  cloth  is  coi  ed  «P««  *  ^^^^'jf  ,^^i 
like  the  yam  beam  of  a  loom;  and  from  tiiis  ^\^«/t™J*J,^Xer  "  ste^te 
State  and  a  nearly  horizontal  position.  A  layer  of  liquid  or  ratiier  pasta-niie 
sSuti^  is  ap^e^d  with  a  spaSila,  to  a  cunsidemble  tWckness^and  the  c^otii 
is  drawn  under  a  knife  edge,  which  scrapes  the  solution  and  dittuses  it 
eqX^ver  evJry  part  of  the%lotii,  which  maybe  ^^^^^  ^^J^JJ^  y^^S 
T\e  cloth  U  then  extended  out  on  a  horiiwntal  framework  to  dry ;  and  when 


It 


-^ 


I 


le  Great  Exhibition 

iportant  applications 
m  of  thread,  or  that 
)  it  distinct  from  the 
may  be  dissolved  in 
^dily  seen  that  a  new 
ler  advantage  springs 
ifice  as  well  aa  large 
rted,  the  waste  from 
Vom  other  manufoc- 
ich  the  liquid  solvent 
•eby  generated  in  the 
ower,  until  at  length 
onducted  on  a  some- 
to  contain  more  than 
lonstant  agitation  for 
isistency  which  fits  it 
r  as  ft  cement,  or  for 
est  of  manufacturers 


FING. 

varied  forms  of  shoes 
and  weaving  threads 
is  now  an  enormous 
and  ail-proof  qualities 
luch  virtues, 
aks,  and    oilier  rain- 
he  encomiums  passed 
nration,  and  have  one 
ipanions  nevertheless, 
lewhat  perilous  winter 
ago,   says : — "  But  as 
rain  or  felling  snow,  I 
rubber  cloak,  which 
ible  to  make  a  similar 
intoah"   gannents   are 
llier  novelties  of  later 

ar  one.  The  material 
mdia  rubber;  but  the 
II  intents  and  purposes 
ipon  a  hoi*izontal  beam, 
retched  out  in  a  tight 
lid  or  rather  paste-like 
jickness,  and  the  cloth 
)lution  and  difiijse.'J  it 
rty  or  forty  yards  long, 
vork  to  dry ;  and  when 


IKPU   BUBBER  AND   OUTTA   PERCHA.  7 

dried,  a  second  coating  is  applied  m  e  similar  way;  and  a  tlmd  and  fourth  may 
bo  similarly  applied  if  necessaiy.  Two  pieces,  thus  coated,  ai'e  next  placed 
face  to  face,  with  great  care,  to  prevent  creasing  or  distortion;  and,  being 
passed  between  two  smooth  wooden  rollers,  tliey  aio  so  thoroughly  pressed  as 
to  be  made  to  unite  dumbly  and  permanently.  Cloth,  thus  cemented  and 
doubled  and  dried,  may  be  cut  and  made  into  garments  which  will  bear 
many  a  rough  trial  and  many  a  deluging  before  rain  or  water  can  penetrate. 

India  i-ubber  occupies  a  very  notable  position  m  connection  witli  ihe 
numerous  "life-preserving"  projects.  Its  power  of  resisting  the  action  of 
water  lies  at  the  root  of  this  application:  we  have  garments,  and  floats, 
and  buoys,  and  boats,  presented  to  our  notice  in  great  numbers.  One 
inventor  has  claimed  public  attention  to  a  safety-boat,  fonned  of  a  kind  of 
canvas  bag  satmated  with  liquid  india  rubber.  Another  has  displayed  his 
ingenuity  in  a  boat,  of  which  the  trame-work  is  cork,  and  tlie  covering  india- 
rubber  canvas.  A  boat  was  constructed  in  France,  a  few  yeais  ago,  m  which 
niiuiy  curious  arrangements  were  involved ;  it  was  formed  of  skeleton  frame- 
work, capable  of  being  hinged  or  unliinged  at  pleasm'e,  and  over  each  frame 
a  covering  of  saturated  canvas  was  spread.  "As  an  example  of  strength, 
hghtness,  and  portability,"  we  ai-e  told,  "  a  large  boat  in  this  form  was  ti-ied 
m  France,  in  1841.  It  was  more  than  a  himdi-ed  feet  long;  and  although 
fonned  with  canvas  sides,  it  was  loaded  with  nearly  one  hundred  tons  ot 
wood  and  wuie,  which  it  safely  conveyed  from  Auxerre  to  Paiis,  down  a 
shallow  and  much  interrupted  sti-eam.  It  was  then  taken  to  pieces  in  three  or 
four  minutes,  and  all  the  materials  packed  in  two  caits,  which  took  it  to 
Auxerre  for  anotlier  cargo." 

'■  The  buoys  and  gannents  of  india  nibber  are,  perhaps,  still  more  varied 
than  the  safety-boats.  Whether  the  "safety-hat"  still  siu-vives  to  render 
service  to  those  who  may  be  lucky  enough  to  be  covered  with  it,  we  do  not 
know ;  but  according  to  the  theory  of  its  inventor  it  was  intended  to  act  as 
follows: — the  hat  and  its  lining  were  both  to  be  rendered  impervious  to 
water  by  a  solution  of  india  i-ubber ;  and  air  being  blown  in  between  the  two, 
it  was  considered  that  such  a  hat,  if  allowed  to  swim  on  the  water,  would 
bear  the  weight  of  a  man  clinging  to  it.  In  a  "  life-cloak,"  or  "  Ufe-cape," 
introduced  by  Messrs.  Macintosh,  the  cape  is  made  of  a  double  thickness  of 
india-rubber  cloth,  with  a  provision  for  forcing  air  into  the  interatice  between 
the  layers,  and  Urns  rendering  it  buoyant.  Among  other  novelties,  "  yachting 
jackets"  ai-e  displayed,  which,  while  they  present  the  requisite  external 
neatness  of  appeaiunce  for  amateur  seamen,  are  yet  said  to  possess  l)uoyaiicy 
enough  to  float  the  wearer — a  property  due,  no  doubt,  to  a  little  application 
of  the  magic  india  rubber.  Nay,  ladies'  "paletots"  are  exhibited  with  tlio 
some  ascribed  qualities.  Beds,  mattrasses,  hammocks,  pillows — all  made 
of  india-rubber  cloth — ^have  been  proposed  and  introduced  as  hfe-buoys ;  and 
belts  said  gloves  may  be  added  to  the  list 

But  it  is  striking  to  observe  how  little  these  matters  are  attended  to  in 
practice.  Our  inventors  patent,  our  exhibitors  display,  and  our  joumaUsts 
describe,  numberless  ingenious  contrivances  having  the  life-buoyant  or  rather 
body-buoyant  property  in  view;  but  how  few  persons  adopt  them !  Sea-going 
people  can  swim  as  little  now  as  they  could  half  a  century  ago  (and  this 
little  is  much  less  than  landsmen  usually  suppose) ;  but  yet  we  very  seldom 
hear  of  life  being  saved  by  tlie  hats,  capes,  cloaks,  belts,  mattrasses,  &c., 
which   the  india-rubber  inventors  have  provided — ^not   because    the    india 


5 


I 


■  mm" 


8 


INDIA  RUBBER  AND   OUTTA   PKHCHA. 


nibber  fails  in  its  duty,  but  because  foresight  is  seldom  showi  by  those  for 
whom  the  inventions  were  intended.  ,      -,    ^  t  i 

It  was  a  happy  thought  of  the  benevolent  physician  who  first  suggested 
Uic  .mtevhed.     Dr.  Ai-nott  ha.,  brought  foi-ward  many  useful  mventions  ap- 
plicable for  the  most  part  towards  the  preservation  of  health,  or  the  alleviation 
of  sutferint?;  he  patents  none,  but  leaves  society  to  reap  whatever  advantages 
may  accrue  therefrom ;  and  he  has  had  twenty  years  of  that  pleasure  whici 
results  from  doing  good  for  the  sake  of  the  good  done.     Dr.  Amott  has 
pubhshed  an  interesting  account  how,  about  twenty  years  ago,  he  was  led  to 
the  invention  of  the  hydrostatic  or  water-bed  for  invalids.     A  lady,  severely 
prostiated  by  iUness,  and  bed-ridden  for  a  long  period,  suffered  much  trom 
the  pressure  even  of  the  softest  bed  that  could  be  supplied  to  her— a  pressure 
which  can  be  appreciatad  only  by  tliose  who  are  helplessly  confined  to  one 
position  in  bed.     "  Under  these  circumstances,"  says  the  ingenious  physician, 
"  the  idea  of  the  hydrostatic  bed  occun-ed  to  me.     Even  the  pressm-e  ol  an 
air  pillow  had  killed  her  flesh,  and  it  was  evident  that  persons  in  such  a 
condition  could  not  be  saved,  unless  they  could  be  supported  without  sensible 
inequality  of  pressure.      I  then  reflected,  that  the   support  of  water  to  a 
floating  body  is  so  uniformly  diffused,  that  eveiy  thousandth  of  an  mch  of 
tlie  inferior  surface,  has,  as  it  were,  its  own  separate  hqmd  pillar,  and  no 
one  part  bears  the  load  of  its  neighbour;  that  a  person  restuig  m  a  bath  is 
nearly  thus  supported;  that  this  patient  might  be  laid  upon  the  surface  ot  a 
bath,  over  which  a  large  sheet  of  the  watei-proof  india-mbber  cloth  had  been 
previously  thrown,  she  being  rendered  sufiiciently  buoyant  by  a  soft  mattrass 
placed  beneatli  her;  thus  would  she  repose  on  the  face  of  the  water,  hke  a 
swan  on  its  plumage,  witliout  sensible  pressure  anywhere,  ana  almost  as  it 
the  weight  of  her  body  were  annihilated."    A  bed  was  made  on  Hie  pnnciple 
suggested;  ih.   invalid  gained  instant  relief,  and  ultimately  recovered;  and 
"  Amotfs  hydrostatic  bed"  became  known  in  hospitals  and  in  the  chambers 

fif    tVlf*  RICK 

It  is  not  our  province  to  dwell  farther  on  this  matter  here ;  it  only 
concerns  our  present  subject  so  fai-  as  it  illustrates  one  among  the  many 
uses  of  India  rubber;  but  it  is  valuable,  as  showing  what  good  may  be 
chawn  out  of  almost  any  agency,  when  the  heart  as  weU  as  tlie  hea4  is 
engaged  upon  it.  ,  — - 

India  Rubber  at  the  Great  Exhibition. 

'  The  Great  Industrial  Exhibition  has  sho%vn,  as  it  ought  to  have  done,  how 
varied  are  now  the  applications  of  tliis  material.  We  have  tiiere  seen,  in_Mr. 
Hodges'  contributions,  a  peculiar  appUcation  of  mdia  mbber  to  FOjectales 
and  a  somewhat  similai-  apphcation  to  mechanical  purchase  or  tackle,  ihis 
tackle,  highly  elastic  from  the  nature  of  the  substance  employed,  is  substi- 
tuted for,  or  used  hi  combination  with,  the  rigid  kind  ordinarily  employed; 
and  it  is  so  applied,  that  one  man  may  bring  an  extiaordinaiy  amount  ot 
power  to  bear  on  the  body  to  be  hfted  or  moved ;  there  is  a  kmd  of  accumu- 
lation of  power  gomg  on  in  the  process,  and  hence  tlie  apparatus  has 
receded  frSm  its  Lentor  the  name  of  tlie  cumukitor  Anotlier  exhibitor  has 
contributed  india-rubber  saddles  and  collars;  a  Uiird,  an  india-rubber  water- 
proof umbreUa  tent;  a  fourth  has  a  goodly  collection  of  webs,  braces,  garters, 


i 


MfiMHIHMM*'-- 


8ho\vn  by  those  for 

who  first  suggested 
iseful  inventions  ap- 
,1th,  or  the  alleviation 
whatever  advantages 
'  that  pleasure  whicli 
ne.  Ur.  Amott  has 
rs  ago,  he  was  led  to 
Is.     A  lady,  severely 

suffered  much  from 
E5d  to  her — a  pressure 
essly  confined  to  one 
)  ingenious  physician, 
n  the  pressm'e  of  an 
at  persons  in  such  a 
orted  without  sensible 
ipport  of  water  to  a 
sandth  of  an  inch  of 

liquid  pillar,  and  no 
1  resting  in  a  bath  is 
upon  the  suiface  of  a 
libber  cloth  had  been 
rant  by  a  soft  mattrass 
se  of  the  water,  like  a 
lere,  and  almost  as  if 
made  on  the  principle 
nately  recovered;  and 
1  and  in  the  chambers 

matter  here;  it  only 
one  among  the  many 
y  what  good  may  be 
i  well  as  tlie  head  is 


mox. 

ight  to  have  done,  how 
have  tliere  seen,  in  Mr. 
I  mbber  to  projectiles, 
[•chase  or  tackle.  This 
!e  employed,  is  substi- 
1  ordinarily  employed; 
itraordinary  amount  of 
re  is  a  kind  of  acciunu- 
ice  tlie  apparatus  has 
Another  exhibitor  has 
.  an  india-rubber  water- 
af  webs,  braces,  gai-ters, 


ttli 


INDIA  nrnBEn  and  outta  percha.  9 

\vristlots,  glove-tops,  braided  webs,  bead-threading,  and  such  like  small  wares. 
Mr.  Matliews  offers  for  our  inspection  an  india-nibber  portable  boat,  useful 
for  lake  fishing  and  duck  shooting ;  and  a  portable  bath  of  similar  material. 
Ihit  Ills  most  sirgtilar  contribution  is  a  waterproof  cloiik-boat,  "  which,  when 
inflated,  rendcra  it  capable  of  being  used  as  a  boat,  and  enables  travellers  to 
cross  rivers  or  streams  where  no  other  means  ai'e  at  hand :"  the  wearer  talces 
off  his  cloak,  draws  out  a  tiny  pair  of  bellows  from  a  pocket  in  it,  fills  a  vacant 
space  within  the  double  cloth  with  air,  floats  the  cloak  on  the  water,  takes  his 
seat  in  the  centre,  and  forthwith  paddles  along  with  a  small  pair  of  paddles 
taken  fi-om  another  pocket — a  veiy  multiim  in  parvo,  if  it  will  do  all  that  tlie 
inventor  ascribes  to  it.  Messrs.  Bimn  and  Lockington,  who  are  importers  of 
this  material,  have  very  appropriately  afforded  the  means  of  "comparing 
different  specimens  of  this  produce ;  they  show  us  both  the  Brazilian  and  tho 
Asiatic  vai-ieties,  classified  according  to  tJieir  value  and  application ;  and  they 
also  exhibit  samples  illustrative  of  the  various  stages  of  the  manufactured 
articles.  Mr.  Hancock  has  furnished  the  means  of  comparing  the  plain 
india  rubber  with  tlie  "  vidcani^zed  "  material,  on  which  his  ingenuity  has  been 
engaged. 

But  it  is  the  fimi  of  IMessrs.  Macintosh  by  whom  this  hi  anch  of  industiy 
has  been  most  fully  illustrated.  Here  we  find,  in  the  first  place,  specimens 
of  india  mbber  in  the  imported  state,  exhibiting  various  degi-ees  of  quality. 
Next  we  find  it  in  the  partially  manufactm-ed  state,  in  many  stages  of  pro- 
gi'ess,  and  in  botli  the  "vulcanized"'  and  the  non-^'ulcanized  condition. 
Thirdly,  we  have  a  group  illustrative  of  the  water-resisting  quality  of  the 
material :  such  as  inflated  boats,  life-belts,  cushions,  pillows,  beds,  sponging 
baths,  sheets  for  covering  waggons  and  ricks,  watei-proof  garments,  sporting 
and  travelling  appendages  of  various  kinds,  water  and  airproof  fabrics,  invalid 
or  Amott  beds,  and  many  other  articles  of  analogous  character.  Next  we  find 
illustrations  of  the  elastic  qualities  of  tho  material,  in  such  articles  as  the 
various  elastic  webs  and  woven  fabrics  for  di-ess  and  for  furniture,  springs  for 
doors,  bands  and  bandages,  buffer  and  beaiing-springs  for  can-iages,  tires  for 
noiseless  wheels,  sewer  and  sink  valves,  torsion  spring-roller  blinds,  washera 
for  flange  and  socket  joints,  &c.  Another  group  comprises  such  articles  as 
require  both  the  impermeable  and  the  elivstic  qualities  of  tlie  material ;  among 
these  aie  decanter  and  bottle  stoppei*s,  boots  and  shoes,  surgical  and  veteri- 
nary implements,  chemical  appai-atus,  calico-printing  apparatus,  and  ship- 
sheets  for  occasional  use  at  sea.  Added  to  all  the  above  are  otlier  manu- 
factured articles  of  most  miscellaneous  character:  including  sockets  and 
pistons  and  packing  for  machineiy,  elastic  maps,  prints,  and  embossings, 
printed  webbing,  thread  for  ladies,  ornamental  work,  and  numerous  others. 

Nor  have  our  continental  and  transatlantic  friends  failed  to  do  tlieir  best 
in  illustration  of  this  department  of  industiy.  From  Guiana,  one  of  tlie 
homes  of  the  indiorrubber  ti-ee,  we  have  specimens  of  tlie  raw  material.  From 
France  we  have  india-nibber  braces  and  twists,  stockings  and  knee-caps,  belts, 
tissues,  bandages,  and  sm-gical  apparatus.  Holland  bids  us  admire  her  vul- 
canized india-rubber  boots  imd  shoes.  From  Eussia  we  have  india-rubber 
clogs.  Switzerland  has  sent  knit  stockings  for  invalids.  The  States  of  the 
Zollverein  have  their  india-mbber  braces  for  our  notice.  But  it  is  from  across 
the  broad  Atlantic  that  the  largest  and  most  interesting  collection  in  tliis 
branch  of  industry  has  been  sent ;  it  is  indeed  so  mai'ked  as  to  fonn  a  conspi- 
cuous portion  of  the  somewhat  thiti'y-spread  consignment  from  the  United 
States  to  the  Great  Exhibition.     Ovt'^.  would  tliink  that  Brother  Jonathan 

F  fJ 


JO  INDIA  BUBBEB  AND  OUTIA  PEBOHA. 

must  be  ill  constant  peril  of  diowning.  from  the  multiplicity  of  floating  life 
nr^ervers  hercouS-ibu^^       Every  quality  which  iudU.mbber  caxi  l^^Hess 
S IT'o  have  been  brought  into  requj^iUon:  i"Wmeabihty  elj.^^^ 
««««  smoothness— all  are  made  to  bear  a  part.     We  have  the     l^ftpv"!" 
Rubbro™y,-'  and  Uie  "  Goodyear  Rubber  Company."  both  contnbutu>g 
S'Lts'lWloes.  cloaks  and  caieB,  hats  and  -F-  If  f  ^  J-^  f/^J!; 
belts  and  gloves,  and  otlier  water-resisting  gaiwent^.     Ibe  P»f  "«tjon  ot  vciy 
Si^b^eet«  of  mdiari-ubber,  and  the  piinting  of  some  kind  of  device  on  one 
Sace^o    aiTied  on  wiUi  much  effect.     Thei^  are    for  instance    md  a- 
Ser' floorcloths  of  considerable  ske;  and  india-i-ubber  prmts  and  J.s 
Siich  receive  a  printed  impression  with  a  delicacy  ^^^^^'i^  ^-.^^hi 
ier      Sere  is  an  indi^ribber  globe,  made  of  tissue  so  tlmi  Uiat  it  can  bo 
Suiv  inflJfid  by  the  breath  through  a  smaU  stop-cock.      There  are  also 
n&i£  venSrs  tliin  and  flexibH  ready  to  be  applied  to^y  suiUble 
«,irface     In  the  vulcanized  form,  the  American  specimens  embmse  a  range 
wlS%iU  not  yield  in  variety  to  that  of  the  moUier  comitry ;  for  besides  such 
Seles  a^  bahi.  whips,  mafl-bags.  aiming  apparatus,  cushions,   saddles, 
b^s,  g^^bags,  &c.,  we  have  no  less  a  cmiosity  than  a  "vulcanized  nidia- 

'""S-v^'luJband.T  has  recently  availed  itself  of  the  services.of  india  rubber, 
in  a  Sewhat  n^ulai-  way.  m  the  milking  of  cows.  The  toat.  of  ti»«  J^^  >;;« 
e^h  covered  wiUi  a  case  or  sheath  of  india-rubber,  havmg  a  smaU  tube  aiid 
ston-crkaTthe  bottom.  It  would  appear  that  some  kind  of  pressure  is  ex- 
eKy  theXath ;  for  the  milk  is  said  to  flow  without  Jie  usual  action  of 
Sb  hi  The  saving  of  tune  is  the  object  apparently  held  m  new  m  this 
odd  contrivance ;  for  a  saving  there  is  asserted  to  be.  aualiUes 

One  of  the  charactoristics  of  om:  age  is  a  yeammg  ^  »m?tat«  the  qi^itiea 
of  a  substance  by  some  substance  of  cheaper  pnce.  India  ™bbei  has  not 
escaned  this  mode  of  attack.  Certam  experunenters  tell  us,  that  "^  ^eU- 
preXed  boilS  Ihiseed  oU  be  applied,  by  means  of  a  brush,  to  any  smooth 
SaTe  ami  dried  in  the  sun  or  smoke,  and  the  process  repeated  untfl  some 
SSsrbeSnS,  it  wiU  afford  a  substance  of  considerable  fineness  sem^ 
r,n.n«nn.rant  wonderfuUv  elastic,  and  resembhng  mdia  rubber  in  most  ot  it^ 
SbrqiSs"  Hence  is  produced  artifi!ial  caoui.hou.;\>ui  the  lonni- 
dable  period  of  six  months  is  said  to  be  necessary  for  the  production. 


GUTTA  PEBCHA. 

Another  remai-kable  vegetable  product,  another  elasUc  gum,  now  awtuts  our 
notice. 

GuTTA  PeKCHA   in   THE   FoEEST. 

Tt  was  in  the  veai"  184JJ— not  yet  ten  years  ago— that  Dr.  Montgomerie,  an 
AsssCt.SuSeo?toZReside,LyatsLgapore,accidenta^^^  "pon  a 

^lowSe  Wrs  remarkable  gum^.  He  was  one  day  ^^^<^^''^S  ^  P^ra^'9,ov 
S  wfodcutter,  at  his  labo,^ ;  and  was  struck  -  ^.f  Se'LtmeK bo 
ance  of  the  hatchet  or  chopper  employed  by  him.  1  he  bardie  seemed  to  do 
formed  of  some  material  veiy  different  from  tlipse  usually  ^^V^oyed^  \V^^ 
Zmd  the  workman,"  says  Dr.  Montgomerie,  "  in  whose  possession  I  saw  it,  and 


-iirr  art   ii  i  f      -' — "iiil  iln'Ir'Tt  '  ■ 'f "  '  '"'^"  "*'<"'"•*•'■" 


MMaWWHM 


1 1*1  iimWMiUMMIiWMMWtiMtoTl 


"mutm 


plicity  of  floating  life 
in-ubbcr  can  possess 
ility,  elasticity,  tough- 
have  tlie  "  Hay  ward 
ly,"  both  coiiUibutmg 
leggingH  and  gaitera, 
'he  production  of  very 
kind  of  device  on  ono 
3,  for  iuBtonce,  uidia- 
bev  prints  and  raapa 
eai-ly  equal  to  that  of 
80  thhi  tliat  it  can  bo 
cock.      There  are  also 
pplied  to  any  suiUible 
liens  embrace  a  range 
mtry ;  for  besides  such 
us,  cushions,  saddles, 
1  a  "  vulcanized  uidia- 

rvices  of  India  rubber, 
.'he  teata  of  tlie  cow  are 
ing  a  small  tube  and 
kind  of  pressure  is  ex- 
ut  the  usual  action  of 
Uy  held  in  view  in  thia 

to  imitate  the  qualities 
India  mbber  has  not 
1  tell  us,  that  "  if  well- 
i  brush,  to  any  smooth 
iss  repeated  imtil  some 
siderable  fineness,  semi- 
I  rubber  in  most  of  its 
>utchoM;  but  the  formi- 
the  production. 


ic  gum,  now  awaits  our 


JT. 

lat  Dr.  Montgomerie,  on 
identally  lighted  upon  a 
ly  watching  a  parang,  or 
h  the  remarkable  appear- 
L'he  handle  seemed  to  be 
laUy  employed.  "Iques- 
ge  possession  I  saw  it,  and 


ml  I  iiiiiiiwiiiwwi 


^ 


INDIA  nUBBBB  AND   GOTTA   PEBCHA. 


11 


heard  that  the  material  of  which  it  was  made  could  be  moulded  into  any  ibiiu 
by  dipping  it  into  boiling  water  till  it  waa  heated  tlnough,  when  it  became 
plastic  as  clay,  regaining  when  cold  its  original  hardness  and  rigidity. "  An 
intelligent  physician  was  not  likely  to  lose  sight  of  such  a  remarkable  sub- 
stance ;  the  seed  wa.s  pretty  sure  to  take  i-oot  in  the  mind  of  ono  convei-sant 
with  the  materials  of  manufacture  employed  in  Europe,  and  witli  the  advan- 
tages which  would  accrue  from  any  increase  in  the  number  of  such  materials. 
Ho  speedily  a.scertained  that  gutta  percha,  like  caoutchouc,  exudes  fi-om  be- 
tween the  bark  and  the  wood  of  certain  forest-trees.  He  procured  specimenB 
in  various  stages  of  preparation,  and  sent  them  to  tlie  Society  of  Art*  hi 
London.  Seldom  has  the  Society's  gold  medal  been  more  fittingly  awm-ded, 
than  for  the  valuable  knowledge  thus  commmiioated  to  the  manulUcturers  of 
our  country. 

It  is  observable,  however,  that  this  substance  may  be  said  to  have  had  Iwo 
European  discoverers,  mdependent  of  each  otlier ;  for  tlie  tree,  and  tlio  gum 
which  exudes  from  it,  were  discovered  or  obsei-ved  by  Mr.  Thomas  Lobb. 
This  gentleman  visited  the  islands  of  tlie  Indian  seas  in  1842-3  on  a  botanical 
mission,  as  agent  to  Messra.  Veitch,  Uie  scientific  and  energetic  florists  of 
Exeter;  and  it  was  during  his  i-ambles  tliat  he  became  ac(iuainted  with  tlie 
gutta-percha  tree.  It  is  not,  however,  veiy  remarkable  that  such  a  substance 
should  have  two  independent  discoverers — the  histories  of  tlie  planet  Nep- 
tune, of  photography,  and  of  elecUography,  have  taught  us  striking  lessons 
on  this  point. 

The  small  sample  of  specimens  which  Dr.  Montgomerie  sent  to  England 
has  a  kind  of  historical  uiterest  attached  to  it,  in  being  the  humble  beginning 
whence  an  important  branch  of  industry  has  arisen.  Several  ingenious  per- 
sons applied  practical  tests  to  the  newly-imported  substance ;  and  among  tlieni 
Mr.  Whishaw  and  Mr.  Hancock  speedily  showed  how  easily  gutta  percha 
might  be  fashioned  into  useful  foiins.  Mr.  Whishaw  made  a  piece  of  pipe 
and  a  lathe  band,  which  he  exhibited  before  the  Society  of  Arts  ;  ho  also  pro- 
duced improssiontfrom  medals ;  but  the  most  striking  testimony  to  the  singu- 
lar properties  of  this  substance  was  afforded  in  the  following  way :  he  softened 
a  lump  of  gutta  percha  by  hot  water,  pressed  it  out  to  a  thin  sheet,  covered  a 
soda-water  bottle  with  it,  hardened  the  surface  by  dipping  m  cold  water, 
softened  and  removed  the  coating,  and  rolled  up  the  gum  again  into  a  forni 
similar  to  that  which  it  first  presented.  The  piece  of  pipe  and  the  lathe-bimd 
displayed  by  Mr.  Whishaw  at  the  Great  Exhibition  are,  we  believe,  the  same 
which  were  produced  on  the  occasion  above  alluded  to,  and  are  perhaps  Uie 
first  letters  of  tliis  indusU-ial  alphabet  In  the  meantime  Mr.  Hancock,  study- 
ing closely  the  properties  of  the  material,  contrived  those  methods  and  se- 
cm-ed  those  patents  which  have  been  the  basis  of  much  of  the  subsequent 
operations. 

In  proportion  as  the  value  of  this  substance  has  become  known,  so  has  a 
desire  extended  to  ascertain  the  range  of  its  growth  in  tlie  East.     '*  "■ 


It  is  now 


known  that  the  gutta-percha  ti«e  abounds  in  that  extreme  south-eastern  pohit 
of  Asia  which  obtains  the  name  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  ;  in  the  neighbouring 
island  of  Singapore  ;  in  the  important  Bomean  island  which  Rj\jah  Brooke  has 
been  the  means  of  making  so  familiarly  known  to  us ;  and  ui  vaiious  islands 
which  constitute  tlie  Eastern  Archipelago.  There  seems  very  little  cause  to 
apprehend  any  failure  in  quantity ;  for  even  if  the  present  supply  from  tlie 
neighbourhood  of  Singapore  should  be  exliausted,  the  capabihties  of  more 
distant  islands  arc  quite  beyond  present  calculation. 


^ 


1 


]2  INDIA   IIUBBEB   AND   OUTTA   rERCHA. 

An  interesting  sketch  was  given  in  the  Daily  Nms,  a  few  months  ago,  of  the 
Bpiead  of  the  gutta-percha  trade,  when  once  it  became  known  tliat  a  market 
hal  sprung  up  for  that  material.      Tlie  jungles  of  Uie  J ohoro  Archipelago 
some  Hisunce  from  Singapore,  were  the  scene  of  tl.e  earhes  «'^th;;;P^gJ.;^^^;l 
tlicv  were  soon  ransacke-l  in  every  direction  by  parties  ot  Malays  and  l^hineso 
while  the  indigenous  population  also  gave  themselves  up  to  the  search  witl 
zel^  and  avidity.     The  Tammigong.  or  chief,  declared  the  precious  gum  to  bo 
a  go^mment'monopoly-a  st'rokS  of  policy  at  which  we  -^fj^^^^^^l 
greatly ;  he  appropriated  the  greater  part  of  the  prohts    and  still  lett  Uio 
S'llij^'enougli'to  Stimulate  the'm  to  purstie  the  quest;  and  these  M^^ieT 
their  tui-n,  obtained  an  enonnous  profit  from  die  laboui-s  of  the  A.bon|jino3^ 
In  short,   he  gutta-percha  fever  in  tlie  east  paralleled  tlie  railway  fever  m  tlie 
west  bui  camf  a  little  after  it  in  point  .>f  time.     13es  des  al    he  other  sources 
of  profit,  the  Tamungong  employed  whole  tribes  ot  heredifciry  seifs  ui  the 
seaJch  for  giitta  percha.  "^  The  gum  hunters  went  from  isUmd  to  island  in 
que' t  of  the  precious  commodity  ;  but  here  they  met  with  new  dmrnants;  ti)e 
petty  sultans  each  imitated  tlie  tammigong,  and  declared  gutta  P^^^f  "^/f  J'^  ^ 
regd  monopoly.     The  commercial  value  of  Uie  gum  being  <i'^^«""'"«i.^L  ^' 
be^t  of  all  tests  at  Singapore,  the  desire  to  gather  it  spread  I'^e  wMfi^e. 
northward  to  Pinang,  southward  to  Java  and  Sumatra,  eastward  to  Bomeo— 
ZsZfever  marched.     The  gutta-percha  ti-ee  was  found  m  many  parte  of 
Borneo  :  such  as  at  Prune,  Sarawak,  and  Pontianak  on  the  west  coast  an     at 
Keli  and  Passir  on  tlie  east  coast.     At  the  present  time  there    s  very  httle 
doubt  that  the  forests  of  tiie  Indian  Ai-chipelago  ai^  bemg  P«°f  ;.^J«'i J»  ^^^^J. 
direction,  in  seai-ch  of  these  valuable  trees:  it  will  be  one  of  the  means  ot 
clearing  the  land  for  future  dwellei-s  in  those  regions.  x       ^„  ^„ 

It  appears  that  p^rha  (of  which  tlie  pronunciation  is  pertsha,  not  pe,ka  oi 
persjJ  s  Uie  Malayan  name  for  tlie  tree  which  produces  the  gum  ;  ^vhlle  //««« 
i  a  general  name  for  any  gum  which  exudes  from  a  tree.  The  ti-ee  belongs, 
of  course,  to  tlie  group  in  which  botanists  place  sapoUweous  or  gum-exudmg 
genera  The  wood  ot"  the  tree,  being  soft  and  spongy,  is  not  applied  to  many 
EuTpurposes.  The  fruit  yields  a  thick  oil.  which  is  used  by  tiie  natives 
with  their  food ;  and  either  from  this  or  from  some  other  pai-ts  of  the  tree  an 
Lent  spirit  is  capable  of  being  distilled.  But  it  is  Uie  sap  which  forn^  the 
most  valuable  product  of  the  ti^e.  It  circulates  m  sniaU  vessels  which  mi 
up  between  the  bark  and  the  wood.  . 

Thrifty  methods  are  teachable  to  rude  islanders  as  to  moi-e  civdised  men, 
when  the  advantages  have  been  once  made  apparent.  The  natives  around 
Singapore,  whenlhey  first  found  a  mai-ket  for  the  solidmed  gum,  proceeded 
ruthlessly  to  work ;  they  killed  the  bird  which  laid  the  golden  eggs  by  cu  tmg 
down  the  trees  in  order  to  obtain  the  gum.  But  they  have  ""^been  taught 
better ;  it  is  shown  to  them  how,  by  tapping  or  cuttmg  notches  m  Uie  bi-anches 
at  cerUin  intervals  of  time,  the  sap  may  be  made  to  A^^,  witiiout  endan^ 
eering  die  life  of  tlie  tree.  Experiments  are  now  bemg  made  to  determme 
whetlier  the  gutta-percha  tree  can  be  planted  so  as  to  maintain  a  continuous 
and  inexhaustible 'store  of  gum  or  sap:  should  tiiese  attempts  succeed  *h« 
supply  would  equal  any  imagmable  demand  ;  and  the  application  of  this  sin- 
gular substance  might  acquire  a  ronge  of  which  we  little  dream  at  present^ 

If  we  foUow  the  histoiy  of  the  gum  to  the  point  where  commerce  takes  it 
up  we  are  made  painfuUy  conscious  that  rascality  finds  a  hold  as  in  too  many 
oJher  directions.  Chicory-coifee  and  sloe-tea,  cabbage-tobacco  and  sa^^sy  • 
have  tiieir  parallels  in  many  of  the  lumps  ot  gvjtta  perclia  brought  to  the  dealera 


INDU   RimBER  AND   GUTTA  TKHCHA. 


18 


■  months  ago,  of  tlio 
iiown  tliut  a  market 
[ohoro  Arcliipolago, 
est  gatherings ;  and 
Inlays  und  Chinese ; 
to  the  search  witli 
procions  gum  to  be 
e  need  not  marvel 
I,  and  still  loft  tlie 
d  these  Malays,  ui 
8  of  the  Aborigines, 
railway  fever  in  tlie 
ill  the  otlior  sources 
oditiiry  serfs  in  the 
islimd  to  island  in 
new  chviniante ;  tbe 
gutta  perchtt  to  be  a 
g  detenniucd  bv  the 
pread  like  wildfire: 
istward  to  Borneo — 
tid  in  many  parts  of 
le  west  coast,  and  at 
e  tlioro  is  vei-y  httle 
;  penetrated  in  eveiy 
le  of  the  means  of 

pertaka,  not  perka  or 
he  gum  ;  while  tftUta 
The  tree  belongs, 
ous  or  gum-exuding 
not  applied  to  many 
used  by  tlie  natives 
pai-ts  of  the  tree  an 
sap  which  forms  the 
11  vessels  which  i-mi 

more  civilised  men, 
The  natives  around 
ified  gum,  proceeded 
Iden  eggs,  by  cutting 
ave  now  been  taught 
iches  in  the  bi-anches 
flow,  without  endan- 
f  made  to  detei-mine 
aintain  a  continuous 
ttempts  succeed,  the 
pplication  of  this  sin- 
dream  at  present. 
:re  commerce  takes  it 
;  hold  as  in  too  many 
jacco  and  sand-sugar, 
brought  to  the  dealers 


at  Singapore.  Supposing  the  tree  to  be  tapped  instead  of  felled,  the  sap  flows 
out  gently  into  any  vessels  which  the  natives  may  choose  to  employ  for  this 
pur|)ose.  Before  tlie  sap  has  quite  consolidated,  it  is  laieaded  into  lumps  by 
the  hand  or  by  a  piece  of  wood,  and  these  lumps  may  bo  of  any  size  or  shape 
that  suit  tlie  fancy  of  tlio  forest-artist.  If  zoologically  inclined,  ho  selects  tlio 
form  of  a  bird  or  a  qumlruped,  or  he  may  even  patroni/o  tho  "  humiui  face 
divine ; "  if  music  chiu-ms  him,  he  imitates  the  forms  of  such  instruments  as 
may  be  familiar  to  him ;  but,  generally  speaking,  the  gutta  percha  presents 
the  form  of  roimdish  lumps,  eight  or  twelve  or  sixteen  inches  over.  This  is 
lUl  very  well,  so  far  as  shape  is  concerned.  But  what  if  tlie  sample  be  not  as 
it  seem ;  what  if  it  be  fan-  without  and  false  within?  Alas !  Uie  purse  of  the 
buyer,  and  tho  edges  of  his  cutting  instruments,  have  often  a  soiry  tale  to  tell. 
The  gutta  percha  is  sold  at  Singapore  by  weight,  according  to  the  apparent 
(luality  of  eueh  lump ;  but,  when  the  consigimient  reaches  England,  it  is  not 
unfrequently  found  that  a  large  stone  or  a  piece  of  heavy  wood  is  imbedded  m 
the  heart  of  it,  to  increase  the  weight.  It  would  entail  a  serious  loss  of  Ume 
to  cut  open  each  lump  at  tlie  time  of  purchase ;  so  that  at  present  Oriental 
honesty  is  ratlier  an  important  element  in  the  commercial  value  of  this  oiticle. 
There  is,  too,  a  great  amount  of  difference  in  die  qmmtity  of  baik,  leaves,  and 
dirt,  which  become  accidenUdly  mixed  up  with  the  gum. 

The  crude  gum  is  imported  to  the  extent  of  about  two  millions  of  pounds 
annually,  in  the  vai-iously-shaped  pieces  above  spoken  of;  and  we  may  next 
see  what  modem  uigenuity  has  effected  in  devising  modes  of  rendenng  Uiese 
I)ieces  eitlier  useful  or  ornamental,  or  both. 

Gutta  Percha  in  the  Factory. 

The  extensive  and  higUy-interesthig  establishment  of  the  Gutta-Porcha 
Company,  situated  near  the  City  Road  Basin  of  tlie  Regents  Canal,  is  worthy 
of  attention  even  beyond  the  general  average  of  such  centres  of  mdustiy,  tor 
tlie  peculiai-  chai-acter  of  the  substance  operated  upon  necessitates  tlie  employ- 
ment of  new  processes,  new  machines,  and  new  tools.  An  incessant  course  of 
invention  has  mai-ked  tlie  manufacturuig  history  of  this  material  during  tlie 
brief  period  of  its  existence.  If  Uie  gutta-percha  is  to  be  applied  to  some  new 
useful  purpose,  tools  and  processes  of  novel  character  have  to  be  employed ; 
if  an  ornamental  application  is  detemiined  on,  methods  ai-e  adopted  for  de- 
veloping any  natural  beauty  which  the  gi-ain  of  the  substance  may  present ; 
if  an  attempt  be  made  to  supei-sede  leatlier,  or  wood,  or  papier  mache,  or  metal, 
by  diis  singular  gum,  great  pams  are  bestowed  on  a  study  of  the  special 
qualities  to  be  imitated,  and  the  process  of  imitation  often  requires  operations 
and  tools  ditferuig  considerably  from  those  before  employed. 

A  pervading  odour  is  sensible  throughout  the  buildings  in  which  the  gutta 
percha  is  stored  and  manufj\ctured.  K  it  were  necessary  to  chai-acterise  tins 
odour,  we  might,  perhaps,  liken  it  to  a  hybrid  between  tan-bai-k  and  old  cheese 
—an  odour  to  which  one  is  not,  at  first,  easUy  reconciled.  But  this  becomes 
dissipated  after  a  time. 

When  we  du-ect  our  attention  from  scent  to  sight,  and  look  around  the 
establishment,  we  see  the  very  histoiy  of  the  manufacture  pictured  m  tlie 
buildings  themselves.  Every  separate  block  of  builduig  speakij  of  a  particulai- 
application  of  tlie  gutta-percha,  or  some  particular  mode  of  prepaiing  it  for  use. 
If  -we  see  a  building  somewhat  more  fresh  and  modem  than  its  neighbom-s, 


IKMliB 


wafttwWiMiWKw&iftiBaBaiBi^^ 


StfsfSb^ts^iSsies^ 


mmmmmmmmim 


•mmtm 


mmm 


14 


INDIA  BUBBEH  AND   OUTTA   rBBOHA. 


WO  may  infer  tliat  some  new  or  oomparativoly  new  procesj  is  thore  carried  on ; 
and  tlu)  are*  is  thim  bocominK  dottad  iibout  with  workshops  and  wareroomH, 
which  will  not  much  longer  yield  each  other  sutticient  oUm)w  spiico.  It  is 
only  whiin  we  beiir  in  njuul  Uie  very  ntcont  uitroduclion  of  tliin  r«!iniukiibli> 
Bubstance.  that  the  extent  to  which  the  manufacturing  arrangenionta  have 
grown  can  be  duly  ajipreciated.  ISU)re-rooms  for  tljo  nowlv-impoited  gum; 
sU-am-enginoM  luid  boilijra  for  Huppiying  tho  agency  wherelty  the  manufacturing 
processes  lu-o  conducted ;  lai-ge  buildings  Hiled  with  the  nmchinos  and  tools 
for  working ;  woiitshops  m  which  the  finishing  (irooesses  are  (ioniluctod ;  a 
oanal  quay  for  unshippuig  the  raw  material,  and  shinping  the  linishetl  goods  ; 

iill  Hpeak  of  a  busy  series  of  operations.     It  is  tJso  proper  to  remoi-k,  that 

another  extensive  establishment  of  a  similar  character  is  caiTied  on  at  West 
Ham,  and  tliat  minor  monntactories  are  now  scattered  over  London  and  other 
towns.' 

The  Great  Exhibition  has  in  thii,  m  in  other  matters,  conveyed  to  mUlions 
of  persons  a  kind  and  degree  of  infonuation  which  would  not  otherwise  be 
forthcoming.  We  have  tliere  hiul  an  opportunity  of  seeing  gutta-percha,  not 
merely  in  Wa  elegant  finished  forms,  but  in  all  the  successive  stages  of  its 
manufacture.  We  have  seen  tlie  rough  block  or  mass,  the  chips  into  wliich 
tliirt  is  cut,  the  shreds  into  which  the  chips  are  torn,  tlie  homogeneous  moss 
into  which  the  shrods  are  kneaded,  the  sheets  into  which  the  maw*  is  n)ll«d, 
and  the  finished  articles  Into  which  the  sheets  are  fashioned ;  tmd  thu«  the 
industrial  history  of  an  important  substance  is  spread  out  intelligibly  be- 
fore us.  1  1  •  1 
The  Oriental  knavery  which  leads  to  tlie  mixing  of  stones  and  wood  witli 
the  masses  of  gutta-percha  we  lately  adverted  to  ;  and  a  gliuice  at  the  works  of 
the  Company  shows  us  tho  result.  In  the  store-room  the  blocks  and  lumps, 
of  slightly-varymg  coloiu'  and  texture,  generally  present  a  fair  outside,  and  it  is 
not  till  the  first  process  has  been  gone  through  tlmt  the  fmud  can  be  detected. 
This  process  consists  in  cutting  the  block  into  slices.  There  is  a  vertical 
wheel,  on  tlie  face  of  which  ai-e  fixed  three  knives  or  blades ;  and  while  this 
wheel  is  rotating  with  a  speed  of  two  hundred  turns  a  mmute,  a  block  of 
gutta-percha  is  supplied  to  it,  and  speedily  cut  into  thin  slices — much  on  the 
same  principle  as  a  turnip-cutter  performs  its  work.  Woe  to  tlie  steel  edges 
if  a  stone  be  imbedded  in  the  block !  all  alike,  the  soft  and  the  hard,  ore  cut 
through,  but  not  with  impimity. 

These  slices  show  that  the  gutta-percha  is  by  no  means  uniform  in  different 
parts,  either  in  colour  or  texture.  To  bring  about  a  miiformity  is  tlie  object 
of  the  shredding  or  tearing  process.  The  slices  aie  thrown  into  a  tank  of 
water,  which  is  heated  by  steam  to  such  a  temperature  as  to  soften  the  mass ; 
the  dirt  and  heavy  impurities  fall  to  the  bottom,  leavmg  a  pasty  mass  of  gum ; 
and  the  mass  being  thrown  into  another  rotating  machine,  is  there  so  torn 
and  rent  and  dragged  asunder  by  jagged  teeth  as  to  be  reduced  to  fragments. 
The  fragments  fall  mto  water,  upon  the  surface  of  which  (owing  to  the  small 
specific  gravity  of  the  material)  tliey  float,  while  any  remaining  dirt  or  impurity 
falls  to  the  bottom.  Those  fragments  are  next  converted  into  a  dough-like 
substance  by  another  softening  witli  hot  water,  and  the  dough  undergoes  a 
thorough  kneading ;  it  is  placed  in  heated  iron  cylinders,  in  which  revolving 
drums  so  completely  turn  and  squeeze  and  niLx  it  that  all  pai^s  become  alike, 
and  every  particle  presents  a  family  hkeness  to  its  neighbour. 

The  kneaded  state  may  be  considered  the  dividing  lino  between  the  pre- 
paratory processes  and  those  which  relate  to  the  fashioning  of  the  material. 


INDIA   ROnnEB   AND   OOTTA   PEBCHA. 


15 


I  u  tliore  carried  on ; 
lODH  Hiul  wareroomH, 

elbow  mmco.  It  in 
\  of  Uiis  rcinorkabli^ 

arratiKeniontH  have 
owiv-impoited  |<um ; 
iiy  tha  mtinut'octurini^ 

tniichiiioH  liiul  tuolK 
ea  art)  coiuluctcd ;  a 

the  tuuHhe<l  soodH ; 
oper  to  remark,  tJiat 
1  carried  on  at  Wost 
er  London  and  other 

conveyed  to  millions 
lid  not  otherwise  be 
ing  gutta-percha,  not 
cceHsive  Btages  of  its 
tlie  chipH  into  wliich 
H  homogeneous  mass 
h  the  inuBfl  in  roUnd, 
ioned ;  tmd  thus  tho 

I  out  intelligibly  be- 

tonos  and  wood  witli 
jliuicc  at  the  works  of 
16  blocks  and  lumps, 
fair  outside,  and  it  is 
itiud  can  be  detected. 
There  is  a  vertical 
lades ;  and  while  this 
et  minute,  a  block  of 
slices — much  on  the 
oe  to  the  steel  edges 
and  the  hard,  are  cut 

8  uniform  in  different 
ifoitnity  is  tlie  object 
hrowu  into  a  tank  of 
8  to  soften  the  moss ; 
a  pasty  mass  of  gum ; 
hino,  is  there  so  torn 
educed  to  fragments. 
h.  (owing  to  the  small 
ining  dirt  or  impiuity 
ted  into  a  dough-like 
e  dough  undergoes  a 
m,  in  which  revolving 

II  poits  become  alike, 
hour. 

line  between  the  pre- 
>mng  of  the  material. 


Tho  soft  ductile  moss  mav  be  formed  either  into  shoeta  or  tubes.  In  fonning 
sheetM  the  nia«»  in  paisetl  between  steel  niUors,  ])laond  at  a  dintance  apart  cor- 
responduig  with  tho  thicknoHS  of  tlie  sheet  to  bo  miule — whether  for  tho  h«»«lH 
of  a  rough-booted  pedesuion,  or  for  the  delicato  "  gutUi-perchn  tissuo,"  now 
BO  much  employed  by  surgeons.  By  tlie  time  tliat  tlio  substance  has  passed 
through  the  rollers  it  has  cooled  stiifaciently  to  assume  a  solid  firm  consistency. 
By  the  adjuHtment  of  a  few  knife  edges  tho  sheet  may  be  cut  into  bands,  or 
strips  of  any  width,  before  leaving  the  machine.  In  making  tubes  and  pipes 
tlie  soft  mass  of  knoailod  guttorpercha  is  passod  through  hoatiid  iron  cylinders, 
where  a  singulur  niodihcation  of  the  wire-drawing  process  reduces  u  to  the 
desired  form  and  dunensions. 

From  the  sheets  and  tubes  thus  made,  numberless  articles  are  produced 
by  cutting  and  pressing.  Machines,  somewhat  like  those  uHe<l  in  cutting 
paper,  are  employed  to  cut  tho  gutta  porcha  into  pieces.  If  for  shoe-soles,  a 
cutting  press  produces  a  dozen  or  so  at  one  movement ;  if  for  string,  or 
thread,  nanow  parallel  stiips  are  cut,  'vhich  are  then  rounded  or  finished 
by  hand ;  if  for  producing  stamped  decorative  articles,  the  sheets  are  cut  into 
pieces,  and  eaoh  piece  is  waraied  and  softened  to  enable  it  to  take  thQ 
hnpress  of  a  mould,  or  die.  But  the  mode  of  casing  copper  wire  for  electro- 
telegraphic  puriioscs  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  singular  opplications  of  tho 
mateiial  in  the  form  of  sheet.  Several  wires  are  laid  parallel,  a  strip  of 
gutta  percha  is  placed  beneath  them,  another  strip  is  placed  above  them, 
and  tlie  whole  uro  passed  between  two  polished  grooved  rollers ;  tlie  pressure 
binds  tho  gutta  percha  finnly  to  the  wires,  while  the  edges  between  tho 
grooves  indent  tlie  gutta  percha  so  deeply,  that  it  may  easily  bo  separated 
hito  wires,  each  one  containing  its  own  core  of  copper. 

Gutta  Peboha:  its  Uses  fob  Pipes  and  Tubes. 

The  applications  of  gutta  percha  in  the  form  of  pipe,  or  tube,  are  becommg 
most  numerous  and  varied,  and  some  of  them  highly  interesting.  Let  us 
toko  a  hasty  glance  at  tho  list. 

Water-pipet  have  hod  a  few  vicissitudes  in  their  history.  Those  who 
remember  the  arrangements  for  the  water-supply  of  London,  in  past  days, 
will  have  been  familiar  vrith  the  woo  ien  pipes,  formed  of  bored  !  ninks  of 
trees,  which  were  wont  to  be  laid  down  beneatli  the  paving  of  the  su  ets. 
These  gave  way  to  iron.  Tho  smaller  pipes  have  chiefly  been  made  of  leuil ; 
but  zinc  in  one  quarter,  brown  ware  in  another,  glass  in  another,  have  invaded 
the  domain  of  lead.  A  new  competitor  now  enters  the  field.  Gutta  percha 
claims  to  be  not  merely  an  eiBcient  material  for  water  pipes,  but  to  possess 
certain  sanitaiy  quaUties  very  important  in  this  sanitary  age  of  om-s.  It  is 
veiy  strong  and  tough  (say  the  patentees);  it  possesses  much  durability 
imdergromid;  it  stoutly  resists  frost;  and  it  leaves  the  water  as  pm-e  as  it 
finds  it.  Hence  it  is  applied  to  pump  barrels,  to  ships'  pumps,  to  locomotive 
feed-pipes,  to  syphons  and  mine-pipes,  and  to  fire-engine  pipes.  But  if  the 
testimony  of  medical  men  is  to  be  deemed  autlioritative,  the  substitution 
of  guttft  percha  for  lead  as  a  material  for  water  pipes  is  a  matter  of  yet  higher 
import.  Dr.  Thomas  Smith,  of  Cheltenhom,  states  that  "  Many  serious  and 
alarming  disorders,  such  as  mania,  epilepsy,  sudden  death,  nervous  affection, 
pai-alysis,  consumption,  hydrocephalus,  heart  disease,  &c.,  owe  their  origin 
in  some  instances,  their  mtractable  character  in  others,  to  the  gradual  and 


•yg0mimmtmmmmmmmimm 


waauaoaiffi^fai^^^^^ 


^•■a 


mtm 


mmmmm 


16 


JMDU   RimBER  AMD  OUTTA   rEQCIU. 


continuouB  infinitosiiual  doaefl  of  lead,  copper,  Ac,  introducod  into  tho 
HyMUmi  Uinxigh  tho  clioiinul  of  our  daily  drink."  It  uppi-ai-H  tliat  thn  curlMiMii! 
acid  contttinod  in  waU'r  Iikh  a  tendency  in  conihini)  with  thn  UmmI  of  tlio 
pipe  which  contains  it,  and  to  Keiicmto  a  coiujmjuiuI  posm-Hsin^  jioisouoiis 
quaUtinH.  Tiiat  uutta  pcrcha  resiwln  such  action,  all  aiithoriticH  ati;rco ;  and 
ulUiough  at  firBt  tlie  giuu  imparts  a  slight  Uwtfl  to  tl»e  water,  thin  pilBct  Bcenis 
Hpoedily  to  disappear. 

'I'horo  are  many  oUier  circiuuHtancos  which  render  tnhcm  of  this  material 
very  advantagoouH  for  tlin  convoyancc  of  \vat»>r.  It  hears  an  amoinit  of 
friction  and  liard  usago  which  is  froqnontly  Hnrprisinp;.  At  New  York  there 
is  a  giitta  percha  pipo  a  thotisand  feet  in  length,  which  conveys  the  water 
of  tJi'  groat  Croton  Aqueduct  to  BlackwcU'H  Island;  the  pipe  lies  along  th(i 
botl  .  ■  tli<!  intenening  river,  and  is  kept  down  hy  upwards  of  a  luindro<l 
small  anchors,  and  yot  it  r«'.4stH  both  tho  friction  of  tho  bed  luid  the  weigiit 
of  tho  luichors.  VVitli  an  immense  prnssuro  of  water,  gutta-percha  pi|)e8 
have  boon  found  to  remain  mdiarniod,  where  leather  hose  would  lie  disnipted. 
It  resists  the  action  of  inarino  insects,  which  would  soon  make  ravages  on 
Htout  timber.  If  water  be  contained  in  a  ^itta-percha  pipe,  it  romaiiif 
li(piid  at  a  temperature  which  wouhl  produce  ico  in  almost  any  other  ptr  < 
For  watering  gaidens  and  roails,  for  sprinkling  malt  in  a  kiln,  for  applying 
water  from  a  lire-engiue,  those  pipes  appear  to  be  singularly  well  tittod,  sinco 
to  a  groat  power  of  resisting  pressure,  they  mav  be  bent,  or  twisted,  or 
lengtlienod,  or  sliortened,  in  any  required  degree.  Nor  is  this  material,  prr  ar, 
Uie  only  ellicient  pait  of  such  pipes ;  for  a  gutta-percha  pipe  may  be  timdy 
uniUnl  to  a  metal  pijie  in  five  minutes,  widi  no  otlier  cement  than  wann  water ; 
the  end  of  the  pipe  being  softened  in  wann  water,  and  drawn  over  tlie  end  of 
tho  metal,  the  gum  contracts  on  cooling  so  us  to  grasp  the  metal  tightly,  and 
thus  foim  an  impenetrable  joint. 

But  if  water  be  conveyed  thus  effectively  through  ttibos  of  gutta  percha, 
tlio  qualities  of  tlie  matt^rial  are  still  more  remarkably  displayed  in  the 
conveyimce  of  chemical  liquid*.  Few  persons  are  so  ignorant  of  chemistry 
as  not  to  bo  aware  tliat  the  stronger  acids  and  alkalies  play  sad  havoc  with 
the  vessels  and  tubes  which  conbiin  them.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  an 
obstinacy  of  constitution  abotit  this  singtdar  substance  which  enables  it  to 
baffle  a  whole  liost  of  formidable  opponents.  It  does  yield,  certaiidy,  to  con- 
centrated sulphuric  and  nitric  acids ;  but  if  those  acids  in  a  weaker  state  bo 
the  liquids  in  question,  or  if  muriatic,  acetic,  or  hydrofluoric!  acids,  or  chlorine 
(all  of  which  have  a  very  destructive  action),  then  tlie  gutta  percha  stoutly 
resists  tliem,  and  i-enders  good  service.  Carboys,  pipes,  dye-vats,  flasks,  fun- 
nels, bowls,  ladles,  syphons,  troughs,  measures,  buckets — all  are  now  made  of 
this  material,  for  use  in  chemical  works,  print  works,  dye  and  bleach  works, 
and  other  establishments  where  strong  chemical  liquids  are  employed. 

To  go  from  the  region  of  waters  to  the  re^on  of  air^^,  we  find  that  gutta 
percha  pipes  are  coming  into  use  for  the  conveyance  f  sti  -et  gas.  Consider- 
ing that  this  material  is  soon  softened  by  heat,  and  ui.i  ;' .o  eiid  of  every  gas 
pipe  is  in  near  proximity  to  i.-at,  it  is  probable  thr«<  -n  ^  ha  will  be  ">»?? 
available  for  this  purpose  than  for  the  conveyan  ads.     Bui  vor 

any  temporary  gas  lighting,  notliing  can  well  be  more  convenient.  Let  a  festi- 
val, an  honoi-ary  dit  t  v,  a  "  gi*and  demonstmtion,"  be  given  in  a  large  building 
not  usually  lighted  to  any  very  biilliant  extent ;  gutta  percha  gas-pipes  can  be 
aiTanged  with  great  rapidity,  owing  U)  the  case  with  which  they  may  be  bent 
in  any  direction,  and  fastened  to  any  other  material.    A  veiy  pretty  applica- 


nimtiilTMit  i<i'iii*ii«l  iirii.Viii  .i>i  - 


ntrodiu'iHl  into  Uio 
lis  tlmt  t\w  <'arl)onii» 
ith  thti  Iciiil  iif  till) 

•HHCMMin^     poiKOIlDII.S 

,li()rili«»hi  ivgrco ;  iirid 
er,  thiH  olTi'ct  Hrcnn 

1)68  of  thin  iiiatorial 
mm  nil  iiniomit.  of 
At,  N«!w  York  tlicrc 
\  convi  jH  l\u'  wiitur 
jiipo  lii'H  nt()ii(:»  thn 
Vftrds  of  11  hundnMl 
h*<(l  luid  tliH  w(3ight 
f<uttii-p<M"clm  pifirs 
would  1)0  disniptod. 
m  iimke  riiviiges  on 
a  pipe,  it  roniMUH 
oHt  any  other  pir  ■  . 
II  kiln,  for  applying 
irly  well  tittod,  sinco 
jont,  or  twJMtod,  or 
this  inatoriiil,  per  se, 
pipe  may  bo  tinnly 
Tit  than  warm  water ; 
rawn  over  the  end  of 
le  iiiotal  tightly,  and 

)0s  of  gutta  percha, 
y  displayed  in  tho 
norant  of  chemistir 
play  sad  havoc  with 
er  hantl,  there  is  an 
which  enahlefl  it  to 
Id,  cei-taiiily,  to  con- 
in  a  weaker  state  ho 
ii(!  acids,  or  chlorina 
jfutta  percha  stoutly 
iiye-vat«,  flasks,  fun- 
all  are  now  made  of 
I  imd  bleach  works, 
re  employed. 
',  we  find  that  gutta 
ti.-et  gas.  Cousidcr- 
)iie  fill  of  every  gas 
■1  "I''  ^ft  ■ivill  be  \»?< 
>!d  i  aids.  Bui  lor 
vcinient.  Let  a  festi- 
n  in  a  large  building 
•cha  gas-jdpes  can  be 
ch  tliey  may  be  bent 
L  very  pretty  applica- 


ixniA  nt'BDEn  ahd  outt.v  pkhciu. 


IT 


tion  in  «oniotiino«  noen  in  workshop-^,  whore  a  guH-light  can  be  oanied  by  hand 
to  any  part  of  a  room.  Onoendof  a  iTutlu  p^nhu  tube  is  fasti'iied  to  a  gux 
pipe,  an<l  the  rest  of  the  lube  is  wuiiiid  round  a  siiiall  block  ot  wiK)d  like  a 
tAiKt-uteasuro  ;  this  block  has  a  handle  to  hold  by,  and  a  Muall  metal  jet  for 
igniting  the  gas.  This  shiguhu*  candlef.tlck  (or  s-nther  g.-wntick)  may  thi^n  be 
canii'd  about  tha  r  in,  uncoiling  or  coiling  tliu  tubu  as  dintancc  may  rcqiiiru, 
witlioiit  uit<>mipting  the  flow  uf  gas  thmugh  it. 


GiiTTA  Puuciu:   IT8  Acoustic  Skuvk  es. 

Tho  convtiyanco  of  lomid  is,  however,  tho  most  extraordinary  service  which 
^itta-percha  tubes  have  yet  rendered.  If  theio  bo  (and  perhaps  there  may  bo) 
any  divt  rsity  of  opinion  in  respect  to  water,  clu'ini<!al,  or  gas  convciyaiuw, 
ihfcie  \i  and  can  bo  none  re.sjiecting  somul.  No  other  suIjhUuico  has  yet 
equtUled  gutta  percha  for  acoustic  puqioses.  Let  ua  picture  to  ourselves  an 
aged  person,  whoso  sense  of  hearing  has  become  so  fai*  decayed  tliat  he  is 
rendered  unable  to  take  part  in  the  usual  Sunday  seni<es  in  church  or  chapel, 
from  inability  to  hoar  the  voice  of  his  minister ;  let  us  imagine  (if  it  can  bo 
imagined  by  any  except  those  who  sutt'er)  tho  desolation  and  isolation  of  such 
a  position  ;  lunl  let  us  next  suppose  that  tho  glad  tidings  wcro  communicated 
to  him,  that  by  a  modem  contrivance  he  will  be  enabled  (unless  his  degree  of 
deafness  be  wholly  beyond  human  aid)  to  hear  the  reading  and  tho  preaching 
in  whatever  part  of  tlie  building  he  may  be — would  ho  not  at  fii-st  bo  utterly 
incredulous,  and  would  ncjt  his  heart  leap  for  joy  when  he  founu  it  to  bo  a 
sober  undoubted  fact?  J  lo  might  know  iiothuig  of  Dr.  Montgomorio,  or  of 
tlie  Malays,  or  of  Singapore,  or  of  the  Society  of  Xtis,  or  of  tlio  inventors,  or 
of  tlio  manufacturers ;  but  Ijo  would  bless  thorn  all  if  ho  fornd  tliey  could 
render  him  this  service. 

We  will  examine  the  simpler  forms  of  gutta-percha  acoustic  appai'ntus, 
before  describing  tlie  recent  remiukable  ai)plication  in  churches. 

There  ai'e  two  qualities  required  in  a  speaking  tube  ;  first,  tliat  it  shall  con- 
centrate a  large  amount  of  sound  into  a  small  space ;  *nd  second,  that  it 
should  not  stifle  the  acoustic  vibrations  witliin  the  tube  itself.  Any  material 
will  answer  equally  well,  so  far  as  tlie  lirst-namod  quality  is  concerned,  lor  it 
requires  simply  a  tiuiupet-shaped  mouth  at  ono  end,  and  a  veiy  small  orifice 
at  the  other ;  but  gutta-percha  possesses  rare  qualities  in  respect  to  tlie  second 
kind  of  sei-vice.  Wlicther  it  is  tlie  smootlmess  of  tho  texture,  or  the  peculiar 
kind  and  degree  of  elasticity,  or  the  relation  of  tlio  substiuice  to  heat 
or  electricity — whatever  may  be  the  cause,  a  tube  of  guttu  percha  pro- 
sei-ves  sonorous  vibmtions  with  a  suiiirisuig  degree  of  clearness  and  equability ; 
and  the  modes  in  which  this  quality  are  brought  into  useful  requisition  aro 
already  very  numerous. 

There  is,  for  example,  the  loiiff  mrtnimpet,  with  a  wide  oiifice  at,  one  end 
and  a  small  one  at  tJie  otlier ;  and  there  is  the  portable  ear-trumpet,  differing 
from  the  former  only  in  bringing  tlie  speaker  and  tlie  hearer  closer  together, 
by  a  "  French-horn  "  system  of  twisting  in  tlie  tube.  There  is  the  ear-curnet, 
so  small  an<l  neat  Uiat  <  me  may  be  almost  invisibly  attached  to  or  near  each 
eiu'.  There  is  the  paraboloid  trumpet,  in  which  the  somid  is  echoed  from  a 
large  concave  receiver  before  it  enters  the  tube.  There  is  tlie  trumpet  witli  a 
long  flexible  tube,  oi  witli  several  tubes,  so  that  several  persons  round  a  table 
can  communicate  in  tui-n  witli  the  user.     In  short  tliere  have  been  almost  as 


T 


BiiieMB 


LUlM>MIBllWlt.!ifW,*tWI»g8 


19  INDIA  RUBBEH  AND  GUTTA  PKBCHA. 

many  useful  voiiations  Of  tlie  pvinciple  as  there  are  vtuiationB  in  the  social 
'^rStT^lp'^Zgl^^^^^^^^  contrivai^ces  .hich  a..o  in- 

tetfdStSA^otVtillly  deaf  pe..onB-but  those  -^^  "--  -^tH^': 
would  otherwise  disenable  from  convei-smg  togetlier.      TrU^e  the  ca^e  o    a 
Toramon  London  omnibus,  with  its  Pittle  and  i-umble,  and  l^««g  "^^^  .^«"J"^ 
sion    it  is  a  hard  matter  to  caiTy  on  a  conversation  m  such  a  vehicle    yet  a 
small  length  of  tube,  with  a  slight  expansion  at  each  end,  would  enable  two 
ZsonsS  converse  n  a  tone  inaudible  to  their  neighbours^     In  a  railway  ca- 
SSie  ndse  is  genei-ally  stiU  greater,  and  the  service  rendered  more  marked 
SrSo?  omnibuses  now  sometimes  communicate  ^"th  the  conductors  and 
captains  of  steiunboata  with  the  engine-men,  bv  gutta-percha  tubes.    But  Uieso 
aiSirsSes  compared  withsuch  as  tSie  tubes  render  at  g^ef jr  djs- 
tonces     The  Domestic  Telegraph,  as  it  has  been  called,  is  simply  a  gutta-percha 
•  S  conducted  from  one  aWtment  to  another:  it  V^iTt^  Ce  whoTo 
of  transmitting  messages,  and  savt'  many  a  weary  footstep  ^o  a^ose  who  are 
i  Sckan^  caU  of^thers.     The  Medical  Mans  Midn.jhtFnend  a   acta- 
daisical  sort  of  title)  is  a  gutta-percha  tube  ^^^ondrng  from  the     doctors 
stree^door  to  the  doctor's  bed,  by  which  a  message  can  bo  J'^^™  f  ^  <^ J^^^ 
awakened  practitioner  instead  of  merely  the  sound  ol  his  bell.     In  factories 
and  laTge  establishntents  such  speaking  tubes  are  ^vancing  extensively  m 
frvcvr    forthe  communication  between  distant  buildings  is  most  complete. 
In  printing-offices,  spinning   and  weaving  mills,  in  union   poor-houses    m 
hospiSS  infin^aries,  ahd  m  various  other  estoblishments  of  magnitude 
the  advantages  axe  so  self-evident  ttmt  the  use  is  becommg  ^«jy  g~- ^^^^' 
+he  Gutta  Percha  Tompany  s  works  a  fitting  locality  for  such  a  trusty  mes- 
inger)  a  tube  stretches  acJoss  a  wide  open  area  which  separates  two  clust^i^ 
;f  Sdrngs ;  to  an  eye  below  it  looks  merely  hke  a  thick  wire,  suspended  in 
miS  U^  it  is  in  ^effect  a  path-way  for  soimd,  a  s^vlft  «»««««S'fln7to 
confidai^t,  an  economizer  of  time,  an  insurer  of  accui-acy,  a  merciful  friend  to 
mS  kgs  and  muscles.     In  a  country  town  m  Kent  a  shopkeeper  has  two 
houses  o^n  JJposite  sides  of  a  street  f  ho  has  had  a  gutta-percha  tube  laid 
do^  beneath  the  n)adway,  and  the  two  halves  o'C  his  estabhshment  can  chat 
witli  each  other  as  though  they  occupied  one  room.  .^snects 

But  to  return  to  the  church-acoustic  apparatus  which  is  m  "aany^fpecte 
the  most  interesting  and  remarkable  of  these  highly  curious  apphcations 
Let  ^conceive,  for  clearness  of  illustration,  that  in  a  remote  pew  of  a  church 
^  a  person  who  tliough  not  deaf,  yet  fails  in  ability  to  hear  what  is  said  m 
Sie  pulpit  or  reading-desk.     A  gutta-percha  tube  Is  laid  down  eitlxer  on  or 
benS  the  floor  from  the  pulpit  to  the  pew-the  mateiial  bends  so  easily 
thTt  fmay  be  cS^ied  in  any  ?or^-and  a  small  ivoiy  or  hard  wood  ear-piece 
s  attacheZto  one  end,  while  the  other  end  expands  m  trumpet-fonn      Now 
the  remai'kable  circumstance  is,  that  Uie  required  effect  is  l;™"g^t  about 
without  necessitating  the  approach  of  the  speaker's  mouth  to  ^^  ^ube  Jiis 
head  may  be  two  or  three  feet  above,  or  below,  or  behind,  or  at  the  sid«  « 
?he  tnimpetmouth ;  and  yet  the  sound  wUl  reach  the  remote  end  of  tiic  tube 
n  audible  qu^tity.     Th/  truth  is,  that  it  the  t«t>e  receives  a  »^uty^^ 
sound  (which  it  c4  in  any  direction  round  and  near  tlie  «P«f  ^'')' *»*  .^  J^: 
tity  i«  BO  economised,  and  so  faithfully  conveyed  to  the  ot^Jf^,  f  ^-JJ^'^^J 
becomes  condensed  to  an  audible  pitch;  If  the  trumpet-mouth  be  large,  and 
See^  piece  very  small,  we  may  liken  the  action  to  the  condensation  ot  many 
S^ee?sTsoS  into  one;  and  the  ear  of  the  auditor  becomes  sensible  to 


•  i 


■  ■•^■^^:..^^^t^.-^>^..^'.-.C.    . 


tuiations  in  the  social 

rivaiices  wliich  ai'c  in- 
hom  noise  or  distance 
Take  the  case  of  a 
,  and  bang  and  confu- 
L  such  a  vehicle ;  yet  a 
jnd,  would  enable  two 
3U1S.  In  a  railway  car- 
rendered  more  marked, 
th  tlie  conductors,  and 
3rcha  tubes.    But,  tliesc 

render  at  greater  dis- 
is  simply  a  gutta-percha 
employed  as  a  medium 
>otstep  to  tbose  who  are 
[idnijjht  Friend  (a  lack-a- 
)g  from  the  "  doctor's  " 
n  be  ti'ansmitted  to  the 
I'  his  bell.  In  factories 
dvancing  extensively  in 
lings  is  most  complete. 

union  poor-houses,  in 
ishmenta  of  magnitude, 
oming  very  general.  At 
r  for  such  a  trusty  mes- 
li  separates  two  clusters 
hick  wire,  suspended  in 
iwift  messenger,  a  secret 
■acy,  a  mercSul  friend  to 
It  a  shopkeeper  has  two 
\  gutta-percha  tube  laid 

establishment  can  chat 

lich  is  in  many  respects 
tily  curious  applications. 
I  remote  pew  of  a  church 
to  hear  what  is  said  in 

laid  dovra  eitlier  on  or 
(  material  bends  so  easily 
y  or  hard  wood  ear-piece 
1  in  trumpet-form.     Now 

effect  is  brought  about 
mouth  to  the  tube;  his 
)ehind,  or  at  the  side  of 
e  remote  end  of  the  tube 
J  receives  a  mmtth-fiUl  of 
•  tlie  speaker),  that  quan- 
X)  the  oUier  end,  that  it 
apet-mouth  be  large,  and 
(he  condensation  of  many 
iitor  becomes  sensible  to 


r«r* 


INDU   nUBBEB   AND    OCTTA   PERCIIA.  19 

tliis  condensed  power.  In  practice,  the  trumpet-moutli  is  usually  fixed  to  tlie 
front  of  the  pulpit,  moutli  uppermost,  and  is  stamped  or  moulded  in  an  orna- 
mental foiin  consistent  witli  the  decorations  of  tlie  pulpit.  Beyond  all  tliis 
the  sound  may  be  laid  on,  like  gas,  to  any  pew  or  any  quarter  of  the  chm'ch  ;  for 
there  may  be  a  tube  (which  we  will  call  the  main-pipe)  laid  idong  the  centi-e 
aisle,  and  latei-al  tubes  may  spring  fi-om  this  to  any  required  spot.  Some 
clergymen  have  what  tliey  call  a  deaf  pew ;  tliat  is,  a  pew  in  which  those  ai'e 
congregated  who  may  be  collectively  benefited  by  this  admu-able  nppai-atus. 
This  contrivance  has  been  used  at  some  of  the  great  meetings  (four  thousand 
strong)  at  Exeter  Hall,  by  those  to  Avhom  the  speeches  would  othenviae  have 
been  little  else  than  dumb  show. 

It  does,  indeed,  seem  as  if  one  chai-acteristic  of  our  age  were  the  annihila- 
tion of  space  and  time.  Wo  may  breakfast  in  London  and  dine  in  Plymoutli. 
We  make  our  gas  at  one  spot,  and  hght  it  many  miles  off.  W'e  tmii  a  handle 
in  London,  and  forthwitli  a  signal  is  felt  or  seen  at  Edinburgh.  We  whisper 
in  a  tube  in  one  building,  and  the  whisper  becomes  audible  in  another  scores 
of  yards  off.  No  matter  what  the  agent  be — steam,  light,  electricity,  soimd — 
we  contrive  so  to  bend  it  to  om'  sei-vice  as  to  enable  us  to  run  a  match  against 
time  and  space. 

GuTTA  Pekcha:  its  Telegraphic  SEimcEs. 

This  mention  of  electricity  reminds  us  that  one  of  the  most  novel,  striking, 
and  valuable  f4)phcations  of  gutta  percha  is  that  in  which  it  forms  an  envelope 
for  an  electro-galvanic  wu-e.  W<?  may  regard  such  an  apparatus  either  as  a 
wire  coated  with  gutta  percha,  or  as  a  gutta  percha  tube  with  a  wire  running 
through  it :  tlie  principle  is  the  same  under  either  aspect  The  inipervious- 
ness  of  this  material  to  water  is  the  property  which  underlies  this  mode  of  ap- 
plication. In  order  that  an  electric  cun-ent  should  pass  along  a  copper  wire, 
it  is  essential  Unit  the  wire  should  be  insulated,  or  surrounded  by  a  medium 
wliich  will  not  attract  the  current  from  its  direct  course.  Gutta  percha  is 
eminently  such  a  medium ;  and  hence  the  wu"e,  when  so  coated,  is  in  the 
best  possible  condition  for  conveying  the  current.  The  submarine  telegraphs 
owe  Uieir  efficiency  to  this  principle :  the  copper  wire  being  completely  enve- 
loped in  a  casing  of  gutta  percha. 

It  can  hardly  be  necessary  to  give  here  any  detailed  accoimt  of  the  remark- 
able "  submarine  "  enterprise  of  la.st  year,  or  of  the  pl<ms  for  the  future  ;  for 
they  belong  only  incidentally  to  tlie  subject  of  this  paper.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered, however,  tliat  after  much  negotiation  witli  tiie  French  authorities,  an 
English  Company  actually  laid  down  u  telegraphic  wire  in  the  sea  from  Dover  to 
a  point  near  Calais.  On  August  28,  1850,  a  communication  was  made  be- 
tween England  and  France  in  this  way,  and  one  or  two  messages  transmitted. 
The  Avire,  which  was  twenty-one  miles  in  length,  had  a  thickness  of  about 
one-tenth  of  an  inch,  and  was  enclosed  in  a  solid  cylinder  of  gutta  percha  half 
an  inch  in  diiuneter.  The  weight  of  the  wire  was  about  twenty-two  cwts.,  and 
that  of  the  gutta  percha  with  which  it  was  coated  eighty-seven  cwts.  It  was 
at  that  time  hoped  tliat  telegraphic  communication,  by  this  means,  would  be 
permanently  established  between  the  two  countries  by  the  date  of  the  opening 
of  the  Great  Industrial  Exhibition.  Various  circumstances  have  tended  to 
retaid  tlie  realisation  of  this  hope  ;  but  we  may  reasonably  look  forward  to  it 
ere  long.  Nay,  we  may  even  see  Uie  day  when  a  flash  of  lightning  will  cross 
the  Atlantic,  dotted  in  a  tube  of  gutta  psrcha. 


,,r.":'"„"Jr!'.'"'*^'**'^**^i*"*^ 


■  ^%"_4_l.l!.„lll..J.W 


»A^  -^- 


90 


INniA   Rl-BBER   AND    QIITTA   PEBCHA. 


A  highly  curious  experiment  has  been  recenUy  made  at  tlie  Gutta  1  ercha 
CompMiv's  Works,  which  seems  to  Phow  that  blaMhuj  will  receive  the  same 
kind  of  aid  from  this  material  as  electro-telegi-aphiug.  A  bai-ge  w^  moored  m 
tlie  Regents  Canal,  alongside  tlie  quay  of  the  works;  and  around  the  edges 
of  this  dipping  int..  the  water,  were  coils  of  wire  to  the  extent  of  seventy 
miles      The  wire  was  of  copper,  coated  with  gutta  percha ;  it  was  about  the 
thickness  of  an  ordinary  bkck-lead  pencil,  and  was  of  the  ^^me  kind  as  ti^iat 
destined  to  be  used  for  the  submarine  telegraph  across  the  British  Channel. 
A  cartridge  was  adjusted  to  the  wire  at  one  spot,  and  the  two  ends  of  tlie  wire 
^ere  connected  with  the  poles  of  a  galvanic  battery.    The  inst^t  the  contact 
was  made  an  explosion  took  pla«c,  tlie  current  havmg  passed  tlirou.i^h  the 
seventy  miles  of  wire  in  on  inappreciably  small  space  of  time,      it  it  can 
travel  seventy  miles,   t  can  Ixavel  much  more;  if  it/?».«^P^^*^7Sn,f'"„ 
tridge,  it  coiUd  explcie  a  large  body  of  powder;  and  it  is  as  yet  difficult  to 
guess  the  number  and  variety  of  valuable  pmposes  to  which  the  meUiod  may 
be   found  available.      Submarine   blasting  by   electricity  has   been  before 
efifected,  but  not  tlirough  such  an  immense  lengtli  of  wire  as  this. 

Gotta  Pebcha:  Divebstfiedv  Application,  in  Sheets  and  Masse.s. 

It  is  obsei-vable  in  many  departments  of  manufacture  Uiat  tlie  material 
operated  upon  is  brought  to  Uie  foi-m  of  sheets,  before  bemg  fashioned  for  per- 
manent use.  This  has  especiaUy  been  the  case  since  roUing  miUs  have  come 
into  general  use.  Many  advantages  result  from  such  an  airangement ;  tor  the 
equabiUty  of  thickness  in  the  sheet  enables  the  operator  to  adapt  it  to  almost 
countless  forms  and  purposes.  Gutta  percha  is  one  among  the  hst  of  such 
substances ;  and  as  we  have  already  glanced  at  Uie  cimous  and  diversihed 
application  of  this  material  in  the  form  of  tubes,  so  may  we  next  bestow  a 
little  attention  on  its  uses  when  fashioned  into  sheets.       '  ,  .  ,  , 

The  sheets,  as  was  before  noticed,  may  liave  any  desired  thickness,  from 
that  of  paper  to  an  inch  or  more,  and  are  procurable  m  considerable  lengtlis 
and  widths.  But,  in  truth,  the  extraordinary  faciUty  with  which  this  sub- 
stance may  be  jomed— edge  to  edge  or  surface  to  surface— renders  attainable 
almost  any  size  or  form  of  product.  ,       v.     n 

If  a  gutta-percha  pipe  be  fitted  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  why  shmikl 
not   gutta-percha  sheet  form  an  advantageous  hning  for  cisterns?     The 
quesUonhas  been  asked,  and  the  answer  is  now  bemg  given  by  the  extensive 
use  of  such  a  Umng.     The  simpUcity  of  the  '^ppUcation  is  quite  remaikable. 
If  we  suppose  a  wooden  cistern  tlius  to  be  treated,  five  pieces  of  sheet  gum 
are  cut  to  the  sizes  for  the  bottom  and  sides  ;  these  being  held  temporarily  m 
their  places,  bands  or  strips  of  gutta  percha  are  softened  in  hot  water  and  laid 
along  the  ioints,  to  which  they  are  firmly  united  by  the  appUcation  of  a  hot 
iron     The  principle,  mdeed,  is  that  by  which  the  plumber  solders  two  sheets 
of  lead  together;  but  the  process  is  altogether  much  more  facile  and  expe- 
ditious    For  ordinary  cisterns,  the  thickness  somewhat  exceeds  an  eighlii  ot 
an  incli,  and  such  a  sheet  weighs  &ix  to  eight  pounds  per  square  yard.  Thsre  is 
thus  a  cistern  withm  a  cistern,  for  the  gutta  percha  does  not  adhere  to  the  wood ; 
the  wood,  in  fact,  acts  sunply  as  a  case  or  envelope,  to  keep  the  real  cistern  m 
shapeabie  and  efficient  order. 

Anotlier  form  into  which  gutta  percha  sheetmg  is  wrought,  on  account  ol 
its  admirable  quaUties  when  in  contact  v/ith  cold  liquids,  is  that  of  pump 


iinn»'ii>iiii*Tii'irrjiWBi*iiirif 


B  at  the  Gutta  Percha 
will  receive  the  same 
.  bai'go  was  moored  in 
lid  ai-ound  tlie  edges 
the  extent  of  seventy 
cha :  it  was  about  tlie 
he  same  kind  as  tliat 
*  the  British  C'hannel. 
B  two  ends  of  the  wire 
lae  instant  the  contact 
g  passed  tlirough  the 
B  of  time.      If  it  can 
m  explode  a  small  car- 
t  is  as  yet  difficult  to 
vhich  the  metliod  may 
icity  has   been  before 
rire  as  this. 


tEETS  AND  Masses. 

iture  that  the  material 
bemg  fashioned  for  per- 
rolling  mills  have  come 
m  aiTangement ;  for  tiie 
or  to  adapt  it  to  almost 
mong  the  list  of  such 
curious  and  diversitied 
may  we  next  bestow  a 

desired  thickness,  from 
in  considerable  lengths 
y  with  which  this  sub- 
'ace — ^renders  attainable 

e  of  water,  why  should 
ag  for  cisterns?  The 
5  given  by  the  extensive 
on  is  quite  remai-kable. 
ve  pieces  of  sheet  gum 
eing  held  temporarily  in 
led  in  hot  water  and  laid 
the  application  of  a  hot 
miber  solders  two  sheets 
5h  more  facile  and  expe- 
hat  exceeds  an  eighth  of 
)er  square  yard.  Thsre  is 
8  not  adhere  to  the  wood ; 
0  keep  the  real  cistern  ui 

3  wrought,  on  account  of 
liquids,  is  that  of  pump 


INDIA   KUBBEB  AND   GUCTA   PERCHA. 


ai 


buckets  and  valves.  The  gutta  percha  advocates  give  leatlier  buckets  and  valves 
a  bjul  character ;  Uiey  say  tliat  such  articles  cannot  be  made  witliout  a  seam  or 
raised  joint,  that  water  often  softens  the  stitching  of  the  seams,  that  die  leather 
IS  aflected  by  acids  and  alkalies,  and  that  tlie  articles  require  frequent  repair- 
whereas  tliese  same  buckets  and  valves,  if  made  of  the  formidable  modern 
rival  to  leatlier,  have  no  seams  or  raised  jomts,  ai-o  never  softened  by  cold 
water,  are  (for  the  most  part)  not  affected  by  acids  and  alkalies,  aie  veiy  durable 
and  are  easily  and  cheaply  repaired.  As  counsel  on  Uio  other  side  ai-e  not 
present,  we  must  not  venture  on  a  verdict ;  but  it  may  perhaps  safely  be 
stated  that  gutta  percha  has  realised  ahnost  aU  that  has  been  anticipated  for 
It  so  lai-  as  coucenis  its  services  when  in  contact  witli  cold  water  or  other 
liquids. 

But  Uie  leaUier  interest  is  attacked  in  its  stronghold  when  gutta  percha 
claims  a  place  in  our  boots  and  shoes  ;  tlie  batUe  here  becomes  an  important 
one,  and  must  be  fought  fairly  and  honestly.  As  to  the  claims  put  forth,  no 
one  lias  a  right  to  pass  judgment  on  them  except  after  a  long  and  steady  trial  • 
whether  gutta  percha  soles  are  cheaper,  more  dumble,  and  more  easily  repaired 
tlian  Uiose  of  leather,  and  wheUier  they  keep  the  feet  dry  in  wet  weather  and 
wai-m  m  co  d  ^yeather— must  be  decided  by  each  wearer  for  himself.  If  aU 
this  be  really  the  case,  nothing  can  prevent  the  extended  use  of  such  substi- 
tutes for  leaaier.  The  oddity  of  tlie  matter  is.  tliat  "  every  man  his  own  cob- 
bler may  be  wloptod  as  a  ma.xim  in  tlie  case ;  for  the  fixing  of  gutta-percha 
^^  :  ^  «5^eveiythmg  else  made  of  this  remarkable  substance,  is  readily 
etiected.  The  sous  of  Crispin  may,  however,  stiU  comfort  tliemselves  with 
the  fact  that  "  upper  leathers  "  reraara  pretty  much  within  their  own  domam  • 
although  even  here  mdia  rubber  and  gutta  percha  are  beginnhig  to  invade  it 

y^'^^\^■  *  P^**.  ^^  '^  ^^"^  "^'^  ^*^  P«'^<'*»*-  ^^y  not  a  quadniped  als6? 
Wdl  tins  material  suffice  for -horse-shoes  ?  Perhaps  not,  considering  tlie 
severe  usage  to  which  such  shoes  are  exposed.  But  there  has  lately  been 
devised  a  cmious  and  very  usefiil  apphcation  of  gutta  percha  to  the  hoi-se's 
foot.  AVhen  a  road  is  newly  coat«d  with  broken  flints,  Uie  fi-agments  have  a 
tendency  to  cut  and  injure  the  foot  of  this  trusty  animal  in  the  sunken  por- 
tion within  tlie  iron  shoe.  A  sole  of  leather  is  sometimes  appUed  as  a  pro- 
tection ;  but  gutta  percha,  from  its  plastic  character  when  warmed,  is  capable 
ot  bemg  pressed  into  the  commissm-es  and  cleft  of  the  "  frog  "  of  the  foot,  so 
as  to  adhere  closely  to  all  the  exposed  portion  of  the  foot.  And  yet,  at  night- 
time, or  whenever  deemed  desirable,  this  shield  may  easily  be  removed  and 
adjusted  again  by  shght  wanning. 

There  is  a  peculiai-  application  of  gutta  percha  which,  though  well  under- 
stood in  manufacturing  towns,  is  not  very  familiar  to  general  readei-s  We 
allude  to  wheel  bands  for  machineiy.  When  a  shaft  or  wheel  is  rotating 
another  shaft  or  wheel  at  a  considerable  distance  may  be  made  also  to  rotate' 
by  cajiyuig  an  endless  band  from  one  to  the  other,  and  making  it  coil  tightly 
round  both;  tlie  first  wheel  causes  the  band  to  rotate,  and  this  in  its  turn 
communicates  simUai-  motion  to  the  second  wheel.  Now  these  bands,  until 
with:n  the  last  few  yeai-s,  have  generally  been  made  of  leather ;  but  gutta 
percha  is  found  to  possess  many  quaUties  avaUable  for  Uiis  purpose.  A  strip 
of  tlie  requued  width  is  cut  from  the  sheet,  and  the  two  ends  of  tliis  stiip  are 
joined,  so  as  to  fonn  an  endless  band.  The  qualities  which  seem  to  adapt 
tins  material  for  sudi  purposes  are  the  durability  and  strengtli,  tlie  pemianeut 
contractibihty,  tlie  uniformity  of  substance,  the  power  of  resisting  water, 
acids,  alkalies,  oil,  and  grease,  and  the  facility  of  making  joints.     The  bands 


ri 


<)0  IKOU  RUBBER  AM)  OOTTA  PEHOHA. 

are  now  used  to  a  congid  arable  extent  In  breweries,  bleach  .«"/  J'^-^'^lJ^' 
Ttton  and  ^ooUen-faetoriea,  i~«-w°'k9,  paper-nnll«,  cor^^nmB  b^ 
and  oUier  large  efltablishmentu  where  much  wheel  work  Is  employed. 

Itlms  a  ve,7  rea^nonable  conjecture,  that  the  pecuhar  P^P«jJ«  ^«/ g«/^. 
percha  would  render  it  a  valuable  material  for  boat^-not  P^Aftps  the  mnj 
5av  boaU  for  commercial  and  nauticU  purposes,  but  those  intended  for  some 
Sr^er^'ce     WhVn  Lady  Franklin  fitted  out  an  exnedition  m  seai^h  of 
TrlilirrusbL,  ayear'or  two  ago,  CapUun  Forsy&  Jhe  ««™"-^^^^^^ 
the  Tssel,  took  out  with  him  a  gutta-percha  boat,  presented  *«' f^^^P^^^ 
by  Messrs.  Searle.     His  account  of   the  behaviour  of  this  boat,  ""der  the 
rouKh  usage  to  which  it  was  subjected  in  tlie  icc-bound  regions  of  the  nortn 
L  most  kudSoTy      He  states  that,  "whilst  tlie  other  boats  constructed  of 
worsuffe^  much  by  the  cutting  of  the  young  ice,  the  gutta-percha  boat  was 
Ttt^e Tist  dama/ed,  and  retted  to  England  >«  f^  w^  ^  J«^;;"'^^^^^^ 
as  when  she  left,  although  she  underwent  all  the  rough  work  of  the  voyage. 
Mr  Snow  who  had  especial  charge  of  tho  gutta.pe,«ha  boat  belonging  ^^o 
»  Prince  Albert,"  has  detailed  in  a  clear  manner  the/emar'mble  way  m  whi^^^ 
this  material  resists  the  rude  butfetings  of  those  regions.    It  mxiM  be  remem 
bered  that  the  boat  had  a  skeleton  of  wood  and  a  covenng  «   "jf  J^?^*^^^^ 
Mr  8now  «av8  "  The  severest  trial  it  endured,  and  endured  successfully,  was 
fnbJTmy^^its  to  Whaler  Point,  Port  Leopold     To  ^o^ej^^f  JJjJ  ^ 
ihP  nature  of  such  ice  as  was  there  met  with,  it  will  be  impossible  fuly  to 
SLefv^^e^^tira  boat  was  placed  in.     T]»e  J'^'^^t™"-*  ISlhlre 
among  loose  masses  of  ice.-'with  the  sea  m  a  state  of  quiescence,  would  have 
bTe^Liteenough  to  have  proved  or  not  the  value  of  gutta-percha  boats ;  but 
X^^lnlT^r^ent  c  J,  those  masses  were  all  in  ^^'^'^ :^^'!^J^'^ 
rs^iouiig  in  upon  an  opposing  current,  it  might  have  been  ''fj  e''«"8«^- 
LTwSif  deteriorating  SrnitSe  P^vi^usly  attest^  goodness  ctfth^^  article 
—if  it  liad  not  been  able  to  have  resisted  the  severe  shocks  it  received.  ..... 

iwing  tfSough^  ^er  the  ice ;  sometimes  Ufted  completely  out  of  the  water 
bvZ^sSen  contact  of  a  restless  uje;  and  at  othei-s  thrown  sideways  upon 
S  XSSg  ci^^iece ;  1  think  it  would  have  been  ne.t  to  »mP<2»We  for 
Sy  oSTkind  rf  bJkt  to  have  been  otherwise  than  crushed  or  ^^J^,^<^^1 
Snt "  It  was  in  aright  spirit  that  the  explorers  gave  the  name  of  Ontta. 
PeSlnle5'T£» %S  whSe  the  boat  had  rendered  them  such  miportant 

^n*fl»e  BlentiM  sprinkling  of  salt  water  to  which  a  hard  seafaring  man  is 
exjose^  i?^ems  nS^reLnable  that  gutta  pe«ha  wouW  be  fomid  ser- 
S*le  in  a  great  variety  of  ways  on  board  ships.    Accordmgly.  we  find  that  a 
Sil^fitSi^^and  a  saiSrs  "lit"  may  now  comprise  » f:;;;"^^^ *;«  jl^^^^ 
des^  made  in  this  material.     Mo«t  of  them  ^'^J^^^'^^^^tl'^'^Yi^^ml 
greater  or  lesser  thickness,  but  some  are  '^''^^  "^  ^%Z?^f .  .^-^e 
of  such  wurnoses  gutta  pereha  is  valuable  because  it  is  wat#rpn)ot ,  for  some, 
t^m^  KTaffVcted  by  salt  water ;  lor  others,  because  it  ^J<J}'<^^ 
KS  when  thrown  dov4  oi-  when  dashed  agamst  rocks ;  and  for  oft^ 
Km^«a  it  is  rfudUv  moulded  into  anv  form  by  the  application  of  heat.     Mere 
S?t;ritUa^S^-we7ter,"or  asapilot'shal;  ««  «  «f«  »>uoy ;  as  a  linmg  fo^ 
««t!r  tilnks    a*  a  Vug  or  a  basm  for  holding  water ;  as  a  pump  hose  or  a  pump- 
SLttTi  a  SitSSgV  ships ;  as  a  speLmg  tn«n^  =  -  ^  TJZ^l^l 
nete;  m  a  waterproof  covering;  as  an  airtight  ^fe-boat  cell    as  a  ^  ^^ 
line-  as  a  Uning  for  boxes  and  tranks;  as  a  flask  or  a  bottle ;  or  as  a  chart 
SS     The  stnJge  diversity  of  these  iw«  i»  »affie»entty  «pp«ent.    M  a  sailor 


"ill  r'^"  -■--*■— -'"•-.■■^i^ 


imilr'Hii  iilnitiiiiiiii 


sach  and  dye-works, 
m-millB,  brick-yarda, 
employed. 

r  propertieB  of  guttn 
b  perhaps  the  every- 
ge  intended  for  some 
)edition  in  search  of 
ti,  the  commander  of 
ited  for  that  purpose 
this  boat,  under  the 
regions  of  the  north, 
boats  constructed  of 
^tta-percha  boat  was 
08t  fis  good  condition 
work  of  the  voyage." 
boat  belonging  to  the 
arltable  way  in  which 
It  must  be  remem- 
ring  of  india  nibber. 
ired  successfully,  was 
[iose  unaccustomed  to 
>«  impossible  fully  to 
re  trtmsit  to  and  fro, 
uiescence,  would  have 
ittft-percha  boats ;  but 
restless  agitation,  with 
)  been  well  excused — 
oodness  of  the  article 

cks  it  received 

lately  out  of  the  waterr 
thrown  sideways  upon 
next  to  impossible  for 
ished  or  stored  on  the 
9  the  name  of  "  Outta- 
l  them  such  important 

haitl  seafaring  man  is 
,  would  be  found  ser- 
)rdingly,  we  find  that  a 
diversified  list  of  arti- 
factured  from  sheets  of 
ther  forms.  For  some 
waterproof;  -for  some, 
lose  it  is  not  liable  to 
rocks ;  and  for  others, 
lication  of  heat.  Here 
fe  buoy ;  as  a  lining  for 
ft  pump  hose  or  a  pump- 
et;  as  a  float  for  fishing 
at  cell ;  as  a  cowl  or  a 
a  bottle ;  or  as  a  chart 
y  (^oreut.    If  a  sailoir 


INDIA   RrSBER  AND   OtJTTA   PEHOHA. 


3S 


had  been  told,  some  years  ago,  that  a  time  would  arrive  when  he  might  have 
liiH  hat,  his  wiish-lmnd  bowl,  his  tiller-rope,  his  speaking-trumpet,  his  life-buoy, 
and  the  sheathmg  of  his  ship,  all  made  of  the  same  material,  he  would  have 
cleemcxi  it  a  landman's  joke,  fitted  only  for  "  the  marines." 

Medical  piactitionois  ar«  daily  finding  that  gutia  pereha  is  applicable  to  a 
number  of  purposes  incident  to  their  professional  duties.  A  thin  sheet  or 
lining  of  this  matenal  is  employed  as  a  wrapping  in  rheumatism  and  gout. 
A  thicker  sheet  forms  excellent  splints  or  supports  for  fractured  bones,  or 
limbs  under  surgical  treatment  As  a  stothescope  or  chest^explorer,  a  gutta- 
percha  tube  is  said  to  be  veiy  effective;  for  though  a  capital  conductor  of 
sound.  It  conducts  heat  very  slowly. 

A  i-are  catalogue  we  should  present,  if  all  the  useful  applications  of  gutta 
l.ercha  were  duly  set  forth.  We  should  -have  to  speak  of  breast-coating  for 
water-wheels,  of  galvanic  batteries,  of  shuttle-beds  for  looms,  of  packing  for 
steam-engines  and  pumps,  of  cricket  and  bouncmg  balls,  of  felt.edging  f.,r 
paper  making  of  curtain  rings  whose  merit  is  nouelemie^,  of  window-blind 
cord  and  sash  Imes,  of  clothes'  lines  (recommended  to  the  laundress  as 
delVing  aU  attacks  of  weather),  of  bosses  for  flax-spinning  frames,  of  whips 
and  sticks,  of  policemen  s  an  i  "special  constables  "  stives,  of  ftax-holdera  Ibr 
heckhng  machmes,  of  skates,  of  fencing  sticks,  of  washers  for  the  axles  of 
wheels,  of  plugs  or  solid  ma-sses  used  in  buildings,  of  buffers  for  railway 
carnages,  of  gunpowder  oanistors  (which  "keep  the  powder  dry"),  of  sheet- 
covering  for  damp  walls  of  lining.^  for  ladies'  bonnets,  of  jar  covers,  of  sponge 
bags,  of  foot  batlis,  of  funnels,  of  goldsmiths'  bowls,  of  bobbins  for  spinning 
machines,  of  covers  for  rollers,  of  book  covers,  of  moulds  for  electrotypes,  of 
coffin  linings,  of  sounding  boards,  of  portmanteaus,  of  beds  for  paper-cutting 
machmes,  of  fine  and  coarse  thread,  of  envelope  boxes,  of  powder  flasks,  of 
portfolios,  of  a  stopping  for  hoUow  teeth— a  tolerable  list,  this,  which  shows 
inTOilabi^       ^^        applications  for  which  this  singular  vegetable  product 

GuTTA   PEilClTA  AS  A   DeCORATTPE   AND   FhIK-ArT   MATEBUt. 

Widely  apart  from  the  various  applications  of  gutta  percha  described  in  the 
preceding  paragraphs,  are  Uiose  in  which  ornament  rather  than  utility  is  the 
mam  purport  in  view.  To  dissmer  ornament  from  utility  is  neither  needed 
nor  to  be  wished;  the  two  ought  to  be  linked  hand  ia  hand ;  but  Ae  difference 
ol  chai^ter  here  mtended  to  be  implied  will  be  easily  apparent. 

Admirably  does  this  substance  show  itself  to  be  adapted  to  such  purposes. 
When  softened  by  heat,  it  will  take  ih^  impress  of  a  mould  or  stamp  with 
Uelicat«  precision  ;  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes  it  reassumes  its  tough 
state,  retaining  permanently  tlie  pattern  giv^n  to  it  The  power  of  applica- 
ll^Vi!  u  '™'*!^'*«<''  or  limited  only  by  the  inclination  of  the  purchaser, 
vvnether  the  mould  be  of  copper  or  of  brase,  of  peiu'-tree  or  of  box,  an  im- 
press can  equaUy  weU  be  obtained  from  it.  In  practice,  aU  these  four  mate- 
rials are  employed,  and  sometimes  others.  The  mould  being  carved  and  in  a 
state  of  readiness  the  piece  of  gutta  percha  (always,  or  neaily  always,  in  die 
lorm  of  sheet)  is  laid  upon  a  marble  slab,  which  ,^s  heated  by  steam  from  be- 
"f^'  "  •  f"™  '^'"^  ***"^  brou^t  into  a  pliant  and  yielding  state,  it  is 
placed  tm  or  m  the  mould,  a  cotmtei-mo<nld  is  laid  upon  it,  and  the  acUon  of 
a  ppMs  forces  the  mateiial  into  the  minutest  parte  of  the  device.  If  tlie  pat. 
tern  be  deep  and  the  relief  bold,  a  hydraulic  pressm-e  of  a  hundred  or  a  ha» 


34 


INDIA  EUBBEB  AND   OOTTA   PEROUA. 


I 


i 


dred  and  fifty  tons  is  brought  to  bear  upon  it ;  but  if  of  lighter  and  simpler 
character  a  hand-press  is  brought  into  requisition.  .  j      j 

TuTs' way.^dld  by  minor  manipulation,  are  produced  Uie  vaiied  and  ever- 
inm'Sg  spe'-imens  of  ornamental  gutta-percha  work  Trays  ore  produced 
SevTr^^^LSLinable  (oral  least  eveiy-lsabl^^  and  pattern:  bread  toiys. 

b!scS;Ts  cotton  ^r  work-table  h^ys.  counter  or  card-Ujble  tmys  pen  trays^ 
pin  trays,  card  trays,  soap  trays,  shavmg  trays,  &c^  Ihen  t,heie  are  worK 
Lkets^.iid  hand  baskets,  flower  yases  aiid  bouquet  holders,  plates  and  p..t- 
te^  decanter  stands  and  watch  stands,  bas-reliefs  and  altorehefs.  Ihe  desk 
fiSiKS  St  of  much  beauty  in  tliis  material:  inkstands  are  produced  m 
mo7di^^"e  forms;  while  pen  trays,  paper  weights,  wafer  ^boxes,  envelope 
boxes,  &c.,  are  begiAnuig  to  establish  a  formidable  rivalry  U>  the  similar  arti- 
cles  made  in  papier  mache.  .  .. 

Be^Sy.  paLm,  graining,  clouding,  or  whatever  we  niay  choose  t.,  tenn  it 
is  produced  in  a  veiy  remarkable  way  on  the  surface  of  gutta  percha.     borne 
o7tihe  Sy-mouldJd  articles  just  described  display  on  their  surface  a  diver- 
:Uy  of  brSn  tmts  somewhat  Inalogous  to  the  diversity  of  green  tmts  m  U, 
now-celebi-ated  though  lately  almo8t■unkno^vn  malachite.     Ihese  brown  tints 
me  ant  to  be  attributed  to  a  painting  of  the  surface,  artificially  produced  ;  but 
U  is  L  to  Uie  natural  coloL  of  the  substance      Some  specimens  of  gu  ta 
nerchrare  daiker  than  others,  and  all  have  a  tendency  to  darken  by  age;  and 
Se  wXrdexterously  avails  himself  of  these  varying  tmts  to  P«>ducej 
n^tem      S  softens  two  or  more  pieces,  of  different  Unts,  passes  them  be- 
twSwo  roUe^  to  thoroughly  um^te  and  amalgamate  them,  and  then  presses 
Sem  iX  Se  mould ;  leaving  it  to  the  freaks  of  chance  to  bnng  out  ttie  wavy 
£r™  the  Srthe    treaks,  the  knots,  which  the  mtermbcture  of  tmts  pro- 
C;      Thi^d  versity  is  not  very  apparent  at  first ;  but  it  beconies  developed 
;Sthe  substance  is  polished,  ind  considerably  enhances  the  beauty  of  the 

'Ito'v^T^pptation  of  gutta  percha  to  Uie  purposes  of  printing  has  recenUy 
been  made,  on  the  stereotype  principle  ;  and  the  neatness  displayed  by  some 
of  the  woSi-cut  engi-avings  produced  on  this  method,  as  shown  in  the  Indus- 
trid  E^^tion,  Is  not  a  Uttle  remaikable.  A  page  of  mingled  type  ai^d  wood- 
cute  wfwm  suppose,  is  prepared  in  the  ordinary  way;  then  a  8tereotyi)« 
mould  fr^m  this  is  obtaiJied'^in  gutta  percha  by  pressure;  a  cast  from  Jis 
mou  d  inbtained  on  a  cylinder  of  gutta  percha  by  the  aid  of  *  cylmder- 
Sess  and  the  printmg  is  effected  from  the  gutta-percha  cyhnder  The  gutta- 
S;Ste  this  represents  the  plaster-mould  of  ordinaiy  stereotyping,  while 
Sie  ff^tVpercha  cyhnder  repres^ts  the  metal  stereotype  plate  It  «  said 
That  ^^cHe  printed  from  these  gutta-percha  cylinders  >-^thout  thejnis- 
toma??  p^cess  of  wetUng ;  and  it  is  also  stated  that  an  hour  suffices  to  make 

SKmould  and  tlie  cylinder-  1^  ^^  "^^  ''  '^^'^t  «"***  ?T^*-  TI  fr, 
vet  destined  to  see  many  important  extensions.  We  have  proof  fiimished,  in 
Jhe  int^esting  AuTti-i^  department,  how  deUcately  impressions  may  be 
taken  in  iis  material  fi:om  wood-cuts,  to  fonn  moulds  whence  electrotype 
casts  can  be  obtjuned. 


From  the  outlme  here  given,  it  will  be  seen  that,  while  mdiambber  anxJ  gutte 
percha  hkve  many  features  in  common,  they  so  far  differ  as  to  give  nse  to 
whoUy  distinct  b4iches  of  manufacture  and  to  very  diverse  practical  apph- 
cations. 


iOlKMJMWitlUil-MHriliilimi  II  HI  I|M«1 II    I illl—imil***!* 


:  lighter  and  simpler 

[1  the  vaiied  and  ever- 
Trays  are  produced 
pattern  :  bread  trays. 
Uible  ti-ays,  pen  trays, 
L'hen  there  are  work 
lers,  plates  and  plat- 
iltoreliefs.  The  desk 
Olds  are  produced  in 
iirafer , boxes,  envelope 
Iry  to  the  similar  ai-ti- 

aay  choose  to  terra  it, 
gutta  percha.     Some 
their  surface  a  diver- 
of  green  tints  in  the 
!.     These  brown  tints 
ificially  produced ;  but 
ne  specimens  of  gutta 
to  darken  by  age ;  and 
ag  tints  to  produce  a 
ints,  passes  them  be- 
thera,  and  then  presses 
3  to  bring  out  the  wavy 
ermixture  of  tints  pro- 
it  it  becomes  developed 
aces  the  beauty  of  the 

af  printing  has  recently 
less  displayed  by  some 
as  shown  in  the  Indus- 
mingled  type  and  wood- 
ray  ;  then  a  stereotype 
ssure ;  a  cast  from  this 
f  the  aid  of  a  cylinder- 
la  cylinder.  The  gutta- 
naiy  stereotyping,  while 
lotype  plate.  It  is  said 
.iuders  without  the  cus- 
m  hour  suffices  to  make 
it,  gutta  percha  may  be 
aave  proof  furnished,  in 
y  impressions  may  be 
olds  whence  electrotype 


ile  india  nibber  and  gutta 
differ  as  to  give  rise  to 
diverse  practical  appli- 


INDUSTRIAL  APPLICATIONS  OF  ELECTRICITY. 


If  any  matter-of-fact  man  should  ask  (as  matter-of-fact  men  do  sometimes 
ask)  what  is  the  use  of  science  ? — ^we  might  point,  among  other  things,  to  the 
wonderful  history  of  electricity  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  We 
might  bid  him  seek  for  an  answer  in  the  telegraphs  which  now  waft  intel- 
ligence from  one  end  of  Europe  to  another;  in  the  clocks  which  now  go 
without  springs  or  weights ;  in  tiie  rich  metal  gilding  which  dispenses  with 
the  unhealthy  fumes  of  mercury  ;  in  the  fine-art  productions  now  copied  with 
such  marvellous  quickness,  neatness,  and  cheapness ;  in  the  engineexing 
operations  whereby  electi-icity  blasts  acres  of  rock  at  once ;  in  the  curative 
influence  of  this  agent  on  tiie  animal  system.  All  these,  and  very  many 
others,  are  testimonies  of  the  good  which  science  has  rendered  to  num.  For 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  principles  of  science  require  a  long  elaboi-a- 
tion  and  process  of  development,  before  practical  applications  can  be  looked 
for  ;  and  these  elaborations  and  developments  depend  on  students  who  work 
silently  in  tiieir  laboratories  and  closets,  too  ofti.^n  uncared  for  and  unrewarded 
by  the  world.  It  is  the  same  everywhere  and  at  all  times.  The  man  of 
science  is  laying  tlie  gi'oundwork  for  the  artizan,  though  the  latter  is  not 
always  aware  how  largo  is  the  senice  thus  rendered.  The  reciprocal  aids  ren- 
dered between  Science  and  Industry  ought  never  to  be  lost  sight  of,  any  more 
than  those  between  Fine  Art  and  Industry ;  all  tlu-ee  work  hand  in  hand,  each 
one  gaining  strength  in  return  for  the  strength  which  it  imparts  to  the 
others.  • 

Let  us  glance  at  a  few  of  the  "  Curiosities"  presented  by  the  modern  ap- 
plications of  electric  power  to  useful  and  ornamental  purposes. 

The  Electbio  Telegbaph  and  its  Mabvels. 

Who  was  the  happy  suggestor  of  the  electric  telegraph  ?  To  this  day  it  is 
a  disputed  point ;  and  it  is  likely  to  remain  so :  for  modest  hints  as  to  tiie 
power  of  communicating  signals  by  this  agency  may  have  been  thrown  out 
before  any  formal  proposals  for  that  purpose  were  made  public.  Many  slight 
suggestions,  experiments,  and  contrivances,  having  some  such  object  as 
this  in  view,  were  made  m  times  long  gone  by ;  but  it  was  about  fourteen 
years  ago  that  its  piticticability  as  a  system  was  made  apparent. 

To  the  little  Blackwall  Railway  is  due  tiie  honour  of  being  the  scene  of 
this  manifestation,  so  fai*  as  England  is  concerned.  At  the  time  that  Messrs. 
Wheatstone  and  Cooke  patented  their  electric  telegraph,  in  1837,  this  railway 
was  being  constructed ;  and  the  peculiar  system  of  rope-traction,  adopted  for 
the  accommodation  of  intermediate  stations,  rendered  some  efficient  tele- 
graphic system  necessary.  The  new  agent,  electro-telegraphy,  was  employed ; 
and  most  admirably  did  it  do  its  work.    It  kept  up  a  communication  between 

o 


'^P^""" 


simijiwwifffiia^^ 


■ 


Q  ISDl'STniAl.   APPIJCATIOSS    OP    EI.F.CTHICITY. 

tJie  two  tomiini  and  Inilf  a  dozen  intorincdinto  stiilions,  mul  proyidid  for  tliu 
transmission  of  si-^iuls  from  every  station  to  every  otlier,  at  intervals  of  a 
(inarter  of  an  honr  tin-ouMliout  the  day.  Tho  rojie  has  died  a  imlinal  death, 
and  },'ivon  way  to  loeoniotivos ;  but  the  telegraph  has  gono  on  increasing  in 
importance  yer.v  by  year. 

The  tiumu  inventors  who  iiitroduoid  the  first  telegraph  liavc  imnroved  it  hy 
gubBeciuent  patents,  mid  htlvo  (aiiion>?  otlier  things)  devised  a  mode  by  which 
it  may  i)rint  its  own  indications,  in  the  mean  lime  foreign  nations  were  not 
blind  to  the  wondei-s  thus  gradually  developed;  Professor  Moi-sc  in  America, 
and  Dr.  Sleinhcil  and  olliers  in  (lerminiy,  devised  fonnsof  electric  ti'legraphs 
in  which  much  novelty  and  in;((iiuity  were  disjilnyed. 

The  lirst  experimeiitei-s  employed  a  return  wire  to  complete  the  galvanic 
circuit;  but  it  has  since  been  found  that  this  may  be  dispensed  with.  In  IHi-J, 
Mr.  IJain  conducted  an  esperiment  at  tlie  Sei-pontine,  in  whicli  Ik;  niwlo  the 
water  itself  perform  tlic  part  of  tlie  return  wire.  I'roi'essor  Wln.-atstone,  about 
the  same  time,  laid  down  a  telegraphic  wiro  from  Kings  (JoUege  to  the  shot 
tower  nearly  oppositfl,  and  comi)leted  the  circuit  by  the  water  of  tin;  'I'hanies. 

liong  before  tlie  Electric  Telegraph  Conqtany  was  established,  public  atten- 
tion had  been  attracted  to  the  marvels  attained  in  quick  connnunicution  of  in- 
telligence. The  (Queen's  speech  was  printed  at  Southaini)ton  within  two 
hoiu's  afU'r  its  deliver}' in  Jjomhm ;  tlie  substatice  of  it  having  been  trans- 
mitted letter  by  letter.  A  murderer,  whose  crime  had  been  committed  at  Halt 
Hill,  was  captured  in  a  railway  carnage  at  Paddington,  the  news  of  his  crime 
having  tnivelled  quicker  than  even  railway  travelling  could  cairy  him ;  the 
drewl  messenger,  witli  lightning  speed,  passed  silently  through  tlie  wire  sus- 
pended near  him,  and  overtook  him  in  his  attempted  escai)e  from  justice. 
Games  of  chess  were  played  by  persons  a  hundred  miles  apart :  eiuli  move 
being  signalled  by  the  telegraph.  A  deserter  from  the  United  Stat<s  army, 
who  had  doublwf  his  offence  by  robbeiy,  was  captured  in  a  similiu-  way  on  Uie 
Washington  and  Baltimore  Jlailway.  A  i)liysician  at  Lookport  corres))onded 
by  similar  agency  with  a  patient  at  liufralo,  many  mibis  distant;  tlie  one 
transmitting  an  account  of  his  symptoms,  the  other  lorwui-ding  his  advice  and 
prescription.  But  the  oddest  of  jUI  was  ti  marriage  ceremony,  pertorme<l  be- 
tween a  bridegi'oom  at  New  York  and  a  bride  at  Boston  ;  the  questions  and  an- 
swers and  declarations  and  pledges  being  tiansmitted  per  telegi-aph :  the 
match  being  a  stolen  one,  however,  the  vididity  of  the  ceremony  was  afterwards 
disputed  in  a  court  of  law. 

Dr.  Steinhcil,  Professor  Morse,  and  IVtr.  Da^  ,  all  contrived  electric  tele- 
giaphs  which  would  write  or  print  their  own  inuications,  and  this  even  very 
early  in  tlie  history  of  tlie  art.  But  from  various  pmetical  dilhculties,  the 
tegistering  apparatus  has  not  been  sti  much  employed  as  was  at  fi ret  antici- 
pated. Professor  Morse  made  his  instnunent  write  witJi  a  pencil,  in  arbitrary 
characters  foimed  of  lines  and  angles ;  but  in  a  later  moditication,  the  charac- 
ters were  made  by  indentations  on  the  paper  with  a  blunt  instrument.  Mr. 
Davy  contrived  to  pnxiuce  a  series  of  blue  lines  on  white  iiapdt,  as  a  set  of 
symbols. 

It  would  be  no  easy  matter  to  trace  the  rapid  succession  of  improvements 
and  novelties  in  tliis  wonderful  apparatus.  The  wits  of  men  were  sharpened 
bdth  by  the  beaaty  and  the  vahie  of  this  new  intennedium  of  thought; 
and  we  find  a  continued  stream  of  inventions,  some  {jatcnted  and  some  not. 
Mr.  Wheatstone  patented  a  third  modification  ui  1840,  supplemental  to  those 
of  imi  and  18!J«.     Ill  1H41  Mr.  Bain  brought  forward  his  electric  telegraph, 


MiMaiiaitiiiiMtttrf  ^ 


i-lrt'  IttiiiMriirtMi  ■litfi  i7  tiiijifc 


mm 


TV. 


Jul  provided  for  tlio 
licr,  at  intci-Mils  of  ii 
(lied  a  imtiniil  dcntb, 


1  liavr  iiiii>i()ved  it  I'V 
cd  ft  inodo  by  whicli 
L'ign  niitidns  werii  not 
r  Moi-se  in  Ainorira, 
of  t'lci'tric  ti'lcgniplis 

ompleto  tho  gftlvanic 
Hinst'd  with.  In  iHi-J, 
in  wliich  he  ntiido  tlio 
3(»r  Wlieatatone,  iii)out 
{'s  CoUo|?o  to  tlie  shot 
vator  of  tlie  Tliauu'M. 
iblished,  public  atten- 
connnmiicution  of  in- 
lliampton  within  two 
it  havint^  Ix^en  tnms- 
xn  coniniittod  at  Halt 
le  news  i>f  his  crime 
could  cai-ry  iiini ;  the 
Juongh  tlie  wire  sus- 

escupe  from  juatico. 
ilus  apart :  eatli  move 

United  Ktatts  army, 
u  a  similar  way  on  tho 
lOckport  corres}»oniled 
lilos  distant;  the  one 
rmdinj?  his  advice  antl 
ciiiony,  pc'i'fonneil  be- 
the  {|uestion8  and  an- 
J  per  tclegittph :  the 
I'cuiony  was  afterwards 

ontrivcd  electric  tcle- 
8,  and  thia  even  very 
ictical  dhficulties,  tJie 
I  aa  waa  at  iiret  aiitici- 
1  a  pencil,  in  arbitraiy 
edification,  tlie  charao- 
unt  instrument.  Mr. 
ite  Tpnipdt,  as  a  set  of 

4sion  of  improvements 
'  men  were  sharpened 
■medium  of  thought ; 
itcnted  ai»d  some  not. 
supplemental  to  tlioae 
.  his  electric  telegraph, 


IXU18TBUI,    APl'MOATlONS   Of    KKKtlUlCriV. 


a 


with  a  printing  apiJUi-aliis  for  recording  llio  rcsiiUa  by  ordiimrj-  inko<l 
typos;  and  in  lHi;i  ho  applied  various  modifications  to  the  sy.stein.  lii  ]»l'.\ 
Mr.  I'ooke  introduced  tho  iiunlo  of  suspending  the  wires)  on  posts,  which 
has  suKo  been  .so  gunerully  adopted  on  English  railways.  A  year  or  two 
utter  this,  JMr.  Jiuin  ilevised  a  new  fonn  of  registering  or  writing  telegraph, 
in  which  tli<j  written  copy  produced  at  one  ind  of  the  wire  is  an  exact 
countorpait  or  facsimile  of  that  trunsniitud  from  the  other.  Then  came 
various  iiuiirovements  by  MessiH.  IJrett  and  I.illle,  in  almost  eviry  part  of 
tho  appaiotus;  by  Messrs.  iknley  and  Forster,  in  the  details  of  tlu;  magnetic 
ntachine;  by  Mr.  llicardo  (Chairman  of  tho  Klectric  Telegraph  Company), 
111  the  mode  of  msnlating  and  suspending  the  wires;  by  Mr.  Swan,  in  the 
n'-id  lupiid  employed  in  the  batteries;  by  Dr.  IJuchothier,  chietly  in  the 
indications  by  means  of  a  dial;  by  Mr.  Jiakewell,  hi  his  very  ingenious 
Lransmittmg  apparatus;  by  Mr.  Uoe,  in  (he  mode  of  using  metallic  types; 
by  Mr.  Ham.  again  (who,  in  is  ly,  attained  the  means  of  i»rinting  one  thousand 
letters  por  minute  by  his  electric  telegraph);  by  M.  Dujardin,  in  the  chemical 
printing  arrangements;  by  M.  rulveneachcr,  in  various  parts  of  tho  appa- 
ratus; by  Mr.  liighton,  who  sketched  a  multiplicity  of  minor  changes;  by 
JMessM.  Urown  and  Williams,  in  the  adjustment  of  the  electro-magnetic 
machine;  by  Mv.  Hiemens,  in  the  mechanic  ,il  iletails  of  the  magnets  and 
till!  printing  types— indeed,  considering  tho  expense  of  a  patent,  it  is  lus- 
fonishing  what  a  number  have  been  taken  out  on  this  subject ;  for  most  of 
the  above  lists  are  patentetl,  and  only  a  few  out  of  the  number  are  likely  to 
bring  golden  results  to  the  patentties. 

The  Electric  Telegraph  Company,  mentioned  in  tho  preceding  iiaragraph, 
was  formed  m  IH-IO.  It  has  purchased  most  of  the  patents  of  Messrs. 
Wheats  tone  and  Cooke,  and  of  Mr.  Bain;  and  is  up  to  the  present  time  the 
only  body  by  whom  electric  telegraphy  luis  been  carried  on  to  any  great 
extent  in  this  country.  The  central  otlice  is  in  LoUibiny,  liom  which  pohit 
■wncs  extend  to  the  various  metropoliUn  railway  termini,  and  from  those  ter- 
mini the  wires  rainily  to  almost  ever\  jmrt  of  England  luid  Scotland  wherever 
a  railway  c.\ists,  always  excepting  tho  mighty  "  broad  gauge,"  which  tieems  to 
Jiave  a  will  and  a  way  of  it^  own  in  everything,  and  to  distrust  imitation  of  its 
narrow  gauge  neighbom-s.  The  broad  gauge  is,  however,  at  length  yielding 
to  tho  electric  pressure  from  without;  for  ordei-s  have  lately  been  issued  for 
laying  down  tlie  telegraph  on  tliat  important  system  of  raihvavs.  As  for 
the.  moJm  oju'iandi  at  the  various  telegraph  offices,  most  persons 'have  seen, 
or  heard,  or  read  soinethhig  concerning  it.  A  person  take.^  a  written  message 
to  the  office;  it  is  dissected  uiUi  letters,  and  transmitted  piecemeal;  it  is 
received  at  the  other  end  of  tlie  wire,  and  is  built  up  again  into  the  form 
of  a  message;  and  this  message  is  conveyed  to  tlie  required  quai'ter. 
Generally  speaking,  the  messages  relate  to  matters  oi'  business,  making 
eiuimries,  tiansmitting  news,  &c.;  but  they  may  obviously  relate  to  other 
niattei-s.  A  few  weeks  ago,  a  military  officer  ha<l  to  attend  a  njyal  banquet 
m  I.ondon;  he  came  from  the  north,  per  railway,  but  found  that  he  had 
left  his  regimentals  behind  him;  he  was  for  hastening  back  at  express  speed 
to  fetch  the  indispensable  symbols  of  his  rank,  but  was  told  that  an  electric, 
message  would  save  him  all  the  labour,  half  the  time,  and  nearly  all  the 
expense;  and  tlie  glittering  attire  was  sent  up  to  bun  by  the  next  Uai'n. 

The  Telegraph  Company,  after  an  existence  of  fourteen  yeius,  has  recently 
applied  for  on  extension  of  the  monopoly  rights,  on  tlie  ground  of  the  large 
Bums  paid  in  pui-chftse  of  patents.    But  this  application  has  beep  refused,  and 

Q  3 


' 


4  INDUBTBIAL   APrMCATTONS   OF   ELECTRlCITt. 

a  new  company  eHtablished  by  Act  of  Parliament.     Hostilities  have  not  yet 
Jctu'Jly  cZncnco.l  betwoon  the  rival  nowers.  but  it  is  pretty  nurc  to  nr.He 
ere  lonir      'I'bo  directors  sUitc   Uuit  sutlicient  capiUil  bus  been  i)roM.ic.    l.> 
sbarebolilei-H  to  construct  a  thousand  miles  of  telegmpb  <.n  die  n.'sv  syslon. 
Si    H.iid  by  its  advocates  (,«  advocates  always  say)  U,  bo  mn.h  superun 
tLthe  old.     Negr,tiations  are  on  foot  with  U.e  various  nulway  c.mpanies 
each  tcLgraph  company  seeking  to  outbi.l  the  other  in  offers  n.ade  for  the 
uTe  of  thfriilway  lines  •  U.e  profiti*  to  bo  derived  from    ctt.ng  out  be  use  o 
Z  telegmpb  for  commercial  purposes.     If  this  competition  do  -jO  ;-«;;-" J^^ 
into  recklessness,  there  may  be  enough  financial  success  for  both,  and  the 
public  m^  be  well  sei-ved!  but  the  dithculty  consists  in  mamtammg  the 
distinction  between  wholesome  imd  unwholesome  competition. 

But  Uie  sid»narinc  t^degraph  is  that  which  now  most  rivets  public  attention 
it  is  so  manellous,  and  will  be  of  such  hicalculable  udv,mtage  d  ^^^^^^ 
Where  and  when  the  subject  was  first  broached  we  do  not  know,  but  m  1H41 
Twy    ewspap.  r  tlirew  out  a  suggestion  that  a  -»>"''"-"-/l;'«'.f  »\  ""«'f 
nossiblv  be  laid  down  from  that  island  io  Southampton.      In   IHir,  lui  A  iie- 
rican  newspaper— the  countiy  for  tlaring  "  go-ahead    journals— gave  a  stung 
of  ScSin    to  show  tliat  an  ocean  udegmph  from  Eng  ami  to  America  was 
m^icable.     This  was  a  matter  in  which  the  Admiralty  felt  on  interest;  and 
mrtly  for  their  immediate  uses,  partly  to  test  the  larger  project,  they  caused  a 
iubilrbie  tcdegraph  to  be  laid  down  from   Gosport  to  Portsmouth,  across 
PorUmouth  Harbour.     The  perfect  success  of  tliis  project  made  a  great  im- 
Sion  on  the  pubUc  mind;  and  hence  projectors  became  abundant^Dover 
ESais.  Holyhead  to  Dublin.  Max-seiUes  .o  Algeria    England  t<>  An;e";'J- 
noS^ing  ^aane  amiss  to  Uiese  oceanic  telegraphei-s.     In  ^e  begnming  of    849 
the  Electric  Telegraph  Company  laid  down  wires  from  their  office  at  Hull  to 
Se  new  rlilwry  Son.  a.ul  passed  it  at  a  depth  of  twenty  feet  beneaUi  the 
^ater  Uirougb  one  of  tlie  docks;  this  wixs  a  submarine  (or  at  l^f  f. «f  ^,1»«°"« 
ZZ^h  on  a  small  scale,  and  succeeded  perfectly  well.     A  "Dubhn  and 
HoWhml  Submarine  Electric  Telegmpb  Company"  ^^''^^P^^'^^i;""- 
vertised  in  the  same  year-  but  shai-ebolders  do  not  appear  to  have  been  forth- 
comhig     In  the  sanie  year,  also,  tlic  French  Govermnent  gmnted  a  pnvdege 
to  Mr  Jacob  Brett  to  lay  down  a  submarine  telegraph  from  I' .-once  to  Eng- 
Snd    the  Government  to  derive  certain  advantages  from  it,  and  the  contractor 
to  have  the  commercial  monopoly  of  tlie  system  for  ten  years.     One  of  tlio 
conditions  of  tlie  contract  is  said  to  have  been,  that  by  tlie  aid  of  a  single  wne 
S^d  of  an  obsen-er  on  each  shore,  the  apparatus  should  be  capable  of  prmt.ng 
^1  papen  in  clear  Roman  type,  100  messages  of  15  words  eax-h,  m  100  con- 

'' iTwL'fdaylo  be  remembered,  when  this  thread  of  thongbt  (if  it  may  so  be 
tennedTwas  Lt  sU-etohed  across  Uie  Channel  from  England  t^  Fnmce.  On 
SraS  August,  1850.  this  was  actually  effected;  and  although  circxun- 
stoces  have  retarded  the  completion  of  the  system,  Uie  soundness  of  the 
Sciple  was  aLidanUy  tested.^  The  wire  employed  was  of  copr^er  encased 
in  guU  percha;  about  thirty  mUes  of  such  wire  was  coiled  i-onnd  a  large 
cylinder  in  the  steamer  Ooliath.  One  end  of  tlie  wire  being  secured  on  shore  a 
Dover!the  steamer  slowly  voyaged  a<:ross  Uie  Cbaimel  to  Capo  Grisnez.  a  pmnt 
onTe  French  coast  midway  between  Calais  and  Boulogne ;  the  wre  mxcoded 
as  the  vessel  proceeded,  and  sank  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  where  it  was  kept 
L«i  by  leaden  weighte  placed  at  intervals.  Onward  the  steamer  proceeded 
Se  those  on  board  kept  up  a  fire  of  telegmphic  questions  and  answers  with 


: 


--■""^--^i"-irfTr-"' — 


-  -  i  'm^^m»imm»mmkmilii»*MiuMMm  mimimmmkd 


■«M 


MM 


mmm 


rv. 

tilities  have  not  yet 
protly  Hurc  to  Hriso 
w  helm  \)Vo\\dod  by 
on  ihe  new  Hystein, 
Lo  bo  inuc.b  Huperior 

milway  coinpanieH ; 

offeii*  umtle  for  f.ho 
ottiiig  out  the  use  of 
on  do  not  degenerate 
SH  for  botb,  and  the 

in  maintaining  the 
tition. 

,ets  public  attention : 
viuitage  if  succossful. 
lot  know,  but  in  1H44 
rine  teb-graph  might 
I.  In  IHIT)  an  Amc- 
imals — gave  a  string 
1,'land  to  America  wan 

felt  an  interest;  and 
project,  they  caused  a 
)  Portsmouth,  across 
ject  made  a  great  im- 
ime  abundant — Dover 
England  to  America — 
he  beginning  of  1849 
their  office  at  Hull  to 
enty  feet  benealli  the 
)r  at  least  subaqueous) 
fell.  A  "Dubhn  and 
van  projected  and  ad- 
ear  to  have  been  fortli- 
jnt  granted  a  privilege 

from  Fiimce  to  Eng- 
1  it,  and  the  contractor 
en  years.  One  of  the 
he  aid  of  a  single  wire, 
be  capable  of  printing 
ords  each,  in  100  con- 

liought  (if  it  may  so  be 

iigland  to  Fi-ance.     On 

and  although  circimi- 

tlie  soimdness  of  tlie 

was  of  copper,  encased 

J  coiled  roimd  a  large 

iing  secured  on  shore  at 

3  Capo  Grisnez,  a  point 

gne ;  the  wire  uncoiled 

sea,  where  it  was  kept 

he  steamer  proceeded, 

itions  and  answers  with 


I 


T" 


1 


INDt'HTBIAL    APPLICATIONS    OF   RrjlCTRICI-n'.  B 

the  friends  left  behind  at  Dover;  n  strange  defiance  of  distance  and  of  waves  ! 
At  lengUi  th<!  vessel  reached  the  French  coast,  and  the  line  was  rairie.l  ui)  a 
clitt,  where  it  was  placed  in  connection  with  a  battery.  (.'onn.lim.MiaiT  mes- 
sages were  then  transmitted  between  England  and  Fnuuu! ;  and  thus  was 
achieved  one  .,»  the  greatest  triumphs  of  science  in  iU  applications  to  Uie 
want«  of  Hociety.  It  ,s  true  that  the  wire  was  broken  by  an  accident  within  a 
week  afterwards;  it  is  true  that  a  whole  year  h.vs  not  sufficed  to  re-establish 
the  system  on  an  en<  uring  basis ;  and  it  is  also  true  that  the  arrauKcment 
now  in  progress  involves  voiy  fonnidablo  augmentations  to  the  w..ight  mid 
costlmess  of  tlie  apparatus  ..mployed  ;  but  it  cannot  be  doubted  Umt  the  great 
difliculty  has  been  surmounted:  the  principle  and  the  leading  practical  details 
are  sound ;  aii.l  engineers  are  not  the  men  to  be  beaten  by  such  difficulties  as 
ttiose  which  yet  remain.  A  cgmj-any  of  capitalists  has.  we  believe,  been 
fonned  lor  carrymg  out  the  project,  and  the  wires  have  recently  been 
completed  I  hey  consist  of  copper  wires,  each  imbedded  in  gutta  nercha, 
aiul  tlie  whole  tlien  melo.sed  in  an  iron  wire  cable.  The  whole  apparatus  is 
of  imiuenso  weight,  and  is  (at  the  time  this  sheet  is  being  printed)  about 
being  Uikon  out  to  sea.  To  lay  U.is  ponderous  mass  down  from  shore  Ui 
shore  will  be  an  operation  likely  to  tax  all  the  skill  of  the  engineers. 

In  the  beginning  of  1851  a  paragraph  appeared  in  Oalh,un,i,  which  seems 
to  show  tliat  Mr.  Bams  system  is  working  more  energetically  in  that  country 
Uiaii  our  English  syst..in.  The  French  Government,  preparatoiy  to  purchasing 
Mr.  BaiuH  righ  s  so  far  as  regards  that  countiy,  caused  a  trial  to  be  made  on 
the  I  oris  and  lours  Ihulway.  "A  signal  was  made  fit.m  the  ministry  to 
1  oui;s,  desinng  that  a  despatch  might  be  Ibrwimled  to  Paris.  This  commu- 
nication,  and  the  a«swer  from  Tours,  a  distance  of  about  180  English  miles 
announcing  Uiat  a  desj.ateh  would  be  sent  immediately,  took  one  minute  and 
a  quarter  A  long  despatch,  containing  460  words,  e.jual  to  about  fifty  linos 
in  t^ie  ordmaiy  prmt  of  a  newspaper,  was  then  received.  The  time  occupied 
in  the  transmission  of  this  long  despatch  was  only  two  minutes  and  a  quarter. 
it  was  read  off  by  one  of  the  assistants,  and  written  down  by  another  at  his 
dicuitiou  in  thirteen  minutes.  The  signs  were  read  with  the  same  facility 
aiid  rapidity  as  imoUier  person  would  read  tJie  ordinary  print  of  a  book  " 
Unless  some  en-or  has  crept  in  here,  such  a  performance  is  most  marvellous. 

Great  as  may  be  deemed  the  length  of  electric  telegraph  in  England  (for  it 
IS  adopted  on  most  of  the  narrow-gauge  railways),  it  is  wholly  thrown  into  the 
shade  by  that  of  the  United  States,  where  it  is  measured  by  thousands  of  miles  • 
some  on  Morse  s  system,  some  on  that  of  Bam.  Even  Mexico,  poor  shattered 
Me.xico,  has  spirit  enough  to  have  lately  commenced  a  line  of  telegraph  from 
Uie  Capital  to  Vera  Ci-uz  on  die  one  side,  and  to  Acapulco  on  Uie  other; 
Uiereby  stretching  a  wire  across  the  countiy  from  ocean  to  ocean.  British 
America  too,  13  rapidly  ruunmg  a  line  from  MonUeal  to  Halifax.  On  the 
continent  of  Europe,  Siemens  and  Halske's  system  is  adopted  in  Uie  gi-eater 
pait  of  Germany ;  it  combines  a  writing  and  printing  power  with  Uiat  of 
^^rSf^'^jT^'  ^f  \^'*'"A  gieat  ingenuity.  In  Austria,  wluie  the  railways  are 
creeping  towards  Uie  Adriatic  m  one  direcUon.  and  towards  eastern  Europe  in 
^]Tl^l  ^'^ctnc  telegraph  appeai-s  as  Uieir  companion;  luid  so  it  is  in 
such  oUier  parts  of  Europe  as  have  begun  to  adopt  Uie  railway  system;  nay 
more,  telegn^jhs  ai-e,  in  some  conUnental  coimtries,  laid  down  beneaUi  the 
common  roads  without  waiting  for  railways.  Thus  it  proceeds,  step  by  step, 
across  Europe.  Lord  Palmerston  made  a  pleasant  prediction,  or  a  joke  which 
may  turn  out  to  bo  a  prediction,  at  a  public  dinner  at  SouUiampton,  where  he 


■r 


I 


0  INDL'tTBUt.  AI'PLICA'riUN*   Of    GMiCTttltfltY, 

Biiitl  that  the  clav  iimy  como  when,  if  tlio  miiiUttjr  wcio  OMked  in  tlio  IIouho  «)1' 
Cimmutust  wlualur  Wiir  hml  Itrolien  out  in  huliii,  \w  uii^'ht  Wistwor,  "  W'»it  u 
niinulu;  I  will  Ickgniph  lliu  govcmor-gonciul,  mul  iwcurtaiii. " 

ELECTBia   Dui.MJ  AND   El.BCTUlC   ClOI  M. 

A  Hwti'r  invHutiou  to  Uio  F-ltu-tilc;  Ti'loKmitli  now  nroMontrf  itself  to  our  notifC, 
hi  the  very  ntinurkahlii  i:lo(k.s  wliitii  lUrivo  tluir  i-liiuiM^turistic  fiuturia  from 
thin  wondiiit'iil  Imt  iuvir^ihlc  iigcut.  Clocks  and  lulls  have  bct'n  subsidiary 
ttiyuiK^ts  to  many  tdeotro-t^U'grapirm  eontiivancos.  IttUs  w(!ii!  intioducwl  sonic 
ytiui-s  ago,  in  certain  imhlic  tstablishnifnts,  connoctt'd  with  tho  a|ti)aialus  on 
I'lofosHor  \Vhoatstont!'s  i)iinci|)b'.  A  singlo  sinuU  batU'iy,  or  small  magmtii! 
ammnouiont,  is  sullicinit  to  nug  all  the  bells  of  a  large  estidilishment,  by  con- 
ducting u  small  wile  fioni  the  nuudiine  to  the  hell.  A  lunch  instead  of  u  pull 
Huflices  to  ruig  a  boll  so  aniuiged. 

Tho  electric  clock  is  nt>t,  as  some  Hujipose,  a  clock  in  which  elottricil^' 
repliwes  wlieuhvork  and  penduhnns :  it  is  not  so  entirely  magical.  What  it 
will  really  effect  is  this — if  one  clock  l)e  going  correctly,  an^'  number  of  other 
clocks  niay  be  made  to  borrow  their  indications  from  it,  with  very  little  other 
mechanism  thtui  hands  an<l  a  dial.  It  is  not  so  much  a  pnnlnclioii,  as  a  linit>i- 
Jeremc  of  time-measuring  indications.  In  Mr.  Wheatstone's  fn-st  electric 
clock,  for  instance,  shown  in  mition  to  tlie  Uoyal  Society  in  1M4(),  there  was 
a  lainiaiy  clock  witli  a  few  extia  adjustments,  a  galvanic  hatU^ry,  a  skel(U)n 
clock  without  any  mechanism  for  the  maintaining  or  regulating  power,  ami 
conducting  wires  to  conneia  tlie  whole  tx)gether.  Tlie  piimary  clock  gavo 
correct  lime,  and  uigenions  contrivances  enabled  these  indications  to  be 
imitated  on  the  skeleton  clock,  througli  the  medium  of  galvanic  agency  con- 
ducted along  tho  wire.  The  principle  was  made  very  ai»parent,  that  a  .singh; 
clock  may  he  made  to  indicate  the  time  in  as  many  different  places,  disUint 
from  each  other,  as  may  be  ixMpiired.  In  an  astronomical  ohservaloiy,  for 
instance,  every  room  may  bo  fuinished  witli  un  instrument  which  will  copy 
exactly  tho  indications  of  tlio  primai-y  aslionoiiiical  clock  set  up  for  tho  use  of 
the  estiddishment. 

A  vei-y  striking  illustration  of  th(!  use  of  this  manellous  agency  in  connec- 
tion with  clocks  was  given  in  tlie  United  States  in  1847.  It  was  not  an 
electric  clock,  hut  a  pecidiar  (uuploynient  of  two  clocks  and  an  elocti-ic  tele- 
graph. Two  astronomical  clocks,  at  New  York  and  Washington,  were  ac- 
curately adjusted  to  .solar  time  at  those  two  stations,  and  an  electro-telegraphic 
wire  extended  iiom  tho  clock  room  at  om;  station  to  the  clock  room  at  the 
oUior — a  distance  of  '2^5  miles.  At  a  given  moment,  say  pn^cisely  at  noon, 
a  signal  was  sent  from  New  York  to  Washington,  stjiting  the  exact  time ;  this 
signal  was  received  instantaneously,  or  at  least  after  an  intei'Vid  too  short  to  he 
appreciated,  and  immediately  compared  with  the  indications  of  the  Washington 
clock.  The  two  clocks  were  thus  compared  at  a  given  instant,  although  so 
far  asimder ;  and  tho  difference  of  the  indications  nieasui*ed  the  difference  of 
longitmte  between  the  stations:  this  difference  was  found  to  agree  almost 
exactly  with  tliat  detennined  by  astionomical  and  ti-igoiiometrical  operations. 
Depending  on  the  same  principle,  though  modified  by  different  circunistanccs, 
is  the  pai-adoxical  i-ecei[)t  of  a  message  earliei-  tlian  it  has  been  delivered — 
one  of  tlic  most  cmious  among  the  "  curiosities "  of  electi-icity.  On  tlie 
morning  of  New  Year's  Day,  1816,  a  second  or  two  after  an  accurate  clock 
iiad  sU-uck  twelve,  a  message  was  sent  by  the  electi'ic  telegraph  from  Pad- 


nkiHl  in  tlio  IIouHO  of 
K'lit  lUiHWor,  "  Wait  u 
iiiii.  ' 

u. 

U  itself  to  our  notice, 
:«ii»iti('  fciitmv!*  from 
mv<(  Ijii'ii  Hiibsiiliiiiy 
vmii  iutrotliiciid  mmw 
th  tlio  aiiumulus  on 
•y,  or  siuiill  inii^iictic 
(iUililiHlmu'iit,  by  con- 
iich  iiwtciul  of  u  piUl 

in  wliich  ulcrtriclt^' 
\y  niugii'ul.  Whut  it 
any  nunilior  of  other 

witli  voiy  littlu  other 
pfiiduction  as  ft  traiin- 
atoui'.H  Ih-st  oltictric 
y  in  1H4(),  tluro  was 
ic  hatti-ry,  a  skoirlon 
ogulatiiig  power,  and 
!  primary  clock  gavo 
le    iniUcations   to   bo 

galvanic  ugt^ncy  con- 
i|iarc'nt,  that  a  Kiiiglt! 
flcsrejit  places,  distant 
ji(;al  obscrvatoiy,  for 
unit  which  will  copy 

kiot  np  for  the  uso  of 

u»  agency  in  connec- 
147.      It  was  not  an 

ami  an  eldctiuc  tolo- 
Vashington,  wore  ac- 
an  cleetro-telegraijhie 
;ie  clock  room  at  the 
iiy  pwcisc'ly  at  noon, 

tlu!  exact  time ;  this 
itciTal  too  short  to  be 
ns  of  the  Washington 
I  instant,  although  so 
inx'd  the  ditferonce  of 
uud  to  agree  almost 
lometiicrtl  o[)erations. 
H'ercnt  circumstances, 
lias  been  delivered — 

electi-icity.  On  the 
Ler  an  accurate  clock 

telegrai)h  from  Patl- 


INl>?f»TniAT,   AI>ri.trATIONN    Of    l;l.KrTRIClTY.  f 

diiigton  to  f^louRh:  thin  ntMMago  wan  rocelved  in  iHtl  by  tln>  obspiTcrs  at 
Slough !  'I'll.'  Jrufh  in,  that  as  Slongh  i-^  westwrtnl  of  l»a<fdington.  its  clocki) 
Mvi  ItiU^v  or  slowrr  in  tin-  samo  d.j,n('<<;  no  that  tho  Sloiigli  clocks  had  not 
yrl  Mtmck  twHvc,  and  tho  year  Mil  had  not  y»'t  cxpind  Of  course,  in 
thii^  instance,  tho  docki  in(licat»'d  local  time,  and  not  railway  or  (Jrcenwich 
time. 

For  Hotnn  reason  or  otlwr,  or  prrlmpi  for  a  combination  of  reft«(ons,  tho 
electric  chaik  has  not  born  niailo  so  practically  availablo  as  thu  flccfric 
telegmpb.  Many  years  pn^scd  over  without  miich  advatK-tt  on  Trofcssor 
VVhcatsloiif'H  arnmg<'mcnt.  A  certain  inconstancy  and  varied  intensity  in 
the  electric  power  by  which  the  peudidmu  is  kept  in  oscillaticm  is  one  nmln 
dithcnlty  in  the  way.  Two  or  thiee  years  ago  Mr.  Appold  sought  to  remove 
this  evil  through  tho  aid  of  a  «elf-ad,)usting  apparatus  comiected  with  the 
ponduhnu,  which  should  allow  the  cimvnt  to  flow  only  when  re(piired,  and 
the.)  f)idy  in  such  quantify  as  becomes  necessarj-  to  restore  the  pendidimi  to 
its  mean  rate  of  ribration.  ^lr.  Ibiin,  also,  who  has  pcrhajH  been  the  most 
indefatigalilf!  of  all  inventors  in  the  application  of  electricity  to  telegmphs  and 
clocks,  has  sfenilily  followed  out  ])lajH  for  removing  one  by  one  the  difft. 
culties  which  presf^nt  themselves.  Few  eontrlvances  can  be  nmn-  reniarkablo 
than  Mr.  Ihiin's  electHe  clock.  It  has  no  weight,  no  spring,  no  escnpeiiient, 
no  wiiiding-up  a]i))arafus  nor  necessity  for  being  woiukI  up,  no  agency  within 
itself  for  putting  or  keepijig  the  hamls  in  motion,  'i'he  invisible  power  which 
actuates  it  is  outside  the  clock — outside  the  house,  even,  in  which  the  clock  is 
contained.  In  a  garden  or  other  piece  of  ground  is  dug  a  hole  four  or  five 
feet  deep :  info  this  hole  is  thrown  a  layer  of  coke,  then  a  layer  of  earth,  and 
then  a  few  zinc  plates.  A  feeble  but  constant  galvanic  cuirent  is  generated 
by  the  (ionfact  of  the  earth  with  tho  coke  below  it  and  the  zinc  above  It, 
without  the  aid  of  any  other  battery ;  and  this  cuiTcnt  is  conveyed  iu-doors  by 
copper  wires.  The  wires  form  n  coil  round  a  magnet;  and  tho  electro- 
magnet thus  formed  is  made  to  constitute  the  boh  of  tho  pendulum  of  tlio 
clock.  ])elicate  and  beautiful  mechanism  enables  tho  electric  apparatus  to 
give  ft  vibratoiy  motion  to  the  pendulum,  and  the  pendulum  in  its  turn  to 
give  motion  to  the  two  hands  of  a  clock.  The  only  "  winding-up  "  re((uired 
by  this  e.xtraoi-dinaiy  clock  is  a  feed  of  zinc  to  tho  earth-batteiy  when  it  .shall 
have  become  o.xidized  by  long  use* ;  but  ono  of  the  clocks  has  been  already 
known  to  go  three  or  four  years  without  any  such  chemical  winding-up.  Tlii's 
is  not  "  perpetual  motion,"  certainly,  but  it  is  a  most  instructive  uppro.xima- 
tlon  towards  it. 

Jt  was  in  1849  that  Mr.  Shoplierd,  the  chronometer  maker,  obtained  a 
patent  for  that  fonn  of  electric  clock  which  has  since  become  familiar  to  so 
many  thousands  of  visitors  at  the  Ciystnl  Palace.  In  tho  first  placo  there  are 
eight  electro-magnets  lo  give  moving-power  to  tho  clock.  Each  magnet  con- 
sists of  a  bar  of  iron  with  about  three  thousand  feet  of  wire  coiled  round  it ; 
flc  there  aw!  nearly  five  miles  of  wire  in  all.  'J'hc  mode  in  which  the  electric, 
current  is  l)roU{,'ht  into  operative  connection  with  tho  works  of  tlie  clock  is 
novel,  but  too  intricate  tf)  be  made  intelligible  without  diagrams ;  we  there- 
fore go  to  the  outside  of  the  south  transept.  Hero  we  find  a  clock-face  of 
singular  character :  instead  of  being  a  circle  it  is  a  semicircle,  and  eiu-h  hand 
extends  across  the  diameter  histead  of  merely  the  semi-diaineter.  This 
novelty  seems  to  have  been  chiefly  due  to  the  architectural  an-angement  of 
that  part  of  the  building.  The  minute  hand  is  si.xteen  feet  long,  imd  the 
hoilr  hand  twelve ;  the  former  revolves  once  in  two  hom-s,  and  the  latter  once 


WJ  1^1  iM»ilifcjtoUia»Mftgt 


\ 


8  INDUSTBIAIi    APPLICATIONS    OF   EI^CTRICITY. 

in  tv/enty-four.  Six  o  clock,  instead  of  being  mai-ked  at  the  bottom  of  the 
face,  is  at  the  right  and  left,  or  east  and  west ;  and  the  observer  is  at  first  a 
little  puzzled  to  learn  the  indications;  but  they  soon  render  themselves 
familiar.  There  ai-e  no  heavy  weights  in  tlie  clock,  aid  the  space  which  it 
occupies  IS  vciy  small,  although  it  is  said  to  equal  that  of  St.  Paul's  in  power. 

A  smaller  ciock,  in  front  of  the  south  transept  gallery,  within  the  building, 
is  worked  by  the  same  battery  as  the  larger  one;  and — still  more  fitted  to 
UlustTate  the  way  in  which  electric  agency  defies  distance — there  is  a  tliird 
clock  in  the  western  gallery,  eleven  or  twelve  hundred  feet  distant  from  the 
first.  All  three  work  togethsr,  giving  like  indications,  and  Unked  by  this 
mysterious  sympathy. 

Of  tlie  kindly  relations  which  exist,  and  must  ever  exist,  between  science 
and  its  applications,  we  have  already  spoken ;  and  instances  illustrative  of 
tliese  relations  are  daily  nmltiplying  oi-ound  us.  For  instance,  at  the  recent 
Ipswich  meeting  of  the  British  Association,  evidence  was  atforded  of  two 
pleasant  and  important  facts — tliat  electricity  is  likely  to  be  a  most  important 
aid  in  astronomical  observations  ;  and  that  America  is  busily  and  successfully 
prosecuting  astronomical  studies,  in  spite  of  Califomian  gold  and  other 
sources  of  excitement.  Professor  Bond  contributed  a  paper  on  the  applica- 
tion of  electro-mechanism  to  astronomical  obsei-vations,  as  practised  at  Hai-vaid 
Observatoiy.  Supposing  the  observer  wishes  to  note  tlie  exact  instant  when  a 
star  passes  the  meridian  ;  he  has  an  accurate  clock  near  him,  and  an  electi-o- 
magnetic  machine  in  connection  v/ith  the  clock ;  he  has  also  a  piece  of  paper 
wrapped  round  a  slowly  revolving  cylinder.  He  touches  a  key  at  the  instant 
of  the  transit ;  this  connects  the  machine,  the  clock,  and  tlie  paper  together ; 
and  a  mark  is  made  on  tlie  paper  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  the  exact 
instant  of  the  ti-ansit.  A  pennanent  record  is  tlius  obtained,  which  can  be 
presened  by  reniovmg  the  paper  from  the  cylinder.  The  great  authority  of 
tlie  Astronomer  Royal  tells  us  that  "  the  principle  of  the  method  is  entirely 
the  discovery  of  the  Americans,  and  that  Professor  Bond  has  tlie  merit  of 
originating  what  he  (the  Astronomer  Royal)  had  no  doubt  would  prove  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  the  practice  of  astronomy." 


Electric  Rivalbt  to  the  Steam-Enoine. 

An  opponent  has  sprang  up  to  the  system  which  we  owe  to  the  genius  of 
James  Watt.  Electricity  has  given  a  formal  challenge  to  steam,  and  engages 
to  try  strength  against  it  in  the  mill,  in  the  ship,  and  in  the  railway.  The 
challenge  is  a  bold  one,  and  must  be  fairly  met. 

It  is  now  about  eighteen  years  since  the  idea  cf  working  machinery  by 
electric  power  was  first  practically  tested.  There  may,  it  is  true,  have  been 
some  earlier  attempts ;  but  the  late  Mr.  Sturgeon,  at  any  rate,  exhibited  a 
small  galvanic  apparatus  in  1833,  which  was  capable  of  pumping  water,  saw- 
ing wood,  and  performing  other  mechanical  operations.  Although  a  mere  toy 
as  to  size  and  power,  it  clearly  illustrated  the  principle  under  notice,  and  was 
so  far  important.  Three  or  four  years  after  this  Dr.  M'Connel),  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, made  a  small  electro-magnetic  machine  which  gave  motion  to  a  fly- 
wheel .  although  the  machine  weighed  but  seventeen  pounds,  the  wheel  carried 
a  load  of  forty  pounds  through  a  space  of  300  feet  per  minute,  and  was  made 
to  rotate  seventy  times  in  that  space  of  time. 

Other  inventors  in  other  quarters  were  not  slow  to  follow  the  path  thus  laid 
open.     One  of  tliem  was  Mr.  Clarke,  of  Leicester,  who  constructed  an  electro- 


mlm 


CITY, 

i  at  the  bottom  of  the 
)  obsei-ver  is  at  first  n 
ion  render  themselves 
,r.d  tlie  space  which  it 
of  St.  Paul's  in  power. 
•y,  within  the  building, 
ud — still  more  fitted  to 
ance — tliere  is  a  tliird 
[  feet  distant  from  the 
ns,  and  linked  by  this 

■  exist,  between  science 
nstances  illustrative  of 
instance,  at  the  recent 
ze  was  atforded  of  two 
to  be  a  most  important 

busily  and  successfully 
»mian  gold  and  other 
i  paper  on  the  applica- 

as  practised  at  Hanard 
he  exact  instant  when  a 
ir  him,  and  an  electi'o- 
is  also  a  piece  of  paper 
les  a  key  at  the  instant 
uid  tlie  paper  together ; 
as  to  indicate  the  exact 
obtained,  which  can  be 

The  great  authority  of 
'  the  metliod  is  entirely 
Bond  has  tlie  merit  of 
)ubt  would  prove  of  the 


NfllNE. 

e  owe  to  the  genius  of 
!  to  steam,  and  engages 
i  in  the  railway.     The 

'  working  machinery  by 
y,  it  is  true,  have  been 
at  any  rate,  exhibited  a 

of  pumping  water,  saw- 
3.  Althougli  a  mere  toy 
le  under  notice,  and  was 

M'Connel),  of  Pennsyl- 
L  gave  motion  to  a  fly- 
ounds,  the  wheel  carried 
sr  minute,  and  was  made 

follow  the  path  thus  laid 
0  constructed  an  electro- 


INDUSrUIAL   Ai'I'LICA'nONS   OF    KI.ECTKltlTV. 


9 


locomotive  which  ran  on  a  circular  railway,  and  drew  from  sixty  to  one  hun- 
dred pounds  weight;  instead  of  a  "  feed  of  com,"  or  a  "  chai-ge  of  colie, "  its 
stamina  was  kept  up  by  three  pints  of  acid  liquor  in  the  galvanic  apparatus, 
for  two  hom-s'  work.  Another  ingenious  experimenter  was  Professor  Jacobi, 
of  St.  Petei'sburg.  In  a  paper  read  at  the  Glasgow  Meeting  of  die  British 
Association  in  18  iO,  he  detailed  the  particulars  of  a  very  novel  voyage  which 
he  had  made  on  tlie  river  Neva  in  the  preceding  year.  He  constmcted  in  1838 
a  tiny  steam-boat,  or  rather  magneto-boat,  about  thirty  feet  in  lengtli,  seven  or 
eight  in  diameter,  drawing  three  feet  of  water,  and  capable  of  holding  fom'- 
tecn  persons ;  it  had  a  galvanic  batteiy  instead  of  a  steam-engine ;  and  this 
battery  was  made  to  act  on  paddle-wheels,  by  which  the  boat  was  propelled. 
He  obtained  a  speed  of  a  mile  and  a  half  an  hour,  on  the  first  ti'ial ;  but,  by 
various  changes,  in  tlie  next  following  yeai*  he  raised  the  speed  to  three  miles 
an  hour — humble,  perhaps,  but  not  contemptible  as  a  beginning.  "  We  have 
gone  thus  on  the  Neva,"  the  Pi-ofessor  wrote,  "  more  than  once,  and  during 
the  whole  day,  partly  with  and  partly  against  tlie  stream,  with  apai-ty  of  twelve 
or  fourteen  persons,  and  with  a  velocity  not  much  less  than  that  of  tlie  first- 
invented  steam-boat."    It  was,  in  truth,  a  veiy  creditable  beginning. 

Shortly  after  this,  another  ingenious  explorer  in  the  same  field  appeared  in 
Scotland.  Mr.  Davidson,  of  Aberdeen,  constructed  a  small  galvanic  machine 
whereby  a  common  tuming-latlie  could  be  driven ;  and  the  velocity  obtained 
was  sufficient  for  tlie  turning  of  small  articles.  In  another  form  of  appai-atus, 
the  same  inventor  managed,  with  only  two  electro-magnets  and  one  squai-e  foot 
of  zinc  surface,  to  generate  power  sufficient  for  drawing  a  small  carriage  widi 
two  persons  over  a  rough  floor.  There  was  so  fai-  a  fair  trial  given  to  die  pro- 
ject, even  in  1842,  as  to  place  a  locomotive  on  die  Edinbm-gh  and  Glasgow 
Kailway  at  the  service  of  the  inventor,  who  propelled  it  at  the  rate  of  four 
miles  an  hour,  solely  by  electro-magnetic  agency. 

So  busy  has  been  the  search  after  this  remarkable  agency,  that  not  a  year 
has  passed  since  the  date  of  Mr.  Davidson's  experiments  without  producuig 
something  or  other  bearing  on  the  subject.  In  one  instance  we  have  an  in- 
ventor who  is  so  sanguine  that  all  is  as  he  would  wish  it  to  be,  that  he  pre- 
dicts die  speedy  downfall  of  st£ani-power,  never  again  to  rise,  before  die 
younger  giant — electricity.  In  another,  we  find  an  ingenious  an-angement  of 
mechanism  described,  but  with  more  modest  anticipadons  on  the  part  of  the 
inventor.  In  odiers,  again,  the  plans  exist  only  on  paper,  imd  have  never  yet 
been  tiied  in  the  cnicible  of  experiment. 

In  the  year  1849  these  project?  began  to  assume  a  somewhat  more  definite 
form  than  diey  had  liitherto  presented.  M.  Hjdilh,  a  Dane  resident  m  Eng- 
land, obtained  a  patent  for  an  applicadon  of  electro-magnedc  power  to  the 
puiposes  of  engmes,  machines,  ships,  and  railways.  There  were  batteries  to 
generate  the  power,  magnets  to  be  influenced  by  the  power  dius  generated,  and 
mechanism  to  apply  the  power  to  the  rotadon  of  a  fly-wheel,  which  became  in 
its  turn  the  source  of  modoii  to  other  macliinery.  He  planned  an  engine,  in- 
tended to  be  of  ten-horse  power :  one  of  his  elecd-o-magnets  was  of  enormous 
power;  and  bright  andcipadons  were  indulged  in  concerning  the  results.  The 
visitors  to  the  Ciystal  Palace  have  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  M.  Hjorth's 
machine,  or  at  least  a  model  of  it ;  but  we  are  not  aware  that  anything  has  yet 
occurred  in  realizadon  of  the  inventor's  enthusiastic  hopes. 

The  same  yeai-  witnessed  the  mtroduction  of  M.  Pulvermacher's  electro- 
magnetic contrivances.  This  gendeman  is  an  Austrian,  but  he  obtained  an 
English  patent,  in  which  a  veiy  wide  xtmge  of  ingenious  inventions  are  de- 

o  3 


. -xaMMiM 


ttmmHttumn  XlllMllilli  «"ii 


\- 


L»[    I  ,nm0mmmmm>> 


10 


INDUSTRIAL   APPLICATIONS   OP    ELECTKll'lTY. 


I 


scribed  There  are  new  materials  for  the  cells  of  the  galvanic  battery  ;  new 
onancements  for  conveying  away  the  acid  fumes  generated  dunng  the  galvanic 
action  ;  new  modes  of  rendering  the  current  uniform  in  strength ;  new  conihl- 
nations  of  fluids  in  the  battery;  an  amvngement  of  apparatus  for  producmg 
mechanical  power ;  an  eiectro-magnetic  locomotii-e  ;  and  a  new  form  ot  elecUic 
telegraph— the  whole  comprising  many  ingenious  novelties. 

Anotlier  aspii-ant  to  public  favour  in  the  same  field  is  Trofeasor  Page,  ot 
America     In  a  series  of  lectures  which  he  dehvered  before  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  IBftO,  ho  described  certain  anangements  of  electro-motive  appa- 
ratus which  he  had  adopted.     The  American  journals  frequently  indulge  tu 
such  a  tone  of  bombast  and  exaggeration  when  describing  any  really  ingenious 
inventions  by  our  transatlantic  brethren,  that  they  must  often  bo  read  with  a 
certain  discount,  a  drawback  allowance  for  sui-plns  enthusiasm.     In  the  ac- 
couuis  of  Professor  Pages  experiments,  it  is  stated  that  a  bar  of  iron,  one 
hundred  and  sixty  pounds  weight,  was  made  to  spring  np  by  magnetic  action, 
and  to  move  ropiilly  up  and  down,  "  dancing  like  a  feather  in  the  air,  widiout 
any  visible  support."   The  distance  tints  moved,  it  is  true,  was  only  ten  inches; 
but  it  was  concluded,  by  a  somewhat  sweeping  logic,  that  a  himdi-ed  teet  could 
be  as  readily  gained  as  ten  inches,  and  d  ton  raised  as  well  a.s  any  smaller 
weight,  by  hicreasing  the  power.     The  mighty  steam  hainmer,  it  was  conjec- 
tured would  have  to  yield  to  this  more  powerful  rival.     Professor  Page  also 
exhiliited  an  electro-magnetic  engine  of  five-horae  power,  set  in  action  by  a 
calvanic  battery  occupying  about  three  square  feet ;   it  was  a  reciprocating 
engine  of  two-feet  stroke,  and  weighed  (with  the  batteiy)  about  a  ton.     It  was 
capable  of  working  a  circular  saw  ten  inches  in  diameter,  which  cut  up  boards 
into  laths,  and  which  revolved  eighty  times  in  a  minute  while  so  doing      llie 
inventor  candidly  avowed  that,  tliough  the  expense  was  less  than  that  of  steam 
in  most  engines,  it  was  rather  greater  than  in  engines  of  cheap  construction  ; 
but  the  newspaper  commentators  would  not  submit  to  any  limitations  to  then- 
bright  predictions  ,  for  we  ai-e  told  tliat  "we  can  now  look  forward  wth  cei- 
tainty  to  tlie  time  when  coal  wUl  be  put  to  bettor  uses  tlian  to  bmn,  scald,  and 

"^Bu7although  there  is  a  tinge  of  extravagance  in  the  publislied  accounts  of 
inventions  and  novelties,  there  is  an  energy  across  the  Atlantic  which  is  pretty 
sure  to  lead  to  something  valuable.  In  the  case  now  before  us,  the  Congress 
appropriated  20,000  dollare  to  assist  Professor  Page  in  carnring  on  his  expen- 
ments  Those  experiments  wore  made  at  Washington ;  and  tlie  object  m  view 
was  to  determine  the  availability  of  electric  power  as  a  substitute  for  steani 
powe^-not  simply  under  a  scientific  aspect,  but  in  the  ordinarj-  commercial 
arrangements  of  every-day  life.  The  Professor  has  during  the  present  year 
(Io61j  exhibited  an  electro-magnetic  en^ne  which  works  a  cylinder  printing- 
press  He  has  also  made  an  electi'o-hammer.  Hie  head  or  mass  of  which 
wei-'hs  about  fifty  pounds,  and  which  he  causes  to  rise  and  fall  with  great 
rapi'dity  and  force.  His  next  achievement  was  the  constniction  of  an  electro- 
locomotive,  with  live-feet  driving  wheels  and  two-feet  stroke,  and  a  weight  ol 
more  than  ten  tons ;  it  was  tried  on  the  Baltimore  Railway,  and  attained  a 
speed  of  ten  miles  on  hour  on  a  level.  In  a  letter  to  the  Scienh/ic  American 
ioumal,  the  experimenter,  in  answer  to  certain  objectors,  drew  attention  to 
the  memorable  tria.  of  locomotives  on  the  Liveriiool  and  Manchester  Railway 
in  188U,  and  asserts  that,  even  in  its  present  state,  he  would  venture  to  place 
his  electro-locomotive  as  a  competitor  in  a  contest  with  such  a  steam-locomo- 
tive as  the  "  Rocket"  nm  twenty-two  years  ago.    He  moreover  expresses  ft  con- 


lAiMMilMNMiiHMiiMkl 


rv. 

ilvanic  bntteiy ;  new 
d  during  the  galvftnic 
trength ;  new  eoinbi- 
iratus  for  producing 
I  new  form  of  electiic 

is  Professor  Page,  of 
fore  the  Smlthsonifin 
electro-motive  appa- 
frequently  indulge  in 
»  any  really  ingenious 
often  be  read  with  a 
husiasm.     In  the  ac- 
it  a  bar  of  iron,  one 
p  by  magnetic  action, 
!r  in  the  air,  widiont 
,  was  only  ten  inches ; 
;  a  hundred  feet  could 
IS  well  as  any  smaller 
ainmcr,  it  was  conjee- 
Professor  Page  also 
^r,  set  in  action  by  a 
t  was  a  reciprocating 
about  a  ton.     It  was 
•,  which  cut  up  boards 
while  so  doing.     The 
»ss  tlian  that  of  steam 
f  cheap  construction  ; 
my  limitations  to  tlieir 
look  forward  with  cer- 
lan  to  bum,  gcald,  and 


INDI'STUIAI.   Al'l'LICATIONB   OF   ELECTllICITY. 


II 


published  accounts  of 
Ltlantic  which  i?  pretty 
lefore  us,  the  Congress 
carrying  on  his  experi- 
and  tlie  object  in  view 
a  substitute  for  steam 
!  ordinary'  commercial 
iring  the  present  year 
ks  a  cylinder  printing- 
ead  or  mass  of  which 
3e  and  fall  with  great 
jtraction  of  an  electro- 
b-oke,  and  a  weight  of 
ailway,  and  attained  a 
the  Scienti/ic  American 
tors,  drew  attention  to 
id  Manchester  Railway 
would  venture  to  place 
li  such  a  steam-locomo- 
>reover  expresses  6,  eon- 


fldenco  tliat  his  new  contrivance  "  is  capable  of  carrying  two  loaded  passenger 
cai"s  to  lialtimore  at  the  rate  of  twenty  milos  im  hour,  as  soon  as  some  of  the 
vei-y  gi'cat  and  obvious  defects  ai'o  remedied." 

Ono  of  the  most  recent  projects  in  this  curious  department  of  mechanical 
enquiry,  is  Mr.  Sliepai'd's  (or  rather  M.  NoUet's,  it  having  been  puteuted 
for  him  in  England)  "  Electro-magnetic  heat,  light,  and  motive-power  pro^ 
ducing  machine."  A  long  name  tliis,  and  lui  imposing  claim  of  power.  The 
apparatus  is  veiy  complex,  and  exhibits  abundant  uigei.mity;  it  is  formed 
on  the  theoiy  of  decomposing  water  by  electric  agency,  and  then  developing 
light,  nn<l  boat,  and  motive  force,  as  consequences  of  tlio  decomposition, 
The  merits  of  this  hew  machine  are  now  being  put  to  the  test  in  Belgium. 

After  all,  the  question  of  electTO-mechanism  seems  likely  to  resolve  itself 
into  one  of  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence.  Will  it  pay? — is  the  query,  here 
as  elsewhere.  Machinists  tell  us  that  they  can  move  fly-wheelg  and  drive 
locomotives  by  electricity;  but  machinists,  with  their  account  books  before 
them,  count  tip  tlie  cost,  and  look  grave  thereat.  For  every  unit  of  power 
obtained,  coal  must  be  consumed  in  a  steam-engine,  and  zinc  in  a  batterj- ; 
and  the  ratio  between  die  production  and  the  consumption  mtist  be  deter- 
mined in  each  case.  Now  the  results  of  observation  ajul  calculation  on  this 
point  have  something  veiy  curious  about  them.  Mr.  Robert  Hmit,  in  a  paper 
read  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  1850,  presented  them  in  tlie  following 
form: — He  stated,  that  one  grain  of  coal,  consumed  In  tlie  furnace  of  a 
Comish  mining  steam-engine,  generates  power  sufficient  to  lift  one  bundled 
and  forty-tln-ee  poimds  one  foot  liigh;  whereas,  one  gram  of  zinc  .lonauraed 
in  a  galvimic  battery,  produces  power  adequate  only  to  eighty  pounds.  Again, 
one  cwt.  of  zinc  costs  twenty  or  tliirty  times  as  umch  as  an  equal  weight  of 
coal.  Taking  tliose  and  other  facts  into  consideration,  Mr.  Hunt  gave  it  as 
his  opinion,  that  galvaiiic  power  is  fifty  times  as  costly,  as  steam  power.  If 
this  be  conect,  or  if  it  approximate  even  remotely  to  correctness,  it  places  the 
new  rival  to  steam  power  in  a  very  humble  position;  and  it  wiU  have  to 
submit  with  as  good  a  gmce  as  may  be  to  a  defeat. 

El.EC:TniC    RlVALKY    TO    GAS-LlGnXING, 

There  is  anotlier  battle  which  electricity  has  called  out  for  itself,  and  on 
which  it  has  not  been  less  sanguine  of  victor)' — tliat  of  producujg  a  light  so 
brilliant  and  so  steady,  so  cheap  and  so  efficient,  as  to  suporeede  gas. 

It  was  in  1846  that  (be  world  was  first  stai-tied  with  tliis  novelty — Uie 
electric  hght.  True  it  is,  that  scientific  men  had  long  been  familiar  witli 
the  intensity  of  Uie  ligJ- 1  caus(^d  by  elt;ctric  action,  but  it  was  Messrs.  Gi-eenor 
and  Htaite,  we  believe,  who  iirst  devised  a  form  of  uppamtus  for  public 
lighting  by  such  agency.  Tlieir  patent  of  the  year  above  named  described 
an  an-angement  whereby  small  lumps  of  pure  caibon,  enclosed  in  air-tight 
vessels,  wero  susceptible  of  being  rendered  luminous  by  cuirents  of  galvanic 
electricity.  Little  was  done,  in  tlio  fi  st  yeai,  beyond  the  promulgation  of  tho 
niethoti;  but  in  1847  the  evening  gazei-s  in  London  were  ostcaiished  by  the 
occasional  flashes  of  intense  light  thrown  out  upon  them  from  elevated 
spots;  and  one  of  the  inventora  estimated  tlio  merits  of  tlie  system  so 
highly,  as  to  state  the  comparative  cost  of  lighting  to  be  in  tlie  ratio  of 
one  to  six,  or  eight,  as  comparotl  witli  gas.  At  one  time  it  was  the  National 
Gallery,  at  another  the  noiHi  tower  of  Ilungerford  Bridge,  at  another  the 
Duke  of  York's  Column,  at  auoUiQr  Uio  Polyteclinic  lusUtuUou,  whicb  v/m 


.,^.....  ..^..-j.-^..^.  .^.^ 


MiiKMMHAtMMiiU 


iHitriiffiiiiiHinilirMWiiiwiifii 


f; 
i' 


i 


Ijl  INDtTSTBIAL   APPtrCATIONS  OF  ELECTKICITY. 

thus  made  the  theatre  lor  the  exhibition  of  these  results ;  and,  for  a  time,  the 
"  talk  of  the  town"  was  tins  electric  light  and  its  raar\els. 

So  far  as  it  can  be  described  in  a  few  words,  the  following  will  convey  an 
idea  of  the  mode  of  producing  the  light.  In  the  fii;8t  place  there  were  two 
small  cylinders  or  bits  of  pure  carbon,  with  their  pomts  placed  some  small 
fraction  of  an  inch  apart.  As  Uiey  were  subjected  to  a  slow  combustion,  the 
points  of  these  cylinders  receded  furUier  and  further  apart;  but  this  reces- 
sion was  corrected  by  a  train  of  wheel-work  which  advanced  them  m  an  equa 
degree  in  the  opposite  direction,  so  that  the  carbon  points  were  maintamed 
eqilidistant.  A  galv.mic  battery  was  provided,  and  the  two  carbon  cylinders 
lay  in  the  direction  of  the  circuit  tlirough  the  wires  so  that  the  galvanic 
circuit  could  not  be  completed  unless  the  fluid  could  traverse  the  small 
distance  from  one  piece  of  carbon  to  the  other.  It  is  one  among  Uie  many 
properties  of  electricity,  that  when  the  subtle  agent  has  tJius  to  leap  over  the 
totirval,  as  it  were,  from  one  point  to  anotlier,  it  generates  aii  "»»«"««  J^f 
at  that  point;  and  the  points  being,  in  Uie  api)ai-atu8  m  question,  forniedo 
a  slowly  combustible  body,  like  carbon,  the  heat  generates,  or  is  at  least 
accompLiied  by,  an  intense  light.  The  task  which  most  called  ford  JJie 
ingenuity  of  the  inventors,  was  to  keep  the  carbon  pomts  at  such  a  distance 
as  to  render  the  light  continuous  instead  of  intermittmg;  for  an  int«rmittmg 
or  flickering  light  would  he  nearly  valueless  in  ordinary  cases. 

Numerous  practical  difficulties  presented  themselves  m  this  novel  experi- 
ment, and  Mr.  Staite  obtained  another  patent  in  1848,  for  tiieu:  prospective 
removal  He  devised  a  new  form  of  galvanic  batteiy,  and  new  applications 
of  exciting  fluid  to  be  used  in  it;  he  introduced  a  galvanometer  to  measure 
the  intensity  of  the  current  produced;  he  substituted  tlie  metal  mdium  for 
carbon  at  the  points;  he  improved  the  means  of  maintainmg  a  constant 
distance  between  tiie  points;  and  he  showed  how  so  to  arrange  tiie  apparatus, 
that  the  lif?ht  may  be  made  either  continuous  for  ordmaiy  pui-poses,  or 
intermittent  for  lighthouses.  The  electric  light  was  ^ain  exhibited  in  many 
public  places;  and  in  the  same  year  another  mode  of  producing  the  desired 
result  was  brought  fonvard  by  MM.  Achereau  and  Fom-cault,  at  I  ans. 

In  the  following  year,  1849,  there  was  no  lack  of  busy  discussions  m 
connection  with  this  subject,  or  of  suggestions  for  improved  methods.  M 
Le  Molt  patented  many  modifications,  esi>ecially  m  tiie  form  and  Jurangement 
of  the  charcoal  points.  Mr.  Gillespie,  in  like  manner,  du-ected  liis  attention 
to  this  very  delicate  part  of  the  arrangement,  on  which  so  much  depends,  and 
suggested  a  new  mode  of  maintaining  tiie  constant  distance.  Mr.  learce  was 
anotiier  of  tiie  inventors  who  took  tiie  carbon  points  into  conside^ration,  witti  a 
view  to  improve  tiieir  mode  of  action.  In  the  same  year  Mr.  htaite,  m  con- 
iunction  witii  Mr.  King,  obtained  another  j)atent  for  a  most  extensive  series  ol 
improvements,  modifications,  adaptations,  extensions,  or  whatever  Uiey  may 
best  be  termed,  embracing  almost  every  part  of  the  subject,  and  showing 
simificantiy  tiiat  ttie  former  metiiod.  however  ingenious,  must  have  been  tull 
of  imperfections  of  one  kind  or  otiier.  Professor  Grove,  in  a  lecture  at  tfie 
Royal  Institiition,  stated  that  he  had  illuminated  tiie  tii«itre  of  the  London 
Institution  by  an  electric  Ught,  five  or  six  years  previously;  and  he  tiiought 
tiiat  much  hope  and  promise  were  in  store  for  us,  m  respect  to  a  bnUiant  and 
economical  principle  of  lighting.  On  tiie  other  hand,  Mr.  Rutter,  who  about 
tiiat  time  wi-ote  a  ti-eatise  on  gas  lighting,  gave  tne  new-conier.  tiie  electinc 
Ught  a  few  gentle  rubs ;  and  asked  how  it  happened,  if  the  light  were  so  veiy 
efficient  and  economical,  that  it  had  not  by  tiiat  time  come  mto  use.     indeed, 


iimiiiiriiiiiinini     'I'm 

r 


[CITY. 

ts ;  and,  for  a  time,  the 
bIs. 

bllowing  will  convey  an 
8t  place  tlievc  were  two 
nts  placed  some  »iuall 
a  slow  combustion,  tho 
r  apart;  but  this  reces- 
anced  them  in  an  equal 
points  were  maintauied 
le  two  carbon  cylinders 
IS,  so  that  the  galvanic 
uld  traverse  the  small 
1  one  among  Uie  many 
as  tlius  to  leap  over  the 
aerates  an  intense  heat 

in  question,  formed  of 
enerates,  or  is  at  least 

most  called  forth  the 
lints  at  such  a  distance 
ug;  for  an  intermitting 
y  cases. 

38  in  this  novel  experi- 
,B,  for  Uieir  prospective 
y,  and  new  applications 
dvanometer,  to  measure 
i  tlie  metal  jjidium  for 
naintaining  a  constant 
o  an-ange  the  apparatus, 
r  ordinary  purposes,  or 
^ain  exhibited  in  many 
if  producing  the  desired 
u-cault,  at  Paris, 
of  busy  discussions  in 
improved  methods.  M. 
e  form  and  arrangement 
r,  directed  his  attention 
h  so  much  depends,  and 
stimce.  Mr.  Pearce  was 
nto  consideration,  with  a 

year  Mr.  Staite,  in  con- 
.  most  extensive  series  of 
1,  or  whatever  they  may 
le  subject,  Mid  showing 
[)us,  must  have  been  full 
rove,  in  a  lecture  at  the 
}  theatre  of  the  London 
/iously;  and  he  thought 
respect  to  a  brilliant  and 
i,  Mr.  Rutter,  who  about 

new-comer,  the  electric 
if  the  hght  were  so  very 
come  into  use.     ixideed, 


INDl'STRIAL   Al'l'LIt'ATIONS   OF    KLECTniCITY. 


18 


there  were  many  misgivings  among  scientific  men  as  to  tJio  fitness  of  the 
electric  agency  for  tho  object  in  view.  Dr.  Faraday,  in  a  discussion  on  thi.s 
question  at  the  Birmingham  Meeting  of  the  Britisli  Association,  commented 
oil  the  irrcgulai-  character  of  the  electric  light,  and  its  inapplicability  for  pur- 
I)0SC3  of  general  illumination :  all  objects  appearing  dark  when  tlie  eye  was 
embarrasse<l  by  the  uitensity  of  this  extraordinary  light. 

A  new  claimant  to  public  attention,  Mr.  Allnian,  brought  out  a  new  form  of 
electric  light  in  1B50,  directed,  as  the  greater  number  of  the  inventions  have 
been,  to  the  maintenance  of  proper  distance  between  the  points.  He  devised 
a  very  ingenious  self-adjusting  or  regulating  plan,  whereby  the  distance  should 
not  always  be  the  same,  but  shoidd  vary  as  the  intensity  of  the  cun-ent. 
\Vlien  Uie  flow  is  too  energetic,  and  would  consequently  produce  too  bright  a 
light,  the  points  recede  a  little ;  whereas  they  approach  more  closely  when 
tlie  power  becomes  weak.  The  principle  here  involved  is  highly  scientific, 
somethuig  like  Watt's  steam-enguie  governor;  but  it  would  require  exact 
workmanship  and  careful  handling  to  make  it  practically  available. 

The  grand  project,  however,  of  1850,  so  lai-  as  relates  to  tins  subject,  was 
Uie  American  light,  produced  from  water  at  no  expense  at  all !  It  was 
announced  that  Mr.  Paine,  of  Worcester,  U.S.,  had  discovered  a  mode  of 
obtaining  a  brilliant  light  by  the  action  of  electricity  on  water,  at  a  cost  merely 
nominal.  At  first  the  worid  disbelieved  it;  but  by  duit  of  repeated  assertions 
and  assurances,  the  worid  (that  is,  tlie  American  worid)  began  to  tliink  there 
must  be  someUiiug  in  the  matter.  The  Boston  newspapei-s  took  up  Uie  sub- 
ject; and  one  of  them  stated  in  due  lorm,  that  the  inventor  or  discoverer  has 
not  only  "  extorted  from  nature  the  secret  of  the  artificial  production  of  light 
at  a  nominal  cost,  but  that  he  lias  got  hold  of  the  key  which  unlocks  and 
enables  him  to  command  a  new  force  of  nature,  which  is  soon  to  supersede 
most  of  the  forces  now  employed— something  which  is  destined  to  work  a 
revolution  both  in  science  and  tu-t."  Brave  words  these :  but  electricity  has 
had  to  hear  and  to  bear  much  of  this  magnUoquence.  According  to  the  de- 
scription given  in  the  Boston  journals,  there  seem  to  have  been  a  glass  jar 
contaming  spirits  of  turpentine,  another  glass  jai-  containmg  water,  two  flat 
strips  of  copper,  a  small  tube  which  temmated  m  a  jet  or  burner,  and  an 
electro-galvanic  machine.  When  the  machine  was  worked,  water  was  decom- 
posed ;  bubbles  of  gas  escaped  from  the  jar,  and  passed  through  the  spirits  of 
turpentine ;  and  being  then  ignited,  these  bubbles  yielded  a  brilliant  light. 

Such  was  Uie  declaration,  and  on  this  declaiation  "  issue  was  jomed  by 
those  who  were  not  disposed  to  admit  the  philosophy  of  tlie  explanation.  Mr. 
Paine  is  said  to  have  devised  a  ibmi  of  galvanic,  or  rather  electro-magnetic 
machme,  which,  with  the  aid  of  two  slips  of  copper,  decomposes  water,  and 
liberates  hydrogen ;  it  is  next  said,  that  this  hydrogen,  by  passing  tlirough 
spirits  of  turpentine,  catches  up  in  its  transit :.  dose  of  carbon,  or  at  least  a 
new  property  which  enables  it  to  become  a  brilliant  hghtrgivmg  agent ;  and 
laotly  it  is  affirmed,  that  this  is  done  without  any  consumption  of  tJie  turpen- 
tme  Many  of  the  journalists  proceeded  at  once  to  annihUate,  the  customary 
theories  of  chemical  action :  they  adduced  Mr.  Paines  experiments  as  proof 
that  oxygen  and  hvdrogen  are  not  sunple  substances,  that  water  contains  no 
oxvgen,  and  that  hydrogen  imbibes  qualities  from  spirits  of  turpentine  witliout 
occasioning  any  waste  in  it;  and  to  add  to  Uie  testimony,  a  Mr.  Mathiot  de- 
scribed at  some  length  a  mode  which  he  adopted  of  passing  hydrogen  through 
turpentine  to  increase  Uie  briUiancy  of  the  hght  produced  from  it,  without 
occasioning  any  consumption  or  dimmution  of  the  turpentine  so  used. 


iMMr* 


rjiiiruMtniiiliftlli  r  illliiin>-| 


14 


INDUSTRtAl,   APPttC'ATIONS   OP   ELEOTllIOTTY. 


A  patent  was  taken  mit  in  London  for  tliis  milgiciil  light ;  nml  tho  con- 
troversy concerning  it  was  maintained  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic*.  Mr. 
Tftine  insisted  that  the  nsnal  theoiy  concerning  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  water 
is  all  wrong;  that  there  is  a  particular  gas  which  Jias  not  yet  been  isolated, 
and  for  which  we  have  not  yet  a  name ;  tluit  tliis  gas  plus  poaitive  electricity 
constitutes  oxygen ;  tliat  tho  same  gas  plus  neifntim  electricity  constitutes 
hydrogen  ;  and  that  these  two  modifications  of  the  same  gas  form  water.  Dr. 
Foster,  of  Evtmsville  Medical  College,  in  Indiana,  coiu'eived  himself  justified 
in  saying  that  hydrogen  is  a  mettd  in  the  state  of  vapoiu",  jtjst  as  steam  is 
water  in  a  state  of  vapour ;  atul  he  formed  a  tlieory  of  the  electric  light  on  tliis 
basis.  Another  contro.'ersialist  suggested  that  Mr.  I'aine  should  examine  tlie 
components  left  in  tho  batteiy  after  using,  to  see  whether  the  existing  atoms 
of  oxyffen  (which  ho  asserts  ne\'er  make  their  appearance  at  all)  were  to  bo 
i'ound  tnero.  An  English  chemist  of  eminence  repeated  the  e.vperiment,  and 
foiuul  that  tho  tui-pentine  doen  uridergti  consumption  during  the  passage  of  the 
hydrogen  through  it ;  and  that  most  of  tlio  inferences  dmwn  from  the  pro- 
ceeding are  eiToneous. 

While  this  qiiestion  wos  still  mider  discussion,  the  engineering  world  was 
attracted  by  a  patent  obtained  by  IMr.  Shepard,  in  which  water  is  to  be  used 
as  a  store-house  for  powers  quite  marvellous.  Water  ia  to  be  decomfwsed  by 
galvanism ;  the  hydrogen  is  to  take  up  a  dose  of  carbon  from  another  agent ; 
the  carburetted  hydrogen  tluis  produced  is  to  yield  a  brilliant  light;  and  it  is 
to  produce,  in  the  act  of  burning,  such  an  amount  of  caloric  as  to  ctmstitute 
an  economic  substitute  for  coal  in  furnaces  of  steam  boilers,  &c.  Such  are 
the  merits  which  the  patent  claims  for  the  new  method ;  and  henceforwani, 
tlic  Shepai"d  proiect  shared  with  tho  I'aine  project  the  attention  of  tiiose 
interested  in  such  matters.  Let  the  theoiies  be  what  they  may,  the  electro- 
magnetic apparatus  of  Mr.  Paine,  as  described  and  diagrammetl  in  tVie  journals 
devoted  to  such  subjects,  is  a  fact,  and  a  veiy  complex  fact,  involving  much 
delicate  mechanism.  Mr.  Bhepai-d's  .ipparattis,  too  (or  rather  the  apparatus  of 
M.  Nollct,  patented  for  him  by  Mr.  Shepai-d  in  England),  was  al>otit  the  same 
time  publicly  described ;  but  this  relates  to  power-developing  rather  than  to 
light-giving. 

There  certainly  appears  to  bo  ground  for  tliinking,  that,  whatever  may  be 
the  success  attamed  in  future  times,  electro-mechanism  and  electro-lighting 
have  not  yet  reached  that  position  which  is,  to  the  busy  world  at  large,  tlie 
test  of  excellence — commercial  advantageousness. 

Elkctro-Bl.vstino. 

Tho  next  industrial  aspect  under  which  electricity  presents  itself,  is  one 
concerning  which  tliere  can  be  no  doubt.  Submarine  blasting,  and  blasting 
at  a  distance  from  the  operators,  aic  certainly  not  the- least  curious  among  the 
industrial  applications  of  electrical  powera. 

Colonel  (now  Major-General)  Pasley  was  one  of  the  first  to  employ  this 
mighty  agent  in  such  a  way.  After  the  Roynl  George,  whose  fate  at  Spit- 
head  is  so  generally  known,  hod  been  submerged  for  sixty  yeare,  Uiis  offtcer 
proposed  a  means  of  securing  more  of  her  stores  than  had  yet  been  raised, 
and  of  removing  tlie  whole  wreck  piecemeal  by  blasting.  Until  tliat  time 
only  small  articles  had  been  recovered  by  divers,  who  descended  in  a  diving 
bell.  This  plan  was  submitted  to  tlie  Admiralty  in  1889,  and  by  them 
accepted. 


IT. 

Hpht;  mid  the  con- 
if  thr  Atlfuitic.  Mr. 
hydroRtm,  and  wnter 
ot  yet  been  iKolftt<'d, 
us  iMsitire  electricity 
iloctricity  constituteH 
gas  form  water.  Dr. 
ved  Idnisolf  justified 
m\\  juat  fts  steam  is 

electric  light  on  this 
i  should  examine  the 
;v  the  existing  atoms 
;o  at  all)  were  to  bo 

the  experiment,  and 
ng  the  passage  of  the 
drawn  from  the  pro- 

igineering  world  was 
1  water  is  to  be  used 
to  be  decom|>osed  1>y 
I  from  another  agent ; 
Uiont  light ;  and  it  is 
iloric  as  to  ctmstitute 
loilers,  &e.  Such  are 
I ;  and  hencoforwan^. 
e  attention  of  those 
hey  may,  the  electm- 
mmed  in  the  journals 
fact,  involving  much 
ither  the  apparatus  of 
),  was  al>out  the  same 
lopuig  rather  than  to 

lat,  whatever  may  bo 
1  and  electro-lighting 
ly  world  at  large,  tlio 


•resents  itself,  is  one 
blasting,  and  blasting 
1st  curious  among  the 

first  to  employ  tliis 
,  whose  fate  at  Spit- 
ixty  yeare,  this  officer 
had  yet  been  raised, 
ng.  Until  tliat  time 
iescended  in  a  diving 

1839,   and  by  them 


INDl'STRIAT.   Ari'MCATlONS    OF   KLF.f'TntCtTT. 


15 


I 


Gnttft  percha  wa-i  not  then  known,  and  Colonel  Pasley  was  put  to  his  wit's 
end  to  dfivlse  modes  of  pnitectlng  his  wire  and  apparatus  frum  the  water. 
His  wit,  however,  was  ecpial  to  the  tivsk  imposed  upim  it,  for  he  fully  snc- 
coeded.  He  had  canisters  constructed  of  a  peculiar  fomi,  capable  of  contain- 
ing 2000  lbs.  to  flOOO  lbs.  of  "lU'.powdor  each.  These  he  lowered  from  a  boat, 
and  fastened  to  the  side  of  tJie  wrecked  vessel.  He  connected  the  canisters, 
liy  a  sheathed  copper  wire,  with  a  galvanic  battei-y  placed  in  a  vessel  at  some 
distance ;  and  after  many  abortive  trials  he  ftiUy  attained  the  object  in  view. 
The  galvanic  current  was  conveyed  along  tluj  wires  to  the  canisters,  where  an 
explosion  took  place,  and  portions  cf  the  hull  of  the  ill-fated  ship  were  shat- 
tered at  each  explosion  ;  light  fragments  and  stores  floated  to  the  surface} ; 
while  henvier  articles  wei-e  fished  up  with  tackle  managcsd  by  men  who 
descended  in  di^nng  dresses.  Many  explosions  were  made,  and  much  of  tlie 
sunken  vessel  was  shattered  an,i  recovered  ;  curiosity  hunters  were  stored 
with  fragments  as  i-elics  of  the  Itoi/al  Geonje ;  and  the 'government  recovered 
brass  guns  of  sufficiei\t  value  to  pay  for  all  Colonel  Pasley's  operations.  Thus 
did  a  perfectly  novel  tmdertaking  fully  answer  its  intended  puri)03e,  both  me- 
chanically and  financially.  ' 

Colonel  Pasley  having  thus  paved  the  way,  other  engineers  were  not  slow 
to  avail  themselves  of  his  experience  in  such  matters.  Captain  Paris,  an 
engineer  at  Boston,  in  the  United  States,  adopted  tliis  method  of  electro- 
blasting,  in  1 S  to,  to  loosen  lavg(3  masses  of  rock.  Excavations  were  made  in 
a  bed  of  rock,  for  the  construction  of  qrays  and  docks  ;  and  instead  of  using 
l)icks  and  similar  tools,  he  employed  gunpowder.  The  powder  was  used  in 
variotis  quantities,  ft-om  four  to  sixteen  ounces,  enclosed  in  air-tight  tin 
canisters.  'J'he  copper  wires  ft-om  the  battery  were  inserted  in  the  canisters  ; 
and  the  wires  and  powder  were  well  protected  IVom  the  water  by  a  tliick  com- 
position. A  hole  was  drilled  in  the  rock  for  the  reception  of  each  canister,  by 
a  workman  who  descended  in  a  di\ing  bell ;  and  when  the  canister  was 
secured  in  Uie  hole,  and  the  requisite  arrangements  completed,  an  electric 
cnn-ent  exploded  the  gunpowder  and  blasted  the  rook.  The  engineer  gave  a 
highly  eulogistic  charocU^r  to  the  new  process,  which  he  considers  excels  the 
old  in  presenting  greater  security  from  danger,  gi-eater  certainty  of  action, 
greater  e.xpedition,  greater  explosive  force  witli  a  given  amount  of  powder,  and 
lesfi  expense. 

The  mighty  explosion  near  Shakspcre's  Cliff,  at  Dover,  in  IRIH,  will  not  bo 
soon  forgotten  by  those  who  were  present  on  the  occasion.  The  giant  force 
of  electricity,  and  tlie  sagacious  forethought  of  Mr.  Cubitt,  were  both  most 
fully  illustrated  on  that  occasion.  During  the  progress  of  the  bold  sea-works 
for  the  Routh-Eastem  Railway,  between  Dowr  and  Folkestone,  it  was  found 
that  a  jutting  promontoiy,  called  Round  Down  Clitf,  stood  provokingly  in  the 
way  of  the  line  of  rails  ;  and  the  engineer  proceeded  to  drive  a  timnel  through 
it.  The  soil  proved  treacherous,  however,  and  the  engineer  thereupon  resolved 
to  sweep  away  the  obsti-uction  altogether.  Tt  must  have  required  an  un- 
bounded faith  in  tlie  efficacy  of  electro-blasting,  for  JVIr.  Cubitt  to  proceed  as 
he  did.  He  cut  a  horizontal  galleiy  for  a  hundred  yards  through  the  cliff, 
from  oast  to  west;  he  made  cross  galleries  from  north  to  soutV- ;  ho  sank 
deep  shafts  at  the  extremities  of  these  cross  galleries ;  he  excavated  chamhers 
or  small  rooms  at  the  bottoms  of  tlie  shafts;  and  he  deposited  in  these 
chambers  the  gunpowder  which  was  to  effect  the  explosion.  The  quantity  of 
powder  thus  used  was  largo  almost  beyond  belief;  iu  the  three  chamberfi 
there  was  no  less  tlian  18,000  lbs.  packed  in  bftgs  enclosed  hi  boxes.    The 


^ 


•MMNKMI 


HMMi 


le 


INDUSTRIAL   APPLICATIONS   OK   ELECTRICITY. 


chambers  were  fifty  or  sixty  feet  inland  from  the  face  of  the  cliflf.  Behind  the 
chfF,  on  the  grass  above,  gahanic  batteries  were  placed  in  a  tcn>porai7  btiild- 
ing,  and  wires  extended  thence  over  the  edge  of  tlie  cliff  to  the  cliambers. 
It  was  an  eventful  hour  when  tliia  grand  disruption  took  place.  At  two  o'clock, 
on  t)ie  '^lUh  of  .lanuary,  three  engineers  worked  tliree  batteries  at  the  same 
instant,  tlu-co  ciurents  travei'sed  three  wires  to  tlie  three  chambers,  and  three 
explosions  occurred  at  once.  Never  before  was  such  a  mass  of  solid  rock 
removed  by  one  engineering  operation ;  a  huge  slice  (so  to  speak)  of  the  cliff 
was  cut  oft'  in  an  instant,  almost  exactly  ui  the  direction  which  the  engineer 
lad  wished  ;  there  was  little  noise,  little  smoke,  few  scattered  fragments, 
but  tlio  whole  mass  descended  to  the  sea  witli  much  less  commotion  than  had 
been  expected.  Sir  John  Herschel  was  one  of  tlie  spectators  of  this  grand 
sight ;  and  ui  a  communication  which  he  sent  to  tlie  Athenmnm,  he  spoke  as 
follows  : — "  Of  tlie  noise  accompanying  the  immediate  explosion  I  can  only 
describe  it  as  a  low  murmur,  lasting  haixlly  more  than  half  a  second,  and  so 
fault,  that  had  a  companion  at  my  elbow  been  speaking  in  an  ordinary  tone  of 
voice,  1  doubt  not  it  would  have  passed  unheeded.  Mor  was  tlie  fall  of  the 
cliff  (nearly  400  feet  ui  height,  and  of  which  no  less  tlian  400,000  cubic  yards 
were,  williin  an  intei-val  of  time  hardly  exceeding  ten  seconds,  disti-ibutcd 
over  the  beach  on  an  area  of  eighteen  acres,  covered  to  an  average  deptli  of 
fourteen  feet,  and  m  many  parts  from  tliirty  to  fifty)  accompanied  witli  any 
considerable  noise ;  certainly  with  none  tliat  attracted  my  own  attention,  or 
that  of  several  others  similarly  stationed,  with  whom  I  aftenvai-ds  compai-od 
notes." 

All  were  satisfied,  and  rightly  so,  with  this  gi-eat  experiment.  The  philo- 
sopher was  satisfied  to  see  electi-icity  thus  brought  into  useful  operation ;  the 
engineer  was  satisfied,  as  it  saved  him  six  months'  labour  m  cliff  cutting ; 
and  tlie  Company  were  satisfied,  as  it  saved  them  70001.  Three  similai*  ex- 
plosions were  made  dm'ing  the  same  yeai",  with  smaller  quantities  of  powder, 
to  complete  tlie  cliff  works  near  the  same  rugged  spot.  Bailway  ti-avellers  to 
and  from  Dover  may  easily  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  tolerably  level  chalk  plat- 
form which  has  been  formed  with  tlie  debris  of  the  disnipted  Eouud  Down 
CUtf, 

Electro-blasting  tlien  became  a  recognised  feature  in  engineering  works. 
The  rock  of  a  quarry  near  Glasgow  was  successfiilly  blasted  by  such  means. 
A  submarine  rock  in  the  Nortli  Esk  was  similarly  blasted.  Excavations  were 
in  like  manner  made  in  the  harbour  of  Dunbar.  Mr.  Branel  employed  the 
same  agency  in  the  chff  works  of  tlie  South  Devon  Railway.  The  Wrekin,  in 
Shropshire,  has  been  electro-blasted  for  road  mat<  rial.  The  quarrying  of  rock 
near  Queensferry  in  Scotland  has  been  similai  effected.  One  of  the  most 
recent  examples  was  the  cliff-blasting  at  Seaford,  effected  in  1850,  in  connec- 
tion witli  tlie  new  hai-bour  works.  In  shoii,  electricity  has  become  one  of  the 
workhig  instruments  of  the  engineer :  an  instrument  of  mighty  power,  but 
requiring  nice  conduct  for  its  guidance. 


Eleothio  Difficulties  :  Ljohtnino  Conductors. 

One  of  the  relations  in  which  electrical  science  stands  to  man  is  a  peculiai' 
one.  It  is  not  so  much  an  example  of  "  Industrial  Applications  of  Electricity," 
as  a  mode  of  preventing  electricity  from  destroying  the  works  of  human  labour. 
Man  here  fights  a  battle  against  this  redoubtable  agent,  rather  than  employs 
him  as  an  assistant.    We  allude  to  the  subject  of  lightning  rods. 


nv. 

the  cliff.  Behind  tho 
in  a  temporal^  huild- 
diff  to  the  chanibora. 
j)lace.  At  two  o'clock, 
jattericH  at  tlie  same 
3  chanibera,  and  three 
a  mass  ut'  solid  rock 
I  to  Hpeok)  of  the  cliff 
n  which  tlie  engineer 

scattered  fragments, 
I  commotion  than  hod 
ictators  of  this  grand 
'hcnauiii,  he  spoke  as 
explosion  I  can  only 
lialf  a  second,  and  so 
in  an  ordinary  tone  of 
r  was  tlie  fall  of  tlie 
a  400,000  cubic  yards 

seconds,  distribuUvd 
0  an  average  deptli  of 
ccompanied  witli  any 
my  own  attention,  or 

al'terwards  compared 

periment.  The  philo- 
useful  operation;  tlio 
bour  m  cliff  cutting; 
I.  Three  similar  ex- 
quantities  of  powder, 
Railway  ti-avellers  to 
•ably  level  chalk  plat- 
isnipted  Bound  Down 

in  engineering  works, 
asted  by  such  means, 
ed.  Excavations  were 
.  Branel  employed  the 
Iway.  The  Wrekin,  in 
The  quarrying  of  rock 
ted.  One  of  the  most 
J  in  1850,  in  connec- 
das  become  one  of  the 
of  mighty  power,  but 


DUCTORS. 

s  to  man  is  a  peculiar 
cations  of  Electricity," 
orks  of  human  labour. 
;,  rather  than  employs 
inff  rods. 


INDUSTRIAJ.   APPLICATIONS   OK    KLEtTniClTy. 


\7 


Terrib'e  is  the  form  in  which  olcctricitv  hero  presents  itself.  As  devel()i)ed 
in  a  gul  mic  battery-,  it  can  bo  adapted  to  our  wants  in  a  tliousand  ways ; 
as  developed  in  tlio  clouds,  it  narks  a  path  for  itself  with  resistless  power. 
\Vlien  electric  equilibrium  is  disturbed  in  the  atmosphere,  the  surcharged 
quantity  seeks  a  vent,  mid  will  tako  the  shortest  path  or  tlie  best  conductor 
which  presents  itself.  If  ii,  meets  with  a  metallic  rod  or  wire,  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  eartli,  it  will  travel  quietly  along  tliat  metal,  and  diffuse  itself 
without  injui-y ;  but  if  no  such  conductor  presents  itself,  the  resdt  is  startling. 
The  electricity,  the  visual  effects  of  which  we  designate  Uijhtninfi,  seeks  a  ])ath- 
way  by  which  to  descend  to  cartli  from  its  cloud  dwelling;  a  "rod  of  n.etal  i.s 
the  best  railway  for  such  a  passenger;  and  ti-ees,  houses,  and  ships  are  rent 
asmuler  in  the  search  for  such  a  channel  of  conveyance. 

Now  it  is  the  supplying  of  such  an  iron  pathway  which  constitutes  the 
philosophy  of  lightning  conductoi-s  or  Uiunder  rods.  Of  the  amomit  of  de- 
stniction  produced  by  lightning  few  pereons  have  an  adequate  idea.  Fuller 
gave  a  list  of  thirteen  abbeys  and  monasteries  which  had  been  destroyed  liy 
lightning  down  to  his  time,  about  two  centuries  ago;  and  churclies  luul  houses 
are  similariy  destroyed  or  greatly  injured  every  yeai-.  A  calculation  has  been 
made  (tliough  we  know  not  on  what  data)  tliat  buildings  are  thus  destroyed 
in  E»\gland  to  tlie  value  of  £50,000  annually.  But  it  on  the  broad  ocean 
that  this  giant  destroyer  most  shows  its  power.  The  ds  that  have  fallen 
a  sacrifice  arc  numei-ous  almost  beyond  belief.  In  tli.  iritisli  navy  alone 
there  are  official  records  of  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  ships  of  war 
which  have  been  stnick  and  injured  by  lightning  since  the  year  179«,  while 
merchantmen  have  been  destroyed  to  an  extent  of  which  no  exact  estimate 
can  be  foi-raed. 

Pity,  indeed,  it  seems,  that  tliero  should  be  any  laxity  in  the  precautions 
taken  to  ward  off  this  dreadful  calamity.  But  such  a  laxity  tliere  has  certainly 
been.  It  has  required  the  incessant  appeals  and  remonstitmces  of  scientific 
men  to  obtain  due  attention  to  this  subject.  The  first  Ughtning  rod  is  said 
to  have  been  attached  to  a  buUding  by  Dr.  Watson,  about  nmety  years  ago. 
The  practice  spread  into  many  counti-ies,  but  very  slowly.  It  is  said,  that  when 
Guy  ton  de  Morveau  put  one  up  at  Dijon,  in  177C,  he  was  violently  attacked 
for  his  presumption  by  a  superstitious  mob ;  but  that  he  appeased  them  by 
statmg  that  Uie  gilt  pomt  of  the  rod  was  sent  by  his  holiness  the  Pope. 
It  has  gradually  become  estabhshed,  that  for  any  building  to  have  a  good 
lightnmg  conductor,  it  is  necessaiy  Uiat  the  metallic  rod  (copper  is  the  best, 
but  iron  will  suffice)  should  reach  from  the  highest  point  of  the  building  down 
in  one  unbroken  line  to  the  soil  beneath :  few  buildings  so  provided  have  ever 
been  mjured  by  lightning;  but  if  there  is  any  want  of  continuity  in  the  metal, 
the  protection  becomes  doubtful  and  precarious. 

Li  respect  to  ships,  Dr.  Watson,  after  a  trial  at  his  own  house,  recommended 
to  the  government  that  a  copper  chain  should  be  furnished  to  every  ship,  to  be 
suspended  from  the  mast  head,  and  to  hang  over  the  side  of  the  ship  into  the 
sea.  The  plan  was  adopted,  but  after  a  strange  fashion ;  the  cham  was  made, 
and  a  box  provided  to  keep  it  in,  from  whence  it  was  to  be  removed  for  use 
"  as  occasion  requires."  But  lightning  flashes  are  wont  to  do  their  own  work 
at  Uieir  own  time,  without  giving  formal  notice  to  the  captains  of  the  royal 
ships ;  and  it  often  happened  that  an  imfortunate  vessel  received  a  shattering 
stroke  before  the  protector  could  be  removed  from  its  box.  It  was  found,  too, 
that  the  chain  form  is  not  efficient  for  conduction,  and  that  not  only  one,  but  all 
the  masts  ought  to  be  protected.     Thuty  years  ago  Mr.  Snow  Hai-ris  (who  has 


.^*' 


■WW 


Ifl 


mmrsTin.M,  APn.irATToss  ok  F.r.ErTRtcmr. 


I 
I 

I 


rtincn  been  knighted  for  lii«  tervices  on  this  important  stihioct)  hronght  bofoic 
the  Adniimlty  ii  phiti  for  iniprovcid  lightnint,'  oondiirto.^  for  tho  llojal  Niivy; 
he  fought  tiin  l)altlo  pcrsovevinglv,  v«-iir  after  year,  ngainst  one  ii.hninistmUon 
after  anotli.r,  until  at  length  convietion  was  forced  upon  official  minds,  which 
receive  conviction  rather  slowlv,  nnd  his  method  is  coming  everj-  year  more 
and  more  into  use.  Tt  is  simply  'is  follows  :— Each  mast  is  made  hi  effect  a 
lichtning  conductor,  by  two  hands  of  "opper  inscrte.!  in  its  sni-iuce,  and  ex- 
tending from  top  to  bottom;  tho  bands  nrc  strong  enough  and  elastic  enouuh 
to  accommodnto  themselves  to  the  stniins  to  which  the  most  is  exposed.  1  he 
copper  bands  extend  under  the  deck  beams  to  the  side  of  the  vessel,  and  trom 
the  mast  \o  the  large  metal  bolts  of  the  keel  and  keelson ;  so  that  tins  nuital 
of  tho  voss<'l  itself  is  made  tf.  fonn  part  of  tho  geneml^system  of  conduction. 
So  fur  as  recorded  evidence  extends,  the  national  saving  effected  through  tlic 
protective  use.i  of  these  condtjctors  miist  have  been  Immense. 

ElECTIIICITY    in   TUE   WOBKBIIOI'. 

Knt  we  may  leave  these  terrible  examples  of  electric  power,  and  of  tho 
means  adopted  to  ward  them  off.  and  resume  our  glance  at  those  more  pcaco- 
fhl  operations  in  which  this  wonderful  agent  is  employed  ns  a  handmaid  to  the 

arts  of  civilizfttion.  ,       -^  • 

"  Eleciti-icitv  in  the  workshop"  mnv  sound  a  strange  phrase  ;  but  it  is  a  cor- 
rect and  fitting  one.  Electricity  does  appear  in  tho  workshop,  and  is  there 
employed  as  an  actual  worker;  and,  moreover,  it  perf<inns  manuftwniinng 
operations  which  would  baffle  the  skill  of  the  most  talented  lu^izans.  I^nklin 
gained  cejebrity  for  having  gently  drawn  down  lightning  from  above  by  tho 
string  of  a  kite  ;  but  it  was  left  for  later  times  to  tamo  this  rough  agent  (or  at 
least  its  congener,  dcetricity)  and  make  it  a  metal-worker  in  Bimimgham  fac- 

In  this,  as  in  other  departments  of  electro-chemical  action,  it  is  difficult  to 
sav  to  whom  the  honour  is  due  of  the  first  practical  application;  it  can  only  bo 
settled  approximately.  Professor  Jacobi  of  St.  Petei-sburgh,  Mr.  Spenc<;r  ot 
Liverpool,  and  Mr.  Jordan  of  London,  appear  to  have  claims  to  shai-e  tho  ho- 
nour among  them.  But  this  is  a  nice  point,  on  which  we  will  not  venture  to 
dwell  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  about  twelve  or  fourteen  years  ago,  metal  was 
rendered  obUiinable  from  tho  liquid  in  a  galvanic  batterj',  by  peculiar  arrange- 
ments Let  those  who  have  lieen  familiar  with  the  admimblo  Typographical 
Section,  in  the  AusU-ian  department  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  consider  tihat 
the  largo  and  beautiftd  sheet  of  copper  there  displayed,  more  than  thirty  feet 
in  length,  was  produced  from  a  cold  salt  liquid  :  tliey  will  thus  gain  a  little  in- 
sight into  the  marvels  of  this  process.  Stripped  as  much  as  possible  of  scien- 
tific difficulties,  and  presented  in  its  simplest  form,  tliis  transfoi-mation  may  bo 
thus  elucidated.  Diluted  sulphuric  acid  is  poured  into  a  porous  vessel ;  tins 
is  placed  in  a  larger  vessel  containing  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  ;  a  piece 
of  Tine  is  placed  in  tlie  former,  and  a  piece  of  silver  or  of  copper  in  tlic  latter, 
and  both  pieces  arc  connected  by  "  wire.  Then  does  the  wondrous  agent, 
electricitv,  begin  its  work;  a  cuirent  sets  in  from  the  zinc  to  the  acid,  thence 
through  tlie  porous  vessel  to  the  sulphate,  thence  to  the  silver  or  copper,  and 
thence  to  the  conducting  wire  back  again  to  the  zinc ;  and  so  on  in  an  endle^ss 
circuit.  But  electricity  never  makes  such  a  circuit  without  disturbing  the 
chemical  relations  of  the  bodies  through  which  it  passes  :  the  zinc,  the  silver 
or  copper,  the  sulphuric  acid,  the  oxygen,  and  the  hydrogen— aU  are  so  far 


tMM 


rrv. 

iibjpoO  bronf;ht  bpfi)io 
«  for  the  Hojal  Navy : 
list  ono  (ulnntiiHtration 
II  official  iiiimlH,  wliich 
ming  pvon-  y''sr  inon< 
list  is  mailc  in  effort  ii 
in  its  sintiiw,  luul  ox- 
igli  and  elastic  enouuU 
rnftst  is  exposed.  Tlie 
nf  the  vessel,  and  from 
son  ;  HO  that  the  nietjil 
system  of  eonductioti. 
ig  effected  through  the 
nense. 


trio  power,  nnd  of  the 
'o  at  those  more  peace- 
d  us  a  handmaid  to  the 

phi-ase  ;  hut  it  is  a  cor- 
ivorkshop,  and  is  there 
erfonns  mannfactnring 
nted  artizans.  Fwnklin 
iii^'  from  above  by  the 
this  i-ongh  agent  (or  at 
ker  in  Bimnngham  fac- 

action,  it  is  difficult  to 
>lieation ;  it  can  only  bo 
?bin'gh,  Mr,  Speneer  of 
claims  to  sbai-e  the  ho- 

we  will  not  venture  to 
1  years  ago,  metal  was 
rj',  by  peculiar  arrongc- 
Imirablo  Typographical 
xhibition,  consider  that 
,  more  than  thirty  feet 
will  thus  gain  a  little  in- 
uch  as  possible  of  scicn- 
=1  transfoi-mation  may  he 
I  to  a  porous  vessel ;  tliis 
phatn  of  copper  ;  a  piece 
[•  of  copper  in  the  latter, 
es  tlie  wondrous  agent, 

zinc  to  the  acid,  thence 
le  silver  or  copper,  and 
and  so  on  in  an  endless 
without  distiu-bing  the 
ses :  the  zinc,  the  silver 
ydrogen — -all  are  so  far 


INDUSTRUI.  Al'I'MCATIOSS   01'   I.I.F.rintCIT\'. 


10 


afh'cted  that  the  zinc  becomes  uuten  away,  while  a  beautiful  defiosit  of  metallic 
.•<)!)l)er,  derived  from  tlie  ducomp«:-iiUoii  of  tlie  Muli)hulo,  aj.i.eurs  ou  the  surface 
»)t  Uie  silver  or  ci.i)pcr.  Thin  bit  of  i)lulosophy  must  siUlict)  for  our  piosent 
purpose.  * 

Now  tlie  Binnhigliam  iimuufacturei-a,  ever  alive  (as  manufacturerti  rn-o  wont 
tA»  be)  to  luiy  improvementd  which  mav  uilviuico  their  Uude,  saw  Uiut  tlieie  was 
a  principle  of  great  commereiul  value  hero  developed.  Copper  is  not  tlie  oiilv 
nieUil  wlueh  call  be  thus  prccipiUited ;  gold,  silver,  platinum,  and  other  metals 
may  bo  similuily  U-eatcd  ;  and  it  was  conceived  tliat  a  Uiin  layer  of  gold  or 
silver  might  be  applied  to  Uie  surface  of  cheaper  nu'tuls  by  this  proc.^ss,  iu- 
Ht.-ad  of  by  Uie  older  process  of  "plating.'  Let  Uio  brilliant  display  of 
Alessi-s.  Klkmgton,  at  the  Crystal  ralacc,  tell  how  great  has  been  Uie  suJcess 
Httained  m  this  mw  ait.  Let  ua  compare  Uie  real  plate  with  Uie  electroplate, 
and  Uien  ap[)reciate  Uio  striking  peculiarities  of  a  pmcess  which  enables  so 
beautiful  a  silverj-  surface,  so  close  an  imiution  of  solid  silver,  to  be  produced 
Irom  Uie  lupiid  soluUon  in  a  gidvanic  battery. 

I  low  is  an  electro-silver  vase,  or  candelabrum,  or  t^iblo  oniainent,  or  liono- 
nuytronhy  produced?     'J'he  wiswcr  is   full  of  interest.     There  is  fii-st  Uio 
tutist,  Uie  tjisteful  designer,  employed ;  ho  exercises  all  Uic  talent  which  he 
may  have  accpiired  by  nature  and  education,  to  produce  a  desigu  which  shall 
combine  fitness  of  adajiUiUon  wiUi  grace  of  torm  and  decoration.     Ne.\i  conies 
Uie  modeller :  he  places  before  him  Uie  design  which  has  been  laid  down  on 
I)aper,  luid  proceeds  to  build  up  a  realizaUon  of  Uiat  design  :  he  works  upon  a 
mass  of  smooUi  wa.K.  which,  by  the  aid  of  variously-shaped  tools  hi  wood  and 
bone,  he  fashions  into  an  exact  representation  of  Uie  lU'ticlo  to  be  produced, 
lo  the  modeller  succeeds  Uie  moulder,  who  makes  a  mould  in  lead  or  some 
other  fusible  metal ;  Uiis  would,  of  course,  present  a  reverse  to  the  model  — 
hollows  instead  of  i»rojections,  and  projecUoiis  insteml  of  hollows.     Next  tt) 
Uie  modeller  comes  Uie  patten i-nmker,  who,  by  a  similar  jirocess  of  casting, 
makes  a  cast  in  biuss  from  Uie  lead  mould ;  Uiis  brass  pattern  is  carefiillv  touched 
up  and  finished,  and  constitutes  a  more  perfected  ediUon  of  Uie  wax  model  • 
and  It  senes  lus  Uie  type,  as  it  were,  of  all  Uic  articles  to  be  produced.     Again 
«uid  again  does  Uae  casUng  proceed ;  for  as  there  was  a  lead  mould  made  from 
the  wax  model,  so  is  Uiere  now  a  sand  mould  made  from  Uie  bmss  iiatteru  • 
and  as  Uns  brass  paUenr  was  obtained  from  Uie  lead  mould,  so,  lasUy,  is  Uiere 
a  ^yllIto  iiietal  cast  made  from  the  sand  mould.     The  white  metal  cast  is  Uie 
wticlc  to  be  nroduced  and  sold,  Uiougli  it  has  not  yet  received  its  silveiy  gai-- 
inent.     Ihe  luxmiunt  ormmient  which  wo  lue  hero  supposing  to  be  mider  for- 
mation, may  require  other  preparat«iy  processes  ;  it  may  have  decoraUvo  de- 
tJiilsj  in  Unn  metal,  which  requux;  stamping ;  it  may  need  Uie  addiUon  of  Uiiu 
pieces  made  from  sheets  by  bi-azing  or  hammering ;  or  it  may  render  neces- 
sary Uie  soldenug  of  inany  pieces  togeUier.     But  we  wiU  leap  over  Uiese  inter- 
methate  processes,  and  suppose  the  article  to  bo  completely  formed,  in  a  white 
metal,  composed  of  zinc,  coiiper,  and  nickel.     It  is  dipped  uito  a  tank  contain- 
ing a  chemical  soluUon  of  silver,  in  which  also  a  lew  sheets  of  pure  sUver  are 
immersed.     Then  comes  Uio  mysterious  agency  of  clectio-chemisfay.     The 
vase  or  oUier  article  being  i)laced  m  coimecUon  wiUi  Uie  wires  of  a  batteiT 
a  cm-rent   is   generated,  tlie   solution   is   decomposed,   Uio    atoms  of  silver 
leave  it  and  clmg  to  the  vase,  other  atoms  of  silver  leave  the  plates  to  re-invi- 
gomt«  Uie  solution,  and  so  the  chaui  of  operations  proceeds,  uuUl  Uie  vase  is 
coated  wiUi  pure  silver,  atom  by  atom.     These  atoms  cling  togeUier ;  and  ac- 


■I   I 


Hb 


INDC8TBIAL   ArPUrxTIOMS  OF   ELRCTniCITt. 


cmlinR  to  the  intensity  of  tho  cnrrent.  the  strength  of  Uie  sohition,  and  tho 
time  of  iminor«ion.  iloc^s  Uio  dopoHiu^l  coat  bcc-otno  tluckor. 

It  is  Uu,H  that  the  Hilvery  coat  of  electro-plate  .s  produced  :  the  subse^ 
qucnt  burnisliing  rti.d  finishing  wo  need  not  dwell  on  here.  And  ^"'^  "  W^* 
i  thin  coating  oFgold.  .)r  copper,  or  iron,  or  zinc,  or  platuuun,  be  ap  .lad  U> 
any  "her  nwU\,  &  changing  U.e  nature  of  tho  chcnucal  .olut.o..  ni  t  .e  t.u»k. 
And  Unm  also  might  the  delicate  coating  bo  applied  to  a  non-metalhc  body 
beneath,  by  an  intl^nening  preparation  of  black  lead  or  ot  r»'»«lf »™«  ^nd 
UiUH,  again,  might  fmil«  anJflow.-rs,  stems  .uid  leaves,  wings  and  f^-'^^T/n  v 
coated  wiUi  metiil  with  tlxo  sanio  ease  as  any  manufactured  articles.  Not  only 
nu  Hublnces  of  almost  eveiy  kind  be  Uiuh  coated  but  the  enure  thickness 
of  ill  article  in  metal  may  be  thus  ma^le  by  electnvdeposit :  all  that  ,s  requ.  ed 
is.  that  provision  should  be  made  to  ensure  tho  non-adhesion  of  the  deposited 

metal  on  tho  framework  or  mould.  ,  .      .  •  i    c  i  „...«,,„.. 

When  we  see  large  sheets  of  copper  produced  in  this  wonderful  manner, 
wo  have  proof  Uiat  the  metal,  precipitated  atom  by  atom  froni  the  sohition. 
unites  into  its  proper  metallic   homogeneous  state ;   and   this  has  given  a 
range  of  applicability  of  the   meUio<l  to  useful  and   ornamental   pmposes, 
quite  beyon(f  present  calculation.     Sometimes  we  meet  witli  articles  of  table- 
plate  so  produced ;  sometimes  buttons,  pens,  trinkets,  or  cheap  jewellery;  some- 
times it  presents  itself  as  a  coating  for  chronometer  spnngs  and  for  magnetic 
needles;  sometimes  as  a  mode  of  preserving  medallions  by  a  minute  layer  of 
copper;  sometimes  as  a  mode  of  permanently  retaining  the  fonns  of  vegetable 
objects,  by  encasing  tliem  in  gold,  silver,  or  copper  envelopes;  or  even  as  a 
priservaUve  for  insects,  for  details  so  minute  as  Uioso  of  a  butterfly  s  wings 
mav  be  preserved  by  the  electro  deposit,  sometimes  as  a  covering  for  basket- 
work  or  for  lace.     The  suggestions  for  new  modes  of  useful  applications  are 
not  less  numerous  than  tlie  applications  Uiemselves.     One  proposal  is  for  a 
mode  of  taking  unpressions  in  copper  from  ornamental  bi-asses  by  electio 
deposit.     Another  is   for  making  stamps   and  dies   by  electro  deposit  on 
embossed  surfaces.      Another  is   for  obtaining   copies  of  gi-aduated  instm- 
ments  from  a  carefuUy   prepared   standard.      Anothor  is  for  makmg  tools 
for  grinding  specula  aJid  lenses,  by  depositing  tlie  thin  him  on    he  curved 
surface  of  Uie  very  article  to  be  pohshed;  nay.  more,  tlie  specula  themselves 
have  in  some  cases  been  made   by  electro  deposit.     A  proposal  of  much 
creator  magnitude,  in  respect  to  its  uifluenco  on  manufactures,  is  that  ot 
smelting  by  electricity;  this  is  not  so  much  an  example  of  electro  deposit 
as  of  electro  septiration;  its  theoretical  soundness  is  imdispuf^d.  and  small 
portions  of  ore  have  actually  been  smelted  by  this  agency;  but  up  to  the 
present  time   the   system  has   not  yet   entered   the  domain   of  pracUcai 

"  EbcUinction  is  now  at  Uie  threshold  of  many  manufacturing  processes, 
besides  tlmt  of  smelting,  just  alluded  to.  It  is  waiting  for  admission,  and 
well  be  admitted  step  by  step.  Copper  tubes  and  pipes  have  been  made 
by  electro  deposit;  and  we  may  yet  see  the  day  when  they  will  Uius  be 
i^ode  wiUi  commercial  advantage.  Calico-pnnting  has  been  effected  also  by 
this  a'^encv,  in  a  cmious  mamier.  Two  rollers  ai-e  prepared,  one  of  plain 
iro-  md  one  on  which  a  pattern  has  been  formed  by  pieces  of  various 
kinds  of  metal  inserted  in  the  surface.  The  calico  dips  into  a  liqmd 
having  peculiar  chemical  relations  to  the  various  metals;  and  vvhile  it  passes 
between  the  rollers,  a  galvanic  cuiTont  is  allowed  to  form  a  circmt  through 


L 


-«4. 


-:A*aSiii»i>ilWMiiiwiiMiiiii»iaii  ■  1 1 » >  >  i  n  nwimiiiMiiii 


MtMMif-'^ 


lITt. 

tho  Kolutioii,  aiul  tlifl 
kor. 

l)riHluced  :  thi>  svibse- 
oic.  Ami  tlms  might 
utinunt,  l)o  ainilit'd  to 
III  solution  in  tfm  tiuik. 
to  u  non-niiitiillic  JHxly 
r  of  phoKphoruH.  And 
wings  iin<l  fcullun-H,  bo 
rod  articles.  Not  only 
It  tlio  entire  thicknoHs 
iHit :  all  that  is  required 
lieHion  of  the  deposited 

this  woncU^rful  manner, 
itoiu  from  the  sohilitiii, 

and   tliis  has  given  a 

ornamental  purposes, 
It  witli  ai-ticles  of  table- 
•  cheap  jewellery ;  somo- 
)rings  and  for  magnetic 
;is  by  a  minute  layer  of 
i{  the  fomis  of  vegetable 
nvelopes;  or  even  as  a 
e  of  a  butterfly's  wings 
IS  a  covering  for  basket- 
t  useful  applications  ore 
One  proposal  is  for  a 
sntal  brasses  by  electro 

by  electro  deposit  on 
es  of  gi-aduated  instm- 
ler  is  for  making  tools 
thin  film  on  the  curved 

tlie  specula  tliemselves 

A  proposal  of  much 

nanufactures,  is  that  of 

ample  of  electro  deposit 

1  imdisputed,  and  small 

agency;  but  up  to  the 
he   domain   of  practiciJ 

manufacturing  processes, 
iting  for  admission,  and 
pipes  have  been  made 
when  they  will  thus  be 
las  been  etfected  also  by 
B  prepared,  one  of  plain 
>d  by  pieces  of  various 
alico  dips  into  a  liquid 
stals ;  and  while  it  passes 
o  form  a  cu-cuit  through 


ISDtrsTHlAI,    APPT.ICATION8    Of    FLlCTRICtTY. 


»l 


i 


the  apparatus.  The  singidar  result  is,  that  diffeitnit  colours  are  produced 
on  (he  calico  b^'  tlic  dirtiience  in  tiie  action  between  the  various  metals 
and  tlio  liquid  witli  which  it  is  satinvted. 

A  glance  will  nresently  be  Uiken  at  tlio  e  iriosities  which  electricity  present* 
when  connected  with  fine-art  printing:  but  it  may  here  be  sUited,  that 
ordinajy  letter-press  printing  is  begiiming  to  receive  aid  from  tho  same 
wonderful  agent.  A  metho»l  Irns  bt-en  devised  for  covering  tho  siuface  of 
ordinary  type  with  a  film  of  copper,  by  electio-deposit:  copper  is  known 
to  1)0  ten  or  twelve  times  as  tenacious  as  leail;  but  as  it  is  ditlicult  to  melt, 
and  is  nuuh  more  costly,  cop|ier  types  oie  almost  miknown;  and,  Uierefore, 
iu»  attempt  is  now  being  made  to  combine  tlie  tenacity  of  the  one  with 
the  cheapness  and  fusibility  of  tho  other,  by  facing  ordinary  type  with  copper. 
Dr.  Newton,  in  a  paper  recently  read  before  the  Knuiklin  Institute  at  I'hila- 
delphia,  htates  that,  in  a  wi(lely-sprca<l  religious  publication  at  New  York, 
ordiniuy  types  aie  nearly  worn  out  by  17(t,(H)(»  impressions,  while  the  galvanized 
type  is  little  injured  by  six  times  this  number;  that  the  new  tyjies  require 
less  ink,  and  waste  less  than  ordinary  type ;  tliat  tho  copper  fixce  can  be  read 
better  by  the  compositor  than  tlie  leaden  face;  that  tlie  two  nieUils  can 
cosily  be  separated  for  renielting,  tho  one  melting  at  500'  and  tlie  other 
at  1800°  FnJirenheit;  imd  that  the  increased  expense  is  not  more  than 
30  per  cent.  Whetlier  English  printers  will  confinu  this  favourable  American 
verdict,  time  must  show. 

A  very  pretty  specimen  of  electro-metallurgy  is  presented  in  Mr.  James's 
elaborate  mmlel  of  the  Britannia  Bridge,  which  has  had  some  million  pairs  of 
eyes  upon  it  at  the  Industrial  Exhibition.  The  two  groat  tubes  of  this 
tubular  bridge  are  of  course  the  most  notable  parts  of  the  stnicture  ;  and 
Mr.  James  has  made  his  mimic  tubes  in  the  model  entirely  by  tho  electro 
process. 

ELECTRicmf  IN  Relation  to  the  Fine  Arts. 

But  if  electro-chemical  action  tlius  lends  a  kimlly  hand  to  tlie  manufoc- 
turuig  <u-ts,  not  less  ma-ked  lue  its  services  to  tho  fine  arts,  or  those  where 
beauty  ard  grace  prevail  over  mere  material  use. 

The  copying  of  an  exquisite  line  engraving,  from  a  copper  or  steel  plate  to 
an  electro-copper  deposit,  although  now  become  a  very  famiUar  pnjcess,  is 
really  a  wonderful  one ;  for  let  the  lines  of  the  engraving  be  as  fine  and 
miriute  as  tliey  may,  the  deposited  atoms  of  copper  miu-k  tliem  all  distinctly — 
so  infinitely  small  is  each  atom  or  particle  compoi-ed  with  any  magnitude 
which  human  hands  can  produce.  Like  many  other  wondert'ul  and  beautiful 
processes,  tliis  is  a  very  simple  one.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  loi-ge  steel  or 
copper  engraving  is  to  be  so  copied.  The  plate  is  immei-sed  ui  a  chemical 
solution  of  copper,  and  a  thick  film  is  precipitated  on  it  by  electro  deposit. 
This  film  may  be  easily  loosened  from  the  plate,  and  its  smfoce  then  presents 
a  reverse  to  the  plate,  protuberances  instead  of  engraved  lines,  and  cavities 
instead  of  plain  or  raised  portions.  The  film  is  employed  as  a  sort  of  mould ; 
for  it  is,  in  its  turn,  immei-sed  in  the  solution,  and  made  tho  basis  for  a 
second  deposition.  This  second  deposition  is  allowed  to  continue  until  a 
plate  as  tliick  as  the  original  is  produced ;  and  this  plate,  when  separated  from 
its  parent  film,  is  seen  to  be  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  engi-avcd  plate  first 
operated  upon.  So  perfect  is  the  resemblance,  tliat,  if  Uie  electro-plate  be 
made  with  care,  an  inked  impression  printed  from  it  can  be  detected  from 


I 


gjj  INDUSTRIAL   APPLICATIONS   OK    F.LECTHIOITV. 

one  printed  from  the  original  l.late  only  by  an  esi.erience.1  jmlge :  to  orilumo- 
eves  llioY  tuo  eciual  in  all  respects.  ,  ,  . 

%,e  Ssuvttelnpts  at  c-loct^ognvphy  (an  this  art  is  «o»»^^""^«  ^^SC  ^^^^^ 
producing  InipreHhions  from  coin«.  medals,  die«,  seals  cameos,  »"ta«»««' f ' 
Silike  smJl  articles  in  las-relief;  and  these  have  always  been  »-eg'"Jf  ^  ^^ 
a^ong  tl.e  neatest  and  prettiest  manifestations  ot  this  cnnou«  a,^     I'fJ 
is  becoming  Nvider  and  wider  in  its  application.     Isot  only  doe.  ^V^^dnce^ 
copies  from  engi'aved  plates,  but  oven  the  platos  Uiemselves  1 '   «    r  Smce 
mLle  by  elecU-o-coppermg.  for  the  engraver  t«  work  upon.     i»  ^n  .m^^^^^ 
treatise  on  i-7.c/.o-M.(«««7W  he  gives  Uiree  engravings  «f  .^^J^  ^/"^^^^XS-o 
kind,  to  show  how  a  methotl  of  stereotypmg  might  bo  practised  by  elec  lo 
deposit.     They  were  produced  ui  three  ditferent  ways,     i",*;!*'^  l^'^W^^^'f'^, 
va    e^^graved^on  a  wood  block;  a  cupper  revei^e  from  this  >vas  taken  by 
electro  deposit-  a  cast  was  taken  from  this  in  soft  or  litsible  metal ,  and  im- 
pres  Ls  were  printed  from  tliis  oast.     In  the  second,  the  device  was  engraved 
Tvrd;  a  rov'erse  was  taken  from  the  wood  in  fusible  -^f^^S^/^ 
was  deposited  on  the  metal  by  the  electro  process;  and  tho  pimtmg  was 
X-fficmi  tlie  copper.     In  the  third,  the  device  was  engraved  on  m>od  ;  a 
■no;d1  from  this  w!is  taken  in  plaster;  an  f-^- .^.-^.^ ^^^^^  .^^  ^ 
plaater,  and  the  impressions  were  "^^luned  fix)m  Uns  coppei  deposi^^^  l^e 
impressions  vary  somewhat  hi  fineness ;   but  all  suthce  to  show  tliat    Uie 
f.lp<.t  Ti  Di-nposs  mav  tittiiif'lv  form  one  part  ot  the  genes. 
'   '^U  a^e  now'to  be  Veen,  in  finiart  exhibitions  and  clH-here    copper 
bu8t«  which  illustrate  the  electrotype  art  in  a  very  remaiKable  way.     Ihe 
r  oat  Sibitlou  has  displayed  to  us  a  few  of  colossal  dunensions,  bes  des 
ni™? tS  speciiileii     These  consist  f-"y  ^^  -Igted  Lm  a 
sheet!  and  the  whole  of  the  metnl  has  been  reduced  or  pieupiUteU  noni  a 
licmul  sohUim.      We  believe  that  the  first  example  of  this  striking  production 
Is  a  bus  of  the  late  Dr.  Dalton,  made  by  Mr.  Cheverton  about  ten  years  ago 
^^'ii^t^i-^ability  being  Urns  demonstrated  the  ^^  UKiy^o^-^"^ 
to  anv  extent      The  processes  arc  curious.     The  bust  is  in^t  "'O^'^"^"  " 
iomTkiiu  ot  clay,  which  may  afterwards  easily  be  broken  away  l>',^f,emeal 
a^d  on  this  a  thick  copper  film  is  deposited  by  the  elf  ^ro  process      ihe  c  ay 
core  or  model  being  broken  away,  Uie  copper  remauis  as  a  1'""^'^  she  ,  t  l 
n  ide  of  wh  ch  has'taken  the  exiict  impress  (though  reversed.  «    t^- "»^^ 
o    the  bust      This  copper  shell,  .m  being  properly  prepared  on  the  nmei 
8  irte  is  Lie  t^ie  groundwork  on  which  a  second  deposition  takes  place  ;t 
is  us^d    n  fS  asa  mould,  from  which  one  or  more  busts  may  be  procured 
We  mtht  S  Siagine  a  Aest  of  busts,  one  wiUiin  anoUier,  ea^h  senmg  as  . 
mould  f'ov  l^^S  one  within  it;  aiid  thus  we  might  fonn  a  goodly  family  oi 
Saholeons  or  Bv"^T  or  HcoUs,  graduating  from  tlie  colossal  to  the  petite 
atS'r  of  tiie  series  dcpendi^ig.on  the  thickness  of  [  -  -^^l^,? '^J^^^^^^^^^ 
tn  frirri.  paoh  of  theiii.     Buch  a  series  woukl  certainly  be  a     cuiiosity     oi 
decSJ^pl^r.  but  it  would  require  some  mechanical  t«ct  to  eftect  tire  libera- 
tion of  each  bust  from  its  enveloping  mould. 

.  Arehitect«  and  sculptors  are  gradually  avaUmg  themseives  ^^  ^f  J^""]/" J^j;^ 
fi^rdiemnoe  of  their  professional  labour.  The  late  Bavarian  sculptor,  Stiglmayer, 
u-ho  wrremplo  e<l  by  King  Ludwig  on  so  many  important  works  at  Mmuch, 

evirfa  3e  ot-  ing  colos.sal  plaster  statues  with  copper,  by  tho  electi 
nroceTs    ii^  a  remai-kably  expeditious  way.     But  one  of  the  most  imiwrtan 
I  ,Son\  of  Te  art  is  flit  which  is  exhibited  in  the  new  and  splendid 
ffiiS  Vum.>  at  St.  Pete«,b«rgh.  on  which  tlie  Emperor  ha3  expended 


L 


INDUSTHIAI,   APPTJ0ATION9   OP   ELECTRlOITr. 


SI 


i  judge :  to  oriVmaiy 

imes  cttlletl)  weio  in 
,nieos,  intaglioa,  and 
,ye  been  regaided  as 
curious  ui'l.  liut  it 
inly  doe^  it  pvoduce 
ves  hiive  been  thus 
on.  In  :Mr.  Smces 
:)f  a  very  instmctivo 

practised  by  electro 
[n  tlje  tirbt,  a  device 

this  was  taken  by 
ible  nietul;  and  ini- 
!  device  was  engraved 
letal ;  a  coi)l)er  plate 
id  tho  printing  was 
lugraved  on  wood  ;  a 
wan  taken  from  the 
opper  deposit.  The 
s  to  show  tliat    the 

aH  elsewhere,  copper 
niarl<&ble  way.     'i'he 
L  dimensions,  besides 
of  co])per,  in  a  tliin 
r  precipitated  from  a 
is  striking  production 
1  about  ten  years  ago  ; 
may  1)0  now  followed 
t  i:!  lirst  modelled  in 
(kon  away  piecemeal ; 
ro  process.     The  clay 
as  a  hollow  shell,  the 
ivei-sed)  of  tho  outside 
repared  on  tho  umer 
losition  takes  place ;  it 
jsts  may  be  procured, 
tlier,  each  serving  as  a 
m  a  goodly  family  oi' 
3olos3ul  to  tho  petite; 
if  the  metal  deposited 
y  be  a  "curiosity"  of 
!ct  to  effect  tJie  libera- 

elves  of  this  art  in  the 
:iii  sculptor,  Stiglmayer, 
rtant  works  at  Mmuch, 
copper,  by  tho  electro 
of  tli»^  most  important 
the  new  and  splendid 
Emperor  haa  expended 


I 


large  suras.  Certain  pai-ts  have  been  ornamented  hi  a  remarkable  way.  Tlie 
catlioihm  lias  se\on  very  large  doors,  or  rather  door-ways,  tlireo  of  which  are 
Ibrty-four  feel  wide  by  tliu-ty  high ;  they  are  fonned  of  bronw,  but  all  the 
adornments  are  produced  by  the  electio  process.  These  atlorinuonts  are  of  a 
most  elabomtc  nature ;  they  comprise  no  less  tlian  fifty-one  bas-reliefs,  sixty- 
three  statues,  and  eighty-four  alU.-ieUevo  busts.  It  is  not  simply  an  a  matter 
of  economy  that  the  cjectio  process  has  been  adopted;  for  the  Czar  is  not  a 
man  to  entertain  scruples  ou  such  a  point ;  but  there  are  cerUiu  advantages 
of  an  oi-tistic  character.  By  tho  electro  process  the  sculptor  is  sure  to  have 
his  model  faithfully  copied;  and  f  -  lightness  of  tho  material  enables  him  to 
impart  bolder  relief  to  his  designs  than  if  they  were  cast  iii  bronze ;  while 
this  lightness  of  weight  also  justities  him  in  suspending  pendants  or  bosses 
irom  vaulting,  of  a  Im-ger  size  tlian  would  bo  safe  if  made  in  any  other  way. 
Among  our  own  Enghsh  productions,  Messrs.  Elkington  have  produced  an 
electro  statue  of  the  IJuke  of  Gloucester,  for  the  new  House  of  Lords.  The 
same  successful  firm  produced,  by  tlie  electro  process,  the  gold  and  silver 
decorations  of  Her  Majesty's  jewel  casket,  which  has  adorned  the  mam  avenue 
of  the  Crystal  Palace. 

It  has  been  sometimes  apprehended  tliat  the  startling  discoveries  of  tlie  last 
few  yeai-3  will  tend  to  lower  tlie  tone  of  ai-t  m  its  purer  acceptation ;  tlmt  if 
Light  becomes  an  artist,  by  producing  photographic  pictures,  and  Electricity 
an  artist,  by  producing  electrographs,  the  man  of  genius  may  bo  superseded 
altogether.  But  tliis  is  a  mistake,  ai-ising  from  too  humble  lui  estimate  of  art. 
A  photograph  is  a  coji,/,  and  nothing  but  a  coiiv ;  so  is  an  electTOgra[)h ;  neither 
can  originate,  or  combme,  or  niodily,  or  idealize.  If  a  faiUiful  copy  of  fomis 
or  colours  be  required,  one  or  other  of  tliese  arts  can  present  it ;  but  if  some- 
thing more  tlian  a  mere  copy  be  wiuited,  the  mind  of  the  artist  is  as  necessary 
now  as  before  these  arts  were  known  i  and  such  it  will  continue  to  be.  Pho- 
tography and  electrography  will  expedite  and  assist  the  lower  depai-tments  of 
ail,  but  they  will  never  supei-sede  tho  higher. 

These  remaiks  are  suggested  by  the  truly  interesting  ettihings  recently  pro- 
duced by  electricity.  Some  persons  have  hastily  assumed  that  the  etchers 
"  occupation  "s  gon'»"  as  soon  as  the  chemists  laboratory  becomes  tlie  artist's 
studio.  But,  by  looking  a  little  farther  into  tlie  matter,  it  will  be  seen  tliat  the 
mind  of  an  artist  is  as  much  required  in  producing  tho  design  on  a  plate  in 
Uic  one  process  as  in  tlie  oUier:  it  is  not  science  as  opposed  to  ai-t,  but  eleo- 
tiicity  as  opjwsed  to  aquafortis,  Let  us  illnstrnte  thh.  In  etching,  a  plate  is 
coated  wiUi  a  peculiar  composition ;  and  the  etcher,  with  shai-p  uistiunK^nts, 
scmpes  away  the  composition  in  all  the  parts  which  are  to  fonn  the  design ; 
the  copper  in  tliese  exposed  lines  and  spots  is  then  eaten  away  by  the  cor- 
roding action  of  aquafortis  on  tho  old  process ;  while  on  die  new  it  is  removed 
by  tlie  action  of  the  galvanic  battery.  The  batteiy  is  eo  adjusted  that  Uie 
cop^ier,  instead  of  being  deposited  on  the  plate  from  anotlicr  body,  loaves  tlie 
plate  and  deposits  itself  on  that  body. 

But  tlie  metliod  of  elecirotiiU  is  more  curious,  inasmuch  as  there  is  no 
etching  at  all.  A  plato  of  white  metal,  presenting  a  dull  white  surface,  is  pre- 
pared; and  on  this  tlie  artist  paints  his  design  in  full,  giving  eveiy  touch 
which  IS  required  in  his  picture  ;  he  uses  a  pigment  raixeil  expressly  for  this 
purpose,  without  regard  to  colour;  and  he  applies  it  witli  bi-ushes,  pencils, 
and  small  pomted  pieces  of  wood  or  boue.  He  proceeds  on  the  same  prui- 
ciple  as  the  copper-plate  engraver  and  the  etcher  in  this  rc^spect— that  all  the 
pai'ts  which  are  to  be  white  in  the  impression  arc  left  mitouched  by  tlie  paint. 


If 


iMMIIIIMillMI 


^ 


nsm 


tmf 


f 


g4  INDUSTRIAL   APPLICATIOKS   OP   ELECTRICITY. 

Different  depths  Of  light  .and  shaaeare^^.^^^^^^ 

the  paint  laid  on-  and  ? ^requires  mu  1^^^^^  «  Lposed  to  the  electro 

picture  being  thus  fax  hnished  »"•*.  J^"!^  J^J  ^  in  which  tlie  sUght  alt^ma- 

proceas;  ^  <il"^  «^«\^^\°^  ^^^l^iS  coSd  b  an'd  the  plate 

tions  of  vidges  and  hollows  ai-e  fa^thfuly  copiea,  om  re  .^  ^^^ 

Ls  formel  is  capable  of  ^fJ^^Z^^f^^'^^^^TrnZll^^^^ 
ordinary  way.     ^y  "lod^^ng  the  detads  th^^^^^^^^  ^  ^^,  p^.^, 

engi-aving  rather  than  etehing.  In  » ^^^^^fT^'^' ^^  or  left  prominent; 
which  are  to  be  bUwk  are  eft  "'it^^^'^^^'^^Jy  *J^Se  t^  Se  Vines  which  are 
and,  in  like  manner,  the  ^^^f  "^g^XZ^^^^^^  His 

to  give  a  black  impression,  by  ^'^^^f '"^  ^^'t^JXi^g  ^ith  paint  those  lines 
penciUing  must  be  peculiar,  or  5«  fj^^^'^'^n  S^l  painting  is  finished,  an 
^hich  axe  really  to  constitute  his  ^^^^^- .J^^SJ^%^^i,nAt  the  common 
electi-otype  plat«  from  it  wdl  be  ^'"f  ^"F  ^^^ed  by  Mr.  Palmer  eight  or 
press.   'These  ---kable  ^roc^^^^^  Exhibition  we 

ten  yeai-s  ago;  and  in  the  ^^"^  "Xction  which,  if  not  identical,  is  cer- 
have  had  an  opportmnty  of  «««"^g  ^  P^f  j^'X^^ice  m  question,  a  white 
tainly  of  analogous  character.  .Ibere  is,  m  "^«^^  ^^^  j  pigment;  by  tlie 
metal  plate,  on  which  a  picture  is  P^^^f  "^^  Ijefomer  by  electro  deposit ; 
Bide  of  this  is  a  copper  plat«,  P'^.^^^'^^^J^J'^presSr^  the  engraving  so 
and  by  the  side  of  this  •^"^Ji  ^^/J^fLTSmduced,  without  i^y  pi-cess 

^nS^nto-S^^^-^^^^^^^^^ 

^?i;ftS::^Sr9ocess.a.^^omm^ 

bv  Mr.  Smee,  hi  a  recent  edition  of  Ins  J^^J'^f  ^''^^e  /LtrS  Lo^^on 
title-page  of  Punch,  and  tlie  vignette  at  the  ^P  ot  me  i  millions 

tJL  both  printed  from  copper  ^l^^eScoWts  tlfdSToriguially 
of  impressions  have  been  obtamed  from  ditfemit  coders,  a^^^        ^^^^8^^^  ^^ 

from  tiie  same  woodcut.  In  such  cases  a  ^^^f^.l^JTsfon  is  printed  from  tlie 
electrotype  is  produced  from  the  '^^^^^^^.^ZTNeX  ^o^^^^  stated 
electrotype-     I",*^  recent  number  of  ti^^^^^^  ^.^PJ^  f,.,„  ^^od- 

that  they  have  long  been  of  "f  "'*'",  *X  fo?  See  printing ;  that  they  are 
block  engravings  will  by-and-by  be  available  ^^  ^^'JJ^^  ^lis  direction ; 
watching  with  anxious  '^^\f.^f^^^^^^^\Sae'S  in  adopting  the 

but  that  they  have  not,  up  o  ^e  F^^^^^^^'  ^^^  ^^^je.  GlypUffrapH  or 
meUiod  extensively  untd  fuithei  ^P^^y^^T""  n  gtj^a  for  maps;  thei-e  is  a 
the  electi-o-et^hmg  of  plates,  J.^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^f  ^^^^^^  excellent  speci- 

gazetteer  now  in  coui-se  oi  publication,  <^«,f/P^.„7,  ";"  ^e  that  tiio  Ordnance 
Lns  of  Glyphography.  It  '^"^'^ ^.^^^''^l^^STT^^e^^^  some  of  the 
maps  are  printed  f^^om  ^^^^^^'^^t^^^PSaved  T^^^^  Great  Exhibition.  But 
plaL  in  juxtaposition,  ^ave  bee«  ^jsP^^^^^^  I  ^^  ^nion  of  photography 
perhaps  the  most  cunous  of  ad  <^t'«^^""°^"  uVeffects  produced  in  the  fii-st 
with  dectrography.  Most  readers  »^o^  "'^^  f  °^  SXprepared  and  very 
of  these  arts  is  due  to  the  action  "^/f  j\f "  ^.  Jf^d  Snsit  es  of  light  pro- 
sensitive  surface.     Now  it  has  been  found  tb^*^^^^^^^        employed,  and 


'^"Hiiaiaii 


ent  thicknesses  of 
effect  this.     The 
>sed  to  tlie  electro 
Uie  sUght  altei-na- 
3ed ;  and  the  plate 
jlate  press  in  the 
ide  to  imitate  wood 
B  etching,  tlae  paiis 
or  left  prominent; 
the  lines  which  ave 
ire  described.     His 
paint  those  lines 
ting  is  finished,  an 
ng  at  the  common 
Vlr.  Palmer  eight  or 
h-eat  Exhibition  we 
not  identical,  is  cer- 
ui  question,  a  white 
ed  pigment ;  by  tlio 
•  by  electro  deposit ; 
,f  the  engi-aving  so 
without  any  process 
method  may  become 

umcrous.     It  is  said 
Metallurgy,  tliat  the 
e  lUmtrated  London 
that  sevei-al  millions 
all  derived  originally 
from  tlie  woodcut,  an 
1  is  piinted  from  tlie 
the  proprietors  stated 
different  from  wood- 
rinting ;  that  they  are 
iphy  in  tliis  direction : 
ified  in  adopting  the 
de.     Olyphography,  or 
for  maps ;  thei-e  is  a 
li  form  excellent  speci- 
ice,  that  Uio  Orcbiance 
lem,  Avith  some  of  the 
reat  Exhibition.     But 
union  of  photography 
1  produced  in  the  first 
illy-prepared  and  very 
ntensities  of  light  pro- 
d  plate  employed,  and 
to  varied  depths  ;  thus 
jd  for  pi-inting.     Light 
,  of  a  picture. 


GOLD :  IN  THE  MINE,  THE  MINT,  AND  THE 

WORKSHOP. 


In  September,  1847,  one  Captain  Suter  or  Sutter  was  a  bold,  prosperous, 
enterprismg,  intelligent  settler  in  Upper  Califomia.     He  was  a  Swiss  by  birth ; 
he  had  served  Charles  X.  as  one  of  tlie  Swiss  Guard  at  'lie  Tuileries ;  he 
emigi-ated  to  Missouri  after  the  Bourbon  revolution  of  1880;  he  removed 
thence  to  the  Oregon  territory  in  1836 ;  he  made  a  farther  advance  m  1839  to 
Califomia,  where  he  built  a  fort  named  New  Helvetia  on  the  river  Sacra- 
mento; he  gradually  accumulated  around  him  4000  oxen,  1500  horses  and 
mules,  2000  sheep,  a  vast  acreage  of  land  under  gi-ain  crops,  and  two  ti-ading 
vessels  in  the  river ;  he  had  his  fort  supplied  with  twelve  pieces  of  artilleiy, 
and  defended  by  a  garrison  of  seventy  men ;  and  he  was  thus,  in  all  proba- 
bility, tlie  wealthiest  and  most  influential  man  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  niontli  above  named  was  an  important  one  to  tliis  bold  captain,  and  to 
the  world  at  large.     He  contracted  witli  a  Mr.  Marshall  to  construct  a  saw- 
mill near  a  pine  foi-est.     The  supply  of  water  to  this  mill  was  so  situated  as 
to  wash  down  much  mud  and  gravel  from  Uie  higher  course  of  the  stream ; 
and  Mr.  Marshall,  watchuig  tlie  progi-ess  of  his  works  one  day,  saw  some 
glittering  pai-ticles  in  this  mud.   He  formed  his  own  conclusions  of  the  natm-e 
of  these  shining  morsels ;  and  having  shown  some  of  them  to  tlic  Captain,  it 
was  agreed  to  keep  the  matter  a  secret  for  a  time.     Such  secrets,  however,  do 
not  keep ;  they  wUl  not  keep :  it  was  soon  noised  abroad  that  gold  had  been 
discovered  at  the  American  Fork  of  the  Sacramento,  and  a  gold  fever  there- 
upon sprang  up.     A  few  labourers  collected  some  of  the  gold-dust,  and  took  it 
for  sale  to  San  Francisco,  at  which  town  the  Ss  -ramento  enters  the  Pacific ; 
hundreds  flocked  up   the  river;   Indians   were  hired,  soldiers  and  sailors 
deserted,  shopkeepers  closed  then-  shops,  and  San  Francisco  became  ahnost 
abandoned.     Two  men,  employing  a  hundred  Indians,  got  17,000  dollars' 
worth  of  gold  in  a  short  time;  another  party,  12,000;  and  anotlier,  16,000. 
In  two  or  three  months,  one  store-keeper  at  Suter's  Fort  sold  goods  for  36,000 
doUai-s'  woi-th  of  gold-dust. 

Such  was  tlie  opening  scene  of  the  Califomian  drama,  which  has  since  set 
the  whole  world  in  commotion.  It  is  to  this  gold,  and  to  gold  generally — its 
obtainment  and  its  application,  its  uses  and  its  "  cuiiositiea  "— that  the  present 
sheet  will  be  devoted.  , ., 

The  Gold  Mines  or  Past  Ages. 

The  world  has  never  known  a  period  (within  historic  limits,  at  least)  when 
gold  was  not  cherished  and  valued  highly.  Whether  it  is  because  this  beau- 
tiful metal  presenU  a  brilUant  colour  and  lustre,  or  because  it  is  little  affected 

II 


MMWHi 


%  OOU)  :    IN   THE   MINE,   THE   MINT,   AND   THE  WOIIKSHOP. 

bv  external  acents,  or  because  it  is  easily  ^vrought  into  useful  and  ornamental 
f/rTsX  evidence  is  cleai-  enough  that  g  U  lijxs  liad  a  -idely-spread  and  a 
long-continued  reign.  We  ai-e  told  of  on  age  of  iron,  and  an  age  of  bronze 
a3ofZgolden  ages,  i>ar  e^ccellence;  and  tliese  metaphors  are  founded  on 
Srtain  clL^acteristifs  of  certain  periods  in  ^^^^^.^^  :l>utvm  one  sens  ,  the 
golden  age  never  dies,  if  we  judge  from  the  estnnatiou  m  ^;l»<^ll  *f  f  one 
metal  is  held.  Wliether  a  cotmtry  possesmng  non  ™'f «  .  "f  "^.^J'^^X 
one  which  boasts  of  its  gold,  is  quite  anotlier  question,  wluch  must  b«  dis 
cussed  on  a  much  wider  basis.  ,., ..  j   ,i;ffnr«nppa  in   the 

As  different  centuries  in  pa.st  history  h-^ve  exhib.^^d  differences  m  Ue 
suwnlv  of  cold,  so  does  Uie  geographical  distribution  differ  greatly.  All  Uic 
rqVart.'i.  of  Uie  world  (Iha't  S>  designate  Austmha  is  now  a  pu.j^^^ 
"fifth  quarter  •■  not  being  quite  orthodox)  contain  gold  .'"f  ^«' ^«Xo\^^^^^^^^ 
unequ^  degree.  For  a  considerable  number  of  yeai^  I'efore  Oie  dlHCo^  ep  of 
the  mines  o*f  California,  tlie  world  was  chiefly  supplied  with  gold  frojn  »  bena 
Sd  the  Indian  islands  in  Asia,  from  Hmigary  and  Transylvania  in  Europe 
from  a  few  scattered  places  in  Africa,  from  Brazil  in  South  Amcnca,  and  from 
Carolina  in  North  America.  Taking  the  average  of  many  years  betore  1847, 
S  aLnuS  producewas  supposed  to  be  about  80.000  fbs..  having  a  money 
value  of  somewhat  less  than  £5,000,000.  , 

Many  have  been  tlic  eager  hopes  and  anticipations  that  om-  own  little 
island  may  be  a  golden  land"  It  is  eertiun  that  the  Irish  of  early  times  had 
aWancI  of  gold  ornaments,  the  material  for  which  seems  to  have  been 
dSed  from  their  own  ••  green  isle."  But  there  is  now  veiy  little  reason  o 
Spit  that  thrage  of  goll  will  supersede  the  age  of  hon,  so  far  as  regards 
thfrnineral  wealA  of  the  British  Isles.  There  are  traces  of  gold  m  Ireland 
n  wXs  at  Leadliills.  at  Glen  Turret,  at  Cumberhead  near  Lanaj-k.  and  in 
other  pl£^es;   sometimes  they  occur  in  quartz  vems,  sometimes  hi  alluvial 

*^Th?most  notable  attempt  yet  made  in  this  '^f  •"'^"^^^f  .^^^"^dTe"x^ 
us  has  been  in  Wicklow.     On  the  boundary  line  between  Wicklow  and  Wex 
forJToSs  is  a  mountain  caUed  Crogh^i  Kinshela:  many  streams  descend 
from  this  mountain,  and  in  the  muddy  bed  of  these  streams  gold  was  dis- 
cTred  about  hJa  centuiy  ago.     It  was  not  merely  fragmentary  morsels 
whTch  thSs  presented  themselveT,  but  the  eye  of  .th«  gold-seeker  wa^^^^^^ 
bv  nieces  or  lumps  up  to  twenty-t>vo  ounces  weight.     The  gold  was  aceom 
pLkd  by  otibrmetals.  and  was  generally  found  several  ^^et  below  the 
Ee     This' discovery  made,  we  maybe  sure.no  little  stu'  at  the  time. 
One  of  the  stories  connected  with  the  subject  teUs  1^«- '^l^^it^^j^^P^^J^^t^ 
about  the  year  1770,  was  wont  to  talk  about  the  riches  of  the  district ,  how  li^ 
wandeied  Li  at  night,  until  his  neighbours  tl.ought  he  -aj  a  li^^^^^^^         m 
his  intellect;  how  he  married  a  young  wife,  and  '^^^^^f''^''^'^'^;^^^^^ 
her;  how  she  gossiped  about  it  to  her  neighbours;  and  how  tfie  good  news 
theiWnon  spread.    But  the  matter  was  not  senously  taken  up  till  l^HO,  ■when 
Tman    whUe  cVossing  a  valley-brook,  picked  up  a  glittermg  frag«>;nt  which 
proved  tTbeneLly  h^  an  ounce  of  gold,  at  least  as  pure  as  that  of  standard 
E     The  newTJot  wind ;  voung  and  old,  male  and  female,  hale  imd  infirm 
-alibied  to  the  valleys,  an/  groped  about  for  the  ^ee^^f  ^^^JJ^,-;*  ^ 
not  a  hoax  nor  a  day  dream,  for  the  peasants   gathered  sev^jial  thousaml 
DoLds'w^rthiL  two  months.     It  was  at  once  Uiought  that  a  bright  day  had 
Snforpot'dlreland;  that  she  had  the  f^.-}]t(C""^SG^^- 
within  herself;  but  alas,  tlie  hopes  were  "  too  bright  to  last.      The  t^ovem 


I,  \tm\l\tA"-  ■—•■I-*"-  *""- 


)HK8H0P. 

seful  and  ornamental 
,  widely-spread  and  a 
id  an  age  of  bronze, 
hors  are  founded  on 
it,  in  one  sense,  tlie 
u  in  which  this  one 
es  is  not  richer  than 
,  which  must  b«  dis- 

id  differences  in  tlie 
iffer  greatly.  All  tlic 
a  is  now  a  puzzle :  a 
nines,  though  in  vei-y 
tefore  the  discoveiy  of 
nth  gold  from  Siberia 
insylvania  in  Europe, 
ith  America,  and  from 
ny  years  before  1847, 
I  lbs.,  havuig  a  money 

18  that  om'  own  little 
ish  of  early  times  had 
I  seems  to  have  been 
,v  vei-y  little  reason  to 
iron,  so  far  as  regards 
ces  of  gold  in  Ireland, 
d  near  Lanark,  and  in 
sometimes  m  alluvial 

ncnt  of  minmg  among 
3en  Wicklow  and  Wex- 
many  streams  descend 

streams  gold  was  dis- 
y  fragmentary  morsels 
)ld-seeker  was  tempted 

The  gold  was  accom- 
seveial  feet  below  the 
little  stir  at  the  time. 
w  an  old  schoolmaster, 
of  Uie  district ;  how  he 
i  was  a  little  touched  in 
municated  the  secret  to 
md  how  tlie  good  news 
akenup  till  1796,  when 
ittering  fragment  which 
)ure  as  that  of  standard 
female,  hale  and  infirm 
•ecious  treasure ;  it  was 
lered  several  thousand 
It  that  a  bright  day  had 
of  (golden)  regeneration 
to  last."    The  Govem- 


oold:  in  the  mine,  the  mint,  and  the  workshop.  8 

ment  took  the  subject  in  hand,  and  appointed  a  Mr.  Weaver  to  superintend 
tlie  onerations.  He  instituted  a  search  into  the  various  modes  in  whic^h  tlie 
gold  had  deposited  itself,  with  a  view  to  establish  a  systematic  mode  of  ex- 
ti-action ;  he  engaged  diggers  and  collectors  and  labourers ;  and  ho  esta- 
blished the  necessaiy  commercial  machineiy  for  carrying  on  operations.  It 
was  calculated  tliat  the  country  people  had  collected  A' 10,000  worth  of  gold 
before  tlie  (iovemrnent  had  taken  possession  of  the  works ;  and  tlie  Govern- 
ment collected  945  ounces,  valued  at  j£8H75  ;  but  when  the  accounts  came  to 
be  balanced,  it  was  found  that  the  expenses  had  exceeded  the  receipts.  The 
bright  vision  was  dissipated,  the  scheme  was  abandoned,  and  the  Government 
has  never  since  taken  i)art  in  the  matter.  The  Wicklow  gold  mines  have  still 
an  interest  to  the  minds  of  some,  but  the  golden  particles  arc  too  "  few  and  liir 
between  "  to  render  the  collection  a  very  profitable  employment. 

t^uitting  our  own  islands,  and  directing  a  glance  to  the  continent  of  Europe, 
we  find  that  Hungary  and  Transylvania  are  among  the  chief  gold  countries  ; 
the  precious  metal  being  found  in  tlie  sands  of  some  of  the  rivers.  There  arc 
also  two  or  three  Bohemian  rivers  which  yield  a  small  supply.  In  one  part 
of  Uie  valley  of  tlie  Ithine,  between  Mannheim  and  Basle,  gold  is  found  in  n 
sand-bank  in  the  river,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  for  working.  There  are 
many  parts  of  Europe  whence  gold  was  once  obtainable  in  profitable  quantity, 
but  where  the  search  is  now  abandoned :  such  are  the  banks  of  the  Ebro,  the 
llhone,  and  tlie  Diuiube.  Africa  is  said  to  yield  about  6000  lbs.  weight  of 
gold  annually — from  the  district  between  Abyssinia  and  Darfur;  from  the 
region  soutli  of  the  Great  Sahai*a ;  from  the  Mozambique  coast ;  from  the  sands 
of  tlie  Gambia,  tlie  Senegal,  and  the  Niger ;  and  from  that  portion  of  the 
Atlantic  sea-board  which  obtains  the  name  of  Gold  Coast.  Asia  contributes 
small  supplies  from  some  of  the  rivers  in  Asia  Minor,  from  die  Indian  islands, 
jmd  from  certain  parts  of  India,  China,  Cochin-China,  and  Sumatra. 

But  of  all  the  contributions  which  the  Old  World  produces,  in  this  depart- 
ment of  mineral  wealth,  none  equal  those  of  the  vast  Russian  Empire.  The 
quantity  has  been  rapidly  increasing  within  the  last  few  years.  In  1849  the 
quantity  was  about  33,000  lbs.,  and  tliis  has  since  risen  to  50,000,  60,000, 
and  oven  80,000  lbs.  There  are  two  groups  of  Russian  gold  deposits,  near 
the  Ural  and  the  Altai  Mountains  respectively.  The  eastern  gi-oup,  near  the 
Altai,  is  said  to  comprise  a  district  as  large  as  France,  over  the  whole  area  of 
which  "  not  only  are  considerable  quantities  of  gold  found  mingled  with  sand 
and  gi-avel  on  the  surface,  but  even  the  rocks  themselves,  when  pounded  up, 
sue  found  to  afford  a  percentage  of  that  valuable  metal." 

It  is  curious  to  observe  how  vained  are  tlie  aspects  in  which  the  gold 
presents  itself.  In  the  Ural  district,  for  instance,  it  occurs  in  minute  frag- 
menta  imbedded  in  coarse  gravel,  somewhat  like  that  at  Woolwich ;  it  also 
occurs  disseminated  in  veins  of  quartz  in  hard  rocks,  which  are  worked  by 
regular  subterranean  mining  operations ;  and  it  occurs  associated  with  pla- 
tinum, and  one  or  two  other  rare  metals,  in  detached  fragments  of  rock.  The 
processes  adopted  by  the  gold  collectors  vaiy  according  to  these  varied  modes 
of  deposit.  If  the  sand  of  any  river  contains  a  few  grains  of  gold  to  five 
pounds  weight  of  sand,  it  will  pay  for  the  expense  of  gold-washing.  In  the 
Altai  distiict  the  gold  appears  disseminated  in  a  quartz  sand,  not  merely  in 
river  vnl'nys,  but  sometimes  even  to  the  stimmit  of  a  moimtain.  There  has 
been  one  mass  obtained,  weighing  no  less  than  78  lbs.,  and  valued  at  JE3000. 

Crossing  the  Atlantic,  we  find  tliat  Brazil,  until  the  recent  discovories  in 
Cahforoia,  has  been  the  richest  of  American  gold  countries.     There  is  a  chain 

H  3 


"^ 


:  ■WilUlMllillllWllfcHlWIM 


MitHM 


RMMK 


4  gold:  in  the  mine,  the  mint,  and  the  workshop. 

of  mountains  manning  parallel  with  the  coast,  some  distance  inland ;  and  in 
the  rivers  which  flow  from  tliese  momitains,  gold  is  found  in  considerable 
quantity.  There  is  much  hard  rock  in  the  river  valleys :  in  this  rock  is  a 
stratum  of  gravel  and  rounded  pebbles,  and  in  tliis  stratum  the  gold  is  met 
with.  In  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  gold  occm-s  also  in  veins  in  tlie  hai-d 
rock,  and  mining  operations  have  recently  commenced  there.  The  Brazilian 
produce  gi-adually  rose  in  annual  amount  till  1753  ;  it  mahitained  a  veiy  high 
position  till  1763,  but  since  Uiat  time  it  has  been  declining.  This  decline  is 
attributable  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  auriferous  sands ;  the  gold  veins  in  hard 
rock  have  only  recently  begun  to  be  mined,  owing  to  tlie  want  of  capital. 

Other  districts  of  America  yield  small  portions  of  the  precious  metal.  In 
Mexico  the  silver  (which  forms  the  chief  wealtli  of  the  country)  frequently  con- 
tains gold,  but  not  often  in  sufficient  quantity  to  pay  for  the  separation ;  there 
are  also  a  few  veins  in  the  rocks.  In  Peru  and  in  New  Granada  tliere  are 
gold  veins  and  washings  in  small  quantity.  In  Central  America  tliere  are 
washings  which  have  become  nearly  exhausted.  The  Appalachian  chain  in 
North  Ameri.ca  gives  rise  to  many  rivers  which  flow  into  Uie  Atlantic  ;  and  in 
the  sands  of  a  few  of  these  rivers  (chiefly  in  Virginia,  Coi-olina,  and  Georgia) 
gold  occurs  in  sufficient  quantity  to  pay  for  working ;  tlie  whole  are  said  to 
yield  about  3000  lbs.  of  gold  annually,  and  there  has  been  known  to  occur  a 
mass  weighing  28  lbs. 

But  the  north  of  the  American  continent  is  "  looking  up,'  as  gold  specu- 
lators would  say.  Not  only  has  California  (of  which  more  presently)  suddenly 
acquired  a  golden  reputation,  but  Canada,  our  own  British  Canada,  has  made 
a  humble  start  in  tlie  same  line  of  wealth.  Within  tlie  last  year  or  two,  gold 
has  been  found  in  that  colony ;  and  no  sooner  was  this  discoveiy  announced, 
than  adventurers  were  found  to  flock  thither,  as  they  probably  would  to  Spitz- 
bergen,  or  even  to  the  North  Pole,  if  tliey  were  told  Uiat  gold  existed  there. 
The  latest  accounts  from  Canada  state  that  five  hundred  Americans  have, 
during  tlie  summer  of  1851,  been  roaming  on  tlie  banks  of  a  river  in  Lower 
Canada,  .vhere  a  little  gold  had  been  before  found ;  and  that  others  from  New 
Brunswick  were  also  in  the  same  field  of  entei-prise.  Their  success,  however, 
has  not  been  veiy  encouraging.  Still,  as  it  is  known  that  indications  of  gold 
have  appeared  over  three  thousand  square  miles  of  country  in  Lower  Canada, 
tliere  is  quite  sufficient  to  whet  tlie  appetite  of  gold-seekers.  The  gold  is 
found  in  the  beds  of  the  streams,  and  in  small  pieces  with  quartz  attached ;  but 
no  auriferous  vein  of  quartz  has  been  yet  found. 

California  and  its  Teeascees. 

The  wonders  of  California  are,  however,  those  which  most  press  for  notice ; 
excepting,  perhaps,  the  still  more  recent  outbui-st  in  Australia. 

If  we  look  at  a  modern  map  of  California,  such  as  that  which  accompanies 
Mr.  Biyant's  NaiTative,  we  see  a  very  tempting  yellow  patch  lietween  tlie 
Rocky  Mountains  and  tlie  Pacific.  If  tliat  patch  is  not  real  gold,  it  is  at  least 
intended  to  symbolise  gold ;  for  it  marks  tlie  limits  within  which  gold  has 
been  obtained.  Between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  ocean  there  is 
aiiotlier  mountain  ridge,  parallel  with  tlie  coast ;  there  is  thus  fomied  an  oblong 
basin  or  valley  between  the  two  i-onges,  nearly  north  and  south ;  and  for  a 
distance  of  nearly  600  miles  (35°  to  43°  N.  lat.),  the  rivers  of  this  valley  have  no 
outlet  whatever  except  at  San  Francisco,  where  a  gap  occurs  in  the  coast  ridge. 
It  is  thus  that  natiure  has  made  San  Francisco  m  important  place,  independent 


nm>MmmMM.i^i>i  mmM 


RKSHOP. 

Mice  inland ;  and  in 
and  in  considerable 
s :  in  this  rock  is  a 
,um  the  gold  is  met 
in  veins  in  tlie  hai-d 
ere.     The  Brazilian 
iutained  a  veiy  high 
iig.     This  decline  is 
le  gold  veins  in  hard 
want  of  capital, 
precious  metal.     In 
intry)  frequently  con- 
he  separation ;  there 
f  Granada  tliere  are 
1  America  tliere  are 
^ppalai'hian  chain  in 
Uie  Atlantic ;  and  m 
rolina,  and  Georgia) 
le  whole  ai-e  said  to 
jn  known  to  occur  a 

g  up,"  as  gold  specu- 
e  presently)  suddenly 
ih  Canada,  has  made 
ast  year  or  two,  gold 
discoveiy  announced, 
bably  would  to  Spitz- 
it  gold  existed  there, 
[red  Americans  have, 
s  of  a  river  in  Lower 
that  others  from  New 
leir  success,  however, 
It  indications  of  gold 
try  in  Lower  Canada, 
leekcrs.  The  gold  is 
I  quartz  attached ;  but 


most  press  for  notice ; 
itraUa. 

lat  which  accompanies 
w  patch  between  tlie 
real  gold,  it  is  at  least 
itliin  which  gold  has 
I  the  ocean  there  is 
Qius  foniied  an  oblong 
uid  south ;  and  for  a 
3  of  this  valley  have  no 
curs  in  the  coast  ridge, 
ant  place,  independent 


oold:  in  tue  mine,  the  mint,  and  the  workshop.  5 

of  the  gold  question.  This  harbour  (one  of  the  finest  in  the  world)  is  about 
in  latitude  38° ;  the  Sacramento  flows  southward  along  the  basin  or  valley  to 
this  point ;  while  the  San  Joaquir^  flows  northward  to  the  same  meeting  place 

the  two  rivers  having  numerous  tributaries  which  drain  the  Rocky  Mountain 

The  Son  Joaquim  and  its  feeders  have  been  found  to  yield  gold,  to 


region. 


but  the  Sacramento  and 
region  proper.     Hero  we 


a  point  about  one  degree  south  of  San  Frtncisco ; 

its  tributm-ies,  north  of  the  harbour,  form  the  gold      „        .     . 

find  the  American  River,  Bear  River,  Yubah  River,  FeaUier  River,  Butte 

River,  Antelope  Creek,  Mill  Creek,  Deer  Creek,  Chico  Creek— all  flowing  into 

the  Sacramento,  and  all  yielding  precious  returns  to  the  gold-seekers. 

Such  is  tlie  region  whither  emigrants  have  for  four  years  been  wandering. 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  political  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico  had  shortly  before  given  Upper  California  to  the  former  nation;  and 
that  otlier  negotiations  witli  England  hod  given  to  Uie  latter  a  more  resUicted 
possession  of  territory  on  the  Pacific  coast  tlian  had  before  been  claimed ;  so 
that  the  United  States,  by  these  two  political  causes,  and  by  the  Califomian 
discoveries,  became  suddenly  possessed  of  gold  mines,  which  she  is  earnestly 
endeavouring  to  bring  under  the  operation  of  a  system. 

Would  we  know  how  El  Dorado  presents  itself  to  tlie  view  of  an  overland 
ti-aveller  to  California,  we  may  take  Mr.  Kelly's  recent  '  Excursion  to  Cali- 
fornia,' as  an  informant.      This  gold-seeker  left  Livei-pool  per  steamer,  landed 
at  New  York,  travelled  by  rail  to  Albany  on  the  Hudson,  thence  by  rail  to 
Buffalo  on  Lake  Erie,  crossed  Upf  .^i  Canada  by  coach  to  Deti-oit,  thence  by 
rail  and  by  waggon  to  the  southern  paint  of  Lake  Michigan,  then  on  by  steam 
conveyance  tlirough  a  canal  to  the  lUiiK  is  and  Mississippi  Rivers.     Arrived  at 
St.  Louis,  the  "  Queen  of  the  West, "  he  steamed  fom-  hundred  miles  up  the 
Missouri  to  Independence ;  and  then,  with  a  large  pai-ty,  made  a  waggon 
journey  of  two  thousand  miles  to  tlie  gold  region— over  wide  prairies,  rapid 
rivers,  nigged  crags,  snowy  peaks,  through  the  Mormon  settlement  at  the 
Great  Salt  Lake,  and  tlirough  perils  enough  to  wear  tlie  heart  out  of  any  but  a 
determined  man.     After  tliese  two  thousand  miles  of  waggon  travelling,  which 
occupied  a  hundred  and  two  days,  the  weary  adventurers  suddenly  "  encomi- 
tered  some  Chilians  on  tlie  banks  of  a  little  stream,  all  but  dried  up,  looking 
for  what  we  came  thousands  of  miles  in  quest  of.     It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
state  that  we  halted  to  noon  (the  "  noon  "  is  tlie  mid-day  rest  in  Uiose  regions) 
in  their  neighbomhood,  to  have  our  long  day-dream  interpreted,  and  see  with 
mortal  eyes  the  process  of  picking  and  washmg  gold  from  the  common  clay. 
The  operations  just  there  happened  to  be  on  a  Umited  scale ;  nevertheless, 
little  as  it  was,  it  appeai-ed  marvellous  to  us  to  see  pailsful   of   mud   and 
dirt  gathered,  and,  after  a  very  short  and  simple  species  of  washing,  to  find  in 
the  bottom  of  the  basuis  a  deposit  of  tlie  veritable  stuff  itself;  after  which  the 
doubts  and  fears,  which,  like  the  misty  vapoure  of  a  summer's  morning, 
hovei-ed  and  floated  over  our  brilliant  expectations,  rolled  away  and  vanished 
as  the  golden  sun  became  revealed.     It  was  now  no  longer  an  exaggerated 
fiction  about  tlie  U-eosures  of  California."    A  few  miles  onward  they  came  to 
some  "  dry  diggings,"  where  miners  dig  m  the  diy  soil,  picking  out  particles 
of  gold  from  amongst  the  clay  without  tlie  agency  of  water.     "  Of  course  it 
must  be  plentiful,  and  in  good  sized  grams,  when  the  eye  can  detect  them 
mixed  wiUi  tlie  red  clay ;  and  much  that  is  in  mere  dust  must  necessarily 
escape  in  the  first  instance ;  but  in  the  wet  season  many  of  them  (the  diggers) 
wash  the  heaps  over  that  they  had  diy-picked  before,  and  with  very  great 
I  sat  for  half  an  hour  by  the  side  of  a  digger,  watching  how  he 


success. 


I 


mmm 


mm 


HMMd 


II I  L  JIM 


0  oolb:  vk  th«  mwe,  thh  mtht,  ahd  thb  woiiKSHor. 

worked,  during  which  he  frG(iuently  pointed  out  particles  in  the  oartli  heforo 
he  picked  thoni  out  tliiit  would  certainly  escope  an  unpractised  eye.  He  ml- 
mitted  he  averaged  one  and  a  half  ounce  per  day,  working  only  abont  hix 
hours. "  This  si)ot  was  aboiit  forty  miles  from  Hacramento  city,  and  nearly 
two  hmidred  from  San  Francisco. 

The  account  which  Colonel  Mason,  an  officer  dispatched  hy  the  United 
States  government  to  report  on  tJie  capabilities  of  Califomia,  gives  of  a  scene 
which  met  his  view,  will  fittingly  illustrate  the  earlier  opemtions  of  gold  find- 
ing in  tliat  land  of  promise :— "  The  day  wa.s  intensely  hot ;  yet  about  two 
hundred  men  were  at  work  in  the  full  glare  of  tlie  sun — some  with  tin  pans, 
some  with  close-woven  Indian  buckets,  but  the  greater  part  had  a  rude  nia- 
chino  known  as  tlie  craJU.  This  is  on  rockers,  six  or  eight  feet  long,  open  at 
tlie  foot,  and  at  its  head  has  a  coarse  grate  or  sieve  ;  the  bottom  is  rounded 
with  small  elects  nailed  across.  Four  men  are  required  to  work  this  machine : 
one  digs  the  ground  in  the  bank  close  by  the  stream  ;  imother  carries  it  to  the 
oi-adle  and  empties  it  oti  tlie  grate ;  a  third  gives  a  violent  rocking  motion  to  the 
machine  ;  whilst  a  fouilli  dashes  on  water  from  tlie  stream  itself.  The  sieve 
keei)s  the  coarse  stones  from  entering  the  cradle  ;  the  current  of  wat*r  washes 
off  the  eaithy  matter ;  and  the  gravel  is  gi-adually  carried  out  at  the  foot  of 
the  machine,  leaving  the  gold,  mixed  with  a  heavy  fine  black  sand,  above  the 
first  elects.  The  sand  and  gold  mixed  togetlier  arc  tlien  drawn  off  through 
auger  holes  into  a  pan  below,  are  dried  in  the  sun,  and  afterwards  separated 
by  blowing  off  tlio  sand.  A  party  of  four  men  tlius  employed  at  the  lower  mines 
averaged  a  hundred  dollars  a  day.  The  Indians,  and  those  who  have  nothing 
but  pans  or  willow  baskets,  giadually  wash  out  the  earth  and  se[)arate  the 
gravel  by  hand,  leaving  notliing  but  tlie  gold  mixed  with  sand,  which  is  sepa- 
rated in  tlie  manner  before  described.' 

Another  scene  well  illustrates  tlie  mode  in  which  a  solitary  unassisted 
adventurer — witliout  companions,  servants,  machines,  or  capital — often  acts. 
A  person  without  a  machine,  after  digging  off  one  or  two  feet  of  the  upper 
ground  near  tlie  water  (in  some  cases  tliey  take  tlie  top  eai-th),  tlirows  into  a 
tin  pan  or  wooden  Ik)w1  a  shovelful  of  loose  dirt  and  stones ;  then,  placing  the 
basin  an  inch  or  two  under  water,  continues  to  stir  up  the  dirt  with  his  hand 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  running  water  will  carry  off  the  light  earth,  occa- 
sionally with  his  hand  throwing  out  the  stones ;  after  an  operation  of  this 
kind  for  twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  a  spoonful  of  small  black  sand  remauis ; 
this  is  placed  in  a  handkerchief  or  cloth  and  dried  in  the  sun,  and,  the  loose 
sand  being  blown  off,  the  pure  gold  remains.  By  such  rough  processes  has 
much  of  the  golden  wealth  been  procured.  In  some  cases  a  gulley  or  gutter, 
a  hundred  yards  long  by  four  feet  wide,  has  yielded  a  thousand  ounces  of  pure 
gold,  disseminated  in  fine  grains  among  the  sand  and  mud. 

But  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  was  not  likely  to  leave  matters  in  such  a  primi- 
tive state  as  Oalifoniia  presented  in  the  first  paroxysm  of  tlie  gold  fever. 
Various  machines  have  been  from  time  to  time  introduced,  calculated  to 
expedite  proceedings  and  to  economise  labour.  Various  machines  for  this 
purpose  have  been  recently  introduced.  Prince  Demidoff  sent  one  for 
deposit  at  tlie  Great  Exhibition.  A  Califomian  gold-winnowing  machine, 
of  a  neat  and  ingenious  kind,  was  invented  in  France  about  a  year  ago,  for 
tlie  use  of  such  of  our  Gallic  neighbours  as  wish  to  try  their  fortune  in  the 
"  diggings."  In  any  such  machine,  to  be  effective,  there  must  be  a  mode  of  sup- 
plying water  to  the  auriferous  mud,  and  a  means^of  agitating  the  mixture  thus 
produced.     Now  the  French  machine  effects  theso^two  purposes  by  one  move- 


lillimiliniwiil  ftH  tff*^.-^«>i"  '■  I  .ri-r.,-i.r..nf..ii. 


•■ 


RKBHOP. 

in  the  oartli  b<^fore 
ctiHed  eyoi.  He  lul- 
king  only  (ibotjt  mx 
ito  city,  ttiid  nearly 

■hed  l>y  th«  United 
lia,  gives  of  n  scene 
mticjns  of  goW  flnd- 
hot;  yet  about  two 
mmts  with  tin  pans, 
»art  had  a  rude  nui- 
ht  feet  long,  open  at 
bottom  iH  rounded 
I  work  this  machine : 
ithor  carries  it  to  the 
■ocking  njotion  to  the 
m  iteelf.  The  sieve 
rent  of  water  washes 
d  out  at  the  foot  of 
lack  sand,  above  the 
1  drawn  off  through 
afterwards  separated 
Bd  at  the  lower  mines 
se  who  have  notliing 
th  and  ^ej)arate  the 
sand,  which  is  scpa- 

i  solitary  imassistcd 
■  capital — often  acts. 

0  feet  of  tlie  upper 
earth),  tlirows  into  a 
3s ;  then,  placing  the 
e  dirt  with  his  hand 
he  light  eoi'th,  occa- 
nn  operation  of  this 
black  sand  remains; 

1  sun,  and,  the  loose 
rough  processes  has 
es  a  gulley  or  gutter, 
iisand  ounces  of  pure 
id. 

era  in  such  a  primi- 
1  of  ihe  gold  fever, 
duced,  calculated  to 
lis  machines  for  tliis 
lidoff  sent  one  for 
winnowing  machine, 
ibout  a  year  ago,  for 
'  their  fortune  in  the 
mst  be  a  mode  of  sup- 
ting  the  mixture  thus 
irposeg  by  one  move- 


oold:  in  thb  minb,  thb  mint,  and  the  woBKsiior.  7 

ment:  there  is  a  kind  of  hopper  or  rcc-ptmlo  inl«  w^.ich  U.e  sand  is  shovelled, 
Za  from  which  it  descends  into  a  cylinder  or  bama  ;  tins  cyluuUn- ,«  made  to 
.•olate  by  a  winch  handle,  which  h.u.dlo  also  works  a  pump  lor  laismg  water 
into  the  cylin.ler.  The  nmd  and  sand  aro  wuhIumI  out  by  tho  conUuuul  agita. 
tion  of  Uio  cvliiuler.  and  Uie  golden  paiticlos  are  iott  belund. 

Califoniia  has  Uught  m  a  few  strange  thmgH.  and  none  "^^'f '^  '"  "'J 
effect  of  the  gold  discoveries  on  price..  Tho  relative  value  which  gold  bears 
to  oUier  comuuMlities  depends  on  the  same  law  ot  supply  and  demand  as  cm- 
mercial  value  genei-ally.  This  was  never  better  shown  than  in  Uie  <'xtr«vrtgaiit 
aui,  ities  of  gold-dust  (or  its  equivalent  in  silver  dollars,  paid  in  (  alitor  ma 
!  eveJy'lay  commodities  and  services.  Mr.  Kelly  in  one  o  Ins  rambles 
thi-ough  the  golden  luud,  came  to  a  spot  where  many  .  iggei-s  had  ^■""K'««"!';;^; 
and  where  a  Sw  stores  were  opened  for  Uie  r  accommodation.  ^  '«  «f^^ '  "^  f^>« 
roads  and  rivers  rendered  it  improbable  Uiat  new  supplies  could  be  '.'b<^|  «^ 
for  mafty  days;  and  the  storekeepers  Uieretbrc  combined  to  raise  their  puces 
to  a  most  extravagant  pit^h.     "Flour  jumped  up  from  50  cen  s.  per  Uk  U. 

dolla!-  50  cents. ;  pork!  from  40  cenU.  to  I  dollar  «5  cents. ;  beans,  cot!ee, 
sugoi-,  mackai-el,  and  all  otlier  hidispensable  necessaiies,  m  *»«  «;^n^'«  W^^ 

tion:  together  widi  boots,  which  were  in  ««-«*t/'^"'"«\'"^^f^^,te,^  Z 
charged  two  ounces  for  the  commonest  pegged  maimtacture.  Ihese  two 
ounces"  refer  to  gold,  so  that  common  shoes  were  hve  or  six  gumeas  pc 
pa",  while  Hour  was  six  shillings  per  pound.  There  was  a  violent  conmio  ion 
^nong  e  diggei^s  ;  but.  as  Uiey  could  not  help  Uiemse  ves,  excepc  by  ac  ual 
nSv  they  not  only  acquiesced  in  these  prices,  but  wiUiessed  anotJier  rise 
ot  lol/per  cliit.  a  few  days  afterwards.  A  single  ad.litional  boat-load  ol  pro- 
visions drove  down  prices  nearly  to  tJieir  origmol  level. 

On  another  occasion  Mr.  KeUy  had  a  cunous  ^^^^rahon  of  the  value  of 

domestic  service.     He  came  to  a  setdement  formed  by  a  Mr.  «  d«peth^  whe^e 

a  vounff  Enulish  girl  was  engagt^d  an  housekeeper  ;  she  had  lett  the  Mormon 

^e  Zfent  a't  the^reat  Salt^ake,  and  joined  im  emigrant  party  to  <Jal.forma^ 

She  was,  as  oiu-  informant  describes,  "an  admirable  <^'>«>l''  »"' J  "'^'^f J^ 

nicest  butter  1  ever  used,  for  which  services  she  was  requited  by  the  libeial 

salary  of  1000  dollai-s  per  year,  and  tho  right  to  dispose  of.  aj»  her  proper  Ijer- 

quisites,  aU  tlie  milk,  butter,  cheese,  and  eggs  Uiat  remamed  alter  supply    g 

3ie  wants  of  tho  household.     Those,  she  admitted  to  me,  accoi-ding  to  the 

amount  tliey  Uieu  realized  weekly,  would  increase  her  year  y  >Vf  "'^**«'^^"l:?:' 

KT™  is  on  explanation,  did  not  suri^rise  me,  as  she  obtained  twenty-hve  cental 

aTi;ce  for  egpfwhich  sometimes  got  so  high  as  fifty :  one  dollar  per  quart 

?or  mTlk ;  foiK^Uars  for  butter ;  aiid  I  forget  how  much  for  cheese :  tiien  the 

overplus  of  each  must  have  been  immense,  from  tiie  legions  of  hens  about 

the  premises  and  the  incredible  number  of  calves  I  saw  m  the  corral ;  whUe 

the  constantly  passing  waggons,  pack  companies,  and  -ha  e-b^^.  neve  J^- 

fenjd  a  stock  to  accumiUato  or  spod  m  her  hands.     J>"  ^  *'»J'    JT- 

Mr  Kellv  "  of  £600  a  yeai-.  ve  cooks  and  dairy-maids  of  Old  J^ng  and  . 

It  woudd  4.7  us  out  of  our  path  to  dilate  fmither  on  the  relaUve  value 
between  gold  Jid  other  commodities  in  California;  but  we  may  st*t^  that 
M  Kdly  saw.l  San  Francisco,  a  fine  mei-chant  vessel,  of  a  thousand  tons 
bunCfitJeTup  as  stores,  warehouses,  and  couiiting-houses ;  the  owner  had 
found  U  utterly  impossible  to  procure  a  crew  to  navigate,  the  vessel,  a^l  t^^ 
seamen  having  scaTnpered  off  to  the  diggings ;  and  to  Prevent  Uie  vessel  ftom 
uselessly  rotting,  he  let  it  out,  m  the  way  above  noticed  at  rents  so  high  as  to 
far  overbdimce  auy  profit  derivable  from  ordmwry  freight. 


iij()iiiiiiiiiiiiitiiWiiriimiiffii 


A.-jMnaWiMiititiiii' 


■w 


i 


8  hold:  in  the  mink,  the  mint,  and  the  wokkhhop. 

Will  California  yield  gold  for  ever  ?  If  not,  will  it.  for  ageH  to  como,  present 
a  profitablo  field  for  gold-Heekers  ?  Homo  of  the  writers  on  California  indulge 
in  the  inoHt  extravagantly  glowing  jtictures  on  thiH  subject.  But  let  us  hear 
what  a  desi-rvuidly  great  authority  says.  Sir  lloderick  rnipry  Murehison  has 
examined  with  great  attention  tlie  gold  depositn  of  Russia,  and  all  the  cir- 
ciunstanccs  connecttul  with  their  geological  position  ;  antl  he  hiw  also  studied 
all  the  accounts  which  have  been  given  of  similar  deposits  in  other  countries. 
In  1M49  he  gave  an  outline  of  his  researches  to  the  British  Association, 
at  Bimiingham ;  he  told  that  learned  body  all  abovt  the  Ural  Mountains,  and 
tlio  gold  llierein  contained ;  be  compared  the  llussiau  with  tlie  Califomian 
regions  ;  and  he  expressed  the  following  conclusion  ; — A  periodic  discovery, 
like  that  in  California,  may,  in  tlio  hands  of  adventm-ers  and  imbridled  specu- 
lators, force  a  considerable  quantity  of  surface  gold  so  suddenly  upon  the 
market,  that  a  momcntai-y  apprehension  of  a  great  change  in  its  relative 
value  may  be  entertained ;  but,  looking  to  Uio  mineralogical  and  geological 
structure  of  America,  and  seeing  how  larg(^  a  portion  of  that  continent  is 
made  ivp  of  rocks  precisely  similar  to  those  which  have  aftbrded  the  gold 
shingle  and  sand  of  the  Sacramento;  and,  knowing  that  all  the  otlier  far-famed 
gold  disti-icts  of  the  New  Worid  ha\  o  had  assignable  limits  in  tlieir  productive 
capacities,  and  that  many  of  their  sources  have  disappeared  or  become  value- 
less, he  believes  that  the  time  will  como  when  the  rich  soil  of  the  valleys  of 
California,  like  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  the  Guadalquiver,  and  the  rivers  of 
Bohemia,  will  be  turned  up  by  tlie  plough  alone,  or  seiTC  as  pasture  land,  to 
the  entire  abandonment  of  gold  hunting. 

The  Recent  Australian  DiscovEniES. 

If  this  sheet  had  been  writUiii  a  few  weeks  ago,  the  name  of  Australia  would, 
perhaps,  not  have  been  mentioned  in  it.  But  a  new  gold-fever  has  sprung  u]>. 
Wliile  Englantl  has  been  glorying  in  her  Great  Exhibition,  Australia  has  run 
mad  after  tlie  diggings  which  nature  has  vouchsafed  to  her. 

It  was  in  September,  1B51,  that  the  news  reached  England  of  gold  having 
been  found  in  Australia — that  is,  gold  in  large  quantities:  a  golden  region. 
Early  in  May  the  announcement  was  made  at  Sydney,  by  letters  from  BatJiurst, 
and  the  effect  was  quite  electric.  A  raining  mania  seized  every  one.  On  the 
Monday  morning  after  tlie  Sydney  papers  announced  tlie  discovery,  "  groups 
of  people  were  to  be  seen,"  we  are  told,  "at  eveiy  comer  of  the  streets,  assem- 
bled in  solemn  conclave,  debating  both  possibilities  and  impossibilities,  and 
eager  to  pounce  upon  any  human  being  who  was  likely  to  give  any  information 
about  the  diggings.  People  of  all  trades,  callings,  and  pursuits,  were  quickly 
transformed  into  miners ;  and  many  a  hand  which  had  been  trained  to  kid 
gloves,  or  accustomed  to  wield  nothing  heavier  tlian  the  gray  goosequill,  be- 
came nervous  to  clutch  the  pick  and  crow-bar,  or  '  rock  the  cradle '  at  our 
infant  mines.  The  blacksmiths  of  the  town  could  not  turn  off  the  picks  fast 
enough,  and  the  manufacture  of  cradles  was  tlie  second  briskest  business  in 
the  place.  A  few  left  on  Monday  equipped  for  the  diggings ;  but  on  Tuesday, 
Wednesday,  and  Thursday,  the  roads  to  Summer  Hill  Creek  became  literally 
alive  with  new-made  miner?  from  every  quarter;  some  armed  with  picks, 
others  shouldering  crowbars  or  shovels,  and  not  a  few  strung  round  with 
washliand  basins,  tin  pots,  and  colanders:  garden  and  agi-icultural  imple- 
ments, of  eveiy  variety,  either^hung  from  the  saddle  bow  or  dangled  about  the 
persons  of  the  pilgrims  to  Ophir.     Now  and  then  a  respectable  tradesman, 


.^mim 


fitiMmm 


IMiM»'iriiit[iTlliiV  It  It  I'i'iiiW 


UKHHOr. 

^pH  to  come,  prenent 
n  (Jalifonua  iiululgo 
t.  Hilt  lot  HH  hear 
ipoy  Murohisoii  has 
Hia,  and  all  tho  cir- 
ho  huH  alHO  studied 
1  in  other  countries. 
British  Association, 
Jral  Mountains,  and 
with  tlie  (lalifomiau 
I  periodic  discovery, 
ind  imbridled  specu- 
suddeidy  upon  the 
an(,'o  in  its  relative 
igicttl  and  geological 
of  that  continent  ia 
e  afforded  the  gold 
1  tlie  otlier  fai'-fanied 
4i  in  tlieir  productive 
L'd  or  become  vnlue- 
loil  of  the  valleys  of 
r,  and  the  rivers  of 
!  as  pasture  laud,  to 


le  of  Australia  would, 
■fever  has  sprung  up. 
>n,  Australia  has  ruu 
iv. 

?land  of  gold  having 
ss:  a  golden  region. 
Btters  from  Bathurst, 
I  every  one.  On  tho 
e  discovery,  "groups 
of  the  streets,  assem- 
1  impossibilities,  and 
give  any  information 
ursuits,  were  quickly 

been  trained  to  kid 
1  gray  goosequill,  be- 
k  the  cradle '  at  our 
irn  off  the  picks  fast 

briskest  business  in 
igs ;  but  on  Tuesday, 
reek  became  literally 
e  armed  with  picks, 
f  strung  round  with 
d  agricultural  imple- 
or  dangled  about  the 
spectable  tradesman, 


GOLD  :   W  THE  MINK,   THK  MnJT,   AND  THK  WOBKHIIOI'.  » 

who  had  just  left  his  bench  or  counter,  would  heave  in  sight,  with  a  huge 
romething  in  front  of  his  ho.-so,  which  ho  called  a  cradle,  aiul  with  wh  cl.  ho 
Z  abouf  f.  rock  hin.self  inU>  fortune.  Scores  have  n.she.l  Irom  l.e.r  ho  nes 
p„)vi.led  with  a  blanket,  a  '  damper.'  an<l  a  pick  or  gmbbn.g  bo.x.  full  ..  ho  « 
that  a  day  or  two's  labour  would  till  their  pockets  w.tli  the  precious  metal 
Zl  we  have  heard  of  a  great  number  who  have  started  without  any  provision 
but  a  l)lanket,  and  some  nulo  implements  t^)  dig  with. 

The  land  of  expectati.m,  to  which  these  gold-thirsty  adventure.-s  were 
wending,  is  situateJ  neariy  duo  west  of  Sydney,  separated  from  the  sea  roas 
by  the  ridge  of  the  Blue  Mountiuns.  over  which  all  settlers  must  pass  to  reach 
the  vast  sheep  plains  ai-ound  Bathurst.  Mr.  Stutchbury.  a  geoL.g.s  employed 
by  Uio  Gov..rnment.  an.l  Mr.  Hargraves.  were  the  hrst  to  make  Uie  golden 
announcement.  Mr.  Hargraves  "  w.vshed  several  baskets  of  e^rth.  and  mo- 
cured  irold  therefrom."  A  young  man  picked  up  a  lump  ot  pure  gold,  woigli- 
7ll£en  ouncL;  an  old'man%atheledlu„ips  which  aUoget^her  weighed 
ne^arly  three  pounds;  and  tho  Manager  of  Uie  BaUiun^t  Branch  K«nk.  who 
went  U.  see  with  his  own  eyes  what  the  futh  actually  was,  brought  way 
several  small  pieces  of  gold  with  him.  It  was  tho  announcement  of  these 
facts  that  drove  the  Sydney  people  almost  out  of  their  wits. 

That  gold  exists  in  Australia  had  been  long  surmised  by  Count  Stnlecki. 
one  of  tlie  best  writers  on  tliat  immense  region.  Sir  R.  I.  Murchison.  too,  whose 
authority  on  these  points  we  have  iust  adverted  to,  had  expressed  a  sim  Ibt 
opinion.*  Many  months  ago  an  olcl  shepherd,  who  visited  Sydney  from  to 
Bathurst  district  occasionally,  seemed  to  possess  more  money  than  was  e.u|ily 
accounted  for  by  those  who  knew  him;  and  it  is  now  believed  that  he  had 
picked  up  bits  ol^he  gold  treasure,  but  had  kept  his  own  secret.  Mr.  Hargraves, 
who  ha.1  long  been  fLuiar  'Aitli  the  geology  of  the  Blue  Mountains  and  who 
has  since  spent  a  year  and  a  half  in  Califomia,  was  so  stnick  with  the  andogv 
between  the  two  districts,  tliat  on  his  return  to  Australia  he  resolved  to  search 
for  himself.  He  set  out  in  January  last  from  Sydney  tmvelled  Uiree  hundred 
miles  on  horseback,  and  found  a  little  gold  on  tlie  very  first  day  of  his  digging 
Ho  selected  a  particulariy  favourable  spot,  which  he  called  by  the  onentid 
hope-exciting  name  of  Ophir,  and  organised  a  body  oi  nine  persons,  by  whoso 
aid  ho  procured  the  specimens  of  gold  which  he  sent  to  Sydney. 

All  Uiese  golden  pictiu-es  speedily  dazzled  the  eyes  of  the  Sydney  folks. 
Sonants  left  their  situations,  and  thus  wages  rose ;  while  the  price  of  flour 
and  otiier  provisions  also  rose;  and  thus  Uio  Sydney  tradesmen  and  families 
have  been  suddenly  placed  in  a  somewhat  pei-plexmg  position  Ihat  only  a 
small  percentage  of  those  who  have  set  off  to  Uie  diggings  will  become  suc- 
cessful gold-finders,  is  admitted  by  all;  yet  the  mere  c'rc"mstance  of  such  a 
sudden  departure  of  numbers  from  Sydney  is  enough  to  disturb  the  o  dmajy 
i-un  of  txaiie.  The  next  newspaper  account  from  Bathm^st  stated  that  one 
litUe  man,  "a  shrimp  of  a  fellow,"  with  a  forked  stick  and  an  old  frjing-pan 
i-aked  up  five  pounds'  worth  of  gold  in  half  a  day;  and  it  also  gave  the  m- 
formation  that  bacon  would  fetch  3j.  and  flour  1..  per  lb.  at  the  diggmgs. 
It  also  recorded  the  golden  result  of  a  matrimonial  quan-el ;  for  a  man,  ^v^ath- 
ful  against  his  better  half,  walked  off  to  the  diggings  for  iJie  pumose  of  annoying 
herffrom  which  diggings  he  speedily  returned  with  gold  to  1..e  value  of  £170 
The  later  accounts  received  in  England  from  Sydney  state  tliat,  by  the 
end  of  May.  there  were  not  less  than  two  thousand  persons  at  tlie  Ophir 
diggings  (Ophir  is  35  miles  north-west  of  Batliurst,  which  is  iteelf  113  miles 
west  of  Sydney);  but  no  estimate  could  be  formed  of  those  who  were  going 


Irt 


ooijj:  in  tub  minh,  thii  uiwt,  and  th»  workshop. 


or  Rbftut  i/n  ^o.  No  «oo(l  RiieHU,  ••ither,  (loul.l  ho  iniulo  of  the  quftntliy  of 
KoM  obtttiiiotl.  Ibi-  tli«  BUCi'OHsl'iil  tlinKf'*  showotl  a  (liHpoHititni  to  coiuu'itl  Uio 
amoiuil  of  thuir  Kttius.  t'iv*)  UHtlmrnt  inogintmUJH  foniuHl  a  pHity  {Un-  K>>1<1' 
diK^illK  liHM  iiltivu'tiimH  lor  piofoHHiuniUs  iw  well  us  (or  liiinil)lfr  folks),  whoso 
lubouiH  utuoiig  till!  ti<M  (lust  aru  sM  to  Imvo  iietlml  inany  UioiimiuuI  jioimdH. 
Tlinwi  or  four  Sytiu«y  dealers  piuolinHtid  Ai»00  woilli  itt  (^i.hir,  from  a  fuw 
digncri.  Till!  liirg<5st  pioco  (piiro,  viiK'iu  i^old)  tnuidiaitU'd  to  Sydney  up  to 
thut  tiino  wtiKlifd  »bi)Ut  forty-Hix  ouiu-eK.  Tlucts  upprouliiios.  who  run  awuy 
fi-oui  iJiitiuu'Ht,  rotuniod  in  a.  few  duyw  with  gold  which  they  Hold  for  i;5l. 

lint  as  "uU  thut  KlitUus  in  not  gold,"  ho  itt  no  glittering  gold  prootnod 
witliout  Honio  lumvy  druwhuckM.     The  disuovery  iit  Ophir  wiu*  unnouneod  onu 
nionlli  too  Hoon  for  huHhundry  pro«noct»t;  th«  iigricultural  lubourers  lun  awuy 
to  tiie  diggings,  and  loft  the  corn  to  Uko  cure  of  itself,   or  rullier  left  tho 
ploughing  ftJid  sowing  hulf  dtxio  (Auatndiun  winter  oirenrs  conteniponini!ouwly 
with  our  kunnner).     Tho  Hhepherds.  too,  took  luuvo  of  their  Hocks  with  very 
little  (:»n-emony.    One  Butliurnt  fanner  waid,  "  We  mo  in  the  greatest  excilxjmeut 
here ;  some  fn)ni  jov,  Honio  from  desjiuir,  anticiputing  I'aniine,  diwaso,  confusion. 
and  death:  1  uin  glad  to  hem-  tlmt  tiio  military  luo  coming  up."     Uno  stock- 
holder, possessing  thirty  tliouHund  sheep,  loHt  all  his  HhepherdH  at  one  start, 
and  knew  not  how  to  protect  his  flock  from  tlic  native  dog«.    Another  iJatliurst 
udiubitaut  wr*>t<i,  "  tho  people  aro  all  mwl ;'  and  Mr.  Hurgraves  wi»U;,  "  even 
Oulifoniia  did  not  equal  the  excitement  and  confusion  which  at  this  present 
moment  sinround  me."     One  of  the  ]3athur«t  journals,  tho  Empire,  speakti 
Qf  iU  compositors  and  itH  printei-s'  devils  aa  "  having,  just  now,  their  brains 
•tuck  full  of  lumps  of  gold,"  U)  tho  great  derangement  of  tho  i)rinting-otiico 
and  ita  labours.   Aiiother  liathurst  wiiter  said,  " Trade  is  quite  at  a  stand-still, 
except  witli  tlio  storokeepei-s  and  publioajjs,  and  every  consumable  article  is 
enormously  dear."     Some  of  tho  diggore  returned  fix)m  the  mines,  "  with  a 
little  bit  of  gold,  and  a  bellyful  of  hanl  work  and  starvation ; "  an.l  said,  that 
none  but  those  who  could  bear  severe  labour,  exposing,  and  scanty  allownnco, 
ould  do  well  at  the  tliggings  in  winter.    Women  had  stiirted  off  fi-oni  HaUiui-st 
to  Ophir  on  a  laundiy  speculation,  which  was  expected  to  pay  well.    One  dark 
and  dismal  featm-e  is,  that  Uiero  is  scarcely  a  tree  or  a  blade  of  grass  witliiu 
twenty  miles  of  Ophir:   it  is  little  else  tlian  a  perfect  desert,  in  all  except 
gold  and  excitement.  .  . 

llcally  scientific  men  are  among  the  best  prophets  of  all  ages ;  for,  amving 
at  general  pnnciples  by  a  careful  comparison  of  the  past  and  present,  tlicy  are 
often  able  to  predict  future  phenomena  or  anticipate  futiu*  discoveries,  with 
a  conectness  quite  inconceivable  to  tlie  non-initiated.  Murcluscm,  without 
ever  having  been  in  AusU-alia,  predicted  tliat  gold  would  be  Ibund  there ; 
he  drew  inferences  from  the  geological  character  of  various  regions,  founded 
on  the  analogy  of  similar  regions  elsewhere.  In  the  paper  read  io  the 
British  Association,  in  1H49,  referred  to  in  anothr;r  page,  ho  said :  "  In  con- 
sidering tlie  composition  of  the  chief  or  eastern  ridge  of  Australia,  and  its 
direction  from  nortli  to  soutli,  he  had  foreU)ld  (as  well  as  Oolonel  Hel- 
mei-sen,  of  the  llussian  Imperial  Miues,)  tliat  gold  would  be  fomid  in  it; 
and  he  stated,  that  in  the  lost  year  one  gentleman,  resident  in  Sydney, 
who  had  read  what  he  had  written  and  spoken  ou  this  point,  hail  sent  him 
specimens  of  gold  ore  found  in  the  Blue  Mountains:  whilst  i'rom  another 
source  he  had  learned,  tliat  ihe  parallel  noith  and  south  in  the  Adelaide 
region,  which  had  vielded  so  much  copper,  had  also  given  undoubted  signs  of 
gold  ore.    The  op«c«ticm  of  the  EngUah  laws,  by  which  noble  metals  kpse 


IK8H0P. 

of  tho  qtiftiUlfy  of 

itioll    to    COIKU'til    llio 

il  II  |inity  (for  nolil- 
iiiililiT  folks),  whosn 
ly  thoilMilllil  lloilUilrl. 
,  (Jifliit,  from  a  fuw 
•d  to  Hyiliiiiy  up  W 
tious,  who  run  awuy 
i<y  itold  for  i;51. 
3riiiK  gold  proourad 
wiiM  iiiiiiuunctitl  ono 
I  Ittboiuern  i»n  awuf 
f,   or  riitlH'r  left  tho 
i  conteinpomiioouwly 
lit'ir  flocks  with  very 
0  gniaUist  excilomeut 
le,  (URflaHe,  confusion, 
im  up. "     Uno  stuck- 
tphenU  at  ono  start, 
«.    Another  llatliurst 
rgraveH  wi"ote,  "  tiven 
khich  ftt  iliis  present 
,  tlio  Empire,  (ipeiikH 
iwt  now,  their  bmius 
uf  tho  print.int!;-otiico 
quite  ut  a  stand-still, 
jonsuinable  article  is 
tho  mines,  "with  a 
tion  ;"  and  said,  that 
ind  HCMity  allowance, 
•tod  oif  fi-om  UallnirHt 
)  pay  well.    One  dark 
blade  of  grass  witliiu 
desert,  iu  all  except 

ill  ages ;  for,  arriving 
and  present,  tliey  are 
tare  discoveries,  with 

Murchison,  without 
mid  be  found  there ; 
ions  regions,  founded 
c  pajxr  read  to  the 
a,  lie  said  :  "  In  con- 

of  AuHtraliiv  and  its 
kvell  as  Oolonel  Hel- 
ould  be  found  in  it; 

resident  in  Sydney, 
!  point,  hatl  sent  him 

whilst  from  another 
outh  in  the  Adelaide 
en  imdoubted  signs  of 
'h  noble  metala  lapa« 


aoi.n:  in  the  mwk.  tub  M.«r.  and  tub  vrouKsMor.  U 

to  U.e  crown,  l.a.1  induced  »•'"•<;*- "t'liMlZ:;"- ^  g'^  niEj'i 
HecraUry  <.f  HUil«  Umt  no  colonmU.  wouhi  ^^^^^^J  e'»   ,  ,",^  „ «  „»,«„rcs  o« 
Home  clear  .leclaration  on  U.o  ••"'•>•';=,  ,,*V'"  ."^tsUml  the  (iovmunont  n.uy  be 
this  hea-l  seen.  t..  bo  m  cont«mp  ation.  he  '  '''^^  ^tv  of  uoUl  might  .Icr.u.ge 
of  opinion,  that  tho  dis.<.vorv  o    a..y  '^^    ''   '    S?^  whirovenLall^  nmnt 
the  stability  and  regular  uijlush^  o    a  «"*     ;  ''^;^^\,„,  j,„  .luggibnes. 
depend  upon  it.,  agricultural  I'>^»1";;^-       'J. ''  "i^^,;  a\at  d.c  Colonlil  Office 
of'all  our  colonial  arr.u.gemout.  '"\»""  '^,,'',^2 .  "  N,.w  that  the  .li«covcr>-  i» 
thought  nothing  and  .hd  nothn.g  "]  j»     "^^^^^^^^^^      ^ZZn  exm-tly  what  are 
actually  .nmle.  lu.wever,  .t  l>elu,ve.  U  e  '^jl'^^^f^..'^^.^  f,  ,um,^  Uws' 
a,.i,.  rolailoMs  to  the  n.otJ.er  7'  f  ^  '    '\;i  ,!,  ek.nalion,  insued  by  Governor 
'l-his  ^^^1^^^.^,^^^^^^%^  gol.1  niines  u.  U.e  Ur  t.sU 
F  trroy  on  May  -U.     I  no  aocumt  in.  huw^n,  n  romoved  from 

flon.inlns  belong,  by  law  to  the  ^'■^^^y,.;;^^;,  ^^  ^  1  go S  is  U,  be  ciUiar 
U.0  leHse<l  lands  without  ^^>^"'™''*-''\Vr  Sw.l  L"«  wTUiout  similar  por- 
„,Mnovod  or  explored  for  in  Uie  unallotted  ^'"^  '  'J'7;J^^^^^^      „.v,„.t,  boUi 

That  Auslr,aia  has  a  bright  f"^'''«  "'"JJ^*;*^  "      Z^  oxpJcled.  U,ero  wUl  jet 

juTcimlB  .umiagement.  wiU  yield  abmidm.ce  lor  all.     • 

How  THB  GoLD-Dtrn  and  Oiiis  *»«  ™eat«i>. 

r.e  or  six  miUious  of  in.uisitiv3  hmmu.  Jj^iSS^iff  "^'-p' 
seeing  virgu.  ^^^^^'^^'^^'^'^^'^Z^'^^^^^^  treasures  before, 

uot  oue-tliousandl^i  part  of  ,^''« ''"V'^'  ';'^\X^^  whose  J.omids  weight 

Those  ^vho  missed  U.e  ponderous  ^^^J'^JX  '  i'T.  X  «^^  *"'*^  ^''^  '^  "*" 
..re  in  hundreds,  .uul  -l-^ XX^^^fi:,*^,  5  e  Csian  treasures;  whilo 
portunity  of  seemg  Oioso  «.»'f '£*^'?^..*^'^  ^.^al  collections,  may  have  seen 

^Su1"i.o^'rs-t  hasten  on  our  «old-  io^ey.    T^^K'ulS^rS 

i^iif ortirsSawrr:^^^^^        rr...  a.  goid«nith- 

the  finder  from  the  user.  .„  -ft...^,,,  or  when  iho.  sands  or  other  ollu- 

Whenn  ix)ck  is  supposed  to  be  *"»f«  «"f'.^  lid  the  adventure^-  is  advised 
vial  matter  of  a  district  are  to  ^f  ."^"""^".^ J^'\  «^^itt  course  The  comical 
by  r«>fe»sor  Anstad  to  pi^ceed  m  a  f/;^"  "J^gf  m^^;  ,vriUen  l.y  Uiat 
i/  given  i»  the  small  hut  '"^^estuig  '  Oo  d-b.cktrs  Ma^^iu^  J 

BkilM  gooloaist^  .The  ^J-"'-^/,^^^^^^^^ 

pound  it.  a*»d  sifl  It ;  the  ^ust  Urns  oUtoincu  s  i  ^^ 

^,  If  any  gold  is  P^f^^^.^"*  Uv^'^i?  te  VX^^""^'^1  ^  ^^  '^^P'^^ 
waslied  oror  tlie  edge  of  the  pan  "  Jf «  '^^'f^'^  ^^^^j.^a  wiUi  quicksilver,  and 
and  weighed,  it  is  treated  by  tlie  *'"^^f ^^  f  \""  "^  i,y  the  ratio  between 
finaUy  isolated  The  adventurer  can  ^^^».  J^  '^^i'^  Z:^^  ,,Uat  uercentage 
the  weight  of  the  gold  'f^^'^'^^'r^^^^J^^,  Qf  course  aA  tins  caa- 
of  gold  ©xista,  aad  whether  i"-  wmI  P^y  ^^^  exu"**^** 


|ii  I  ii»miiiiiiMii»TniiNititt  -■^-'-^'-'*"*^ 


jmajKitiDiii 


^J 


H 


gold:  in  the  mine,  the  mint,  and  the  W0BK8H0P. 


not  be  done  by  a  solitary  rambler  to  the  "  diggings,"  who  has  got  all  his 
worldly  wealth  on  his  back ;  the  breaking  and  pounding  and  washhig  may  be 
80  conducted;  but  the  amalgam  process  requires  other  resources.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  rock  or  the  sand  is  rich,  so  will  washing  suffice  for  the  extraction 
of  a  profitable  quantity  of  gold. 

In  the  gold  districts  of  Himgary,  the  sand  is  placed  upon  an  inclined  table, 
the  sm-face  of  which  is  grooved  with  transverse  channels.  Water  is  thrown 
on  the  sand  in  the  uppennost  groove ;  and  after  a  time  the  golden  paiticles 
find  their  way  (by  their  superior  weight)  down  tlie  table  to  the  lowest  channel, 
where  they  collect  with  some  of  the  sand,  from  which  they  are  afterwards 
easily  separated. 

In  Brazil,  where  gold-working  has  been  more  steadiljr  and  extensively  pur- 
sued in  modem  times  than  in  any  other  countiy,  the  mming  operations  have 
gone  through  three  epochs  or  periods.  The  first  was  before  the  year  1724. 
The  common  method  of  proceeding,  as  described  by  Professor  Ansted,  was  to 
dig  a  square  hole  in  the  soil,  imtil  tiie  miners  came  to  the  auriferous  gravel. 
The  gravel  was  broken  up  with  pickaxes,  and  shovelled  into  wooden  vessels. 
These  vessels  were  exposed  to  the  action  of  running  water,  and  were  shaken 
from  side  to  side  imtil  the  earthy  particles  were  washed  away,  and  the  gold 
subsided.  These  workings  were  either  in  the  beds  of  rivers,  or  in  the  alluvial 
banks  over  which  rivers  had  in  former  times  flowed. 

But  in  1724  a  new  method  was  introduced,  which  economised  labour.  In- 
stead of  opening  the  ground,  and  carrying  the  amiferous  gravel  to  a  rmming 
stream,  a  sti'eam  was  conveyed  to  the  gravel ;  water  was  conducted  to  the  mining 
ground,  and  made  to  wash  away  the  mould  which  covered  the  gravel ;  after 
which  it  washed  the  gravel  itself  away  from  the  golden  particles. 
.  The  comparative  exhaustion  of  the  sands  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  third 
mode  of  mining  in  the  Minas  Geraes  district.  It  was  known  that  the  motm- 
tains  neai-  the  rivers  contained  veins  rich  in  gold  ;  but  the  means  for  working 
have  been  and  still  ai-e  very  rude.  The  working  is  by  open  cutting,  laying  the 
vein  bare  by  clearing  away  the  surface.  Unless  there  is  water  to  aid  in  this 
operation  the  labour  becomes  immense. 

In  one  district  of  Brazil  the  gold  is  collected  in  a  smgular  way.  Canoes 
are  provided,  each  cut  out  of  a  solid  tree.  The  gold-washers  dredge  up  sand 
from  the  river  bed  into  the  canoe,  by  means  of  a  windlass  and  an  iron  scoop ; 
and  into  the  sand  thus  collected  they  direct  a  stream  of  water  through  bamboo 
shoots.  The  sand  and  mud  become  gradually  washed  away,  and  the  golden 
particles  are  found  in  the  bottom  of  the  canoe.  It  seems,  however,  that  the 
produce  thus  obtained  is  only  just  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  expense  of  ob- 
taining it. 

In  some  districts,  where  the  river  banks  are  not  private  property,  negro 
gold-seekers  work  on  their  own  account  in  the  following  way.  They  are 
dressed  in  a  leathern  jacket,  and  sling  before  them  a  leathern  bag  and  a  round 
bowl.  They  select  locaUties  where  the  river  is  not  rapid,  or  where  it  has 
bends  or  deep  holes.  They  first  reuiove  the  large  stones  and  upper  layers  of 
sand  with  their  feet;  and  then  take  up  a  bowlful  of  the  deeper  and  older 
gravel.  They  wash  and  shake  the  contents  of  the  bowl  until  all  the  gold 
sinks  to  the  bottom ;  and  when  it  is  separated  as  far  as  possible  from  sand,  it 
is  taken  out  of  the  bowl  by  hand,  and  put  into  the  leather  bag. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  gold  presents  itself  to  the  eyes  of  the  eager 
adventurer  in  its  pure  metallic  form ;  it  is  almost  always  deteriorated,  either 
with  earthy  matters  or  with  some  of  the  cheaper  metals ;  and  this  deteriora- 


\ 


<M.i|M«i 


..ilj.j**'.*^*^"^*'***^^ 


sBSSESucaaa 


ORKSHOP. 

'  who  has  got  all  his 
5  and  washing  may  be 
esonrces.  In  propor- 
ice  for  the  extraction 

pon  an  inclined  table, 
els.  Water  is  thrown 
!  the  golden  pailicles 
to  the  lowest  channel, 
I  they  are  afterwards 

y  and  extensively  pur- 
ining  operations  have 
before  the  year  1724. 
Dfessor  Ansted,  was  to 
the  auriferous  gravel, 
into  wooden  vessels, 
ter,  and  were  shaken 
id  away,  and  the  gold 
vers,  or  in  the  alluvial 

nomised  labour.  In- 
i  gravel  to  a  running 
aducted  to  the  mining 
ered  the  gravel ;  after 
)  articles. 

e  adoption  of  a  third 
nown  that  the  moun- 
le  means  for  working 
len  cutting,  laying  the 
water  to  aid  in  this 

ingular  way.  Canoes 
jhers  dredge  up  sand 
is  and  an  iron  scoop ; 
irater  through  bamboo 
away,  and  the  golden 
IS,  however,  that  the 
>r  the  expense  of  ob- 

rivate  property,  negro 
ing  way.  They  are 
lem  bag  and  a  roimd 
apid,  or  where  it  has 
s  and  upper  layers  of 
he  deeper  and  older 
vl  until  all  the  gold 
possible  from  sand,  it 
IT  bag. 

the  eyes  of  the  eager 
8  deteriorated,  either 
:  and  this  deteiiora- 


GOLD  :  IN  THK  MINE,  THE  MrUT,  AND  THE  WOKKSHOP. 


19 


tion  may  arise  either  simply  from  mechanical  mixture  or  from  chemical  com- 
bination Hence  many  dilferent  processes  have  U>  be  adopted,  to  bang  the 
gold  to  absolute  purity.  The  •' diggei-s"  and  adventurers  ca,^  ^f/?"^'^ 
little  about  these  processes ;  they  know  that  they  can  sell  their  gold  dust  md 
gold  ores,  whether  the  ratio  of  pure  metal  be  large  or  smaU :  receivmg  a  price 
which  (ostensibly  at  least)  depends  upon  this  ratio.      ^     .        ^  .•      •„ 

One  of  the  simplest  modes  adopted  in  Brazil  for  effecting  the  separation  is 
thus  managed -.-The  river  sand  and  mud  are  well  washed,  untd  the  gold  ap- 
peal's as  Jvy  fine  grains.  The  gold  is  put  into  a  crucible,  sublimate  oiiner- 
luxy  is  added  to  it,  and  it  is  melted  ;  the  time  requirea  m  melting  depends  on 
the  kind  of  metals  with  which  the  gold  is  alloyed;  but  when  the  meltmg  is 
completed,  the  precious  Uquid  is  poured  into  iron  moulds,  or.  ratlier,  the 
chStper  and  lighter  metals  Sre  poured  off.  by  which  they  ai-e  sepai-ated  from 

^^sSirsepittion  of  gold  from  a  rocky  ore  is  a  more  difficult  nja^er   and 
requires  appliances  which  a  Californian  digger  is  veiy  httie  likely  to  have  at 
hand     The  oi-e  is  pounded  and  ground  to  a  fine  powder ;  it  is  washed,  to  expel 
Slight  eai-thy  matter;  the  residue  is  dried,  and    s  mixed  with  a  cerUmi 
quantUy  of  quicksilver;  by  a  genUe  heat  the  mixture  is  graduaUy  n^elted^d 
m  amalgam  formed.     Then  comes  a  very  curious  process  :  the  anialgam  la 
jessed  in  a  leather  or  skin  bag;  the  quicksilver  mosUy  passes  ttu-ough  the 
?ores  bit  the  gold  remains  behind ;  and,  by  further  processes,  the  whole  of 
Se  mercuiy  is  recovered  from  the  leather,  and  the  whole  of  the  gold  is  sepa- 
rated from  impurities  and  alloys.  r-..**,.^!!  ;«  nnrirnKsU- 
The  eold-mining  system  of  Kussia,  as  descnbed  by  ..,r.  Cottrell,  is  cunously 
managed.    Eveiy  freeman  in  Russia,  except  a  Government  mp%«,  is  allowed 
STeS  for  goS,  which  is  usually  found  m  the  sands  on  ihe  banks  of  nvei^ 
Srexplore?  finds  that  his  seai-ch  has  been  successful(in  any  district  not 
befOTe  similarly  appropriated),  he  aimounces  tSae  fact  to  the  Government,  and 
appUes  for  peiinission  to  avail  himself  of  the  discovery.     A  mmmg  officer  is 
5  to  examine  the  spot,  and  to  mark  out  a  district  of  about  two  Lnghsh 
square  miles,  of  which  tlie  explorer  is  put  mto  possession,  so  far  as  legards 
Sd  getting.    The  speculator  (for  it  can  only  be  a  moneyed  man  who  entei^ 
on  such  a  project)  builds  huts  for  workmen,  fixes  machines  and  offices  and 
Z!Z  large  stores  of  provisions ;  for  the  location  i.  often  many  miles  d ist^t 
Sm  Ly  town.     The  labourers  ai-e  mostly  persons  exiled  from  R^^^^a  to  Si- 
berTar^d  they  receive  good  but  not  extravagant  wages  from  the  speculators 
Thi  ;ands  are^oUected  and  washed,  and  the  gold  is  brought  to  a^.clean  a 
.tate  as  possible.    At  the  fall  of  the  year,  when  the  mcreasmg  ^o^  bnngs  tiie 
operations  to  a  close,  the  gold  is  carried  to  a  government  establishment,  ma 
JSXiLx;  it  is' weigLd,:registered,  melted,  mo^^^^^ 
and  accurately  valued ;  the  ingots  are  transmitted  to   &f..  Petersbiu-gb,  ana 
^Ldi^S  money,  wh  ch  is  paid  to  the  speculator,  mmus  acertam  percentage 
rernedZ  the  Government.     It  appears  that  the  Government,  bemg  desirous 
t^lcouSe^ese  0^^^^^         does  not  press  very  hardly  on  the  speculators 
ThTSture,  however,  is  a  precarious  one;  for  sometmies  tlie  returns  do 
not  p^Ae  expenses,  while  at  other  times  a  capitaUst  is  rumed  before  the 
SMpe^T^y  qvLtity.    An  instance  is  narrated  of  one  speculator,  who 
fpentTi^five  thousand  out  of  forty  thousand  roubles  of  borrowed  money 
before  any  fruits  resulted ;  but  luck  then  showered  upon  hun  so  abundantly 
that,  in  a  few  years,  he  became  a  milhonaire. 


"V 


1 


u 


0OID!  IK  THE  MINE,  THE  MnOT,  AND  THE  WORKSHOP. 


Gold  Coinage,  and  rre  CrmosmES. 

Distant  as  the  Califomian  diggings  are  from  New  York  and  from  london, 
the  diggers  find  abundant  customers  for  theii-  gold-dust.  Silver  dollars  are 
sent  out  to  San  Francisco,  in  exchange  for  the  dust  and  the  ore  ;  and  tho  mag- 
nificent steamers  of  the  Atlantic  route  bring  us  as  nmch  of  this  gold  aa  the 
course  of  exchange  between  tlie  countries  requu'es. 

Among  the  many  modes  of  practically  applying  gold,  money  is  not  the  least 
curious  and  interesting.  The  substances  of  which  money  is  composed  are 
more  numerous  than  many  persons  imagine.  When  society  rises  above  tlie 
level  of  mere  bartering  transactions,  any  substance  which  is  equally  valued  by 
buyer  and  seller  may  become  money  ;  and  there  then  arises  simply  a  question 
of  degree,  as  to  the  fitness  of  one  or  another  material.  One  of  the  earliest 
kinds  of  money  was  cattle,  an  article  being  valued  at  so  many  oxen ;  but  Uiis 
is  obviously  a  coin  that  is  inapplicable  to  small  purchasers,  for  it  would  puade  ^ 
the  seller  to  give  change  out  of  an  ox.  Shelh  Kre  used  to  a  great  extent  as 
money,  in  India,  the  Indian  islands,  and  Africa ;  the  cowiy  shells  of  India 
have  a  value  of  about  thirty-two  to  an  English  farthing.  Cocoa-nuts,  almonds, 
and  maiz€  have  all  had  to  do  duty  as  money,  m  certain  times  and  oouutries. 
In  hunting  coimtries,  skim  are  a  very  common  kind  of  coin ;  and  sfcunped 
pieces  of  Uathir  are  said  to  have  been  used  in  England  in  the  time  of  Edgar, 
In  Bome  regions  salt  is  used  as  money,  cut  into  convenient  brick-shaped 
pieces.  In  counUies  where  rents  and  wages  are  estimated  in  given  quMifities 
of  com,  com  may  be  said  to  be  money,  Dried  fish  is  often  the  money  of 
Iceland  and  Newfoundland ;  sugar  ha|  at  times  been  a  WesMndia  money ; 
and  Adam  Smitli  tells  us  of  a  Scotch  village  m  which  nails  were  a  current 
coin  at  the  ale-house  and  the  baker'a.  But  metals  supersede  ^l  Uie  above 
heterogeneous  Ust,  m  a  more  advanced  state  of  society.  Brass  money  was 
made  in  Ireland  during  the  time  of  the  Tudors  ;  and  at  the  same  period  Uad 
was  used  for  small  coins  in  England.  Charles  the  Second  hwi  fai'things  of 
tin;  and  his  successor  had  small  coins  of  pewUr  and  of  f/un-iiutal.  Iron  was 
used  by  some  of  the  early  nations;  and  flatiimm  is  used  at  the  present  day  in 
Russia. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that,  besides  silver  and  copper,  gold  has  many  rivals 
as  materials  for  coins.  All  yield  precedence  to  it,  however ;  for  no  other  metal 
possesses  at  once  so  many  qualities  fitted  for  this  purpose.  It  is  very  solid 
and  dense ;  it  is  divisible  or  separable  in  an  extraordinary  degree ;  it  is  very 
little  affected  by  air  or  moisture,  or  ordinary  usage ;  its  supply  is  (relatively) 
veiy  limited ;  and  its  value  presents  a  remarkable  approach  to  uniformity,  in 
different  coimtries  and  different  times. 

Our  modem  potentates,  m  England  at  least,  have  no  trouble  to  obtain  gcW 
for  coining  ;  buUion  dealers,  in  the  ordinary  course  of  theu-  trade,  voluntarily 
bring  gold  to  the  Mint  to  be  corned.  But  such  was  not  aiways  tiie  case,  in 
earlier  times,  nor  is  it  now  always  the  case,  in  other  countries ;  for  the  rulera 
thought  it  incumbent  on  them  to  place  some  check  up<m  the  locomoUve  pro- 
pensities of  g«dd.  Sometimes  gold  was  not  allowed  io  be  smi  oat  of  th« 
country ;  sometimes  a  bonus  was  offered  to  the  lioldera  of  gold,  to  permit  it 
to  be  coined ;  and  sometimes  an  interdict  was  put  against  the  uue  of  gold  for 
trinkets  and  omamente. 

Perhaps  the  most  intense  gold-fever  the  worid  has  known^-not  »o  wid«ij 
spread,  perhaps,  but  more  deep  than  that  of  Califomia— was  alchemy.    When 


I.- 


SBKSHOP. 


OOU)  ;  IN  THB  MINE,  THll  MIST,   AND  THE  W011IC8H0P. 


IS 


•k  and  from  london, 
t.  Silver  dollars  are 
he  ore ;  and  the  mag- 
L  of  this  gold  as  thu 

money  is  not  the  least 
[\ey  is  composed  are 
ociety  rises  above  the 
X  is  equally  valued  by 
sea  simply  a  question 
One  of  the  earliest 
many  oxen ;  but  tjiis 
rs,  for  it  would  puzzle 
id  to  a  great  extent  as 
cowiy  shells  of  India 
C'ocoa-mUs,  almond», 
1  times  and  oouutries. 
•f  coin  ;  and  stfunped 
in  the  time  of  Edgar, 
uveuient  brick-shaped 
ed  in  given  quuitities 
i  often  the  money  of 
a  West-India  money ; 
naiU  wero  a  current 
upersede  all  Uie  above 
ty.  BroM  money  was 
,  the  same  period  Imd 
;ond  hui  farthings  of 
f  guH-metai.  Iron  was 
I  at  the  present  day  in 

gold  has  many  rivals 
er ;  for  no  other  metal 
>ose.  It  is  very  solid 
lary  degree ;  it  is  very 
;s  supply  is  (relatively) 
ooch  to  uniformity,  in 

trouble  to  obtain  g<M 
their  trade,  voluntarily 
LOt  always  tlie  case,  in 
untries ;  for  the  rulera 
on  the  locomotive  pro- 
t>}  be  Beat  oat  of  th« 

of  gold,  to  permit  it 
ist  the  uite  of  gold  for 

knowu' — ^not  bo  widely 
—was  alchemy.    When 


men  thought  that  common  cheap  metftls  might  be  transmuted  mto  gold  no 
wonder  ufat  tliey  racked  their  brains  to  discover  the  chemictd  means  ot  effect- 
TngT.  transmutation.     The   world  possessed  many   Oldbucks   and   ma^y 
Dousterswivels,  Uie  deceived  and  tlie  deceivers,  among  the  alcheniic«l  cralt 
li        How  Uie  ardent  students  of  this  mystery  earned  on  their  researches,  sober 
^        history  or  pleasant  romance  have  made  familiar  to  n.ost  readers ;  but  it  is  not, 
nerhans  so  aenerally  known,  that  among  our  English  monarchs,  Edwaid  111., 
ffenS^IV.!  HenTvL,  EdwU  IV.,  anS  Henry  YIII    all  showed  a  tendency 
to  believe  in  the  tomsmuting  power  of  alchemy ;  and  they  looked  witli  a  long- 
ing eye  to  the  possible  enrichment  of  their  exchequer  by  these  means      Ed- 
ward HI.  encoUged  tlie  alchemy  of  Raymond  Lully  until  hopes  were  dashed 
by  failure.     He^  iV.  seems  ratl.er  to  have  feared  the  art  Umn  to  have  relied 
on  it  S  a  state  engine.     Henry  VI.  "  patted  on  the  back  "  certain  alchemists, 
who  pTomLd  him^  a  golden  return ;  but  on  their  f.ulure  he  appointed  a  com- 
mission of  inquiry,  as  strangely  constituted  as  any  known  '«  """^  ^^""S '  f^ 
it  consisted  of  two  friars,  the  Queens  physician,  a  schoolmaster,  ^u  'ddonnan 
of  London,  a  fishmonger,  t^^'o  gi-ocers.  and  two  mercers.     Mr.  R"dm&:^2 
notices  this  commission  in  his  '  Annals  of  die  Coinage     was  "«»  able  to  dis- 
cover  any  record  of  tiie  results  of  the  enquiry.     That  Uus  goodly  cluster  of 
Heniys  Ld  Edwards  failed  to  make  gold  by  the  transmuting  process  was 
perhaps,  after  all,  more  a  subject  of  regret  than  of  surprise  to  l^'^'" '  J?T  ^^^ 
no  ea.sy  matter  to  detect  the  cheaters  from  the  cheats  among  the  ^o'^hiPPf* 
of  the  "  philosophers  stone,"  and  these  monarchs  (or  at  least  f ««>e  «f  «^^"^) 
may  possibly  have  belonged  quite  as  much  to  the  lonner  as  to  the  latter  ck^s 
liiuion,  irlinff,  «l«,uiW,-all  are  terms  employed  m  connection  wiUi  gdd 
as  a  coined  met^  or  as  a  metal  about  to  be  coined ;  and  they  let  us  mto  some 
Turious  Lts  concerning  «old  coinage      When  a  buUion  deder  or  ^  account- 
ant speaks  oi  standard  gold,  or  a  jer^NeUe-  praises  his  goods  as  being  made  of 
ri;,*  gold,  what  is  meant  by  these  terms?     And  what  is  »f '"^^^^J."^! 
"st^darf."  and  "fine."  and  "sterling."  three  names  for  the  ^Tf  J^f  f^J 
Perhaps  these  questions  have  not  been  put  exacu^  in  this  form,  but  tbe  sun- 
ject  of  them  must  have  occmi^d  to  many  per^ns    The  word  '^^l^ngh^  now 
very  Utdo  other  meanmg  than  as  a  name  for  English  cornet!  money    so  that 
a  wound  sterhng  means  an  English  pound  com ;  but  origmaUy  it  had  a  htUe 
SmeSg.^  A  pound  in  money  was,  Mr.  Ruding  tells  us.  in  early  times 
TSnghZ,  ^uivalLt  to  a  pound  of  silver,  that  is.  lb.  ^ver)  and  £  were 
equivalent;  but  when  this  equality  was.  from  various  «^"ses,  disturbed, Jie 
word  Bterttfuf  was  used  to  designate  the  coined  silver  money,  ^hf.^f^  of  pure 
silver  or  not;   and  the   same  name  became  afterwards  applied  to  gold. 
fZdZ  egresses  the  degree  of  fineress  in  gold.     For  coimng  purpo^s. 
gSd  U  almost  invariftl)ly  alloyed  wiUi  a  little  silver  and  copper,  which  render 
&  flexible  and  more  durable.    A  carat  in  gold  assaying,  is  ^n  imagn^J 
weight  or  rather  ratio;  anv  piece  of  gold  is  supposed  to  weigh  twenty-four 
Ss,  and  the  fineness  is  exp,«8sed  by  the  number  of  °*f  ^  «  /"T^ /^^^^ 
it  is  in  faot  only  a  pecuUar  mode  of  expressmg  the  pun  /  of  a  gold  ftU^y-     At 
different  times  the  sta^uiard  of  English  gold  coins  has  varied  g«^y '  b«t  &;  «» 
long  period  back  it  has  uniformly  been  "  twenty-two  carats  fine  •-  J^** 's^out  of 
everv  twentv.four  parts  by  weight  twenty-two  are  hne  or  pure  gold,  the  remam- 
ing7w7Sg  cipher  and  silver     The  ^n.  gold  of  the  jeweller  is  as  neary 
pure  as  can  conveniently  be^vreught  into  durable  forms ;  but  ordinary  jewdUr, 

^!ithough  gold^coin,  for  this  country,  is  made  only  at  the  Mhit.  yet  Sir. 


I 


\ 


16 


gold:  in  the  mine,  the  jhst,  and  the  workshop. 


niingham  is  in  some  respects  the  head-quarters  of  the  coining  art  in  modem 
times,  chiefly  through  tlie  famous  establislunent  of  Boulton  and  Watt,  at 
Soho.     BiiTningham  produces  an  immense   quantity   of   stamped   work   in 
brass  and  other  metals ;  and  the  die-makera,  who  make  the  stamps  for  this 
process,  ai-e  merely  a  humbler  grade  of  tliose  who  make  the  dies  for  coins. 
The  dies  are  cut  in  hard  steel  by  hand,  a  laborious  and  tedious  operation. 
In  the  last  century,  tlie  famous  8oho  establishment  not  only  coined  copper 
money  for  the  EngUsh  government,  but  money  of  various  kinds  for  foreign 
governments.     The  dies  were  produced  by  men  very  eminent  in  that  line ; 
men  who,  indeed,  have  rightly  obtained  a  niche  among  artistic  worthies.     The 
great  establishment,  which  had  suftered  much  decline,  as  one  after  another 
wealthy  partner  retired  from  it,  was  finally  broken  up  by  an  auction  sale  in 
April,  1850  ;  and  on  that  occasion  the  lots  exemplified  the  foraier  extent  of 
the  coining  arrangements.     There  were  some  of  the  most  celebrated  medals 
which  had  appeared  in  various  European  countries  during  the  reign  of  George 
III. ;  the  dies  by  which  these  medals  had  been  stamped  ;  British  copper  coins, 
and  tlie  dies  for  them ;  many  varieties  of  French  copper  coins,  witli  the  dies  ; 
and  a  great  variety  of  other  coins,  medals,  and  tokens.     Birmingham  still 
makes  copper  coins,  by  the  ton  weight  at  a  time,  for  various  countries.    "When 
Boulton  and  Watt  commenced  coining  in  1787,  they  had  eight  cutting-out 
presses  and  eight  coining  processes.     On  one  occasion  the  firm  coined  many 
tons  of  five-shilling  pieces  for  the  British  govomment,  of  tlie  silver  obtained 
by  the  capture  of  a  Spanish  galleon ;  a  troop  of  soldiers  guarded  the  premises 
while  tlie  coining  was  in  operation. 

But  it  is  only  of  gold — the  shining  tempter,  gold — that  we  have  here  to 
spoak.  The  actual  processes  of  coining  are  too  minute  and  technical  to  be 
described  here :  they  fittuigly  find  a  place  ui  cycloptedias,  where  the  alloying, 
the  inciting,  the  casting,  the  rolling,  the  cuttmg,  tlie  stamping,  the  milling, 
the  assaying,  the  weighing — all  come  under  notice  in  their  proper  order. 
But  there  is  one  curious  matter  relating  to  the  career  of  gold  coins  after  they 
come  into  the  hands  of  the  public,  which  is  worth  a  little  attention. 

The  wearing  away  of  gold  coin,  by  the  constant  friction  to  which  it  is 
exposed,  is  a  curious  matter  both  mechanically  and  financially.  No  one  can 
say  whither  the  worn  particles  go :  tlie  pocket,  the  purse,  the  skhi  of  the 
hand,  the  wooden  till,  the  metal  cash  box — all  must  rob  the  golden  sovereigns 
of  somethhig  of  their  weight ;  but  we  cannot  see  the  process  of  diminution, 
nor  catch  the  truant  particles  as  they  fly.  Then,  when  gone,  somebody  must 
bear  the  loss ;  and  who  shall  this  be  ?  A  baker  who  takes  a  sovereign  one 
day,  and  pays  it  away  to  his  miller  the  next,  does  not  pay  the  veritable 
Bovereii;(n  itself;  it  is  a  little  lighter  than  when  he  received  it;  and,  although 
even  Mr.  Cotton's  exquisitely  delicate  apparatus  might  not  be  able  to  detect  the 
amount  of  deficiency,  yet  deficiency  there  is,  and  several  repetitions  of  it 
amount  to  an  appreciable  quantity. 

From  very  careful  investigations  made  by  the  ofl&cers  of  the  Mint  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  it  was  found  that  7S^^„  silver  shillings,  taken 
as  a  fair  average  from  all  those  then  in  cu-culation,  were  required  to  make  1  lb. 
troy  ;  whereas  63  is  the  number  when  new.  Eleven  years  afterwards  another 
fair  average  was  taken,  and  another  examination  made,  when  it  was  found  that 
B^-^if  shillings  were  required  to  moke  a  pound.  But  this  diminution  of  weight 
is  excessive,  and  is  not  likely  to  be  exhibited  by  the  less-v/om  and  more  fre- 
quently-renewed silver  coinage  of  the  present  day.  Still  it  is  unquestionable, 
that  tiie  gold  and  silver  coins  are  exposed  to  daily  wear  and  diminution.    The 


..  .Xi« 


JBKSHOP. 

lining  art  in  modem 
Joulton  and  Watt,  at 
if  stamped  work  in 
B  the  stamps  for  this 
ie  the  dies  for  coins, 
id  tedious  operation. 
)t  only  coined  copper 
Mis  kinds  for  foreign 
minent  in  that  hne; 
rtistic  worthies.     The 

as  one  after  another 
by  an  auction  sale  in 

tfie  foi-mer  extent  of 
>st  celebrated  medals 
g  the  reign  of  George 

British  copper  coins, 
•  coins,  witli  the  dies ; 
.8.  Birmingham  still 
3us  counti-ies.  When 
had  eight  cutting-out 
the  firm  coined  many 
of  the  silver  obtained 

guarded  the  premises 

that  we  have  here  to 
J  and  technical  to  be 
IS,  where  tlie  alloying, 
itamping,  the  milling, 
a  their  proper  order. 

gold  coins  after  they 
le  attention, 
riction  to  which  it  is 
mcially.     No  one  can 
urse,  the  skin  of  the 

the  golden  sovereigns 
)roce8s  of  diminution, 

gone,  somebody  must 
akes  a  sovereign  one 
not  pay  the  veritable 
Lved  it ;  and,  although 
lot  be  able  to  detect  the 
veral  repetitions  of  it 

I  of  the  Mint  towards 
silver  shiUings,  taken 
required  to  make  1  lb. 
sars  i\fterwanls  another 
ivhen  it  was  found  that 
s  diminution  of  weight 
3ss-vrom  and  more  fre- 
il  it  is  xmquesUonable, 
and  diminution.    The 


gold:  in  the  mine,  the  mint,  and  the  workshop. 


17 


Government  r(>quested  Mr.  Cavendish  and  Mr.  Hatchett,  two  distinginshed 
fellows  of  the  iloyal  Society,  to  make  an  extensive  investigation  respecting  the 
power  of  metals  to  resist  friction  ;  and  their  results  are  highly  curious.  I  hey 
made  various  alloys  of  silver,  copper,  platina,  iron,  tin,  lead,  bismuth,  manga- 
nese, nickel,  cobalt,  zinc,  antimony,  and  arsenic,  witli  gold;  they  nibbed 
plates  of  different  kiuds  of  metal  over  each  other  half  a  million  times,  to  de- 
termine which  resist  friction  best ;  and  they  rotated  similar  pieces  among 
each  other  in  a  barrel.  The  effects  were  such  as  to  reflect  no  little  credit  on 
those  whoever  they  were,  who  established  the  standard  of  English  gold  coin ; 
for  the  English  standard  (2a  gold  to  2  alloy),  and  the  quality  of  Uio  alloy 
(silver  and  copper  combined),  were  found  about  tlie  best  of  all  the  combina- 
tions subjected  to  experiment. 

In  1B07  the  Mint  officers,  wishing  to  ascertain  how  much  the  cun-ent  com 
had  actually  lost  by  wear,  selected  at  random  one  tiiousand  good  guineas  from 
a  banker,  and  found  tliat  they  had  lost  on  an  average  19s.  per  cent,  in  value. 
A  hundred  guineas  from  a  shopkeeper's  till  had  lost  22«.  per  cent.  Iwo 
hundred  half-guineas  exhibited  a  loss  of  42s.  per  cent— tlie  smaller  coins 
being  subjected  to  more  severe  wear  than  the  larger.  Mr.  Jacob,  a  gi-eat 
authority  on  the  subject  of  tlie  precious  metals,  has  stated  it  as  his  opinion 
that,  taking  tlie  average  of  all  tlie  gold  coins  in  this  countiy,  and  an  average  ot 
all  tlie  hard  usage  to  which  the  coins  are  exposed,  each  one  beai-s  an  annual 
loss  of  about  ^I^Tj  by  friction,  which  is  a  little  more  than  a  fartliing  in  the  pound. 
In  silver  coins  the  loss  is  supposed  to  be  five  or  six  times  greater,  owing  to 
the  more  unceasing  circulation  of  silver  than  gold,  and  to  the  less  fitness  ot 
the  metal  to  bear  friction.  The  matter  may  be  stated  thus  :  put  900  new 
sovereigns  and  900  new  shillings  into  average  ordinaiy  circulation  ;  in  twelve 
months'  time  the  former  will  be  worth  about  899,  and  the  latter  about  894. 

The  extraordinai-y  delicacy  of  tlie  machine  invented  by  Mr.  Cotton  lor 
weighmg  gold  coins,  the  motives  which  led  to  its  adoption,  and  the  mode  ot 
its  operation,  are  briefly  noticed  in  the  paper  on  Calculating  Machines. 

The  Art  of  the  Goldsmith. 

How  bravely  soever  our  Hunts  and  Roskells  and  Garrards  may  coinpcto 
with  them,  it  is  not  probable  that  Ave  shall  ever  equal  the  golden  glitter  of  the 
east  and  the  south.  We  do  not  cai-e  for  it.  What  a  daily  journalist  said  ot 
the  Turkey  and  Eg3'pt  compartment  of  the  Great  Exliibition,  may  be  said  ot 
oriental  countries  in  general.  "  Gold,  in  every  shape  and  form,  here  glares 
upon  the  eye,— we  have  it  spun  into  thread,  arranged  in  embroidery,  lavishly 
scattered  over  eveiy  species  of  fabric  to  which  gold  can  be  appUed— jackets  all, 
stiff  with  the  gUttering  metal— saddles  like  burnished  thrones— housmgs  tor 
camels  and  trappings  for  horses  gorgeous  as  tlie  state  tabard  for  heralds- 
caftans,  tm-bans,  bemouses,  nusniuchs— all  bespangled  with  the  veritable  orna- 
ment You  see  gold  gleaming  from  the  long  rifled  baiTcl  and  the  superbly 
carved  stock— gold  '  dunming  the  sheen '  of  the  Damascus  blade  and  tlie  Mal- 
tese poignard— gold  adorning  the  pipe-stem  and  the  walking-staff-— gold  upon 
the  harness  of  the  '  ship  of  the  desert —gold  upon  tlie  accoutrements  ot  Ins 
rider,  from  the  aigreth  of  his  turban  to  tlie  pointed  weapon  of  his  unwieldy 
stirrups— gold  encrusting  the  lady's  slipper— gold  gleaming  from  the  tiny 
coffee  cup,  and  decorating  the  ample  vase— gold  worked  into  the  hangings  ot 
the  divan— gold  fringes,  gold  tassels— gold  plated,  wrought,  inlaid,  enabroidered 
—gold  in  every  possible  combination  of  ornament  and  device.     This  taste  lor 


I  iiiiii  ilMfiiiiT--"'r'^-*'"^     •'"    i™-"'Hi"'f  iriirWrv 


iMMiMHedWtMM 


u<>WWUMi)iiiii»i'W 


^ 


't 


? 


18 


oold:  in  the  mink,  the  mint,  and  the  workshop. 


lavish  gold  embroideiy  wid  omamontd  is  characteriHtic  of  all  tlie  EasUsni 

peci»le."  ,    ■  ,.  A  \ 

But  though  wG  do  not  possess  (because  we  do  not  attach  importance  to) 
such  ir  (liscriniinaU)  applications  of  gold,  we  have  golden  realizations  of  artistio 
design  such  as  tlie  Hast  possesses  not.  The  art  of  the  goldsmith,  Ironi  tho 
time  of  Benvenuto  CoUini,  has  been  ever  wedded  more  or  less  to  tliat  of  the 
sculptor;  and  Uie  g»;eat  industrial  display  of  1851  has  shown  what  fine  results 
England,  France,  Germany,  aiid  other  countries,  are  able  to  present  in  this 
department  of  ait-manufacture.  , 

Tbe  munificent  offer  of  Uie  Goldsmiths'  Company,  ui  connection  with  tlie 
Great  Exhibition,  ought  to  have  been  imitated  by  some  of  the  otlier  wealthy 
city  guilds,  the  revenues  of  which  are  but  too  slenderly  iq)pUed  to  the  fostering 
of  the  "  arts  and  mysteries  "  whose  name  tliey  beoi-.  The  Goldsmitlis'  Company 
offered  prizes,  to  tlie  amount  of  one  thousand  pounds,  for  the  best  specimens 
of  workmanship  in  certain  specitied  kinds  of  gold  jind  silver  work.     These 
were  to  be  candelabra,  with  gi'oups  of  figm-es  or  animals,  not  less  than  600 
ounces  in  weight ;  other  candelabra  of  smaller  weight ;  shielda,  salvers,  side- 
boards, or  dishes,  of  'Ja  inches  or  more  in  lengtli ;  dessert  sei-vices  ;  sideboard 
ewers ;  ornamental  cups ;  enU-ee  dishes ;  candlesticks  and  branches  ;  tea  and 
coffee   services ;    communion   plate ;    table  candlesticks  ;    salts,  clai-et  jugs, 
brea('-b*«ket8,  teakettles  and  stands,  ink-stands,  spoons  and  forks — each  kind 
having  its  own  defined  prize,  and  sometimes  tlireo  gradations  of  prizes.     All 
were  to  be  modelled  and  made  by  British  artists,  but  it  was  left  to  the  com- 
petitors to  adopt  gold  or  silver,  or  silver-gilt,  as  the  material.     Those  who 
were  familusr  vith  the  gorgeous  display  in  the  south-west  galleiy  of  the  Exhi- 
bition (a  display  which  has  been  roughly  valued  at  upwaids  of  a  million 
sterUng)  will  remember  to  have  seen  bits  of  orange-coloure<l  ribbon  attached 
to  some  of  the  articles  of  plate ;  these  marked  tlie  specimens  which  are  to 
compete  for  the  Goldsmitlis'  Company's  pmes.    And  sumptuous,  indeed,  are 
many  of  Uiem.    How  many  claret  jugs  and  cups,  t«a  services  and  coffee 
services,  salvei's  and  dishes,  candelabra  and  gi-oups,  there  are— we  cannot  ven- 
ture to  say  ;  nor  ought  any  but  a  deeply-versed  connoisseur  to  pass  judgment 
on  their  relative  merits.     The  subjects  depicted  on  some  of  the  gold^  and 
silver  plate  were  as  varied  in  character  as  they  were  beautiful  in  effect.    There 
was  a  Bacchanal  group  for  a  claret  jug ;  there  was  the  never-dying  Sir  Roger 
4e  Coverley,  and  the  equestrian  virgin  Queen  Elizabct '  ;  fables  from  iEsop  in 
ftlto-rehevo ;  Mr.  Cotterell's  design  of  tlie  labours  of  jtiercules,  executed  in 
Silver  by  Messrs.  GaiTard  ;  a  scene  from  Scott's  '  Talisman ;'  Britannia  and  her 
sister  goddesses ;  the  Anglo-Saxons  battling  against  the  Normans— all  wei-o 
among  the  tales  told  or  the  personages  set  forUi  in  gold  or  silver. 

Ono  circumstance  which  contributed  to  render  the  display  of  precious 
metals  peculiarly  rich  in  the  British  department,  was  the  permission  given  to 
the  chief  goldsmiths  to  exhibit  the  honorary  or  prize  trophies  on  which  so 
much  artistic  labour  is  always  bestowed.  We  allude,  of  course,  to  the  racing 
cups,  and  to  the  presentation  plate  given  to  mdividuals  for  pubUc  services  ren- 
dered. It  was  thus  that  the  Exhibition  became  graced  with  the  magnificent 
silver  trophy  presented  to  Sir  Moses  Montefiore— designed  by  Sir  George 
Hayter,  modelled  by  Mr.  Baily  tlie  sculptor,  and  made  by  Messrs.  Hunt  and 
Roskell :  a  rare  combination  of  talent  It  was  thus,  also,  that  we  had  an  op- 
portunity of  seeing  tlie  plate  present®!  to  Lord  EUenborough  by  the  East 
India  Company ;  the  graceful  sih'er  column  presented  to  Mr.  Lumley  by  tliG 
performers  at  tlie  Opera  House ;  the  salver  presented  to  Mr.  Brassey  by  those 


1 


*i»« 


tm»/vm--' 


1 


rrw 


.1-- 


OOtO:   IN   THE   MINE,   THE   MINT,   AND   THE   WOnKSIIOP. 


ig 


)BK8H0P. 

0  of  all  tlie  Eastern 

itUch  importuuce  to) 
roaUzfttions  of  artistio 
goldsiiiith,  from  tho 
or  le88  to  ilmt  of  tlio 
own  what  tine  results 
lo  to  present  in  this 

1  connection  ■with  tha 
of  tlie  otlier  wealthy 
pplied  to  the  fostermg 
jloldsmitlis'  Company 
)r  the  best  specimens 
.  silver  work.  These 
als,  not  less  than  600 

shields,  salvers,  side- 
rt  sei-vices ;  sideboard 
(id  branches ;  tea  and 
s  ;  salts,  claret  jugs, 
md  forks — each  kind 
lations  of  prizes.  All 
was  left  to  the  corn- 
material.  Those  who 
it  galleiy  of  tha  Exhi* 
ipwards  of  a  million 
aured  ribbon  atta«hed 
ecimens  which  are  to 
umptuous,  indeed;  are 
a  services  and  coffee 
e  are — ^we  cannot  ven- 
leur  to  pass  judgment 
ome  of  the  gold  and 
atiful  in  effect.  There 
never-dying  Sir  Bc^r 
;  fables  from  ^sop  in 
rlercules,  executed  in 
ui ;'  Britannia  and  her 
lie  Normans — all  wei-o 
or  silver. 

9  display  of  precious 
e  permission  given  to 
trophies  on  which  so 
if  course,  to  the  racing 
for  public  services  ren- 
[  wlUi  the  magnificent 
signed  by  Sir  George 
by  Messrs.  Hunt  and 
so,  that  we  had  an  op- 
aborough  by  the  East 
to  Mr.  Lumley  by  tlie 
!>  Mr.  5ra«*By  by  ^os^ 


employed  nnder  him  as  a  railway  contractoj^— a  salver  which  has  a  peciihar 
interest  attaclied  to  it,  in  respect  to  twelve  enamelled  portraits  of  the  loading 
engineers  of  tlie  day ;  and  one  or  two  others  of  similar  kind.  The  Emperor 
of  llnssia's  Ascot  priae  for  1847  was  one  of  Uie  most  conspicuous  and  beauti- 
ful of  tlie  race-cup  species. 

In  what  way  tliese  brilliant  and  splendid  productions  are  wrought,  we  do 
not  propose  to  trace  very  minutely  here.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  articles 
are  cither  cast  in  molten  metal,  or  are  haiiunered  and  stamped  from  sheets, 
and  are  afterwania  brought  to  a  highly-finished  state  bv  chasing,  engraving, 
and  burnishing.  Such  is  the  case  when  a  vase,  or  salver,  or  ornament,  is 
jnade  of  solid  gold,  and  such  is  it  likewise  when  made  of  silver  and  coated 
afterwards  with  gohl ;  but  silver  plating  involves  other  processes  of  a  smgular 
character.  An  ingot  of  white  metal  is  made :  on  its  surface  is  laid  a  plate  of 
silver  about  one-fortieth  part  as  tliick  as  tlie  white  metal ;  tho  two  aie  soldered 
together  by  heat ;  the  compound  ingot  is  brought  to  any  required  thinness  by 
rolling:  and  the  silvered  sheet  so  produced  is  stamped,  punched,  hammered, 
engraved,  and  burnished  into  tlie  required  foi-m  and  appeaiance.  The  white 
metal  forms  the  foundation,  the  silver  fonns  the  glittering  surface,  and  this 
silver  could  itself  be  coated  witli  gold  by  what  is  called  the  water-gilding  pro- 
cess, in  which  aquafortis  and  mercury  are  employed  to  aid  the  adhesion  ol  tlie 
gold  to  the  metal  beneath.  w     r  u 

The  repmisse  work  of  French  silversmiths,  which  is  equivalent  to  Enghsh 
chasing,  is  a  veiy  remarkable  mode  of  decorating  gold  and  silver  plate.  It  is 
effected  entirely  by  the  hammer.  The  workman  has  a  plain  flat  sheet  of 
silver  to  work  upon,  and  before  him  is  a  carefully  executed  wax  model  of  the 
article  to  be  produced ;  the  silver  plate  rests  upon  a  soft  bed  of  pitch  or  other 
composition,  and  with  a  small  hammer  the  workman  produces  indentations 
over  the  surface  corresponding  with  the  device  to  be  produced.  A  small  steel 
punch  is  employed  occasionally ;  and  if  any  of  the  indentations  are  carried  too 
far,  the  plate  is  reversed,  and  a  little  counter-hammering  applied.  Many  of 
the  shields,  salvers,  dishes,  and  other  articles  in  the  Great  Exhibition,  dis- 
played fine  examples  of  this  kind  of  work ;  and  there  was  an  equestrian  statue 
of  Queen  Elizabetli  produced  almost  entirely  by  this  remarkable  process. 

A  remarkable  department  of  the  goldsmith's  art  has  recently  come  much 
into  fashion,  viz.,  the  manufacture  of  ecclesiastical  plate  and  ornaments.  As 
we  have  now  church  needlework  and  church  brass-work,  so  have  we  church- 
work  in  the  precious  metals,  such  as  was  little  patronized  twelve  or  fifteen 
years  ago.  The  causes  which  have  led  to  tliis  novelty,  or  rather  revival, 
it  is  no  part  of  the  present  sheet  to  discuss  ;  we  view  the  fact  simply  in 
connection  with  a  particular  department  of  industiy.  The  communion 
plate  of  English  churches— tlie  chalice,  the  paten  or  salver,  and  the 
flagon— had  degenerated  to  veiy  untasteful  productions,  luitil  withm  Uie 
last  few  years.  There  was  often  abundance  of  real  silver  m  them,  but 
this  silver  had  not  been  artistically  wrought.  It  has  been  remarked,  in  con- 
nection with  this  subject,  that  raedioeval  goldsmiths  regai-ded  the  metal  as 
one  which  is  to  be  hammered  into  form,  while  the  modems  have  largely 
practised  the  art  of  casting :  and  that,  although  the  last-named  process  admits 
of  the  development  of  many  new  and  beautiful  effects,  yet,  being  easier,  it  can 
be  accomplished  by  persons  of  less  taste.  In  other  words,  an  artizan  can  pro- 
duce a  piece  of  plate  at  the  present  day,  whereas  an  artist  was  required  for  its 
production  two  or  three  centuries  back ;  and  this  difference  has  told  on  tiie 
relative  infusion  of  mind  in  the  two  kinds  of  productions.     Tho  chui-ch  gold- 


^UmisssagiSBiip^ 


'^mm 


Sj-ffir  *^' '""  ''■""•^'  ''■'*' 


g-igia«\"gi;gr  ii'?f '''^^i^s*^^^ 


maMtli 


"»*<A**^" 


ao 


gold:  in  the  mine,  the  mint,  and  the  workhhop. 


:i' 


i! 


Bmiths  are  now  labouring  to  revive  such  of  the  eoi-licr  forms  and  earlier  pro- 
cesses OS  may  be  (loomed  by  them  superior  to  those  adopted  of  late  years. 
Of  com-8c  it  must  remain  a  matter  of  individual  opinion,  whether  medifpval 
taste  was  better  or  worse  than  that  of  tlio  present  centiuy ;  but  the  bestowal 
of  tJiought  and  study  on  the  ecclesiastical  plate  of  past  ages  cannot  ^'e  oUier- 
wise  tlian  beneficial  to  the  laboma  of  those  who  are  now  workmg  in  gold  and 
silver,  unless   it  lead   uimply  and  solely  to  a  mere  unitation,  which  shows 

poverty  of  thought.  ,  .  ,     .  .      . ,    <•  .v.        i 

The  beautiful  art  of  the  electro-plater,  by  which  the  magic  aid  of  the  gal- 
vanic batteiy  is  invoked  by  Uie  skilful  worker  in  metal,  is  briefly  noticed  m 
Uie  paper  on  Industrial  Applicatiotu  of  Electricity. 

Gold,  in  its  Minote  Scbdivibions. 

Full  of  interest  in  an  artistic  sense  aa  are  the  productions  of  tJio  goldsmiUi, 
the  tliousand  and  one  applications  of  tJie  precious  metal  to  minor  purposes 
are  more  rich  in  curiosities,  more  productive  of  results  which  the  world  in 
general  could  not  have  conceived,  and  can  hardly  believe  even  on  assurance  of 
their  tnith.     A  few  illustintions  of  these  facts  call  for  notice  here. 

Of  all  the  substances  on  which  man  exercises  his  manufacturing  ingenuity, 
gold  is  i)erhaps  that  which  admits  of  lieing  brought  to  the  most  extraordinary 
degree  of  fineness.  Many  of  Uie  productions  in  this  department  of  industi-y 
arc  really  "  curiosities."  Is  not  a  soUd,  unbroken,  vmiform  sheet  of  gold,  less 
than  one  five  hundredtli  part  the  thickness  of  a  sheet  of  ordinary  printing 
paper,  a  curiosity ;  is  it  not  a  cm-iosily  to  know  that  one  ounce  of  gold  may  be 
made  to  cover  the  floor  of  on  ordinaiy  sitting-room ;  that  one  grain  of  gold 
will  gild  thirty  coat  buttons ;  and  that  tlie  covering  of  gold  upon  gold  lace  is 
very  far  thinner  tlian  even  leaf  gold?  Let  us  glance  a  little  at  these  remai-k- 
able  productions. 

And  first  for  gold-leaf  and  the  gold-beating  processes  whereby  it  is  pro- 
duced. Gold-leaf,  in  strictness,  it  certainly  is  not:  for  it  is  found  that  a 
minute  percentage  of  silver  and  of  copper  is  necessary  to  give  the  gold  a 
proper  malleable  quality — a  percentiige  of  periiaps  one  in  seventy  or  eighty. 
The  refiner  manages  this  alloy,  and  brings  the  costly  product  to  a  certain 
stage  of  completion;  he  melts  the  gold  and  the  cheaper  alloys  in  a  black-! lad 
cmcible ;  he  pours  the  molten  metal  into  an  ingot  mould,  six  or  eight  inches 
long ;  he  removes  the  solidified  and  cooled  ingot  from  its  moidd,  and  passes 
it  repeatedly  between  two  steel  rollers  until  it  assumes  the  thickness  of  a. 
ribbon ;  and  Uiis  ribbon,  about  one  eight-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
and  presenting  a  surface  of  about  five  hmidred  square  inches  to  an  ounce, 
passes  next  mto  the  hands  of  the  gold-beater. 

The  working  tools,  the  processes,  and  the  products  of  a  gold-beater,  are  all 
remarkable.  That  puzzling  material,  "  gold-beaters'  skin,"  is  an  indispensable 
aid  to  him :  it  is  a  membrane  of  extreme  thmness  and  delicacy,  but  yet  tough 
and  strong,  procured  from  the  intestines  of  ilie  ox ;  eight  hundred  pieces  of 
this  skin,  four  inches  square,  constitute  a  packet  with  which  the  gold-beater 
labours ;  and  thus  he  proceeds : — A  hundred  and  fifty  bits  of  ribbon-gold,  an 
inch  square,  arc  interleaved  with  as  many  vellum  leaves  four  inches  square ; 
they  are  beaten  for  a  long  time  witli  a  ponderous  hammer  on  a  smooth  marble 
slab,  until  the  gold  has  thinned  and  expanded  to  the  size  of  the  vellum.  How 
the  workman  manages  so  as  to  beat  all  the  pieces  equally,  and  yet  beat  none 
into  holes,  he  alone  can  answer :  it  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  hla  craft.    The 


m. 


[B'JW 


kmmI^*''***  * 


JRKBHOP. 

orms  and  earlier  pro- 
idopted  of  late  years. 
11,  whether  mediseval 
iry ;  but  the  bestowal 
iges  cannot  be  otlier- 
working  in  gold  and 
litation,  which  shows 

magic  aid  of  the  gal- 
,  is  briefly  noticed  in 


ions  of  Uic  goldsmitli, 
al  to  minor  purposes 
9  which  the  world  in 
3  even  on  assurance  of 
tioe  here. 

nufacturing  ingenuity, 
she  most  extraordinary 
epartment  of  industiy 
um  sheet  of  gold,  less 
t  of  ordinary  printing 
I  ounce  of  gold  may  be 
tliat  one  grain  of  gold 
gold  upon  gold  lace  is 
little  at  tliese  remai'k- 

sos  whereby  it  is  pro- 
for  it  is  found  that  a 
iry  to  give  the  gold  a 
J  in  seventy  or  eighty. 
f  product  to  a  certain 
r  alloys  in  a  black-!  ^ad 
aid,  six  or  eight  inches 
its  mould,  and  passes 
aes  the  thickness  of  a 
■  an  inch  in  thickness, 
•e  inches  to  an  ounce, 

of  a  gold-beater,  are  all 
in,"  is  an  indispensable 
delicacy,  but  yet  tough 
ight  htmdred  pieces  of 
which  tlie  gold-beater 
bits  of  ribbon-gold,  an 
es  four  inches  square ; 
ner  on  a  smooth  marble 
ize  of  tlie  vellum.  How 
illy,  and  yet  beat  none 
eriea  of  hla  craft.     The 


oold:  in  the  mine,  the  mint,  and  the  woukbuop. 


21 


gold  is  lib((rated  from  its  vellum  prison,  and  each  piece  cut  into  four;  the 
hiuidred  and  lil'ty  havo  tlnis  become  six  hundred,  and  these  are  interleaved 
with  six  hunilrod  pieces  of  gold-beaUirs"  wkiu,  which  are  then  packed  mto  a 
compact  mass.  Anotlier  beating  tlien  takes  place — more  careful,  more  deli- 
cate, more  precise  than  the  fonner— until  the  gold,  ex])anded  like  the  silk- 
worm, as  far  as  its  envelope  will  admit,  requires  to  be  again  released.  Ihe 
leaves  ai-e  agaui  divided  into  four,  by  which  the  six  hundred  become  twenty- 
four  hmidred ;  these  are  divided  into  three  parcels  of  eight  hundred  each,  and 
each  parcel  is  subjected  to  a  third  beating.  Heavy  as  the  hammere  are,  there 
are  yet  degrees  of  heaviness :  first,  a  sixteen-pounder  gives  its  weighty  tlmmps, 
theix  a  twelvepomider,  and  in  tliis  last  operation  a  hammer  of  ton  pounds  is 
employed. 

Now  if  we  exercise  a  little  arithmetic,  wo  shall  find  that  tlie  tlim  ribbon  ot 
gold  has  become  tliinner  in  an  extraordinai-y  degree ;  in  fact  it  is  reduced  to 
about  T|t,)th  part  of  its  tliickness.  /i  sheet  of  paper  is  equal  in  thickness  to 
HOD  gold- ribbons,  but  one  gold-ribbon  is  equal  to  IHO  gold-leaves;  thus  the 
little  uigot  of  two  ounces  becomes  spreatl  out  to  a  very  largo  area.  An  apart- 
ment twelve  feet  square  might  be  carj)eted  witli  gold  for  six  or  eight  guineas : 
a  tliin  caipet,  it  is  U'ue,  but  cue  of  sound  honest  gold,  purer  tliim  even 
standai'd  gold. 

The  Great  Exhibition  has  not  failed  to  furnish  illustrations  of  this  re- 
markable product,  and  of  tlie  simple  contrivances  whereby  it  is  produced. 
M.  IJottier,  from  France,  and  Mcssi-s.  Vino  and  Ashmead,  from  the  United 
States,  exliibited  machines  intended  to  aid  in  the  operations  of  the  gold-beater; 
but  in  England  tliese  operations  ai-e  wholly  manipulative.  Then  the  delicate 
membrane,  the  "  gold-beaters'  skin,"  was  shown  in  specimens,  not  only  from 
our  own  great  metropolis,  but  from  Hie  far  distant  colony  of  Van  Hiemen's 
Land.  In  Mr.  Marshall's  collection,  placed  among  Uie  "precious  metals"  of 
tlie  Ci-ystal  Palace,  tliore  was  the  packet  of  eight  hmidred  films  of  gold-beaters' 
skin,  just  in  the  form  in  which  the  hammer  is  brought  to  bear  upon  it ;  and 
neai-  this  were  specimens  of  all  tlie  various  kinds  of  leaf-gold  used  in  manufac- 
tm-ing  operations,  from  the  silveiy  white  to  tlie  coppery  red.  These  variations 
of  tint  are  produced  by  vaiying  the  quantity  of  silver  and  of  copper  mixed  with 
tlie  gold;  and  tliere  were  also  different  thicknesses  of  leaf,  api>licable  Ui  diHerent 
pur[)ose3.  There  was  gold  leaf  from  tliree  English  fimis,  from  France,  froiii 
the  United  States,  from  Turkey,  and  from  Van  Dienien's  Land— tlie  Old  World 
and  tjie  New  both  displayed  their  knowledge  of  tliis  art. 

The  applications  of  this  exquisitely  fine  substance  are  numerous  and  vaiied. 
In  the  edges  of  books,  in  picture-frames  and  looking-glasses,  in  the  gorgeous 
decorations  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  other  sumptuous  apartments,  in  gdt 
leatlier — we  see  some  among  the  many  appUcations  of  leaf-gold.  In  all  these 
cases  the  gold  is  applied  and  seemed  by  tlie  aid  of  a  particular  kind  of  cement 
or  gold  size ;  and  this  cement  dilTers  in  character,  according  as  the  gold  is  oi- 
ls not  to  be  burnished  with  a  smooth  piece  of  agate  or  flint.  The  whole  of 
tlie  accompanying  processes  are  full  of  ingenious  "  Curiosities,"  both  in  tlie 
effects  produced  and  in  tlie  modes  of  producing  them  ;  but  we  must  hasten  to 
glance  at  one  of  tlie  otlier  forms  of  extremely  delicate  attenuation  of  gold. 

Gold-lace  is  not  gold  lace.    It  does  not  desene  this  title,  for  the  gold  is 
applied  as  a  smliice  to  silver.     It  is  not  even  silver-lace,  for  the  silver  is  ap- 
plied to  a  foundation  of  silk.     Therefore,  when  we  are  admiring  tlie  glittering 
splendom-  of  gold-lace,  we  should,  if  "  honour  be  given  where  honom-  is  due, 
remember  that  it  is  silk-lace,  wiUi  a  silver-gilt  coating.    The  silken  threads  for 


iiiiitiaiii**i*ii>i'i>i  <  I  iiiiirVM  •  t 


J 


1 


M 


oold:  n»  the  Mint,  the  Miir    mto  tki  wonraHOP. 


makintf  Uiii  matoriiU  (iro  wound  round  wiUi  gold  wire,  no  tliickly  as  t/)  conceal 
the  Bilk ;  and  Uie  nrnking  of  Uiis  gold  wire  ii*  one  of  the  most  HUigiilnr  me- 
chunical  operation*)  inrnKinable.  hi  the  first  f.lncc,  the  refuior  prepnro*!  a  solid 
rod  of  Hilvor,  about  an  inch  in  UiickneHS ;  he  heats  this  rod.  a|.plie»  up  n  the 
surface  a  coating  of  gold-leaf,  burnishes  this  down,  >pph.'s  anot}i.'r  coating, 
buniihhos  tliis  down,  and  so  on.  until  the  gc.ld  is  about  one-hundredth  part 
the  Uuckness  of  tb'-  -'v-.  Then  the  rod  is  subjected  to  a  tram  of  processeH, 
which  bringi  «  ■li^ii  I  ; '">  stoto  of  a  fine  wire;  it  is  passed  Uiroiigh  holes 
in  a  steel  nl:,i  ■  losi;  r,'  a-  step  by  step  in  diam<ter.  The  gold  never  d.  rts 
the  silver,  t)ut  adiif.cd  losely  to  it,  and  shares  all  itx  mutations:  it  wn-  one 
hundredUi  poi-t  the  thickness  of  Uie  silver  at  the  beginning,  and  it  maintains 
tlic  saiiii:  ratio  to  Uie  end. 

As  to  the  thinness  to  which  Uie  gold-coated  rod  ol  Rilver  can  W  brou^nt, 
the  limit  depends  on  tlie  delicacy  of  human  skill;  but  the  most  wondn.iis 
example  ever  known  was  brought  forward  by  Uie  late  Dr.  Wulliiston,  .i  man 
of  extraordinary  tact  in  minut-  .   ,.    -:   -    ts.     Thin  is  an  example  of  a  Hohd 
gold  wire,  without  any  silver.     He  procuved  a  sii'  11  rod  of  silv.n-  bored  a  Siole 
Uirough  it  from  end  to  end,  tuid  inserted  in  Uiis  hole  Uie  smallost  gold  wire 
he  could  procure ;  he  subjected  Uie  silver  to  Uie  usual  wiro-diawmt,'  proce-ss, 
nnUl  he  had  brought  it  to  the  finest  attainable  state ;  it  was,  m  fact,  a  silver 
wire  as  fine  as  a  hair,  wiUi  a  gold  wire  in  its  centre.     How  to  isolate  Uiis  gold 
wire  was  Uie  next  point:  he  subjected  it  to  warm  nitrous  ii<;i.i,  by  which  the 
silver  was  dissolved,  leaving  a  gold  wire  one  Uiirty-thousandUi  of  an  inch  i.i 
thickness— perhaps  Uie  thinnest  round  wire  that  Uie  hand  of  man  has  yet  pm- 
duced.    But  this  wire,  Uiough  beyond  all  comparison  finer  than  any  employed 
in  manufactures,  does  not  approach  in  UiinneKS  the  film  of  gold  on  the  sur- 
face of  Uie  silver  in  gold-lace.     It  has  been  calculated  Umt  Uie  gold  on  ttie 
very  finest  sUver  mvo  for  gold-lace  is  not  more  Uian  ow-lhird  of  one-milionth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness ;  Uiat  is,  not  abovo  one-tenUi  the  Uiickness  of  ordinary 
leaf-gold !     The  mind  gets  not  a  litUe  bewildered  by  these  fractions  :   but  we 
shall  appreciate  Uie  matter  in  the  following  way:— Let  us  imagine  Uiat  a 
Bove-eign  could  be  vHed  or  l)eaten  into  Uie  iV)rm  of  a  r.^-on,  one  inch  m 
widUi,  and  as  Uiin  as  Uiis  film ;  Uien  Uiis  ribbon  might  form  a  girdle  com- 
pletely round  Uie  Crjstal  Palace,  wiUi  perhaps  "  a  little  to  spare." 

The  delicate  wires  of  gold,  or  of  silver,  or  of  silver  coated  wiUi  gold,  are 
applied  to  numerous  ornamental  purposes,  of  which  abundant  illustrations 
have  been  displayed  at  Uie  "World's  Fair."  There  was  gold-laee,  in  a  fonn 
fit  to  be  applied  to  embroidery  and  oUier  purposes,  from  a  London  hnn,  tiom 
our  neighbourt.  across  Uie  channel,  from  Belgium,  from  Uie  ZoUvemn  States, 
and  from  Russia.  The  woven  productions,  embroidered  wiUi  gold-lace,  were 
richly  iUustiated  by  Uie  archiepiscopal  vestments  contributed  by  Belgium. 
The  employment  of  gold-laco,  when  woven  with  oUier  materials,  was  shown 
(amoni;  )ther  examples)  in  the  sumptuous  Russian  gold  brocade,  valued  at 
about  four  guineas  a  yard.  The  exquisite  fdarfree-xtork,  from  Genoa,  hpain. 
and  oUier  countries,  showed  how  delicately  gold  wire  can  be  twisted  and 
wrought  into  elegiait  foi-ms;  and  the  well-filled  and  well-arranged  lunis  Court 
demonstrated  how  widely  Uie  use  of  gold  Uiread  and  gold  wu-e  has  extended 
among  the  wealthier  denizens  of  noilliera  xXiiica. 


ll 


M 


^^■^f.  ^  A.^.^....^.t.,m 


\  tliiokly  OS  to  conceal 
le  moHt  BiiiK«Irtr  me 
ifuitT  piwpnron  n  xoliil 
rod,  applioH  iiji  >n  the 
)lii'8  anotlitr  coating, 
t  ()ne-huii(lre«ltli  part 

0  a  train  of  processes, 
passed  Uirongh  hohm 
h«  gold  never  d<  rts 
»ut4itions  :  it  wft-  ono 
ling,  and  it  maintains 

ilver  cftn  bo  brou^'lit. 
t  the  most  wondrous 
Dr.  Wolliiston,  u  man 
an  example  of  a  solid 
of  silver,  bored  a  hole 
he  sniaib'st  gold  wire 
wiro-drawin'.;  process, 

1  wa3,  in  fact,  a  silver 
ow  to  isolate  tliis  gold 
i>is  acid,  by  wliich  the 
isandtli  of  an  inch  in 
id  of  man  hasyetpr»>- 
ler  than  any  employed 
m  of  gold  on  the  sur- 

that  tlio  gold  on  the 
If -third  of  ime-miUionth 
)  thickness  of  ordinary 
lese  fractions  :  but  we 
si  us  imagine  Uiat  a 
a  rli^uon,  one  inch  in 
;lit  form  a  girdle  com- 
to  spare." 

coated  with  gold,  are 
abundimt  illustrations 
as  gold-lace,  in  a  form 
11  a  L<mdon  finn,  from 
1  the  ZoUverein  States, 
ed  wiUi  gold-lace,  were 
iitributed  by  Belgimn. 
•  materials,  was  shown 
;old  brocade,  valued  at 
7c  from  Genoa,  Hpain, 
■e  can  be  twisted  and 
l-arranged  Tunis  Court 
gold  wire  has  extended 


1 


OOLD:   IK  THB   MINB,  TM  MINT,  AKB  THK  WOUKWIOP. 


B8 


Oo>rj)KK  TniMKET8  Axu  Small  Waheh. 

ThMfl  delirat^lyminutfl  applicaii  ms  of  gold  are  but  a  few  among  many. 
If  we  look  at  that  doli.ut*  b.it  iMMioct  film  of  gold  which  covers  buttons  and 
rhean  iowollci-v,  wo  shall  tind  that  it  is  not  less  curious  tlian  thost,-  examples 
iu8t  triauui.  Hen)  the  gold  is  neither  a  sheet  nor  a  wire;  it  is  a  w<uk  or 
linui.l.  The  buttons,  wh«.  completely  forme.l  (by  processes  wh.di  need  not 
be  hero  described),  are  cleansed  witli  an  acid  liquor;  then  bunnshed.  t«  leve 
all  irregularities ;  tl.en  shaken  in  a  vessel  wiUi  a  mixture  of  quicksdver  aiid 
nitric  acid :  and  afterwards  drained  fnm.  all  Uie  mercury  oxcei)t  a  Uiin  hlni 
which  adheres  to  ea<  h  button.  Next  comes  the  gilding  process;  gold  and 
mercury  are  melted  t..gether  in  an  iron  ladb-.  au.l  Uie  mixture  .s  pourod  into 
cold  water;  it  forms  a  pasto-like  substance,  which  is  s<pioe/.od  m  a  IcaUier  bag 
until  tiearlv  all  the  epiicksilver  is  expelled,  loavhig  only  a  little  combined  wiUi 
the  gold,  ''i'his  amalgam  of  gold  and  mcrcurj'  is  mixed  with  niUio  wu  and 
the  buttons  immersed  in  it;  a  careful  application  of  heat  dnvcs  oft  all  Oie 
mercury  from  iho  buttons,  leaving  a  delicate  but  uniform  nlm  of  gold  on  tl^o 
buttons.  There  are  other  modes  of  gilding  buttons,  but  we  need  not  stop  to 
notice  them  here.  Now  this  golden  gannent  which  gives  to  a  button  a  bn  - 
liancv  nearly  if  tiot  quit*,  equal  to  tliut  which  a  button  of  so  id  gold  would 
exhibit,  is  so  extremely  thin  that  ten  pennyworths  of  gold  would  gid  a  hvm- 
dred  roat  buttons  of  ordinary  size ;  and  in  some  of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  work 
the  film  in  less  than  ono  two-hundred-UiousamlUi  of  an  mch  in  tliickness. 

A»  It  ii  in  buttons,  so  it  is  in  cheap  jewellery:  tlie  thickness  of  the  gold  is 
small  almost  beyond  belief     Finger-rings,  ear-rings,  chains,  clasps  brooches. 
Jweezers    bucklis,    pencil-ca.oH,  pen-holdei-s,  bodkins,  thimbles    toothpicks, 
bmcelets  stu.l   -all  such  articles  may  be  of  real  solid  gold  and  sometimes 
are:  but'  tJie   i.nninghiun  trade  mostly  presents  tliem  simply  with  a  golden 
surface  upon  commoner  metals ;  and  tliere  seems  hardly  any  proctica^  limit  to 
the  thinness  of  tl-  gold  so  applied.     In  proportion  as  the  age  «»  ^1;«^P"««« 
advances,  so  do  Uie  manufacturers  of  that  extraordmaiy  town  show  how  large 
a  surface  tliev  can  cover  with  a  given  weight  of  gold.      ,     ,    ,  .  „    ^     ,       .,, 
Down  to  about  the  time  of  Charles  II.  liinningham  hod  chiefly  to  do  with 
iron  and  Uic  coai-ser  metals;  but  she  now  began  to  tuni  attention  to  more 
showy  productions.     WiUiam  Hutton,  in  his  quamt  •  Hisl..iy  ot  Birmingham. 
SurVoUces  the  change  which  ensued :-"  Thoug^i  we  have  •'tt^nued  her 
through  so  immense  a  space,  we  have  only  seen  her  m  mfancy ;  compara- 
tivels   smaU  in  her  ^  /.e,  homely  in  per.Hon,  and  coarse  m  her  dress;  her 
ornaments  wholly  of  uon,  from  her  own  forge.     But  now  her  growth  will  bo 
™Tng  her  expiuision  rapid,  ,)erhaps  not  to  be  i.aralleled  m  history.     We 
TaU  see  her  rise  in  all  Uie  beauty  of' youth,  of  g.uce  of  elegance,  and  attract 
he  notice  of  tlic  commercial  world.     She  will  also  add  to  her  >roji -•naments 
the  lustre  of  every  metal  that  the  whole  earth  can  produce    with  all  their 
Uustrious  race  of  compounds,  heightened  by  fancy  and  gamishe.l  with  jewels 
She  will  draw  fVom  the  fossil  and  vegetable  kingdoms ;  press  the  ocean  for 
shell,  skin,  and    ui'al.     She  wiU  lUso  tax  Uie  animal  lor  l^o™..^«"'|?"^'^^";«^ j 
.md  rfie  w  11  d.     .rate  the  whole  witli  the  touches  of  her  pencil       Hutton  ^^^ 
perfectly  rigl    ,  Birmingham  ha,  done  aU  tliis.     Her  beautiful  steel  toys  and 
LamentI;   u-r  fine  productions  in  stamped  brass;   her  bronze  and  brass 
lamp  fumitme ,  licr  painted  and  pdished  japan  and  papier-macbe  goodh ;  her 


T 


iMitB»iW.ii«i*»iiiriiri'iiii'  III' 


fU  00I<D:   in   TMB   mike,   tub   KIKT,   and  tub   WOnKSHOP. 

nritnnniii  motal  and  wliito  meUl  UbI..  furnituro-.ill  Hpeak  well  for  tlie  induHlry 
mHl™rher  urti/.a.,H.  But  an  our  nubjcct  hore  in  Hunply  yoUl,  we  must 
not  wandf-r  to  other  departinonUi  of  lUraungham  industry.  i.,„„m« 

The   «old-trinket  tnule  of  BinnhiKhani   ih  carrio.l  on  raUier   by  humble 
JloHmen-"  g«m.t  maHten.  "-than  by  lar^c  inanufactu.  .rH      Mai.y  a  wok- 
B^rX  has  saved  five  or  tt-n  pounJH,  have.  Im  master,  buys  a  httle  gold 
Sa  oU>cr  rtal.  aiul  employn  hin  wifo  and  children  an  his  aids  m  producmg 
S  ver  Sblc  '•  Ummmageur- goods,  wh.ch  have  Bomowhat  damaged  tlio  repu- 
Stion  of  the  to^^'n-in  tho  rjm  of  thoHO.  at  least,  who  are  not  tamihar  with 
S^S  really  fine  pmductions  pit  forth  by  tho  hotter  •im.s.     Lot  not  purchasers 
cmnXn  if  tho  gold-clad  trinket  lo8«s  its  external  attractions  rather  too  soon 
S  inghi  u    hko  London,  can  produce  good  golds.n  Uierv  if  properly  paid 
for  t     One  small  garret  master  makes  buckles,  anotiier  brooches,  another 
clLns  ar     .oon.     Buttons,  it  is  curious  to  observe,  are  differently  treated ; 
£r  «»  Hon  0  of  Uio  largest  establishments  in  Birmingham       n  gilt  toys. 
Se^tTsK"  e  now  beaS  Birmingham.  paiUy  on  account  of  tl.o  mipenor 
S^te  Zwn    and  partly  owing  to  the  lowness  of  wages.     Glass,  pobblo  and 
^r!feo  omlente  for  llirmingham  cheap  jeweUery  are  mostly  imported  from 

^' Thr^"ardisnlay  in  Hyde  Turk,  of  which  we  have  lately  seen  the  close 
^as  a  cycloLdi  of  inf..mmtion  on  the  subject  of  gold,  as  on  almost  all 
Tther  SeJte  We  have  had  opportunities  of  mentioning  Una  m  many 
Z^^onX^^.  «^<l  ^«  ^ill  "»^'  ^^  ^'«  reader-if  he  happens  to  possess 
Sie  ^Alphabetical  and  ClussiHed  Index  to  U.e  Otficial  Cata bguo ' -to  glmice 
at  the  urious  aspects  which  gold  there  presents  to  his  view.  He  will  find 
tld Id  goUl  ore  from  no  less  than  eight  different  counUnes ;  gold  leaf,  and 
Sir'tiStachines.  and  gold-beuters'  skin,  irom  ^ngl-a  -a  I^rarjce.^  a^^^ 
Turkey,  and  the  United  States,  and  Austnilia;  a  series  of  specimens  to  illus- 
tnue  the  processes  of  tho  gold-manufacture;  gold  pens  Irom  halt  a  dozen 
makeiL  Lgmved  gold  plates  from  Switzerland;  specimens  of  gold-plating 
from  FnuS  gold  lace  L\  gold  brocades,  not  only  from  g"g^'«^^"l'«' ^ 
from  foreigners  who  rejoice  in  the  names  of  SUrchikoff  '1  loeltsch.  and 
iToK  3  goldsmiths-  work  from  about  sixty  English  finiis.  and  from 
alS  e^r^  other  country  in  the  world;  ai.d  if  we  change  from  the  word 
yold  to  the  word  giU,  we  have  stiU  other  items  to  add  to  the  hst. 

The  "curiosities"  of  gold  in  respect  to  the  currency  question  may  be  veri- 
table curiosities  indeed ;  but  as  they  laimch  the  curiosityhunter  upon  Uie 
S^J^y  sea  ofpoht^cs.  wC  gladly  avail  om-selves  of  a  good  excuse  for  keeping 
clear  of  them. 


"^S 


maam 


Hi 


mnKBHOP. 

ik  well  fi>r  Uie  induHtry 
8imply  (fold,  wo  must 
:ry. 

on  mtlior  by  humblo 
tunTH.  Moiiy  a  work- 
uiter,  buys  a  liltlo  gold 
hU  aids  in  producuig 
tiat  damaged  the  repu- 
are  not  familiar  with 
I.  Let  not  purchasers 
ctionH  ratlier  too  soon ; 
itlieiT  if  properly  paid 
her  broochcH,  another 
are  differently  treated ; 
iiinghani.  In  gilt  toys, 
,ccomit  of  tlio  8\ipenor 
BS.  GlaBH,  pebble,  and 
3  mostly  impoi-ted  from 

3  lately  seen  the  close, 
gold,  08  on  ahnoHt  all 
ritioning  tliia  in  many 
he  happens  to  possess 

Catalogue" — to  glance 
his  view.  He  will  find 
ountries  ;  gold  leaf,  and 
I  gland,  and  France,  and 
a  of  specimens  to  illus- 
)en8  from  half  a  dozen 
Bcimens  of  gold-plating 
from  English  firms,  but 
rchikoff,  Troeltsch,  and 
nglish  firms,  and  from 

change  from  tlio  word 
o  the  list. 

ey  question  may  be  veri- 
iriosity-hunter  upon  the 
rood  excuse  for  keeping 


TAPER:  ITS  APPLICATIONS  AND  ITS  NOVELTIES. 


Tkk  "  Fourth  Estate  "  has  ])apfr  for  its  donuiin,  its  scene  of  government' 
its  iield  of  action,  'i'he  wonderful  uewsjuiper  i>reMS,  though  more  dependent 
on  improvements  in  printing  than  in  paper -making,  is  yet  so  largely  indebt*'<l 
to  the  latter,  that  it  becomes  a  problem  whether  the  '  Times'  ronld  have  risen 
to  itti  present  wonderful  circulation  without  tlx^  invention  of  niacliine-nuulo 
paper.  And  that  which  is  applicable  to  newspiipers  is,  in  an  analogous  way, 
ii|iplicttble  to  books  tuid  pamphlets  of  all  kinds.  The  renowtu'd  "  Hbilling 
Catalogue"  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  containing  as  it  does  something  like 
tluee  quarters  of  a  pound  of  material,  would  probably  not  have  been  attempleil 
in  the  days  of  hand-made  paper.  Not  that  tlie  hand  method  is  abandoned : 
far  from  it;  but  the  nuiss  of  i)rinting-paper,  tlie  'broad  sheet'  which  finds  iln 
way  into  eveiy  corner  of  the  kingdom,  and  mon;  or  less  into  almost  every 
comitry  in  tbe  world,  is  for  the  most  part  tlie  jiroduct  of  that  beautiful 
machine  which  the  talent  of  Fourdrinier  ami  Dickinson  has  brought  to  such 
perfection.  Besides  the  lowering  of  price  and  the  expediting  of  tiio  manu- 
facture, the  paper-machine  has  wrought  lui  astonishing  revolution  by  showing 
how  to  produce  paper  of  any  length.  It  matters  not — a  mile  or  a  yard  ;  the 
lUttchuio  will  make  a  sheet  of  paper  such  tbat,  when  coiled  up,  it  may  bo  as 
thick  as  a  man's  body.  This  inunense  mcreose  of  si/o  may  be  productive  of 
results  yet  un  tlio  ugh  t  of. 

pAt'EU    AND   ITS   PRODUCTS   AT   lllE    GkEAT   ExHIUmON. 

Never  before  was  seen  such  a  display  of  fancy  paper  goods  as  tlic  recent 
Exhibition  contained.  Omitting  mention  of  the  plain  printing  and  writing 
papers,  the  paper  hangings,  and  the  pai)ier  mache,  there  was  an  assemblage 
of  piipetei-ie  (juite  dazzling.  Who  does  not  recollect  the  compartment  over 
which  '  PAPER '  was  inscribed  ?  The  envelope-cases,  the  writing  books,  the 
blotting  books,  the  tinted  papei-s  t>f  evei-y  hue  which  the  colour-maker  could 
commiuid,  the  scented  and  the  enamelled  papers,  the  opalescent  and  the  gilt 
papers,  the  embossed  and  the  embroidered  papei-s,  the  spangled  and  the 
starred  papers,  the  roll  of  paper  a  mile  or  two  in  length,  Uie  sheet  of  brown 
])aper  eight  feet  wide  by  more  than  four  hundred  in  length,  tlie  sheet  of 
pottery  paper  two  miles  and  a  half  long,  the  fine  tough  paper  made  of  old 
rope,  the  thin  tissue  paper  so  strong  as  to  bear  a  heavy  weight  suspended 
from  it,  the  delicately  painted  and  coloin-printed  papers — all  were  there, 
decked  out  in  most  tempting  array ;  and  our  foreign  neighbours  were  not 
slow  to  contribute  specimens  of  tlieir  skill  in  analogous  departments  of 
industiy.  Some  of  the  specimens  of  bank-note  paper  exhibited  were  so 
astonishingly  tough,' that  a  sheet  weighing  only  half  an  ounce  bore  a  strain 
of  280  lbs.  It  was  interesting,  too,  to  see  the  fragment  of  rope  which  had 
been  fished  up  fmm  the  poor  '  Royal  George,'  and  by  tlie  side  of  it  a  sheet  of 
coarse  paper  made  from  some  of  its  hempen  fibres.  But  it  was  yet  more 
instructive  to  study  tlie  series  illustrative  of  the  paper-manufacture,  from  the 
dirty  unbleached  mgs  to  the  delicately  white  sheet  of  paper. 

I 


<li«fciltiiiiifiliii»»iMi«i   ilnyMriii  rriiriti 


2 


paper:  its  applications  and  its  novelties. 


Manv  visitors  were,  however,  disappointed  that  there  was  no  paper-makmg 
machin'e  to  be  seen  in  action.  When  the  eager  eyes  looked  round  at  tlie 
miKhty  '  Ilhisti-ated  News'  machine,  at  the  various  printing-presses,  at 
the  hosiery  frames,  ^t  the  carding  and  spinning  and  weaving  machipes, 
at  the  envelope  muehines-when  t?.esc  were  ^een  actually  prodnmng  die  ar  i- 
cles  for  which  they  were  intended,  a  wish  did  certainly  often  arise  that  the  really 
beautif.d  operation  of  paper-making  could  be  seen  in  process^  It  is  true  "mt  a 
paper-machine  of  great  magnitude  was  exhibited  m  the  I  rench  department  and 
that  a  model  of  beautiful  constniction  was  contributed  by  Messrs.  Donkin; 
but  tlie  former  did  not  and  the  latter  could  not  work  at  paper-making  and  the 
spectators  were  left  to  wonder  ho.v  so  many  cylindei-s  and  troughs  a^A  P^d  ««;; 
aprons  can  be  brought  to  hear  ppon  this  branch  of  industry  Jt  is  possible 
Sat  the  manufacture  is  beset'with  difficvilties  of  too  formidable  a  ctiarac^er 
to  have' been  surmounted  in  such  a  place  ;  and  it  is  at  any  rate  certain  that 
much  delicacy  6f  adjustment  ani  of '  temperature  and  of  moisture  has  to  bo 

''^Although  there  was  no  aqtual  paper-machine  at  work,  we  M  nevertheless 
many  itei^is  pf  information  rendered  by  parts  of  machines.  There  were,  tor 
instance,  Messrs.  Brewer's  rollers  and  moulds  for  pwer-makmg;  there  was 
Brewer's  collection  of  endless  brass-wire  cloth,  wire-rollers,  &c.,  lor  the  sanie 
maqufactnre';  there  was  Messrs.  Cowan's  "  patent  paper-pulp  metar;  there 
were  Sullivan's  rollei-s  for  producing  the  water-mark  In  mfichine-laid  paper; 
there  was  Watson's  paper-piilp  strainen  and  there  werp  Makins  various  com- 
ponent parts  of  a  paper-makilig  machine,  exhibited  as  specimens  of  mamifac- 
tin^es  ill  metal.  And  though  we  are  not  at  this  moment  speaking  ot  the 
ai>plimtwnoi  paper,  it  mi^y  le  well  to  bear  in  mind  how  vaned  were  tihe  lUu^ 
trations  of  all  such  applications  at  tlie  Exhibition.  The  paper-folding 
machines,  the  paper-cutting  machines,  the  paper-nihng  machine,  the  very 
curious  paper-shade-mi^king  machine— all  were  wortliy  ot  attention,  and  some 
of  them  more  than  they  received.  j- 1  „^f 

But,  besides  the  English  contributions,  our  continepUd  neigUl»Pure  did  pot 
neglect  tlie  opportunity  of  putting  forth  their  best  skill  on  tbe  qccd^iop.  TJie 
trj^q  \>m,  civcnlars.  c^ds.  lists,  catalogues.  &c.  {^  copiplete  polleption  ot 
which  mnU  foon  QPe  of  the  most  interesting  reQor^^  of  t^e  Gyeai  t-xh  - 
bit  on),  set  foi-tti  the  merits  pf  the  French  paper  as  jeU  as  of  pt^er  depart- 
ments of  mannfftctuve.  We  find,  fpr  instance,  in  M.  M.  Odents  napkeen- 
coloured  bill,  an  annquncement  of  "Animal  paper,  mcpmbustible,  and  my 
strpng,  for  the  prepar^iou  of  cartridges  fpr  the  marine  ;  "  parchment  y^pjv, 
morocco'd  for  bopk  covers  and  binding ;  "  "  Pankeen  paper,  yeiy  comWwble, 
for  die  manufacture  of  cigarettes  ;"  aod  "^vhite  puppr.  sized  find  un§ized,  tor 
prmting,  engraving,  an<l  cppper  plate."  Tbese  i^impnncements  li^e  wwy 
others  in  tlie  Exhibition,  were  printed  in  three  languages;  and  t^e  clnef 
partner  neglected  not  the  opportunity  to  st^te  that  he  hi^d  been  "  invested  witli 
the  Order  of  the  Legion  pf  Honour,"  in  1832.  Another  hrm,  MM.  Obey 
and  Bernard,  with  "  twq  silver  medals,"  in  1844-9,  announce,  snndarly  m 
three  languages.  "  violetpaper,  a  Fresenative  from  rust,  for  needle  papers  and 
envelopes;  "  "coloured  and  tinted  papers,  for  drnwing^,  pampWet,  covera,  and 
bookbinding  pui-pose? ; "  "■  black  papers,  fpr  packing  cambrics,  Imens,  ^cc. ; 
"white  writing  and  printing  papei-s;"  "endless  webs,  thoroughly  sized,  for 
drawings  and  plans  ;  "  and  "endless  webs  for  paper  hangings.  Tlien  came 
the  firm  of  Bequin,  whose  "carton"  or  pasteboiu-d  manufacture  is  advertised 
and  described.     But  the  most  remai-kable  of  these  French  paper  advertise- 


?EW1K9. 

re  was  no  paper-making 
8s  looked  round  at  tlie 
lus  printing-presses,  at 
i\u\  weaving  machipes, 
ually  producnig  the  arti- 
often  arise  that  tlie  really 
)rocess.     It  is  true  that  a 

French  department,  and 
ited  by  Messrs.  Donkin ; 
It  paper-making,  and  the 
I  and  troughs  and  pndless 
industrj'.  It  IS  'possible 
10  formidable  a  character 

at  any  rate  certain,  that 
1  of  moisture  has  to  bo 

ork,  we  ha4  nevertheless 
ichineg.  There  were,  for 
paper-making;  there  was 
rollers,  l-c,  for  the  saine 
paper-pulp  meter;"  there 
c  m  mfichipe-laid  paper ; 
'erp  Makin's  various  com- 
13  specimens  of  manufac- 
moraent  speaking  of  the 
jow  varied  were  the  illui^- 
tiovi .  The  paper-foldin  g 
■uling  niachitie,  the  very 
ly  of  attention,  and  some 

ient«4  neighl^Qurs  did  not 
iiil  on  the  qccjisjop.  TJie 
H  copiplete  poUeptipi:)  of 
cords  of  the  Gyeftt  Exhi- 
>yeU  £^s  of  other  dppart- 
M.  M.  Qdeqt's  nanke^n- 
,  incombustible,  a»)d  yeyy 
ine ;  "  "  parchment  papar, 
I  paper,  yeiy  combuptible, 
)pr,  sized  and  vmsizecj,  ibr 
mQuncements,  lijie  \amy 
i£l4)guage«;  and  the  chief 
i  h(*d  been  "  invested  with 
Another  lirm,  MM.  Obey 
I,  aauounce,  similarly  in 
ust.  for  needle  papers  ^d 
ngs,  pampiiiet  covers,  and 
ig  cq,mbrics,  linens,  &c. ; " 
ebs,  Uioroughly  sized,  for 
I-  hangings."  Then  cajpe 
aiauufactuve  is  advertised 
}  French  paper  adveiiise- 


papeb:  ;t8  xprwcATjoss  and  iis  kovei-ties.  8 

mpnts  >vas  that  put  fortli  by  the  fapev  Making  Cpmpany  of  Essqr^ie,  in  the 
depai-tH^ent  of  ^eine-et-Oisp.  The  sh^et  containing  tho  annoitncement  qf 
this  (ivifl  has  seven  large  well-executed  wood-cuts,  illustrative  of  the  succesj&ivt} 
processes  pf  paper-making.  There  is  livst'a  geperal  view  pf  tlie  factpry,  with 
a  canal,  t|-aniways,  and  a  multitude  of  buil(;liu!?s ;  then  cpme^  fbe  sorting  pf 
the  rags,  hy  women  rangecl  in  a  V'>w  at  tables,  and  having  tlie  handkerchief 
head-dresse?  which  l-'Vench  wpv^womep  nipstly  weai"  at  their  labour ;  next  is 
represented  the  rc^'  in  which  \iw  rags  are  being  chopped  UP  i^t"  pulp ; 
then  thp  bleaching  process;  next  thp  actual  rpanufacturp  by  two  cpmplete 
machines ;  then  a  press-room  for  finishing  the  paper  ;  and  two  othep  yiews  of 
subsidiary  character.  It  might  be  worth  while  lor  our  British  manufacturers 
to  ccmsider  whether  this  is  not  a  somewl^at  attractive  mode  of  advertising. 

This  factoiy,  we  may  here  remark,  appears  to  be  on  a  veiy  extensive  scale. 
It  was  at  llssonne  that  Louis  Eobert,  a  working  paper-maker,  invented  the 
first  paper-machine  in  1790  ;  but,  although  the  English  brought  the  invention 
to  a  practical  ii^sue  in  1809,  tlie  French  had  no  paper-machine  at  work  till 
1816  ;  tliey  had  fouv  in  1BS7,  twelve  in  1834,  and  now  have  upwards;  of  two 
liundred.  'J'hesp  two  hundred  machines  work  up  daily  about  aOO,OQt» 
kilograinmes  (430,000  lbs.)  of  rags  into  paper,  which,  if  fonned  into  an  endless 
strip  five  feet  wide,  would  extend  2000  kilometres  (1 250  miles).  It  was  in 
1840  that  a  Oompaay  (called  in  Fraiice  a  Societe  Anonijme)  was  forined  for 
establishing  a  paper  factoiy  on  the  spot  which  had  witnessed  the  birth  of  the 
paper-macliinp.  The  factory  stands  close  to  the  Corbeil  Jlailway,  about  an 
hour's  lain  from  Paris.  It  has  tlu-ee  cpuiplete  machines  for  making 
paper,  and  twenty-six  triturating  machines  for  making  tlie  pulp.  The 
rag  warehouse  is  §ai4  to  contam  a  stpi'e  of  400,000  kilogrammes  (870,000  lbs.) 
of  rags ;  and  cpntigupu?  to  this  i$  a  large  building  in  which  women  spreatl 
out  anil  sort  the  r-agg.  In  anpther  buil4ing  the  rags  are  beaten  to  expel 
mechanicdl  jrnpuritips  and  dust,  washed  to  get  ri<i  of  diii  and  grease,  teazed 
01  torn  into  §breds,  and  bleacjied.  The  washing  is  effected  in  monster 
coppers,  which  hol4  thrpe  or  fpur  thousand  pomids  of  rags'.  The  various 
niftchmes  ax%  set  in  piption  by  an  abimdancp  of  motive  fprcp,  supplied  by  six 
watev-wheels,  a  turbine,  an4  a  steani-enginp.  Thp  works  occupy  an  area  of 
nearly  fifty  acres;  but  this  includes  accommoclatipn  for  the  work-peojile.  The 
mofip  in  which  these  work-people  are  treated  deseryes  attention.  They  are 
about  thr«e  hundred  in  number,  of  whom  two  hundved  take  up  thejr  aboda 
within  the  establishment,  ai^d  have  a  gai'den  at  their  disposal.  The  remaining 
hundrecl,  who  live  out  of  die  establishment,  havp  a  couifoitabl^  refectory  or 
eatipg-rppm ;  thpi'e  ai-p  vim^  baths  for  thp  gratuitous  use  of  the  operatives ;  a 
medical  niaji  fiaUs  pverj'  day  and  gives  advice  and  medicine  to  any  who  need 
his  aid  ;  whilp  a  nurfjery  a?»d  a  primaiy  school  are  established,  with  fires,  tables, 
bopfeg,  niaps,  ic,  for  the  young  children  of  parents  engaged  m  tlie  factn^y. 
Ti}§Fe  is  mwh  thoughtful  kindness  in  all  tllis. 

But  this  establishment  at  Essonne  has  taken  us  away  frqra  the  Great  Exhi- 
bition. We  nped  npt,  hpwever,  stop  to  dilate  on  tlie  various  productions  con- 
trihutPd  ^y  other  cpuntrjeg.  Switzerland  sent  her  nm^ic  paper,  plate  paper; 
and  wrapping  paper  of  excellent  quality ;  togetlier  with  writing  and  tissue 
papers  ftf  vai-ipus  khids.  |lome,  tlie  land  for  artists,  showed  what  good  draw 
ing  paper  she  can  produce.  France  is  said  to  prpdupe  better  thUi  than  tliick 
writing  peper ;  England  better  thick  than  tliin ;  and  it  is  not  unwortliy  of 
consideration  whetlier  the  French  postal  system  may  not  have  some  infiuence 
pn  th^  thinness  pf  Uie  paper  made  for  letter-writing.    Belgium,  liussia,  ar 4 

I  3 


mm 


■w'wwimi" 


4  paper:  its  applications  and  its  novelties. 

Holland,  all  showed  their  present  degree  of  skill  in  the  art,  but  evidenUy 
occupying  a  lower  position  than  France.  The  Zollverein  collection  was  very 
numerous  ;  and  one  group  was  especially  interesting,  inasmuch  as  it  displayed 
in  juxtaposition  specimens  of  the  papers  produced  at  one  mill  in  Prussia 
tlirough  Uie  long  period  of  ninety  years— thereby  affording  materials  for 
tracing  a  progressive  rise  in  excellence.  There  was  a  series  of  calico-pnnt 
patterns,  in  the  English  department,  which  gave  the  same  kind  of  mstructive 
testimony  to  tlie  chronological  progress  of  that  art. 

Of  the  paper  hangings  and  the  stationery  and  the  papier  mache  at  the 
Exhibition,  we  shall  speak  further  on. 

The  Materials  fok  Papeh. 

Many  have  been  the  attempts  to  employ  other  materials  for  paper  than 
tliose  customarily  used  in  this  countiy.  Rags  would  seem  to  be  cheap 
enough ;  but  Uiere  may  be  times,  and  places,  and  circumstances,  m  which  rags 
would  be  eitlier  unattainable  or  too  costly.  All  these  attempts,  however,  have 
met  with  singularly  little  success— so  fai-,  at  least,  as  our  own  coimtiy  is  con- 
cerned.    Yet  it  may  be  useful  to  glance  at  a  few  of  the  substitutes  which  have 

been  proposed.  , 

The  paper  of  the  ancients,  as  most  readers  are  awoi-e,  was  not  properly 
paper  at  all;  tliat  is,  it  was  not  a  prepared  pulp  cast  into  the  form  of  sheets 
and  dried.      Papyrus  is  the  botanical  name  of  a  certain  species  of  plant ; 
papynis  is  the  name  given  to  the  paper  made  from  Uie  soft  cellular  flower- 
stem   of  this   plant;    and   papyrus    is    also  the   name   generally   given   to 
tlie    ancient   -wntUm   scrolls   made   of  this   niuUirial— just   as  we   give  the 
name  of  tea  to  a  plant,  to  the  dried  leaf  of  the  plant,  to  the   infusion  of 
the   dried   leaf,   and  to   the   meal   at   which  tliis  infusion  is  drunk.     The 
papjTUs  is  a  very  common  nlant  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Abyssinia ;  the  stem 
's  from  tlivee  to  six  feet  high ;  and  it  was  from  the  tliin   concentric  coats 
or  paUicles  which  sun-ound  this  stem  that  tlie  ancient  Egyptians  made  then- 
papyri  or  wiitmg-papei-s.     The  mode  of  building  up  a  long  strip  of  writing- 
paper  from  such  elementary  materials  seems  to  us,  in  our  day,  wofully  clumsy^ 
The  naiTOW  slips  of  fibre,  six  or  eight  inches  long,  were  laid  side  by  side  fuid 
another  layer  pasted  over  them  crosswise,  so  as  to  form  a  coherent  double 
sheet.   This  sheet  was  pressed,  dried  in  tlie  sun,  and  polished  witn  some  hard 
smooth  substance.     Several  others  were  pasted  to  it  end  to  end,  until  a  roll 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  long  was  formed,  with  only  a  few  inches  of  width ;  and  it 
is  on  such  rolls  or  scrolls  that  many  extremely  valuable  Egyptian  end  Greek 
manuscripts,  still  extant,  are  written.     It  is  curious  to  trace  how  our  words 
paper  and  Bible  have  been  derived  from  this  plant-stalk ;  from  the  I^atin  name, 
papyrm,  has  sprang  the  modem  words  papier  and  paper;  while  from  the  name 
for  the  same  plant  given  by  Herodotus,  byblos,  is  supposed  to  have  sprung 
hiblion,  Bible,  and  other  words  and  names  relating  to  books. 

The  Chhiese — that  most  extraordinaiy  'self-contained'  nation — make  a 
filamentous  kind  of  paper  much  superior  to  ancient  papyrus ;  it  obtains  in 
England  the  name  of  rice-paper;  but  sufficient  is  now  known  of  it  to  show 
that  this  is  by  no  means  a  correct  designation.  Dr.  Livingstone  introduced 
Chinese  rice-paper  in  England  about  half  a  century  ago  ;  it  had  immense 
favour  as  a  material  for  artificial  flowers,  and  gossips  say  that  Princess  Chai- 
lotte  paid  seventy  guineas  for  a  bouquet  made  of  this  material.  It  was  many 
years  afterwai-ds  that  infonaatior  was  obtained  concerning  Hie  mode  adopted 


SLTIES. 

the  nrt,  but  evidently 
3in  collection  was  very 
msmuch  as  it  displayed 
,t  one  mill  in  Prussia 
affording  materials  for 
a  series  of  calico-print 
ame  kind  of  insti-uctive 

B  papier  mache  at  the 


aterials  for  paper  than 
old  seem  to  be  cheap 
mstances,  in  which  rags 
attempts,  however,  have 
our  own  coimtiy  is  con- 
3  substitutes  which  have 

wai-e,  was   not  properly 
into  the  form  of  sheets 
jrtain  species  of  plant; 
the  soft  cellular  flower- 
me  generally   given   to 
1— just   as  we   give  the 
lant,  to  the   infusion  of 
id'ufiion  is  drunk.     The 
aid  Abyssinia ;  the  stem 
e  tliin   concentric  coats 
at  Egyptians  made  their 
a  long  strip  of  writing- 
our  day,  wofully  clumsy. 
3re  laid  side  by  side  and 
fonn  a  coherent  double 
polished  with  some  hard 
t  end  to  end,  until  a  roll 
f  inches  of  width ;  and  it 
ible  Egyptian  and  Greek 
3  to  trace  how  oiu-  words 
k ;  from  the  Iiatin  name, 
ler;  while  from  the  name 
iUf)posed  to  have  sprung 
books. 

tained  '  nation — make  a 
it  papynis ;  it  obtains  in 
ow  Imown  of  it  to  show 
r.  Livingstone  introduced 
y  ago  ;  it  had  immense 
)s  say  that  Princess  Chai- 
s  material.  It  was  many 
emingUxe  mode  adopted 


paper:  its  applications  and  its  novelties.  o 

by  the  Chinese  in  making  tliese  small  but  veiy  expensive  sheets  of  paper. 
There  is  a  leguminous  plant  growing  in  China  and  India,  the  stem  of  which 
is  cut  into  pieces  eight  or  ten  inches  in  length ;  and  these  ai-e  cut  by  the 
Chinese  mto  one  continuous  spiral  film,  on  the  same  principle  as  tlie  modem 
mode  of  veneer  cutting,  but  by  the  dexterous  use  of  hand-tools.  These  la 
minse,  being  spread  out  and  pressed  flat,  form  thin  sheets,  which,  after  being 
dyed  and  otherwise  prepared,  constitute  the  rice-paper  of  tlie  Chinese. 

The  same  ingenious  people  make  paper  of  bamboo.  The  bamboo  stems, 
when  about  three  or  four  inches  thick,  are  cut  into  pieces  four  or  five  inches 
long.  These,  when  softened  ui  water,  are  washed,  cut  into  filaments,  dried 
and  bleached  in  the  sun,  boiled,  beaten  to  a  pulp,  and  made  into  thin  sheets 
of  paper.  This  is  ti-uly  paper,  which  the  former  examples  ai-e  not ;  and  the 
art  must  have  made  a  notable  advance  before  such  a  metiiod  could  have  sug- 
gested itself. 

Most  nations  in  tlie  early  ages,  and  rude  nations  in  the  present,  have  looked 
rather  to  vegetable  than  to  any  other  substances  as  the  materials  for  paper. 
Palm-leaves,  tlie  inner  bark  of  the  elm,  the  maple,  the  beech,  the  plane,  and 
the  linden  tree,  leaves  of  various  plants — all  have  been  employed.  But  the 
animal  kingdom  has  not  been  neglected  by  experimental  paper-makers.  We 
have  heard  of  skins,  and  silk,  and  leather,  and  wax(  .  tablets  ;  while  every  one 
knows  that  vellwii  and  parchment,  essentially  animal  substances,  still  play  a 
very  important  part  as  substitutes  for  paper.  Nor  have  mineral  substances 
failed  to  be  appealed  to.  There  is  a  very  puzzling  substance,  called  asbestos, 
which  has  extraordinary  power  in  resisting  the  action  of  fire,  and  the  source 
of  which  was  for  many  yeai-s  imknown  in  tliis  country.  Both  cloth  and  paper 
have  been  made  from  'it.  The  original  material  is  a  greenish-gray  fibrous 
stone,  found  in  great  abundance  in  Corsica ;  and  by  processes  of  pounding 
and  sifting,  moistening  and  mixing,  it  is  capable  of  being  wrought  into 
sheets  of  a  kind  of  paper.  Professor  Bruckmann  of  Bmnswick,  some  years 
ago,  bethought  him  that  it  would  be  a  good  way  to  exhibit  asbestos  paper  by 
making  it  up  into  a  book ;  he  tlierefore  wrote  a  treatise  on  asbestos  and  its 
qualities;  and  printed  a  few  copies  on  asbestos-paper — rough,  coarse,  but 
said  to  be  incombustible. 

Bright  hopes  were  entertained  some  years  ago  that  good  paper  might  be 
made  from  straw.  One  of  the  principal  tanneries  in  Bermondsey,  called 
Neckinger  Mills,  was  originally  a  straw-paper  manufactoiy.  It  appears  that 
the  straw  was  cut  up  into  pieccD  two  or  three  inches  in  length,  steeped 
in  cold  lime-water,  and  cut  up  into  infinitesimal  fragments  in  a  paper-mill; 
the  pulp  thus  produced  was  made  into  paper  by  the  usual  Uain  of  pro- 
cesses. But  the  enteiprise  failed  in  Bermondsey,  and  a  second  time  failed 
at  Thames  Btmk ;  the  paper  produced  was  harsh  and  ill-coloured.  A  further 
attempt  was  made  to  brave  the  difficulties  ;  additional  processes  were  adopted 
to  free  the  straw  from  knots,  to  extract  the  colouring  matter,  to  dispose  it 
to  become  fibrous,  to  free  it  from  mucilage  and  from  siUceous  pa.rticles, 
and  also  from  tlie  odom-  of  many  of  tlie  chemicals  employed  in  the 
foi-mer  processes — all  means  were  adopted,  in  short,  to  coax  it  to  become 
a  good  paper-making  m>it«rial ;  but  these  numerous  processes  became  at 
length  veiy  costly,  and  the  straw-paper  was  neither  fine  enough  nor  strong 
enough  to  command  an  adequate  price.     So  it  died  a  commercial  deatli. 

There  is  in  the  British  Musemn  a  remarkable  book,  treating  of  the  manu- 
factm-e  of  paper  from  various  kinds  of  bark,  leaves,  and  fibres,  and  printed 
on  leaves  of  paper  made  from  tlie  various   substances  described.     It  is  a 


l! 


\ 


f^M 


MfliiiithMiiifiMiMiiifcii 


■■^jyr' 


iii|i  I  I  minifiH  w 


Q  PAPJiB:   ITS   ^PPUCATTOSSf  AND   ITS  NOVELTIES. 

curiosity,  ancj  a  useful  one,  in  so  far  as  it  hem  t«stin^ony  to  \he  capabilities 
of  spniy  materials;  but  \i  must  hoi^e.tly  be  coiifessed  tbat  Uie  ^pwns 
would  not  pass  master  ye^y  satisfactorily  if  U-»ed  by  tjie  ordmary  testa  i^i 
respect  to  fineppsii,  pplour,  apd  smoothness. 

Rags,  howavev— tlie  fragments  of  wpm-out  linen  and  cotton  g^-ment§— 
arc  the  great  store  bouse  of  material  for  paper-p^vHiRg-    There  are  abundai^t 
reasons  %  flunking  that  tjje  Ch|ne^e,  vi]}o  were  i^e  first  to  make  paper  h-om 
pulp  of  auv  kind,  were  also  the  first  who  cpnvevteil  ql4  ^arp^ents  ^ptq  pew 
sheets  of  paper.      T|ie  art  traveUed  somehow  from  Chma  to  Samarc^iid, 
whence   the   Saracpps  transferred  it  to  Spain;    and   from  Spam  it  spread 
tln-oughqut  Europe.     One  Tate  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  practise  tlie 
art  and  mystery  5"  papPF-Waking  in  Englai^a.  at  a  mill  which  h*^  '''^^'' w 
in  HertfprMire  in  tlie  early  part  of  tue  sixteenth  c-^ntuiy.    The  next  we  boai 
of  wasa  German,  who  stationed  himself  at  Dartford  in  1588.  and  who  was 
knighted  by  Queen  Elizabetli.     In  tbe  tipie  of  Fuller  the  manulactoe  had 
made  but  little  progress  in  this  pouptiy,  tlie  chief  supply  being  obtained  Irom 
abroad.     Jle  qmuxtly  tpUs  us  that  "  Paper  participates  m  some  sort  ot  the 
charapterofthe  country  which  makes  it;  tlie  Venetian  beipg  neat,  subtle,  and 
court-llke;  t|ie  French  light,  slight,  and  slender;  and  the  Dutch  Uiick,  coiim- 
lent,  and  gi-Q3S,  sucking  ^p  the  u^k  with  the  spongmess  tbereot. 
^weyplfem  W^d  PannX  two  Gennans  who  settled  at  Borne  soon  after 
aie  invention  of  pointing,  and  who  >vere  the  fii-st  to  introduce  the  t^rt  in  that 
city,  printed  m'<«iy  works,  but  did  not  find  an  adequate  sale  for  ibem ;  and  in 
a  petition  which  they  presented  to  the  Pflpe,  they  drew  his  IJolmesss  atten- 
tion to  tlxe  diffipulty  of  obtaming  rags ;  they  si^i4  "  H  you  pemse  Uie  catalogue 
of  thp  works  pinnted  by  us,  you  will  admire  how  and  w^ere  we  could  procure 
ft  suftiaient  quantity  of  paper,  or  eyenrags,  for  such  a  nnp:iber  ot  yqlpmes. 

Many  ajeatler  mp-y  have  mai-velled,  as  thesp  old  pripters  U^ought  the  Pope 
might  marvel,  whence  or  how  tlje  supply  of  rags  for  paper-mak/Pg  ^^.  f 
kept  up.  If  any  one  cquntrj'  were  depended  qp,  the  supply  wqpld  certaiply 
fail;  but  by  appealing  to  the  rag-bag  of  ^venj  country,  a  contmppus  store  is 
maintained.  The  Hungi^rian  shepherd's  frock  or  tunic-shirt,  the  blue  shirt  of 
a  weatiier-beaten  sailor  hi  the  Mediterranean,— all  such  garments,  as  well  qs 
those  of  finpr  texture,  ai-e  welcome.  The  matevial  for  a  sheet^of  pappr  may,  as 
has  been  Remarked,  "  have  constituted  Ihf  coj^rse  covering  of  tbe  fipck  beet  ot 
tlie  farmer  pf  Saxony ;  or  once  looked  bright  in  the  dami^sk  t^b}e-clotb  of  the 
burgher  of  tfamburgh;  or  may  have  bpen  swept,  npw  apd  unworn,  out  ot  the 
vast  coUection'of  the  shrpds  and  patc^jps,  the  tiistian  and  buckram,  ot  a  iion- 
dpn  tailor ;  or  may  have  accomppiied  every  revolution  of  a  tashiqnahlp  coat  m 
the  shape  of  lining-having  U-f^yellecl  from  St.  James's  to  fet.  Giles  s  horn 
Bond  Street  tp  ^on^nputh  SU'ept,  frpm  Bag  Fair  to  the  Publm  Liberty-tiU 
man  diso\yned  the  vesture,  and  tlie  kennel-sweeper  claimed  its  miserajile  re- 
niain^."  These  "  kennel-steppers  "  pick  up  a  considerable  quaiiti^y  ot  tmen 
and  qptton  fragments-pot  so  mpcli,  probably,  now  as  pi  pjist  ftu  es,  on  ac- 
count of  the  more  frequent  qnd  complete  sweeping  oi  the  street^i.  In  1  aris 
tlie  bone-grnbbers  or  chiffot^iers  form  quite  a  fratemity,  who  hftye  not  lai'ed  to 
play  thejr  part  i;t  the  nmperons  mcutes  which  have  disturljC^  lljat  excitatie 


WMW.n 


r^^ 


I'liMrffta^i 


ai?iiii»aii» 


1 


JLTIKS. 

qony  to  the  capabilities 
sed  that  the  specimens 
I  t};e  ordinary  tests  ip 

md  cotton  giu-ment^— : 
;.  Thera  ave  abundai^j; 
•St  to  make  paper  from 
)14  gax-pients  iptQ  i>ew 

Chiiia  to  S(»roarcJ^ld, 

from  Spain  it  spread 
he  f^rst  to  practise  tjie 
ill  which  hf^  established 
uiy.  The  next  \ye  hear 
.  in  1588,  and  who  was 
r  the  manufacture  had 
ply  beuig  obtained  from 
«s  in  some  sort  of  the 
.  being  neat,  subtle,  and 
the  l)utct^  tliick,  co^-pu- 
is  thereof." 

led  at  iiome  soon  after 
troduce  the  ^rt  in  tlmt 
;e  sale  for  them ;  and  in 
•ew  his  JJoliijcss's  atten- 
rou  peruse  tl^e  catalogue 
wf^ere  we  could  procure 
number  of  vqlutnes.' 
ijiters  thought  the  Pope 
»r  paper-majiipg  can  be 

supply  wo|ald  certain^ 
rj',  a  continiipus  store  is 
ic-shu-t,  the  jqlue  shirt  of 
ich  garments,  as  well  ^s 
a  sheet  of  pappr  may,  as 
s^ing  of  t]^e  IJQpk  be4  of 
lami^sk  t^bje-cloth  of  the 
I  B^a  unworn,  out  of  tl>e 
opd  buckraro,  of  ^  Lon- 
1  of  a  fashiqnablp  coat  in 
es's  to  St.  Giles's,  from 
the  Dubliti  Liberty — till 
■laimed  its  niiserable  re- 
derat^le  quan'i*v  of  ^inen 
as  in  ptist  xtvi  es,  on  ac- 
of  the  streets.  In  Paris 
y,  who  have  pot  faUed  to 

disturljccl  t^at  expitaUe 


I*»PER:    its   Al'PLlCATlONS   AND   ITS   NOViaTIES.  7 

The  Manufactubino  Pbocessks. 

Tb  dptttll  fonnally  tho  various  operations  in  the  manufactiire  of  paper  is  no 
jiart  of  the  present  object ;  but  a  glance  may  be  taken  sufficient  to  show  the 
relations  between  the  several  stages  of  i)rocess. 

Tho  paper-mills  a:e  mostly  in  pretty  valleys  ^here  abundance  oi  clean  water 
can  be  obtained— iVater  to  turn  the  macliiticry,  afld  water  to  make  the  pulji. 
Maily  a  paper-mill  can  be  seen  by  railway  ttavellers  as  they  whu-1  along— hi 
Hertfordshu'e,  "xi  Kent,  in  Somersetshire,  and  elsewhere.  Fbr  the  most  part 
iTond  water-power  is  the  desideratum  ;  but  in  some  cases  a  null  is  estabhslied 
near  the  spot  Where  a  particular  kind  of  prtper  is  much  demilnded:  Messrs. 
Fourdrifaier,  for  instancj?,  have  a  mill  in  Staffordshire,  where  they  make  the 
thin  but  tough  paper  so  largely  used  in  printing  blue  and  white  earthenware. 

Whereier  it  may  be,  neat  or  distant  from  London  (there  is  no  paper-mill  »- 
Lond'in),  the  first  care  of  the  manufacturer  is  his  rags.  From  Trierte,  Iron. 
Leghorn,  from  Hamburgh,  from  Rostock,  and  from  other  porta,  the  rags  ctf 
vanous  countries  arc  brought  to  England  ;  and  the  capabilities  of  eaCh  havfa 
(o  be  detettnihed.  English  housewives  have  the  reputation  of  being  vtety 
cleanly ;  those  of  Italy  are  far  otherwise  ;  and  the  linen  and  cotton  rags  affotd 
striking  pt'Odf  of  this  difference.  Many  continental  countries  positively  ptb- 
hibit  tlie  exportation  of  rags  at  all,  and  we  have  theroforfe  to  be  content  with 
such  as  are  accessible.  The  rags  are  packed  in  bags  of  three  or  loul- himdred- 
weightS  each ;  and  these,  whfen  opened  at  tlie  mill,  aie  placed  ui.oer  the  cal'o 
of  woinen,  whose  duty  it  is  to  sort  them,  to  shake  out  the  loose  dust,  to  ctit 
them  ihU)  moderately  small  pieces,  and  to  separate  the  seams  and  heths 
from  the  other  pieces.  A  keen  eye  and  a  dexterous  hatid  toe  reqhired  iH 
this  prblimihary  operation.  ,  .  ,   „      v.  i-  .      ^■fu^ 

Then  comes  the  truly  chenlifctll  process  by  which  the  dmgjs  dirty,  aiSbo- 
lotired  ra^s  are  brought  as  purely  white  as -a  delicate  sheet  of  paper,  boitle 
of  the  English  rags  are  so  clean  that  they  require  no  bleaching ;  Mt  tlie 
Whitey-brown,  or  worse  than  whitey-brown,  rags  of  otlier  counti-ies  hftve  t« 
j)ass  through  an  ordeal  in  which  chlorine  exhibits  Us  wonders,  ihey  ai-e 
plpced  in  a  close  chfest,  chlorine  is  admitted  to  them  through  a  pipe,  and 
in  a  few  hours  eveiy  vestige  of  colour  is  removed  a  strong  clllorme  odour 
is  imparted,  it  is  triie,  but  a  good  washing  removes  thi^. 

The  boilmg  and  the  v-'-i""".  and  tlie  bleaching  diffef  in  degi'ce  accordWg 
10  the  state  of  the  rags ;  but  tlie  comminutittil,  the  dissection,  the  seterailcfe 
into  itifinitesiniftl  fragments,  is  required  alike  for  all.  In  otie  machine  the 
ra<'s  are  di-awii  between  shari)  knives  on  a  Mler  and  sharp  knives  on  a  plane, 
an°d  are  unmistakably  briiised  by  tlie  transit ;  while  in  another  niac'iuie,  which 
works  more  rapidly,  and  has  its  knife-edges  more  closely  together,  they  dre  so 
thoroughly  tossed  about  and  cut  til),  as  to  fortli,  with  the  ^Vatef  in  which  thty 
are  imhierSed,  a  smooth  crfefim-llke  pulp.  Blotthuj  papfef  derives  its  f  feculiar 
property  from  having  no  size  in  it;  printitlg  and  writhig  paper  are  ftlwa^S 
sized ;  and  some  kinds  receive  thfeir  quota  of  sire  when  m  the  state  of  pulp.    I 

Ifrohi  tliis  pulp,  kept  agitated  in  a  vessel,  sheets  of  paper  arc  madp.  llio 
dexterous  manipulations  of  paper-makers  Oil  the  hand  method  are  very  te- 
markabte.  The  pulp  is  transfferred  to  a  steam-hedted  vat,  wherb  it  is 
kept  wai-m  and  weU  agitdted.  The  work'-  -  has  two  «tm<W«,  cbnslsting  df 
slight  wooden  frames  covered  with  t^lre-gauze,  -ud  haVmg  moveable  dfcMs  or 
ledsres  The  length  ard  width  of  the  decktd  det«rmitie  thb  Size  df  the  shfcet  to 
be  made.     The  vatuma  ui^^i  a  mottld  into  the  pulp,  takes  tip  as  much  as  his 


I 


m^mmmmmmmmmmmm'- 


8 


pai'Eb:  its  applications  and  its  novelties. 


I 


experience  tells  him  will  make  one  sheet,  places  it  on  one  side  in  the  hands  of 
another  workman  called  the  coucher,  takes  off'  tlie  deckel,  places  this  deckel  on 
another  moijld,  and  makes  anotlier  dip  into   the  vat.     The  coucher  neatly 
turns  over  the  mould,  and  empties  the  thin  layer  of  pulp  upon  a  piece  of 
flannel  or  felt,  through  which  tlie  moisture  may  filter  or  drain.    Thus  the  two 
men  proceed — the  vat-man  supplying  new  sheets  as  fast  as  the  coucher  can 
build  up  a  pile  of  felts  to  receive  them  ;  and  the  coucher  liberating  tlie  moulds 
as  quickly  as  tlie  vat-man  requires  tliem.     When  one  or  two  hundred  sheets, 
with  felts  intei-posed,  are  thus  accumulated  into  a  pile,  the  pile  is  heavily 
pressed  ;   this  gives  the  film  of  pulp  sufficient  coherence  to  maintain  its  fomi 
unsupported ;  the  felts  are  removed,  the  sheets  ai-e  placed  one  on  another,  and 
a  second  pressure  flattens  them,  and  to  some  extent  smooths  tliem.   They  are 
now  essentially  sheets  of  paper ;   and  these  sheets,  after  drying,  sizing,  drj'ing 
again,  pressing,  examining,  and  otlier  processes,  are  finally  made  up  into  quires. 
But  how  shall  we  describe  the  paper  machine  ?    It  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete of  modern  inventions — so  many  processes  does  the  machine  successively 
perform  in  a  short  space  of  time.     The  parts  of  the  machine  appear  very 
numerous  to  a  spectator,  and  the  machine  itself  oue  of  great  lengtli ;   but 
when  we  consider  what  it  has  to  do,  we  cease  to  man-el  at  all  tliis.    A  creamy 
pulp  flows  into  a  machine  at  one  end ;   the  same  pulp  comes  out  m  the  form 
of  made  and  dried  paper  at  the  otlier,  in  the  course  of  two  mmutes  ! 

How  the  pulp  changes  its  form  and  state  is  wonderful  to  look  at.     It  flows 
from  a  huge  vessel  or  chest  into  a  vat ;  it  flows  from  the  vat  upon  a  naiTow  wire 
frame  called  a  siftor ;   it  flows  tlirough  this  sifter  upon  a  flat  surface,  and  then 
falls  over  a  lodge  in  a  quiet  stream  equal  in  width  to  the  paper  about  being 
made.   It  falls  upon  a  flat  surface  of  wire-gauze,  where  it  is  shaken  from  side  to 
side,  drained  of  much  of  its  moisture,  and  converted  mto  something  like  a 
very  wet  sheet  of  spongy  paper.     This  sheet  is  pressed  by  a  Avire  cylinder 
and  by  a  felted  roller ;   it  passes  on  an  endle.=5S  cloth,  and  becomes  further 
drained ;  it  is  seized  between  roUei-s  and  squeezed ;   it  is  further  drained  and 
further  squeezed  by  other  cloths  and  oilier  rollers ;   it  passes  over  a  heated 
cylinder,  tlien  over  another  still  more  heated,  and  then  over  a  third  heated 
to  a  yet  higher  temperature ;  it  is  pressed,  too,  between  whiles  ;  and  it  reaches 
the  remote  end  of  the  machine  in  tlie  state  of  dry  and  smooth  paper.     Arid 
this  is  not  simply  a  quadrangular  sheet,  having  a  definite  number  of  inches  in 
length— it  is  an  endless  web.    While  one  portion  of  the  pulp  is  a  creamy  liquid, 
another  near  it  is  a  thin  wet  layer,  another  a  wet  but  coherent  film,  another  a 
pai-tially  dried  film,  and  so  on  ;  all  the  portions  alike  reach  the  last  cylinder,  and 
all  are  alike  perfect  paper  when  they  reach  it.     The  paper  is  wound  on  a  reel 
as  fast  as  it  is  made ;   and  there  may  be  thus  foi-med  a  roll  miles  in  length. 
In  the  earlier  machines  tlie  roll  of  paper  was  removed,  and  cut  into  sheets  by 
a  separate  machine ;  but  modem  ingenuity  has  shown  how  to  make  the  paper- 
machine  cut  the  paper  itself.     Some  of  the  modem  machines,  too,  have  an  ai- 
rangement  by  which  an  air-pump  sucks  away  tlie  moisture  from  the  pulp,  and 
Converts  it  into  a  coherent  film  with  extraordinaiy  quickness. 

Every  year  brings  out  its.  patents  for  new  improvements  in  papsr-making. 
Sometimes  they  relate  to  niixmg  the  pulp ;  sometimes  to  regulating  its  flow ; 
sometimes  to  the  formation  of  '  water  marks  '  by  wire  cylinders ;  while  die 
drying,  or  the  polishing,  or  the  cutting  are  tlie  subjects  of  otliers. 

The  master-difficulties  were  surmounted  many  yeai-s  ago,  when  Fourdi.iier 
showed  how  to  produce  a  long  roll  of  well-made  paper ;  all  the  subsequent 
improvements  have  related  to  minor  pointc. 


■■■'^l'(iiirifwiiii'n[f\  iiiiiiriirn  itM  ir 


tt»Sm 


LTIES. 

ne  side  in  the  hands  of 
1,  places  this  deckel  on 
The  coucher  neatly 
■  pulp  upon  a  piece  of 
r  drain.    Thus  the  two 
St  as  tlie  coucher  can 
V  liberating  the  moulds 
)r  two  hundred  sheets, 
ile,  the  i>ile  is  heavily 
ce  to  maintain  its  foim 
ed  one  on  another,  and 
looths  tliem.   They  are 
ir  drying,  sizing,  diying 
Jly  made  up  into  quires. 
is  one  of  the  most  com- 
le  machine  successively 
le  machine  appear  very 
3  of  great  length  ;    but 
il  at  all  tins.    A  creamy 
)  comes  out  in  the  form 
two  minutes  ! 
ful  to  look  at.     It  flows 
)  vat  upon  a  naiTow  wire 

a  flat  surface,  and  then 
)  the  paper  about  being 
t  is  shaken  from  side  to 
d  into  something  like  a 
ssed  by  ft  wire  cylinder 
;h,  and  becomes  further 
t  is  fmlher  drained  and 

it  passes  over  a  heated 
hen  over  a  third  heated 
1  whiles  ;  and  it  reaches 
,nd  smooth  paper.  And 
lite  number  of  inches  in 
!  pulp  is  ft  creamy  liquid, 
coherent  film,  another  a 
ach  the  last  cylinder,  and 
paper  is  wound  on  a  reel 
d  a  roll  miles  in  length. 
\,  and  cut  into  sheets  by 
I  how  to  make  the  paper- 
lachines,  too,  have  an  ar- 
sture  from  the  pulp,  and 
ickness. 

ements  in  paper-making, 
es  to  regulating  its  flow ; 
ire  cylinders;  while  the 
ts  of  otliers. 

rs  ago,  when  Fourdi.  lier 
per;   all  the  subsequent 


paper:   its   APPUOAT10N8  AND  ITS   K0VBLTTE8.  V 

As  to  the  paper  itself,  its  varieties  are  too  well  known  to  need  much  descrip- 
tion The  '  Bath,'  the  '  post,"  the  '  laid,'  the  '  foolscap,'  the  '  yoUow  wove,' 
the  '  blue  wove,'  tlie  '  satin,'  the  '  cream,'  the  '  ivoiy  '—all  these  designations 
of  writing  paper,  though  partly  unmeaning,  and  partly  exaggerated,  relate 
either  to  the  existence  or  non-existence  of  lines  in  the  paper  (prodiiced  by  wire- 
web  clotli),  or  to  some  particular  modes  of  finishing.  Then  printing  papers 
differ  in  tlieir  thickness,  their  fineness  of  surface,  and  their  size.  The  brown, 
whitey-brown,  and  wrapping  papers  of  all  kinds  form  anoUier  large  class,  in 
which  coarse  and  strong  fibres  take  the  place  of  white  and  delicate.  Next 
come  the  varied  group  of  coloured  papers,  some  of  which  receive  their  colour 
in  the  pulp,  while  others  arc  painted  with  or  steeped  in  colour  aftemaa-ds. 
Another  largo  supply  is  taken  off  by  paper-stainers,  whose  wall- decorations 
require  paper  in  large  surfaces  but  of  inferior  quality. 

But  we  shall  be  better  able  to  understand  the  ever-vaned  forms  in  which 
paper  is  presented  to  our  notice,  if  we  glance  at  some  of  the  numerous  sub- 
sidiary manufactures  which  depend  upon  its  use  as  a  material.  And  first  let  us 
see  what  a  celebrated  London  firm  has  to  show  us. 

De  la  Rue's  Manufactures. 

Of  all  our  manufacturing  establishments,  that  of  Messrs.  Do  la  Bue  is,  per- 
liaps  the  one  wherein  paper  is  made  to  undergo  the  gi-eatest  variety  of  artistic 
triuisfomations.  Paper-stainers  in  one  direction,  and  printei-s  in  anotlier, 
doubtless  cover  a  larger  surface  of  paper  with  the  results  of  their  handiwork ; 
but  where  paper,  to  the  extent  of  tens  of  thousands  of  reams  annually,  is  con- 
verted by  four  or  five  hundred  workpeople  into  dainty  envelopes,  note-paper, 
cards,  coloured  papers,  and  other  tasteful  productions,  the  diversities  exhibited 
must  be  very  notable.  . 

In  few,  if  any,  departments  of  industry  has  tlie  union  of  machinery  md  fine 
art  been  more  observable  than  in  the  branches  of  the  paper  trade  now  under 
notice  A  shilling  packet  of  envelopes,  or  a  half-crown's  worth  of  papetene,  or 
tlie  coloured  labels  and  wrappere  for  piece  goods  in  tlie  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts, are  dependent  botli  on  tlic  one  and  the  odier.  Even  the  artistic  fea- 
tm-es  themselves  are  largely  indebted  to  machineiy  for  Uieir  development. 
The  artist  and  the  mechanic  aie  pulling  at  different  strings ;  but  the  strings 
meet  at  one  pomt,  and  work  conjointly  towards  one  object.  ,  •  ^ 

Witliout  any  formal  description  of  the  factory  or  its  manufactures,  let  us  jot 
down   a  few  of  tlie   notable   "  curiosities  "  in  the  application   of  paper   at 

Dg  ISi  Rii6's. 

And  first,  let  us  summon  a  pack  of  cards  before  us.  Never,  perhaps,  did 
fashion  cling  to  absurdities  more  oddly  than  in  respect  to  tliese  instruments 
of  play.  The  fine  staring  figures  which  appeal-  on  the  wrappers  of  the  several 
packs  are  pretty  nearly  the  same  '  Moguk.'  and  '  Hariys,'  and  'High 
landers,'  that  they  used  to  be,  and  still  give  names  to  different  quahties  ol  cards. 
This  may  be  forgiven;  but  the  outrageous  'court  cards'  are  surpassing 
strange  Messrs.  De  la  Rue  have  more  tlian  once  attempted  to  beat  into  the 
heads  of  card-players  the  simple  trath,  that  kings  and  queens  and  knayes 
may  be  tlie  same  efficient  "trumps"  .^  before,  and  yet  have  somedimg  like 
artistic  gi-ace  about  tliem.  But  no ;  the  old  whist-players  will  not  veforni,  and 
humbler  players  cannot  take  Uie  lead  ;  so  we  have  Uie  coim  cards  dressed 
nearly  as  of  yore.  The  queeny  are  still  wrapped  up  in  a  costume  which 
equally  defies  the  feminine  and  the  "bloomer"  systems;  the  kuig  of  spades 


fci, ' 


mmms^mm 


mmm 


ifiiiaifiiiiinii 


timxmm 


io 


PAPEIi:    ITS   APPMCATIONB   AND   1TB  NOVKLtlK«. 


Still  thl-usls  out  his  leg  in  a  way  most  iudoppiulcnt  of  all  iiiintoiiiy ;  rind  tho 
knaves,  in  thoir  blue  and  yellow  liair,  tlu-ir  tiiiclt  l<ne('s  and  Hniall  unlile*; 
theit  coats  of  riiany  colo\n-H,  and  tluir  indcscrlbahlG  Hat  hats,  still  coiitiniic  to 
tbtm  tho  niost  extraordinary  knavish  part^  ever  known.  And,  as  tro  livo  in  an 
age  of  alleged  ntilitarianisni,  we  have  nUt  srnil>led  to  doiihle  the  heads  of 
t&se  court  persoiiagns  in  order  to  view  them  either  end  uppemiost ;  earh  otie 
lias  a  head  where  his  feet  should  he ;  eitch  is  his  own  antipodes ;  each  U  a 
Siamese  couple,  joined  in  a  most  original  niatiher. 

But  if  card-players  have  refused  to  listen  to  reforms  iti  this  iriatter,  thfey 
have  been  more  pliant  Ih  respt^ct  to  other  improvements  ;  tliey  have  consented 
to  '  coloured  backs,'  and  to  oil-printed  faces.  SoHie  card-makers  still  etnploy 
the  old  method  of  water-colours ;  but  the  modem  system,  introduced  by 
Messrs.  De  la  Hue,  produces  a  coloured  impression  much  more  lasting.  Ho 
'  self-boritaliied'  is  this  establishment,  that  the  stamps  and  plates  for  printing 
cards,  the  dies  for  embossing  fttncy  stationery,  and  nioulds  and  devicfes  bf 
every  description,  are  made  and  engraved  on  the  premises  ;  nay,  even  the  variotts 
machines,  of  which  wo  shall  presently  have  to  speak,  itre  sirtdlarly  managed. 

The  colouring  of  paper  is  no  trilling  matter  in  an  establishment  such  as 
tlie  one  now  under  notice.  There  is  a  colour-grinding  mill ;  there  is  a  labora- 
tory ot  chemicals ;  and  there  is  a  whole  anuy  of  bottles  and  bo.xos  and  drawers 
filled  with  drugs  and  colom-s  and  oils.  These  colotirs,  when  mixed  to  a 
Jiroper  consistency,  are  applied  to  Ittrge  sheets  of  paper ;  for  the  reader  must 
know  tlint  tlie  colour  is  not  applied  to  the  cards  tliemsclves.  A  sheet  of  paper, 
large  eiibugh  (say)  for  forty  ciirds,  is  printed  at  a  press,  with  ink  or  print  of 
one  coloiir,  frbrn  an  engraved  plate  of  copper  or  brass.  One  plate  is  for 
gpades,  another  for  hearts,  and  so  on.  Some  packs,  for  players  of  weak  sight, 
have  fdUr  different  colours  for  the  four  siiits ;  but  the  old  system  of  two  black 
suits  and  two  red  is  mostly  acted  on.  In  respect  to  the  cdtii-t  cards,  ihcf  re- 
quire ds  many  different  ehgrdved  pldtes,  arid  as  many  successive  processes  of 
printing,  as  there  are  coloUrs.  The  coloured  backs,  too,  arc  printed  in  ft  Simi- 
lar way  ;  for  these  arc  hot  inerl'ly  cdloured,  but  printed  also.  Sheets  of  ^6^^i- 
are  coloured  (by  a  process  which  we  may  find  an  opportunity  td  notitb  prfe- 
sently)  of  alnidst  every  imaginable  tint ;  and  oUe  of  these  being  selected,  it  is 
printed  with  any  device  and  in  anj-  colotir  which  may  be  choseil. 

Meanwhile  otlier  hands  have  been  labouring  to  fitshion  tho  materliil  from 
which  the  cards  are  to  be  made.  A  cai:d  is  built  ilp  of  numerous  layer§  of 
paper  ;  and  tlie  paste-brush  is  an  important  agent  iii  making  it,  Shfeets  and 
quires  tuid  )-eams  of  paper  are  selected,  of  such  (piality  as  may  irieet  tHe 
object  in  view  ;  and  a  workman — witlr  tliese  sheets  on  one  side  of  him,  dhd 
an  dbtihdant  supply  of  paste  on  another— proceeds  to  paste  these  sheets  two 
iuid  two  together.  The  pasters  do  nothing  else  ;  and  the  paste-rtlftkers  hfivc 
td  provide  hundreds  of  gallons  weekly.  The  pasted  cotiples  are  piled  in  heaps, 
the  heaps  ai-e  placed  in  hydraulic  presses,  and  a  good  siiuee^e  efffectnrtllt 
unites  each  pair.  Wlieii  this  pasthig  has  been  cai-ricd  on  till  the  cttrdboftrd  is 
thick   eiiough,   the   priiited  face  is  pa..ted  on,  and  also  the  coloured  back 

(if  any).  ^ 

The  finishing  processes  td  which  the  cards  are  subjected  ai-e  more  nttnierbtls 
tlian  would  genertdty  bo  stiplwsed.  The  bodi-ds,  each  the  size  of  forty  cdrds, 
are  dried  in  steari-heated  vaults : "  then  equalized  in  surface  by  a  kind  of  revolv- 
ing scratching  brush ;  then  passed  between  rollers,  of  which  one  is  niade  In  a 
reiiiai-kable  way  by  discs^  of  paper  placed  face  td  face  ;  then  rolled  agaift  : 
and  then  stibjected  td  fefaormoUs  pressurf*  td  fldtteh  them.     All  this  time 


%iiaBiii»iMm*ii«H>«i 


iiiw.-wiiiTi»rw*i*ii» 


iiii^iiaiiili'innwii 


■  ^wi'mwaywMlM'JMilii 


LTIKH. 

ftll  luiiitoiuy  ;  rinrt  tho 

5es  ftiirt  small  iiiiklos, 

Imts,  still  coiitiniio  to 

Ami,  M  «(!  \m-  in  un 

(lonhlo  th(>  headrt  of 

i  uppcmiost ;  ftivh  otio 

I  antipodes ;  oaCh  W  a 

n3  itl  tliifi  irintter,  tiiby 
;  they  have  croiisentod 
rd-nmkers  still  employ 
system,   introduce*!  by 
ich  more  lasting.     So 
md  plates  for  printing 
iiioulds   and  devictes  bf 
i ;  nay,  even  thie  variotts 
•e  similarly  managed, 
estublishnient  sucli  as 
mill ;  there  is  a  labora- 
aud  boxes  and  drawers 
lirs,  when  mixed  to  a 
■r ;  for  the  reader  must 
Ives.   A  sheet  of  paper, 
s,  -with  ink  or  print  of 
ass.     One  plate  is  for 
r  players  of  Aveak  sight. 
Id  system  of  two  black 
he  cdtlt-t  cards,  they  re- 
suftcessive  processes  of 
3,  are  printed  in  &  sithl- 
also.     Sheets  of  ^Si)^i- 
portunity  td  notitb  prfe- 
fise  being  selected,  It  Is 
)e  clioseri. 

[lion  the  material  from 
)  of  numerous  layer§  of 
making  it,  Shfects  and 
ality  as  may  nie(?t  the 
n  one  side  bf  him,  ahd 
paste  these  sheets  two 
[  thfc  paste-itiakers  hiivo 
iples  are  piled  in  heaps, 
ood  s(iueezo  efffecttiitlly 
on  till  the  ctttdboftrd  is 
also  the  cbloilred  back 

cted  lii'e  iiiorc  uUnietblis 
the  size  of  forty  cftrds, 
face  by  a  kind  of  revblv- 
which  one  is  made  in  a 
cce  ;  then  rolled  agaill : 
1  them.     All  this  time 


PAPfeh:  ITS  Ai>ri,rcATloNs  ANn  i/r  NovEtttEs. 


11 


the  forty  cards  form  onn  pier(!  of  cardbbhrd,  but  now  tho  process  of  separa- 

ion  Sues:  a  cutting  machine,  of  sln.ple  but  effective  action,  cuts  Uio  boards 

IM  !X  strips  .md  then  intb  cards  :«n.l  thus  some  forty  thousand  a  day  can 

l.n  fiHhionec   bv  one  man.     The  sorters  then  examine  every  card  snigly  ;  aiid 

c  nt;  as  i7l,as  o,ib  or  othbr  of  three  (tegi-ees  of  faultiness  (-^revh|.ps  wo 
should  my  fatdtlessl.ess,  so  admirably  are  they  now  made)  each  caid  takes 
nude  as  a  '  Mogul.'  a  '  HariT,'  or  a  '  Highlander.'  ,       „.    ,•    »•.„«„ 

Tlie  pai.er  roller  jv.st  mentioned  is  one  of  the  singular  modem  applications 
of  this  material,  Ten  or  twelve  thousand  circular  pieces  ot  paper  have  a  hole 
formed  in  the  centre,  through  which  a  spindle  nins,  and  thev  are  pressjHl  to- 
!:;.2r  with  sdch  enormous  force  that,  when  turned  in  a  fathe,  they  forni  a 
cylindrical  roller  of  singvilar  density,. evenness,  and  smoothness.  A  peculiar 
degree  of  slippeiiness-very  impoi-taiit  for  the  '  shulttmg  Pf.««f «-;«  S'J^"  *^ 
one  surface  hf  each  card  by  the  pressure  ot  this  paper  cylinder;  foi  it  is  a 
curiou"  fivct  that  in  order  to  make  cards  shuffle  an.l  deal  well,  it  is  lound  neces- 
sary  to  give  the  faces  a  slightly  difterent  kind  and  degree  ot  smoothness  Irom 

^'"And"  now,  laying   aside  the   thousands  of  packs  of  cards   thus    made   at 
this  establishment?  we  may  talk  awhile  of  the  coloured  papen  made  for  so  many 
fanciful  Durnoses       In  the  show-room  dtevoted  to  such  matters,  theie  is  a 
Sng  S'of  a  hundred  a.id  thirty-two  radii,  formed  of  strips  of  paper  no 
two  of  whi(;h  present  the  same  colour- this  represents  the  chrotlatic  powei  a 
the  comttlatui  of  the  mamifacturers ;  whether  we  take  Newton  s  «p„\f'.° 
Sc<Tn  tolom^,  or  Brewster's  of  three,  here  we  have  them  all.  Mid  all  the 
StSis  pr^^hiced  by  vai^dhg  combinations  of  them:  the   bending,  the 
fiai-nibriy;   tL   cmititist,   the  complement   ot  co  ours,  are  ^d\  sho^^".     Ah 
such  panels  are  coloured  on  one  surface  only.     The  pigment  is  mixed  to  the 
desire  1  tltlt  £tnd  consistency;  tod  a  colodr  machine  ot    veiy  peculiar  con- 
sSic  Ion  applies  ail  feven  lajer  ovor  the  suiface,  feeding  itself  with  paper  and 
^Uh  paiiit  ii  it  works.     The  long  sh-ip-sbui^  hundreds  of  yards  hi  length-- 
rraXonwards  Over  the  tnatform,  stibntits  itself  pat^iently  to  the  paint-brush, 
then  Lasts  over  heated  ^lateS;  and  leaves  the  machine  coloured  and  drud. 
I  iShf  tho^i^  operaiiohs  in  which  ilotliirig  less  th.m  a  veiy  large  de. 
nandcouldwarmntdieuseofamaclnne;  but  m  winch,  the  demand  be  ng 
"  ;ied,  machincy  at  once  finds  itself  at  home.      The  ^J'- Vhlf  XS 
papers,  too.  receive   their   acrluirements  m  a  similar  way.     The  ^'t^'^^^JJ 
laJds  arfe  examples  of  those  productions  in  which  a  wash  is  so  apphed  to  caul 
S  pat)er  as  neaily  to  equal  real  eftamcl  in  Smoothness,  whiteness,  and  delicacy 

''^Tl'rKrshioned  mnrhlcd  ^«;>cr,  still  extensively  used  by  bookbindets  is 
made  In  a  remarkable  way.  A  viscid  kind  of  paint-hquid  is  prepared,  on  the 
Sace  of  which  different  colours  are  incei-mingled;  and  tli«  ^^eet  o  pa^er  is 
dexterously  laid  oh  this  surface,  from  which  it  draws  up  a  dm  of  *e  inter- 
mingled coloui-s.  Now  Messrs.  De  la  Rue  have  recently  applied  a  totally  dif- 
fe  "nt  colouring  theoiy  to  the  production  of  papers  smgdlar  in  their  novelty 
,«  d  beahtT  The  specimens  at  the  Orekt  Exhibition  Were  pkced  ih  a  3ome- 
wliat  darkimer,  ahd  were  hot  so  well  known  as  the  ever-popdlar  •  Enve  ope 
Macliine.'  These  papers  are  indescenl,  or  opahscmt,  or  nac»w.«— that  Is  they 
fxli  b  Uhe  ever-varyiig  bites  of  mother-o'-pearl  or  of  opal.  |f  ^^'^b^t  thenyi-om 
one  point,  they  display  all  the  tints  of  the  minbow ;  change  the  point  of  view,  aftd 

one  pumu,  uKTj     ^i  J i:i!P„..„„i  .;„*  f.,„rt,  tiiot,  which  before  distinguished 

lie  fundamental  tint  of  tlie 


"if 

I 


one  poiiii,,  uicj  uiopi»T  ""  u.v.  w....-  —  ".••-•  .,     . 

eveiy  little  spot  dis{ilavs  a  different  tint  from  Uiat 
it,     IVtost  delicate  m^  gtticeful  is  the  i-esuU.     Ih 


■» 


-II' 


IS 


PAPRR:   iTB  APPLICAT10K8  AND  ITfl  N0VFXTIK8. 


paper  may  be  white,  or  bhi<;k,  or  any  otlier  at  clujice ;  mul  yet  those  pearly  hnos 
hhiill  present  thciiKielvfM.  A  iM'iuUiful  principhi  in  optics  is  here  brought  into 
l»lay ;  m  colon-  in  cmiil<ni,d  to  prodiu-e  the  oixilesccnce !  The  Hoapbnbblo  ex- 
hibits it^  b<  luififul  hui's,  ulUioiiglJ  the  water  is  nearly  colourless;  and  so  like- 
wise it  is  in  tlio  present  cose.  When  a  film  of  any  trunsparent  substance  is 
HO  tliin  OS  a  twenty-tliousandtli  or  a  fifty-thouHiuultli  part  of  one  inch,  there 
occui-s  what  i)hilosoi>her.s  call  an  'interference  of  light'  at  the  two  surfaces, 
which  i)ro<luces  colour;  anil  Uiis  colour  depends  upon  the  tliickness  of  tlie 
film  and  the  angle  at  which  it  is  \iewed.  This  law  governs  the  production  of 
colour  in  some  of  the  most  l»eautiful  of  naKnal  objei  rs;  and  Messrs.  De  la 
Ene  have  skilfully  broui^ht  it  to  bear  upon  paper.  Each  sheet  of  paper  is 
covered,  bv  a  coitIuI  jjrocss  of  dipi)ing,  with  an  exceedhigly  tliin  film  of  a  pecu- 
liar varnish ;  the  i)rocess  and  the  varnish  behig  so  cho.sen  as  to  produce  opal- 
escence or  iridescence.  It  would  be  difficult  to  predict  all  the  u.ses  to  which  so 
d6licately-a(f/)med  r  material  might  be  applied ;  for  bo(ik  covers,  for  wall  deco- 
rations, for  paper  ornaments — indeed,  for  almost  all  the  puq)oses  to  which 
painted,  strtuied,  niarbUid,  stamped,  or  embossed  paper  is  atlapted,  this  new 
material  may  be  fitting.  Already  have  tlie  inventors  begun  to  produce  many 
curious  ornamental  article.s  by  its  means. 

The  embossed  paper,  and  the  better  kind  of  colour-printed  paper,  call  for  an 
astonishing  amoun;,  .)f  ailistic  skill  at  such  an  establishment  as  Messrs.  De  la 
Hue's.  Designei-s  are  always  at  work  on  new  patterns ;  sometimes  following, 
but  more  frequently  leading  th.-  taste  of  the  public.  Bo  it  a  fanciful  wrapper 
for  a  piece  of  linen  or  of  nuisiivi,  or  a  bouquet-lx-lder,  or  a  cover  for  a  pa,per  box, 
or  a  papeterie-caae,  or  a  wedding-card,  or  a  mourning  envelope,  Uiere  is  a  pei-- 
petual  infusion  of  novelty  in  design  or  colour,  or  both.  The  embossing  ot 
paper,  or  the  production  of  cameo  and  intaglio  effects,  is  one  of  the  greatest 
sources  of  beauty.  If  a  portion  of  the  cm-face  is  to  be  so  embossed,  a  die  is 
engraved,  and  a  powerful  press  employed  •.  but  if  «he  whole  surface  is  to  have 
!i  design,  tlio  paper  is  passed  between  copper  roller^,  one  of  which  is  engraved. 
Thus  are  produced  the  endless  variety  of  embossed  or  '  lace,'  or  '  morocco,* 
or  otlier  papers  having  a  raised  device.  Some  of  Uie  works  producd  by 
Messrs.  Dobbs  and  by  Messrs.  Do  la  Hue  in  this  department  of  manufacture 
are  really  works  of  art. 

Nor  are  painting  and  colour  less  sedulously  attended  to.  De  la  Rue's  books 
of  patterns,  in  which  the  designs  are  ananged  and  tabulated,  form  quite  a  rich 
assemblage  of  artistic  taste,  and  illustrate  tlie  gradual  means  by  which  grace 
and  beauty  are  becoming  familiarised  to  all;  for  it  is  to  the  cheap  as  well  as 
the  costly  articles  that  these  designs  are  applied.  The  delicate- tuited  note- 
paper,  now  so  much  used  by  ladies,  was  among  tlie  introductions  of  this 
firm ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cheap  and  neat  envelope-boxes,  and  paper- 
cases,  and  writing-cases,  owe  no  little  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  same  inventors. 

"  Five  quires  for  a  shilling,"  is  a  labelling  that  now  meets  the  eye  in  every 
town.  Thanks  to  the  firm  who  fii-st  adopted  this  mode  of  breaking  down  a 
ream  of  paper  into  convenient  pai-cels,  and  tying  up  tliese  parcels  into  nicely- 
wrappered  shillings-worths.  The  paper  may  be  letter-paper  or  note-paper ; 
the  quires  may  be  three  or  four  or  five  in  number ;  tlie  price  may  be  greater 
or  smaller  according  to  quality ;  but  the  principle  was,  to  establish  something 
between  the  quire  and  the  ream,  and  to  throw  into  this  something  a  little 
modicum  of  '  fine  art.'  Paper  itself  is  not  made  by  the  fii-m  now  under 
notice;  but  paper  is  made /or  them,  accordhig  to  patterns  designed  by  them- 
selves; and  tlius  we  have  'Queen's,'  'Albert,'  'Alhambra,'  'Damask,'  '  Elizar 


I,TTK8. 

I  jet  those  ppftrly  hues 
cs  is  \u'W  brotif^ht  into 
'I'lie  .soap-bubblo  ex- 
oluurlcas ;  and  so  like- 
.nspiiroTit  Hubstance  is 
art  of  one  inch,  there 
t'  at  the  two  HurfacoH, 
\  the  thickiHWH  of  Uio 
ems  the  production  of 
:»;  and  Messrs.  De  la 
Inch  sheet  of  paper  is 
igly  tliin  tihu  of  a  pecu- 
en  as  to  produce  opai- 
Ul  tlie  UHOS  to  which  ho 
i  coveitt,  for  wall  deco- 
he  purjOTses  to  which 

•  is  adapted,  this  new 
?gun  to  produce  many 

inted  paper,  call  for  an 
ment  as  Messrs.  De  la 
;  sometimes  following, 
5o  it  a  fanciful  wrapper 
(I  cover  for  a  paper  box, 
nvelopo,  Uiere  is  a  per- 
h.  The  embossing  ot 
is  one  of  the  greatest 
B  80  embossed,  a  die  is 
'hole  surface  is  to  have 
e  of  which  is  engraved. 

•  '  lace,'  or  '  morocco,' 
le  works  produc'd  by 
rtment  of  manutacture 

to.  De  la  Rue's  books 
lated,  form  quite  a  rich 
means  by  which  grace 
to  the  cheap  as  well  as 
he  delicate-tinted  note- 
3  introductions  of  this 
elope-boxes,  and  paper- 
ii  the  same  inventors, 
meets  the  eye  in  every 
de  of  breaking  dowTi  a 
lese  parcels  into  nicely- 
r-paper  or  note-paper; 
xe  price  may  be  greater 
to  establish  something 
this  something  a  little 
f  the  firm  now  under 
sms  designed  by  them- 
bra,'  '  Damask,'  '  Elisat- 


papeb;  m  appucations  and  its  novf.i.tirb. 


18 


bethan,'  'Wave,'  "Watered,"  ami  other  note-paper,  according  to  the  water- 
mark which  is  introduced  into  it,  or  other  clmiiicUni  ii's  imparted  to  it.  Thus, 
too,  in  note-paper  iuMtulod  for  biidal  or  for  moumuig  occasions,  the  pajjcr 
itself  is  procured  elscwli.  r«,  but  tlie  symbols,  iin'  the  >  -i«ing,  and  the  stamp- 
ing oi-e  the  handiwork  of  this  or  some  similar  fin  Notlung  can  exceed  the 
delicacy  of  home  of  the.«e  fancy  articles.  The  bndal  oard-i,  and  note-paper, 
mid  envelopes,  are  rich  in  livmeneal  symbols,  n..t  merely  embossed  by  a  press, 
but  in  some  cases  picked  oiit  in  silver;  and  the  sombre  enrichnx'nts  of  motim- 
ing  stationeiy  are  n.jt  loss  redolent  of  the  cypress,  tlio  willow,  .,  d  analogous 
emblems,  liouqtirt  Jioldsrs,  too,  have  often  gold  or  silver  taking-  jtart  m  the 
embossed  design.  In  such  cases  a  pattern  is  printed  Aith  gold  size  instead 
of  colour,  gold  leaf  is  aiiplied,  which  adheres  only  to  die  printed  pait;  and 
the  embossing  is  effected  aftcrwar'  .  In  commoner  work  the  gold  is  a  "de- 
lusion and  a  snare;"  it  in  a  powder  cf  oxidized  brass,  sprinkled  over  the  moist 
gold-size. 

The  French  gi  o  the  name  ai  jmpeterie  to  stationery  m  general,  and  papeltere 
to  a  case  containing  sUtionery ;  and  tliese  papeiieres,  ranging  in  price  from  one 
shilling  to  two  guineas,  and  mostly  made  of  paper  and  card,  are  among  the 
most  curious  examples  of  Messrs.  De  la  Rue's  i'  xluctions,  so  infinitely  varied 
is  the  taste  which  they  display. 

The  little  l»its  of  card  which  lue  used  in  millions  as  '  railway  tickets — those 
passports  for  the  national  highways,  are  mostly  prepared  up  to  a  certaui  stage 
by  Messrs.  De  la  Rue.  The  cardboard  is  made,  coloured  in  one  or  two  Unts, 
printed  in  black  or  in  colour  with  certain  devices,  imd  cut  up  into  separate 
cards;  tliese  cards  are  transmitted  to  the  respective  companies,  in  whoso 
offices  they  are  further  printed  and  registered  by  the  machines  noticed  m  an 
earlier  number  of  this  series.  These  small  coarse  cards  are  among  the 
humbler  examples  of  their  class ;  but  visitimf  cards  oie  a  production  on  which 
great  tiuste  and  delicacy  are  now  bestowed.  In  addition  to  the  'At  Home 
cards,  and  others  of  a  similar  character,  embossed  by  stamping,  the  lustrous 
enamelled  caixi  is  a  notable  modem  mvention. 

Penky-Pobt  SlA-nONEKT. 

Rowland  Hill's  Penny- Post  system  has  done  more  to  advance  the  manufac- 
ture of  stationery  tlian  any  other  single  cause  whatever.  The  letter-paper,  the 
note-paper,  the  envelopes,  the  postage-labels,  all  bear  witness  to  this  tact.  Ihe 
department  of  Messrs.  De  la  Rue's  establishment  appropriated  to  envelope- 
making  is  quite  astounding  for  its  magnitude;  and  tliis  may  be  a  convenient 
place  to  throw  together  a  few  notices  botli  of  the  envelope  and  tlie  postage- 
stamp  systems. 

How  many  envelopes  the  worid  produces,  how  nwiy  London  produces,  an- 
nually, we  know  not ;  but  Messrs.  De  la  Rue  tum  out  about  a  hundred  mil- 
lions in  a  year.  If  we  go  into  some  of  the  rooms,  we  see  fifty  or  sixty  women 
and  giris  folding  and  gumming  envelopes  wiUi  a  celerity  which  tlie  eye  can 
scai-cely  follow ;  go  mto  anoth<r,  and  we  have  before  us  a  dozen  machines  doing 
Uie  same  work  still  more  expeditiously.  Surely  tlie  worid  has  become  a  worid 
of  letter-writers,  else  whither  can  tlie  envelopes  go  ?  Here,  as  in  other  matters, 
excellence  and  cheapness  advance  togetlier,  when  the  demand  mcreases. 
There  are  London  shops  at  which  envelopes,  made  "*"  really  serviceable  paper, 
and  having  gummed  and  embossed  tips,  can  be  purchased  at  sixpence  per 
hundred,  sorted  into  four  sizes,   and  bound  with  fanciful  gilt  and  coloured 


I. 


m 


mmtm 


wiwiim  iiii.«iiiwin  ni-rii(iri|i     .«PMWMWk*> 


u 


vkvM:  Itn  APvLioATloSi  A^D  1TB  NovRt.nrs. 


biUidflffflfi.    With  nnvcloiie«  iit  sixpoiicr  a  Jiiiii<lr.'.l,  mul  stffl  \m\H  at  Hixpftiro 
jirr  RTosn,  the  '  cotnpli'te  Ifltter-wrlter '  hos  in.lt  cd  iimny  temptations  held  otit 

to  lllni.  ,  i,  1      It         1 

'I'ho  (JovrrtltiiMit  ptivMoiif <*  rtiR  ttlrtfir  wllli  ii  llirfiid  or  two  ttltltim!?  tJironcli 
them;  thcsi' IhmMls  him  i..iib.l(iRf(l  into  tlii>  pulp  dnilng  l!n!  tiiiikinj,'  of  th<^ 
pnher;  hut  ^>nlinrtry  onvH.ipc.  liiivc  no  mich  lulditioim.  'rii."  lHr<,'c  sluets  of 
pnpor  pt-os-(P(l  rttlll  rblU-d  to  give  llu'tti  sntoothnesH,  iin<l  niickt'd  into  1uhi1>x,  nrd 
oukotinnl  Into  (rt.l(tng  HtnH:  iihd  those  stripn,  (.iled  in  hups  of  four  of  Hvn 
hnndrhd  ort'-h,  lite  rut  ioto  dlfiinohd-shitphd  plfcc*— or,  for  luoro  mficifill 
shiipfH,  thny  sltv  cut  at  onro  by  a  ctlned  (!utt^n^'-stnnlp.  If  we  tallow  thesfi 
pipcfrt  into  thfi  «'nvol(>pe-ro(»tli,  fto  thmi  wee  (i  Htiikinf,'  »'.\ainple  of  thn  atct 
which  constant  ottiploymcnt  at  one  occtipritlon  «ivcs.  'I'ho  more  con\mon  en- 
velopes itro  made  hv  mnchine,  but  tho  h^ss-used  sizeH  nrc  Htitl  mnde  by  Imnd : 
find  HO  fast  do  the  fItiKers  of  tliMe  HKnd-workers  move,  that  each  woman  or 
t/irl  can  make  two  or  three  thous.uid  in  a  <lay !  N(j  description  ciui  tell  Mdb- 
nilately  how  this  Is  doile.  In  the  lit-Kt  two  folds  several  iiftl)era  are  dohe  at 
once,  With  nothing  but  (lie  ev(.  to  guide  tho  hand;  in  the  last  two  fol.ls  each 
paper  is  tl^dted  separately.  And  then  the  application  of  the  gimi,  witli  tho 
fixing  down  of  three  out  of  the  four  lappets,  is  a  perfect  nuuvei  of  qtiick- 

Ihit  the  n\achlftc-made  envelopes  arc  thosh  which  htiv^  rttire  efifefettiftlly 
bronght  down  the  price  and  brought  up  the  (\\ml\t\ ;  every  entfclope  is,  to  it 
Hair's  bn'ildth,  the  Hitmo  size  ns  its  fellow,  and  like  it  in  every  particular. 
HAltHng  and  clattering  arid  liumtlling  away,  there  are  in  the  envelope-room 
thirteen  of  those  machinbs,  ohe  of  which  was  seen  by  so  matiy  million  eyfei^ 
Itt  the  western  nave  of  the  (lieat  Exhibition.     This  machine,  itivetlted  cOh- 
jolhtly  by  Mr.  Kdwin  Hill  and  Mr.  Witrren  iJe  la  Hue,  is  an  exceedingly  beail- 
tlfiil  contrivance.     Jt  peifortns  niany  siiccesHive  operations  with  utieiTlng  ac- 
curacy.    A  b0y  places  a  diamond-Hhaped  l)iecc  of  paper  on  a  little  plattorrii ; 
a  sort  of  plunger  descends,  an.l  foi-ces  tlie  cetitral  part  of  the  paper  into  ttil 
oblong  quadrangnlivr  cavity ;  the  four  comers  stand  erett,  and  tliese  are  suc- 
cessively liattened  by  four  levers,  fingers,  or  thumbs  (whichever  we  may  term 
them),  whereby  the  envelope  fonn  is  given.     And  when  all  is  done,  two  India- 
rubber  fingers  lightly  touch  the  envelope,  and  delicately  draw  it  aside,  to  make 
ready  M  rtftotlier.     These  fingers  are  cpiite  a  refinement  of  ingenuity ;  they 
arfe  small  itietallic  cylinders,  wllh  bits  of  tndirt-rubbor  at  the  lower  ends  ;  th-Mb 
finger-titis  have  just  etiotigh  of  tlie  glutliious  or  sticky  quality  to  adhere 
slightly  to  the  paper  tin  Which  thfey  aie  pressfed,  and  to  draw  it  awtty  »«'n  i" 
place  in  tlie  machine.     But  while  these  jirocesses  have  been  going  on.  thtro 
IS  toother  series  illso  in  operatioh,  to  eflect  tlie  gumming  or  fasten  iig.    Ihore 
is  a  supply  of  gum,  which  spreads  itself  over  an  endless  apron  or  blankfit;  atid 
rtli  artificial  arm  takes  a  supply  bf  gum  from  tliis  blanket,  to  apply  it  to  tlio 
envelope      All  these  nlovenients  are  ^o  nicely  adjusted,  that  the  guni  is  ap- 
r)lied  in  its  proper  placb  just  before  the  flap  of  the  envelope  is  folded  down. 
As  fast  as  the  envelopes  are  mdde,  they  rahge  thetnsolves  on  an  inclined  plane 
with  the  precision  of  well-drillfd  soldiel^,  and  slide  up  into  a  box  prepared 
fol-  their  rfcCeption.     Thus  does  each  machine  make  its  sixty  envelopes  in  a 

The  very  felegtint  enveWpe-machino  irivcfated  by  M.  Hfemond,  rtnd  exhibited 
by  Messrs.  Watferlow  at  tlio  Great  Exhibition,  in  addition  to  much  novelty  ih 
the  folding  arid  giimming  apparatus,  has  a  singular  contrivance  for  feeding 
itself  with  paper.    The  diamond-shaped  pieces  are  placed  m  a  heap  by  the 


T- 


-^^^ 


MIKrt. 

'  tcfiipttttiotis  hoM  otit 
!•  two  ftttiiHtiq  tliioilKll 

Ig    l!lC    t!l!!!.!!lf,'    of    th" 

I'lii'  liirj?''  wlifntfl  <*f 
imcki'd  into  Jioapf^.  an< 
lu.li'-)  (tf  I'diir  or  fivo 
-or,  tor  iiiorp  fiuiclflll 
).  If  we  follow  the<*fl 
*  j'Mimplfi  of  tlin  iitct 
I'liti  iiioio  coniiiion  en- 
re  Htill  um\o.  liy  htind  ; 
,  tlint  ciicli  WDiniin  or 
Hcription  can  toll  JUlC- 
iil  jtftpprM  nvc  (lohe  at 
\w  liiHt  two  folds  each 
(if  the  Rnni,  witJi  tlio 
;rfect  niflrvel  of  qiiick- 

lltivfl  ittrtt-e  eHbt'taally 
"vrry  cnTfclopc  is,  to  it 

it  in  every  particular. 

in  tlic  ctivt'lopp-rooni 
■  so  nmtiy  million  eyfesi 
nachino,  itivetlted  cbh- 
is  an  excccilingly  beaii- 
tlons  with  lUiPrritig  tie- 
er  oil  a  littlo  platforni ; 
t  of  the  paper  hitd  ttn 
rect,  and  tlieso  are  suc- 
vliicliever  we  may  term 
I  all  is  done,  two  India- 
y  draw  it  aside,  to  niako 
lent  of  ingenuity ;  they 
It  the  lower  ends  ;  th'^Mb 
;icky  (lUollty  to  adhere 
0  draw  it  awiiy  from  its 
D  hccn   goitlg  on,  thtro 
ing  or  fastening.    There 
IS  apron  or  blaidiet ;  atid 
iket,  to  apply  it  to  tlie 
sd,  that  the  giihi  is  ap- 
ivelope  is  folded  down. 
es  m  an  inclined  plane, 
up  into  a  box  prepared 
its  sixty  etivelopes  in  a 

Itfemond,  rind  exhibited 
tion  to  much  novelty  ih 
r  coiitrivance  for  feeding 
laced  in  a  heap  by  the 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


«-  IIIM 

— 

1^       1^ 


I.I 


1.25 


ii£  IlilM 


1.8 


U    nil  1.6 


Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


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A 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


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microfiches. 


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! 


pApfen:  ITS  APPLICATIONS  A:f»ri  its  novelties.  W 

side  of  the  machine,  a  hollow  tithe  thrust-^  itself  fomard  and  reste  upon  ihe 
topmost  paper,  the  air  is  drawn  from  the  tlibe  by  a  tmy  air-pmnt>,  and  he 
topmost  paper  clihgs  by  atmospheric  prfessiire  to  twd  tinnute  holes  on  the 
lolver  surface  of  the  tube;  the  tube  withdraws  itself,  drops  the  naper  exactly 
in  the  spot  wliere  the  foldlhg  and  gumming  mechanism  is  placed,  awl  travels 
forth  in  search  of  lihoUier.  The  machine  reqUii-fes  tub  aid  of  an  attendant  to 
remove  and  press  Uie  biivfelope;  while  Do  la  lltie's  re(itnres  S.m.  ar  aid  to 
place  the  paper;  nevertheless,  the  tube  of  the  one  mabhine,  and  tiie  elastic 
linsers  of  the  other,  are  among  thte  jirettiest  novelties  of  this  ittechrttiical  age. 
Generally  speaking,  each  of  De  la  Bite's  machines  chn  make  about  as  many 
envelopes  as  nine  expett  women,  or  aboitt  twenty-five  thousand  pei- day.  And 
vet  morewottten  and  girls  ai-e  employed  in  making  envelopes  than  at  any 
former  period  ;  sb  true  is  it  that  machinery  frequently  mcreases  the  held  toi 
hand-labour,  by  creating  hew  branches  of  inahufacturb.  ■,    u  * 

As  learned  hamos  are  now  given  to  various  other  products,  so  ^Ve  rtrty  here 
notice  a  recent  irivefition  by  a  London  mamifiicturer.  which  ri^joices  in  thb 
name  of  the  Pobjchrid  EHveloyO.  It  is  a  sheet  of  note-paper  and  an  envelope 
contained  in  one-ctit,  in  fact,  out  of  a  larger  sheet,  irt  such  tt  way  tMt  the 
sheet  forms  its  owH  eiivelope.  The  idea  is  not  Withdnt  its  meiit;  ior  the 
legal  identification  of  a  letter  may  often  be  facilitated  by  hdvmg  the  post-mafk 
on  the  letter  itself,  instead  of  on  a  separate  envelope. 

The  envelopes  sold  bv  drdinary  shopkeepers  now  fahoutntliriber  those  Which 
have  the  oval  bovemment  niedallion  upbnthettl ;  but  stiU  these  latter  are  pro- 
duced in  millions  annually,  and  the  preparation  of  them  coiistitutfes  a  singhlar 
branch  of  Somerset  House  respohsibihty.     Ur.  Edwui  Hill  is  at  the  hedd  of 
that  (lepai-tment  of  the  Stalnp  Oifice  which  has  control  over  posta|e-statops ; 
and  he  has  under  his  management  qtiitfe  a  liit-g^  ihainifactunng  estabhshmettt. 
Ho  does  iJot  make  the  envelopes  themselves,  nOr  the  penny  ahd  twopenny 
postdgfe-stdmns,  but  he  staiilps  those  fehtelopes  ^hidi  "''s  ^^^^^^^y  */>;''™ 
mentrilnd  niakes  the  tenpetihy  and  shilling  postage-stiinltJs  iised  for  foreign 
letters      In  a  certain  apartment  at  Sothei-set  Hblise  there  ftre  machines  dd  ^ 
tnitiloved  in  stamping  envelopes.     The  o^ill  iiledalHbri  stdtnn  is  carcMly 
en|S  on  a  hai/steel  die ;  and  the  lilachities  are  ^kilMly  adjusted  so  te  to 
itlf  their  own  dies  with  pink  coWiir,  and  bring  tile  dies  down  upoii  the  pSpbr. 
The  papers  are  sent  to  Somerset  House,  dut  to  the  proper  size  ahd  Shalife  ioi 
envelopes ;  a  boy  takes  a  handfhl  of  these,  spreads  them  out,  and  feeds  them 
into  Ihe  machine  at  the  t-at-3  of  sixty  ih  a  minUte ;  the  machine  inks Jts  own 
die  at  this  ratfe  of  speed  fohce  in  a  second),  and  stamps  aftfer  edch  inking. 
How  wonderful  must  be  the  prfecisioh  to  effect  k\\  this !     Four  things  have  to 
be  done  witliih  a  second :  &  boy  places  a  piece  of  paper,  the  colour-rollere  irtk 
the  die,  tile  die  presses  oh  the  paper,  and  another  boy  removes  tllfc  pttpei. 
The  tNvo  boys  are  virtually  I^arts  Of  the  niachine  Itself.  ,      ,  „  , 

We  have  said  tliat  the  hlghet-priced  postage  strirhps  are  made  at  Sonierset 
House;  but  the  system  Is  fnore  stflkin^ly  ilhistrtlted  by  the  penny  and  two- 
penny Stamps.  There  is  h  house  in  Flfeet  Street,  ver^  unprfetendtng  exter- 
nally: Adhere  postage-stahil»s  ai-e  made  annually  to  the  value  of  someaiing  hkfe 
a  mUlioh  sterling-Uidt  is,  post-office  value,  not  intrinsic  value.  Mfessts. 
Bacon  dnd  Petch  have  ri  contract  for  producing  the  penhy  and  twopenny 
postage-stamps.  The  contract  (lately  renewed)  was  made  m  1843  and  shows 
ho*  large  a  rtiattet-  a  penny  stamp  becomes  when  it  is  n™ltiphed  b^  inilhons. 
The  contractors  provide  stfeel  plates,  each  large  fenditgh  for  '^40  'Q"eefts 
heads- '  they  engrave  the  plateS  with  thfe  well-kno^  device  (the  head  bemg  a 


n 


i 


(■ 


^ 


L 


16 


paper:  its  applications  ano  its  novelties. 


reduced  copy  from  Wyon's  'City  Medal');  they  renew  the  plates  as  fast  as 
they  become  wom  out ;  they  provide  aU  ilie  dies,  presses,  and  machmes  neces- 
sary ;  they  make  the  blue  and  red  inks,  and  the  adhesive  composition,  according 
to  recipes  approved  by  Government;  Uiey  receive  paper  from  the  Govern- 
ment, print  sheets  of  stamps  on  this  paper,  and  gum  tlie  backs  ot  the  sheets 
so  printed :  and  they  do  all  this  in  buildings  or  rooms  approved  by  the  btamp 
Ofhce,  and  to  which  the  Govemment  officers  have  at  all  times  free  access. 
For  these  services,  tlie  contractors  agi-eed  to  receive  6|(Z.,  6\d.,  or  M.  per 
1000  stamps,  accordmg  as  tlie  number  in  any  one  quai-ter  of  a  year  amoiints 
to  less  than  thirty  millions,  from  Uiirty  to  thirty-two  milhons,  or  more  than 
thirty-two  millions.  Great  as  tliese  numbers  appear,  they  have  gradually  come 
to  be  far  exceeded,  for  they  ai-e  now  something  like  sixty  millions  quarterly. 

But  the  largeness  of  this  (apparently)  small  subject  is  perhaps  still  better 
illustrated  by  a  project  to  facilitate  the  tearing  or  cutting  of  postage  stomps. 
Conceive  an   inventor  and  tlie   Govemment   quaiTelling  whetlier  600«    or 
something  much  larger  should  be  given  for  such  a  conti-ivance !     The  whole 
matter,  as  given  in  a  recent  parliamentarj-  paper,  is  curious,  and  teaches  us  how 
formal  and  wearisome  Govemment  offices  are  in  their  official  correspondence. 
In  1847  Mr.  Archer  proposed  to  the  Postmaster-General  the  use  ot   a 
machine  which  would  make  a  number  of  litUe  perforations  round  the  bordei- 
of  each  stamp  in  a  sheet,  to  facilitate  their  separation  without  the  use  ot 
scissors.    He  adduced  many  advantages  which  the  public  and  the  postmastei-s 
would  derive  from  it.     The  Postmaster-General  sent  tlie  matter  to  the  Stamp 
Office  for  consideration,  with  a  commendatory  notice  from  some  of  tlie  officials. 
Then  Mr  Archer  made  an  offer  to  the  Stamp  Office,  in  respect  to  it ;  and  then 
the  Stamt)  Office  refeired  it  to  the  Treasury.     The  year  1847  was  now  at  nn 
end,  and  "1848  commenced  another  series  of  tripartite  official  con-espondence. 
The  Treasury  assented  to  p  trial ;  and  the  Stamp  Office  caused  the  machine 
to  be  worked  by  their  label-stamp  contractors.     The  U-ials  were  earned  on ; 
the  perforations  were  made  by  rollers— then  by  a  fly-press--9iid  then  by  a 
third  method,  to  get  over  minor  difficulties;  and  the  years  1848  and  184tf 
were  brought  to  an  end  before  the  machine  was  finally  rendered  effective. 
Then  came  the  question  of  remuneration  —  managed  Uius.      Mr.   Archer 
applied  CO  the  Treasury;   the  Treasury  applied  to  the  Stan^  ^^^t^'^l 
Stamp  Office  made  a  sufjgestion,  and  referred  it  to  the  Post  Ofhce ;  the  Post 
Office  sUghtly  modified  tlie  suggestion,  and  returned  it  to  the  btamp  tJthce. 
Mr.  Archer  apphed  to  the  Post  Office  for  better  terms,  but  the  Post  Oihce 
referred  him  to  the  Treasiuy.     Mr.  Archer  then  applied  to  the  Trea^iy,  and 
the  Treasury  referred  him  to  the  Stamp  Office  and  to  Uie  Post  Office ;  the 
two  Boards  conferred;  and  the  Post  Office  recommended  the  Stamp  Office  to 
raise  the  temis  a  little:  the  Stamp  Office  agreed,  and  wote  to  the  Treasury 
thereupon;  the  Treasury  told  the  Post  Office  that  tenns  rather  more  hberal 
would  be  justifiable :  the  Post  Office  agreed,  and  wrote  to  Mr.  Archer.     Mr. 
Archer  finally  rejected  the  offer,  after  a  battledore-and-shuttlecock  game  which 
had  lasted  twenty  months  in  respect  to  remuneration,  and  fifty  months  m 
respect  to  the  invention  itself.     Mr.  Archer  then  made  a  tender  for  the  whole 
manufacture  of  postage-stamps,  including  engraving,  prmtmg,  and  gUmmmg 
as  well  as  perforating ;  but  the  fonner  contractors  obtained  a  new  contract,  at 
the  reduced  terms  of  M.  per  thousand;  and  Uie  perforating  machines  are  still 
the  unused  property  of  the  inventor.     When  the  Govei-nment  do  become 
shopkeepera  or  manufacturers,  they  ore  remarkably  'slow'— whether  we  use 
this  word  in  its  old-fashioned  or  its  new-fashioned  meaning. 


L 


i;ltie8. 

IV  tho  plates  as  fast  as 
;s,  and  machines  neces- 

composition,  according 
apcr  from  tlie  Govern- 
Llie  backs  of  the  sheeto 
approved  by  the  Stamp 
.  all  times  free  access. 
3  6|(/.,  6\d.,  or  M.  per 
u-ter  of  a  year  amoimts 

millions,  or  more  than 
ey  have  gradually  come 
ty  millions  quarterly ! 

is  perhaps  still  better 
ing  of  postage  stamps, 
lling  whether  OOOi.  or 
inti-ivance !  The  whole 
ious,  and  teaches  us  how 
official  con-espondence. 
-General  the  use  of  a 
ations  round  the  border 
ion  without  the  use  of 
jUc  and  the  postmasters 
the  matter  to  the  Stamp 
om  some  of  the  officials, 
a  respect  to  it ;  and  then 
sar  1847  was  now  at  an 

official  con'espondence. 
[ice  caused  the  machine 
ti-ials  were  carried  on; 
By-press — -and  then  by  a 
3  years  1848  and  1849 
nally  rendered  effective. 
;ed  tlius.      Mr.   Archer 

the  Stamp  Office;  the 
iie  Post  Office ;  the  Post 

it  to  the  Stamp  Office. 
rms,  but  the  Post  Office 
ied  to  the  Treasuiy,  and 

to  tlie  Post  Office  ;  the 
ided  the  Stamp  Office  to 
i  wTote  to  the  Treasury 
rms  rather  more  hberal 
»te  to  Mr.  Archer.  Mr. 
1-shuttlecock  game  which 
on,  and  fifty  months  m 
le  a  tender  for  the  whole 

printing,  and  gtimming 
tained  a  new  contract,  at 
orating  machines  are  still 
Government  do  become 
'slow' — ^whether  we  use 
waning. 


paper:  its  appucations  and  its  novelties. 


17 


Taking  our  leave  now  of  the  dainty  devices  which  adorn  the  lady's  escri- 
toire, and  the  wonderfully  frhcap  but  good  stationery  which  the  Penny  Post 
has  done  so  much  to  ren<ler  familiar  to  us,  ve  may  turn  our  attention  to  an- 
other interesting  application  of  paper. 

Papiek  Machk  and  Cabton  Pierre. 

The  verj'  pretty  and  useful  material  which  bears  the  name  of  Papier  Machi 
does  not  always  desene  that  name.  The  brilliant  display  which  Messrs, 
Jennens  and  Bettiidge,  and  other  manufacturers,  made  at  the  Great  Exhibition 
ought  to  have  been  designated  by  some  more  significant  and  con-ect  name ;  it 
is  pasted  paper  and  moulded  paper,  but  not  mashed  or  jmlp  paper,  as  the  French 
name  mache  indicates.  There  are  two  distinct  branches  of  industiy  here  in- 
volved, which  we  must  separate  in  order  to  speak  of  the  notabilities  of  each. 

And  first  for  the  real,  the  trae  papier  mache,  that  which  was  introduced 
about  twenty-five  years  ago,  and  from  which  Mr.  Bielefeld  produces  such  a 
wondrous  variety  of  decorative  ornaments.     This  is  almost  entirely  paper ; 
there  may  be  a  small  percentage  of  oUier  material  to  impai-t  certain  minor 
qualities,  but  it  is  essentially  paper.     And  if  we  enquire  what  kind  of  paper  is 
thus  used,  we  find  that  it  is  any  and  every  kind.     All  is  "  fish  that  comes  to 
this  net."    Nothing  is  refused,  nothing  laid  aside,  whether  linen  or  cotton  or 
hemp  be  the  fibre  from  which  tlie  paper  was  originally  made  :  all  is  available, 
whether  it  be  black  or  white,  bleached  or  unbleached,  plain  or  figured ;  whether 
it  be  fine  as  '  exU-a  satin  wove,'  or  coarse  as  tough  wrapping  paper ;  whether  in 
large  sheets  or  small  fragments ;  whether  new  and  unused,  or  old  and  worn ; — 
all  will  be  welcome  to  the  mache  vat.     Of  course,  in  a  practical  point  of  view, 
where  all  kinds  are  :    ."ul,  the  manufacturers  look  about  them  for  cheap  mis- 
cellaneous lots,  instf  aa  of  appealing  to  the  bran  new  stock  of  a  wholesale  sta- 
tioner.    Bankers  have  sometimes  tons'  weight  of  old  account  books  by  tliein, 
which  have  ceased  to  be  of  use,  but  which  tliey  are  unwilling  to  place  m  the 
hands  of  tlie  trunk-maker  or  the  butterman,  on  account  of  the  private  ti-ans- 
p-tions  to  which  the  writing  on  the  pages  of  such  books  relate ;  and  as  it  is  a 
task  of  no  litde  difficulty  and  danger  to  burn  these  books,  the  btmkere  are 
glad  to  find  a  receptacle  for  them  in  the  vat  of  the  papier-mache  manufacturer, 
under  a  pledge  that  they  shall  really  and  promptly  be  so  used,  without  expo- 
sure to  public  gaze.      Thus  the  banker  may  perchance  see  the  relievo  decora- 
tions of  his  own  drawing-room  made  from  his  own  old  account  books ;  a  ledger 
may  find  a  new  h.  me  as  part  of  a  cornice,  or  a  cash-book  as  a  frame  for  a  look- 
ing-glass, or  a  day-book  as  a  ceiling  ornament.     Nay,  these  transformations 
may  extend  wider;  for  in  yeai-s  gone  by,  the  banker's  old  shirt  may  have  been 
transferred  to  Uie  rag-bag,  and  thence  to  the  paper-mill,  and  thence  to  the 
account-book  maker,  and  thence  to  the  bank,  and  thence  to  the  paprer-mache 
factory,  and  thence  to  the  drawing-room  of  the  banker's  residence— where  his 
admiring  gaze  may  rest  upon  a  graceful  ornament,  some  fibres  of  which  once 
clothed  his  own  back.  . 

The  cuttings  of  paper,  produced  by  the  principal  apphcations  ot  that  ma- 
terial, form  a  very  large  portion  of  tlie  supply  whence  papier  mache  is  made. 
Bookbinders,  pasteboard-makei-s,  envelope-makers,  accountrbook  and  pocket- 
book-makers,  prmtsellers,  paper-hangers,  all  accumulate  heaps  of  shreds  and 
cuttings;  and  tlie  papier-mache  vat  may  receive  them  all,  unless  better  prices 
can  be  obtained  elsewhere.  Wliatever  may  be  tlie  source  whence  the  supply 
is  obtained,  it  is  certam  that  paper  has  now  reached  Oiat  commercial  pomt 


sr 


1 


J8  rAPEB:   ITS   AITLiCATlOSS  MD  ITS  KOVELTIF.S. 

>vhid,  gold  ,m,l  Silver  „:»l.ea  Imlg  ago-llmt  Is,  n«n»  need  bo  wasted,  to-  ™ 

Tnd  here  we  come  to  the  artistic  rtepfrtment  of  such  a  "^^^«f;\«^"r^ JJf  ^^s^ 
To  command  altytlnng  Uke  a  leading  position  in/"- f 'i^.K  of 
an  untiring  f -^^^^  ^^S^-'^^^^l^e'^S  ^f  S  Julment'She  o.e 

graver  o^r  sinlcer  "f -^l^^'Sk"^^^^^  e^o/malcing 

i„Sr  use,  s„ch  »s  ecUing  ««"«""■'•  .Tr.kdTn  iSir  wiiin      t'  ° 

the  back  which  economizes  ^^^^f^  jfj^^'^l^,^^^^^^ 

which  die  paper  or  papier  presents  '^"Vnfrtiffled  to  receive  aiiy  decora- 


:ltie8, 

neefl  be  wasted,  for  a 

h  is  a  paste-like  mass 
;sifpd  form.  Mr.  Riele- 
j  esliililishiiuiut  in  tlie 
hero  machines,  moved 
.'ho  paper,  he  it  of  what 
lolstelied,  and  cliopped, 
c.th  homogeneous  pasty 

of  dough  or  of  pUlty. 
aid,  introduced,  but  not 

as  a  paper  substance, 
is  too  thicli  to  be  poiired 
letal;  it  i^  pressed  into 
cha.  A  piec(3 1*?  cut  off, 
well  into  the  mould,  a 
wbi-ful  press  is  brought 
>'  minute  crevice  of  the 

li  a  nmtitifaclure  as  this, 
rative  art,  tlicre  must  be 
IS,  now  conihinalions  of 
•stablishment  as  this  one 
ilaster  mddelsj  m-e  con- 
late  not  merely  by  lutti- 
f  wood  mpiilds,  the  en^ 
e  store.     It  Uiav  be  thdt 
ixpense  even  ol  making 
er  ^*bich  has  a  long  run, 
jle  to  strike  a  billance,  to 
le  fetilms  to  be  expected 
ts,  where  mechatiical  skill 
tlie  tnost  continuous  nin 
uppermost  placd ;  and  it 
mes  a  matter  hot  merely 

hitectural  ornftthetrts  for 
I  so  fot-th ;  but  they  are 
I  their  application.  The 
lache  oi-naments ;  because 
d  so  light  that  it  requifes 
)niposition  ornameiits  of 
mainent  a  hoUowness  at 
he  weight.  The  surface 
)t  colour,  arising  from  the 
id  to  receive  any  decora- 
js,  an  ornate  frarne  for  a 
th  A  degree  of  perfection 
io  capable  of  assuming  a 
bibitloh,  as  many  of  our 
Ingelo,  a  copy  of  the  noble 
some  celebi-ated  man,  all 


PAFEIl:    ITS    APPLICATIONS   AKD    ITS   NOVELTIES. 


19 


formed  of  papier  niac}i6,  and  deriving  tlierefrora  a  toughness  >vhich  defies 
idnipst  any  power  of  breakage.  The  Corinthian  capital  in  this  material,  set 
up  op  a  pillar  in  the  western  rave,  was  wi  example  of  the  more  ordinary  ap- 
plication for  ornamental  purposes. 

There  is  another  modern  decorative  material,  still  more  recent  than  papier 
macho ,  hut  like  it  honoured  with  a  French  name :  we  mean  carton  jnerre,  which 
may  he  interpreted  4^ne  canlhoanl  or  jiastelpard.  This  more  nei^fly  resembles 
plaster  tlitm  papier  nificho  ;  it  has  a  little  paper  in  it,  a  great  tjeal  more  plaster, 
and  one  or  two  otlier  substances ;  the  mixture  thus  produced  is  fashioned  iu 
moulds,  and  is  applied  to  various  oi-namental  pip-poses,  but  it  is  ifluch  heavier 
than  papjor  mache.  The  beautiful  internal  decorations  at  the  Lyceuiu  Theatre 
arc,  we  believe,  made  of  cftrton  pieire.  Carton  pierre  is  manufactured  in 
England  chiefly  by  Messrs.  Jackson,  but  it  appears  to  have  been  a  French  in- 
vention, and  to  be  made  in  France  and  Germany  more  largely  than  in  Eng- 
huid.  Tlie  atrtmi  pierre  of  the  ope  country,  and  tlie  stein  pnppe  of  tl^e  other, 
seem  to  be  [iietty  nearly  the  same  material :  viz.,  a  kind  of  liquid  i)laster  com- 
bined with  other  materials,  poured  instead  of  presml  into  moulds,  and  backed 
with  a  stratum  of  paper  t<i  give  strength.  Some  of  our  French  neighbours 
displave<l  beautiful  specimens  of  fi'iezes,  vases,  pilasters,  and  bas-rclievos,  in 
carton  pien-e,  at  the  Grpat  Exhibition;  while  the  Prussian  exl]ibitf)r,  Oropius, 
displayed  some  (iozeps  of  neat  little  statuetfes  in  the  same  material.  The 
noble  chandelier  for  s^ixty  lights,  exhibited  by  aiessrs.  Jackson,  was  perhaps 
the  best  specimen  of  carton-pierre  work. 

But;  to  return  to  papier  macho.  That  the  pulpy  or  macho  paper  is  sus^cep^ 
tible  of  being  made  iutq  beautifully  even  flat  surfaces,  is  exemplified  in  tlie 
thick  millboard  used  by  bookbinders.  Time  was  when  ajl  such  piillboard  was 
essentially  p^steboai'd,  produced  by  pasting  together  a  large  number  of  sheets 
af  pappr  to  tlie  required  thickness ;  but  now  the  pulp  is  used.  In  the  first 
place  there  is  a  flat  table  or  slab,  with  a  raised  edge  all  round  to  form  a  sort  of 
shallow  mould.  Into  this  mould  the  pulp  is  laded,  to  a  depth  depending  on 
the  thickness  of  the  millboard  to  be  made,  and  this  pulp,  by  diying  between 
felted  clotl^s,  by  dfying  in  the  open  air,  by  gentle  pressure  in  a  press,  and  then 
by  powerful  pressure  between  rollers,  assumes  at  length  that  hard,  tough,  strong, 
sinopth,  unifonn  consistency  whic]!  distinguishes  millboard,  and  which  makes 
th^t  material  so  invalui^ble  to  the  bookbinder.  Mr.  IJielefeld  is  about  to  in- 
troduce an  important  modification  of  this  procpss  in  tl>e  production  of  pap^U 
fof  artists,  lie  has  produced  paiiels  eight  feet  by  six,  mi^do  entirely  of  papier 
mache  half  a^  inch  thick,  mounted  on  a  skeleton  wood  support  or  frame ;  and 
Uie  surfi^ce  of  tliese  panels  appears  as  if  it  would  be  ndmiri^bly  fitted  for 
paintUigg,  more  durable  than  canvas,  and  less  likely  tp  split  than  wood  panel ; 
indeed,  gplittpg  is  out  of  the  question  hi  respect-  to  suph  a  material.  Th^ 
bulkbf!ads  ajid  tl^e  cabin  parfitlpps  of  some  of  tlie  fine  steamers  of  our  day 
l]avebeen  made  pf  tliis  material ;  it  is  tough  aqd  strong,  and  admits  of  any 
degree  of  omamentation.  The  material  is  said  to  be  a  bad  conductor  both  of 
soi^d  and  of  heat,  and  has  thus  a  twofold  recommendation  for  room  parti- 
tions. |t  seems  to  have  been  some  such  material  as  this  which  Mr.  Haddan 
coutributeii  to  the  Grpat  Exhibition,  in  the  fonn  of  panels  for  railway  car- 
riagps,  or  rather  fpr  the  whole  brpadside.  It  is  alleged  that  such  papels  do 
npt  shrink,  and  dp  not' require  grooves  for  fixipg ;  wheUier  tliey  will  bear  being 
'  i-un  uito '  better  than  otlier  rfidvfay  panels,  has  probably  not  yet  been 
tested. 

Jjow  we  may  turn  our  glance  to  that  which,  though  riot  really  papier 


.2,)  PAPER :   ITS   APPMCATI0N8   ANP   ITS   NOVELTIES. 

Settle  s.eSrofjr;s;;3^^»-^^^^^^ 

^"ifwTnld  mve  a  better  idea  of  the  manufacture  (although  somewhat  lower- 

i„  'j^K'/tf  p^^-x=;is'  m««f 2f. 

they  certainly  are,  as  the  reader  will  presently  see.     "^^        guoersp'^^d  by 
work  producmg  ««^P;^^"^,^^7  ImTdel  of  tJe^tovy  is  prepared,  giving 

ua^    Id  then  clothed  with  three  more  layers  ^^-^^^i^J^p  „Th1r 
as  before.    Again  is  the  stove-room  employed,  agam  the  paatei-s  piy  weir 


paper:    its   APPL1CATI0K8   AND   ITS   N0VEI/nE8. 


«t 


LTIES. 

ime  tlmn  tho  materinl 
Hytle  Park  collection 
aper,  even  with  Uie  ad- 
ling,  and  gilding,  and 
might  well  excite  the 
3W.     It  was  no  small 
,  the  pearl  inlaid  piano- 
l  by  Bell,  the  sculptor, 
lurs ;  the  pearl-and-gold 
ell ;  the  pearl-inlaid  and 
Bellini's  vase;  and  Bell's 
ing  of  the  chairs,  tables, 
is,  blotting-folios,  work- 
axes,  flower-stands,  tea- 
l  netting-caaes,  and  the 
•endered  familiar  to  us. 
{littered  with  these  pro- 

Lhough  somewhat  lower- 
asteboard,  for  pasteboard 
[twos  towards  tho  close 
litated  or  supersp''-^d  by 
ung  up  an  important  de- 
hich  it  is  pretty  generally 
er  plivoes. 

of  paper  indisciiminately, 

we  may  so  term  it)  is  not 

to  work  upon,  and  tliese 

them  for  their  destined 

r-mache  tea-ii-ay.    In  the 
yish  colour,  and  looks  like 
lat  a  mould  or  form   is 
iesigners  are  constantly  at 
apposing  that  a  tolerably 
e  tray  is  prepared,  giving 
lould  is  cast  in  iron,  brass, 
of  course,  with  the  interior 
ited  at  tables,  cut  up  the 
nd  these  pieces  are  handed 
y  of  remark  that  this  very 
id  in  many  of  its  branches 
itiful  supply  of  paste,  made 

The  mould  is  greased  to 
;t  is  pasted  on  both  sides, 
lOuld,  pressing  and  rubbing 

Another  and  another  are 
(Id  garment,  is  put  into  a 
t  is  brought  to  a  dried  state. 

a  tolerable  smoothness  of 
f  paper,  in  the  same  mode 
ogjun  the  pastei-s  ply  their 


labour  ;  a  thii'd  time  tlie  stove-room,  again  the  pasters ;  and  so  on,  until  tliirty 
or  forty  thicknesses  of  paper  have  been  applied,  more  or  less,  of  course,  ac 
cording  to  ,the  substance  intended  to  be  produced.  For  some  purposes  as 
many  as  a  luuidred  and  twenty  thicknesses  are  pasted  together,  involving  forty 
stove  diyings,  and  of  course  carrying  the  operations  over  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  days.  A  mass  of  pasteboard,  six  inches  in  thickness,  which  is  occa- 
sionally produced  for  certain  purposes,  is  perhaps  one  of  tlie  toughest  and 
strongest  materials  we  can  imagine.  If  a  cannon-ball,  njade  of  such  paste- 
board, were  fired  against  a  ship,  would  not  the  ball  itself  escape  fracture  ? 

The  mould  being  covered  with  a  sufficient  layer,  a  knife  is  employed  to 
dexterously  loosen  the  paper  at  the  edges ;  tlie  greased  state  of  the  mould 
allows  the  paper  to  be  removed  from  it.  Then  are  all  imperfections  removed ; 
the  plane,  tlie  file,  and  the  knife  are  applied  to  bring  all  '  ship-shape '  and 
proper. 

Next  come  the  adornments.  The  pasteboard  itself  is  not  beautitul,  so 
beauty  is  sought  in  other  ways.  Shell-lac  varnish  of  very  fine  quality,  coloured 
according  to  circumstances,  is  applied  coat  after  coat,  until  a  thickness  is  ob- 
tained sufficient  for  the  puq-ose.  The  black  polished  surface  of  ordinaiy 
papier-mache  trays  is  produced  by  black  japan  varnish,  applied  by  women  with 
a  brush.  But  whether  the  varnish  be  black  or  coloured,  it  usually  imdergoes 
a  rubbing  and  polishing  to  such  a  degree  txs  to  equal  in  brilliancy  anything 
produced  in  the  arts.  It  is  said  that  the  finest  polishing  instrument  used  to 
give  the  last  finishing  touch  after  all  the  '  rotten-stones  '  and  '  emeries  '  have 
done  their  best,  is  the  soft  palm  of  a  woman's  hand;  and  that  those  females 
employed  in  tliis  art,  who  are  gifted  by  nature  with  tlie  much-coveted  charm 
of  a  soft  and  delicate  hand,  find  it  commercially  advantageous  to  preserve  this 
softness  and  delicacy  by  a  degree  of  gloved  carefulness  not  usual  in  their  rank 
in  life.     What  will  the  poets  say,  when  woman's  hand  is  thus  spoken  of? 

Then  ensue  tlie  painting  and  the  gilding,  the  bedizenment  with  gaudy  show, 
or  the  adornment  with  graceful  device,  according  as  the  goods  are  low  or  high 
priced,  or  the  manufacturer  a  man  of  taste  or  no  taste.  A  kind  of  stencilling 
is  employed  in  cheap  work,  but  in  better  specimens  the  real  ai-tist's  pencil  is 
brought  into  requisition- 

The  uilaid-work  exhibited  in  die  higher  class  of  papier-mache   goods  is 
very  curious.     A  sort  of  imitative  tortoiseshell  is  thus  produced.      A  thin 
transparent  varnish  is  laid  on  the  prepared  tray,  leaf   silver  is  laid  on  Uie 
varnish,  the  two  are  dried,  aid  varnish  is  laid  thickly  over  the  silver,  and 
pumice-stone  is  skilfully  applied  to  grmd  away  so  much  of  the  varnish  at  parti- 
cular spots  as  will  give  to  the  whole  the  mottled  appearance  of  tortoiseshell. 
Every  day's  experience  tells  us  that  imitations  themselves  are  imitated.     Not 
only  is  varnished  silver  made  to  imitate  tortoiseshell,  but  varnished  vermilion 
is  made  to  imitate  varnished  -silver.     A  method  of  decorating  papier  mache 
with  imitative  gems  has  been  recently  introduced,  in  which  some  kind  of 
foil  or  vamish  is  applied  to  the  back  of  g;lass,  and  the  glass   employed   as 
an  inlaying.     But  perhaps  the  most  striking  ornamentation  of  this  kind  is 
pearl-inlaying,  of  which  Messrs.  Jennens  and  Bettridge's  pianoforte  was  such 
a  brilliant  specimen.     Here  real  mother-of-pearl  is  employed.     A  desigii  is 
painted  on  the  thin  pieces  of  pearl  with  shellac  vamish,  a  strong  acid  is  apphed, 
all  the  shell  is  eaten  away  except  tliose  parts  protected  by  the  vamish,  and 
thus  the  peai-1  is  brought  into  an  omamental  fomi.      The  peail  is  placed 
upon  the  wet  japan  of  the   papier  mache,  to  which  it  adheres;   and  it  is 
then  coated  with   such  a  tliick  layer  of  vamish  as  to  equal  the  tliicknesa 


1      .! 
It      I- 


mtmrmmimmrm' 


«3  ji^ypp:  vJB  AprLicATioNS  and  its  novewibs. 

of  die,  film  of  mothi^r-of  peuil.      Jt  ii  vwusUea.  aiieil    and  rul.bo.l   widi 

h«  J^i  vpnu  I-  Hwu  tt  tliickupHH  of  m>\H'A  vuniibh  dumblo.     I  ho  !»"»  ut^l^ 

K'Ae  Quo,,  of  Hpai„.  a.ptea  '»  J'^Xr'  ,t  >ouS  tu^d  pnavl  ^viU 

Tint  it  in  doubtiul  whetljer  uiih  excmisive  gi'iM^r  oi  iiunsii  wiu  i 
lmv«  V  P 'mm  S  v5^  Somctbing  more  nobar  mil  probubly  hvu 

(lusigua,  ftiin    V  Pt  moier-niacbu  cimtvibnt  ous  to  Uus  tireat  Exhibition 

LriXirTWiW^^^^^  remavkable.  inasmuch  an  llio  two  or 

£o  SefbpSi  ens  contained  vi(=w«  ..f  aboPt  a  hundred  and  htty  pubho 
L  riinrand  in tm  sting  places  in  and  near  that  city,    "hero  is  m  many  o 
!:bs^  SciTcniamediial  taste  iu  on,.ment  titted  to  the  mediaeval  «tat«  oi 
f(i^!ling  in  Oxford. 

rAl'En-llANalNOS. 

Mnnv  fti-a  Uie  curious  application^}  of  p»pei-  not  yet  touched  >ipon  :  but.  as 
uSl^^^am  to  'i^^^^^^        ennmaritiop  of  Uiem  all.  we  vv.ll  be  comeii 
i»ti!  a  litUe  ndlU  of  a  pappr  prodnpt  familiav  tP  the  A.uu,m  of  mp4 1.ngh.U 

^^^it;ip:S^^Sp.^hang.v^  ave  not  vei,  hg,  in^e  tjnn^*^  - 
nlov  ■  for  the  pt^per  i»>  not  stipned,  neither  is  it  hung.     ^"^  cr  t  tismjvoiu  . 

SssbnnSr^xriri:s;^^=:;:^^ 

'lCCmw2tt^d&BP4  w^lwerB  ^e  p.int.d  by  the  st,ncil  method^r 
atStS  used  80  to  be  \>e(or^  W^e  rec«flt  tP-*^'»\»'l.^^"<^^'"«^,*-;/\\!^' ^f 
SVe^tencilling  is  pimply  this  ;-a  patt^n^  is  cnt  out.  in  a  sheet  of  paper,  ot 
I  ?fh!r  nf  t£  of  conii  or  of  spme  p^her  uonvepient  substance ;  a  vessel  of 
lea^hey,  qt  tin,  ot  popper  °'^,^*  R*:*^.  ^^  .,         -^^  ^^^^  qb  a  bench,  the  stenpil 

pi«tw.  uuH  "4P  f  H  '"^ .  "  'y.  thprfi  hp  three  or  move  colours?,  tlierp  must  oe 
SrrnS'&at.'^S  J'i?:S«fo^Sn.i.,  .0  *e  aeviee  f„,-  ,»  P»r. 

•"^'S  Srplttem  i,  navef  ycr,  el,B«.t.  n.,er  v«T  .ic*  ««M  by  tbU 
™Jfhn,i .  nntl  it  has  been  to  a  gi-eat  ei^tent  ^uppraeded  by  the  Mock  metnoa, 


'.l.TlIi8. 

ied,  ancl  rulibed  with 
luoduuiul.  It  may  Wo 
4v  tjf  *]>itUeiiti.)u  inuHt 
tlblo.  TUu  iinu  Utel^ 
\\i'.  ilmwiiiK-vuoiu  t'unu- 
.blawfty. 

f  poliyb  lUiu  pf'H"  will 
olier  will  proltubly  live 
HMpplyiug  Albaiubmic 
i,  w«  Kn«l  tt  utiirtjr  aj)- 
()  tlu)  (ireat  Exhibition 
iiisnmch  aa  the  two  or 
lumhoa  and  titty  public 
.  There  is  in  iiiauy  ot 
a  tht!  inediiBval  »Utfi  of 


touched  "PO" ;  ^"t^-  *•■* 

idl,  we  will  bo  content 

leui^pnti  of  mpst  English 

y  m  the  tomi9  they  env 
ig.  But  criticism  would 
I  we  will  tiievefore  tako 
I  of  papev  as  a  substitiite 
f  haiiyinn*,  as  applied  to 
about  two  centuries  ago 

•  may  be  said  concei-nhig 
ibifi  invention  in  respect 
the  houses  inhabited  by 
ous  Excise  duty  pressed 
)  now  that  tlie  produce  is 

by  the  stpncil  method ;  or 
ftdvancements  in  the  wt. 
t,  in  a  sheet  of  paper,  of 
rit  swhetance ;  a  vessel  of 
d  on  j^  bench,  the  stenc-il 
ijpur  \»  worked  over  the 
in  all  thoBP  pai'ts  where  tt 
fp  colours,  tl^erp  must  be 
.  the  device  fQV  qnp  par- 

nicely  delhiented  by  this 
led  by  t^fi  '''<'<'*  method, 
d.  A  block  is  carved  in 
he  devipe  for  one  colour, 

•  a  third,  and  so  op — the 
^■s,  and  all  very  carefully 
jattem.  The  artiatic  part 
Is :— a  long  strip  ef  paper 


V\yV-n:    ITS  AfrUCAIluXB   and   |T8   HOVKI.TIKB. 


w 


i«  laid  down ;  a  groi^nd  qf  '  distt^Uiper '  or  size-colour  is  applied  with  a  brush, 
ttud  dripd ;  colours  arp  prppaiod.  us  niany  as  there  i^ro  hlwH»  i  »m  ukIo'"'  w 
(Uinbcd  over  u  soft  Itatbcr  cushion ;  a  blocjt  is  inyertflil  Q»»  i^  «W  »»we  to 
take  up  a  biyer  ;  this  layer  is  applied  to  the  i)uper ;  and  other  nnprpsfiioim  are 
printed  side  by  side  until  thp  whplp  length  of  papov  is  (inmhed.  Uieii 
luiotbor  block  luul  another  colour  are  used ;  then  tt  tbnd;  and  so  on;  and  tlje 
Hkill  of  the  wovkmeu  is  shuwu  by  Vfuiloring  ^Jmsi^l  sevi'ral  jiHictions  ijs  little 
viyiblu  iih  posijiblo.  i       •        i 

Tlip  modem  method  qf  cylindof  printing  is,  howevpr,  the  gvpat  step  in  ail- 
vanpo.   '\"ho  making  of  continuous  strips  of  paper,  instead  of  having  to  pas^tp 
sheets  togotlier,  was  one  notable  nid  to  tlio  ptvpoi-sMiiMP»: ;  the  removal  ol  the 
Excise  duty  lias  \\pm  a  second ;  while  the  use  of  tlie  cyUpdor  nmcbiue  has 
capped  those  improvements.  a»d  rendeved  it  possible  to  niako  wull-papeis 
at  a  fi^rlhiiig  per  vai'd.     When  we  consider  that  papev-hiHigmgs   use»l  to 
i.av— besides  the  duty  per  lb.  on  all  paper— no  less  than  1  Jii.  per  yard  ni  their 
capacity  as  wi^jlpaper,  wo  may  cease  to  wonder  at  the  loweri^tg  ol  price  which 
recent  times  have  witness'  d.     And  it  is  not  ditlicuU,  too,  to  see  »»^w  the 
cylinder  n^ethod  should  bring  njtout  a  lower  ri^e  of  charge  thaii  Uie  block 
methpd.     Calico  printing,  wo  know,  has  home  wiUiess  to  an  analogousj  J^ct ; 
the  cvlinder  machine  has  given  Uvsteful  print  dyesses  to  the  Wives  and  daugh- 
ters of  men  who  could  not  have  borne  the  price  of  such  production*  ui  past, 
t,imes.     The  analog)' is  vevy  close  througiiout.     Jn  the  oiie  case  cottpn,  and 
in  tlic  other  paper,  is  made  in  o^io  coiithnious  length;  in  both  cases  thi^ 
lengMi  is  wowd  vpund  a  beam  or  roller ;  in  both  cases  tlipye  iM'e  epgravptj 
cylinders,  as  many  as  tlierp  are  to  be  colours,  and  e^h  baving  a  device  of  lU* 
o-.vn ;  in  both  cases  there  are  as  many  troughs  of  colpur  as  there  are  cyhnders ; 
in  bo^h  cases  tlie  cylinders  feed  themselves  with  colom-,  but  in  such  a  way  as 
to  take  up  the  colopr  on  tlie  rniHed  parts  in  tlie  one  case,  but  on  th"  *««*;  paits 
in  rtie  other ;  in  both  cases  the  endless  web  is  drawn  in  between  rallei-s.  ihk| 
niade  to  p^ss  over  all  tlie  colonr-wettpd  cylinders  in  ^uppession ;  'm  hot}*  cat^es 
the  complete  pattern  is  <jeen  to  be  printed  by  Uip  time  tlie  niaterjftl  leaves  Uiq 
machine ;    and  in  betli  cases  thp  printed  strip  undergoes  a  ;np>d  di7»P8 
process.    The  Great  Exliibition,  ^n>M»g  its  numerpp!?  specunens  illustrative  of 
naper-hangings,  contained  some  which  showed  iu  a  m^rke4  vyay  the  lacility 
now  attained  by  the  cylinder  metliod.     Auiopg  ft|essrs.  Hnyw(iod's  contribu- 
tions  were  wall-paper  in  fourteen  colours.  "^  produped  at  once  by  lonrteen 
cylinc|ers  in  one  machine  ! 

Many  are  tlie  means  adopted  to  giya  a  decorative  character  to  paper-liang- 
ings,  besides  tlie  mere  use  of  colours.  Some  spepimpns  have  a  glfissy  gioiind, 
to  whiph  tlie  att^i^ctive  naifte  of  mtin  i?  applied ;  tl^is  effpct  is  prodncp*!  by 
^|ie  pa<^fnl  applipa^ion  of  polishing  powder  to  (s  snrface  panted  Uie  prpper 
tint.  Some  have  jtn  appearipce  imitative  of  figured  or  watered  silk,  prqdMcert 
by  passing  the  paper  between  sliglitly-heftted  rollers,  whicli  have  Uie  requisite 
design  engrav(;d  upon  them.  Some  have  a  cloth-like  appem-ance,  produced  in 
a  singular  way:  the  device  i'^  priiued  on  tlie  paper  with  gold  sfize,  and  over  tins 
is  sprinkled  coloured  >t^,  whid^  pon^ists  of  woollen  clotli  cut  or  gi^upd  tft 
a  ppwder.  Some  of  the  striped  papei-s  are  produced  in  a  ye^y  remarkable  way : 
the  paper  travels  over  a  revolving  cyhnder,  and  in  its  passage  ^uche^  i>gaaus| 
tlie  open  bottom  of  ^  trough,  whence  a  continuous  sU-eara  o\  liqpid  colonr 
falls  upon  it ;  blende^  or  nhcided  patterns  i^re  prodnced  by  a  nioflif|cat.ion  of  this 
process;  bronzed,  qilt,  or  silvered  papei-s  are  produced  by  printing  a  device  wiUi 
gold  size,  and  applying  tiie  metalhc  adornment  ui  the  state  either  ot  powder 


I  t 


"! 


4  i 


!   ,t 


•  V 


84 


PAI'KU:    ITM    AI'I'I.ICATIONB    AND    ITM    NOVELTIEB. 


or  «.f  leaf.  Hoii.t)  paperH,  to  which  Uio  cntici.ig  (  esiKnatlon  of  '  ^f  »'^^/«  " 
Jven.  are  printiHl  wid.  Uie  colotin.  prepared  in  oil  or  varrnsh.  which  will  bear 
a  water-washiii«  pnicesH  with  impunity.  »  .  i .  .„  •„,  ♦!.*> 

In  tliese  davH.  when  artistic  doHign  occnpien  an  uppennoMt  p'uce  mtlu. 
thoiiuhts  of  thoHo  who  would  advance  our  manufactures.  paper-hangmKs  have 
no"  escaped  scrutiny.     No  definite  principle  of  cnmmentat.on  has  yet  been 
introduced  in  this  art.     Hoaietinies  we  see  cottages  bmlt  one  over  uuo    .r 
fmm  tl.0  floor  to  the  ceiling,  all  exactly  alike,  and  each  enclosed  m  a  border. 
Sometimes  animals,  sometimes  trees  or  flowers,  are  repeated  m  a  «"";l^ jay ; 
and  the  result  is.  that  whatever  may  be  the  merit  ol  any  one  compartmen  .  oi 
however  gay  the  general  eff-ect  proJuced.  there  is  nothing  sensible  or  artis  c 
Tn  the  whole  vertical  surface  'viewed  at  a  glance.     On  the  other  hand,  any 
auempt  at  perspectm  views  is  vitiated  by  this  ob  ection-that  all  I>erspec  ve 
supposes  a  poiit  of  sight  to  be  chosen,  at  a  mrticular  distance  Irom  the  p.c- 
?  ireTat  any  other  disLce  distortion  instoa<\  of  symmet.7  »«  i^'f'''±^  ^* 
one   ime  there  was  u  fiushion  to  give  a  sculpturesque  tone  to  P-^P^'-h^"  W-  ^J^ 
representing  statues  and  bassi-relievi  on  neutral  ground ;  a    another  ti me  co- 
S  from  historical  pictures  had  a  reign  of  favour;  while  the  arfA./«Nm/ 
Srinciprpredominatod  at  another,  by  the  representation  of  Grecian  temples, 
(iothic  chapels,  Italian  palaces.  Chinese  pagt)(las.  ond  such  like. 

The  lato  Mr.  Loudon!  who  was  as  untiring  in  his  writings  concern m^  house 

decoration  as  on  gaidcning  matters,  threw  out  a  suggestion  for  n  new  kind  of 

prerhrgLg  for^chool-rooms  and  nurseries.  "  foi-med  by  printing  hgures  o 

alTthe  commoner  and  more  important  animals  and  phrnts.  with  tlie  scent,  c 

id  poplr  name  beneath  U.em ;  each  plant  or  animal  being  «"":''""/ f  J^^ 

lines!  so  as  to  appear  eitlier  in  fmmes  or  as  if  painted  on  the  ends  of  atones 

ol^bricks      ThJidvantage  of  the  framed  lines  would  be  to  give  unity  to  tl  e 

Tape    t'  a  whole,  and  also  to  admit  of  repairs  by  taking  out  axiy  smgle 

Lme  or  stone,  and  replacing  it  by  anotlier."    'l'^'^^  ^  ""/"j^'of^^^^^ 

"  but  the  expense,  why  a  geographical  paper  should  not  befonned     or  one 

exhibiting  all  the  principal  rivera.  mountains,  or  cities  m  the  world,  or  the 

pS^S  of  eminent  men.  with   their   names ;    or   perpetual   almaji^s ;  or 

lists  of  weights  and  measures;  or  chronological  "^  •iriUimetical  tables .or^ 

inXrt   anv  useful  and  instructive  subject,  which  it  would  be  beneficial  to 

the  cottier 'to  have  frequently  before  his  eyes." 

SomXng  like  tliis  has  been  suggested,  adapted  to  a  higher  order  ot 
artistic  work.  It  is  tliis-to  have  a  pattern  printed  on  wall-paper,  with  a 
deUcatel^d  graceful  style  of  ornamentation;  either  trellis-v^ork.  or  tendrils 
Splits  or  S^besque  patterns,  but  leavin.  spaces,  or  oval  «;  «rcular  me- 
dallions in  which  subjects  could  be  afterwards  painted  by  hand.  The  lady- 
Srof  a  mansion  m^ight  thus  display  her  industry  and  ta.ste  on  the  papered 
walls  instead  of  on  the  crochet  curtains  or  the  rug-work  ottomans;  and  she 
iSt  thus  recall  the  feudal  days  when  high-bom  dames  wrought  the  tapestry 
or  wall-hancincs  for  their  own  boudoirs.  .       ,     ,  .,  „ 

"Sess  p^ap'r  ceases  to  be  a  material  for  -'^Idecomtion  (and  there  seem 
no  reason  why  it  should  so  cease),  the  time  has  come  for  a  little  more 
^st^meSg  in  tlie  designs-something  like  an  approax^h  to  a  prmapU 
Td  orati^e^atterns.  The^eople,  the  paper  users,  will  welcome  a  new  m- 
Lion  of  mind  in  this  art ;  for  many  of  tlie  "  curiosities  of  .mdustiy,  in  the 
shape  of  paper-hangings,  are  felt  to  be  very  absurd  curiosities  mdeed. 


awii-iairgi;^i 


fowwiWWiWi'iiffi.fKfcrtw 


KLTIES. 

tmtlon  of  '  wiutlmble '  in 
■ttmish,  which  will  bear 

upliennuMt  |»'ai;e  in  the 
(M,  pa|)«r-hftngiuKH  have 
ipiitation  hiiH  yot  been 
built  one  ovur  miuthtr 
h  enclosed  in  a  border, 
peated  in  a  similai'  way ; 
iiy  one  compartment,  or 
hing  HensibU)  or  artistic 
On  the  other  hand,  any 
.on — that  all  persnective 
ir  distance  from  the  pic- 
imetry  is  prodiicad.     At 
ifi  to  paper-hangings,  by 
id;  at  another  time  co- 
;  while   the  architectural 
tion  of  Grecian  temples, 

Hiich  like. 

ritings  concern  in^r  house 
estion  for  u  new  kind  of 
od  by  printing  figures  of 
Uuits,  with  tlie  scientific 
lal  being  suiTounded  by 
ed  on  the  ends  of  stonea 
,  be  to  give  unity  to  tlie 
y  taking  out  any  single 
re  is  no  reason,"  he  adds, 
I  not  be  fonned  ;  or  one 
ies  in  the  world ;  or  the 
perpetual   almanacs  ;   or 

arithmetical  tables;    or, 
it  wovUd  be  beneficial  to 

i  to  a  higher  order  of 
ed  on  wall-paper,  with  a 
sr  trellis-work,  or  tendrils 
!8,  or  oval  or  circular  me- 
lted by  hand.  The  lady- 
and  ta.ste  on  the  papered 
-work  ottomans ;  and  she 
imes  wrought  the  tapestry 

icoration  (and  there  seems 
come  for  a  little  more 
m  approach  to  a  principle 
8,  will  welcome  a  new  in- 
osities  of  .industiy,"  in  tlie 
curiosities  indeed. 


PRINTING :  ITS  MODERN  VARIETIES. 


Thk  curiosities  of  Printing  are  becoming  so  numerous,  that  they  present 
themselves  to  our  notice  in  all  that  pertains  to  tlie  art,  wiit'llicr  jirimary  or 
collateral.  In  the  types  themselves,  in  tlie  mode  of  prtxluciiig  tluui;,  in  tlie 
mode  of  arranging  tliem  for  printing,  in  the  printing  operations,  in  the  ink- 
ing contrivances,  in  Uie  jjresses  and  machines,  in  the  application  of  colour  by 
printing,  in  the  stcrtsotyping  anangements,  in  the  links  which  conn<!ct  the 
typographer  witli  the  lithographer,  and  the  engraver  with  the  galvanist — in  all 
tiiese  niattei-H,  tl»e  curious  and  valuable  novelties  of  recent  years  are  veiy 
abundant. 

In  tliis,  as  in  otl>er  sheets  of  tlio  series,  we  describe  the  old  and  fannliar 
processes  only  so  fai-  as  will  render  the  novelties  more  intelligible. 

Types  and  Type-founding  :  Old  and  New. 

The  founding  or  casting  of  that  all-important  little  implement,  a  printing 
type,  is  one  of  the  prettiest  in  the  whole  range  of  tlie  typographic  art— so 
nnich  does  it  depend  upon  a  nice  discrimination  in  hand  and  eye  of  tlie 

workman,  and  on  so  miniature  a  scale  is  the  apparatus. 

i3ut  before  describing  modern  types  and  type-making,  it  may  be  well  to  re- 
mind tlie  reader  that  the  first  or  original  printers  did  not  employ  such  types: 
they  an-ived  at  this  stage  of  completeness  by  degrees.  Very  early  in  Uie  fif- 
t«onth  centuiy,  a  meUiod  was  practised  of  cutting  lines  t>i  rc/iV/  on  blocks  oi' 
wood,  and  printing  from  tliose  lines  when  inked ;  this  was  the  foremnner  of 
the  wood-myraoing  of  modem  days.  There  is  uidistinct  evidence  of  such  an 
art  being  practised  eai'lier ;  but  it  is,  at  all  events,  known  that  small  cheap 
pictures,  produced  in  tins  way,  were  sold  in  Germany  and  Italy  at  tlie  period 
named  above.  Strangely  enough,  relitjiom  hooka  and  playiiicf  cards  were  the 
first  works  which  received  tliis  kind  of  printing ;  but  other  works  speedily  fol- 
lowed. The  same  block  of  wood  which  contained  a  picture  came,  by  degrees, 
to  have  words  and  sentences  also  cut  on  the  surface ;  and  these  were  prirted  at 
the  same  time  as  the  picture.  The  next  step  was,  to  cut  up  tlie  text  portion 
into  separate  letters,  so  tliat  tliey  might  be  recombined  for  any  other  work ; 
this  was  the  great  invention  in  printing,  and  the  one  U)  which  the  rival  claims 
of  Gutenberg,  Faust,  Coster,  and  Schoeffer  relate.  A  further  stage  was,  tliat  of 
(iugraving  a  model  of  each  letter,  striking  a  mould  from  the  model,  and  casting 
separate  letters  from  the  mould ;  tliis,  which  is  essentially  the  principle  of 
modem  times,  seems  to  have  been  first  adopted  about  1450.  These  matters 
being  premised,  we  may  now  glance  at  the  types  and  the  type-makei-s. 

Types  for  prmting  are  usually  about  an  inch  long,  with  a  letter  in  relievo  at 
one  end,  and  a  nick  or  notch  near  the  other.  They  are  cast  m  a  mould,  and 
are  formed  of  lead  to  which  about  twenty  per  cent,  of  antimony  has  been 
added.  But  before  this  casting  takes  place,  a  very  important  afifair  has  to  be 
attended  to  :  a  mould  has  to  be  made  ;  and  to  make  tliis  mould  &  punch  or  die 
is  requisite.     This  punch  is  tlio  production  on  which  the  type-founder  most 


(i 


\  \ 


L 


I 


2 


TRINTIN'O:    ITS   MODEItN    VAUlETfKS. 


pride,  himself;  since  the  beauty  of  the  ^ype  f  l-nds  so  m«^^^^^^^^ 

They  m-e  compai-ed  one  with  another,  by  prmlBrB  m  i^feience  J«  *»«  numuei 
nf  lines  of  each  which  fill  a  column  of  twelve  mches,  if  packed  closely  side  t)y 

have  '  medifeval  ■  tastes  (to  employ  a  much-used  phrase),  a  wish  to  lovive  wm 

nf  these  successive  movements  occupy  collectively  only  an  nghth  partjja 
fn^touches  brin<»  tlie  types  to  the  state  required  by  the  printer     Boys  break 

?hey  became  all  exactly  equal  in  length,  and  e'^^""ni"g  «.ff  ^  ;!"* '^J"  J^^,t , 
to  s^ee  that  every  single  tyi'.e  is  fitted  for  its  purpose-aU  Ill-formed  types  bemg 

''^T^^^'^SSJS^^  'af  £  otat  Exhibition,  specimens  of  the 
types  nrndlby  £e  old  fim  of  Coslon,  through  so  long  a  period  as  a  hundred 


MtiiMiin'iiBMU'nt-.- 


L. 


so  much  on  the  excel- 
if  steel,  on  one  end  of 
m  of  puncViing  and  en- 
ocesses,  and  is  hardened 
r which  the  typefounder 
.ac\i  fount  or  size  of  tj'pe, 
for  Uie  large  and  for  the 
there  musr  be  commas, 
tttl  as  well  as  significant ; 
;  there  muFt  be  diherent 
3  foreign  alphabets,  such 
I  amount  to  a  very  large 
for  Bach.     The  sizes  ot 
ames  which  are  a  perfect 
B  Bizea  ai-e  called  douhla 
n{f  primer,  bomyeois,  Itre- 
o'ukl  be  no  easy  matter, 
reference  to  the  number 
if  packed  closely  side  by 
42  such  lines,  whereas  a 
ent  sheet  is  printed  with 
respect  to  the  punches, 
,  in  the  French  types,  and 
ndency  to  finer  thin  lines 
ilso  see  among  those  who 
,86),  a  wish  to  revive  what 

npression  from  it  Is  made 
hemafWar.  This  matrix, 
hin  a  small  but  curiously- 
There  is  a  furnace  con- 
oid in  his  left  hand  and  a 

molten  mass  a  ladle-full, 
ti  upward  jerk  to  force  the 
3  two  parts  by  mean;:  of  a 
til  a  hook,  and  closes  the 
wler  is  told  tlmt  the  whole 

only  an  eighth  part  of  a 
ype-casting  as  one  of  the 
Jerivsd  from  long  practice, 
tn  each  matrix ;  and  when 

the  mould.    A  few  finish- 

the  printer.  Boys  break 
tlie  types  ;  this  they  do  at 
Other  boys  rub  the  sides  of 
and  tliis  they  do  nearly  as 
ypes,  by  planing  them  till 
ling  each  with  a  magnifier, 
— aU  ill-formed  types  being 

xhibition,  specimens  of  the 
long  a  period  as  a  hundred 


PRINTINO'.   ITS  MODERN   VAHrETTES. 


B 


and  thirty  years;  they  showed  how  fashion  has  varied  between  1720  and 
J  8.51  ;  but  in  regard  to  actual  excellence,  some  of  the  old  type  would  bear  safe 
comparison  with  our  modem  productiong,  though  not  when  taken  collectively 
A  proof  was  given  of  the  extreme  accuracy  in  the  form  of  modem  type,  by  a 
mass  of  two  hundred  thousand  very  small  types,  suspended  in  the  air  witli  no 
other  securitv  than  the  lateral  pressure  of  screws  in  the  chase  or  frame ;  the 
type  was  of  the  kind  called  'pearl,'  and  the  whole  mass,  thus  supported  onh/ 
at  the  sides,  weighed  a  hundred  and  forty  pounds.  A  new  type  has  been 
cast  by  Messrs.  Miller  and  Richard,  called  >  brilliant,'  said  to  be  tlie  smallest 
ever  produced,  being  smaller  than  the  '  diamond '  type  used  for  the  notes  of  the 
smallest  bibles.  Gray's  Elegy  was  displayed  at  the  Exhibition,  printed  with  this 
type  within  a  space  of  four  inches  by  three,  the  whole  thirty-two  verses  of  four 
lines  each ;  tliis  was  perhaps  the  closest  specimen  of  printing  ever  yet  seen. 
Another  curiosity  consisted  of  the  types  invented  for  the  phonotypic  and 
phonographic  systems,  at  present  struggluig  to  maintain  a  recognised  existence 
in  society.  A  singular  plan  for  printing  in  types  from  two  colours  (whether 
or  not'yet  acted  on  we  do  not  know)  was  exhibited,  in  which  the  letter-types 
are  of  imequal  height,  so  that  Uie  inking  roUer,  in  applying  one  of  Uie  two 
colours,  shall  touch  only  the  projecting  types.  Books  and  newspapers  have 
often  lines  printed  eitlier  horizontally  or  vertically,  to  separate  columns  or  to 
tabulate  numbers ;  tliere  are  also  numerous  small  ornamented  types  used  m 
various  parts  of  some  books ;  tmd  one  of  tlie  type-founding  establishments  hit 
upon  tlie  expedient  of  combining  some  twelve  or  diirteen  thousand  of  these 
decorative  and  lino  types,  to  fonn  a  picture  of  the  front  of  the  Free  Chiu-cii 
College  at  Edinburgh:  it  was  a  toy  certainly,  but  it  was  intended  to  exhibit 
the  powers  of  the  establishment  in  this  depai-tment  of  type-founding. 

There  are  many  peculiarities  in  Uie  types  used  for  printing  music.     The 
ordinary  music   pages,  in   the  extrav^antly-charged   sheets  of  the  music- 
publishers,  are  engraved  on  zinc-plates,  and  it  is  therefore  easy  to  combine  nil 
the  requisite  characters  and  symbols ;  but  the  arrangement  of  separate  metal 
tjnies  for  this  purpose  requu-es  the  exercise  of  much  ingenuity :  for  not  only 
must  tlie  proper  musical  symbols  be  given,  but  the  five  lines  of  the  staff  or 
stave  must  be  preserved ;  and  the  type-founder  has  to  calculate  how  many 
combinations  of  form  in  tlie  types  will  meet  all  tlie  requirements  of  modem 
music.     In  the  Exhibition  there  was  one  collection  of  music-type  whi.ih  com- 
prised 315  separate  types— 315  separate  letters  (so  to  speak)  in  die  musical 
alphabet.     Let  the  reader  examine  closely  any  page  of  type-printed  music :  he 
will  find  that  each  musical  line  is  built  up  with  numerouB  f5ra^ientary  pie.ces. 
These  pieces  ai-e  separate  types.     Sometimes  a  type  consists  ot  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  of  staff,  with  a  crochet  or  a  quaver  attached ;  sometimes  it  is  a  mimm  rest, 
with  two  bits  of  staff  above  and  below  it ;  sometimes  it  is  the  thick  double  line 
for  a  semiquaver,  rer/.y  to  be  fitt  -l  on  to  any  note  either  above  or  below  it ; 
sometimes  two  notes,  with  an  mtei-val  of  a  musical  third  between  them,  are 
formed  on  the  same  type,  widi  fragments  of  horizontal  Imes  either  through 
them  or  between  them,  so  as  to  adapt  them  to  take  a  position  either  on  the  lines 
or  on  the  spaces  of  the  staff.     It  is  an  evidence  of  the  skill  with  which  this 
kind  of  printing  is  now  done,  that  this  piece-meal  formation  of  a  music  page 
can  only  be  seen  by  tolerably  close  inspection.     Nothing  but  experience  can 
decide  a.s  to  die  best  fomis  and  combinations  to  gi\e  t«  the  .types.     In  practice 
there  are  two  different  plans  acted  on— the  complete  note  being  cast  m  one 
piece,  and  the  note  being  in  five  pieces,  for  the  five  lines  of  tlie  statf.     Both 
plans  oi-e  adopted  as  may  be  most  convenient ;  but  music-type  founders  arc 

K  /» 


11 


! 


ir 


L 


4  prmting:  its  modebn  vabieties. 

ewleavouring  to  deviM  some  medium  sj^lem  whleh  .hall  combine  U.e  ci- 

"£f  JJd  ™«  have  been  4e  attempt,  of  tyP-'o-^- "  JSo'T 

used  teminal  syllables,  such  as  ton,  meat,  t7isr.  &c.     I",  *f  ^f™.„  "^^^  t^p^ 
were  some  Ame'rican  types  cast  on  f «  P7^£j,":;^,f  ^^  T™-^"  ^Y^^^^^^ 

oractice  •  the  former  has  to  bear  the  expense  of  making  "^w  puncnes 
Ses"  fS  the  compound  types ;  while  ^-  -n.pos;tor  ha^^^^^^^^    l^Ue  ce^ 
for  the  extra  types,  and  to  lay  his  fingers  upon  tliem  ^^  leamiy  as  ui 

Si^s';?iS'srei;-iT;^c^r.^Sp.sreS"5;i 

""iJ'ZSi-t  M:C"devi.ed  an  lnge„io„  mod.  of  -ting  m»y 
,JL  af  once  by  Lgmg  Oie  matrioe.  side  by  side  in  a  mould  winch  w.ll  con- 
t(i>o«  at  onic.  OJ '""JU'B  ,  .„^  ^  u,,  Jt  o„ce,  and  claim,  to  have  the 
tarn  them  all.     He  ^J"""" '"„7  '\„^  ,„  a,',  aid  of  t»vo  men  only. 

rendering  £m  dmable.  is  a  ^Lei-n  project  noticed  in  a  former  number  ol 
tills  series. 


i 


iHnWOl^t 


Wtltlkmf»% 


!8. 

1  shall  combine  tlio  ex- 
bunders  to  devise  some 
ins  of  saving  time.     In 
ill  and  much-used  words 
»,  of,  &c. ;  fts  likewise  tlie 
OK,  re,  &c. ;  and  the  most 
In  the  Exhibition  tliere 
,  that  of  having  one  type 
t  up  with  as  many  types 
hand,  and  the  compositor 
ovations  on  the  ordinary 
laking  new  punches  and 
itor  has  to  find  little  cells 
m  as  readily  as  upon  the 
I  exhibitor,  Mr.  Tobit,  to 
s  method,  by  forming  the 
le  tj-pes  tliemselves,  with- 

fiys  in  the  Exhibition  was 
o  represent  Chinese  cha- 

manufactured  by  Beyer- 
iety.  The  Chinese  voca 
hich  are  not  built  up  from 

have  a  good  deal  of  the 
e  words  or  characters  by 
natter.  M.  Beyerhaus  has 
,  so  as  to  make  4200  letters 
npositor  in  lieu  of  letters. 
)wu ;  and  by  vaiious  com- 
haracters  can  be  imitated ; 
le  and  tlie  New  Testament 

T  industry  of  our  German 
'with  m  the  Saxon  section. 
It,  printed  in  neaily  thirty 
haracters.  These  required 
stings,  to  produce  the  type 

ous  mode  of  casting  many 
in  a  mould  which  will  con- 
:e,  and  claims  to  have  the 
the  aid  of  two  men  only, 
advertisement  has  appeared 
to  be  established  for  working 
laid  wire,  cut  and  stamped 
(in  the  bright  language  of 
te  of  a  hundred  in  a  minute. 
)type  process,  as  a  means  of 
iced  in  a  former  number  of 


PRINTINO:    ITS   MODERN   VARIETIES. 


The  Compositor  and  his  Apparatus. 


It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  inform  an  intelligent  reader  in  the  present  day, 
tliat  a  compositor  is  one  who  puts  the  types  together,  for  printing. 

The  labours  of  the  compositor  certainly  require  as  much  exercise  of  mind,  eye, 
and  fingej-s,  as  any  of  the  ordinary  handicraft  employments.  He  is  expected 
to  decipher  tlie  writing,  good  or  bad,  of  the  author  whose  manuscript  he  is 
putting  into  type.  He  has  to  manage  tlie  punctuation,  which  autlioi-s  too 
generally  care  very  little  about ;  and  ho  often  rectifies  an  occasional  en-or  arising 
from  haste  in  writing  or  from  transcription.  His  eye  guides  his  fingei-s  (or  his 
fingers  almost  guide  tliemselves)  to  the  cells  where  the  proper  letter-types  are  to 
be  found ;  and  the  formation  of  letters  into  words,  words  into  lines,  lines  into 
columns,  columns  into  pages,  and  pages  into  forms  or  sheet-surfaces,  taxes  all 
his  powers — mental,  visual,  and  digital.  He  has  to  "mind  his  p's  and  5s," 
not  only  m  the  literal  sense  of  that  plirase,  as  the  p  appears  on  the  type  like  a 
q  to  the  unpractised  eye,  but  in  many  a  figurative  sense  also. 

The  compositor  has  his  types  placed  in  small  cells,  which  are  combined  into 
a  case,  and  two  pairs  of  cases  occupy  a  frame.  He  has  one  pair  of  cases  for 
llonian,  another  for  Italic,  or  a  smaller  type  for  notes.  The  upper  case  of 
each  pair  contains  large  and  small  capitals,  numerals,  accented  vowels, 
and  a  few  other  types;  the  lower  case  contains  the  small  letteis  and  the 
space-types.  Some  of  the  cells  are  larger  than  others,  to  contain  the  letters 
most  in  use.  In  the  Enghsh  language  the  letter  e  occurs  more  frequently 
than  any  other ;  then  t ;  then  a ;  then  i,  n,  0,  and  s;  z  is  the  least  in  use, 
there  being  sixty  times  as  many  e's  as  z's.  In  a  'fount,'  or  complete  set 
of  types,  consisting  of  106,000,  there  are  12,000  e's,  rather  more  tlian  one- 
nintli  of  tlie  whole.  The  letters  are  not  arranged  alphabetically  in  the  case, 
but  tliose  which  are  most  in  use  are  placed  neai-est  to  the  hand  of  the  com- 
positor :  a  conventional  aiTangement,  wholly  dependent  on  practical  utility. 
So  well  does  the  compositor  know  this  aiTangement,  that  his  fingers  dip 
almost  intuitively  into  the  proper  cell  for  any  required  type ;  no  labelling  or 
inscribing  being  at  all  necessary. 

Step  by  step  does  the  compositor  build  up  his  letters  into  words,  and  his 
woi-ds  into  sentences.  Let  his  first  word  be  "  Industry :"  he  takes  an  I  from 
the  upper  case,  or  case  of  capitals,  and  then  his  fmgers  dip  successively  into 
the  cells  of  the  lower  case  which  contain  n,  d,  u,  s,  &c.  Each  type,  as  he 
picks  it  up,  he  places  against  a  ledge  in  a  little  implement  called  the  composing- 
stick.  When  he  has  arranged  side  by  side  the  eight  types  for  the  word 
"  Industry,"  he  takes  a  '  space'  out  of  another  cell,  and  uses  it  as  a  boundaiy 
between  this  and  the  next  word  —the  '  space '  beuig  a  blank  type,  too  shallow  to 
come  under  Uie  action  of  the  inkmg  apparatus.  Then  he  proceeds  to  the 
second  word,  and  so  on  till  he  has  words  enough  to  fill  one  line  of  a  page  or 
colimin.  He  then  begins  a  new  line,  and  by  the  time  he  has  thus  collected 
about  a  dozen  hnes,  his  composing-stick  is  full;  the  contents  are  carefully 
lifted  out  in  a  mass,  and  placed  in  what  is  called  a  ffalley.  He  then  gets  an- 
otlier  stick  full,  and  transfers  it  in  a  similar-  way,  until  at  length  the  galley 
becomes  full.  Thus  he  proceeds ;  at  the  rate  of  about  fifteen  thousand  letters 
in  a  good  day's  work. 

The  precautions  which  the  compositor  has  to  take  are  many  and  varied. 
After  having  mastered  the  difficulties  of  tlie  manuscript  (which  he  reads  two 


—  -—It!: 


.—^-^ 


A  PHINTIWO:    ITS   MODERN   VARtETIIS. 

r  .♦  „  ^im^  and  which  he  places  in  a  convenient  spot  before  him), 
or  three  hnea  at  a  time,  'i'^<^7*"^"  "  ^ij^'^j^^  .„  i.  jg  fooud  tliat  raUicr  over 
he  selects  the  proper  lyvf  *^""^' »  Cush  vvords    but,  as  a  line  must  not 

'^1  '-^Te  ^midr:raC4t.  ISKlf  nTess^  in  ^«cin,.  the  words 
end  m  the  middle  oi  a  Byimuic,  airam,  he  mast 

so  that  none  may  appear  too  «J«^^« J;  Xelp  ide  down  a  littlk  nick  or 
n^'^^^h^irorJach't^^ry  FaSS  ^he  eye"  and  finger  in  avoid- 
notch  m  the  shaft  of  ^^^^^^^^^^^^  his  stick  is  filled,  in  hftmg  the 

before  the  printing,  are  numerous    Z^  ;»  Tsometimes  a  whole  sheet-full 

xnai^o  coalesce  w^tiiout^s^^^^^^  ,^  ^^^„  ,,  ,he 

^ay  be  tjan  po^ed  a  ^^wLg  linersentetces  may  be  in  different  par^ 
beginning  of  the  next  '""""^""f. ""; ' .,  „  _._^„  Daraeraph,  or  vice  vend;  a 
graphs  which  o"g*^^^J«™  n^illo^  oXstoTe1ene;allymavbeeither 
commamaybegi^steadof^a^^^^ 

rfro?  he  ^veie"  ;  wo^^^^^^^  capital  instead  of  small  type,  or  the 

Italic  01-  f «  ^7^^^;  *  i^J  to  a  wi-ong  foui^t  or  size  may  have  become  mixed 
reverse ;  «  ^''"^^  Jf  ""^^^^^  cell ;  a  space  may  protrude  so  much  as  tx,  be 

up  with  the  propel  gpe^ti  ui  ^       f  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^  i^^^i 

^t^rnTiautsiirtakl  may  occur:and'do  occur.     S^ne  of  theerrors 
take'-a.  l-g^-^^rr'dUa^ntn    f^^^^^^  oom.fproof. 


I 


tifliiilitiiiiitiii 


niiliM»iri'iiri'mii»nni 


miont  spot  before  him), 
fooml  that  ratlicr  over 
but,  as  a  hne  must  not 
y  in  spacing  the  -wonls, 
Then,  again,  he  mast 
down ;  a  little  nick  or 
!yo  and  linger  In  avoid- 
is  filled,  in  lifting  the 

lo !  down  go  the  tj-pes, 
)rm  what  printers,  witli 
en  falls  to  tlie  share  of 
J  "pie "  has  to  luste  its 
Bfore  he  can  re-compose 
ler. 

[ter  the  composing  but 
types  is  bound  tightly, 
itimes  a  whole  sheet  lull 
idley  is  this  proof  sheet, 
takes  ore  very  numerous 

A  wrong  letter  appears 
ivord  or  a  whole  sentence 
two  words  may  have  been 
srsed ;  two  or  more  words 
>  line  may  be  seen  at  the 
lay  bo  in  different  pamr 
■agraph,  or  vice  versa;  a 
)6  generally  may  be  either 
nan  which  ought  to  be  in 
jad  of  small  type,  or  the 
may  have  become  mixed 
rotrude  so  much  as  to  be 
n  below  the  genei-al  level 
Bur.    Some  of  the  errors, 
iply  ludicrous.    An  intel- 
■eads  the -proof  attentively, 
lid  marks  with  a  pen  the 
k  to  the  compositor,  who 
8 — at  least  so  it  appears  U> 
!t  so  much  patient  labour 
reus,  their  reparation  may 
tie  wages  of  a  compositor 
duction  of  a  coirert,  proof, 
ig;  consequently  the  cor- 
(d  to  himself,  in  the  proof, 
jxtra  pay  ;  and  he  has  thus 
i  good,  clean,  perfect  proof 
r  which  th«  compositor  is 
lined  by  tlie  reader,  to  see 
i  then  gent  to  the  author, 
ry ;  and  tlie  composit-jr  is 
I  this  revision.    According 


PMNTIKO:    tT8   MODEBN   VAUIETXE8.  " 

the  extent  of  the  corrections,  and  the  number  of  times  they  are  matle,  these 
revisions  have  to  be  repeated.  .  , 

The  conected  pages  are  grouped  in  their  proper  order,  so  as  *«  P"°*  »«^^^* 
of  quarto,  octavo,  duodecimo,  or  any  other  size.  The  order  ni  which  they  are 
arranged  depends  on  the  number  of  foldings  which  the  sheet  is  to  undergo 
;"  the  present  sheet,  for  instance,  the  reader  will  find  tliat  although  tiie  e  are 
twelve  pages  on  each  side,  these  twelve  follow  each  other  m  (apparently)  very 
Ugulir  Srder.  when  the  sheet  is  open;  yet  all  find  tlieir  Pr<>Per  pla^"  y'li^ » 
folded.  In  arranging  tlie  pages  for  the  press,  they  are  placed  at  proper 
distimces  and  are  separated  by  pieces  of  wood  called  fumUure,  wide  enough 
to  fom  thrmargins  ^to  the  several  leaves;  and  the  whole  are  then  wedged 
inU)  an  iron  frame  called  a  chase.  Each  side  of  the  sheet  must  have  an  airange- 
nient  of  tliis  kind;  so  that  there  are  ultimately  prepared  two  Jorms,  as  they 
are  called,  each  properly  fitted  for  printing  one  side  ot  a  sheet.      ^ 

When  the  printing  is  finished,  or  tlie  8t*>reotype  cast  (as  the  c^e  may  bo),  Ui^ 
compositor  hL  to  undo  his  work.  The  type  having  been  cleaned  fr»>»  t^^^^^^^ 
tlie  Zm  is  pulled  to  pieces,  the/Mmi<i(r*  is  removed,  and  the  types  ai-e  separated 
"ZSi^l  retuniJi  to  its  proper  cell.  This  is  a  preUy  -•^^^^^^^i^^l-?" 
cess.  He  takes  a  quantity-perhaps  a  dozen  Imes-in  his  left  hand  takes  up 
one  or  two  words  from  this  quantity  between  the  fingers  and  thumb  ol  his  rigl 
hand,  and  drops  them  into  the  cells  with  almost  inconceivable  <l»»'^n«^«;  ^ 
experienced  compositor  wiU  thus  distribute  Ji/UJ  thousand  types  m  a  daj.  m- 

""a  smaU  mSha^i!^ir^|mict  to  the  labours  of  the  compositor  1»^«  l>««»  i"^"^"" 
duced  in  Belgium.  Instead  of  tying  round  a  page  ot  type  witli  «timg.  to 
nable  him  to  lift  it  in  one  masM,  there  is  here  Hubstitute<l  .«f.  "-f  ^J^T^j;; 
light  strong,  and  easily  adjusted  to  its  place.  So  tightly,  mdeed,  does  the 
Sne  holKhe  type,  that  iJi  cases  of  emergency  printed  impressions  are  said 
to  be  obtainable  from  the  type  in  this  stat*.  without  any  other  J"«t«n>"^^^^^^ 

Another  trifle-the  value  of  which  must  be  determined  by  tiie  comp««^«r 
and  by  him  alone— is  Mr.  Gallard's  portable  composing-fmme,  which  was 
shown^at  the  Exhibition.  It  is  intended  to  provide  temporaiTj™^;^^^'^^ 
for  cases  at  the  imposing-stone  during  correction  of  proofs  -  ^^fZlZ  wo  k 
cases  near  the  compositor's  frame,  at  times  when  he  is  engaged  upon  woik 
which  has  a  mixture  of  Italic  or  other  tyyie  with  the  ordinai-y  tyP«-  , 

Can  the  aid  of  machinery  be  brought  into  reqmsition  m  r'^V^l'^;^^^-^ 
This  question  has  been  many  times  a.sked ;  and  many  mgenious  persons  have 
eivom-ed  to  give  an  affirmative  answer  tojt.  About  ten  years^o  the 
attention  of  the  printing  fraternity  was  much  attrac,^  rZ£  Rosenberg 
machines,  one  by  Messrs.  Young  and  Delcambre,  and  one  by  Capto^^^iRo««»^^^^^^^^ 
Both  machines  could  compose  type  by  automatic  agency,  a"'!  l'"*?^,  ™  Sere 
ingenious ;  or,  more  correctly,  both  substituted  mechanism  for  human  fingers 
in  certain  parts  of  tlie  apparatus.  ,  •  v,  ,x.„  „„„.^<,Wr.r  nUvs  • 

In  theee^^two  machines  there  is  a  key-board  on  ^'V^V^^ J^T^g^'^f  P^^^^ 
he  ha«  not  to  deal  ynihflai,  and  sharps  and  vamcO*,  but  ^^^«  i^^^^^J.  ^ 
the  words  transmitted  to  him  by  the  author  To  use  ^^^.^^T^f  >^^"^^^^^ 
(the  woid  '  Industi-y').  the  compositor,  instead  of  dipping  his  fingers  mto  ei^it 
llll^Us.  presseslis  fingers  o'n  eight  different  key,  of  ^^^  "^°f  P^^^^^"^^ 
What.  then,  is  the  result?  In  Young  and  SfJ«*™b'V.l«J^p?;De3  slide 
moves  a  lever ;  the  lever  pushes  a  type  out  of  a  >*^7f  «P^1«^.  f^^  >  P^hSe 
down  an  inclined  plane  into  a  funnel  or  spout,  and  Aence  mto  a  bo?,  where 
tl4e  .^vmpositor  takes  them  up  and  arranges  them  m  his  composmg-stiok.    ia 


mtmaii  II  toil  jiitiiiiii''W'iual»w 


I 


g  PRINTISO;   ITS   MODERN   VAB1ETIE8. 

Kosenbcrg's  nmchinc,  the  key  detaches  a  type  from  a  vortical  rack;  tho  tppcs 
when  det^hea,  range  tlieniselves  on  an  .ndless  belt;  they  leave  tlie  belt  and 
range  close  t«gether"m  a  receiver;  and  v.hen  one  line-full  ^s  thu«  lon-J-jJ  ^l.e 
machine  rings  a  bell,  and  tlie  compositor  takes  away  Uic  me  of  type,  ad  le4>es 
Zm  for  another.  In  tlie  one,  the  types  require  to  be  distributed  in  tiie  sa.ne 
pic^-mLrway  as  in  ordinai-y  composing;  while  llosenbergV.  inachme  jvus 
Accompanied  by  anotlier  for  etlecting  the  disti-ibution  also,  .l^o^^nberg  s  n  a- 
chinesxvere  therefore  more  complete  than  tl^-^t  which  was  nivened  shortly 
before  them;  and  veiy  high  anticipations  were  formed  of  Uieii  v^lue  liut 
these  anticipations  have  not  been  realisod.  Men  are  st.ll  required  to  a  ted 
on  the  machine,  and  to  do  pai-t  of  the  work;  it  is  found  that  the  machmo 
cannot  think  sufficiently,  and  that  notlimg  is  saved  by  the  time  all  Uie  con-ec- 
tions  and  adjustments  ai'e  made.  , 

M.  Soreusen's  very  remarkable  type-machine  had  not   we   believe     been 
known  in  this  country  untU  the  recent  Exhibition.  The  singular  bird-cage-looking 
apparatus,  which  fonned  one  of  Uie  smaU  number  of  conU-ibutions  from  Denmark, 
has  the  merit-be  tliis  little  or  much-n^f  being  in  many  points  quite  unlike  a^iy 
tliat  preceded  it.     It  is  no  easy  matter  to  describe  tins  machine.     Ihe  readei 
may  picture  to  himself  two  circulai-  cages,  one  placed  over  anotlier,  and  t  c 
upper  one  capable  of  revolving  on  its  axis  independent  of  the  lower,     ilie 
upper  cage  is  for  distrikitiag  type  ;  the  lower  for  composing.     Suppose  a  sheet 
to  be  printed  off,  and  the  compositor  required  to  disUibute  the  *>?«  '.  ^^^  tef  e^ 
them  up  a  few  at  a  time  and  places  Uiem  between  Uie  bra^s  bars  of  the  uppei 
caffo,  where  they  slide  down  to  a  plate  which  sepai-at^s  the  two  cages,      uns 
plat*  has  perforations,  each  one  so  formed  as  to  admit  ^'^^ /'«^,  «f  type-lettei 
only  and  as  every  type-letter  has  side  notches  ditienng  from  those  ot  eveiy 
other  letter,  each  type  can  only  pass  through  one  particular  perforation  ;  and 
it  is  by  slowly  revolving  Uie  upper  cage  that  tlie  types  one  by  one  hnd  the 
proper  perforations  through  which  tliey  may  creep,     lie  lower  cage  has  a^ 
many  vertical  brass  bars  as  there  ai-e  letters  of  type ;  and  by  degrees  tlie  space 
between  any  two  bars  becomes  filled  wiUi  type  all  of  one  letter- this  consti- 
tutes the  dLtribiUion.     Then  for  the  composing.      Tho  compositor  plays  upon 
a  set  of  keys ;  these  keys  act  upon  strings  ;  the  strings  act  upon  springs  ;  Uic 
springs  push  out  or  let  out  the  requisite  types  from  between  the  bars  of  the  cage  ; 
the  tjTcs  descend  to  a  sloping  plate,  then  through  a  spiral  tube,  and  then  into 
a  receiver,  where  they  range  themselves  in  soldierly  order  side  by  side,     it  the 
compositor  has  played  the  keys  rightly,  ttie  order  of  arrangement  m  the  types 
is  also  right.     A  foot-pedal  moves  Uie  receiver  along  gently,  ready  to  accept 
the  types  as  they  drop  successively  int«  it;  and  when  a  hne  is  formed,  it  is 
removed,  and  the  receiver  adjusted  for  another. 

Now  for  the  alleged  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  tins  remarkable  machine. 
Is  it  not  a  ti'oublesome  affair  to  place  all  tlie  types  between  the  bars  ot  the 
distributing  machine?  M.  Sorensen  asserts  that  it  occupies  only  one-tenth 
the  time  of  ordinmy  distributing.  Does  not  the  machine  require  most  deli- 
cate workmanship,  that  aU  the  rods,  incisions,  types,  notches,  and  projections, 
may  fit  weU  into  each  odier  ?  M.  Sorensen  admits  that  diis  is  asuwqm  7ion ; 
but  considers  that  this  ought  not  to  be  an  objection  in  an  age  ot  high  meclia- 
nical  ability.  Will  not  the  types  be  dearer  to  cast,  and  weaker  under  tbe 
press,  tlian  ordinary  type  without  these  peculiar  notches  ?  M.  Sorensen  thinks 
that  the  slight  increase  in  expense  will  in  part  be  counterbalanced  by  less 
veight  of  metal ;  and  that  tlie  {types,  though  yielding  to  yo  ence,  would  bear 
fau-  pressure.     Would  not  the  expense  of  such  a  machine  (lOOf.)  neutralise  its 


i 


mm 


i 


rniNTiNo:  its  modern  varieties. 


0 


srtical  rack ;  the  tj-pcs, 
they  leave  tlie  belt  and 
'uU  is  thus  tbnnod  the 
Une  of  type,  and  lerives 
iistributed  in  tlie  same 
senberg's  machine  was 
also.  Kosenberg's  ma- 
1  was  invented  shortly 
id  of  Uieir  value.  But 
still  required  to  attend 
)und  that  the  machine 
the  time  all  tlie  con-ec- 

not,  we   believe,   been 
iigular  bird-cage-looking 
■ibutions  from  Denmark, 
|r  points  quite  unhke  any 
}  machine.     The  reader 
over  anotlier,  and  the 
ent  of  the  lower.     The 
>sing.     Suppose  a  sheet 
bute  the  type  ;  ho  takes 
brass  bars  of  the  upi)er 
)s  the  two  cages.     This 
;  one  kind  of  type-letter 
ing  from  those  of  every 
ticular  perforation ;  and 
les  one  by  one  find  tlie 
The  lower  cage  has  as 
Hid  by  degrees  tlie  space 
f  one  letter — this  consti- 
3  compositor  plays  ujton 
js  act  upon  springs  ;  Uic 
veen  the  bars  of  the  cage  ; 
spiral  tube,  and  then  into 
rder  side  by  side.     If  the 
ii-rangement  in  the  types 
I  gently,  ready  to  accept 
a  a  line  is  formed,  it  is 

this  remai'kable  machine, 
between  the  bars  of  the 
,  occupies  only  one-tenth 
ichine  require  most  deli- 
notches,  and  projections, 
iiat  tliis  is  a  sine  qua  ""'^  •' 
in  an  age  of  high  mecha- 
1,  and  weaker  under  the 
les  ?  M.  Sorensen  thinks 
counterbalanced  by  less 
g  to  violence,  would  bear 
jhine  (lOOi.)  neutraUse  its 


advantages''  No,  says  M.  Sorensen;  divide  the  expense  over  a  long  period, 
mid  you  will  have  a  good  margin  left.  Is  not  tho  method  difficult  to  loam  ? 
M  Sorensen  states  that  any.pei-son  could  learn  to  use  this  machme  moie 
nuickly  than  the  ordinaiy  composing  system,  and  that  a  compositor  could 
master  it  in  a  few  davs.  Will  not  the  saving  of  time  be  neutralised  by  the  ne- 
cessity for  hand  labour  in  dividing,  spachig,  adjusting,  itahc-ismg,  and  so  forth  .^ 
Lessened,  says  M.  Sorensen,  but  not  neutralised.  Would  not  the  compositors 
oppose  it?  If  they  did,  says  M.  Sorensen,  the  opposition  would  yield  alter  a 
time,  as  in  all  similar  cases.— These  are  the  statements  for  and  against ;  and  it 
amy  be  hoped  that  so  ingenious  a  machine  may  have  an  ample  testmg,  which  it 
docs  not  seem  yet  to  have  had  ;  indeed  wo  are  not  awaro  that  M.  Siirenscn  has 
ever  yet  actually  set  tho  machine  to  work  in  a  printing-office ;  and  all  more 
model  experiments  will  fail  to  place  the  inquiiy  on  a  proper  commercial 
basis. 

SxEREOTYriNG :    ITS   PuRPOr.T   XST)    ITS   VARIETIES. 

That  cheap  literature  owes  much  to  stereotyping,  is  beyond  question ;  as 
the  process  is  one  of  those  which  economise  the  outlay  in  printing.  I"  or 
works  of  small  circulation  it  is  useless,  or  worse  than  useless  ;  but  when  there 
is  a  very  large  demand  for  a  book,  or  the  demand  spreads  over  a  considerable 
sr)ace  of  time,  then  does  stereotyping  lessen  the  expenses  of  the  publisher. 
It  does  so  for  tlie  following  reasons.  If  the  publisher  over-estimates  the  de- 
mand for  a  new  book,  he  prints  too  many  copies,  some  of  which  remain  a 
dead  loss  to  him  on  his  shelves ;  if  he  under-estimates  tlie  demand  he  prints 
too  few,  and  has  all  the  expense  of  composing  Uie  type  to  mem-  over  again. 
But  if  he  bestows  the  time  and  labour  of  making  stereotype  casts  from  his  type, 
he  can  then  print  from  theso  plates  just  as  many  copies  as  are  wanted,  and 
do  this  from  time  to  time  during  an  indefinite  period.  He  need  not  keep  the 
type  standing ;  he  can  distribute  and  use  the  type  for  other  works,  knowing 
that  he  has  a  source  of  power  in  his  stereotype  plates.  And,  moreover,  he 
can  make  two  or  a  dozen  or  any  number  of  stereotype  casts  from  each  page ;  so 
that  he  could  print  two,  or  a  dozen,  or  any  number  of  copies  at  once,  with  the 
requisite  press  or  machine  aiTiuigements,  and  all  with  one  original  '  setting 
up,'  or  composing.  There  is  this  consideration,  too ;  tliat  a  woodcut  becomes 
somewhat  worn  when  a  large  number  of  impressions  have  been  taken  from  it ; 
but  by  a  series  of  stereotype  casts  from  it,  the  power  of  printing  from  it  be- 
comes practicaUy  illimitable.  The  reader  will  then  bear  in  mmd  that,  so  far  as 
any  one  copy  is  concerned,  stereotype-printing  is  not  better  than  type-printing ; 
on  the  contrary,  the  highest'class  of  work  is  generally  type-printed;  but  when 
a  large  quantity  of  one  kind  is  required,  tlie  advajitages  of  Uie  stereotype 
method,  both  in  time  and  money,  are  quite  inesistible. 

It  is  certainly  exti-aordinary  tliat,  after  two  castings,  a  stereotype  plate,  even 
from  a  woodcut,  should  be  fine  and  shai-p  enough  for  printing ;  it  shows  how 
great  is  the  skill  now  attained  in  the  art.  That  there  are  ttvo  castings,  many 
readers  are  apt  at  times  to  foi-get;  but  a  moments  consideration  will  show 
tliat  such  must  necessarily  be  the  case ;  for  tlie  fii-st  cast  will  give  hollows  in- 
stead of  protuberances,  and  vice  versa ;  and  hence  another  is  required  to  restore 
the  original  aspect  of  the  sm-face— just  as  in  all  other  processes  of  casting, 
founding,  or  moulding ;  where  a  model  is  employed  to  yield  a  mould,  and  the 
mould  is  employed  to  yield  casts.  In  stereotyping,  tlie  page  of  tj-pe,  or  mingled 
type  and  woodcuts,  is  the  model;  a  plaster  impression  from  tins  is  the  inovM; 

K  8 


^&MiH|h^ 


10 


PniNTINO:    ITS  MODKBN   VABIBTIUB. 

Tht(  method  was  firet  practised  at  Edin- 


and  the  Btereotvpo  plata  is  tlio  Crtst. _  . 

bu  «  a  centu.5^  and  a  quarter  a^o ;  but  it  wan  not  brought  much  mU>  mim- 
8U ion  until  towards  Uie  close  of  tlie  last  century ;  and  did  not  become  a  really 
tmporZt  comnierci.d  element  in  printing  mitil  IHjJ'^  when  tho  vast  Bale  of 
the  IVnuy  Magazine  produced  a  revoluUon  in  cheap  literature. 

Stereotype  .u^stin^  is  managed  simply  as  foUows.  Tho  page  of  typo,  as  clean 
and  norfeot  as  possible,  is  we.lged  up  closely  in  a  mouldiug-trame ;  the  surhvc^ 
TZiwe  is  slightly  oiled  ;   liquid  plaster  is  iK,ured  upon  it  until  the  mou  d- 
LLue  is  filled;    Uio  solidihed  nioul.l  is  removed  when  cold;    aiid  ..tter 
uJiur  Uimmed,  it  is  phtced  in  an  oven  to  bake  or  dry.     Tlien  begins  the  me- 
S  casting.      The  metal  is  melted  in  a  cauldron;    the  pU^ter-mould  is 
Zea  hi  a  pecuUar  casting-box;  and,  by  a  veiy  nice  adjustment,  Uie  mould 
uid  the  box  Le  both  immersed  m  the  molten  metal,  m  such  a  way  tis  to  allow 
:,  layer  of  meUd  t.>  form  on  the  surface.     When  removed  from   ho  cauldron, 
and  taken  from  the  ciujtingbox,  and  tJie  plaster  mould  broken  Irom  it  (lor  a 
mould  is  destroyed  for  each  cast  ma.le).  the  nlate  is  carefully  examined :  the 
Zl  is  rendere/peiiectly  level  by  being  turnecf  n  a  latlie ;  and  the  face  ,s  freed 
lom  any  slight  defecU  which  may  disfigure  it.     There  is  thus  produced  a 
stereotype  plat«   capable   of  bearmg  the   action  of  the  pnntmg  press  or 

""Thb\  the  ordinary  stereotype  process,  but  many  recent  novelties  have 
been  mtro<luced  in  aid  of  it.    The  ai-plication  of  gutta  percha  t..  printing  was 
noticed  in  a  former  number  of  this  series;   but  we  may  here  describe  one  oi 
two  of  those  applications  more  fully.     Mr.  Muir,  ot  Glasgow,  has  mvenU^d  a 
mode  of  stereotypuig,  managed  m  the  followmg  way.     A  page  of  common 
JJpe  is  first  set  up,  and  well  ftxed ;   a  wann  cake  of  gutta  percha  is  applied  to 
it   screwed  down  tightly,  and  allowed  so  to  remain  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
when  this  gutta  percL  fnould  is  removed,  it  is  brushed  over  wit^i  fme  black- 
lead  and  Ml  electro-copper  cast  taken  from  it;   the  prmtmg  is  then  effected 
from  this  cast.     It  is  fomid  uiat  gutta  percha  constitutes  a  veiy  convenient 
and  efficient  substance  for  the  mould,  owing  to  the  readiness  with  which  it  can 
be  softened,  and  its  toughness  when  cold;   while  Uie  electro-copper  cast  is 
said  to  bear  the  action  of  the  printing  press  tliroughout  a  much  greator 
number  of  copies  than  an  ordinary  stereotype  plate. 

The  same  inventor  also  practises  a  plan  in  which  the  gutta  percha  performs 
not  ordy  its  own  work  but  that  of  the  electro-copper  also.  A  mould  is  taken 
from  an  engraved  wood-block,  in  gutta-percha;  and  this  mould,  whenbrusheil 
over  with  blacklead,  is  made  to  yield  a  cast  also  m  gutta  percha,  in  an  exactly 
similar  way  ;  and  from  this  cast  the  impressions  are  printed.  It  seems  difhcult 
to  conceive  Uiat.  aft«r  this  double  process,  aU  the  delicate  lines  of  a  wood- 
engraving  should  be  preserved  on  tho  siu^ace  of  such  a  material  as  gutta 
percha;   and  yet,  without  this  preservation,  the  method  would  be  pracUcally 

"  sttS^en  is  another  substance  which  is  competmg  with  gutta  percha  for  an 
honourable  place  among  stereotyping  materials.  Messrs.  Manchin  and  Morel 
have  inUodSced  a  methml  which,  though  not  yet  much  adopted  m  this 
countey.  is  said  to  have  found  considerable  favour  m  France.  The  cast,  either 
from  a  woodcut  or  from  type,  Uirough  tlie  intermedium  of  a  inould,  is  formed 
of  a  bituminous  substance,  which  is  harder  than  type  metal,  and  gives  the 
markings  witli  great  clearness.  It  is  said  l«  be  jiomewhat  more  expensive 
tlian  common  stereotype ;  we  learn,  however,  that  it  is  now  being  tested,  and 
if  found  practicaUy  advautageous.  will  b©  brought  at  once  mto  use. 


IMM 


I'RINTINO:    ITS   MODl'.RN    VA1UKTIK8. 


u 


firet  practised  at  Edin- 
Might  much  into  requi- 
lid  not  bt'coiuo  a  really 
,  when  tho  vast  «alo  of 
[jrature. 

0  page  of  typo,  as  clean 
liug-tranie ;  the  siufaco 
pon  it  until  tlie  mouKl- 

whun  cold  ;    aiid  lU'tor 

Then  begiim  tho  uie- 

;    the  pliusttir-iuould   is 

adjustment,  tho  mould 

1  Huch  a  way  aa  to  ulhjw 
ived  from  tho  cauldron, 
d  broken  Iroin  it  (for  a 
iarefuUy  examiuod ;  tho 
10 ;  and  the  face  is  freed 
ere  is  tbua  produced  n 

tho  printing  preaa  or 

y  recent  novelties  have 
,  porcha  tt>  printing  w»» 
lay  here  describe  one  or 
(jilasgow,  has  inventt^d  a 
ly.  A  parto  of  conunon 
utta  percha  is  applied  to 
a  quarter  of  au  hour ; 
lied  over  with  lino  black- 
printing  is  then  otfected 
titutes  a  veiy  convenient 
adinesH  witli  which  it  can 
le  eleoti"o-oopi)er  cast  is 
lughout  a  much  greater 

ae  gutta  percha  performs 
also.  A  mould  is  taken 
tiia  mould,  when  brushed 
utta  pOTcha,  in  an  exactly 
printed.  It  seems  difficult 
delicate  lines  of  a  wood- 
5uch  a  material  as  gutta 
thod  would  be  practically 

with  gutta  percha  for  an 
tssrs.  Manchin  and  Movel 
t  much  adopted  in  this 
France.  The  cast,  either 
urn  of  a  mould,  is  formed 
,ype  metal,  and  gives  the 
omewhat  more  expensive 
;  is  now  being  tested,  and 
once  into  use. 


It  ig  reallv  almost  difficult  to  follow  the  novelties  in  this  department  of  tho 
nrintinu  art  There  is  a  method  of  makiuf,'  stereotypes  Irom  paper,  or  rather 
Cermaeho.  From  tlie  doscription  given  in  another  part  ot  Uns  senes  it 
Hi  easily  be  understood  .hat  tlio  pulpy  nature  of  papier-mache  would  enable 
it  to  be  used  UH  a  stereotyping  material;  but  this  api-hcation  seems  to  bo 
abandoned  for  others,  especially  that  of  stereotyping  by  electn)-depositiou. 

S  far  as  «eientihc  comploUmess  goes,  no  oU.er  «t<  reotypu.g  can  boar  com- 
parison with  the  beautiful  process  last  named:  it  is  a  very  tnumph  ol  H.aenco 
mldiod  U>  the  arts;   and  a«  we  ffiid  U.at  our  arUstic  m.mul.icturHi-s  and  fancy 

•  ntors  are  ov.u-y  day  availing  tliemsolvos  mor.)  and  more  ol  tht^  ^oecn^i,  wo 

ay  sSely  concLdo  that  it  superadds  practical  usetulness  to  scientific  pre- 


cision. 


The  Phintino  Phfss:  Four  Centuhtes'  PRoaRF.ss. 


We  havo  not  vet  touched  upon  printing  itself,  the  actual  process  to  which 

"\tahm.t;  mw  Sd  of  pressure  is  sufficient  to  transfer  an  hiked  impression 
to  paper  pSng  i.ross  L.,lu  be  one  of  the  simplest  of  all  contriviuices ;  and 
IhiS  noVio.  is  because  modem  society  requires  Uie  prmting  to  be  elTected 

^"tV^nt:i!n«t'trace  the  steps  of  progress,  from  tlie  inido  press  «f  eaijy 

times  down  to  the  mighty  Time.'  printuig  machme  of  Uie  present  day.     ihe 

St  empToved  was  noUiing  more  than  a  simple  screw-press,  like  a  cheese  or 

mkrS  ess    Tho  form  of  type  bemg  inked,  was  placed  with  a  sheet  ot  paper 

beSi  the  press,  and  the  screw  worked  to  give  sufficient  pressure.     But  tins 

m«  a  sadly  Unger  ng  process,  since  there  must  be  as  many  screw.ngs  and  nn- 

ciewm89  as  5S  are^copies  to  be  printed.   The  first  improvement  was  made 

rSew,  a  Dutchman,  who  gave^^an  elasticity  to  Honie  pai-ts  of  tho  press 

which  shaniened  the  impression  and  lessened  tlie  wear  of  Uie  tn^e.    htdl  the 

rc^ewpSr  remained,  and  was  adoptad  evei^where  until  the  commence- 

"Tt\f  n^Jt^CtitSlemaii  is  chiefly  distinguished  foi-  his  mechanical 
invonttoSs     Imt  the   late  Eail  Stanhope  wiU  be   known  ior  his  printing 

U»  Stonliope  press  is  cemiiily  .  taoutilul  f "^''"f,^ )\^  '"C™  C 
o(  lypM  Uid  upon  a  WveUing  c«n«ge.  which,  ^ler  the  W«»  j""'  »«™ 

nf  fvnn.  both  moved  under  the  vlatUn  or  heavy  plate  oi  Uie  press,  a 
hanr^keJ  to  gTv7m^on  to  Uieicrew ;  and  all  these  movements  revei-sed 
to  liberate  Uie  printed  sheet  from  its  pnson.  ^  .  ,,  q,  , .  „^„  _,«„.  t,. 
Numerous  have  been  the  minor  improvements  in  Uxe  ^*^^^P^^^l'^^.JZ 
some  patented  presses  Uie  form  of  types  remama  stauonary,  while  Uie  flatten  xs 


mJmmmtm"-^  - 


18 


PBINTtNO:    ITS  MODERN   VAIIIKTIES. 


remove'i  to  permit  tho  types  to  bo  inkod.  In  othem  the  presmire  ih  piwjncfld 
entirely  by  lovers,  without  any  aid  from  screws,  but  let  tho  press  bo  what  it 
miuht,  its  velocit,/  of  working  was  confined  within  a  linnt  which  no  mgonuity 
couhl  sumass.  "ite  hourly  power  of  printing  was  reckoned  by  hiuidreds,  not 
thousands  of  sheets.  And  when  wo  come  to  watch  tlio  process  of  mkmg  the 
tvpos  we  see  how  this  must  necessarily  be  Uie  case.  Tho  old  prmti^rs  used 
inking  cushions  or  bnlh,  fonned  of  sheepskui  stuffed  widi  wool ;  pnnling  mk 
is  an  oily  viscid  liquid;  tho  balls,  after  being  dipped  hito  or  upon  the  mk, 
wcro  worked  two  together  in  order  to  equalise  tho  ink ;  and  the  types  were 
daubed  over  by  tho  two  balls.  A  most  clumsy  method  this  now  appears  to 
us  •  yet  it  was  doubtless  deemed  a  capital  expedient  by  the  mvontor,  whoever 
ho  'may  have  been.  It  is  still  adopted  by  some  printers  ;  but  it  is  slow,  and 
wastes  nnich  ink.  The  method  now  more  fre<iuently  employed  is  to  have  a 
roller  made  of  an  elastic  composition  (glue  and  treacle),  which  translors  tho  mU 
to  the  type  more  expeditiously  and  more  cleanly  than  the  balls. 

The  Puintino  Machine,  and  its  Wonders. 

But  tho  great,  Uie  crowning   effort  to  advance  printing  has  been  by  tho 
application  of  tlie  mighty  power  of  steam.  . 

Sixty  years  have  now  elapsed  tiince  the  first  attempt  to  produce  a  printing 
mochmo  which  should  economise  hand  labour.     Mr.  Nicholson   took  out  a 
patent  in  1790,  for  a  machine  which— in  theoiy,  if  not  in  ettect— bore  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  lust  refinement  in  printing  apparatus ;  for  he  proposed  not 
only  to  distribute  and  apply  Uie  ink  by  cyUnders,  and  to  place  the  paper  on  a 
cylinder,  but  also  to  arrange  the  type  on  a  cylinder,  as  in  tlie  most  recent  ot 
Applegatli's  machines.     Whedier  tliis  machine  ever  went  beyond  the  patent, 
whether  it  was  ever  in  actual  work,  we  do  not  know ;  but  it  may  be  concluded 
that  practical  difficulties  interfered  witli  tlie  general  introduction  of  the  ma- 
chine.   More  than  twenty  yeai-s  afterwards  the  composition  inking-roUers  were 
brought  hito  use ;  and  a  plan  was  suggested  by  Messrs.  Doiikin  and  Bacon  for 
arranging  the  types  on  oblong  prisms.     In  1814  the  first  notable  advance  was 
made,  by  tlio  introduction  of  Konig's  machine  into  the  Times  printing  ofhce ; 
on  the  28th  of  November  in  that  year  the  readera  of  this  celebrated  journal 
were  informed  that  the  prinUng  of  that  day's  broad  sheet  had  been  effected 
by  a  steam-worked  machine ;   and  the  (then)  astonishing  speed  of  eighteen 
hundred  copies  per  hour  was  stated  to  be  within  the  capabilities  of  the  ma- 
chine.   It  was  quite  right  that  the  proprietors  should  speak  in  a  gratified  tone 
of  their  achievement ;  for  it  was  one  which  greatly  increased  the  power  of  tlie 
daily  journals,  and  which  laid  the  foundation  for  subsequent  advancements. 

More  than  thirty  years  ago  Mr.  Cowper,  who  has  been  one  of  the  most 
imtiring  investigators  in  tliis  department  of  mechanical  art,  invented  im- 
provements which,  though  not  exactly  printing  machines,  were  component 
parts  of  the  machine  method.  He  made  a  machine  for  piinting  from  cui-ved 
stereotype  plates  ;  he  made  a  machme  fitted  for  printing  books  from  ordinary 
types ;  and  be  introduced  tlie  system  of  inking  now  in  general  use.  But  it 
■was  in  1827  that  Mr.  Cowper,  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Applegath,  made  the 
signal  improvement  which  enabled  tlie  Times'  proprietors  to  print  five  thou- 
sand copies  per  hour  with  one  machine.  This  is  the  printing  machine,  im- 
proved in  minor  details  by  various  inventors,  which  now  constitutes  the  most 
powerful  working  agent  m  our  prmcipal  printing  offices ;  it  sets  four  paper- 
cyUnders  and  four  inking-roUers  to  work  at  once,  instead  of  one  of  each,  ^d 
thus  quadruples,  or  pearly  quadruples,  the  productive  power, 


WMeAaifew*«ff»*rti 


.A 


0  proHSure  is  prodnccd 
ut  the  press  be  what  it 
t  which  no  ingenuity 
ned  by  hiuidreda,  not 
)  proctiSH  of  inking  thn 
rho  old  print«!rB  used 
Ui  wool ;  printing  ink 

nito  or  upon  the  ink, 
ik ;  and  the  types  were 
d  this  now  appears  to 

the  inventor,  whoever 
I ;  but  it  is  hIow,  and 
employed  is  to  have  a 
,  which  transt'era  the  ink 
he  balls. 

INDEUS. 

titing  has  been  by  the 

,  to  produce  a  printing 
Nicholson  took  out  a 
in  effect — bore  a  strong 
lis ;  for  he  proposed  not 
to  place  the  paper  on  a 

1  in  tlie  most  recent  of 
ent  beyond  the  patent, 
)ut  it  may  be  concluded 
inti'oduction  of  the  nia- 
ition  inking-roUers  were 
}.  Donkin  and  Bacon  for 
irst  notable  advance  was 
le  Times  printing  office ; 

this  celebrated  journal 
iheet  had  been  effected 
ihing  speed  of  eighteen 
I  capabilities  of  the  ma- 
speak  in  a  gratified  tone 
ireased  the  power  of  tlie 
squent  advancements. 
i  been  one  of  the  most 
nical  art,  invented  im- 
hines,  were  component 
or  piinting  from  cm-ved 
ng  books  from  ordinary 
in  general  use.  But  it 
Hr.  Applegatb,  made  the 
etors  to  print  five  thou- 
3  printing  machine,  im- 
tow  constitutos  the  most 
iices  ;  it  sets  four  paper- 
tead  of  one  of  each,  and 
power, 


PRINTINO  :    ITS   MODERN    VARIETIES. 


18 


The  printing  machines  now  employed  at  most  of  the  largo  est^dishmf  n  « 
i„    his  Jmn.try  exhibit  a  harmony  of  movo.nent  n.ost  str.kmg.     St.=am  gives 

oS  n'r  hVwhole  ;  but  how  n.yn.rous  are  the  cncurrent  movemen  s  mt. 
w  iTt  is  nu,tion  is  broken  up !  There  are  sl>afts  and  " W"-;  .  ''"r^  ;;;';] 
Ti  ndles  wheels  and  axles,  cogs  and  pinions,  ratchets  and  levers  cyluule  s  and 
ie^-all  the  paraphernalia  of  tl>e  machinists  labours;  but  jt  '^  not  um.l 
w«  wo  the  numerous  delicate  and  precise  movements  which  tliose  bring 
Lut  Uiafwe  rappre  iaU,  the  control  which  the  mast.i-power- steam 
i:!:"  ks  on  the  whofe' asseiublage.  Heveind  thiiigH  ai-e  being  done  atone... 
While  one  form  of  types  is  being  inked,  another  .h  impressing  a  sheet  ot 
Ipr;  while  one  sheet  is  being  thus  impressed,  another  is  tr^eUing  along  to 
Sue  for  a  similar  process;  while  one  set  of  inkmg  rollers  is  doing  its 
^^^rk   another  is  supplying  itself  with  a  coating  of  the  unctuous  '••'im'O'"'. 

Let  us  see  whether  a  few  words  may  suth.ie  to  convey  a  gcnend  idea  of  the 
.u,tk n  of  sfcir' rJiachino.  First  for  tL  inking.  The  thick  ink  is  placec  in  a 
H  s ervoir  in  contiict  with  which  roUtes  a  roller  called  (we  know  not  why)  the 
rrrby  whi<'hthisd.>ctor  becomes  thoroughly  coated  with  the  back  o.y 

.  mpounfl.  Another  roller,  having  a  F«»/''^r,.^'bf  "^g  ^;"^y";^*\'  f  ;^^^^^ 
rinctor  at  intervals  of  a  few  seconds,  and  robs  him  of  a  little  ot  his  ink,  wm  ,n 
fttiSsfer    toa  flat  iron  table;  other  rollers  spread  the  ink  evenly  over  the 

^bir   Ind  Another  sot  again  feed  their  ^f-^-l^^-lX:^';::fc:Z^ 
the  ink  over  the  fonn  of  types,  by  rolling  along  it.     All  this  is  vciy  curious  , 
fo,^Sink  becomes  diffusecl  in  a  remarkably  even  manner  by  these  numerous 
tmnsfers  from  surfa.^e  to  surface.     Meanwhile  the  paper  has  not  been  die. 
Hoy    P«  r«d Tp  on  high,  places  a  sheet  of  paper  on  an  endless  web  or 
tvon-  the  sheet   s  caught  in  between  a  cylinder  and  a  row  of  tapes,  and 
Ls  nalses  on  from  one  cylinder  to  another  until    it   leaves   the  machine, 
iut  in  its  progiSs  it  is   exposed  t«   two   printing   processes.      When  one 
furface  hd^owKds,  it  is  pressed  or  ma^lo    to   roll   upon  one  of  the  two 
omJs  of  inked    ype,  by  which  the  sheet  is  printed  on  one  side;  and  then 
Z  two  or  Siree  se;pentine  twistings-over  one  cylinder  and  ""der  anothe 
-the  other  side  of  the  sheet  is  brought  downwards,  and    is   made  to  roll 
^^^theoSer  inked  form  of  types.    How  to  adjust  the  cylmdei-s  arid  the  tapes, 
so  Vat  t^e  sheet  shall  not  be  crookedly  printed  ;  how  to  an-ange  ^e' doctor 
^d  the   other   rollers  so  as  to  apply,  just  enough  mk  and  no  more     how 
to  make  the  tvpe-form  go  and  fetch  its  own  mk,  and  ri  nm   to  the  exact 
po"S  the  eSt  time  ;\ow  to  make  the  sheet  of  paper,  m  '^;  travels  ove 
Mid  under  about  half  a  dozen  cylinders,  present  each  surface  exactly  at  the 
™  inCt"o  the  proper  inked   form-how  to  rea Use  aU  these  concep- 
KoT  hLsCen  a  tax  to^the  inventive  powers  of  our  Applegaths  and  Cowpe,-s ; 
but  the  result  shows  how  triumphantly  they  have  been  realised. 

Great  as  tliese  achievements  un<iuestionably  ai-e.  ^  "^^^^'f'  ^J'^^/ Jf; 
nrintine  macliine  of  1848,  and  the  Illustrated  News'  machine  of  a  later  date 
Lo  st"u  ^aS  marvels  in  the  art.  To  what  pitch  the  speed  of  pnntmg 
wm  vdLEy  aiTive,  it  would  be  vain  even  to  guess  ;  but  these  t-e^Wcylm- 
S  mSes  seem  t^  have  a  power  cf  expansion  (so  to  speak)  which  will  lead. 
steD^rrp  tTfurther  increase  of  efficiency.  As  it  was  the  Tmes  which  m- 
IcylEnig's  machine  in  1814 ;  as  it  was  on  the  Ti.u,s  that  Cowper  jmd 
ApoKatht  improved  machine  fii-st  exhibited  its  powers  m  1827 ;  so  was  t 
SSejoumS  that  enabled  Mr.  Applegath  to  display  the  wonders  of  h^^^ 
new  conception  in  1848,  by  printing  eight  or  nme  thousand  copies  of  that 
newspaper  in  an  hour. 


H 


VHlN'riNO:    ITH  MOURRN  YABlBTtM. 


If  we  wore  about  to  attempt  a  mtnuUt  dedciiulion  of  thin  now  mnehine,  wo 
should  ttl  one*!  iwk  th«i  ifmlcr  to  hu|)|ioh»!  the  larKo  cylindei-s  of  wi  ordinary 
urintiiiK  miuluno  to  bo  luniod  up  on  tbyir  tind*,  tuid  Ui  bti  rt'volviiiK  ou 
vortit!ttl  iustcad  of  horizontal  axon ;  luid  furtiior  to  wuppowi  tlmt  tho  lypoH  iin» 
urrauKfld  round  n  rylinder.  iuMtoHd  of  being  piu'ked  loK.ali«r  on  a  Hat  nurfmn 

fur  UioHo  iiro  th«  two  pervatlinn  principlos  of  Uio  now  umehino.     And  though 

wo  cannot  go  into  lochnical  deUiiln,  a  n-cognition  of  these  two  principle*  will 
(l(j  uuidi  to  render  tlio  action  of  tlio  machine  intaUigible.  Tho  tnouHtcr 
uiachino  at  the  Tuiuii  ortico,  thon  (for  it  is  thiH  of  whicii  wo  aro  wpcaking),  hiw 
the  type  ranged  wund  tho  nurfin'o  of  a  cylinder  more  than  live  fott  in  diamoUir ;  or, 
uioro  corhiotly,  the  surface  is  a  polygon,  uach  nido  of  the  polygon  being  ccjual  to 
tho  widtli  of  a  column.  ThiH  type  cylindor  roUtcM.  and  prnHontH  iU  mivenil  |H)ly. 
gon  facets  to  tho  hheotH  of  papier.  Tho  inking  rolleiu  aro  vortical,  and  tlioy  feed 
thcmHolvea  from  a  rosorvoir,  which  is  also  vortical.  Tluro aro  oi;:lit  cyhnders, 
about  a  foot  in  diameter,  round  oach  of  which  a  sheet  oi  paper  coil,  iUdf ;  eight 
U)ys  plaoo  the  sheets  upon  stands  or  platforms,  and  the  ighi.  ahe^i  ua;  drawn 
down  and  ina<h!  U)  wrap  round  tho  eight  cylinders.  The  iuklii^  rollers  receive 
Ihoir  dose  of  ink  ;  they  touch  the  types  as  the  type  cyU-..Ier  r  ates  ;  the  paper 
cylinders  press  the  paper  against  the  hiked  lye  a;  tlic  pnuUng  is  oHoctod 
before  the  spectator  can  well  toll  what  has  I.  .  /.  of  each  sheet;  and  tho 
eight  printed  sheets  fall  from  tlio  eight  cylindors,  and  are  received  by  eight 
boys  who  aro  seated  at  the  lower  part  of  tlio  appai-atus. 

In  this  most  beautiful  machine,  Mr.  Api)legaai  undertook  t.>  provide  a  power 
luleipiate  to  print  H()(Jt)  copies  per  hour ;  but  he  conceived  it  probable  that,  by 
a  low  slight  improvements,  such  a  ni(U!hino  might  attain  a  speed  of  10,000  or 
11,000;  and  Homo  such  increase  has  been  obtiuiied. 

It  was  a  pity  that  a  larger  amount  of  '  standing  i-ooiii '  had  not  boon  afforded 
around  the  Ilhtntrntiid  New»  pruitiiig  machine  at  tho  Great  Exhibition  :  many 
an  eager  oyt)  wished  U)  tmco  tho  iiiovomeuts  of  tlie  mysterious  cylindors,  but 
wanted  facilities.  Yet  was  it  such  an  ojjportuiiity  as  was  never  before  afforded  ; 
and  Uioso  who  dul  watch  tlio  macihine  attentively  know  more,  than  any  written 
dcMcriptiou  can  tell  tliem.  When  tho  increasing  circulation  of  the  'lme» 
rendered  it  necessary  to  expedite  tho  process  of  printing  ;  when  tho  proprie- 
tors requested  Mr.  Applegath  to  tax  his  skill  in  produouig  a  machine  which 
would  print  eight  or  ten  thousand  copies  in  an  hour ;  when  Mr.  Applegath 
surmounted  all  the  dilhculties ;  and  when  the  means  of  accomplishing  this 
typogiuphicid  feat  was  rendered  apparent  ;—tli(;n  did  the  proprietoi-s  ot  that 
paper  commission  Mr.  Applegath  Ui  make  for  thom  tlie  machine  which 
was  fitted  np  in  the  'machinery  in  motion'  department  of  the  Exhibition. 
I'his  machine  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  TitMi ;  it  has  four  cylinders  hiz'^wX 
of  eight ;  and  these  four  cylinders  have  a  united  surface  exactly  wjual  to  tJiat 
of  the  type  cyhnder.  How  the  paper  takes  its  exti-aordinary  tour  among  tlio 
cylinders;  how  Uie  'laying-on  boy'  places  the  sheet  upon  a  httlo  platform,  and  a 
spindle  urges  it  from  tlie  platform  towards  vertical  tapes,  and  the  vertical  tiipes 
transfer  it  to  Uie  care  of  >  »i«bt  bars  of  wood,  and  the  boi-s  of  wood  traiister  it 
to  small  pulleys,  and  U..  m  i  U  T^Uleya  resign  it  to  marginal  tapes  whUe  tho 
sheet  is  being  pressed  »  .  '  lype,  and  Jie  aorguial  tapes  dismiss  it  to 
tiie  care  of  otlier  litt  , ...      .d    Uie  '  takmg-off  boy  '  finally  receives  it 

from  tiiese  pulleys— how  all  this  is  effected  is,  perhaps,  not  "  more  easily  con- 
ceived tlian  described, "  but  it  is  certainly  beyond  tlie  descriptive  scope  ot  the 

present  work.  ■  n         i 

So  valuable  is  every  minute  m  printing  a  daily  newspaper— especiaUy  sucu 


thin  n«*w  nmchiiie,  wn 
Imileiii  of  ttii  itnlinnry 
III  Ui  he  lv\o\\u\^^  on 
|).m<)  tliat  tlitt  lypoH  iir«! 
[t'!\iwv  on  li  Hut  Hui't'iiro 
iiinchino.  Ami  UiuukIi 
lese  two  piiticiples  will 
i^ible.  The  numHtcr 
I  wu  lii'u  N|iuukitig),  hiiM 
livi'  t't't't  in  tliaiinjtiir ;  or, 
jiolyKon  btshiK  »(juiil  to 
iibuoutH  its*  Htiveml  |Ktly- 
e  vorticul.  luid  Uiuy  fot-'J 
lero  are  e»!.'ht  I'.ylinderM, 
|>a)mrcoil  itat'if;  tjtght 
'  i>{lit,  ahe»"ii  Hvodmwn 
I..;  ink'tiM  rollui"  iMceivo 
mUu'  r  fttos  ;  tlie  paper 
tlio  |)nntin«  is  crt'cctiid 
of  each  nhuct;  aiid  the 
J  are  i-ecwivod  by  oiglil 

rtook  to  protide  n  power 
ivod  it  probable  tliiit,  by 
lin  a  Bpoed  of  ID.ODO  or 

I '  had  not  boon  afTonled 
Ireut  E.xhil)ilion ;  many 
iiyitlorioHs  cylinders,  but 
iS  never  before  otfoi-ded ; 
V  more  than  any  written 
irculation  of  the  Tinua 
Ling  ;  when  the  proprie- 
uuui(;(  a  machine  which 
ir ;  when  Mr.  Applegatli 
s  of  acconipliHhing  thiM 
the  jiroprietore  of  that 
nil  Uio  niftclune  which 
uent  of  the  Exlnhition. 
w  four  cylinderg  hi-Uiad 
4C0  exactly  ocjual  to  Uiat 
)rdinttry  tour  among  tlie 
lou  a  little  platform,  and  a 
OH,  and  the  vertical  tJipeH 
I  bare  of  wood  transfer  it 
nar^tnal  tapes  while  Uiu 
giual  tapes  dismitiH  it  to 
boy  '  finally  receives  it 
«,  not  '*  more  easily  con- 
descriptive  scope  of  the 


I'JllNTINO:    IT»   Monr.UN    VAIUl'.TIKS. 


ta 


VS' 


paper— especially  such 


^  Uie  Tiwu'.,  which  nownelU  Koraelhing  like  forty  thoumind  copUw^^''  •\"'"-:. 
Lt  UieTunountof  power  reMtiired  i.   .i-iU.  ,.xtnu.r.hnary.     lles.dc.  two  o 
S.guU."^rlt\.iKht.oyli.ulo;  vertical  nuuhine,.  there  are  three  C|l  Uje  o  d.-. 
Scvlinder  lio.i/HHtal  n.achii.OH  in  ti.e  'iV»^«'  olUce      'Ih.-r,.  ,ire  nearly  a 
,  drer..'^^  ttndpre«H,nen  employed  in  the  evenu.K  and 

Jht     Tl  ,  tvpeJ  in  coL.anr  use  w.-i.h  ,>o  Ichh  than  hcvcu  Ions,     f.'«  '"; 
f'l...i,nr.'-mneH  about  four  or  live  tons  of  paper,  presenting  a  pun  ed 
2ilZ7L^^.  much  exeeedin^^  th.    urea  ..f  the  ^'7«»^V" '".'nar  v'a 
c     V  of   tl.e    -ku*,    inchuliuK   a   fuur-paKe    nnpp  emenl     contunm    nea  ly 
Sontvias      There  have  hln  moit  ihim  fifty  thoumuid  copies  prinU-du. 
;;;;)d;;Tu  period  of  great  political  (and  consequenUy  news-re^hng)  excite- 

""whether  printing  will  ever  be  done  by  the  furlong  ..r  Uie  mile  is  a  <iueHti«n 
aesli  ml  (1  n    lb  y    to  receive  an  answei- ere  lonK.     When  paper  was  rendered 
JZofproEion  in  endlon.  length,    it  -^^f^'^^^^^^i:^:::^ 
whether  printing  could  not  be  condncU«l   Iwfore  instead  of  '?"' '  ^^  ",^"^"",^^, 
is     a.  .   into  sheetH.     Home  sU«ht  approaches  to  tin.  "'^^^-d  have  been 
Lul;  and  patentees  are  looking   out   slmiply  m   the  »7« /'«'''   '^'  -^  J  ^1 
l£i,H4i  of  (ilasuow  for  example,  patented  such  a  machine  in  IHIO      In  his  ma 
h^e a  ei. rr;; h:ri.ont.ll  cyiindei.  with  the  type  ^^^^^f^^^ 
.  ic  for  each  side  of  a  newspaper  .*  sheet;  there  are  uik-supi)  yuig.  »»k-a  stu- 
timr  am    mrting  rollers  nuiged  around  e.vch  of  these  cylinders  ;  lUi  .'.idl.  as 
w      S  S,»l  i-1--"  Uirough  both  machine.,  printed  on  butl.  ^^J^^ 
•ultiiiL'  an uaratus  Hevers  it  into  sheets  after  it  leaves  the  machine  •.  U.ere  aie  tkiw 
CiU  ed  r  S  >  K-o" '  I'oys  or  '  takhu^-otT '  boys.     Huch  at  least  is  the  spe.  ,tv 
Snof^e  pai3nt;  ami;  whether  diis  particular  machine  has  been  lou  ml 
a  ilk  oV Xtn-e  can  be  little  dount  Uiat  something  of  analogous  chanter 
vill  astonish  the  world  before  h.ng.     Mr.  Bodmor  {'^^'^.^i  ''{l^^^^*  ^^^^t 
time,  a  patent  for  an  invention  almost  identical  in  "Ul"  't  ^'th  ^l^^^r^'l^^'iS 
;.....,  .l.ul  ti.  mint  two  webs  of  paper  at  once  instead  of  one.     Again,  m  laao, 
t^  0      genuity  "1  M  "  De  Witte*  w'as  shown  in  a  patented  machine  tor  pnntmg 
0  idlesS  webs  of  paper  from  cylinders  having  «''''*=«(yi^?*lj"';^;;««.    respect  to 
IJut  there  is  someUiing  more  Uum  mere  """Ppl'e^  P"^  *«•        "T^P  Jf,.„ 
these    vortical-cvUnder  endless-printing   schemes.     Mr.    Hoo,   an   American 

itorpat^nS^ 
,uid  about  the  same  time  the  Tbn,:^  gave  the  ^o"»?^"»g, /""f ^r^PV  •".^.J^.i 
Mori  on     ail  American   printer,  died   lately  in  Pans.     He  has  l.e-iueathod 
10  (uS  to  be  K^Jen  as  a  premium  t..  anybody  who  shall  sncceed  m  constructing 
rSi^e  caS  of  striking  off  10,000  copies  of  a  ""^^spaper  wit^mi  an 
ho?     'rho  ri»«>»  machine  does  not,  we  boliove,  actually  excee<l  «00 0  oi 
Z)"  at  ita  reai^ar  working  speed,  although  it  is  .aid  in  current  anguage  to 
e^c  1  fo.OOoTS  XMor^toi';  prize  has  probably  not  yet  bee„  elj^^ed^      c^ 
it  Heems  that  Mr.  Hoea  invention  is  makihg  rapid  pi-ogress.     lowords  me 
lrofl!S9tJ^French  newspaper  U^Pf-  'f  mT  Ct  mSes'V't^ 
mintinff  of  that  iournal ;  it  was  stated  tliat  one  of  Mr.  lloe  s  macnmes,  wiin 
CTe?tical  cym^^^^^^  w^  then  producing  l!)a  copies  o  La  ra^<>  P«r  ?">"««. 
or  Xut   8000  per  hour;    tlmt  four   montlis'  use  had   well   saUshed   the 
JLpSrs  o?Vr  jom^ai;  mid  that  a  -^^1-^-  n.^hme  of  ^^^^^^^ 
Hiriiciion  had  been  ordered,  witli  a  prmtuig  power  of  la.OOO  C0F«8  P<  7'""T; 
DmTe  Paris  press  claims  to  have  outdone  both  Mr.  Hoe  arid  Mr^Appegaih 
more  i^cenUv      In  the  spring  of  1850  a  new  prinUng  niachme  was  set  up  m 
Te  office  of  L«  Prme,  iSvented  by  M.  Worms,  a  printer  of  Pans.     It  con- 


i 


Hi 


rRINTINO:    ITS   MODERN   VARIETIES. 


sists  f»f  cylindei"s  covered  with  papier-macho  stereotypes,  from  which  the 
printing  is  ett'ectcci  on  endless  webs  oi"  paper.  It  was  asserted  at  tlie  time  that 
a  speed  of  1.5,000  copies  per  horn-  was  attained— bnt  this  is  almost  "too  good 
news  to  be  true."  Indeed,  it  nmst  be  owned,  that  many  such  statements  in 
the  French  newspapers  require  to  be  received  witli  caution. 

PniNTiNo  Establishments,  in  Modern  Days. 

Few  compai-isons  would  present  more  curious  results  than  that  between  a 
printing  office  in  past  days  and  one  in  1851.  Everytliiug  was  done  by  hand, 
and  on  the  domestic-manufacture  system  ;  much  is  now  done  by  steam,  and  all 
on  the  factory  system.  Our  Clowes,  Hansards,  and  Spottiswoode's,  at  the 
present  time  exhibit  the  factoiy  system  in  its  best  aspects ;  tliat  is,  combination 
in  some  dcrartments,  subdivision  in  oUiers.  The  well-known  rapidity  witli 
which  Parliamentary  Papers  are  got  up  and  printed  has  been  often  noticed ; 
and  the  r'>cent  printing  of  the  Officit.1  Catalogue  of  the  Great  Exhibition 
was  a  notable  instance  of  such  expedition.  We  quote  a  few  words  from  tlio 
Companion  to  the  Brithh  Almanac,  (ov  185^,  in  illustration  of  tliis  matter  :— 
"  The  Shilling  Catalogue  was  classified,  numbered,  made  up,  and  10,000  copies 
printed  and  stitched  in  covers— in  four  days.  The  first  complete  copy  was  not 
produced  till  10  o'clock  at  night  on  April  aOdi,  and  yet  10,000  were  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  before  the  an-ival  of  Her  Majesty  on  the  eventful  1st  ot  May. 
Two  splendid  copies,  presented  to  Her  Majesty  and  the  Royal  Consort,  were 
bound  and  gilt  in  a  sumptuous  style  in  six  hours." 

The  French,  and  foreign  counti-ies  generally,  are  more  accustomed  than 
the  English  to  form  large  establishments,  wherein  tlie  printmg  as  well  as  the 
publishing  of  books  is  carried  on.     Perhaps  the  remarkable  freedom  of  indi- 
vidual efforts  in  England  may  tend  to  explain  tliis  difference.     The  establish- 
ment of  Alfred  Maine  and  Co.,  in  Tours,  is  one  of  tliose  in  which  printing, 
binding,  and  publishing  are  all  combined,  and  where  they  have  been  so  com- 
bined for  nearly  half  a  centmy  past.     All  the  works  relate  to  religious  and 
moral  subjects,  and  undergo  a  sort  of  general  editorial  supeiTision :  such  as 
educational  books,  sanctioned  by  the  Roman  Catliolic  Church ;  missals  and 
other  books  of  piety  ;  and  educational  books  for  primaiy  schools.     The  ware- 
rooms  of  tlie  establishment  ai-e  said  to  contain  a  miUion  and  a  half  of  small 
books,   pamphlets,   and   tracts;   besides   anoUier  store   in  unfolded   sheets. 
There  are  about  twenty  machines,  worked  by  steam-power,  to  caiTy  on  such 
of  the  printmg  and  binding  operations  as  can  be  brought  within  the  scope  ot 
this  power;    and  these  machines  are  adequate  to  the  production  of  fifteen 
thousand  volimies  per  day,  each  containing  ten  duodecimo  sheets.  The  sewing, 
boardmg,  and  binding  of  the  books,  occupy  many  more  hands  than  tlie  print- 
ing, being  less  within  Uie  scope  of  steam-power.     It  is  said  that  there  are  no 
less  than  one  tliousand  persons  of  botli  sexes  and  vai-ious  ages  employed  in 
this  '  bindei-y '  (the  innovating  but  convenient  name  that  om-  friends  across  tlie 
Atlantic  give  to  a  bookbmduig  establishment),  by  whom  books  are  bound  in 
styles  varying  from  tlie  most  sumptuous  magnificence  down  to  the  most  econo- 
mical plainness.     All  the  copper  and  steel-plate  engi-avings  introduced  into 
the  illustrated  works,  are  also  printed  in  tlie  establishment.     It  does  not 
appear  that  type-founding  is  carried  on,  and  in  this  respect  the  Tours  esta- 
blishment must  yield  precedence  to  a  few  great  printing  firms  m  England ; 
but  the  combination  of  printing,  binding,  and  pubUshing,  on  so  large  a  scale, 
is  ceiiainly  ucte-worthy. 


i 


from  which  the 
d  at  tlie  time  that 
ilmost  "too  good 
iich  statements  in 


:s. 

an  that  between  a 
[•((s  done  by  hand, 
)  by  steam,  and  all 
tiswoode's,  at  the 
lat  is,  combination 
own  rapidity  witli 
een  often  noticed ; 
Great  Exhibition 
w  words  from  tlio 
of  tliis  matter : — 
and  10,000  copies 
plete  copy  was  not 
10,000  were  at  the 
eutful  Ist  of  May. 
)yal  Consort,  were 

accustomed  tlxan 
ting  as  well  as  the 
e  freedom  of  indi- 
e.  The  establijih- 
in  which  printing, 
have  been  so  com- 
te  to  religious  and 
peiTision :  such  as 
urch;  missals  and 
shools.  The  wai-e- 
md  a  half  of  small 
I  unfolded  sheets. 
,  to  caiTy  on  such 
vithin  the  scope  of 
jductiou  of  fifteen 
iieets.  The  sewing, 
nds  than  tlie  print- 
1  that  tliere  are  no 

ages  employed  in 
r  ft'ionds  across  the 
ooks  are  bound  in 

to  the  most  econo- 
gs  introduced  into 
lent.  It  does  not 
ict  the  Tours  esta- 
firms  in  England; 
on  so  large  a  scale. 


PRINTINO:    ITS    MODF.nN    VAniETIES. 


17 


Passing  to  another  countiy,  we  find  the  Imperial  Printmg  Office  at  Vienna, 
certainly  one  of  the  most  gigantic  manufacturing  establishments  m  the  world. 
The  Vienna  establishment  comprises  within  its  range  of  operations  an 
astonishing  variety,  both  ailistic  and  manufacturing;  and  the  bmldmgs  ai-e 
necessarily  of  great  magnitude.  There  are  said  to  be  five  large  niasses  ot 
buildings,  the  floors  connected  by  iron  and  st^)nc  staircases,  and  Oie  bmldmgs 
connected  by  galleries.  There  are  steam-engines,  nearly  fifty  printing- 
machines,  more  than  this  number  of  printing-presses,  half  as  many  copper- 
plate presses,  forty  lithographic  presses,  several  glazing  cyhnders,  pumps  lor 
cold  water,  boilers  for  hot  water,  flues  for  hot  air,  eight  type-foundmg  ma- 
chines, ten  furnaces  for  melting  type  and  stereotype  metal,  gas  m  all  the 
buildings,  speaking  tubes  from  one  building  to  another— all  the  appur- 
tenances, in  short,  of  avast  printing  establishment.  And  so  closely  is  the  pro- 
gress of  science  watched,  that  when  a  new  discovery  is  made,  advantage  is 
immediately  taken  of  any  practical  availability  which  may  attach  to  it  in 
respect  to  the  typographical  art ;  thus  photography  and  electrotype  are  brought 
into  requisition;  and  any  new  qualities  discovered  in  guttapercha  or  other 
substances  are  similarly  watched  with  an  attentive  eye. 

Fine  ait,  too,  as  well  as  science,  is  sedulously  cultivated  at  this  remarkable 
establishment.'  A  school  for  wood-engravers  has  been  established,  whence 
productions  of  great  beauty  issue.  Colour-prmtmg,  among  other  branches,  is 
conducted  witli  consummate  skill. 

Nothing  could  better  illustrate  the  extent  and  nature  of  the  labouis  at  tins 
establishment,  than  the  admirable  display  of  them  at  the  Great  Exlnbition. 
The  terminations  graphy  and  Ujpy  never  surely  had  such  numerous  applica. 
tions  before:    typography,  xylography,   chemitypy,   stm-eotypy,  eUctrotypy,  typo- 
metni,   lithography,   galvanography,  photography,   aU  were    presented   to   our 
notice.     There  were  steel  punches  for  type-letters,  comprising  tiie  cliaractere 
for  more  than  a  hundred  foreign  languages,  besides  medieval  characters,  and 
letters  for  blind  persons.     There  were  matrices  of  Chmese,  Japanese    and 
other  peculiar  types.     There  were  printed  specimens  m  the  principal  lan- 
guages  of  the  whole  worid.     There   was   the   Lords  Prayer,  printed  wiUi 
Roman  tvve  in  608  languages  and  dialects,  and  also  m  the  characters  of  206 
different  nations.     There  vvas  a  copy  of  Gutenberg's  Bible  and  specimens  of 
the  type  used  for  it.     There  were  copies  of  books  recent  y  printed  in  the 
establishment,  for  various  persons,  requiring  rare  or  peculiar  type      Ihere 
were  lar^e  engraved  woodcuts,  with  moulds  from  them  taken  m  gutta  percha, 
and  electro-copper  casts  from  the  moulds.     There  were  pictures,  cjwmtypedov 
etched  on  zinc  by  a  chemical  process,  and  capable  of  being  printed  at  the 
common  press.     There  were  stereotype  plates  of  aU  the  «lpl^«bete  m  ti^ 
worid,  with  moulds  or  matrices  in  gutta  percha  and  in  p  aster,  and  electxo- 
copper  casts  from  the  moulds.     There  were  numerous  electix)-copper  casts 
from  tvpes,  woodcuts,  petrifactions,  has  and  alto-reliefs,  &c  ;  besides  admir- 
able plates  suitable  for'engravei-s,and  the  realy  wonderful  «heet  of  copper 
thirty  feet  long-wonderful  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  it  was  produced  from 
a  cold  liquid  solution  of  copper  by  galvanic  agency.     There  were  numerous 
chromo-lithogi^phic  prmts,  hing  by'  the  side  of  the  original  c«l««^«d;f.;",7^^g^J 
to  which  they  made  a  singularly  near  approach  m  richness  and  softness  of 
colourin-r.     There  were  engraved  steel  and  copper  plates,  and  impressions 
taken  from  tliem.     There  were  electrotint  plates,  in  which  the  subject  is  pro- 
duced by  painting   and  galvanizing,   without  either  etching   or   cngi-aving. 
There  were  designs  for  ornaments  connected  with  books  and  bookbindmg, 


i 


rHiSTwa:  its  mvv.ws  variktieb. 


Awl  lastly,  there  were  a  dozen  or 


and  ornamental  tools  for  bookbinder 

more  of  photographs.  .  ,      -  •„♦«,„„♦  ..nnnpcted  widi  on  establishment 

SuRh  are  some  of  the  pornt*  of  interest  'f^^**''Xch  possesses  a  hun- 

tlXkh  thrlo  htmdred  thousand  «»\««^,«VSTxffion  by  Sree  societies 
The  typographical  ^onttibutions  to  Ae  Oreat  L^^^^^^^^  in-espective  of 

in  London  were   interestmg  in   an  in«l"«t»«f  Ssocietu  have  printed  the 
other  considerations     ?he^7*"/' «!!fv,urSt  iS^^^^  l^^ai-e 

whole  or  portions  of  tlie  Bible  m  1  <0  ^^^^'f^^^^'^S'^f^     ^11  of  these  were 
from  tnuislations  never  before  prmtedbpecmensotnearo^ 

exhibited,  end  a  most  «""«"«  .^"^^f^M^fyi.'^X^  same  Society 

man  casual  visitors  to  the  txhibit.on  could  g^^e  tbem.     x 
illustrated  aie  progress  of  the  jmntog  art,  by  Pacing  s^de  b^^^^^^ 
printed  in  1810  and  others  r»«'t«d  m  1 85 1    to  aUow  "  ^^^^'ij^^^^ggened 
Lndbmding  had  all  i™FOved.  while  ^eexpen^  ^^  ^^^^ 

62  per  cent.     The  Relujiou,  Iract  '*'«^'f^^ ^^  ^^ '^f  Xch  were  exhibitetl 
religious  boo!.s  *" /^•^^^"^Tthe'^Srenow^eTp^  Bunyan's 

?^PiU^rS-'  -5^^^^^  tatX^'sSrhav^  pri^^ted  and  pubUshed 
this  work  in  no  fewer  thaii  as  different  languages  ^^ 

The  third  Society  alluded  ^o  a^o;^-  ^h^  /^^^^^^^  object  to 

Bead,  occni^  ^«»?^»^lf  ^TifeTontriCTs'co^^^^^^ 

which  attanuon  is  directed.     ^ifff^X  embossed  writing  copies,  music, 

cyphering  books,  maps,  geometrical  bo'^  J^^"^^  X  have  to  bear  the 

aiS  chefs  ^-l^;,-f,"^^^f  JiVchi^^  type 

dread  calamity  of  blindness.     Ihe  ra>8f"J^"~     ,  •  f  the  systems  of 

fihortrhand    while  m  tne  uiaegow  ^*  J  nrrulnced  bv  stampuig  on  paper 

are  employed.    All  such  «™bo«sed^^^"^C^  ^^' 

with  bold  but  un-inked  met^  ^yj'^^'T?,^^^  something  s^ly  beautiful  in  this 
the  words  as  it  passes  over  them.   ^  lILi  jr     The  cvT^ring-boardB  arc 

mode  of  blindly  feelir^  ^V^nuSe^oref  ?nt;>  wWch  Cs  eLy  fit.  and 
perforated  all  o^'er  with  small  square  holes,  into  wnicu    j^  j         ^^^ 

Lse  types  represent  tiie  ^n  nume^^    In  the  maps^^^^^,  ^^^^ 

above  tlie  water,  and  great  distmctness  Jf  £*^^  ?"  .  uAy„daries.    The  chess- 
represent  cities.  nio«mt«ias.  nvers,  and  geogmph^^^^  ^^^^ 

boai-ds  have  tlie  black  squares  ^^J^^^^^^^J^'i^faU  the  pieces  have  pegs 
pieces  are  distinguished  by  a  P^J««V,"K  P?"^'  y„re^^^  by  which 

Uich  fit  faito  holes  in  the  board    ^Ih^'^  a^o  a  Wet^m  ^  ^  ^^^^ 

the  bhnd  can  print  their  own  thought^,  or  wnte  ^«  P^J^      ^y  tlie  aid  of 
are  stamps  or  punches  for  t»»\^*"«"'\;'«^Se^  i«  of  P«P«'  '^ 

printing ;  for  the  pages  were  from  1««^^»  P^;J'^  .^"^Sm  •  it  comprised  about 
^"^''f^Mv   o I'f ;TjrnS'^^^^^^  andUianlan. 

<i  hundred  f  "^ ,«?{ J^/^^V^JT^^iterv  science,  medical  science,  poetry,  and 
aTsu^^^S  paptTthf S  was  manufactuiec^  and  ^  the  print- 


I 


sre  were  ft  dozen  ov 

itli  an  establishment 
lich  possesses  a  hiui- 
i  and  fifty  tons ;  and 
iited  daily, 
ion  by  three  societies 
view,  irrespective  of 
tiety  have  printed  the 
5es,  of  which  118  aie 
3arly  all  of  these  were 
worthy  of  more  study 
;.     The  same  Society 
f  side  by  side  Bibles 
It  tlie  paper,  printing, 
eduction  had  lessened 
?hcd  tracts  and  other 
which  were  exhibite<l. 
ition  which  Bunyans 
)rinted  and  pubhshed 

Teaching  th«  Blind  to 
the  peculiar  object  to 
3d  of  embossed  books, 
writing  copies,  music, 
who  have  to  bear  the 
•e  in  an  arbitrary  type, 
lome  of  the  systems  of 
ordinary  Roman  letters 
by  stamping  on  paper 
the  blind  student  reads 
;  sadly  beautiful  in  this 
3  cyphering-boarda  arc 
ih  types  easily  fit,  and 
ips,  me  land  is  raised 
5  lines  and  spots  which 
«undaries.     The  chess- 
of  the  white ;  the  black 
II  the  pieces  have  pegs 
itty  apparatus  by  which 
I  print  at  once.    There 
se  stamps,  by  the  aid  of 
res9  a  sheet  of  paper  in 
itributed  in  like  manner 
lent. 

which,  judging  from  cir- 
e-printing  than  to  type- 
had  b«en  printed  by  the 
ting ;  it  comprised  about 
Ai*abic,  and  Persian  Ian- 
lical  science,  poetry,  and 
oiured,  and  all  the  print- 


pRnrmio:  rra  modebs  vARiETiEa. 


10 


ing  processes  conducted,  in  Egypt;  ju.d  the  display  ^jr^^lyj""^^^^^^^  ^, 
marked  progiess  which  Uiat  country  has  made  under  the  unscrupiUoua  but 
sagacious  Mehemet  Ali. 

CmioMAXic  oB  Colour  Pbintino. 

Bv  Utae  and  litUe  the  art  of  printing  in  colours  has  aijived  at  great  pei-fec- 

tion      One  ^le  colour,  if  well  printed!  was  accounted  a  feat  m  bygone  tm,es 

ov  the  diveS^  V  of  colour  is  almost  unlimited.     The  colour  may  be  mixed 

S  oU  inSof  with  water;  and  the  style  of  the  engi^avmg  may  be  ahi^ost 

any  one  of  tliose  adopted  for  ordinary  purposes.  „..rih.it/,  ;i  tn  anv 

As  to  the  origin  of  this  kind  of  printing,  it  is  difticiil  to  attribute  t^  t«  any 
one  inventor-   for  the  simple  use  of  red  hdi  instead  ot  black  would   m  eflect. 
rcolou'^riiting     There^are  found  to  be  initial  letters,  n  some  o    ^e^ery 
earnest  printed  books,  in  two  colours;   Uiese  must  have  been  printed  at  two 
oSionr^^th  ink  oi  two  colours.     At  vai-ious  times  during  the  lastt^iree 
Sries  modes  ,^re  adopted  of  producing  engraved  pictures,  not  exa^t^y  m 
CO  Z  but  in  liKht-and-shade,  as  U"  copied  from  drawmgs  in  India^mk  or  in 
sepa     Mr  Savages  Treatise  on  Decomtive  Printing,  pubhslied  ratlier  more 
Sn  Mirtv  vears  ago,  was  one  of  the  first  works  which  gave  an  impetus  to  this 
iZ^MirThefmc^^y-^orned  lottery-ticket^  (of  which  the   present 
Snerat"on  know  htUe,  except  by  tradition)  wei-e.  under  the  mventive  talent  of 
Mr  mufng  made  another  of  the  means  for  introducing  colour-pnntmg ;  not 
SoriS  bu    typographical.     It  is  not  a  Uttle  remarkab  e  tiiat  j,/aym</  card, 
ffch  wer^  anSng  Z  means  of  inti^ducing  woodcut  prmUng  lo^  contuse 
Uo^   L'avo  also  an  impetus  to  the  art  now  under  notice,     in  a  lormer 
number  of  t^'s  series  le  have  described  the  mode  of  making  these  cards 
SJr  have  stated  that,  by  Messrs.  De  La  Hue.  tiie  cai-ds  aie  prmtef    J 
Scofouis.    Now  it  was  'only  after  numerous  ti-ials  a;.d  much  expen^itme 
that  Mr  De  La  Rue.  about  twenty  years  ago,  devised  a  mode  ot  mmng  ana 
Ippllg  o^  cobur  which  would  beV  tiie  polishing  processes  necessary  to  the 
SiSnlof  playing-cards.    This  card-colour  pi-intmg  has  been  the  basis  of 

'''ZotlZSl:':^:^Z^^^^^^'^o  our  notice,  ^bowing  that  humblj 
productions  illustiate  a  principle  as  efficienUy  as  those  of  greater  dign  ty  oi 
S  Let  us  select  tiie  kbel  of  a  blackinij-bottle  as  an  example  of  a  notable  ad- 
'^ce  i  coZ7riiting.  We  must,  of  coui.e,  begin  by  duly  -J^n-lea  -^^^^^^ 
unrivalled  merits  of  "  Day  and  Martin's  incomparable  jet ;  no  mattei  wheU  er 
DaTf  deJoi  Mai-tin  Lad.  or  botli;  no  matter  whether  Day  and  Martin 
hJeU  merely  a  hypothetical  existence,  like  Bozs  "Airs.  Harris  -it  is 
sXiS  to  know  that  tills  "inestimable  composition."  has  a  large  sale; 
Sd  we  are  fuSr  justified  in  believing  it  possible  that  rogmsh  ^ers 
S  there  may  be  rogues  n:  blacking  as  well  as  rogues  m  gram)  might  imitate 
the  label  T  a  me^  of  ah-u-ing  hi  tlie  profits  of  tins  "  real  japan.  Now 
f  such  weJ^  tire  case,  tire  man^acturers  would  have  a  strong  inducement  to 
Lnlov  Tlabel  which  would  be  very  difficult  to  imitate ;  and  thrs,  wf  believe. 
TttUe  h^^toTy  of  tJe  c^^^  label  fomrd  on  tire  botties  sold  by  tire 

firm  ufTuestion  It  must  have  been  indeed  an  achievement  when  that  pro- 
d^tio^  Srirought  to  hght  in  tire  mfancy  of  colom-printing  How  to  pro- 
duce  the  iL  wo"k  groundVtter-n  in  red  ink ;  and  the  wavrng  lines  m  red  and 
bS  ink  rSrd  tire  white  aSd  black  axrd  red  letters  of  varied  sizes  and  shapes ; 
and  the  woScut  of  tire  ambitious  lomccolurnned  factory  m  Holbom;   and 


■*MfciB:>Wfa«rti«ii'M>'i  I 


I 


so 


printing:  its  modern  varieties. 


i' 


!  i 


the  copied  aitogi-aph  of  the  veritable  Day  and  Martin— how  to  effect  all  this 
called  for  much  patienre,  skill,  and  expenditure  of  capital ;  and  a  department 
of  tlie  establishment  has  been  expressly  set  apart  for  this  pm-pose     A  cylmde 
machine,  on  Mr.  Cowper's  principle,  is  employed,  with  two  cyhnders,  one  fm 
red  ink,  and  one  for  black-each  cylinder  being  large  enough  to  print  eight 
labels  at  once.     For  each  label  two  stereotype  plates  are  prepared,  by  a  com- 
bined process  of  casting,  stamping,  and  modelling;  they  are  so  accm-ately  ad- 
iusted  that  every  raised  spot  in  one  plate  corresponds  witli  a  sunken  spot  m 
"the  other.     One  plate  contains,  in  relief,  tlie  whole  of  the  letters  and  device 
which  ai-e  to  be  printed  in  black  ;  while  tlie  other  contains  tliose  for  red ;  and 
both  plates  are  bent  to  the  exact  curvature  of  the  two  cylinders      Eigl.t  plates 
are  adjusted  to  each  cylinder,  witli  great  accuracy;  and  tlie  mkmg  rollei-s  aie 
so  placed  that  the  inking  of  the  black  plates  is  completed  just  as  the  paper  is 
brought  neai-;    while  the  red  plate  is  similarly  brought  in  readiness  to  seize 
and  impress  Uie  paper  directly  it  is  libei-ated  from  its  neighbour.     The  more 
completely  the  black  and  red  portions  are  seen  to  keep  clear  of  each  other  m 
the  label  the  more  accurate  must  have  been  tlie  adjustment  of  the  plates  on 
the  cylinders.— Thus  tlie  "  pursuit  of  knowledge  "  may  lead  us  even  to  Uie^study 

of  a  blacking-bottle.  ^  ,,     i    j?      •  *•„„ 

About  Uie  year  1836  Mr.  Baxter  procured  a  patent  for  a  method  of  P"n™g 
in  oU-colours,  from  wood-blocks  and  steel-plates  conjointly ;  and  this  method  has 
recently  been  carried  to  a  degree  of  considerable  excellence  and  beauty,  borne 
specimens  of  oU-colour  printing  are  from  wood-blocks  only;  while  others  ai-e 
worked  by  the  woodcut  method,  from  mezzotinted  metal  plates,  of  which  as, 
many  are  used  as  there  are  tints  in  the  picture. 

It  is  scai-cely  possible  to  conceive  a  higher  degree  of  beauty  than  now  dis- 
tinguishes some  of  tliese  colour-printed  productions.     The  names  of  Baxter, 
HuUmandel,  Hanhart,  and  many  others,  among  the  patentees  and  printers, 
and  tliose  of  some  of  our  best  artists  among  the  dmughtsmen,  ai-e  becoming  every 
day  better  known  to  the  purchasers  of  cheap  but  good  artistic  productions : 
whUe  eve     kind  of  pictorial  subject,  and  almost  every  style  of  engraving,  are 
being  brought  withm  tlie  range  of  colour-printing.     We  have  copies  from  the 
old  masters,  and  copies  from  the  Stanfields  and  Creswicks  of  our  own  day; 
we  have  graceful  story-book  illustrations  by  Absolon  and  others,  and  sump- 
tuous decorative  ornament  by  Owen  Jones ;  we  have  fruit  and  flower  pieces  m 
imitation  of  Nature's  work,  and  buildings  and  otlier  productions  of  mans  m- 
dustry.     All  these  are  depicted  or  designed  on  engraved  steel,  on  mezzotinted 
goiter  metal,  on  stone,  on  wood,  or  on  stereotype  plates;    and  all  aie  alike 
brought  within  the  powers  of  the  colour-printing  press     Nor  do  these  produc- 
tions belong  exclusively  to  the  domam  of  fine  art;  the  colour-proited  paper 
covers  for  cheap  books,  with  their  glazed  surfaces,  are  not  only  pleasing  to 
the  eye,  but  are  more  durable  than  the  paper  garments  of  tlie  books  published 
"  in  boards  "  m  the  olden  time ;  while  they  are  cheaper  than  cloth  binding. 

It  was  one  of  the  most  instructive  characteristics  of  the  Great  JiiXtiibition 
that,  whenever  opportunity  offered,  the  successive  stages  of  any  particular 
process  were  represented  m  their  proper  order  Such  was  the  case  among 
other  mstances,  in  respect  to  colour-printing  In  the  Saxon  section,  this  art 
was  illustrated  by  a  series  of  sheets,  each  exhibiting  one  stage  in  the  chromo- 
printing  process,  showing  how  many  tunes  Uie  print  itself  had  to  pass  through 
Sie  prels  before  its  final  completion.  And  tlius  likewise  were  the  productions 
and  processes  of  Mr,  Baxter  illusti-ated. 


— «8a 


t 


PRINTINO:    ITS   MODERN    VAniETlES. 


21 


how  to  effect  all  this 
il ;  and  a  department 
pui-pose.    A  cylinder 
wo  cylinders,  one  for 
nough  to  print  eight 
I  prepared,  by  a  com- 
'  are  so  accurately  ad- 
witli  a  sunken  spot  in 
16  letters  and  devices 
ns  tliose  for  red ;  and 
inders.     Eight  plates 
the  inking  roUei-s  are 
id  just  as  the  paper  is 
I  in  readiness  to  seize 
eighbour.     The  more 
clear  of  each  otlier  in 
ment  of  the  plates  on 
ad  us  even  to  tlie  study 

r  a  method  of  printing 
1 ;  and  this  method  has 
nee  and  beauty.  Some 
mly ;  while  others  ai'e 
tal  plates,  of  which  as 

f  beauty  than  now  dis- 
The  names  of  Baxter, 
>atentees  and  printers, 
len,  ai-e  becoming  every 
)d  artistic  productions ; 
style  of  engraving,  are 
3  have  copies  from  Uie 
wicks  of  our  own  day ; 
and  others,  and  sump- 
nit  and  flower  pieces  in 
roductions  of  man's  iii- 
!d  steel,  on  mezzotinted 
tes;  and  all  ai-e  alike 
Nor  do  these  produc- 
le  colour-prlntfid  paper 
re  not  only  pleasing  to 

of  tlie  books  published 
p  thai)  cloth  binding, 
if  the  Great  Exhibition 
ages  of  any  particular 
!h  was  the  case,  among 

Saxon  section,  this  art 
ne  stage  in  the  chromo- 
self  had  to  pass  through 
86  were  tlie  productions 


The  application  of  colour  to  litliographs  is  among  tlie  beautiful  novelties 
of  recent  times.  It  can  scarcely  be  necessary  here  to  describe  a  lithograph, 
or  to  state  that  it  is  printed  from  stone ;  but  a  few  words  will  sufhce  to 
show  tlie  relation  between  a  uoodcut,  an  ewjravhm,  and  a  lithograph.  A  wood- 
cut is  printed  from  rmsed  lines;  an  engiaving  is  printed  from  sunl^n  lines; 
11  lithograph  is  printed  from  chetiJcally-prepared  lines.  A  wood-block  is  cut  till 
lioue  of  the  surface  is  left  except  Uie  lines  which  are  to  be  mked  and  pruited ; 
whereas  an  engraved  copper  or  steel  plate  is  so  cut  or  engraved  tliat  the  parts 
left  shall  be  un-inked  in  printing.  A  lithograph  diflers  considerably  Irom 
both.  A  stone  of  a  very  peculiar  quality,  brought  chiefly  from  the  Daiiubian 
provinces,  is  carefully  prepared  on  the  upper  surface.  A  design  is  skctclioil 
on  the  stone,  either  witli  lithographic  chalk  or  lithographic  ink— both  ot 
which  ai-e  nearly  alike  in  composition,  but  one  is  used  dry  and  the  other  wet. 
A  solution  is  poured  over  the  stone  to  fix  this  device;  and  when  about  to  be 
printed,  the  stone  is  sponged  with  water,  which  is  received  by  the  stone  but 
repelled  bv  the  chalk  or  ink.  The  printing  ink,  applied  by  a  rollei%  is  re- 
pelled by  tlie  damp  stone,  but  received  by  the  device,  and  a  press  suffices  to 
etfect  the  tininsfer.  . 

Such,  then,  is  ordmary  UUiogi-aphy.  The  lithotint  and  the  stump  drawmfj  on 
stone  are  two  methods  of  colour-printing  practised  by  Messrs.  Hullmandel, 
and  of  which  some  beautiful  specimens  were  displayed  at  the  Great  E.xhibi- 
tion.  Many  of  the  specimens  in  the  first  of  tliese  two  styles  were  drawn  on 
the  stone  by  Cattermole,  Harding,  Haghe,  and  Nash.  They  are  executed  by 
making  drawings  on  the  stone  witli  a  liquid  ink  applied  by  a  brush  ;  tlie  quar 
lity  of  the  ink  being  such  as  to  resist  the  action  of  tlie  chemical  agent  after- 
wai-ds  applied  to  tlie  stone.  The  residt  produced  has  much  of  the  beautiful 
effect  presented  by  an  original  drawing  m  sepia  colour.  It  is  a  style  consi- 
dered to  be  well  adapted  for  engravings  relating  to  engineering,  architecture, 
and  natui-al  history,  The  other  of  these  two  methods,  the  stump  drawing,  is 
effected  by  applying  the  stump  to  designs  which  have  been  produced  partly 
by  chalk  and  partly  by  ink.  The  method  of  lavis  aquarelle,  or  wat«r-colour 
wash,  employed  by  some  of  the  French  litliogi-aphers,  seems  to  bear  some 
resemblance  to  tlie  English  lithotint. 

Mixed  Phocesses,  in  Modern  Printing. 

It  is  a  matter  ^'uU  of  instmction,  in  respect  to  the  probable  future  of  this 
valuable  art,  to  watch  the  vai-ious  combmations  which  ai-e  now  going  on, 
in  respect  to  prmciples,  materials,  and  processes.  Engraving,  lithography, 
.xylography,  stereotypmg,  black  printing  and  colour  printing,  casting  and 
pressing,  electrograph  and  photogi-aph,  metal  and  stone,  wood  arid  paper, 
gutU  percha  and  bitumen— all  ore  being  brought  to  afford  mutual  aid,  each  to 
each.  The  lines  of  demai-cation  are  beuig  broken  down ;  and  we  are,  every 
month  or  two,  called  upon  to  attend  to  some  new  and  ingenious  process, 
which,  if  called  by  a  correct  descriptive  name,  would  indeed  require  a  com- 
plex assemblage  of  Greek  syllables.  .  . 

Some  of  the  recently-introduced  modes  of  engraving  or  preparing  designs 
of  any  kind  for  the  press  are  reaUy  remaikable.  One  example,  shown  in  the 
French  dopai-tment  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  is  an  expeditious  mode  of  en- 
graving maps.  It  is  always  desimble  to  have  some  distinctive  mode  ot 
cngi-avmg  an  uncolom-ed  map,  so  Uiat  tlie  eye  shall  catch  readily  the  bounda- 
ries between  land  and  water.     In  tlie  example  in  question,  a  veiy  delicate 


I 


0)1  printing:  its  modkrn  VAmKnr.s. 

machine  makes  Un<^9  of  dots  over  tlie  whole  of  the  Inud  portion  of  the  map ; 
the  dott«  are  very  faint,  and  veiy  close  togetlier.  so  a.s  to  form  a  sort  of  tinted 
L'lonnd  •  the  machine  is  said  to  make  two  Uiousand  dots  in  a  minute ;  and,  by 
a  heaiu'iful  contrivance,  it  reverses  its  action  whenever  it  encounters  the 
deeper  lines  which  mark  a  boundary  between  land  and  sea. 

Another  novel  kind  of  printing  is  a  combination  of  typography  and  litho- 
graphy Part  of  a  page  is  set  up  with  ordinaiy  moveable  types ;  an  impression 
from  them  is  transferred  to  a  lithographic  stone  ;  the  remainder  of  the  desigii 
or  page  is  tilled  in  by  drawhig  on  the  stone  with  the  usual  material ;  and 
the  stone  is  then  prepared  for  prinUng  in  the  usual  lithographic  method. 
This  double  system  is  intendid  (or  application  in  bordered,  tabular,  or  or- 
namental printing;  and  it  seems  to  be  capable  of  useful  extension— since 
the  precision  of  type-printing  may  be  combined  with  the  artistic  giace  ol 
lithography.  Another  kind  of  litho-typogi-aphy,  of  French  invention,  is  a  pe- 
culiar mode  of  etching  upon  stone,  so  as  to  leave  a  printing  surface  raised 
considerably  above  the  general  level  of  the  stone. 

There  were  specimens  exhibited  of  a  new  art,  to  which  tlie  embarrassingly- 
leamed  name  of  liauiiiconographic  printing  was  applied.  It  seems  to  be  an 
attempt  to  combine  the  excellencies  of  all  kinds  of  engraving,  by  prodiu- 
ing  plates  in  which  the  design,  though  always  raised  or  m  relievo,  has  some- 
times the  characteristics  of  one  style,  sometimes  of  another.  Ihe  French 
exhibitor  of  the  specimens,  in  his  catalogue-description,  sa^s  that  this  panei- 
conographic  art;  has  the  power  of  "reproducing  on  eveiy  kind  of  mebil 
(whether  engmved  or  in  relief)  any  lithographic,  autographic,  or  typographic 
print,  any  drawing  in  pencil  or  in  stump,  any  engraving  on  wood,  steel,  or 
copper,  whether  produced  by  aquafortis  or  by  tlie  graver,  in  such  manner  as  t(j 
be  able  to  print  these  reproductions  by  means  of  the  typographic  press.  Ihe 
tj'pographical  or  common  printing-press  is  so  much  more  exjieditious  in  its 
operations  than  the  copper-plate  or  the  lithogmphic  press,  that  it  would  be  a 
viiluable  improvement  if  all  the  vai-ious  kinds  of  engraving  really  could  lie 
reproduced  by  such  means— whether  or  not  we  give  a  hard  Greek  name  to  tnt 
process  which  ensures  this  result.  . 

The  Denmark  section,  which  was  not  very  large  or  important,  contaimil, 
nevertheless,  a  specimen  of  a  new  art,  which  the  exhibitor,  M.  Scholer,  calls 
styhxiraphy.  It  is  said  to  be  a  meUiod  whereby  a  copper-plate  can  bo  engraved 
without  the  aid  eitlier  of  the  giaver  or  tlie  etching-acid  ;  and  M.  Scholer  exhi- 
bited an  engraving  in  all  the  various  stages  of  progress.  In  the  first  place 
a  smoodi  metallic  surface  is  prepared;  on  this  surface  an  even  layer  ot 
black  composition  is  cast ;  on  this  composition  a  thin  coat  of  silver  is  ap- 
plied •  on  this  silver  tlie  artist  sketches  his  design  with  a  shan)-pouitod  in- 
strument, cutting  deep  enough  to  expose  the  black  composition  beneath  ; 
from  this  black  and  white  picture  (for  such  it  certainly  is,  the  black  lines  oi 
the  design  being  visible  through  a  silvery  groimd)  a  copper  ca-st  is  taken  by 
the  electrotype  process ;  and  from  this  cast  a  second  cast  is  produced  by  the 
same  process,  which  becomes  of  course  a  copy  of  the  silvered  composition 
model  From  the  copper  cast  last  produced  impressions  may  be  taken  by  the 
ordinary  copper-plate  press.  This  is  one  of  many  modes  of  applying  electro- 
deposition  to  the  production  of  engraved  plates ;  but  it  must  require  veiy 
careful  manipulation  to  produce  by  these  means  a  plate  fiat  and  perfect 
enough  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  a  press. 

Bank-note  i-equirements,  os  is  well  known,  have  led  to  many  curious  ami  valu- 
able inventions,  in  respect  both  to  paper  and  printing.    There  is  Messrs.  Perkins 


iiidMia»»»wift»j.'>^i,-^ww*;»:a-r.w.<n.iM 


rnrNTisn :  its  MonEns  VAmETiF.s. 


'>8 


I  portion  of  the  map ; 

form  a  sort  of  tinted 
i  in  a  minute ;  and,  by 
'er  it  encounters  tlio 
<ea. 

typography  and  litlio- 
j  types ;  an  impression 
Mnainder  of  tlio  desi|^» 
e  usual  material ;  and 

lithographic  method, 
irdered,  tabiilar,  or  or- 
seful   extension— since 

the  artistic  grace  oi' 
nch  invention,  is  a  po- 
printing  surface  raised 

ich  the  embarrassingly- 
1.  It  seems  to  be  an 
engraving,  by  prodnc 
r  in  relievo,  has  some- 
mother.  The  French 
tn,  sa)ti  that  this  panci- 
1  eveiy  kind  of  metal 
i^aphic,  or  typographic 
ving  on  wood,  steel,  or 
r,  in  such  manner  as  to 
ypographic  press."  The 
nore  exi)pditious  in  its 
)rcss,  that  it  would  be  a 
graving  really  could  be 
liard  Greek  name  to  the 

r  important,  contained, 
ibitor,  M.  Scholer,  calls 
)r-plate  can  be  engraved 
;  and  M.  Scholer  exlii- 
ess.  In  the  first  place 
face  an  even  layer  of 
lin  coat  of  silver  is  ap- 
(vith  a  sharp-pointod  in- 
:  composition  beneath  ; 
dy  is,  the  black  lines  of 
copper  cast  is  taken  by 
cast  is  produced  by  the 
le  silvered  composition 
)ns  may  be  taken  by  the 
tdes  of  applying  electro- 
it  it  must  require  veiy 
■I  plate  flat  and  perfect 

0  many  curious  and  valu- 
There  is  Messrs.  Perkins 


iind  Heath's  method,  by  which  one  proccHs  of  engraving  suffices  for  an  unli- 
mited uimdior  of  inipressiouH,  by  a  transfer  of  tlie  device  from  liard  to  Hott 
steel.  There  are  Mr.  Oldham's  nund)ering  machines,  as  used  at  the  Bank  of 
I'ingland,  whendiy  bank-notes  may  be  numbered  ccmsecutively  with  unerring 
accuracy  and  groat  facility.  'I'here  is  a  method,  paUaited  a  few  yeais  ago,  but 
not  (so  far  as  we  are  aware)  yet  acted  on,  for  a  very  peculiar  mode  of  pruning 
i)aiik-notes  ;  a  groundwork  of  geometrical  figures  is  printed  with  an  ink  ot  a 
certJiin  chemical  charoc-.ter;  another  design,  different  from  the  former,  is 
printed  with  a  different  colour,  and  the  note  is  then  printed  with  the  usual 
erUries — thus  [jreseuting  many  chemical  obstacles  to  imitation  or  tiansfer. 
riiere  is  the  United  States'  patent  for  bank-note  ])ai)er,  in  which  the  number 
of  threads  introduced  hito  each  piece;  of  paper  is  made  in  some  way  to  indi- 
cate the  nundier  of  dollars  for  which  the  note  is  current.  There  was  Mr. 
Kisher's  bank-note  pai)or,  shown  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  prepared  for  re- 
ceiving black  hitters  on  a  neutral-tinted  oniamental  background,  from  which  a 
signature  in  common  ink  could  not  be  erased  without  changing  the  colour  of 
tlio  ground.  There  was  Mr.  Saunders's  'white  and  coloured  safety  paper'  for 
hank  notes,  bankers'  cheques,  letters  of  credit,  &c.,  capable  of  detecting  the 
removal  of  writing  by  any  chemical  agent. 

It  is  in  relation  to  cheinistiy,  or  chemical  affinity  and  repulsion,  that  we  ought 
\jn  regard  tlie  Aiuutath  printing  which  made  such  a  commotion  a  few  years  ago. 
In  1841  the  world  was  startled  with  this  new  art — tliis  handbook  of  forgery  or 
of  stealing,  as  some  would  fain  have  deemed  it ;  in  1H.5 1  we  hear  little  of  it.  It 
is  certainly  a  remarkable  process,  depending  mainly  on  the  antagonism  of  oil 
and  water.  A  prinU'd  sheet  of  paper  is  moistened  with  dilute  phosphoric  acid, 
and  is  pressed  on  a  clean  surface  of  zinc ;  and  by  this  contact  the  acid  of  the 
imprinted  part  vtclm  die  zinc  beneath,  while  tlie  printed  part  sets  of  on  the  zinc. 
There  is  thus  produced  a  reverse  copy  of  the  printing  on  the  zinc.  The  plate 
is  washed  with  on  acid  solution  of  gum,  and  is  then  inked:  the  affinities  in 
Home  instances,  and  the  repulsions  in  others,  cause  tlio  hues  of  the  device 
(whatever  it  may  bo)  to  take  the  ink,  but  the  other  parts  of  Uie  plate  to  remain 
clean  ;  and  the  printing  then  follows.  This  Anastatic  meUiod  of  printing  has 
-(me  a  little,  and  only  a  little,  beyond  tlie  limits  of  a  manipiUative  curiosity. 
Mr.  Cowell,  of  Ipswich,  has  published  a  '  Descriptive  Account '  of  the  process, 
with  illusti-ative  specimens  and  practical  instructions.  The  claims  put  forUi 
for  the  method  are  somewhat  comprehensive ;  for  it  is  averred  that  "  designs 
produced  either  by  the  ordinary  process  of  jirinting  from  types,  copper  or  steel 
plates,  wood,  stone,  &c.,  or  by  the  manual  operations  of  writing  or  drawing  in 
4)repared  ink  or  chalk,  may  be  readily  ti-ansfen-ed  to  the  metiil  plate,  and  an 
indefinite  number  of  copies  produced,  at  a  i-eally  trifling  cost."  The  time  has 
not  arrived  for  determining  the  real  commercial  and  artistic  value  of  the  art ; 
yet  a  marked  and  distuict  value  it  assuredly  will  have,  for  it  is  one  of  the  most 
l)eculiar  modes  of  coptjUKj  ever  devised. 

Photoijrnphy  or  Da/f\wrreotype  seems  to  belong  so  much  more  nearly  to  I  me 
Art  than  to  tlie  printing  ai-t,  that  its  claim  to  a  place  in  tlie  present  sheet  is 
not  quite  indisputable;  still,  as  we  wish  to  show  Uie  bearings  which  the 
numerous  family  of  '  graphs '  and  '  types '  have  one  towai'ds  anotlier,  a  few 
words  relating  to  this  curious  art  may  be  desirable. 

To  paint  a  picture  by  a  sunbeam  is  certainly  a  beautiful  ait ;  but  to  give 
pennauency  to  tlie  picture  has  required  all  the  resom-ces  of  modern  chcmistiy. 
l.ikc  eveiy  other  ai't,  tlie  progress  of  impiovemcni  lias  been  gimlual,  from  small 
beginnings  to  splendid  results.   The  old  alchemists  knew  that  certain  chemical 


llnril  imirfri'TliTr 


1 


g^  MIINTING  :   1T8   MODKIIN   VAIIIETIES. 

""'  X^C^t,.^ma™tl  tJRvy  li^^  .^  •  i""  ■' ™ 

went  fiu-thei ,  and  vveugwou  ui^^elf  and  then    n  conjunction  with  M. 

M.  Niepce.  a  Frenchnmn-fust  »y  ""'.^^'^^^  ,,^  fi^^t  offect«d.  In  lb;)9 
Da«uenc-by  whom  the  fixing  of  «/"";I^'"^f^";t' -Se  of  silver  is  on  exqui- 
DagueiTe  puhUcly  announced  his  ^^"^^''^rXuhe  vaoour  of  mercury  t«nds  to 
sitely  sensitive  material  to  act  ^ J- "T  ^^^^^^^  ^;S  Most  cuXusly.  onr 
develop  and  fix  t^VrTox  SboK  f  trkin^  on  Ihe  same  kind  of  experi- 
oxvn  countryman,  Mr.  ^'^''.^i^l^^' ^''^^edge  of  the  Frenchman's  labours, 
ments  at  the  same  time,  ^3*°"^^,?^"yX^^7^,a  Leverrier,  so  in  tliis  case- 
As  in  the  great  P^S't^g^^tSw're^^^^^^^^  -  ^he  same 
an  Englishman  and  a  *r«"«^^^^^          ^^hers  labours;  and  in  each  ca.se  the 

^^¥i:St  twelve  years  h.e  ^^te^a  ^^^ST^^^^S^^^ 

t.0,  have  been  waijting  "^f  ^^ -^"J^  J  ""Jentoi..  su'ch  as  Daou^rrotype, 
signations  drawn   from   the  J^ames  oi   u^  .gmphs'  and  'types' 

ZlZ'^^X'^'Zt' ^trol^rs'  f  t  of^Uiefe  designations 

5eX- *^^-^  •^•^  ^^rr'  ^^rveTbtrrn'o  an  accessory  to  the 

We  photographic  V^^^'V^^^^^l^fy g^  i^tZy  become  so  e?e  long; 

printhig  ait.     There  ,s  ll'^^l^TmrnZm^^^  In  electrotype  cast  has 

^LSs  r Jh  'S^;i:::t^^'^  b.  for  Oie  .ulcU  mode 

in  which  the  sketches  are  produced  by  f  ^^^Sn  ^  •  j^cult  •  but  their  rationale 
The  processes  of  photogi^phy  are  varied  and  oftendifficuU .  buttle.  ^^^^ 
is  simply  as  follows  ^-A.PfPared  surface  «f  '«^^'  PJ^J  «JJ^^  -^  ^  .^^era 
of  preparation  being  varied  accordmg  to  ^^^^"f^^'^l^T^^  the  camera; 
obscum;  the  object  to  be  copied  is  .1^  „„^£'' ^3  sK ;  the  strong 
an  image  of  tiie  object  becomes  focalised  on  Je  l^^cX  ™a^ed  sm^ace^ 
lights^dtiae  faint  hght.  ^ct  <ii toj^^^^^^^  dSen%  affected  become 
5l5edtr:^ JrS  rotife??ro?eS  renders  pi;.^ent  inste^  of 
evanescent. 

dusti7  is  developing  around  us  on  aU  sides. 


■Mto 


iiilinifllrlmni  itrr  ri 


the  Bun  ;  but  they  did 
the  eighteentli  century 
other  stage ;  hut  it  wan 
n  conjunction  with  M. 
first  effected.     In  IBIUI 
!  of  silver  is  an  exqui- 
ur  of  mercury  tends  to 
e.    Most  curiously,  our 
e  same  kind  of  experi- 
B  Frenchman "s  labours, 
errier,  so  in  tliis  case— 
Itaneously,  in  the  same 
;  and  in  each  case  the 
off  the  lion's  share  of 

hain  of  improvement  in 
3ini9t8,  artists— all  have 
d  tlie  distinctive  names, 
iriety.  Besides  tlie  de- 
i,  such  as  Dofjuerrotype, 
;r  '  graphs '  and  '  types ' 
amphitypc,  chromatype, 
t  of  Uiese  designations 

ed. 

me  an  accessoiy  to  the 
ay  become  so  ere  long ; 
an  electrotype  cast  has 
impression  printed  from 
ent  engraves  it.  Proofs 
handmaid  to  Uie  printing 
ed  m  vai-ious  illustrated 
e  but  for  the  quick  mode 

ficult;  but  their  rationale 
paper,  or  glass  (the  mode 
ial),  is  placed  in  a  camera 
I  opening  ua  the  camera ; 
)ared  surface  ;  the  strong 
mically-prepared  surface  i 
[erently  affected  become 
lers  permanent  mstead  of 

linked  to  Fine  Art  on  the 
e  association  such  as  In- 


COTTON  AND  FLAX:   A  CONTRAST. 


A  COMMERCIAL  rivalry  has  commenced  ;  cotton  and  flax  being  the  competitoi-s. 
Flax  took  the  lead  in  the  spinning  and  weaving  districts  of  England  until  the 
days  of  Hargreaves  and  Arkwright,  when  machmery  gave  an  advantage  to 
cotton  manufactures  which  eighty  years  have  not  sufficed  to  distmb.  Flax  is 
now  advancing  agam,  and  its  uses  are  extending ;  it  is  well,  therefore,  to  know 
what  ai-e  the  claims,  tlie  merits,  the  relative  strengths,  of  the  two  rivals. 

The  contrasts  between  cotton  and  flax  are  veiy  marked,  and  meet  us  m 
every  aspect.    Cotton  is  taken  from  the  seed-pod  of  a  plant;  flax  is  tlie  fibrous 
envelope  of  a  stalk.     Cotton  is  nearly  all  gi'own  by  slave-labour;  flax  by  free 
labour.     Cotton  is  giuv,n  more  extensively  in  warm  climates  than  mcold; 
flax  more  in  cold  than  m  warm.     Cotton  sends  nothing  to  market  but  the 
downy  fibres ;  flax  sends  its  whole  bulk  to  the  rippling,  breaking,  and  scutch- 
ing machines.     Cotton  is  gathered  m  small  tufts  from  the  standing  plant;  flax 
is  pulled  up,  stalk  and  all.     Cotton  is  prepared  for  the  manufacturer  almost 
wholly  by  dry  processes ;  flax  requires  steepmg  and  wetting  in  manv  ways  and 
at  many  times.     The  bulk  of  om-  cotton  comes  to  us  across  the  Atiantic  ;  the 
bulk  of  our  flax  crosses  the  Gemian  Ocean.     Our  colonies  would  send  us,  of 
tlie  two,  more  cotton  than  flax ;  om-  home  counties  supply  some  flax,  but  no 
cotton.     The  cotton  fibre,  microscopically  viewed,  is  a  flat  ribbon ;  the  flax 
fibre  is  a  lioUow  tube.     Cotton  is  rarely  manufactured  in  the  distiricts  where  it 
is  grown  (except  by  the  primitive  hand-method  of  India);  flax  is  manufactured 
in  all  the  flax-growing  countries.     Cotton  takes  rich  uyes  and  colours ;  flax 
receives  them  less  kindly.     Cotton  is  suitable  for  soft  and  warm  woven  goods ; 
flax  fabrics  are  harder,  colder,  and  stronger.      Cotton   adapts  itself  to  ma- 
chinery in  every  part  of  the  manufacturing  processes ;  flax  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  manage  by  automatic  agency,  though  our  manufacturers  are  gi-adually 
brmging  it  to  obedience.     Cotton  affords  no  room  for  home-labom-  in  the  ear- 
lier operations;  flax  might  employ  scores  of  thousands  in  Britain,  before  the 
fibre  itself  reaches  the  flax  mill. 

We  might  carry  on  this  Ust  of  contrasts  to  a  greater  lengUi ;  but  enough 
has  been  said  to  characterise  the  antagonism.  There  is  now,  however,  an 
antagonism  of  anotiier  kind,  arismg  not  so  much  from  the  qualities  of  the  two 
plants,  per  se,  as  from  the  relation  in  which  English  manufacturers  find  them- 
selves placed  to  the  growers  of  these  plants.  The  cotton  worid  is  a  little  un- 
easy as  to  the  future  supply  of  raw  material ;  the  flax  worid  offers  to  do  what 
cotton  cannot,  and  is  even  bold  enough  to  challenge  cotton  for  tiie  leadmg 
position.  In  oi*der  to  jot  down  a  few  of  the  "curiosities"  presented  by  tins 
large  and  impoi-tant  subject,  we  will  first  take  a  general  glance  at  tiie  cotton 

manufacture,  and  then  at  that  of  flax,  without  attempting  any  mmute  detail  of 

operations. 


MH 


F    i 


'! 


COTTON    AND    IXAX  :    A    fONTnAST. 


Cotton:  Whence  we  Obtain  it,  and  How. 

FA-cry  one  now  knows  tliat  cotton  is  a  soft,  white,  woolly,  fibrous  substiincc, 
which  is  brouglit  to  Kiigliuul  in  p'Oshoh  ;  ixnd  that  the  fibres  iire  (liHontanKleil, 
Htrni},'ht«!i«!(l,  and  made  to  join  smoothly  und  lexularly  into  a  yiuni  or  Uireud ; 
which  thread  is  then  woven  into  one  or  other  of  many  ditiorent  kinds  ot 
cotton  clotli.  Every  one  knows,  too,  that  tha  operations  on  these  (lehcate 
downy  fibres  constitute  one  of  tlic  largest  depiulnientfl  of  British  industrj^ ; 
but  Uiere  are  few  readci-s  who  know  how  large. 

Most  marvellous,  indeed,  is  the  magnitude  of  these  operations.  The  (luan- 
tities  and  weights  which  denote  tlie  present  state  of  our  cotton  manufactures 
ore  80  startling,  that  nothing  but  a  concun-onco  of  evidence  from  all  quarters 
could  render  Uiem  credible.  That  wo  work  up  into  yam  nearly  two  uulhon 
pounds  of  cotton  every  day ;  that  we  have  twenty  million  spindles,  whirling  their 
rapid  course  in  spinning  tliis  cotton  into  yarn ;  that  a  (iuartx;rof  a  million  power- 
looms,  besides  hand-looms,  are  employed  in  weaving  so  much  of  this  yaiii  as 
is  not  exported  before  weaving ;  tliat  wo  have  two  tliousand  factories  ni  wlucli 
this  mass  of  cotton  is  spun  and  woven ;  U)at  between  tliree  and  four  hundred 
thousand  persons  ore  daily  employed  within  the  walls  of  these  mills,  besides 
those  elsewhere  employed  ui  various  departments  of  tlie  manufacture ;  tJiat  (lie 
machmeiy  of  these  mills  requires  eighty  thousand  horse-power  of  steam  and 
hydraulic  agency ;  that,  after  supplying  the  home  demand  in  1W6(),  we  exported 
woven  cotton  goods  to  such  an  extent  as  would  give  an  average  of  nearly  four 
million  yards  (far  beyond  two  tliousaud  miles)  every  day;  that,  besides  this, 
and  besides  cotton  lace  and  hosiery,  we  exported  nearly  half  a  million  pounds 
of  imwoven  cotton  yam  per  day ;— that  all  Uiis  is  true,  we  have  evidence  of 
various  kinds,  but  especially  an  elaborate  Report  prepared  for  tlie  House  of 
Commons  a  few  montiis  back. 

The  numbers  and  quantities  in  respect  to  tlie  flax  manufacture  are  much 
more  humble.  The  flax  mills  in  the  United  Kingdom  number  about  four 
hundred,  wiUiin  which  seventy  Uiousand  operatives  are  engaged ;  and  U)  work 
the  machinery  of  these  mills  about  fourteen  tliousand  horse-power  agency  of 
steam  and  water  is  requked.  After  supplying  our  own  wonts  in  1850,  vye 
were  able  to  spare  to  foreign  coimtries  three  or  four  million  yards  of  linen  (in 
the  year);  besides  linen  lace,  thread,  and  yam,  to  the  value  of  about  a  million 
and  a  quarter  sterling.  It  is  singular,  tliat,  while  so  many  contrasts  are  pre- 
sented by  our  manufactures  in  cotton  and  flax,  there  is  so  close  on  analogy  in 
respect  to  the  perionml  of  the  factories.  The  average  number  of  operatives  in 
all  our  cotton  factories  is  almost  exactly  equal  to  the  average  in  all  our  flax 
factories ;  tliis  number  is  about  170.  In  tlie  supply  of  moving  power  and  of 
spindles  to  factories,  tlie  ratio  is  higher  for  cotton  than  for  flax ;  while  the 
weujht  of  material  worked  up  by  each  operative  is  gieater  for  flax  than  for 
cotton,  owing  to  tlie  relative  stoutness  and  solidity  of  linen  goods.  Of  cotton- 
mill  operatives,  Lancashire  has  twice  as  many  as  all  tlie  rest  of  tlie  United 
Kmgdom  taken  togetlier;  of  flax-mill  operatives,  Ireland  cliums  more  tlian 
England,  and  Scotland  more  than  Ireland— the  ratios  being  neoily  as  19,  Sil, 
and  28.  .... 

Such,  then,  being  the  enomious  scale  of  om-  operations  in  connection  witli 
the  cotton  manufacture,  many  important  questions  stait  up  ;  and  these  ques- 
tions now  stand  fortli  so  broadly,  that  they  mitst  receive  answera,  let  the  re- 
spondents bo  who  they  may.    Is  the  growth  of  cotton  sufficient  for  our  wants? 


Hn»i     ""'~ 


COTTON   AND    FUIX  :   A   CONTRACT. 


H 


Htiw. 

Ily,  fibrousi  substance, 
)i('s  lire  disentangled, 
ito  II  yiuni  or  tlireud  ; 
ly  dillVrent  kind«  of 
3n«  on  these  delicate 
of  British  industrj' ; 

jemtions.  The  riuan- 
r  cotton  manufactures 
enco  from  all  quarters 
,m  nearly  two  million 
piudles,  whirling  their 
•tcrof  a  milliou  power- 
nmuh  of  this  yam  us 
and  factories  in  which 
iree  and  four  hundred 
(f  these  mills,  besides 
manufacture ;  Uiat  Uic 
se-power  of  steam  and 
d  in  1H60,  we  exported 
average  of  nearly  four 
ay;  that,  besides  this, 
half  a  million  pounds 
,  we  have  evidence  of 
ai'cd  for  Uie  House  of 

manufactuie  nvo  much 
tm  number  about  four 
engaged ;  and  U)  work 
horse-power  agency  of 
vn  wants  in  1H50,  wo 
lion  yards  of  linen  (in 
alue  of  about  a  million 
nany  contrasts  are  pre- 
Bo  close  an  analogy  in 
umber  of  operatives  in 
avemge  in  all  our  flax 
moving  power  and  of 
lan  for  flax ;  while  the 
ater  for  flax  than  for 
non  goods.  Of  cotton- 
Uie  rest  of  tlie  United 
and  claims  more  Uian 
)eiug  neoj'ly  as  19,  ai, 

ins  in  connection  with 
rt  up  ;  and  these  quea- 
ve  answera,  let  the  re- 
ufficient  for  om-  wants? 


Is  it  likely  so  to  continue?  Is  our  supply  at  tlie  mercy  not  only  of  climate 
anil  weatlier,  but  of  politics  and  trude-UriiTS  ?  Are  any  of  our  colonies  witliin 
the  cotton-growing  latitudes ;  and  do  they  grow  i-otton ;  or  can  tliey  grow  it ; 
and  if  not,  why  not? 

These  questions,  and  others  of  similar  ^enor,  have  betn  agitating  tho  manu- 
facturing world  pretty  extensively  witliin  the  lost  two  or  tluoo  ycai-s.  It  is 
scarcely  a  figure  of  speeoh  to  say  tliat  the  prosperity  of  Manchester  and  the 
whole  of  the  Lancoshiro  district  liangs  upon  a  cotton  fibre.  (Cotton  has  made 
Manchester,  and  made  Liver|)ool.  Cotton  has  brought  up,  if  not  given  birth 
to,  Ashton  and  Stockport,  Bury  and  Burnley,  Blackburn  and  Oldham,  and 
the  whole  range  of  cotton  towns.  Cotton  mode  the  Bridgn water  Canal ;  and 
then  it  made  the  flrst  great  passenger  railway.  Cotton  created  tlio  threat  engi- 
neering machinists  of  Lancashire,  who  learned  their  ti-ade  by  makmg  looms 
and  s|)inning  machines,  and  then  steam-engines  to  drive  those  machines. 
Cotton  Umght  us  the  complete  theoiy  of  thf  fuctoi-y  system — a  good  or  an 
injury  according  to  the  mode  in  which  it  is  conducted.  Cotton  has  given  us 
some  of  our  greatest  capitalists  and  a  few  of  our  gi-oatest  statesmen.  Cotton 
has  raised  our  foreign  commerce  to  a  gigantic  height.  Cotton  enabled  us  to 
dare  a  Napoleonic  war  in  past  days,  and  is  helping  us  to  pay  tlie  never-ending 
e.vpenses  accioiing  therefrom.  Ever)'thing  that  aff'ects  cotton  affects  Latica- 
shire.  We  may  almost  assert  that  eveiy  wind  that  blows  upon,  or  rain 
that  saturates,  a  cotton  field  in  America,  is  felt  in  Tiancoshire.  There  is  u 
sensitive  barometer  always  at  work ;  its  degrees  jue  marked  by  eightlis  of 
a  pemjy  ;  and  tlio  price  of  a  pound  of  cotton  is  raised  or  lowered  one  or 
more  of  these  degrees  by  causes  seemingly  most  remote.  How  many  mil- 
lion bales  will  America  produce  in  the  next  crop  ? — is  a  question  which  finds 
entrance  into  all  the  commercial  arrangements  of  Lancashire ;  for  the  pro- 
tits  of  manufacture  will  depend  upon  tlie  extent  of  sale,  and  the  extent  of 
sale  will  depend  upon  price,  and  price  will  depend  upon  the  price  of  cotton, 
and  the  price  of  cotton  will  depend  upon  the  abundance  or  deficiency  of 
the  American  crop — all  tliis  is,  of  coui'se,  not  strictly  the  case ;  but  it  will 
serxQ  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the  connection  between  the  cotton  fields  of 
one  country  and  the  cotton  mills  of  another. 

The  above  picture  could  not  be  faitliful  mdess  America  were  beyond  all 
question  tlie  ffreat  source  of  our  cotton  supply.  This  she  undoubtedly  is ; 
and  hence  we  are  virtually  dependent  on  tliat  country  in  respect  to  this 
important  material  of  manufacture.  For  tlie  last  two  or  three  years  we 
have  imported  upwards  of  seven  hundred  million  pounds  of  cotton  per  annum, 
of  which  no  less  than  four-fifths  are  derived  from  the  United  States ;  India, 
Brazil,  and  Egypt  supply  nearly  all  the  remainder.  The  average  price  of 
all  the  cotton  imported  was  about  Gd.  per  lb.  in  1849,  and  nearly  BJ.  in  1860 
— a  most  momentous  increase  this,  considering  the  quantity  of  material  to 
which  it  applies.  The  bags,  or  bales,  which  bring  over  die  cotton  contain  on 
an  average  about  400  lbs.  each;  about  eleven-twelfths  of  the  whole  quantity 
lu-e  worked  up  and  spun  in  this  coiuitry,  while  one-twelftli  is  re-expoited  for 
mftnufaoturo  in  otlier  countries.  Hometimea  a  greater  weight  of  cotton  is 
worked  up  in  one  year  than  in  others,  from  causes  irrespective  of  tlie  actual 
briskness  of  trade ;  there  is  at  times  a  demand  for  heavy  goods  ratlier  tlian 
light,  or  there  is  a  state  of  the  mtuket  in  which  the  former  pay  better  tlioii  Uie 
latter.  Ic  some  woven  cottons  tlie  material  is  woilh  twice  as  much  as  the 
labour;  while  at  the  opposite  extreme  there  are  flue  and  delicate  goods  in 
which  the  labour  ia  worth  twelve  or  fifteen  times  as  much  oo  the  material ; 

I,  3 


I  »iiiBi-n>rriiiiiirf'"-^" — ^,.-p..-.»ai*i-ft-., .■.-.•■  w-vi,>^ 


I 


mm 


4  rOTTOK  AND  PLAX:   A  COMTRABT. 

S°o    I'd  l.en»  it  i.  found  that  »hcn  the  Amorican  «'-»P  '•»"'*  "'If  ^ 
pS  ""loquently  mi.«d,  our  heavy  cotton  good,  can  »,U,  diBiculty  hnd 

'"Thl' JmSau  croi.  may  bo  ,oiJ"  «u  avomgc,  but  it  cmnot  bo  f»o.wn>, 

ZX  S  «'  .uS  S'/isC  t„.„c„,  a  conuu.rci.1  Un.i. .»  the  „ua„t,., 
'Ttthi^hettteu  yea,,,  the  United  SUto.  c,.p,  h.v.  varied  ftom. ,0 W«.i 

it=;f;:rry^r.,.«o:.hi;ea,^^^^^^^^ 

tho  advivnce  of  price  "«*  «f  ""-yf ^  ^^^  ^^  j,,i,,  ^  ^^je  of  escaping  from  this 

Lancashire  is  put  to  '^f  7-;."\Vtete9     What  other  counUies  contribute 

perilous  depcndev^ce  m.  J'^^^Umt^d  States^^Wha^  ^^^^^  extensively'^    India 

to  our  «"W^y  ■  ^^^^^^iS    but  the  cotton  is  neiUier  so  long  in  Uie  staple 
grows  CO  ton  ^^"^X^^^'^Vf^^^^  .^^  i^  hence  not  so  much  coveted  by  our 

pereons  doubt  "bolbB  ™  Zds  u.  a  Uttlo  citton.  but  that  litUe  does  not 

J  s  rrinLd'SnTo'-iiuer^^,.  j^i-^^^^^^^ 
«%'H'M^«^5^.SoX^"^ 


tfiitirrn 


limtiam 


I 


ly  bo  pfrcatpr  iit  onu 
>y-valufl  of  th«  Rtxxls 
to  iinwov»ui  yam  :  ia 
Uy  aiiumiit  ti)  throo- 
ho  cxfUiiHiU!  prodiiclH 
ly  bo  only  ono-tweu- 
xmr  thttii  ueiijht  fiitt-r 
I  IbH.  of  cotton  coulil 
unio  tiniu  tliat  woulil 
10. 

rice  of  cotton  greatly 
1  more  sensibly  than 
rop  is  Hniall,  and  the 
with  difficulty  find  a 

cannot  be  far  over  an 
>  Hlaves  can  i)ick ;  and 
ites,  there  is  (virtually, 
d  limit  to  the  quantity 

)  varied  from  1,000,000 
■oni  !i,200,000.  About 
ngland,  tlie  remainder 
uul  woven  in  America, 
■eater  in  tlic  aggregate 
ng  and  weaving  power 
ned  fact  that  the  con- 
le  productive,  but  has 
atively  small ;  and  this 
ictually  paid  7,000,000/. 
aid  have  been  paid  had 

)  of  cscaphig  from  this 
ler  countiies  contribute 
ore  extensively  ?    India 
ler  80  long  in  Uie  staple 
3  much  coveted  by  our 
ich  India  cotton  obtains 
vation  and  for  freight  to 
;  of  the  cotton,  the  India 
Hindoos  require  a  large 
lings  considered,  many 
jased   supply  Irom   our 
but  tliat  little  does  not 
,•  and  otlier  districts  in 
tton  crop  ;  but  Colonial- 
<y  bright  gleam  on  tliosc 
ess  the  soil,  the  climate, 
I  the  futm-e  must  tell  its 
according  to  Dr.  Lang, 
isly  be  gi'own ;  but  there 
paced,  jogtrot  industry, 


COTTON   ANIl    FI.AX  1    A    CONTIIAST.  6 

while  the  copper  of  nurru-Uurru  and  tlio  gold  of  Opliir  are  glittering  in  tlio 
eyes  of  the  cojonistH.  Unnil  sends  in  about  |(Mi,(»(Mt  ImJcM  of  cotton  in  a 
year;  but  as  any  great  incrt'iiHC!  must  come  from  the  interior,  and  as  roiuls 
and  steam  iiuvigalion  are  sadly  ni'gie<;ted  in  that  vast  country,  many  years 
nnist  elapse  before  any  notable  advance  can  be  maile.  The  Wist  Inilie.i 
comprise  islands  and  districts  which  are  hotter  lilted  for  cotton  than  for  sugar 
cidture ;  and  now  that  the  urtilicial  prop  to  the  sugar  trade*  has  been  nituoved, 
many  persons  think  that  a  clicering  prospect  may  be  atl'ordcd  by  cotton. 
The  great  doubt  is,  whether  //w  negroes  will  cimsciit  to  svork  so  hciutily  as 
to  enable  our  West  India  planters  to  compote  with  the  «/<irt!-negro  labour  of 
the  United  States. 

Ot;a  Cotton  >[ills,  and  Tiiiiiii  Ciiakactehistics. 

In  whatever  country  cotton  is  grown,  the  mode  of  culture  is  nearly  alike. 
The  cotton  tree  is  a  herbaceous  plant,  usually  from  four  to  si.\  feet  in  heiglit, 
varying  according  to  circumstances  of  soil  and  climate.  Very  little  attention 
is  paid  to  any  part  but  the  seed-vessel,  which  is  a  cajisule  containing  three, 
four,  or  five  lobes ;  in  these  lobes  are  nuuiy  seeds  enveloped  in  cotton  fibres. 
When  tlie  so-called  "  Ethio[)ian "  songstifrs  tell  us  of  their  heroes  and 
henuncs  "  pickhi' cotton  in  tlio  fiel',"  they  are  thus  far  right;  the  cotton  i* 
picked  in  the  fielil,  and  thi*  tre(>  left  standibg ;  the  tufts  of  cotton  are  taken 
from  tlie  capsules,  thrown  into  baskets,  and  conveyed  within  doors,  to  be 
somewhat  cleansed  from  impurities  before  being  shipped  to  the  manufacturei's. 
There  are  usually  two  crops  in  a  year,  one  eight  months  and  one  twelve 
months  after  the  time  of  sowini;;  the  two  gatherings  from  each  i)lant  yield 
about  a  pound  of  cotton  fibre  on  an  avemge ;  and  an  acre  of  plants  about 
^70  lbs. 

One  of  the  few  machines  employed  upon  cotton  before  tlio  actual  manu- 
facture is  the  (fin — an  apparatus  never  seen  in  action  in  tliis  country,  because 
we  do  not  receive  the  cotton  in  a  state  which  requires  its  services.  When  the' 
cotton  has  been  collected  from  the  field,  it  is  found  to  be  mixed  up  with  seeds, 
the  removal  of  which  is  essential  to  the  subsequent  operations.  The  earlier 
machines  were  vei-y  inetlieiont  to  this  end ;  but  the  patent  gins  now  employed 
do  their  work  well  and  rapidly.  So  numerous,  bulky,  and  weighty  aie  tlio 
seeds  gathered  with  the  fibres  from  tlie  pod,  that  they  form  three-fourths  of  the 
entire  weight — tlie  weight,  as  imported  into  England,  being  only  a  quarter  of 
the  gi'oss  weight.  The  gins  \  aiy  considerably  in  the  mode  of  action  ;  but  all 
contain  teeth,  spikes,  combs,  or  saw-edges,  affixed  to  a  rotating  cylinder,  and 
mode  to  shake,  and  open,  and  tear  the  little  knobs  of  cotton  so  thoroughly  as 
to  cause  the  seeds  to  separate  and  fall  out. 

The  laden  ships  cross  the  Atlantic,  and  Livtupool  becomes  the  recipient  of 
these  myriads  of  cotton  tufts.  If  a  pliuit  yields  I  lb.  of  impure  fibre  per  year, 
and  if  4  lbs.  of  this  became  lib.  after  being  "  ginned,"  and  if  England's 
appetite  for  this  commodity  extends  to  700,000,000  lbs.  of  ginned  cotton  in  a 
year — tliis  looks  veiy  much  as  if  2,800,000,000  cotton  pods  have  to  be  picked 
by  negro  fingora  (or  other  fingers)  for  our  annual  supply.  Although  London 
and  Glasgow,  and  a  few  other  ports,  receive  portions  of  these  immense 
cargoes,  Liverpool  receives  the  ovei-whelming  majority ;  and  from  tliat  busy 
emporium  the  bales  of  cotton  are  transmitted  to  the  great  manufacturing 
towns  of  Lancashire  and  the  neighbouring  counties — Manchester  being  the 
monarch  over  all  the  rest. 


MfcimWwii-i**  r  ii  »>  i*i  •'jMwart.'  ■ 


■AiNMtttiWMi 


i 


a  COTTON   ASP    FLAX  :    A   CONTRAST. 

The  cotton  factorieB  of  the  North  may  he  grouped  in  t^«  ^f  .  ^j^^J^^^ 
Srsllieywt  SsSSW^i"  -SSin,''TeS  *e  huge! 

"  MeS"!;;'"  tor«-e  the  country  mill..    Tl»  Ml.  *■*  ..pamtc 
the  other  is  the  workmen's  village,  the  church  and  the  cl^apek,  the  scMO 


wo  great  divisions  as 
iier  are  in  the  midst 
dense  population  of 
,    Preston,    Oldham, 
ms.     Here  the  huge, 
to  our  view  on  everj- 
«ctural   adornments; 
leir  lower  rooms  ai-e 
I  their  chimneys  are 
e  declared  again  and 
noke,  and  that  fuel  is 
icturers — shrewd  men 
ery  little  to  carry  this 
1  either  in  the  experi- 
ious  therefrom.     But 
Qoke.     And  if  we  take 
t  presents  itself  1     As 
of  these  busy  towns 
factory  gateway  troop 
the  most  of  the  Tiour 
e  to  walk  far  to  tlieir 
g,  grouping,  gossiping 
tidy;  some  slatternly. 
I  hearth  and  a  cheerful 
>robably  as  slovenly  as 
is,  that  the  operatives 
upwards  of  a  tliousand 
thousand;  and  when 
ling  like  a  hundred  in 
lunce  of  the  by-streets 

e  hills  which  separate 
which  flow  across  the 
ower,  with  river  banks 
a  have  been  gradually 
3ut  far  away  from  busy 
ipeople ;  and  they  tbus 
ig  themselves,  or  a  sort 
(lething  of  the  character 
town  mills,  where  the 

0  or  how  his  operatives 
considerable  extent  is 

the  smoke  nuisance  is 
r  in  a  pretty  valley ;  on 
le  mill-owner ;  while  on 
he  chapels,  the  school- 
the  wants  of  the  '  mill- 
It  near  each  other,  the 

1  larger  body  by  and  by 

ustry  on  the  outside,  we 
scene  in  which  intensity 


COTTON  AND   FliAX  :   A  CONTRAST.  " 

marks  evervthing.  Every  minute  of  time,  every  yard  of  space,  every  practised 
eve  every  \lextcrovis  finger,  every  inventive  mind— all  arc  at  high-pressure 
service  There  are  (in  the  best  modem  mills)  no  lumber  attics  or  lumber 
cellars  •  everything  is  cut  out  for  its  work  and  the  work  for  it.  Ascend  to  the 
upper  range  'or  floor,  and  what  do  we  see?  Probably  we  are  m  a  room  of 
immense  len'^Qi,  lighted  by  dozens  of  windows,  and  into  which  bales  ol  cotton 
are  being  hauled  by°steam  power  from  below.  Machines  of  lai-gc  size  and  herco 
action  are  waiting  to  receive  this  cotton,  and  tear  it,  turn  it,  shake  it,  comb  it, 
and  i-out  it  about  until  it  becomes  ranged  in  cleanly  mid  orderly  lorm ;  while 
operatives  of  both  sexes  and  various  ages  an  tending  these  machines  and 
supplying  tJieir  insatiable  appetite  for  cotton.  Lower  and  lower  if  wo  de- 
scend into  the  building,  we  find  the  cotton  advancing  in  its  stages  towards 
completion,  and  more  and  more  hands  employed  compoved  with  tlie  weight 
of  cotton  operated  upon.  On  a  level  vnlh  the  floor  (if  it  be  both  a  spinning 
and  a  weaving  mill,  which  many  are)  we  find  the  weaving-shed,  with  its  ranks 
of  noisy  power-looms,  and  its  Amazon  army  of  women  and  girls  attending  them. 
Exterior  to  this,  probably,  ai-e  the  boilers  and  engines  which  supply  moUve 
power  to  the  whole ;  and  beneath  are  the  warming  and  ventilating  arrange- 
ments which  give  the  mill-owner  a  command  over  the  temperatme  of  his 
establishment. 

CorroN-MiLi-  Opebations.  ' 

Any  one  would  think,  from  the  wonders  achieved  by  Arkwright  and  his  imme- 
diate successors,  that  cotton-spinning  and  weaving  must  have  long  ago  reached 
their  summit  of  excellence.  Yet  so  far  is  this  from  bemg  the  case,  that  every 
month  produces  newly-pat«nted  machines  for  one  or  other  of  the  various 
processes.  The  truth  is,  that  although  the  primaiy  operations  are  now  con- 
ducted on  a  pretty  uniform  plan,  tlie  minor  details  are  subject  to  constant 
change  and  improvement;  any  increase  of  fineness  In  the  yarn  produced,  or 
of  quantity  spun  in  a  given  time,  or  of  strength  m  the  tabric  woven,  or  of 
durability  in  the  machine,  or  of  ease  La  management— any  such  wiU  waiTant 
the  patenting  of  a  new  machine.  Men  do  not  now  search  for  a  new  prumpU 
in  cotton  machinery ;  their  improvements  are  in  degree  rather  than  m  kind. 

A  period  of  about  a  hundred  and  ten  yeai-s  has  now  elapsed  since  ma- 
chinei-Y  (in  the  modem  acceptation  of  that  term)  was  applied  to  cotton-spinning. 
Lewis  Paul  made  a  carding  machine  about  1740,  for  carding  or  combing  cotton 
more  expeditiously  than  it  can  be  carded  by  hand.  Hai^eaves,  at  a  later 
date,  made  another  and  better  machine.  Paul,  too,  mvented  a  spmmng-firame 
to  act  by  rollers;  and  here  again  Hargreavea  improved  upon  laul,  by  in- 
venting  the  spinning-jemiy.  It  was  about  the  begmnrng  of  tlie  reign  of 
George  III  that  Hargreaves  introduced  his  inventions  ;  he  had  a  desperate 
battle  to  fight  against  prejudices  and  intrigues  of  all  kinds,  and  was  made 
poor  (or  kept  poor)  by  that  winch  was  desfmed  to  make  others  rich.  Taking 
the  yVar  1760  as  representing  what  we  may  call  the  era  of  Hargreaves,  a 
rapid  succession  of  novelties  appeared.  There  w^  Lee's  ingenious  feedmg- 
apron  for  the  carding-maohine ;  there  was  the  '  doffing  apparatus  U>  remove 
the  cotton  fh)m  the  caids  or  combs;  there  was  Arkwright s  spinning-frame, 
bvwhinh  stronger  yam  was  producible  than  by  any  earlier  machme ;  there 
was  Cmmpton's  beautiful  mule-jenny,  a  sort  of  compound  of  Hargreaves  spm- 
ning-iennv  with  Arkwright's  spinning-frame  ;  there  was  Kelly  s  application  ot 
water  power  to  work  the  mule-jenny ;  there  was  the  self-acting  mule,  mtroduoad 


itaiiiMUMWi    ■ 


1 


a 


COTTON   AND   FIAX :    A  CONTIIAST. 


I 


t! 


by  Stmlt.  improved  by  many  oUiers.  aiul  brought  to  a  h.gh  degieo  of  excel- 
knee  by  Roberts ;  there  was  the  '  throstle  '  improved  by  Dan  ortJi  and  othei-s  ; 
there  were  the  machines  for  dressing  the  yam  before  weaving  by  Radchffe 
and  others  ;  there  were  the  beautiful  card-makhig  machmos  by  Dyer  and  hi. 
successovs ;  there  were  the  steam-power  looms,  introduced  by  Dr.  Cartwright, 
and  S-adually  improved  by  oUiers-all  these  may  be  taken  as  types  of  classes 
of  iinprovements  cax^h  class  conUining  almost  numberless  mieties  How 
many  of  these  inventors  were  buffeted  about  and  reduced  to  poverty,  and 
how  few  became  enriched  by  Uieir  ingenuity,  tlic  history  of  the  cotton  manu- 

^""lunlho  midst  of  the  din  and  excitement  of  the  '  machinery  in  motion- 
department,  a  visitor  at  the  Great  Exhibition  could  have  steadily  oUowcd  the 
travels  of  a  bide  of  cotton,  he  would  have  succeeded  m  tracing  tlic  action  ot 
some  of  the  best  modern  machinery.  Let  us  conjure  up  the  scene  agam 
before  us.  and  set  the  imagination  to  work.  ^      ^  .v 

First!  t:hen,  here  are  the  bales  of  cotton,  brought  from  various  parts  of  the 
ti-opical  world,  and  weighing  300  to  400  lbs.  per  bale.     The  women  and  girls 
teke   out  this  cotton  by  handfuls,  and  feed  with  it  the  insatiable  oi,.»uni^ 
fnachine     The  cotton,  laid  upon  an  endless  apron,  is  caught  between  tlie  teeth 
of  revolving  rollei-s,  which  effectually  tear  and  separate  the  locks  asunder; 
tiie  cotton  is  opened  into  a  light  and  flocculent  mass,  and  the  few  remammg 
seeds  and  Uie  dirt  are  expelled.     Then  the  scutching  mavhnie  comes  mto  requi- 
sition •  a.rain  is  Uie  cotton  placed  upon  an  endless  apron,  and  again  exposed 
to  tlie'acSon  of  revolvmg  rollers ;  the  impurities  are  yet  further  separated,  and 
Ibo  beautiful  downy  cotton  becomes  lapped  in  a  continuous  sheet  upon  a 
blinder.     These  sheets  of  do^^'n-these  softest  of  all  soft  llFrs-^!|^«/,^« 
admiration  of  thousands  who  for  the  first  time  saw  them  m  1«^1.     How  do 
we  now  conveit  them  into  delicate  yam?    These  broad  s^oft  sheete  go  to 
the  cardino  machine,  where  a  number  of  wire  combs,  or  rather  we  bmshes 
comb  the  cotton  out  into  straight  fibres;  and  thesa.fibres  are  dexterously 
whipped  of!'  by  a  '  doffing '  ^ipparatus,  to  assume  the  form  of  delicate  nan-ow 
ribbons  or  «?<rL.     Nextte  s'ee  aU  these  slivers  joined  by  another  machine 
so  as  to  form  a  continuous  U,p;  and  this  lap  is  agam  carded  «^A  doffed,  by 
which  the  substance  becomes  equalized  as  much  as  possible.     The  cotton  is 
hus  agin  brought  te  the  state  of  a  ribbon  or  sliver;  and  then  arebrou^t 
into  use  the  machines  which  conveit  this  ribbon  mto  a  yarn  or  tb  ead      Ihe 
draxcim,  the  alnhbing,  and  the  roving  machines  all  have  relation  to  this  con- 
vert   we  see  numerous  pairs  of  rollers,  between  wbich  Hie  cotton  is  drawn ; 
the  diwing  rounds  it,  equalizes  it,  and  gives  it  a  slight  twist;  untd  at  length 
we  see  the  delicate  yam-fine,  perchance,  as  a  spider's  web-elaborated  from 

the  thick  but  soft  ropes  of  cotton.  •,  i.  u „ 

More  coiTectly.  however,  we  should  say  that  the  cotton  does  not  become 
yam  till  after  the  spinning.  Nothmg  excites  more  astornshment  in  cotton 
factories  than  the  selfactinq  mule.  The  complex  carnage,  twenty  or  thirty  feet 
K  S  S  army  of  spiAdles  (sometimes  as  many  as  800  m  number)  travels 
SyTand  fro.  Ld  draws  out  the  delicate  threads  to  a  state  of  stiU  greater 
deSy  and  tenuity;  the  drawing-out  Uiins  the  cotton,  fj«  ^J^^^^^ 
twists  it;  and  tlius  by  drawing  and  spinning  do  the  Hodldsworths  and  the 
B^i  o?the  nineteenth  century  produce  cotton  yam  whose  fi"f «««  ^J^J 
exceeds  belief.  And  while  the  mide  macldne  is  thus  making  fine  yam  for 
weft  threads,  the  throsth  machine,  by  a  different  mode  of  acUon,  produces  the 
sl^ongei  yS  for  warp-threads.    Then,  again,  if  it  be  sewing  cotton  or  hosieiy 


HH 


corroN  AND  flax:  a  contrast. 


0 


high  degree  of  excel- 
Danfortli  and  others ; 
iveaving,  by  Radclitfo 
linos  by  Dyer  and  his 
8d  by  Dr.  Cartwright, 
en  OS  types  of  classes 
rless  vaiieties.  How 
luced  to  poverty,  and 
f  of  the  cotton  nianu- 

uachinery  in  motion ' 

3  steadily  followed  the 

tracing  tlic  action  of 

6  up  the  scene  again 

n  various  parts  of  the 
The  women  and  gurls 
the  insatiable  opening 
ight  between  the  teeth 
;e  the  locks  asimder; 
md  the  few  remaining 
■hiiie  comes  into  rcqui- 
■on,  and  again  exposed 
.further  separated,  and 
tinuous  sheet  upon  a 

soft  layers — were  the 
sm  in  1851.  How  do 
oad  soft  sheets  go  to 
)r  rather  wre  bnishes, 
fibres  are  dexterously 
)rm  of  deUcate  nan-ow 
d  by  another  machine, 
carded  and  doffed,  by 
issible.     The  cotton  is 

and  then  are  brought 
I  yam  or  thread.  The 
le  relation  to  this  con- 
;h  tlie  cotton  is  drawn ; 
t  twist;  until  at  length 
i  web—elaborated  from 

otton  does  not  become 

istonishmcnt  in  cotton 

ge,  twenty  or  thirty  feet 

800  in  number)  travels 

0  a  state  of  still  greater 
m,  tlie  rapid  revolution 
Hotildswoi-ths  and  the 

1  whose  fineness  almost 
i  making  fine  yam  for 

of  action,  produces  the 
lowing  cotton  or  hosiery 


cotton  that  is  required,  wo  trace  the  yam  to  the  douhlinfi  machim,  where  two  yarns 
or  more  are  twisted  one  lu-ound  another,  whereby  a  much  denser  threarl  is 
produced.  The  amount  of  machineiy  in  the  spinaing-rooms  of  some  of  our 
;?reat  mills  is  something  quite  astounding ;  at  Messi-s.  Bazley's,  near  Bolton 
(which  became  a  subject  of  newspaper  talk,  on  account  of  a  visit  from  Prince 
Albert  in  1851),  there  are  no  fewer  than  V0,000  spindles  whirling  away  at 
once  in  one  room,  each  one  requiring  the  co-operation  of  a  number  of  other 
delicate  little  pieces  of  mechanism. 

Another  aitizan  now  claims  our  notice — tlie  weaver;  and  another  group  of 
machmes  subsidiaiy  to  his  labours.  There  is  the  winding  machine,  by  which 
tlie  yam  is  wound  on  large  bobbins.  There  is  the  beaming  machine,  by  whicli 
the  yam  is  transfen-ed  to  largo  beams  or  rollers.  There  is  the  dressing  ma- 
chine, by  which  the  yam  is  drawn  out  into  parallel  lines  of  warp  threads,  and 
stiffened  with  an  application  of  flour-paste.  And  lastly,  there  are  the  looms — 
hand-looms  for  the  humble  weavers  in  the  liancashire  villages ;  power-looms 
for  the  great  factories  ;  jacquard-looms  for  a  small  number  of  figin-ed  goods  in 
cotton.  He  who  has  once  been  in  a  room  containing  a  thousand  power-looms 
all  working  togetiier  (and  there  are  many  such  rooms  m  our  northern  counties) 
will  not  soon  forget  it ;  the  dmm  of  his  ear  is  dmmmed  upon  most  unmu- 
sically ;  he  caimot  hear  himself  speak ;  he  can  scarcely  see  or  even  think ;  and 
he  must  learn  to  accommodate  himself  to  the  clatter  around  him  before  ho 
can  appreciate  the  wonders  of  the  power-loom  of  our  day.  Steam  unwinds 
the  warp  from  the  beam ;  steam  raises  the  altemate  threads  to  fomi  the  'shed ' 
or  opening  for  the  shuttle ;  steam  drives  the  shuttle  from  side  to  side ;  steam 
drives  up  or  consolidates  each  thread  of  weft  as  it  is  thrown ;  steam  winds  the 
calico  or  clotli  on  a  large  roller ;  and  steam  rings  a  bell  to  tell  the  attendant 
how  the  loom  is  getting  on  with  its  work.  The  attendant  really  does  none  of 
the  weaving ;  she  (for  it  is  mostly  a  female)  watches  a  couple  of  looms  alter- 
nately, to  see  that  the  beam  has  enough  waip  and  the  shuttle  enough  weft,  to 
mend  any  tlu-eads  which  accidentally  break,  and  to  make  a  number  of  little 
minor  adjustments ;  but  tlie  giant  power  of  steam — that  power  which  will 
forge  an  anchor  or  make  the  eye  of  a  needle — moves  everytliing,  does  every- 
thing. In  short,  so  far  as  regai'ds  the  bulk  of  cotton  goods  produced  in  Eng- 
land at  the  present  day,  steam  power  is  the  opener,  the  scutcher,  the  carder, 
the  lapper,  the  drawer,  the  rover,  the  spinner,  the  doubler,  the  winder,  the 
warper,  the  dresser,  the  v.'eaver — ^he  is  the  master-Avorkman,  and  the  machines 
are  his  fingers.  The  Hindoo  can  live  on  something  like  a  penny  a  day,  and 
has  cotton  gi'owing  close  at  hand ;  yet  the  steam-engine  enables  us  so  to 
underwork  in  price,  and  overwork  in  power,  even  the  patient  Hindoo,  that 
we  actually  exported  five  million  yards  of  cotton  shirting  to  Calcutta  itself, 
in  1850. 

The  subdivision  of  manufactures  in  Manchester  is  carried  on  to  an  extent 
which  ordinary  readers  would  scarcely  suppose.  Not  only  do  some  establish- 
ments confine  theu*  operations  wholly  to  spinning,  without  touching  upon 
those  of  weaving ;  but  the  dne  yam  and  the  coarse  yam  lead  to  another  sepa- 
ration. How  to  produce  most  quickly  and  cheaply  the  heavy  yams  for  coarse 
cotton  goods  is  a  veiy  different  problem  from  that  of  producing  most  delicately 
and  perfectly  the  light  yam  for  fine  goods ;  and  those  manufacturers  who 
excel  in  the  one  do  not  generally  excel  in  the  other.  The  leviatlmn  establish- 
ment of  Messrs.  Birley,  for  instiuice,  is  a  coarse-spinning  mill ;  Messrs.  Houlds- 
worth's  is  ajine-spinning  mill.    In  the  fine  mills  the  material  employed  is  better, 

L  3 


mtmrn 


rtniWfllliliiinwrifliMril 


wmm 


■wiifwuiMrmiwwiin 


MMMMMMi^-" 


10 


COTTON  AND   FLAX:   A   CONTRAST. 


!    I 


137 
234 


the  machinery  is  worked  more  8lo^vly  and  carefully,  and  the  operatives  are 

'''^^':::^Zl'^^  Tt  XSSro?«ome  of  the  foregoing  d. 
f.ll  Lw  mucW  our  imported  cotton  is  woven  for  homo  use,  and  how  much 
ftxp^mUot  M^^srs.  £u  Fay,  the  eminent  cotton  ^^o^.er.oi^^l'^e^:^ 
w«  afforded  the  means  of  answering  this  question.  A  portion,  as  ^*e  nave 
S  of  t^emw  cotL  imported,  is  agL  exported  in  the  f ™«  «,7  =  ^^^  J^^^^ 
dming  1848.  49,  and  50,  amounted  in  round  ""'^bei^.  ^o  ab«"t  600  million 
pounds  anmially  on  an  average.     It  was  disposed  of  as  follows  .- 

Waste,  durmg  the  manufacture  .        .        •  66  mdlion  pounds.     , 

Home  consumption,  thread  and  woven  goods      lOJ 

Exported  yam  and  thread  .        .       .•        • 

Exported  woven  goods        .... 

600  million  pounds. 

The  same  authorities  estimate  that,  on  an  average  of  tiie  same  tliree  years 
the  seUinTvalue  of  the  cotton  manufactures  of  the  United  Kingdom  amoimted 
S  aSlitoOO.OOO ;  out  of  which  the  raw  cotton  cost  £14,000,000_leavmg 
1'31  000  000  to  be  distributed  in  our  own  country  for  wages,  &c. 

lie  number  of  Manchester  houses  engaged  in  manufactures  qu»t«  su^. 
«di^  3  subordinate  to  the  cotton  manufacture  is  really  remarkable. 
ri^^Tot  dovm  some  of  tliese,  without  much  attempt  at  system,  as 
*ev  irinXhaScal  0^^^^  iA  the  'Directory'  of  that  cotton-spinning 
InS^  XJe  7e  bobbin  and  skewer  turners,  calendered  and  makers-up, 
S  mim  chLin  ^d  hame  (loom)  makers,  cotton-waste  dealers  embossers 
card  makers,  cuum  ""  v       ^^  patchwork  dealei-s.  finishers,  fustian 

:Srfliaf  ^frS?'^W«  r^ake^B,  heald  knitters,  u-on-liqiior  manu- 
ttuS   jirarnachine  makers,  logwood  grinders    loom   and  waipmg- 

mrufaSet  atoveldrded  to.  suffer  from  anything  and  eveiythmg  which 
affect  the  supply  and  price  of  cotton. 

Cotton  Novelties,  and  Cotton  Utiuties,  at  the  Great  Exhibition. 
Wo  have  ab«ady  supposed  the  reader  to  have  learned  a  maiiufactuitog 

there,  for  those  to  study  who  were  not  too  much  dazzled  by  the  gold  and  the 
ifiwfll*  the  oolishod  steel  and  the  lustrous  mirrors. 

^    One  monTthe  many  conti-asts  which  the  Exhibition  wm  so  weU  fitted  to 
iU^StlTwi  thaJof  theioo,«  of  our  own  day  with  those  of  times  long  gone 


■m 


id  the  operatives  are 

)  of  the  foregoing  de- 
le  use,  and  how  much 
rokers  of  Manchester, 
A  portion,  as  we  have 
)  same  state ;  the  rest, 
i  to  about  600  million 
follows ;  — 
66  million  pounds. 
163 

234 

600  million  pounds. 

I  the  same  three  years, 
ted  Kingdom  amounted 
t  £14,000,000— leaving 

ages,  &c. 

anufactures  quite  sub- 
is  really  remarkable, 
attempt  at  system,   as 
of  that  cotton-spinning 
derers  and  makers-up, 
Ewte  dealers,  embossers, 
alers,  finishers,  fustian 
tters,  h-on-llquor  manu- 
re, loom   and  wminng- 
d  book  makers,  pattern 
lers,  reelfirs  and  makers 
tUe  mftker8^  size  makers, 
,  as  well  as  the  larger 
g  Bttd  everything  which 


!  Great  Exhibition. 

>amed  a  manufacturing 
Great  Exhibition.  But 
ned  there;  many  cotton 
«  was  raw  cotton  from 
jt,  Guiana,  India,  Malta, 
Spain,  Trinidad,  Turkey, 
a  pretty  cotton-trees  firom 
from  them.  There  were 
cotton  fabrics — all  were 
ded  by  the  gold  and  the 

ition  was  so  well  fitted  to 
those  of  times  long  gone 


roTTON  AND  FtAX:  A  CONTRAST. 


11 


by.  Mr.  Harrison  of  Blackburn  sent  a  power-loom  of  1850,  and  another  of 
]'7m.  The  latter,  how  rude  and  clnmsy — how  slow  and  inexact!  And  yet  it 
was  a  wonder  in  its  dny.  It  was  one  of  the  very  eariiest  power-looms ;  it 
made  sixty  picks  or  movements  of  the  shuttle  in  a  minute.  Although  our 
looms  now  make  upwai-ds  of  two  hundred  picks  in  a  minute ;  although  they 
work  better  and  cleaner;  although  they  do  not  wear  out  ho  rapidly;  although 
one  attendant  can  take  charge  of  two  or  even  three  looms—yet  is  it  quite  right 
to  regard  the  rough  old  loom  as  a  veiy  important  memento  :  a  record  of  the 
Htatc  of  things  half  a  century  ago,  and  a  standard  whence  to  measure  our 
subsequent  progress.  As  to  the  power-loom  of  modem  times,  it  is  never  the 
same  two  years  in  succession.  Little  improvements  are  patented  and  intro- 
duced in  rapid  succession,  so  appai-ently  insignificant  as  wholly  to  escape 
the  glance  of  an  observer,  yet  producing  great  results  when  8ystematica,lly 
worked.  It  may  be  tlie  'weft  protector,'  or  the  'temple,'  or  the  'positive 
taking-up  motion,'  or  the  '  fast  reed  and  break,'  or  the  '  loose  reed  and  break, 
or  any  other  equally  unmtelligible  name ;  but  whatever  it  be  called,  every  such 
invention  comprises  some  small  piece  of  apparatus  as  an  appendage  to  the 
power-loom,  to  increase  its  efficiency.  There  has  recently  been  a  very  smaU 
and  simple  improvement  in  the  power-loom,  which  has  realized  £20,000  to  the 
inventor  for  licences  to  use  tlie  patent. 

It  is  really  impossible  to  appreciate  rightly  the  exquisite  fineness  of  our 
machine-spun  cotton  yam  at  the  present  day,  without  some  familiar  and  homely 
mode  of  comparison.  No.  600,  or  No.  800,  appeals  to  the  spinner's  ovra  mmd 
as  a  beautifully  fine  yam ;  but  to  eyery-day  folks  these  designations  are  mean- 
ingless.     Let  us  elucidate  tiiem  a  little. 

To  produce  a  finer  yam  than  has  before  been  produced  is  one  ambition  ot 
tlie  cotton  spinner.  Certain  degrees  of  thickness,  called  Nos.  20,  30,  40,  &c., 
were  the  products  of  the'spinning  machine  in  use  before  the  time  of  Crompton ; 
but  when  the  mule-jenny  of  tliat  inventive  man  came  successfully  into  use, 
the  Lancashire  spinners  were  astonished  by  the  production  of  No.  80— a 
degree  of  fineness  which  had  before  been  deemed  almost  fabulous,  bo 
highly  was  this  yam  estimated,  that  Crompton  obtained  two  guiMos  per  lb. 
for  it.  Yet  this  No.  80  is  absolutely  a  coarse  cord  compared  with  the  pro- 
duction of  the  Houldsworths  and  the  Bazleys  of  1851.  The  No  denotes  the 
hanks  required  to  make  up  o  poimd,  the  hank  being  a  conventional  designation 
for  840  yards ;  therefore  if  we  multiply  840  by  the  No.  of  the  yam,  we  get  Uie 
length  in  yards  to  which  one  pound  of  the  yam  would  extend.  One  pound  of 
Crompton's  wondei-ful  vam  measured  67,200  yards,  or  about  40  miles,  len 
or  twelve  years  ago,  the  powers  of  Uie  spinning  machines  had  been  so  per- 
fected, that  yai-n  No.  850  was  produced  at  one  of  the  Manchester  mills-— not 
perhaps  for  use,  but  as  a  curiosity;  this  wa-,  less  than  one-fourth  tiie  bulli  of 
Crompton's  vam— a  pound  weight  would  extend  167  miles.  A  dozen  years 
have  thrown 'even  this  product  far  Into  the  shade.  Those  who  remember  the 
arrangement  of  the  cotton  yams  In  the  Great  Exhibition  will  call  to  mmd  the 
specimens  of  Nos.  200,  300,  &c.,  with  specimens  also  of  the  laces  and  the 
muslins  which  had  been  produced  from  these  exquisitely-fine  yams. 

But  our  spinners  are  determined  to  show  that  they  can  shoot  ahead  of  the 
weavers  altogether ;  that  is,  that  they  can  produce  yam  which  no  weaver  or 
weaving-machine  could  work  up  into  a  web.  This  is  not  a  mere  braggart 
display ;  .it  is  a  goal  towards  which  the  weaver  is  hivited  to  du-ect  his  attention 
When  the  yam  becomes  exquisitely  fine,  it  will  not  bear  the  mechanical 
action  of  a  loom;  it  would  break  too  readily  to  go  through  the  necessary 


.1  mam  111  urnti  1 1  nuttillffln'tfifl^ 


(ttiiJimiMiimfcf- 


—.^.^HHUKte^ 


18 


COTTON   AND    FLX:    A   CONTRAST. 


Ml 


processes.    No  sooner  did  the  weaver  succeed  in  employing  Houldsworth  s  No. 
350,  than  he  and  others  strove  to  get  again  in  advance  of  the  weavers ;  anr 
ngaui  the  weavers  struggled  in  the  race.     Such  has  been  Uio  result,  that  at 
the  Great  Exhibition  we  had  sewing  thread  made  from  Bazleys  yam  iNo. 
fiOO,  muslin  and  net  from  Houldsworth's  No.  000,  and  French  mushn  from 
MM.  Vautroycn  and  Mallefs  No.  COO.     Huch  muslins  as  these  tlie  world 
never,  perhaps,  saw  before.    We  hear  of  the  delicate  spinning  of  the  patient 
Ilmdoo ;  we  read  of  the  muslb  like  "  woven  wind,"  in  which  Aurungzebe  s 
daughter  was  robed;  but  the  sensitive  human  fingers  have  been  excelled  by 
the  iron  fingers  of  tlie  mule  machine.     To  stop  at  No.  000,  however,  is  what 
our  spinners  will  by  no  means  consent  to  do ;  Uiey  have  drawn  the  weavers 
after  them  so  fai-;  but  the  yam  has  now  reached  Uie  region  of  tliousands 
instead  of  hundreds.     Two  specimens  were  deposited  in  the  Crystal  1  alace, 
one  No.  2070,  and  one  No.  2150;  botli  so  fine,  that  the  downy  filaments 
on  the  surface  could  be  detected  only  by  the  microscope ;  botli  so  minute, 
that  widiout  dark  paper  being  placed  behind  them,  they  would  be  invisible ; 
both   so  fragile   tliat  tliey  would  break  before  they   could   be  wound  on 
bobbins.     One  pound  of  yam  No.  700  is   said  to  be  worth  no  less  than 
28?  —so  great  is  the  labour  bestowed  upon  it ;  we  have  tlius  so  humble  a 
material  as  cotton  raised  to  a  value  seven  or  eight  times  that  of  pure  silver; 
as  to  No.  2150,  it  must  very  far  exceed  in  value  its  weight  in  gold.    In  respect 
to  lemjth,  one  pound  of  this  finest  yam  would  extend  more  tliim  a  thousaiid 
miles";  tluee  pounds  would  stretch  from  Liverpool  to  New  York— a  fauy  cable 
connecting  the  new  world  with  the  old— a  kmd  by  which  Tuck  might 

, "  put  a  girdle  round  about  the  eai'th 

In  forty  minutes." 
Altliough  it  is  admitted  tliat,  from  some  cause  or  other,  the  cotton  manu- 
facture was  not  sufficiently  illustrated  by  specimens  at  the  Great  E;;uibition, 
vet  there  was  enough  to  show  how  ample  is  now  the  variety  of  such  products. 
The  admission  of  new  names  into  the  list  is  one  of  the  oddities  oi  the  trade. 
What  these  names  mean,  it  would,  perhaps,  not  be  very  easy  to  say;  some- 
times they  indicate  a  degree  of  fineness  in  the  goods;  sometimes  the  mode  ol 
weaving;  sometimes  a  colour,  a  pattern,  a  garaient  for  which  they  are  suitable, 
or  a  distinguished  pei-son^e  who  first  wore  Uiem ;  sometimes  a  foreign  pro- 
duct which  they  imitate;  sometimes  a  country  for  whose  market  they  are 
intended,  or  a  town  which  is  the  chief  seat  of  their  manufacture,  or  a  hrm 
which  takes  a  lead  in  their  production— it  mattei-s  little  what  Uie  meaning 
may  be;  a  new  name  has  a  commercial  value;  and  the  Shaksperean  dictum 
concerning   "  a  rose  by  any  other  name,"  &c.,  is  not  always  assented  to  in 
shop-keeping  philosophy.    Let  us  nm  hastily  over  a  bundle  of  these  names. 
We  liave  dress   ginghams  and  fancy  ginghams,   and  umbrella  ginghanis, 
checked  and  striped  ginghams,  and  ginghams  known  by  the  high-sounding 
names  of  Camperdowns,  Coromandels,  matallas,  vicanas,  and  bnolas.     VVe 
have  book  muslins,  jaconot  musUns,  bishop  lawn  mushns,  sachanlla  muslms, 
tai-latan  musUns,  Scotch  lawn  muslins,  Victoria  muslins,  India  and  Swiss  muU 
muslins,  leno  muslins,  sU-iped  muslins,  lappet  muslins,  spot  muslins    swg 
muslins,  and  a  number  of  other  members  of  the  muslin  ffunily.     We  nave 
table-cloths,  diapers,  huckabacks,  jean  stripes,  clan  tartans,  galas,  Hiinganans, 
and  Den-ies— all  made  of  cotton.     There  are  surongs,  crossovers,  selampores, 
Granvilles,  denims,  panes  da  costar-all,  we   believe,  of  the   cotton   shawl 
family.    There  ai'c  counterpanes,  quiltings,  vestings,  dimities,  swansdowns, 


ng  Houlilsworth's  No. 

of  the  weavers  ;  and 
een  Uie  result,  that  at 
m  Bazley's  yam  No. 

French  musUn  from 
s  09  these  the  world 
inning  of  the  patient 
1  which  Aurungzebe's 
have  been  excelled  by 
000,  however,  is  what 
we  drawn  the  weavers 
I  region  of  tliousands 
in  the  Crystal  Palace, 

the  downy  lilanients 
ope;  botli  so  minute, 
By  would  be  invisible ; 

could  be  wound  on 
B  worth  no  less  than 
ive  tlius  so  luunble  a 
les  that  of  pure  silver ; 
ht  in  gold.    In  respect 

more  thim  a  thousand 
ew  York — a  fairy  cable 
h  Tuck  might 

le  earth 


»ther,  the  cotton  roMiu- 

the  Great  Exhibition, 

riety  of  such  products. 

oddities  of  the  ti-ado. 

sometimes  the  mode  of 
fihich  they  are  suitable, 
metimes  a  foreign  pro- 
khose  market  tliey  are 
manufacture,  or  a  firm 
ittle  what  tlie  meaning 
he  Shaksperean  dictum 

always  assented  to  in 
undle  of  these  names, 
d  umbrella  ginghams, 
.  by  the  high-sounding 
mas,  and  briolas.  We 
in,s,  sacharilla  muslins, 
i,  India  and  Swiss  mull 
as,  spot  muslins,  snrig 
islin  ftunily.  We  have 
tans,  galas,  Hungarians, 

crossovers,  selampores, 
I,  of  the  cotton  shawl 

dimities,  swansdowns. 


COTTON    AND    KLAX :    A   CONTllAST. 


Id 


moleskins,  doeskins,  lambskins,  velveteens,  bcaverteens,  fustians,  long-cloUis, 
shirtings,  calicoes,  everlastings,  nankeens,  coutils,  and  other  cotton  goods,  the 
enumeration  of  which  would  be  almost  weansome.  A  low  groupmgs  ^vlll 
show  tlie  relations  between  these  goods.  For  instance,  the  ijin(fkam  tanuly 
consists  of  stout  cotton,  in  which  threads  of  two  or  more  colours  arc  woven 
together  into  stripes,  &c. ;  ftiMiam,  heavertecm,  velveteens,  moleskins,  md  several 
others,  are  woven  on  tlie  same  principle  as  velvet,  with  a  nap  or  pile,  which  is 
cither  cut  or  left  uncut;  damasks,  huckabacks,  diapers,  ticks,  and  cambrics,  are 
cotton  imitations  of  Uie  similarly-named  llaxen  goods ;  quilts  and  eounterpmus 
have  downy  tufts  to  increase  the  thickness  and  softness;  shirtiruj  calicos, 
sheetiwi  calicos,  printimj  calicos,  lonn-clolh  and  dmk,  are  varieties  ot  plain 
pci-viceable  cotton  goods,  varying  in  stoutness ;  chintz  is  a  stout  calico,  after- 
wards printed  in  several  colours ;  corduroys,  jmm,  quillings,  and  many  other 
varieties,  are  very  strong  cotton  goods,  mostly  twilled.     As  for  muslins,  their 

variety  is  almost  interminable.  

It  was  a  pretty  operation  to  see,  at  the  Groat  Exhibition,  the  making  ot 
bobbins  for  cotton  spinners ;  and  one  which  shows  how  enormous  must  bo 
the  consumption  of  such  articles,  to  pay  for  die  constructing  of  machines  lor 
producing  tlieni.  The  '  reels '  on  which  sewing  cotton  is  Irequently  sold, 
may  now  be  made  by  such  a  machine  as  that  which  occupied  a  place  in  tlie 
•machineiy  in  motion'  department.  Little  cylinders  of  wood  are  roughly 
shaped  hi  another  machine;  Uiey  are  dropped  into  a  hopper  or  funnel;  they 
are  seized  one  by  one,  and  held  in  a  sort  of  lathe ;  they  are  quickly  shaped 
while  so  held ;  and  tliey  avo  liberated  when  complete.  All  this  is  done  with 
no  other  labour  on  the  part  of  the  attendant  than  feeding  the  hopper  with 
little  blocks  of  wood. 

Of  all  the  machines  subsidiai7  to  the  cotton  manufacture  none  is  more 
beautiful  than  Uie  card-makin<j  machine,  an  example  of  which  attracted  so  much 
attention  at  the  Exliibition.  A  card,  in  the  language  of  a  cotton  factory,  is  a 
kind  of  wire  brush,  with  tlie  wires  all  bent  in  a  determinate  direction  ;  they 
are  fixed  into  a  back  or  handle  of  leather ;  and  the  card  thus  made  is  attached 
to  the  rotatmg  cylinders  of  tlie  carding  machine  which  combs  or  straightens 
the  cotton  fibres.  This  wonderful  little  cai-d-nmking  machine  punctures  Uie 
holes  in  the  leather,  unwinds  the  wire  from  a  coil,  cuts  off  about  an  inch  ot 
wire,  makes  two  bends  in  Uie  wire  at  right  angles  to  each  oUier,  drives  the 
wire  into  the  leaUier,  and  clinches  it  when  so  driven.  The  variety  ot  move- 
ments necessary  to  Uie  performance  of  so  many  operations  is  almost  mcon- 
ceivable,  and  tends  to  place  Uiis  machine  among  Uie  very  highest  class  ot 
mechanical  conUivances.  i    .    •  j. 

We  stated  a  few  pages  back,  Uiat  very  few  attempts  are  now  made  to  intro- 
duce a  new  principU  in  cotton  manufactm-es,  the  course  of  improvement  being 
chiefly  directed  to  matters  of  detail.  There  is,  however,  a  veiy  smguUu- 
novelty  of  recent  introducUon.  by  Mr.  Mercer  of  Accvington,  which  seems 
desei-vin''  of  note.  Mr.  Mercer's  curious  process  was  described  beiore  Uie 
British  Association  at  Ipswich,  m  1851.  A  solution  of  cold  but  causUc  soda 
has  been  found  by  him  to  act  in  a  remarkable  manner  on  cotton  fibres,  causmg 
them  to  contract;  and  he  has  also  found  Uiat,  alUiough  the  soda  may  be 
washed  out.  Uie  effect  upon  the  cotton  ren.ains  permanent— even  to  an  mcrease 
of  one-Uiird  or  one-fourUi  in  the  weight  of  Uie  cotton.  The  compacting  or 
condensing  nature  of  Uiis  effect  may  be  important  in  nianufactiu-es,  lor  a 
coarse  calico  or  muslin  becomes  finer  hi  appeai-ance  when  Uius  affected,  llie 
colours  of  dyed  cotton  are  also  influenced ;  for  Uie  condensation  of  texture  is 


"r 


muHjI^ff^SKKi 


iifeiini-lwm'.fWXiiifiiiwitiM 


i;itfriiTii««infwnmnii>'rHffi'ill  I'll      "■  "'im&to . 


I 


u 


COTTON   AND    FI-AX I   A   COHTBABT. 


i    (i 


accompanied  by  a  deepening  and  brightening  of  tints.  A  third  imprnvemont 
is  «aid  to  be,  that  a  cotton  yam  or  a  cotton  cloth  is  stronger  after  having  oecn 
subjected  to  the  soda  process  than  before.  If  all  these  claims  to  excellen^^e  are 
tru^if  the  cotton  goods  arc  mode  Jiner,  brighter,  and  stronger,  by  the  soda 
process— then,  indeed,  will  this  discovery  prove  to  be  ah  important  one.  Dr. 
Lyon  riavfair,  in  his  '  Exhibition  Lecture '  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  pre- 
sented some  specimens  of  cotton  goods  which  had  undergone  this  singular 

'^^  The"  imparting  of  colmir  to  cotton  goods,  either  by  printing  or  dyeing,  is 
such  a  large  and  important  subject,  and  ono  so  chemical  in  its  nature,  that  wo 
cannot  discuss  it  in  the  present  sheet,  devoted  as  it  is  to  a  comparison  between 
flax  and  cotton.     The  Exhibition,  in  tliis  as  in  other  matters,  was  a  great 
school  of  instruction.     There  were  the  serial  specimens  exhibited  by  Messrs. 
Black  of  Glasgow,  in  which  small  pieces  of  cotton  were  displayed  in  every 
stage  of  the  bleaching,  dyeing  and  pruiting  processes ;  and  written  descriptions, 
placed  beneath  the  specimens,  explained  the  modes  in  which  the  several  pro- 
cesses had  been  conducted,  and  the  chemical  substances  which  had  been  em- 
ployed.    Little  does  the  lady-wearer  of  a  printed  muslin  dress  imagine  how 
numerous  these  processes  are,  and  how  chemical  science  has  been  ransacked  to 
aid  the  processes.    Then,  again,  there  was  the  •  calico-printing  trophy,  really  an 
extraordinary  assemblage.     It  is  said  that  Mr.  McCallum,  one  of  the  masters  ot 
U'le  Manchester  School  of  Design,  had  almost  endless  trouble  in  collecting  the 
specimens;  and  this  may  well  be  believed,  considering  that  old  specimens  arc 
in  all  probability  few  and  far  between.    It  was  a  panorama,  illustrative  of  the 
progress  of  this  beautiful  art.     It  ranged  over  no  less  a  period  than  elghty_six 
years,  comprising   specimens  of  calico-printing  from   1765  to  1851.      Ihe 
specimens  were  fastened  end  to  end  into  a  huge  strip,  which  was  then  coiled 
on  a  cylinder ;  and  a  handle  transfencd  this  strip  from  one  cylinder  to  another, 
by  gradually  unwinding ;  exhibiting  eat  h  specimen  at  a  square  opening  m 
front  of  the  apparatus.     It  was  in  troth  a  uioviny  panorama,  analogous  to 
those  in  our  pubhc  exhibitions. 

Flax  :  Problem  of  its  Home  Production. 

L«t  us  now  leave  the  cotton  region,  and  devote  the  rest  of  this  paper  to  a 
glance  at  the  flax  culture,  the  manufacture  of  woven  goods  from  flax,  and  the 
various  schemes  now  afloat  for  extending  this  deparment  of  industry.  _  ; 

Five  sheaves  of  flax  straw  were  contributed  to  the  Great  Lxhibition  by 
Mr  McEwan  of  Islay— a  humble  contribution,  certainly;  but  important  in 
respect  to  the  raoti  ,.  which  led  to  it.  Shortly  afterwards  Mr.  McEwan,  who 
is  a  landowner  in  islay,  pubhshed  a  letter  to  Lord  John  Russell,  askmg  for 
Kovemment  aid  towards  the  encouragement  of  the  flax  culture,  m  Islay  and 
other  highland  districts.  He  stated  tliat,  being  convinced  of  the  fitness  ot 
the  climate  for  this  culture,  in  the  Western  Islands,  he  had  proposed  to  two  ot 
his  tenants  to  make  an  experiment;  he  ofi^ered  to  erect  a  steeping  and  scutch- 
ing mill,  to  find  a  market  for  any  flax  which  his  tenants  might  grow.  About 
120  acres  of  flax  are  growing  on  his  estate  in  the  island,  and  he  states  the 
.quaUty  to  be  of  the  finest.  He  asks  the  Government  to  assist  in  employing 
the  destitute  Highlanders  to  grow  flax,  instead  of  aiding  them  to  emigrate. 
His  political  arguments  we  touch  not  upon;  but  he  asserts  that  there  are 
thousands  upon  thousands  of  acres  in  ScoUand,  now  valueless,  which  would 
grow  flax  of  the  finest  kind ;  that  the  climate  of  the  Highlands,  from  its 


iinu  iiiillllilillWWl 


I 


COTTON    AND    Fi:*\X :    A   C0NTBA8T. 


15 


A  third  imptwemcnt 
iger  after  having  oecn 
lainis  to  pxcelleni.e  are 

stron/ier,  by  the  soda 
1  important  one.     Dr. 

Society  of  Arts,  pm- 
(lergono  this  singular 

printing  or  dyeing,  is 
1  in  its  nature,  that  wo 
( a  compariHon  between 
r  matters,  was  a  great 
s  exhibited  by  Messrs. 
3re  displayed  in  every 
id  written  descriptions, 

which  the  several  pro- 
BS  which  had  been  em- 
lin  dress  imagine  how 
>  has  been  ransacked  to 
inting  trophy,'  really  an 
n,  one  of  the  masters  of 
rouble  in  collecting  the 
that  old  specimens  are 
•ama,  illustrative  of  the 
I  period  than  eighty-six 

1765  to  1851.      The 

which  was  then  coiled 
one  cylinder  to  another, 
it  ft  square  opening  in 
anorama,  analogous  to 


UCTION. 

1  rest  of  this  paper  to  fl 
foods  from  flax,  and  the 
nt  of  industry, 
e  Great  Exhibition  by 
linly;  but  important  in 
U'ds  Mr.  McEwan,  who 
ohn  Russell,  asking  for 
ftx  culture,  in  Islay  and 
'inced  of  the  fitness  of 
9  had  proposed  to  two  of 
!t  a  steeping  and  scutch- 
nts  might  grow.     About 
island,  and  he  states  the 
t  to  assist  in  employing 
ding  them  to  emigi^ate. 
}  asserts  that  there  are 
r  valueless,  which  would 
he  Highlands,  from   its 


humidity,  will  yield  better  flax  than  that  of  England ;  tliat  tlio  ngncuUnral 
money  value  of  an  acre  of  woll-cultivuted  fla.\  is  e(iual  to  that  of  wheat,  but 
that  its  commercial  or  manufacturing  value  is  greatly  larger ;  that  the  llax- 
culture  is.  peculiarly  suited  to  tlie  present  sUte  of  the  Highland  nopulation, 
as  it  would  absorb  the  unemployed  labour  both  of  adults  and  childrcsn  ;  and 
that  the  rapid  streams  of  the  Highlands  would  furnish  water  power  lor  flax 
Itvctories.  He  asks  the  Government  to  aid  the  landed  proprietors  ni  mtro- 
ducing  flax-cultivution  as  a  part  of  the  rotation  of  crops  ;  U)  establish  a  pauper 
fla.\-farm  in  every  parish ;  to  establish  flax-steeping  and  scutching  nulls ;  and 
to  erect  quays  in  convenient  spots  for  shipping  the  produce. 

Here,  then,  we  ai-e  introduced  at  once  into  the  flax  world ;  we  are  told  ot 
flax  in  Scotland,  and  of  flax  in  England ;  and  certain  economical  arguments 
ftie  used  in  favour  of  flax-culture  generally.  Eveiy-day-folks  know  very  little 
of  this  culture  in  our  own  country  :  it  may  be  well,  therefore  to  say  something 

on  this  matter. 

Flax-cultivation  is  no  new  idea  in  England.  In  old  times  it  was  moie 
thought  of  than  at  present^until  the'  recent  agitation  of  the  subject.  Ho 
long  ago  as  1«77,  one  Andrew  Yan-anton  published  a  pamphlet  under  the 
foUowing  magniloquent  title—"  England's  Improvement  by  Sea  and  Land  ;  to 
out-do  the  Dutch  without  Fighting  ;  to  pay  Debts  without  Moneys ;  and  to 
set  at  Work  all  tlie  Poor  of  gland  with  tlie  Growth  of  our  own  Lands. 
The  burden  of  this  national  tii  ph  was— the  extended  and  unproved  culta- 
vation  of  flax.  During  the  eigh  ^nth  century  there  was  a  gi-eater  average  of 
flax-culture  in  England  than  tliere  has  been  in  the  nineteenth.  The  plain 
truth  seems  to  be.  that  the  great  profits  from  com  husbandly  during  the  war 
rendered  that  a  more  attractive  crop  than  flax ;  flax  was  abandoned,  not  be- 
cause it  yielded  no  profit,  but  because  com  yielded  more.  Now  that  the  artificial 
stimulus  to  com-oulture  is  withdmwn,  flax  may  perhaps  have  fair  play. 

Another  reason  why  flax-cultvu-e  was  nearly  abandoned  in  England  and  the 
Scottish  liowlands,  after  having  been  carried  on  to  some  considerable  extent,  was, 
that  the  seed  was  never  saved.  Growers  are  now  being  told,  from  all  ipiarters, 
that  they  must  preserve  the  seed,  which  would  make  a  diff'erence  of  some  Oi.  or 
7^.  per  acre.  The  value  of  oil-cake  (cmshed  flax  seed  from  which  linseed  od  has 
been  pressed)  as  food  for  cattle  is  better  appreciated  tlian  at  any  former 
period ;  it  is  known  that  the  animals  fatten  well  on  it,  and  that  the  manure 
produced  by  the  use  of  this  food  is  very  rich  for  com  crops.  The  lowland 
farmers  are  now  closely  calculating  this  matter— without  reference  so  much 
to  the  fibre  as  to  the  seed  ;  but  if  the  fibre  and  seed  both  find  a  market,  the 
spinner,  and  the  ^iculturist  may,  perchance,  both  be  served  by  the  same  crop. 
Sir  Robert  Kane,  too,  tells  the  farmers  that  the  water  in  which  flax  has  been 
steeped  constitutes  a  useful  liquid  manure. 

It  certainly  is  a  movement  of  no  slight  importance  to  determine  whether  we 
can  grow  our  own  flax.  The  flax,  flax  seed  and  oil-cake  which  we  import  annually 
frwn  foreign  countries,  amount  to  a  value  of  something  like  nine  millions 
sterling  ;  and,  if  the  visions  of  the  flax-cotton  advocates  should  be  even  par- 
tially realised,  the  use  of  flax  must  greatly  increase.  That  we  should  en- 
deavour to  grow  the  flax  at  home  is  an  advice  supported  on  such  grounds  as 
these  :  that  we  have  large  ti-acts  of  land  well  adapted  for  tlie  culture ;  that  its 
cultivation  and  preparation  would  afford  employment  to  a  large  number  of 
persons  now  unemployed  ;  and  that  the  culture  would  render  us  less  depend- 
ent on  the  exigencies  of  foreign  supply.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  generally 
(though  not,  universally)  admitted,  that  flax  is  an  exhausting  crop  fof  the  sod ; 


,itmi»iMMmhimimn~onttM 


n'ii.i.iinitifl"  ''•"""  —■--"■•■"'•«'--■  ' 


10 


COTTON  AND  FLAX :  A  COHTRAST. 


!l 


and  that  the  whole  of  tho  opemtions.  froir.  first  to  last,  would  require  moro 
skilled  Ifthour  tlmn  is  usually  lound  in  purely  agricuUural  districts.  Ihe 
balance  between  Uiose  two  opponinK  account*)  must  detemiinc  whoaier  wo  can 
compete  with  the  Hax-growcra  of  bt-lgium  aiul  Russia.  Mr.  Warnos,  a  tlax- 
m-ower  of  Norfolk,  Ih  enUmsiastie  in  the  matter ;  he  says  that  if  one  acre  out 
of  everv  hundie«l  cultivated  acres  in  England  were  devoted  to  flax,  we  could 
eniplov'more  than  all  our  redundant  and  poor  population— so  numerous  are 
tlie  deniands  for  labour  after  tlie  flax  has  bi-en  i)ulled.  ,  .  ,      . 

It  is  ill  tliis  light  that  the  Irish  Flax  Society  ought  to  be  estimated.  A 
little  moro  Uiim  ten  years  ago  tiie  Flax  Society  at  lielfast  commenced  Us  ope- 
rations ;  and,  whatever  may  be  tho  future  results,  tlie  Society  unqucstionablv 
desei-ves  thanks  for  having  kept  public  attention  directed  towards  this  branch 
of  culture.  One  mode  mlopted  was,  to  send  agents— missionaries  of  indu8try~- 
omonc  tho  Irish  Maimers,  to  give  tlieni  oNcry  information  concerning  the 
method  of  flax-cultnre  adopted  in  Flanders.  Intelligent  persons  were  also 
sent  from  Ireland  to  Fliuiders  at  Uio  Society's  expense,  to  witness  the  whole 
i-onge  of  operations  ;  tmd  the  Societ/  also  published  small  tracts  or  papers, 
in  which  plain  instmctions  were  given  in  a  plain  manner. 

From  tlio  figures  presented  by  the  Society,  it  appears  that  flax-culture  in 
Ireland  rose  in  annual  amount  from  1841  to  1H44,  feU  from  thence  to  lb4H, 
and  rose  from  this  latter  date  to  tho  present  time.  In  1841,  when  the  Societys 
operations  commenced,  there  were  ii50,0()0  spindles  in  Ireland  engjiged  m 
flax-spinning,  working  up  about  16,000  tons  of  flax  annually.  In  1851  there 
were  about  500.000  spindles,  using  33.000  lens.  The  number  ot  flax  miUs 
m  Ireland  is  now  about  ninety.  Besides  Uio  encouragement  afl^prded  by  the 
Belfast  Society,  which  hmits  its  operations  chieay  to  Uie  Ulster  counties,  much 
activity  has  recently  been  displayed  in  the  south  of  Ireland,  where  the  cidti- 
vation  of  flax  is  extending,  under  the  auspices  of  some  ot  the  landed  pro- 
prietors. A  year  or  so  back,  when  the  flax-steeping  projects  were  under  dis- 
cussion, an  off'or  was  made  to  purchase  1000  tons  of  Irish  flax  straw,  at  4.1. 
per  ton,  to  be  steeped  on  tlie  Claussen  method;  the  growers  being  Urns  os- 
sm-ed  of  a  market,  to  a  certain  extentr— this  b»-ing  one  of  Uie  gi-eat  dithculties 
to  which  flax-growers  without  capital  ai-e  exposed.  ,„,,   ,    ,i     . 

At  the  aimual  meeting  of  the  Royal  Irish  Flax  Society  in  1851,  held  at 
Belfast,  striking  proofs  were  adduced  of  tlie  rapid  advance  of  this  culture  in 
Ireland,  within  the  last  two  or  tliree  years.  There  ai-e  now  twenty-two  counties 
in  connection  with  the  Society.  There  were  about  64.000  acres  under  flax- 
culture  in  1848,  00,000  in  1849,  91,000  in  1850,  and  139,000  m  1851;  this 
last  quantity  is  estimated  to  be  adequate  to  the  producUon  ot  more  tban  a 
fourth  of  the  whole  flax  consumption  of  the  counUy.  But  tliere  is  this  draw- 
back—scutching mills  ai-e  scarce  in  Ireland;  Uie  poor  fanners  cannot  erect 
them  :  and  unless  capitalists  do,  the  culture  wiU  be  greaUy  checked.  Oi  the 
four  provinces  of  Ireland,  Ulster  is  that  which  most  promotes  this  culture; 
in  1851,  1  acre  in  44,  throughout  Ulster,  was  under  flax  crop.  The  average 
Yield  of  flax  fibre  in  Ireland,  for  Uie  last  three  years,  is  estimated  at  about 
6  cwt.  per  statute  acre ;  this,  for  1861,  and  at  iU.  per  ton,  wcuid  give  the  im- 
portant sum  of  a  million  and  a  half  sterling. 

It  seems  strange  that  the  Flax  Society  have  to  mourn  over  the  obstinacy 

of  the  Iiish  famiere,  in  respect  to  the  waste  of  the  seed.    They  mU  not  save 

-  the  seed;  they  insist  upon  doing  as  their  forefatliers  have  done--rettmg  the 

stems  with  tiie  seeds  attached,  instead  of  rippUng  off  the  seeds  before  llie 

rettmg     In  every  other  country  Uie  seed  is  saved,  eiUier  for  sowing  or  lor 


rorro.N  and  fi.ax:  a  roNTHAW. 


17 


it,  would  require  mom 
uitural  districlH.  Th(! 
iniiiuo  whothor  wo  ciui 
i.  Mr.  Wumert,  t\  tlax- 
lya  that  if  oiio  aero  otit 
voted  to  Hox,  we  could 
lion — MO  luuncrous  aio 

it  to  bo  estimated.  A 
[wt  commencod  itH  opo- 
Society  unqucstionablv 
»d  towards  tliin  brancli 
isionaries  of  industry — 
rviation  conceniing  the 
;ent  persons  were  also 
le,  to  witness  the  wholn 

small  tracts  or  papers, 
ler. 

iars  that  Hax-culture  in 
ill  from  thence  to  1848, 
[841,  when  the  Society's 
in  Ireland  engaged  in 
mually.  In  1851  there 
e  number  of  flax  mills 
gement  atfprded  by  the 
0  Ulster  counties,  much 
relaiid,  where  the  culti- 
)nie  of  the  landed  pro- 
rojects  were  under  dis- 

Irish  flax  straw,  at  4/. 

growers  being  thus  ns- 

of  Uie  gi'eat  difficulties 

society  in  1851,  held  at 
vance  of  this  culture  hi 
now  twenty-two  counties 
54,000  acres  under  flax- 

139,000  in  1851;  this 
)duction  of  more  than  a 

But  there  is  this  draw- 
»or  fanners  cannot  erect 
[reatly  checked.  Of  tlio 
promotes  tliis  culture; 
flax  crop.  The  average 
8,  is  estimated  at  about 
1-  ton,  wcai4  give  the  im- 

oum  over  the  obstinacy 
eed.  They  will  not  save 
have  done — retting  the 
off  the  seeds  before  the 
either  for  sowing  or  for 


making  linseed  oil;  and  tlie  estimati'd  value  of  tlie  uatted  seed,  in. Ireland, 
for  1M51,  is  aoo.OOiJ/.  "The  Society's  instructore, "  we  are  told,  "  hnvo  con- 
stAntly  endeavoured  to  inculcate  the  importance  of  this  economy;  but  so 
(Irt'ply  rooted  is  the  prfjudice  against  saving  the  seed,  that  as  yet  it  is  only  to 
a  limited  e.vtent  tliat  farmers  have  attended  fo  this  advice. "  llow  provoking 
is  ail  this — how  utterly  unoonnuercial  and  unthrifty. 

The  avurage  not  profit  of  Uaxculturc  in  Ireland  is  estimated  at  about  10/. 
jwracre;  and  as  500,000  acres  are  required  to  produce  all  the  flax  spun  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  the  home-growth  of  the  whole  quantity  would  yield  a 
profit  of  five  millions  sterling,  supposing  (which  is,  however,  a  bold  8U[ipositioii) 
otlior  things  to  bo  all  favourable.  It  nmst  bo  undci-stood,  however,  that  tliis 
1(1/.  per  acre  nlers  to  the  flax  after  it  has  been  steeped,  turned,  lifted,  and 
scutched  ;  the  profit  from  the  actual  growth  seems  to  be  about  til.  per  acre. 

This  question  concerning  price  is  evidcaitly  one  which  requires  a  voiy 
searching  investigation.  The  farmers  are  looking  .at  for  cash-accounts,  poimds 
and  shillings'  estimates,  of  the  resulLs  of  flax-growing,  that  they  may  form  a 
judgment  for  themselves ;  and  such  accounts  are  occasionally  published. 

Messrs.  Marshall — perhaps  the  greatest  flax-consumers  in  the  world — are 
doing  their  part  toward  the  encouragement  of  flax-ciUture  in  England.  Ono 
of  the  partners  has  erected  extensive  works  near  Patrington  in  Yorkshire,  for 
retting  and  scutching  flax  ;  and  is  offering  every  inducement  to  the  neighbour- 
ing fai-mers  to  enter  upon  this  culture.  The  works  ai-e  a<lequ)4te  to  a  crop  from 
.jOO  acres.  The  fiurmers,  however,  enter  upon  the  '  new-fang.ed '  system  rather 
slowly ;  and  Mr.  Marshall  has  therefore  atlopted  a  plan  of  hiring  tho  land  at 
so  much  on  acre,  providing  the  seed,  weeding  and  pulling  tlio  crop — in  fact 
he  becomes  a  flax-fanner  himself,  and  tlien  rets  and  scutches  his  o\vn  crop. 
Tho  yield  of  dressed  flax  is  said  to  be  5  cwt.  per  acre,  worth  70«.  per  cwt.,  and 
2  qrs.  of  seed,  worth  50*.  per  (ir. 

It  appeal's,  from  such  accounts  as  have  yet  been  made  public,  that  profits 
from  flax-culture  vaiy  considerably,  and  tliat  we  have  yet  to  leani  by  futur*; 
experiment  what  will  be  the  average  proceeds.  Sir  James  Gi-aham  has  recently 
advocated  vei-y  energeticaUy  the  establishment  of  the  flax-culturo  in  Curaberlana. 

Flax:  from  the  Field  to  the  Loom. 

NoUiing  has  been  yet  said  explanatoiy  of  tlie  mode  of  culture :  a  few  words 
nmst  suffice  on  this  point. 

The  common  mode  of  conducting  this  culture  may  be  understood  from  a 
very  brief  description.  The  seed  is  sown  broadcast,  in  the  ratio  of  about 
170  lbs.  to  an  acre ;  it  is  then  shghtly  covered  with  eartli,  and  tlie  earth  trodden 
or  ro'led  down  upon  the  seed.  The  flax  soon  appears  above  the  ground ;  and 
women  and  children  are  then  employed  in  freeing  it  from  tlie  weeds  which 
spring  up  with  it.  When  the  plants  have  attained  a  height  of  twenty  or 
twenty-four  inches,  and  are  beginning  to  present  a  yellow  tinge  at  the  bottom 
of  the  stem,  they  are  ready  for  pluckmg ;  they  we  pulled  carefuUy  in  small 
handfulls ;  they  are  piled  in  loose  heaps  in  order  to  become  partially  dried ; 
imd  they  are  then  stored  in  stacks  till  further  operations  are  required. 

The  subsequent  pi-ocesses,  too,  however  much  care  they  may  require  in 
practice,  are  very  simple,  so  far  as  description  is  Cv>ncemed.  Firet,  the  seeds 
have  to  be  removed ;  the  plants  are  drawn  tlirough  a  kind  of  open  comb, 
which  strips  off  the  seed  as  they  pass ;  or  a  kind  of  bat  or  small  flail  is  em- 
ployed to  beat  off  the  seed;  and  the  seeds,  thus  separated  by  'ripplmg,'  are 


in  r'-'-^-T'—i ini«ra»-«nriiirft  r  ■  '•"•-  "■'■""-'^■"  iirini     Irflill 


iBa 


m^ 


laiffrru 


..Itaiiiiiii 


It 


corroM  AND  ri^x:  a  contbabt. 


,„lvc  lh«  «lut<„.  llml  .1.0  fib,™  !■;•);,  "'XS-*"  ■£  2,"  ulric, 

or  floors,  one  above  another,  as  is  usuaUy  the  ^ase,  tt^e  whole  is  nere 

This  monster  room  is  ne«^ly  ^^    „„,,  ,, 


COTTON   AM)   KIJIX  :    A  t'OKTIUW. 


19 


iMfld  oil,  olloftlcfi,  imkI 
kta  tho  gliitDn  from  iho 
ho  Imuii ;  he  has  ti»  (Hh- 
IH  (UsHolving  in  t'tt'nctfMl 

0  'Httxcotton' tiieomiH 
Mxch  II  iiipitl  pftce  iw 

wnlifr  rrttinij  find  (/cir 

n  water  for  a  wock  or  n 
ghiten  aixl  looseiiH  the 

y  ut  the  right  time,  tho 
(tUmis  are  exposed  for 
ruin,  and  wind  on  a 
,1  than  hy  tho  water  or 
tern  18  acted  on  ;  watcr- 
>e  more  weeks.  "When 
id  snitched;  that  is,  tho 
[I  arc  then  ho  beaten  an 
ly  tlie  stalks  are  cmshed 
ipon  tlu-m,  and  &<v  then 

1  have  been  invented  for 
y  fragments  are  beaten 

i>im  prodtices  finer  flax 
sing  large  quantities  of 
ped  In  RnsHia ;  hence  it 
X  plant  may  yield  a  more 
weight ;  and  it  is  found 
rniines  tho  great  bulk  of 
sidered  on  an  average  of 
iy  centre,  and  two-tenths 
about  half  its  weight  of 
gether ;  so  that  the  flax 
X  stem.  Now  any  mode 
be  of  more  importance 
the  finer  goods;  but  the 
there  are  two  directions 
lis  art. 
g  career,  before  noticing 

;  regards  the  monotonous, 
tages  ;  but  there  is  one 
dity  of  design.  This  is 
iving  several  stories,  tiers, 
the  whole  is  here  thrown 
on,  facility  of  access,  uni- 
f  machine  arrangements. 
f  by  more  than  two  hun- 
ster  Hall;  and,  until  the 
;d  the  largest  (or  nearly  so) 
I  of  about  seventy  domes, 
being  supported  by  iron 
rve  also  as  water-pipes,  to 


.;onvey  tlm  dniiuttgo  from  U»e  roof.  The  roof,  proseuang  an  area  of  utaily 
two  acres,  wa»(  a  few  yeai«  ago  cover.tl  witli  mcjuld  luiil  grass ;  so  that  one 
could  literally  take  a  walk  in  a  gr'ion  field  on  tlio  riM)f  of  a  factory  ;  wiielhor 
lliis  airangonicnt  m  still  niaiiituinotl,  we  are  not  awaio.  Tho  iuti'rior  ot  tho, 
room  is  filled  \siUi  boauliful  iiiacliim'ry,  i\v  piuforining  all  the  various  oporur 
lions  on  flax ;  and  beneatli  ai-o  vaulted  posHttgef*  which  conUiiii  all  the  arrange-^ 
menu  for  supidyiug  »t«aiu  power,  warmth,  and  ventilation,  to  tho  hive  of 
buny  operativ.'s  working  ab<»vo.  It  i»  certainly  a  triumph  of  engineering  and 
mechanical  skUl,  when  such  a  building  is  filled  with  the  finoiit  machines  which 
iiiodoni  ingenuity  can  produce.  How  niu<!h  mind,  how  ^nuch  capital,  how 
much  labour,  must  have  been  thrown  into  such  an  a««emblage  !  How  do  w^ 
here  trace  tlm  accumulation  of  many  years'  experience — the  bringing  to  boai 
upon  one  object  of  ho  many  distinct  agencies  and  sources  of  power,  montju 
and  material,  social  and  commercial  i 

One  of  tho  earliest  machine  operations  is  Uiat  of  s.jporatihg  the  seed  from 
the  stem ;  jUunotduiif  machines  have  been  invented,  which  separate  tlie  seeds 
by  tho  careful  action\)f  rollers.  Then  come  tlio  jla.c  breaking  machines  ;  tliose 
have  fluted  or  grooved  rollers,  between  which  tlie  ilax  stem  is  made  to  pass, 
so  that  the  woody  portion  becomes  thoroughly  broken  witiiout  cutting 
the  fibre.  Next  come  into  operation  the  jiojt-tcutchiiuj  machines,  in  which 
revolving  arms  or  blades  visit  tlio  flax  with  such  vigorous  bluws  Uiat  the 
woody  fragment*  are  nearly  licatcn  out.  and  the  fibres  to  a  certain  degn<o 
Hcparttted.  After  this  Ww  jUuv-heckluuj  macliines  give  the  flax  a  thorough  comb- 
ing.  by  means  of  long  rows  of  teeth  or  spikes ;  the  fibres  are  combed  out 
straight  and  tolerably  clean ;  and  the  low  or  short  fibres  are.  removed,  to  be 
used  for  otlier  puq)08es.  The  heckled  flax  is  then  in  a  sUito  to  be  acted  on  by 
the  various  machines  which  brhig  it  into  the  state  of  yain  for  weaving ;  these 
machines  are  of  three  kinds,  according  as  tow,  long  flax,  or  cut  flax  is  to  be 
acted  upon.  The  low-carding  and  tlio  tow-roving  machines  serve  for  the  first 
kind  ;  \htijlax-sj)reading,  Jlax-carding,  and  /lax-roving  machines  for  tlie  second ; 
and  tha  fl<ix-cuuing  machine,  followed  by  those  for  carding  and  roving,  for  the 
third.  The  spiniimg  machine  follows  all  these ;  and  it  differs  from  cottou- 
spinning  machines  chiefly  in  having  a  provision  for  wetting  tho  flax,  either 
with  oold  or  hot  water ;  there  is  still  a  little  gum  or  mucilage  among  the 
fibres,  ,md  tliis  becoines  more  manageable  in  Uio  machine  when  moistened. 
Al'  the  machines  here  named  are  Uie  modern  or  factory  means  of  operations ; 
in  old  times  all  was  done  on  the  hand  method,  and  Uie  niachiiK>8  have  been 
veiy  gradually  introduced;  tlie  old-fashioned  scutching  and  heckling  and 
carding  and  spinning  implements  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  remote  country 
districts. 

Mr.  Plummer,  tlie  machinist,  of  Newcostle-upon-Tvno,  has  patented  and 
brought  into  use  a  largo  number  of  flax  machines.  There  is  a  '  llax-breaking 
machine;'  tlioro  is  a  'double-cylinder  twilling  machine;'  there  is  a 'double- 
cylinder  heckling  machine,'  suitable  for  heckling  short  flax;  tliere  is  an 
'  improved  heckling  machine,'  adapted  for  long  flax ;  there  is  a  '  rotary  disc 
scutching  mill ;'  and  there  are  '  improved  holdei-s  for  scutching  and  heckling.' 
All  these  machines  have  relation  to  the  earlier  stages  in  the  flax  manufacture, 
and  not  to  those  of  spinning ;  but  the  various  processes  in  tho  manufacture 
of  flax,  aa  in  tliat  of  cotton,  ai-e  constantly  receiving  aid  from  the  mechanical 
skill  of  the  engine  makers. 

It  may  not,  perhaps,  be  supei-fluous  to  remai-k,  tliat  a  Jlajo  mili  does  not 
weave  flax  into  linen  or  other  finished  goods ;  it  merely  brings  the  flax  into 


iiMMiiWMaiaMii 


'itiiiiftrWr- --••'••■"' ■'■■-'■^^"■''■"''*'"'''"''''^''''''*'''''"*'"*'**" 


iM'Wi;iWiWiMn»M<ffffn  II   '     ■Vir- 


jf 


I 


20 


COTTON  AND  FLAX:  A  CONTBAST. 


the  state  of  yam,  to  be  woven  in  other  establishments.  Even  tlie  giant  flax 
miU  at  Leeds  is  not  a  weaving  niiU.  At  that  establishment  under  ordinarj- 
chcumstances  of  ti-ade,  no  less  than  thirty  tons  (nearly  70.000  lbs.),  ot  flax 
are  said  to  be  worked  up  weekly  mto  yam ;  and  it  is  estimated  Uiat,  to  mam- 
tain  such  a  supply  weekly  throughout  the  yeai'.  would  require  six  thousaiid 
acres  of  flax  land  to  be  kept  m  cultivation.  This  kmd  of  Ulustration  serves 
to  give  an  idea  of  tlie  magnitude  of  the  operations,  irrespective  of  that  whicli 
is  aff-orded  by  the  number  of  hands  employed.  The  weavmg  of  the  spun  flax 
into  various  kinds  of  cloUi  gives  employment  to  Uiousands,  who  work  tor  the 
Greater  pait  in  theh-  own  humble  homes  and  by  the  aid  of  simple  hand-looms ; 
but  Uiere  are  also  weaving  mills,  the  number  of  which  is  gindually  mcreasmg. 
and  in  which  power-looms  ore  employed ;  here  the  general  featm-es  of  Oie 

'^'itTsT  gSat^^thhig  for  Ireland  tliat  she  has  a  reputation  for  linens  and 
damasks;  it  draws  the  attention  of  merchants  and  dealers  to%yai-ds  her  and 
accustoms  tiie  people  to  those  large  and  comprehensive  operations  which  the 
factoiT  system  is  sure  to  introduce.    As  early  as  the  beginmng  of  tiie  last 
century,  tlio  manufacture  of  linen  damasks  was  introduced  mto  Ireland  from 
Germany ;  and  there  still  exist  specimens  woven  in  Ireland  a  hundred  tmd  thirty 
years  ago.     The  manufacture  has  gone  on  increasing  m  excellence ;  and  it  is 
now  considered  that  the  high-class  Irish  damasks  equal  any  from  miy  other 
comitry.     Almost  all  are  used  in  our  own  countiy,  and  Uie  better  kinds  are  so 
costly  that  none  but  the  wealthy  can  pm-chase  them.     Hand-loom  weaving  is 
invariably  adopted  for  the  best  damasks ;  but  the  power-loom  is  now  beginning 
to  be  employed  for  the  cheaper  damasks  and  diapers ;  and  it  is  hoped  Uiat  this 
wiU  create  a  foreign  market  for  them.     The  Jacquai-d-loom  is  extensively  used 
for  the  richer  damasks,  for  which  its  wonderfid  action  especially  adapts  it. 
Wliat  a  Jacquai-d-loom  is,  a  long  and  wearisome  description  would  scarcely 
make  intelligible ;  what  it  appears  like,  the  thousands  who  watched  the  workmg 
of  die  several  Jacquai-d-looms  at  the  Great  Exhibition  may  perhaps  remember ; 
Avhat  it  does,  is  exemplified  by  specimens  of  pattem,  or  damask,  or  hgure 
weavmg,  for  which  it  is  specially  adapted.     In  designing  table-cloths,  tabie- 
napkml,  and  d'oyleys,  for  royal  personages,  city  companies,  club  houses,  aiid 
regimental  messes,  the  damask  manufacturers  of  Ireland  sometimes  display 
considerable  taste;  and  tliis  taste  afterwards  reflects  some  of  its  light  upon 
the  cheaper  and  ordmary  commercial  products.    We  believe  it  is  yet  a  dis- 
puted point  among  persons  artisticaUy  inclined,  what  kind  of  ornamentation  is 
best  fitted  for  colourless  damasks;  human  forms  and  featuies  are  seldom 
damasked  satisfactorily,  and  buildmgs  ai-e  veiy  tame  afl'aii-s  when  so  depicted; 
at  present,  heraldic  emblems  seem  to  take  tlie  lead.  .    ,   .„         ,.       f 

There  is  another  notable  fact  worthy  of  being  borne  in  mmd,  lUustrntive  ol 
the  excellence  of  Irish  manufactm-es  in  flax.  It  is  understood  that  Irish 
cambrics  are  sent  to  France  in  an  unbleached  state,  by  tons  at  a  time,  to  be 
tliei-e  bleached  and  sold  as  French  cambrics.  This  indicates  either  that  the 
Irish  cambric  is  better  than  the  French,  or  (more  probably)  that  for  a  given 

quality  it  is  cheaper.  .    ,       .,  ,.     ,        <.,oki 

There  was  no  want  of  flax  specimens  in  om-  great  industrial  display  of  1851. 
All  countries  showed  us  what  they  could  yield,  and  in  what  state  they  bring 
the  yield  to  mai-ket.  Messrs.  Lawson  exliibited  to  us  specimens  of  flax,  gi-own 
in  England  from  British,  Dutch,  and  Riga  seed.  The  foreignei-s  showed  us 
their  flaxen  fibre  as  grown  in  Germany,  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  1  landers, 
Holland,  Friesland,  Austria,   Belgium,   Sweden,  Norway,   Russia,   Prussia, 


I 


).  Even  the  giant  flax 
ihment,  under  ordinarj- 
dy  70,000  lbs.),  of  flax 
estimated  Uiat,  to  main- 
d  require  six  thousand 
ad  of  illustratiou  serves 
respective  of  that  which 
yreaving  of  the  spun  flax 
sands,  who  work  for  the 
i  of  simple  hand-looms ; 
L  is  gradually  increasing, 
general  features  of  the 

putation  for  linens  and 
lealers  towai-ds  her,  and 
ive  operations  which  the 
le  beginning  of  the  last 
(duced  into  Ireland  ft^m 
and  a  hundred  imd  thirty 
in  excellence ;  and  it  is 
qual  any  from  any  other 
d  tlie  better  kinds  are  so 
Hand-loom  weaving  is 
er-loom  is  now  beginning 
and  it  is  hoped  tliat  this 
-loom  is  extensively  used 
tion  especially  adapts  it. 
3scription  would  scarcely 
who  watched  the  working 
may  perhaps  remember ; 
m,  or  damask,  or  figure 
ignuig  table-cloths,  tabic- 
ipanies,  club  houses,  and 
L-eland  sometimes  display 
,8  some  of  its  light  upon 
'^e  believe  it  is  yet  a  dis- 
kind  of  ornamentation  is 
and  features  are  seldom 
a^airs  when  so  depicted ; 

ue  in  mind,  illusti-ative  of 
is  understood  that  Irish 
3,  by  tons  at  a  time,  to  be 
indicates  either  that  the 
probably)  that  for  a  given 

industrial  display  of  1 861. 
L  in  what  state  they  bring 
s  specimens  of  flax,  grown 
riie  foreigners  showed  us 
jrtugal,  France,  Flanders, 
Norway,   Eussia,   Prussia, 


COTTON   AND   FtAX :    A   CONTEAST. 


21 


America,  Australia,  Egypt,  Canada,  China,  New  Zealand,  and  India;  and 
many  of  the  kinds  in  vai-ious  stage .^  of  prepoi-ation.  Mr.  Donlan  afforded  the 
means  of  comparing  flax  seed  in  the  natural  state  with  flax  seed  which  has 
undergone  a  cei"tain  chemical  process,  said  to  quicken  and  improve  its  growing 
powers.  The  Chevalier  Claussen  displayed,  in  all  the  stages  from  stalk  to 
cloth,  tlie  flax  to  which  his  remarkable  processes  are  applied,  and  from  which 
he  hopes  to  be  able  to  produce  such  valuable  materials  for  textile  fabrics. 
Nor  did  Mr.  Schenck  fail  to  supply  us  with  illusti-ations  of  the  effect  of  his 
hotwater  process,  as  applied  to  the  steeping  or  retting  of  flax.  The  Belfast 
Max  Society  showed  how  vaiied  is  the  valr.e  of  flax,  according  to  the  care 
with  which  it  is  prepared  for  mai-ket :  Monaghan  flax  as  low  as  38/.  per  ton, 
Antrim  flax  as  high  as  1001.  per  ton.  And  our  English  coimties,  too,  placed 
before  us  specimens  of  their  handiwork,  produced  under  very  diverse  circum- 
stances :  flax  and  flax  seed  from  Yorkshire ;  steeped  and  scutched  flax  from 
Hampshire  and  from  Surrey ;  flax  grown  and  scutched  at  Famborough  work- 
house ;  flax  scutched  by  tlie  prisoners  in  Winchester  Gaol — all  were  there. 

Nor  were  the  woven  flax  goods  less  varied  or  interesting.  There  were  linen 
goods  from  almost  eveiy  country  in  Europe ;  there  were  damasks  and  diapers, 
sheetings  and  shirtings,  and  all  tlie  well-kno^vn  fabrics  in  which  flax  is  tlie 
chief  or  the  only  material ;  there  were  mixed  fabrics  in  which  flax  was  com- 
bined with  cotton,  silk,  or  wool ;  there  were  threads,  and  yams,  and  twists ; 
there  were  tlie  coai-se  canvas  and  sail-cloth,  and  the  fine  cambric  and  lawn ; 
tliere  were  the  plain  goods  from  the  common  loom,  and  the  highly-omato 
damasks  from  the  Jacquard.  There  were  specimens  of  flax  canvas  exhibited 
whose  sti-ength  was  indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  had  been  tested  to  490  lbs. 
in  the  dii-ection  oi  the  warp,  and  to  560  lbs.  in  tlie  direction  of  the  weft. 

In  respect  to  the  kinds  of  goods  known  by  the  above  names,  and  other  kinds 
also  made  of  flax,  tho  differences  ai-ise  from  various  causes,  somewhat  analo- 
gous to  tliose  in  cotton  goods,  but  not  so  great  in  number  or  variety.  Linen  is 
the  best  kind  of  quite  plain  flax  fabric ;  damask  has  a  pattern  produced  by  a 
particular  arrangement  of  the  loom ;  diaper  and  dornock  are  two  twilled  or 
tweeled  products,  having  a  sort  of  pattern  less  intricate  than  that  of  damask ; 
sheeting,  towelling,  sailrcloth,  canvas,  and  many  otlier  kinds,  are  coarser  and 
stronger  than  linen,  but,  like  it,  divested  of  any  pattern ;  htickaback,  used  for 
towels,  is  something  like  diaper,  but  finer.  In  all  these  cases,  colour  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  production  of  different  qualities ;  the  fineness  of  tlie 
yam,  tihe  closeness  of  the  woven  texture,  and  tlie  manner  of  weaving,  being 
the  sources  of  the  vaiious  diff'erences  which  present  themselves.  Flaxen 
goods  are  less  subjected  to  the  dyeing  and  prmting  processes  than  those  of 
cotton,  silk,  or  wool. 

That  flax  occupies  a  lowly  position  relatively  to  cotton,  is  admitted ;  yet, 
when  we  think  that  120  milUon  yards  of  linen  and  18  million  pounds  of  linen 
yam  were  expoit^d  in  1851,  besides  other  goods,  and  after  supplyuig  Jie 
home  demand,  we  cannot  but  regard  it  as  an  important  manufacture.  Indeed, 
taking  the  weight  of  flax  and  cotton  which  we  use  annually  at  a  thousimd 
million  pounds,  and  tlie  flax  ratio  to  be  one-fourth  of  this,  flax  may  assuredly 
'  look  up '  hi  the  commercial  sense. 

The  Flax-Cotton  Projects. 

Let  us  now  direct  a  little  of  our  attention  to  Uie  flax-cotton  movement,  as  it 
has  been  called.    Mr.  Porter,  a  gi-eat  authority  in  tlie  philosophy  of  trade 


mmm 


I 


22 


COTTON   AND   FLAX".   A  CONTBAflT. 


and  manufactures,  is  among  those  who  deem  tins  movement  tm  important 
one.  At  the  Edinburgh  meeting  of  the  British  AssociaUon,  m  1850.  he  said, 
"  The  uneasiness  vhich  it  is  natural  to  feel  under  the  circumstances  here 
described  [the  deficiency  of  cotton  crops]  has  led  to  the  ddigent  and  careful 
innuii-y  whether  some  substitute  or  auxUiary  may  not  be  called  into  action 
which  HhaU  meet  the  evil  tliat  threatens  us ;  and  this,  it  is  suggested,  may  be 
found  in  a  kindred  branch  of  manufacture— Uiat  oi  flaw.  A  very  few  yeai-s 
ago.  when  first  anxiety  began  to  arise  concerning  Uie  progi-ess  of  our  cotujn 
manufacture,  the  resource  which  has  just  been  named  did  not  present  itsell. 
At  tiiat  time  our  Imen  manufacture  had  not  made  ttie  progress  by  which  it  is 
at  present  marked— a  progress  proportionally  equal  to  any  that  has  been  made 

at  any  time  in  the  cotton  manufacture An  additional  mduce- 

ment  to  tlie  growth  of  flax,  beyond  that  offered  by  other  articles,  may  be  found 
in  the  fact,  that  to  bring  it  to  the  some  condition  an  that  in  which  it  is  usujU  y 
imported  from  foreign  countines  calls  for  the  employment  ot  a  considerable 
amount  of  human  labour.  There  is  no  part  of  the  United  Kmgdom  m  which 
the  flax-plant  cannot  be  successfully  cultivated;  and  Hiere  is  hardly  any 
country  whence  it  might  not  be  brought  to  supply  our  deficiencies,  should 

such  arise."  ,  ,  .  •       i 

One  great  difficulty  which  besets  this  subject  is.  Uiat  the  machineiyemployed 
for  spinning  cotton 'is  not  weU  adapted  for  spinning  flax;  the  fonner  is  spun 
drv,  the  latter  Is  spun  wet;  and  flax  is  less  manageable  generally,  less  yielding 
to  mechanical  agency,  tlmn  cotton.  It  is  said  that  die  processes  of  preparing 
and  spinning  cotton,  of  average  quality,  involve  an  outlay  of  about  M.  per 
pound ;  while  the  average  expenses  of  the  flax  processes,  on  yam  of  similar 
quality,  and  by  the  ordinai7  flax  machines,  reach  as  high  as  lOd.  li  this  be 
80,  it  becomes  indeed  important  to  see  wheUier  flax  may  be  so  '  cottonized 
as  to  be  susceptible  of  preparation  and  spinning  by  the  cotton  machinerj'. 

One  among  the  many  directions  in  which  improvement  has  been  sought  is 
in  tlie  treatment  of  the  flax  seed  itaelf.  The  *  pickling'  or  chemical  treatinent 
of  seeds  is  not  a  new  idea;  many  oxperimentei-s  have  thought,  that  as  the 
chemical  constituents  of  the  soil  mainly  determine  the  rapidity  or  slowness  in 
the  gi-owth  of  plants,  so  might  a  little  chemical  aid  to  the  seed  iteelf  be  con- 
ducive to  a  favourable  result.  Mr.  Donlan  has  proposed  such  a  mode  ot 
ti-eating  flax  seed.  The  particular  recipe  has  not.  w.  believe,  been  made 
public  i  nor  does  it  appear  Uiat  experiments  on  a  sufficiently  extensive  scale 
have  yet  been  maile.  It  would  seem  as  if  an  enten)n8mg  capitahst  nught 
render  benefit,  first  to  himself  and  then  to  the  community,  by  preparmg  a 
piece  of  land,  laying  it  out  in  patches  or  sections,  steepmg  or  picklmg  H|«  seed 
in  as  many  different  way.s  as  ihere  are  patches,  sowing  e«ch  section  with  one 
particulai-  kmd.  treating  them  all  alike  during  growtii.  and  compaiing  the 
results  when  pulled  and  retted.  This  would  place  the  vaiious  chemical 
systems  in  fair* competition.  Anotiier  piece  of  land  might,  ''t  jhe  same  tune^ 
be  laid  out  in  sections,  aU  differently  manured,  and  sown  wiUi  ordmai>j  flax 
Beed.  to  detemiine  how  to  produce  a  good  crop  wiUi  the  cheapest  manui-e^ 
This  experimental  mode  of  inquiiy  would  certainly  yield  valuable  results,  if  a 
man  of  capital  led  the  way.  „  .      i         „ 

But  it  is  in  rrep<n-in^/  Aax,  after  gi-owing,  that  the  purport  of  recent  schemes 
has  been  chiefly  exhibited.  The  Chevalier  Claussen  has  ceiWy  displayed 
much  energv  in  bringing  his  invention  into  public  notice.  He  has  sent  h  s 
apparatus  to  Lancashire!  to  Ireland,  and  to  other  distncts,  that  it  might  be 
worked  in  existing  miUs,  and  tliereby  tested.    One  cxperunent  was  made  at 


mm. 


iillii  iiiiiH-M  iiiriii 


I 


jovement  an  important 
iation,  in  1850,  he  said, 
the  circumstances  here 
he  diligent  and  careful 
it  be  called  into  action 
it  is  suggested,  may  be 
fiaa.  A  very  few  yeai-s 
I  progress  of  our  cotton 
I  did  not  present  itself. 

progress  by  which  it  is 
any  that  has  been  made 

.  An  additional  induce- 
er  articles,  may  be  found 
lat  in  which  it  is  usually 
ynient  of  a  considerable 
nitcd  Kingdom  in  which 
id  tlaere  is  hardly  any 
our  deficiencies,  should 

the  mochinei-yemployed 
flax ;  the  former  is  spun 
e  generally,  less  yielding 
e  processes  of  preparing 
outlay  of  about  3d.  per 
jsses,  on  yarn  of  similar 
high  as  lOd.     If  this  be 
:  may  be  so  'cottonized' 
le  cotton  machinerj'. 
ment  has  been  sought  is 
g'  or  chemical  treatment 
ive  thought,  that  as  the 
e  rapidity  or  slowness  in 
o  the  seed  itself  be  con- 
•oposed  such  a  mode  of 
wo  believe,  been  made 
ufl&ciently  extensive  scale 
ri)ri8ing  capitalist  might 
nmnnity,  by  preparing  a 
ping  or  pickling  flax  seed 
ng  each  section  with  one 
wth,  and  compoiing  the 
;e  the  various   chemical 
might,  at  the  same  time, 
.  sown  with  ordinaiy  flax 
th  the  cheapest  manui*- 
ield  valuable  results,  if  a 

urport  of  recent  schemes 
n  has  certainly  displayed 
notice.  He  has  sent  his 
listricts,  that  it  might  be 
expermient  was  made  at 


COTTON   AND   FT.AX :   A   CONTRAST. 


23 


Messrs.  Qullzow's  mill  at  Bnwlford ;  and,  from  the  ample  accounts  given  in 
the  public  journals,  we  can  glean  suflicient  to  present  the  following  sketch. 

The  first  attempt  was  to  prepure  long  flax  fibre  for  tlie  ordinary  linen  manu- 
facture. Four  hmidred  weight  of  flux  in  the  straw  was  boiled  in  a  stone  vat,  in 
water  contai\ung  caustic  alkali ;  the  boiling  lasted  four  hour«,  which  was  said  to 
rd  or  seporat-a  Uie  fibres  as  effectually  as  tm  ordinary  steeping  of  weeks'  duration. 
It  iw  asserted,  also,  tlmt  the  fibre  is  developed  in  uniform  strengtli ;  that  it  is 
less  discoloured  than  by  the  old  process ;  and  that  much  more  of  the  glutinous 
or  gummy  matter  is  removed.  The  flax  was  removed  from  Uie  alkaline  liquid, 
and  steeped  for  two  hours  in  water  slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid ; 
this  effected  the  cleansing  of  the  flax,  and  at  the  same  time  rendered  tlio  straw 
a  more  valuable  manure  tlian  it  would  oUiei-wise  be.  The  flax  was  tlien  in  a 
fit  state  to  be  scutched  and  prepared  by  the  ordinary  flax  apparatus. 

The  iiext  experiment  was  in  cottonwinfj  flax ;  that  is,  giving  to  flax  some  of 
die  qualities  of  cotton.  The  mode  of  doing  this  was  very  remarkable.  The 
separate  fibres  were  cut  mto  short  pieces,  -steeped  in  a  solution  of  bicaj-bonate 
of  soda,  and  then  ftteeped  in  slightly-acidulated  water ;  the  pores  became  filled 
with  these  two  liquids;  a  chemical  action  ensued  between  tlie  acid  and  the 
alkali,  coibonic  acid  gas  was  fomied  witliin  tlie  little  tubes,  and  tlie  tubes  were 
bunt  by  this  gas.  This  split  fibre  has  many  of  tlie  qualities  of  cotton  fibre, 
and  may  be  dyed  and  spun  nearly  like  cotton.  Chevalier  Olaussen  gives  the 
niime  of  British  Cotton  to  tliis  split  flax :  it  is  bleached  by  chemical  agency,  in  tlic 
same  rapid  manner  as  cotton  is  now  bleached  in  tlie  gi-eat  Lancashire  works. 
The  bleached  flax  is  then  spun  into  yam,  either  by  itself  or  mixed  in  various 
proportions  witli  cotton. 

British  cotton  being  the  foundation,  we  have  Jliuc  cotton,  flax  tcool,  and  ,^0.1* 
sUk — a  coniplete  nomenclature,  depending  on  tlie  mixture  of  cotton,  wool,  or 
silk  witlx  the  preptu-ed  flax  fibre.  The  great  point  aimed  at  is,  that  these 
mixed  materials  may  be  carded  and  spun  in  the  existing  machines,  without 
necessitating  any  revolution  in  the  factory  aiTangements  of  tlie  Noilh ;  and  it 
is  also  hoped  by  the  inventor,  tliat  tlie  woven  goods  produced  from  diese  mixed 
materials  will  combine  the  merits  of  both  components — the  warmth  of  wool, 
tlie  softness  of  cotton,  tlie  glossiness  of  silk,  the  strength  of  flax.  The  flax 
seems,  in  some  vaiieties  of  the  proccRs,  to  acquire  a  sort  of  felting  property, 
analogous  to  tliat  of  w  .,ol.  There  wore,  in  the  Great  Exhibition,  broad  cloths, 
blankfcta,  and  other  felted  goods,  fonned  of  a  mixture  of  wool  and  flax ;  but  in 
tliese  instances  the  felting  was  probably  chiefly  confined  to  the  wool  fibres. 
Chevalier  Claussen  states,  in  further  illustration  of  the  efl"ects  of  his  chemical 
processes,  tliat  if  woven  flaxen  goods  be  treated  somewhat  in  tlie  same  way, 
ihey  become  thickened  and  receive  a  richer  dye  than  before.  There  seems  to 
be  much  analogj-  between  tliis  and  Mr.  Mercer's  ti-eatment  of  cotton,  noticed 
in  a  fonner  page. 

There  is  something  exceedingly  beautiful  about  this  Claussen  process, 
irrespective  of  its  claims  to  commercial  attention.  Microscopic  obseners, 
as  we  have  already  stated,  have  long  known  that  there  is  a  notable 
(liflference  between  flax  fibre  and  cotton  fibre;  tlie  former  is  a  kind  of 
cylindrical  tube,  while  tlie  latter  more  resembles  a  flat  ribbon;  and  tlie 
tube  seems  to  be  much  more  rigid  and  less  pliant  than  the  ribbon.  But 
by  bursting  ojpen  the  tube  tlirough  chemical  agency,  and  thus  laying  out 
the  fibre  in  ribbon  fashion,  the  inside  as  well  as  the  outside  of  tlie  tube 
is  exposed,  and  new  properties  seem  to  be  developed.  At  one  of  the 
meetings  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  some  flax  was  'cottonised'  in 


u 


COTTON   AND   FtAX :    A  CONTRAST. 


presence  of  the  members:  it  was  steeped  in  tlie  aktdme  liquor  selected  by 
Ckusscn,  and  in  that  state  appeared  like  a  damp  ngid  "^a«« :  b*^*  «f,  ««°7  '^ 
Uwa^  exposed  to  the  acid,  by  ^vhich  carbonic  gas  was  generated  and  *e  fibi^3 
burst  the  whole  of  the  flai  spread  out  mto  an  exptmsive  mass  of  cottony 
Se-Uke  leavening  dough  or  expandmg  sponge.  The  restdt  «  descnbed 
S  having  been  vciy  sUiking;  for  the  spectators  saw  both  the  beginning  and 
Se  end  Sf  tlie  process  during  an  ordinal^  sitting.  It  has  been  asserted  Uiat 
Te  pou^d  of  o^inary  flax,  spun  to  a  certain  degree  of  fineness,  wdl  produce 
Si  000  wds  of  yam;  while  one  pound  of  split  or  '  cottomzed 'flax  will  yield 
as'.OOO  yids     If  this  be  true,  it  is  indeed  a  commercial  U-uth  of  no  httle 

^ChSer  Claussen  states  that  he  was  led  by  an  accident,  m  the  first 
instoicp  iLids  his  theoiy  of  cottmising  flax.  Walking  one  day  on  the  banks 
of TMrriver.  on  his  own  estate,  he  saw  a  white  downy  substance 
^herfnTto  ^nie  of  *tlie  trees.  He  found,  on  investigation  that  a  heap  of  flax 
Sw  which  he  had  placed  neai-  the  river  h-ViZ-m^'^^^flt^^^^^ 
venerated,  that  these  gases  had  greaUy  modified  tlie  flax  fibre,  that  the  tibre 
haS  become  soft  and  do^vny,  and  that  some  of  it  had  been  washed  mto  Uie 
rWer STaught  by  overhan^ng  branches.  An  induction  from  these  facts  led 
the  observer  t»  his  thebry  of  splittmg  the  fibres. 

Another  recent  scheme  is  that  of  Mr.  Schenck.  of  NeAV  York.  In  1848  he 
broughTbe  ore le  notice  of  the  Irish  Flax  Society  his  plan  for  «-  «*f eping 
It  consisted  mainly  in  maintaining  the  steep-water  at  a  constanUy  high 
temnTmture  by^hich  he  considered  that  he  could  ret  or  steep  flax  as 
Stud  y^  sktY  hom-s  as  in  two  or  tlu-ee  weeks  on  the  old  method.  1  he 
Society  after  much  investigation,  recommended  the  new  system-not  to  tlie 
flaxSSwers'but  to  pei-sons  of  capital,  who  might  purchase  the  flax  straw  ivom 
fho  fSTers  ret  and  scutch  it  with  the  improved  apparatus  and  processes  and 
2u  STS  fibrrto  the  spinners.  A  few  •  retteries '  (as  these  new  estabhsh- 
l&'al^conv^niently  cXd)  are  in  oP-Uou;  and  the  Ulste^^ 
have  now  a  choice  between  two  plans— either  to  sell  the  flax  stxaw  to  tJie 
Si-8  or  to  ret  the  flax  themselves  by  the  old  feethod,  have  it  scutched  at  a 

""TCili?e'p?oSsses  were  patented  in  1851  by  Mr.  Bower,  of  tjeds 
wWch  seem  to  aim  at  a  medium  between  tlie  Claussen  «y«t««\^^,f  the  old 
rvstem  of  flax  prepai-ation.     The  chemistry  of  his  plans  seems  to  be  intell- 
ibfe:  but  it.  Lnmercial  advantages  as  a  system  ^"I'l  f  ?^/«  ^J°°8  a^^J 
Leful  test.    It  has  been  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  Belfast  Flax 

Society. 


aline  liquor  selected  by 
id  mass  ;  but  as  soon  as 
generated  and  the  fibres 
)an8ive  mass  of  cottony 
The  result  is  described 
botli  tlie  beginning  and 
;t  has  been  asserted  Qiat 
of  fineness,  will  produce 
3ottonized'  flax  will  yield 
aercial  truth  of  no  little 

m  accident,  in  the  first 
ing  one  day  on  tlie  banks 
white  downy  substance 
jation,  that  a  heap  of  flax 
ited,  that  gases  had  been 
0  flax  fibre,  that  the  fibre 
lad  been  washed  into  the 
ction  from  these  facts  led 

'  New  York.  In  1848  he 
his  plan  for  flax  steeping. 
er  at  a  constantly  high 
dd  ret  or  steep  flax  as 
n  the  old  method.  The 
new  system — ^not  to  tlie 
irchase  tlie  flax  straw  from 
aratus  and  processes,  and 
3 '  (as  these  new  establish- 
id  the  Ulster  flax-gi-owers 
sell  the  flax  straw  to  tlie 
hod,  have  it  scutched  at  a 

by  Mr.  Bower,  of  Leeds, 
ussen  system  and  the  old 
plans  seems  to  be  intelli- 
would  require  a  long  and 
otice  of  the  Belfast  Flax 


CORN  AND  BREAD:  WHAT  THEY  OWE  TO 

MACHINERY. 


A  QUAnTERN  loaf  is  certainly  not  among  those  which  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
designating  machine-made  products.  We  are  wont  to  separate  agriculture  from 
manufactures ;  to  consider  the  former  conservative  and  the  latter  progressive ; 
to  i-ank  the  former  among  the  taiTy-at-home,  and  the  latter  among  the  go-aliead 
systems ;  to  tliiiik  that  in  the  former  nature  does  more  than  num,  but  that  in 
the  latter  man  does  more  than  nature ;  to  associate  gi-een  fields  with  the  one, 
and  smoky  factories  with  the  other.  All  tliis  may,  relatively  speaking,  be  true ; 
but  it  is  not  tiiie  if  presented  in  too  marked  and  decided  a  *bnii.  The  records 
of  tlie  Eoyal  Agi-icultural  Society,  and  equally  those  of  the  Great  Exliibition, 
have  taught  us  that  mechanical  as  well  as  chemical  principles  are  making 
notable  advancements  into  the  domain  of  agriculture.  It  may  not  be  tliat 
1853  can  "make  two  eai-s  of  com  gi-ow  where  only  one  grew"  in  1840;  but 
an  amount  of  progress  wellworthy  of  attention  has  been  made  in  economizing 
(and  therefore  improving)  all  the  processes  of  husbandry,  and  tlie  subsequent 
processes  whereby  com  is  converted  into  bread. 

The  summing-up  of  the  Agiicultural  Jury  of  tlie  Great  Exhibition  is  really 
an  important  one.  It  is  only  about  twelve  years  ago  that  tlie  Agricultural 
Society  commenced  the  annual  show  of  (and  prizes  for)  implements.  And 
what  has  been  the  result?  "  Seeuig  that  the  owner  of  a  stock-fann  is  enabled, 
in  the  preparation  of  his  land,  by  using  lighter  ploughs,  to  cast  off"  one  horse 
in  three,  and,  by  adopting  other  simple  means,  to  dispense  altogether  witli  a 
great  part  of  his  ploughing — that,  in  the  culture  of  crops  by  the  various  drills, 
lioi-se-labour  can  be  partly  reduced,  the  seed  otherwise  wanted  partly  saved,  or 
the  use  of  manures  greatly  economized ;  while  the  horse-hoe  replaces  the  hand- 
hoe,  at  one-half  the  expense — that,  at  harvest,  the  American  reaping  machines 
can  effect  thirty  men's  work ;  while  the  Scotch  cart  replaces  the  old  English 
waggon  with  exactly  half  the  number  of  horses — that,  in  preparing  com  for 
man's  food,  the  steam  threshing-machine  saves  two-thhds  of  om*  former  expense ; 
and  in  preparing  food  for  stock,  the  turnip  cutter,  at  an  outlay  of  one  shilling, 
adds  eight  shillings  a  head,  in  one  winter,  to  the  value  of  sheep — lastly,  that 
in  the  indispensable  but  costly  operation  of  draining,  the  materials  have  been 
reduced  from  80«.  to  15s.  per  acre,  to  one-fifth,  namely,  of  their  former  cost — it 
seems  to  be  proved  that  Uie  effbits  of  agricultui-al  machinists  have  been  so  far 
successful  as,  in  all  these  main  branches  of  farming  labour,  taken  together,  to  effect  a 
saving  in  outgoings  of  little  less  than  one-half"  The  italics  are  Mr.  Pusey's ;  and 
well  do  the  words  desen'e  to  be  made  conspicuous. 

Let  us  examine  some  of  the  "  Curiosities "  presented  by  com  husbandly, 
the  conversion  of  the  com  into  flom-,  and  Uie  convei-sion  of  the  flour  into 
bread  and  biscuits,  so  fai-  as  they  illustrate  the  great  mechanical  progress  of 
tlie  last  few  years.  And  we  may  begin  with  a  few  general  remarks  on  certain 
aspects  which  the  subject  presents  m  relation  to  the  Great  Exhibition  and  to 
other  industrial  arrangements. 


M 


mtm 


ue\\-tai\iM*ttm' 


mmHmit 


II  CORN    AND    DREAD  :    WHAT    TIIEY    OWE   TO    MACHINERY. 

General  Aspecx  of  Corn  Husbandry  in  1851. 
Fine  indeed  was  the  ugiicuUuval  display  at  our  recent  congi-ess  in  Hyde 
PaS  It  seems  to  be  generally  admitted  that  no  department  ot  mduf  y  va 
n  oit  effi  ientW  iire^ented.  Ao  variety  was  such  as  to  surprise  Kf'ef  y  »  -  ' 
X>  have  not  knowri  how  extensively  mechanical  aid  is  now  applied  to  agn- 
Tultoe  Fo  p  epa  ng  the  ground,  L  sowing  the  seed,  for  tending  the  youjig 
nlZs  while  growing,  ^.r  gathering  the  crop,  lor  prei.anng  it  lor  market-foi 
ftesfopeS^  of  L  most  ingenious  kind  have  been  invei  e.l 

WV  S  barley  avelers.  carts  and  waggons,  chaff  ^""eii',.  culUv^U^r  .  d^iU 
m-ubbers  drill  ploughs,  drill  sowing  machines,  lannmg  mills,  gorse-cutti  ig 
S  .?phini  ^asH  cutting  machines,  grubbers,  han-ows,  ploughs,  hay-makmg 
Zh  ne  •  hTLTSw-cutting  machines,  liquid-manure  machines  mowmg 
Sid  reaping  machines,  oil-eake  mills,  ploughs,  scaiihers.  seed-dibb  mg 
machineTagricuUural  steam-engines,  subsoil  pulverizers,  ti"-e«l;!"S  ^."^  "»^  ; 
Srnh>cu  ling  machines,  winnowing  machineH-all  were  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
A^dUieewf re  irrespective  of  tlie  simpler  tools  for  hand-husbaiidry,  sucl  as 
f^yiierchrff-knives.  hay-knives,  gi-ass-hooks,  reaping-hooks.  bUl-hooks.  sickles, 
Rttftdes  shovels,  hoes,  rakes,  flails,  and  the  like.  .  . 

^Nor  did  ore  gn  countries  neglect  to  show  us  to  what  extent  «'niJai-  aid 
available  among  themselves ;  difficult  as  it  must  have  been  o  send  many 
Jhe  e  pondroi^^  machhies  across  tlie  wide  ocean  Austria,  lor  mBUnce.  se  t 
us  seed  htuTows.  carrot  drillei-s.  seed  coverers.  seed  looseners,  weed  desti-oyers, 
subtoTl  pSs  and  harrows.  Belgium  exhibited  her  seed  bags,  cast-uon 
mllers  seed  n  ills,  ploughs,  harrows,  winnowing  mtvchines.  weeding  machines, 
BUaw-ch^^^^^^^^  grasUlearmg    machines.      Canada    contributed    gram 

Sefmarpronged  hay-forks,  and  ploughs.     Efeypt  showed  us  her  some- 
w£  mce  SLoks.  sickles,  hoes,  ploughs,  and  the  Norez  machine  for  sowmg 
reed      From  France  wa  had  ploughs.  haiTows.  winnowing  machines  clo^el- 
Seshing  machines,  corn-cleansing' machines.  &c.     Holland  contributed  seeJ 
Se     Uquid-manure  machines,  swing  ploughs,  tunup-cutters    and  a  ve^ 
curious  iiistrument called  tlie  dynanwsUUer,  to  measme  the  sU-ength of  tho  action 
"pbughs      Switzerland  iUusLted  her  hand-husbandiy  by  such  ^m^-^P^- 
ments  L  pitchforks,  rakes.  scyUies.  prunmg  knives,  and  so  forth.     Pr^^s*^  "^^ 
Z  vaffous  German  states  sent  us  chaff-cutters,  sowmg  machines   dn  Is, 
S?oshTng  machines.  Flemish  ploughs,  subsoil  ploughs  wat^x-furrow  ploughs, 
S  Sto  mUls.     The  United  States-busy  in  aU  the  fields  of  mdustiy- 
Shib'rd  to  's  some  of  her  Virginia  gram-reapers    ^niut  machines   ho,., 
rakes    hay-forks,  scythes,  nloughs,  cultivators,  ''mlroad  hoi-se-power  seed- 
utoterPgiain  drills,  and-lasl  though  not  least-the  now  lamous  reaping 
maobinea  by  Hussey  of  Baltimore  and  M'Corraick  of  Chicago. 

AnS  we  take,  among  tlie  English  agricultm-al  specimens,  any  one  class  of 
inmkmentstwhat  a  scene  of  activity  did  it  not  display !     Let  it  be  ploughs,  fo 
instance      There  were  nearly  fifty  exhibitors  of  ploughs,  some  of  whom  se 
"S  varieties.     Here  we  iay  lairly  expect  Uiat  all  which  the  farmer  coul 
do  down  to  the  middle  of  the  nmeteenth  centuiy.  was  put  fordi  in  the  be^t 
mMiner      There  were  common  ploughs,  without  any  distmctiye  name ;  Uiere 
weTiuinhig  ploughs,  "criterion  prize  ploughs."  iron  wheel  ploughs,  wood 
Twing  pSxl  bro^l-shai-e  ploughs,  double  ploughs  witii  wi-ought-iron  beam, 
"  nateut  N  G  H  ploughs."  gold-hanger  ploughs,  one-way-turnover  ploughs, 
tw%oileulsvvhig  ploughs,  skim'ploughs,  welded-joint  ploughs,  ploughs 


\CHINEnY. 


IN  1861. 

cent  eongi-es9  in  Hyde 
irtiuent  of  industi-y  was 
to  smin-ise  greatly  thoso 
is  now  applied  to  ugri- 
d,  for  tending  the  young 
iring  it  for  market — for 
ind  have  been  invented, 
juttera,  cultivators,  drill 
ling  mills,  gorse-cutting 
8,  ploughs,  hay-making 
nure  machincH,  mowing 
scarifiers,    seed-dibbling 
;ers,  tlu-eshing  machines, 
ire  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
hand-husbandry,  such  as 
Liooks,  bill-hooks,  sickles, 

?hut  extent  similar  aid  is 
e  been  to  send  many  of 
Vustria,  for  instance,  sent 
oseuers,  Aveed  destJ-oyers, 
her  seed  bags,  caat-irou 
hines,  weeding  machines, 
mada    contributed    grain 
pt  showed  us  her  some- 
Sorez  machine  for  sowing 
nowing  machines,  clover- 
Holland  contributed  seed 
lu-nip-cutters,  and  a  veiy 
i  tlie  su-ength  of  tho  action 
idry  by  such  simple  imple- 
ind  so  forth.     Prussia  and 

sowmg  machines,  di'ill^, 
»hs,  water-furrow  ploughs, 
1  the  fields  of  industry- 
's, smut  machines,  horee- 
ulroad  horse-power  seed- 
-the  now  famous  reaping 
jf  Chicago. 

pecimens,  any  one  class  of 
ly !  Let  it  be  ploughs,  for 
)ugh8,  some  of  whom  sent 
all  which  the  farmer  could 
,  was  put  fortli  in  the  best 
ay  distinctive  name  ;  there 

iron  wheel  ploughs,  wood 
IS  witli  wrought-iron  beam, 
one-way-tumover  ploughs, 
ded-joint  ploughs,  ploughs 


CORN  AND  DRBAD:  WHAT  THEY  OWB  TO  MAOHINERT.  S 

witli  drilling  machines  attached,  double-breast  ploughs,  double-furrow  ploughs, 
double  water-furrow  oiler  ploughs.  West  Indian  ploughs,  Netherby  ploughi, 
Tweeddale  trench  ploughs,  shifting-coulter  ploughs,  friction-wheel  ploughs, 
and  others,  distinguished  one  from  another  by  i)eculiarities  which  would  wholly 
escape  an  ordinojy  observer,  but  which  are  signiticant  to  tlie  eye  of  a  farmer. 
There  were,  too,  ploughs  of  a  more  ambitious  description — such  as  Lord 
Willoughby  U'Eresby's  machine  for  ploughing  land  with  a  stationary  steam- 
engine  ;  Usher's  riiouel  of  a  locomotive  steam-plough,  in  which  the  ploughs, 
revolving  behind  the  carriage,  act  as  propellers ;  and  Lyon's  machine  for 
ploughing,  sowing,  manuring,  and  rolling  tlie  land  in  immediate  succession. 

This  agricultural  department — this  noble  glass  case  050  feet  in  length — this 
area  of  30,000  square  feet  of  flooring — shone  with  a  brightness  of  colours  which 
quite  dazzled  our  foreign  visitors.  They  could  not  understand  the  bright  red 
and  yellow  and  blue  which  here  met  tlieir  gaze.  In  their  own  countries, 
whether  on  the  east  or  the  west  of  the  Atlantic,  the  implements  ai-e  seldom  or 
never  so  bedizened ;  they  have  rough  work  to  do,  and  rough  implements  to  do 
it ;  but  with  us,  whether  it  be  for  reclaiming  bogs  and  swamps,  or  preparing 
the  soil  for  culture,  or  depositing  seed  and  manure,  or  tending  and  cleaning 
the  growing  crop,  or  gathering  tfie  crop  when  ripe,  or  preparing  the  crop  for 
market,  we  find  that  showy  paint  is  abundantly  applied  to  tlie  machines 
employed.  At  the  Exhibition  this  kind  of  adornment  wa.s  practised  in  an 
additional  iiegree,  ajjparently  to  befit  tlie  holiday  occasion.  Some  of  our 
visitors  doubted  whether  the  implements  were  really  good  which  had  received 
such  adventitious  aid ;  and  it  may,  indeed,  be  worth  while  for  our  implement 
makers  to  consider  whether  it  comports  with  the  dignity  of  tlieir  excellent 
productions  to  continue  a  practice  which  was  probably  first  adopted  as  a  lure 
to  the  purchasers  of  common-place  goods.  Some  of  the  makers  have  already 
begun  to  abandon,  or  at  least  to  subdue,  the  brightness  of  these  decorations. 
Good  mechanism,  like  good  wine,  is  its  own  best  advertisement. 

It  is  a  singular  feature  in  modern  English  agriculture,  that  debior-ai'd-creditor 
accounts  of  farming  enterprises  are  being  made  public  in  a  more  exact  form 
than  used  to  be  the  case.  Like  as  an  experimental  philosopher  notes  down 
facts  as  materials  whence  he  may,  by  induction,  establish  principles,  so  does 
an  experimental  farmer  note  down  all  tlie  items  of  outlay,  and  all  the  sources 
of  profit,  in  order  to  draw  out  a  balance-sheet  tlierefrom.  It  is  true  that 
gentleman-farming  involves  much  fallacy  unless  scrupulous  care  be  taken  to 
enter  all  the  items  on  the  unfavorable  side  of  the  balance ;  for  the  real  farmer 
ha.s  often  difficulties  to  contend  against,  which  do  not  affect  the  experimentalist 
Still  there  is  no  reason  why  eveiything  should  not  be  honestly  entered  to  the 
best  of  the  experimentalist's  judgment;  and  if  the  results  ai-e  accepted 
approximately,  without  being  made  tlie  basis  of  too  hasty  generalisation,  good 
must  ultimately  aocrue  tlierefrom  ;  for  men's  minds  come  by  degrees  to  appre- 
ciate the  relations  in  which  certain  items  of  expenditure  and  income  stand  to 
each  otlier.  Mr.  Mechi,  of  Tiptree  Hall,  in  Essex,  has  become  quite  a  leader 
among  these  gentlemen-farmers — these  experimentalists  who,  deriving  their 
capital  from  o&er  departments  of  commercial  industry,  apply  a  portion  of  it  to 
investigations  concerning  farming  enterprise.  Those  who  were  familiar  with 
the  '  Fine  Arts  Court'  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  will  perhaps  call  to  mmd  tlie 
large  model  of  this  Tiptree  farm.  It  showed  tlie 'economical  ^plication  of 
steam  power  to  threshmg,  grinding,  chaff-cutting,  corn-dressing,  pumping, 
sack-lifUng,  and  cooking  Uie  food  for  live  stock.    It  also  exhibited  the  new 

M  3 


a>  'ijtfMi'lri''--*-^"'- 


4  CORN   AND   bread:   WHAT  THEY   OWE   TO   MACHINERY. 

principle  of  keeping  and  feeding  animals  on  open  boarded  Boors,  thus  d.- 

pensing  with  the  use  of  straw  for  bedding^  atatement  of  the  results 

Mr.  Mechi  has  made  P"W.cniore  than  one  tabular^^^  debtx)r.and- 

of  his  farming  experience  at  Ttptree.    ,«"«  «'  °^^^^  1^,5,),  t«  October  30, 

creditor  accounts-embraces  the  pmodfrom^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^^ 

1861.     He  gives,  m  the  fii^t  place,  th«;^'"™  "'  "        calves,  pigs,  imple- 

date,  mcluding  the  items  of  horses  «^«;r^  ^"^^^^^^^^^ 

ments,  hay.  root  crops,  and  manure    the  value  01  ai^        -  ^^^^^j^^, 

in  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence.     He  next  gives  tne  «>^^  J^  ^  ^^^j-, 

labour,  in  ordinary  farming,  trenchmg,  ^^'""^^^Jf'^f; Jjtt^^        the  twelv! 

live  stock.  Then  .omes  a  long  ^'^  "^^f "''  j\S^STeased  by  him,  a  furtlicr 
months,  comprising  rent  of  his  own  land  renoManc^^^^^^^  ^^^^ 

percentage  for  his  improvements  «"  ^"^JfSg'^^' ^nd  tools,  repairs  to 
police  r^s,  property  tax  s^-^^yors  rate,  new  mpleme^^^  .1^  ^^^ 

Lam-engine.  coals  for  ditto  «««^^\7^J^^*^;^^^^^^^^^^  the  capS^  «""^  '"  '^'' 
for  the  stock,  guano  and  other  "^'^"^^^-J^^'^^^.^ous  it«ms  are  giouped  to- 
fai^,  and  miscellaneous  expenses.     Th  se  ~--J*Xe  famiiS^,  sU  at 

live  stock,  dead  meat,  wool,  and  butter.  onnosite  sides  of  tJiis 

The  exact  natui.  of  the  ^^^^f^^l^^ZeXX  Ess':d  and  closely 

account  we  do  not  advert  to .   larmers  uave    ^     ^^^ressed  on  Uie  matter. 

estabUshmeut  of  t^«  1^"^^' ^^^^f^^^r   X^^^^^  near  Patrington,  in 

we  live  ui,  may  perhaps  be  ^^^l^J;'^- ^^^v!^"  ^  fonn  is  mentioned  in 
Yorkshire.  In  our  paper  on  Cotton  *^^  *  ^'"^  ;'"f- J^I^farm  in  the  more 
coiuiection  -th  Ajx^ulture ;  but^  ^(^oESon^er'^f  t"  Ti^-o.e  of  those 
usual  sense  of  tliat  temi.     Ihe     ^o™i"is  brought  into  such  a 

Commissioners  whom  the  en^'-gy  f /JT  "^j^f  g'^^^^^  this 

remai-kable  de^ee  of  ««'t»^'\:;^'f„„tl     k«^^^^^^  ^e^  ««««Pi«*l 

fai-m,  this  food-factory.  somewhat  niinutel^  Sin  making  efficient  roads  to 
in  building  and  stocking  the  farm  ^"^Id^g^l^^^XX^^^^^^^^  occupies 

connect  them  with  the  fields.     A  steam-engine  f  J ^/»^^®  barn  are  all  the 
Se  centre  of  the  bam ;  and  under  the  «XT  doof  processes  oThu^and^ 
.     best  and  newest  machines  adapted  for  '^^^^'^^;°l^'''^l'ZTde\\yev,  it  hi 
The  threshing  machine  threshes  nnd  dresses  J«  ^"^.^^^  "f "/ ^ound  and 

and  laid  aside  for  the  baiter.     */"•"",       ,  ^     j^       j^  ig  operated  upon 
straw  is  carried  hy  an  endless  web  to  °f°<Jf^'^^^^°J;,^^  and  oats  for  the 

by  ^l^'^ff-te^oTSTttle  aS^nTe" Tm'Sn'gS  the  cut  chaff.    ^ 
hoi-ses,  oil-cake  for  the  '*'^^' '"'" '"  ,  „  otpam-eneine.  lift  tlie  turnips  up  to 


ACHINEBY. 

oarded  floors,  thus  dia- 

itatement  of  the  results 
jmenta — his  debtor-and- 
aO,  lt*50,  to  October  30, 
lis  Btock  at  the  formar 
ows,  calves,  pigs,  imple- 
lese,  under  six  headings, 

cost  of  twelve  months' 
and  stones,  and  tending 
enditnre  for  the  twelve 

leased  by  him,  a  furtlicr 
and,  tithes,  poor  rates, 
Bnts  and  tools,  repairs  to 
oil-cake  and  com  as  food 
tlie  capital  sunk  in  the 
3  items  are  grouped  to- 

of  the  farming  slock  at 
lis  items  are  less  or  more 
;omes  a  valuation  of  the 
i-wurzel,  turnips,  clover, 

10  opposite  sides  of  tliis 
ly  discussed  and  closely 

expressed  on  the  matter. 
ing  required ;  for  it  must 
such  a  sense  that  fanning 
istrial  statistics. 
'ei7  instructive,  from  the 

11  example  of  a  high-class 
ine  tendencies  of  the  age 
farm,  near  Patrington,  in 
his  farm  is  mentioned  in 

also  a  farm  in  the  more 
the  rimes"— one  of  those 
;8  has  brought  into  such  a 
years — ^has  described  this 
3en  months  were  occupied 
making  efficient  roads  to 
Bight-horse  power  occupies 
»of  of  this  bam  are  all  the 
>r  processes  of  husbandry, 
om,  and  tlieu  deUvers  it  in 
ft,  where  it  is  ground  and 
vhere  it  is  packed  in  sacks 
the  threshing  machine  the 
where  it  is  operated  upon 
Bak  beans  and  oats  for  the 
:ing  with  the  cut  chaff.     In 
igine,  lift  the  tumips  up  to 
es  fall  into  a  truck,  and  this 


CORN   AND   BRKAD  :    WHAT   THEY   OWE   TO   MACHINERY.  6 

truck  travels  along  a  railway  to  tlie  feeding  sheds.  In  another  compartment, 
steam  from  the  boiler  boils  and  cooks  food  of  various  kind*  for  pigs  and  other 
live  stock.  In  the  cattle  houses,  each  aniuial  has  its  comfortable  box,  twelve 
feet  by  ten,  with  a  supply  of  fresh  water  in  one  comer,  and  a  manger  for  its 
food  in  another.  The  milway  convoying  the  trucks  of  sliced  tumips  traverses 
the  space  between  two  parallel  ranges  of  cattle  boxes.  Underground  is  a 
great  arched  tank,  into  which  all  the  rain-water  that  falls  on  the  farm-buildings 
is  conveved  by  spouts  and  pipes ;  from  this  tank  the  boiler  of  the  steam- 
engine  feeds  itself  with  water ;  and  the  engine  likewise  pumps  up  the  water 
to  a  tank  on  the  highest  part  of  the  bam,  whence  it  supplies  by  pipes  all  the 
different  divisions  of  the  farm-buildings,  and  also  sei-ves  as  a  reservoir  in  case 
of  fire  Manure  pits,  and  liquid-manura  Umks,  are  placed  so  as  to  render  the 
refuse  from  the  cattle-houses  as  readily  available  as  possible  for  use  in  the 
fields.  The  whole  establishment,  indeed,  is  an  exemplification  of  the  factory 
system  applied  to  agriculture. 

The  Affricultural  Colleffca  constitute  another  marked  feature  in  modem  times. 
Let  us  glance  for  a  moment  at  that  of  Cirencester.  Here  students — boys,  youtlis, 
and  men — are  taught  various  sciences  and  arts  which  bear  upon  agricultural 
pureuits.  Some  are  boarded  and  lodged  within  the  college,  some  in  the 
houses  of  the  masters,  some  elsewhere.  They  pay  from  40/.  to  80/.  each  per 
annum,  according  to  the  an-angements  respecting  board  and  lodging.  Besides 
regular  instruction,  and  lectures  in  various  sciences  -and  departments  of 
knowledge,  the  pupils  have  access  to  an  experimental  farm  connected  with 
the  college,  where  various  theories  ai-e  practically  tested,  and  instructions 
illustrated,  having  relation  to  grazing,  farming,  management  of  stock,  pre- 
paring of  com  for  the  market,  application  of  steam-power  to  agiicultural 
machines,  and  so  forth. 

There  are  many  other  agricultural  institutions  and  fanners'  clubs,  where 
the  principles  of  science  ai-e  sought  to  be  made  available  to  husbandry;  they 
are  slowly  doing  a  good  work. 

We  have  just  mentioned  the  steam-engines  at  Tiptree  and  at  Patrington. 
This  marks  a  notable  advance.  The  application  of  steam-power  to  agriculture 
is  one  of  tliose  measures  which  are  probably  destined  to  exercise  great  in- 
fluence on  the  welfare  of  this  department  of  industry.  There  is  a  general 
estimate  made,  that  one-fifth  of  the  whole  produce  of  the  land  is  consumed 
by  the  horses  employed  to  cultivate  it ;  that  is,  taking  one  farm  with  another, 
and  the  average  number  of  horses  on  each  farm,  the  vegetable  produce  is 
diminished  ao  per  cent,  by  the  time  the  horses  themselves  have  been  fed. 
This  is  a  serious  item.  Even  if  men  were  to  scmple  (which  few  men  do  at 
the  present  day)  to  employ  machinery  to  supersede  human  labour,  this  scniple 
would  have  no  place  in  relation  to  the  subject  now  under  notice ;  it  is  horse 
labour  which  agricultural  steam-engines  are  intended  to  partially  supersede. 
All  such  operations  as  threshing  com,  cutting  chaff,  cutting  tumips  and  other 
roots,  crushing  grain  and  seeds,  &c.,  can  be  very  well  performed  by  steam 
power.  Even  in  districts  where  coal  is  SOs.  per  ton,  it  is  calculated  that  one 
shilling's  worth  of  coal  will  do  as  much  work  as  four  shillmgs  applied  in 
feeding  a  working  horse. 

One  serious  matter  is,  that  lai-ge  farmers  only  can  beai*  the  expense  of 
purchasing  stea,m-engines ;  the  small  farmer  can  barely  afford  to  purchase  one, 
and  the  operations  on  his  fann  are  not  extensive  enough  to  keep  an  engine 
regularly  at  work.  Here,  however,  a  new  commercial  element  comes  into 
exercise.     Those  who  are  familiar  with  Binningham  manufactories  know  that 


L 


OORM  AND  DREAD 


WHAT  THEY   0W«  TO   MAOMIIIBBY. 


.u^am  DOwer  ia  oft«n  M  out  In  Ujftt  town;  two  men.  for  exaropU.  hare  work- 

WimiuB  to  be  applied  in  U.e  ugrioultural  districts.  The  ownar  of  a  iwrt 
abEr^-SiKi^e  JonveyH  it  from  fanu  to  fann.  at  the  seasons  when  much 
tiho^TrSdovlt  iuoh  periodical  intervaU  an  may  siut  liie  ammge- 
mtn^  of  Z  fim'er  it  i.  used  to  perform  Uie  farm-work.  a  i-ent  »  paid  for 
r^t.  Ld  it  Sn  trave  H  on  to  another  farm-it  is  a  perlpateUc  operajxe 
whiXi.res  u^n  coalH  and  water,  and  patiently  W  «»y^h««  ^  •*»  ""^  ^""^ 

"^S'^rrtp^ferenca  now  claimed  for  -veable  i^te-d^of  fix^^^ 
atoam-enmnes  for  fa^8  are  something  as  foUowB:-in  a  l**^  j^' ^.J 

£;:;^r^^r oX:t  s=:^  -  - 9 ~H 
S^;^;^he^,isr  s  r^a  rs^^^^  t;{^ 

much  ess  e  penLml  oV^^r^^^^  labLr  than  by  the  fixed  engine.  In  u«mg 
Sriattor  the  co-n  is  put  up  into  ricks,  pulled  to  pieces  agam.  carted  to  the 
SLC'ba^..Stien  brought  under  the  action  of  the  fixed  engme ;  but  wl.on 
a  moveableTniine  is  employed.  Uie  complex  Uireshmg  raaohme  .a  attached  to 
ftTa  tmidir  K  a  locomJuv^.  aiid  both  are  driv.n  into  tiie  com  field  (fin 
weSi^bih^gof^urHenecesBary);  U.e  sheaves  are  tossed  at  once  mto  ih. 
rresZr."^hme.  which  is  set  to  work  by  a  band  or  gear  from  tl»«  «•«'"«  ; 
i«d  It  ii^now  fom.d  that  it  takes  no  more  time  to  thresh  the  com  m  th.B  waj 
than  it  formerly  did  to  cart  tlio  com  to  tlie  bam. 

FaHM-MaCHINEB,   AS   BOPERBEDINO   HaND-IMPIUMKNTS. 

But  we  must  examine  a  litUe  more  in  detaU  the  doings  of  the  com- 
huSlZal^.  to  Tin  what  way.  and  to  what  extentjjorsa  labour  has  super- 
Bfided  hand  labour,  and  tlie  steam-engine  superseded  both. 

Mj  vZyXimK  presented  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  a  valuable 
«pS  onh^lJrogres*  of  agriculture  durina  the  eight  years  preceda^  th. 
dr     His  discusln  of  ffibig's  celebrate!  chemical  theones  wejnU  no 
tou^h  upon  ;  but  the  mechanical  aids  to  agriculture  come  preo»B«»Jy  T^'*^™  ^ 
«^ge ;  W  it  is  instructive  to  see  what  so  competent  an  obatrver  ha.  to  lay 

°"m3toM  then,  that  agricultural  mechanism  is  "certainly  the  branch  in 
which  Te  ^mafe^f  toowfige  haa  done  the  mo«c  good  to  farmer,  that  h»crease 
bSiSnartlTextension  and  piStly  advance."  In  1840.  in  the  same  parish  and 
tlKta^e  S  one  farmVs'plough  might  be  -"  h^^^  tat^be'^n 
than  anotlier  plough  for  two.  In  many  places  three  ^o«««  ^V.^^, *^ 
ploughing  light  loMU  :  a  waste  of  power  never  now  seen  ,^8"*^I",  hao  i!^ 
Se  Imi^hinK  in  number;  those  entered  in  the  Tax  Returns  for  1B40  were 
5?l  flS^lSaa  ^ose  for  1848  were  only  297,858.  This  ia  a  very  smgulw 
Sld^ho^^lSatrie  power  is  feeing  L.  mora  skilfully  employed  tha|^U 
was  a  short  time  back,  owing  to  the  improvement  m  maxihmea.  Mr  Posey 
Smat«8  that  the  actual  saving  to  the  English  farmers  m  this  item  alone, 


''4*. 


tAOMIMBMY. 

for  example,  hwe  work- 
Dut  the  oU»er  not ;  »  belt 
vhich  botli  may  have  U»c 
^turer  i>fty«  ft  rent  tn  the 
jtliing  similar  to  Uiii  is 
The  owner  of  a  portr 
the  seaBOBB  when  much 
iH  may  Buit  the  arrange- 
i-work,  a  rent  is  paid  for 
(  a  peripatetic  operative, 
anywhere  to  do  any  kind 

oveable  instead  of  fixed 
—in  u  large  farm,  with  ft 
xr  for  man  and  horse  in 
operations  centre  in  oiio 
itead  of  the  crop  to  the 
all,  it  will  not  atford  work 
I  might  suffice  for  two  or 
Bom  to  be  threshed  with 
10  fixed  engine.  In  usuig 
)ieoe8  again,  carted  to  the 
he  fixed  engine ;  but  when 
ng  machine  is  attached  to 
I  into  tlie  com  field  (fine 
J  tossed  at  once  into  tlie 
jr  gear  from  tlie  engine; 
resh  the  com  in  this  way 


)-IMP1.EMFNT8. 

the  doings  of  the  com- 
jt,  horse  labour  has  super- 
Iboth. 

sultural  Society  a  valuable 
Bight  years  preceding  that 
lical  theories  we  will  not 

come  precisely  within  our 
ent  m  observer  has  to  say 

s  "  certainly  the  branch  in 
)od  to  fwroei-s,  that  increase 
to,  in  the  same  parish  and 
•en  heavier  for  three  horses 
u-ee  horses  might  be  seen 

seen.  Agricultural  horses 
Tax  Returns  for  1840  were 
8.  Thin  is  a  very  singular 
e  skilfxiUy  employed  than  it 

in  machines.  Mr.  Pusey 
farmers  in  this  item  alone, 


CORK   AKO   BRHXn  :    WHAT  TIISY   f>WR   TO   MAOHINBHV.  T 

comparing  lft4«  with  1840,  must  amount  to  nearly  a  million  stAriing  annually. 
AnotlMjr  signiii<-iuit  iniprovoment  is,  the  substitution  of  light  carts  tor  heavy 
waggons  in  field  work.  Many  trials  have  lately  nhown  that  single-hoi-«e  nu  ts, 
of  the  NorUminborland  build,  vrill  bring  in  a  liel.l  of  com  jii  aboiU  the  same 
tinifl  as  the  two-hoi-so  waggon  ;  and  that  both  in  the  first  cost  ot  tlie  vehicles 
and  the  horses,  and  in  the  daily  expenses  of  the  latter,  the  substitution  will 
have  a  most  monitntous  effect  on  tlie  fiimier's  profits.  Oiir  authority  spf^aks 
of  the  matter  in  an  unequivocal  maniipr  :— "  Here  (in  Wiltshire),  since  tarmers 
have  compared  the  two  systems,  no  one  buys  wb  ^Rons  in  stocking  a  larm  ;  but 
those  who  have  waggons  do  not  like  to  buy  a  m-.w  set  of  carts.  I  should  say 
Uiey  had  better  sell  their  waggons  while  they  can.  anil  if  tliey  cannot,  mak«  a 
honjin  of  thmn.  To  use  tht-m  still  is  like  mniiiiig  a  stage  coach  in  these 
(lays  between  London  and  Bath." 

We  may,  periiaps,  better  follow  out  the  object  of  this  paper  by  trafling  tiie 
main  operations  of  com-huHbandry  in  succession,  so  far  as  they  involve  the 
use  of  machinery:  and  see  howiai-  Mr.  Puseys  paper,  and  the  Agricultural 
Jury's  Report,  will  aid  us.  The  Report  here  spoken  of  is  that  ot  Jury  No.  IX., 
relating  to  tlio  agricultural  machines  in  the  Great  Exhibition ;  it  is  printed  a^ 
a  separate  pamphlet,   and  also  in   the  Moumal   of  the    Uoyal  Agricultural 

And  first  for  draining,  about  which  we  hear  and  read  so  much  in  the  pre- 
sent day.  . , 

The.  di-aining  of  arable  land  has  given  rise  to  many  machines  ot  great  m- 
ffenuity.  It  is  not  an  annual  process  to  be  pertbrmed  by  the  famier,  nor  on 
some  land  is  it  required  at  all ;  but  in  wet  soils  the  landlord  now  finds  it  worth 
his  while  to  bear  Uie  expense  of  thorough  draining  once  tor  all.  Drains  or 
trenches  have  to  be  dug,  and  tiles  or  pii>es  laid  in  these  trenches;  hence  ttU) 
and  plM-making  machines  have  conio  to  occupy  an  important  position  at  our 
Agricultural  Shows.  Until  about  1840  the  tiles  were  made  by  hand;  but 
now  pipes  are  generally  substituted,  made  by  machinery  at  less  than  halt  the 
cost  of  hand-made  tiles  ;  this  diminution  of  cost  has  encouraged  laiulloids  to 
drain  wet  land  very  largely.  So  important  is  the  matter  now  regarded,  that 
at  one  of  the  recent  shows  no  fewer  than  forty-eight  of  such  machines  com- 
peted for  the  prize.  ,       ,     ,      ,     .,,  ,        ^  .  _ 

The  drains  or  trenches  for  the  pipes  are  dug  by  hand  with  spades ;  but  a 
bold  attempt  is  now  being  made  to  substitute  machinery  for  this  as  well  aa 
other  hand  processes.  Mr.  I'owler's  draining  plough  is  really  an  extraorduiaiy 
machine;  it  ploughs  out  a  channel  three  or  four  feet  below  tlie  surface,  and 
hy$  down  thspiptt  in  that  channel.  The  Agricultural  Jury  recently  tned  it; 
and  in  their  report  tliey  thus  comment  on  it:—"  But  for  the  American  reapers. 
Mr  Fowlers  draining  plough  would  have  formed  the  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  Mrioultural  department  of  the  Exhibition.  Wonderful  as  it  is 
to  see  the  standing  wheat  shorn  levelly  low  by  a  pair  of  horses  walking  along 
its  edge  it  is  hardly  if  at  all  less  wonderful,  nor  did  it  excite  less  interest  or 
surprise  among  the  crowd  of  spectators  when  the  Uial  was  made,  to  see  two 
horaes  at  work  by  the  side  of  a  field,  on  a  capstan  which,  by  an  mvisible  wiie- 
rope,  draws  tciwards  itself  a  low  fiiimework,  leaving  but  the  to-ace  of  a  narrow 
slit  on  the  surf-ace.  If  you  pass,  however,  to  the  other  side  of  the  field,  which 
the  framework  has  quitted,  you  perceive  that  it  has  been  dragging  after  it  a 
string  of  pipes,  which,  still  following  the  plough's  snout,  tlmt  buirows  all  the 
while  four  feet  below  ground,  twists  itself  like  a  gi„  intic  red  worm  mto  the 
earth;  bo  that  in  a  lew  minutes,  when  the  fiumework  has  reached  the  capstan, 


I  CORN   AND   BRRAD:    WHAT  TOIY   OWK   TO   MACHINERY. 

the  Hiring  is  withdrawn  from  tlie  necklace,  and  you  aie  asaured  that  the  drain 
has  thuH  been  invisibly  formed  beneiitli  your  feet. " 

Tliis  thorough  draining  iH  a  licavilvexpensivti  openition.  But  let  ns  next 
watch  tlio  nioro  general  and  iinnually-recuiTcnt  operation,  of  which  that  of 
the  filoiufh  is  an  important  ont'.  _ 

The  minute  shades  of  dirterenre  in  tlie  aiTungeinent  and  action  of  ploughs 
are  quite  beyond  the  appreciation  of  ordinary  obsei-vera.  The  liwt  quarter 
of  a  century  has  produced  modificuliouH  and  iniprnvementa  almost  out  of 
number.  8omo  of  tlie  new  patent  ploughs  owe  their  distiuctivo  cliaractcr  to 
being  made  of  wrought  iron ;  others  are  specially  adapted  to  penetrate  the 
groiuid  U)  particular  depths;  one  manufacture||. prides  himself  on  tlie  geo- 
metrical accuracy  with  which  the  cur^•e8  of  tlie  share  and  the  fur/ow-tumer 
and  tlid  mould-board  are  planncil ;  imother  seeks  to  attain  a  certain  symmeti-y 
and  compactness  in  the  arrangement  of  tlie  several  parts ;  anotlier  is  noted 
for  tlie  mechanism  by  which  the  share  is  fixed  higher  or  lower  according  to 
the  state  of  the  soil ;  hero  we  have  a  peculiar  adjusting  power  for  tlie  coulter ; 
tliere  a  novelty  in  the  application  of  the  draught  or  pulling  force  of  tlie  horse ; 
in  one,  by  a  change  in  the  mould  board,  the  same  plough  mav  be  used  for 
heavy  and  light  land ;  in  another,  tho  parts  lure  susceittible  of  being  readily 
taken  to  pieces,  for  the  convenience  of  emigrants.  Nor  ore  foreign  countries 
wanting  in  modem  novelties  in  ploughs ;  though  we  may  fairly  claim  to  be 
ahead  of  most  of  them  in  this  matter.  The  Belgian  ploughs  are  still  strong 
and  stout,  but  rough  and  heavy  ;  tho  Austrian,  the  French,  the  North  German, 
the  Dutch— all  are  somewhat  rude.  But  our  brethren  across  tlie  Atlantic 
show  a  good  deal  of  neatness  and  cleverness  in  their  ploughs ;  tlie  woodwork 
of  these  ploughs  (white  oak,  of  great  toughness)  is  made  by  machinery ;  and 
it  is  thus  so  accurately  fitted,  that  all  the  parts  can  readily  bo  taken  asunder 
for  repair  or  for  rdiiioval  to  a  distance. 

The  Jury  Report  informs  us  that  it  was  Messrs,  Ransome  who  furnished 
the  modem  English  plough  with  two  low  wheels,  and  with  mould-boai-da 
adapted  to  different  soils.  Mr.  Howard  and  Mr.  Busby  have  especially 
duected  their  attention  to  tlie  mould-boards— those  curved  surfaces  which, 
after  raising  each  fuiTow-slice  of  ploughed  eoitli,  gradually  lays  it  over  half 
inclined  on  the  preceding  slice.  Foreigners  are  said  to  have  been  struck  wiUi 
the  lengUi  of  the  English  mould-boards,  at  the  Great  Exhibition ;  this  length 
has  been  found  advantageous  for  the  hlilV  clay  soils  of  England. 

In  respect  to  han-ows,  the  square-bar  haiTow,  with  straight-set  teeth,  has 
been  used  from  the  eailiest  times  till  widiin  tlie  last  few  years.  Harrows  are 
now  made  with  the  teeth  diagonally  arranged,  so  that  the  frame  which  contains 
them  can  be  drawn  square  forward  instead  of  obliquely.  There  is  also  a  very 
ingenious  expanding  hai-row  now  in  use,  in  which  the  cross  bars  are  jomted 
loosely,  80  that  the  tines  or.tfleth  can  increase  or  decrease  their  mutual  distance 
behind  and  before,  by  decreasing  or  mcreasing  the  distance  to  the  nght  and 
left— like  the  '  lazy-tongs.'  .        ,        .,  .    .u  -     n        m,- 

Anotlier  implement  which  assists  in  preparmg  the  soil  is  the  roller.  ^  inis, 
like  the  plough,  has  undergone  great  improvement  recentlv.  "  Not  many 
years  ago,"  the  Jury  Report  tells  us,  "  the  landlord  was  often  asked  by  his  tenant 
for  some  old  tree  to  convert  into  a  roller.  The  tree  roller,  when  manufactured, 
had  its  framework  loaded  witli  rough  materials  to  give  it  weight;  but  it  soon 
wore  and  cracked."  Sometimes  there  was  no  framework  at  all,  but  the  traces 
for  the  horses  were  fastened  to  two  pins  at  Uie  ends  of  the  roller.  Now,  however, 
our  Crosskills  and  gthers  have  produced  excellent  rollers,  some  serrated  and 


"Hf" 


ICUINEBY. 

nsaureil  that  the  drain 

tion.  But  let  ii8  next 
ition,  of  which  that  of 

t  aiul  action  of  plouRhs 
erM.  The  liist  quarter 
kementH  ahnost  out  of 

(IJMtinctivo  diameter  to 
apted  to  penetrate  tlio 
js  himself  on  the  geo- 

and  the  furiow-tumer 
lain  a  certain  symmeUy 
)arts  ;  another  is  noted 
;r  or  lower  according  to 
5  power  for  tlie  coulter ; 
lling  force  of  tlie  horse ; 
ilough  may  be  used  for 
uptible  of  being  readily 
or  are  foreign  countiicH 
I  may  fairly  claim  to  be 

I)lough8  are  still  strong 
nch,  the  North  German, 
ren  across  Uie  Atlantic 
ploughs ;  the  woodwork 
lude  by  machinery  ;  and 
sadily  bo  taken  asunder 

Ian  some  who  furnished 
imd  witli  mould-boards 

liusby  have   especially 

curved  surfaces  which, 
aduttUy  lays  it  over  half 
to  have  been  struck  with 

Exhibition ;  tliis  length 

England. 

h  straight-set  teeth,  has 
few  years.  Harrows  are 
he  frame  which  contams 
ly.  There  is  also  a  very 
e  cross  bars  are  jointed 
ttse  their  mutual  distance 
iistauce  to  the  right  and 

soil  is  ihe  roller.  This, 
t  recently.  "Not 'many 
.  often  asked  by  his  tenant 
)ller,  when  manufactured, 
ve  it  weight ;  but  it  soon 
^ork  at  all,  but  the  traces 
the  roller.  Now,  however, 
)llers,  some  serrated  and 


mtmm 


COBN    AND    nUKAI):    WHAT   THKY    OWK    TO    MACHINERY.  • 

some  plain.  Farmers  used  to  break  their  still'  clods  partly  by  the  harrow  and 
partly  by  the  plain  roller;  but  now  tlie  clodermher—a  kind  of  roller  bristling 
over  Willi  teeth— etVeolually  breaks  down  the  hard  lumps  of  oarthwhicli  impede 
luable  culture.  Tlie  Norwegian  harrow,  a  kind  of  triple  roller  anned  with 
much  sharper  teeth  than  the  clod-crasher,  is  another  modern  implement  for 
breaking^the  clods. 

The  implement  called  by  the  various  nanus  of  ,7n(/»fc/',  xartfier,  and  adtivator 
is  a  kind  of  Hubstitute  for  the  plough ;  it  is  a  modem  invention  to  which  gi-eat 
value  is  attached  by  experienced  men.  The  Jury  lleport  encourages  an  expec 
tation  that  tlio  cultivator  may,  when  brought  into  general  use,  save  one-half  of 
the  entire  labour  now  bestowed  upon  ploughing ;  and  that  it  ought  to  take 
rank  witli  the  reaping-machine,  in  its  prospective  value  to  practical  farmers. 
'J'he  scarifier  or  cultivator  cuts  up  five  feet  width  of  soil  at  once,  but  to  a  less 
depth  tlian  tlie  plough ;  and  tliis  wholesale  cutting  up,  when  adopted  at  a  cer 
tain  season,  saves  three  or  four  ploughings ;  the  instrument  has  generally 
about  eight  or  ten  tines  or  cuttei-s,  something  like  ploughshares. 

Next  we  come  to  the  drillti  or  seedsowimj  machines.  These  are  not  less 
marked  by  diversity  tlian  the  ploughs  of  the  present  day.  Lot  any  one 
examine  the  drills  in  the  Great  Exhibition,  or  in  the  Smithtield  Cattle  Shows, 
or  in  Uie  aunuid  shows  of  the  Agricultural  Society,  or  in  the  tradccirculara  of 
the  various  manufacturei's — he  will  see  ample  proof  of  this.  Some  of 
the  drills  are  for  sowing  turnip  seed  only ;  some  arc  equally  adapted  for  all 
seeds ;  some  deposit  manure  in  the  same  holes  as  the  seed ;  otliers  lay  the 
manure  at  a  trifling  distance  from  the  seed  ;  one  manufacturer  attends  par- 
ticulariy  to  the  driving  or  steering  apparatus,  by  which  the  drill  is  made  to  do 
its  work  in  regular  straight  lines ;  another  tries  to  make  his  drills  work  well 
on  Uie  side  of  a  hill ;  in  one  drill  we  see  the  seed  descend  through  a  string  of 
tin  cups,  each  dipping  into  the  one  below  it ;  in  another  a  vulcanized  indio- 
mbber  tube  supersedes  the  cups ;  some  are  two-row  drills,  while  others  are 
four,  sL\,  eight,  or  ten ;  some  of  the  manure-drills  are  so  nicely  adjusted  that 
they  can  be  made  to  drop  small  portions  of  pulverized  manure  at  any  required 

distances  apart.  .  ,    . 

"  The  sower  with  his  seed-lip,"  says  the  Jury  Eoport,  "  has  almost  vanished 
from  soutliem  England,  driven  out  by  a  complicated  machine,  the  driU,  depo- 
siting the  seed  in  rows,  and  drawn  by  several  horses."  Although  horae.^  ai-e 
used  for  the  drill,  and  not  in  hand-sowing,  yet  horses  are  used  for  the  han-ows 
which  follow  the  hand-sower,  and  this  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  calculated 
one-half  the  horse-power  is  saved  by  adopting  tlie  drill  instead  of  the  "  broad 
cast "  method  of  sowing.  There  i's  a  saving  of  seed,  too,  by  the  drill.  But 
the  Jury  Report,  which  discusses  this  subject  with  much  clearness,  states  that 
the  proper  mode  to  view  the  drill  is  as  tlie  keystone  of  what  may  be  tenned 
machine-agriculture;  the  scarifier  loses  much  of  its  value  imless  the  drill, 
instead  of  the  broadcast  method,  follows  it;  and  the  horse-hoe— anotlier 
important  member  of  the  machine  series— requires  tlie  drill  to  precede  it. 
The  drills  are  costly  machines,  some  rising  to  the  price  of  C40  or  £50 ;  but  the 
makers  are  cheapening  them,  and  are  introducing  many  varieties  among  them. 
The  jury  instituted  a  trial  of  twenty  drills  at  Pusey— ten-rowed  corn  drills, 
ten-rowed  com  and  seed  drills,  three-rowed  drop  drills,  two-rowed  tumip  drdls, 
hill-side  drills,  general-purpose  drills,  self  adjusting  steerage  drilk— ell  were 
there,  and  others  besides.  There  was  also  a  hand-baiTOW  drill,  worked  by  a 
man  instead  of  horses,  which  obtained  a  highly-eulogistic  character.  Ihe 
modem  drills  not  only  economize  seed,  but  manure  also.     Farmers  i^sed,  not 

K  8 


mm 


10 


CORN  AND  bread:  WHAT  THBT  OWE  TO  MAOHINKBT. 


long  ago,  to  scatter  the  lime  or  phosphate  or  other  manure  over  the  whole 
surface  of  a  field ;  but  now  the  manure-drills  concentrate  it  in  lines  along  the 
rows  of  seed ;  nay,  Mr.  Homsby's  drill  drops  the  seed  and  manure,  by  a  second 
advance  in  mechanic  frugality,  only  at  those  points  m  the  lines  where  the 
plants  are  intended  to  stand.     This  has  been  well  characterised  as  "an 
elaalic  pliability  by  which  mechanism  in  agriculture  has  seconded  chemistry." 
There  has  been  a  very  striking  improvement  in  drills  made  recently,  by 
which  a  wholly  new  principle  is  brought  into  requisition— wholly  new,  at  least, 
so  far  as  regards  the  art  of  sowing.   We  caimot  do  better  than  give  Mr.  Pusey's 
account  of  this  matter :— "  The  most  sUikiug  novelty  is  Chandler's  water-drill, 
which  bids  fair  to  remedy  a  great  evil  for  southern  farmers.     Often  when  our 
land  in  July  is  ready  for  tlie  turnip  seed,  on  the  success  of  which  depends  our 
flocks'  subsistence  in  winter,  that  land  is  as  dry  and  dusty  as  a  turnpike  road. 
We  watch  vainly  eveiy  cloud,  and  in  vain  set  our  weather-glass ;  weeks  pass 
without  rain,  or,  worse  still,  a  shower  falls,  but  we  find  that  the  rain  has  not 
entered  the  ground.     This  drill,  however,  deposits  along  the  line  of  seed 
enough  water,  which  serves  also  as  a  vehicle  for  maniu-e,  such  as  superphos- 
phate, to  stai-t  the  young  plant  in  readmess  for  the  coming  change  in  the 
weather.     It  's  used  extensively  by  practical  fiu-mers  m  Wiltshire,  and  bids 
fair  to  remove  from  the  root-crop  one  of  tKe  farmer's  pecuUar  obstacles— uncer- 
tainty, to  remove  which,  if  there  be  a  leading  object  of  improvement  in  agri- 
cultiure,  is  tlie  main  object"  ,  .     ^    t       t^      _x    i 

Mr.  Pusey,  both  in  tlie  Agricultural  Jomnal  and  m  the  Jury  Keport,  does 
his  best  to  recommend  the  horse-hoe  and  the  horse-rake  to  the  notice  of  farmers, 
as  being  valuable  appUcations  of  horse-power  to  field  labour.  The  horse-hoe 
has  a  row  of  hoes  or  knives,  at  a  distance  apart  equid  to  that  of  the  rows  made 
by  the  drill ;  whetlier  the  seed  be  turnip  or  wheat,  tliis  compound  hoe  will 
drive  fearlessly  between  the  rows,  and  hoe  tliem  effectually.  So  nicely  do  the 
parallel  hoes  do  their  work,  that  "for  a  field  operation,"  Mr.  Pusey  remarks, 
"  it  is  as  delicate  as  the  action  of  the  revolving  knives  with  which  the  loose 
threads  are  shorn  from  tlie  surface  of  broadcloth  at  Leeds."  He  gives  the 
farmers  some  hard  nibs  concemingtlieirwasteof  horse  power  in  field  waggons, 
and  states  that  the  expense  of  a  horse-hoe  would  not  equal  the  difference 
between  that  of  a  two-horse  waggon  and  that  of  an  equally  efficient  single- 
horse  cart.       x  ''i 

Machine  Processes,  from  the  Harvest  to  the  Granary. 

As  we  we  here  heating  of  agricultural  matters  only  so  far  as  they  have  been 
brought  withm  the  range  of  machinery,  no  apology  is  necessary  for  our  skip- 
pmg  over  the  more  mmute,  patient,  and  manipulative  processes  which  engage 
so  much  the  attention  of  the  fanner.  We  will  suppose  the  field  of  corn  to  be 
ripe,  and  then  see  what  the  machmist  has  done  for  this  com. 

Of  all  the  recent  applications  of  machinery  to  farming,  none  have  excited 
greater  attention  and  astonishment  thau  reaping  machitiM.  Threshing 
machines  have  ceased  to  be  a  novelty;  but  reaping  machines  are  only  now 
taking  fast  hold  of  tlie  position  which  they  are  destined  to  maintain.  How 
the  reaping-hook  and  tlie  sickle  are  employed  by  hand  laboui-ers,  every  one 
knows  who  has  walked  tiirough  a  corn-field  m  harvest  time;  the  stooping 
position  and  the  slow  progi-ews  have  often  suggested  to  Uie  observer  that  a  day 
»»Hit  come  when  some  plan  moie  efficient  would  be  adopted. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  eeuiuiy,  FwrUamont  voted  a  reward  to  the 


1 


«Miii 


mm 


AOniNEBT. 

manure  over  the  whole 
ate  it  in  lines  along  the 
nd  manure,  by  a  second 
in  the  lines  where  the 
I  characterised  as  "  an 
ns  seconded  chemistry." 
rills  made  recently,  by 
n — wholly  new,  at  least, 
ter  than  give  Mr.  Pustey's 
8  Chandler's  water-dnll, 
niers.  Often  when  our 
8s  of  which  depends  our 
lusty  as  a  turnpike  road, 
ather-glass ;  weeks  pass 
id  that  the  rain  has  not 
along  the  line  of  seed 
xxue,  such  as  superphos- 
B  coming  change  in  the 
i  in  Wiltshire,  and  bids 
Bcuhar  obstacles — uncei'- 
of  improvement  in  agri- 

in  the  Jury  Report,  does 
!  to  the  notice  of  fanners, 

labour.  The  horse-hoe 
to  that  of  the  rows  made 

this  compound  hoe  will 
tually.  So  nicely  do  the 
on,"  Mr.  Pusey  remarks, 
ives  with  which  the  loose 
t  Leeds."  He  gives  the 
se-power  in  field  waggons, 

not  equal  the  difference 
1  equally  efficient  single- 


}  THE  Gbanaby, 

^  so  far  as  they  have  been 
is  necessary  for  our  skip- 
e  processes  which  engage 
>se  the  field  of  corn  to  be 
bis  com. 

rming,  none  have  excited 
jf  machinal.  Threshing 
g  machines  are  only  now 
tined  to  maintain.  How 
band  labom-ers,  every  one 
r\'e8t  time;  the  stooping 
to  Uie  observer  that  a  day 
adopted, 
lent  voted  a  reward  to  the 


CORN    AND    dread:    WHAT   THEY   OWE    TO    MiCHINERY. 


11 


inventor  of  a  reaping  machine ;  but  the  machme  was  so  mUicate  that  it 
L'radually  feU  into  disuse.  Another  was  afterwards  invented  in  one  ot  our 
colonies,  but  it  cut  off  only  die  heads  of  the  com,  leiiving  the  greater  part  ot 
the  stiaw  stjinding— a  serious  impecUment  to  proper  culture.  One  or  two 
other  machines  were  afterwards  uivented,  but  they  went  so  completely  out  ot 
use  that,  at  the  opening  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  the  two  American  machines 
appeared  almost  like  perfect  novelties. 

Mr  McConnick  has  given  an  account  illustrative  of  the  slow  steps  by  which 
his  machine  arrived  at  efficiency.     His  fatlier,  a  farmer  in  Virginia,  made  two 
different  attempts,  at  periods  long  apart,  to  construct  a  reaping  machine ;  he 
abandoned  botli  as  being  unsatislactory.     In  1831  the  son  begaii  his  experi- 
ments, and  in  that  year  constructed  a  machine  for  leapmg.     It  is  one  ot  the 
peculiaiitiea  of  a  reapmg  machine,  tliat  it  can  only  be  tested  dunng  a  lew 
weeks  in  the  year ;  a  manufacturmg  machine,  in  most  other  trades,  can  be 
used  or  tried  at  all  seasons  of  tlie  year ;  but  a  reaping  machine  only  comes 
into  use  when  the  com  is  ready  for  harvest.     Hence  it  happened,  that  when 
any  defect  was  found  m  Mr.  McConnick's  machine,  he  had  to  wait  nearly 
twelve  months  before  he  could  test  the  usefulness  of  any  changes  or  improve- 
mente  he  might  make.     It  was  nine  years  before  he  sold  a  single  machme, 
and  fourteen  yeai-s  before  a  regular  demand  arose.     At  length,  Uie  yeai-  1845 
saw  the  machme  completed ;  and  since  that  time  there  has  been  a  sale  in 
America  for  aboui  a  thousand  annually.   It  seems  strange  that  six  years  should 
elapse  before  these  machme-  became  known  in  England,  and  that  our  Great 
Exhibition  should  be  the  n.  ons  of  making  them  known ;  but  England  has 
always  looked  ratlier  for  raw  produce  than  for  machinery  from  the  United 
States ;  and,  moreover,  agricultural  machmes  are  ponderous  articles  to  transmit 

BO  gi'eat  a  distance.  ,.       ■      ■      u-  u- 

A  few  words  must  suffice  to  explain  the  principle  of  action  in  tins  machme. 
Two  systems  have  been  tried  in  the  machines  hitherto  made  :  the  one  to  cut 
by  a  series  of  clippers  or  sheai-s,  and  tlie  other  by  a  revolving  plate.  In 
McCormick's  machine  there  is  a  cuttmg  blade  about  an  mch  m  breadth, 
iacged  or  toothed  m  the  front  edge ;  it  extends  across  the  front  of  the  machine 
near  the  ground,  and  has  a  reciprocating  or  osciUator)-  horizontal  motion  given 
to  it  Over  tliis  blade  is  a  light  reel,  to  which  are  fixed  oblique  blades  or 
spaiB  of  deal:  tliese  spars,  when  the  reel  revolves,  get  behind  the  stalks  of 
standing  com,  and  hold  them  steadily  whUe  bemg  cut;  the  stalks  are  piessed 
between  projecting  tines  or  fingers,  and  are  there  cut  by  the  saw-hke  action  ot 
the  blade.  Whan  the  stalks  are  thus  cut  near  the  ground,  they  fall  on  the 
floor  of  the  machine.  The  reel,  with  its  windmiU-lookuig  appendages,  is  the 
strangest  part  of  this  machine  ;  it  seems  at  first  as  if  it  would  beat  out  all  the 
cars  from  the  com  as  it  revolves;  but  this  we  may  presume  has  been  guarded 
{urainst  by  the  inventor. 

There  has  been,  and  still  is,  a  battte  ragmg  between  two  reaping  machines, 
McCormick's  and  Husseys,  both  from  tlie  United  States.  It  is  quite  plain 
that  both  ai-e  veiy  efficient  machines ;  and  Uiat  though,  rather  from  untoward 
accident  than  design,  one  obtained  a  -'councU  medal"  and  the  other  did  not 
the  jury  would  have  been  very  gkd  if  both  had  obtamed  this  much-coveted 

"^On  one  of  the  trials  made  before  the  Exhibition  Jury,  McCormick's  machine 
cut  fifteen  acres  in  ten  hours,  and  did  it  lower  down  the  stalk  than  by  ordinary 
hand  reaping.  Mr.  Pusey 's  estimate  of  the  saving  by  the  use  of  this  machme  is 
extraordinary;  he  assumes  9a.  an  acre  to  bo  tlie  labour-wages  for  ordmary 


1 


jBiiHiiiifeiiitaiiiMafi 


MMi 


t.wa.'-i'" 


13 


COBN   AND   bread:   WHAT  THEY   OWE  TO   MACHINEHY. 


renping,  making  6/.  15s.  for  fifteen  acres;  he  estimates  the  wages  for  the  two 
men  on  the  machine,  the  theaf  binders,  and  die  horse  food,  at  -21.  7s.  M., 
leaving  a  margin  of  Al.  Is.  iid.  in  favour  of  the  machine ;  in  sti-lcoiess,  a  small 
percenUige  ought  to  be  added  to  this,  as  interest  on  tlie  cost  price  of  the 
machine  and  the  two  horses.  But  Mr.  Pusey  thinks  that  a  feature  of  greater 
importance  Uian  this  saving  is,  that  the  machine  may  enable  the  fai-mer  to 
save  more  of  his  crop  in  bad  seasons  and  late  districts  by  its  rapid  rate  d 
action. 

On  one  occasion  Mr.  Hussey's  machine  was  ti'ied  before  a  lai-ge  concourse 
o£  persons  at  Hadham  HaU,  near  Bishop's  Stortford.  It  firs*  cut  a  field  of 
barley,  tlien  a  field  of  clover,  then  a  field  of  wheat,  and  did  its  work  so  cleanly 
and  quickly  as  to  astonish  all  the  lookers-on.  One  incident  (if  newspaper 
reporters  told  it  correctly)  mus't  have  been  very  rich  in  its  way.  A  Herculean 
smockfrocked  spectator,  with. a  reaping-hook  in  his  haiid,  was  so  overwhelmed 
with  astonishment  at  what  he  saw,  that  he  broke  his  reaping  hook  and  threw 
away  tlie  pieces,  in  despair  of  ever  equalhng  this  magical  corn-cutter.  In  another 
trial  at  Wmdsor,  before  Prince  Albert,  Hussey's  machine  was  tried  upon  a 
very  rough  and  uneven  piece  of  femy  ground ;  the  machine  cut  the  ferns  veiy 
rapidly,  cleanly,  and  close  to  the  gi-ound;  and  Mr.  Hussey  himself,  standhig 
on  the  platform  as  the  machine  moved  along,  raked  the  fern  off  the  platform 
on  tlie  ground  in  heaps  of  convenient  size  for  gathering  into  sheaves.  The 
aiTangement  of  the  cutting  points. or  edges  seems  to.  ensure  a  kind  of  clipping 
of  the  stalks,  analogous  to  that  by  shears,  whereas  McCormick's  has  a  cutting 
action  more  like  that  of  a  saw.  In  a  trial  of  the  two  machines  at  Tiptree,  the 
verdict  was  given  in  favour  of  McCoi-mick's ;  at  anotlier  trial  near  Middles- 
borough,  the  verdict  was  most  decidedly  in  favour  of  Hussey's.  "  When 
doctors  disagree,"  &e. ;  we  may,  however,  safely  settle  down  mto  the  conclusion 
that  both  are  admirable  and  important  contrivances,  and  that  probably  each 
one  is  better  fitted  for  a  particular  crop  or  a  particular  stat«  of  tlie  ground. 

These  two  are  not  the  only  reaping  machines  now  attiacting  public  notice. 
Some  short  time  ago,  Uie  Hon.  Mr.  Tollemache,  travelling  in  the  United 
States,  saw  one  of  the  reaping  machines  in  operation  (we  do  act  know  whether 
Hussey's  or  McCormick's),  and  was  struck  witli  its  effective  action ;  on  his 
return  to  England  he  described  the  machine  to  Messrs.  Gan-ett ;  and  those 
eminent  implement  makei-s — pai-tly  from  his  description  and  partly  from  their 
own  ingenuity — produced  a  new  reaping  machine,  which  was  brought  before 
public  notice  in  the  early  pai-t  of  1851.  This  machine  cuts  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  or  beans;  it  acts  neai-ly  on  the  same  principle  as  the  other  two 
machines,  and  cuts  about  an  acre  in  an  horn-.  There  is  a  machine  recently 
invented  by  Mr.  Winder,  for  cutting  com  or  grass  by  a  series  of  rotatmg 
horizontal  knives,  adjusted  in  a  singular  manner.  There  are  many  other 
reaping  machines  of  recent  invention  now  trying  to  make  their  way  into  the 
mai-ket  and  into  the  com  field ;  but  it  must  be  confessed  that — like  American 
revolvers  and  American  pick-locks — ^American  reaping  machines  are  at  present 
in  the  ascendant. 

It  was  one  of  tlie  notable  stages  in  the  history  of  English  agriculture  when 
the  threshing  machine  invaded  the  domain  which  had  before  been  held  undis- 
puted by  tlie  flail.  All  our  manufactmres  experience  analogous  changes.  A 
time  comes  when  inventive  talent,  spun-ed  on  by  the  obvious  imperfections  of 
the  old  hand  implements,  contrives  a  machine  which  saves  a  great  amoiint  of 
labour,  and  very  likely  performs  the  work  more  efficiently.  This  machine  is 
introduced ;  it  is  tried  by  the  inventor  or  others ;  a  great  outcry  is  raised  by  those 


%mm 


HkhMi 


■I*  ilWW  ilUBifcliillll 


I  Mirim*  nii-WTiwwinftrm  itiii 


ACHINERY. 

i  the  wages  for  the  two 
Ji-se  food,  at  '21.  Is.  Gd., 
e ;  in  strlcaiess,  a  small 
1  the  cost  price  of  the 
hat  a  feature  of  greater 
ly  enable  the  fai-mer  to 
•icts  by  its  rapid  rate  cf 

efore  a  lai'ge  concourse 

It  firs*  cut  a  field  of 

I  did  its  work  so  cleanly 

incident  (if  newspaper 
1  its  way.  A  Herculean 
lid,  was  so  overwhelmed 
reaping  hook  and  threw 
I  corn-cutter.  In  another 
ichine  was  tried  upon  a 
chine  cut  the  ferns  veiy 
lussey  himself,  standing 
he  fem  off  the  platform 
•ing  into  sheaves.  The 
nsure  a  kind  of  clipping 
cCormick's  has  a  cutting 
machines  at  Tiptree,  the 
ither  trial  near  Middles- 
■  of  Hussey's.  "When 
down  into  the  conclusion 

and  that  probably  each 
r  state  of  tlie  ground. 

attiacting  public  notice, 
ravelling  in  the  United 
[we  do  not  know  whether 
effective  action;  on  his 
jsrs.  Garrett;  and  those 
ion  and  partly  from  their 
hich  was  brought  before 
hine  cuts  wheat,  barley, 
ciple  as  the  other  two 
e  is  a  machine  recently 

by  a  series  of  rotating 

There  are  many  other 
make  their  way  into  the 
ssed  that — like  American 
g  machines  are  at  present 

English  agriculture  when 
before  been  held  undis- 
3  analogous  changes.  A 
obvious  imperfections  of 
saves  a  great  amoimt  of 
er.tly.  This  machine  is 
it  outcry  is  raised  by  those 


foux  AND  bread:  what  tiiev  owk  to  machinery. 


18 


whose  labour  is  displaced,  and  by  others  who  advocate  their  interests ;  entreaties 
Mid  complaints,  threatenings  and  violence,  succeed  each  other ;  tlie  machine 
gradually  conquers  its  opponents,  and  mattei-s  gradually  adjust  themselves  to 
a  new  order  of  tilings.  Such  has  been  tlie  case  in  respect  to  the  mstruments 
for  separating  gi-ains  of  com  from  the  straw;  every  yeai-  is  the  threshing  ma- 
chme  seen  to  be  more  and  more  employed,  and  eveiy  year  are  the  old-fashioned 
flails  lessening  in  number.  In  Uie  earlier  machines  the  grams  were  liable  to 
be  rather  more  broken  or  bruised  than  by  a  well-managed  flail ;  but  the  im- 
plement makers  have  gradually  surmoimted  all  obstacles. 

■^ireshing  machines  bear  a  pretty  general  resemblance  to  each  other  in 
tlieir  mode  of  action.  The  essential  part  is  a  large  cylindrical  dmm,  on  the 
outer  surface  of  which  are  fixed  bars  or  beatei-s  pai-allel  with  the  axis ;  the 
(h-um  is  made  to  revolve  with  a  velocity  of  five  hundred  to  a  thousand  turns 
in  a  minute.  The  stalk  of  com  bemg  passed  between  feeding  rollers,  it  comes 
in  contact  widi  the  beaters  on  the  rapidly  revolving  dmm;  the  gram  is  beaten 
out  and  falls  to  the  ground,  while  the  steaw  passes  on  to  the  other  side  ot  the 
machine.  Most  of  tlie  threshing  machines  have  straw-shakers  attached,  to 
separate  more  effectually  the  straw  from  the  grains  of  com.  Among  our 
most  noted  manufacturers,  the  thi-eshuig  machines  ai-e  usually  made  Irom 
five  to  nine  horse-power ;  most  of  the  machmes  (dovm  to  the  present  time) 
are  worked  by  horses,  who  go  romid  in  their  monotonous  circular  course  two 
or  three  times  in  a  minute ;  in  an  average  machine,  about  a  hundred  sheaves  ot 
com  can  be  threshed  in  three  minutes.  The  revolving  dmm  being  the  com- 
mon type  of  all  the  machines,  mmor  improvements  are  introduced  by  par- 
ticular makers ;  one  has  applied  anti-friction  wheels  to  the  axle  of  the  dram ; 
another  uses  serrated  instead  of  plain  beaters ;  some  of  the  machines  are  fed 
with  the  com-stalks  in  a  vertical  position,  some  horizontal ;  in  one  kind  Uie 
maker  cares  only  for  the  complete  extrication  of  the  com  from  the  straw; 
while  in  another,  which  is  to  be  worked  near  towns,  where  clean  unbroken 
straw  has  a  good  and  ready  sale,  the  mechanism  is  so  consU'ucted  as  to  kave 
the  straw  in  as  whole  and  unbroken  a  state  as  possible. 

The  Jm-y  Report,  in  reference  to  the  efficient  tlireshing  machmes  of  mo- 
dem days,  adduces  a  very  exti-aordinary  fact,  which  this  Exhibition  Jury  has 
undoubtedly  done  much  to  bring  to  light,  viz.,  tlie  enormous  loss  of  POwer  in 
the  ordinary  horse  machines.  The  threshing  machines  which  superseded  the 
flail  are  worked  by  three  or  fom-  horses  movmg  in  a  cn-cle ;  but  it  h^  been 
found  that,  until  very  lately,  tlie  various  wheels,  shafts,  levers,  and  other 
working  parts  were  so  unskilfuUy  adjusted  that  three  horses  out  of  four  are 
employed  in  moving  the  dead  weight  of  the  apparatus  itself,  and  only  one 
hoi-se-power  left  for  the  actual  threshing.  Mr.  Amos,  the  consulting  engmeer 
to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  discovered  this  fact  only  three  years  a^o ; 
and  tlie  implement  makers,  made  acquainted  with  this  rather  glaring  proot  ot 
forgetfuhiess,  are  now  busied  ui  devishig  a  better  an-angement  of  the  workmg 
parts.  But  when  the  thresbmg  machine  is  worked  by  steam  instead  of  horses, 
the  saving  of  power  is  veiy  notable.  The  Jury  Report  gives  the  result  of 
some  investigations  by  Mr.  Pusey,  to  ascertain  the  relative  cost  of  diflerent 
modes  of  threshing:  he  puts  down  3s.  6d.  per  quarter  of  com  for  the  flail 
method,  2.?.  for  the  horse  threshing  machine,  and  only  9d.  for  the  steam 
threshing  machine;  w^es,  hoi-se-food,  coals,  use  of  the  engine,  vvear  and 
t«ar,  all  seem  to  have  been  chai-ged.  This  result,  if  correct,  is  certauily  very 
unportant.     A  still  later  experiment  has  shown  the  steam  method  to   be 


iiiilMnWiiiMlWiTWf-'--^"''^''^^- 


14 


CORK   AHD  BHEyU>:   WHAT  THEt   OWE   TO  MACHINERY. 


capable  of  threshing  and  winnowing  at  an  expense  varying  from  M.  to  h,/, 

per  quarter. 

The  winnowinff  machine,  Uke  most  other  machines  in  aginculture,  has  now 
become  an  important  economizer  of  time  and  labour.  Instead  of  trusting  the 
threshed  com  to  the  action  of  the  wind,  to  separate  the  grain  from  tlie  husk 
or  chaff,  it  is  placed  in  a  machine  which  works  with  great  rapidity  and  exact- 
ness. Homsby's  winnower  or  dressing  machine  not  only  separates  the  good 
from  the  bad  in  this  way,  but  actually  discriminates  and  separates  six  quali- 
ties, known  technically  by  the  names  of  best  com,  good  tail,  tail,  whites,  »ereen- 
ings,  and  chaff.  It  effects  this  separation  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  quarters  in  an 
hour ;  and  dresses  the  whole  of  it  a  second  time  at  the  rate  of  twenty  quarters 
in  tlie  hour ;  so  that  a  wheat-rick  of  twenty  quarters  can  be  made  ready  for 
the  market  in  five  hours. 

CoBN,  In  its  Commercial  and  Marketable  Relations. 

Before  tracing  our  crop  of  com  to  the  miller  and  the  baker,  let  us  note  a 
few  facts  illustrative  of  the  vast  influence  which  such  crops  exert  on  the  ordi- 
nary commerce  of  the  country.  We  are  a  bread-eating  nation ;  but  we  seldom 
pause  to  consider  how  the  supply  is  kept  up.  nor  how  admirably  the  ordmary 
routine  of  commerce  suffices  to  ensure  a  supply  wherever  the  pence  are  foi-th- 
coming  to  pay  for  it.  x  ^    i.      i 

Nothing  shows  better  the  magnitude  of  our  operaUons  m  respect  to  bread 
and  its  materials,  than  the  course  of  commerce  in  one  of  our  great  ports 
during  a  definite  period.      Take,  for  example,  tlie  corn-trade  of  Liverpool 
during  the  year  1861,  as  given  in  the  trade  circulars  of  tliat  wonderful  town. 
Com  is  now  the  greatest  of  all  imports  at  Liverpool,  witli  the  single  exception 
of  cotton.     Ireland  used  to  be  the  granary  fcv  South  Lancashire ;  but  Irish 
f^culture  has  been  shaken  in  vaiious  ways;  and  supplies  now  pour  mto 
Liverpool  from  foreign  countries  in  enormous  quantities — to  be  either  con- 
sumed in  the  manufacturing  districts,  or  to  be  re-shipped  to  otlier  pc  ts. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1851  there  were  in  stock,  in  the  Liverpool 
warehouses,  -300,000  quarters  of  wheat,  300,000   banels  and  100,000  sacks 
of  flour,   &0,000  loads  of  oatmeal,   and   100,000  quarters  of  Indian  com. 
There  were  imported  into  Liverpool,  during  the  year,  750,000  quart«r9  ol 
wheat,  480,000  sacks  and  1,500,000  baiTels  ot  wheat  flour,  '^00,000  quartei-s 
of  oats,  300,000  loads  of  oatmeal,  70,000  quarters  of  barlej-,  830,000  quarters 
oi  Indian   corn,  and  small   quantities   of  other  kinds  of  grain  and  meal. 
Notvritlwtandmg  tliese  almost  incredible  importations ;  notwithstanding  that 
these,  «Mided  to  the  stock  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  make  an  aggregate  of 
1,750,000  quwters  of  grain,  and  1,800,000  barrels,  530.000  sacks,  and  850,000 
loads  of  flour  and  meal ;  yet  the  stock  in  hand  on  January  1,  185*2,  was  very 
much  smaller  than  on  that  day  twelve  months ;  so  enormous  baa  been  the  sale 
at  LiTiffpool.     It  was  not  until  ten  yews  ago  that  Indian  com  was  impoi-ted  Ut 
any  ni>t«bl©  extwit  into  Liverpool ;  yet  we  find  that  Uie  merchants  o*  that  port 
disposed  of  400,000  quarttra  in  1861.     Almost  all  the  Indian  com  imported 
into  Liverpool  is  r<Mihipped  U>  Ireland ;  a  poition  of  the  wheat  is  re-shipped 
to  other  ports ;  but  by  iax  tha  gieater  part  travels  inland,  and  spreads  itself 
over  the  country. 

London,  as  may  be  supfposed,  receives  vrithin  its  vast  and  busy  port  much 
more  com  than  ia  required  im-  its  two  miliiona  of  indwellers ;  it  ia  »  centra 


AOHINERY. 

urying  from  M.  to  Krf. 

n  agiiculture,  ha«  now 
Instead  of  trusting  th« 
e  grain  from  tlie  husk 
reat  rapidity  and  exact- 
mly  separates  the  good 
,nd  separates  six  quali- 
tail,  tail,  whites,  oeremi- 
i  fifteen  quarters  in  an 
!  rate  of  twenty  quarters 
can  be  made  ready  for 


.E  Relations. 

lie  baker,  let  us  note  a 
crops  exert  on  the  ordi- 
g  nation ;  but  we  seldom 
admirably  the  ordinary 
ever  the  pence  are  foi-th- 

tions  in  respect  to  bread 
one  of  our  great  ports 
coni-trade  of  Liverpool 
of  tliat  wonderl'ul  town, 
vitli  the  single  exception 
h  Lancashire ;  but  Irish 
supphes  now  pour  into 
titles — to  be  either  con- 
shipped  to  otlier  pc  ts. 
stock,  in  the  Liverpool 
n-els  and  100,000  sacks 
usurters  of  Indian  corn, 
ear,  750,000  quarters  of 
It  flour,  ^00,000  quailei-s 
barlej-,  830,000  quarters 
nds  (if  grain  and  meal, 
is;  notwithstanding  that 
tr,  make  an  aggregate  of 
iO,000  sacks,  and  850,000 
anuwy  1,  1852,  was  very 
ormous  lias  been  the  sale 
lian  com  was  impoi-ted  to 
lie  merchants  o*"  that  port 
the  Indian  com  imported 
■  the  wheat  is  re-shipped 
nland,  and  spreads  itself 

vast  and  busy  port  much 
indweilers ;  it  is  a  centre 


COEK    AND    bread:    WHAT   THEY   OWR    TO    MACHINEHV. 


IB 


from  which  com  distributes  itself  to  oUier  great  markets.     The  supply  of 
com  received  in  London  during  the  year  is  of  course  immense.     In  ia4»  it 
amounted  (in  round  numbers)  to  1,060,000  quarters   of  wheat,  050,000  of 
barley,  1.800,000  of  oats,  smaller  quantities  of  a  few  other  kinds  ot  giam  ana 
'iflOOOO  sacks   and   45,000  ban-els  of  Hour;   tlie   proiX)rtion  received  Irom 
abroad  is  many  times  greater  than  tliat  received  from  our  own  home  counUes. 
In  185U  the  quantities  of  eveiy  kind  brought  to  London  were  smaUer  than  m 
1849— thereby  indicating  an  altered  state  of  the  markets,  Bntish  and  loreign. 
Taking  the  whole  countiy,  and  estimating  Hie  flour  and  meal,  as  well  as  the 
com,  Uqiuirter»  instead  of  sacks  and  hands,  we  find  that  tlie  Umtfid  Kingdom 
imported  from  the  colonies  and  from  foreign  countries  the  following  quanUties 
in  1860 —4,800,000  quartei-s  pf  wheat  and  wheat  flour,  1,040,000  quarters  ol 
barley  and  bailey-meal,  and  1,160,000  quarters  of  oats  and  oatmeal—giving 
the  immense  quantity  (added  to  our  own  home  growth)  of  56,000,000  bushels 
of  these  three  kinds  of  com,  besides  Indian  com  and  a  few  oUier  kinUs. 
France  sent  us  more  m  that  year  than  any  other  coimtrj-,  Prussia  next,  Kussia 
third,  and  the  United  States  fomtli.     Those  who  wish  to  compare  these 
various  entries  must  bear  in  mind  Uiat  380  lbs.  of  flour  is  about  equivalent 
(in  bread-making  power)  to  one  quarter  of  wheat.     The  quantity  ot  wheat 
flour  imported  from  France  alone  in  1850  was  something  quit«  enomious— 
placing  at  a  wide  distance  anything  that  had  beibre  occurred;  it  was  veiy 
nearly  a,000,000  cwts. !     In  1851  om-  imports  of  grain  amounted,  in  round 
numbers,  to  6,000,000  quarters,  besides  flour  and  meal. 

It  would  be  weU  if  we  had  in  England  any  such  agricultural  statistics  as 
those  which  tho  Eail  of  Clarendon  has  caused  to  be  obtained  in  Ireland. 
The  constabulary  force  has  been  occasionally  employed  in  that  country,  within 
the  last  few  years,  m  making  most  minute  investigations  into  the  state  ot 
Irish  farming.  We  are  not  cognizant  of  any  trustworthy  estimate  of  thequanUty 
of  com  grown  annually  in  Great  Britain. 

The  warehousing  of  com— that  intermediat*  commercial  stage  between 
farming  and  grinding— is  an  important  matter,  requiring  capiul  to  support  it 
and  care  to  conduct  it.  ParUy  from  tlie  operation  of  revenue  laws,  and  partly 
to  meet  the  exigencies  of  various  markets,  com  has  frequently  to  be  kept  tor 
a  long  period  in  the  granaiy;  and  great  caution  is  Uien  necessarj'  to  prevent 
it  from  becoming  damp  or  otherwise  injured.  So  far  as  the  metropolis  is 
coneemed,  the  commercial  history  of  a  quarter  of  com  is  somewhat  as 
follo^v8:— The  fanners  and  great  dealers  in  oom  send  up  to  Mark  Lane, 
three  times  a  week,  samples  of  the  com  which  they  have  \o  seU ;  these  samples 
are  consigned  to  com-factors  or  com-brokeis,  who  lease  or  rent  stands  at  the 
Com  Exchange.  The  millers,  meaUnon,  com-chandlera,  and  oUiers  who  wish 
to  buy  com,  attend  at  the  Com  Exchange  and  make  theb- purchases ;  they 
iudae  only  from  the  samples,  and  deal  only  with  the  factors— knowing  nothing 
aiul  caring  notliing  who  may  be  the  actual  sellers.  The  broker  or  factor 
obtains  the  best  price  he  can  for  his  client,  and  receives  a  smaU  commission 
for  his  trouble.  In  short,  it  is  so  far  analogous  to  most  of  tlie  great  ti-admg 
operations  in  the  city,  where  a  broker  takes  a  world  of  tiouble  off  the  shoulders 
of  the  seller,  and  often  obtains  a  better  price  for  him  than  he  could  hunselt. 

Whether  com  is  collected  flrom  various  home  counties,  and  centa^d  at  a 
great  emporium  like  Wakefield;  or  whether  it  comes  from  abroad,  and  is 
stored  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  or  the  Mereey,  or  the  Humber--it  is 
placed  in  large  lofty  granaries.    It  is  «q>read  out  in  layers  on  extensive  floors, 


16 


CORN   AND   BREAD  :    WHAT  THEY   OWE   TO   MACHINERY. 


wiiich  layers  are  gradually  increased  in  depth  or  thickness;  and  by  being 
shovelled  about  and  turned  over  from  time  to  time,  tlie  com  is  preser\ed  in 
good  condition — sometimes  for  several  years.  Some  of  the  gnmaries  at 
Lantzic  are  nine  stories  in  height.  In  some  countries  the  com,  after  being 
dried  and  aired,  is  kept  covered  up  in  pits. 

As  we  have  already  briefly  adverted  to  the  fine  display  of  agi-icultural  im- 
plements^ in  the  Great  Exhibition,  so  might  we  now,  if  it  were  deemed  ne- 
cessary, show  tliat  com-crops  and  theii  products  were  to  the  full  as  amply 
illusti-ated.  In  respect  to  com  itself,  there  were  tliirty  or  forty  exhibitors, 
headed  by  Prince  Albert;  some  sent  wheat,  others  oats,  others  rye,  others 
barley,  and  various  kinds  of  grain.  Some  of  the  specimens  were  intended  to 
show  how  a  pai-ticular  soil  is  suited  for  grain ;  §ome  were  illustrative  rather  of 
the  effects  due  to  particular  maimres;  while  others  again  were  associated 
with  pai'ticular  systems  of  rotation  in  ai-able  cultm-e. 

But  in  this  we  were  far  outdone  by  our  foreign  friends.  Those  countries 
(and  they  are  many)  which  depend  rather  on  agricultural  thaii  on  manu- 
facturing industiy,  naturally  sent  to  our  great  international  display  the  best 
that  they  could  produce  in  the  shape  of  com.  No  less  than  thirty  different 
foreign  countries  and  colonies  sent  us  com  specimens ;  and  of  these,  Russia, 
Spain,  Canada,  and  Belgium,  were  particularly  rich  in  the  number  of  ex- 
hibitors. Those  who  remember  the  Russian  section  will  call  to  mind  the 
excellent  mode  of  an-angement  adopted  to  display  the  agi-icultural  specimens. 
It  is  ti-ue  that  very  few  pereons  are  competent,  on  handling  a  few  grains  of 
com,  to  predicate  anytiiing  concerning  the  excellence  of  the  soil  or  the 
skilfulness  of  tlie  culture ;  but  it  was  a  point  of  much  importance  that  tliose 
who  are  competent  should  have  such  an  opportunity  as  was  afforded  at  the 
Ciystal  Palace. 

And  tlie  instmments.  for  hai-vesting  or  preparing  com,  and  for  bringing  it 
into  the  edible  form  of  flour,  and  bread,  and  biscuit — tliese  were  neither  few 
nor  unimportant.  Home  of  them  have  already  been  named  in  a  fonner  page  ; 
but  otliers  are  fully  as  much  worthy  of  attention.  There  were  com-drying 
machines ;  com  and  grain  cleaning  and  dressing  machines ;  com  and  grain 
grinding  and  crushing  mills  ;  com  and  seed  meters ;  corn-stack  levels ;  com- 
whisps  and  dusters ;  millsto;ies  for  flour  mills ;  and  various  other  machines 
and  implements  having  relation  to  com  before  it  assumes  the  fomi  of  flom\ 
Then,  besides  com-flour  o  hibited  by  about  sixty  pereons,  English  and  foreign, 
we  had  flour-dressing  machines,  flour  exti-actors,  winnowing  machines,  and 
others,  which  relate  to  flour  rather  tlian  to  vmground  com.  Next,  carrj'ing 
forward  the  industrial  history  of  a  com-crop  to  a  further  stage,  we  had  bread- 
making  machines,  bread-cutting  machines,  biscuits,  biscuit-baking  machines, 
and  ovens  of  various  kinds. 

But  we  must  hasten  to  see  what  the  miller  does  with  the  com  which 
reaches  his  mill,  and  whether  modem  machinery  ihas  given  a  new  aspect  to 
his  operation. 

Corn  Ciiundino,  from  the  Hand  Mill  to  the  Steam  Mill. 

In  almost  all  the  modes  of  grinding  com — by  the  hand  mill,  the  cattle  mill, 
the  water  mill,  tiie  windmill,  the  steam  mill — there  ai-e  two  horizontal  stones 
one  above  another,  between  which  the  com  is  groimd  by  the  rotation  of  the 
upper  stone.     The  hand,  the  cattle,  the  water,  the  wind,  the  steam — are  ^he 


CHIKERY. 

ckness;  and  by  being 
le  com  is  presenccl  in 
!  of  the  granaries  at 
i  the  com,  after  being 

lay  of  agi'icultural  im- 
if  it  were  deemed  ne- 
to  the  full  as  amply 
:y  or  forty  exhibitors, 
its,  others  rye,  others 
nens  were  intended  to 
•e  illustrative  rather  of 
again  were  associated 

ids.     Those  countries 
Itural  thai>  on  manu- 
;ional  display  the  best 
ss  than  thirty  different 
and  of  these,  Eussia, 
n  the  number  of  ex- 
will  call  to  mind  the 
igriculturol  specimens, 
idling  a  few  grains  of 
ie   of  the   soil  or  the 
importance  Uiat  those 
as  was  afforded  at  the 

jm,  and  for  bringing  it 
hese  were  neither  few 
med  in  a  fonner  page ; 
here  were  com-drying 
chines ;  com  and  grain 
!om-stack  levels ;  com- 
arious  other  machines 
Dues  the  form  of  flom*. 
18,  English  and  foreign, 
tiowing  machines,  and 
com.  Next,  carrying 
er  stage,  we  had  bread- 
scuit-baking  machines, 

with  the  com  which 
given  a  new  aspect  to 


E  Steam  Mill. 

nd  mill,  the  cattle  mill, 

e  two  horizontal  stones 

by  the  rotation  of  the 

ad,  the  steam— are  ^e 


CORN   AND   bread:    WHAT  THEY   OWK   TO   MAOHINEHY. 


IT 


agents  for  rotating  the  upper  stone ;  it  is  to  the  two  stones  themselves  that 
the  actual  grinding  process  is  due.  The  upper  stone  has  a  hole  in  its  centre, 
through  whicli  the  com  falls ;  and  tlie  distance  between  the  stones,  which  is 
susceptible  of  adjustment,  determines  the  fineness  to  which  the  com  can  be 
ground.  The  opposing  sm'faeos  of  these  stones  ai-e  fun-owed  witli  channels 
which  extend  from  tlie  centre  obliquely  towards  the  circumference ;  and  being 
in  opposite  directions,  these  furrows  meet  each  other  like  the  blades  of  a  pair 
of  scissors.  These  clmnnels  sene  to  convey  the  ground  flour  to  the  edges  of 
tlifi  stones,  where  it  escapes  into  a  box  or  receptacle.  The  number  and  direc- 
tion of  tlie  furrows  seem  to  be  left  to  the  fancy  of  tlie  miller,  without  any  veiy 
definite  rule. 

There  are  some  very  peculiar  features  connected  with  the  manufacture  of 
these  grooved  millstones.  It  is  not  every  country  that  can  boast  of  possess- 
ing tlie  proper  stone  ;  indeed  veiy  few  can,  and  among  these  few,  France  and 
Gemiany  take  the  lead.  At  about  ten  miles  from  Coblent:!  on  the  Rhine,  and 
iieai-  the  small  town  of  Andemach,  are  the  millstone  quaiTies  of  Nieder- 
Mendig,  which  have  been  celebrated  for  two  thousand  years.  There  is  a 
stratum  of  veiy  hai'd  porous  lava,  abo.it  five  miles  long  by  three  broad  ;  it  is  sup- 
posed that  tliis  lava  is  the  }iioduce  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  it  is  found  to  bo 
admirably  calculated  for  the  pui-pose  of  millstones.  Seven  quanies  have  been 
excavated,  to  tlie  depth  of  about  fifty  feet ;  each  quarry  is  a  kind  of  funnel, 
twenty-five  feet  in  diameter  at  the  top,  and  tv/elve  at  the  bottom,  with  a  path 
cut  spirally  around  it.  There  is  a  thickness  of  fifty  feet  cf  gravel  and  loose 
lava  to  be  cut  through  before  tlie  quan-ymen  reach  the  true  stone  ;  and  these 
funnel  openings  peneti-ate  through  this  thickness.  An-ived  at  the  bottom,  the 
rcen  quai-ry  right  and  left,  forming  galleries  and  passages  in  all  directions. 
The  stone  is  very  haid,  and  requires  good  tools,  aided  by  wedges  and  levers, 
to  work  it.  There  are  cracks  and  fissures  which  enable  the  men  to  separate 
it  into  slabs  large  enough  each  for  a  millstone.  Hammers  and  chisels  tlieii 
bring  the  stones  to  a  proper  shape.  The  Avorkmen  form  themselves  into  a 
kind  of  working  company ;  taking  tlie  oflices  of  miners,  lifters,  dressers,  and 
loaders,  according  to  theu-  abilities,  and  shai-ing  the  produce  among  them. 
Most  of  the  millstones,  when  made,  are  conveyed  to  Andemach,  and  are  there 
congregated  as  a  cargo  for  an  enormous  timber  raft,  which  is  floated  down  the 
Rhine  to  Holland ;  when  airived  in  Holland  the  raft  is  broken  up  and  sold  as 
timber,  and  the  millstones  ai-e  dispersed  whithersoever  a  market  may  be  found 
for  them. 

But  France  has  also  a  goodly  shai-e  in  the  supply  of  millstones,  made  from  a 
bury  stone  which  is  found  in  tiiat  country — so  hard  |  and  flinty  that  a  pair  of 
stones  are  sometimes  said  to  work  regularly  for  thirty  yeai-s  before  they  become 
worn  out.  Barley,  oats,  and  lye  are  chiefly  ground,  in  this  country,  either  with 
Welsh  stones  or  Derby  stones.  The  Derby  millstones  are  only  one-fourth  the 
price  of  French ;  but  they  ai-e  so  much  inferior  in  hardness  and  durability, 
and  so  much  less  fitted  for  giinding  wheat,  that  the  French  stones  maintain 
theu-  pre-eminence.  This  French  material  is  seldom  found  in  pieces  large 
and  sound  enough  to  make  a  whole  millstone,  and  it  is  therefore  customai-y  to 
cement  two  or  more  pieces  together  and  bind  tliem  round  strongly  with  iron. 
Practical  men  differ  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  large  and  small  millstones — 
whether  a  six-feet  stone  rotating  sixty  times  in  a  minute  is  better  or  woi-se 
than  a  smaller  stone  rotating  more  rapidly,  and  so  forth  ;  but  on  these  matters 
we  say  nothing. 

The  stones  used  by  millers  ai-e  of  vai-ious  sizes,  according  to  the  intensity  of 


ai 'I iiw*!*"''**"*''''''''''''*'''^'''^'''''''''"^''''''* '"'''"'''    ' 


1« 


CORN    AND 


nUEAD:   WHAT  THBY   OWK   TO   MAOHINKBY. 


movinc  power  obtainable.  Technically,  the  two  stones  are  called  the  rttn»wr 
rndtheCS-  andthe  operation  of 'hanaing  a  runner/  or  adjusting  the 
^.per  stone  m^er  Z  lower^s  one  of  some  Sehcaey  :  since  not  only  must  ^e 
tio  be  Sorouslv  pai-allel,  but  the  distance  between  them  must  denend  on  the 
fineness  of  TefloErto  be  produced  and  on  the  rapidity  with  whicli  he  upper 
Stone  rot^ter  Other  thinJs  being  equal,  the  greater  the  velocity,  the  cfoser 
LusUhe  Snes  be  togethfr.  else  Uie  centrifugal  force  would  dnve  away  the 

"XKljbSrptityorthecom^^^^^^^^^ 

meal  when  U  leaves  the  millstones,  but  it  must  be  separated  before  we  could 
obtain  a^vthing  like  wheaten  bread.     In  old  times,  a  boltt,uf.mM  was  used  to 
£  thrsSt  on;  this  consisted  of  a  sort  of  bag  made  of  a  pecuhar  open 
csnfas  i^STe  meal  was  tl.rown ;  within  the  bag  was  a  reel  revolving 
S^eTSity.  and  exterior  to  it  were  several  bm-s  or  beaters  ;  and  the 
I^ttn^vl  sSA  by  the  centrifugal  force  produced  ^V^^^^^^^^' 
the  flour  was  driven  forcibly  through  the  meshes  of  the  boltuig  cloth  leavmg 
Se  K  wkhinside     This  machiSe  is  somewhat  complicated  and  has  been 
nearlvTupo rseded  by  the  dre»,ing  machine.     The  latter  consists  principally  of 
rhoC^cYlhXc.5Vme  covered  with  wire  aauze,  increasing  in  hneness 
from  on^  endtotiiTother ;  the  cylinder  is  placel  in  an  inclined  posiUon  with 
STfinest  t^uze  uppemos  ;  and  evolving  brushes  are  fixed  to  a  central  axis 
Ke  cyliE     TKiachine  being  fed  Sith  ground  com.  and  the  axis  b^ng 
ml  to^Zte  rapidly,  the  bmshes  sift  or  rub  the  flour  tf^^jugh  the  meshes  ^^ 
Srwire  gauze— first  through  the  finest  gauze,  which  only  lets^in^  flour  pass , 
Sen TwSTownSie  cylinder,  through  the  ntet  finest,  whiCh  allows  .*cc«J 
flour'  t^  pass     dien  Hirough  two  other  degrees  of  fineness  which  give  exit 
feTpecUver  o  Z  middlings  and  the  poUard  .^until  at  lengdi  all  the  meal  or 
floui  bSseparated.  the  ian  or  husV falls  out  at  the  end  of  «1^«  ^y^^jf^J      . 
In  this    as  in  many  other  processes,  different  persons  advocate  different 
meSiods    some  mmei  separate  tlieir  flom-  into  four  kinds,  some  limit  i  to 
rrSwhileTtheS extend  it  to  five;  but  in  any  case  there  is  »  ™'^P"«d^"f 
mimberin  the  degrees  of  fineness  in  the  wi:e  cloth,  and  of  shyt-up  oom- 
n^Sentehito  which  the  flour  falls.    The  meshes  of  the  wire  clotlf  employed 
ITThom  abouTa  skteenth  to  a  slxtyfourth  part  of  an  inch.     In  some  m^ 
Sesthere  is  a  still  coarser  kind,  a  vibrating  sieve,  which  separates  tlie  br«i 

^TerSKly^on^TrLttTm  mills  in  England  i«  that  which  fonns  p^ 
of  theVlctualling  Yard  at  Plymouth,  in  connection  with  the  ship-bisci,  t  esta. 
bLhrne^  S^uUdingwhich  contams  the  machinery  is  nearly  two  hundred 
3  fX  feet  in  length,  by  above  seventy  in  height  Each  wmg  of  w'lich  it 
J^nsisS  contains  twelve  pairs  of  millstones,  driven  by  a  steam-engme  of  46- 
Se  powerTSe  st^nes^are  mther  more  than  four  feet  in  diameter  and  make 
aS  ?So  revolutions  in  a  minut«.  Each  pair  of  stones  can  ffrmd  fve  bushels 
of  Torn  in  Ml  hour;  so  that  the  whole  assemblage  could  grmd  twelve  hundi-ed 
busheTsTn^  day  of  ten  hours.  The  same  two  steam-engines  which  work 
SSse  two  grouVof  miUstones  also  work  four  wheat-screening  machmes  and 
St  flo^Sing  machines.  The  com  is  deposited  in  bms  on  Uie  upper 
X  Tihe  buildig ;  from  these  it  passes  through  Bcreening  machmes  ma^e 
in  a  curious  manner,  by  which  it  traverses  a  very  large  surface  of  wure-doth, 
S^tSrseraratlng  tli  grains  firom  sand  and  dirt ;  it  passes  thence  by  spouts 


HINUBT. 

are  calle»i  the  runner 
ler,'  or  fttljustlng  tlie 
ice  not  only  must  the 
1  must  depend  on  the 
with  which  the  upper 
he  velocity,  the  closer 
would  drive  away  the 

,e  grinding  machinery, 
ea  flour.     The  reason 
lomes  mixed  with  the 
irated  before  we  could 
<oltiiui-tnUi  was  used  to 
atle  of  a  peculiar  open 
i^  was  a  reel  revolving 
re  or  beaters  ;  and  the 
,  by  tlio  revolving  reel, 
5  bolting-cloth,  leaving 
plicated,  and  has  been 
consists  principally  of 
hjoreaaing  In  fineness 
inclined  position,  with 
fixed  to  a  central  axis 
jm,  and  the  axis  being 
through  the  meshes  of 
nly  lets^na  flour  pass  j 
t,  which  allows  leconda 
leness,  which  give  exit 
lengtli,  all  the  meal  or 
end  of  the  cylinder, 
ions  advocate  different 
kinds,  some  Umit  it  to 
lere  is  a  coiTesponding 
I,  and  of  shyt-up  com- 
he  wire  doth"  employed 
too.  inch.     In  some  ma- 
aich  separates  the  bran 

s  that  which  fonns  part 
ith  the  ship-biso'rt  esta- 
y  is  nearly  two  hundred 
Each  wing  of  wiiloh  it 
r  a  steam-engine  of  46" 
t  in  diameter,  and  make 
!S  can  grind  five  bushels 
Id  grind  twelve  hundred 
an-engines  which  work 
icreening  machines  and 
ed  in  'buis  on  the  upper 
jreening  machines  made 
ge  suriaca  of  wire-cloth, 
;  passes  thence  by  spouts 


COBN   AND    BBEAD:    WHAT   THHY   OWB  TO   MACniNEBt. 


10 


to  hoppers  wliich  supply  the  millstones.  There  aro  likewise  two  wheat-drying 
mills  and  an  oatnieal  miU  connected  witJi  the  establishment.  To  what  extent  the 
government  sui.plies  of  biscuit  for  tlie  navy  aie  obtained  from  tlie  flour  ground 
at  Una  Mtablishment  we  do  not  know ;  Uie  ratio  probably  varies  at  diflorent 
tim«8  J  but  ail  50,000  seamen  require  90.000,000  lbs.  of  biscuit  m  a  yeai',  the 
supply  of  flour  from  some  quarter  or  otlier  must  be  verv  large. 

When  once  the  steamt'ngine  is  set  to  work  within  tlie  walls  of  a  building 
there  is  no  predicting  wheie  or  when  it  will  stay  its  progress  :  vve  may  tell 
what  it  eon  do,  but  must  bo  oauUous  in  asserting  aught  concerning  what  it 
cannot  do.  So  it  is  With  com,  as  with  cotton.  We  are  getthig  beyond  the 
steam  mills  of  the  Government  Yards.  Mr.  Bovill.  the  engineer,  has  recently 
introduced  improvements  of  an  important  kind  in  the  processes  of  corn-grind- 
ing, Bimple  as  Uiis  operation  seems  to  be,  it  is  now  known  that  many  dis- 
advantages attend  tlie  ortiinary  anangement  of  mechanism ;  and  it  is  to  the 
remedying  of  these  dlsadvanteges  that  Mr.  Bovill  has  directed  his  (Attention. 

To  understand  the  i-emedy,  it  will  be  necessary  to  notice  th«  rtelecte  to  be 
remedied.  When  com  is  ground  between  two  ordinary  millstoties,  tlie  oentn- 
fugal  force  generated  by  the  rotation  of  the  upper  stone  dnves  out  the  meal 
or  flour  at  the  edges  of  the  stone.  All  the  flour  thus  travels  outwards  before 
it  can  escape  from  the  stone;  and  in  its  travels  it  suff'ers  deterioi-aUon. 
When  the  running  stone  has  performed  even  a  single  revolution,  $oim  portion 
of  die  com,  however  small,  has  been  ground  into  flour;  but  this  jiortion, 
instead  of  escaping  at  once  as  it  ought  to  do,  is  retained  among  the  rest,  and 
is  ground  over  and  over  again  before  it  can  find  an  ouUet  at  the  edge  of  the 
stone.  The  flour  which  is  thus  overground  is  found  to  be  deteriorated  in 
strength  and  colour;  and  it  is  so  heated  that  two  or  three  weeks  are  necessary 
before  it  is  fit  to  pass  through  the  dressing  machine.  During  this  lapse  ot 
time,  any  dampness  which  may  reach  the  over-heated  flour  tends  to  produce 
a  slight  femieutation,  which  sours  the  flour  and  renders  it  otherwise  out  ot 
condition.  The  damp  and  heated  condition  of  the  flour,  aided  by  our  humid 
atmosphere,  renders  it  necessary  to  use  a  dressing  machine  with  coarser 
meshes  than  those  which  are  now  used  by  millers  in  France ;  we  use  coarse 
wire  cylinders— they  employ  meshes  of  silk ;  and  the  consequence  is,  that  a 
considerable  portion  of  bran  becomes  mixed  up  with  our  flour.  Another 
notable  ckcuinstance  is,  that  much  flour  becomes  diffused  through  our  com- 
mills,  occasioning  both  waste  of  property  and  a  deterioration  of  the  atmosphere 
in  which  the  men  are  employed.  ^u     a 

Now  this  list  of  inconveniences  is  rather  a  formidable  one— the  tlour 
weakened  in  strengUi,  deteriorated  in  colour,  rendered  liable  to  ferment, 
compeUed  to  lie  idle  while  cooling,  imperfectly  freed  from  bran  in  dressing, 
wasted  in  the  form  of  dust,  and  allowed  to  pollute  the  atmosphere  of  the  miU, 
It  is  to  -remedy  some  or  all  of  these  evils  that  Mr.  BovUl's  apparatus  has 
been  contrived ;  and  this  apparatus  we  may  now  describe. 

In  the  first  place,  by  a  very  simple  adjustment  of  a  revolving  fan,  a  strong 
blast  of  air  is  directed  between  the  millstones,  by  which  every  pp-ticle  of 
flour  is  blown  out  dlreoUy  it  has  been  ground,  thus  avoiding  over-grindmg 
and  ovOT'heafmg.  The  flour  falls  into  a  reservoir,  and  is  immediately  con- 
veyed by  an  endless  chain  of  buckets  to  the  room  where  the  dressing  machine 
is  at  work.  Mr.  Bovill  has  discarded  the  old  dressing  cylmder  of  wire  meshes 
and  brushes,  and  has  adopted  the  French  system  of  silk  cylinders;  his 
dressing  machine  is  an  octagonal  cylinder  (if  such  a  name  may  be  used), 
covered  1*lth  »ilk,  and  made  to  revolve  in  an  inclined  position ;  the  bran  ifl 


I 


>ii>.;iiiiiriHiWiW 


iiiti)a>rtBiMW.iiiiii'i*iiii«;<wwiawiiii*ff 


J 


ao 


I    AND    BREA1>  :    WHAT   THET    OWE   TO    MAt'UINBKV. 


vctuined  in  tlie  cylinder,  and  notliiiig  but  fiuo  flotn-  escafxis.  By  another 
apparatus,  the  fine  Hotir  wljich  is  blown  out  f'n)rii  bet%v*^pn  the  mill»toncH,  and 
ascends  (instead  of  descends)  by  its  lightness,  U  forcibly  driven  by  n  blast  into 
a  chamber,  whose  walls  are  fonnod  of  cloUi ;  il  i.*'  nifted  through  tliis  clotli  by 
the  blast,  ai\d  collects  iu  the  chamber  as  useful  Hour.  This  is  tlio  portion 
which,  m  an  ordinary  mill,  goes  to  waste,  aistl  fills  Uie  air  with  anncyini^ 
duHty  particles.  Thus  has  Mr.  Bovill  endeavoured  to  meet  the  whole  ot  tlm 
'ivils  enumerated  above. 

An  interesting  cour.se  of  experiments  was  onducted  a  few  months  back,  iu 
a  mill  which  the  Lords  of  the  Admiialty  p.  nnitted  Mr.  Bovill  to  construct  in 
Deptford  Dockyard,  in  close  proximity  to  unotlier  mill  on  the  old  principle ; 
the  .object  being  to  fairly  compare  tlio  two  systemH,  Many  gentlemen  in- 
tei-ested  in  tlic  welfare  of  English  agriculture  were  present;  and  Mr.  Bovill 
commenced  by  showing,  in  a  rcnuu-kable  way,  how  lengthened  is  the  path 
which  n.  <»rn''-  of  corn  is  often  coniji'lled  to  follow  before  it  can  escape  from 
thf  jtauxuii  li-idstonoH;  he  plactnl  u  piece  of  French  chalk  between  the 
stcnes,  and  this  chalk  left  an  evei  widening  circular  mark  on  the  lower  stone 
during  tlie  revolutions  of  the  uppei  ;  the  spiral  path  was  no  less  than  6300 
feet  long,  considerably  more  than  a  mile,  showing  that  the  chalk  had  had  to 
traverse  Uiis  distance  before  ii  could  escape  ut  the  edge  of  tlie  stone;  and  iin 
inference  may  be  drawn  from  this  concerning  the  violent  rabbuig  to  which 
com  is  exposed,  even  after  it  has  been  reduc<>il  to  tiour.  The  comparative 
experiments  yielded  the  following  results :  !i5  qniirters  of  wheat,  half  red  and 
half  white,  were  ground  and  dressed  on  the  old  plan  ;  tli'  operatio-is  required 
9  hours  and  60  minutes,  and  tlie  moving  power  consumed  JJIOC)  lbs.  of  coal. 
The  same  quantity  and  quality  were  then  ti-eated  on  the  new  plan  the  time 
being  6  hours  and  iM  minutes,  and  the  coals  SJ404  lbs.  The  temperatures  of 
the  two  mills  whUe  at  work  were  nearly  alike  ;  but  the  flour  uh  it  escaped  fi  ni 
the  stones  hi  the  old  mill  showed  a  temperature  of  95"  Falir.,  whereas  u  il 
in  the  new  mill  was  only  79°.     The  relati\  e  produce  was  as  follows : — 

Old  system.  New  system. 

Best  flour       .         .         .     9889  lbs.  9886  lbs. 

Seconds         .        .        .    none  243   „ 


Middlings 

.       434   „ 

708 

Pollaid  . 

.       894    .. 

«47 

Bran 

.    '  611    „ 

411 

Money  value  . 

.  58/.  88.  7rf. 

59/.  18« 

id. 

.  It  thus  appears,  if  these  experiments  are  to  be  relied  upon,  that  the  new 
system  is  distinguishable  for  yielding  seconds  and  middlings  flour  rather  than 
pollard  and  bran  ;  the  quantity  of  fine  flour  being  nearly  alike.  A  little  more 
coal  is  used  in  steam-power,  but  less  manual  labour  is  required  in  the  opera- 
tions. If  it  be  ti'ue,  as  is  stated,  that  three  or  four  quaitern  loaves  more  can 
be  made  from  a  sack  of  flom'  if  ground  by  the  new  plan  instead  of  the  old, 
and  that  as  fine  flour  can  be  made  by  the  new  method  from  com  at  408.  as 
by  the  old  ii'om  com  at  46». — then  indeed  is  this  a  notable  improvement. 

The  Thames  steamers  have  enabled  thousands  of  passengers,  during  th^' 
year  1851,  to  witness  tlie  exterior  of  a  monster  new  buildiu}.;,  situated  betwe 
Blackfriais  Bridge  and  St  Paid's.  This  is  a  corn-mill,  lately  built  n  ai 
expense  of  no  less  tlian  80,000/.;  it  contains  sixty  pairs  of  mill-stones,  d  en 
by  a  steam-engine  of  300-horse  power ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  all  the  appliances 
for  grinding  1000  quarters  of  wheat  in  a  day,  on  Mr.  Bovill's  principle. 


L-UINIRY. 

escapoH,     By  auother 

'H  the  millHtones,  and 

driven  by  a  blast  inti  > 

through  tliis  clotli  by 

Tliis  ia  Uio  portion 

!)fl  air  with  nnnoyini; 

neot  the  wholo  oi  tli(! 

I  few  months  back,  in 
Bovill  to  construct  in 
i  en  the  old  principle ; 
Mtuiy  gentleiutin  in- 
«sent;  and  Mr.  Bovill 
rigthened  is  the  path 
fore  it  can  escape  from 
h  chalk  between  tliii 
irk  on  the  lower  stone 
was  no  less  than  ttSOO 
t  the  chalk  had  had  tu 
of  the  stone ;  and  im 
lent  rubbuig  to  Avhieh 
)ur.  The  comparative 
of  wheat,  half  red  and 
111'  operations  required 
med  210«)  lbs.  of  coal. 
le  new  plan  the  time 
The  tempei-atureH  of 
lour  u-i  it  escaped  fr  >m 
5"  Falir.,  whereas  Uiut 
.s  as  follows : — 

New  system. 
9886  lbs. 

243   „ 

706    „ 

«17    „ 

411    „ 
69/.  18«.  Ad. 

ied  upon,    liat  the  new 
llingg  floui-  rather  than 
ly  alike.     A  little  more 
required  in  the  opera- 
lartern  loaves  more  can 
an  instead  of  the  old, 
od  from  com  at  408.  as 
ible  improvement, 
passengers,  dming  tb' 
Idinj.;,  situated  betwe^ 
nill,  lately  built  n?   aii 
s  of  mill-stones,  duven 
have  all  the  appliances 
ovills  principle. 


CORN  AND  KRRAD:  WHAT  THBT  OWE  TO  MACHINERY. 


81 


A  vei-y  convenient  kind  of  corn-mill  has  been  recently  patented  by  Messi-s. 
Qarrett.  Altlioiigh  portable,  it  is  suwceptiblo  of  being  adjusted  either  to 
steam,  wiiicr,  or  horse  power.  The  millstones  are  !<!i  inchos  in  diameter,  and 
are  incl.  sed  in  a  framing  of  metal  and  wood  ;  the  shaft  which  bearH  tlio  upper 
stone  has  a  bevel  wheel  which  fueilitotes  its  adjustment  to  the  moving  i)ower. 
The  stones  will  giind  wheat,  barley,  beans,  or  peas ;  and  it  is  int«naed  for 
use  on  large  farms,  where  it  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  send  everything  to  an 
ordinary  mill  to  be  ground. 

Another  ingenious  mill  of  recent  introducticm  is  the  I'araijon  mill  (as  it 
is  called)  of  Messi-s.  Bari-ett.  It  is  intended  to  combine  in  one  portable 
apparatus  the  requisite  action  for  grinding,  crushing,  and  splitting,  ai-cording 
to  the  nature  of  the  corn  or  other  crop  to  be  acted  upon.  Much  diithculty 
has  hitherto  been  encountered  in  securing  these  tlireefold  powers  in  the  same  » 
machine.  Messi-s.  Barrett  have  sought  this  result  by  employing  three  rollers, 
parallel  to  each  other — two  in  front  and  one  behind ;  two  of  the  rollers  are 
grooved,  for  acting  on  grain  or  seed,  while  the  other,  acting  in  conjunction 
with  an  upnght  plate,  is  adapted  for  s[)litting  b«ans. 

Machine  Bread  and  Machine  Biscuits. 

The  natural  coui-se  of  our  subject  now  brings  us  to  such  modem  mechanical 
an-angements  as  facilitate  the  production  of  bread  and  biscuits  from  the  flour 
— whetlier  the  latter  be  gi-ound  on  the  old  or  the  new  style. 

How  the  baker  prepares  his  long  array  of  loaves,  while  tliose  who  are  to 
cat  tlie  loaves  are  quietly  asleep  in  their  beds,  a  short  description  may  render 
jjlain.  Pity  it  is  tliat  tlie  sallow-faced  baker  is  exposed  to  this  necessity  :  his 
is  an  unnatural  sort  of  life,  turning  niglit  into  day,  and  inhaling  an  atmosphere 
very  deleterious  in  its  ingredients.  Perhaps  we  may  yet  see  the  day  when  a 
little  additional  application  of  scientific  knowledge — a  little  mechanisfn  in  one 
part  and  a  little  chemistry  in  another — may  release  om*  indispensable  friend 
from  tlie  bakehouse  and  put  him  into  a  comfortable  bed  during  the  hours 
when  bed  is  most  welcome. 

Potatoes  are  used  in  most  modern  English  bread  ;  they  are  boiled,  mashed, 
mixed  with  a  little  yeast,  allowed  to  stand  several  houre,  strained,  diluted  with 
water,  and  then  employed  as  liquid  ferment.  This  fennent  is  mixed  with  a 
portion  of  tlie  flour  to  be  employed,  to  make  a  kind  of  dough  culled  sponge ; 
and  this  sponge  is  allowed  to  rest  five  or  six  hours,  to  rise  or  swell.  More 
water  (having  salt  and  a  few  ( ther  matters  dissolved  in  it)  and  more  flour  are 
added,  and  tlie  whole  worked  up  by  the  baker's  hands  and  amis  into  dough  ; 
the  dough  is  left  quiet  for  an  hour  or  two,  after  which  it  is  cut  into  pieces, 
weij^'hed,  and  shaped  ir  to  loaves.  The  oven  being  pre[<ared,  the  baker  'sets 
the  batch  ;  that  is,  ht  ranges  his  loave«  in  rank  and  file  on  the  floor  of  the 
oven — taking  core  liiat  the  '  cottages '  shall  not  be  close  together,  whereas  tlie 
'  bricks  '  are  packed  up  as  compactly  as  possible.  Here  the  bread  remains 
for  an  horn-  and  a  half  or  two  hours,  when  the  hot  steaming  assemblage  is 
removed  from  the  oven. 

Some  yeai-s  ago  an  attempt  was  ma<lt  to  establish  what  (with  veiy  little  error) 
might  be  tenned  a  bread  factory,  in  Leiccstershu'e.  There  were  many  novel- 
ties introduced  by  the  owner  or  owners.  In  the  first  place  the  com  passed 
tlirough  two  pairs  of  millstones,  phiced  on(  over  the  other ;  it  was  iiartially 
ground  by  the  upper  pan-,  then  fell  tiirough  u  sieve  or  sifter,  and  wsvs  again 
groi  nd  by  the  lower  pair;  and  a  current  of  air  tended  to  keep  the  meal  cool. 


iaB.»um*»iiiiH»ftUrnl»l' 


liliriiliiifitWilllKiiiMWIIiii'iiir' 


i 
I 


sa 


OOIIM   AND    IIBKAD;    what  THRt   OWB    TO   MAOUINBBX. 


The  objects  lield  in  view  w«r«.  to  «wonomiM  labour,  to  eoonomiM  •?«».  tod 
toproduco  bctU3r  tlomw-,Jl  very  d««i™bl«  i  to  b«  obt^med.  Am.aer^rt 
oi  the  «Ht«bUHhn.ent  wa.  d«votea  to  tho  .uaking  ol  bnad.  Iu8te«i  ot  u«  ng 
yoant.  a^ero  »een,s  to  have  been  oiubomo  .«=.d  gaa  ''^^^^^/H 'TZ^l  1^^ 
tho  dou«h.  an.l  nuvdo  to  cauita  the  -ming  of  U.e  iiwnge.  Iho  'louKh  wan 
Zped  iut^  loavH,  which  wer«  baked  on  hoUow  iron  eho  vtm  in  an  unn.ensc 
S^r  the  wa«to  «t^a,n  from  tl.e  engine  of  the  flour  mill  circulated  m  the 
hollow  "of  tho  HhelvoH.  unci  heufd  th.-.n  sufticumtly  t«  bako  tl»e  br^  w.^ou 
further  fuel.  There  were  many  other  projects  belove  tl>e  public,  about  a  dozui 
olSuLn  years  aKo.  for  m^dung  breal  on  a  large  and  .team-tactory  «calo.  and 

iu  it."  adverted  by  the  old  baken..  nuooeoded  in  beating  down  the  new-  angled 
broad  which  had  been  deprived  of  Uiin  alcoholic  ttcoompaniment  j^J-  ^r„ 
HavrUiat  the  quantity  uf  spirit  capable  of  being  Haved  while  bre«l  is  bakmg 
K  extiemelj  J  that'the  pnljec^^^^^ 

of  the  bread '^-oonsiHted  in  "taking  the  cash  out  of  the  pocketa  ot  Uio 
sha^^hoE     The  Chelsea  ginleH«-b?ead  factory  cost  aO.OOO  .  to  establish 

Mr.  IVrkins-  'hot-wuter  oveu '  is  an  A.norican  novelty  j^hich  became  ann- 
bar  to  us  at  the  Great  E.xhibition.     There  was  perhaps  a  d«h  «f  .'^roll  q-^ack^ 
erv  in  the  large  loaf  exhibited  above  the  oven,  and  in  the  small  slices  of  brea<l 
libeJdly  bestowed  upon  tho  bystanders;  the  brep."  may  have  been  baked  in 
hat  p!Jticu£  ove».rt  the  m'eritK  of  the  oven  could  not  be  very  -tisiactordy 
tested  in  such  a  way.     The  leading  principle  m  this  oven  .s,  Oiat  tl'«  ""^P?™- 
ture  is  regidated  by  hot  water  instead  of  hot  air.  by  an  adaptaUon  of  the  hot^ 
wato   JyZn  now  so  extensively  used  in  wanning  buddings.     There  ap  three 
merits  claimed  for  this  oven  by  its  inventor-*fca«/.ru«^.  '''""'l'"?- ^^'^ ^"^  "^ 
„daptath,*.    It  is  cleanly,  because,  there  being  no  coal  ol  any  kmd  used  m  Uie 
oven,  nothing  but  the  pure  heat  from  the  hot> water  pipes  can  act  upon  the 
br^^.^d  no  deleterious  gases  can  afl^ect  iU  flavour  or  quality ;  it  is  economical, 
brcfus"  vom  tho  mode  of'applying  the  heat,  one-half  of  the  fuel  .ss^^^^^^^^ 
ft  constant  and  equable  heat  maintained ;  it  is  easy  of  adaptation,  because  the 
temperatme,  indicated  by  a  thermometer  placed  outside  the  oven,  can  be 
raised  or  diminished  at  pleasure  by  openmg  or  cbsmg  a  damper,  so  as  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  different  kinds  of  baking  operations.      A  ve^ 
extended  application  would  be  necessary  to  determine  the  validity  ot  these 

''^"Sere  was  no  lack  of  ovens  at  tlie  Crystal  Palace  which  put  fcrtli  their 
claims  to  public  notice.     There  was  Mr.  PoweU's  '  Port»We/co«omical  oven. 
There  was  Mr.  Shave's  'patent  oven  for  bakmg  bread,  &c     exhibited  for 
economy  of  fuel  and  time.^  Mr.  Ed^.mis'  •  atmopvr*  hoods '  a™  ovens  of  a 
somewhat  remarkable  kmd ;  they  are  gas-o'/ens,  which  act  "omewhat  on  Ae 
same  principle  as  the  wire-gauze  envelope  of  the  mmers  '«»ty-»^'"P-  ^"^^ 
Le  mSde  of  porcelain;  gas  is  intmiuced  into  Uie  mtenor,  whence  it  escapes 
through  sraaUperfomtions  in  the  sides;  these  tiny  streams  of  8".  "ot  more 
than  ^e-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  when  ignited  on  *«  «"^'^\^.  »f^ 
hood,  bum  with  a  pale  blue  flame ;  this  flame  emit*  veiy  htUe  light,  but  ite 
Seat  is  60  intense  aL  to  make  the  mass  of  porcelain  red  hot  m  a  few  minutes^ 
When  several  of  these  atraopyres  are  grouped  together,  they  form  a  awt  oi 
solid  fire  which  wiU  speedily  heat  an  oven;  and  there  "«  "^8*"^*^. '^f, 
Sapting  the  number  to  the  sise  of  the  oven  required.    P*^''^«l'^»"  ^»i^^!" 
many  repeated  red-hot  firings  without  being  destroyed;  and  it  »»*  all  events 
interesting  to  see  this  beautiftil  principle  (for  beautiful  it  certainly  is)  of 


■MTMlllilMlii 


mttkvt 


)  eoonomiEe  ipafi«,  aiid 
ibUiined.     AnoUier  part 
v\kd.     luHtead  of  uninK 
ected  iu  some  way  inU) 
on^^e.'     Tho  dough  woh 
tholvt;*  in  an  immense 
rmiU  circulated  in  the 
bake  Uie  bread  without 
w  pubhe,  about  a  dozen 
gteam-ittctory  scale,  and 
d— "  brtwl  with  tho  gin 
ig  down  the  newfangled 
lompaniment     Dr.  Ure 
I  while  bread  ia  baking 
ng  to  "  take  the  gin  out 
of  the  pocketa  "  of  tho 
aO.OOOi.  to  establish, 
elty  which  became  fanii- 
is  a  dash  of  droll  quack- 
tho  small  slices  of  bread 
nay  have  been  baked  iu 
not  be  very  satisfactorily 
»ven  is,  that  tlie  tempera- 
ftii  adaptation  of  the  hot- 
Idings.     There  are  three 
ne»s,  economy,  and  eau  oj 
1  of  any  kind  used  in  tlie 
r  pipes  can  act  upon  the 
quality  j  it  is  economical, 
f  of  the  fuel  is  saved,  and 
f  adaptation,  because  the 
utside  the  oven,  can  be 
jsing  a  damper,  bo  as  to 
ng  operations.      A  very 
ine  the  validity  of  these 

ce  which  put  forth  their 
lortable  economical  oven.' 
bread,  Ac.,'  exhibited  for 
ra  hoods '  are  ovens  of  a 
toh  act  somewhat  on  the 
inera'  safety-lamp.  They 
nterior,  whence  it  escapes 

streams  of  gas,  not  more 
«d  on  the  outside  of  the 
ts  very  little  light,  but  its 

red  hot  in  a  few  minutes, 
jther,  they  form  a  sort  of 
lere  are  anrangements  for 
ired.  Porcelain  will  heal- 
ed ;  and  it  is  at  all  events 
autiful  it  certainly  i«)  of 


cjoiiN  AMU  iihhad:  what  they  owb  to  maciunmiiy.  M 

niiuuttilydividod  gas  streams  iippliod  to  the  purposes  of  an  oven.  He«id<>s  our 
own  li^uglisli  ovens,  theto  was  M.  EspinnaMen  model  of  an  ovmi  for  brrtad- 
baking,  un  a  new  ptiUsnted  system ;  Uiure  was  Kaesen's  Cologne  iron  oven  ; 
and  thert)  was  a  Chtuese  uveii,  heated  by  tho  tluinu  of  a  Itunp  pasuliig  Into  the 
centre. 

With  respect  to  tlie  ovens  ordhiarily  employed  by  bakers,  the  old  method  of 
huating  by  shavings  lun-ned  iu  the  oven  itself  has  gone  vary  much  out  of  use, 
btiing  supei'seded  by  tines  heated  in  a  rect- ptacle  distinct  from  the  oven.  But 
it  must  be  ownud  that  the  iicating  of  bakera'  ovens  has  not  acquired  tho  oom- 
pluteuesH  of  which  i'  '<4  doubtless  susi  eptible. 

It  is  ratlun-  singiilar  that  biscuits  have  become  more  decidedly  a  maeliine-niade 
pro<luct  tlian  loal  bread.  To  uudei-wttUKl  the  machine  inetliod,  we  must  glance 
ut  that  whicli  pruuedod  it. 

The  old  mediod  of  making  sea-biscuits,  still  adopted  by  all  but  a  few  very 
lurgu  estubUHlnnents,  has  nmeh  tliat  is  rough  and  uncouth  about  it.  At  tho 
great  bakeiy  ut  (io^port,  before  tlie  machine  method  was  inti'oduned,  the  men 
were  clasi.etl  into  fumen,  inates,  driving,  breukmen,  and  idlemen — odd  ap[>ollationH, 
loini;  of  them.  First  came  the  driver ;  the  proper  proportions  of  (lour  and 
water  being  put  into  u  trough,  ho,  witli  his  naked  tuid  lusty  arms,  beat  and 
thuuipe<l  and  routed  and  lurued  the  materials  until  tliey  aasumed  the  state  of 
dough — a  very  laborious  iu'«)cess  tliis.  Then  came  tlie  breahnan ;  the  dough 
WHS  platted  upon  a  plutfonn,  a  roller  culled  a  break-staif,  hinged  at  one  end, 
was  placed  upon  it,  and  the  breaknian,  riding  in  side-saddle  fashion  on  tho 
otlier  end  of  tlie  roller,  jumped  it  about  in  rather  a  ludicrous  way,  giving  to 
the  dough  a  process  which  was  a  kind  of  cross  between  beating  and  rolling ; 
very  imcouth  it  was,  but  it  certainly  kneaded  the  dough.  Then  was  tlie  thin  layer 
of  dough  removed,  cut  into  slices  witli  enonnuus  knives,  the  slices  cut  into  small 
squares,  und  each  sciuare  worked  by  hand  into  tlie  circular  fomi  of  a  biscuit. 
The  bi8(!uits  were  stamped  and  pierced,  and  thrown  dexterously  into  tlie 
nioutli  of  an  oven,  where  they  fell  upon  a  flat  shovel  called  a  peel,  and  were 
transfeiTod  from  tlie  peel  to  the  floor  of  tlie  oven.  This  act  of  throwing  the 
biscuits  into  tlie  oven,  so  as  to  fall  exactly  on  the  right  spot,  became  quite 
celebrated  as  an  act  of  skilful  sleight  of  hand ;  and  tliere  was,  too,  a  demand 
for  considerable  tact  in  tliis  matter ;  the  biscuits  require  only  a  few  minutes 
to  bake,  and  as  the  oven  ia  kept  open  during  the  whole  time  it  is  being  filled, 
tlie  men  threw  thicker  biscuits  in  at  tirst  than  afterwards,  that  they  might  not 
be  overbaked.  All  these  latter  operations  required  much  skill  in  tlie  Junuir, 
tlie  maU),  and  the  idUman,  three  of  tlie  five  attendants  upon  oa<3h  oven. 

One  of  the  prettiest  of  all  factoiy  operations — a  real /acton/  operation, 
although  it  relatCH  to  the  preparation  of  food — which  come  within  the  visiting 
privileges  of  English  folks  genei-ally,  is  that  of  ship  biscuits  at  our  great  naval 
arsenals.  There  are  such  factories  at  PlymouUi,  at  Gosport,  and  at  Deptford ; 
though  we  believe  that,  in  times  of  peace,  the  Plymouth  establishment  oould 
supply  the  wholo  navy  with  biscuit.  Be  thia  as  it  may,  it  is  asserted  that  we 
save  many  tliousands  a  year  by  Uie  substitution  of  the  factory  system  fbr  tlie 
old  hand  system ;  and  tliat  the  biscuits  are  made  better,  cleaner,  and  more 
expeditiously. 

If  we  enter  the  Plymoutli  Bakery  in  the  Victualling  Yard,  at  Cremill  Point, 
the  scnipulous  cleanliness  of  the  whole  at  once  strikes  the  view ;  wo  can  hardly 
conceive  that  so  dusty  a  material  as  flour,  and  so  adhesive  a  substance  as 
dough,  can  be  so  tidily  controlled.  The  flour,  ground  by  the  steam-mill 
mentioned  in  a  former  page,  descends  tlrrough  a  shoot  into  a  kind  of  covered 


mmitwrnrnmn 


u 


CORN   AND   bread:   WHAT  THEY   OWE   TO   MACHINERY. 


box,  where  a  small  stream  of  water  flows  upon  it.  Then  is  a  whole  array  of 
knives  set  to  work  within  the  box,  tossing,  and  dashing,  and  cutting  the 
mingled  flour  in  all  directions  by  the  rapid  rotation  of  a  shaft  to  which  the 
knives  are  attached ;  when,  lo !  in  two  minutes  after  the  flour  has  been  put 
into  the  box,  out  tumbles  6  cwt.  of  dough,  thoroughly  incorporated,  but  not 
kneaded.  The  mass  is  rolled  over  and  over  for  five  minutes  by  two  ponderous 
iron  cyUnders,  weighing  15  cwt.  each,  by  which  it  is  thoroughly  kneaded. 
Then  does  a  large  cutter  neaiiy  sever  the  thin  sheets  of  dough  into  six-sided 
biscuits ;  then  are  these  cakes  of  biscuit  dexterously  placed  in  ovens ;  and  then, 
after  ten  or  twelve  minutes'  baking,  are  they  removed,  broken  apait  by  hand, 
and  stored  away.  Thus  is  the  corn  (a  mixture  of  '  fine '  flour  and  '  middlings ') 
converted  from  the  state  of  meal  to  that  of  baked  biscuit  in  something  less 
than  half  an  hour.  The  men,  in  their  clean  check  shirts,  clean  white  trousers, 
clean  white  aprons,  clean  white  caps,  are  quite  '  pictures  of  propriety.' 

Mr.  Harrison's  biscuit  machine,  patented  and  introduced  at  Liverpool 
about  three  years  ago,  is  a  very  notable  advance  on  the  old-fashioned  hand 
method.  Let  us  briefly  describe  it  as  daily  at  work  at  the  ship-biscuit 
'  bakei7 '  of  the  inventor.  First,  then,  the  flour  and  water  are  placed  in  a 
cylinder,  wliere  revolving  arms  toss  them  about  and  mix  thum  thoroughly. 
Then  the  mixture  passes  beneath  heavy  i-ollers,  by  which  it  is  speedily 
kneaded  into  dough ;  and  this  dough  is  by  another  roller  pressed  to  the  re- 
quired thickness  for  biscuits.  The  sheet*  of  dough  travels  on  an  endless 
apron,  and  is  stamped  and  cut  into  the  biscuit-form  by  cutters  which  descend 
at  short  intervals ;  the  biscuits  travel  on  to  the  mouth  of  an  oven,  ^vhere  they 
are  received  on  a  sort  of  endless  gridiron;  the  giidiron  slowly  advances 
thi'ough  the  oven  to  tlio  depth  or  extent  of  nearly  thirty  feet,  and  Uie  heat 
and  length  of  the  oven  are  so  adjusted  that  by  the  time  the  biscuits  reach 
the  remote  end,  they  are  baked,  and  fall  out  at  an  opening  left  for  them.  The 
oven  is  heated  by  hot  water.  This  is  a  more  thoroughly-automatic  machine 
than  even  the  royal  baking  apparatus  at  the  dockyard ;  for  the  flour  and  water 
go  m  at  one  end  of  a  machine,  and  baked  biscuits  fall  out  at  the  other. 

Messrs.  BaiTett  have  constructed  a  compact  apparatus  for  making  what  are 
called  Blading  biscuits,  by  the  aid  of  a  small  amount  of  steam-power.  The 
floiir,  water,  and  other  materials  for  the  biscuits,  are  placed  in  a  trough,  and 
the  mixing  of  these  ingredients  is  effected  by  causing  them  to  pass  beneath  a 
revolving  roller ;  the  kneading  in  eflbcted  by  other  rollers,  working  over  a  flat 
surface ;  a  third  set  of  rollers  brings  the  dough  to  tlie  state  of  a  continuous 
sheet  of  the  requisite  thickness,  and  this  sheet  is  stamped  out  into  pieces  pro- 
perly shaped  for  biscuits. 

Thus,  then,  v/e  see  that  tlia  manufacturing  histoiy  of  the  "  staff  of  life  " — 
though  more  dependent  on.  vegetable  chemistry  than  ost  other  extensive 
manufactures — is  really  coming,  yeai  after  year,  more  >  d  more  within  the 
domain  of  mechanics.  The  horse  is  helping  the  labom-er,  the  "Svindmill  is 
helping  the  horse,  the  steam-engine  is  helping  the  ^vindmiIl ;  and  the  whole 
together  are  helping  the  farmer,  the  miller,  and  the  baker,  to  produce  more 
bread  from  an  acre  of  ground  than  formerly,  to  do  this  with  less  outlay  than 
formerly,  to  accomplish  the  task  in  less  time,  and  to  brave  many  exigencies  of 
weather  which  the  old-world  farmers  knew  not  how  to  contend  against. 


mattOi 


lanriiriii  1  iiiiiiii'ftlini 


-rnrrrMtlliiiir  •-      Ti 


ihiiiii  I 


NEHY. 


is  a  whole  array  of 
g,  and  cutting  the 
shaft  to  which  the 
Hour  has  been  put 
corporated,  but  not 
is  by  two  ponderous 
loroughly  kneaded. 
}ugh  into  six-sided 
in  ovens ;  and  then, 
ien  apart  by  hand, 
iir  and  '  middlings  ') 
in  something  less 
lean  white  trousers, 
'  propriety.' 
luced  at  Liverpool 
old-fashioned  hand 
at  the  ship-biscuit 
ter  are  placed  in  a 
i  thum  thoroughly, 
dich  it  is  speedily 
pressed  to  the  re- 
i^els  on  an  endless 
Iters  which  descend 
ui  oven,  ss'here  they 
)n  slowly  advances 
'  feet,  and  tlie  heat 
the  biscuits  reach 
left  for  them.  The 
-automatic  machine 
the  flour  and  water 
at  the  other, 
or  making  what  are 
steam-power.  The 
d  in  a  trough,  and 
I  to  pass  beneath  a 
working  over  a  flat 
iite  of  a  continuous 
out  into  pieces  pro- 

.e  "  staff  of  life  "— 
ost  other  extensive 

d  more  within  tlie 
er,  the  Vindmill  is 
dill;  and  the  whole 
T,  to  produce  more 
ith  less  outlay  than 

many  exigencies  of 
tend  against. 


A  SHIP,  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 


"  A  SHIP,  in  the  nineteenth  centuiy,"  is  an  assemblage  of  as  great  a  number 
of  ingenious  contrivances,  perhaps,  as  any  production  of  man's  industry. 
There  is  not  a  science  but  has  been  brought  into  requisition ;  there  is  scarcely 
a  material  of  manufacture  but  has  been  employed ;  there  ai'e  none  of  our 
great  departments  of  manufacturing  skill  omitted  in  supplying  the  ship  and 
her  fittings ;  there  is  not  a  quarter  of  the  globe  (and  scarcely  a  coxmtry  on  the 
globe)  which  has  not  supplied  some  one  or  other  of  tlie  necessities  or  con- 
veniences of  the  floating  fabric ;  and  there  is  no  production  in  which  the  skill 
of  different  nations  is  brought  more  distinctly  into  comparison. 

The  middle  of  the  present  century  is  distinguished  from  its  opening  by  the 
phenomena  of  steam  navigation,  above  all  othere  connected  with  ships  and 
shipping;  but  in  numerous  other  particulars,  concerning  both  the  constmc- 
tion  and  the  fittings  of  ships,  the  advance  has  been  marked  and  rapid,  show- 
ing tliat  the  discoveries  and  improvements  in  other  arts  have  been  promptly 
applied  to  those  noble  stnictures  whose  home  is  to  be  on  the  bosom  of  the 
ocean. 

In  noticing  a  few  of  the  novelties  and  curiosities  presented  by  this  suivject, 
we  shall  presume  the  reader  to  have  access,  in  other  quarters,  to  ordinary 
manufacturing  details  respecting  the  production  of  ships  and  ships'  fittings : 
the  present  sheet  is  in  some  sense  supplementai'y  to  till  such  details. 

A  Bibd's-Eye  Glance  at  Sinps  in   general. 

And  now,  at  the  outset,  it  may  veiy  fairly  be  asked,  how  are  ships  distin- 
guished from  boats,  and  what  are  the  characteristics  which  separate  ships  into 
classes?  Many  of  the  modem  improvements  apply  to  one  class  of  ships 
rather  than  to  others ;  and  the  answer  to  tliese  queries  thus  becomes  pertinent 
to  the  present  subject. 

The  term  vessel  is  more  general  in  its  application  than  ship ;  since  the  latter, 
in  strictness,  is  applied  only  to  three-masted  square-rigged  vessels,  conse- 
quently to  vessels  only  of  a  large  size.  A  square-rigged  vessel  is  one  in  which 
tlie  sails  ai-e  suspended  from  yards  fixed  horizontally  to  the  masts,  usually 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  keel.  Single-decked  vessels,  witli  one 
mast  and  a  bowsprit,  but  no  yards,  are  called  cutters  and  sloops,  and  have  the 
sails  generally  in  a  right  line  with  the  keel ;  the  cutter  having  relatively  larger 
sails  tfian  the  sloop.  Two-masted  square-rigged  vessels  are  brUfs ;  but  if  there 
are  no  yards,  and  if  the  sails  lie  in  a  line  with  the  keel,  the  vessels  are  then 
schooners.  Most  of  the  pleasure  vessels  belonging  to  the  Yacht  Clubs  are 
either  cutters  or  schooners.  The  above  appellutions  are  given  chiefly  to 
merchant  vessels  and  pleasure  vessels,  but  ships  of  war  are  differently  desig- 
nated ;  they  are  shi2)s  of  the  line,  if  lai'ge,  and  variously  named  if  small.     A 


"=1" 


L 


2  A   SHIP,   IN   THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

first-rate  has  100  guns  or  more,  a  second-rate  90  to  100,  a  third-rate  60  to  90, 
and  so  on  ;  frhjates,  (jim-hritjs,  &c.,  are  smaller  vessels.  Boats  are  open  or  un- 
decked vessels ;  but  some  of  them  are  so  large,  such  as  the  lony-boat,  the 
barffe,  and  the  ;>/«/««<■«  of  a  man-of-war,  that  tliey  can  can-y  an  anned  and  well- 
provisioned  body  of  men  on  short  expeditions.  Life-boats  (not  yet  adopted  so 
extensively  as  tliey  should  and  might  easily  bo)  have  a  buoyancy  of  construc- 
tion, which  renders  it  difticult  for  tliem  to  bo  upset,  stove-in,  or  sunk. 

These  vessels,  however  varied  they  may  be  in  other  respects,  show  how 
skilfully  materials  have  been  combined  to  make  a  floating  fortress,  or  a  float- 
ing warehouse,  as  the  case  may  be ;  stability  of  constniction,  steadiness  ot 
flotation,  capacity  of  interior,  swiftness  of  movement — all  are,  more  or  less, 
combined.  As  to  interior  capacity,  the  tonnage  is  rather  a  perplexing  matter 
to  ordinary  readers;  we  often  hear  of  a  vessel  carrj'ing  a  much  greater 
weight  of  cargo  than  is  indicated  by  her  registered  tonnage ;  while,  on  tiie 
other  hand,  tliej-e  is  nothing  to  show  whether  this  tonnage  includes  tlie 
■weight  of  the  vessel  itself.  The  case  seems  to  be  this — the  tonnage  is  an 
estimate  of  the  weight  of  stores  and  merchandise  which  a  ship  can  carry 
without  overloading,  but  does  not  include  the  weight  either  of  the  ship  or 
lis  crew  and  passenger.=j.  A  74-gun  ship  is  supposed  to  weigh,  when  fully 
equipped  for  sea,  thrc  times  as  much  as  its  registered  tonnage.  Ship- 
builders and  ship-insiuers  have  cei-tain  technical  rules  by  which  tlie  tonnage 
of  a  ship  is  estimated  from  its  dimensions  ;  but  these  rules  have  been  altered 
witliin  tlie  last  few  years,  so  that  we  have  now  "old  measure"  and  "new 
measure;"  and  there  art  many  indications  tlmt  improvements  in  ship-build- 
ing will,  ere  long,  ovcrtuiu  even  the  new  measure,  and  require  the  adoption 
of  some  new  principle  of  tonnage-measurement. 

The  greatest  ship  now  belonging  to  the  British  navy  is,  we  believe,  the 
Boyal  Albert— still  on  the  slips  in  Woolwich  Dockyard,  where  it  has  remained 
since  the  keel  was  first  laid  do^vn  nearly  ten  years  ago.  A  beautiful  model  of 
this  ship  was  prepared  for  the  Great  Exhibition,  by  Mr.  Lang,  the  master 
shipwright  at  Woolwich,  who  designed  the  leviathan  man-of-war.  The  model 
was  on  the  scale  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  a  foot. 

We  may  here  remai-k,  that  the  Great  Exhibition  rendered  only  scanty 
justice  to  the  naval  architecture  of  our  country.  There  were  models  of 
exteriors,  and  models  of  midship  sections;  there  wfere  many  interestuig 
novelties,  and  not  a  few  oddities ;  but  Uiere  was  no  such  series  as  would  have 
compared  the  early  English  ships  witli  the  modem,  or  war  ships  with  mer- 
chant ships,  or  steam-vessels  with  sailing  vessels,  or  screw-steamers  with 
paddle-steamers,  or  iron  vessels  with  wooden  vessels,  or  roomy  vessels  with 
fast  vessels,  or  one  kind  of  rig  with  anotlier  kind,  or  the  craft  peculiar  to  one 
part  of  our  coast  with  that  obsei-vable  on  another,  or  the  ships  generally  of  our 
own  country  with  those  of  foreign  nations.  There  were  isolated  examples,  but 
anything  that  could  be  called  a  series  there  certaitdy  was  not.  A  mai-itime 
nation  might  have  done  better. 

If  we  watch  the  labours  at  a  ship-builduig  yard,  we  still  find  the  saw,  tlie 
axe,  iand  the  adze  employed  in  fashioning  the  timbers  witli  which  a  ship  is 
built:  machinerj'  has  yet  done  little  in  this  matter,  owing  to  the  tortuous 
forms  which  Ujese  timbers  are  made  to  assume.  There  are,  it  is  true, 
liiadimes  now  before  public  notice  for  cutting  these  great  oaken  ribs,  and  a 
pretty  model  of  one  oi  them  was  exhibited  in  working  order  at  the  Great 
fexliibltioxi ;  but  we  hmst  be  content  to  leave  to  the  next  generation  the 
gathering  of  this  friit.     In  our  gi-eat  ship-yards  we  still  see  the  draughtsman 


n-rrrf  r-'-'f 


swWIW'''"*'  ■ 


"  • —         .imtttaxiMlifci 


mmm 


mmmtmmmmmm 


msmtmmm'srTjm:^ 


third-rati!  60  to  90, 
ats  are  open  or  uii- 

the  hny-hoal,  the 
lin  anned  and  well- 
(not  yet  adopted  so 
oyanoy  of  construe- 
in,  or  sunk. 
respects,  show  how 

fortress,  or  a  float- 
ation, steadiness  of 
1  are,  more  or  less, 
a  perplexing  matter 
ng  a  much  greater 
lage;  Avhile,  on  tlie 
nnage  includes  tlie 
—the  tonnage  is  an 
h  a  ship  can  carry 
ither  of  che  ship  or 
o  weigh,  when  fiilly 
•ed  tonnage.  Ship- 
y  which  tlie  tonnage 
es  have  been  altered 
leasure"  and  "new 
ments  in  sLip-huild- 
eqnire  the  adoption 

■  is,  we  believe,  the 
lere  it  has  remained 
A.  beautiful  model  of 
r.  Lang,  the  master 
-of-war.     The  model 

ndered  only  scanty 
ere  were  models  of 
re  many  interesting 
series  as  would  have 
war  ships  with  raer- 
screw-steamers  with 
'  roomy  vessels  with 
craft  peculiar  to  one 
ships  generally  of  our 
solated  examples,  but 
as  not.     A  mai-itime 

ill  find  the  saw,  tlie 
,vith  which  a  ship  is 
ving  to  the  tortuous 
lere  are,  it  is  true, 
eat  oaken  ribs,  and  a 
'  order  at  the  Great 
next  generation  the 
gee  the  draughtsman 


A  SHIP,   IN  THE  KINETEENTH  CEKtOHY.  8 

make  I.is  drawings  on  paper,  and  from  these  drawings  chalk  out  the  fuU-gized 
curvatures  of  the  ship  on  a  flat  boarded  floor,  and  make  lath  or  thin  patterns 
Irora  these  chalk  marks;  the  'converter'  has  still  the  oflice  of  selecting  the 
oak,  and  elm,  and  other  woods,  and  appropriating  one  piece  to  one  purpose, 
T^il^'n"*'*^'"'  ^^''^""^i^g  ^  its  size  and  shape;  and  the  sawyers  still  cut  up 
the  bulky  timbers  aa  they  were  wont  to  do  in  past  times.  Elm  for  the  keel, 
and  oak  for  the  tunbers  generally,  are  still  the  principal  kinds  of  wood  em- 
ployed (always  excepting  iron  vessels,  of  which  we  have  yet  to  spealc).  But  a 
notable  mark  of  modem  improvement  is  in  tlie  bracing  or  strengthening  of 
tlie  huge  carcass  tlius  built  up ;  diagonal;  timbers,  diagonal  plates  and  bars  of 
iron,  are  now  disposed  in  the  interior  to  an  extent  that  would  quite  have  puz- 
zled the  old  ship-builders.  And  another  grand  innovation  is  the  rteaming  of 
such  timbers,  or  ratlier  thick  planks,  as  are  to  be  bent  to  the  curvatures  of  the 
.ship  :  a  huge  iron  vessel,  supplied  with  steam,  is  tlie  receptacle  into  which  the 
timbers  are  placed ;  and  here  they  are  steamed  and  soddened  to  facilitate  their 
bending. 

But  what  of  malwffam  ?  Cannot  we  have  our  ships  as  well  as  our  tebles 
madeuf  this  beautiful  wood  ?  Practical  men  are  beginning  to  uiquire  whetlier 
m^ogany  can  be  efieotively  thus  used,  and  whether  it  can  be  obtained  at  a 
suffaciently  reasonable  i)rice.  Until  a  recent  period,  neai-ly  all  our  mahogany 
was  obtained  from  tlie  West  India  Islands ;  and  as  most  of  the  trees  growing 
near  tlie  shore  have  been  cut  down,  die  exigency  of  land-carriage  from  the 
interior  has  added  to  the  former  cost  of  shipping  this  valuable  wood.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  riches  of  California  has,  however,  shed  a  new  light  on  this  subject. 
Dense  forests  of  splendid  mahogany  trees  spread  for  hundreds  of  miles  in  Cen- 
tral America ;  and  as  these  regions  will  shortly  be  traversed  by  a  railway  at 
Panama,  and  (i»erhaps)  by  a  ship-canal  aC« Nicaragua,  the  forests  will  be  laid 
open  m  a  way  never  before  contemplated.  The  trees  are  at  present  absolutely 
valueless,  simply  because  we  cannot  get  at  tliem  ;  but  a  commercial  value  will 
anse  as  soon  as  they  can  be  easily  felled  and  shipped.  Then  will  be  the  time 
to  determine  whether  mahogany  can  be  bought  as  cheaply  as  oak  or  teak  for 
ship-building.  Mahogany  is  said  to  be  stiffer,  less  liable  to  dry-rot,  and  more 
buoyant  than  most  other  woods  used  largely  in  ship-building ;  and  tliere  are 
records  of  a  few  mahogiuiy  ships  which  have  shown  an  extraordinary  degree 
of  durability.  There  is  said  to  be  a  singular  inile  adopted  at  Lloyd's,  which, 
for  the  present  at  all  events,  deters  buildere  from  using  mahogany,  iiTespec- 
tive  of  the  high  price  which  will  necessarily  prevail  until  the  Nicaraguan 
forests  are  laid  open :  it  is,  that  if  mahogany  be  used  uistead  of  oak  for  cer- 
tain parts  of  a  ship,  the  ship  ranks  "  A  1"  for  only  ten  years  instead  of  twelve. 
Possibly  the  autliorities  have  not  yet  had  sufficient  experience  of  mahogany 
ships  to  enable  a  right  judgment  to  be  fonned  in  this  matter.  And  this 
"A  1"  IS  an  important  matter  to  a  ship-owner;  for  it  affects  the  reputation  of 
his  ship,  the  facility  with  which  he  can  obtain  freights,  and  the  rate  at  which 
he  can  have  it  insured. 

We  have  just  mentioned  "  Lloyd's.'  Although  tliis  remarkable  establish- 
ment, this  mysterious  tribunal — which  every  one  reads  about,  but  few  rightly 
understanc?— is  related  rather  to  commerce  than  to  ship-building,  a  few 
details  concerning  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  here.  More  than  a  century  and 
a  half  ago,  one  Lloyd  established  a  coffee-house,  in  Lombard  Street,  where 
undenvi-iters  or  sliip-uisurers  were  wont  to  congi-egate ;  and  from  tliat  day  to 
tins  these  msurors  have  acted  together  as  a  body,  to  which  the  name  of 
"Lloyd's"  is  given.     At  present  they  occupy  apartments  in  the  New  Royal 

N  2 


1 


4  A   SHIP,    IN   THE   NINETEENTH   OENTURT. 

Exchange.     There  is  an  underwriters'  room,  a  merchants'  room,  and  a  cap- 
tains' room,  each  of  which  is  opened  at  a  certain  annual  subscription ;  and 
all  these  subscribers  elect  the  committee  which   constitutes   the   govemmg 
body  at  Lloyds.     Underwriters  go  there  to  effect  insurances  on  ships ;  mer- 
chants and   shipowners  go  there  to  seek  for   such  insurances;    insm-ance 
brokei-s  go  tliere  to  act  botli  for  the  insurers  and  for  the  insured ;  merchants 
and  captains  go  there  to  consult  on  theu-  mutual  business ;  and  all  go  there  to 
ascertain  every  fact  which  it  is  possible  to  collect  concemuig  the  merchant 
shipping  of  this  country.     The  extent  and  minuteness  of  tliis  information  are 
quite  extraordinary.     Large  maps  of  all  the  seas  on  the  globe ;  registers  of 
all  the  ships  in  'Lloyd's  List,'  of  all  the  occasions  when  these  ships  have  been 
"  spoken  with,"  and  of  all  'lisasters  which  may  occur  to  them ;  meteorological 
instruments  to  determine  tlie  state  of  tlie  weather  at  all  hom-s  in  London; 
tabular  statements  of  the  weather  from  all  parts  of  the  world ;  a  collection  of 
nearly  all  the  newspapers  from  every  country ;— such  ai-e  the  means  provided 
for  earning  on  this  remarkable  establishment.     An  under\vnter  makes  hun- 
self  responsible  for  the  safety  of  a  ship,  receiving  a  certain  premium  for  his 
risk ;  and  he  has  thus  an  interest  in  storing  his  mind  (or  his  books)  with 
eveiy  imaginable  record — physical,  mechanical,  political,  and  moral — which 
may  affect  the  fortimes  of  a  ship  at  sea. 

Novelties  and  Improvements  in  Ship-building. 

But  we  must  resume  our  brief  sketch  of  ship-novelties  and  ship-curiosities. 

One  of  the  peculiarities  which  distinguished  early  British  ships  from  those 
of  the  present  day  was  the  great  height  of  the  hull  out  of  the  water.  "The 
forecastle,  in  a  modem  ship,  is  anything  but  a  castle  ;  it  is  the  foremost  raised 
deck,  very  little  elevated  above  the  general  level.  In  old  times,  however,  the 
forecasde  really  towered  up  to  a  great  height.  So  likewise  in  respect  to  the 
poop,  or  hindmost  deck  :  this  used  to  soar  to  an  elevation  (in  some  cases)  of 
fifty  or  sixty  feet ;  but  this  has  likewise  experienced  the  levelling  tendencies 
of  modern  ship-building.  Our  ships  are  becoming  more  and  mere  flush  from 
end  to  end,  and  the  mountain  of  woodwork  above  tha  water  is  becoming 
lessened ;  the  rounu  and  squai-e  ends  too  are  giving  way  to  sharp  ends  ;  and 
the  convexities  of  the  hull  are  being  (in  many  parts)  superseded  by  con- 
cavities, which  modem  science  shows  to  be  better  suited  for  cuttmg  through 
tlie  water.  Pictorial  representations  of  the  Harry  Grrike  de  Dieu  (built  by 
Henry  VIII.)  and  tlie  Boyal  Sovereign  (built  by  Chai'les  II.)  are  to  be  met 
with  in  many  English  works,  and  both  were  represented  by  models  at  the 
Great  Exhibition ;  in  these  we  may  see  how  the  old  ship-builders  piled  up 
poops  and  forecastles,  turrets  and  bulwarks,  until  the  huge  mass  almost 
resembled  a  feudal  castle  floating  on  the  bosom  of  the  sea. 

But  the  general  aiTangement  and  desigu  .tion  of  the  timbers  of  a  ship  have 
not  undergone  much  change.  We  have  still  the  keel,  and  the  stem,  and  the 
stem-post;  the  keelson,  tlie  stemson,  and  the  stemson;  the  bulky  masts 
and  the  '  steps  '  or  blocks  hito  which  they  are  fixed ;  tiie  external  '  skin '  and 
the  internal  '  lining '  of  planks,  five  or  six  inches  m  thickness  ;  the  beams 
and  the  '  knees '  which  fasten  them  to  the  ship  ;  the  '  partners,"  and  '  coain- 
ingg,'  and  '  cai-lings,'  which  form  a  framework  between  the  beams;  tlie  deck 
and  its  fastenings ;  and  the  treenails  and  bolts. 

Masts  ai-e  still  built  up  in  pieces,  but  a  curious  novelty  has  been  herein  par- 
tially mtroduced.     Messrs,  Jetfery's  manne  (jlue  is  one  of  the  miuo/  aids  to 


L 


iWi ,-. 


room,  and  a  cap- 
subscription ;  and 
;e3   the   governing 
;es  on  ships ;  mer- 
rances ;    insurance 
isured;  merchants 
and  all  go  there  to 
ling  the  merchant 
his  information  are 
globe ;  registers  of 
se  ships  have  been 
3m ;  meteorological 
hom-s  in  London; 
rid ;  a  collection  of 
he  mesuis  provided 
rwriter  makes  him- 
in  premium  for  his 
or  his  books)  with 
and  moral — which 


DINO. 

Mid  ship-curiosities, 
ih  ships  from  those 
of  the  water.  The 
the  foremost  raised 
times,  however,  the 
e  in  respect  to  the 
(in  some  cases)  of 
levelling  tendencies 
ind  mere  flush  from 
water  is  becoming 
,o  sharp  ends ;  and 
superseded  by  con- 
fer cutting  tlirough 
',  de  Dieu  (built  by 
11.)  ai-e  to  be  met 
d  by  models  at  the 
p-builders  piled  up 
huge  mass  almost 
i. 

nbers  of  a  ship  have 
id  the  stem,  and  tlie 
i;  the  bulky  masts 
external  '  skin '  and 
lickness  ;  the  beams 
artners,'  and  '  coam- 
le  beams;  tlie  deck 

has  been  herein  par- 
)f  the  minor  aids  to 


A   SHIP,    IN   THE   NINETEENTH    CENTURY.  5 

ship-building  inti-oduced  witliin  the  last  few  years.  The  claim  of  the  invontor 
is  nothing  short  of  this — that  a  joint  secured  by  this  glue  is  less  easily  separable 
than  tlie  actual  fibres  of  the  wood  itself.  In  the  Great  Exhibition  were  many 
curious  specimens  illustrative  of  the  use  of  this  extraordinary  cement.  One 
was  a  piece  of  the  mast  of  the  ship  Curai;oa,  found  inseparable  even  by  the 
wedge.  Another  was  a  piece  of  mainmast,  from  which  a  glued  fragment  was 
torn  awpy  only  after  a  force  of  22  tons  had  been  applied.  A  third  was  a 
block  of  elm,  joined  with  glue ;  it  was  exploded  by  gunpowder,  but  the  joint 
did  not  yield.  Another  was  an  oak  oannon-ball,  made  of  two  glued  pieces  ; 
it  had  been  fired  with  eight  ounces  of  powder,  but  the  joint  held  fast. 
Another  was  a  deal  block,  which  broke  in  the  fibres  by  a  force  of  four  tons. 
Others  were  pieces  of  masts,  intended  to  show  'low  intensely  strong  a  mast 
becomes  when  built  up  with  pieces  which  are  joined  by  this  glue.  It  is  not 
only  a  glue :  it  is  also  a  substitute  for  pitch.  Many  government  vessels  have 
the  seams  payed  or  caulked  with  this  glue,  which  is  found  much  more  durable 
for  the  purpose  tlian  ordinary  pitch. 

Forest-trees  are  as  chaiy  as  ever  in  furnishing  trunks  long  and  thick  and 
strong  enough  to  furnish  the  largest  masts ;  occasionally  the  newspapei-s  tell 
us  of  such  man-els,  but  they  ai-e  '  few  and  fai-  between.'  The  total  lengtli  of 
the  mainmast  of  a  '  74  '  is  little  short,  of  two  hundred  feet;  and  it  is  not  only 
made  in  three  lengths,  but  each  length  or  subordinate  mast  is  built  around 
widi  numerous  pieces  to  make  up  ihe  requisite  bulk ;  why  theso  pieces  are 
knowny)y  the  elegant  names  of  'cheeks,'  'front  fishes,'  'side  fishes,'  'cant 
pieces,'  and  '  heel  pieces,'  the  mast-makers  themselves  must  say.  Canadian 
fir  is  the  wood  chiefly  employed ;  and  of  this  wood  there  is  no  less  than  six 
tons  in  the  lower  mainmast  alone  of  an  ordinary  East  Indiaman. 

If  from  the  woodwork  of  a  ship  we  turn  attention  to  tlie  sails,  we  find  that 
one  or  two  improvements  have  lately  worked  their  way  into  public  favour. 
The  sails  are,  indeed,  a  notable  part  of  the  attire  of  *a  ship — ^beautiful  in 
eifect,  indispensable  in  sei-vice.  All  that  the  spinner  and  the  weaver,  the 
sewer  and  the  rigger,  can  do  to  give  them  strength  is  done.  Sail-cloth  is  the 
strongest  of  all  varieties  (  '"  the  flax  manufacture  ;  or  sometimes  it  is  of  hemp ; 
or  sometimes  of  botli  combined.  The  Admiralty  is  very  scrupvdous  about  its 
sail-cloth,  and  shipowners  have  little  less  reason  to  be  so.  A  '  bolt '  of  sail- 
vlcth,  forty  yards  long  by  two  feet  wide,  weighs  from  22  to  44  lbs.,  according 
to  the  thickness ;  but  all  alike,  stout  or  fine,  are  made  of  these  nan-ow  widths. 
The  cutting  out  for  a  whole  suit  of  sails  is  a  formidable  affair ;  in  an  East 
Indiamaii  of  average  size,  tJie  quantity  of  sail-cloth  thus  conswrned  is  said  to 
be  very  little  less  than  nme  tliousand  yai'ds.  How  the  cutter-out  economises 
his  material,  and  provides  for  slanting  edges,  so  as  to  use  up  odds  and  ends 
in  all  tlie  nooks  and  corners,  may  be  pretty  well  guessed  by  those  who  have 
to  cut  out  any  woven  goods  for  garments  ;  'but  the  stitching  is  a  more  weighty 
affair,  owing  to  the  great  strength  requked.  There  is  a  stipulation  between  the 
sailmaker  and  his  employer  as  to  the  number  of  stitches  to  be  put-  in  a  given 
space;  and  every  attempt  is  matle  to  cuable  the  sail  to  bear  a  powerful 
strain. 

A  veiy  simple  addition  has  been  recently  introduced  in  tlie  means  of 
strengthening  1.  ~,  ils  of  ships.  This  is  by  Trail's  storm-sails.  The  canvas  is 
the  same,  the  shape  of  the  sail  is  the  same,  the  mode  of  sewing  is  the  same ; 
but  these  sails  differ  from  tliose  ordinarily  in  use  by  having  strengthening 
t.inds  of  cauvas  placed  diagonally ;  tliese  bands  are  corded  and  are  stitched 
iinnlytothi  sail  at  intervals  of  a  few  feet  apart.     These  bands,   by  their 


6 


A  Siltf,    IN   TUB   NINETEENTH   CENTltRt. 


diftffonal  arrangement,  tack  the  various  warp  and  weft  tlireadn  together,  and 
add  very  greatly  to  the  strength  of  the  whole  Hprend  of  canvas.  1  artially- 
wom  sails  by  having  these  banda  aftixed  to  thoni,  take  a  new  lease  ot  ser- 
viceable existence,  and  eflfect  a  postponement  of  the  period  when  new 
sails  become  necessary.  Independent  of  any  tesliinonlala  on  the  subject, 
this  system  carries  with  it  much  to  recommend  it  to  the  judgment ;  for 
diagonal  bracings,  in  all  kinds  of  constructions,  are  yeaily  coming  more  and 
more  into  use.  .  .,    . 

Another  modem  improvement  is  in  the  sail-cloth  itself.  Messrs  Milvam, 
of  Newcastle,  have  devised  an  ingenious  mode  of  thickening  sail-cloth  a. 
intervals,  by  introducing  an  extra  quantity  of  wai-p  thread  ;  Uiereby  forming 
bands  or  straps  of  very  thick  twilled  canvas,  ranged  pai-allel  to  each  other  at 
a  certain  number  of  inches  apart.  These  bands  cannot  loosen,  as  they 
form  part  of  the  canvas  itself;  while  they  add  greatly  to  the  strength  of  the 

whole.  .    , 

It  is  a  feature  worth  noting  that  ropes— hempen  ropes— seem  now  to  have 
reached  nearly  beyond  the  region  of  improvement.  The  novelties  are  rather 
in  the  substitution  of  iron  wire  for  hemp,  than  in  the  merits  of  hempen 
ropes  themselves.  This  is  instructively  displayed  in  the  history  of  Captain 
Huddart's  beautiful  cable-making  machinery ;  its  excellence  is  unquestion- 
able, but  chain-cables  have  thrown  it  out  of  work.  All  the  world  knows 
how  string  is  made ;  and  a  cable  is  but  a  reduplication  of  a  niul^tude  ot 
strings.  First  the  spinner,  witli  a  bundle  of  hemp  wound  round  his  body, 
the  fibres  fastened  at  one  end  to  revolving  hooks,  and  his  hands  working 
busily,  spins  yams  at  the  rate  of  something  like  a  hundred  feet  in  a  mm"**  : 
tlien  a  certain  number  of  these  yarns  are  twisted  to  form  a  strand  ;  and  three 
of  these  strands  are  twisted  together  to  fomi  a  rope;  and  three  ropes, 
when  twisted,  form  a  cable.  Thus  is  a  bulky  cable  built  up  piecemeal, 
by  successive  combinations  of  twisted  fibres— each  successive  twist  being  in 
an  opiiosite  direction  to  that  which  preceded  it,  so  as  to  lessen  the  liability  ot 
mitwisting.  In  a  fii-st-rate  cable  of  twenty-five  inches  circumference  (little 
other  now  than  a  memento  of  past  days)  there  are  tlu-ee  hundred  and  sixty 
yarns  in  a  strand.  .  . 

Little  is  it  to  be  wondered  at  if  the  making  of  these  monster  ropes,  requiring 
so  much  material  and  so  much  power,  led  to  the  suggestion  of  rope-niakmg 
machines.  The  late  Captain  Huddart  constructed  some  beautiful  machmeiy 
for  making  cables  of  almost  any  thickness  and  any  length ;  and  this  ma- 
chinery was  to  some  extent  employed  by  the  government ;  but  chain-cables 
have  almost  driven  these  machines  into  idleness.  There  is,  however, 
machinery  of  a  most  ingenious  kind  now  employed,  both  by  the  government 
and  by  private  manufacturers,  in  making  ropes  of  smaller  size.  One  such 
machine  must  be  fresh  in  the  recollection  of  the  visitors  to  the  Great 
Exhibition ;  it  was  Mr.  Crawhall's  invention,  in  which  the  various  strands  are 
made  to  twist  round  each  other  by  a  very  ingenious  application  of  rotatoiy 
machinery.  Ropes  and  cordage  of  various  kinds,  too,  we  may  remai-k,  were 
not  wanting  in  our  international  display.  There  wen;  round  ropes  and  flat 
ropes,  shroud-laid  ropes  and  reef-point  ropes,  ropes  from  Russia  hemp  and 
ropes  from  Manilla  hemp,  ropes  made  by  steam  an '  ropes  made  by  hand, 
ropes  tarred  and  ropes  untaned. 

The  chain-cables  so  often  alluded  to  above  are  simply  chains  of  large  size. 
Our  chain-makers  take  a  bar  of  iron  of  any  thickness,  weld  this  up  into  links, 
and  at  (lie  same  time  connect  these  links  one  to  another ;  and  recent  en- 


,ds  together,  and 
nvaa.  Pftrtially- 
new  lease  of  ser- 
iriod  when  new 
on  the  subject, 
)  judgment;  for 
oraing  more  and 

Messrs.  Milvain, 
ling  sail-cloth  at 
thereby  forming 
to  each  other  at 
loosen,  as  they 
strength  of  the 

3em  now  to  have 
velties  are  ratlier 
erits  of  hempen 
istory  of  Captain 
e  is  unquestion- 
tlie  world  knows 
f  a  multitude  of 
round  his  body, 
i  hands  working 
feet  in  a  minute  ; 
itrand ;  and  three 
and  three  ropes, 
lit  up  piecemeal, 
e  twist  being  in 
!n  the  liability  of 
Gumference  (little 
undred  and  sixty 

sr  ropes,  requiring 
1  of  rope-making 
lutiful  machinei-y 
,h;  and  this  ma- 
but  chain-cables 
lere  is,  however, 
y  the  govenmient 
r  size.  One  such 
9rs  to  the  Great 
irious  strands  are 
cation  of  rotatory 
may  remiu-k,  were 
;id  ropes  and  flat 
Russia  hemp  and 
3S  made  by  hand, 

ains  of  large  size, 
tliis  up  into  links, 
[• ;  and  recent  en- 


A   SmV,   IN   THE   NINETKENTIl  CEKTUIlY.  f 

gineering  has  shown  that  tlioro  is  hardly  any  limit  to  the  degree  of  strengUi 
Urns  obtainable. 

And  if  wo  turn  our  glance  from  the  cables  to  tlie  anchors  which  tliey  are 
intended  to  support,  we  do  not  less  see  the  influence  of  modem  ingenuity. 
Eitlier  the  anchors  ihemselves  have  been  improved,  or  tlio  mode  of  manufiio- 
turing  them,  or  botli.  All  throughout  the  last  European  war  our  anchors 
were  fashioned  pretty  nearly  after  one  model ;  tlie  various  pai'ts — the  ring, 
the  stock,  the  shank,  the  crown,  tlie  arm,  tlie  tluoat,  tho  trend,  the  tluke,  the 
peak,  &c. — had  their  various  conventional  proijortions  to  each  other ;  and  the 
technical  designations  of  sheet-anchor  and  bower-anchor,  stream-anchor  and 
kodgc-anchor,  became  familiarised  to  us  us  a  maritime  people.  How  the 
anchor  was  made  in  tliose  days  om-  dockyard  guide-books  have  not  failed  to 
tell,  and  even  oiu:  poets  and  song-writera  have  versified.  Tho  buildhig  up  of 
four  tons  of  iron  into  a  first>rate  anchor  ;  tlie  welding  of  bai-s  to  form  a  solid 
shank ;  the  heating  of  the  iron  on  the  forge-heaith ;  tlie  fierce  blast  by  which 
the  heat  was  maintained ;  tlie  circle  of  anchoi'-sniiths  wielding  their  ponderous 
hammers  ;  the  soo.;  dimness,  the  fiery  spai-ks,  and  the  noisy  clangour  of  the 
smithy — all  have  been  described  over  and  over  again. 

But  the  world  has  not  consented  to  allow  its  anchore  to  remain  un- 
changed :  we  now  meet  with  many  novel  forms  and  apphancea.  Mr.  Pering 
has  shown  how  to  group  togetlier  a  number  of  broad  slabs  of  iron,  instead 
of  mere  square  bai's,  to  form  tire  shank.  Lieutenant  Eodgers  has  been  bold 
enough  to  propose  and  to  construct  hollow  anchors,  on  the  well-known  prin- 
ciple, that  a  given  quantity  of  material  makes  a  stronger  column  if  hollow  than 
if  soHd.  Mr.  Porter  has  provided  a  pivot  or  hinge  at  the  end  of  the  shank,  by 
which  the  ai-ms  and  flukes  have  a  certain  freedom  of  movement,  intended  to 
facilitate  the  use  of  the  anchor.  The  Great  Exhibition  illustrated  these  as 
well  as  many  other  novelties  in  auchox-s.  No  one  who  visited  the  enclosure  at 
tlie  west  end  could  have  failed  to  notice  the  enonnous  anchor  sent  by 
Messi-s.  Brown  and  Lenox ;  »nd  tliere  were  many  cvu'ious  eyes  directed  also 
towards  a  certain  tank  or  cistern,  filled  with  "unlovely"  muddy  water,  in 
which  two  mimic  anchors  were  repeatedly  subjected  to  mimic  experiments,  to 
show  that  a  slight  alteration  of  shape  produces  a  considerable  result  in  the 
gi-appling  power  of  an  anchoi,'. 

And  the  mode  of  manufacturing  anchors  has  imdergone  at  least  as  much 
change  as  Uie  forma  of  the  anchoi-s  themselves.  A  steam-engine  now  blows  a 
blast  into  the  forge  fire,  instead  of  leaving  this  service  to  be  rendered  by  hand- 
worked bellows,  And  as  to  the  hammering,  tliis  has  undergone  a  complete 
revolution.  A  large  sort  of  hammer,  worked  by  ropes,  and  tlien  a  still  larger 
moved  by  machinery,  have  had  their  day ;  but  Nasmytli's  steam-hanimer  now 
triumphs  over  them  all.  Many  who  saw  this  machine  at  tlie  Ciystal  Palace 
longed  for  an  opportunity  to  see  it  in  action ;  and  those  who  have  seen  it  in 
the  anchor-smithei'ies  of  our  royal  dockyards  are  not  likely  soon  to  forget  it 

If  we  pass  from  the  metal  of  the  chain-cables  and  tlie  anchors  to  that  of 
the  sheathing  and  the  lightning  oonductore,  we  find  that  science,  rather  than 
manufdcturipg  skill,  has  here  rendered  the  chief  sei-vice.  Copper  is  still  the 
sheathing  luaterial,  and  it  is  still  applied  to  the  lower  pai-t  of  the  hall  of  a 
ship  m  sheets,  which  ai'e  fastened  with  copper  nails ;  and  when  the  ship  has 
seen  a  certain  amount  of  service,  which  hfxs  wtru  and  injured  the  nietS,  the 
sheathing  is  stripped  oflf,  sold  for  re-melting,  and  replaced  by  new.  Om-  ship- 
builders have  done  little  more  in  this  matter  tliau  to  increi  sa  the  ap-iere  of 
usefulness  due  to  tliis  system.      But  in  respect  to  lightuirg -conductors,  the 


-as 


wnaiua'mau 


mm» 


8 


A    SHIP,    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 


case  is  quite  different.  Year  after  year  did  the  royal  sliips  and  the  merchant 
ships  suffer  appalling  disasters  by  lighUiing;  year  after  year  did  Su-  W.  S. 
Harris  perseveringly  press  upon  tlie  attention  of  the  govemment  the  important 
fact,  that  such  calamities  may  be  almost  wholly  prevented.  It  is  only  very 
recently,  however,  that  his  method  has  come  into  general  adoption :  but  our 
finest  ships  have  now  generally  those  slips  of  slieet  copper,  which,  runnmg 
down  the  masts  and  through  the  hull  into  the  sea,  cari^  off  that  ten-ible  agent 
which  might  otherwise  rend  and  destroy  the  ship.  .         .      ,.. 

A  notable  modem  feature  in  connection  with  shipping  matters  is  the  life- 
boat—not  exactly  a  creation  of  our  own  days,  but  still  one  which  is  now  more 
attended  to  than  ever:   witness  Uie  Northumberland  life-boat  prize,     rhe 
circumstances  attending  this  prize  were  somewhat  remarkable.     Notwithstand- 
ing all  the  efforts  matle  by  benevolent  and  enterprising  persons,  the  loss  of 
life  on  the  coasts  of  England  still  continues  to  be  seriously  laige.     The 
storms  which  rage  in  the  German  Ocean,  and  impel  the  poor  helpless  ships 
towards  the  shores  and  shoals,  occasion  more  destniction,  perhaps,  tlian  those 
on  any  other  part  of  our  coast.     In  the  winter  of  1849  a  life-boat,  manned  by 
a  brave  crew  of  twenty  Tyne  pilots,  was  lost  while  attempting  the  rescue  of  a 
ship's  c\ew ;  and  this,  adde<i  to  ho  many  other  lamentable  cataatrophes,  led  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland  to  offer  a  reward  of  a  hundred  guineas  to  Uie  con- 
triver of  the  best  life-boat.     80  heartily  was   this   offer  responded  to,  tliat 
nearly  three  hundred  persons  entered  the  list  as  competitoi-s ;  tlie  offer  was 
made  in  October,   1850 ;   the  plans  and  models  were  sent  to  an  office  ni 
Somerset  House,  and  the  Duke  collected  five  folio  volumes  of  manuscript 
documents  relating  to  them.    A  committee  was  appointed  to  examine  all  the 
plans  and  models ;  and  there  can  hardly  be  imagined  a  trial  conducted  with 
more  fairness  than  that  which  was  thus  submitted  to  the  committee.     Certain 
qualities  were  decided  on  which  a  life-boat  ought  to  possess ;  all  the  compet- 
ing plans  were  compared  in  respect  to  all  these  qualities :  the  relative  degrees 
of  excellence  in  all  were  represented  by  numbers,  in  respect  to  each  quality ; 
and  that  plan  which  stood  highest  in  the  list  in  relation  to  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  qualities,  was  adjudged  to  be  the  best  hfe-boat.     The  report  of  this 
committee  contains  the  greatest  body  of  infoi-mation  ever  collected  on  the 
subject.     The  prize  was  awarded  to  Mr.  Beeching,  of  Yarmouth,  for  havmg 
produced  the  best  of  all  the  life-boats.  . 

Mr.  Beeching's  life-boat  is,  in  form,  something  like  a  whale-boat.  It  is 
about  36  feet  in  extreme  length,  9|  feet  extreme  breadth,  and  3^  feet  in  depth; 
it  has  twelve  oars,  double  banked.  A  cork  fender,  about  seven  inches  square, 
runs  round  outside,  at  b.  few  inches  below  the  gunwale.  Extra  buoyancy  is 
given  by  ak-cases  placed  in  all  the  vacant  parts  of  the  boat ;  these,  with  the 
cork  fender,  give  a  buoyancy  or  upward  tendency  of  more  than  eight  tons, 
counteracting  to  that  extent  the  weight  or  downward  tendency  of  the  boat 
and  its  crew.  For  ballast  there  is  an  an-ay  of  divided  water-tanks  capable  of 
containing  auy  quar  aty  up  to  about  two  tons,  and  there  are  pipes  for  empty- 
ing these  tanks  very  quickly.  If  the  boat  be  upset,  the  heavy  iron  keel  and 
the  filled  water-tanks  near  the  bottom,  aided  by  tlie  light  air-cases  near  the 
top,  tend  to  right  it.  It  is  rigged  with  a  tug  foresail  and  a  mizen.  The 
draught  of  water,  mth  thirty  persons  on  board,  is  about  two  feet ;  the  weight 
of  the  boat  and  its  fittings  is  about  three  and  a  half  tons,  and  the  cost  250/. 
It  is  capable  of  carrying  seventy  persons  with  safety.  In  November,  1851, 
this  boat  made  a  trial  trip  to  the  Goodwin  Sands,  under  the  care  of  Captain 
Charlwood  and  a  crt  w  of  sixteen  picked  men ;  it  was  placed  in  such  position? 


^MMn 


».ln>tiil  liiMifiiiltllUlWii  niiin 


^■nummmK<tmimmiiim 


mm 


d  the  merchant 
V  did  Sir  W.  S. 
nt  the  important 

It  is  only  very 
option ;  but  our 

which,  running 
lat  terrible  agent 

itters  is  the  life- 
lich  is  now  more 
loat  prize.  The 
Notwithstand- 
sons,  the  loss  of 
isly  lai-ge.  The 
3r  helpless  ships 
fhaps,  tlian  those 
boat,  manned  by 
f>  the  rescue  of  a 
latrophes,  led  the 
ineas  to  tlie  con- 
sponded  to,  tliat 
rs ;  the  offer  was 
t  to  an  office  in 
!S  of  manuscript 
3  examine  all  the 
1  conducted  willi 
unittee.  Certain 
I ;  all  the  compet- 
e  relative  degrees 

to  each  quahty; 
the  gi-eatest  num- 
be  report  of  this 

collected  on  the 
aouth,  for  having 

A'hale-boat.  It  is 
I  'Si  feet  in  depth ; 
en  inches  square, 
Ixtra  buoyancy  is 
;  these,  with  the 
than  eight  tons, 
lency  of  the  boat 
r-tanks  capable  of 
s  pipes  for  enipty- 
avy  iron  keel  and 
air-cases  near  the 
d  a  mizen.  The 
I  feet ;  the  weight 
and  the  cost  'ibOl. 
November,  1851, 
e  care  of  Cajitain 
i  in  such  position? 


A    SHIP,    IN   THK    NINKTEENTTI    CKNTURY. 


0 


as  to  allow  the  surf  to  have  the  greatest  effect,  and  tlie  result  is  said  to  have 
been  such  as  to  fully  bear  out  the  high  anticipations  formed  of  the  excellent 
construction  of  the  boat. 

Among  the  competing  plans  for  life-boats  were  some  of  great  oddity ;  but 
none  more  odd,  perhai)s,  than  that  which  has  been  displayed  at  the  western 
end  of  the  Ciystal  Palace,  where  the  tubs  or  cylinders  provoked  a  recollection 
of  the  oil  jars  in  which  the  renowned  Forty  Thieves  concealed  themselves. 

Among  the  recent  projects  for  life-boats  is  one  that  does  not  relate  to  tlie 
shape  of  the  boat  itself,  but  to  the  introduction  of  a  particular  substance  as  a 
buoyant  material.  This  substance  is  not  formally  described,  but  its  excel- 
lences are  announced  in  most  laudatory  terms.  The  '  substance '  is  made  up 
into  packages,  and  these  packages  are  built  into  the  framework  of  the  boat; 
it  can  be  applied  in  any  bulk,  in  any  form,  and  to  any  part ;  if  a  boat  be 
shattered,  the  pieces,  if  stuffed  with  this  material,  will  fonn  so  many  rafts ; 
the  buoyancy  is  said  to  exceed  that  of  cork,  or  even  of  cases  filled  with  air. 
In  short,  if  the  "  Patent  Life-Boat,  Buoy,  Belt,  and  General  Marine  Buoyancy 
Company"  do  not  overstretch  their  claims,  this  buoyant  material  must  be  a 
very  notable  affair;  a  little  incredulity  may,  however,  be  wholesome.  The 
substance  employed  is,  we  beheve,  a  kind  of  rush,  prepai'ed  under  a  patent 
taken  out  by  Captain  Light. 

SwitTNESS,    AS    A    CHARACTERISTIC    OF    MoDEllN    ShIPS. 

It  would  obviously  be  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  paper  to  go 
further  and  fuj-ther  into  details  respecting  modem  improvements  in  ship- 
building and  ship  fittings.  We  have  said  a  little  respecting  the  timbei-s,  the 
masts,  the  sails,  tlie  ropes,  the  anchors,  the  cables,  the  sheathing,  the  con- 
ductors, the  boats ;  but  there  are  almost  numberless  other  directions  in  which 
we  should  find  novelties  and  curiosities,  could  we  search  for  them.  Our  ever- 
busy  age  would  indeed  belie  itself,  were  such  not  the  case.  Let  us,  however, 
before  touching  on  the  mai-vels  of  steam-shipping,  render  due  justice  to  the 
sailing  vessels  of  tlie  middle  of  the  nineteenth  centui-y,  in  respect  to  sailing 
qualities. 

Speed  is  the  great  characteristic  of  our  age  in  respect  to  travelling.  It  is 
tlie  key  which  unlocks  tlie  mystery  of  all  our  modem  locomotive  aiTangements. 
It  shows  its  power  on  the  water  as  well  as  on  the  land,  and  in  sailing  ships  as 
well  as  in  steamere.  Many  newspaper  readera  mar\'el  what  a  clipper  may  mean ; 
but  whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  the  name  itself,  a  clipper  is  simply 
one  of  the  exemplifications  of  this  speed-producing  tendency  in  modem  ship- 
building. The  clippers  of  the  German  Ocean  have  arisen  thus :  when  salmon 
and  other  perishable  commodities  began  to  be  sent  in  lai^e  (quantities  from 
the  north  to  London,  it  was  found  tliat  the  clumsy  brigs  and  other  coasting 
craft  of  the  Tyne  and  Wear  were  of  too  slow  a  movement  to  convey  the  cargo 
with  the  necessary  rapidity.  Newcastle,  and  Shields,  and  Simderland,  did  not 
want  high  speed  for  tfieir  coal,  and  glass,  and  chemical  cargoes ;  bv.t  Aberdeen, 
and  Dundee,  and  Leith  knew  how  to  value  any  increase  of  speed  for  tlie  con- 
veyance of  their  salmon  and  cattle,  and  other  articles  which  became  deteriorated 
by  a  long  voyage.  Hence  it  is  to  our  Scottish  neighbours  that  we  are  indebted 
for  clippere,  or  fast-sailing  merchant  ships.  The  clipper  sacrifices  a  portion  of 
space  for  tlie  sake  of  increased  speed ;  she  carries  a  somewhat  smaller  cargo 
than  the  old  vessels  of  equal  length,  but  conveys  it  sooner  to  its  destination. 
The  clipper  is  naii"ow,  gracefully  tapering  behmd,  very  sharp  at  the  bows,  and 

N   3 


-lr< 


imsatmrnm 


30 


A  8HIP,   IS   Tira   NINETKRHTU   CEJITUU\. 


Bltoffether  calculated  to  cut  cleanly  and  rapidly  througiUie  water,  attamiug 
a  speed  about  double  that  of  the  old  coaHling  bng.  'Iho  fm.t  trade  ot  the 
IModiteniuuum  and  the  A/ores  is  gradually  coming  withm  the  doumin  ot  rapid 
clippei-B ;  and  tlie  records  of  daily  commerce  bhow  itu  a  progressive  oxleiiiiou 
of  the  same  system  to  ocean  sailing.  .,,«..         i      i     • 

The  oiM  ninu  of  the  China  trade  has  had  a  wonderful  effect  m  developuiK 
the  enoruies  of  our  shipbuilders.  Two  of  tha  Aberdeen  clippers  have  recenUy 
been  vim.A  upon  the  China  route,  one  by  a  London  linn  an.l  Uie  oUier  a 
Liveniool.  They  ai-e  comparatively  of  small  burden,  the  .^tormway  being  000 
tons,  .uid  the  CaVw.  160 ;  yet,  smaU  as  Uiev  are,  ^«  <^"™'  '^^^  J.^; 
nlished  the  out  and  home  voi.iges  between  Lngland  and  China  m  10-4  and  U'.. 
days  ve«pectively;  and  the  latter  in  103  and  104  day s-a  nn,st  extraordinary 
equality  of  action.  They  outstripped  tliree  Amencan  clipp.i  with  which  Uicv 
happened  to  come  into  competition,  and  beat  evei-yUung  elst  large  and  sma  1. 
It  was  ascertained  about  a  dozen  yeai-s  ago,  by  a  carelul  oxuiuination  ot  neax' y 
a  hmidred  log-books  of  Indiamen,  that  the  a\erage  tune  Irom  London  to 
Bmnbay.  in  all  the  ships,  large  and  small,  was  1  Vi  days.  When  we  consider 
Uie  much  greater  distimce  to  China,  we  shall  the  better  appreciate  Uie  re- 
markable perfoi-raances  of  these  modem  clippers.         ,    .         ,  t* 

This  clipper  form  is  unquestionably  now  ot  much  unportanee.  It  was 
about  the  year  1H40  tl.at  Messrs.  Hall,  of  Aberdeen,  first  buldly  adopted-on 
Z  wav.  principle  developed  by  Mr.  Scott  KusseU-a  form  wmch  cornbines 
great  capiity  with  gv.  at  speed.  The  tonnage  of  a  vessel  (as  was  before 
remarked)  does  not  now  tell  us  how  much  caigo  can  be  coiiveyed;  the  sb  p- 
builders  have  managed  to  obey  certain  conventional  ru  es,  and  yet  »uorea«e  the 
avaSe  capacity  of^their  ships.  Thus  the  Vknp>oUu  is  Baid  to  be  o  450  tons 
yet  she  brought  000  tons  of  tea  from  Chuia.  On  one  day  ihe  ChrysoUtei, 
said  to  have  sailed  8^0  knots  or  nautical  mUea  m  twenty-lour  houra.  Ihe 
'  Aberdeen  bow'  has  thus  I   come  a  very  notable  recommendaUon  to  a  ship. 

There  is,  however,  a  claun  put  forth  by  Baltimore  to  the  honour  ot  bavmg 
introduced  the  clipper  style  of  ship:  at  any  rate,  the  'Baltimore  chppei-s. 
usuaUy  single  or  double-masted  vessel  h,  had  a  faiuous  reputation  m  the  western 
world  long  before  the  pr.isent  rage  for  high  speed  arose.  Since  New  York  and 
Boston  W  sent  their  beauUful  '  hners'  to  sea,  the  smaller  Ba^Umore  clippers 
have  lost  a  little  of  the  sunshine  of  populm-ity.  These  larger  ships,  which  cross 
^rAUantio  and  the  Indian  Ocean  to  China,  or  double  Cape  Horn  to  Ca  ifomia. 
S  merely  make  the  now  insiguilicant  run  to  England,  have  generally  some 
Lrdevf  name  given  to  Ihem-tlie  White  SqwM,  the  Black  SqmU,  ^^  Sea 
S^Xihe  Sea  Hound,  the  Sea  Witch,  the  Orey  Eagle,  the  Oanie  CWfc^uoh 

%?e  American  Ss- just  mentioned  are  indeed  aniong  «i«  ^"fi,';;^;?* 
afloat  Thev  are  sailing  vessels  which  ply  between  Lngland  and  the  United 
States ;  and  the  rivalry  It  steam  has  urged  their  buildei^  to  throw  the  utmost 
effortemtotlaeconsu4tion.  Atintervalsof  ^^^'T/ew'no"*^".  «/ «;^^;«f  «' 
the  news  from  the  great  ports  announce  to  us  the  launching  or  the  hrst  voyage 
S  some  new  member  oAhis  well-appointed  series.  Take  for  «^^Pl«.  ^>« 
olioner  '  liner'  lUicer,  which  was  buUt  at  New  Yoxk,  and  made  her  hrst  appear- 
ance at  I'lve^ool  in  the  autumn  of  i85L  Her  length  is  207  feet ;  her  breadth 
of  beam,  4a  feet:  her  deptli  of  hold,  28  feet;  her  '  t^^^e^i  dec'is  Imgbt, 
7feet;  her  load  line,  30  feet  draught ;  her  registered  tonnage,  about  1.00  tems^ 
She  is  long  and  sharp,  for  speed)  hut  la  yet  roomy  wthm.  On  the  upper 
deck  betwwn  Ihe  fore  and  mizen  maets.  U  a  l^e  and  qommodioua  .tructure. 


^fcy.  -- 


I  uii^^iiafcftii^'aaiiwifl^waiwaiiliaw 


L 


I  wutfii',  atttuuitig 

fruit  Uttdo  of  tlio 

(Uiiuttin  of  lapid 

[re»sive  exleiiiiou 

jct  in  developing 
iGYi  have  recently 
and  tlie  othtu-  tit 
riMuay  being  OOO 
riner  h&a  lUiconi- 
min  loa  andlUi) 
>uBt  exUiiordiQuy 
•H  witli  which  tln') 
largo  and  small, 
uinationof  nearly 
from  liondou  to 
(Vhen  we  oonbider 
appreciate  Uie  re- 

portanoe.     It  was 
jldly  adopted — on 
1  wnich  combines 
el  (as   was  before 
.nveyed ;  the  ship- 
id  yet  iuoretwe  the 
I  to  be  of  450  ton«, 
ly  the  Chrysolite  ia 
-four  houra.    The 
latiou  to  a  ship. 
I  honouf  of  having 
Ittltimore  clippera,' 
tion  ui  the  western 
ince  New  York  and 
Baltimore  clippers 
r  ships,  which  cross 
Horn  to  CaUfomia, 
ive  generally  some 
aok  Squall,  the  Sea 
i  Game  G'ocfc—^uuh 

ag  the  finest  Khipa 
[id  and  tlie  United 
0  throw  the  utmost 
iths,  or  even  weeks, 
g  or  the  first  voyage 
i,  for  example,  the 
de  her  first  appeor- 
)7feet;  her  breadth 
een  decks'  height, 
ge,  about  1700  tons, 
in.  On  the  upper 
nmodioua  ttracture, 


A   8HIP,   IN   TUB   KlNEIEBSTll   CENTURY. 


M 


contuiuint?  apartments  sufiphed  with  cooking  niiiv,'os,  a  hospital,  boys'  room, 
vegetable  room,  ice-houso,  Ac.  The  chief  cabin  is  maguiticeritly  fitted  with 
ill  the  solid  conveniemes  whicli  mahogany  and  rosewood  can  furnish,  aiid  all 
I  0  decorations  wliioh  g  and  :  apier-maclio  can  supply.  In  occordance  with 
tlio  Americim  cu  torn  lu  ipplyu*!Jj  an  immense  surface  of  soils  to  ensu  o 
speed,  tlio  litmr  sprea/fs  upwards  mI  hOOii  yarda  of  canvas.  This  vessel — mu 
apiiropriately  named— has  lately  accomplished  the  run  from  Now  York  to 
l,iverj)ool  in  fourteen  days — a  speed  thu'  throws  far  ui  the  shade  all  previous 
sailing  achievements  across  Uie  Atlantic.  But  even  Uiis  bus  since  been  cX' 
ceeded  While  these  pages  are  being  pr<paretl  lor  press,  the  IVmhinuMn,  cue 
of  tlie  •  Block  8tM-'  lino  of  pu  kets  (for  all  these  componie-s  adopt  ratlier 
fanciful  names),  has  run  the  distance  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  in  ton  hours 
,1  itliin  tilt  fourteen  days. 

Ihit  it  is  not  only  commerce  which  leads  lo  increase  of  speed  oa  a  desideratum 
in  sliip-buUdiug ;  pleasure  is  uUo  t«;ndu>g  tii  tlio  same  du'oction,  as  oiu-  yacku 
plainly  enough  show.  How  cluu-acteristii^  it  is,  tliat  Robert  Stei)henson,  who 
lias  done  more  to  aucolerale  the  si)eed  of  i ravelling  than  any  oUier  man  living, 
should  have  gone  to  Egypt  in  his  own  pleas ure-jucht,  the  'I'itania,  and  that  tliia 
yacht  should  have  been  v^onstructcd  on  the  spetJd-producuig  plan  of  Mr.  Hcott 
llussell,  and  that  the  object  of  the  voyage  should  hove  relation  to  tlio  speed  of 
railway  Uunait  across  tlie  Isthmus  of  Suez.  The  man,  i«id  the  yiwjht,  and  tlio 
uccosion,  wore  wortliy  one  of  another. 

The  yacht  America  is,  perhaps,  not  so  noticeable  in  regard  to  its  own  merits 
as  having  been  the  means  of  drawing  a  lai'gc  amount  of  public  attention  to 
the  build,  the  sails,  and  the  rig  of  ships  in  general.  I  belonging  to  a  member 
of  the  New  York  Yacht  Club,  tliis  yacht  was  construcli^a  in  tliat  city  eaily  in 
1H61,  mainly  with  the  view  of  competing  with  tlie  Enghsh  yachts  at  Cowes. 
She  aiTivod  m  this  country  in  July,  al'ter  a  rattling  nm  acr'iss  tl  Atlantic; 
and  her  shape,  her  rigging,  her  sails,  all  showed  marked  difft  .onces  irom  those 
jiresented  by  English  yachts.  She  was  built  by  Messrs.  Stetjra,  for  Mr.  Stevens, 
the  commodore  of  tlie  New  York  Yacht  Club.  Her  exti  ne  length  is  01  feet, 
and  breadth  about  28  feet.  The  masts  have  an  extraordinai  •• '  rake,'  as  nautical 
men  temi  it — that  is,  a  backward  inclinatUm.  The  standing  sails  whieii  she 
cai-ries  are  those  called  by  sailors  the  jib,  mainsail,  and  for'  ^ail.  The  intomul 
arrangements  comprise  state  cabins  for  the  master  and  matt;,  maun  cabin,  witli 
side  bertlis  for  fourteen  seamen,  three  or  four  extra  state  rooms,  cook's  galley, 
pantr}',  wash  room,  bath  room,  clothes  room,  wine  room,  soil  room,  &o. 

Such  was  tiie  vessel  which  challenged  the  British  yacht  owners,  and  which 
won  the  victory  on  August  2-2.  Ihen  did  curiosity  sot  to  work  in  right 
eai-nest.  Was  the  America  built  on  a  new  model  ?  Did  not  the  Aberdeen  men, 
or  the  Yarmouth  men,  know  this  build  previously  ?  Was  she  built  for  comfort 
as  well  as  speed,  like  Enghs'i  yachts,  or  for  speed  only?  Was  thero  a  new 
arrangement  of  saUs  ?  Was  the  quantity  of  sail  more  for  the  tonnage  than  in 
English  yachts?  Did  the  'rake'  exceed  that  in  Enghsh  yacixts?  Wew  not  tlie 
masts  less  encumbered  with  rigging  than  ours  ?  Did  her  superiority  show  itself 
vvhetlier  sailing  with  or  against  the  wind,  in  fair  or  m  rough  weather  ? — ^AU 
these  questions  have  been  canvassed  with  extraordinaiy  eagerness ;  and  English 
yacht-builders  must  be  unlike  other  Englishmen,  if  tliey  do  not  show  that  tlie 
discussion  may  be  made  fruitful  in  good  results. 


■  J^IIII^'itMUnimiiir'ii 


L 


la 


A   BHIP,    IN    TTIK    NINETKKNTU    CENTUBY. 


Steam  Navioation;  ith  Eaiu.y  Dayh  and  itb  Rapid  Growth. 

But  all  improvements  in  sailing  vesBels  must  give  way  to  that  which  resulted 
from  tlie  application  of  Htcani  as  a  moving  power,     NVhut  «  sciino  has  half  a 
century  witnessed  in  Uiis  matter!     It  was  about   178 4  tliut  two  Americans, 
Fitch  aiid  Rumsoy,  exhibited  two  boats  which  wore  slowly  propelled  in  the 
water  by  steam  puwcr — a  humble  beginning  of  a  groat  system.     It  was  in 
17HM  tliat  Symington,  u'ld  Miller,  and  Taylor,  applied  steam  power  to  work  a 
paddle-wheel ;  while  in  tie  following  yeiu:  they  were  tlie  first  to  atuin  a  steuiii- 
boat  speed  of  seven  miles  an  lijur,  on  tlie  Fonh  and  Clyde  Canal.     It  was  iu 
1802  that  Symington  first  drew  a  heavy  load  along  a  canal  by  steam  power. 
It  was  in  1H07  tlmt  a  steamboat  first  plied  for  traffic  from  Albany  to  New 
York  on  the  Hudson  lliver;  this  boat,  the  Clnrmo>it,wm  constructed  by  Fulton, 
and  waa  of  so  great  burden  us  HIO  tons.     It  was  in  IHOH  that  a  steamer  hi-st 
ventured  on  a  coasting  voyage,  which  Sttvens  made  from  Now  York  to  tlie 
Delawu/e.     It  was  in  1812  tlmt  the  fii-st  passenger  steamer  plied  in  Britain ; 
this  was  Henry  Bell's  little  boat,  the  Comet,  of  only  25  tons  burden,  and 
!l-horse  power;  it  carried  passengere  up  and  down  the  Clyde.     It  was  in  18ia 
that  a  steamer  first  ujade  its  api)earance  on  the  Thames,  aa  a  passenger-boat 
between  London  and  (Jravesend;  and  it  was  in  tlio  same  year  that  a  steamer 
first  braved  the  rough  seas  of  our  coasts  in  a  voyage  from  Glasgow  to  London. 
By  the  yeiu*  1818  there  were  46  steamers  plying  iu  tlie  twelve  rivers — Clyde, 
Forth,  Tay,  Trent,  Tyne,  Humber,  Mersey,  Yare,  Avon,  Severn,  Orwell,  and 
Thames  ;  and  about  tiie  same  time  the  steamers  in  tlie  United  States  exceeded 
tills  number.     It  was  in  1818,  too,  that  the  first  regular  trading  over-sea 
steam  navigation  conmieiiced,  by  tlie  placing  of  the  Rob  Boy  on  the  Greenock 
and  Belfast  route ;  altliough  the  English  Channel,  tlie  Iiish  Sea,  and  the  Ger- 
man Ocean,  had  all  been  crossed  by  steam  before  tliis  date.     It  was  David 
Napier,  of  Glasgow,  who  took  the  lead  m  steam  navigation  between  1818  and 
1830,  and  his  cousin  Robert  who  has  since  taken  up  this  honourable  position. 
It  was  in  1838  tliat  the  problem  of  ti-ansallantic  stearamg  was  effectually 
solved  by  the  safe  voyages  of  the  Great  Western  and  the  Siriua ;  and  in  the 
fourteen  years  which  have  subsequently  elapsed,  tlie  progress  of  steam  naviga- 
tion has  been  truly  astonisliing— Uttle  less  so  than  that  of  its  sister-system, 
the  railways. 

Let  us  imagine  that  a  '  bird's-eye  '  glance  could  be  taken  at  the  surface  ot 
Em-ope,  in  relation  simply  to  the  steam-ships  which  have  been  mainly  esta- 
blished for  post-office  service.  We  should  see  tlie  steamers  of  twelve  Com- 
panies, formmg  an  unparalleled  fleet  of  a  hundred  splendid  ships,  employed  by 
the  Enghsh  government  alone.  These  ships  (it  has  been  lately  stated)  have 
cost  not  less  than  8,000,000i. ;  they  have  30,000  horse  power  of  engines,  and 
80,000  tons  burden ;  they  U-averse  2,000,000  miles  of  ocean  in  a  year,  and 
their  owners  receive  760,000<.  per  annum  from  the  British  government  for 
postal  service.  Southampton  is  the  packet  station  for  nearly  one-half  of  these 
fine  steamers;  and  the  three  companies  which  make  it  theu-  depot  receive 
much  more  than  one-half  of  this  large  sum.  If  we  watch  these  hundred 
steamers,  careering  over  seas  and  oceans,  we  find  that  they  touch  at  most  of 
tlie  great  ports  in  both  hemispheres ;  they  carry  not  only  British  letters  to 
foreign  countries,  and  foreign  lettei-s  to  the  British  domuiions,  but  also  foreign 
letters  to  other  foreign  countries ;  France,  Denmark,  Spam,  Holland,  all  have 
colonies  separated  from  the  mother  countiy  by  the  broad  Atlantic ;  but  none 


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une  year  that  a  steamer 
ira  Glasgow  to  London. 
3  twelve  rivers — Clyde, 
n,  Severn,  Orwell,  and 
United  States  exceeded 
ligular  trading  over-sea 
)b  Boy  on  the  Greenock 
Irish  Sea,  and  the  Ger- 
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earning  was  effectually 
the  Sirius;  and  in  the 
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lat  of  its  sister-system, 

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teamers  of  twelve  Com- 
iidid  ships,  employed  by 
been  lately  stated)  have 
B  power  of  engmes,  and 
A  ocean  in  a  year,  and 
British  government  for 
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B  it  theur  depot  receive 
3  watch  these  hundred 
,  they  touch  at  most  of 
,  only  British  letters  to 
unions,  but  also  foreign 
Spain,  Holland,  all  have 
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33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


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Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  canadien  de  microreproductions  historiques 


L 


COTTON  AND  FLAX  :  A  CONTRAST. 


Id 


moleskins,  doeskins,  lambskins,  velveteens,  bcaverteens,  fustians,  long-cloths, 
shirtings,  calicoes,  everlastings,  nankeens,  coutils,  and  otlier  cotton  goods,  the 
enumeration  of  which  would  be  almost  wearisome.  A  few  groupings  will 
show  the  relations  between  these  goods.  For  instance,  the  gingham  family 
consists  of  stout  cotton,  in  which  threads  of  two  or  more  colours  are  woven 
together  into  stripes,  &c. ;  fwitiam,  beavertecns,  velveteem,  moleskins,  and  several 
others,  are  woven  on  die  same  principle  as  velvet,  with  a  nap  or  pile,  which  is 
either  cut  or  left  uncut ;  damasks,  huckabacks,  diapers,  ticks,  and  cambrics,  arc 
cotton  imitations  of  the  similarly-named  flaxen  goods ;  quilts  and  counterpanes 
have  downy  tufts  to  increase  the  thickness  and  softness;  shirting  calicos, 
sheeting  calicos,  printing  calicos,  long-cloth  and  duck,  are  varieties  of  plain 
sei-viceable  cotton  goods,  varying  in  stoutness ;  chintz  is  a  stout  calico,  after- 
wards printed  in  several  colours ;  corduroys,  jeans,  quiltings,  and  many  other 
varieties,  are  very  strong  cotton  goods,  mostly  twilled.  As  for  muslins,  their 
variety  is  almost  interminable. 

It  was  a  pretty  operation  to  see,  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  the  making  of 
bobbins  for  cotton  spinners ;  and  one  which  shows  how  enormous  must  bo 
the  consumption  of  such  articles,  to  pay  for  tlie  constructing  of  machines  for 
producing  them.  The  '  reels  '  on  which  sewing  cotton  is  frequently  sold, 
may  now  be  made  by  such  a  machine  as  that  which  occupied  a  place  in  the 
'  machinery  in  motion '  department.  Little  cylinders  of  wood  are  roughly 
shaped  in  another  machine ;  tliey  ai-e  dropped  into  a  hopper  or  funnel ;  they 
are  seized  one  by  one,  and  held  in  a  sort  of  lathe ;  they  are  quickly  shaped 
while  so  held ;  and  tliey  are  liberated  when  complete.  All  this  is  done  with 
no  other  labour  on  the  part  of  the  attendant  than  feeding  tlie  hopper  with 
little  blocks  of  wood. 

Of  all  the  machmes  subsidiary  to  the  cotton  manufacture  none  is  more 
beautiful  than  tlie  card-making  viachine,  an  example  of  which  attracted  so  much 
attention  at  the  Exhibition.  A  card,  in  the  language  of  a  cotton  factory,  is  a 
kind  of  wire  bmsh,  with  tlie  wires  all  bent  in  a  determinate  direction  ;  they 
are  fixed  into  a  back  or  handle  of  leather ;  and  the  cai-d  thus  made  is  attached 
to  the  rotating  cylinders  of  tlie  carding  machine  which  combs  or  straightens 
the  cotton  fibres.  This  wonderful  little  cai-d-making  machine  punctures  tlie 
holes  in  the  leatlier,  unwinds  the  wire  from  a  coil,  cuts  off  about  an  inch  of 
wire,  makes  two  bends  in  the  wire  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  drives  the 
wire  into  the  leather,  and  clinches  it  when  so  driven.  The  variety  of  move- 
ments necessary  to  tlie  performance  of  so  many  operations  is  almost  incon- 
ceivable, and  tends  to  place  this  machine  among  the  veiy  highest  class  of 
mechanical  contrivances. 

We  stated  a  few  pages  back,  that  very  few  attempts  are  now  made  to  intro- 
duce a  new  principle  in  cotton  manufactures,  the  course  of  improvement  being 
chiefly  directed  to  matters  of  detail.  There  is,  however,  a  veiy  smgular 
novelty  of  recent  introduction,  by  Mr.  Mercer  of  Accrington,  which  seems 
desei-ving  of  note.  Mr.  Mercer's  curious  process  was  described  before  the 
British  Association  at  Ipswich,  in  1851.  A  solution  of  cold  but  caustic  soda 
has  been  found  by  him  to  act  in  a  remarkable  manner  on  cotton  fibres,  causing 
them  to  contract ;  and  he  has  also  found  that,  although  the  soda  may  be 
washed  out,  tlie  effect  upon  the  cotton  remains  permanent — even  to  an  increase 
of  one-third  or  one-fourth  in  the  weight  of  the  cotton.  The  compacting  or 
condensing  nature  of  this  effect  may  be  important  in  manufactures,  for  a 
coarse  calico  or  muslin  becomes  finer  m  appearance  when  tlius  affected.  The 
colours  of  dyed  cotton  are  also  influenced ;  for  the  condensation  of  texture  ia 


;  ii 


t^mmmmmmmesmyinimttitaiivisims 


\ 


u 


COTTON    AND    FI.AX :    A    CONTRAST. 


accompanied  by  ft  deepening  and  brightening  of  tints.  A  third  improvement 
is  said  to  be.  that  a  couon  yam  or  a  cotton  cloth  is  stronger  after  having  been 
subjected  to  the  soda  process  than  before.  If  all  these  claims  to  excellence  are 
time — if  the  cotton  goods  are  made  finer,  brighter,  and  stromjer,  by  the  soda 
process— then,  indeed,  Avill  this  discover)'  prove  to  be  ah  important  one.  I)"-. 
Lyon  riayfair,  in  his  '  E.xhibition  Lecture '  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  pre- 
sented some  specimens  of  cotton  goods  which  had  undergone  this  singular 
process. 

The  imparting  of  colour  to   cotton  goods,  either  by  printmg  or  dycmg,  is 
such  a  large  and  important  subject,  and  one  so  chemical  in  its  nature,  that  wc 
cannot  discuss  it  in  the  present  sheet,  devoted  as  it  is  to  a  comparison  between 
flax  and  cotton.     The  Exhibition,  in  tliis  as  in  other  matters,  was  a  great 
school  of  instruction.     There  were  the  serial  specimens  exhibited  by  Messrs. 
Black  of  Glasgow,  in  which  small  pieces  of  cotton  were  displayed  in  eveiy 
stage  of  the  bleaching,  dyeing  and  printing  processes  ;  and  Nvritten  descriptions, 
placed  beneath  the  specimens,  explained  the  modes  in  which  the  several  pro- 
cesses bad  been  conducted,  and  the  chemical  substances  which  had  be^n  em- 
ployed.    Little  does  the  lady-wearer  of  a  printed  muslin  dress  imagine  how 
numerous  these  processes  are,  and  how  chemical  science  has  bee>i  ransacked  to 
aid  the  processes.    Then,  again,  there  was  the  '  calico-printing  trophy,'  really  an 
extraordinary  assemblage.     It  is  said  that  Mr.  McCallum,  one  of  the  masters  ot 
the  Manchester  School  of  Design,  had  almost  endless  trouble  in  collecting  the 
specimens ;  and  this  may  well  be  believed,  considering  that  old  specimens  are 
in  all  probability  fe<v  and  far  between.     It  was  a  panorama,  illustrative  of  the 
progress  of  this  beautiful  art.     It  ranged  over  no  less  a  period  than  eighty-six 
yeai's,  comprising   specimens  of   calico-printing  from   1765   to  1851.      The 
specimens  were  fastened  end  to  end  into  a  huge  strip,  which  Avas  then  coiled 
on  ft  cylinder  ;  and  a  handle  transfeiTcd  this  strip  from  one  cylinder  to  another, 
by  gradually  unwinding:  exhibiting  each  specimen  at  a  square  opening  in 
front  of  the  apparatus.     It  was  in  truth  a  moving  panorama,  analogous  to 
those  in  our  public  exhibitions. 

Fl.\x:  Problem  of  its  Home  Pboduction. 

Let  us  now  leave  the  cotton  region,  and  devote  tbs  rest  of  tliis  paper  to  a 
glance  at  tlie  flax  culture,  the  manufacture  of  woven  goods  from  flax,  and  the 
various  schemes  now  afloat  for  extending  this  deparment  of  industry. 

Five  sheaves  of  flax  straw  were  contributed  to  the  Great  Exhibition  by 
Mr  McEwan,  of  Islay— a  humble  contribution,  certainly ;  but  important  in 
respect  to  the  motive  which  led  to  it.  Shortly  aftenvards  Mr.  McEwan,  who 
is  a  landowner  in  Islay,  published  a  letter  to  Lord  John  Russell,  asking  for 
government  aid  towards  the  encouragement  of  the  flax  culture,  in  Islay  and 
other  highland  districts.  He  stated  that,  being  convinced  of  the  fitness  of 
tlie  climatfi  for  this  culture,  in  the  Western  Islands,  he  had  proposed  to  two  of 
his  tenants  to  make  an  experiment ;  he  offered  to  erect  a  steeping  and  scutch- 
ing mill,  to  find  a  market  for  any  flax  which  his  tenants  might  grow.  About 
120  acres  of  flax  are  growing  on  his  estfl.te  in  the  island,  and  he  states  the 
quality  to  be  of  the  finest.  He  asks  the  Government  to  assist  in  employing 
the  destitute  Highlanders  to  grow  flax,  instead  of  aiding  them  to  emigrate. 
His  political  arguments  we  touch  not  upon ;  but  he  asserts  that  there  aie 
thousands  upon  thousands  of  acres  in  Scotland,  now  valueless,  which  would 
grow  flax  of  the  finest  kind ;  that  tho  climate  of  the  Highlands,  from  its 


COTTON  AND  FLAX!  A  CONTRAST. 


15 


\.  third  improvement 
;er  after  having  been 
irns  to  excellence  are 
stronr/er,  by  the  soda 
important  one.  Dr. 
Society  of  Arts,  pre- 
ergone  this  singular 

n-inting  or  dyeing,  is 
in  its  nature,  that  wc 
I  comparison  between 
matters,  was  a  great 
exhibited  by  Messrs. 
■e  displayed  in  everj' 
i  Avritten  descriptions, 
vhich  the  several  pro- 
s  which  had  ber>n  cm- 
n  dress  imagine  how 
las  bee)i  ransacked  to 
iting  trophy,'  really  an 
,  one  of  the  masters  of 
mble  in  collecting  the 
lat  old  specimens  are 
ma,  illustrative  of  the 
period  than  eighty-six 
1765  to  1851.  The 
ivhich  was  then  coiled 
le  cylinder  to  another, 
a  square  opening  in 
iiorama,  analogous  to 


:tion. 

rest  of  tliis  paper  to  a 
ods  from  flax,  and  the 
t  of  industry. 
Great  Exhibition  by 
ily;  but  important  in 
ds  Mr.  McEwan,  who 
hn  Russell,  asking  for 
:  culture,  in  Islay  and 
teed  of  the  fitness  of 
had  proposed  to  two  of 
a  steeping  and  scutch- 
Is  might  grow.  About 
land,  and  he  states  the 
to  assist  in  employing 
ing  them  to  emigrate, 
asserts  that  there  are 
clueless,  which  would 
5  Highlands,  from  its 


humidity,  will  yield  better  flax  than  that  of  England ;  that  the  agricultural 
money  value  of  an  acre  of  well-cultivated  flax  is  e'jual  to  that  of  wheat,  but 
tliat  its  commercial  or  manufacturing  value  is  greatly  larger ;  that  the  flax- 
cultm-e  is  peculioi-ly  suited  to  the  present  state  of  the  Highland  population, 
as  it  would  absorb  the  unemployed  labour  both  of  adults  and  childreri ;  and 
that  the  rapid  streams  of  the  Highlands  would  furnish  water  power  for  flax 
factories.  He  asks  the  Government  to  aid  the  landed  proprietors  in  intro- 
ducing flax-cultivation  as  a  part  of  the  rotation  of  crops  ;  to  establish  a  pauper 
flax-farm  in  every  parish ;  to  establish  flax-steeping  and  scutching  mills ;  and 
to  erect  quays  in  convenient  spots  for  shipping  the  produce. 

Here,  then,  we  are  introduced  at  once  mto  the  flax  world ;  we  are  told  of 
flax  in  Scotland,  ami  of  flax  in  England ;  and  certain  economical  arguments 
are  used  in  favour  of  flax-culture  generally.  Evei^-day-folks  know  very  little 
of  this  culture  in  our  own  country  :  it  may  be  well,  tlierefore  to  say  something 
on  this  matter. 

Fla.x-cultivation  is  no  new  idea  in  England.  In  old  times  it  was  more 
tliought  of  than  at  present — until  tlie'  recent  agitation  of  the  subject.  So 
long  ago  as  1677,  one  Andrew  Yananton  published  a  pamphlet  under  the 
following  magniloquent  title — "  England's  Improvement  by  Sea  and  Land  ;  to 
out-do  the  Dutch  wiUiout  Fighting ;  to  pay  Debts  without  Moneys ;  and  to 
set  at  Work  all  tlie  Poor  of  England  with  tlie  Growth  of  our  own  Lands." 
The  burden  of  this  national  triumph  was — the  extended  and  improved  culti- 
vation of  flax.  During  tlie  eighteenth  century  tliere  was  a  greater  average  of 
flax-culture  in  England  than  there  has  been  in  the  nineteenth.  The  plain 
truth  seems  to  be,  that  the  great  profits  from  com  husbandly  during  the  war 
rendered  that  a  more  attractive  crop  than  flax ;  fla:>-  ms  abandoned,  not  be- 
cause it  yielded  no  profit,  but  because  com  yielded  n.  m  e.  Now  that  the  artificial 
stimulus  to  corn-oulture  is  withdrawn,  flax  may  perhaps  have  fair  play. 

Another  reason  why  flax-cultuxe  was  nearly  abandoned  in  England  and  the 
Scottish  Lowlands,  after  having  been  carried  on  to  some  considerable  extent,  was, 
that  the  seed  was  never  saved.  Growers  are  now  being  told,  from  all  quarters, 
that  tliey  must  preserve  the  seec ,  which  would  make  a  dift'erence  of  some  iil.  or 
11.  per  acre.  The  value  of  oil-cake  (crushed  flax  seed  from  which  linseed  oil  has 
been  pressed)  as  food  for  cattle  is  better  appreciated  tlian  at  any  former 
period ;  it  is  known  that  the  animals  fatten  well  on  it,  and  that  the  manure 
produced  by  the  use  of  this  food  is  very  rich  for  com  crops.  The  lowland 
farmei'8  are  now  closely  calculating  this  matter — without  reference  so  much 
to  the  fibre  as  to  the  seed  ;  but  if  the  fibre  and  seed  both  find  a  market,  the 
spinner  and  the  agriculturist  may,  perchance,  both  be  served  by  the  same  crop. 
Sir  Robert  Kane,  too,  tells  the  farmers  that  the  water  in  which  flax  has  been 
steeped  constitutes  a  useful  liquid  manure. 

It  certainly  is  a  movement  of  no  slight  importance  to  detemiine  whetlier  we 
can  grow  our  own  flax.  The  flax,  flax  seed  and  oil-cake  which  we  import  annually 
from  foreign  countries,  amount  to  a  value  of  something  like  nine  millions 
sterling ;  and,  if  the  visions  of  the  flax-cotton  advocates  should  be  even  par- 
tially realized,  the  use  of  flax  must  greatly  increase.  That  we  should  en- 
deavour to  grow  the  flax  at  home  is  an  advice  supported  on  such  grounds  as 
those  :  that  we  have  large  tracts  of  land  well  adai)ted  for  the  culture ;  that  its 
cultivation  and  preparation  would  afford  employment  to  a  large  number  of 
persons  now  unemployed  ;  and  tliat  the  culture  would  render  us  less  depend- 
ent, on  the  exigencies  of  foi-eigu  supply.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  generally 
(though  not  universally)  admitted,  that  flax  is  an  exhausting  crop  for  the  soil ; 


. 


r 


<ii«SfS«K«*.1ii*!SS»««S«S!*!«ty**»*^ 


I 


1(5 


COTTON   AND   FLAX:    A   CONTRAbT. 


and  that  the  whole  of  the  operations,  from  first  to  last,  would  require  rnoro 
skilled  labour  than  is  usually  found  in  purely  agricultural  districts.  The 
balance  between  thest;  two  opposuig  accounts  must  determine  whether  we  can 
compete  with  tlie  flax-gi-owers  of  Belgium  and  Russia.  IMr.  Waraes,  a  flax- 
grower  of  Norfolk,  is  entliusiastic  in  the  matter  ;  he  says  that  if  one  acre  out 
of  every  hundred  cultivated  acres  in  England  were  devoted  to  flax,  we  could 
employ  more  than  all  our  redundant  and  poor  population— so  numerous  arc 
tlie  demands  for  labour  after  tlie  flax  has  been  pulled. 

It  is  in  tliis  light  Hiat  the  Irish  Flax  Society  ought  to  be  estimated.  A 
litdc  more  than  ten  yeai-s  ago  the  Flax  Society  at  Belfast  commenced  its  ope- 
rations ;  and,  whatever  may  be  the  future  results,  die  Society  unquestionably 
desei-ves  thanks  for  having  kept  public  attention  directed  towaids  tins  branch 
of  culture.  One  mode  adopted  was,  to  send  agents— missionaries  of  industry— 
among  the  Irish  farmers,  to  give  them  every  information  concerning  the 
niothod  of  flax-culture  adopted  in  Flanders.  Intelligent  persons  were  also 
sent  from  Ireland  to  Flanders  at  the  Society's  expense,  to  witness  the  whole 
range  of  operations  ;  and  the  Society  also  published  small  tracts  or  papers, 
in  which  plain  insti-uctions  were  given  in  a  plain  manner. 

From  tlie  figures  presented  by  the  Society,  it  appears  that  flax-culture  in 
Ireland  rose  in  annual  amount  from  1841  to  1844,  fell  from  thence  to  1848, 
and  rose  from  this  latter  dateto  the  present  time.  In  1841,  when  the  Societv  s 
operations  commenced,  there  were  2.50,000  spuidles  in  Ireland  engaged  m 
flax-spinning,  working  up  about  16,000  tons  of  flax  annually.  In  1851  there 
were  about  500,000  spindles,  using  32,000  tons.  The  number  of  flax  mills 
m  Ireland  is  now  about  ninety.  Besides  tlie  encouragement  atfprded  by  ttic 
Belfast  Society,  which  limits  its  operations  chiefly  to  tlie  Ulster  counties,  much 
activity  has  recently  been  displayed  in  the  south  of  Ireland,  where  Uie  culti- 
vation of  flax  is  extending,  under  the  auspices  of  some  of  thf.  landed  pro- 
prietors. A  year  or  so  back,  when  the  flax-steeping  projects  were  under  dis- 
cussion, an  offer  was  made  to  purchase  1000  tons  of  Irish  flax  straw,  at  Al. 
per  ton,  to  be  steeped  on  tlie  Claussen  method ;  tiie  growers  being  thus  as- 
sm-ed  of  a  market,  to  a  certain  extenl^tins  bemg  one  of  tiie  great  dithculties 
to  which  ttax-gi-owers  without  capital  ai-e  exposed.  ,„.,   ,    ,,     ^ 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Royal  Irish  Flax  Society  m  1851,  held  at 
Belfast  striking  proofs  were  adduced  of  tiie  rapid  advance  of  this  culture  in 
Ireland,  within  tiie  last  two  or  three  years.  There  ai-e  now  twenty-two  counties 
ui  connection  with  the  Society.  There  were  about  64,000  acres  under  flax- 
culture  in  1848,  60,000  in  1849,  91,000  in  1850,  and  139,000  m  1851 ;  this 
last  quantity  is  estimated  to  be  adequate  to  the  production  of  more  than  a 
fourtii  of  the  whole  flax  consumption  of  tiie  counti-y.  But  tiiere  is  tins  draw- 
back—scutching mills  ai-e  scarce  in  Ireland;  the  poor  fanners  caiinot  erect 
tiiem  ;  and  unless  capitalists  do,  tiie  culture  wiU  be  greatly  checked.  Ut  tiie 
four  provinces  of  Ireland,  Ulster  is  that  which  most  promotes  tins  culture ; 
in  1851,  1  acre  in  44,  tiiroughout  Ulster,  was  under  flax  crop.  Ihe  average 
Yield  of  flax  fibre  in  Ireland,  for  the  last  three  years,  is  estimated  at  about 
6  cwt.  per  statute  acre ;  this,  for  1851,  and  at  Vol.  per  ton,  would  give  the  im- 
portant smn  of  a  miUion  and  a  half  sterling. 

It  seems  strange  timt  tiie  Flax  Society  have  to  mourn  over  the  obstinacy 

of  the  Irish  farmei-s,  in  respect  to  the  waste  of  tiie  seed.     They  will  not  save 

-  the  seed;  tiiey  hisist  upon  doing  as  their  forefatiiers  have  done— rettmg  the 

stems  witii  the  seeds  attached,  instead  of  rippUng  off  the  seeds  belore  the 

retting.     In  cveiy  otiier  country  tiie  seed  is  saved,  eitiier  for  sowing  or  tor 


1 


mr  II    II 


vould  require  more 
iral  districts.  The 
inc  whetlier  we  can 
Mr.  Wames,  a  flax- 
that  if  one  acre  out 
ed  to  flax,  we  could 
I — so  numerous  arc 

0  be  estimated.  A 
commenced  its  ope- 
'iety  unquestionably 
towards  tliis  branch 
nariesof  industry — 
ion  concerning  the 
;  persons  were  also 
:o  witness  the  wliolo 
lall  tracts  or  papers, 

that  flax-culture  in 
iom  thence  to  1848, 
1,  when  the  Society's 
Ireland  engaged  in 
ally,  In  1851  there 
lumber  of  flax  mills 
lent  afforded  by  the 
Ister  counties,  much 
md,  where  Uie  culti- 
i  of  the  landed  pro- 
;cts  were  under  dis- 
ish  flax  straw,  at  U. 
jwers  being  thus  as- 
tlie  great  difficulties 

ety  in  1851,  held  at 
ice  of  this  culture  in 
V  twenty-two  counties 
)00  acres  under  flax- 
19,000  in  1851 ;  this 
ction  of  more  than  a 
ut  tliere  is  tliis  draw- 
faraiers  cannot  erect 
tly  checked.  Of  the 
Muotes  tliis  culture; 
crop.  The  average 
8  estimated  at  about 
n,  would  give  the  ini- 

n  over  the  obstinacy 
.  They  will  not  save 
ive  done — rettuig  the 
the  seeds  before  the 
ler  for  sowing  or  for 


c'orroN  .\ND  Fi.Ax :  a  oomiust.  17 

making  linseed  oil ;  and  tlio  estiniateal  value  of  the  nasted  seed,  in.Ij'eland, 
for  1851,  is  ;300,OOoi.  "  Tiio  Society's  instructors,"  we  arc  told,  "have  con- 
stantly endeavoured  to  inculcate  the  importance  of  this  economy ;  but  so 
deeply  rooted  is  the  prejudice  against  saving  the  seed,  that  as  yet  it  is  only  to 
a  limited  extent  that  farmers  have  attended  to  this  advice."  How  provoking 
is  all  this — iiow  utterly  uncommercial  and  unthrifty. 

The  average  net  profit  of  flax-culture  in  Ireland  is  estimated  at  alout  iOZ. 
per  acre ;  and  as  500,000  acres  are  required  to  produce  all  the  fla  c  spun  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  the  home-growth  of  the  whole  quantity  would  yield  a 
profit  of  five  millions  sterling,  supposing  (which  is,  however,  a  bold  supposition) 
other  things  to  be  all  fiivouiable.  It  nmst  be  understood,  however,  that  tliis 
10/.  per  acre  ntfers  to  the  flax  after  it  has  been  steeped,  tuniod,  lifted,  and 
scutched ;  the  profit  from  the  actual  growth  seems  to  be  about  Vtl.  per  acre. 

This  question  concerning  price  is  evidently  one  which  requires  a  veiy 
searching  investigation.  The  fanners  are  looking  out  for  cash-accounts,  pounds 
and  shillings'  estimates,  of  the  results  of  flax-growing,  that  they  may  form  a 
judgment  for  themselves ;  and  such  accounts  ai'e  occasionally  published. 

Messrs.  Mai-shall — ^perhaps  the  greatest  flax-consumers  in  the  world — are 
doing  their  part  toward  the  encouragement  of  flax-culture  in  England.  Ono 
of  the  partners  has  erected  extensive  works  near  Patrington  in  Yorkshire,  for 
reUing  and  scutching  flax  ;  and  is  offering  every  inducement  to  the  neighbour- 
ing farmers  to  enter  upon  this  culture.  The  works  are  adequate  to  a  crop  from 
500  acres.  The  farmers,  however,  enter  upon  the  '  new-fangled '  system  rather 
slowly ;  and  Mr.  MarshaU  has  therefore  adopted  a  plan  of  hiring  the  land  at 
so  much  an  acre,  providing  tlie  seed,  weeding  and  pulling  the  crop — in  fact 
he  becomes  a  flax-fanner  himself,  and  tlien  rets  and  scutches  his  own  crop. 
The  yield  of  dressed  flax  is  said  to  be  5  cwt.  per  acre,  worth  70s.  per  cwt.,  and 
2  qrs.  of  seed,  worth  50s.  per  qr. 

It  appears,  from  such  accounts  as  have  yet  been  made  public,  that  profits 
from  flax-culture  vary  considerably,  and  tliat  we  have  yet  to  learn  by  future 
experiment  what  will  be  the  average  proceeds.  Sir  James  GraJiam  has  recently 
advocated  veiy  energetically  tlie  establishment  of  the  flax-culture  in  Cumberland. 

Flax:  from  the  Field  to  the  Loom. 

Notliing  has  been  yet  said  explanatory  of  the  mode  of  cuitui'e  :  a  few  words 
must  suffice  on  this  pohit. 

The  common  mode  of  conducting  this  culture  may  be  understood  from  a 
veiy  brief  description.  The  seed  is  so^vn  broadcast,  in  the  ratio  of  about 
170  lbs.  to  an  acre ;  it  is  then  slightly  covered  with  earth,  and  tlie  earth  trodden 
or  rolled  down  upon  the  seed.  The  flax  soon  appears  above  the  ground  ;  and 
women  and  children  ai-e  then  employed  in  freeing  it  from  tlie  weeds  which 
spring  up  with  it.  When  the  plants  have  attained  a  height  of  twenty  or 
twenty-four  inches,  and  are  beginning  to  present  a  yellow  tinge  at  the  bottom 
of  the  stem,  they  are  ready  for  plucking ;  they  are  pulled  carefully  in  small 
handfulls ;  they  ai'e  piled  in  loose  heaps  in  order  to  become  partially  dried ; 
luid  they  are  then  stored  in  stacks  till  further  operations  are  required. 

The  subsequent  processes,  too,  however  much  care  they  may  require  in 
practice,  are  very  simple,  so  far  as  description  is  concerned.  First,  the  seeds 
have  to  be  rernoved ;  the  plants  are  drawn  through  a  kind  of  open  comb, 
which  strips  off  the  seed  as  they  pass ;  or  a  kind  of  bat  or  small  flail  is  em- 
ployed to  beat  off  the  seed ;  ami  the  seeds,  thus  separated  by  '  rippling,'  are 


tmmmmmmmmmmmmtmiitsmtltm 


iWiiifiiiiiraiiftimwiiiinMiiiwiwiii 


■  i^r.'injmv'u.-m 


■kk^edllMmn««t  • 


rt 


COTTON   AND    FI.AX :   A   CONTRAST. 


used  nther  for  sowing  a  new  crop,  or  for  making  linseed  oil,  oilcake,  and 
Sor  I  •oparations.     The  cultivator  has  then  to  separate  the  gluten  from   he 
SSe  o    the  /"hv.  before  he  can  sopamte  the  have  from  the /.oo»;  he  has  J>  dis- 
sol\e  the  sh  ten  that  the  fibvea  may  be  separable.     This  dissolving  is  ctfected 
hVL«L    W  ;,r   or  rottinr,.     Tu  old  times,  before  the  ' ilax-cotton '  theones 
^leTeJTV^T^^^^  men  did  not  work  at  such  a  rapid  pace  as 
iey  do  nZ  the  growei-s  selected  one  of  two  methods-imf.r  retUno  nnd  dnw 
TeUinT  in  the  first  method,  tlie  stems  are  steeped  in  water  for  a  week  or  a 
fortnight    a  fermentation  ensues,  which  dissolves  Uae  gluten  and  bosens  U^e 
fibres^  bit  if  this  fermentation  bo  not  stopped  exactly  at  the  right  tune  lj»^ 
fibre  becomes  injured.     In  the  second  method,  the  stems  are  exposed  foi 
t£?e    r  or  even  nine  weeks  to  the  action  of  dew,  rain,  and  wmd  on  a 
meadowT'the  fibre  i^  hotter,  though  more  slowly,  retted  than  by  tlio  water  or 
Seepinl'  process.     Sometimes  a  double  or  medium  system  is  acted  on ;  water^ 
ret  ingfo?  two  weeks.  ai.d  dew-retting  for  two  or  three  "we  weeks     When 
thoroughly  dried  after  the  retting,  tlio  flax  is  broken  and  Pitched;  ^'^t  is  the 
stalks  are  so  pressed  as  to  crush  the  woody  centre,  and  are  then  so  beaten  as 
to    epamte  the  toents  thus  broken.     In  a  simple  way  the  stalks  are  crushed 
Iv  wooden  Srs,  which  are  brought  down  forcibly  upon  them,  and  are  then 
sSed  by  being  beaten  in  every  par* :  b"t  machines  have  been  evented  for 
Sering  LK  these  processes*     When  tJie  woody  fragments  are  beaten 
out  the  flax  is  in  a  state  to  be  sent  to  tlie  flffx  mil. 

in  relaSn  sU-ictly  to  the  beauty  of  the'  fibre,  Belgium  produces  finer  flax 
than  Siy  other  coiLtiy;  but  the  power  of  P/^'^r^g /^^.^  £ee  i 
moderatelv-Kood  flax  at  a  cheap  price  is  more  developed  m  Russia  -hence  it 
Sto iSSfaSat  we  mainly  look'foV  a  supply.  One  flax  plant  ."-7. yjf  ^^nd 
soft  and  glossy  fibre;  another  may  yield  a  greater  weight ;  and  it  is  tound 
omn^rcially  tfmt  Uie  latter  is  the  quality  which  determines  the  grea  bulk  o 
thrpurchases.  The  stem  of  a  flax  plant  may  be  considered  on  an  average  of 
pXens  to  consist  of  eight-tenths  loon  or  ^o^  w-'^^^^-^ f?^  ^^SS^fof 
hare  or  fibrous  envelope  ;  and  this  hare  contains  about  half  ite  weight  oi 
dutinous  soluble  matter  which  binds  the  fibres  together;  so  that  the  flax 
Ibrf  is  abouT  one-tenth  tlie  weight  of  the  whole  flax  stem.  Now  any  mode 
of  cultmrwhidi  would  increasi  this  ratio  would  be  of  more  importance 
SarimprovhiK  the  quality  of  the  fibre,  pxcept  for  tlie  finer  goods  ;  but  the 
t  i7oSslyako  a  notable  feature;  and  thus  there  are  two  directions 

'^Si^XZa/:^ZS^^<^er,  before  noticing 

VaxtrSk?ccisrror^^^ 

duskj^coloured.  wide-spreading,  many-windowed  IVonteges  =  ^.^t  ^^^^^^^is  is 
which  eclipses  all  tiie  rest  m  boldness  and  ongmality  of  design,  .^his  is 
MessJs  SSshall's  flax  mill  at  Leeds.  Instead  of  having  several  stones  tiers 
fr  floors  oS  above  another,  as  is  usually  the  -^^^e  whde  is  here  h^^^^^ 
upon  one  floor-to  ensure  convenience  of  supervision,  facility  of  accjss^  ""J 
fom  temperature,  good  ventilation,  and  simplicity  of  machine  arrangement. 
S  Sster  Wm  is  nearly  four  hundredjet  long  by  more  &an  two  h^ 
dred  broad-  it  is  five  times  as  large  as  Westmmster  Hall;  and,  unti  the 
cAstal  Palace  was  built,  this  Leeds  room  was  deemed  the  largest  (or  nearly  so) 
£Se  woS  The  room  has  a  vaulted  ceiling,  formed  of  about  seventy  domes^ 
havhiV  Slights  at  their  upper  exti-emities.  and  being  supported  by  iron 
pS    These  pillars,  as  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  serve  aTso  as  water-pipes,  to 


wiflflrti  H»  i-«ilhini 


■MBMI't  rinifciiftiiiiniiiwii 


iscecl  oil,  oil-cake,  and 
ito  tho  gliittm  from  the 
ho  boon;  ho  has  to  dis- 
iH  dissolving  is  effected 
e  '  flax-cotton '  theories 
such  a  rapifi  pace  as 
— water  rettinfi  and  ihw 
n  water  for  a  week  or  a 
gluten  and  loosens  the 
y  at  the  right  time,  tho 
stems  are  exposed  for 

rain,  and  wind  on  a 
d  than  by  the  water  or 
tern  is  acted  on ;  watt!r- 
!e  more  weeks.  When 
jd  mttched;  that  is,  tho 
i  are  then  so  heaten  as 
ly  the  stalks  are  crushed 
pon  them,  and  are  then 

have  been  invented  for 
y  fragments  are  beaten 

iiun  produces  finer  flax 
ling  large  quantities  of 
ped  in  Russia ;  hence  it 
X  plant  may  yield  a  more 
weight ;  and  it  is  found 
rmines  tho  great  btilk  of 
sidered  on  an  average  of 
ly  centre,  and  two-tenths 
ibout  half  its  weight  of 
^ether;  so  that  the  flax 
:  stem.  Now  any  mode 
be  of  more  importance 
lie  finer  goods  ;  but  the 
there  are  two  directions 
lis  art. 
J  career,  before  noticing 

regards  the  monotonous, 
tages  ;  but  there  is  one 
lity  of  design.  This  is 
ving  several  stories,  tiers, 
he  whole  is  here  thrown 
m,  facility  of  access,  uni- 
!  machine  arrangements. 
;,  by  more  than  two  hun- 
ter Hall;  and,  until  the 
d  the  largest  (or  nearly  so) 
I  of  about  seventy  domes, 
being  supported  by  iron 
ve  also  as  water-pipes,  to 


COTTON   AND   SlAXl   A   CONTRAST. 


10 


convey  tlio  drainage  from  tlio  roof.  The  roof,  presenting  an  area  of  neaily 
two  acres,  was  a  few  yeoi's  ago  covered  with  mould  and  grass ;  so  that  one 
could  literally  take  a  walk  in  a  green  field  (ju  tlie  roof  of  a  factory ;  whctlier 
this  arrangement  is  still  maintained,  we  are  not  aware.  Tho  interior  of  tlio, 
room  is  filled  with  beautiful  machinery,  for  performing  all  the  vai-ious  operar 
liona  on  llax;  and  beneath  are  vaulted  pa.ssages  which  contain  all  the  cj range- 
nientu  for  supplying  steam  power,  wannth,  and  ventilation,  to  tho  hive  of 
busy  operatives  working  above.  It  is  certainly  a  triumph  of  engineering  and 
mechanical  skill,  when  such  a  building  is  filled  witli  the  finest  machines  which 
modem  ingenuity  can  produce.  How  much  mind,  how  .much  capital,  how 
much  labour,  must  have  been  thrown  into  such  an  assemblage !  How  do  wo 
here  trace  the  accumulation  of  many  years'  experience — tho  bringing  to  bear 
upon  one  object  of  so  many  distinct  agencies  and  sources  of  power,  mental 
and  material,  social  and  commercial ! 

One  of  the  earliest  machine  operations  is  tliat  of  scparatihg  the  seed  from 
the  stem ;  Jlajs-seedin;/  machines  have  been  invented,  which  separate  tho  seeds 
by  the  careful  action  of  rollers.  Then  come  the  Jlax-hreakinff  machines  ;  tliese 
have  fluted  or  grooved  roUei-s,  between  which  tlie  flax  stem  is  made  to  pass, 
so  tliat  the  woody  portion  becomes  thoroughly  broken  witliout  cutting 
the  fibre.  Next  come  into  operation  the  fliuvsculchintj  machines,  in  which 
revolving  arms  or  blades  visit  the  flax  with  such  vigorous  blows  tliat  the 
woody  fragments  are  neai-ly  beaten  out,  and  the  fibres  to  a  certain  degree 
sepiu-ated.  A  i  Lor  this  the  flaw-hecldiiuj  machines  give  the  flax  a  thorough  comb- 
ing, by  means  of  long  rows  of  teeth  or  spikes  ;  the  fibres  are  combed  out 
straight  and  tolerably  clean ;  and  the  low  or  short  fibres  are,  removed,  to  be 
used  for  other  puiposes.  The  heckled  fli\x  is  then  in  a  state  to  be  acted  on  by 
the  vai'ious  machines  which  bring  it  into  the  state  of  yarn  for  weaving ;  these 
machines  ai-e  of  tliree  kinds,  according  as  tow,  long  flax,  or  cut  flax  is  to  be 
acted  upon.  The  tow-carding  and  tlie  tow-rovimj  machines  sei-ve  for  tho  first 
kind  ;  Uie  Jla^x-spreadintj,  Jiaw-cardinij,  and  flax-roving  machines  for  the  second ; 
and  the  flax-cutting  machine,  followed  by  those  for  carding  and  roving,  for  the 
third.  The  spinning  machine  follows  all  these  ;  and  it  differs  from  cotton- 
spinning  machines  chiefly  iii  having  a  provision  for  wetting  the  flax,  either 
with  cold  or  hot  water ;  there  is  still  a  little  gum  or  mucilage  among  the 
fibres,  and  this  becoines  moi'e  manageable  m  the  machine  when  moistened. 
All  Uie  machines  hei-e  named  are  the  modem  or  factory  means  of  operations ; 
in  old  times  all  was  done  on  the  hand  metliod,  and  tlie  machines  have  been 
veiy  gradually  introduced;  the  old-fashioned  scutching  and  heckling  and 
carding  and  spinning  implements  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  remote  country 
districts. 

Mr,  Plummcr,  tlie  machinist,  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  has  patented  and 
brought  into  use  a  large  number  of  flax  machines.  There  is  a  '  flax-breaking 
machine ;'  there  is  a  '  double-cylinder  twilling  machine ;'  tliero  is  a  '  double- 
cylinder  heckling  machine,'  suitable  for  heckling  short  flax;  Uiere  is  an 
'improved  heckling  machine,'  adapted  for  long  flax;  there  is  a  'rotary  disc 
scutching  mill;'  and  there  are  '  improved  holders  for  scutcliing  and  heckling.' 
All  these  machines  have  relation  to  the  earlier  stages  in  the  flax  manufacture, 
and  not  to  those  of  spinning ;  but  the  various  processes  in  the  manufacture 
of  flax,  as  in  tliat  of  cotton,  are  constantly  receiving  aid  from  the  mechanical 
skill  of  the  engine  makers. 

It  may  not,  perhaps,  be  supeifluous  to  remark,  that  a  flax  mill  does  not 
weave  flax  into  linen  or  other  finished  goods ;  it  merely  brings  the  flax  into 


7 


'I- 


f 


* 


nb 


COTTON   AND    FLAX:   A   CONTRAST. 


the  State  of  yarn,  to  bo  woven  in  other  esLiblishments.  Even  the  giant  flax 
n^m  rLeen"  not  a  weaving  null.  At  that  -tablishment  un4^^^^  onhnary 
circumstances  of  trad.-,  no  less  than  tlnrty  tons  (nearly  7<».00<  bs.^  ot  flax 
are  said  to  bo  worked  up  weekly  into  yam ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  to  main- 
tab  i  such  a  supply  weekly  throughout  the  year,  would  require  six  thousand 
Ss  o  flii  land  to  be  kept  in  cultivation.  This  kind  of  i  lustm tion  serves 
to  g  ve  an  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  operations.  ^-■^^^V'r^'ZtelXl 
is  afforded  by  the  number  of  hands  employed.  The  weaving  of  the  «P'"  «'^-^ 
nU.  various  kuids  of  cloth  gives  employment  to  Uiousands  who  work  lor  the 
L-eater  mrt  in  theh-  own  humble  homos  and  by  Uie  aid  of  simple  hand-looms; 
butTeil  ar^also  weaving  mills,  tho  nmnber  of  which  is  gradually  increasing 
and  in  which  power-looms  ai-e  employed;  here  the  general  features  of  the 

'TlT'^'arThmg  for  Ireland  that  she  has  a  reputation  for  linens  and 
damaks-  i^t  dmws  the  attention  of  merchants  and  dealers  towai-ds  her   and 
Ss tons  the  people  to  those  hu-ge  and  comprehensive  operations  which  the 
Etoi^  system  is  sure  to  introduce.     As  early  as  Uio  bcLnnnrng  of  the  last 
century  the  manufacture  of  linen  damasks  was  introduced  into  Ireland  fi;om 
GeSy    an     h^^     still  exist  specimens  woven  in  Ireland  a  hundred  and  th.r  y 
year   ago.     The  manufacture  has  gone  on  increashig  m  excellence  ;  and       i 
^^considered  that  the  high-class  Irish  damasks  e.pua  '^"X /;;rS,r  „  'e  S 
country.     Almost  all  are  used  in  our  own  countiy,  and  the  bettor  kinds  aie  so 
cost IvTimt  none  but  the  wealthy  can  purchase  them.     Hand-loom  weaving  is 
nvlwy  adopted  for  the  best  dLasks ;  but  the  P«-«rdoom  is  now  beginning 
to  be  employed  for  the  cheaper  damasks  and  diapei-s ;  and  it  is  hoped  that  this 
will  ci3  a^foreign  market  for  them.     The  Jacquai-d- bom  is  extensively  used 
for  Se  richer  da.nasks,  for  which  it«  wonderful  action  especially  adapts    t. 
What  a  Jacnuai-d-loom  is,  a  long  and  wearisome  descnption  would  scarcely 
make  i^toSble ;  what  it  aj,pea,^  like,  the  thousands  who  watched  the  working 
Xe^ever^  Jacquoi-d-loonls'^at  the  Great  Exhibition  may  Per^'^PS  remember ; 
what  it  does,  is  exemplified  by  specimens  of  pattern,  or  damask    or  figure 
weavinc   for  which  it  is  specially  adapted.     In  desigiung  table-cloths,  table- 
Zk  ns'  and  d-oyleys.  for  toyal  personages,  city  companies,  club  houses,  and 
Smental  messes,  tie  damLk  manufacturers  of  Ireland  sometimes  display 
cSerable  taste    and  this  taste  afterwards  reflects  some  ot  its  light  upon 
SrSper  and  ordinaiy  commercial  products.    We  believe  it  is  yet  a  dis- 
Sited  pS  among  persons  artisticaUy  inclined,  what  kind  of  ornamentation  is 
C  fitted  for  colom-less  damasks;  hmnan  forms  and  features  are  sedom 
damasked  satisfactorily,  and  buildings  are  veiy  tame  affairs  when  so  depicted, 
at  present,  heraldic  emblems  seem  to  take  tlie  lead.  ;n.,^f,.nf,vP  nf 

There  is  another  notable  fact  worthy  of  bemg  borne  in  mmd,  » l";'tia«^;e  of 
the  excellence  of  Irish  manufactures  in  flax.  It  is  understood  that  Iiish 
clbrics  mi  sent  to  France  in  an  unbleached  state,  by  tons  at  a  tune,  to  be 
JheebeaSied  and  sold  as  French  cambrics.  This  ^^f  ;^,^,^«^*«,;; /*!*,  ifj,^ 
Irish  cambric  is  better  tlian  the  French,  or  (more  probably)  tliat  for  a  given 

''"KwLto'St  of  flax  specimens  in  om-  gi-eat  industrial  display  of  1 H5L 
All  coinSs  showed  us  whai  they  could  yield,  and  in  what  Btata  they  bring 
riie  yield  to  mai-ket.  Messrs.  Lawson  exhibited  to  us  specimens  of  flax,  gi'own 
n  sCand  from  BriUsh.  Dutch,  and  Riga  seed.  The  ^^rcign^i^  showed  u^^ 
their  flaxen  fibre  as  grown  in  Germany,  Spain,  Portugal,  Irance,  Flandeis, 
HoUaurFriesland.  Aasti-ia,  Belgium.'  Sweden.  Norway,   Russia.   Pmssia, 


L 


COTTON    AND   FLAX  :    A   CONTRAST. 


ai 


Even  the  giant  flax 
imeiit,  under  ordinary 
ly  70,000  Ibs.i,  of  flax 
stimatutl  that,  to  niain- 
rcquiro  six  thousand 
d  of  illustration  Bei-yes 
jspective  of  that  which 
saving  of  the  spun  flax 
ands,  who  work  for  the 
of  simple  hand-looms ; 
is  gradually  increasing, 
general  features  of  the 

)utntion  for  linens  and 
jalers  towoi'ds  her,  and 
fe  operations  which  the 
3  beginning  of  tho  last 
luoed  into  Ireland  from 
,nd  a  hundred  and  thirty 
x\  excellence;  and  it  is 
[.ud  any  from  any  other 
[  the  better  kinds  are  so 
Hand-loom  weaving  is 
r-loom  is  now  beginning 
(md  it  is  hoped  that  this 
loom  is  extensively  used 
ion  especially  adapts  it. 
3cription  would  scarcely 
vho  watched  the  working 
may  perhaps  remember ; 
n,  or  damask,  or  figure 
jniiig  table-cloths,  tablo- 
panies,  club  houses,  and 
aland  sometimes  display 
1  some  of  its  light  upon 
3  believe  it  is  yet  a  dis- 
kind  of  ornamentation  is 
md  features  are  seldom 
affairs  when  so  depicted ; 

le  in  mind,  illustrative  of 
s  understood  that  Irish 
,  by  tons  at  a  time,  to  be 
indicates  either  that  the 
jrobably)  tliat  for  c  given 

ndustrial  display  of  1 B51. 
in  what  state  they  bring 
i  specimens  of  flax,  gi-own 
'he  foreigners  showed  us 
rtugal,  France,  Flanders, 
forway,   Kussia,  Prussia, 


America,  Australia,  Egyjyt,  Canada,  China,  New  Zealand,  and  India:  and 
many  of  the  kinds  in  various  stages  of  prepoiation.  Mr.  Donlan  aflorded  tlio 
meiuis  of  comparing  flax  seed  hi  the  natmul  state  with  flax  seed  which  has 
undergone  a  certain  chemical  process,  said  to  quicken  and  improve  its  growing 
powei-s.  Tho  Chevalier  Chiusseu  diHi)layod,  in  all  tlie  stttgi-s  from  stalk  to 
ciotli,  the  flax  to  which  his  remui'kuble  processes  are  u|)iilied,  und  from  which 
he  hopes  to  bo  able  to  produce  such  valuable  materials  for  textile  fabrics. 
Nor  did  Mr.  Schenck  fail  to  supply  us  witli  illustrations  of  tho  efl'ect  of  his 
ho^water  process,  as  applied  to  the  steeping  or  retting  of  flax.  'I'he  Belfast 
t'lax  Society  showed  how  varied  is  tho  value  of  flax,  according  to  the  caro 
witli  which  it  is  prepared  for  market :  Monaghan  flax  as  low  as  3h<.  per  ton, 
Antrim  flax  as  high  as  iOO^  j)er  ton.  And  our  English  counties,  too,  i)laced 
before  us  specimens  of  tlieir  handiwork,  produced  undtn-  very  diverse  circum- 
stances :  flax  and  flax  seed  from  Yorkshire ;  steeped  and  scutched  flax  from 
Hampshire  and  from  Surrey  ;  flax  grown  and  scutched  at  Faniborough  work- 
house ;  flax  scutched  by  the  i)risonei-s  in  Winchester  Gaol — all  were  there. 

Nor  were  the  woven  flax  goods  less  varied  or  interesting.  There  were  linen 
goods  from  almost  e\  ery  countiy  in  Europe ;  tliere  were  damasks  and  diapers, 
sheetings  and  shillings,  and  all  the  well-known  fabrics  in  which  flax  is  the 
chief  or  the  only  material ;  there  were  mixed  fabrics  in  which  flax  was  com- 
bined with  cotton,  silk,  or  wool ;  there  were  threads,  and  yams,  and  twists ; 
there  were  tlie  coarse  canvas  and  sail-clotli,  and  the  fine  cambric  and  lawn ; 
there  were  Uie  plain  goods  from  the  common  loom,  and  the  highly-oniato 
damasks  from  the  Jacquard.  There  were  specimens  of  flax  canvas  exhibited 
whose  sti'ength  was  hidicated  by  the  fact  that  it  had  been  tested  to  490  lbs. 
in  the  direction  of  the  waii),  and  to  5(50  lbs.  in  tlie  direction  of  the  weft. 

In  respect  to  the  kinds  of  goods  known  by  the  above  names,  imd  other  kinds 
also  made  of  flax,  tho  difl'erences  arise  from  various  causes,  somewhat  analo- 
gous to  tliose  in  cotton  goods,  but  not  so  great  in  number  or  variety.  Linen  is 
the  best  kind  of  quite  plain  flax  fabric ;  dama.sic  has  a  pattern  produced  by  a 
particulai'  arrangement  of  the  loom ;  diaper  and  doniock  are  two  twilled  or 
tweeled  products,  having  a  sort  of  pattern  less  intricate  than  that  of  damask ; 
sheetiiu),  towelling,  sail-cloth,  cauras,  and  many  otlier  kinds,  are  coarser  and 
stronger  than  linen,  but,  like  it,  divested  of  any  pattern ;  huckaback,  used  for 
towels,  is  something  like  diaper,  but  finer.  In  all  those  cases,  colour  has 
nothing  to  do  witli  the  production  of  different  qualities ;  tho  fineness  of  the 
yam,  tlie  closeness  of  the  woven  texture,  and  tlie  manner  of  weaving,  being 
tlie  som-ces  of  the  vai-ious  differences  which  present  themselves.  Flaxen 
goods  are  less  subjected  to  tlie  dyeing  and  printing  processes  than  those  of 
cotton,  silk,  or  wool. 

That  fl.ax  occupies  a  lowly  position  relatively  to  cotton,  is  admitted;  yet, 
when  we  tliink  that  liiO  million  yards  of  linen  and  18  million  pounds  of  linen 
yam  were  exported  in  1851,  besides  other  goods,  and  after  supplymg  the 
home  demand,  we  cannot  but  regard  it  as  an  important  manufacture.  Indeed, 
taking  the  weight  of  flax  and  cotton  which  we  use  annually  at  a  tliousand 
million  pounds,  and  the  flax  ratio  to  bo  one-fourth  of  tliis,  flax  may  assuredly 
'  look  up '  in  tlie  commercial  sense. 

The  Flax-Cotton  Pkojects. 

Let  us  now  direct  a  little  of  our  attention  to  the  flax-cotton  movement,  as  it 
has  been  called.     Mr.  Porter,  a  gi-eat  authority  in  tlie  pliilosophy  of  trade 


Id  COTTON    AND   FLAX :    A  CONTBA»T. 

and  manufacturo..  >«.  am,.nK  tl)08e  wh..  deem  Uuh  movement  -^^  •"'P^'^nt 
one  At  tho  Kdinburffh  meotiiiK  of  the  Hntwh  AhsociuUoi  .  m  1«6U,  hn  mid, 
"Tho  unSnoHH  whi5h  it  in  natural  to  IVol  ...uUr  tho  c,rc»m«tttnc.m  her. 
detoribc."  [the  doticiency  of  cotton  oropsl  han  Ld  to  the  d.h«.ju  -»</  '^«;';«  'j^ 
iu.,uirv  whethor  «omo  snbatitute  or  auxiluu-y  may  not  be  «-'^»«'l /'f  ,,"=;'?" 
which  shall  meet  the  evil  Unit  threntenn  m;  and  Uus  it  la  suKgeHted.  may  be 
Snd  in  a  kindrcl  branch  of  numufacturo-that  of  yf.^.  A  verpr  few  yoa,^ 
airo  when  Hrst  anxi"ty  began  to  arise  concerning  the  progress  ot  om- cotton 
Sn.Sc;uro.  the  resoLce'which  ban  juHt  be..n  ua„,ed  did  not  present  UseU^ 
At  Uiat  time  our  linen  n.anufacture  ba^l  not  made  U,e  progresa  by  wh  cl  t  8 
at  prenent  marked_a  progress  proportionally  equal  to  any  tba    |;«  been  "^^^^^^ 

at  any  time  in  the  cotum  manufacture An  addit.ona  mduce- 

IS  i\e  growtl>  of  flax,  beyond  that  offered  by  other  -^rtieleH  may  bo  lound 
in  tho  fact,  that  to  bring  it  to  the  mvme  condition  as  that  in  winch  it  is  uh.ioI  y 
mp<^^.ted  Vou.  foreign  countrioH  calln  for  the  omploynient  of  a  considerable 
vmouVu  of  human  labour.  There  is  no  part  of  the  Un  tod  K.ngdomjn  wluch 
tlie  ilux.plant  cannot  be  succeHnfully  cultivated  •  and  Uiere  »  l»^^>ly  ^  y 
oomitry  whence  it  might  not  be  brought  to  supply  our  dehciencies,  should 

""one  CTcat  ditficulty  which  besets  this  subject  is,  that  the  miuihinerir employed 
for  sphEg  cotton  is  not  well  udapt.,d  for  spinnhig  tLix ;  the  tonner  .s  spun 
dry  the  latter  In  spun  wet ;  and  ilax  is  less  manageable  generally,  loss  y.oldmg 
Siini^al  agency,  tlmn  cotton.  It  is  said  Umt  die  l'^-'--^  "  PT'ne? 
and  spinT.h.g  cotton,  of  average  quality  mvolve  an  "'^^''^yj'  ",^ '"* '^- ,  ^^ 
pound;  while  the  average  expenses  of  the  ^'^  V^^''''^' ^  S     If  be 

oualitv.  and  by  tho  ordinary  Hax  machnicH,  reach  as  high  ns  Wd      It  this  Ue 
irt  becomes  indeed  important  to  see  whether  flax  may  be  so  '  coUouu=ed 
.u,  to  be  susceptible  of  preparation  and  sp.numg  by  the  '^f  .«»  "'*«bine^. 

One  among  the  many  directions  hi  which  improvement  las  been  sought  is 
iu  ill  treatment  of  tho  L  seed  it«elf.  The  -  pickling  «». «= ^T'^'^l  ^^^-^^^'^J^^ 
of  seeds  i^  not  a  new  idea;  many  experiment^i-s  have  tliought,  tliat  as  the 
rhemi  al  constituents  of  the  soil  mainly  determine  the  mi.idity  or  slowness  m 
J  e  Jiowth  of  pbmts.  so  might  a  little  chemical  aid  to  tlie  seed  itself  bo  con^ 
luciTe  to  a  favourable  result.  Mr.  Donlan  has  proposed  such  a  mode  of 
tieating  Ihix  seed.  The  particular  recipe  has  not.  wo  believe,  been  made 
pub  c;  no^does  it  appear  U.at  experiments  on  a  suihc.ently  e«ve  «c^' 
have  >^t  been  made.  It  would  seem  as  if  an  enterprising  capitalist  might 
renL-  benefit,  first  to  himseh  and  tlien  to  the  community,  by  preparmg  a 
piece  of  Trd,aying  it  out  in  patches  or  sections,  steeping  or  pickhng  tla.x  seed 
m  as  many  diftereSt  ways  as  Uiere  are  patches,  sowing  each  section  with  one 
nartLlai-  kmd.  treating  Uiem  all  ahke  during  growth  and  companng  the 
Sua  wheiT  pulled  a^d  retted.  This  would  place  the  ~«  jJ-J^^J 
systems  in  fair  competition.  AnoUier  piece  ot  land  might,  at  Uie  same  time 
be  S  out  in  sect  bus,  aU  diftorently  manured,  and  sown  with  ordmai-y  flax 
seed  to  detennine  ho^  to  produce  a  good  crop  with  the  cheapest  manum 
Ss  experimental  mode  of  inquiry  would  certainly  yield  valuable  results,  it  a 

'^B:!^:^^^^^  after  growing,  that  the  puiport  of  vecoiit  schemes 
has  been  chietlv  exhibited.  The  Chevalier  Claussen  Invs  ceiWy  displayed 
nmch  energy  ii/bringing  his  invention  into  public  notice.  He  has  sen  hs 
anna  atuB  to  Lancashire,  to  Ireland,  and  to  other  districts,  that  it  might  be 
woK  in  existing  mills,  and  thereby  tested.     One  experm.ent  was  made  at 


<l»lrtliijin-W«  I 


COTTON   AND    FI.AX:    A   COKTRABT. 


88 


vement  Rn  important 
Lion,  in  1M6U,  hn  aftid, 
e  circmustttiicoB  here 
8  dili^f'nt  and  careful 
be  called  into  action 
is  suggoMtcd,  may  bo 
i.e.  A  very  *'cw  yoani 
irogress  ot  oiir  cotton 
ilid  not  prcHcnt  itself. 
iiojo-esB  i»y  which  it  Ih 
ly  that  luiH  been  nmde 
An  additional  Lnduce- 
articlcH,  may  bo  found 
;  in  which  it  is  UHually 
uent  of  a  considerable 
tod  Kingdom  in  which 
1  tliero  is  hardly  a.'y 
ir  dolicioncies,  should 

le  muchinoiyoniployed 
IX ;  the  former  is  spun 
f?onerally,  leas  yielding 
processes  of  preparing 
utlay  of  about  M.  per 
tea,  on  yarn  of  similar 
igh  OB  10(i.  If  tl»is  be 
nay  be  so  '  cottonized ' 

cotton  machinery, 
lent  has  been  sought  is 
'  or  chemical  treatment 
e  tliought,  tlittt  as  the 
raiiidity  or  slowness  in 
tlio  seed  itself  bo  con- 
posed  such  a  mode  of 
so  believe,  been  made 
liciently  extensive  scale 
(rising  capitaUst  might 
nunity,  by  preparuig  a 
ing  or  pickling  Hox  seed 
g  each  section  with  one 
th,  and  comparing  th(i 

the  various  chemical 
light,  at  the  same  time, 
sown  with  ordinaiy  flax 
I  the  cheapest  monui-e. 
ild  valuable  results,  if  a 

rport  of  recent  schemes 
haa  certamly  displayed 
lotice.  He  has  sent  his 
itricts,  that  it  might  be 
■xperiment  was  made  at 


MoMm.  Quitzow's  mill  at  Ilrailford ;  and.  from  th<^  ample  ucoounts  givMi  in 
till!  public  jouniiiU,  wn  (!un  glean  HMt!>cient  li>  [iresent  tiio  following  sketch. 

'J'ho  (irnt  atlt^nipl  was  to  prepare  long  llax  tibro  for  the  ordinary  linen  manu- 
facluro.  i''our  Imndrod  woight  of  Mux  in  the  Mtniw  was  boiUjd  in'u  Htone  vat,  in 
water  contaihing  caustic  alkali ;  the  boiling  lusted  foiu-  hours,  which  was  said  to 
idtuv  sepamto  lliu  libres  as  eft'ectually  as  an  ordinary  steeping  of  weeks' duration. 
It  is  tWMortcd,  also,  that  tlie  libre  is  developed  in  uniform  strength ;  that  it  is 
lesH  discoloured  than  ity  the  old  process  ;  and  that  nmch  more  of  the  glutinous 
or  giunmy  matter  it*  nuuovod.  The  flax  was  removed  fiom  tlm  alkaline  liquid, 
tuid  sti'ejied  for  two  liours  in  water  slightly  acidtdated  with  sidphurio  a<jid ; 
this  elVected  the  deansing  of  l\w  llax,  and  at  he  saini;  time  rendered  tlio  straw 
a  moro  valuable  niamiro  than  it  woidd  otherwiwo  bo.  'I'lui  lliw  was  tlien  in  a 
lit  state  to  bo  scutched  and  prepared  by  the  ordinary  tUix  ajypanitus. 

The  next  experiment  was  in  cotton'mnii  Max ;  that  is,  giving  to  flax  some  of 
tho  rpialilies  of  cotton.  The  mode  of  doing  this  was  very  remarkable.  The 
sepai-ato  libros  were  cut  into  short  pieces,  steeped  in  a  solution  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  and  then  stoepcd  in  slightly-acidulateil  water ;  the  pores  becanict  Idled 
with  those  two  lirpiids;  a  chemical  action  ensuod  between  tlw  acid  and  the 
alkali,  ciubonic  acid  gas  was  fonned  within  tlie  little  tubes,  and  the  tubes  wtsro 
Imrst  by  this  gas.  This  split  fibre  bos  many  of  the  qualities  of  cotton  fibre, 
and  may  be  dyed  and  spun  nearly  like  cotton.  Chevalier  C'laussen  gives  the 
name  of  British  Cotton  to  this  split  flax ;  it  is  bleached  by  chenucal  agency,  in  tho 
same  vapid  manner  as  cotton  is  now  bleached  in  th(j  great  Ijancashiro  works. 
Tho  bleached  (lax  in  tlien  spun  into  yam,  eitlier  by  itself  or  mixed  in  various 
proportions  with  cotton. 

British  cotton  being  the  foundation,  we  ha'.o  flax  cotton,  Jlaa-  wool,  and  .//iw 
»iJk — a  couiplete  nomenclature,  depending  on  tlic  mixture  of  cotton,  wool,  or 
Rilk  witli  Uie  prepared  Hax  libre.  The  great  point  aimed  at  is,  that  tlieao 
mixed  matoriols  may  be  cai-ded  and  spun  in  the  existing  machines,  without 
necessitating  any  revolution  in  the  factoiy  arrangements  of  tlie  North ;  and  it 
is  also  hoped  by  tho  inventor,  that  tlio  woven  goods  produced  from  tliese  mixed 
materials  will  combine  the  merits  of  both  components — the  warmth  of  wool, 
the  softness  of  cotton,  the  glossiness  of  silk,  the  strength  of  flax.  Tho  flax 
seems,  in  some  varieties  of  tlic  process,  to  acquire  a  sort  of  felting  property, 
analogous  to  tliat  of  wool.  Then;  were,  in  the  t-reat  Ilxliibition,  broad  cloths, 
blankets,  and  other  felted  goods,  fonued  of  a  mixture  of  wool  and  flax ;  but  in 
those  insUmces  the  felting  was  probably  chiefly  confined  to  the  wool  fibres. 
Chevalier  L'laussen  slates,  in  further  illusU'ation  of  the  eft'ects  of  his  chemical 
processes,  that  if  woven  flaxen  goods  be  treated  somewhat  in  the  same  way, 
they  become  thickened  and  receive  a  richer  dye  than  before.  There  seems  to 
bo  much  analog)-  between  tliis  and  Mr.  ^Mercer's  treatment  of  cotton,  noticed 
in  a  fonner  page. 

There  is  something  exceedingly  beautiful  about  this  C'laussen  process, 
iiTo.siiectivo  of  its  claims  to  commercial  attention.  Microscopic  obseiTors, 
as  we  have  already  stated,  have  long  known  that  there  is  a  notable 
(lifference  between  flax  fibre  and  cotton  fibre;  the  former  is  a  kind  of 
cylindrical  tube,  while  Uie  latter  more  resembles  a  flat  ribbon;  and  the 
tube  seems  to  be  much  more  rigid  and  less  pliant  than  the  ribbon.  But 
by  bursting  open  the  tube  through  chemical  agency,  and  thus  laving  out 
the  fibre  in  ribbon  fashion,  the  inside  as  well  as  the  outside  of  the  tube 
is  exposed,  and  new  properties  seem  to  be  developed.  At  ono  of  the 
meetings  of  the  lloyal  Agricultural  Society  some  flax  was  'cottonised'  in 


ffi^K!»t!l¥^^»:p».mss,ifiMiJ:^mi'Pi*i^SM0'.ii  t:'iiiiifaa6g^»^' ' 


mmmnafimmm' 


34 


COTTON    AN1>    flax:    A    CONTRAST. 


presence  of  the  membei-s;  it  was  steeped  in  tlie  allinline  liquor  selected  by 
Claussen,  and  in  that  state  appeared  like  a  damp  rigid  "^"^^^  =  b"*  ^,  ^°?"  J'^ 
it  was  exposed  to  the  acid,  by  which  carbonic  gas  was  generated  and  thefibies 
burst  the  whole  of  the  flax  spread  out  into  an  expansive  nrnsB  of  cottony 
Sure-like  leavening  dough  or  expandmg  sponge.  ,  "Ifo  result  is  to^^ 
as  having  been  veiy  stx-ikmg;  for  the  spectators  saw  boUx  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  tlie  process  dui-ing  an  ordinary  sitting.  It  has  been  asserted  tiiat 
one  pound  of  ordinary  flax,  spun  to  a  certain  degree  of  fineness,  wdl  produce 
2  !oorwds  of  yam  f  while  5ne  pound  of  split  or  '  cotton  zed 'flax  will  yield 
Sooo  yai-ds.     If  this  be  tme,  it  is  indeed  a  commercial  tnitn  of  no  little 

'ThSer  Claussen  states  that  he  was  led  by  an  accident,  m^  tl^e Jii^st 
instance,  towards  his  theoiy  of  cottonmng  flax.  Walkmg  one  day  on  the  banks 
of  a  BrL^iUan  river,  on  his  own  estate,  he  saw  a  white  downy  substance 
adhering  to  some  of  the  ti-ees.  He  fomid,  on  investigation,  that  a  heap  of  flax 
suw  which  he  had  placed  near  the  river  had  fermented,  that  gases  had  been 
gen  raS  tha?  these  gases  had  greatly  modified  the  fla.  ^bre,  that  the  fibre 
Ll  become  soft  and  downy,  and  that  some  of  it  had  be^n  washed  into  the 
river  and  caught  by  overhanging  branches.  An  induction  from  tliese  facts  led 
the  obsen-er  to  his  theory  of  splitting  the  fibres.  t,.  isisbo 

Anotlicr  recent  scheme  is  that  of  Mr.  Schenck,  of  New  York.  In  848  he 
brought  before  the  notice  of  the  Irish  Flax  Society  his  plan  for  flax  steeping 
I  consisted  mainly  in  maintaming  the  steep-water  ^\^ ^'l^^\^'^^ 
temperature,  by  which  he  considered  that  he  could  ret  or  steep  flax  as 
effeSly  iA  sixty  hours  as  in  two  or  tliree  weeks  on  the  old  method.  Ihe 
Society  Lr  much  investigation,  recommended  the  new  system-not  to  the 
flar™rs'but  to  persons^f  capital,  who  might  purchase  the  flax  straw  from 
the  farmers,  ret  and  scutch  it  with  the  improved  apparatus  and  P™'=e3ses  Jjd 
sell  the  fla^  fibre  to  the  spinners.  A  few  '  retteries'  (as  these  new  estabhsh- 
nens  are  conveniently  called)  ai-e  in  operation;  and  the  Ulster  Aax-giwers 
mTe  now  a  choice  between  two  plans-either  to  sell  he  fli«  straw  to  the 
Sers,  or  to  ret  the  flax  themselves  by  the  old  method,  have  it  scutched  at  a 

^TCtliit'pi'ljresses  were  patented  in  1851  by  Mr.  Bower,  of  Leeds^ 
^vhich  seem  to  aim  at  a  medium  between  the  Claussen  system  and  the  od 
system  of  flixx  prepai-ation.  The  chemistry  of  his  plans  seems  to  be  lntell^ 
gMe;  but  its  Sonimercial  advantages  as  a  system  ^"I'l  .''X^;,  ^^Tax 
careful  test.     It  has   been   brought  under  the  notice  of  the  Behast  Flax 

Society. 


J 


'  i  n  lull  ■^■>wwy<wwp»^ 


M 


line  liquoi'  selected  by 
I  mass ;  but  as  soon  as 
jenevated  and  the  fibres 
msive  masa  of  cottony 
The  result  is  described 
lotli  the  beginning  and 
,  has  been  asserted  that 
f  fineness,  will  produce 
jttonized '  flax  will  yield 
ercial  tnith  of  no  little 

1  accident,  m  the  first 
ig  one  day  on  the  banks 
white  downy  substance 
ition,  that  a  heap  of  flax 
ted,  that  gases  had  been 
flax  fibre,  that  the  fibre 
wi  been  washed  into  tlie 
tion  from  tliese  facts  led 

New  York.  In  1848  he 
lis  plan  for  flax  steeping, 
r  at  a  constantly  high 
d  rst  or  steep  flax  as 
.  the  old  method.  The 
new  system — not  to  the 
chase  the  flax  straw  from 
i-atus  and  processes,  and 
'  (as  these  new  establish- 
l  tlie  Ulster  flax-growers 
ell  the  flax  straw  to  the 
od,  have  it  scutched  at  a 

jy  Mr.  Bower,  of  Leeds, 
ssen  system  and  tlie  old 
ilans  seems  to  be  intelli- 
vould  require  a  long  and 
tice  of  tlie  Bellast  Flax 


CORN  AND  BREAD:  WHAT  THEY  OWE  TO 

MACHINERY. 


A  QUAHTERN  loaf  IS  Certainly  not  among  those  which  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
designating  machine-made  products.  Wo  are  wont  to  separate  agriculture  from 
manufactures ;  to  consider  the  former  conservative  and  the  latter  progressive ; 
to  rank  the  former  among  the  taiTy-at-home,  and  tlie  latter  among  the  go-ahead 
systems ;  to  think  tliat  in  the  former  nature  does  more  than  man,  but  that  in 
the  latter  man  does  more  than  nature ;  to  associate  green  fields  with  the  one, 
and  smoky  factories  with  the  other.  All  this  may,  relatively  speaking,  be  true ; 
but  it  is  not  true  if  presented  in  too  marked  and  decided  a  foiTn.  The  records 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  and  equally  those  of  the  Great  Exliibition, 
have  taught  us  that  mechanical  as  well  as  chemical  i^rinciples  are  making 
notable  advancements  into  the  domain  of  agriculture.  It  may  not  be  that 
1852  can  "make  two  eai-s  of  com  grow  where  only  one  gi-ew"  in  1840;  but 
an  amount  of  progress  wellworthy  of  attention  has  been  made  in  economizing 
(and  therefore  improving)  all  the  processes  of  husbandly,  and  the  subsequent 
processes  whereby  com  is  converted  into  bread. 

The  summing-up  of  the  Agiicultural  Jury  of  the  Great  Exhibition  is  really 
an  important  one.  It  is  only  about  twelve  years  ago  that  tlie  Agi-icultural 
Society  commenced  the  annual  show  of  (and  prizes  for)  implements.  And 
what  has  been  the  result?  "  Seeing  that  tlie  owner  of  a  stock-fai-m  is  enabled, 
in  the  preparation  of  his  land,  by  using  lighter  ploughs,  to  cast  off'  one  horse 
in  three,  and,  by  adopting  other  simple  means,  to  dispense  altogetlier  with  a 
great  part  of  his  ploughing — that,  in  the  culture  of  crops  by  the  various  drills, 
horee-labour  can  be  partly  reduced,  the  seed  otherwise  wanted  partly  saved,  or 
the  use  of  manures  greatly  economized ;  while  the  horse-hoe  replaces  tlie  hand- 
hoe,  at  one-half  the  expense — that,  at  harvest,  the  American  reaping  machines 
can  effect  thirty  men's  work ;  while  the  Scotch  cart  replaces  the  old  Fnglish 
waggon  widi  exactly  half  the  number  of  horses — that,  in  prepaiing  com  for 
man's  food,  the  steam  threshing-machine  saves  two-Uiirds  of  our  fomier  expense ; 
and  in  prepai-ing  food  for  stock,  the  turnip  cutter,  at  an  outlay  of  one  shilling, 
udds  eight  shillings  a  head,  in  one  winter,  to  the  value  of  sheep — lastly,  that 
in  the  indispensable  but  costly  operation  of  draining,  tlie  materi..N  have  been 
reduced  from  808.  to  15s.  per  acre,  to  one-fifth,  namely,  of  their  former  cost — it 
seems  to  be  proved  that  the  efforts  of  agricultural  machinists  have  been  so  fai* 
successful  as,  in  all  these  main  branches  of  farminrf  labour,  taken  together,  to  effect  a 
saving  in  ontgoinf/s  of  little  less  than  one-half."  The  italics  are  Mr.  Pusey's ;  and 
well  do  tlie  words  desei-ve  to  be  made  conspicuous. 

Let  us  examine  some  of  tlie  "  Curiosities  "  presented  by  corn  husbandly, 
the  conversion  of  the  com  into  flour,  and  tlie  conversion  of  the  flour  into 
bread  and  biscuits,  so  far  as  they  illustrate  the  great  mechanical  progress  of 
the  last  few  yeai-s.  And  we  may  begin  with  a  few  general  remarks  on  certain 
aspects  which  the  subject  presents  hi  relation  to  the  Great  Exliibition  and  to 
other  industi'ial  an-angements. 

M 


H 


•us 


J 


^ 


I 


I 


9  CORU  AKD  BREAD  :  WHAT  THEY  OWE  TO  KACHINEEY. 

General  Aspect  of  Corn  Husbandry  in  1851. 
all  these  operations  machines  ot  the  most  ingenious  «»>"  ■      ,.„ltivfttors    drill 

And  these  were  m-especuveot  the  ^'^l"""*  £' S,SKke,  sickles, 
seylliea,  ohaltkiuves,  hay-kmves,  greBS-hooks,  leapiBg-liooBs.  mu am 

nt'lSgnTili  .S-Ttliw  «s  to  »ha.  e.te„t  simUar  aid  i. 

S£  liquSnaiiure  machines,  SNvmg  ploughs,  tur^ip-cutters    and  a  ve^ 
Sous'  u)strument  called  tJie  dyniimo>,UHer,  to  measure  the  sUength  of  the  acUon 

in>nleuients  .vhat  a  scene  of  activity  did  it  not  display !     Let  it  be  ploughs,  loi 
ns  aSce      i'  eie  were  nearly  fifty  exhibitoi-s  of  ploughs,  some  o    whom  sen 
S  Sa  variS     Here  we  n^iay  Lly  expect  U.at  all  -hi^^^V^tS  tLTs 
^in  Twn  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy,  was  put  fortli  in  the  be.t 
mi      Theie  wire  common  ploughs,  ^vitl.out  any  distinctive  name ;  Uier 
we  drain  ig  ploughs,  "criterion  pri.e  ploughs,"  iron  wheel  ploughs,  wood 
Twing  pTughl^bro^l-shaie  ploughs,  double  ploughs  witli  ^^rought-u-on  bean , 
"  patent  NG  H  ploughs,"  gold-hanger  ploughs,  one-way-turnover  ploughs, 
two  ho"le  iim  swing  ploughs,  skim  ploughs,  welded-joint  ploughs,  ploughs 


tItKERY. 


1851. 


at  congress  in  Hyde 
ment  of  industi-y  was 
surprise  greatly  those 

now  applied  to  agri- 
for  tending  the  young 
ng  it  for  market — for 
dliave  been  invented. 
Iters,  cultivators,  drill 
g  mills,  goi-se-cutting 

ploughs,  hay-making 
ive  machines,  mowing 
arifiers,  seed-dibbling 
s,  threshing  machines, 
!  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
iid-husbandry,  such  as 
oks,  bill-hooks,  sickles, 

*t  extent  similar  aid  is 
been  to  send  many  of 
stria,  for  instance,  sent 
euers,  weed  destroyers, 
er  seed  bags,  cast-u-on 
nes,  weeding  machines, 
ida    contributed    gi'ain 
,  showed  us  her  soine- 
)rez  machine  for  sowing 
)wing  machines,  clover- 
olland  contributed  seed 
nip-cutters,  and  a  very 
he  sU-eugth  of  the  action 
-y  by  such  simple  imple- 
i  so  forth.     Prussia  and 
owmg  nia<:hine8,  drills, 
18,  water-furrow  ploughs, 
the  fields  of  industry— 

snrit  machines,  horse- 
road  horse-power  seed- 
iie  now  famous  reaping 

Chicago. 

icimena,  any  one  class  ot 
1  Let  it  be  ploughs,  for 
ghs,  some  of  whom  sent 
I  which  the  farmer  could 
ivaa  put  fortli  in  the  best 
'  distinctive  name ;  tliere 
ron  wheel  ploughs,  wood 
wiUi  wrought-iron  beam, 
ne-w&y-turnover  ploughs, 
!d-joint  ploughs,  ploughs 


CORN  AND  BKBAD:  WHAT  THEY  OWB  TO  MAOHTNBRT.  8 

with  drilling  machines  attached,  doublo-breaat  ploughs,  double-fm-row  ploughs, 
double  water-furrow  oiler  ploughs,  West  Indian  ploughs,  Netherby  ploughs, 
TweedJale  trench  ploughs,  shifting-coulter  ploughs,  friction-wheel  ploughs, 
and  others,  distinguished  one  from  another  by  peculiarities  which  would  wholly 
escape  an  ordinary  observer,  but  which  ai-e  signiticant  to  tlie  eye  of  a  farmer. 
There  were,  too,  ploughs  of  a  more  ambitious  description — -such  as  Lord 
Willoughby  D'Eresby's  machine  for  ploughing  land  with  a  stationary  steam- 
engine  ;  Usher's  model  of  a  locomotive  steam-plough,  in  which  the  ploughs, 
revolving  behind  the  carriage,  act  as  propellers  ;  and  Lyon's  machine  for 
ploughing,  sowing,  manuring,  and  rolling  the  land  in  immediate  succession. 

This  agricultural  depai'tment — this  noble  glass  case  060  feet  in  length-^this 
area  of  aOfiOO  square  feet  of  flooring — shone  with  a  brightness  of  coloui's  which 
quite  dazzled  our  foreign  visitors.  They  could  not  understand  the  bright  red 
and  yellow  and  blue  which  here  met  their  gaze.  In  their  own  countries, 
whether  on  the  east  or  the  west  of  the  Atlantic,  the  implements  are  seldom  or 
never  so  bedizened ;  they  have  rough  work  to  do,  and  rough  implements  to  do 
it ;  but  with  us,  whether  it  be  for  reclaiming  bogs  and  swamps,  or  preparing 
the  soil  for  cultiu-e,  or  depositing  seed  and  manure,  or  tending  and  cleaning 
the  growing  crop,  or  gathering  tfie  crop  when  ripe,  or  preparing  the  crop  for 
market,  we  find  that  showy  paint  is  abundantly  applied  to  the  machines 
employed.  At  the  Exhibition  this  kind  of  adornment  was  practised  in  an 
additional  degree,  apparently  to  befit  the  holiday  occasion.  Some  of  our 
visitors  doubted  whether  the  implements  were  really  good  which  liad  received 
such  adventitious  aid ;  and  it  may,  indeed,  be  worth  while  for  our  implement 
makers  to  consider  whether  it  comports  with  the  dignity  of  their  excellent 
productions  to  continue  a  practice  which  was  probably  first  adopted  as  a  lure 
to  the  purchasers  of  common-place  goods.  Some  of  the  makers  liave  already 
begun  to  abandon,  or  at  least  to  subdue,  the  brightness  of  these  decorations. 
Good  mechanism,  like  good  wine,  is  its  own  best  advertisement. 

It  is  a  singular  feature  in  modern  English  agriculture,  tliat  debtor-and-creditor 
accounts  of  farming  enterprises  are  being  mode  public  in  a  more  exact  form 
than  used  to  be  the  case.  Like  as  an  experimental  philosopher  notes  down 
facts  as  materials  whence  he  may,  by  induction,  establish  principles,  so  does 
an  experimental  fanner  note  down  all  tlie  items  of  outlay,  and  all  the  sources 
of  profit,  in  order  to  draw  out  a  balance-sheet  therefrom.  It  is  true  that 
gentleman-forming  involves  much  fallacy  unless  scrupulous  core  be  taken  to 
enter  all  the  items  on  tlie  unfavorable  side  of  the  balance ;  for  the  real  farmer 
has  often  difiiculties  to  contend  against,  which  do  not  affect  the  experimentalist 
Still  there  is  no  reason  why  eveiything  should  not  be  honestly  entered  to  the 
best  of  the  experimentalist's  judgment;  and  if  the  results  ai-e  accepted 
approximately,  without  being  made  the  basis  of  too  hasty  generalisation,  good 
must  ultimately  accrue  therefrom ;  for  men's  minds  come  by  degrees  to  appre- 
ciate the  relations  in  which  certain  items  of  expenditure  and  income  etand  to 
each  other.  Mr.  Mechi,  of  Tiptree  Hall,  in  Essex,  has  become  quite  a  leader 
among  these  gentlemen-farmers — these  experimentalists  who,  deriving  their 
capital  from  other  departments  of  commercial  industry,  apply  a  portion  of  it  to 
investigations  concerning  farming  enterprise.  Those  who  were  familiar  with 
the  '  Fine  Arts  Court '  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  will  perhaps  call  to  mind  tlie 
lai'ge  model  of  this  Tiptree  farm.  It  showed  the '  economical  application  of 
steam  power  to  threshmg,  grinding,  chaff-cutting,  corn-dressing,  pumping, 
sack-lifting,  and  cooking  Uie  food  for  live  stock.    It  also  exhibited  the  new 

M  3 


I 


-    ' -.l^tti^tK. 


1  COBI.ASDBKEAD-.   »HATTraTOWKTOM*CBINEBV. 

pHnc>p>e  o,  Weeping  ».  feea,„,^-»  .„  opc„  Wde.  «oo.,  O.-.  d.. 

pensing  with  the  use  of  straw  ^^  J'^^^ing^j^^  ^^^ular  statement  of  the  results 
Mr.  Mecbi  has  made  pubhc  more  than  one  t^u^^^^  debtor-and- 

of  his  farming  experience  at  ['I'^^'^^-jf^om  October  30,  1850,  to  October  30, 
creditor  accounts-embi-aces  the  peiiodlromu^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^ 

1851.  He  gives  in  the  fii^t  place,  Jej^lj^Xcks  cows,  calves,  pigs,  in-ple- 
date,  including  the  items  of  horses  ^^^ep,^^^  ^  ^^^^^^^^  ^^der  six  headmgs 
ments,  hay,  root  crops,  and  manure    the  vauem^  ^^  ^^  ^^,^^^^  ths' 

in  pounds,  shillings,  and  Pff^^;.  .^^^^'^^o^rnTrocks  and  stones,  and  tenrl-ng 
labour,  in  ordinary  farnnng,  trench  ngiemo^^^^^^  ^^^  the  twelve 

live  stock.  Then  comes  a  ^^"g  J'^^^VSof  land  leased  by  him,  a  fmther 
month8,comprisingrentof  hisownland  ren  ot  1  ^.^.^^^ 

percentage   for  his   ""P^'^^'-^tntl  m^^  new  S 

police  rates.  Property  tax  sunreyor  smte.n^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^      ^    ^ 

Lam-engine,  coals  for  ?Xrn«s  InteS^on  the  capital  sunk  in  the 
for  the  stock,  guano  and  other  "^^""'^J' '"  „uinerous  items  are  grouped  to- 
fai-m,  and  miscellaneous  expenses      These  numero    ^^  ^^  ^^^.^^  ^^^^  ^^ 

SfnJi^roteTn^S^^^^^^  ^^^^"  ''-''' 

live  stock,  dead  meat,  wool,  a,nd  ^""er.  opposite  sides  of  Uiis 

The  exact  nature  o  the  ^^^^^^^'j^Zeel^ly  disLssed  and  closely 
account  we  do  not  advert  to;  ^^^^f'Xve  been  expressed  on  the  matter, 
canvassed  the  result,  and  vanous  «P*"^^"\f4,^''hing  required ;  for  it  must 
But  tins  open  and  candid  discussion  »^ J^^  ^^^^ '^^^^^^^  ,\ense  that  farming 

in  the  en,i  bring  out  "^^^'^V  bprome Tat le  industrial  statistics. 
accounts,  if  honestly  prepared,  become  ^aluablen  .  ^^,,^^  from  the 

Some  of  the  modem  fai-mmg  enterprises  J^e  >«  y  a  high-class 

scientific  mode  in  which  they  ^^'^.'^jf  "f  ^^^eam  en^e  t^icies  of  ihe  age 
estabUshment  of  tliis  kind  smt^ato  t^^  Patrington    n 

we  live  in,  may  perhaps  ^^Jp±2^\Zf^^"iias  form  is  mentioned  m 
Yorkshire.  In  our  paper  ^^^.^ow^^^^Jl^J  ^  be  also  a  farm  in  the  more 
collection  with  llax-culture ;  bu  i^  a^Pe^^^^^^^^  ^^^  Times  "-one  of  tliose 
usual  sense  of  that  term.     The     ^o™";^^,";""  j^^s  brought  into  such  a 

Commissioners  whom  the  ^f^'gy^^^XS  few  years-has  described  this 
remai-kable  degree  of  -^^^ivity  within Jie  last   e^^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^„„pi,d 

fai-m,  this  food-factoiy,  ^oniey^^immn^  ^d  in  making  efficient  roads  to 
in  building  and  stockmg  the  fai-m  ^"'^J'Sii^  of  eight-hoi-se  power  occupies 
connect  them  wiUi  the  fieids.  ^^^fJ^^S^g  roTof  this  bam  ai-e  all  the 
the  centre  of  the  bam ;  and  ^^^^'^f^^^^Xe  in  door  processes  of  husbandry. 
.  best  and  newest  machmes  "^^P^ed  /oi  the  'i^e  S  and  tlien  delivei-s  it  m 
The  threshing  ^^l^"'^^  t^^'l^'o^he  SXriofrwhere  it  is  ground  and 

the  gi-anary;  it  P'^^^^^^^^'^  *",  **'1C  S^V  ^^^  P"^"^"*^  ^"  '^^' 

dressed,  and  whence  it  descends  to  alower  Bto^y- wn^  ^J      ^^^ine  the 

and  laid  aside  for  die  baker,    ^^lom  the  end  ot  tn        .^  .^  b  ^^^^^^ 
straw  is  carried  hy  an  endless  web  to  ^^^^f  ^'  ^^^^  ^^^ai^s  and  oats  for  the 

lUrn^mSirt^S  Z^^et^'^^^  ^^  -^  ^  ^^'^  ^^  ^^^ 


'<*ii' 


r" 


T 


lCHINEHY. 

)arcled  floors,  thus  dis- 

tatement  of  the  results 
raents— his  debtor-and- 
JO,  1850,  to  October  aO, 
is  stock  at  the  former 
)ws,  calves,  pigs,  in.ple- 
ese,  under  six  headmgs, 
cost  of  twelve  months 
and  stones,  and  tenfV-ng 
enditure  for  the  twelve 
leased  by  him,  a  fui-ther 
ind,  tithes,  poor  rates, 
snts  and  tools,  repairs  to 
)il-cake  and  com  as  food 
tlie  capital  sunk  in  the 
i  items  are  gi-ouped  to- 
of  the  farming  stock  at 
is  items  are  less  or  more 
omea  a  valuation  of  the 
l-wurzel,  turnips,  clover, 

■0  opposite  sides  of  tliis 
[y  discussed  and  closely 
expressed  on  the  matter, 
ing  required ;  for  it  must 
iuch  a  sense  that  farming 
istrial  statistics, 
■ei-y  insti-uctive,  from  the 
1  example  of  a  high-class 
me  tendencies  of  the  age 
fam,  near  Patrington,  m 
his  farm  is  mentioned  in 
also  a  farm  in  the  more 
the  Times"— one  of  tliose 
;s  has  brought  into  such  a 
years— has'  described  this 
Ben  months  were  occupied 
making  sfficient  roads  to 
eight-horse  power  occupies 
)of  of  this  bam  ai-e  all  the 
)r  processes  of  husbandry. 
;om,  and  Uien  delivers  it  m 
ft,  where  it  is  ground  and 
vhere  it  is  packed  in  sacks 
the  threshing  machme  the 
where  it  is  operated  upon 
eak  beans  and  oats  for  the 
ung  with  the  cut  chaff.     In 
igine,  lift  the  turnips  up  to 
es  fall  into  a  truck,  and  this 


CORN   AND    BflEAD:    WHAT   THEY    OWE    TO    MACHINERT.  5 

track  travels  along  a  railway  to  tlie  feeding  sheds.  In  another  compartment, 
steam  from  the  boiler  boils  and  cooks  food  of  vario'is  kinde  for  pigs  and  other 
live  stock.  In  the  cattle  liouses,  each  animal  has  its  comfoitable  box,  twelve 
feet  by  ten,  witii  a  supply  of  fresh  water  in  one  comer,  and  a  manger  for  its 
food  in  another.  The  railway  conveying  the  trucks  of  sliced  turnips  traverses 
the  space  between  two  parallel  ranges  of  cattle  boxes.  Underground  is  a 
great  arched  tank,  into  which  all  the  rain-water  that  falls  on  the  farm-buildings 
is  conveyed  by  spouts  and  pipes ;  from  this  tank  the  boiler  of  the  steam- 
engine  feeds  itself  with  water ;  and  the  engine  likewise  pumps  up  the  water 
to  a  tank  on  the  highest  piu't  of  the  bam,  whence  it  supplies  by  pipes  all  the 
different  divisions  of  the  farm-buildings,  and  also  sei-ves  as  a  reservoir  in  case 
of  fire.  Manure  pits,  and  liquid-manure  tanks,  are  placed  so  as  to  render  the 
refuse  from  the  cattle-houses  as  readily  available  as  possible  for  use  in  the 
fields.  I'he  whole  establishment,  indeed,  is  an  exemplification  of  the  factory 
system  applied  to  agriculture. 

The  Agricultural  (Jollefins  constitute  another  mai-ked  feature  in  modem  times. 
Let  us  glance  for  a  moment  at  that  of  Cirencester.  Here  students — boys,  youths, 
and  men — are  taught  various  sciences  and  arts  which  bear  upon  agricultural 
pui*suits.  Some  are  boarded  and  lodged  within  the  college,  some  in  the 
houses  of  the  masters,  some  elsewhere.  They  pay  from  40i.  to  %i)l.  each  per 
amium,  according  to  the  arrangements  respecting  board  and  lodging.  Besides 
regular  instraction,  and  lectures  in  various  sciences  and  departments  of 
knowledge,  the  pupils  have  access  to  an  experimental  fai-m  connected  with 
the  college,  where  various  theories  ai-e  practically  tested,  and  instmctions 
illustrated,  having  relation  to  grazing,  farming,  management  of  stock,  pre- 
paring of  com  for  the  market,  application  of  steam-power  to  agricultural 
machines,  and  so  forth. 

There  are  many  other  agricultural  institutions  and  fanners'  clubs,  where 
the  principles  of  science  are  sought  to  be  made  available  to  husbandry ;  they 
are  slowly  doing  a  good  work. 

We  have  just  mentioned  the  steam-engines  at  Tiptree  and  at  Patrington. 
This  marks  a  notable  advance.  The  application  of  steam-power  to  agriculture 
is  one  of  those  measures  which  are  probably  destined  to  exercise  great  in- 
fluence on  the  welfai-e  of  this  department  of  industry.  There  is  a  general 
estimate  made,  that  one-fifth  of  the  whole  produce  of  the  land  is  consumed 
by  the  horses  employed  to  cultivate  it ;  that  is,  taking  one  farm  with  another, 
and  the  average  number  of  horses  on  each  farm,  the  vegeUble  produce  is 
diminished  20  per  cent,  by  the  time  tlie  hoi-ses  tliemselves  have  been  fed. 
This  is  a  serious  item.  Even  if  men  were  to  scrapie  (which  few  men  do  at 
the  present  day)  to  employ  machinery  to  supersede  human  labour,  this  scrapie 
would  have  no  place  in  relation  to  the  subject  now  under  notice ;  it  is  horse 
labour  which  agricultural  steam-engines  are  intended  to  partially  supersede. 
All  such  operations  as  threshing  com,  cutting  chaff",  cutting  turnips  and  other 
roots,  cnishmg  grain  and  seeds,  Ac,  can  be  very  well  perfomied  by  steam 
power.  Even  in  districts  where  coal  is  iiOs.  per  ton,  it  is  calculated  that  one 
shilling's  wortli  of  coal  will  do  as  much  work  as  four  shillings  applied  in 
feeding  a  working  hoi-se. 

One  serious  matter  is,  tliat  large  farmers  only  can  bear  the  expense  of 
purchasing  steam-engines ;  the  small  farmer  can  barely  afford  to  i)urchase  one, 
and  the  operations  on  his  fami  are  'lot  extensive  enough  to  keep  an  engine 
regularly  at  work.  Here,  howeAer,  a  new  commercial  element  comes  into 
exercise.     Those  who  are  familiar  ,'  "i  Binningham  manufactories  know  that 


iinitiiMiwWrnwmiiMni  iiii't"ini 


RiiMaMMi 


iHg/morm 


6  CORN   AND   BREAD  :   WHAT  THEY   OWE  TO   MAOHISBRY. 

Steam  power  is  oft«n  let  out  in  that  town;  two  men,  for  example,  have  v/ork- 
JhoS  adjoining  each  oaier;  one  has  a  steam-engine,  but  die  ot^her  not;  a  belt 
or  shaft  .9  carried  from  one  shop  to  Uie  other,  by  which  both  may  have  Uie 
^Vl  of  Ihe  sLm-enginea  power;  find  the  one  manufacturer  W*  rent  U>  the 
other  for  ihe  8t*am  power  thus  afforded.  Now  someUnng  similar  to  Unnj 
heZZa  to  bo  apphed  in  the  agricultural  districts.  The  owner  of  a  port- 
abfe  s3-engine  Jonveys  it  from  farm  to  farm,  at  the  seasons  when  much 
kboi  "required,  or  at  such  periodical  int«nals  as  may  smt  Ae  arrange 
nente  of  the  farmer;  it  is  tised  to  perfomr  the  farm-work,  a  rent  is  paid  for 
te  use  and  it  then  tmvels  on  to  another  farm--it  is  a  peripatetic  operative 
which  Cs  upon  coals  and  water,  and  patiently  V«  anywhere  to  do  any  kind 

'^Thf  ^rro/preference  now  claimed  for  moveable  instead  of  fixed 

Bteam-enffines  for  farais  are  something  as  follows:— in  a  large  farm  with  a 

fixeTengfnTin  one  spot,  there  is  great  waste  of  labour  for  man  and  home  in 

Sing^Sl  the  com  to  one  spot,  Ind  making  all  the  operations  centre  m  one 

spS   "f  the  engine  can  be  taken  to  the  crop,  instead  of  the  crop  to  the 

TgU  power  wm  be  economised.     If  a  farm  be  smaU,  it  wUl  iiot  afford  work 

eSgh  for  a  fixed  engine;  but  a  moveable  engine  might  suffice  fortvoor 

mo^e  such  Lms.     The  moveable  engine  enables  com  to  be  threshed  with 

much  kss  expenditure  of  time  and  labour  Uian  by  the  fixed  engine.    In  using 

Jhe    atter,  the  com  is  put  up  into  ricks,  pulled  to  pieces  agam,  carted  to  the 

thresh  ngbmi,  and  then  brought  mider  the  action  of  the  fixed  engine ;  but  when 

a  moSle^g^e  is  employed,  the  complex  threshing  machine  is  attached  to 

it  as  a  tender  is  to  a  locomotive,  and  both  are  driven  mto  ^e  com  field  (fine 

weathL  being  of  course  necessary) ;  the  sheaves  are  tossed  at  once  into  the 

rSing  machine,  which  is  set  to  work  by  a  band  or  gear  from  the  engine; 

aid  U  "s^now  found  that  it  takes  no  more  time  to  thresh  the  com  m  this  way 

than  it  formerly  did  to  cart  the  com  to  tlie  bam. 

Farm-Machines,  as  supkrsedino  Hand-Implements. 

But  we  must  examine  a  littie  more  in  detail  the  doings  of  the  corn- 
husbandman,  to  see  in  what  way,  and  to  what  extent,  horse  labour  has  super- 
seded hand  labour,  and  tlie  steam-engine  superseded  both. 

Mj  Pusey;  m  1850,  presented  to  the  Royal  Agiicultuwl  Society  a  valuable 
report  on  the  progress  of  agriculture  during  the  eight  years  preceding  that 
date.  His  discussion  of  Liebig's  celebrated  chemical  theoriea  we  mil  not 
touch  upon  ;  but  the  mechanical  aids  to  agriculture  come  precisely  withm  our 
range ;  and  it  is  instractive  to  see  what  so  competent  an  observer  has  to  say 

*^"we^aJe  told,  then,  Uiat  agricultural  mechanism  is  "certainly  the  branch  in 
which  the  increase  of  knowledge  has  done  the  most  good  to  farmers,  that  increase 
being  paitly  extension  and  partly  advance."  In  1840,  m  the  8a°>«  P»"«t»^"id^ 
wiai  the  game  soil,  one  farmer's  plough  might  be  seen  heavier  for  three  honies 
than  another  plough  for  two.  \n  many  places  tliree  horses  might  be  seen 
plouching  light  loam  :  a  wast«  of  power  never  now  seen.  Agricultural  horses 
Se  dhuinishig  in  number;  those  entered  in  the  Tax  Returns  for  1840  were 
371,937  ;  whereas  those  for  1848  were  only  297,868.  This  »  a  very  smgulai 
fa<!t,  and  shows  that  horse-power  is  being  now  more  skilfully  employed  than  it 
was  a  short;  time  back,  owing  to  the  improvement  m  maxihmes.  Mr.  l^J 
estimates  that  the  actual  saving  to  tlie  English  farmers  m  this  item  alone, 


tfi'^'LffiiBMiUnWi.MiMWJtiffWiHii—i'i 


INBHY. 

example,  have  v/ork- 
hc  other  not ;  a  beU 
II  both  may  have  tlie 
er  pays  a  rent  U)  the 
ig  similar  to  tlii«  is 
he  owner  of  a  port- 
seasons  when  much 
lay  suit  the  arrange 
rk,  a  rent  is  paid  for 
[lerlpatetio  operative, 
vhere  to  do  any  kind 

ble  instead  of  fixed 
a  large  farm,  with  a 
ir  man  and  horne  in 
■ations  centre  in  one 

of  the  crop  to  the 
t  will  not  afford  work 
?ht  suffice  for  tvo  or 

to  be  threshed  with 
:ed  engine.  In  using 
H  again,  carted  to  the 
ued  engine ;  but  when 
lachine  is  attached  to 
3  the  corn  field  (fine 
sed  at  once  into  the 
;ar  from  the  engine; 
the  com  in  this  way 


•LEMENTS. 

doings  of  the  oom- 
orse  labour  has  super- 
h. 

i-al  Society  a  valuable 
.  years  preceding  that 

theories  we  will  not 
le  precisely  within  our 
an  observer  has  to  say 

:ertainly  the  branch  in 
3  fanners,  that  increase 
1  the  same  parish  and 
eavier  for  three  horses 
horses  might  be  seen 
1.  Agricultural  horses 
Returns  for  1840  were 
rhis  is  a  very  singulai- 
IfuUy  employed  than  it 
machines.  Mr.  Pusey 
srs  in  this  item  alone, 


CORK    AND    HREAD:    WHAT   THKY   OWE   TO    MACHINERY.  7 

comparing  1848  with  1840,  must  amount  to  nearly  a  million  sterling  annually. 
Another  significant  improvement  is,  the  substitution  of  light  carts  for  heavy 
wBggotiri  in  field  work.  Many  trials  have  lately  shown  that  single-horae  carts, 
of  the  Northumborland  build,  will  bring  in  a  field  of  com  in  about  the  same 
time  m  the  two-liorse  waggon  ;  and  that  both  in  the  first  cost  of  the  vehicles 
and  the  horses,  and  in  the  daily  expenses  of  the  latter,  the  substitution  will 
have  a  most  momentous  effect  on  the  farmer's  profits.  Our  authority  speaks 
of  die  matter  in  an  unequivocal  manner  : — "  Here  (in  Wiltshire),  since  farmers 
have  compared  the  two  systems,  no  one  buys  waggons  in  stocking  a  farm ;  but 
those  who  have  w£.ggons  do  not  like  to  buy  a  new  set  of  carts.  I  should  say 
they  had  better  sell  their  waggons  while  they  can,  and  if  tliey  cannot,  make  a 
bonfire  of  th«tn.  To  use  them  still  is  like  mnnuig  a  stage  coach  in  these 
days  between  London  and  Bath." 

We  may,  perhaps,  better  follow  out  the  object  of  tliis  paj)er  by  tracing  the 
main  operations  of  com-husbandry  in  succession,  so  far  as  they  involve  the 
use  of  machinery ;  and  see  how  far  Mr.  Pusey 's  paper,  and  the  Agricultural 
Jury's  Report,  will  aid  us.  The  Report  here  spoken  of  is  that  of  Jury  No.  IX., 
relating  to  the  agricultural  machines  in  the  Great  Exhibition  ;  it  is  printed  as 
a  separate  pamphlet,  and  also  in  the  'Joumal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society.' 

And  first  for  draining,  about  which  we  hear  and  read  so  much  in  \he  pre- 
sent day. 

The  draining  of  arable  land  has  given  rise  to  many  machines  of  great  in- 
genuity. It  is  not  an  annual  process  to  be  performed  by  the  farmer,  nor  on 
some  land  is  it  required  at  all ;  but  in  wet  soils  the  landlord  now  finds  it  worth 
his  while  to  bear  the  expense  of  thorough  draining  once  for  all.  Drains  or 
trenches  have  to  be  dug,  and  tiles  or  pipes  laid  in  these  trenches ;  hence  tile 
and  j>ipe-viakinif  machines  have  come  to  occupy  on  important  position  at  our 
Agricultural  Shows.  Until  about  1840  the  tiles  were  made  by  hand ;  but 
now  pipes  are  generally  substituted,  made  by  mcchinery  at  less  than  half  the 
cost  of  hand-made  tiles ;  this  diminution  of  cost  has  encouraged  landlords  to 
drain  wet  land  very  largely.  So  important  is  the  matter  now  regarded,  that 
at  one  of  the  recent  shows  no  fewer  than  forty-eight  of  such  machines  com- 
peted for  the  prize. 

The  drains  or  trenches  for  the  pipes  are  dug  by  hand  with  spades ;  but  a 
bold  attempt  is  now  being  made  to  substitute  machinery  for  tliis  as  well  as 
otlier  hand  processes.  Mr.  I'owler's  draining  plough  is  really  an  extraordinary 
machine ;  it  ploughs  out  a  channel  tlu-ee  or  four  feet  below  the  surface,  and 
lay$  dmm  ike  pipes  in  that  chaimel.  The  Agricultural  Jury  recently  tiied  it ; 
and  in  Uieir  report  they  thus  comment  on  it : — "  But  for  the  American  reapei-s, 
Mr.  Fowler's  draining  plough  would  have  formed  the  most  remarkable  featm-e 
in  Uie  agricultural  department  of  the  Exhibition.  Wonderful  as  it  is 
to  see  the  standing  wheat  shorn  levelly  low  by  a  pair  of  horses  walking  along 
its  edge,  it  is  hardly  if  at  all  less  wonderi'ul,  nor  did  it  excite  less  interest  or 
surprise  among  the  crowd  of  spectators  when  the  tiial  was  made,  to  see  two 
hoi-scs  at  work  by  the  side  of  a  field,  on  a  capstan  which,  by  an  invisible  wire- 
rope,  draws  towards  itself  a  low  framework,  leaving  but  the  ti'ace  of  a  narrow 
slit  on  the  surface.  If  you  poss,  however,  to  the  other  side  of  the  field,  which 
the  framework  has  quitted,  you  perceive  that  it  has  been  dragging  after  it  a 
string  of  pipes,  which,  still  following  the  plough's  snout,  that  bun-ows  all  the 
while  four  feet  below  ground,  twists  itself  like  a  gigantic  red  worm  into  the 
earth ;  so  that  in  a  few  minutes,  when  the  fhunework  has  reached  the  capstan, 


i 


\ 


8  CORN    AND    BRKAD:    WHAT    THKY    OWE    TO    MACHINERY. 

the  string  is  withdrawn  from  the  necklace,  and  you  ai-e  ftssured  that  tlie  drain 
has  thus  been  invisibly  formed  beneath  your  feet." 

Tiiis  thorough  draining  is  a  heavily-e.xpensive  operation.  But  let  us  next 
watch  tlie  more  general  and  annually-recurrent  operation,  of  which  that  of 
the  })lou{fh  is  an  important  one. 

The  minute  shades  of  difference  in  tlie  aiTangement  and  action  of  ploughs 
ai-e  quite  beyond  the  appreciation  of  ordinary  obsenera.  The  last  quaiter 
of  a  century  has  produced  modifications  and  impiovements  almost  out  of 
number.  Some  of  the  new  patent  ploughs  owe  their  distinctive  chai-acter  to 
being  made  of  wrought  iron ;  others  are  specially  adapted  to  penetrate  the 
ground  to  particular  depths;  one  manufacture)^ prides  himself  on  the  geo- 
metrical accuracy  with  which  the  cunes  of  the  share  and  the  funow-tumer 
and  tlie  mould-board  are  planned ;  another  seeks  to  attain  a  certain  symmeUy 
and  compactness  in  the  arrangement  of  the  several  parts ;  anotlier  is  noted 
for  the  mechanism  by  which  the  share  is  fixed  higher  or  lower  according  to 
the  state  of  the  soil ;  here  we  have  a  peculiav  adjusting  power  for  tlie  coulter ; 
there  a  novelty  in  the  application  of  the  draught  or  pulling  force  of  the  horse ; 
in  one,  by  a  change  in  the  mould  board,  the  same  plough  niav  be  used  for 
heavy  and  light  land ;  in  another,  the  parts  are  susceptible  of  being  readily 
taken  to  pieces,  for  the  convenience  of  emigrants.  Nor  are  foreign  counU-ies 
wanting  in  modern  novelties  in  ploughs ;  though  we  may  fairly  claim  to  be 
ahead  of  most  of  them  in  this  matter.  The  Belgian  ploughs  are  still  strong 
and  stout,  but  rough  and  heavy  ;  the  Austrian,  tlie  French,  the  North  German, 
the  Dutch— all  are  somewhat  rude.  But  our  brethren  across  Uie  Atlantic 
show  a  good  deal  of  neatness  and  cleverness  in  their  ploughs  ;  tlae  woodwork 
of  these  ploughs  (white  oak,  of  great  toughness)  is  made  by  machinery ;  and 
it  is  thus  so  accurately  fitted,  that  all  the  parts  can  readily  be  taken  asunder 
for  repair  or  for  removal  to  a  distance. 

The  Juiy  Report  infoii.is  us  that  it  was  Messrs.  Ransome  who  furnished 
tlie  modem  English  plough  with  two  low  wheels,  and  witli  mould-boai-ds 
adapted  to  different  soils.  Mr.  Howard  and  Mr.  Busby  have  especially 
directed  their  attention  to  the  mould-boards — those  cuned  surfaces  which, 
after  raising  each  fuiTow-slice  of  ploughed  eartli,  gradually  lays  it  over  half 
inclined  on  tlie  preceding  slice.  Foreigners  are  said  to  have  been  struck  witli 
the  lengUi  of  the  English  mould-boards,  at  the  Great  Exhibition ;  tliis  length 
has  been  found  advantageous  for  the  stiff  clay  soils  of  England. 

In  respect  to  han-ows,  tlie  square-bar  han-ow,  with  straight-set  teeth,  has 
been  used  from  the  eailiest  times  till  within  tlie  last  few  years.  Harrows  are 
now  made  with  the  teetli  diagonally  aiTanged,  so  that  the  frame  which  contains 
them  can  be  drawn  square  forward  instead  of  obliquely.  There  is  also  a  very 
ingenious  expanding  han-ow  now  in  use,  in  which  the  cross  bars  are  jointed 
loosely,  so  that  the  tines  or.  teeth  can  increase  or  decrease  their  mutual  distance 
behind  and  before,  by  decreasing  or  increasing  the  distance  to  the  right  and 
left— like  the  '  laxy-tongs.'  , 

Another  implement  which  assists  in  preparmg  the  soil  is  the  roller.  Ihis, 
like  the  plough,  has  tmdergone  great  improvement  recently.  "Not 'many 
years  ago,"  the  Jury  Report  tells  us,  "  the  landlord  was  often  asked  by  his  tenant 
for  some  old  tree  to  convert  into  a  roller.  The  tree  roller,  when  manufactured, 
had  its  framework  loaded  with  rough  materials  to  give  it  weight ;  but  it  soon 
wore  and  cracked."  Sometimes  there  was  no  framework  at  all,  but  the  traces 
for  the  horses  were  fastened  to  two  pins  at  the  ends  of  the  roller.  Now,  however, 
our  Crosskiils  and  others  have  produced  excellent  rollers,  some  serrated  and 


I 


tgltmf'rmwmttivftaii^'Bi 


tlNRRY. 

isuied  that  tlie  drain 

1.     But  let  us  next 
)n,  of  which  that  of 

nd  action  of  ploughs 
).  The  Iftst  quttiter 
nents  ahnost  out  of 
stinctivc  chai-acter  to 
led  to  penetrate  the 
himself  on  the  geo- 
[\(l  the  fun-ow-tumer 
1  a  certain  symmetiy 
ts  ;  anotlier  is  noted 
or  lower  according  to 
ower  for  the  coulter  ; 
g  force  of  the  horse ; 
igh  may  be  used  for 
ible  of  being  readily 
are  foreign  countiiea 
lay  fairly  claim  to  be 
oughs  are  still  strong 
1,  the  North  German, 
I  across  tlie  Atlantic 
ughs ;  the  woodwork 
e  by  machinery  ;  and 
ily  be  taken  asunder 

isome  who  furnished 
1  Willi  mould-boai-ds 
iisby  have  especially 
ned  surfaces  which, 
lally  lays  it  over  half 
lave  been  struck  witli 
diibition ;  tliis  length 
ngland. 

straight-set  teeth,  has 
'  years.  Harrows  are 
frame  which  contains 
There  is  also  a  very 
ross  bai's  ai*e  jointed 
their  mutual  distance 
smce  to  the  right  and 

il  is  the  roller.  This, 
3cently.  "  Not '  many 
len  asked  by  his  tenant 
r,  when  manufactured, 
it  weight ;  but  it  soon 
k  at  all,  but  the  traces 
roller.  Now,  however, 
rs,  some  serrated  and 


CORN    AND   BREAD  :    WHAT   THEY    OWE   TO    MACHINERY. 


0 


some  plain.  Fanners  used  to  break  their  stiff  clods  partly  by  the  han'ow  and 
partly  by  the  plain  roller ;  but  now  the  clod-crusher — a  kind  of  roller  bristling 
over  with  tooth — etfcctually  breaks  down  the  hard  lumps  of  earth  which  impede 
arable  culture.  The  Norwegian  Imnow,  a  kind  of  triple  roller  amied  with 
much  sharper  teeth  than  the  clod-crusher,  is  another  modern  implement  for 
breakingjtho  clods. 

The  implement  called  bj  the  various  names  of  gruhher,  scarifier,  and  cultivator 
is  a  kind  of  substitute  for  the  plough  ;  it  is  a  modem  invention  to  which  gi-eat 
value  is  attached  by  experienced  men.  The  Jury  Report  encourages  an  oxpec 
tation  that  the  cultivator  may,  when  brought  into  gouoml  use,  save  one-half  of 
the  entire  labour  now  bestowed  upon  ploughing ;  and  that  it  ought  to  take 
rank  with  the  reai)ing-machin(!,  in  its  prosiiective  value  to  jtractical  farmers. 
The  scarifier  or  cultivator  cuts  up  five  feet  width  of  soil  at  once,  but  to  a  less 
deptli  than  the  plough ;  and  this  wholesale  cutting  up,  when  adopted  at  a  cer 
tain  season,  saves  tliree  or  lour  ploughings ;  the  instrument  has  generally 
about  eight  or  ten  tines  or  cutters,  something  like  ploughshares. 

Next  we  come  to  the  drillH  or  seed-sowimj  machines.  'J'liesc  are  not  less 
mai'ked  by  divei-sity  than  the  ploughs  of  the  present  day.  Lot  any  one 
examine  the  drills  in  the  Great  Exhibition,  or  in  the  Smithfield  Cattle  Shows, 
or  in  tlie  annual  shows  of  the  Agi-icultural  Society,  or  in  the  trade-circulars  of 
the  vai'ious  manufacturers — he  will  see  ample  proof  of  this.  Some  of 
the  drills  are  for  sowing  turnip  seed  only ;  some  are  equally  adapted  for  all 
seeds ;  some  deposit  manure  in  the  same  holes  as  the  seed ;  otliers  lay  the 
manure  at  a  trifling  distance  from  tlie  seed  ;  one  manufacturer  attends  par- 
ticularly to  the  driving  or  steering  apparatus,  l>y  which  tlio  drill  is  made  to  do 
its  work  in  regular  straight  lines ;  another  tries  to  make  his  drills  work  well 
on  Uie  side  of  a  hill ;  in  one  drill  wo  see  the  seed  descend  through  a  string  of 
tin  cups,  each  dipping  into  the  one  below  it ;  in  another  a  vulcanized  india- 
nibber  tube  supersedes  the  cups ;  some  are  two-row  drills,  while  othei-s  are 
four,  six,  eight,  or  ten ;  some  of  the  manure-drills  are  so  nicely  adjusted  that 
they  can  be  nuae  to  drop  small  portions  of  pulverized  manure  at  any  required 
distances  apai-t. 

"  The  sower  with  his  seed-lip,"  says  the  Juiy  Report,  "  has  almost  vanished 
from  soutliem  England,  driven  out  by  a  complicated  machine,  the  drill,  depo- 
siting the  seed  in  rows,  and  drawn  by  several  horses."  Although  horses  ai-e 
used  for  tlie  drill,  and  not  in  hand-sowing,  yet  hoi-ses  are  used  for  the  harrows 
which  follow  the  hand-sower,  and  tliis  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  calculated 
one-half  the  horse-power  is  saved  by  adopting  the  drill  instead  of  tlie  "  broad 
cast "  method  of  sowing.  There  is  a  saving  of  seed,  too,  by  the  drill.  But 
the  Juiy  Report,  which  discusses  tliis  subject  with  much  clearness,  states  that 
the  proper  mode  to  view  tlie  drill  is  as  tJie  keystone  of  what  may  be  termed 
machine-agriculture;  the  scarifier  loses  much  of  its  value  unless  the  drill, 
instead  of  the  broadcast  method,  follows  it;  and  the  horse-hoe — another 
important  member  of  the  machine  series — requires  tlie  drill  to  precede  it. 
The  drills  are  costly  machines,  some  rising  to  the  price  of  £40  or  £60;  but  Uie 
makere  are  cheapening  them,  and  are  introducing  many  varieties  among  them. 
The  juiy  instituted  a  trial  of  twenty  drills  at  Pusey — ten-rowed  corn  drills, 
ten-rowed  com  and  seed  drills,  three-rowed  drop  drills,  two-rowed  turnip  drills, 
hill-side  drills,  general-purpose  drills,  self  adjusting  steerage  drills — all  were 
there,  and  otliers  besides.  There  was  also  a  hand-baiTOw  drill,  worked  by  a 
man  instead  of  hoi-ses,  which  obtained  a  highly-eulogistic  character.  The 
modern  drills  not  only  economize  seed,  but  manure  also.     Farmers  used,  not 

M  3 


10 


CORN    AND    dread:    WHAT   TmST   OWK   TO    MACHINBBT. 


lone  hho.  to  scatter  the  lime  or    -hoapliate  or  other  manure  over  the  whole 
sm-face  of  a  field ;  but  now  the  manure-drills  concentrate  it  in  lines  along  tho 
rows  of  seed ;  nay.  Mr.  Hornsby's  drill  drops  tlie  seed  and  manure,  by  a  second 
advance  in  mechanic  frugulity.  only  at  tliose  points  hi  Uie  hnes  where  the 
plants  arc  intended   to   stand.     ThiH   has   been  well  chai-acUTised   as   "an 
elastic  pliability  by  which  mechanism  in  iit<riculturo  has  seconded  chemisti-y. 
Thei-e  has  been  a  very  Btriking  improvement  in  drills  made  recently,  by 
which  a  wholly  new  principle  is  brought  into  requisition— wholly  new,  at  leawt, 
80  far  OS  recards  the  art  of  sowing.    We  caimot  do  better  than  give  Mr.  i'lwey  s 
account  of  this  matter :— "  The  most  striking  novelty  is  Chandler's  wator-dnll. 
which  bids  fair  to  remedy  a  great  evil  for  southern  fai-mers.     Often  when  our 
land  ill  July  ia  ready  for  tlie  turnip  seed,  on  the  success  of  which  depends  our 
Hoclcs'  subsistence  in  winter,  that  land  is  as  dry  and  dusty  as  a  turnpike  road. 
We  watch  vainly  eveiy  cloud,  and  in  vain  set  our  weaUier-glass  ;  weeks  pass 
without  rain,  or,  worse  still,  a  shower  falls,  but  we  find  Umt  the  ram  has  not 
entered  the  ground.      This  drill,  however,  deposits  along  the  line  ot  seed 
enough  water,  which  serves  also  as  a  vehicle  for  manure,  such  as  supei-phos- 
phate    to  start  tlie  young  plant  in  readiness  for  the  coming  change  in  the 
weaUier.     It  is  used  extensively  by  practical  fanners  in  Wiltshire,  and  bids 
fair  to  remove  from  the  root-crop  one  of  tKe  farmer's  pecuhar  obstacles  —uncer- 
tainty, to  remove  which,  if  there  be  a  leading  object  of  improvement  m  agri- 
culture, is  tlie  main  object."  ,  .     ,     t       r.        ^    i 

Mr  Pusey.  botli  in  the  Agricultural  Journal  and  in  the  Jury  Report,  does 
his  best  to  recommend  the  horse-hoe  and  tlie  horse-rake  to  tlie  notice  of  fai-niers, 
as  being  valuable  applicaUons  of  horse-power  to  field  labour.  The  horse-hoo 
has  a  row  of  hoes  or  kniv(  s.  at  a  distance  apart  equal  to  that  of  the  rows  made 
by  the  drill ;  wheUier  tlie  seed  be  turnip  or  wheat,  Uus  compound  hoe  will 
drive  fearlessly  between  the  rows,  and  hoe  Uiem  effectually.  So  nicely  do  the 
parallel  hoes  do  their  work,  that  "  for  a  field  operation,"  Mr.  Pusey  remarks, 
•'  it  is  as  delicate  as  the  action  of  the  revolving  knives  with  which  the  loose 
threads  are  shorn  from  the  surface  of  broadclotli  at  Leeds."  He  gives  the 
farmei-s  some  hard  nibs  concerning  their  waste  of  horse-power  in  field  waggons, 
and  states  that  the  expense  of  a  horse-hoe  would  not  equal  the  difference 
between  that  of  a  two-horse  waggon  and  Uiat  of  an  equaUy  efficient  single- 
horse  cart. 

Machine  Processes,  from  the  Harvest  to  the  Granary. 

As  we  ai-e  here  ti-eating  of  agi-icultui-al  matters  only  so  far  as  they  have  been 
brought  within  the  range  of  machinery,  no  apology  is  necessary  for  our  skip- 
ping over  the  more  minute,  patient,  and  manipulative  processes  which  engage 
so  much  the  att«nUon  of  die  farmer.  We  wiU  suppose  tlie  field  ot  corn  to  be 
ripe,  and  then  see  what  the  machinist  has  done  for  this  com. 

Of  all  the  recent  applications  of  machuiery  to  farming,  none  have  excited 
greater  attention  and  astonishment  tliau  reaping  machines.  Tbreshmg 
machines  have  ceased  to  be  a  novelty;  but  reaping  machines  are  only  now 
taidng  fast  hold  of  tlie  position  which  they  are  destined  to  maintain.  How 
the  reaping-hook  and  tlie  sickle  are  employed  by  hand  laboui-ei-s,  every  one 
knows  who  has  walked  through  a  corn-field  in  haiTest  time ;  the  stooping 
position  and  the  slow  progi-ess  have  often  suggested  to  the  observer  that  a  day 
mtut  come  when  some  plan  more  efficient  would  be  adopted. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  Parliament  voted  a  reward  to  the 


imiiii>t*i*i»illiiiiiiii«»i'i*Mi»»i>j»««*W'>«'l''M'"***' 


NERT. 

lure  over  the  whole 
t  in  lines  along  the 
nannro,  by  a  Beeond 
ho  lines  where  tho 
uTicU'risetl  as  "  an 
'conded  chemisti^." 

made  recently,  by 
vholly  new,  at  leant, 
lan  give  Mr.  Pusey's 
landlor's  water-dnll, 
It.  Often  when  our 
'  which  depends  our 

08  a  turnpike  road, 
r-glaas ;  weeks  paas 
littt  the  rain  has  not 
ig  the  line  of  seed 

such  an  superphos- 
ming  change  in  the 
Wiltshire,  and  bids 
lar  obstacles — uncer- 
iiprovetiient  in  agri- 

ie  Jury  Report,  does 
tlie  notice  of  fai-merH, 
3ur.  The  horse-hoo 
lat  of  the  rows  made 
8  compound  hoe  will 
ly.  So  nicely  do  the 
Mr.  Pusey  remarks, 
with  which  the  loose 
eda."  He  gives  the 
)wer  in  field  waggons, 
;  equal  the  difference 
ually  efficient  single- 


[E  Gkanaky. 

far  as  they  have  been 
lecessary  for  our  skip- 
oceases  which  engage 
he  field  of  corn  to  be 
:om. 

ig,  none  have  excited 
mhiim.  Threshing 
lachines  ai-e  only  now 
i  to  maintain.  How 
1  laboui-ers,  every  one 
t  time;  the  stooping 
lie  observer  that  a  day 
3ted. 
voted  a  reward  to  the 


mm 


I OKN    AND    imSAO  :    WHAT   THEY   OWK   TO    MAriHINKRV. 


11 


inventor  of  a  reaping  machine ;  but  the  machine  was  ho  intricate  that  it 
jiradunlly  fell  into  disuse.  Another  was  afterwards  invented  in  one  of  our 
colonies,  but  it  cut  otf  only  the  heuds  of  Uie  corn,  liMivin^f  tlie  grtnitei'  [lart  of 
the  stmw  stiinding — a  serious  impediment  to  proper  culture.  One  or  two 
other  niachineH  were  afterwards  invented,  but  they  went  so  comi)letely  oiit  of 
use  tliut,  at  the  opening  tif  tlie  (ireat  E.xhibilion,  tlie  two  American  machines 
appeared  almost  like  perfect  novelties. 

ISlr.  McCormick  has  given  an  account  illustrative  of  the  slow  steps  by  which 
his  mnehine  arrived  at  ethcieitcy.  His  father,  a  farmer  in  Virginia,  made  two 
different  aUempts,  at  periods  long  ajuu-t,  to  construct  a  reaping  niiMihine ;  Jjo 
abandoned  both  as  being  unsatisfactory.  In  1H:H  the  son  begiui  his  experi- 
ments, and  in  that  yeai-  constructed  a  machine  for  reaping.  It  is  one  of  the 
peculiarities  of  a  reaping  machine,  tliat  it  can  only  bo  tested  during  a  few 
weeks  in  the  year ;  u  manufacturing  machine,  in  most  other  trades,  can  be 
used  or  tried  at  all  seasons  of  the  year ;  but  a  reaping  machine  only  comes 
into  use  when  tlie  com  is  ready  for  harvest.  Hence  it  happened,  that  when 
any  defect  was  found  ui  Mr.  McCormick's  machine,  he  had  to  wait  nearly 
twelve  months  before  he  could  test  the  usefulness  of  any  changes  or  improve- 
ments ho  might  make.  It  was  nine  years  before  he  sohl  a  single  machine, 
and  fourteen  years  before  a  regular  demand  arose.  At  length,  tlie  yeiu'  1845 
saw  tho  machine  completed ;  and  since  that  time  lliere  has  been  a  sole  in 
America  for  about  a  tlioiisand  anmiiUly.  It  seems  strange  that  six  years  should 
elapse  before  tliese  machines  became  known  in  Engliuul.  and  that  our  Great 
Exhibition  should  be  tlie  means  of  miikuig  them  known ;  but  England  has 
always  looked  ratlier  for  raw  jiroduce  than  lor  machinery  from  the  United 
Htates  ;  luul,  moreover,  agricultural  machines  are  ponderous  articles  to  transmit 
BO  great  a  distance. 

A  few  words  must  sullice  to  explain  the  princijile  of  action  in  this  machine. 
Two  systflins  have  been  tried  in  the  machines  hitherto  made  :  tlie  one  to  cut 
by  a  series  of  clippera  or  sheoi-s,  and  tlio  oUier  by  a  revolving  plate.  In 
McCormick's  machine  tliere  is  a  cutting  blade  about  on  inch  in  breadth, 
jagged  or  toothed  hi  the  front  edge  ;  it  extends  across  tlie  front  of  the  machine 
"near  tlic  ground,  and  has  a  reciprocating  or  oscillatory  horizontal  motion  given 
to  it.  Over  tliis  blade  is  a  light  reel,  to  which  aie  fixed  obli(|ue  blades  or 
spai-s  of  deal;  tliese  spars,  when  the  reel  revolves,  get  behind  die  fnlks  of 
standing  com,  and  hold  them  steadily  while  being  cut ;  Uie  stalks  are  piL.^ed 
between  projecting  tines  or  lingers,  luid  are  there  cut  by  the  saw-like  action  ol" 
the  blade.  When  the  stidks  aie  thus  cut  near  tho  ground,  tliey  fall  on  the 
floor  of  the  machine.  The  reel,  witli  its  windmill-lookmg  api)endages,  is  the 
strangest  part  of  this  machine  ;  it  seems  at  first  as  if  it  would  beat  out  all  the 
ears  from  the  com  as  it  revolves ;  but  tliis  we  may  presume  has  been  guarded 
against  by  the  inventor. 

There  has  been,  and  still  is,  a  battle  raging  between  two  reaping  machines, 
McCormick's  and  Hussey's,  both  from  the  United  States.  It  is  quite  plain 
that  both  ai'e  veiy  efficient  machines ;  and  tliat  though,  rather  from  imtoward 
accident  than  design,  one  obtained  a  "  council  medal "  and  the  other  did  not, 
the  JU17  would  have  been  veiy  glad  if  boUi  had  obtained  this  much-coveted 
honour. 

On  one  of  the  trials  made  before  the  Exhibition  Jury,  McCoi-mick's  machine 
cut  fifteen  acres  in  ten  hours,  and  did  it  lower  down  the  stalk  than  by  ordinary 
hand  reaping.  Mr.  Pusey "s  estimate  of  the  saving  by  tho  use  of  tliis  machine  is 
estraordinary ;  he  assmnes  9s.  an  acre  to  bo  tlie  labour-wages  for  ordinary 


— **wKife. 


18 


CORK   AMD   nHK.AP:   WHAT  TIIKV   OWE  TO   MACHINERY. 

ho  CHtiinutcH  tho  wiiKoa  for  the  two 


rcftpiiiR,  mttkinn  0/.  1 5«.  for  fifteen  acres ; 

men  on  the  nimhhie,  tho  Kheiif  b'nulfis,  iiiul  lh<'  hoims  food,  at  'J/.  7.i.  M., 
leaving  ii  nmrgin  of  II.  7«.  M.  in  liixomof  tlu;  uiiu'hino ;  in  Htnctnt-KH.  n  Hnmll 
perccnliino  ou^!ht  to  ho  mldcil  to  this,  as  intii<!st  on  tin-  cost  prico  of  tho 
miM'hiiio  iinil  tlio  two  horses.  Hut  Mr.  I'usoy  tliiniiH  tlmt  a  feature  of  greater 
inii)ortan<e  tlian  this  saving  is,  that  tho  niaeliine  may  enahhi  tlie  farmer  to 
save  more  of  his  crop  in  hiul  seasons  and  late  districts  by  its  rapid  rate  of 

action. 

On  one  occasion  Mr.  Iluxsty's  machine  was  tried  before  a  large  cojicourse 
oil  persons  at  Hadliam  ilall,  near  Hishops  Stortford.  It  lirst  cut  a  tield  of 
barley,  then  a  tield  of  clover,  then  a  tield  of  wheat,  and  did  its  work  so  cleanly 
and  cpiickly  as  to  astonish  all  tho  lookers-on.  One  incident  (if  newspaper 
rep<  tors  tolil  it  correctly)  nnisl  have  been  veiy  rich  in  iU*  way.  A  lierculoan 
8nitn  Kfrocked  spectator,  with. a  reaping-hook  in  iiis  hand,  was  so  overwhelmed 
witli  astonishment  at  what  he  saw,  that  ho  broke  his  reaping  hook  and  threw 
away  tlio  pieces,  in  despair  of  ever  equalling  this  magical  corn-cutter.  In  an<ither 
trial  at  Windsor,  before  Trinco  Albert,  Hussey's  machine  was  tried  upon  a 
very  rough  and  imcven  piece  of  ferny  gromid ;  the  machine  cut  tire  ferns  very 
rapidly,  cleanly,  and  close  to  the  groinitl;  and  Mr.  llussey  himself,  standiiig 
on  the  platform  u.s  tlie  machine  moved  along,  raked  the  fern  otf  the  platform 
on  the  ground  in  heaps  of  conveniciUl  size  for  gathenng  into  sheaves.  I'lie 
arrangement  of  the  cutting  points  or  edges  seems  to  ensure  a  kind  of  clipping 
of  the  stalks,  analogous  to  that  by  sheai-s,  whereas  McCormick's  has  a  cutting 
action  more  like  that  of  a  saw.  In  a  trial  of  the  two  machines  at  Tiptreo,  the 
verdict  was  given  in  favour  of  McCormick's ;  at  another  trial  near  Middles- 
borough,  tlie  verdict  was  most  decidedly  in  favour  of  Iiissey's.  "When 
doctors  disagrof,"  S:c. ;  we  may,  however,  safely  settle  down  into  tlie  conclusion 
that  both  are  admirable  and  important  contrivances,  and  tha.'^  probably  each 
one  is  better  fitted  f(jr  a  particular  crop  or  a  particular  state  of  'he  ground. 

'I'liese  two  arc  not  tlie  only  reaping  machines  now  attracting  I'ublic  notice. 
Some  short  time  ago,  tlu;  Hon.  Mr.  Tollenmche,  traveling  in  tii<.  United 
States,  saw  one  of  die  reaping  nuichines  in  operation  (we  oo  not  know  wheilior 
Husseys  or  McCormick's),  and  was  stmck  with  its  effective  action ;  on  his 
return  to  England  he  described  tho  machine  to  Messrs.  Gan-ett ;  and  those 
eminent  implement  makers — partly  from  his  description  and  partly  from  tlieir 
own  ingenuity — produc(;d  a  new  reaping  machine,  which  was  brought  before 
public  notice  in  the  early  i»art  of  1H51.  This  machine  cuts  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  or  beans;  it  acts  nearly  on  the  same  principle  as  tlio  otlier  two 
machines,  and  cuts  about  an  acre  in  an  hour.  There  is  a  machine  recently 
invented  by  Mr.  Winder,  for  cutting  corn  or  grass  by  a  series  of  rotating 
horizontal  knives,  adjusted  in  a  singular  manner.  There  are  many  other 
reaping  machines  of  recent  invention  now  trying  to  make  their  way  into  the 
market  and  into  the  com  field ;  but  it  rausi  be  confessed  that— like  American 
revolvei-s  and  American  picik-locks — American  reaping  machines  are  at  present 
in  the  ascendant. 

It  was  one  of  the  notable  stages  in  the  hist<3ry  o.  -  ..,;;  Xi  ai'inculture  when 
tlie  threshing  machine  invadou  Uie  domain  which  harl  btlirr  bi  I'n  held  w  (.lif 
puted  by  the /rtt/.  All  our  manufactures  ca,  eii'  '  ■'■■i'  .i  changes.  A 
time  comes  when  inventive  talent,  spurred  on  by  lue  ouvious  imperfections  of 
the  old  hand  imiil  ments,  contrives  a  machine  which  saves  a  great  amount  of 
labour,  and  very  likely  performs  the  work  more  efficiently.  This  machine  is 
introduced ;  it  is  ti-ied  by  tho  uiventor  or  others ;  a  great  outcry  is  raised  by  those 


litmmtm  ■ 


INKHY. 

e  wages  for  the  two 
food,  at  -il.  7.1.  »»./.. 

lit  Htrictlli'HH,  HNIlUlll 

u!  coHt  piifo  of  thu 
a  ft'uturc  of  KroattT 
iukl)l(t  tlio  funnel-  to 
i  by  its  ntpid  rutu  of 

0  11  large  cDncoiuHo 
t  liist  cut  u  tifld  of 
d  its  work  ho  eloaidy 
L'ident  (if  iiowspapiT 
t  wiiy.  A  Herculean 
WHS  MO  oviTwhehued 
ping  hook  and  threw 
rn-cuttor.  In  another 
nc  waH  tried  upon  a 
le  cut  the  ferns  veiy 
soy  himself,  Mtondii.;.' 
fern  otf  the  platf'"  ' 

into  hheavcs.  I'iie 
ro  a  kintl  of  clipping 
rniick'H  has  a  cutting 
dunes  at  Tiptrco,  tliu 
r  trial  neai'  Middles- 

Irissey's.  "  When 
^n  into  tiie  conclusion 

1  tha.'  probably  each 
lite  of  'ho  ground, 
meting  jMiblic  notice, 
filing  in  tin.  United 
cio  not  know  wheihcr 
ictive  action ;  on  his 
.  iJan-ett;  and  those 
and  partly  from  their 
1  was  bn)Ught  before 
0  cuts  wheat,  barley, 
e  as  the  oUier  two 
ri  a  machine  recently 
■  a  series  of  rotating 
liere  are  many  other 
ke  tlieir  way  into  the 

that — like  American 
achines  are  at  present 

;lish  ni'inculture  when 
hm  h  <»n  held  iv  dis 
■  ,  ;^'  .3  changes.  A 
noxia  imperfections  of 
es  a  great  amount  of 
ly.  This  machine  is 
itcry  is  raised  by  those 


fOllS   AND   UllHAIi  ;    WU.\T  TIIKY   OWK   To   MAOUINKBV, 


18 


whoso  labour  is  displaced,  and  by  others  who  advocate  their  intcrnsts;  entreaticf* 
and  conipluintH,  tiueaicnings  and  violence,  succeed  each  other;  the  nuiciiino 
gradually  conquers  its  opponentn,  luul  niiitterH  gradually  adjust  themselves  to 
V.  new  order  of  things.  Such  has  been  the  case-  in  respe  !t  to  the  uistnunents 
for  separating  grains  of  corn  fron>  the  straw;  every  y»'ar  is  the  threshing  ma- 
chinoseen  to  be  nion  nd  nioreeniployeii,  and  every  year  are  the  old-fashioned 
flails  lessening  in  innnber.  In  the  <  urlier  niacbiiies  the  grains  wore  liable  to 
bo  rather  more  broken  or  bniised  than  by  a  well-nianag''d  flail ;  but  the  ira- 
pUducnt  makers  have  gradually  svnniounted  all  obstacles. 

'IJiresiiing  machines  bear  a  pretly  gene.al  resend)lance  to  Oftch  other  in 
their  nuxle  of  action.  'I'ht!  essential  part  is  a  large  cylindrical  drum,  on  the 
outer  surface  of  which  are  fixed  bars  or  beaters  parallel  with  the  axis ;  the 
drmn  is  made  to  revolve  with  a  velocity  of  five  hundred  to  a  thousand  tunis 
in  a  minute.  The  stalk  of  corn  being  passed  betwien  feeding  rollers,  it  comes 
in  co;ituct,  with  the  heaters  on  the  rapidly  revolving  dnnu ;  the  grain  is  beaten 
<m(,  a'l  !  ti.lis  to  the  ground,  while  the  straw  passes  on  to  the  other  side  of  the 
machine.  Most  of  the  threshing  machines  have  straw-shakers  attached,  to 
K  )araU!  more  elTectually  the  straw  from  the  grains  of  com.  Among  our 
most  noted  nuumfacturers,  the  thresliing  machines  are  usually  made  from 
five  to  nine  horse-jjower ;  most  of  the  machines  (down  to  tlie  present  time) 
are  worked  by  horses,  who  go  rotuul  in  their  monotonous  circ\dar  course  two 
or  three  times  in  a  mimite ;  in  an  average  machine,  about  a  hundred  sheaves  of 
com  can  be  threshed  in  three  minutes.  The  revolving  dnnn  being  tlie  com- 
mon typo  of  all  the  machines,  minor  iini)rovements  ans  introduced  by  par- 
ticular makers ;  one  has  applied  anti-friction  wheels  to  the  axle  of  the  dium ; 
another  uses  serrated  instead  of  plain  beaters ;  some  of  the  machintis  are  fed 
with  Uio  corn-stalks  in  a  vertical  jjosilion,  some  horizontal ;  in  one  khid  *ha 
maker  cares  otdy  for  the  complete  extrication  of  the  com  from  the  straw; 
while  in  another,  which  is  to  be  worked  near  towns,  where  clean  unbroken 
straw  has  a  good  and  ready  sale,  the  mechanism  is  so  constnicted  as  to  leave 
the  straw  In  as  whole  and  unbroken  a  state  as  possible. 

The  Juiy  lleport,  in  reference  to  the  efhcient  threshing  machines  of  mo- 
dem days,  adduces  a  very  extraordinary  fact,  which  this  Exhibition  Juiy  has 
midoubtedly  done  much  to  bring  to  light,  viz.,  the  enormous  loss  of  power  in 
the  ordinary  horse  machines.  The  tlnvshing  ma(;hineM  which  supei-seded  the 
flail  ai-e  worked  by  three  or  four  horses  moving  in  a  circle ;  but  it  has  been 
found  that,  until  very  lately,  the  various  wheels,  shafts,  levers,  and  other 
working  parts  were  so  unskilfully  adjusted  that  three  homes  out  of  four  are 
em[)loyed  in  moving  the  dead  weight  of  the  ai)paratus  itself,  and  only  one 
hoi-se-power  left  for  the  actual  threshing.  Mr.  Amos,  tlie  considting  engineer 
to  the  lloyal  Agricultural  Society,  discovered  this  fact  only  three  years  ago ; 
and  the  implement  makera,  made  acquainted  with  tliis  rather  glaring  proof  of 
forgetfulness,  are  now  busied  in  devising  a  better  an-angement  of  the  working 
parts.  But  when  tlie  tlu-eshing  machine  is  worked  by  steam  instead  of  horses, 
the  saving  of  power  is  veiy  notable.  The  Jury  lleport  gives  the  result  of 
some  investigations  by  Mr.  Pusey,  to  ascertam  the  relative  cost  of  different 
modes  of  threshing :  he  puts  down  'is.  6d.  per  quarter  of  corn  for  tlie  flail 
method,  tis.  for  tlie  hoi-se  threshing  machine,  and  only  9d.  for  tlie  steam 
threshing  machine;  wages,  horse-food,  coals,  use  of  the  engine,  wear  and 
tear,  all  seem  to  have  been  charged.  This  result,  if  conect,  is  certainly  very 
important.     A  still  later  experiment  has  shown  the  steam  metliod  to  bo 


I 


14  CORK   AND   BUEAD:   WHAT  TTIEY   OWK  TO   MACHINERY. 

capable  of  threshing  and  tcmnowincf  at  an  expense  varying  from  M.  to  Hrf. 
per  qtiarter. 

The  winnotviiiff  machine,  like  most  other  maciiines  in  agiiculture,  has  now 
become  an  important  economizer  of  time  and  labour.  Instead  of  trusting  the 
threshed  com  to  die  action  of  tlie  wind,  to  separate  tlie  grain  from  the  husk 
or  chaff,  it  is  placed  in  a  machine  which  works  with  great  rapidity  and  exact- 
ness. Homsby's  winnower  or  dressing  machine  not  only  separates  the  good 
from  the  bad  in  this  way,  but  actually  discriminates  and  separates  six  quali- 
ties, known  technically  by  the  names  of  beat  corn,  (food  tail,  tail,  xchites,  screen- 
inys,  and  chaf.  It  effects  this  separation  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  quarters  in  an 
hour ;  and  dresses  the  whole  of  it  a  second  time  at  the  rate  of  twenty  quarters 
in  the  hour ;  so  tliat  a  wheat-rick  of  twenty  quarters  can  be  made  ready  for 
the  market  in  five  hours. 

Corn,  In  its  Commercial  and  Markktable  Relations. 

Before  tracing  om-  crop  of  corn  to  the  miller  and  the  baker,  let  us  note  a 
few  facta  illustrative  of  tlie  vast  influence  which  such  crops  exert  on  the  ordi- 
nary commerce  of  the  country.  We  are  a  bread-eating  nation  ;  but  we  seldonx 
pause  to  consider  how  the  supply  is  kept  up,  nor  how  admirably  the  ordinary 
routine  of  commerce  suffices  to  ensure  a  supply  wherever  the  pence  are  fortlx- 
coraing  to  pay  for  it. 

Nothing  shows  better  the  magnitude  of  our  operations  in  respect  to  bread 
and  its  materials,  than  tJie  com-se  of  commerce  in  one  of  our  great  ports 
during  a  definite  period.      Take,  for  exami)le,  tlie  com-trad*.  of  Liverpool 
during  the  yeai-  1851,  as  given  in  Uie  trade  circulai-s  of  that  wonderful  town. 
Corn  is  now  the  greatest  of  all  imports  at  Liverpool,  with  the  single  exception 
of  cotton.     Ireland  used  to  be  tlie  graiiaiy  for  South  Lancashire ;  but  Irish 
agiiculture  has  been  shaken  in  various  ways;  and  supphes  now  pour  into 
Liverpool  from  foreign  countries  in  enormous  quantities — to  be  eitlier  con- 
sumed in  tlie  manufacturing   districts,  or   to  be  re-shipped  to  otJier  ports. 
At  the  beginning  of  tlie  year  1851  there  were  in  stock,  in  the  Liverpool 
warehouses,  300,000  quai-ters  of  wheat,  300,000   ban-els  and  100,000  sacks 
of  flour,    60,000   loads   of  oatmeal,   and    100,000  quarters  of  Indian   corn. 
There  were  imported  mto  Liverpool,  during  the  year,  750,000  quarters  of 
wheat,  430,000  sacks  and  1,500,000  barrels  of  wheat  flour,  -^00,000  quarters 
of  oats,  300,000  loads  of  oatmeal,  70,000  quai-tera  of  barley,  830,000  quarters 
of  Indian   com,  and   small   quantities   of  other  kinds  of  giain  and  meal. 
Notwith.standing  these  almost  incredible  importations ;  notwithstanding  tliat 
tliese,  ftdded  to  the  stock  at  the  beginnmg  of  the  year,  make  an  aggregate  of 
1,750,000  quarters  of  grain,  and  1,800,000  barrels,  530,000  sacks,  and  350,000 
loads  of  flour  and  meal ;  yet  the  stock  in  hand  on  Januaiy  1,  1852,  was  very 
mu^  smaller  tlian  on  that  day  twelve  months ;  so  enormous  has  been  the  sale 
at  Livei-pool.     It  was  not  until  ten  years  ago  that  Indian  corn  was  imported  to 
any  notidole  extent  into  Liverpool ;  yet  we  find  that  the  merchants  of  that  port 
disposed  of  400,000  quarters  in  1851.     Almost  sUl  the  Indian  com  imiwrted 
into  Liverpool  is  ro-shippijd  to  Ireland ;  a  poition  of  the  wheat  is  re-shipped 
to  other  poi-ts ;  but  by  far  the  gieater  part  travels  inland,  and  spreads  itself 
cr^er  the  country. 

London,  as  may  be  supposed,  receives  within  its  vast  and  busy  port  much 
more  cam  timn  ia  required  for  its  two  millions  of  indwellers ;  it  is  a  centre 


^^mtm 


JHINEBY. 

ying  from  M.  to  8rf. 

agi'iculture,  has  now 
nstead  of  trusting  thu 
grain  from  the  husk 
at  riipidity  and  exact- 
ly separates  the  good 
1  separates  six  quali- 
iU,  tail,  tfhites,  sereen- 
tiftcen  quarters  in  an 
ate  of  twenty  quarters 
in  he  made  ready  for 


Relations. 

haker,  let  us  note  a 
ops  exert  on  the  ordi- 
nation ;  but  we  seldont 
dmirably  the  ordinary 
er  the  pence  are  fortli- 

ms  in  respect  to  bread 
16  of  our  great  ports 
;ni-tradti  of  Liverpool 
f  that  wondorlul  town, 
th  the  single  exception 
Lancashire ;  but  Irish 
ipplies  now  pour  into 
ies — to  be  either  con- 
lipped  to  otJier  ports, 
tock,  ill  tlie  Liverpool 
els  and  100,000  sacks 
irt^-s  of  Indian   corn, 
r,  750,000  quarters  of 
flour,  -200,000  quarters 
arlej-,  330,000  quarters 
Is  of  gi-ain  and  meal. 
;  notwithstanding  that 
make  an  aggregate  of 
000  sacks,  and  350,000 
luary  1,  1852,  was  very 
nious  has  been  tlie  sale 
n  corn  was  imported  to 
merchants  of  that  port 
e  Indian  com  imiwrted 
he  wheat  is  re-shipped 
and,  and  spreads  itself 

St  and  busy  port  much 
idwellers ;  it  is  a  centre 


COEM   AND    BRFAD:    WHAT   THEV    OWE    TO    MACHIKERT. 


15 


from  which  corn  distributes  itself  to  otlier  great  markets.  The  supply  of 
com  received  in  London  during  the  year  is  of  course  immense.  In  1849  it 
amounted  (in  round  numbers)  to  1,050,000  quarters  of  wheat,  650,000  of 
bai-ley,  l.aoO.OOO  of  oats,  smaller  quantities  of  a  few  other  kinds  of  grain,  and 
ii:W,000  sacks  and  45,000  ban'els  of  flour;  the  proportion  received  from 
abroad  is  many  times  greater  than  tliat  received  from  our  own  home  comities. 
In  1850  tlie  quantities  of  eveiy  kind  brought  to  London  were  smaller  than  in 
1849 — thereby  indicating  an  alt*)red  state  of  tlie  markets,  Briti.sh  and  foreign. 
Taking  the  whole  countiy,  and  estimating  the  flour  and  meal,  as  well  aa  tlie 
com,  by  qmrters  instead  of  sacks  and  barrels,  we  find  that  tlie  United  Kingdom 
imported  from  the  colonies  and  from  foreign  countries  the  following  quantities 
m  1850  :— 4,800,000  quarters  pf  wheat  and  wheat  flour,  1,040,000  quarters  of 
bai'ley  and  bai-ley-meal,  and  1,100,000  quarters  of  oats  and  oatmeal— giving 
the  immense  quantity  (added  to  our  own  home  growth)  of  56,000,000  bushels 
of  these  three  kinds  of  com,  besides  Indian  corn  and  a  few  otlier  kinds. 
France  sent  us  more  in  that  yeai-  than  any  other  countiy,  Prussia  next,  Russia 
third,  and  the  United  States  fom-tli.  Those  who  wish  to  compare  these 
various  entries  must  bear  in  mind  Uiat  380  lbs.  of  flour  is  about  equivalent 
(in  bread-making  power)  to  one  (juai*ter  of  wheat.  The  quantity  of  wheat 
flour  imported  from  France  alone  in  1850  was  something  quite  enormous — 
placing  at  a  wide  distance  anything  that  had  before  occun-ed;  it  was  veiy 
nearly  2,000,000  cwts. !  In  1851  our  imports  of  grain  amounted,  in  round 
numbers,  to  6,000,000  quarters,  besides  flour  and  meal. 

It  would  be  well  if  we  had  in  England  any  such  agricultural  statistics  as 
tliose  which  tlie  Earl  of  Clarendon  has  caused  to  be  obtained  in  Ireland. 
The  constabulary  force  has  been  occasionally  employed  in  that  countiy,  within 
the  last  few  years,  in  making  most  minute  investigations  uito  tlie  state  of 
Irish  farming.  We  are  not  cognisant  of  any  trustworthy  estimate  of  the  quantity 
of  com  gi'own  annually  in  Great  Britain. 

The  warehousing  of  com — that  intermediate  commercial  stage  between 
famiing  and  grinding— is  an  important  matter,  requiring  cs^ital  to  support  it 
and  care  to  conduct  it  Partly  from  tlie  operation  of  revenue  laws,  and  partly 
to  meet  the  exigencies  of  various  markets,  com  has  frequently  to  be  kept  for 
a  long  period  in  the  granary ;  and  great  caution  is  then  necessaiy  to  prevent 
it  from  becoming  damp  or  otherwise  injured.  So  far  as  the  metj-opolis  is 
concerned,  the  commercial  history  of  a  quarter  of  corn  is  somewhat  as 
foUo\v8: — The  farmers  and  great  dealers  in  com  send  up  to  Mark  Lane, 
three  times  a  week,  samples  of  the  com  which  they  have  to  sell ;  these  samples 
are  consigned  to  corn-factors  or  corn-brokers,  who  lease  or  rent  stands  at  the 
Com  Exchange.  The  millei-s,  mealmon,  com-chandlers,  and  others  who  wish 
to  buy  com,  attend  at  the  Com  Exchange  and  make  their  purchases ;  they 
judge  only  from  the  samples,  and  deal  only  with  tlie  factoi-a — knowing  nothing 
and  caring  nothing  who  may  be  the  actual  sellere.  The  broker  or  factor 
obtains  the  best  price  he  can  for  his  client,  and  receives  a  small  commission 
for  his  trouble.  In  short,  it  is  so  far  analogous  to  most  of  the  great  traduig 
operations  in  the  city,  where  a  broker  takes  a  world  of  trouble  off  the  shouldere 
of  the  seller,  and  often  obtains  a  better  price  for  him  tlian  he  could  himself. 

Whether  com  is  collected  from  various  home  counties,  and  centred  at  a 
great  emporium  like  Wakefleld;  or  whetlier  it  comes  from  abroad,  and  is 
stored  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  nr  the  Mei-sey,  or  the  Humber— it  is 
placed  in  large  Ictfty  granaries.    It  is  spread  out  hi  layers  on  extensive  floors, 


16 


CORN    AND   BREAR  :    WHAT  THEY   OWE   TO   MACHINERY. 


which  layers  are  giadually  increased  in  depth  or  thickness ;  and  by  being 
shovelled  about  and  turned  over  from  time  to  time,  tlie  com  is  preseiTcd  in 
good  condition — sometimes  for  several  yeai-s.  Some  of  the  granaries  at 
Dnntzic  arc  nine  stories  in  height.  In  some  countries  the  com,  after  being 
dried  and  aired,  is  kept  covered  up  in  pits. 

As  we  have  already  briefly  adverted  to  tlie  fine  display  of  agiicultui-aJ  im- 
plements;  in  the  Great  Exhibition,  so  might  we  now,  if  it  were  deemed  ne- 
cessaiy,  show  that  corn-crops  and  theii  products  were  to  the  full  as  amply 
illustrated.  In  respect  to  com  itself,  there  were  thirty  or  forty  exhibitors, 
headed  by  Piince  Albert;  some  sent  wheat,  others  oats,  otliers  rye,  others 
barley,  and  various  kinds  of  grain.  Some  of  the  specimens  were  intended  to 
show  how  a  particular  soil  is  suited  for  gi-ain ;  §ome  were  illustrative  rather  of 
the  effects  due  to  pari .  ulai-  maimres ;  while  others  again  were  associated 
witli  pai-ticulai"  systems  of  rotation  in  urable  cidture. 

But  in  this  we  were  far  outtlone  by  our  foreign  friends.  Those  countiies 
(and  they  ai-e  many)  which  depend  mther  on  agi-icultural  than  on  manu- 
facturing industiy,  naturally  sent  to  our  great  international  display  the  best 
that  they  could  produce  in  tlie  shape  of  com.  No  less  than  thirty  different 
foreign  countries  and  colonies  sent  us  com  specimens ;  and  of  these,  Russia, 
Spain,  Canada,  and  Belgium,  were  particularly  rich  in  the  number  of  ex- 
hibitors. Those  who  remember  the  llussian  section  will  call  to  mind  the 
excellent  mode  of  an-angement  adopted  to  display  tlie  agricultuml  specimens. 
It  is  true  that  veiy  few  pei-sons  are  competent,  on  handling  a  few  gi-ains  of 
com,  to  predicate  anytliing  concerning  the  excellence  of  the  soil  or  the 
skilfulness  of  the  culture ;  but  it  was  a  point  of  much  importance  tliat  tliose 
who  are  competent  should  have  such  an  opportimity  as  was  afforded  at  the 
Crj'stal  Palace. 

And  tlie  instmments  for  hai-vesting  or  preparing  com,  and  for  bringing  it 
into  the  edible  fomi  of  flour,  and  bread,  and  biscuit — these  were  neither  few 
nor  unimportant.  Some  of  tliem  have  already  been  named  in  a  former  pj^e ; 
but  othei-s  are  fully  as  much  wortliy  of  attention.  There  were  com-drying 
machines ;  com  and  grain  cleaning  and  di-essing  machines ;  com  and  grain 
grinding  and  crushing  mills  ;  com  and  seed  meters ;  com-stack  levels ;  com- 
whisps  and  dusters ;  millstones  for  llonr  mills ;  and  various  other  machines 
and  implements  having  relation  to  com  before  it  assumes  the  form  of  flour. 
Then,  besides  corn-flour  exhibited  by  about  sixty  pei-sons,  English  and  foreign, 
we  had  flour-dressing  machines,  flour  exti-actors,  winnowing  machines,  and 
others,  which  relate  to  flour  rather  than  to  unground  com.  Next,  carrj-ing 
forward  the  industrial  history  of  a  corn-crop  to  a  further  stage,  we  had  bread- 
making  machines,  bread-cutting  machines,  biscuits,  l)iscuit-baking  machines, 
and  ovens  of  various  khids. 

But  we  must  hasten  to  see  what  the  miller  does  with  the  com  which 
reaches  his  mill,  and  whether  modem  machinery  Ihaa  given  a  new  aspect  to 
his  opemtion. 

Corn  Grinding,  prom  the  Hand  Mill  to  the  Steam  Mill. 

In  almost  all  the  modes  of  gi-inding  com — by  tlie  hand  mill,  the  cattle  mill, 
tlie  water  mill,  Uie  windmill,  Uie  steam  mill — tliere  are  two  horizontal  stones 
one  above  another,  between  which  tlie  com  is  gi-ound  by  the  rotation  of  the 
upper  stone.     The  hand,  the  cattle,  the  water,  the  wmd,  the  steajn — are  ^lip 


IKEUY. 

aess;  and  by  being 
com  is  presened  in 
jf  the  granaries  at 
Ire  com,  after  being 

I  of  agricultui-a)  im- 
it  were  deemed  ne- 
)  the  full  as  amply 
or  forty  exhibitors, 
,  others  rye,  othei-s 
ns  were  intended  to 
illustrative  rather  of 
ain  were  associated 

8.  Those  countiies 
ii-al  than  on  manu- 
iial  display  the  best 
than  thirty  different 
nd  of  these,  Russia, 
the  number  of  ex- 
ill  call  to  mind  the 
ricultural  specimens, 
ling  a  few  gi-ains  of 
of  tlie  soil  or  the 
uportance  tliat  tliose 
?  was  afforded  at  the 

1,  and  for  bringing  it 
;se  were  neither  few 
ed  in  a  foiiner  page  ; 
ire  were  corn-drying 
ines ;  com  and  gi-ain 
•n-stack  levels ;  com- 
■ious  other  machines 
;s  the  form  of  flour. 
English  and  foreign, 
wing  machines,  and 
oni.  Next,  carrying 
stage,  we  had  bread- 
uit-bakuig  machines, 

vith  the   com  which 
iven  a  new  aspect  to 


Steam  Mill. 

1  mill,  the  cattle  mill, 
two  horizontal  stones 
ly  the  rotation  of  the 
1,  the  steapQ — are  iJLxQ 


CORN   AND    BREAD  :    WHAT   THEY    OWE    TO    MACHINEUY. 


ir 


agents  for  rotating  the  upper  stone ;  it  is  to  tlie  two  stones  themselves  that 
tlie  actual  grinding  process  is  due.  The  upper  stone  has  a  hole  in  its  centre, 
tlirough  which  the  com  falls ;  and  the  distance  between  the  stones,  which  is 
susceptible  of  adjustment,  detemiines  the  fineness  to  wliicli  the  corn  can  bo 
ground.  The  opposing  sui-faees  of  these  stones  aie  furrowed  witli  channels 
which  extend  from  tlie  centre  obliquely  towards  the  circumference ;  and  being 
in  opposite  directions,  these  furrows  meet  each  other  like  the  blades  of  a  pair 
of  scissors.  These  cliannels  sene  to  convey  the  ground  flour  to  the  edges  of 
tlifi  stones,  where  it  escapes  into  a  box  or  i-eceptacle.  The  immber  and  direc- 
tion of  tlie  furrows  seem  to  be  left  to  the  fancy  of  the  miller,  without  any  veiy 
definite  rule. 

There  are  some  very  peculiar  features  connected  with  the  manufacture  of 
these  giooved  millstones.  It  is  not  every  countiy  that  can  boast  of  possess- 
ing tlie  proper  stone  ;  indeed  veiy  few  can,  and  among  these  few,  France  and 
Germany  take  the  lead.  At  about  ten  miles  from  Coblentz  on  the  Rhine,  and 
•  neai'  tlie  small  town  of  Andemach,  are  the  millstone  quan-ies  of  Nieder- 
Mendig,  which  have  been  celebrated  for  two  thousand  yeai-s.  There  is  a 
sti-atum  of  veiy  hard  porous  lava,  about  five  miles  long  by  three  broad  ;  it  is  sup- 
posed that  tliis  lava  is  the  produce  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  it  is  found  to  be 
admirably  calculated  for  the  purpose  of  millstones.  Seven  quanies  have  been 
excavated,  to  tlie  depUi  of  about  fifty  feet ;  each  quarry  is  a  kind  of  funnel, 
twenty-five  feet  in  diameter  at  the  top,  and  twelve  at  the  bottom,  with  a  path 
cut  spirally  around  it.  There  is  a  tliickness  of  fifty  feet  of  gravel  and  loose 
lava  to  be  cut  through  before  the  quanymen  reach  the  tme  stone  ;  and  these 
funnel  openings  peneti-ate  tlirough  this  thickness.  Airived  at  the  bottom,  the 
men  quarry  right  and  left,  forming  galleries  and  passages  in  all  directions. 
The  stone  is  veiy  haid,  and  requires  good  tools,  aided  by  wedges  and  levers, 
to  work  it.  There  are  cracks  and  fissures  which  enable  tlie  men  to  separate 
it  into  slabs  large  enough  each  for  a  millstone.  Hammers  and  chisels  then 
bring  the  stones  to  a  proper  shape.  The  workmen  form  themselves  into  a 
kind  of  working  company ;  taking  tlie  offices  of  miners,  liftera,  dressers,  and 
loaders,  according  to  tlieir  abilities,  and  shai-ing  the  produce  among  them. 
Most  of  the  millstones,  when  made,  are  conveyed  to  Andemach,  and  aie  there 
congregated  as  a  cargo  for  an  enormous  timber  raft,  which  is  floated  down  the 
Rhine  to  Holland ;  when  airived  in  Holland  the  raft  is  broken  up  and  sold  as 
timber,  and  the  millstones  are  dispersed  whithersoever  a  market  may  be  fouiul 
for  them. 

But  France  has  also  a  goodly  share  in  tlie  supply  of  millstones,  made  from  a 
burr  stone  which  is  found  in  tliat  coimtiy — so  hard;  and  flinty  that  a  pair  of 
stones  are  sometimes  said  to  work  regularly  for  thirty  years  before  tliey  become 
wom  out.  Barley,  oats,  and  lye  ai-e  chiefly  ground,  in  this  countiy,  either  with 
Welsh  stones  or  Derby  stones.  The  Derby  millstones  i;re  only  one-fourth  the 
price  of  French ;  but  they  are  so  much  inferior  in  hardness  and  durability, 
and  so  much  less  fitted  for  giinding  wheat,  tliat  the  French  stones  maintain 
tlieir  pre-eminence.  This  French  material  is  seldom  found  in  pieces  large 
and  sound  enough  to  make  a  whole  millstone,  and  it  is  therefore  customaiy  to 
cement  two  or  more  pieces  together  and  bind  tliem  round  strongly  with  iron. 
Practical  men  differ  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  large  and  small  millstones — 
whetlier  a  six-feet  stone  rotating  sixty  times  in  a  minute  is  better  or  woi-se 
than  a  smaller  stone  rotating  more  rapidly,  and  so  fortli ;  but  on  these  matters 
we  say  nothing. 

The  stones  used  by  millers  are  of  vai-ious  sizes,  according  to  the  intensity  of 


•Kf-mmltKli 


tmm- 


IS  CORN  AKn  bread:  what  thev  owk  to  maohinkby. 

i,»„i„«hl..  Tfchnicallv,  the  two  stones  are  called  the  runrur 
moving  power  obtainable,  ^^.'^^''''v'y',"  ._„  „  .^nner,'  or  adjusting  the 
and  the  hedder :  and  the  «P«"^^7  "f,2n2acv  sTce  not  only  must  the 
upper  stone  over  the  lower  js  ^"^  j^f^^'^^^bttS  Ihem  mu«t  depend  on  the 

rs^  r rnes^ ;>g^err.  S^tiriX^rSe  would  driL  away  the 
com  unground  or  half-ground.  „„^r>iAvitv  of  the  erinding  machinery, 

Whatever  may  be  the  ^^'^V^f'^^  ^'^^"^^r^flt^^^Zc.  The  reason 
all  com  requires  to  be  < Wc^  or  W  «rf  bef^.  ^1^^^::^^^^^^  with  the 
for  this  IS  obvious ;  the  bran  oi  nusK  oi  ui  ,„„_„ted  before  we  could 

Ineal  when  it  leaves  ^\^'f-X:i^  l^  oTt^mes,  a'S  m'«  wa«  used  to 
obtain  anything  like  wheaten  bread.  /»  f '^  "V'f ^' *  ^.^  ^f  a  Pecul'*""  «P«° 
effect  tliis  sepaSition ;  this  cons.st'.d  of  a  sort  ot  bag  mac^e^t  a  pe    ^^^J 

canvas,  in  which  the  meal  ;-^ J\7";,^r^^,'e,em?  bl  oTbeat^rs  ;  and  the 
with  groat  rapidity  -md  ^f -^,,*J„^^^^^^^^^  by  the  revolving  reel, 

action  was  such  tl^at.  by  the  centri  ugai  lo       i  i/oUing-cloth.  leaving 

tlie  flour  was  driven  forcibly  tlu-ough  f^«  '^fX,''*  'ii"ated  and  has  been 
the  bran  withinside.     This  machine  « .;«"^«^^f  J^^  ^^^^^^^  of 

nearly  superseded  by  the  dressing  ^'^''^f"^.^^™' leasing  in  fineness 

from  one  end  to  the  other ,  tne  ^J"""^'. '»,,.,„,_„  „„  fi„ed  to  a  centitd  axis 
the  finest  gauze  uppemost ;  and  T^^?  T|.  ^^^"f^'^Xom  a^^  the  axis  being 
in  the  cylinder.     The  machme  be'ngffdj^th  ground  c^^^  ^^^^^^  b^ 

xnade  to'rotate  rapidly,  the  brushes  Jift  or  .^^  thicro^v  l"^ ^J""  flo"^  pass ; 
the  wire  gauze-first  through  thejinest  g^^J^' ^^^J*^^"  ^hich  allows  monA 
J^en.  lower  down  Uie  cy hnder.^^^^^^^  ^^ 

flour  to  pass ;  then  thiough  t^"  ""'^J  .»  .-,  .  leuedi,  all  the  meal  or 
respectivily  to  the  middUngs  and  ^^e  f'^'-^  ^-^^^^^^^^^  ^.^^^^ 

flour  being  separated,  the  frmn  or  h  ^^^  5"^",^ *  ^^,^8  advocati  diflferent 
In  this:  as  in  many  oUier  f««««!^«A^*r'"*,PS Tnds  some  limit  it  to 
methods;  some  millers  f P^J^^?!«-J^7J„*"e^^^^^^^^ 
three,  while  others  extend  it  to  five,  ?"\l"  "^.yj'~f.'^'  ^^  of  ghut^up  com- 

itself  into  two  degrees  of  fineness.  Vn^land  is  that  which  forms  part 


wmmm 


MljMiriitaMHM 


INBRY. 

ire  called  the  runtur 
r,'  or  adjusting  the 
B  not  only  must  the 
must  depend  on  the 
ith  which  the  upper 
i  velocity,  the  closer 
ould  drive  away  the 

grinding  machinery, 
4  flour.     The  reason 
mes  mixed  with  the 
tited  before  we  could 
Uiiuf-miU  was  used  to 
le  of  a  peculiai"  open 
was  a  reel  revolving 
I  or  beaters  ;  and  the 
by  the  revolving  reel, 
bolting-cloth,  leaving 
icated,  and  has  been 
lonsists  principally  of 
icreasing  in  fineness 
acUned  position,  with 
axed  to  a  centi-al  axis 
m,  and  the  axis  being 
hi-ough  the  meshes  of 
Jy  lets^ine  flour  pass; 

which  allows  seconds 
jness,  which  give  exit 
length,  all  the  meal  or 
nd  of  the  cylinder, 
ins  advocate  diff'erent 
sinds,  some  limit  it  to 
ere  is  a  corresponding 

and  of  shiit-up  com- 
le  wire  dothf  employed 
n  inch.  In  some  ma- 
ich  separates  tlie  bran 

1  that  which  fonns  part 
h  the  ship-biscuit  esta- 
f  is  nearly  two  hundred 
Each  wing  of  which  it 
a  steam-engine  of  46- 
in  diameter,  and  make 
i  can  grind  five  bushels 
d  grind  twelve  hundi-ed 
m-engines  which  work 
creening  machines  and 
id  in  bins  on  tlie  upper 
reenmg  machines  made 
»e  surface  of  wire  cloth, 
passes  thenoe  by  spouts 


COHN    AND    BREAD :    WHAT    TllKY    OWE    TO   MACHINERY. 


19 


to  hoppei-8  which  supply  tlie  millstones.  There  arc  likewise  two  wheat-drying 
mills  and  an  oatmeal  mill  connected  wiUi  the  establishment.  To  what  extent  the 
govemnjsnt  supplies  of  biscuit  for  tlie  navy  aie  obtained  from  tlie  flour  ground 
at  this  establislnnent  we  do  not  know ;  the  ratio  probably  varies  at  ditlerent 
times  ;  but  a3  50,000  souraon  require  20.000,000  lbs.  of  biscuit  ui  a  year,  the 
supply  of  flour  from  some  quarter  or  otlier  must  be  very  lai-ge. 

When  once  the  steam-engine  is  set  to  work  within  tlie  walls  of  a  buildmg, 
there  is  no  predicting  where  or  when  it  will  stay  its  progress  :  we  may  tell 
what  it  can  do,  but  must  be  cautious  in  assertmg  aught  concerning  what  it 
cannot  do.  So  it  is  with  com,  as  with  cotton.  We  are  getting  beyond  the 
steam  mills  of  Uie  Government  Yards.  Mr.  Bovill,  the  engineer,  has  recently 
introduced  in^irovements  of  an  important  kind  m the  processes  of  conigrind- 
ing.  Simple  as  tliis  operation  seems  to  be,  it  is  now  known  that  many  dis- 
advantages attend  Uie  ordinary  aiTangement  of  mechanism ;  and  it  is  to  the 
remedying  of  these  dlsadvanteges  tliat  Mr.  Bovill  has  directed  his  attention. 

To  understand  the  remedy,  it  will  be  necessary  to  notice  tlie  defects  to  be 
remedied.  When  com  is  ground  between  two  ordinary  millstones,  tlie  centri- 
fugal force  generated  by  the  rotation  of  the  upper  stone  drives  out  the  ineal 
or  flour  at  the  edges  of  the  stone.  AU  the  flour  thus  travels  outwards  before 
it  can  escape  from  the  stone;  and  in  its  travels  it  suffers  deterioration. 
When  the  running  stone  has  performed  even  a  single  revolution,  some  portion 
of  tlie  com,  however  small,  has  been  ground  into  flour;  but  this  [)ouion, 
instead  of  escaping  at  once  as  it  ought  to  do,  is  retained  among  tlie  rest,  and 
is  ground  over  and  over  again  before  it  oan  find  an  outlet  at  the  edge  of  the 
stone.  The  flour  which  is  thus  overground  is  found  to  be  deteriorated  m 
strength  and  colour;  and  it  is  so  heated  that  two  or  three  weeks  are  necessary 
before  it  is  fit  to  pass  through  the  dressing  machme.  During  this  lapse  ot 
time,  any  dampness  which  may  reach  the  over-heated  flour  tends  to  produce 
a  slight  fermentation,  which  sours  the  flour  and  renders  it  otherwise  out  of 
condition.  The  damp  and  heated  condition  of  the  flour,  aided  by  our  humid 
atmosphere,  renders  it  necessary  to  use  a  dressing  machuie  with  coarser 
meshes  than  those  which  are  now  used  by  millers  in  France ;  we  use  coarse 
wire  cylinders— they  employ  meshes  of  silk ;  and  the  consequence  is,  that  a 
considerable  portion  of  bran  becomes  mixed  up  with  our  flour.  Another 
notable  circumstance  is,  that  much  flour  becomes  diffused  through  our  corn- 
mills,  occasioning  both  waste  of  property  and  a  deterioration  of  the  atmosphere 
in  which  the  men  are  employed. 

Now  this  list  of  inconveniences  is  rather  a  formidable  one — the  flour 
weakened  in  strength,  deteriorated  in  colour,  rendered  liable  to  ferment, 
compelled  to  lie  idle  while  cooling,  imperfectly  freed  from  bran  in  dressing, 
wasted  in  the  form  of  dust,  and  allowed  to  pollute  the  atmosphere  of  the  miU. 
It  is  to  -remedy  some  or  all  of  these  evils  that  Mr.  Bovill's  apparatus  has 
been  contrived ;  and  this  apparatus  we  may  now  describe. 

In  the  first  plane,  by  a  very  simple  adjustment  of  a  revolving  fan,  a  strong 
blast  of  wr  is  directed  between  tlie  millstones,  by  which  every  particle  of 
flour  is  blown  out  directly  it  has  been  ground,  thus  avoiding  over-gnndmg 
and  over-heating.  The  flour  falls  into  a  reservoir,  and  is  immediately  con- 
veyed by  an  endless  chain  of  buckets  to  the  room  where  the  dressing  machme 
is  "at  work.  Mr.  Bovill  has  discarded  the  old  dressing  cylinder  of  wire  meshes 
and  bmshes,  and  has  adopted  the  French  system  of  silk  cylinders;  his 
dressing  machine  is  an  octagonal  cylinder  (if  such  a  name  may  be  used), 
covered  with  silk,  and  mode  to  revolve  in  an  inclined  position ;  the  bran  is 


■MM 


90 


CORN    AND    DREAD  :    WHAT   THEY    OWE   TO    MACHINERY. 


retained  in  the  cylinder,  and  noUiing  but  fine  flour  escapes.  By  anotlier 
apparatus,  the  fine  flour  which  is  blown  out  from  between  the  millstones,  and 
ascends  (instead  of  descends)  by  its  lightness,  is  forcibly  driven  by  a  blast  into 
a  chamber,  wliose  walls  are  formed  of  cloth ;  it  is  sifted  through  tliis  cloth  by 
the  blast,  and  collects  in  the  chamber  as  useful  flour.  This  is  the  portion 
which,  in  an  ordinary  mill,  goes  to  waste,  and  fills  the  air  with  annoying 
dusty  pai-ticles.  Thus  has  Mr.  Bovill  endeavoured  to  meet  the  whole  of  tlie 
evils  enumerated  above. 

An  interesting  course  of  experiments  was  conducted  a  few  months  back,  in 
a  mill  which  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty  peimitted  Mr.  Bovill  to  construct  in 
Deptford  Dockyard,  in  close  proximity  to  another  mill  on  the  old  principle ; 
the, object  being  to  fairly  compare  the  two  systems.  Many  gentlemen  in- 
terested in  tlie  welfare  of  English  agriculture  were  present ;  and  Mr.  Bovill 
commenced  by  showing,  in  a  remiu-kable  way,  how  lengthened  is  the  path 
which  a  grain  of  corn  is  often  compelled  to  follow  before  it  can  escape  from 
the  ordinaiy  millstones;  he  placed  a  piece  of  French  chalk  between  the 
stones,  and  this  chalk  left  an  ever-widening  circular  mark  on  tlie  lower  stone 
dm-ing  tlie  revolutions  of  tlie  upper ;  the  spiral  path  was  no  less  than  6300 
feet  long,  considerably  more  tlian  a  mile,  showing  Uiat  the  chalk  had  had  to 
traverse  this  distance  before  it  could  escape  at  the  edge  of  the  stone ;  and  an 
inference  may  be  drawn  from  this  concerning  the  violent  rubbing  to  which 
com  is  exposed,  even  after  it  has  been  reduced  to  flour.  The  comparative 
experiments  yielded  the  following  results  :  25  quarters  of  wheat,  half  red  and 
half  white,  were  ground  and  dressed  on  the  old  plan  ;  the  operations  required 
9  hours  and  60  minutes,  and  tlie  moving  power  consumed  2106  lbs.  of  coal. 
The  same  quantity  and  quality  were  then  ti-eated  on  the  new  plan ;  tlie  time 
being  6  hours  and  30  ramutes,  and  tlie  coals  2464  lbs.  The  tempemtures  of 
the  two  mills  while  at  work  were  neai-ly  alike ;  but  the  flour  as  it  escaped  from 
the  stones  in  the  old  mill  showed  a  temperature  of  95°  Fahr.,  whereas  that 
in  the  new  mill  was  only  79°.     The  relative  produce  was  as  follows : — 

Old  system.  New  system. 

Best  flour       .         .         .     9889  lbs.  9886  lbs. 


Seconds 

.    none 

243 

Middlings 

■       424    „ 

706 

PoUai-d  . 

.       894    „ 

647 

Bran 

611    „ 

411 

Money  value  . 

.  58Z.  8s.  Id. 

69/.  18s 

4rf. 

It  thus  appears,  if  these  experiments  are  to  be  relied  uiion,  that  the  new 
system  is  distinguishable  for  yielding  seconds  and  middlings  flour  rather  than 
pollard  and  bran  ;  the  quantity  of  fine  flour  being  nearly  alike.  A  little  more 
coal  is  used  in  steam-power,  but  less  manual  labour  is  required  in  the  opera- 
tions. If  it  be  tiue,  as  is  stated,  that  three  or  four  quai'tern  loaves  more  can 
be  made  from  a  sack  of  flour  if  ground  by  the  new  plan  instead  of  the  old, 
and  that  as  fine  flom-  can  be  made  by  the  new  method  from  com  at  40«.  as 
by  the  old  fi-om  com  at  45s. — then  indeed  is  this  a  notable  improvement. 

The  Thames  steamers  have  enabled  thousands  of  passengers,  dui-ing  the 
year  1851,  to  witness  tlie  exterior  of  a  monster  new  building,  situated  between 
Blackfriai-s  Bridge  and  St  Paul's.  This  is  a  com-mill,  lately  built  at  an 
expense  of  no  less  tliaii  80,000Z. ;  it  contains  sixty  pairs  of  mill-stones,  driven 
by  a  steam-engine  of  SOO-hoi-se  power ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  all  the  appliances 
for  grinding  1000  quarters  of  wheat  in  a  day,  on  Mr.  Bovill's  principle. 


mnumm 


HtaiMMM 


mmt 


■IINKRY. 

scapes.  By  anotliei* 
I  the  millstones,  and 
Iriven  by  a  blast  into 
through  tliis  cloth  by 
This  ia  the  portion 
e  ah-  with  annoying 
eet  the  wliole  of  tlie 

few  montlis  back,  in 
Bovill  to  construct  in 
on  the  old  principle  ; 
Many  gentlemen  in- 
sent  ;  and  Mr.  Bovill 
igthened  is  the  path 
)re  it  can  escape  from 

chalk  between  the 
k  on  Uie  lower  stone 
'as  no  less  than  6300 

the  chalk  had  had  to 
>f  the  stone ;  and  an 
jnt  rubbing  to  which 
iir.  The  comparative 
f  wheat,  half  red  and 
e  operations  required 
ued  '2106  lbs.  of  coal. 
3  new  plan ;  tlie  time 

The  temperatures  of 
our  as  it  escaped  from 
t"  Fahr.,  whereas  that 
i  as  follows  : — 

New  system. 
9886  lbs. 

Ui^    „ 

706    „ 

647    „ 

411    „ 
m.  18a.  4rf. 

ed  uix>n,  that  the  new 
lings  flour  rather  than 
Y  alike.  A  little  more 
equired  in  the  opera- 
utern  loaves  more  can 
m  instead  of  the  old, 
)d  from  com  at  40s.  as 
ble  improvement. 
passengers,  during  the 
(ling,  situated  between 
lill,  lately  built  at  an 
of  mill-stones,  driven 
lave  all  the  appliances 
)viirs  principle. 


COBN  AND   BREAD  :   WHAT  THEY   OWE  TO   MACHINERY. 


21 


A  veiy  convenient  kind  of  com-mill  has  been  recently  patented  by  Messrs. 
Garrett.  Although  portable,  it  is  susceptible  of  being  adjusted  either  to 
steam,  water,  or  horse  power.  The  millstones  are  iW  inches  in  diameter,  and 
are  inclosed  in  a  framing  of  metal  and  wood  ;  the  shaft  which  bears  the  upper 
stone  has  a  bevel  wheel  which  facilitates  its  adjustment  to  the  moving  power. 
The  stones  will  gi-ind  wheat,  barley,  beans,  or  peas ;  and  it  is  intended  for 
use  on  large  farms,  where  it  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  send  eveiything  to  an 
ordinaiy  mill  to  be  gi'ound. 

Another  ingenious  mill  of  recent  introduction  is  the  Paragon  mill  (as  it 
is  called)  of  Messrs.  Barrett.  It  is  intended  to  combine  in  one  portable 
apparatus  the  requisite  action  for  grinding,  crushing,  and  splitting,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  corn  or  other  crop  to  be  acted  upon.  ^luch  difficulty 
has  hitherto  been  encountered  in  securing  these  threefold  powers  in  the  same 
machine.  Messrs.  Barrett  have  sought  this  result  by  employing  three  rollers, 
parallel  to  each  other — two  in  front  and  one  behind ;  two  of  the  rollers  are 
grooved,  for  acting  on  grain  or  seed,  while  the  other,  acting  in  conjunction 
with  an  upright  plate,  is  adapted  for  splitting  beans. 

Machine  Bread  and  Machine  Btscurra. 

The  natm-al  course  of  our  subject  now  bi'ings  us  to  such  modern  mechanical 
arrangements  as  facilitate  the  production  of  bread  and  biscuits  from  the  floiu* 
— whetlier  the  latter  be  gi-ound  on  the  old  or  the  new  style. 

How  the  baker  prepares  his  long  aiTay  of  loaves,  while  those  who  ai'e  to 
eat  the  loaves  are  quietly  asleep  in  their  beds,  a  short  description  may  render 
plain.  Pity  it  is  tliat  the  sallow-faced  baker  is  exposed  to  this  necessity  :  his 
is  an  unnatural  sort  of  life,  turning  night  into  day,  and  inhaling  an  atmosphere 
very  deleterious  in  its  ingredients.  Perhaps  we  may  yet  see  the  day  when  a 
little  additional  application  of  scientific  knowledge — a  little  mechanism  in  one 
part  and  a  littU;  chemistry  in  another — may  release  our  indispensable  friend 
from  the  bakehouse  and  put  him  into  a  comfortable  bed  during  the  hours 
when  bed  is  most  welcome. 

Potatoes  ai'e  used  in  most  modem  English  bread ;  they  are  boiled,  mashed, 
mixed  with  a  little  yeast,  allowed  to  stand  several  hours,  strained,  diluted  with 
water,  and  then  employed  as  liquid  ferment.  This  femient  is  mixed  with  a 
portion  of  Uie  flour  to  be  employed,  to  make  a  kind  of  dough  called  sponge ; 
and  this  sponge  is  allowed  to  rest  five  or  six  hours,  to  rise  or  swell.  More 
water  (having  salt  and  a  few  other  matters  dissolved  in  it)  and  more  flour  are 
added,  and  tlie  whole  worked  up  by  Uie  baker's  hands  and  ai'ms  into  dough ; 
the  dough  is  left  quiet  for  an  hour  or  two,  after  which  it  is  cut  into  pieces, 
weighed,  and  shaped  into  loaves.  The  oven  being  prepared,  the  baker  '  sels 
the  batch  ; '  that  is,  he  ranges  his  loaves  in  rank  and  file  on  tlie  floor  of  the 
oven — taking  cai-e  that  the  '  cottages  '  shall  not  be  close  together,  whereas  the 
'  bricks '  are  packed  up  as  compactly  as  possible.  Here  tlie  bread  remains 
for  an  hour  and  a  half  or  two  hours,  when  the  hot  steaming  assemblage  is 
removed  from  the  oven. 

Some  yeai's  ago  an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  what  (with  veiy  little  error) 
might  be  termed  a  bread  factoiy,  in  Leicestei-shire.  There  were  many  novel- 
ties inti'cduced  by  the  owner  or  owners.  In  the  first  place  the  com  passed 
through  two  pairs  of  millstones,  placed  one  over  the  otlier ;  it  was  partially 
ground  by  the  upper  pair,  then  fell  through  a  sieve  or  sifter,  and  was  again 
groimd  by  the  lower  pair ;  and  a  current  of  air  tended  to  keep  the  meal  cool. 


«i 


OOBN  AND  BHKAD;   WHAT  THKT  OWE   TO  MACHINERY. 


The  objectH  held  in  view  were,  to  eoonomiKC  labour,  to  economize  spiMM,  and 
to  iiroduco  better  (lour— all  very  desirable,  il'  to  be  obtained.  Another  part 
of  the  estabUshniont  was  devoted  to  the  making  of  bread.  Instead  ot  ugmg 
yeaat,  there  eeenis  to  have  been  carbonic  acid  gas  injected  m  some  wav  mto 
the  dough,  and  mode  to  cauue  Uie  '  rising  of  tlie  sponge.'  The  dough  was 
Hhaped  into  loaves,  which  were  baked  on  hoUow  iron  shelves  m  an  nnmensc 
oveu-  the  waste  steaui  from  tlie  engine  of  the  ttour-mill  circulated  m  the 
hollows  of  the  shelves,  and  heated  them  sufficiently  to  bake  the  bread  without 
further  fuel.  There  were  many  other  projects  before  the  public,  about  a  dozen 
or  fifteen  years  ago,  for  miUiing  bread  on  a  large  and  steam-factory  scale,  and 
for  exti-ftcting  spirit  from  Uie  bread;  but  thoy  all  failed—"  breatl  with  the  gm 
iu  it,"  advertised  by  the  old  bakers,  succeeded  in  beating  down  the  new-fangled 
bread  which  hatl  been  deprived  of  Uiia  alcoholic  accompaniment  Dr.  Ure 
says  that  tlie  quantity  of  spirit  capable  of  being  soved  whde  breatl  is  bakmg 
is  go  exti-emely  small,  that  the  project^instead  of  being  to  "  take  the  gin  out 
of  the  bread"— consisted  in  "taking  the  cosli  out  ol  the  pockets  ot^^ 
shareholders.     The  Chelsea  ginless-bread  factory  cost  aO,00()i.  to  establish. 

Mr  Perkins'  '  hot-water  oven  '  is  an  American  novelty  which  became  tanu- 
liar  to  us  at  tlie  Great  Exhibition.  There  was  perhaps  a  dash  of  di-oU  quack- 
en-  in  the  large  loaf  exhibited  above  the  oven,  and  iu  the  small  slices  of  bread 
liberally  bestowed  upon  the  bystanders ;  the  bread  may  have  been  baked  in 
that  pw-ticulai'  oven,  but  tlie  merits  of  the  oven  could  not  be  very  satisfactorily 
tested  in  such  a  way.  The  leading  [irineiplo  in  this  oven  is,  that  the  tempera- 
ture is  regulated  by  hot  water  instead  of  hot  air,  by  an  adapUtion  of  the  hot- 
water  system  now  so  extensively  used  in  wamimg  builduigs.  There  are  three 
merits  claimed  for  this  oven  by  its  inventor-— c/«on/inm,  economy,  md  ease  oj 
adaptation.  It  is  cleanly,  because,  there  being  no  coal  of  any  kind  used  in  the 
oven,  nothing  but  Uie  pure  heat  from  the  hot- water  pipes  can  act  upon  the 
bread,  and  no  deleterious  gases  can  aftect  its  flavour  or  quality ;  it  is  economical, 
because,  from  the  mode  of 'applying  the  heat,  one-half  of  the  fuel  is  saved,  and 
a  constant  and  equable  heat  maintauied ;  it  is  easy  of  adaptation,  because  the 
temperature,  indicated  by  a  thermometer  placed  outside  the  oven,  can  be 
raised  or  diminished  at  pleasure  by  opening  or  closing  a  damper,  so  as  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  different  kinds  of  baking  operations.  A  very 
extended  application  woidd  be  necessaiy  to  determine  the  validity  of  these 

clftims 

There  was  no  lack  of  ovens  at  tlie  Ciystal  Palace  which  put  foiih  their 
claims  to  public  notice.  There  was  Mr.  PoweU's  *  portable  economical  oven.' 
There  was  Mr.  Shave's  '  patent  oven  for  baking  bread,  Ac.,'  exhibited  for 
economy  of  fuel  and  time.  Mr.  Edwards'  '  atraopyre  hoods '  are  ovens  of  a 
somewhat  remarkable  kmd ;  they  are  gas-ovens,  which  act  somewhat  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  wire-gauze  envelope  of  the  miners'  safety-lamp.  Ihey 
are  made  of  porcelain ;  gas  is  introduced  mto  tiie  interior,  whence  it  escapes 
through  small  perforations  m  the  sides ;  these  tuiy  streams  of  gas,  not  more 
than  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  when  ignited  on  the  outside  of  the 
hocjd,  bmii  with  a  pale  blue  flame ;  this  flame  emits  very  little  light,  but  its 
heat  is  so  intense  as  to  make  the  mass  of  porcelain  red  hot  in  a  few  minutes. 
When  seveial  of  tiiese  atmopvres  are  giouped  together,  they  fonn  a  sort  of 
solid  fire  which  will  speedily  heat  un  oven ;  and  tliere  are  aiTangements  for 
adapting  the  number  to  tiie  size  of  the  oven  required.  Porcelain  wUl  beai- 
many  repeated  red-hot  firings  without  being  destroyed ;  and  it  is  at  all  events 
interesting  to  see  this  beautifid  principle  (for  beauUfid  it  certainly  w)  of 


"Vftrfi^niiilimiiiwiiMiiiiirtiii'i 


HK- 


'"*»* 


OHIMERY. 

economies  spiwM,  and 
ituiued.     Another  part 
ad.     Instead  of  using 
oted  in  some  way  into 
ngo.'     The  dough  wbb 
iliclvos  in  an  immense 
mill  circulated  in  the 
Jake  the  bread  without 
!  public,  about  a  dozt-u 
team-factory  scolo,  and 
— "  breatl  with  the  gin 
;  down  the  new-fangled 
mpaniment     Dr.  Uro 
while  bread  is  baking 
g  to  "  take  the  gin  out 
f  the  pockets "  of  the 
lO.OOOi.  to  estabhsh. 
Ity  which  became  fanii- 
a  dash  of  droll  quack- 
le small  slices  of  bread 
11/  have  been  baked  in 
ot  be  very  satisfactorily 
en  is,  that  the  tempera- 
1  adaptation  of  the  hot- 
lings.     There  are  three 
m,  economy,  and  ease  of 
of  any  kind  used  in  tl»e 
pipes  can  act  upon  the 
lality ;  it  is  economical, 
of  the  fuel  is  saved,  and 
adaptation,  because  tlie 
tside  the  oven,  can  be 
ing  a  damper,  so  as  to 
^  operations.      A  very 
le  the  validity  of  these 

i  which  put  foilh  their 
rtable  economical  oven.' 
•ead,  &c.,'  exhibited  for 
hoods '  are  ovens  of  a 
h  act  somewhat  on  the 
ers'  safety-lamp.  They 
terior,  whence  it  escapes 
treams  of  gas,  not  more 
1  on  the  outside  of  the 
vei-y  little  light,  but  its 
ed  hot  in  a  few  minutes, 
ler,  they  foi-m  a  sort  of 
re  are  aiTangements  for 
ed.  Porcelain  will  bear 
i ;  and  it  is  at  all  events 
itifvd  it  certainly  is)  of 


COIIN   AND   nRBAO:   WHAT  TIIEY   OWE   TO   MACHIHKRY. 


SB 


minutely-divided  gas  streams  applied  to  the  piiri)ose8  of  an  oven.  Hesldes  our 
own  Englifedi  uvimih,  thero  was  M.  EspiiiaHsr's  model  of  an  oven  for  bread- 
baking,  on  a  now  jjutented  system ;  tliere  was  Kacsen's  Cologne  iron  oven  ; 
and  thero  wiw  u  Chineso  oven,  heated  by  the  llame  of  a  liuap  possuig  Into  the 
centre. 

With  reMi>tct  to  tlie  ovens  ortlinarily  employed  by  bakers,  the  old  metho<l  of 
heating  by  sLuvings  hmued  in  th»!  oven  itsw'lf  has  gone  very  much  out  of  use, 
being  supei'sedod  by  flues  heated  in  a  roceptucle  distinct  from  tlie  oven.  IJiit 
it  uuist  be  ownetl  that  the  heating  of  bakers'  ovens  has  not  acquired  tho  com- 
pleteness of  which  it  is  doubtless  susceptible. 

It  is  rather  singular  that  imcuiu  have  become  more  decidedly  a  machine-made 
product  tlian  loaf  bread.  To  miderstimd  the  machine  metliod,  we  must  glance 
at  that  which  preceded  it. 

The  old  method  of  makuig  sea-biscuits,  still  adopted  by  all  but  a  few  very 
large  estubhslunents,  has  much  that  is  rough  and  uncouth  about  it.  At  the 
great  bakery  at  Gosport,  before  the  machine  method  was  inti'oduced,  the  men 
were  classed  into  ,/«r/(«r*,  mates,  drivers,  hreuhnen,  and  idlemen — odd  appoUations, 
some  of  tlicm.  First  came  the  driver;  the  proj)er  proportions  of  flour  and 
water  being  put  into  a  trough,  lio,  with  his  naked  and  Uisty  amis,  beat  and 
thumped  and  routed  and  turned  tho  materials  niidl  tliey  assumed  the  state  of 
dough — a  very  laborious  process  tliis.  Then  came  the  breakman ;  the  dough 
was  placed  upon  a  platform,  a  roller  called  a  break-statf,  hinged  at  one  end, 
was  placed  upon  it,  and  tlie  breakman,  riding  in  side-saddle  fashion  on  the 
otlier  end  of  tlie  roller,  jumped  it  about  in  rather  a  ludicrous  way,  giving  to 
the  dough  a  process  which  was  a  kind  of  cross  between  beating  wid  rolling; 
vei-y  uncouth  it  was,  biit  it  certaiidy  kneaded  the  dough.  Then  was  the  thin  layer 
of  dough  removed,  cut  into  slices  witli  enormous  knives,  the  slices  cut  into  small 
squares,  and  each  square  worked  by  hand  into  tlie  circular  fonn  of  a  biscuit. 
The  biscuits  were  stamped  and  pierced,  and  thrown  dexterously  into  the 
moutlj  of  an  oven,  where  they  fell  upon  a  flat  shovel  called  a  peel,  and  were 
transferred  from  the  i)eel  to  the  Hoor  of  the  oven.  This  act  of  tlirowing  the 
bibcuits  into  tlie  oven,  so  as  to  fall  exactly  on  the  right  spot,  becsame  quite 
celebrated  as  an  act  of  skilful  sleiglit  of  hand ;  and  tliere  was,  too,  a  denumd 
for  considerable  tact  in  tliis  matter ;  tlie  biscuits  require  only  a  few  minutes 
to  bake,  and  as  tlie  oven  is  kept  open  during  the  whole  time  it  is  being  tilled, 
Uie  men  threw  thicker  biscuits  in  at  fii-st  tlian  aftei-wards,  that  they  might  not 
be  overbaked.  All  tliese  latter  operations  required  much  skill  in  tlie  J'urner, 
tlie  mate,  and  tlie  idleman,  three  of  tlie  five  attendants  upon  each  oven. 

One  of  the  prettiest  of  all  factoiy  oj)eiations — a  real  factory  operation, 
although  it  relates  to  the  preparation  of  food — which  come  within  the  visiting 
privileges  of  English  folks  generally,  is  that  of  ship  biscuits  at  our  great  naval 
arsenals.  There  are  such  factories  at  Plymoutli,  at  Gosport,  and  at  Deptfuid ; 
though  we  believe  that,  in  times  of  peace,  tlie  Plymouth  establishment  could 
supply  the  whole  navy  with  biscuit.  Be  tliis  as  it  may,  it  is  asserted  that  we 
save  many  thousands  a  year  by  tlie  substitution  of  the  factory  system  for  tlie 
old  hand  system ;  and  tliat  tlie  biscuits  are  made  better,  cleaner,  and  more 
expeditiously. 

If  wt!  enter  the  Plymouth  Bakery  in  the  Victualling  Yard,  at  Cremill  Point, 
the  scrupulous  cleanliness  of  the  whole  at  once  strikes  the  view ;  we  can  hardly 
conceive  that  so  dusty  a  material  as  flour,  and  so  adhesive  a  substance  as 
dough,  ctui  be  so  tidily  controlled.  The  flour,  ground  by  the  steam-mill 
mentioned  in  a  former  page,  cUiscends  through  a  shoot  into  a  kind  of  covered 


94  CORN   AND   BUEAD  :   WHAT  TITEY   OWfi   TO   MACIUNEKY. 

box.  where  a  sinnll  stream  of  water  flows  upon  it.  Then  is  a  whole  amy  of 
knives  set  to  work  within  the  box,  tossing,  aiul  dashniR  ami  cutting  the 
mingled  Hour  in  all  directions  by  the  rapid  rotation  ot  a  shatt  to  which  the 
knives  are  attached:  when,  lo!  in  two  minutes  after  the  .lour  has  been  put 
into  the  box,  out  tumbles  6  cwt.  of  dough,  thoroughly  mcorporated.  but  not 
kneaded.  The  mass  is  rolled  over  and  over  for  five  mimites  by  two  ponderous 
iron  cylinders,  weighing  15  cwt.  each,  by  which  it  is  thoroughly  knea-led 
Then  does  a  large  cutter  nooi-ly  sever  the  tliin  sheets  of  dough  nito  six-swled 
biscuits ;  Uien  are  these  cakes  of  biscuit  dexterously  placed  m  ovens  ;  and  then, 
after  ten  of  twelve  niimites'  baking,  are  they  removed,  broken  anart  by  hand, 
and  stored  away.  Thus  is  tlie  corn  (a  mixture  of  'fine  Hour  and  'middhngs  ) 
converted  from  the  state  of  meal  to  that  of  baked  biscuit  m  Bomethmg  less 
than  half  an  hour.  The  men.  in  their  clean  check  shirts,  clean  white  trousei-s. 
clean  white  aprons,  clean  white  caps,  arc  quite  '  pictures  of  propriety. 

Mr.  Harrisr.ns  biscuit  machine,  patented  and  introduced  at  Liverpoo 
about  three  years  ago,  is  a  veiy  notable  advance  on  the  old-fashioned  hand 
method.  Let  us  briefly  describe  it  as  daily  at  work  at  the  ship-biscuit 
'bakei-y  •  of  the  inventor.  First,  tlien.  the  flour  and  water  arc  p  acod  m  a 
cylinder,  where  revolving  arms  ^oss  Uiem  about  and  mix  theni  thoroughly. 
Then  the  mixture  passes  beneath  heavy  rollers,  by  which  it  is  speedily 
kneaded  into  dough;  and  this  dough  is  by  another  roller  pressed  to  the  re- 
quired thickness  for  biscuits.  The  sheet,  of  dough  travels  on  an  endless 
apron,  and  is  stamped  and  cut  into  the  biscuit-form  by  cutters  which  descend 
at  short  intervals;  the  biscuits  travel  on  to  the  mouth  of  an  oven,  where  they 
are  received  on  a  sort  of  endless  gridiron;  the  gndiron  slowly  advivnces 
through  tlie  oven  to  the  depth  or  extent  of  neai-ly  thirty  teet,  and  the  heat 
and  length  of  the  oven  are  so  adjusted  that  by  the  time  the  biscuits  reach 
the  remote  end,  they  are  baked,  and  fall  out  at  an  opening  left  for  them.  Ihe 
oven  is  heated  by  hot  water.  This  is  a  more  thoroughly-automatic  machine 
than  even  the  royal  baking  apparatus  at  the  dockyard ;  for  the  flour  and  water 
KO  in  at  one  end  of  a  machine,  and  baked  biscuits  fall  out  at  the  other. 

Messrs  Barrett  have  constructed  a  compact  apparatus  for  making  what  aj-e 
called  Readmg  biscuits,  by  the  aid  of  a  small  amount  of  steam-power.  Ihe 
flour  water,  and  other  materials  for  the  biscuits,  are  placed  m  a  trough,  and 
the  mixing  of  Uiese  ingredients  is  effected  by  causing  them  to  pass  beneatli  a 
revolvinc  roller;  the  kneading  is  effected  by  other  rollers,  working  over  a  flat 
surface;  a  third  set  of  rollers  brings  tlie  dough  to  the  state  of  a  contmuous 
sheet  of  the  requisite  thickness,  and  this  sheet  is  stamped  out  into  pieces  pro- 
perly shaped  for  biscuits.  ,<   .  a-    <•  i<-  •> 

Thus.  then,  we  see  that  the  manufactunng  history  of  Uie  statt  ot  hte  — 
though  more  dependent  on  vegetable  chemistiy  than  most  other  extensive 
manufactures— is  really  coming,  year  after  year,  more  and  rnore  wiljin  the 
domain  of  mechanics.  The  hoi-se  is  helping  the  labourer  the  windmill  is 
helping  the  horse.  Uie  steam-engine  is  helpmg  the  windmill;  and  tlie  whole 
together  are  helping  tlie  farmer,  the  miller,  and  the  baker  to  produce  more 
bread  from  an  aJ-re  of  ground  than  formerly,  to  do  tliis  with  less  outlay  than 
formerly,  to  accomplish  the  task  in  less  time,  and  to  brave  many  exigencies  ol 
weather  which  the  old-world  fai-mers  knew  not  how  to  contend  against. 


A 


UlNEllY. 

11  is  a  whole  amv  of 
>ii(»,  iiiul   cnttiiiR  the 
a  Hhtift  to  whicli  the 
3  ;lour  has  boen  put 
incorporated,  but  not 
ites  by  two  ponderous 
thoroughly  kneaded, 
dough  into  8ix-Hi<led 
d  in  ovens ;  and  then, 
foken  apart  by  hand, 
lour  and  '  middlings ') 
lit  in  something  less 
I,  clean  white  trousers, 
of  propriety.' 
•oduced   at  Liverpool 
10  old-fashioned  hand 
[  at  the   ship-biscuit 
vater  aro  placed  in  a 
nix  thcni  thoroughly, 
which   it  is  speedily 
er  pressed  to  the  re- 
ravels  on  an  endless 
cutters  which  descend 
f  an  oven,  where  tliey 
liron   slowly  advances 
irty  feet,  and  the  heat 
me  the  biscuits  reach 
ng  left  for  them.    The 
lily-autoniatic  machine 
for  the  flour  and  water 
3ut  at  the  other. 
IS  for  making  what  are 
of  steam-power.     The 
aced  m  a  trough,  and 
leni  to  pass  beneath  a 
i-s,  working  over  a  flat 
I  state  of  a  continuous 
led  out  into  pieces  pro- 

f  the  "  staff  of  life  "— 
most  other  extensive 
3  and  more  within  the 
)ourer,  the 'windmill  is 
ndmill ;  and  tlio  whole 
laker,  to  produce  more 
is  with  less  outlay  than 
•ave  many  exigencies  of 
contend  against. 


f 


A  SHIP.  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 


"  A  SHIP,  in  the  nineteenth  centuiy,"  is  an  assemblage  of  as  great  a  number 
of  ingenious  contrivances,  perhaps,  as  any  production  of  man's  industry. 
There  is  not  a  science  but  ha.s  been  brought  into  requisition ;  there  is  scarcely 
u  material  of  niunufiwture  but  has  been  employed ;  there  are  none  of  our 
groat  departments  of  manufacturing  skill  omitted  in  supplying  the  ship  and 
her  fittings ;  there  is  not  u  i|uarter  of  the  globe  (and  scarcely  a  country  on  tlie 
globe)  which  has  not  supplied  some  one  or  otlier  of  the  necessities  or  con- 
veniences of  the  floating  fabric ;  and  there  is  no  production  in  which  Uio  skill 
of  different  nations  is  brought  more  distinctly  into  comparison. 

The  middle  of  the  present  century  is  distinguished  from  its  opening  by  the 
phenomena  of  steam  navigation,  above  all  others  connected  with  ships  and 
shipping ;  but  in  numerous  other  particulars,  concerning  botli  the  construc- 
tion and  the  fittings  of  sliijvs,  the  advance  has  been  marked  and  rapid,  show- 
ing that  the  discoveries  and  improvements  in  other  arts  have  been  promptly 
applied  to  those  noble  structures  whose  home  is  to  be  on  tlie  bosom  of  tlie 
ocean. 

In  noticing  a  few  of  the  novelties  and  curiosities  presented  by  this  subject, 
we  shall  presume  the  reader  to  have  access,  in  other  quarters,  to  ordinary 
manufacturing  details  respecting  the  production  of  ships  and  ships'  fittings : 
tlie  present  sheet  is  in  some  sense  supplementary  to  all  such  details. 

A  Bini/s-EvK  Glance  at  Ships  in   genekal. 

And  now,  at  the  outset,  it  may  veiy  fairly  be  asked,  how  are  ships  distin- 
guished from  boats,  and  what  are  the  characteristics  which  separate  ships  into 
classes?  Many  of  the  modem  improvements  apply  to  one  class  of  ships 
rather  than  to  others ;  and  the  answer  to  these  queries  tlius  becomes  pertinent 
to  the  present  subject. 

The  term  vessel  is  more  general  in  its  application  than  shij);  since  die  latter, 
in  strictness,  is  applied  only  to  tliree-masted  square-rigged  vessels,  conse- 
quently to  vessels  only  of  a  large  size.  A  square-rigged  vessel  is  one  in  which 
tlio  sails  are  suspended  from  yards  fixed  horizontally  to  the  masts,  usually 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  keel.  Single-decked  vessels,  with  one 
mast  and  a  bowsprit,  but  no  yards,  are  called  cutters  and  sloops,  and  have  tlie 
sails  generally  in  a  right  line  witli  tlie  keel ;  the  cutter  having  relatively  lai-ger 
sails  Uian  the  sloop.  Two-masted  s(iuare  rigged  vessels  are  l-ri^a ;  but  if  there 
are  no  yards,  and  if  the  sails  lie  in  a  line  with  the  keel,  tiu>  vessels  are  then 
schooners.  Most  of  the  pleasure  vessels  belonging  to  the  Yacht  Clubs  are 
either  cuttei-s  or  schooners.  The  above  appellations  are  given  chiefly  to 
merchant  vessels  and  pleasure  vessels,  but  ships  of  war  are  differently  desig- 
nated ;  they  ai-e  ships  of  the  line,  if  large,  and  variously  named  if  small.     A 

K 


% 


A  81UP,  IS  TJIE  NlSETEENTIl   CENTIHY. 

I.I.  (Ill  tn  100  li  thiril-ratK  tin  to  (H», 
n,„.rat.'  ha.   10<>  puis  ..r  more,  a  "^'"''''■^  \';  '  "i,  "''y  ,  1  urc,  o,„.n  or  un- 

banjo,  ami  th.  yj/mmr t  u  """'';' ^''^J,^'  ^  '     v./'.f.  (not  jet  aaupt.-l  so 

proviHioned  body  ot  men  on  short    M'^;l't  '•>'^.    ^       bucyan4  of  .■oustruc- 
ixtoHKivoly  u-  Uioy  Bhoul.l  aiwl  might  ^^f'^./''^*  %'„;;.■,?,.  o/ mmk. 
Sion.  whici.  n«n.l.-r.  it  MYunh  or  Ih.'.n  to  ' '     V«^«.  ;f    -    ,'•  ^,„„,,  ,,„, 

Th-o  vessels,  howov.r  vannl  th.,v  ''''^^^^  :';,;,  .Ja-eH^.  or  a  tloat- 
Hkiltully  matorials  have  -- ;;-t  "l^.i^^.  --n-'-».  ^t.-a-Un.sH  of 
i„(,'  warchous.'.  as  tlio  cas  •  may  l;  ,  **"  ."  f,,^.,,,,..,„t„,ai  ar.'.  more  or  U'hs, 
notation,  capacity  of  interior.  sw.Hncss  '  '  ^  '^  ,.< '.  a  j.-r  .l."xin«  "mlt-' 
comhincV     Ah  to  interior  cnpac,  y.  l^^''/"  '^  ^.  "^  .VvniJ  a  .mu-h   ^'n•at.■r 

to  onllnai;    roa.lors  ;   f  ^ ''"r"    H    'h  r  rS^^^^^^^^^^^  -''''''''"  ^''" 

weight  of  .-arRo  than  \h  m.hcat.d  by  ^n  uM^tcr   i  i         "        inchules  the 

^thfV  hiuicU  there  r^n^iUiu^i;;  ^ ^^^  S'thlrS  tonnage  i.  an 
.voightof  »;>^;vosHc-    itKoJ^      Ihc  can     ^^  ^^,,,..,,  ,  ,,,ip  can  ran^ 

OHlimate  of  tho  woight  of  sto^^^^  ""'  ,  ,  ,,  ,,.,,i^,,t.  cither  of  tlic  slni)  or 
withont  overloa,ling.  but  'I'f  ""\,  ';\'  i  „npp<S  to  ^veigh.  when  fully 
Us  crew  ami  l"^«-"«;^%.  ^,,J^',f' ^,  ^;  ,s^  ^..gist.ned  tonnage  8h.p- 
etiuinpccl  tor  sea.  thrc  lunos  '"^^  """;"•  j  ,.„^,,^  i,.,  ,vhich  the  tonnage 
l,niu\ci-8  and  Hhip-.nsnrers  ^V^^'"^^'Lr.u   these  rules  have  been  altered 

r„«":"!r  •  ;.:j;!,r:;is;rs;t"r  nr  ;r:.  re.,.. .,.  ...u,.„ 

of  »mi  new  |m,.cll.l»  of  V'"""«"'?r"irT"M«l,  ...wv  «,  w.'  l.clieve.  the 
The  Bieaujst  ship  "»«  heloiigii.«  1  '  >'"',  ,1'  1    ,v  here  it  hm  miminea 

jusfice  t.'uio   "-al   architecture  otour^^^^^^  h  -       -   m^^^^^.^^ 

ixteriors,   and   models   ^\  J^}^'^^.^''^^^.^^^^^^^ 

novelties,  and  not  a  few  oddities  ;  ]^'^J. .^J""' '^/^^^^^^..'"^r  war  ships  with  rner- 
compared  the  early  ^^^^I'^^^.f "    ,;^'^^;  i>^.\":^^^^^^  with 

chant  ships,  or   ^'eam-vessels  vith   sa     i^  ^esbel^^^^     or  roomy  vessels  with 

paddle-steamers,  or  iron  vessels  with  ^V,''''^.^   'l  or  the  c mft  peculiar  to  one 

nation  might  have  done  better.  ^  ^  ^    g^^^   ^hc 

If  ^ve  watda  the  labours  a  ^  ^^^'J;  "^^^hrt^i^iSrs  w  tli  which  a  ship  is 
axe.  and  tlie  adze  employed  m  f^f/j'^'f^f'^^^i  owing  to  the  tortuous 
built:  machinery  has  yet  done  ^'"^^^"^.^^^^'tsume  There  are.  it  is  tme, 
forms  which  tliese  timbers  are  ma  e  t«  J^^"'^^^^  St  oaken  ribs,  and  a 
machines  now  before  public  notice  f«\,'^";^ "?  "'''^,f/j'';;aer  at  the  Great 
Lttv  model  of  one  of  *em  was  exhibrt^    u    --\^-«^-f  ^^^...u,,,   the 

^^  E  ^U  r  ^S^:;)S:.:e  stiU  see  Ui?  draughtsman 


mmm 


fhirdniW  iM  to  «0. 
,1s  nil)  opon  or  mi- 

llm  hinii-liii'il,  ll"' 
im  unufil  "iii'l  wi'll- 
(lU)l  Ji;t  lulopUMl  sa 
)jiuic.j'  ol'  couslnu;- 
ill,  oi-  stiiik. 
•I'Miii'cts,  >^lu»w  huw 

foitrcHs,  or  II  lloiit- 
•tii»n,  stt'iuliiif!^^  lit' 

I  lire,  luorc  or  U-sh, 

II  j.crplcxiiiK  iniilU'i- 
iig  IV  iiiiu'h   jjiviitor 
!«{?<' ;  wliil<'.  ""  •'"' 
tiimRc   iiu'lmleH  Um- 
— tho  toniiagfi  if  ivn 
•h  a  ship  can  cany 
illior  of  the  sliip  «>r 
u)  wfigli,  when  InHv 
red  toiuiaj^c.     Hhip- 
V  which  the  toiiiiai^'f 
ips  have  het'H  altevetl 
iicasiirf  "  aw\  "  ik'W 
.iin'Tits  ill  ship-hnilil- 
rc(iniro  thi^  adoption 


y  IS,  wi.' 


heUi've,  the 


here  it  has  roniained 

A  hcaut'ifiil  model  of 

fir.  Lang,  the  master 

n-of-war.     The  model 

•eiulered  only  scanty 
here  were  models  of 
ere  many  interesting 
1  scries  as  would  have 
r  war  ships  with  luer- 
■  screw-steamers  with 
or  roomy  vessels  with 
0  craft  peculiar  to  one 
3  ships  generally  of  our 
isolated  examples,  hut 
was  not.     A  mai-ilime 

still  find  tlio  saw,  tire 
s  with  which  a  ship  is 
owing  to  the  tortuous 
There  are,  it  is  tme, 
great  oaken  rihs,  and  a 
ing  order  at  the  Great 
le  next  generation  the 
,11  see  tlio  draughtsman 


A  imp,    IK  TItR  KIKRTEWKTII   CKKTCnY.  ■ 

malio  hiu  drawinRH  on  paper,  and  from  theso  dmwingH  chalk  out  the  fuU-«i/fl(l 
ciir\'aturoH  ot  the  ship  on  ii  tiat  hoiii-dcd  floor,  and  niak'^  hith  or  thin  patterns 
from  thene  ciialit  marks;  the  '  coimnter'  lias  still  the  othce  of  selecting  the 
oak,  and  eltn,  and  other  woods,  and  appropriating  one  piece  to  one  piiipose, 
oiiii  to  aiiiitlH'!-,  acnoi'iiing  to  ita  Hi/.ti  mid  Nliape ;  and  the  sawyers  still  cut  up 
tlio  hulky  timbers  as  they  wore  wont  to  do  in  pa.st  tinios.  Kiln  for  the  ke«l, 
anil  oak  for  the  limlieiH  generally,  are  still  the  principal  kinds  of  wood  em- 
ployed (always  excepting  iron  vesHels,  of  whii^h  we  have  yet  to  speak).  Hut  a 
notable  mark  of  modern  iinproveiiient  is  in  the  hiacing  or  strengthening  of 
the  liiigo  carcass  tlius  Imill  up  ;  diagonal^  timbers,  diagonal  plaU«  and  bars  of 
iron,  are  now  disjiosod  in  the  interior  to  an  exttnit  that  would  quite  have  puz- 
zled the  old  ship-hiiililers.  And  another  grand  innovation  is  the  ntmmiiitf  of 
such  timbers,  or  rather  thick  planks,  as  are  to  be  bent  to  the  curvatures  of  the 
ship:  a  huge  iron  vessel,  supplied  with  steam,  is  the  receptacle  into  which  the 
timbers  are  placed;  tuid  liore  tliey  are  steamed  and  soddened  to  facilitate  their 
bending. 

Ihit  what  of  mnhofiamj .'  (Cannot  we  have  our  ships  as  well  as  our  tables 
made  of  this  beautiful  wood?  I'ractical  men  are  beginning  to  inquire  whetlier 
mahogany  can  bo  effectively  thus  iiseil,  and  whether  it  can  bo  obtiiined  at  a 
siitliciently  reasonable  price'.  I'litil  a  recent  p<>riod,  nearly  all  our  mahogany 
wiw  obtained  from  the  West  India  Islands;  and  as  most  of  the  trees  growing 
near  the  shore  have  been  cut  down,  the  e.xigency  of  land-carriage  from  the 
interior  has  added  to  the  former  cost  of  shipping  this  valuable  wooil.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  riches  of  (lalifoniia  has,  however,  shed  a  new  light  on  this  subject. 
Dense  forests  of  splendid  mahogany  trees  spread  for  hundreds  of  miles  in  (!en- 
tral  America;  and  as  these  regions  will  shortly  be  traversed  by  a  railway  at 
Panama,  and  (perhaps)  by  a  ship-canal  ar Nicaragua,  the  forests  will  be  laid 
open  in  a  way  never  before  contemplated.  The  trees  are  at  present  absolutely 
valueless,  8im|)ly  because  we  cannot  get  at  tliem  ;  but  a  commercial  value  will 
arise  as  soon  as"  they  can  he  easily  felled  and  shijiped.  'J'hen  will  he  the  time 
to  determine  whethtir  mahogany  can  he  bought  as  cheaply  as  oak  or  teak  for 
shipbuilding.  Mahogany  is  said  to  be  stitVer,  less  liable  to  dry-rot.  and  more 
buoyant  than  most  other  wooils  used  largely  in  ship-building ;  and  there  are 
records  of  a  few  mahogany  shijis  which  have  shown  an  extraordinary  degree 
of  durability.  There  is  said  to  be  a  singular  rule  adopted  at  Lloyd's,  which, 
for  the  present  at  all  evf^its,  deters  builders  from  using  mahogany,  irresjiec- 
tive  of  the  high  price  which  will  necessarily  prevail  until  the  Nicaraguan 
forests  are  laid  open;  it  is,  that  if  mahogany  be  used  instead  of  oak  for  cer- 
tain parts  of  a  ship,  tlio  ship  ranks  "  A  1"  for  only  ten  years  instead  of  twelve. 
Possibly  the  authorities  have  not  yet  had  suthcient  experience  of  mahogaiiy 
shii»8  to  enable  r  right  judgment  to  be  fonned  in  this  matter.  And  this 
"A  1"  is  an  important  matter  to  a  ship-owner;  for  it  affects  the  reputation  of 
his  ship,  the  facility  with  which  he  con  obtain  freights,  and  the  rate  at  which 
he  can  have  it  insured. 

We  have  just  mentioned  "  Lloyd's."  Although  this  remarkable  establish- 
ment, this  mysterious  tribunal — which  every  one  reads  about,  but  few  rightly 
understtmd— is  related  rather  to  commerce  than  to  ship-building,  a  few 
details  concerning  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  here.  ]\Iore  than  a  century  and 
a  half  ago,  one  Lb^yd  established  a  colTee-house,  in  Lombard  Street,  where 
underwi-iters  or  ship-insurers  were  wont  to  congregate ;  and  from  that  day  to 
this  these  insurers  have  acted  together  as  a  body,  to  which  the  name  of 
"Lloyd's"  is  given.    At  present  they  occupy  apartments  in  tlio  New  lloyal 

N  2 


11 


1:t 


Ml 


J. 


A   SHIP,    IK    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Exchange.    There  i.  ..  ^^^^^^^  ^T^:^^  ::ZX^  S 

tains-  room    each  of  which  ^  «P«  ^^^V  J^J  ^^^^^^  the'  govei-nmg 

aU  these  subscnbevsekc^^^^^^  insurances  on  ships;  mei^ 

body  at  Lloyds,     ^"^^^'"^"^^^f  .^  „„„k   lor   such  insurances;    insurance 

chants  and   shipowners  go  ^^'f^J^J^^^^'ZAtor  the  msured;  merchants 

brokers  go  there  to  act  botli  for  the  'J^^}^^f2iZ\hLneHH ;  and  all  go  there  to 

and  captains  go  f-- to  cons^^^  on  th.u  ^-^-[^^^^^^^^^        the'merchant 

ascertain  eveiy  fact  which  it  is  P°™°^^^.  „,„j,ess  of  this  information  are 

shipping  of  *-  countg^J^i^^^^^^^^^^  globe;  registers  of 

quite  extraordmaiy.     Lar^e  ^"J^,,";,  ^'       gio^g  .^hen  Uiese  ships  have  been 

all  the  «bips  in;  Lloyd  B  Lis     ot^^^  ^  ^^^^.  ^meteorological 

"spoken  with,    and  ot  all  disasteis  wmci        J'  ^^  j^  London; 

instruments  to  determine  tlie  state  of  the  wea  her  a    au  ^  ^^^^^^^_^^  ^^ 

tabular  statements  of  the  ^^t^^^'  ^^^^I' ";^^  P^^.^.^c^^^^^^^  the  means  provided 
neaily  all  the  newspapers  fr^";' /JShshSt     An  ui  dex-writer  makes  him- 

may  affect  the  fortunes  of  a  ship  at  sea. 

Noat:ltie8  and  Improvements  in  Ship-buiujino. 

«„,.  v^ripf  sketch  of  ship-novelties  and  ship-curiosities. 
But  we  must  resume  our  briel  sketcn  oi  «"  P  British  shins  from  those 
One  of  the  peculiarities  which  d'^tinguif  e    ea  1>  Bnt'«^^  ^^^ 

of  the  present  day  was  the  great  height  of  the  hull  ^"^    «    ^.^^^^.t  raised 
forecJle,  in  a  modem  ship,  is  aviything  but  a  castle     >* '«  ^iie  i 
•deck,  vei^  little  elevated  above  the  g^^^^^  ^f  ^^^^  ^^J*^^^  to  the 

forecastle  really  towered  up  to  '^  gre^\hmght.  Jl^^^^^\^  ^J,  ..^ses)  of 

poop,  o^''"-^-^  tS^hish^Uk^^^^  levelling  tendencies 

fifty  or  sixty  feet ;  but  ttns  has  l^^m^     becoming  more  and  more  flush  from 
of  modern  ship-buddmg.    Our  shil«  aie  "'''^        b  .     ^.g^oming 

end  to  end,  and  the  momitain  «^,f  °f^f „S^^^^^  ends;  and 

lessened;  «J.« '^«7<^,,'f ^X^e  betriin  Xy^  superseded  by  con- 

tjie  convexities  of  the  hull  aie  »emg  Vin  i      y   F       !^      r  ti,rough 

cavities,  which  modem  science  shows  to  be  better  »^^        D,e/(built   by 

the  water.     Pictorial  representations  °^  ^^^.^v  ghSs  II )  are  to  be  met 

JeseKd  a  fe.d.1  casUe  floating  on  |ho  b»om  of  ■*-  -         ^,.  „  ,y    ^„. 

But  Iho  gene™l  arransement  and  J««8",«  ™;/£,S  tLe  stem,  md  the 

not  undergone  much  change.     We  ""«*?,,"'%,'  ,■„  bulky  masW 

*n,.post;  the  tee^f».  *=  »«';|»\"i.*L^y^^^^^^  and 

t  tJS'^^^^^^l  iri:  .';;iS  U'd° 'c= 


I 


nd  a  cap- 
tion; and 
governing 
lips;  mer- 
insurance 
merchants 
go  tliere  to 
merchant 
mation  are 
•egisters  of 
have  been 
.eorological 
1  London; 
oUection  of 
IS  provided 
nakes  him- 
imn  for  his 
books)  witli 
)i-al — which 


j-curiosities. 
'.  from  those 
water.     The 
emost  raised 
liowever,  the 
spect  to  the 
ne  cases)  of 
g  tendencies 
i-e  flush  from 
is  becoming 
p  ends  ;  and 
ided  by  con- 
ting  through 
ieu  (built    by 
re  to  be  met 
nodels  at  the 
ers   piled  up 
mass  almost 

of  a  ship  have 
stem,  andtlie 
bulky  masts 
lal '  skin '  and 
iri  ;  the  beams 
},'  and  '  coam- 
,ms;  the  deck 

sen  herein  par- 
minor  aids  to 


A    SHIP,    IN   THE   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 


6 


ship-building  introduced  witliin  the  last  few  years.  The  claim  of  the  inventor 
is  nothing  short  of  this — that  a  joint  secured  by  this  glue  is  less  easily  separable 
tlian  tlie  actual  fibres  of  the  wood  itself.  In  the  Great  E.xhibition  were  many 
curious  specimens  illustrative  of  the  use  of  this  extraordinary  cement.  One 
was  a  piece  of  tlie  mast  of  the  ship  Curacfia,  found  inscpai-able  even  by  the 
wedge.  Another  was  a  piece  of  mainmast,  from  which  a  glued  fragment  was 
torn  away  only  after  a  force  of  a2  tons  had  been  applied.  A  third  was  a 
block  of  elm,  joined  Avitli  glue ;  it  was  exploded  by  gunpowder,  but  the  joint 
did  not  yield.  Another  was  an  oak  cannon-ball,  made  of  two  glued  nieces  ; 
it  had  been  fired  with  eight  ounces  of  powder,  but  the  joint  held  fast. 
Anotlier  was  a  deal  block,  which  broke  in  the  fibres  by  a  force  of  fuin-  tons. 
Others  were  pieces  of  masts,  intended  to  show  how  intensely  strong  a  mast 
becomes  when  built  up  with  pieces  which  ai-e  joined  by  this  glue.  It  is  not 
only  a  glue :  it  is  also  a  substitute  for  pitch.  Many  government  vessels  have 
the  seams  payed  or  caulked  with  this  glue,  which  is  found  much  more  durable 
for  Uie  purpose  tlian  ordinary  pitch. 

Forest-trees  are  as  chaiy  as  ever  in  furnishing  trunks  long  and  Uiick  and 
strong  enough  to  furnish  the  largest  masts  ;  occasionally  the  newspapei-s  tell 
us  of  such  marvels,  but  tliey  are  '  few  and  far  between.'  The  total  lengtli  of 
tlie  mainmast  of  a  '  74  '  is  little  short  of  two  hundred  feet ;  and  it  is  not  only 
made  in  three  lengths,  but  each  length  or  subordinate  mast  is  built  around 
witli  numerous  pieces  to  make  up  the  requisite  bulk ;  why  these  pieces  are 
known^by  tlie  elegant  names  of  '  cheeks,'  '  front  fishes,'  '  side  fishes,'  '  cant 
pieces,'  and  'heel  pieces,'  the  mast-makers  themselves  must  say.  Canadian 
fir  is  the  wood  chiefly  employed ;  and  of  tliis  wood  there  is  no  less  than  six 
tons  in  the  lower  mainmast  alone  of  an  ordinaiy  East  Indiaman. 

If  from  tlie  woodwork  of  a  ship  we  turn  attention  to  tlie  sails,  we  find  that 
one  or  two  improvements  have  lately  worked  their  way  into  public  favour. 
The  sails  are,  indeed,  a  notable  part  of  the  attire  of  a  ship — beautiful  in 
efl'ect,  indispensable  in  seniee.  All  that  the  spinner  and  the  weaver,  the 
sewer  and  the  rigger,  can  do  to  give  tliem  streugtli  is  done.  Sail-cloth  is  the 
strongest  of  all  varieties  of  the  tlax  manufacture ;  or  sometimes  it  is  of  hemp  ; 
or  sometimes  of  both  combined.  The  Admiralty  is  veiy  senipiUous  about  its 
sail-cloth,  and  shipowners  have  little  less  reason  to  be  so.  A  '  bolt '  of  sail- 
cloth, forty  yards  long  by  two  feet  Nvide,  weighs  from  22  to  44  lbs.,  according 
to  the  thickness ;  but  all  alike,  stout  or  fine,  are  made  of  these  nan-ow  widths. 
The  cutting  out  for  a  whole  suit  of  sails  is  a  formidable  affair ;  in  an  East 
Indiaman  of  average  size,  the  quantity  of  sail-cloth  thus  consumed  is  said  to 
be  veiy  little  less  than  nine  thousand  yai'ds.  How  the  cutter-oat  economises 
his  material,  and  provides  for  slanting  edges,  so  as  to  use  up  odds  and  ends 
in  all  the  nooks  and  corners,  may  be  pretty  well  guessed  by  those  who  have 
to  cut  out  any  woven  goods  for  garments  ;  but  the  stitching  is  a  more  weighty 
affair,  owhig  to  the  great  strength  required.  There  is  a  stipulation  between  the 
sailmaker  and  his  employer  as  to  the  number  of  stitches  to  be  put-  in  a  given 
space ;  and  every  attempt  is  made  to  enable  the  sail  to  bear  a  powerful 
strain. 

A  very  simple  addition  has  been  recently  introduced  in  the  means  of 
strengthening  the  sails  of  ships.  This  is  by  Trail's  storm-snih.  The  canvas  is 
the  same,  the  shape  of  the  sail  is  the  same,  the  mode  of  sewing  is  the  same ; 
but  these  sails  differ  from  tliose  ordinarily  in  use  l)y  having  strengthening 
bands  of  canvas  placed  diagonally ;  these  bands  are  corded  and  ai'e  stitched 
firmly  to  tlie  sail  at  mtervals  of  a  few  feet  apart.     These  bands,   by  their 


l:| 


T 


•.™«/»w"^  ■ 


«  A   Blltf,    l^  «tB  NIKETKRNTIt   CENTttllt. 

diagonal  arrangement  t^k  the  va.ous  ^jp  a^^^^^^^^^ 
add  ver^  greatly  to  ^^e  strengUi  of  Je  whok  ^^^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^f  ^^,. 

woni  sails,  bv  having  these  bands  '^^^f^'^  ^^  t^''"'/T„  period  when  new 
viceable  existence,  and  effect  \S««  P^^'^ftert  molKn  the  subject, 
sails  1-con.e  necess.^^  TS'TrtZ^ilT^Ztl^e  judgment;  for 
SoSrci^S^^^  S  Ms"of  constnxctions.  are  yearly  connng  more  and 

""ZTerZoiem  imp^v^nent  is  ^^^^t^'S^J^t^SA 
of  Newcastle,  have  devised  an  "^g^'"^  T^^^^^hr^'^a     SSreby  fom 
intervals,  by  introducing  an  extm  T^«;"J»ty  ofjarp  toead.  "^'^^  J  ^^^er  at 

bands  or  straps  of  veiy.  thick  twdleu  <^«  ™S,^;™  loosen,  as  they 
IZ'";^  rrcit:?f  r^^ile  ti;i;^SdVeatly  to  the  strength  of  the 

^^'Tt  iL  a  feature  worth  noting  that  -^--^-P-  ^^^^S^^Ze^^^i 
reached  nearly  beyond  the  region  of  ™P™;^  J^^\^  \^l  "Merits  of  hempen 
in  the  -bstitution  o    .on  --J-;-^  CapU 

ropes  themselves.  1  his  is  ^"'^"^""-"^^^l^.  '  . ':..  excellence  is  unquestion- 
Huddart's  beautiful  cable-makmg  '"^f^^^O' •  ^^.f  •^'XH^e  world  knows 
able,  but  chain-cables  have  ^^7" J^J"'  "J^Zikation  of  a  multitude  of 
bowstring  is  "^'^^e;  and  a  cable  i^  bu^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^.y, 

strings.     Fii-st  Uie  spinner,  with  a  bundle  oi  uei  i  working 

the  fibres  fastened  at  one  end    o  ^'^^^l^^.t^twred^^^^^^ 

busily,  spins  yams  at  the  J^^eot  something  1  ke  a  h^^^^^^     eet^^  .  ^^^^  ^^^^^ 

tlien  a  certain  number  of  these  jams  tux  J^'J^ea  to  lor 

of  these   strands   are  twisted   together  to  form  a  jope  i^^^^ 

when  twisted,  form  a  cable.   ^^.'\"j\  >.\;^,^3,','^^^^^^^^^         twist  being  hi 

by  successive  combinations  ol  ^^^'f  ^^^^^^  [^^-'^^^  ^'"  o  kssen  the  liability  of 

Z  WBite  direction  to  that  which  Vr<^'^:^y\^^ ^^^^^^^  ^ike 

:^^.^:r!S^^^^^^         ^--^  -'  «^^^^ 

'T£  t^t  wondered  .i  if  the  -;^^g;^;J- mor.^  X^ZSl 

have   almost  driven   these    machines    '"^o  X»       ^  government 

machinery  of  a  most  ingemous  l^^^iaTopS  of  s^eJ  size.^  One  such 
and  by  private  ^-^^:^Z'i:^:^:^Si^7of\e  visitors  to  the  Great 
machine  must  be  tiesli  in  ™f  •"»:„„  in  which  the  various  strands  are 
Exhibition ;  it  was  ^^  Crawha^l  s^m^^^^^^^^^  ^,  ^„,,,,,^ 

made  to  twist  rouiui  each  other  "X  »  ^^^"^  "^ ,  4'  ^^y  remark,  were 

machinery.  Ropes  and  cordage  «f  J'^^^^^r^;"?' wor;  Tound  ropes  and  flat 
not  wanting  in  ^ '"'"'""rlfSn?  rone      opes  from  Russia  hemp  and 

^^;[  rTstm:  trcrneltXsf  SronrSUhei. ;  J  recent  en- 


A   f 

gineering  has  shown  tl 
Uius  obtainable. 

And  if  wi3  turn  our 
intended  to  support,  w 
Eitlier  the  anchors  llit 
turing  them,  or  both, 
wei'e  fashioned  pretty 
the  stock,  the  shank,  t 
peak,  &c. — had  tlieir  v 
technical  designations 
kodge-anchor,  became 
anchor  was  made  in  t 
tell,  and  even  our  poe 
four  tons  of  iron  into 
shank  ;  the  heating  of 
the  heat  was  maintaiiK 
hammers  ;  the  sooty  c 
smithy — all  have  been 

But  tliG  world  has 
changed  :  we  now  me 
has  shown  how  to  gr 
of  mere  square  bars,  I 
enough  to  propose  ar 
ciple,  tliat  a  given  qua 
if  solid.  Mr.  Porter  li 
which  tlie  ai-ms  and  f] 
facilitate  the  use  of  t 
well  as  many  other  nc 
tlie  west  end  could 
Messrs.  Brown  and  I 
towaids  a  certain  tai 
which  two  mimic  and 
show  that  a  slight  alt 
gi-appling  power  of  ar 

And  the  mode  of  i 
change  as  Uie  forma  o 
blast  into  the  forge  fn 
worked  bellows,  Ani 
revolution.  A  large  a 
moved  by  machinery, 
triumphs  over  them  t 
longed  for  an  opportu 
the  onchor-smitheries 

if  we  pass  from  tl 
the  sheathing  and  the 
manufacturing  skill,  1 
sheathing  material,  ai 
ship  in  sheets,  which 
seen  a  certain  amoun 
sheathing  ia  stripped 
builders  have  done  li 
usefuluesa  due  to  thi 


•w^ 


v 


s  together,  and 
ivas.  Partially- 
ew  lease  of  eer- 
iod  whon  new 
on  the  subject, 
judgment ;  for 
mhig  more  and 

VIesars.  Milvain, 
mg  sail-cloth  at 
thereby  forming 
to  each  other  at 
loosen,  as  they 
strength  of  the 

em  now  to  have 
relties  are  rather 
srits  of  hempen 
.story  of  Captain 
3  is  unquestion- 
he  world  knows 
f  a  multitude  of 
round  his  body, 
i  hands  working 
reet  in  a  minute  ; 
itrand  ;  and  three 
and  three  ropes, 
lit  up  piecemeal, 
e  twist  being  in 
m  the  liability  of 
cumference  (little 
undred  and  sixty 

3r  ropes,  requiring 
n  of  rope-making 
autiful  machlneiy 
th;  and  tills  ma- 
;  but  chain-cables 
liere  is,  however, 
•y  the  government 
>r  size.  One  such 
tors  to  the  Great 
raiious  strands  are 
lication  of  rotatory 

may  remark,  were 
md  ropes  and  flat 

Russia  hemp  and 
)e8  made  by  hand, 

liains  of  large  size. 
I  tills  up  into  links, 
er  ;  and  recent  en- 


A   SHIP,    IN   'fHE   NINETEENTH   CENTUEY.  7 

gineering  has  shown  that  there  is  hardly  any  limit  to  the  degree  of  strength 
Urns  obtainable. 

And  if  wo  tuni  our  gl-uico  from  tlie  cables  to  the  anchors  which  tliey  are 
intended  to  support,  we  do  not  less  see  the  influence  of  modem  ingenuity. 
Eitljer  Ihf  uiicliors  themselves  have  been  improved,  or  tlie  mode  of  manufac- 
turing them,  or  both.  All  throughout  the  la-st  Eiiropean  war  our  anchors 
were  fashioned  pretty  nearly  after  one  model ;  the  vai'ious  parts — tlie  ring, 
the  stock,  the  shank,  the  crown,  tlie  arm,  the  tliroat,  tlie  trend,  the  flulce,  tlie 
peak,  Ac. — had  tlieir  vai'ious  conventional  projiortions  to  each  other ;  and  the 
technical  designations  of  sheet-anchor  and  bower-anchor,  stream-anchor  and 
kedgc-anchor,  became  familiarised  to  us  as  a  maritime  people.  How  tlie 
anchor  was  made  in  tliose  days  our  dockyard  guide-books  have  not  failed  to 
tell,  and  even  our  poets  and  song-writers  have  versified.  The  building  up  of 
four  tons  of  iron  into  a  first-rate  anchor  ;  tlie  welding  of  bai-s  to  form  a  solid 
shank ;  the  heating  of  the  iron  on  the  forge-heailh  ;  the  fierce  blast  by  which 
the  beat  was  maintained  ;  the  circle  of  anchor-smiths  wielding  their  ponderous 
hammers  ;  the  sooty  dimness,  the  fiery  sparks,  and  the  noisy  clangour  of  the 
smithy — all  have  been  described  over  and  over  again. 

But  tlio  world  has  not  consented  to  allow  its  anchors  to  remain  un- 
changed :  we  now  meet  with  many  novel  forms  and  appliances.  Mi\  Pering 
has  shown  how  to  group  togetlier  a  number  of  broad  slabs  of  iron,  instead 
of  mere  square  bars,  to  form  tlie  shank.  Lieutenant  Rodgers  has  been  bold 
enough  to  propose  and  to  construct  hollow  anchors,  on  the  well-known  prin- 
ciple, that  a  given  quantity  of  material  makes  a  stronger  column  if  hollow  than 
if  solid.  Mr.  Porter  has  provided  a  pivot  or  hinge  at  tlie  end  of  tlie  shank,  by 
which  tlie  arms  and  flukes  have  a  certain  lieedom  of  movement,  intended  to 
facilitate  the  use  of  the  anchor.  The  Great  Exhibition  illustrated  tliese  as 
well  as  many  other  novelties  hi  anchoi's.  No  one  who  visited  tlie  enclosure  at 
the  west  end  could  have  failed  to  notice  the  enormous  anchor  sent  by 
Messre.  Brown  and  Lenox ;  and  there  wei"e  many  curious  eyes  direoted  also 
towai'ds  a  certain  tank  or  cisteri;,  filled  witli  "unlovely"  muddy  water,  in 
which  two  mimic  anchors  were  repeatedly  subjected  to  mimic  experiments,  to 
show  tliat  a  slight  alteration  of  shape  produces  a  considerable  result  in  the 
grappling  power  of  im  anchor. 

And  the  mode  of  manufacturing  anchors  has  undergone  at  least  as  much 
change  as  the  forma  of  the  anchors  themselves.  A  steam-engine  now  blows  a 
blast  into  the  forge  fire,  instead  of  leaving  this  service  to  bo  rendered  by  hand- 
worked bellows.  And  as  to  the  hammering,  tliis  has  undergone  a  complete 
revolution.  A  large  sort  of  hammer,  worked  by  ropes,  and  tlien  a  still  larger 
moved  by  machinery,  Lave  had  their  day;  but  Nasmydi's  steam-hammer  now 
triumphs  over  them  all.  Many  who  saw  tliis  machine  at  the  Ci-ystal  Palace 
longed  for  an  opportunity  to  see  it  in  action ;  and  those  who  hav«  seen  it  in 
the  anclior-smitheries  of  our  royal  dockyai'ds  are  not  likely  soon  to  forget  it. 

if  we  pass  li'om  the  metal  of  the  chain-cables  and  tlie  anchors  to  that  of 
the  sheathing  and  the  lightning  conductors,  we  find  that  science,  rather  than 
manufacturing  skill,  has  here  rendered  the  chief  sei-vice.  Copper  is  still  the 
sheathing  material,  and  it  is  still  applied  to  tlie  lower  part  of  tlie  hull  of  a 
ship  in  sheets,  which  are  fastened  wilji  cop,jer  nails ;  and  when  the  ship  has 
seen  a  certain  amount  of  service,  which  has  worn  and  injured  the  niet^,  the 
sheathing  is  stripped  off,  sold  for  re-melting,  and  replaced  by  new.  Our  ship- 
buildei's  have  done  little  more  in  this  matter  than  to  increase  the  sphere  of 
usefulness  due  to  thia  system.     But  in  respect  to  ligbtuing-oonductors,  Uie 


'! 


U 


i 


f 


1; 


i, 


T 


^1 


,,,^»ir^- 


•J 


g  A    SHIP,    IN    THK    NINETEKNTO    CENTCUY. 

move  fairness  than  that  which  was  h"^  «"^mitted  to  <J«  «°^^!^>^  j  j^^  ^^^^^^t- 

dualities  were  decided  °"  ^l^'*'^;^  "l.^ ^  all Ve«e  1^  relative  degT-ees 

iLg  plans  were  compared  m  re«P««t  *« j"  ^^^^^^^  to  each  quality; 

of  excellence  in  all  were  5«f:«f  "^''^^^y  "'{"^''^^^ViTon  to  the  greatest  nnm- 
and  that  plan  which  stood  highest  m  the  1^*  "i  J^^^^^^^^^^^  ^^he  report  of  this 
ber  of  qualities,  was  adjudged  to^'^e  the  best  me  Doai.  '^  ^^        th^ 

commitL  contains  the  greatest  body  of  mfoma^^^^^^  yZ^Xt  having 
subject     The  prize  was  awarded  to  Mi.  ueccmng,  o« 
produced  the  best  of  all  the  life-boats.  ,  ,..         ^.faale-boat.    It  is 


^^"'^iM 


M«iM 


A   SHIP,    IN   THK    NINETEENTH    fENTURY. 


9 


and  the  merchant 
enr  did  Sir  W.  S. 
lent  the  important 
I.  It  is  only  very 
adoption;  but  our 
er,  which,  mnning 
that  ten-ible  agent 

matters  is  the  life- 
which  is  now  more 
e-boat  prize.     The 
)le.     Notwithstond- 
)er8ons,  the  loss  of 
■iously  large.     The 
poor  helpless  sViips 
perhaps,  tlian  those 
ife-boat,  manned  by 
ting  the  rescue  of  a 
catastrophes,  led  the 
guineas  to  tlie  con- 
responded  to,  tliat 
iitors ;  the  offer  was 
ient  to  an  office  in 
unes  of  manuscript 
i  to  examine  all  the 
trial  conducted  with 
committee.     Certain 
sess ;  all  the  comoet- 
the  relative  degrees 
lect  to  each  quality; 
to  the  greatest  nura- 
The  report  of  this 
iver  colbM  led  on  the 
famiouth,  for  having 

a  whale-boat.    It  is 

and  ^  feet  in  depUi ; 

seven  inches  square. 
Extra  buoyancy  is 
boat;  tliese,  with  the 
lore  than  eight  tons, 
tendency  of  the  boat 
,vater-tank8  capable  of 
e  are  pipes  for  empty- 
3  heavy  iron  keel  and 
ght  air-cases  near  the 
1  and  a  mizen.     The 

two  feet ;  the  weight 
ms,  and  the  cost  -.iMi. 

In  November,  IHf)!, 
;r  the  care  of  Captain 
lacod  in  such  positions 


as  to  allow  the  surf  to  have  the  greatest  effect,  and  the  result  is  said  to  have 
been  such  as  to  fully  bear  out  the  high  anticipations  formed  of  the  excellent 
construction  of  the  boat. 

Among  the  competing  plans  for  life-boats  were  some  of  gi-eat  oddity ;  but 
none  more  odd,  perhaps,  than  that  Avhich  has  been  displayed  at  the  western 
end  of  the  Ci-ystal  Palace,  where  the  tubs  or  cylinders  provoked  a  recollection 
of  the  oil  jars  in  which  the  renowned  Forty  Thieves  concealed  tliemselves. 

Among  the  recent  projects  for  life-boats  is  one  that  does  not  relate  to  tlio 
shape  of  the  boat  itself,  but  to  the  introduction  of  a  particular  substance  as  a 
buoyant  material.  This  substance  is  not  formally  described,  but  its  excel- 
lences are  announced  in  most  laudatory  terms.  'L'he  '  substance '  is  made  up 
into  packages,  and  these  packages  are  built  into  the  framework  of  tlie  boat; 
it  can  be  applied  in  any  bulk,  in  any  fomi,  and  to  any  part ;  if  a  l)oat  be 
shattered,  the  pieces,  if  stuffed  with  this  material,  will  fomi  so  many  rafts ; 
the  buoyancy  is  said  to  exceed  that  of  cork,  or  even  of  cases  filled  with  air. 
In  short,  if  the  "  Patent  Life-Boat,  Buoy,  Belt,  and  General  Marine  Buoyancy 
Company"  do  not  overstretch  their  claims,  thi'3  buoyant  material  must  be  a 
very  notable  affair;  a  little  incredulity  may,  however,  be  wholesome.  The 
substance  employed  is,  we  beUeve,  a  kind  of  nish,  piepai-ed  mider  a  patent 
taken  out  by  Captain  Light. 

Swif-TNESS,    AS   A    CHARACTERISTIC    OF   MoDEIlN    ShIPS. 

It  would  obviously  be  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  paper  to  go 
further  and  further  into  details  respecting  modem  improvements  in  ship- 
building and  ship  fittings.  We  have  said  a  little  respecting  the  timbei-s,  the 
masts,  the  sails,  the  ropes,  tlie  anchors,  tlie  cables,  tlie  sheathing,  the  con- 
ductors, the  boats ;  but  there  are  aJmout  numberless  other  directions  in  which 
we  should  find  novelties  and  curiosities,  could  we  seaich  for  them.  Our  ever- 
busy  age  would  indeed  belie  itself,  were  such  not  the  case.  Let  us,  however, 
before  touching  on  tlie  marvels  of  steam-shipping,  render  due  justice  to  the 
sailing  vessels  of  the  middle  of  tlie  nineteenth  century,  in  respect  to  sailing 
qualities. 

Speed  is  the  gi'eat  characteristic  of  our  age  in  respect  to  ti-avelling.  It  is 
tlie  key  which  unlocks  the  mysteiy  of  all  our  modem  locomotive  aiTangements. 
It  shows  its  power  on  the  water  as  well  as  on  Uie  land,  and  in  sailing  ships  as 
well  as  in  steamei-s.  Many  newspaper  readei-s  marvel  what  a  clipper  may  mean ; 
but  whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  the  name  itself,  a  clipper  is  simply 
one  of  the  exemplifications  of  this  speed-producing  tendency  in  modern  ship- 
building. The  clippers  of  tlie  German  Ocean  have  arisen  thus :  when  salmon 
and  other  perishable  commodities  began  to  be  sent  in  large  quantities  from 
the  north  to  London,  it  was  found  that  the  clumsy  brigs  and  other  coasting 
ci-aft  of  the  Tyne  and  Wear  were  of  too  slow  a  movement  to  convey  the  cargo 
with  the  necessary  rapidity.  Newcastle,  and  Shields,  and  Sunderland,  did  rot 
wtmt  high  speed  for  tfieir  coal,  and  glass,  and  chemical  cargoes ;  but  Aberdeen, 
and  Dundee,  and  Leith  knew  how  to  value  any  increase  of  speed  for  tlie  con- 
veyance of  their  salmon  and  cattle,  and  other  articles  which  became  deteriorated 
by  a  long  voyage.  Hence  it  is  to  our  Scottish  neighbours  that  we  are  indebted 
for  nlippei-s,  or  fast-sailing  merchant  ships.  The  clipper  sacrifices  a  portion  of 
space  for  the  sake  of  increased  speed ;  she  caiTies  a  somewhat  smaller  cargo 
than  die  old  vessels  of  equal  length,  but  conveys  it  sooner  to  its  destination. 
The  clipper  is  nan-ow,  gi-acefully  tapering  behind,  very  sharp  at  the  bows,  and 

N  3 


I 

II 


I 


I 
II 


ji 


_i^.^«-fliaiitiiS«>^ 


j,j  A  SHIP,   IN   THE   NINETEENTH   OENTUUY. 

altogether  cal.ulated  to  cut  cleanly  and  ^^^^  ^^^^^.^^J^TZ 
.     ',  about  aouble  that  o    J;;;^^-S^^thiu':Se'il  of  ..pid 

of  the^amesyBtmu  to  ocean  sjuhn^^  had  a  wonderful  effect  in  developing 
The  opening  of  the  ^}'2^lf^,l'2  of  the  Aberdeen  clipper,  have  recently 
the  energies  ol  ""^^  »l»P;^l^'^'^^"; ,  J^^  L  a  Lo^^^^^^^^^^  fi„.i  and  Uio  other  at 
been  ^1^^'^^^^ ^^^^^^^.S;  ^rsm^all^uXtthe  .SWua...,  being  CO 
laveipoo  .  rhoy  '^'*^,.f"\"P^7p?'^,,,„u  ^  they  aie.  the  former  has  acconi- 
tons,  and  the  ChniHolite  450,  yet,  s'"^';j^,!:"7  ,  ^.idChhiain  Wi  and  103 
phshed  the  out  -dhon.e  voyages  ^  fw  -^^'^f/^^^'^^^^^  ,;,,,t  exUaordinary 
days  t^spectively    '^^^  *«^Jj^^  i^/^; J^^  with  which  they 

equality  of  action,     iney  ouibuipi>t."  "•  ,,,.„,.vtliinf»  else  lar«e  and  small, 

happened  to  come  into  competition.  ""^^ JH'a  ;v73 
It  was  a.scertoined  about  a  dozen  ye'^'s  ^ •  ^  ^0  tii^h^^^^^  London  t^ 
a  hundred  log-books  of  Indiamen    ^^^f^ /^'"^^^^^^Xs     W 
S:::ta;;^r  i£Si^r(^i:t!;S^^^tuer  apprecia^  Uie  re- 
markahlc  perfomances  of  these  J»«^^em  elopers.  i,„     rbvnce.     It  was 

This  clipper  /j™^-  ^^^s^^  HaU  VIL  LSfh^^^  adopted-on 

about  the  year  1H40  that  INlessis.  JJf '^°;  \  u^a  form  which  combines 
the  wave  principle  developed  by  Mf- ^'=°"  ""'"^^  ^  ..^ssel  (as  wrvs  before 
great  capacity  with  g^-tlfl-^-,^ ^J^.i"  ^  1  be  conveyed;  Uie  ship- 
remarked)  does  not  now  tel  ua  l^^.  "'^^'^^,7.."  j.  Tj.„ij,g  and  yet  increase  the 
builders  have  managed  to  obey  certain  conve^^^^^ 

usually  single  or  double-mast^d  vessels,  had  *  f^»J>^; J^P^^^  ^'^'J  '^J^w  York  and 
world  long  before  the  Pf  ««"*  J-^f.-t^^^it  2a  iesmedler  Baltimore  clippers 
Boston  have  sent  their  beauUful  ;l'°«'^,^;®*'Xse  larffer  ships,  which  cross 
have  lost  a  Uttle  of  the  sunshine  of  roP^^^y.    The  e  ^rger^u^   .    California, 

are  the  Yankee  chppera.  indeed  araona  the  finest  ships 

The  American  'liners'  just  "^^^/oned  are  indeed  w^^^^^  ^^^.^^ 

afloat.     Tiiey  am  sa  ling  vessels  ^^f  ^  P^j/^^^^'ia^^^^^  Uie  utmost 

Statos ;  and  ti.e  nvalry  of  steam  h^S^^/^^eiX  1»^^  o»'  ™  ^««^^«' 
efforts  into  the  consU-uction  At  ^^t*'!^.^  "' ^  laScSng  or  the  tii-st  voyage 
the  news  from  tlie  great  ports  '"'"'l^'^'^^^J  ^^^^'^S,L  example,' the 
of  some  new  member  of  this  wel  m^om^^^  Sk  and  nSe  her  first  appear- 


.4 


A  BUiP,   IN   THE  NINETEENTH   CENTIBY. 


11 


10  water,  attaining 
)  fruit  ti'twlo  of  the 
le  domain  of  rapid 
ogressivc  oxtonsion 

flfect  in  developing 
ppers  have  recently 
I  and  tlie  other  at 
tonmray  being  0(»U 
former  haa  aeconi- 
liinain  WU  and  103 
most  exUaordinary 
)ers  with  which  they 
Ise,  large  and  small. 
;amination  of  nearly 
le  from  London  to 
When  we  consider 
V  appreciate  tlie  re- 

niportance.     It  was 
boldly  adopted— on 
inn  which  combines 
issel  (as  was  before 
conveyed ;  tlie  shi})- 
and  yet  increase  tlie 
aid  to  be  of  450  tons, 
day  tlie  VhrysolUe  is 
ity-four  liom-3.     The 
Bndation  to  a  ship, 
the  honour  of  having 
'Baltimore  chppers,' 
itation  in  tlie  western 
Since  New  York  and 
ler  Baltimore  chppers 
ger  ships,  which  cross 
pe  Horn  to  Cahfomia, 
have  generally  some 
BUtck  Squall,  the  Sea 
the  Game  Cocfc—suoh 

mong  the  finest  ships 
gland  and  the  United 
fl  to  tlu-ow  Uie  utmost 
nontha,  or  even  weeks, 
hing  or  the  first  voyage 
'ake,  for  example,  tlie 
made  her  first  appeor- 
s  207  feet ;  her  breadth 
'tween  decks'  height, 
mage,  about  1700  tflns. 
nthin.  On  Uie  upper 
commodious  structure, 


containing  apartments  supplied  with  rooking  ranges,  a  hospital,  boys  rooni 
vegetable  ivom,  ice-houso,  .tc.  The  chief  cabin  is  nuignificfntly  fitted  with 
all  the  soUd  conveniences  which  maliogany  and  rosewood  can  lunush,  and  aU 
tlio  decorations  which  gold  and  papier-niaclu)  can  supply.  In  accordance  wiUi 
tlio  American  custom  of  supplying  an  immense  surface  of  sails  to  ensure 
speed,  the  Hacer  spreads  upwards  of  HOOO  yards  of  canvaa.  This  vessel— so 
appropriately  named— has  lately  accomplished  the  run  from  New  \<nk  to 
l.iveqjool  in  fourteen  days— a  speed  that  throws  far  in  the  shade  all  previous 
sailing  achievements  across  the  Atlantic.  But  even  Uiis  lias  smco  been  c.\. 
ceeded.  While  these  pages  are  being  i)rei)ared  for  press,  the  Wmhuinton,  one 
of  the  'Black  Star'  line  of  packets  (for  all  these  companies  adopt  ratlier 
fancilul  names),  has  run  the  distance  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  m  ton  hours 
within  the  fourteen  days.  ^  ,    •  i      . 

But  it  is  not  onlv  commerce  which  leads  to  increase  ol  speeu  as  a  desideratum 
in  ship-buildhig ;  pleasure  is  also  tending  in  the  same  direction,  as  (Viiv  ,j,ichts 
plainly  enough  show.  How  chaiivcteristic  it  is,  tliat  llobert  Stei>henson,  who 
has  done  more  to  accelerate  the  speed  of  travelling  than  any  other  man  living, 
should  have  gone  to  Egypt  in  his  own  pleasure-yacht,  the  Titanta,  and  that  thia 
vaclit  should  have  been  constructed  on  the  speed-producing  plan  of  Mr.  Scott 
lUissell,  and  that  tlie  object  of  the  voyage  should  have  relation  to  the  speed  ot 
railway  U'tuisit  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  The  man,  and  the  yacht,  and  tlio 
occasion,  were  worthy  one  of  another. 

The  yacht  America  is,  perhaps,  not  so  noticeable  in  regard  to  its  own  ments 
as  having  been  the  means  of  drawing  a  laige  amount  of  public  attention  to 
the  build,  the  saUs,  and  the  rig  of  ships  in  general.  Belonging  to  a  member 
of  the  New  York  Yacht  Club,  this  yacht  was  constructed  in  tliat  city  eaily  in 
1851,  mainly  with  tlie  view  of  competing  with  tlie  English  yachts  at  Cowes. 
She  arrived  in  this  country  in  July,  after  a  rattling  run  across  the  Atlantic ; 
and  her  shap(!.  her  rigging,  her  sails^  all  showed  marked  differences  from  those 
presented  by  English  yachts.  She  was  built  by  Messrs.  Steei-s,  for  Mr.  Stevens, 
the  commodore  of  Uie  New  York  Yacht  Cliil).  Her  exti-emo  length  is  91  feet, 
and  breadtli  about  2B  feet.  The  masts  have  an  extraordinary  '  i-ake,'  as  nautical 
men  temi  it— that  is,  a  backward  inclination.  The  standing  sails  which  she 
cim-ies  are  Uiose  called  by  sailors  the  jib,  mainsail,  and  foresail.  The  interniU 
anungements  comprise  state  cabins  for  the  master  and  mate,  main  cabin,  with 
side  bertlis  for  fourtt^en  seamen,  throe  oi-  four  exti-a  state  rooms,  cook's  galley, 
pantiy,  wash  room,  bath  i-oom,  clothes  room,  wine  room,  sail  room,  &c. 

Such  waH  tlie  vessel  which  challenged  the  British  yacht  owners,  and  which 
won  the  victoiy  on  August  2'2.  Then  did  curiosity  sot  to  wi-ik  in  right 
eiunest.  Was  the  America  built  on  a  new  model  ?  Did  not  tlio  Aberdeen  men, 
or  the  Ym-mouth  men,  know  this  build  previously  ?  Was  she  built  for  comfort 
as  well  as  speed,  like  English  yai'lits,  or  for  i-peed  only?  Was  there  a  new 
arrangement  of  sails?  Was  the  quantity  of  sail  more  for  the  tonnage  than  in 
English  yachts?  Did  the  'rake'  exooed  tliat  hi  English  yachts?  Were  not  tlie 
masts  less  encumbered  with  rigging  than  ours  ?  Did  her  superiority  show  itself 
whether  sailing  with  or  against  the  wind,  in  fair  or  in  rough  weather  ?— All 
tiiese  questi.  ns  have  been  canvassed  witli  extraordinaiy  eagerness ;  and  English 
yacht-buildei-s  must  be  unlike  other  Englishmen,  if  tliey  do  not  show  that  the 
discussion  may  bo  made  fruitful  in  good  results. 


i'i 


1^ 


I 


T" 


jl 


t 


\'i 


SHIP,    IN    THK    NINETEENTH    CENTUBY. 


Steam  NAviaAiK.N ;  its  Eably  Days  and  m  Rapih  Growth. 
But  all  improvements  m  sailing  vessels  must  give  >v^  to  U^at^vhicb^^^^^^^ 
from  the  >^V^-ffi;>\^^  "^  ^^^Z  Ameiavns. 

SrU  Zi;  exl^ibi  "  L  boatrvJhich  w^-e  slowly  propellea  in  the 
wate  by  sir  power_a  humble  beginning  of  a  great  system.  It  was  n 
mn  that  sjn^ngton.  and  Miller,  and  Taylor,  applied  steam  power  to  work  a 

lui  a  TaTer'n^Se  its  appm^i  on  ll.e  Tha,ne».  M  .  P'fft'f-';"' 
tbat  a  au-araei  '""^      /jmvcJiHl-  and  it  watt  in  tiio  same  yeai-  that  a  atfiamer 

'rbmv^dtnoS  s";':  :i  om 'iln  a  voyage  from  Glasgow  to  Lond.. 
Bv  the  year  1818  there  were  48  steamers  plying  in  the  twelve  "vers-Uj^e. 
vLr-Kv  Trent  Tvne  Humber,  Mersey,  Yai-e.  Avon,  Severn,  Orwell,  and 
Thames   l^raboutr^^^^  steamers  in  the  United  States  exceeded 

J,tTumbTi  It  was  in  1818,  too.  that  the  tirst  regulai-  trading  over-sea 
Steam  XigaUoi™^  by  tlie  placing  of  the  Eoh  Boy  on  the  Greenock 

SsSLt'route;  although  the  EngUsh  Channel  the  Insh  Sea.  >^^^^^^^^ 
man  Ocean,  had  all  been  crossed  by  steam  before  tins  date.  "  ^^as  JJimu 
Nanier  of  Glasgow,  who  took  the  lead  in  steam  navigation  between  1818  and 
1830  iind  Ms  cous'n  Robert  who  has  since  taken  up  tliis  honourable  position. 
tw;J^n  1838  that  the  problem  of  transadaxitic  steaming  was  effectuaU^^ 
tolWbvthe  safe  voyages  of  die  areat  Western  and  tlie  Stn.«.;  and  m  ttie 
fourteeKrs  which  have  subsequenUy  elapsed,  tlie  progiess  of  steam  nav.ga- 
ZZ  Ken  Sily  astonishing-Uttle  less  so  than  that  of  its  sister-system. 

*^ IS'Sagine  that  a  '  bird's-eye  '  glance  could  be  taken  at  the  surface  ol" 
Fiioie  ii  Sion  simply  to  the  steam-ships  ^vhich  have  been  mainly  esta- 
blShed'fS  postoffice  sei4e.  We  should  se,  tl.e  steamers  ot  twelve  Com- 
n^ies  ibiS  ^unparalleled  fleet  of  a  hmid.  d  splendid  ships  employed  by 
SrSiTsh  government  alone.  These  ships  (it  has  been  late  y  stated)  have 
i^tf^nf  Ipi.  Si^  3  000  000/.. ;  they  have  30,000  horse  power  ot  engmes,  and 
BoSoO  tin?  b^en;  they  ti-aVerse^  2.000,000  miles  of  ocean  in  a  year,  axid 
^Sr  o^J^iers  rTcetve  750^00/..  per  annum  from  the  British  goveni«ient  for 
X  r;i?e.  Southampton  is'the  packet  station  foj: --£  ?"-^J^/,tS 
fine  steamers:  and  the  three  companies  which  make  it  then-  depot  recene 
muchlTre  thr  one-half  of  this  large  sum.  If  we  wateh  these  hundred 
rame^carSg  over  seas  and  oceans,  we  find  that  they  touch  at  most  o^ 
the  Treat  ports  in  both  hemispheres;  they  caiTy  not  only  British  letters  to 
foreiSi  countries  and  foreign  letters  to  tl^e  Bi^tish  dominions  but  also  fore^n 
«tteS^to  other  foreign  covmtries;  France.  Denmark,  Spam.  HoUand.  all  have 
coE  s^S^tid  frSii  the  mother  country  by  the  broad  AtlanUc;  but  none 


iMHPiiiiHli 


I 


ID  Gkowth. 

that  which  resulted 
a  Hccne  has  half  a 
hat  two  Americans, 
rly  propclk'il  iu  the 

system.  It  was  in 
xm  power  to  work  a 
■St  to  attain  a  steani- 
lo  Canal.  It  was  in 
rial  by  steam  power, 
om  Albany  to  New 
nstructed  by  Fulton, 

that  a  steamer  lirst 
in  New  York  to  the 
iier  plied  in  Britain ; 
;5  tons  burden,  and 
yde.     It  was  in  IBU* 

as  a  passenger-boat 
e  yeai"  that  a  steamer 

Glasgow  to  London, 
welve  rivers — Clyde, 

Severn,  Orwell,  and 
nited  States  exceeded 
iilai-  trading  over-sea 
Roy  on  the  Greenock 
•ish  Sea,  luid  the  Ger- 

date.  It  was  David 
on  between  1818  and 
1  honourable  position, 
iming  was  effectually 
te  Siriun;  and  in  the 
i^ess  of  steam  naviga- 
t  of  its  sister-system, 

ken  at  Uie  surface  of 
a,ve  been  mainly  esta- 
amers  of  twelve  Corn- 
lid  ships,  employed  by 
3en  lately  stated)  have 
power  of  engmes,  and 

ocean  in  a  year,  and 
hitish  government  for 
learly  one-half  of  these 
it  tlieir  depot  receive 

watch  these  hundred 
they  touch  at  most  of 
only  British  letters  to 
nions,  hut  also  foreign 
pain,  Holland,  all  have 
ad  Atlantic ;  but  none 


A   SHIP,    IN   THE   NINETEKNTII    CENTUBY. 


i;J 


of  these  use  their  own  steamers  to  peifomi  the  mail  service  to  tliose  colonies ; 
it  is  cith.-i  effected  by  sailing  vessels,  or  by  the  English  mail  8teamers--tho 
latter  beinj,  the  method  now  adopted  more  expensively  year  after  year.  The 
West  India  Company  take  such  mails  to  the  colonics  lying  contiguous  to 
America ;  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  (Jompany  convoy  those  bound  eastward  ; 
and  iu  such  cases  the  mail-bags  from  foreign  countries  are  either  brought  to 
Southampton,  or  we  pick  them  up  at  Cadiz,  or  some  otlicr  port. 

The  ladia  mail,  alone,  presents  a  lively  picture  of  the  business-like 
age  in  which  we  live.  It  is  said  that  tlio  steamers  which  leave  Southampton 
on  the  yoth  of  each  month  for  Alexandria,  bearing  the  Mediterranean  and 
India  mails,  usually  take  out  as  much  a.s  three  enormous  railway  vans  can 
contain ;  there  are  some  two  or  threti  hundred  boxes  or  cases  of  letters  and 
dispatches,  and  numerous  sacks  of  letters  and  newspapers — the  whole  weigh- 
ing four  or  live  tons,  and  comprising  generally  about  a  hundred  thousand 
lettei-s  and  twenty  thousand  newspapers.  This,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
is  only  one  among  many  monthly  steamers ;  there  arc  five  or  six  others  which 
leave  Southampton  every  niontli  for  various  ports  in  tho  Teninsula  and  the 
Mediteri-aneon. 

Wood  and  Iron  Steamers:  Taddlks  and  '-^'Kews. 

But  we  are  somewhat  anticipating  our  subject.  There  a  few  interesting 
matters  to  be  touched  on,  relating  to  the  steps  by  which  stc  auiers  have  reached 
their  present  degree  of  efficiency. 

First,  then,  we  have  to  bear  m  mind,  that  steamers  were  originally  all  built 
of  wood,  that  they  all  had  paddle-wheels,  and  that  tlie  boards  or  floats  of  these 
wheels  were  all  rixed  pai-allel  with  the  axis  ;  but  these  points  have  undergone 
notable  changes.  Our  dai-ing  engineei-s  have  met  with  equally  dtu-ing  cap- 
tains, who  scruple  not  to  go  to  sea  with  steamers  "  clothed  in  circumstances 
of  almost  perilous  novelty;  and  the  result  has  shown  that  this  dwing  has  had 
a  sound  scientific  basis  to  rest  upon. 

Iron  steamers  ai-e  among  the  creations  of  our  age.     Mr.  Grantham,  m  a 
paper  read  before  the  British  Association  a  few  yeai-s  ago,  enumerated  so 
many  advantages  which  iron  ships  have  over  those  of  wood,  tliat  it  is  matter 
for   surprise   why  ship-builders   do  not  more   generally   adopt  tlie   former 
material — unless  indeed  they  differ  from  him  in  opinion.     In  the  first  place, 
he  states  that  the  '  fonn  of  least  resistance,'  which  enables  a  vessel  to  glide 
most  readily  through  tlie  water,  is  more  easily  constructed  in  iron  than  in 
wood ;  he  thinks  tliat  iron  ships  excel  wood  in  strength  and  durability,  in 
facility  of  luiiting  the  various  pieces,   in  comparative  stowage,   in  comfort 
and  convenience,  and  in  expense.     In  respect  to  the  last-named  item,  Mr. 
Grantham  adduces  the  instance  of  tlie  Hindostan,  a  fine  timber-built  East 
Indiaman  costing  7-^,000i.,  of  which  the  wood  alone  cost  48,000/. ;  whereas  in 
an  iron  vessel  costing  the  same  sum  the  crude  iron  would  not  be   worth 
more  Uian  5000/. — so  much  more  is  distributed  in  wages  for  the  latter  tlian 
tlie  former.     The  difference  here  stated  seems  excessive ;  but  tliere  can  be 
little  doubt  that,  in  a  countiy  which  yields  so  abundantly  the  iron  fit  for  ship- 
building, great  economical  advantage' ought  to  result  from  the  substitution  of 
iron  for  wood,  otlier  things  being  ecpial.     Whatever  may  be  [said  on  other  as- 
pects of  the  subject,  it  remains  on  record  that  the  largest  steamer  in  the  world 
—the  Great  Britain — built  of  iron,  was  for  more  than  three  hundred  days  lying 
in  peril  on  the  sands  of  Dundrum  Bay ;  and  yet  escaped  at  last  with  the  hull 


11" 


I 

f.  ' 


M 


L 


14  A  snir,    IN   TllE   NINKTEENTIl   CENTCnY. 

of  iron  ahnost  unsliakmi  and  uninjured.    The  connnorcial  nusfortuncs  of  \im 
hirklois  vosscl  ought  not  to  liido  Uii.s  fact  from  view.  ,.         .     „ 

It  nuiHl  1.C  ownod  that,  whoa  an  iron  ship  is  Been  under  process  ot  conKtmc 
tion.  it  is  ditticult  to  reaUbo  the  fa.-t  tliat  it  will  possess  Uio  sUonglh  rofiuisite 
to  bear  up  against  the  power  .;f  the  ocean.  The  keel  is  fonued  ot  bwH 
securelv  rivoM  side  hy  side  and  end  to  end  ;  a  kool  six  inches  deep  by  three 
in  width  being  largo  enough,  it  is  said,  for  a  vessel  of  a  th..usan.l  tons  burden. 
The  stem-i)Ost.  the  stcin-post,  the  ribs— all  are  lonued  of  bar-iron,  the  shght- 
ness  of  which  atfords  a  striking  contrast  to  the  bulky  masses  ot  a  timbev- 
built  ship.  Tho  surfaces  are  all  formed  of  sheet-iron  ;  and  Uiese  slicotfl  are 
fastened  to  each  other,  and  to  Uio  various  bars,  by  a  countless  number  ot  iron 
rivets— rivets  dirough  tho  keel,  rivets  Uuough  the  ribs,  rivets  tlirough  the 
sheetij,  rivet*  everywhere.  There  is  no  soldering,  there  is  but  little  wehling. 
there  ai-e  but  few  screws— all.  or  neai-ly  all,  the  fastening  is  etlected  by  rivets ; 
and  aiese  rivets  bhid  Uio  various  parts  togeUier  wiUi  almost  irresisUble  lorce. 
Of  the  noisy  tumult  which  the  hammeruig  of  these  thousands  ot  rivc.ts  pro- 
duces  in  a  ship  yaid,  we  need  scarcely  speak;  steam-boat  tourists  on  Uio 
Thames  and  the  Clyde  know  sometlnng  ot  this  matter. 

It  is  ditticult  U>  say  wheUier  the  use  of  iron  m  building  a  steamer,  or  tlic 
adoption  of  the  screw  principle  for  propelling  it,  has  been  productive  ot^  most 
ndv  image.  Both  tu'c  great  inventions.  The  noble  Great  nntatn,  y,iih  hei 
burden  of  JiOOO  t«ns,  and  her  engines  of  (orighially)  lOOO-horso  power  Is  a 
screw  ship ;  and  Uie  Scmo  SWam  Naciyntiou  iJom),mft,  lonued  in  IHlt)  Uas 
fully  demonstrated,  on  Uio  Meditenanean  rout«  and  the  Cupe  route.  tl.at  Uie 
screw,  though  perhaps  not  so  swift  as  the  paddle,  consumes  less  tuel  and 
leaves  a  larger  space  for  coi-go.  It  seems,  at  tirst  tbought  strange  tliat  a  mere 
screw,  placed  at  Uie  stern  of  the  vessel  just  above  Uie  keel,  should  have  power 
to  propel  a  ship.  The  steam-engine  causes  Uie  screw  tx)  rotate  on  its  shatt  or 
axis,  and  Uie  blades  of  the  screw  enable  it  to  worm  its  way  Uirough  Uie 
water;  but  Uien  it  should  be  remembered  Uiat  Uiese  blades  lu-e  someUmes  as 
much  as  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  Uius  act  on  Uie  water  wiUi  immease 

New  screw  steam-ships  are  crowding  in  upon  our  waters  from  aU  quai-ters, 
Hi'miticantly  t.^.lling  Uie  tale  of  Uieir  etticiencv  and  desuablenesa.  Ihe  capa- 
city of  screw-steamei-s.  compai-ed  with  Uiose  having  paddles,  has  led  to  a  pro- 
ject of  constructing  such  vessels,  of  2U00  tons  bmden.  as  emigrant  ships 
between  Liverpool  and  New  York-a  most  important  curcuuist^ce  tor 
emigrants,  if  they  can  Uiereby  reacli  Uie  place  ot  Uieir  destmaUon  m  two 
weeks  instead  of  si.\  or  eight.  ,,       , 

In  the  Great  Exhibition  was  placed  a  model  of  a  acrew-propeller,  by 
Captain  Cai-peuter,  comprising  a  very  curious  arrangement.  Ah«  ;«'«  ^^"f* 
Uie  vessel  is  like  that  of  an  ordinary  screw-steamer;  but  from  Uie  m  dsbip 
secUon  to  the  stem  it  has  two  h>ek,  placed  two  feet  or  more  apart.  wiUi  the 
water  flowing  between  them.  There  are  two  screws,  the  axes  ot  which  are  m 
line  wiUi  tiiese  two  semi-keels,  one  to  each,  but  one  a  htUe  m  adyfuico  oi  the 
oUier-  and  Uiere  are  two  rudders,  one  behind  each  screw.  WheUier  Uiw 
sincnlai-  project  has  advanced  beyond  Uie  condition  of  a  model,  we  do  not 
know  ;  but  the  hopes  of  Ore  inventor  ai-e  said  to  be,  Uiat  Uie  two  screws  will 
trive  a  higher  speed  Uian  one  under  Uie  ordinary  arrangement,  and  Uiat  Uie 
two  rudders  will  enable  the  vessel  to  tuni  in  one-half  of  Use  oi-dmary  apace. 

Tlie  aiuvUUmi  mm  is  one  of  the  best  of  recent  mventions.  It  rests  upon 
the  priuQlple  that  during  a  foYOuraUe  wiod  »  ship  sbaU  pi-ogreas  by  means  ot 


L. 


— — ^ 


,  nust'ortimcs  of  tliis 

process  of  couHtruc- 

0  sti'onj^th  riKiiiiaite 

1  ia  fonueil  of  barH 
nchos  deep  by  threo 
ijiisiind  tons  burden. 

bur-iron,  the  slight- 
nosst'S  of  a  tinibev- 
nd  these  sheets  iire 
tk'ss  number  of  iron 
,  rivets  tlirough  the 
s  but  Uttle  weUling, 
is  eifocted  by  rivets  ; 
ost  irresistible  force. 
Lisands  of  rivf^ts  })ro- 
joat  touriatfi  on  tlio 

ig  a  steamer,  or  the 
11  productive  of  n\ost 
eat  Britain,  with  her 
()( (-horse  power,  is  a 
formed  in  IHiO,  has 
I  Oui)e  route,  tluvt  tlie 
sumes  less  fuel  and 
;t,  strange  that  a  mere 
^l,  should  have  power 
rotate  on  its  shaft  or 
its  way  tlirough  tlie 
les  are  sometinjes  as 
water  with  immense 

iV»  from  all  quaiters, 
ablenesa.  The  capa- 
lles,  has  led  to  a  pro- 
n,  as  emigrant  ships 
ut  circumstance  for 
lir  destination  in  two 

a  screw-propeller,  by 
ent.  The  fore  half  of 
jut  from  tlie  midship 
•  more  apart,  with  the 
e  axes  of  which  are  in 
ittle  in  advfmce  of  the 
screw.  Whether  tliis 
f  a  model,  we  do  not 
it  tlio  two  screws  will 
Dgement,  and  tliat  the 
f  the  oixiinftry  apace, 
ntions.  It  rests  upon 
pi-ogreas  by  means  of 


A   SHIP,    IN   THE   KINETEENTU   ORNTUmi. 


t» 


her  sails ;  but  that,  when  bad  weather  sets  in.  a  screw  and  a  steam-ongino  shall 
hot  to  work,  and  render  good  service  ut  a  time  when  the  poor  ship  would  bo 
otherwise  beating  al)out  at  the  mercy  of  adverse  winds,  or  else  absolutely 
powerless  in  a  dt-ad  culm.  A  vessel  so  coustrucUiil  has  a  screw  and  cngme 
skilfully  placed  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  when  not  wanted,  and  yet  (imckly 
iivailablo  m  time  of  need  ;  Uie  (luantity  of  fuel  carried  is  but  small ;  wlulo 
die  spare  room  for  cargo  is  much  lai-ger  tliau  in  any  ordinary  steamers.  ()ur 
merchant  ships,  our  war  ships,  our  Arctic  exi)loring  ships— are  now  giving 
iudications  tliat  the  auxiliiuy  screw  princiiile  is  rising  rapidly  in  lavour. 
Indeed,  it  is  evident  that  tlii'i'e  are  many  sourc-es  of  advantage  hen!  m  stoi'e ; 
for  it  is  optional  to  tlu;  commander  lo  employ  steam  power  just  when  and  as 
often  as  ho  may  choose,  or  his  stock  of  coals  may  admit.  He  has  wind  to 
appeal  to  if  short  of  coaUi ;  he  has  coals  at  command  if  ill-i)rovi(led  with  wind. 
l''rom  the  paddle  luid  tlie  screw  we  may  pass  U)  that  mighty  agent  whereby 
paddles  and  screws  are  made  effective— the  nmriiio  steam-engine— that  ti^ 
chanical  unit  which  had  ono-horao  power  in  the  earUest  experiments,  and 
now  has  live  hundred.  . 

The  marine  steam-engines  at  the  Great  Exhibition  gave  us  a  little  msiglit 
into  the  varied  and  ingenious  contrivances  for  apiilying  steam  power  to  tlie 
propulsion  of   ships.      There  was  Mr.  Atherton's  pair  of   marine  engines, 
having  one  beam  overhead  instead  of  two  beams  beneath  the  cylinders,  and  a 
construction  such  as  would  enable  them    tii    be  applied  either  to  potldlc- 
stoamcrs  or  screw-steamers.     There  was  Messrs.  SlaughUsr's  pair  of  OO-iiorsc 
power  engines  for  a  screw-steamer,  witli  cylinders  at  lui  angle  ot  45 ',  and  a 
tliroe-hladed  screw-propeller  made  of  gun  meUd.    There  was  Messrs.  Boulton 
and   Watts   magnihcent  pair   of    TOO-home  power   enghies,  intended  for  a 
screw-steamer,  with  four  iwlindei-s  of  b'i  inches  diameter,  and  a  screw-pro 
luaier  10  feet  in  diameter.  There  were  the  insb  active  little  motlels,  depojited  by 
the  same  company,  of  James  Watt's  oscUlating  engine  of  1785,  luid  of  his 
experimental  locomotive  of  tlie  same  daUa.     There  were  Messrs.  Teun's  pan- 
of  1 0-horse  power  engines,  with  oscillatixig  cylinders,  such  as  we  ai'e  accus- 
tomed to  see  in  some  of  tlio  river  boats,  and  such  as  have  been  found  capable 
of  high  speed  out  at  sea;  and  tlie  same  Jinn's  pan-  of  SO-horse  engines  tor  a 
Hcrew-steauier,  of  a  form  now  used   m    some  of  Uie   screw  ships  of  war. 
There  was  Messrs.  Maudslay's  beautiful  collection  of  models— comprising  a 
pair  of  beam-engines,  such  as  are  largely  used  in  the  royal  navy,  but  which 
are  now  being  gradually  superseded  by  oscillating  engines ;  a  pair  of  these 
last-mentioned   oscillating   engines;    a  pair   of    Uie    foiu--cylinder    engines 
patented  by  this  firm,  and  applied  by  tliem  to  many  war-steamers  ;  a  pair  oi 
annular-cylinder  engines,  such  as  ai-e  used  by  some  of  the  steamers  on  the 
Folkstone    and    Boulogne    route;    a    pair    of   horizontal-cyUnder   engines, 
for  workuig  a  screw-propeller;  a  steeple  engine,  adapted  for  shallow  river 
steamers— such  were  tlie  mstructive  contents  of  tlie  fine  glass  case  containing 
Messrs.  Maudslay's  models.     There  were  the  curious  examples  of  screw- 
propellers,  deposited  by  Mr.  Smith,  who  may  be  regarded  as  tlie  originator  of 
this  mode  of  propulsion,  and  whose  (ollection  showed  how  numerous  have 
been  tlie  forms  of  the  screw  successively  adoptad :  it  included  tlie  first  screw 
which  ever  worked  a  steamer  out  at  sea. 

Were  it  possible  to  trace  all  tlie  improvements  made  m  marine  sUJom- 
onginea  witliin  the  last  few  yeoi-s,  we  sliould  find  that  not  a  single  month  has 
passed  without  tiie  mtroduction  of  some  novelty  or  other  connected  with  the 
subject.    No  part  of  the  complex  and  beautiful  appwfttus  b«a  been  left  with- 


\l 


u 


Hi 


wmm 


M 


dW 


ffflii:iiifii 


Amk^ 


10 


A   Smr,    IN    TlIK    NINKTKl'.NTH    CENTrilY. 


.  k 


out  its  ncwlypatonted  inventions,  or  itn  registered  iniprovenicnlH,  or  itn 
Huggested  ulUiiatiouH  which  have  never  risen  to  the  dignity  cither  of  ii  patent 
or  H  registiy.  And  if  we  glance  tluougli  tlie  puge.s  of  tliose  journalH  whicii 
record  new  patentH  and  invontionH,  we  hnd  Unit  there  is  nlwiiyH  Honie  contn)- 
versy  or  oilier  going  on  respecting  the  merits  of  certain  tiigliii-M  and  parts  of 
engines,  or  wheUier  the  '  I'ire-rty,"  or  the  '  l-'ire-king,'  or  tlio  '  Iron  Duke,'  or  the 
'  Asia,'  or  the  'Atlantic,'  or  any  vessel,  is  worthy  of  tlie  lofty  position  which  its 
advocates  claim  for  it.  All  such  discussions  indicate  the  strength  of  the 
ciuTent  of  opinion  and  invention  respecting  steamers  and  their  engines. 

Hiun  Steam-Hi'fkk  :  tuk  Wave  Princ  ii'i.k. 

One  of  the  best  gifts  which  the  British  Association  has  bestowed  on  the 
practical  arts,  is  the  investigation  into  the  nature  and  forms  of  waves,  and  tlie 
adaiitution  of  the  forms  of  shiiis  to  those  waves.  Nooi-ly  twenty  years  ago 
Mr.  Scott  llussell  took  U|)  this  subject  with  a  view  to  its  elucidation ;  and  in 
IH'M  the  Association  entrusted  to  him  and  Sir  John  llobinson  the  manage- 
ment of  an  extensive  series  of  experiments,  conducted  at  tlie  cost  of  the  Asso- 
ciation. Among  other  results,  the  Committee  discovered  tlie  existence  of  a 
peculiar  wave,  generated  when  a  vessel  is  moving  in  a  channel  of  detinite 
width;  in  this  wave  the  particles  of  water  do  not  merely  oscillate  up  and 
down  as  in  ordinai-y  waves,  but  they  are  lifted  fonvard  to  a  new  position,  at  a 
rate  dependent  on  the  depth  of  the  channel.  It  was  also  found  that  a  ship, 
if  it  could  be  made  to  move  with  a  velocity  exceeding  that  of  this  wave,  will 
have  a  tendency  to  ride  on  tlie  top  of  the  wave,  and  to  be  urged  foi-ward  with 
actually  less  force  tlum  if  it  moved  more  slowly.  A  third  result  was,  that  if  the 
exterior  or  water-line  of  a  ship  be  made  to  correspond  witli  the  shape  ot  this 
wave,  tlie  speed  of  tlie  vessel  will  be  greater  than  with  any  other  shape. 

In  many  succeeding  meetings  of  the  As.sociation  this  Committee  presented 
Reports  of  its  indefatigable  laboui-s — almost  wholly  due  to  Mr.  Scott  llussell ; 
and  those  who  have  not  watched  the  proceedings  of  that  learned  body,  can 
scarcely  imagine  how  great  and  varied  were  the  experiments  made  by  the 
Committee.  Apparatus  of  the  most  delicate  and  ingenious  kind  was  invented 
for  conducting  tlie  investigations  concernuig  waves ;  and  when  the  forms  oi 
ships  came  to  be  incjuired  into,  tlie  Committee  applied  to  the  most  eminent 
ship-builders  to  mention  the  points  on  which  tliey  most  wanted  infomiation, 
and  the  forms  of  vessels  which  they  would  wish  to  have  tried.  More  tlian  a  ^ 
hundred  models  of  vessels  were  constructed,  varying  in  lengUi  from  tliree  to ' 
twenty-five  feet ;  these  were  drawn  through  the  water  witli  vaiious  velocities, 
and  at  dift'erent  degrees  of  immersion,  to  determine  the  resistance  of  all  the 
various  forms  that  might  be  adopted.  Some  of  the  experiments  regarded  the 
transverse  sections  of  ships ;  some,  the  '  water-line '  of  the  bow ;  others,  the 
water-line  of  the  stem ;  others,  the  proper  point  of  gi-eatest  breadth,  and  so 
forth.  Not  only  were  these  experiments  made  upon  models,  but  also  upon 
ships  of  all  burdens,  up  to  1 300  tons.  One  experiment  was  very  remarkable  : 
—Mr.  Russell  caused  four  boats  to  be  constructed,  about  twenty-five  feet  long, 
having  all  equal  length,  equal  breadth,  equal  depth,  equal  capacity,  and  equal 
weight ;  they  were  towed  along  at  the  same  time,  with  tlie  same  velocity,  and 
under  the  same  circumstances— notliing  difl'ered  except  the  curves  of  the 
bortis  at  various  points  in  the  length.  Yet  so  great  was  the  influence  which 
these  curves  exerted,  that  one  form  met  witli  nioio  than  twice  as  much  re- 
sistance as  another;  the  otiier  two  being  midway.    The  difi'erence  of  curva- 


iiprovpmciitH,  or  its 
ty  eitluT  uf  u  patent 
tlioHo  journals  whicli 
always  soino  contro- 
fiiu[iiies  lUiil  piU'tH  of 
le  '  Iron  I)\iko,'  or  tlio 
fty  position  which  its 
the  strength  ol'  tho 
1  their  engines. 


in.K. 

las  hcstowcd  on  tlio 
ni8  of  waves,  and  tlic 
rly  twenty  years  ago 
(  I'lucidation ;  and  in 
lobinson  the  nianagc- 
,  tlie  cost  of  tho  Asso- 
ed  tlie  existence  of  a 
k  channel  of  definite 
srely  oscillate  up  and 

0  a  nev  position,  at  u 
Iso  found  that  a  ship, 
.hat  of  this  wave,  will 
)c  lU'ged  foi-ward  with 
result  was,  that  if  the 
^■itli  tlie  shape  of  this 
my  other  shape. 
Oouiniittee  presented 
to  Mr.  Scott  liussell ; 
lat  learned  body,  can 
•itnents  made  by  the 
3U8  kind  was  invented 
nd  when  the  fomis  of 

1  to  the  most  eminent 
t  wanted  inforaiation, 
e  tried.     More  tliaii  a 

lengtli  from  tlu-ee  to ' 
vitli  various  velocities, 
e  resisttmce  of  all  Uic 
eriments  regai'ded  the 
'  the  bow ;  others,  the 
eatest  breadth,  and  so 
models,  but  also  upon 
was  very  remarkable : 
t  twenty-live  feet  long, 
lal  capacity,  and  equal 
tlie  same  velocity,  and 
ept  the  curves  of  the 
iis  the  influence  which 
an  twice  as  much  re- 
le  difl'erence  of  cur\'a- 


A   Binr,    IN  TlIK   NINElEKNTir   OENTrllY. 


17 


tiire  was  so  slight  as  to  bo  detected  only  by  an  experienced  eye,  and  yet  tho 
irsults  were  niont  mark.'.!.  Tho  boat  built  on  tho  '  wave  principle  '  was  found 
to  bo  not  otdy  the  least  subject  to  resistance,  but  to  be  tho  best,  easiest,  and 
(hiest  scft-boat.  It  was  also  ascertained  tiiai  each  form  has  a  velocity  at  which 
its  powers  bear  thr  most  favourable  comparison  w  ith  others ;  two  of  th«i  boats, 
for  instiuice,  were  nearly  eiiual  for  resistAiic*^  at  a  speed  of  thno  or  four  miles 
an  hour ;  but  one  of  them  gained  relatively  over  the  other  at  six  or  seven 
miles  hi)eed ;  the  '  wavelmo '  boat,  however,  beat  all  tho  others  at  all  rates 
of  speed. 

A  very  strange  <'omment  on  our  Adniirrdty  arrangements  was  nuulc  at  the 
Soutliampton  meeting  of  the  British  Association  in  iHttl.  After  Mr.  Scott 
liussell  and  others  had  given  evidence  of  tli.^  great  value  of  the  wave  principle 
in  ship-building,  Mr.  Vignolles,  the  engineer,  asked  whetlier  tin;  Admiraltv 
hud  built  any  vessels  on  this  principle;  and  if  not,  whv  not?  Mr.  liussell 
r.'plieil  that  "ho  had  been  nmch  more  desirous  for  the  adoption  of  tho 
system  in  other  ships  than  in  tho  Admiralty,  because  ho  had  been  informed 
that  the  Admiralty  did  not  like  the  introduction  of  scientitic  principles  into 
ship-buildiiig,  but  prefen-ed  remaining  as  tiiey  were.  He  had  tlioreforo  been 
averse  to  obtrude  tho  subject  on  thenj." 

It  is  pleasant  to  know,  however,  that  the  same  engineer  who  discovered 
the  wave  principle,  and  who  has  for  sixteen  or  eighteen  successive  years 
detailed  to  the  IJritish  Association  tho  results  of  his  indefatigable  inquiries, 
has  at  last  seen  even  governments  (but  not  that  of  England)  bend  to  tlio  new 
order  of  things.  At  tlie  Ipswich  meeting  in  1851,  Mr.  Scott  liussell  stated 
that  a  foreign  government  had  consented  to  the  adoption  of  the  wavo  prin- 
ciple in  war-steamers.  Tho  firm  of  liussell  and  Robinson  had  received  an 
Older  from  a  foreign  government  for  two  war-steamers,  conceraing  which 
these  formidable  conditions  were  to  be  fulfilled—"  that  Uie  ships  were  to 
caiTy  double  tlie  annanient  of  any  war-steamer  of  the  same  tonnage  and 
power,  and  go  two  knots  im  hour  faster,  than  any  vessel  in  her  Majesty's 
navy."  The  conditions,  we  are  told,  were  faithfully  obsencd,  by  the  adoption 
of  the  wav.?  principle  in  the  war-steamers  thus  constructed.  Should  tho 
warlike  talk  of  the  age  ever  result  in  something  more  than  talk,  and  should 
the  wave  prin.'.iple,  or  any  other  scientific  pri;5<!iple.  be  found  to  have  been 
quietly  follow'ul  by  foreign  countries,  while  our  own  Admiralty  has  been 
reposing  on  the  old  familiar  ustoms,  the  consequence  may  possibly  be 
neither  pleasant  to  the  national  vanity  nor  profitable  to  the  national  purse. 

What  is  the  proper  ratio  between  the  tonnage  and  the  horse  power  of  a 
steam  vessel?  This  question  constantly  presents  itself  to  the  notice  of  ship- 
builders and  enginesrs ;  but  it  is  quite  evident  that  no  settled  system  is  yet 
agreed  upon,  for  different  companies  adopt  ratios  widely  divei-se.  As  the  race 
of  competition  is  leading  to  greater  and  greater  speed,  so  does  this  speed  lead 
U)  greater  and  greater  horso  power  in  respect  to  tonnage.  The  English 
builders  generally  give  a  lower  horse  power  per  ton  tlian  those  of  the 
Clyde;  but  as  ocean  steamers  increase  in  number,  and  as  adverse  tides, 
currents,  and  winds  occur  more  frequently  in  the  Atlantic  than  in  sheltered 
seas,  our  engineers  ore  gradually  adopting  the  system  of  giving  more  power 
to  obtain  more  speed,  which  speed  acts  as  a  counterbolanco  to  tlie  hostile 
currents  and  winds. 

What  a  curious  and  important  subject  presents  itseh"  to  our  notice,  when  wo 
think  of  the  available  means  for  obtaining  tliis  so-called  horse  power !  Tho 
shaft  moves  Uie  paddles,  and  tlie  piston  moves  the  shaft,  and  tho  steam  moves 


bmm' 


L. 


^Q  A  eHlP,   IN   THE   NINETEESTII  CENTUnY. 

IviiifT  in  tlie  route  Oi  ocean  steamers.    1  nese  spois  aic  uciug  i-u^i..  j     .  °.  ■    ..  • 

SnvStly  s^tuatld  for  the  ocean  steamers-a  commercxal  way  of  "kiUmg 
n^-'tc^fBreirat  the  Swansea  meeting'of  lJ.e  British  Association  m 

ge"l\rg^r^^i"S^^^^^      -^  kept^inding  round  ax.d  n,und  in  tl.e 
C  S  S  lalt  was  aUowed  to  escape  with  difticulty .    Now.  however,  Oie  flues 
rr;S.  Jhorto  vm  niTmerous,  Jd  of  tliin  metal,  so  as  to  heat  the  greates 
Sua^y  of  wa^;  K  Stest'time ;  by  ^vhich  a  boiler  of  small  extent  a;.d 
weSt  is  nS  much  more  eflicaclous  than  the  old  bulky  and  ponderous 
Z£     T^fbeTm-engine,  which  .occupies  a  gi'eat  amount  of  space,  m. 
former  V  iised  for  almost  all  steam  vessels;  but  it  has  heen  superseded  to  a 
!S?cons?derable  extent  by  the  directaction  engine,  m  which-the  cylmders 
SrSSfateirSder^  the  shaft  of  the  paddle-wheels-less  space  is 
Sied^nd  less  power  wasted  in   friction.     A  useful  change   a  so  ha. 
JesXd  from  the  use  of  oscillating-oylmder  engmes.  which  are  equally  avail- 
able Shout  a  beam.    Another  important  change  is.  that  wrought  iron  is  used 
S  much  of  ti,^  ^gine  work  which  used  to  be  formed  of  heavier  but  less 
touSi  cast  Ur  3v4y  modifications  have  been  mtroduced  m  the  form  of  tiie 
padl-bVeT^  itB  fl'oats.  giving  to  the  latter  a  more  eco-c»nic  acUoijon  J 
water      But  a  mtich  greater  improvement  has  resulted  trom  diiymg  the 
ZldL  ni<ie  raSdlv  tlmn  was  wont  in  the  mfancy  of  steam  navigation;  it  is 
Tow  Sio^  rr/uel  is  economised,  instead  of  wasted,  by  giving  to    he 
Xemenrof  the  piston  in  tiie  cylinder,  and  consequently  to  those  of  the 

piston  rod  crank.  sV  and  paddle,  this  --«r„°*  TcloieJ  LteaS 
Inethod  m  practice  of  'working  steam  expansive  y.  p^  it  is  caUf  j^steaa 
S  completely  filling  tlie  -^yUnder  with  steam,  it  is  only  pai-tly  fiUed.  and  the 
tendencVoTLis  stSam  to'expand  so  as  to  fill  the  vacuum  in  the  cylmder 
Bunches  in  itself  a  certain  amount  of  moving  force,  msomuch  that  a  quarter 
cvUnder-full  of  steam  ha«  been  made  to  produce  two-tiiu^s  a  cylinder-  uU  o 
Zr  This  expansive  working  wa.  mtooduced  into  ^team^^^^tnlTS  th 
fourteen  years  ^o,  and  the  extension  of  the  method  has  to.-med  one  of  the 
marked  items  in  modem  unprovement. 


L 


■Y" 


stai-ta  is  well  supplied 
iniit  put  to  it,  iirespec- 
his  was  one  of  the  cir- 
)C6an  steaming,  fifteen 
still  the  'coaling' of  a 

leviathans  of  modem 
t  tlie  great  desideratum 
!an  be  obtained — spots 
ing  eagerly  sought  after, 
ay,  so  important  is  tliis 
;  coals  in  other  ships  to 
jamers  which  call  there, 
ific  steam  navigation  of 
8,  which  usually  go  out 
could  be  left  at  depots 
uercial  way  of  "  killing 

British  Association,  in 
mprovejnents  up  to  tliat 
jsels  tlie  boilers  were  of 
•ound  and  round  in  tlie 

Now,  however,  the  flues 
0  as  to  heat  the  greatest 
>iler  of  small  extent  and 
d  bulky  and  ponderous 

amount  of  space,  was 
is  been  superseded  to  a 
in  which— the  cylinders 
e-wheels — less  space  is 
useful  change  also  has 
,  which  are  equally  avail- 
that  wrought  iron  is  used 
med  of  heavier  but  less 
(duced  in  the  form  of  the 
e  economic  action  on  the 
mlted  fi-om  diiving  the 
f  steam  navigadon ;  it  is 
irasted,  by  giving  to  the 
sequently  to  those  of  the 
B  of  speed.    There  is  a 

Rs  it  is  called.  Instead 
only  partly  filled,  and  the 

vacuum  in  the  cylinder, 
,  insomuch  that  a  quarter 
ivo-thirds  a  cylinder-full  of 
0  steam  vessels  twelve  or 
)d  has  fonned  one  of  the 


A  snip,  IK  TttE  WINeTEElWa  CENTORT.  !• 


Ocean  Stkamers  in  1852 :  what  they  are,  and  what  they  perform. 

As  an  exemplar  of  die  perfection  to  which  tlie  arta  of  civilised  life  have  been 
brought  into  requisition  on  shipboai-d,  we  might  take  any  one  of  the  later 
steamers  built  by  the  Ounard,  the  Collins,  or  die  West  India  Companies.  All 
that  a  seaman  can  want  in  die  naudcal  excellence  of  the  ship — all  that  an 
engineer  can  admire  in  the  mechanism  for  die  steam  machinery — all  that  a 
well-to-do  passenger  can  desire  in  respect  to  his  own  pereonal  comfort — are 
realised  to  an  extent  that  the  world  never  saw  before.  WTiedier  we  talie  the 
Asia  or  Africa  of  the  first  of  the  above-named  companies,  or  the  Atlantic  or 
Baltic  of  the  second,  or  the  Orinoco  (would  that  wo  might  also  include  the 
Demerara  or  the  Amazmi)  of  the  thu-d,  we  should  equally  find  this  to  be  the 
case. 

Let  it  be  the  Atlantic,  for  instance,  which  we  may  select  in  courtesy  to  our 

transadandc  friends.     The  first  American-built  steamer  which   crossed  the 

broail  ocean  was  the  Washington ;  but  die  next  one,  the  Atlantic,  far  excelled  it 

in  every  respect;  it  made  its  first  appearance  at  Liverpool  in  May,  1850,  and 

formed  the  commencement  of  a  new  era  in  ocean  navigation.     Her  lengdi  of 

koel  is  276  feet;  her  breaddi  (within  the  paddle-boxes),  45  ;  her  paddles  ai-e  36 

feet  in  diameter,  and  her  floats  15  feet  long ;  her  burden  is  nearly  2900  tons ; 

her  power  is  supplied  by  two  engines  of  500-horse  power  each ;  her  boilers 

are  four  in  number,  each  heated  by  eight  furnaces ;  her  appetite  for  coal  is 

equal  to  two  tons  per  hour.     Then  the  passenger  arrangements  are  very  unlike 

those  of  the  old  steamers.     The  deck  is  nearly  flush  from  end  to  end.     The 

captain  and  oflicei-s'  rooms,  the  kitchen,  the  pantry  room,  and  the  barber's 

shop,  are  clustered  into  two  convenient  groups  on  two  distmct  pai'ts  of  die 

deck.     The  bai-ber's  room  has  a  multitude  of  htde  handy  contrivances  for 

facilitating  die  delicate  operation  of  shaving  during  all  the  varied  movements 

of  the  ship.     On  deck  also  is  a  smoking  i-ooni,  shielded  alike  from  the  saloon 

below  and  from  the  weather  above.     The  saloons  are  magnificent  apartments, 

each  sixty  or  seventy  feet  long,  by  twenty  broad ;  one  we  may  call  the  duiing- 

room,  and  die  odier  die  di-awing-room.     They  ai-«  fitted  up  widi  every  imagm- 

able  luxury.     Rose-wood  and  satin-wood,  carving  and  gilding,  mirrors  and 

stained   glass,   velve'.  cushions   and  rich   carpets,  brilliant  silver-plate   and 

lustrous  cut  glass,  pamtings   and  sculptures,  polished  marble  and  polished 

steel,  abound  in  the  fittings  and  furniture.     There  are  a  hundred  and  fifty 

berdis,  situated  on  eidier  side  of  the  saloons,  besides  a  certain  number  of 

'wedding-berths,'  which,  in  accordance  with  a  general  custom  in  America,  aie 

provided  in  steamers  for  newly-manied  couples  who  wish  to  pass  the  honoy- 

moon  on  the  waters.     Bells  are  placed  in  all  the  cabins,  or  rather  a  bell-rope 

in  each,  all  communicating  with  a  bell-telegi.  ph,  such  as  was  shown  in  our 

Great  Exhibition.     A  bell  likewise  gives  die  signal  from  the  captain  to  the 

steersman,  who  steers  to  the  right  or  the  left,  according  as  one  or  two  strokes 

are  given  on  the  bell.     A  kind  of  bell-rope,  but  widi   an   inscription-card 

instead  of  a  bell,  is  used  to  convey  signals  from  the  captain  to  the  engme-maii 

below ;  according  as  the  orders  '  go  on,'  '  slow,'  '  fast,'  '  ease  her,'  '  stop  ner, 

or  die  like,  are  needed  to  be  given,  the  captain  pulls  one  or  other  of  several 

handles,  which  causes  the  required  signal  to  appear  on  an  inscription  m  the 

engine-room.      One  litde  appendage  makes  its  appearance  in  the  saloons  and 

other  elegandy-fitted  places  where  we  should  litde  expect  to  meet  widi  it :  it 


Fl 


■i| 


T^ 


iTWlltaiiii  I    \m  •"' 


||0  X  SHIP,   IN   THE   NINETEENTH   CENTTJHIT. 

is  a  concession  to  a  certainhabit  in  ^vhieh  Brother  Jonathan  indulges  to  a  con- 

""^  itTar^^'a' in'S  ^:^tZe^  at  any  length  on  ^e  rnagnifi- 
rpnt  steam  fleets  bdon-^ing  to  the  companies  alluded  Uy  in  many  of  the  pre- 
TeSine  pa  ai^^^^^^^^^  -^like   have   availed   themselves   of   those   grand 

"p^i^^nLnKSh  BO  signally.mark  the  ^t^-J^S^J.:  £.S,W 
day.  If  we  trace  the  history,  or  visit  the  ships  of^<^  Cunard  JJ"^«  ^""^'  ;^ 
lines  of  North  American  steamers  at  LiveiTOol;  or  ot  tlie  i  mtnsHwr  ««« 
Srianal,  ovlhe  West  India  lines  at  Southampton;  or  of  the  0«.««  Screw  hues 
TviynZth,  we  find  tlaat  all  now  comprise  tmly  ^'^g^'^^^^VS  hor  c 
buiS  of  8000  tons,  a  length  of  300  feet,  an  engine-force  of  1000-horsc 
nower  are  no  longer  isolated  wonders  in  our  ocean  steamers.  „„  v  „„, 

^  men  shSl  we  mxse  t«  ask  for  higher  speed  ?    The  world  ought,  peAap. 
to  be  satisfied  with  being  conveyed  from  Livei-pool  to  Halifax  in  eleven  days 
let  does  the  lucent  Galway  enterprise  (and  many  other  projects)  show  that 
Len  S  not  ^e  content  miUl  the  Jhoitest  practicable  ocean  route  is  attained 
Li'eiW  is   not  the  most  western  British  port;  Halifax  is  not    he  most 
extern  American  port;  hence  are  the  projectors  lookmg  around  ^r  o^e'« 
Siv  an  eve  has  been  attracted  by  the  favourable  western  position  of  Galwa^ 
SnTe  a^ra  Iway  has  been  formed  from  Dublin  te  that  por^  Galway  hajput  m 
^  claim  to  tlie  dignity  of  a  transaUantic  mail  station.     Galway  is,  perhaps 
iwoh^dred  miles  in  Advance  of  Liverpool  on  the  way  to  America ;  and  there 
nS  port  cSled  Sydney,  in  Cape  Breton,  seventy  or  eighty  miles  nean. 
t^Erlpe  San  Halifax;  and  hence  it  has  been  proposed  to  establish  a  mad 
?oute  from  G^way  U,  this  little  Sydney.     Supposing,  however,  Galway  and 
iSaf  tobe  selecLd.  this  distance  of  about  t^o  thousand  miks  might  a.   s 
vToned  bv  sanguine  projectors,  be  accomplished  in  seven  days.     But  until 
rSays  areS^r  adviced  i^  British  America,  Galway  must  look  to  New 
York  Sth^r  tlian  to  Hahfax  as  the  other  end  of  her  oceanic  cham ;  and  a  few 
months  will  probably  show  us  something  notable  m  this  direction 

And  it  is  in  a  somewhat  analogous  spint  that  we  ^^oukl  rega^  the  com 
neting  schemes  for  ocean  routes  to  India  and  Austi-aha  Shall  it  be  by  tlio 
IsSus  of  Suez,  or  by  Panama,  or  by  tlie  Cape?  Which  is  the  shortest. 
wShwiU  convCT  om-  officers,  and  colonists,  and  merchandise  to  the  fai- 
LtTt  e.St  most^uickly  and  cheaply?  All  these  questions  are  being  na^^- 
toXc^J^d;  and  it  is  not  improbable  diat  the  result  will  be  the jesto^ 
bUshmentof  all  three  routes-each  having  its  own  catalogue  of  fovomrable 
cfrcumsSices,  and  the  impulse  of  competition  having  taken  so  decided  a 
f "  If  we  do  not  effect  these  things,  America  will ;  and  herem  is  anothei 

source  of  commercial  activity.  .    ,     ,  v.       •„-,#•  ^u  tmiP 

How  strangely  does  it  strike  upon  the  '"ind-how  subversive  of  dd^^^^^^^ 
associations— to  read  such  an  advertisement  as  the  following :— "  Steam  Com- 
mSation  beuveen  Cairo  and  the  Fii-st  Catai-act  The  Egyptian  Transit  Ad- 
rnistmtion  begs  to  inform  travellei-s  that  a  steamer  wiU  be  dispatehed  from 
Cairo  to  Assouan  on  or  about  the  10th  of  eveiy  month.  .  .  .  •  •  J^' 
whole  voyage  will  be  accomplished  in  seventeen  or  eighteen  days,  mdudmg 
Tbout  2i0  hom-s-  stoppages  at  all  tlie  places  where  the  pnncipal  anUquHe^ 
eS-  Napoleon  talked^to  his  soldiers  about  forty  centunes  looking  ^o^^^ 
upon  them  from  the  Pyramids  ;  but  if  Uie  builders  of  Edfou,  and  Dendem  , 
and  Thebes,  could  "  look  down"  upon  a  puffing,  pantmg  creation  of  Peim 
and  Sons,"  or  "  Maudslay  and  Co.,"  ratUing  audaciously  along  at  the  veiy 


mn  indulges  to  a  con- 

ength  on  the  magnifi- 
)  in  many  of  the  pre- 
Ives  of  those  grand 
[Ration  of  the  present 
unard' or tlie  'Collins' 
)f  tlie  Penimular  and 

the  Ocean  Screw  Unes 
iignificent  vessels.     A    || 
le-force  of  1000-horse 
niers. 

world  ought,  perhaps, 
[alifax  in  eleven  days ; 
er  projects)  show  that 
cean  route  is  attained, 
ilifax  is  not  the  most 
ing  around  for  others, 
m  position  of  Gal  way ; 
port,  Gal  way  has  put  in 
I.  Galway  is,  perhaps, 
to  America ;  and  there 
or  eighty  miles  nearer 
led  to  establish  a  mail 
;,  however,  Galway  and 
sand  miles  might,  as  is 
seven  days.  But  until 
way  must  look  to  New 
leanic  chain ;  and  a  few 
lis  direction, 
should  regard  the  com- 
[ia.  Shall  it  be  by  the 
Which  is  the  shortest'.' 
merchandise  to  the  fav- 
uestions  are  being  nai- 

result  will  be  tlie  esta- 

catalogue  of  favourable 
ing  taken  so  decided  a 
;  and  herein  is  another 

r  subversive  of  old-time 
Uowing : — "  Steam  Com- 
he  ligyptian  Transit  Ad- 
■  will  be  dispatched  from 

ith The 

eighteen  days,  including 
the  principal  antiquities 
centuries  looking  do^Yn 
jf  Edfou,  and  Denderali, 
nting  creation  of  "  Peim 
iiously  along  at  the  very 


A   SHIP,    IN   THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURT. 


SI 


foot  of  the  sacred  temples,  the  sight  would  be  much  more  startling  than  that 
of  an  amicd  host,  and  more  significant  of  tlie  progress  which  tlic  last 
hundredtli-part  of  forty  centuries  has  witnessed. 

The  fine  steaniei-s  of  our  day  aie  not  to  be  tinderstood  by  regarding  merely 
tlieir  mechanical  and  engineering  qualities.  There  are  other  commercial 
curiosities  e.xhibited  by  tliem.  For  example— /ood.  Of  that  part  of  a  ship's 
accompaniments  which  relate  to  the  victualling  of  tlie  crew  and  passengers,  no 
example,  perhaps,  is  more  striking  than  that  afforded  by  the  great  mail  steamers 
which  leave  Southam[)ton  eveiy  month.  One  of  the  Oriental  steamers  some- 
times contains  a  crew  of  nearly  a  hundred,  and  about  as  many  passengers ; 
tliese  have  to  be  provisioned  for  five  weeks ;  and  the  principal  portion 
of  this  supply  is  shipped  at  Southampton.  Grocers,  butchere,  bakers, 
wine  merchants,  spirit  merchants,  confectioners,  poulterers,  cheesemongers — 
all  are  busy  for  several  days  before  tlie  starting  of  the  mail,  in  supplying  pro- 
visions, Avhicli  comprise  the  delicacies  as  well  as  the  solid  comforts  of  the 
larder  ond  tlie  cellar.  "  About  iWOO  lbs.  weight  of  bread,  flour,  hops,  and 
malt,"  says  a  writer  in  tlie  Hampshire  Advertiser,  apparently  well  informed  on 
this  subject ;  "  2000  lbs.  of  butchers'  meat,  consisting  of  prune  beef,  mutton, 
pork,  caJves'  heads,  and  ox  tails  ;  200  head  of  live  stock,  comprising  sheep, 
pigs,  turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  fowls,  and  a  cow  in  milk;  100  head  of  dead 
stock,  consisting  of  turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  fowls,  and  rabbits  ;  '2000  lbs.  of 
pi-ovender  for  tlie  live  stock  ;  3000  bottles  of  champagne,  claret,  Madeira,  port, 
and  shen'y ;  6000  bottles  of  pale  ale,  porter,  soda-water,  and  lemonade  ;  200 
gallons  of  brandy,  gin,  mm,  and  whisky ;  3000  lbs.  of  tea,  coffee,  and  sugai' ; 
2000  lbs.  of  various  groceries  and  spices ;  an  immense  quantity  of  oilmen's 
and  confectioners'  stores,  such  as  anchovies,  blacking,  bottled  fruits,  candles, 
cod-sounds,  curry  powder,  celery  seed,  gi'oats,  heiTuigs,  jams,  jellies,  manna- 
lade,  maccaroni,  mustard,  salad  oil,  olives,  pearl  barley,  pickles,  capers,  salt, 
sauces,  salt  fish,  catsup,  soy,  soap,  soda,  salted  ti-ipe,  vermicelli,  whiting, 
vinegai-;  together  witli  1000  eggs,  and  1000  lbs.  of  bacon,  butter,  and  cheese; 
— are  shipped  on  board  evei-y  Alexandrian  packet  at  Southampton,  for  one 
outward  and  homewai-d  voyage."  Of  course  in  a  large  man-of-war,  provided 
for  a  long  period,  the  quantities  of  provisions  must  be  veiy  much  greater ;  but 
we  are  speaking  of  ordinaiy  monthly  commercie'  systems. 

One  word  as  to  the  millions  of  steam-boat  passengers.  The  new  Navigation 
Act,  which  came  into  operation  on  the  fii-st  day  of  1852,  contains  many  im- 
portant regulations  for  tlie  safety  of  passengers.  An  Act  of  Parliament  is  not 
omnipotent,  either  in  the  prevention  of  accidents,  or  in  anything  else ;  but  a 
ship-passenger  is  so  helplessly  and  hopelessly  at  the  mercy  of  others,  that  it 
becomes  reasonable  for  the  legislature  to  trj'  and  throw  a  shield  of  protection 
around  him.  What,  tlien,  are  the  materials  of  this  protecting  shield,  as  set 
fortli  in  tlie  new  Act?  In  the  fii-st  place,  all  steamers  are  to  be  surveyed  twice 
a  year  by  sun-eyors  appointed  by  tiie  Board  of  Timle ;  these  sun'eyore  are  to 
examine  eveiytliing,  in  tlie  departments  botli  of  the  shipwright  and  of  the 
engineer ;  they  are  to  send  in  tlieir  report ;  the  Board  (if  the  report  be  favour- 
able) is  to  give  a  certificate,  and  without  such  a  certificate  no  steamer  must  com- 
mence its  six  months'  liberty  of  voyaging.  In  the  next  place,  all  our  steamers 
nmst  have  ti-ansverse  water-tight  partitions,  between  the  engine-room  and  the 
fore  and  aft  parts  of  the  vessel,  respectively ;  a  latitude  being  allowed  in  respect 
to  ships  already  built.  Then,  again,  self-acting  safety  valves  are  to  be  provided 
to  every  boiler  of  every  steamer,  placed  out  of  reach  of  any  interference  from 
the  engine-man.     Another  clause  determines  the  minimum  number  and  the 


T 


.AUmjTSXw— 


^H  A  eltlf ,   IN   tttS   NI^KTEWTH   CENTtJllY. 

dimensions  of  the  boats  -^^t:'^'^\^:^^'Zt^^^ 

^vhether  sail  or  steamer ;  one  ol  these  boa  «.  too  to  b«  «  li^  boa  ^^^^ 

pvecautioTiary  measure,  hose  for  ^''^  f  l''^^^  J,i,r ^^^^^^  to  steam- 

lor  signals  of  disti-ess.  are  to  be  F^^^^J"^  J"^l  ^-Jf^^J^      S^^^         ""^^t^te. 

already  under  stringent  contracts,  are  not  amenable  to  the  lioaid 
imder'this  new  Act. 

Ships  and  SiiipriNa  at  orn  Gheat  Commebcial  Ports. 

The  advance  of  any  of  our  great  ports,  --^^  f  ^^^ow  -  ^T^S^ 
itself  one  of  the  best  indices  to  the  "^^^^^f  ^™^f  °  ,.,7^^^^^^  tl.ere 

generally.  Taking  ^^J-f?- -  ^ -re'r^h,:^^  trex^nded ;  in  fonning 
a  river  on  which  a  million  and  a  halt  steriin  nas  ^^..^iahtening  the  ci-ooked 
embankments,  building  two  miles  of  ^'^o"^^.'!"'^^"' f  S'^^^^^  burden, 

bends,  deepening  the  bed  -  -  l^-^f;,;?;?;^^^^  cranes  and 

fixing  beacons  for  twenty  niiles  down  the  ^^^^f; J^""^  "  >      ^,f  ^i,ips .  i,y  such 
all  other  apparatus  to  facilitate  the  loading  and  ""^g  %^^  ^l-^^^. 
means  has  Uio  Clyde  become  one  «/ ^^^e  ^st^"^ 
and  on  the  banks  of  this  river  are  ^^t^at^.^.^'^^!^^^^^^^^^^  Here  2e  to  be 

our  steam  ships  have  ^jf'^^-^i^JJ^^^^^l^^S^^^^^^^^^  of  Wood, 

'Zt;':^^^^^^^^:^^^^  ai.rsoSndissolubly  bound  up 

does  not  equal  that  of  Liverpool.  /  ^e  sh.pp  n^  t^'^je  »^^^  ,^,j  ^„,ou„t«d, 
of  London,  but  the  exports  amount  to  gjeaU^i  ™al  v^^^^^   ^  ^,„,. 

in  1850,  to  the  .dmost  incredible  sum  fj''^'^3^^;;^^r'n.ey  comprise  not 
half  of  the  whole  exp.)rts  o  the  ^^^^"'^^^^"^ti^^^^^^^^^  Unens  of  the  West 
only  tiie  cottons  "^^  Lai^cashu^  but  also  the  w^^^^^^^  ^^^^ 

northern  counties.  „vxT«.nra  that  4440  vessels  entered 

According  to  returns  recent^  pija ved.  U  W^^rs  ^"^  ,f^f  ^^^.^ -r,,  ,,ere 

mismmmmm. 

port  claims  our  attention,  ho  many  «f«"^^^*^Vhe  customs  receipts  in 
Siat  there  are  more  ^Ij- J^-^y  J-^^  ,  f -,,  ex;eed:dT500,OOo';.  hi 
SbSnrSia^s'rt'irveHBels  aiul  all  Uie  p^dle  steamers. 


L 


A   SHIP,    IH    TIIE    KINETEENTir   CENTUHT. 


23 


'ery  sea-going  vessel, 
if'e-boat.  A»  a  further 
lights,  and  a  cannon 
11  accidents  to  st#am- 

8uch  is  tlie  sUilute. 
ieplorable  calamity  to 
ally  under  the  notice 
1  mail  steamora,  being 

the  Board  of  Trade 


;ciAi.  Ports. 

ow  or  Livei-pool,  is  in 
shipping  arrangements 
I  see  ■'    We  liave  tliere 
expended ;  in  fonning 
uigh toning  the  crooked 
thousand  tons  burden, 
g  sheds  and  cranes  and 
i?ng  of  ships;  by  such 
rful  rivers  in  Britiiin; 
foci  of  industiy  where 
)nient.    Here  are  to  be 
or,  of  Caird,  of  Wood, 
indissolubly  bound  up 

tiipping  phenomena  are 
s  more  than  four  miles 
IS  eight  hundred  ships 
;h  cost  twelve  millions 
vorld,  in  respect  to  the 
imerce  generally.  New 
dous,  but  its  commerce 
)  is  rather  less  than  that 
/alue.  These  amounted, 
,  much  more  than  one- 
m !     Tiiey  comprise  not 

and  linens  of  the  West 
id  Northumberland,  the 
•unties,  the  steel  of  Shef- 

of  all  our  midland  and 

that  4440  vessels  entered 
ss  than  two-tliirds  were 
to  upwards  of  a  million 
er  exceeded  this  nund)er. 
aH'airs,  this  extraordinary 
dealings  witli  Liverpool, 
L'he  customs  receipts  in 
jxceeded  a,5()0,000<.  I" 
all  the  paddle  steamers. 


tliere  were  uo  less  than  13  screw  steamei-a  built  at  Liverpool  in  l«51,  pre- 
senting an  nvcmgo  of  about  500  tons  burden  each. 

And  if  we  take  our  wondrous  metropolis,  and  the  river  on  wlio.se  banks  it 
lies,  we  encounter,  of  course,  more  vast  and  varied  phenomena.  In  IBftO  a 
lectun?  was  published  by  Mr.  Howell,  entitled  'A  Day's  Business  in  the  Fort 
of  London.'  He  selected  one  particular  day  in  September,  1B49,  and  pro- 
cured a  mass  of  Custom-house  documents  in  respect  of  that  day's  conunerce 
on  the  Thames.  We  find,  then,  that  121  ships,  navigated  by  13R7  seamen, 
and  having  an  aggregate  burden  of  30,000  tons,  arrived  in  the  Thames  on 
that  day;  of  these  only  one  hi  eight  were  foreign  vessels.  They  came  from 
all  parts  of  the  globe,  as  far  nortii  as  Archangel,  as  far  south  as  Australia, 
while  tlie  remote  east  and  the  "  far  west "  supplied  their  fair  quota.  These  shii)s 
contained  300,000  lbs.  of  sugar,  16,000  chests  of  tea,  7400  packages  of  coffee, 
3000  head  of  live  stock,  8000  packages  of  butter,  50,000  cheeses,  000,000 
eggs,  4458  bales  of  wool,  1250  tons  of  granite,  219  packages  of  specie, 
H0,()()01bs.  of  cuirants,  besides  smaller  quantities  of  almost  every  conceivable 
article  which  commerce  brings  to  this  country ;  all  this,  be  it  reinembered,  is 
one  day's  arrival  at  one  port.  It  was  not  all,  however,  for  home  consumption, 
since  London  is  a  spot  on  the  great  hif,'hway  of  nations  where  merchandise 
rests  for  awhile  on  its  transit  from  one  counti-y  to  another.  There  is  no 
reason  to  tliink  that  the  day  selected  was  an  unusual  one  as  to  commerce,  or 
that  it  presented  other  than  average  amouius  ;  nor  is  there  any  mention  hero 
of  the  departure-ships  with  their  (cargoes,  nor  of  the  immense  coasting  trade 
between  London  and  otlier  British  ports. 

Our  shipping  account  for  1850  is  one  of  which  the  nation  has  no  little 
reason  to  be  proud.  In  it  we  find  tliat  23,960  ships  w(!re  registered  at  British 
ports  at  the  close  of  that  year ;  tliat  the  burden  of  these  ships  amounted  to 
3,337,732  tons,  or  about  140  tons  per  vessel  on  an  average ;  that  our  merchant 
steamers  were  570  in  number;  that  27,286  ships  left  British  ports  for  foreign 
countries,  and  about  the  same  number  entered  British  ports  from  those  coun- 
tries ;  that  about  5000  ships  left  for  the  colonies,  and  rather  more  than  this 
number  arrived  from  the  colonies.  But  the  coasting  trade,  in  which  each 
vessel  generally  makes  many  voyages  in  a  year,  involv<'s  numbers  and  quanti- 
ties almost  incredible.  The  parliamentaiy  returns  tell  us,  for  instance,  tliat, 
in  the  year  now  under  notice,  all  the  voyages  of  all  the  coasting  vessels  in  the 
United  Kingdom  anioimted  in  number  to  more  than  140,000 ;  this  being  the 
number  of  vessels  which  '  entered  inwards,'  as  the  maritime  auLhoritics  tcmi 
it ;  the  number  '  entered  outwards '  being  of  course  nearly  the  same.  During 
that  year  010  timber  sailing  vessels,  1 8  timber  steamers,  1 1  iron  sailing  vessels, 
and  50  iron  steamers — making  a  totiil  of  689 — were  built,  or  finished  building, 
and  were  placed  ui)on  the  registry. 

Let  us  here  do  justice  to  the  young  but  energetic  power  beyond  the  Atlantic. 
Her  fine  yachts  and  'liners'  have  been  adverted  to,  and  lier  '  Collins'  steamers 
have  been  described;  but  her  commercial  marine  must  not  bo  tlius  brieily 
dismissed :  it  is  certainly  among  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  this  age. 
We  may  pardonably  boast  a  little  of  the  general  advance  of  Britiyh  shipping ; 
yet  the  TTnited  States  beat  us  hollow  in  rapV^Vy  of  advance.  In  1832,  just 
twenty  ye; as  ago,  the  shipping  of  the  United  States  amounted  to  a  little  more 
than  1,400,000  tons;  while  in  1850  it  reached  3,500,000— a  rate  of  increase 
ver}'  far  exceeding  that  of  the  British  commercial  marine.  In  the  year  ending 
June,  1850,  we  are  told  (by  the  government  statistics)  that  no  less  than  18,196 
vessels  left  or  arrived  at  poiis  in  the  United  States,  of  which  rather  less  than 


!  i 


I! 


i 


^  A   SHIP,    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

'balance  of  trade'  is  pretty  nearly  kept  up,  the  ^^^^^^^  "^"^/^eh  furnish 

other  British  port  as  the  point  of   departure,  but  .^^/^'^  ''''^^^  ^  "g"   mu^ 

the  Atlantic  is  really  veiy  large.     In  the  *«^\^  yf.*^^  '^  f '  '    Livei-pcol  alone. 
'ilU6  snip-loads  thus  conveyed  to  search  for  a  new  l^^^^^?^ ^  f" -^'^^^^^  ,  ^^i 
comprising  neaily  600,000  persons,  or  an  average  of  about  g^  .J  each  ^h^P| 

'^tftfhL'orflch  have  occasionaUy  been  experienced  by  these  poor 
sepai-ated  countries. 


■Hi 


I 


belonging  to  otlier 
m  the  comparatively 
he  queen  city  of  the 
id  7303,  averaging  20 
liere  were  not  much 
akes  of  America,  and 
i  kinds,  on  the  coast 
reat  and  small,  were 
fork,  in  nine  montlis 
Its,  13  liners  or  first- 
tie  end  of  this  period 

city,  12  large  steam- 
ds;  making,  together, 
d  of  such  magnitude 
ing  one  with  another) 

)f  American  shipping, 
n  to  Britain  and  other 
mmerce  is  treated  in 
may  well  be  supposed 
le  Atlantic  yearly,  with 
quire  many  large  and 
lie  of  commodities  be- 
ti  others,  by  which  the 
cotton  to  England  has 
ngland,  which  furnish 

is,  the  acquisition  of 
scovery  of  the  golden 
,  is  the  activity  which 
ote  a  few  of  the  recent 
ping.  In  1850,  then, 
280,849,  of  whom  no 
d  Livei-pool  excel  any 
t  far  exceeded  all  the 

being  174,188.  The 
number  of  souls  across 
.847  to  1850  there  were 
le  from  Livei-pcol  alone, 
ibout  275  in  each  ship, 
id  St.  George's  Channel 
;r  of  emigiants  shipped 
(ig  in  1851,  when  it  was 

erienced  by  these  pom- 
cooped  up  in  one  ship 
ik ;  the  emigrant  regula- 
,  and  dishonesty  on  the 

e  nineteenth  centuiy,"  is 
of  different  and  widely- 


FIRE  AND  LIGHT:   CONTRIVANCES  FOR  THEIR 

PRODUCTION. 


Ik  we  look  around  us  it  ^yill  speedily  become  apparent  that  the  artificial  pro- 
duction of  Jire  imd  lijfht  forms  a  very  largo  and  isurious  depailraent  of  com- 
mercial industry — full  of  ingenious  contrivances,  bold  enterprises,  and  uncer- 
tain speculations.  The  precarious  search  for  whales  in  the  Greenland  Seas 
and  tlie  Pacific  Ocean ;  tlie  wholesale  slaughter  of  oxen  for  tlio  sake  of  theu- 
tallow  in  Russia ;  tlie  busy  collecting  of  palm-oil  in  Central  Africa ;  the  bm-- 
rowing  of  miners  through  hundreds  of  miles  of  subtenanean  galleries  in 
search  of  coal ;  the  vast  shipping  and  commercial  airangements  for  ti-ans- 
porting  tlie  oil,  the  tallow,  and  the  rial  from  place  to  place ;  tlie  erection  of 
the  numerous  and  extensive  stnicti^es  for  obtauiing  gas  and  coke  from  coal ; 
the  subway  ai-teries  tluough  which  tliis  gas  is  conveyed  to  our  sti-eets  and 
houses ;  the  lamps  for  applying  the  oil,  the  candles  for  applying  tlie  tallow, 
the  burners  for  applying  the  gas,  and  the  stoves  for  applying  tlie  coal ;  the 
complex  mechanism  for  warming  extensive  buildings ;  tlie  enormous  furnaces 
and  ovens  for  applying  heat  to  manufacturing  purposes — all  tend  to  show  that 
man's  labours  in  the  production  of  fire  and  light  ai-e  both  vai-ied  and  ex- 
tensive. 

Nor  ai-e  tliese  subjects  less  mai-ked  tlian  others  by  curious  attendant  circum- 
stances and  ingenious  modem  inventions.  A  few  of  these  wiU  here  engage 
our  attention. 

Coal;  Coal  Fields;  Coal  Mines;  and  Colliers. 

The  mode  in  which  tlie  inhabitants  of  a  country  habitually  wai-ni  their 
dwellmgs  must  obviously  depend  on  tlie  kind  and  quantity  of  fuel  which  they 
can  readily  obtain ;  and  no  inconsiderable  effect  on  tlie  internal  aiTangement 
of  dwellmgs  is  ti-aceable  to  this  source.  The  wood-fuel  districts  have  their 
characteristics,  differing  from  tliose  of  coal  disti-icts,  and  both  differmg  from 
those  in  which  fuel  of  every  kind  is  scarce. 

It  is  mstmctive  to  compare  the  fire-places  (if  thus  we  may  call  them)  of 
different  countries  and  different  ages.  There  is  the  Laplander,  with  a  lai-ge 
lamp  of  stinking  fish-oil  in  the  centre  of  his  hut,  tlie  flame  and  smoke  of 
which  supply  him  with  his  only  fire  dm-ing  tlie  long  Arctic  winter.  There  is 
the  Persian  fire-pot,  or  Imirey,  containing  some  slowly-burning  fuel,  and 
covered  with  a  large  quilt,  beneath  which  the  family  tuck  their  feet  and  legs 
to  obtain  warmth.  There  is  the  open  vessel  containing  burning  charcoal- 
often  a  medium  for  displaying  great  elegance  in  the  braziers  and  tiipods,  but 
always  a  dangerous  contaminator  of  the  air.  There  is  tlie  Chinese  system 
of  hollow  walls  and  tile-made  flues,  tluough  which  hot  an-  passes  from  a  sto\e 
eontainmg  a  compost  or  mixed  fuel.     There  were  the  open  fire-places  of  our 

o 


!l 


■| 


% 


I 


2  FinK    AND    MOHT:    CONTKIVASCKS    FOU   TlIEin    FHOI>t!CTI0N. 

feudal  hall8.  widi  Uie  andirons  for  supporting  the  bummg  .l>':'"^^^«' f;;^^;;^;,^^ 
boards  in  the  roof  for  the  escape  of  smoke  without  adnuttnig  nun  and  the 
s^Sattv^ge  grandeur  whi^h  the  glare  of  light  threw  -und  1- ,^^  " 
There  were  Uie  fire-pbces  of  a  later  dat«  m  our  old  l^"^^'^^'"'^^"^/^^^^^^^^^^ 
where  an  enormous  chhnney  replaced  the  louvre-boanls,  and  '  '  J^"^  '  ;^^^^^^^^ 
seats  were  smigly  ranged  around  the  cheerful  lire.  There  are  t  e  "umm.  us 
and  vS  conttivancL  consequent  on  the  substitution  o  ^oa  or  wood-  uel 
There  lue  the  clos.  stoves  of  the  Continent,  some  made  ot  metal  ad  some  ol 
clav  but  all  repugnant  to  our  English  notions  ot  a  cheerful  open  fiie.  iUeic 
Ttl^  economical  novelties  for  proaucing  sn.all  fires  for  minor  ^o^es 
and  the  culinaiy  novelties  for  employing  gas,  or  spu-it  or  '^^^^'^''^'^^l 
cool;  and  the  scientific  novelties  (sometimes  fadures)  lor  warmmg  oui  laib^ 

^"Jfanf  mt^%aps,  now  wltl>  difllculty  realise  the  «tate  of  thmg«  ^vhen 
coal  wi  r^Mised  a.nong  us  as  a  fuel ;  yet  sudh  a  thue  of  -«»*- «;"2  '  "J^ 
it  is  not  difficult  even  to  name  the  period  at  whuh  ''/"•"r^^^f     -^ 
made.     This  period  was  rather  more  than  si-x  centuries  ago,  ^^hen  the  neigh 
bourhood  of  Newcastle  was  first  explored  for  coa  ;  and  froni  ^hat    ".6;  ^^^^^^ 
many  hmidreds  of  years,  discoveries  were  giwlually  made  m  «"^"0f"»;"; 
™u/tie.  of  valuable Lds  of  coal.    At  first  the  phonies  and  he«^^^^^^ 
lishmen  would  not  receive  the  black  sooty  fuel ;  it  did  not  .f" /'^«  J«  Jj**^^ 
or  the  domestic  habits  of  tlie  people:  but  It  was  tound  ««  /dapted  lor  the 
bla^ksmitli  and  the  Ume-bumer.     Only  th«  layers  ^'^''l^'l'^f^^'^ZHnd 
ooal-fields  adjacent  to  rivers  or  seas,  were  first  opened  ;l.ut  ^^  t^^jT'JJJ 
increased,  th.  miners  dlVed  more  deeply  ihto  the  ^oWels  of  the  ear^  and 
boldly  worked  the  coal  wherever  it  was  to  be  found-   Whett  the  tnil  es  became 
deen    the  miners  were  sadly  perplexed  how  to  get  rid  of  the  Water,  and  it 
'r^oftiirihe  slni-enginlUu.  t«  their  aid  tl-t  they  fully  mas1.i^^^^ 
rlifticultv      But  the  preiudices  of  tlie  users  were  as  difficult  to  suiinovtni  as 
Jhe  p     is  .d  ffie  mlne'rs;  we  are  even  t..ld  of  a  period,  when  a  citi..n  ot 
London   wfts  tried  and  executed  foi*   burning   sea-coal,  in   oppo^tio^  to  a 
stringent  law  passed  in  respect  to  that  subject ;  but  even  long  af^r  such  m 
o  emnce  as  this  had  passed  away,  coal  was  .<W  m  g^f J""«.*y^/(,^^^^^ 
had  a  theory  tliat  the  black  abomination  spo.led.the.r  complexion  ,  and  t  wa^ 
i  a  Ion.'  time  a  point  of  eticiuette  not  to  sit  in  a  room  wai-ined  by  a  coal  fiie, 
o   to  eaUneTt  roasted  by  such  means.     Prejudice  unnuestiontddy  had  mud 
to  do  with  tJiese  objectiois;  but  it  ^as  not  all  pfejvldice,  tot  the  alnioSt  toW 
ab  ence  of  proper  anangements  for  supplying  fres^l  air",  «f  ,.''«";«:'"g ;'"t 
and  fold  air.  i4hdered  the  burning  coal  «  vefy  dirty  and  disagreeable  com 

nW,'L\rer,- became  at  length  cmr  -tional  fuel  fUul  what^r  J-^^^^^^ 
the  other  sources  of  the  wealth  ahd  commercial  Fospenty  of  Great  Dntam, 
most  certaiti  it  is  that  our  ample  sUpply  of  eoal  is  one  of  the  m"**  ""tanu^ 
Tis  Jiioiv.  not  only  to  thi  domestic  comfort  hut  to  the  "J^^t^^ 
Bt^il^^P1l^v  of  th^  people.  It  brings  into  a  useable  form  not  only  tne  emu 
S  eriyiSE^^  lie  embosomed  in  the  earth,  but  various  other 

Slices  oHo^er  which  would  else  tfemaln  dbrilittht.  It  supplies  not  only  all 
our  owhtaZ,  but  is  the  basis  of  a  la^ge  and  remunerathig  commerce  with 

oU  eJ  countries'.  It  not  only  obviates  the  "f-f  ?  "  ,«""'"l'Xof  iS\^ 
ftf  our  fine  forests  and  woods  for  fire-wood,  but  it  throws  a  hf(?  ot  inciostp^ 
Jnd  activity  iito  district.,  which  would  else  be  pi^fiUess  moor  ahd  mountain 
byad< 


I 


lODUCTION. 

ij  brands,  tlio  lonvve- 
initting  vain,  and  tlie 
iv.w  around  the  hall, 
nglish  manor-houses, 
i,  and  in  which  warm 
re  are  tlie  numeiwis 
uf  coal  for  wood-fuel, 
of  metal  and  some  of 
rful  open  fire.     There 
for  minor  puri^oses  ; 
or  naphtha,  instead  of 
for  wanning  our  large 

state  of  thhigs  when 
)f  coufse  existed  ;  and 
i  eommencemeht  >^ft« 

ago,  when  the  neigh- 
froni  that  time,  dm-ing 
nade  in  our  northern 

and  heartlu  '  of  Eng- 
not  Suit  the  fire-places 
I  well  adapted  for  the 
ar  the  surface,  and  in 

hut  tvhen  tlie  denlftnd 
Wels  of  the  earth,  and 
'hen  the  tnines  became 
tl  hf  the  water ;  and  it 
hey  fully  mastered  tliis 
ifficult  to  sunnotint  as 
riod  when  n  citizen  of 
al,  in   oppositloti  to  a 
even  long  after  such  in- 
I  good  society.     Ijatlies 
complexion ;  and  it  was 
1  warmed  by  a  coal  fire, 
(]nestionttbly  had  much 
lice,  foi'  the  alinoSt  ttHal 
I*,  and  removing  smoke 

nnd  disagreeable  com- 

I ;  and  whatevfcr  hiftjr  be 
lerity  of  Great  Britain, 
)ne  of  the  most  notable. 
It  to  the  manufacturing 
OTJn  not  only  the  crude 
'rtrth,  btlt  vatious  other 
It  supplies  not  only  all 
derating  commerce  with 
outthig  down  the  residue 
irows  a  liffe  of  indUsti^ 
ess  moor  atid  mountain 


Klrttl   ANr»    I.IOMT!    rONTIllVAMnKi   KOH   TIlMtB    MiODUOTIOK.  R 

It  Is  indeed  remarkable  that  so  gmidl  a  oountry  should  furnish  so  mighty  a  sup- 
ply of  fuel.  We  havo  1  •J,(»(t()  H(juai'(;  miles  of  coal  area-  -nearly  one-tenth  of  the 
entire  area  of  our  island ;  but  still  this  bears  but  a  small  ratio  to  the  total 
quantity  In  all  countries.  According  to  the  estimates  of  Professor  Ansted 
and  Mr.  Taylor,  the  ascertaiK.Ml  area  of  all  the  <-oal  strata  in  the  world  is  not 
less  than  lOO.dOO  square  miles.  And  yet  the  annual  atnount  of  coal  worked 
atul  brought  to  light  in  the  J)ritis*i  islantls  is  nearly  double  of  that  in  all  other 
countries  taken  togetJier — so  enormous  are  now  oui'  colliery  operati(mH.  The 
number  of  coal-fields  in  tliese  islands,  comprising  distriots  detached  from  all 
others,  is  about  :tO ;  the  number  of  distinct  workable  seams  in  these  coal- 
fields varies  from  I  to  HI ;  the  tliiokest  seam  in  any  one  field  taries  from  :)  to 
W  feet ;  and  the  aggregate  thicl-.ness  of  all  the  seams  in  each  field  vai-ios  from 
.•»  to  yoo  feet.  From  these  various  coal-fields  tliere  are  now  extracted  not  less 
than  ;t5,f)()0,()(l()  tons  in  a  year— the  value  of  which,  including  transit  to  the 
place  of  consumption,  is  about  1H,00(),0()(I/.  This  estimate,  of  about  ten 
shillings  per  ton,  nuiy  seem  snudl  to  Londoners,  uccustomed  tc  a  i)rice  so 
much  higher;  but  in  all  the  coal-mining  and  iron-smelting  districts,  tho 
average  is  far  under  that  here  named.  Of  the  18,000,(100/.,  it  is  supposed 
that  about  one-half  is  the  value  at  tlie  pits  mouth,  and  the  other  half  the 
value  of  the  transit  to  the  consumer.  The  fixed  capital  employed  in  the  coal- 
trade,  Including  mining  machinery  and  transit  machineiT,  is  roughly  esti- 
mated at  10,000,000/. 

The  Newcastle  Coal-field  is  that  witli  Mrhlch  tlie  inhabitants  of  tlie  metro- 
polis have  ha<l  principally  to  do,  owitig  to  tlifl  overwhelming  preponderance  of 
this  coal  in  use  In  London.  Of  Uie  half  million  acres  of  coal  in  this  field, 
about  seventy  thousand  have  been  now  worked ;  at  a  cotisumption  of  ten 
million  tons  a  year,  it  is  suiT|)08ed  that  this  field  will  yet  last  eight  or  nine 
hundred  yearsi  Home  of  the  Northumberiand  and  Durham  pits  are  neai-ly 
t^vo  tliousand  feet  deep;  there  ai-e  about  two  hundred  separate  collieries, 
which  employ  nearly  thirty  thousand  men  and  boys,  besides  tliose  engaged  in 
the  transit  by  sea  and  land. 

The  recent  celebrated  Exhibition  was  full  of  Ihatmctive  examples  not  only 
of  the  coal  which  we  possess,  but  of  the  mechanism  for  bringing  it  to  the 
surface.  The  visitors,  British  and  foreign,  will  not  sooti  forget  the  huge 
masses  whioh  the  west  end  of  tlie  building  displayed.  There  Was  the  Coed 
'I'aloii  block  of  Flintshire  steam  coal,  worked  into  a  pillar,  and  said  to  weigh 
sixteen  tods  (a  oubic  yard  of  Coal,  we  may  hefe  state,  as  affording  a  convenient 
means  of  calculation,  weighs  about  a  ton).  There  was  the  mugnificent  block 
of  Tipton  coal,  tliirteen  tons  weight,  taken  from  the  flO-foot  seam  of  South 
Stafibidsliire,  and  being  the  largest  piece  which  could  be  drawn  up  through  a 
seven-foot  shaft.  There  was  the  large  block  of  Welsh  nntliracitc  from 
Cwmllynfell.  There  was  the  uneciualled  Staveley  block  from  Derbyshire, 
s(!venteen  feet  long,  six  wide,  and  four  tliick,  and  estimated  to  weigh  twenty- 
four  tons  ;  it  was  drftwo  up  from  A  depth  of  400  feet.  There  were  many  others 
which  would  have  ai)peared  monsters  but  for  the  vicinity  of  this  wonderful 
specimen  from  Staveley. 

The  mechanism  for  working  the  coal,  too,  we  have  said,  was  well  illustMted. 
In  one  instance,  there  was  the  rope  by  which  one  of  the  huge  blocks  was 
raised,  and  the  picks  and  chains  used  in  the  mine.  Another  instance  was  a 
built-up  column  of  tlie  Staflbrdshire  thick  coal,  showing  the  difierent  Working- 
sctthis  as  they  exist  in  vertical  section.  A  third  presented  to  us  a  model  of 
the  apparatus  used  for  tlie  shipment  of  coals  from  boats  or  ts-aggons  at 

o  3 


' 


il 


I 


4  vim  ANU  lioht:  contrivances  koii  thkiu  phuulction. 

Cardiff,  work.'a  l.y  a  high-pressure  steanvcngine.  and  enabling  ^f  «f  «/*^/^;^; 
m)  tons  a  d.iv  Thoro  wnv,  nuxlols  of  the  corves  or  bu.tketa,  luid  ot  the 
w  CtL  s  .u^.loyo.^  by  the  Silkston.  coHi.'i-s.  There  were  -  ««■"!  J""."^; 
fo  Si  Ince  lllll  L^nefcoal.  exhibited  to  slu.w  raU.er  the  ^l;;;''  '['-^'J'; 
coal  itself  than  the  mode  of  working  it;  and  th.re.were  .nm  -  '^'^^^^^^ 
eomi.rising  uillais.  small  boxes,  stamps,  chessmen  and  boards,  b"'^^^l*;t«j 
s2.M.t.ms^-a/.or  hones,  .le..  formed  from  a.row.ush  coal  ^-^'^;i^J^]^^^ 
near  Edinburgh.  The  Tyne  Coul  Connnitte.^  sent  a  mnp  ot  tnen  coil-titlU 
Zwing  he  ihi.  the  milw^^ys.  and  the  '  faults '  in  the  sean.s ;  and  section  sol 
uHield,  wiUi  a  synopsis  of  the  seams;  also  a  workmg  plan  of  a  co^hery, 
h  clu  m,i  both  ihl  mining  and  th.  ventilating   anange.nents ;    .md  hu<U 

odcls  .'•  the  vai-ious  implement,  employed  together  mth  <^;^^^^  ^ 
Kafety  lamps.  A  similai-  excellent  series  of  models  and  sections  ;^"s  ^"^ 
from  a  Sulffordshire  colliery.  A  P^'-t'cul-ly  interesting  ser.es  o  o  ^ame 
kind  Nvas  diat  relating  to  the  stmta  and  workmgs  at  Lbbw  \ale  m  houtli 

^^hfour  English  coal  districts,  as  in  n.ost  others,  «l'«  ^^^^  «»' ^^^'^jf^; 
few  or  nmny  feet  in  thiclaiess,  are  usually  found  nichne.l  more  or  less  to  U  c 
hm-i/ou'  biit  Uie  workable  beds  are  at  all  depths,  from  a  few  yards  to  six 
undr  d  ya  ds  beneath  the  surface.     The  nu>de  of  working  mus   "ecessa  dy. 
tliereibre  vai-v  considerably  according  U)  the  depth.     In  nearly  all  cases  hovx- 
eJerrere^e  vertical  slmfts  dug  from  the  surface  till  they  n.tei-sect  the  bed 
of  Joa     ind  rom  Uie  bottom  of  these  shafts  horizontal  gal  enes  are  worked  m 
tl  e  subslce  of  the  coal.     The  galleries  themselves  yield  coal  whde  bemg 
excavated,  an<l  they  also  afford  access  to  U.e  rest  ot  the  mass      But  as  this 
m-ocesrof  excavation,  if  carried  on  incautiously,  wo^ild  leave  tin-  roof  ot  the 
mine  or  the  eai-tliy  layer  above  the  coal,  unsupported,  the  colliers  are  careful  to 
eav"'  ubrt^nthd  iL'ses  of  coal  as  pillars  or  colmnns    ,  ^hen  alK>ut  on^Uun 
of  the  coal  is  tJius  extracted,  and  the  maintenance  ot  the  colliery  woi kings  is 
no  longe.  necessary,  tlic  colliers  carefully  break  away  the  supporting  masse 
d  2  v  the  roof  to  fall  in  as  it  may.     The  method  of  mining  here  described 
s  ca  e"l  the  pUlur  and  stall  method,  and  is  adopted  m  Nortlmmberiand  and 
'urian-  but  in  Yorkshire  ami  some  other  districts  the  «n^-,.v.«  me  hod  .. 
a  ted  on  ;    his  consists  in  removing  the  coal  entirely  imd  at  once,  the  nn^ 
Sung  behind  the  work  as  it  advances.    Where  the  coal  is  near  Uie  surtace  u. 
nSffordshire,  the  falling  in  of  colliery  roots  has  g^" -Jjjjorch^^^^^^^  u  egu^ 
laritv  to  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  so  much  so,  indeed    that  many  ot  Uit 
nier    houses  require  to  be  propped  up,  r.s  if  undei-mined  by  eartlupiakes^ 
The  whok.  of  the  soil  of  South  St!affordshire  may  be  said  to  be  honeycombed 
by  this  cause. 

Colliery  Perils,  and  their  Ee.mkkiks. 

There  is  a  curious  chain  of  links  which  connect  living  wood  widi  dead  coal. 
Fiis  tJiere  is  p.U,  consisting  of  various  kmds  of  plants  and  moss,  imbedded 
ai^d  Di-essed  to-ether  into  a  inass,  and  exposed  to  tlie  action  ot  air,  or  water, 
^  bot^^i  and  pelaps  heat,  for  umuunbered  centuries.  Then  there  is  %u... 
formed  in  neariy  the  same  way  from  trunks  of  trees,  and  accumulated  in 
a  "fot  vast  thickness  in  (iemany  and  other  parts  of  Eui-ope  I  ^  J-  n" 
hiOierto  been  much  used  as  fuel,  but  there  are  '"'l^f  ^'""«  ^^^ /]  ^^'^^^^^^^^^^ 
ere  long.  Next  comes  jet,  which  appears  to  be  a  pecuhai-  variety  of  vegetitbU, 
matter  brought  almost  to  a  bitmninous  state.     Then  we  have  cunnel  coal, 


i 


UODl  CTION. 

abliiig  vcsHels  to  ship 
buc^kets,  and  of  the 
"le  were  elegant  vaHtin 
LT  the  (lualilif'M  of  tlin 
no  siiuilui'  nicknacks, 
nd   boardH,  braioltits, 
m\  recently  discovered 
\a[)  of  their  eoal-tield, 
Lsanis  ;  and  Hections  of 
Tit,'  l'l»»  **'"  "■  ''olliery, 
igcnients;    and  liwtly, 
witli  one  or  two  of  tlie 
and  sections  was  sent 
ng  series  of  the  same 
Ebbw  Vale  in  Soutli 

B  beds  of  coal  whether 
leil  more  or  less  to  the 
oni  a  few  yards  to  six 
rking  must  necessarily. 
11  nearly  all  cases,  how- 
1  they  intereect  the  Ixid 

galleries  are  worked  in 

yield  coal  while  being 
the  mass.  But  as  tliis 
1  leave  the  roof  of  the 
lie  colliers  are  careful  to 

When  about  one-Uurd 
the  colliery  workings  is 
f  the  supporting  masses 
f  mining  here  described 
ui  Nortlnunberland  ami 

the  lonij-mdl  method  is 
Iv  and  at  once,  the  roof 
al  is  near  the  surface,  as 
/en  extraordinary  irregu- 
leed,  that  many  of  tlie 
ernnned  by  earllKpiakes. 
said  to  be  honeycombed 


iKDIF.S. 

ing  wood  witlr  dead  coal, 
mts  and  moss,  imbedded 
le  action  of  air,  or  water, 
IS.  Then  there  is  I'upilU', 
ies,  and  accumulated  in 
ts  of  Europe ;  it  has  not 
lications  that  it  will  so  be 
;uliar  variety  of  vegetable 
Ijen  we  have  vaiiiiel  coal, 


KIHE   AKD    UOHT:    CONTIUVANCEB    KoK   TlllilK    PBODUCTtoX.  8 

which  not  only  yields  the  best  and  most  abundant  gas  for  streetdighting,  but  has 
often  such  a  hardness,  blackness,  luid  polish,  as  enable  it  to  be  worked  up  into 
very  beautil'ul  oinamcnts;  many  persons  will  reine.mbfi'  the  garden  chair  and 
tht;  model  of  tlio  Durham  nioimment.  in  camicl  coal,  at  the  (ireat  Exhibition. 
Next  is  the  rdkiti;/  I'i'id  oi  Newcastle  and  its  neighbi)urho(>d,  which  combines  so 
many  useful  (jualitit^s  for  household  purposes.  Somewhat  difl'erent  from  thin  is 
tlu'  Hlmtifml  lonl  of  the  midliuid  counties,  whicli  is  olitained  in  very  long  pieces, 
and  has  less  bituminous  or  caking  <iuality  than  the  Newcastle  coal.  A  sfill  less 
gaseous  coal  is  that  which,  from  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  now  fomid  to  bo  ad 
mirably  adapti'd,  is  called  ateum  coal;  it  is  obtamed  chiefly  from  Wides,  and  buruh 
witli  intense  heat  and  little  tlaine  or  smoke.  Jiiist  on  the  list  is  unthraciti',  so 
nearly  witliout  gas  as  to  consist  almost  entirely  of  carbon ;  its  intenhf  heat  and 
freedom  from  sulphur  render  it  invaluable  for  iron  smelting  and  otliur  manufac- 
turing processes. 

Most  of  the  kinds  of  coal  enumerated  in  the  above  list  are  mined  or  pro- 
cui'ed  in  a  similar  way ;  but  those  which  contain  the  largest  ratio  of  gas  aie 
those  from  which  danger  most  feai'fuUy  results  to  the  uuners.  Newspaper 
readers  need  not  to  be  reminded  »>f  the  sad  deltiiis  which  corroborate  this  fact ; 
and  it  is  impossible  to  look  without  interest  at  any  contrivan(  •  ^  wL  :'h  may 
lessen  the  calamities  to  which  our  swarthy  coal-miners  are  subject.  As  the 
impure  state  of  the  air  in  the  mines  leads  to  disastrous  exjilosions,  so  does 
the  great  depth  of  tlie  mines  entail  great  liability  to  fatal  accidents.  That 
men  should  descend  and  ascend  a  cjuarter  of  a  mile  of  ladders  every  day,  is  a 
wonderful  instance  of  patient  daring;  but  if  they  desc(!nd  by  any  kind  of 
mechanism,  their  safety  i.s  too  often  dependent  on  a  single  rope.  It  is  to  ob- 
viate disasters  of  the  latte'-  Kind  that  Messrs.  Fourdrinier  have  hivented  a  very 
ingenious  apparatus  lately  brought  before  public  notici-.  It  consists  of  a 
basket  or  cage,  which  may  contain  either  eoid  itself  or  the  men  who  work  the 
coal.  It  is  ra.'sed  and  lowered  through  the  shaft  by  a  rope  workeil  in  tlie 
usual  way  from  above ;  but  it  also  slides  in  vertical  grooves  at  tlie  sidiJS  of  the 
shaft;  luid  these  grooves  afford  means  for  safety  in  the  event  of  tlie  rope 
Ijreaking.  Should  such  a  mishap  occur,  two  arms  or  levers  throw  themselves 
out,  and  catch  against  the  grooved  guide  rods  so  firmly  that  the  basket  be- 
comes held  fkst,  and  is  prevented  from  further  dtsscent.  The  apparatus  has 
been  repeatedly  tried  in  the  collieries  of  the  north,  and  seems  to  have  been 
very  generally  ajjproved.  J  t  would  be  a  great  pity  if,  as  in  the  fire-escape,  the 
good  which  the  appai'atus  might  render,  were  rendered  of  non-effi!Ct  by  any 
neglect  in  the  use  of  tlie  machine  itself;  being  essentially  a  preventive  agent, 
and  not  a  mere  cure  after  tlio  evil  is  jiroduccd,  nothing  but  a  pre-adoption  of 
the  appai'atus  in  moments  of  safety  could  test  its  value  ia  moments  of 
disaster. 

But  it  is  from  explosions,  rather  than  falls,  that  coal  miners  sutler  disaster. 
There  is  a  liability  to  the  accumulation  of  gases  which  tue  deleterious  and 
even  dangerous  to  tliose  working  in  tlio  mines ;  and  very  extensive  systems  of 
ventilation  are  adopted,  by  which  fresh  air  is  made  to  pass  through  all  the 
passages  and  shafts  of  the  mine.  It  is  from  partial  neglect,  in  otherwise  good 
systems,  that  many  of  tlie  disasti'ous  explosions  have  occurred. 

Mr.  Nasmyth's  recently-invented  fan  seems  to  be  a  notable  instiniment  for 
aiding  the  ventilation  of  mines.  The  use  of  a  revolvi.  g  fan  for  such  a  pur- 
pose is  an  old  idea,  generally  realised  by  using  the  fan  as  a  blowing  machine, 
to  force  fresh  air  down  a  shdft  into  the  mine ;  but  Mr.  Nasmyth,  the  inventor  of 
the  famous  steam-hammer,  conceiving  tliat  it  would  be  better  to  thaw  bad  air 


-»«' 


t 


0  FlBD  AUti  t.Irttrt!   cnHruVtAIICPM  ♦'OH  TttWiH  MlOt)«ifHW». 

out  Of  ft  tninfl  U.«f.  to  foro«  fiftsh  nlr  In-or  mtl.of  thut  U  would  l.«  .rt#/«r  ali.J 
that  flesh  air  woiil.l  ho  mire  l/i follow  to  fill  up  llio  va«Mimii— <l«vinea  tinew  U>tm 
of  appamtus.  Above  gro....<l,  n.^ftr  tlm  '  up-crt^f  nhttft.  "/|f«'":''','«''?''  II!"''' 
rovoivin«  fan  are  f-rpcted,  wkI  .i  i-ip^  to  coiitii'ct  tli«  tan  with  the  rtir  m  i\w  nhalt 
The  fllmlt  is  inmlf  to  rotato  rapi.llj  ;  it  Blicks  thn  air  from  the  '  up-ciwt  «haft 
(which  is  always  linpiop)!  niid  tho  vacmim  holow  just  us  rai.ully  sHeks  pnro 
air  down  tho  other  shaft,  and  thus  a  circulation  of  air  is  Jnaintamed.  A  taJi, 
fotir  or  five  ffiet  in  diauifiter,  and  rotating  UH)  times  in  a  minute,  will  send  down 
•JO.OOO  nuhio  feft  of  air  ;»«■  mnnte  into  a  mine ;  and  thero  seems  »io  reascm 
why  a  lartrer  fan  Hhoul.l  not  he  ma«le  capable  of  poitring  down  a  flood  four  of 
five  times  this,  amount.  NftsmythV  apparatus  is  of  veiy  recent  introduction ; 
and  wo  believe  that  the  Inventor  h.w  abstained  trom  patenting  it,  with  ii  View 
to  encouraging  its  use  in  coal  mlties,  ^vhefe  some  such  contnvimce  is  satliy 

^^"Anot'her  recent  and  ingenious  novelty  Is  tho  invention  of  Mr  Stmvf',  and 
has  been  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  iMiglnecrs.  Hh 
apparatus  c..nHists  of  two  liollow  [lifitons.  resembling  large  gasometers 
and  two  oylindeiH  in  whic^li  these  pistons  work.  The  hoUow  pistons  are,  in 
reality,  air^resei-vc.irs.  with  vtJves  at  the  top  and  bottom.  Ihe  cisterns  ate 
nearly  filled  with  water;  and  the  an-angement  of  the  valves  is  such  as.  when 
tho  pistons  have  a  rooiproeating  movement,  to  till  them  with  air  by  one  move- 
ment, and  to  force  the  air  out  of  them  by  another.  A  small  «teHtr,.eh^me 
fiuffices  to  work  the  apparatus,  and  a  pipe  conveys  the  forced  air  Ut  the  anaii 

of  tlio  mine.  .  ,  .  e       \  „:.«„-  la 

One  of  the  moJ.t  singular  Incident.s  in  the  fecent  history  of  coal  mines  is 
the  extinction  of  a  fire  in  a  Scottish  mltie.     .n  the  HoUth  Sauchie  (Jolhery.  a 
few  mile>5  from  Stirling,  a  fire  has  been  raging  for  nearly  thirty  years ;  a  mne- 
feet  seam  of  coal,  twenty-six  acres  in  extent,  has  thus  been  in  a  sttiteof  deviw- 
tation  ami  has  been  known  in  the  neighbouring  districts  as  "the  burning  waste 
of  Clackmannan."     Th^  tire  is  supposed  to  have  been  caused  by  some  persons 
who  established  an  Illicit  whiskey-stiU  hi  the  old  workings^  S*!f"/*'"'    T? 
that  no  ordinary  means  would  extinguish  the  hre,  a  sum  of  10,000/.  was  spent, 
and  five  years  emtdoyed.  in  building  a  mud  wall  aromid  the  burning  mass,  so 
as  to  deprive  it  of  all  access  of  air:  the  builders  of  this  wall  hn<l  to  struggle 
against  their  fierce  f.pponent  for  the  mastery,  being  driven  further  md  fnttiy^ 
away  from  thfe  centre  as  the  fire  spread.     Ho  important  has  it  been  t^'  ke«^ 
this  mud  wall  in  repair,  that  the  proprietor  of  the  mine  (the  Earl  »» J^lans- 
field)  has  since  had  to  spend  mahy  additional  thousands  of  pounds,  besides 
losing  the  value  of  tho  coal  in  the  mine.     The  seam  is  at  a  small  depth  only 
beneath  thfe  surface ;  and  as  the  external  air  was  thus  able  to  effect  an  entraiiCo 
in  small  .nmntities  through  fissures  in  the  ground,  it  kept  up  a  slow,  sttlky, 
smouldering  combustion,  occasionally  made  raatiifest  by  the  escape  of  smoke 
through  cracks  hi  tho  ground.  tj„„„« 

Thus  matters  remained  until  recently,  when  the  Committee  of  the  House 
of  I^rds  on  colliery  accidents  collected  much  valuable  infornmtioti  bearing  on 
this  subleet.  Among  other  instances,  it  was  found  that  Mr.  Goldsworthy 
Gumey  had  eflfeotUally  extinguished  a  fire  at  the  Astley  Collieries,  m  Lan- 
cashire, bV  ft  new  and  very  singular  operation,  in  the  early  part  of  IK.  1  Mn 
Gumey  undertook  to  extinguish  this  extraordinary  Clackmannan  fire.  aM 
mf  St  effectually  he  accomplished  it.  His  plan  consisted  In  pouring  doWti  Into 
tlie  mine  an  immense  body  of  choke-damp,  forced  in  by  a  lUgJ-presmre  je  of 
Steam '  tlie  .luolitity  being  sufBeient  to  extinguish  thfc  hre,  the  temperature 


■WnAiiu^teMdilad 


I 


(lnvi^fld  11  new  form 
nfftftjn  I'lif^ififl  ftiid  ft 
I  tlie  nil-  in  Ui«  Hhaft. 
the  'up-ctwf  Hliaft 
miiiilly  nlJcks  puro 
[iiiiintftinpil.  A  tati, 
riutfl,  will  Hpml  down 
10  M'omt*  no  renAotl 
own  li  flood  four  W 
recent  intnidnetlon ; 
iilitig  It,  with  It  View 
jonlriviuice  Is  ntuWy 

of  Mr.  Htniv(',  and 
vil  Knglnt'crH.     Hia 
large    gasometers, 
jUow  pistons  are,  in 
The  eisternK  are 
ves  iH  such  afi,  when 
ith  iiir  by  one  move- 
small  steuJn-ehglne 
•ced  air  to  the  ahaft 

;ory  of  coal  mines  1m 
1  Sauchie  Oolliery,  a 
thirty  yeftrs ;  n  nine- 
(II  in  a  state  of  devii*- 
s  "  tlie  burning  waste 
ised  by  some  persons 
i.  When  it  was  found 
if  10,000/.  was  spent, 
the  burning  mass,  so 

wall  had  to  struggle 
'U  fnrttiei  mid  further 

hfts  it  been  t<»  \te6p 
5  (the  Eful  of  Mans- 
s  of  pounds,  besides 
it  a  small  depth  only 
e  to  effect  ttn  entrance 
ept  up  a  slow,  sttlky, 

the  escape  of  smOke 

[imittee  of  the  House 
iforniation  bearing  on 
hat  Mr.  Goldsworthy 
>y  Collieries,  in  Lan- 
sarlypart  of  1^51  Mr. 
luekniannan  fire,  aiid 
I  in  potirlng  down  into 
a  high-pressure  jet  of 
fire,  the  tehiperatufe 


FIHB   AMD   MflHT:   fONfBIVAHOFS   fOR   THWR  pnODUCTIOM.  7 

low  enough  to  cool  the  coaly  niONS,  and  the  pressure  intense  enough  to  keep 
out  all  exteriml  air.  A  fufiiu*!"  wan  oonwtruDtiid  above  groiuid,  capable  of 
burning  coal  and  cuke ;  ii  boiler  was  cicctcd  to  supply  stciuu  ;  IIuch  and  pipes 
were  uo  phuiud  as  to  (!onvoy  the  gas  and  steam  to  one  of  the  old  working  shafts 
of  tbn  luiiie,  lUiil  It  holit  was  l.u'okeu  tlirough  the  mud  wall  bilowto  eotublish 
a  coMununication  with  iho  smouldering  luussi.  The  fire  was  lighted;  the 
choko-dump  (a  mixture  of  ( itrl)oni(;-acid  and  nitrogen)  was  generati;d  ;  tht; 
steam  was  brought  uj)  to  a  high  pn'ssure  ;  and  u  jet  of  steam  being  admitted 
into  the  pipe  which  conveyeil  the  choke-damp,  forced  it  irresistibly  along  mid 
into  the  uune.  l-'or  several  hours  was  this  flood  of  gas  poiu-ed  in,  until  the 
mint)  contuinud  eight  million  cubic  feot ;  itwaii  completely  filled,  and  remained 
HO  for  throe  weeks.  The  absrau^e  of  free  oxygen  in  choke-damp  '  jnit  out  the 
fire,'  and  a  Hiibseipiunt  stream  ut  a  lower  ttMuperuture  cooled  the  mass ;  then 
fresh  but  damp  air  was  admitted,  and  was  forci^d  for  some  weeks  through  all 
the  vacuities  of  Uie  mine,  by  which  it  wan  foimd  that  the  temperaluio  lowered 
a  little  every  day  ;  luid  ut  length,  on  fairly  opening  the  mine,  tlie  (Irc!  wa.s 
found  t«)  be  utterly  extinguished.  Tbis  was  perhaps  the  most  successful  uoii- 
{piest  over  the  buiiiing  element  ever  acliie\ed. 

But  it  is  not  to  put  out  a  fire — It  is  to  [)revent  a  fire  fiom  kindlitig,  that 
miners  are  more  frequently  called  upon  to  show  their  ingenuity.  If  they  could 
see  to  work  without  lamps  or  cundles,  few  or  no  explosions  would  ha[tpen  ;  but 
die  darkneB*  of  the  mine  jirevents  this  :  hence,  among  otlun-  means,  we  have  the 
'  Davy,'  or  '  safety  lamp,'  a  beautltid  contrivance,  but  one  which  has  not  kept  the 
miners  free  from  fearful  calamities.  How  far  this  has  resulted  from  their  own 
carelessness  is  still  a  disputed  point.  The  huge  masses  of  (!oal  give  off  car- 
buretted  hydrogen  gas ;  this  gas  combines  with  the  air  which  enters  the  mine, 
and  at  a  certain  ratio  of  mixture  the  two  gases  or  airs  explode  when  a  light 
reaches  them.  Hence  tlio  coal-miner  is  never  quite  safe ;  he  is  either  liable 
tt)  be  burnt  by  the  fire-damp  or  gas,  if  this  explodes,  or  to  be  suflPocated  by 
the  choke-damp,  which  is  one  of  the  results  of  the  explosion.  Hence  tlie 
earnest  desire  to  prevent  any  naked  flame  from  reaching  the  gas,  and  hence 
Hir  H.  Davy's  highly-scientific  mode  of  ligliting  tlie  miner  without  perilling  his 
Ufa.  If  a  fine  iron  wire  gauze  surround  ft  fiame,  no  flame  can  po,ss  through 
the  meshes;  unignited  gas  may,  but  fiame  cannot.  Herein  lies  the  whole 
principle  of  the  '  safety  lamp.'  It  is  a  simple  oil  lamp,  with  a  wire-gauze  en- 
velope around  ihe  Hanie.  Fire-damp  may  get  into  the  enclosed  space,  tlu'ougli 
the  meshes,  and  may  there  bum  ;  but  the  produced  flame  cannot  get  out 
of  the  apace,  without  which  it  could  not  ignite  the  gas  in  tlie  mine  generally. 
It  is  a  fearful  thing,  to  those  who  know  what  has  occurred  and  is  likely  to 
occur  in  mineh,  to  see  a  fuint  blue  light  witliin  the  gauze  space.  This  shows 
that  the  mine  is  full  of  fire-damp,  that  some  has  entered  the  lamp,  and  thai 
the  least  failure  in  soundness  or  in  carefulness  will  lead  to  an  explosion.  Dr. 
Clanny  has  improved  upon  J)avy's  lamp,  insomuch  as  to  enable  it  to  give  a 
better  light  and  to  act  more  safely.  Mr.  Goldsworthy  Gumey,  too,  has  re- 
cently directed  his  attention  to  the  miners'  lamp — not  so  much,  however, 
with  a  view  to  its  safety,  as  to  enable  it  to  yield  more  light  to  the  miners. 
He  states  that  three-fourths  of  tlie  light  of  an  ordinaiy  Davy  lamp  is  lost  by 
the  use  of  dull  iron-wire ;  but  that  if  the  wire  were  plated  and  polished  the 
loss  would  only  be  one-eighth.  Ingenious  persons  are  constantly  endea- 
vouring to  make  these  safety  lamps  really  safe ;  but  yet  the  '  Collieiy  Ex- 
plosions '  are  fearfidly  numerous,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
these  mining  lamps  are  not  looked  after  so  sedulously  as  they  should  be. 


J^ 


I 


FIRE   AND   LIGHT :    CONTRIVANCES   FOB  THEIR   PRODUCTION. 


Charcoal;  Coke;  Peat;  ARTiFtcui,  Fuel. 

The  coiil-fields.  the  collieries,  the  miners,  their  lamps,  and  their  disasters, 
must  not  hide  from  our  ^iew  the  existence  of  other  kuids  oi  fuel,  tire  pre- 
paration of  which  exhihits  many  curious  features.       ,,.„,,... 
We  have  outlived  the  days  when  charcoal  was  needed  m  England  lor  luel. 
A  litUe  is  made,  it  is  true,  for  special  uses ;  and  for  some  purposes  charcoal 
is  tlie  hest  of  fuel;   hut  it  is  on  the  Continent  that  its  production  toxins 
a    regular    and    extensive    department    of   manufacture.     As    m    taimmg 
leatlier,  so  in  charcoal-burning,  tliere  are  quicli  as  well  as  slow  processes ; 
and  experience  seems  to  show  that  the  slow  metliods  produce  better  results 
tlian  the  more  rapid.     Various  modes  are  adopted  in  makmg  charcoal  on  the 
Continent     In  one  veiy  common  method,  the  billets  of  wood  (oak,  beech, 
alder,  birch,  fir,  &c.,  according  to  circumstances)  are  bmlt  up  horizontaUy 
mto  a  hemispherical  mound ;  the  mound  is  well  packed  m  witlr  turi  and 
charcoal  powder  ;  a  fire  is  kindled  in  the  centre  of  the  bottoni  of  the  mound 
through  holes  left  for  the  purpose  ;  by  due  management  oi  an--holes  the  wood 
is  allowed  to  give  oti'  its  moisture  by  slow  evaporation ;  and  then  commences 
the  charring  process,  by  which  little  is  left  in  each  billet  but  carbon.     Ac- 
cording as  the  mound  varies  from  ten  to  sixty  feet  in  diameter,  so  would  this 
charring  require  a  week  or  several  weeks   for  its  proper  completion.     In 
another  mode  of  proceedmg.  the  billets  are  built  up  into  a  long  quadrangular 
mass,  and  the  air-holes  are  differenUy  managed ;  but  the  general  nature  ot 
the  process  is  the  same.     Where  the  chai'coal-bumer  wishes  to  save  some  ot 
the  liquid  and  gaseous  products  of  the  wood,  he  conducts  tlie  operations  in 
a  regularly-buUt  furnace,  so  arranged  as  to  separate  and  presene  the  tai-. 

In  one  of  the  busiest  parts  of  Rhenish  Pnissia,  there  is  a  manutacturing 
district  which  illustrates  in  a  veiy  striking  way  a  state  ol  dependence  on 
charcoal-fuel.  Neai-  the  town  of  Siegen,  a  sparry  iron-ore  is  lound,  which  is 
well  adapted  for  making  steel,  when  smelted  with  charcoal;  and  a  flourishing 
st^el  manufactme  was  established  at  Siegen  many  centunes  ago.  The 
princes  of  tlic  house  of  Nassau  sought  to  establish  a  monopoly  ot  the  manu- 
facture at  that  spot,  for  their  own  pecuniary  advantage.  A  compact  was  en- 
tered into  by  tliem  with  the  smelters,  so  far  back  as  tlie  year  1478,  whereby 
the  latter  undertook  not  to  carry  tlieir  art  out  of  those  districts,  under  pam  oi 
forfeiture  and  death ;  in  return  for  which  pledge  tlie  smelters  received  certain 
privileges,  which  were  renewed  by  cluu-ters  from  time  to  time.  Alter  a  time  it 
was  found  that  tliis  concentration  of  operations  at  one  spot  thinned  materially 
tlie  forests  whence  was  obtained  the  wood  for  makmg  charcoal  for  the 
fm-naces  Then  came  another  'protective'  measure— that  prohibiting  the 
exportation  of  charcoal ;  and  then  followed  a  third— that  of  luniUug  the 
number  of  smelting  works,  in  order  that  no  one  of  them  might  consume  too 
much  charcoal.  To  this  succeeded  a  fourth  stage  in  the  same  tram  of 
operations— that  of  prescribing  tlie  exact  number  of  days  m  a  year  which  each 
furnace  should  work.  , 

As  the  distillation  of  wood  leaves  charcoal  as  a  solid  residue,  so  does  that 
of  coal  leave  coke— a.  commodity  which  our  locomotive  system  is  rcndenng 
very  valuable.  It  is  a  cm-ious  circumstance  in  respect  to  the  deniand  tor 
difTerent  kinds  of  fuel  for  diSerent  purposes,  that  coal  is  made  to  yield  two 
such  kinds— utterly  dififerent  one  from  another,  and  both  m  full  demand 
as  rapidly  as  tliey  can  be  made.    We  of  course  aUude  U)  gas  and  coke.    Let 


''  '''■,in«»aM*aitirwiua?iw*'JCT»i'"i 


i 


OnUOTION. 


3EL. 


,  and  their  disasters, 
ids  of  fuel,  die  pre- 

in  England  for  fuel, 
ic  purposes  charcoal 
ts  production  forms 
e.     As    in    tanning 
I  as  slow  processes ; 
roduce  better  results 
iking  charcoal  on  the 
3f  wood  (oak,  beech, 
built  up  horizontally 
ted  in  witli  turf  and 
lottom  of  the  mound, 
of  air-holes  the  Avood 
and  then  commences 
let  but  carbon.     Ac- 
iraeter,  so  would  this 
•per  completion.     In 
)  a  long  quadrangular 
he  general  nature  of 
dshes  to  save  some  of 
icts  tlie  operations  in 
presene  the  tai'. 
e  is  a  manufacturing 
ite  of  dependence  on 
ire  is  found,  which  is 
aal ;  and  a  flourishing 
centuries   ago.     The 
onopoly  of  the  manu- 
I.    A  compact  was  en- 
ifc  year  1478,  whereby 
listricts,  under  pain  of 
elters  received  certain 
time.     After  a  time  it 
pot  thinned  materially 
iing  charcoal   for  the 
-that  prohibiting  the 
-that  of  limiting  the 
!m  might  consume  too 
in  the  same  train   of 
fs  in  a  year  which  each 

d  residue,  so  does  that 

i  system  is  rendering 

ct  to  the  demand  for 

is  made  to  yield  two 

both  in  full  demand 

to  gas  and  coke.     Let 


FIRE    ANT)    LTOHT:    C0NTRTVANCE3    FOR   THEfR    PRODUCTION. 


9 


a  ton  of  ordinaiy  caking  coal  be  subjectoil  to  the  usual  process  of  the  gas- 
works :  what  are  the  products  ?  About  eight  or  ten  thousand  cubic  feet  of 
invisible  carburetted  hydrogen  gas,  and  ten  or  twelve  hundred  weight  of  dull, 
hard,  bi-ittle  coke.  The  gas  takes  nearly  all  the  hydrogen  of  the  coal :  the 
coke'neariy  all  the  carbon ;  and  the  one  is  fitted  to  yield  more  light  tlian  heat, 
while  the  "other  is  valued  rather  for  heat  than  light. 

As  there  is  much  more  coke  reijuired  for  locomotive  and  other  purposes 
than  the  gas  (companies  can  supply,  coke  ovens  are  established  expressly  for 
file  manufacture.  Fortunately,  small  coal  is  as  effective  for  this  purpose  as 
large,  and  thus  the  waste  heaps  at  the  mouths  of  the  coal-pits  become  avail- 
able. Many  of  our  gi-eat  railway  depots  have  ranges  of  ovens  expressly 
designed  for  making  coke.  The  coal  is  thrown  into  these  ovens,  kindled, 
clcsed  in  from  the  air,  and  allowed  to  smoulder  for  thirty  or  forty  hours ; 
amngements  are  made  for  burning  the  gases,  so  that  they  may  not  pollute 
the  air  ;  and  tlie  solid  residue  is  the  coke,  which  supphes  fuel  to  our  countless 
loc»motives.  In  tlie  open  country  districts  the  coke-ovens  are  often  much 
less  complete  and  much  more  wasteful  than  those  at  the  great  depots.  It  is  a 
curbus  circumstance,  and  illustrative  of  the  changes  which  the  carboniferous 
structure  undergoes,  that  the  coal  increases  in  bulk  by  getting  rid  of  its  Qoa  ; 
eight  sacks  of  coal  will  yield  ten  sacks  of  coke. 

One  of  tlie  curiosities  in  coke  is  that,  although  so  granular  in  appearances, 
soms  of  the  particles  have  almost  tlie  hardness  ot  he  diamond,  and  are 
found  fitted  for  cutting  glass. 

A«ross,  in  the  sister  island,  anotlier  fuel  may  be  seen.  One-seventli  part  of 
the  surface  of  Ireland  being  covered  with  jwat,  it  becomes  an  important 
question  to  determine  whether  this  peat  can  be  usefully  applied,  and  the 
gi-oiiid  beneath  it  brought  within  the  range  of  agriculture.  Many  plans  are 
now  in  partial  operation  for  expelling  the  moisture  from  peat,  and  rendermg 
it  a  useful  fuel ;  most  of  these  plans  operate  by  pressure ;  but  one  is  an 
application  of  centrifugal  force— now  brought  mto  requisition  in  so  many  and 
such  remarkable  ways.  Sometimes  peat  is  exposed  to  combustion  in  close 
chasibers  ;  the  volatile  prochicts  are  applied  to  various  chemical  purposes,  and 
the  solid  residue  foi-ms  a  kind  of  charcoal  or  coke.  The  great  question  in  such 
operations  is,  will  they  pay '.'  They  are  practicable,  we  know,  but  will  they 
yieli  a  commercial  profit,  when  all  expenses  are  paid?  The  same  question 
mat  be  asked,  and  is  often  asked,  respecting  the  application  of  any  kind  of 
maiihmeiy  to  the  simple  pressing  or  drying  of  peat.  Practically,  peat  can  be 
pressed  to  a  density  exceeding  tliat  of  coal,  and  in  that  state  its  heating  power 
is  leiy  considerable.  Mr.  VignoUes,  the  eminent  engineer,  has  recently  found 
tint  the  peat  to  be  met  with  in  many  parts  of  Germany  may  be  made  into 
excellent  coke,  by  a  process  of  his  own  introduction  ;  and  he  has  since  taken 
oui  a  patent  with  a  view  to  a  similar  commercial  project  in  Ireland.  Poor 
Irdand !  it  would  be  a  worthy  application  of  modem  science  and  mechanism 
if  her  bogs  could  by  such  agency  be  converted  from  useless  blots  into  fruitful 
sdirces  of  wealth.  A  '  British  and  Irish  Peat  Company '  has  been  lately 
fofmed  (or  at  least  attempts  have  been  made  to  form  it)  for  the  reclamation 
o7  bogs  in  Dartmoor  and  in  Ireland,  and  the  application  of  the  peat  to  useful 
parposes  ;  besides  the  formation  of  fuel,  it  is  known  that  naphtha,  paraffine, 
ii|ced  oil,  volatile  oil,  acetate  of  lime,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  other  che- 
rticals,  can  be  obtained  from  peat,  and  I'laming  accounts  have  been  published 
of  the  probable  profits  derivable  from  a  manufacture  of  such  articles  from 
mch  a  Bource ;  but  there  is  much  reason  for  believing  that  the  estimates  ai-e 

0  3 


1 


T.i 
■III 


I 


.._»»-.  J ->-».»— I , 


I 


••     yi^'  - 


10 


FIRE  AMD  LISHT;   C0»TRIVANCKS   FOR  THEfR  PROBUCTJOW. 


trreatly  exaggerated.  So  of  peat-fuel,  too ;  we  know  that  fuel  <!an  be  made 
from  peat ;  but  many  circunistancas  must  come  mto  vie#  in  aeternumng  the 
commercial  success  of  tlie  plan.  .„.,,.    ,  , ,, 

It  is  curious  to  note  how  many  new  'patent  artiflcial  fuels  Uiere  now  aj3. 
As  e.vperimentera  tell  us  tliat  different  kinds  of  coal  and  other  natm-al  luel 
possess  dilferent  qualities,  an  induoement  is  oflored  far  the  exercise  ot  inge- 
nuity in  devising  vai-ious  imitative  compositions.  The  hydraulic  i)ress  is 
brought  into  singulai-  re<iuisition  in  this  art.  Thus,  Azalays  hai-d  shmmg 
blocks  of  aitilicial  fuel  ai-e  simply  formed  of  coal-dust,  subjeoted  to  intense 
compression.  My.  Warlich's  patent  fuel,  in  la^-ge-sized  bricks  weighing  amt 
twelve  pounds  each,  is  made  by  mixing  together  the  dust  of  various  kinds  ot 
coal  •  tiie  bricks  ai-e  dense  luid  well  made ;  tlie  fuel  kindles  slowly,  but  gives 
off  very  litde  smoke  while  burning.  Mr.  Wai-lich's  series  compnses  Webli 
steam  fuel,  north-country  fuel,  household  fuel,  and  locomotive  coke-tuel--r 
differing  in  the  kind  of  coal-dust  used,  and  in  the  amount  of  tar  witli  wlach 
the  dust  is  agglutinated.  Wai'lich's  patents  are  worked  by  a  company,  who 
have  establishments  at  IJeptford,  Swansea,  and  MiddUJsborough.  The  Blde- 
ford  Anthracite  Company  make  artificial  fuel,  in  bnok-torm  pieces,  by  a  ptrti- 
cular  mode  of  treating  anthracite.  Oram's  patent  fuel  is  a  condensed  mixture 
of  small  coal,  bitumen,  and  sand.  Williams's  fuel  is  a  mixture  of  dried  peat 
and  bitumen.  So  of  numerous  otlier  kinds  ;  small  coal,  bitumen,  or  peat,  or 
two  out  of  the  three,  are  mixed  with  various  other  substances  to  form  a  ooiB' 
post  fuel.     It  must  be  owied,  however,  tliat  such  fuel  ia  not  yet  much  used. 

Stoves  ;  '  Smoke-Nuisance  ; '  Cooking  anp  Wahmino  Apparatus. 

Surely  never  before  were  there  produced  such  vaiietiee  of  stoves  as  tiiose 
which  now  glitter  in  our  drawing-rooms.     The  display  is  a  sUiking  evidence 
of  tlie  combined  luxury  and  comfort  of  our  modern  fire-places,     If,  too,  we 
pass  by  the  elegant  productions  of  Shetheld,  intended  for  tlie  parlour  and  the 
drawing-room,  and  attend  only  to  tjiose  cooking  arrangements  with  which  the 
kitchens  of  club-houses  and  large  mansions  are  now  supplied,  we  shall  find 
much  Uiat  is  really  curious  and  ingenious.     There  is  Mr.  Flavel's  '  kitchener, 
in  which  one  fire-place  is  made  to  do  tlie  ordinai-y  work  of  tlnee ;  in  which 
the  ovens  might  be  applied  to  roasting  instead  of  baking,  by  modifying  the 
admission  of  air ;  in  which  the  hot  closets  might  conveniently  be  converted 
into  pastry  Qvens  ;  in  which  tlie  top  of  the  apparatus  presents  a  multitude  ut 
pontrivftnces  for  minor  culinaiy  operations  j  in  which  tlie  back  is  formed  by 
a  boiler  of  fifty-gallon  capacity— in  which,  to  sum  up,  every  particle  of  heat 
is  as  much  as  possible  made  to  render  up  its  quota  of  sei-vico.     There  is 
Messrs.  Benham's  laige  range,  similar  to  that  supplied  by  tliem  to  the  Refonn 
Club-house ;  with  its  intense  radiating  heat  for  roasting,  its  Btom-bridge  fire- 
clay back,  its  bars  on  hinges  for  interior  cleansing,  its  frontage  capable  of 
variation  in  siise,  its  steam  closets  and  hot  plates,  and  all  the  other  numerous 
appendages.    There  is  Mr.  Sherwin's  range,  closed  or  open  in  front  according 
to  choice,  with  its  oven  having  flues  all  around  it,  and  its  ample  supply  of  hot 
water  and  steam.     There  is  Puley's  apparatus,  in  which  the  beating  of  tlie 
oven  is  ingeniously  aided  by  a  hollow  shelf  through  which  the  hot  air  passes. 
There  is  Cornell's  cooking  range  for  schools,  in  which  no  less  than  sixteen 
spits  are  provided,  each  prepared  for  the  impaling  of  a  separate  joint ;  and  in 
which  the  bais  are  formed  of  hollow  pipes  always  filled  with  water.    There  i» 
Grant's  <  cottagers  stoye,'  intended  to  give  a  useftil  fire  to  r-  working-man's 


f 


r 


RODUCTIOM. 

it  fuel  (!an  be  made 
:*  in  (jetevmiiiing  the 

fuels '  tliere  iio\v  W3. 
id  other  natural  fuel 
the  exercise  of  iuge- 
le  hydraulic  i)ress  is 
Vzalays  hai-d  shining 

subjected  to  intense 
bricks  weighing  about 
St  of  various  kinds  of 
dies  slowly,  but  givps 
ries  comprises  Welsh 
Dcomotive  coke-fuel-^ 
mt  of  tar  witli  wlach 

by  a  company,  who 
thorough .  The  Bide- 
orni  pieces,  by  a  p^rti- 
j  a  condensed  mixture 
mixture  of  dried  peat 
1,  bitumen,  or  peat,  or 
tances  t«  form  a  oom- 
1  not  yet  much  used. 

iiiNG  Appahatus. 

iee  of  stoves  as  tiiose 
is  a  sti'iking  evidence 
[ire-p'iaces.  If,  too,  we 
for  the  parlour  and  the 
ements  with  which  the 
supplied,  we  shall  fi»d 
Iv.  Flavel's  '  kitchener,' 
rk  of  three  ;  in  which 
iing,  by  modifying  the 
iveniently  be  converteij 
presents  a  midtitude  of 
tlie  back  is  formed  by 
I,  every  particle  of  heat 
of  sei-vico.  There  is 
by  tliem  to  the  Reform 
ig,  its  Btom-bridge  fire- 
its  frontage  capable  of 
ill  the  other  numerous 
Jl»en  in  front  according 
its  ample  supply  of  hot 
ich  the  beating  of  tlie 
lich  tire  hot  au-  pagaei. 
1  no  less  Uian  sixteen 
,  separate  joint ;  and  in 
I  with  water.  There  i* 
i»e  to  c  working-man's 


f 


cooking  apparatus  of  our  day  aie  leally  ^'-  .^  "J         ^  attended  to. 
K  coxtluVtion,  and  the  a-^nj-"  P^lo         ra'^gement  of  stoves  in  om; 
A  marked  change  »«n'^^.*^^'^^'^^Jt"ow  placed  vei-y  near  the  ground;  it 
best  apartments.     Tlie  bummg  majs  is  now  rl"*-^^  J^^J^^^ .      .^^^^^^,,,^  ^^d 

bus  wai-nis  the  sU-atum  ot  ^'^  .f^i^J  V/S^^^^  tendency  ot;  heated 

is  sure  to  warm  the  upper  strata  f"*''^.^' Tctinix  surfac<es  by  which  tliese 
Sr  to  ascend,     ^he  diagonal  u.idco.aver^^^^^^^^^^^  UnprLment;   the 

■MW  stoves  are  sun-ouiided    constiuue  """  ,d  merely  oniamenUl ; 

Sli^i^lustre  thus  Vro^frsl>^;^^^^^Z^:^,  vvL-established 
Ivt  it  has  a  deeper  meamng,  and  is  i^*^^^^  7.;y  •  p^nciple  now  cai-ned,  that 
'ititic  principle.     Nay  to  so  njce^u  -"  -  ^ '- f™.  P„,u  rooms,  while  a 

a  ,onml  reflecting  «"r'7,  •^.  "S^  ^  ""     '"''^  ^'  "^'^  '"'^  "^"  ^  '""" 

j,a,-aboUc  surface  is  '"i^P^^,'^;".  f  J^^^^^^^^  ^J,t  rays  of  heat  to  a  disUince.  In  our 
tli»  latter  form  bemg  adop  edto  ^^f'^'^^r'l^i^^^.if  far  too  conspicuously  into 
ordinary  fireplaces  the  ugly  ash-pit  ^^^tmdes  itstn  la  i_^^^^  ^^  ^^^ 

plica /but  in  those  now  muleraons^di^^^^^^^^^  i,ibutable  to  the 

some  is  entirely  out  ot  ^'g^*' ..^^^'J/^^^^'JrSiey  warm  a  lower  stratum  of  air 
stSes  which  now  gi'ace  ""'•  j^^^Tv^r  theriect  nearly  all  the  heat  out 
tlrar  can  be  warned  by  ord mag  ^U^^^  ^f  ehimney ;.  they  remove  the  un- 
iiito  the  room,  allowing  little  to  ascenu  uw  ^  j.^^.  jj^jinitxi 

3tly  a.h-pit  i"to  a  desirable  obs^^tyjd*^^^^^^^  ^  J  ^^  ^^^^,^1, 
variety  in  the  tasteful  'iesigns  lor  ^«  \^^^«^^^^^^^^^     .^r  Bheffield  desi^^ers,  a. 

the  fire-place.  It  is  impossible  to  ^'y"";,^^^^ '"?„ "trivuiK  earnestly  to  throw  an 
tl  as  those  of  London  and  Bnmmgiaj^i.  ^^^^   y  ,     ^, 

ah- of  giace  and  elegance  over  t»^«  «VtV.l  nnnaratus  for  an  open  English  fire, 
the.fife-irons'  ^- - -l':-^^^,J':Z:lf^^^^^  fo  give  them  an 

attempts  arc  now  ^'^'^'^''^vTtxSZ  ii  all  formed  component  parts  ot 
artistic  connection  wiUi  the  «f  ^^^^^^  V^  "  ^^^  it  is  tme  ;  some  are  too 
r.  design.     Some  ^l»»«^f  ,;^™»^J^T^^^  gi-ac«ful  ap- 

delicate  for  coal-dust  and  ''-'^l^-f,"^/ '  ,^J^"''^JiShed  steel  and  polished  braids, 
plications  of  'l«'^.b™«^^*"^  "t'i^i";^^^^^^^  elaborately-decked  stoves 

Ithaa  been  whimsicaUy  said  tha     ot  a  cvv  o^         housemaid." 
-fould  require  an  aitist  to  clean  *<^f^  "^^^^,°,^pose  the  air,  or  rather  the 
The  teniency  which  heated  "^?f ,  ^^.^.Jf  T^ays  contains,  has  led  to 
nUsoellaneous  floating  f^f '^  *; J^u  ^r  T7ck^^  instead  of  iron  to  form  lire 
Kf^i?  ^ZSL'tdtr.le'sUe  lie  recently  introduced  vei-y 

ittgenious  stoves  on  Uiis  P"ncjP^-     ,  z^^evs  and  flues,  be  made  to  '  consume 
Vhen  will  stoves  and  bve-places  "^^^^^Xs  to  be  done ;  and  yet  the 
their  own  smoke'?      Hociety  calls  alo^  tor  m  „ode-one  among 

oTmand  is  but  UtUo  attended  to.    ^«  ^^J^^k^f^P^.unung,  we  may  adduce  that 
mSv-by  which  furnaces  ^ay  be  made  smoke  coisuiug,  J      .^  ^^^_ 

Pnted'by  Mr.  '^-kes.    The  q^^^^^^^^    fut^Lrhillre  it  is  allowed  to 
Lw  to  sub  ect  the  smoke  fron    coal  *«  ^^'^^       j^     the  cold  air  from  the 

ent^  the  chimney'?    In  ^«  "^{"^^.^^ j;Trs  '^ J  there  cools  the  smoke  too 
room  enters  the  vacaiit  epa^o  abme  *«  ^^^s      .  ^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^^  „f  ^ 

much  to  admit  of  any  combustion,     lovmrnf  a  ^^^^^^^,^  ^^,^„gg. 

similar  defect,  to  that  <l,<:8r««  ^^^^/.^JJ'.t^  chain  passes 


L 


13 


FIRE   AND   IIOHT:    C0KTR1VANCE8   FOR  THEIR  PRODUCTION. 


made  to  travel  onwards  from  front  to  back,  at  the  rate  of  six  feet  in  an  hour. 
On  this  chain  of  bars  the  coal  is  placed,  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  fire-grate  is 
constantly  moving.     The  coal  is  deposited  in  a  reservoir  in  front  of  the  fur- 
nace, and  from  this  resen'oir  it  falls  into  the  fvunace  as  the  bars  travel  on. 
Thus  the  fiercely-blazing  fire  is  between  the  new  cold  coal  and  the  flue  at  the 
back,  insomuch  that  the  smoke  from  the  coal  is  ( .impelled  to  pass  through 
the  fire,  and  to  he  there  consumed ;  thereby  increasing  the  heat  of  the  furnace  in- 
stead of  sending  a  jet-black  cloud  of  rich  but  wasted  carbon  into  the  atmosphere. 
The  furnace  is  fed  with  air  through  the  bars,  and  the  clinkers  or  hard  cinders 
fall  out  when  the  bars  have  travelled  to  their  hindmost  position.     The  in- 
ventor tells  us  that  economy  results  not  only  from  the  consumption  of  tlie 
smoke,  but  also  from  the  facility  for  using  small  and  cheap  coal ;  that  the  hett 
and  steam-producing  power  are  rendereil  more  regular  by  the  steady  and  self- 
acting  feedmg  with  coal ;  that  labour  is  saved  by  the  fire-bars  clearing  then- 
selves  as  they  ti-avel  onwards ;  and  that  increased  cleanliness  may  be  main- 
tained by  this  contrivance.     Practical  men  can  alone  determine  how  far  those 
are  the  real  characteristics  of  Mr.  Juckes's  plan ;  but  tlie  scientific  principle  on 
which  it  is  based  seems  clear  and  intelligible.     Many  other  inventors  h»ve 
systems  for  ensuring  the  same  ends  ;  and  the  Legislature  is  doing  what  it  <an 
to  stir  up  the  energies  of  the  furnace-makers  and  fumace-users  to  a  simjai- 
purpose.     An  Act  came  into  force  in  London  on  January  1,  1852  (and  htal 
Acts  with  the  same  object  have  been  procured  in  several  of  the  great  manu- 
facturing towns),  for  inflicting  penalties  on  the  owners  of  such  factoiy  chimneys 
as  are  not  made  to  consume  their  own  smoke.     Bricklayers  and  builders,  too, 
are  trying  their  best  to  cure  the  household  malady  known  as  a  '  smoky  cHm- 
ney : '  there  is  the  '  self-acting  chimney-guard,'  of  one  mventor,  the  '  douWe- 
chambered  smoke-preventing  chimney '  of  a  second,  and  many  other  recent 
contrivances,  intended  to  apply  to  tliis  much-talked-of  discomfort. 

There  are  a  few  fii-e-places  of  small  dimensions — curious  for  their  very  sm^l- 
ness— which  call  for  a  meed  of  notice.  M.  Soyer,  whose  '  Gastronomic'  and 
'  Symposium '  novelties  have  placed  him  somewhat  out  of  the  range  of  ordinary 
chefs  de  cuisine,  invented  a  '  magic  stove '  or  '  cooking  lamp '  a  year  or  t^-o 
ago,  which  is  certainly  ingenious,  whether  or  not  destined  to  have  a  successful 
career.  It  is  m  effect  a  spirit  lamp,  witli  a  novel  mode  of  exciting  and  nia(n- 
taining  combustion.  There  are  two  reseiToirs  of  spirit,  which  may  be  alcohol 
or  brandy  or  naphUia ;  and  there  are  two  lamps.  You  light  one  lamp  with  spirit 
from  one  reservoir ;  the  flame  of  this  lamp  heats  Uie  spu-it  in  the  other  le- 
servoir;  the  vapour  from  this  heated  spirit  poiirs  out  in  a  continuous  bit 
gentle  blast  into  the  midst  of  a  second  flame,  which  flame  heats  the  cooking 
apparatus.  There  are  thus  two  distinct  halves  of  the  apparatus,  one  of  which 
is  destined  to  feed  the  other  half  with  hot  spurit  vapom-  instead  of  cold  air,  for 
keeping  up  ignition;  and  the  heat  thus  produced  is  singularly  intense. 
Whether  this  '  magic '  contrivance  will  bear  out  its  character  of  "  superseding 
inevitably  every  contrivance  which  ingenuity  has  hitherto  devised  for  tlie  rapid 
preparation  of  a  comfortable  meal ;  "  whether  it  will  cost  "  only  three  fai-things 
to  dress  a  cutlet;"  whether  you  may  "  cook  as  comfortably  with  it  in  the  middle 
of  a  stiff  nor'-wester  as  if  the  sweet  south  were  wooing  your  cheek  in  June ;  '| 
whether  "  a  mutton  chop  is  dressed  by  it  to  a  nicety  in.  six  minutes ; " 
whether  these  newspaper  encomiums  are  well  founded — each  user  must  decide 
for  himself.  In  some  foims  of  the  apparatus  the  whole  mechanism  for  cook- 
ing a  dinner  for  six  pei-sons— including  stove,  lamp,  stewpan,  frying-pan, 


[5#was'W^ms»»^» 


L 


;tion. 

feet  in  an  hour. 
'  the  fire-grate  is 
front  of  the  fur- 
1  hars  travel  on. 
d  the  flue  at  the 
to  pa,ss  through 
of  Uie  furnace  in- 
1  the  atmosphere, 
i  or  hard  cinders 
isition.  The  in^ 
sumption  of  tlie 
al ;  that  the  he»t 

steady  and  sen- 
's clearing  thefi- 
3S  may  be  mah- 
ine  how  far  these 
tiHc  principle  on 
r  inventore  hive 
ioing  what  it  <an 
sers  to  a  simjai- 
,  185!i  (and  htal 

the  great  manu- 
factoiy  chimneys 
and  builders,  loo, 
i  a  '  smoky  chim- 
itor,  the  '  douWe- 
any  other  redent 
fort. 

r  their  veiy  smtdl- 
iastronomic '  sind 
range  of  ordinary 
p '  a  year  or  two 
have  a  successful 
xciting  and  ma(n- 
:h  may  be  alcohol 
e  lamp  with  spirit 

in  the  other  le- 
%  continuous  btt 
leats  the  cooking 
itus,  one  of  which 
ad  of  cold  air,  for 
ngularly   intense. 

of  "  superseding 
Ised  for  tlie  rapid 
ily  three  farthings 
h  it  in  the  middle 

cheek  in  Jime ;  " 
n.  six  minutes  ;  " 
user  must  decide 
chanism  for  cook- 
wpan,  frying-pan, 


FIRE    AND    light:    C0STR1VANCK8    FOR   THEIR    PHODUCTIOfJ. 


13 


saucepans,  plates,  dishes,  tca-kottle,  and  coffee-pot,  are  packed  into  a  space  of 
less  than  onu  cubic  foot — a  niultmn  iii.  parvo  this,  of  an  extraordinaiT 
chai-acter,  it  must  be  admitted.  'J'he  apparatus,  however,  with  its  nicely-fitted 
copper  appendages,  is  rather  costly. 

There  are  other  contrivances,  humble  relations  of  the  same  family.  The 
'  bachelor's  kettles,'  and  '  bachelor's  ovens,'  and  '  bachelor's  kitchens,'  are  now 
so  numerous,  that  those  said  bacheloi-s  ought  to  be  gmteful  for  tlie  attention 
thus  bestowed  upon  them ;  but,  in  truth,  if  a  cooking  apparatus  be  efficient 
for  a  small  scale  of  operation,  it  mattei-s  little  by  what  name  it  is  called — it 
will  work  its  own  way  into  favour.  Besides  the  'magic'  contrivance  of 
M.  Soyer,  there  are  many  others  of  small  size  in  which  spirit,  wood,  or  gas 
are  employed  as  fuel.  In  Mr.  Rigby's  '  pocket  stove,'  for  example,  there  is  a 
small  resei-voir  of  spirit,  from  which  a  gas  or  vapour  rises  ;  and  this  gas  sup- 
plies the  re(iuisite  heat.  Mr.  Hulett  has  exercised  his  ingenuity  in  tlu- 
production  of  a  number  of  '  gas-cooking  stoves,'  '  gas-kettles,'  '  bachelor's 
cooking  apparatus,'  &c.,  in  which  ordinary  gas  is  the  fuel  employed.  Jn  Mr. 
Nonnan's  small  cookuig  apparatus  there  are  two  saucepans  or  vessels,  one 
witliin  another,  witli  a  vacant  space  between  filled  with  water  ;  and  the  iimer 
vessel  is  tlius  heated  by  a  sort  of  hot- water  jacket.  In  other  contrivances  the 
'  piiitent  fire-wood '  (itself  one  of  the  most  curious  examples  of  modem  search 
for  convenient  novelties)  is  made  to  render  sei-vice  of  a  similar  kind. 

And  if  we  pass  from  the  smallest  kind  of  heating  contrivances  to  the 
laigest,  we  there  find  that  hot  air,  hot  water,  and  hot  steam  are  applied  by 
means  of  apparatus  both  curious  and  costly.  Dr.  Amott's  pretty  contrivance 
of  a  close  stove  may  be  classed  among  those  which  heat  buildings  by  hot  air. 
Let  a  fire  be  lighted,  for  instance,  in  such  a  stove  ;  although  one  particular 
outlet  must  be  left  for  smoke  and  gases,  yet  an  enveloping  chamber,  whether 
of  metal  or  of  fire-clay,  would  contain  a  body  of  warm  air,  and  this  air  might 
be  conducte''  by  pipes  to  any  part  of  a  building.  It  was  Dr.  Amott's 
ingenious  expedients  for  regulating  the  heat  of  the  stove,  rather  tlian  the 
principle  of  the  stove  itself,  &at  was  novel.  There  is  the  '  cockle  '  or  Belper 
stove,  invented  by  Mr.  Strutt,  which  has  such  a  resei-voir  of  warm  air  as  we 
have  here  alluded  to,  and  a  pipe  to  convey  it  to  distant  rooms.  There  is  the 
Derby  stove  of  Mr.  Sylvester,  in  which  the  same  result  is  caiTied  out  by 
improved  agency ;  and  there  are  other  modifications  by  other  engineers  and 
inventore. 

The  method  of  steam-heating,  now  veiy  largely  adopted,  depends  on  a 
principle  not  so  easily  recognisable  as  tliat  of  the  hot-air  system.  A  pound 
of  steam  contains  an  immense  amount  of  heat  more  than  that  contained  in  a 
pound  of  boiling  water ;  so  that  the  contents  of  a  boiler,  if  flashed  off  into 
steam,  and  made  to  travel  into  a  system  of  pipes  in  that  fonn,  is  in  itself  a 
rich  calorific  resenoir.  When  the  steam  comes  into  contact  with  the  cold 
metal  of  tlie  pipes,  it  is  condensed  again  into  water,  and  liberates  tlie  heat 
which  had  been  imprisoned  in  it ;  this  heat  first  warms  the  pipes,  and  tlien 
diffuses  itself  among  the  a'u:  in  the  room  or  galleiy  containing  the  pipes. 
James  Watt  knew  well  the  properties  of  steam  in  this  respect,  and  he  was 
just  the  man  to  give  to  those  properties  a  practical  application ;  he  first 
warmed  his  own  study  by  such  means,  and  pointed  out  how  others  might  do 
better.  Then  came  in  succession  the  plans  (some  of  them  patented)  by 
Hoylef  Green,  Boulton,  Lee,  and  others,  differing  in  the  mode  in  which  the 
steam  was  conveyed  to  the  rooms,  or  m  some  of  the  minor  arrangements,  but 
agi'eeing  in  principle. 


\ 


A090i:iib»Ti  ifniiTttTiiiiiiii 


i 


u 


flfiP   AHD   ITGH'f :    CONTRIVANCES   FOU  TllBrR   pnOnUCTION. 


The  gteam-mptliod,  howover,  has  not  \m\  n  lQ»g  or  active  hfc  ;  n  )»  yieWiug 
to  the  hot-water  uicthod.    Thib  consists  in  having  a  hoiler,  ni  bonie  mivenient 
spot;  and  a  l.in«  ooil  of  iron  pii)o  leaving  th<!  boiler  at  one  spot  and  entenn^, 
it  a^'uin  at  another :  tho  intcnnediate  length  of  i,.il>.-  heijig  earned  up  or  down, 
in  or  out,  according  to  U»o  position  of  the  roouis  to  be  wanned.     It  tonus  a 
nide  analogy  to  our  own  bodily  uirculation  ;  the  boiler  is  the  heart,  while  Uk, 
pines  ai-e  the  veins  and  arteries.     If  the  boiler  be  placed  m  a  low  position, 
the  water  in  it,  when  heated,  has  a  tendency  to  rise;  and  if  the  whole  system 
of  T)ipes  be  filled  with  water,  the  rising  hot  water  drives  tlie  cold  water  before 
it,  aiul  a  continuous  circulation  js  produced :  the  whole  length  ot  pipe  hor 
conies  heated  by  degrees,  and  gives  off  this  heat  to  tlie  rooms.        ^".  h'i-.er 
may  be  of  ordinary  lorn,,  or  it  way  be  (as  in  Mr.  PerkuiftV  >j«teni)  merely  a 
part  of  tlio  pipe  itself  coiled  up  into  a  cpnipwt  mass  and  placed  in  a  turuace 
It  is  said  that  the  tirst  building  warmed  with  hot  water  was  a  greenhouse  at 
Newcastle,  in  iVlO  ;  hut  that  tlie  first  successful  application  on  a  large  suae 
was  at  a  hatching-roctip— a  chickun  factory,  as  it  may  be  Uiinied— m  l(7». 
Since  then  Uio  method  has  come  largely  into  use.     Bometimea   pipes   are 
conducted  into  the  rooms  to  be  heated,  as  at  the  British  Museum,  and  there 
coiled  up  under  handsome  pedestals  ;  sometimes  a  current  ot  air  is  heated  by 
beil'i'  made  to  pass  over  the  surface  of  a  vessel  containing  hot  water,  ai^  ut 
the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  then  made  to  circulate  by  a  drauglit 
caused  by  ai-tihcial  mei»,s.     Mr.  Bunnell's  '  Iletort  Calorifere    is   a   recent 
contrivan<:e  foj'  applying  tlie  hot-water  method  to  conservatories. 

Terhai-^  <iie  greatest  '  curiosity'  hi  modern  wanning,  connected  with  ven- 
tilation, is  the  new  Palace  of  the  Legislature.      The  world  is  staggered  at 
being  officially  told  that  loO.OOOZ.  has  been  sjient  in  the  arrangements  tor 
wamiing,  lighting,  and  ventilating  that  stnicture ;  and  is  little  less  staggered 
to  find  that  tlie  light  offend.s  one,  tlie  warm  air  anoUier,  the  cold  air  a  third, 
the  entire  ventilation  a  fourth.     But,  in  truth,  there  have  been  too  many  law- 
givers  on   the   subject;  four   distinct  authorities  have   given   independent 
orders :  two  distinct  [larties  have  attempted  to  carry  out  these  orders ;  a,nd 
all  the  six  l,ave  been  playing  at  cross-purposes  in  consequence  of  this  divided 
responsibility.     No  one  system  has  had  a  fair  trial  i  each  of  many  systems 
has  been  allowed  just  strength  enough  to  injure  the  otlrers,  but  not  enough 
to  show  its  own  excellence.     If  we  must  blame,  It;   us  award  the  lilanie  to 
hoth  Houses  of  Parliament  and  all  the  departments  of  the  Government,  leaving 
them  to  shai-e  it  among  tliem ;  the  systems  tlremselves,  of  wanning  and  ven- 
tilation, ought  not  to  be  judged  by  any  evidence  which  this  expensiveiy- 
ludjcrous  state  of  piatters  aifordt). 

CaKDLE-LIGUT  :    its    PhODUCTION    and   its    VAmEXIES. 

Let  US  now  leave  the  region  of  Fire,  and  take  a  similar  glance  at  that  of 

'&ions  liave  not  been  wanting  in  variety  in  tlieir  modes  of  producing 
a;  tificial  light,  tl^e  animal,  the  vegetable,  and  the  mineral  kingdoms  have 
all  been  brought  into  reipiislUon  with  Hus  view.  A  splint  of  resinous  wood 
has  been  the  candle  of  many  a  mitjpn,  and  is  so  at  tlie  present  time  m 
many  parts  of  the  Hebrides  and  of  Ireland.  The  torch  is  a  somewhat  more 
elp.borate  agent;  it  was  probably  at  firt  a  staff  of  >vood  coated  wiUr  .iiu  ^r 
pitoh;  and  such  torches  are  knnwn  to  hfive  been  used  by  the  Crpeeks  and 
Komans.     The  substftut^on  of  a  rope  of  hemp  fc  the  piece  of  wood  tormed 


A 


nUCTION. 

B  lifu  ;  it  is  yieUiapf 
in  hojne  couveiiieiit 
ti  si)ot  aiJil  entering 
cunieJ  ui»  or  Uown, 
•arnic'il.     It  forms  a 
tiielieart,  while  tilt? 
1  in  a  low  posiliim, 
if  the  whole  HyaUmx 
le  cold  water  hoforo 
',  len^'th  of  pipe  bar 
rooms.     'V'l^".  h*;ller 
aV.ijBtem)  merely  a 
placed  ill  a  furaaiie. 
was  a  greenhouse  at 
on  on  a  large  siiale 
jc  termed — io  177H. 
)metimas   pipes   are 

Muisenm.  and  there 
lit  of  air  is  heated  by 
iiing  hot  water,  ay  ut 
•oulat£  by  a  <lraught 
orifere '  is  a  reeent 
vatories. 

connected  witli  veii- 
iforld  is  staggered  at 
the  an-angements  for 
s  little  less  staggered 
•,  tlie  cold  air  a  third, 
e  been  too  many  law- 
3   given   independent 
ut  these  orders  ;  and 
ijuence  of  this  divided 
iach  of  many  systems 
lers,  but  not  enough 
;  award  the  blame  to 
3  Ciovernraent,  leaving 
of  warming  and  ven- 
hich  this  expensively- 


r''ABIETIE8. 

^ilar  glance  at  that  of 

ir  modes  of  producing 
ineral  kingdoms  have 
»lint  of  resinous  wood 
;  tlie  present  time  in 
h  is  a  somewhat  more 
d  coated  with  ■*»»  ^^r 
led  by  the  Gpeekg  and 
piece  of  wood  formed 


FIRE  AND  light:  contrivancks  por  thbib  rnonucTioN. 


15 


tlie  next  stage ;  and  thus  the  real  toroli  or  link  was  produced.  The  intlam- 
inable  nature  of  all  kinds  of  ((il  would  naturally  fUggest  their  us<!  for  pro- 
ducing light;  hence  would  arise  the  caiituhng  of  lish  and  animals,  or  the 
gathering  of  vegeUihlH  substuuces,  wiiicli  yitdd  oil ;  imd  hence,  loo,  the 
construction  of  lamps  tuid  caiidijlabra  to  contain  this  liquid.  'I'lien,  when 
it  was  known  (and  it  must  have  been  known  from  the  earliest  times)  that 
the  solid  fat  of  animals  possesses  tho  light-giving  cpiality,  a  little  ing(.'imity 
would  suggest  tlie  construction  of  some  sort  of  candle,  in  which  a  porous 
wick  might  be  ijiade  to  divide  the  melting  fat  or  tallow  into  numlicrless 
little  streams.  In  a  finther  stage,  it  would  be  found  that  spirits  and 
bitumens,  wax  and  spermaceti,  and  many  other  substances,  w(!re':;;jiiillaiu- 
mable;  and  contnvances  would  suggest  tjiemselves  by  which  light  might 
hence  be  id>tained.  Then,  when  coal  becanie  a  ('ouinion  fiit^l,  the  brilliant 
little  jets  which  occasionally  dart  out  froni  it  would  induce  an  inquiry  how 
such  a  source  of  illumination  niight  be  available ;  but  it  requiicil  tho 
boldness  of  tlie  nineteenth  century  to  give  a  decisive  imswcr  to  such  a  (]ues- 
tjon,  Ne^ft,  as  the  electric  spark  is  intensely  brilliant,  jiractical  men  would 
ponder  on  the  possibility  of  converting  it  nita  a  useful  source  of  light ;  and 
we  see  in  oiiy  own  day  how  this  jiossibility  is  being  tested.  Nay,  even  water 
itself  is  now  narrowly  watched,  to  see  whether  tlie  bydrogei;,  whic^h  forms 
one  of  its  constituent'j,  may  be  liberated  and  made  to  remler  up  its  light- 
givuig  power. 

It  is  not  every  one  who  understands  the  bit  of  philosoidiy  involved  in  tho 
biminig  of  a  candle.  We  may  readily  suppose — and  the  supposition  is  not 
tx  very  absurd  one — that  th  j  wick  is  intended  to  burn  and  to  give  light. 
Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  The  parallel,  or  nearly  pandlel,  fibres  of  tlje 
wick  fonn  the  walls  of  numerous  minute  tubes,  up  through  which  any  liquid 
will  ascend  by  the  power  of  what  is  called  '  cuiiillary  attraction  ; '  and  it  is  in 
this  minutely- divided  state  tliat  oil  or  nielted  tiiUow  is  best  fitted  for  combus- 
tion. The  heat  of  tlie  candle  melts  the  upper  part  of  the  tallow,  which  then 
in  a  liquid  state  ascends  the  little  tubes  of  tlie  wick,  and  is  there  bunied  ;  it 
is  true  tliat  the  wick  is  burned  also ;  but  tliis  is  not  a  necessary  condition  of 
tlie  arrangement ;  the  candle  would  give  forth  its  fight  even  if  the  wick  were 
formed  of  (m  incombustible  material. 

How  a  candle  is  made,  and  from  what  materials,  are  matters  fully  described 
in  works  readily  available,  'ihat  tlie  cotton  threads  are  ranged  parallel  for 
wicks;  that  the  wicks  are  slightly  twisted;  that  they  are  dipped  into  a  vat 
of  steaming  melted  tallow  ;  tliat  ingenious  mechanism  is  employed  to  aid  the 
dipping ;  diat  some  candles  are  cast  in  moulds  instead  of  being  dipped  into 
vats — are  facts  pretty  generally  known.  But  the  extent  to  which  we  are 
dependent  on  foreign  countries  for  tliis  tallow  is  greater  tlian  would  be  gene- 
rally supposed.  In  1860  thi::  quantity  was  considerably  beyond  1(J0,()00,0U0  lbs., 
a  great  portion  of  which  came  from  Russia.  Although  we  are  a  beef-eating 
people,  our  cattlo  do  not  furnish  us  with  a  sufficiency  of  tallow  for 
candle  and  soap-making  pmposes  ;  and  we  have  to  look  to  other  countries  in 
which  tlie  richness  of  the  meat  is  not  so  much  regarded  as  the  quantity  of  the 
fat  or  tallow.  The  fat  of  all  animals  which  is  solid  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature of  our  climate  is  fitted  for  making  candles ;  and  it  is  on  commercial 
ratlier  than  chemical  reasons  that  the  fat  of  oxen  is  more  largely  used  by  us 
than  tliat  of  any  other  animal.  The  tallow-melting  establishments  of  Russia 
are  vast  hi  size  and  most  inodorous  ui  character. 

Oandlermaking  (it  is  proper  here  to  state)  has  now  become  quite  a  notable 


u 


16 


iiuK  ANP  moht:  roNTRn'AVCES  Fon  thf.tti  rnonticTioN. 


example  of  fivcton-  opornttons,  involving  enRinoorinf,'  and  nianufacturmfr  die- 
niistiT  on  ii  voit  inslnictive  scale.     Ainoti-,'  nmny  Ui^^-  ostablislmirnts  there 
is  one  ivt  Vauxliall  where  '  Price's  Patent  Candles'  are  made  m  almost  incon- 
ceiv.il.lc  ..u.intities.     Tlie  candles  are  made  of  palm  oil  an<l  eoeoa-nut   oil.  ot 
which  nianv  thousand  tons  per  anniun  are  now  employed.     This  modern  sub- 
stitution of  veget{ible  fat  for  animal  fat  is  remarkable:  it  is  bringmR  central 
Africa  hito  intimate  commercial  relations  with  England  ;  and  many  thoughttul 
persons  are  of  opinion  that  it  will  do  more  than  squadrons  and  treaties  in 
suppressing  the  slave-trade.     The  palm  oil  is  li<piid  in  Africa,  but  it  assumes 
a  solid  state  in  the  colder  climate   of   England.     The   casks   contommg   it 
have  steam  forced  into  them,  by  which  the  oil  is  melted  and  made  to  flow 
out ;  and  the  oil  is  then  puriHed  and  bleached  to  various  degrees  of  whiteness, 
according  to  the  pmiiose  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.     The  whitened  cakes 
of  iialm  oil  are  cut  into  slices  by  a  machine ;   the  slices  are  deposited  on 
mats  of  cocoa-nut  Hbre ;  the  mats  are  piled  in  heaps,  with  iron  plates  between 
them;  the  heaps  are  placed  in  hydraulic   presses,  where   intense   pressure 
briii'^s  the  palm  oil  to  the  state  of  drv  thin  cakes.     After  a  little  more  puriti- 
catitm  the  palm  oil  is  Htted  for  melting  previous  to  the  making  of  candles. 
They  mav  l)e  '  mould  candles,'  or  '  paU-nt  Albert's,'  or '  (.hild  s  night  lights,  or 
'  Price's  iiight  lights ;'  but  in  all  these  cases  there  is  now  a  remarkable  ten- 
dency to  employ  machinery  in  the  fonnation— some  of  it  of  a  most  ingenious 
description.     It  is  to  the  Vrench  chemists  that  we  owe  much  of  the  improve- 
ment recently  made  in  candles ;  their  separation  of  stearoie  or  stearic  aci. 
froni  tallow  has  led  to  the  production  of  candles  which  give  a  much  purer  and 
more  brilliant  light,  and  are  much  less  ofl'ensive  to  the  smell  and  the  t«uch, 
than  the  old-fashioned  tallow  candles—witiiout  any  notable  increase  m  price 

Our  manufacturers  now  exhibit  to  us  specimens  ot  bleached  wax,  ot  white 
and  coloured  wax  candles,  of  white  and  coloured  sperm  candles,  ot  stearme 
candles,  of  candles  from  mixed  materials,  and  of  wax  and  composite  night 
lights.  Some  show  their  skill  in  making  wax  and  composition  candles  with 
plaited  wicks.  A  Durham  manufacturer  produces  his  •'  marbled  tallow  candles, 
which  burn  witliout  snuffing,  and  emit  an  agi-eeable  perfume  during  combvis- 
tion.'  A  clergyman  has  displayed  his  ingenuity  in  producmg  an  'acolyte  a 
learned  name  for  a  little  piece  of  mechanism  to  be  put  on  tlie  top  oi  a  lighter! 
candle,  to  prevent  it  from  '  guttering.'  ,.       ,         „     .  . 

In  the  medieval  revivals  of  the  present  day,  '  medioeval  candles  are  not 
forgotten.  They  are  intended  for  use  in  Catholic  churches  ;  for  many  genera- 
tions in  England  they  have  generally  been  large  bui  plain  candles  ;  but 
within  a  recent  period  they  have  been  made  in  imitation  of  tlioso  which  were 
in  fashion  in  the  middle  ages,  and  which  were  made  to  embody  a  certain 
degi-ee  of  svmbolism.  The  jimchal  candle,  used  from  Easter  to  \\hitsuntide. 
is  painted  round  thi;  lower  part  witli  emblems  and  devices  belonging  to  that 
period  of  the  church  year.  The  lumen  Christi,  to  a  certain  extent  emblematic 
of  the  Trinit}',  consists  of  three  equal  candles  twisted  around  each  other. 
Many  other  kinds  have  a  definite  meaning  attached  to  them,  either  as  altar- 
candles  or  procession-candles ;  and  some  of  them,  richly  painted  and  gilt, 
show  how  much  attention  was  paid  to  this  matter  in  fonuer  times,  and, 
perhaps,  likely  to  be  paid  again.  _  ,■        c 

It  would  be  unjust  not  to  mention  specially  that  ingenious  creation  of  our 
day— the  Palmer's  candle.  Anything  more  tidy  and  economical  and  seU- 
admsting  can  hardly  he  imagined.  The  ^nck  is  dexterously  twisted  round  its 
own  centi-e,  in  such  manner  that  the  top  may  turn  outwards,  and  there  catch 


-  — •■ 


JDllCTION. 

nianufiioturing  clie- 
istablislimnils  there 
m\o,  in  almost  incoii- 
1(1  (locoa-iuU  oil,  of 
This  modem  sub- 
;  is  bringiiif!  central 
md  many  thoughtl'nl 
ons  and  treaties  in 
ricu,  but  it  assumes 
casks   containing   it 
,'d  and  made  to  flow 
egrees  of  whiteness, 
The  whitened  cakes 
3S  are  deposited  on 
1  iron  plates  between 
re   intense   pressure 
a  little  more  juirili- 
e  making  of  candles, 
lild's  night  lights."  or 
w  a  remarkable  ten- 
,  of  a  most  ingenious 
mich  of  the  improve- 
ariiie  or  stearic  acid 
ve  a  much  purer  and 
inu'U  and  the  touch, 
»le  increase  in  price. 
Bached  wax,  of  white 
1  candles,  of  stearine 
and  composite  night 
position  candles  with 
arbled  tallow  candles, 
fume  during  combus- 
duchig  an  '  acolyte,'  a 
n  tlie  top  of  a  lighted 

Bval  candles '  are  not 
les  ;  for  many  genera- 
i  plain  candles ;  but 
1  of  those  which  Avere 

to  embody  a  certain 
blister  to  Whitsuntide, 
!es  belonging  to  that 
ain  extent  emblematic 
i  around  each  other. 

tliera,  either  as  altnr- 
hly  painted  and  gilt, 
n  fonner  times,  and, 

?nious  creation  of  our 

economical  and  self- 

)ufily  twisted  round  its 

mrds,  tuid  there  catch 


FIRE   AND    LIOIIT:    (  OXTRIV.XN'CF.S   FOU   THEIIl    PKODCCTIOX. 


17 


o.xygen  enough  to  consmne  away  without  need  of  snuffing.  The  snuttcr- 
makers  have  no  cause  to  bless  Mr.  I'almcr ;  but  the  smitfer-users  are  cer- 
tainly benclited.  As  to  the  candles  theins<'lvcs,  they  may  be  made  of  palm 
oil,  or  of  tallow,  or  of  stearine  ;  the  action  of  tlie  self-snufting  wick  is  intle- 
pendent  of  the  kind  of  fat  employed.  The  candlestick  employed  is  part  and 
jmrcel  of  the  apparatus  :  for  by  its  means  the  flame  of  tlw  candle  is  main- 
tained at  a  unifonn  height  from  tlie  table — a  desideratum  which  readers  and 
workers  well  know  how  to  value. 

Lamp-light  :  the  CoMmisTinr.E  and  tuv.  ArPAitATrs.  '. 

Our  lamps  and  tlieir  philosoi)hy  lead  us  into  a  very  different  commercial 
region  from  that  witli  which  candles  have  to  do.  In  a  chemical  sense  the 
difference  is  not  great ;  for  tallow  and  oil  have  a  strong  family  resemblance. 
That  one  is  solid  in  an  English  climate  and  the  otlier  liquid,  is  a  chief  point 
of  difference  ;  this  is  instructively  shown  m  relation  to  palm  oil,  which  is  a  liquid 
when  it  leaves  Africa,  but  a  solid  when  it  reaches  England. 

Lamp  oil,  in  this  countiy,  is  still  confined  chiefly  to  tliat  of  the  whale. 
There  is  a  little  obtained  from  seals  and  otlier  animals,  a  little  from  olives 
and  otlier  plants,  a  little  from  camphine  and  other  spirits — but  our  liquid 
fuel  is  for  the  most  part  whale  oil.  Nevertlieless  this  oil  has  now  so  many 
rivals,  and  the  whales  (in  the  Greenland  Seas  at  any  rate)  show  so  little  dis- 
position to  be  quietly  captured,  that  the  whale-fisheiy  has  become  more  pre- 
ciuious  tlian  at  the  beginning  of  the  century. 

What  a  strange  and  eventful  occupation  is  this  fi.shery?  The  ocean 
monsters  who  are  the  objects  of  it  are  frecjuently  sixty  feet  long,  forty  in 
circumference,  and  weigh  seventy  tons — nearly  equal  to  two  hundred  oxen; 
there  are  some  whales  even  more  than  a  hundred  feet  in  length ;  iuid  the 
open  jaw  would  contain  a  ship's  jolly-boat  full  of  men.  Such  are  the  oppo- 
nents witli  whom  the  whalers  venture  to  grapple ;  and  how  do  they  effect 
tliis '.'  A  ship  of  tliree  or  four  hundred  tons  leaves  Hull,  or  Peterhead,  or 
some  other  port  (we  may  confine  these  few  brief  lines  to  tlie  Greenland 
fishing  by  British  whalers) ;  it  finishes  its  ballasting  and  laying  in  of  stores  at 
Shetland  by  the  end  of  Mai-ch,  and  reaches  the  icy  seas  around  Greenland 
toward^!  the  end  of  May.  Manned  with  a  crew  of  forty  or  fifty  men,  and  car- 
rying six  or  seven  strong  and  well-appointed  boats,  it  roams  about  the  seas 
till  September  or  October,  keeping  a  sharp  look  out  for  whales,  and  exposed 
repeatedly  to  imminent  perils.  When  a  whale  is  seen  lying  unconscious  of 
danger  in  the  water,  tlie  ship  approaches  to  a  certain  distiuice,  puts  fortli  its 
boats  laden  with  men,  who  api»roach  the  floating  leviathan.  With  harpoons 
and  lances  the  animal  is  pierced,  and  with  coils  of  rope  he  is  allowed  to 
expend  his  rage  in  diving  deep  into  the  flood.  Modern  ingenuity  has  supplied 
the  whaler  witli  a  hai-pooii  of  more  pretensions  tlian  the  old  familiar  imple- 
ment ;  it  is  Mr.  Hodges's  '  Patent  Silent  Haipoon  Projector ' — a  hai-poon,  in 
fact,  fired  off  by  a  gun.  If  tlie  whale  does  not  kill  tlie  men  (which  occa- 
sionally happens)  tlv.;  men  generally  succeed  in  killing  the  whale,  and  hauling 
hira  up  to  the  side  of  the  ship.  Then  conmiences  the  cutting  up  of  the  huge 
monster.  The  oil,  as  most  readers  are  aware,  is  obtained  from  tlie  blubber  of 
tlie  animal ;  this  is  really  its  fat,  which  fomis  a  yellowish-white  mass  imme- 
diately under  the  skin,  from  eight  to  twenty  inches  in  thickness.  Men  descend 
upon  the  floating  carcase  with  well-spiked  shoes  upon  tlieir  feet,  cut  oft'  the 
blubber  in  lai^e  pieces,  and  hand  these  up  to  other  men  upon  deck,  by  whom 


•I 


i 


IH 


FIRK   AND 


uonr:  roNTBivAucKi  ton  tbpir  production. 


it  ifl  cut  .U)  into  Hiuullev  pieces,  and  llim  packed  m  U.e  hold.  1  he  days  wero 
wl..rtJ  blul  erwaHbiilt-d  .u  te.nporury  estul.liHh.ne.UK  on  the  Cvnlaucl 
Tor  a  a  to  oil  aLo  hrouKht  home;  and  U.eie  have  ubo  he..=  a»ra,>ge 
coa8t  ana  uie  1  a.  ,  ■  ,^,  i .  b„t  i,„th  .„  ihods  are  now  abuudoued. 
'Z^  Ule  wtll  L:  tSu'riluy  .-uove  the  blubbe.-  from  th«  hol^  .U 
kinU)HnmllpbfiP3,  remove  tiie  sikin  and  impunlL's,  and  pack  the  rt,«t  m 
Lw«  Tl  u'vJv  .  u  average,  be  thirty  tonn  of  blubber  from  ,t  lull-grown 
21-  ^aWmVi;:ri;obtLec1abovetwe^,tyto,..,foil.    When  th-    -vhaler^ 

tractina  tho  oil  therofrom,  to  be  used  hm-eattiir  an  lainp-oil. 

The?e  is  nothing  new  In  all  these  details  ;  indeed,  Uie  whale  liBliery.  fVom 
iti,  vei^  nature  does  not  uoi..i:,  oi  auoh  variety  m  mauaqement.  I  he 
cLgel^  are  local  and  conunercial  rather  tha.  technieal.  One  chang.  is  hat 
ScSi  iVorts  arc  getting  aliead  of  English  in  respect  fo  whaling  ships . 
Se  iie  is  that  the^orth  AUantie  is  becoming  yea.-ly  n.-re  and  ".ore 
Weftof  Ss No  the  manifest  loss  of  the  whal.  rn  who  voyag.  thither;  a 
S  is  that  tl^'Bouth  Pacific,  especially  under  the  ^-^^^^^'TZ^lf- 
tlie  Messrs.  Enderby,  is  hecommg  an  important  ««?"'^,  "[.^""'^^^ri^'^S^ ' 
while  tlie  North  Pacific  is  with  yet  more  energy  crossed  an.l  reorossed  by  Uie 

'^'^D^e'T^g^llblToils  are  procured  much  more  easily  ;  with  less  danger,  less 
dirt  less  mimtointy-whetlier  at  a  less  saleable  price  is  a  question  tor  actual 
oommerco  1^  answeJ.  Olive-oil,  nut-oil.  linseed-oil,  henipseed-oil,  rape-oil-all 
LTproc'red  ^\ve..ure  of  the  vegetable  substances  -hi'-;!' R-e  Uieni  nania 

How  t^iese  Jarious  oils  ai-e  employed  to  yield  artificial  light,  o»r  kinp- 
mSeis  show  most  ingeniously.  The  old  table-lamps  and  shop-lamps  of  our 
m-SaS  davs  gave  a  smoky  and  yellow  light;  then  came  Argand.  who. 
KexMly  g. sing  breathing  room  t^  the  flame  by  means  ol  a  hollow  wick. 
rWucS  S^^^  and  a  less  yellow  light;  and  in  more  recent  days  came 

he  muUitude  of  contrivances  by  which  air- and  sometimen  pure  oxygen-.s 
admSd  to  U?e  flame.  Many  modem  lamps,  to  which  veiy  h.gh-sounding 
iTiefl  given,  are  simply  il-lamps,  with  an  improved  adjustment  for  the 

Th^r;;L2r:3mSKC^  certainly  not  been  forgotten  in  the  con- 
BtrScttou  olUdem  lamps  ;  it  is  ind..d  sontewhat  bewildering  to  read  o  thn 
nmnerous  novelties  which  appeal  to  public  favour  in  this  direction  Atone 
Sme  w  "c^led  upon  to  ilniire  the  Soho  lamp,  -hich  ,s  adapted  for  burn^ 
i  tiow  or  fat  instead  of  oil.  At  another,  our  all«ntlon  s  directed  to  the 
r  .TZiD  named  aftor  a  French  lanip-maker ;  the  oil  is  raised  through 
JiZ  inLk-Tork  so  as  to  overflow  at  tlie  bottom  of  the  wick  and  thus 
So  it  saSer  iCn  there  are  the  Hot-oil  lamp,  in  which  the  oil  is  heated 
Seen  S  concentric  tub.s  near  the  flame;  the  M«<.or  lan.p,  which  bum 
vairoU-The  Sar  lamp,  which  bums  seal-oil,  and  m  which  three  distinct 
Zrel  of  air  aTe  ingeSously  brought  to  bear  upon  the  flam«  ^  the  (Jamp/un. 

IplL  members  of  whicl/family  rejoice  in  t^e  "^nies  «    the    \ esto     h^ 
•  Imoerial '  the  'Victoria,'  the  'Gem.'  the '  Paragon,' '  Diamond.  &o.).  In  which  the 

iS  A^Xved  is  camphlne.  procured  by  distillation  from  common  Amencau 

R'n^; TeBwA'l^Sp^        light  Jf  -^-^^«  y-\t'^5V  S^lteT 
3d  benzole,  obtoined  by  distillation  from  coal-tar ;  the  B«d«-hght,  the  ex 


i 


PRODKCTIOM. 

liold.  The  days  were 
uiitH  oil  tlie  (iiiji'iiland 
live  iilsu  bei"  amui'^H 
Ih  are  now  uluiU'loimd. 
ber  from  tlui  hold,  uut 
,  iukI  pack  the  it-st  in 
abht'.v  tiojii  It  luU-gi-owii 

oil.  When  tin  whaleris 
IS,  and  secur«Ml  as  many 
^,  Uie>  seek  ilioir  wfiy 
ro,  at  tlu'  nortliom  out- 
wn  Uio  blubber  und  ex 
voil. 

tlie  whale  llwhery,  from 
in  inanat?enieiit.  Tlie 
jal,  l)u«  change  is  that 
■ipeut  '  >  whaling  shipw ; 
5  yearly  fn"Vn  and  more 
H  who  voyagf  thither ;  a 
nergatic  niauiigeiuBnt  ot 
scenic  for  our  iisliurleti; 
ed  and  reorossed  by  tlie 

;  with  IcBH  danger,  less 
Q  ig  a  question  for  uotual 
onipseed-oil,  rape-oil — all 

which  give  Uiem  name, 
itificial  light,  our  lamp- 
i  and  shop-larapH  of  our 

then  came  Argand,  who. 
y  means  of  a  hollow  wick, 
in  more  recent  days  came 
iietimeH  pure  oxygen — is 
i-hich  very  high-soimding 
roved  adjustment  for  the 

3en  forgotten  in  tlie  con- 
jewildering  to  read  of  tlie 
in  this  direction.     At  one 
diich  is  adapted  for  burn- 
lention  is  directed  to  the 
tlie  oil  is  raised  through 
om  of  the  wick,  and  thus 
in  which  the  oil  is  heated 
MetHor  lamp,  which  burns 
d  in  which  three  distmct 
[1  the  flame  ;  the  Camphhu 
names  of  the  '  Vesta,'  the 
Jiamond,'  &c.),  in  which  the 
on  from  common  American 
i  yielded  by  a  hydiocarbon 
tar ;  the  Bude-hght,  the  ex- 


rrni?  AVP  i.ioht;  misTHivAwrRs  rrnn  ttirhi  fHrtntirTTos. 


If 


eolloiice  of  which  depends  on  th«i  mode  of  ndmitting  air  to  ui  ordinary  oil  or 
tias  Haine— -and  wn  mi^  ht  extend  this  U«t  much  further.         '. 

U  we  look  around  us,  in  our  nhofm  and  bazaars  and  exhibltionii,  we  see  Wiot, 
whatever  may  b.   «aid  in  rwipoot  to  c«.ncvH  tante,  the  lamps  of  the  present  day 
are  especially  sptiidid  ami  ami-ilioiis.      Kvoiy  new  kind  ot  oil  or  ppmt  or 
camphine,  every  new  mode  of  applying  solid  tallow  to  a  lamp-form  apparatus, 
every  suggested  method  of  «upplying  air  or  gas  to  feed  the  combu9t«m--hafl  been 
mach^  a  foundfttioi.  fur  one  or  other  of  many  glittering  kinds  of  adoraments. 
Many  of  Uiose  attractive  articles  are,  howevir,  very  cf)mplex  and  troublesome, 
and  it  has  been  quaintly  obsor^'ed,  "  a  lamp  which  rerpiires  as  much  looking  atler. 
mornltiB  and  evening,  as  a  baby,  is  a  luxury  which  those  only  who  can  keep  a 
nursery-maid  for  It  car,  propeily  enjoy/'    The  telegraph  l.imim,  the  railway 
lamps,  the  lighU.ouso  lamps,  the  carriage  lamps,  the  ship  lamps,  the  miners 
l9int)s— all  havf  certain  mechanical  adjustments  which   fit  them   for   their 
peculiar  purpo.u^s :  but  we  are  now  speaking  of  tlie  decorative  treatment  ot 
domestic  lamps.     These,  whether  called  Argand  or  Car.-el  or  (.am{)lnne,  or  by 
any  oth«r  name,  do  Certainly  now  display  much  variety  of  ad  .mment.     W  lute 
metal  work,  with  dead-white  glass,  brass-work  and  coloured  glass.  broiir.e-work 
with  medallion  decorations,  porcelain  relieved  wiUi  enamel  painting— all  are 
present..!  in  most  varied  array.     And  the  fomis  are  not  less  diverse;  some- 
times the  shaft  imitat«*H  the  st«m  of  a  plant,  at  otliers  the  ancient  tripod,  while 
In  other  instances  an  attempt  is  made  to  devise  new  atid  gracelul  tomis. 
Messrs    Messenger,  of  Birmingham,  who  tske  a  leading  position  m   lamp- 
making  ami  brass-work  genemlly,  are  said  to  have  \m\  th.'  aid  ot  Haxman 
and  Chantrey,  in  throwing  classic  beauty  into  the  forms  adopted  by  them. 
And  the  glass  globes  and  shades  which  environ  the  flame :  how  varied  they  are— 
.•up-shaped,  hcll-shai.ed,  tulip- shaiied,  lotus-shaped,  ogive-shaped,  oval-shaped 

— all  are  adoptc  ,  ,     .         .  i  i        tf.,i 

>■  The  lamps  now  used  for  lighthouses  are  highly  ingenious  imd  bemitilul. 
In  the  first  place  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  two  sj/sfems— -the 
mtopnic  and  tlie  ,/-  ,Wr/c— Uic  former  depending  on  tlie  reflection  ot  light  from 
a  mirror,  and  the  latter  on  the  transmission  of  light  through  a  lens.  It  a  largo 
lamp  were  placed  oti  the  top  of  a  lighthouse,  with  glass  roof  and  windows  all 
around  it,  the  light  would  shine  in  every  direction,  losing  its  intensity  by  being 
so  much  diffusfd  ;  but  by  the  use  either  of  mirrors  or  of  lenses,  all  the  light 
is  concentrated  to  one  definite  direction:  its  energy  is  increased  by  being  cir- 
cumscribed ill  range.  In  the  catoptric  system,  numerous  ^f^.f ^«  ^«J«^^"" 
are  placed  at  definite  angles  round  a  central  lamp ;  they  ar  >  of  silvered  copper, 
and  aie  kept  exquisiti^iv  bright;  and  they  all  contrive  to  reflect  the  rays 
out  seaNVard,  without  allowhig  any  to  waste  t^^eir  power  landward  lie 
dioptric  system  involVfes  the  use  of  powerful  convex  lenses,  through  which  the 
rays  ai-e  focalised  in  a  definite  dirr.fion.  If  very  large,  these  lenses  wouW  be 
difficult  to  make  and  costly  to  nrnvhase  ;  but  it  has  been  shown  by  Brewstei 
and  Fresnel,  that  a  compound  lens  may  be  built  up  of  a  number  oi  pieces,  pro- 
vided the  curvatures  are  well  adjusted. 

In  relation  to  this  subject,  Wo  may  here  remark  that  dilr  lighthouses  atid  our 
Ordnance  stlfvev  tations  so  far  resemble  each  other,  Umt  each  must  throw  out 
a  strong  gleaiv  "  light  to  a  great  distance.  Around  our  thousands  of  miles  ot 
Coast-where  .e  ammal  wfecks  are  from  seven  to  eight  hundred,  and  the 
btopertv  lost  amounts  to  millions  sterling-the  lighthouses  nate  passed 
through  many  stages  of  efficien -v.  First  there  was  the  large  coal-fite  used  on 
the  siinnnlts  of  ien  building,     then  the  old-faahioned  .  -1  lamps,  or  some- 


i 


90  vim  AND   lioht:  CONTKIVANOKB  koh  theih  puoduction. 

i\me^   wax   .-andleH,   wiih  .i  looking-^losK   reflector   behind :   tJion  tl.o   inoro 

n«htlX.n.mg  Ar^{,u.a  hnui-.  with  co.u.uve  >u.tall,c  reflectors  lf'"«^  =  .   \«^" 

Sonvex  lens'u.  foculUe  tl^Jray.  by  transnV.Hsion  ;  and  then  th;;  lens  >m    up 

pieconicul.  on   th...   plan  of   Hrewntor  and   t'resnel.  8o  that   the   h«ht  may 

uDDear  nlmost  as  one  vast  himinoua  pillar. 

'^•'he  survey  Uglit.  have,  not  been  less  varied.      The  three  angles  ol    the 

enorlu    trian^L  by  which  a  topogi-aphical  Hur>ey  is  {>"'"-"  ycmu^ucted 

aometinies  eighty  or  a  hundred   miles   asm.d..'.  n.ust   be  visible   one  horn 

uuoth  "r    but  how  to  produce  this  visibihty  ?     In  the  earlier  surveys,  where  such 

Zh  .'  d'ist.uu  .s  were  not atten.pted.  a  signal  light  vv.us  in  souje  .aso.  obtained 

bv  roflectinu'  the  light  of  the  sui  Iron,  a  well-ad  ustod  surface  ot  polished  tm  :  or 

brUenS  lights  lH'"'K'  ••'>-'l  '^^  »'«l't-  "^'  '•>■  '^  Pow-rt"!  Amand  larnp  being 

pWTb  hi  d  a  lens  m-  before  a  parabolic  reflector;  hut  Lieutenant  Drum- 

mm  d    du   ng  the    progress  of  the    Irish  survey,  made  a  happy  sugges  ion 

vS  echpsil  in  efticimcy  all  oUiers.     In  what  is  aUled  Uie  ^>«7 ;"';';;'  «\ 

L.. /,V^^  a  small  ball  of  lime  is  exposed  to  the  f  f«"  "V' ^        h  7^ 

bv  nure  oxygen  gas;  tlie  llame,  in  a  highly  vivid  state,  heats  Uie  lime  to  an 

hninse  depee,  ^id  n  Uiis  heat.d  state  it  emits  a  light  of  surprising  bnlhancy 

i  exceedhig  that  of  any  flamo  yet  seen.     So  beautifully  was  Druinmonds 

a  paratus'"o'nstructed,uL  the  iLnp  fed  itself  witli  «1''|'\  ^  -'.;;a^; 

su  .idied  itself  with  balls  of  lime  as  e.ich  one  slowly  wasted,  and  reflect^Ml  it 

sm'Eig   light   from  an  ex-piisitely-polished   p.mtbohc  surlace  of  silvered 

™tr      It  was  not  merely  llguratively  but  liUu-ally  true,  that  a  piece  ol  hm.., 

n7b  gge^haaVa  ho/;  Iw.le.  eiuitid  a  light  at  f^o-^^^f^^]^^\;^ 

visible  at  lielfast-a  distance  in  a  .lirect  line  ot  nearly  seventy  »"««<;>' 

ater  occasion  Colonel  Colby  made  a  lime-light  signal  visible  from  Antrim  m 

Sand  to  lieu  Lomond  in  Scotland,  a  straight-line  distance  of  ninety-five 

miles. 

Gas-lioht;  Hai.i-  a  (Jentury's  History. 

The  gas-lighting  system  now  calls  for  a  Uttle  notice-Uiat  system  ^vhich  the 
piesent  century  has  seen  to  start  into  existence,  to  put  forth  "'oJo«  Pn*^"; 
s..)ns  to  struggle  against  commercial  and  social  and  pracUcal  obstocles  to 
muer  these  obsta^cles  one  by  one,  to  spread  from  the  rich  to  the  pom- d  s- 
tHcti  and  from  town  into  counti-y.  to  ramify  beneath  our  leet  almost  as  exten- 
sively as  water-pipes,  and  to  extend  to  most  contmeutul  counti-ies. 

I?i8  difticult  tJ  appreciate  fully  the  advantages  of  any  notable  mvent^on  o 
discovery,  unless  we  bring  the  imagination  to  bear  upon  Uie  state  of  things 
Sch  pr;ceded  its  introd'uction.  How  little,  for  example,  can  the  present 
^neratL  do  justice  to  the  grand  social  improvement  "^  ™f '■  "^^^^ '  J^^ 
call  tell  what  it  U  ;  but  only  those  whose  memory  extends  back  to  the  begm- 
Zg  o  the  present  centmy  can  compare  the  Presentwidx  that  vvhvch  px.- 
cededit  The  oil  lamps  were  few  and  detective;  Uie  streets  weie  but 
paSy  lighted;  tlie  turnpike  roads  were  left  almost  in  darkness  ;  the  shops 
reSuEutiy  illumined;  much  daily  trouble  was  given  to  aU  by  whom 
Tamps  wei^  used  f  and  tlie  oil  being  dependent  in  quantity  on  the  success  of 
the  whale-fishers,  was  subject  to  frequent  vai-iation  m  price. 

Bu  ?  rnay  be  said,  and  said  justly,  that  the  lamp  system  which  preceded 
gas  was  a  gi-eat  improvement  on  the  earlier  pmctice.  The  public  streets  owe 
much  to  later  ages  in  respect  to  lighUng;  for  in  early  times  V^fff^^'^j' 
night  had  no  li|ht  but  thatof  the  flambeaux  which  were  caiTied  before  them. 


.  ..^i^^.^.^..^,.....^^ 


I 


i 


iiontJCTios. 

liiid  ;   then  the   iiioni 

flcclors  bcliiiul;  then 

then  thf  lens  built  up 

that   the   li^ht  may 

!  thieo   ungliss  of  tlie 
priiniu-ily  conducted, 
bo  visible   «>ne  from 
or  Burv«'ys,  whero  sU(;h 
m  Houie  !tis(is  obtained 
•face  of  polished  tin  ;  or 
ful  Ar^aud  lamp  being 
)nt  Liciitonant  Drum- 
le  a  happy  suggestion 
lied  the  Drummuiiil  or 
)n  of  a  si>irit-flame  fed 
,  heats  tlio  lime  to  an 
i)f  suqtrising  brilliancy, 
fully  was  Drummond's 
ipirit  and  with  i)xygen, 
asted,  and  retlecte<l  its 
)lic  surface  of  silvered 
le,  that  a  piece  of  lime, 
.yndonderry  which  was 
seventy  miles!     On  a 
visible  from  Antrim  in 
disUmce  of  ninety-five 


8T0RY. 

—that  system  which  the 
It  forth  modest  preten- 
i  j)ractical  obstacles,  to 
ic  rich  to  the  poor  dis- 
>ur  feet  almost  as  oxten- 
il  counti'ies. 

uiy  notable  invention  or 
ipon  the  state  of  things 
ample,  can  the  present 
,  now  under  notice !  We 
ends  back  to  the  begin- 
nt  witli  that  which  pre- 
;  Uie  streets  were  but 
i  in  darkness  ;  the  shops 
3  given  to  all  by  whom 
lantity  on  the  success  of 
price. 

system  which  preceded 

The  public  streets  owe 

y  times  perambulators  at 

vere  can'ied  before  them. 


riMK    AND    UUHT:    CONimVANCKS    K)U    IIIKIII    I'lloUUCTION. 


u\ 


Paria  wiw  tlio  first  modern  city  which  was  lighted,  and  this  was  not  till  th.i 
sixteenth  century  ;  thi;  lights  were  not  lamps  but  were /WZ/o/^,  vessels  tilled  witli 
pitch,  resin,  and  other  eombusliblos.  'I'liesc  stiilionary  lights  were  some  years 
aftfrwards  siiiM'r.s(.'(l(Mli)y  lanttaiis ;  uud  aliout  the  middb' of  tiie  last  century 
glass  lamps  began  to  be  used,  .suspended  over  thf  middle  of  the  streets  by 
cords.  liond'.i  was  sonuiwhat  behindhand  in  these  nuitters  ;  f»>r  until  alM>ut 
I7:t0  few  lights  were  iisetl  in  the  slret^ts  t  xecpt  thoso  which  the  eiti/t^is  hung 
out  in  fruui  of  their  houses  ;  but  in  that  year  five  thousanil  gla.^s  lamps  were 
set  up  by  tiic  corporation.  In  many  of  the  cities  of  the  Continent — Amster- 
dam, llandjurgli,  Venice,  Madrid,  .Vc— tin;  streets  were  fust  lighted  in  the 
seventeenth  centuiy.  Home  hiul  no  street  iigliis  imtil  ihr  end  of  the  last 
century,  when  1\>[m  Sixtus  VI.  adopUul  the  singidar  e.vpedienl  of  ordering 
the  nuudxr  of  lights  before  the  images  of  saints  to  bo  increased,  as  a  means 
of  lessening  the  gloom  of  the  streets.  In  Vienna,  untU  ITHO,  the  inhabitants 
had  to  take  down  the  lamps  from  before  tht;ir  doors  in  the  morning,  take 
them  to  tlie  lamp-othce  to  be  tilled  with  oil,  and  light  them  in  the  evening  on 
a  signal  given  by  the  public  fire-bell  a  clumsy  method  this,  which  wa.s  ob- 
viated by  the  establishment  of  a  body  of  lamplighters. 

Without  departing  from  our  own  country,  we  have  abundant  evidi'uce  of 
the  charact(n-istics  of  the  streets  of  a  busy  city  before  the  introduction  of  gas- 
lighting.  There  was  the  London  marching  watch  of  Henry  tlie  l-li^'hth's  time, 
with  tlie  <n-es.sets  or  iron  frames  filled  with  burning  pitchy  rop(;s  ;  there  was 
the  time  of  peril  and  danger  when  this  watch  was  abolished  on  account  of  the 
e.\pense  to  the  citizc^ns ;  there  was  the  establishment  of  the  standing  watch 
or  watchmen,  with  lanterns  instead  of  cressets ;  tliere  were  the  three  centuries 
of  conttist  between  the  cori)oralion  aiid  the  citizens  as  Id  whether  the  lighting 
should  be  individual  or  corporate  ;  there  were  the  robberies  and  nnudirs  imd 
other  deedy  of  violence  in  dark  alleys,  because  only  those  who  paid  ten  pounds 
tt  year  rental  were  required  to  light  the  front  of  their  houses  ;  there  were  the 
flambeaux  and  link-boys  of  Hogarth's  days,  and  the  lamplighters  of  George 
the  Third's  time— all  this,  and  much  more,  illustrative  of  the  lighting  (or  non- 
lighting)  of  the  meti'opolis  in  [)ast  days,  is  pleasantly  depicted  in  Mr.  Knights 
'  London.' 

But  tlie  age  of  gas  approached.  It  was  in  1792  tliat  Mr.  Murdoch  showed 
that  gas-lighting  was  practicable  ;  and  five  yc^ars  afterwards  he  applied  it  on  a 
large  scale  at  tlie  Soho  Factory  at  Birmingham.  It  was  hi  IHO;)  that  Mr. 
Winsor  lighted  tlie  Lyceum  Theatre  with  gas,  and  in  the  next  following  year 
that  the  first  Manchester  factory  was  so  lighted.  Its  fame  luid  its  use  spread 
to  iialifax  and  to  other  northern  towns  ;  but  the  metropolis  received  the  new- 
comer distrustfully.  It  was  in  vain  for  Mr.  Winsor  to  announce  a  '  National 
Light  and  Heat  Company,"  and  to  promise  the  shareholdcus  an  unheard-of 
dividend  on  tlieir  capital;  the  gas  hitherto  made  had  not  been  pure,  its  odour 
was  offensive,  and  the  Londoners  would  have  none  of  it.  The  difficulties, 
however,  were  overcome  on  the  one  hand,  and  tlie  prejudices  on  the  other ; 
and  by  the  yeai-  182.)  there  were  upwai-ds  of  a  hundred  miles  of  gas-pijies 
running  beneath  the  streets  of  the  gi-eat  metropolis. 

How  the  gas  system  has  progressed  in  tlie  last  tliirty  years  is  most  striking. 
Mr.  Kutter  has  stated,  tliat  in  1H48,  there  were  six  million  tons  of  coal  con- 
sumed annually  ui  England  for  gas-making  alone :  tliat  one-twelfth  of  this,  or 
half  a  million  tons,  was  so  used  in  London  ;  and  that  the  main  pipes  which 
conveyed  this  gas  to  the  houses  of  London  were  fifteen  hundred  miles  m  length. 


■itimMtiyif    II  ililiwniiri'm'" •■•""''•■■'*■■•  ■■-»—'—  -■-"  -' ' .■-".^*'i-...»«-« ■  m^^^.. 


i 


fiS  PthK    ANt)    MOllT:    C0NTll!VANl!E9    KOH    Tttl'.lh    t-ltOftUO'ftOlt. 

And  It  wfts  hot  in  Lohdon  ahm  that  this  astonishing  advance'was  obServablti ; 
there  were  neaHy  six  hundred  proprietary  gaS-^vork«  iti  England  and  Wales 
in  that  year,  and  nearly  t\Vo  hundred  in  Rcotland  and  1 1  eland ;  ami  at  these  several 
works  theie  were  niatiy  thdusand  million  cubic  feet  of  gas  produced  annually. 
In  the  four  subsequent  years  the  advance  has  been  very  rapid ;  and  a  ton  ot 
coalA  is  now  made  to  yield  more  gas  than  by  the  earlier  processes. 

What  our  great  gas-works  are^  nearly  every  one  now  knows.  The  retorts 
for  containing  Uie  doal,  the  ovens  for  heating  the  retorts,  the  vessels  through 
which  the  gtts  passes  to  be  purified  by  chemical  means,  the  enormous  gaso- 
meters Of  reservoirs  in  which  it  is  stored  for  use,  and  the  wonderful  system 
of  pipes  by  which  it  is  conveyed  to  oiu-  streets  and  houses,  all  are  rendered 
tolerably  familiar  to  us;  and  recent  discussions  have  rendered  tlieni  still 
more  so,  especially  to  the  citizens  of  London. 

The  years  1850-61  witnessed  a  fierce  gas  agitation  in  the  metropolis,  llie 
Citv  of  London  Gas-light  Company  luid,  up  to  that  time,  supplied  a  Ittt-ge 
number  of  tlie  citzens;  but  lliere  having  been  many  ai-guments  to  show  that 
the  price  charged  was  unwarrantably  high,  a  '  Great  Central  Gas  Consumers 
(Jompany'  was  fomied,  professedly  "with  a  view  ot  enabling  the  Users  to  reap 
all  tlie  profit  from  the  manufacture.  The  price,  under  the  threatened  com- 
petition, fell  from  lOs.  to  Is.,  Cs.,  and  then  4s.  pel-  thousand  Cubic  feet,  rhe 
new  company  Was  formed  ;  and  iti  the  autumn  of  that  year  the  streets  of  the 
Citv  were  brought  into  an  extraordinaty  condition,  by  the  laying  down  of  new 
pipes-  and  tlie  'gas  agitdtion'  became  offensive  alike  to  the  eye,  to  the 
nostrils,  and  to  good  sense;  Within  six  months  after  the  commencement  of 
operations,  tlife  new  company  supplied  4500  Cottsumers,  With  about  a  million 
feet  of  gas  per  week.  After  matty  struggles,  and  much  waste  of  property,  the 
two  companies  combined;  but  in  order  to  secure  to  the  gas  consmnwa  some 
instalment  of  ailvttntage  from  the  conflict,  It  was  agreed  that  the  gaS  shotdd 
be  charged  as  low  fts  in. ;  and  that  if  the  united  company  shoiild  evfcr  be  lUCky 
enough  to  realise  ft  dividend  of  10  per  cent.,  any  surplus  ptoflt  should  be  ft|)- 
plieil  to  a  further  lessening  of  the  price  (*f  gas.  It  is  not  often  that  the  public 
make  so  good  A  batgain  in  the  pfttehing-up  of  compatties'  qnaitels. 

We  stated  in  a  recent  paragi-aph  tliat  the  arrangements  and  processes  oi 
gas-works  are  pretty  generally  kho\vn ;  but  it  is  li6t  lete  necessary  to  betti'  m 
mind  that  improvements  are  (HjOStailtly  being  irttfoduced  ili  one  oi'  Other  of 
the  various  operations  or  the  meiihanism  by  Wllich  they  ttre  conducted.  At  the 
new  works  of  the  '  Gas  Consumers'  CoWpStiy.'  fdt-  instance,  many  novelties 
are  introduced ;  ahd  indeed  it  is  these  novelties  which  enable  the  heW  com- 
panies to  undersell  the  old,  by  producing  a  given  amoimt  of  gas  with  a  less 
amoimt  of  sunk  capital.  9o  In  the  neW  '  Western  Gas-light  Company,  whose 
works  have  been  recetitly  established  at  Kensall  Gt-eeti.  Here  the  operations 
ate  conducted  on  a  system  patented  by  Mr.  Pahner.  Ontltiel  coal  is  noW 
knoWTi  to  yield  a  larger  rttiantity  and  a  purer  quality  of  gas  thah  ofdinai^  coal ; 
and  Mr.  Palmer  tlence  adopts  it.  There  is  a  pOlygOttal  building  of  twelve 
sides  10(1  feet  In  diameter,  and  containihg  HCiO  retorts;  the  gas  made  m 
these'  retorts  is  wurificd  bv  passing  through  Watef,  then  through  a  1-Mating 
tank,  then  throhgh  a  refrigerating  apparatus,  then  through  a  showet  of  liquid 
ammonia  drops,  tliPil  through  an  atmosphere  of  Stentfi,  and  then  througli 
lime  All  this  tattj  appear  very  complex ;  but  in  truth  the  gas  from  Coal  con- 
tains a  large  nilniber  of  foreign  substances,  eaeh  of  which  requires  hi  own 
particular  process  foi*  removal.     The  principal  gasohieter  oi*  gas-holder  at 


mm 


K 


i 


advance' was  observable ; 
iti  England  and  Wales 
land ;  and  at  these  several 
■  gas  produced  aimually. 
rery  rapid ;  and  a  ton  of 
er  processes. 
[)W  knows.  I'he  retorts 
jrts,  the  vessels  through 
atis,  the  enormous  gaso- 
id  tlie  wonderful  system 
iiouses,  all  are  rendered 
;Ve  rendered  llietn  still 

in  the  metropolis.     The 
,t  time,  supplied  a  large 

atguments  to  show  that 
Central  Gas  Consumers' 
abling  the  tlsers  to  reap 
der  the  threatehed  com- 
ausand  cubic  feet.  The 
fit  year  the  streets  of  tlie 
y  the  layiflg  dcnvH  of  tieW 
dike  to  the  eye,  to  the 
3r  the  comrtlcticement  of 
ers,  with  about  a  million 
cli  waste  of  property,  the 
the  gas  consumei's  some 
■eed  that  the  ga^  should 
lany  shoiild  evfer  be  lUCky 
plus  iTtotit  should  be  ap- 

not  often  that  the  public 
Hifes'  qtian'els. 
u;ements  and  i)rocesSe9  of 
less  necessftry  to  betti'  in 
luced  ill  one  oi'  Other  of 
ey  ttre  conducted.    At  thfe 

instance,  tnany  novelties 
ieh  enable  the  heW  com- 
motlnt  of  gas  witli  a  less 
tis-liglit  Company,'  whosfc 
en.  Mere  the  ojperfttions 
er.  Cnnnel  coal  is  ho^v 
rf  g»g  than  ofdinafy  coal ; 
■gonal  building  of  twelve 
"etorts;  the  gas  mrtde  in 

then  through  a  I'Otating 
iroUgh  a  showet-  of  liquid 
[eatn,  and  then  through 
ith  the  gas  frOfn  Coal  Con- 
f  Which  requires  its  own 
sohieter  ot  gas-holder  at 


Fiftfi   AKD   I.UiHT:    (^0  .TBItAtJCES   tfotl   trfRlB   PHOIIUCTloK. 


m 


these  works  iS  of  Vast  magnitude:  it  is  18.5  feet  in  diameter,  by  85  feet 
deep;  it  weighs  150  tons,  and  will  contain  tnore  than  350,000  CUblo  feet 
of  gas. 

One  of  the  singular  novelties  of  recent  times  ar^  se  out  of  the  backward- 
ness of  Inechanical  lift  in  Mexico.  The  apparatus  for  a  new  s^as-work  was 
sent  out  from  Ehrltthd  to  Mexico ;  but  it  Wils  feared  that  there  were  no 
worktrten  in  thc'^  ity  who  could  efficiently  put  together  the  pieces  of  metal 
for  large  gasometers.  Mr.  Hancock,  therefore.  Was  invited  to  apply  tlie  aid  of 
indift  rubber  to  tliis  purpose ;  he  made  CaUvas  bags  twelve  feet  in  diameter  by 
fifteen  high ;  the  cflhvas  was  saturated  With  india  rubber,  and  the  bags  Were 
rendered  cylindrical  by  iron  hoops ;  and  thus  each  bag  beCame  a  gasometer, 
r  Mr.  Leslie's  gas  burners  are  coming  largely  into  use  in  public  establish- 
ments. At  the  General  Post  Offlce*  at  some  of  the  goveltiinent  offices,  at 
Inahy  banking  houses,  and  at  the  Thames  Tunnel,  they  are  noW  employed. 
The  gas  Hows  through  a  circle  of  small  tubes,  each  tube  suiTounded  by  the 
atmospheric  currsnt  at  the  point  where  the  gas  issues  and  is  ignited  ;  from 
which  follows  a  more  complete  combustion  of  the  gas,  and  a  purer  and  more 
brilliant  light,  than  by  tlie  ordinary  arrangement.  This  result  is  further 
carried  out  by  the  adoption  of  lathp-glasSes,  the  shape  and  capacity  of  which 
Tttry  according  to  the  quantity  of  gas  to  be  cohsiuned  in  a  given  time.  There 
is  here  something  like  the  precision  of  chethidttl  adaptation.  Mr.  Leslie  has 
also  Contrived  an  apparatus  for  purifying  gas  before  its  Combustion.  Notwith- 
standing the  nutnerons  processes  to  which  the  gas  is  subjected  at  the  works, 
it  always  contains  a  little  sulphUl'  and  ainmonia ;  and  tliese  substanetes  not 
only  vitiate  the  air,  but  they  lessen  the  brilliancy  of  the  light  produced.  Mr. 
Leshe's  apparatus  consists  of  an  enclosed  chest,  kept  in  the  house  of  the 
CohSumef ;  through  it  all  the  gas  must  pass  on  its  Way  to  the  burners,  and  in 
its  passage  it  cotneS  in  contact  with  lime  and  other  chemical  substances,  which 
deprive  it  of  the  sUlphur  and  ammohia.  It  is  only  in  large  establishments 
where  such  a  purifying  apparatus  would  pay  itself;  but  where  the  jets  are 
reckoned  by  hundreds  rather  tlian  by  tens,  the  combined  use  of  the  purifier 
and  the  fteW  burner  is  Shid  to  be  productive  of  a  very  remai'kable  saving. 
Df.  Plnyfair  hasVecently  draWn  the  attention  of  the  govemment^to  the  excellent 
results  obseiVable  at  the  General  Post  Office.  In  respect  to  the  ordinary 
bllt^el'Sj  notliing  can  be  more  varied  than  the  forins  which  tlioy  are  now  made 
to  assutiie ;  the  cheapness  of  gas  and  the  cheapness  of  glass  have  led  to  an 
almost  infinite  vai'iety  in  our  shop-Windows  and  public  buildings— not  always 
tasteful,  it  is  true ;  but  yet  much  grace  and  beaUty  are  occasionally  shown  in 
the  gas-light  arrangeinehts. 

The  philosophy  of  gas  and  the  philosophy  of  cooking  are  now  brought 
into  most  useful  companionship.  Let  us  take  as  an  example  the  gas-cooking 
apparatus  which  tlie  good  folks  of  Liverpool  are  said  to  patronise.  Around 
the  '  dripping-pan '  is  a  gas-pipe,  which  supplies  numerous  little  jets  to  heat 
the  whole  apparatus  ;  the  meat  to  be  roasted  is  hung  over  the  centre  of  the 
place  bounded  by  the  magic  circle  of  gas  ;  and  the  meat  to  be  balced  is 
placed  in  a  closed  compartment,  also  over  the  heating  agent.  At  the  top  of 
the  stove  are  eight  or  ten  spiral  burners,  sunk  a  little  way  below  the  surface  ; 
and  here  the  culinary  operations  of  broiling,  fi7iiig,  i)oiling,  steaming,  stew- 
ing, &c.,  are  conducted.  All  the  compartments  are  furnished  with  dampers  to 
regulate  the  heat,  and  separate  doors  in  I'ront  give  access  to  each  compart- 
ment. If,  as  tlie  inventors  tell  us,  "  sixty  mutton  chops  can  be  cooked  at  an 
outlay  of  only  twopence  for  gas,"  the  apparatus  must  indeed  be  a  pattern  of 


nmiiMiittM 


»i>ii>iiiniin  -r.f<M»llniifmi*iWlfc 


r 


u 


HKE    AND    LKJHT:    CONTRIVANCES    FOM   THEIK    PUODUCTION. 


economy.     Other  gas-cooking  stoves  are  now  putt  ng  ^ov^J^eivd^im^^^ 
public  favour;  one,  we  are  told,  can  "cook  a  pan-  of  chickens,  4  lbs.  ot  beet, 
otatoes  (both  baked  and  boiled)  and  boil  a  vessel  ot  water,  with  less  Uian 
w^pennvworUi  of  gas."     M.  Soyer,  who  provided  a  dmner  on  a  large  scale, 
a!^d  at  a  short  noticl  for  the  Agricultural  Society  at  their  Exeter  meetm^is 
said  to  have  done  wonders  with  an  extemporaneous  g^^:'=««^"lf>,fPP?[frj 
he  cooked  5(iO  lbs.  of  meat  in  five  hours,  with  a  consmnption  of  <  5 0  cubic  lee 
of  gL;   according  to  the    modem  London  tai-iff  the  gas  would  have  cost 
only^;. ;  but  the  Exeter  arrangement  was  of  course  not  governed  m  relat  on 
to  any  saving  of  a  few  shillin|s  in  fuel.     In  most  of  these  gas  stoves  the 
heatin'g  an-axfgements  are  of  two  kinds;  in  one  the  lighted  jets  are  jda^d 
beneath  the  metallic  bottom  of  a  boiler,  a  saucepan   or  "^Uer  cookmg  vessek 
or  an  oven;  in  tlie  other  the  lighted  jets  ai-e  ranged  m  a  circle  withm  imd 
aboTe  which  a  joint  is  suspended  for  roasting.    If  well  managed,  no  gas  odom- 

'' Ora'^buS'saturday  night,  when  many  of  tlie  streets  aa-e  tiironged  with 
retail  deale"7  in  all  kinds  %f  commodities-edible  and  culinary-there  may 
£  be   een  stalls  or  stands  hghtod  up  with  more  Uian  ordinary  brilhancy. 
attracting  no  small  a(..ntion  thereby.      The  forni  of  lamp  or    ight    s  ^ 
biguous  r  it  may  be  from  gas,  or  it  may  be  Irom  oil-few  can  tell  at  the  first 
crknce  which  is  its  real  character.     It  is  in  fact  sometlimg  between  the  two 
The  principle  acted  on  is  chat  of  HoUiday's  '  Self-generating  Gas-lamp,   in 
which^tie  lamp  makes  its  own  gas  while  bui-niiig.  The  combustible  employed 
is  naphtha.     There  is  a  reservoir  of  this  liquid,  uito  which  a  wick  dips  ,    he 
uaphara  ascends  by  capiUaiy  attraction;  who.    .  ai-rives  ™  *f  Jumer  the 
extreme  volatility  of  tlie  naphtha  causes  it  to  vaporise  by  die  boat  ot  toe 
SpT  Jl  this  naphthalic  ."apoui-.  mingling  with  a  sma    portion  of  atmo- 
;p"ric  air.  forms  a  gas  well  fitted  for  lighting,  when  'g^^^d  .'it  «maU  jets^ 
The  arrangement  of  the  apparatus  admits  of  various  modifications     but  &e 
principle  of  -ction  depends  on  tlie  formation  of  vapour  of  naphtha,  by  the 

'"JnltVSbeef  busy  tiding  to  produce  ga.-hght  for  public  purposes  out 
of  odier  substances  than  coal  One  scheme  is  for  hydrocarbon  or  ^'<^r.remv 
gas  in  which,  by  compUcated  means,  water  is  decomposed  in  one  vessel  ana 
Sn  in  another,  and^the  resulting  gases  made  to  combine  ^r  producing 
light.  But  ehemists  have  shown  that  the  quantity  of  gas  produced  is  not 
adequate  to  the  cost  of  the  resin  consumed;  and  such  is  found  to  be  the 
case  in  respect  to  many  other  proposed  schemes. 

Of  the  Electric  Light,  a  little  has  been  said  in  anotlier  part  ol  this  woiK. 


i 


mtODUCTION. 

forth  their  claims  to 
lickens,  4  lbs.  of  beef, 
['  water,  with  less  tlian 
[luer  on  a  large  scale, 
eir  Exeter  meeting,  is 
;a.s-cooking  apparatus ; 
ptioii  of  7r)()  cubic  feet 

gas  would  have  cost 
it  governed  in  relation 
'  these  gas  stoves  tlie 
ighted  jets  are  placed 
►r  other  cooking  vessel, 
in  a  circle  within  luid 
managed,  no  gas  odom- 

ets  ai-e  thronged  with 
d  culinary— there  may 
lan  ordinary  brilliancy, 
f  lamp  or  light  is  am- 
ew  can  tell  at  the  first 
tiling  between  the  two. 
merating  Gas-lamp,'  in 
J  combustible  employed 
which  a  wick  dips  ;  the 
es  near  the  bmmer,  the 
rise  by  tlie  heat  of  tlie 

small  portion  of  atmo- 
i  ignited  at  small  jets. 

modifications;  but  the 
)our  of  naphtlm,  by  tlie 

,  for  public  purposes  out 
lydrocarbon  or  water-resin 
)osed  in  one  vessel  and 
combine  for  producing 
of  gas  produced  is  not 
such  is  found  to  be  the 

ler  part  of  this  work. 


WOOL  AND   SILK,   FUR  AND   FEATHERS. 


The  lower  animals  not  only  give  us  tlieir  flesh  for  our  food,  but  their  clotliing 
becomes  our  clothing.  We  are  proud  enough  when  we  compare  ourselves 
with  Uiem  ;  but  not  too  proud  to  wear  the  same  garments,  or  garments  made 
from  the  same  materials.  The  sheep  gives  us  our  coats  and  a  multitude  of 
materials  for  dress,  includmg  some  of  the  most  dehcute  for  ladies'  wear; 
tlie  goat  supplies  us  witli  tlie  moliah  and  the  Cashmere  which  now  enter  so 
largely  into  dress ;  the  llama  gives  us  alpaca ;  the  little  silkwoi-m  gives  up 
its  egg-shaped  house,  its  cocoon,  to  supply  us  wit^  silk ;  the  beaver  and  the 
sable,  tlie  savage  bear  and  tlie  lightsome  sijuirrcl,  and  numerous  other 
animals,  yield  up  tlieir  hairy  coats  to  form  our  hats  imd  our  fumery ;  the 
birds  give  us  their  feathers,  either  for  snug  bed-clothing  by  night,  or  for  per- 
sonal adornment  by  day. 

Wool  : — Bno.uici.oTH  and  Fulled  Manufactdees. 

One  of  the  most  instructive  featm'es  in  our  wool  trade,  at  present,  is  tlie 
substitution  of  colonial  wool  for  German  and  Spanish  wool.  Our  imports  of 
Spanish  wool,  in  the  period  between  1815  and  1849,  fell  from  7,000,000  lbs. 
to  100,000  lbs.  annually ;  while  that  from  Australia  rose  from  70,000  lbs.  to 
;jfl,000,000  lbs.  Of  our  total  import  hi  1849  (77,000,000  lbs.),  more  than 
half  came  from  British  colonies ;  and  each  succeeding  year  presents  yet  more 
striking  evidences  in  the  same  dhection.  For  instance,  the  recent  Board  of 
Trade  returns  tell  us  that  in  1851  we  imported  81,000,000  lbs.  of  wool,  of 
which  the  truly  enormous  (juantity  of  52,000,000  lbs.  was  from  our  own 
colonies.  It  is  another  remarkable  feature,  that  the  beautifully  soft  silky 
alpaca  wool  or  hair  (for  it  partakes  somewhat  of  both)  has  now  become  such 
a  favourite  material  for  dress,  that  2,000,000  lbs.  were  imported  in  1851. 
The  day  has  gone  by  when  '  super  Saxony '  was  a  name  really  applicable  to 
a  piece  6f  broadclotli ;  Australia  has  neai-ly  displaced  Saxony  in  our  wool 
markets.  Yet  (so  much  for  fashion)  we  ai-e  not  told  about  '  super  Australian' 
cloths ;  we  weai'  the  cloth  without  knowing  or  caring  whether  the  wool  from 
which  it  was  made  has  been  brought  from  our  own  colonies. 

How  much  English  wool  is  worked  up  witli  this  continental  and  colonial 
wool,  no  one  seems  to  know ;  but  our  parlianientaiy  returns  tell  us  tliat — be 
the  quantity  what  it  may — our  woollen  and  worsted  factories  now  number 
more  than  2000,  employing  100,000  persons,  2,500,000  spindles  to  spin  the 
wool  into  yarn,  and  45,000  power-looms  to  weave  this  yarn  into  clotli.  This 
relates  to  factory  operations  aloiK^ ;  it  touches  not  upon  that  vast  system  of 
cottage  industry  which  so  especially  distinguishes  the  woollen  trade,  and 
renders  the  Yorkshire  valleys  alive  with  industrious  workers. 

There  is  a  ceitain  family  likeness  between  the  processes  to  which  a  bag  of 

V 


^ 


( 


8  WOOL   AND    SILK,    FUR   AND    FEATHERS. 

wool  is  subjected  in  the  course  of  manufacture,  and  those  which  apply  more 
particularly  to  a  bale  of  cotton ;  and  yet  there  are  differences  which  show 
that  animal  and  vegetable  filaments  have  each  a  particular  range  of  qiialities 
which  require  to  be  humoured  in  the  manufacture. 

Let  the  transformation  be  from  a  bag  of  wool  to  a  piece  of  superfine  broad 
cloth.     First  we  see  the  wool  tumbled  out  of  its  bag,  and  subjected  to  tlie 
dissntan^ing  action  of  a  '  devil,'  or  '  teazer,'  or  '  willy,'  the  *arp  teeth  ol 
which  sever  the  locks  of  wool  one  from  another.     Next  we  trace  it  through  a 
•bun-ing  machine,'  the   rollers  of   which  separate  the  clotted  burs  which 
would  vitiate  the  quality  of  the  cloth.     Then  comes  into  action  the  oddly- 
named  '  scribbling  machine,'  by  the  sharp  teeth  of  which  the  fibres  are  sonb- 
bkd  straight  and  parallel,  and  brought  into  a  joontinuous  roU.     We  see  ikis 
soft  roll  of  wool  sucked  into  tlie  funnel  of  a  '  la^,  machine,"  and  qmckly  coiled 
round  a  tin  frame  or  cylinder.    Next  we  follow  the  progress  of  these  coils,  and 
find  that  several  of  them  are  transferred  to  the  '  carding  engine,'  where  the 
fibres  are  combined  together,  and  carded  out  into  a  continuous  sliver.     By 
repetition  of  tliese  drawings  and  cardings  and  combings,  varying  m  number 
according  to  the  kind  of  material  employed,  the  wool  is  at  lengtli  brought  to 
the  required  loose  thread-like  state ;  and  it  is  tJ.ien  spun  into  yam  by  a  '  mule- 
machine.'    Arrived  at  length  at  the  cloth  region,  we  trace  the  woollen  yarn 
kirou^  its  successive  stages.     First  th^e  comes  the  weaving,  which  in  tiie 
West  of  England  is  still  effected  chiefly  by  the  hand-loom,  but  which  m  the 
West  Riding  is  gradually  coming  within  the  domain  of  the  power-loom. 
Then  we  trace  the  cloth  to  the  '  beating  stocks,'  by  which  the  grease  and  oil 
are  beaten  and  washed  out  of  the  cloth;  and  to  the  'fulling  stocks,'  by  the 
mcessant  +humping  of  which  the  cloth  is  shortened,  naiTowed,  thickened,  md 
matted  in  that  peculiar  way  which  constitutes  felthig.     The  '  gig-mill,'  with 
its  attire  of  teazles  or  of  wire  teelii,  then  comes  into  use,  for  rubbmg  or 
scratching  up  the  filaments  of  wool,  to  make  a  pile  or  nap  ;  and  the  dotih, 
mot  being  yet   enough  tantalised  by  these  various  ordeals,  passes  to  the 
*  shearing  machine,'  to  have  the  pile  closely  shaved  down ;  and  to  the  '  brush- 
ing machine,'  to  have  the  short  and  beautiful  nap  brushed  uniforrniy  in  one 
^•eolion;   and  to   the   'pressmg  machine,'  to  give  it  that  attractive  and 
finished  appearance  which  '  extra  Saxony  super'  is  expected  to  present. 

In  one  and  all  of  the  above  processes  the  machines  employed  have  under- 
gone, and  are  still  undergoing,  rapid  changes  and  improvements.  The 
machines  of  bygone  years  become  obsolete  ;  and  even  manufacturers  living 
in  the  same  district  have  each  his  own  fawcarite  patented  machines.  The 
same  may  be  said,  too,  of  the  wonted,  or  Huff,  or  hosiery  manufacture,  in 
which  long  wool  is  emploj'ed.  This  wool  does  not  felt  or  fvll,  and  teqmres  a 
different  a-ain  of  processes,  some  of  which  employ  very  beautiful  machinery. 
It  is  not  one  of  the  least  curious  among  our  factory  characteristics  that 
two  districts,  widely  separated,  share  the  honour  and  the  profit  f  our  woollen 
manufactures— tha  West  of  l^gland  said  the  West  Riding,  The  fonxier 
produces  principally  fine  cloth,  whicli  is  mostly  used  at  home ;  the  latter 
})roduce3  all  kinds,  for  the  foreign  as  well  as  thr  borne  markets.  The  forme- 
retains  to  a  great  extent  the  domestic  or  liand-work  system  of  old  times ; 
while  the  lattei-  is  every  year  adopting  more  largely  tlie  factory  system.  In 
the  West  of  England  district  (Gloucester,  Somerset,  Wilts,  and  part  of  the 
adjacent  counties),  Trowbridge  is  a  great  centre  for  '  trouserings '  and  narrow 
goods ;  Frome  for  coloured  woollens  ;  Dorchester  for  kerseys  and  drab  coat- 
ings ;  whilr  Stroud,  Melksham,  Chippenham,  Tiverton,  and  other  towns,  are 


L 


IS. 

lose  which  apply  more 
ifferences  which  show 
:ular  range  of  qvialities 

iece  of  superfine  broad 
g,  and  subjected  to  the 
illy,'  the  ^arp  teeth  of 
xt  we  trace  it  through  a 
he  clotted  burs  which 

into  action  the  oddly- 
ich  the  fibres  are  scrib- 
lous  roll.  We  see  tiiis 
line,'  and  quickly  coiled 
5;ress  of  these  coils,  and 
ding  engiffle,'  where  the 

continuouB  sliver.  By 
ngs,  varying  in  number 

is  at  length  brou^t  to 
(n  into  yam  by  a  '  laule- 
;  trace  the  woollen  yam 
weaving,  which  iu  the 
-loom,  but  which  in  the 
ain  of  the  power-loora. 
hich  the  grease  and  oil 
!  'fulling  stocks,'  by  the 
laiTOwed,  thickened,  and 
,g.  The  '  gig-mill,'  witli 
nto  use,  for  rubbing  or 

or  nap  ;  and  the  clotii, 

ordeals,  passes  to  the 
iwn ;  and  to  the  '  brush- 
rushed  uniformly  in  one 
3  it  that  attractive  and 
:peeted  to  present. 
3s  employed  have  umder- 
id  improvements.  The 
en  manufacturers  living 
itented  machines.  The 
r  hosiirry  manufacture,  in 
dt  mfuU,  and  requires  a 
ery  beautiful  machinerj'. 
ctoiy  characteristics  that 

the  profit  f  our  woollen 
;t  Riding,  The  foi-mer 
3ed  at  home ;  the  latter 
ne  markets.  The  forme- 
rk  system  of  old  times ; 
the  factory  system.     In 

Wilts,  and  part  of  the 
■  trouserings '  and  narrow 
)r  kerseys  and  drab  coat- 
,on,  and  other  towias,  are 


VQOl,  AMD   SILK,   FUR  AMD    FEATHERS. 


S 


the  centres  of  clustered  villages  m  which  broiwlcloths  are  made.  If  tliere  be 
one  town  in  England  which  takes  the  lead  of  all  others  in  tJie  finest  cloth, 
whether  scarlet  for  the  officer  or  black  for  tlie  civilian,  perhaps  it  is  Sti'oud. 
Why  it  is  tliat  the  West  Riding  is  adopting  more  rapidly  than  tlie  West  of 
England  the  system  of  factory  labour,  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  the  facts 
that  coal  is  cheaper,  that  steam  and  water  power  are  more  readily  obtainable, 
that  an  abundant  working  population  is  always  at  hand,  that  a  complete  net- 
work of  railways  exists,  and  that  the  two  great  shipping  ports  of  Hull  and 
Liverpool  lie  east  and  west  of  the  '  clotlur>g  valleys.'  There  >u'e  no  such 
industrious  valleys  as  tliese  in  any  other  part  of  England,  and  there  is  no 
other  great  manufacturing  district  which  presents  so  many  picturesque  spots ; 
on  tJie  hill-sides  and  on  the  valley-bottoms  the  clothiers  live  in  villages  clus- 
tered together  with  a  closeness  which  would  astonish  those  who  ai'c  fam"  a' 
only  witii  agi-icultural  villages. 

The  variety  of  goods  which  come  under  the  designation  of  woollen  mauu- 
iactures  is  (we  may  almost  say)  increasing  eveiy  year.  '  Broad  cloth '  and 
'  naiTow  cloUi,'  '  Clarendons  '  and  '  Peterehams,'  '  cashmeres,'  '  cashmerettes,' 
'  kerseys,'  '  tweeds,'  '  tai'tans,'  '  linsey  woolseys,'  '  angolas,'  '  vicugnas,'  •  Vene- 
tians, 'Hamas,'  •  Sardinians,'  '  Himalayas,'  '  moleskins,'  'doeskins,'  '  beavers,' 
'  ti'ouserings,'  '  vestings,'  '  coatuigs ' — ^lere  is  really  no  end  to  the  names  ;  for 
the  mjuiufactm-ers,  not  content  with  distinguishing  names  for  paj'ticulai- 
materials  and  particular  modes  of  maiiufacture,  conjure  up  new  names  on 
any  grounds  or  no  gi'ounds,  for  tlae  chanu  of  novelty.  Many  of  the  naipes, 
however,  might  be  made  significant  of  really  curious  no\elties  in  the  manu- 
fcictm'e.  Thus,  there  is  a  new  '  bis-unique  cloth,'  of  double  thickness,  the 
two  surfaces  having  different  patterns,  so  that  the  weai-er  may  have  either 
side  outwaids,  at  his  pleasure.  There  is  Mr.  Barber's  cloth,  wholly  ma/ie 
from  beaver  fur — soft,  light,  and  wai'm — for  winter  ganneuts.  There  is,  as  a 
thiid  example,  the  comically-named  Irish  '  i-umswizzle,'  a  very  excellent 
brownish  frieze  made  of  undyed  foreign  wool. 

Nothing  in  om'  economical  age  is,  perhaps,  a  greater  industrial  'curiosity' 
than  the  shoddif,  made  at  some  of  the  Yorkshii'e  mills.  The  old  woollen  rags 
— the  last  orgtmic  remains  of  coats  and  trousers — uoed  to  be  employed  for 
various  trifling  pmposes  ;  but  they  have  now  risen  in  dignity  :  they  liave  be- 
come the  elements  out  of  which  new  coats  and  ti-ousers  will  spring.  There 
is  here  a  kind  of  metfuipsycliosis  of  garments,  which  the  ancients  luiew 
nothing  about.  Dewsbmy  draws  to  itself  woollen  I'ags  from  all  parts  of 
Europe  ;  coarse,  fixie,  litde  worn,  much  worn,  whits,  coloured,  clean,  dirty — 
all  are  welcome ;  they  may  be  so  good  as  to  command  50/.  per  tOii,  or  so  bad 
as  to  be  wortli  less  tlian  that  number  of  shiUiags  :  tliey  may  be  clean  from  Scot- 
land or  fj-om  Denmai'k,  or  dirty  from  Ii-eland  or  Italy — aU  are  grist  to  the 
Dewsbury  mills.  Here  they  ai'e  '  devilled,'  or  torn  to  tatters  by  the  shai-p 
spikes  of  rapidly-revolving  machines ;  the  '  devil's  dust '  rises  in  stinking 
clouds,  and  befouls  the  whole  town  in  its  desce"t ;  and  tlie  women,  while 
soiling  the  rags,  and  the  men,  while  feeding  tlie  '  devils '  with  rags,  muffle 
their  mouths  to  wai'd  off  the  cholujig  effects  of  tlie  unsavoury  dust.  Taken 
altogethei',  this  is,  perhaps,  the  vilest  stage  in  any  depai'tment  of  our  textile 
manufactures.  Some  of  the  '  shoddy,'  w<  "•  1  up  into  poor  flimsy  cloth,  is 
exported  to  Soulii  America  for  slave-clothing ;  but  more  generally  it  is  mixed 
up  with  a  gi'eater  or  Ir*"  proportion  of  new  wool,  and  then  spmi  into  yam 
for  coaa'se  goods,  h'  i/J3  hj -lory  of  a  Jop-shop  coat  could  be  told,  we  might 
perchance  find  that  i'.,  hrA  hg^  A  previ,oui<  ^ts^  ,of  eji^jtei^ce ;  t^i^  after  having 


r 


mm 


wHiMm 


4  WOOL   AKD   SILK,    FUR  AND    FEATHERS. 

gone  through  a  terni  of  service,  and  borne  its  shai-e  of  rough  weather  and 
rough  usage,  it  had  been  be-deviUed  at  Dewsbmy,  and  the  shoddy  mixed  with 
new  wool  to  form  the  sleek,  glossy,  but  treacherous  materia  for  a  new  coat. 
As  the  shoddy  must  necessarily  be  very  short  fibred,  wo  have  no  nght  to 
expect  sti-ength  in  any  cloth  wherein  it  forms  a  pai-t. 

Wool  :— Stuffs,  Flannels,  Blankets,  Cashmeres,  Alpacas. 

Let  us  pass  on,  however,  to  another  and  not  less  remarkable  section  of 
the  wool  tmde.     Although 'the  Yorkshire  clothing-valleys  are  identified  with 
the  wooUen-cloth  manufacture,  the  West  Riding  generally  cannot  be  under- 
stood without  reference  to  the  modem  chaiacteristics  of  the  long-woo    or 
unfelted  wool  manufacture.     The  stuffs  or  mixed  goods  of  the  West  Hiding 
have  no  parallel  in  luiy  other  counUy.     In  bygone  times  stuffs  and  such  like 
worsted  goods  were  as  commonly  worn  by  women  as  woollen  cloths  were  by 
men;  and  Nomich.  with  some  few  other  towns,  were  celebrated  for  their 
manufacture.     But  an  astonishing  change  has  come  over  this  department  ot 
manufacture.     By  mixing  alpaca  and  other  fine  wools  with  coarser  varieties ; 
by  combining  one  or  more  of  these  with  cotton  or  silk,  or  both ;  by /""'eas- 
iiig  the  richness  of  the  dyes  given  to  tlie  yam ;  by  tlie  employnient  of  tastdul 
designers  in  producing  patterns ;   and  by  the  adoption  of  all  available  im- 
provements in  looms  and  weaving  apparatus— the  'mixed  goods   (as  they  ai-e 
now  caUed)  have  risen  to  a  manufacture  of  great  magmtude ;  one  almost 
peculiar  to  England,  and  which  at  the  present  time  almost  rivals  that  ot 
woollens  in  the  West  Riding.     Bradford,  Halifax,  Huddei-sheld-each  is  the 
head-quarters  of  one  pai-ticular  branch  of  this  new  trade:  m  Bradford  dress 
goods  for  ladies,  in  Huddersfield  fancy  waistcoatings,  m  Halifax  furniture 
damasks.     It  is  hai-dly  possible  to  conceive  the  rapid  rise  ot  Bradford  m  this 
trade  without  comparing  its  present  condition  with  that  of  halt  a  centuiy 
back.     It  was  then  a  mere  nothmg,  very  little  more  than  a  village ;  whereas  it 
is  now  one  of  the  largest  towns  in  the  West  Riding.     Bradford  shares  wiUi 
Brighton  the  reputation  of  having  risen   in   population   aiid  wealth  more 
rapfdly  than  any  other  towns  m  England.     True  it  is,  that  tlie  baiutoy  Com- 
mission gave  it  a  sadly  dirty  clwacter  eight  or  nine  years  ago ;  but  it  has 
mended  its  manners  and  washed  its  face  since.     Halifax  and  Bradford  aie 
near  neighbours;  but  they  present  many  points  of  contrast      Ha  ifax  is  a 
vei-y  old  town,  Bradford  has  spmng  into  notice  recently ;  Hahtax  has  steep 
hiUs  and  picturesque  houses  and  gables,  Bradford  has  nothing  picturesque ; 
Halifax  manufactures  an  immense  vaiiety  of  goods,  Biadford  confines  itseit 
more  to  plain  stuffs  ;    Halifax  only  buys  wool  for  itself  and  a  sniaU  sur- 
j-ounding  district,  Bradford  buys  and  sells  for  an  immense  range  of  countiy, 
and  is  more  a  prey  to  speculative  fevers  and  agues.  ,. ,    .   ,  n 

We  may  say  of  these  mixed  or  loug-wool  goods,  as  we  did  of  the  woollen 
or  short-wool" goods,  that  their  names  are  almost  intemiinably  bewildering. 
We  have  alpacas,  mohairs,  mousselines  de  laiiie,  mousselmes  de  soio,  merinos, 
Coburgs,  Orieans,  Henriettas,  poplins,  paramattas,  piiiicettes,  qudtmgs,  trou- 
serings, cashmeres,  damasks,  moreens,  table-covers,  and  a  host  ot  others : 
some  named  according  to  the  kind  of  wool  employed,  some  accord-ng  to 
the  admixture  of  other  fibres  with  tlio  wool,  some  according  to  tiie  uiode 
of  manufacture,  others  according  ta  the  puqioses  to  which  they  aie  to  be 
applied,.and  tlie  rest  according  to  any  fai^ciful  idea  which  the  manulacturer 
hopes  may  assist  his  sale  in  the  mai-ket.     Greatly  a.s  tliese  difler  one  h-om 


& 


af  rough  weather  and 
lie  shoddy  mixed  with 
terial  for  a  new  coat, 
wo  have  no  right  to 


JHEB,    Al-PACAS. 

remarkahle  section  of 
sys  ai'e  identified  witli 
•ally  cannot  be  under- 
■i  of  the  long-wool  or 
Is  of  the  West  Riding 
es  stutfs  and  such  like 
ivooUen  cloths  were  by 
■c  celebrated  for  their 
ver  this  department  of 
with  coarser  varieties ; 
,  or  both ;  by  increas- 
Bmployment  of  tasteful 
on  of  all  available  im- 
sed  goods '  (as  they  are 
laguitude  ;  one  almost 
;  almost  rivals  that  of 
ddei-sfield — each  is  the 
de:  in  Bradford  dress 
i,  in  Halifax  fimiiture 
ise  of  Bradford  in  this 

that  of  half  a  centui^y 
ui  a  village ;  whereas  it 

Bradford  shares  widi 
tion  and  Avealth  more 
that  tlie  Sanit^uy  Cora- 
e  yeai-s  ago  ;  but  it  has 
alifax  and  Bradford  ai-e 
contrast.  Halifax  is  a 
ntly ;  HaUfax  has  steep 
s  nothing  picturesque; 
Bradford  confines  itself 
itself  and  a  small  sur- 
lense  range  of  countiy, 

,s  we  did  of  the  woollen 
terminably  bewildering, 
selines  de  sole,  meinnos, 
incettes,  quiltings,  trou- 

and  a  host  of  others: 
yed,  some  according  to 

according  to  tlie  uiode 
3  which  they  aie  to  be 
which  the  manufacturer 
,s  tliese  differ  one  from 


wool,    AND   SILK,    FCR   AND    FEATHERS.  5 

another,  they  have  these  points  of  general  resemblance — that  they  contain 
long  wool  instead  of  the  short  wool  employed  for  broadcloth  ;  that  printing 
and  pattern- weaving  are  much  more  largely  attended  to;  and  that  tlierc  is 
(usually)  no  nap  or  pile  on  the  finished  goods.  Some  of  tlie  yam  for  tlie 
finer  goods  is  spun  to  a  high  degi-ee  of  delicacy ;  thus,  No.  160,  in  this  depart- 
ment of  manufacture,  contains  ui)wards  of  50  miles  of  yam  in  1  lb.  weight. 
If  the  reader  can  fonn  a  cleai-  conception  of  the  various  degrees  of  fineness 
in  the  yams,  of  the  mixture  of  silk  with  wool  in  some  of  the  yams,  of  the 
occasional  interlacing  of  silk  or  cotton  yams  with  those  of  wool,  of  the  dyeing 
or  printing  (or  both)  of  the  yarns  before  weaving,  of  the  production  of  elabo- 
rate pattems  by  the  loom,  and  of  tlie  printing  after  the  weaving — he  will  see 
how  it  is  that,  by  combining  any  number  of  these  sources  of  variety,  the 
West  Riding  manufacturers  can  throw  such  endless  diversity  into  their  mixed 
fabrics.  Belgium,  France,  Saxony,  Prussia,  Austria — all  can  equal  the  West 
Riding  in  broadcloths  and  other  woollen  goods  ;  but  none  of  them  approach 
it  in  this  more  modern  department  of  industry. 

In  Bradford  alone  there  are  said  to  be  upwards  of  15,000  men  employed 
in  wool-combing,  preparatory  to  the  spinning  and  weaving  processes.  This 
wool-combing  is  not,  except  in  a  few  cases,  a  factory  occupation ;  it  is  done  at 
the  homes  of  the  combers,  and  is  paid  for  as  piece-work.  To  save  rent  and 
fire  and  candle,  three  or  four  of  these  men  work  together  in  one  room, 
assisted  by  their  wives  and  children  in  tiie  easiest  parts  of  the  work,  and 
doing  the  rest  themselves. 

•  '■  Why  should  Rochdale  make  such  miUions  of  yai-ds  of  flannel,  and  yet  pro- 
duce little  else  in  woollen  or  worsteds?  It  is  one  of  those  peculiarities  with 
which  we  are  occasionally  struck  in  the  location  of  manufactures,  a  satisfac 
tory  cause  for  which  it  is  difficult  to  assign.  Rochdale  is  quite  out  of  tlie 
woollen  district  of  the  West  Riding ;  it  is  in  Lancashire,  among  the  cotton 
towns ;  and  yet  it  produces  flannels  in  enormous  quantity — far  greater  than 
any  other  town  in  England.  Indeed  it  is  the  market  for  flannels  ;  the  prices 
at  Rochdale  govern  those  elsewhere,  and  regulate  large  purchases.  If  we  look 
at  the  trade  reports  given  in  the  daily  newspapers,  and  find  that  at  a 
particular  time  flannels  are  '  looking  up,'  or  '  go  off  briskly,'  or  '  hang  heavily,' 
we  shall  find  that  the  writer  of  the  report  has  Rochdale  in  his  mind  as  the 
<!enti*e  of  operations.  Flannels  are  ranch  more  luxurious  productions  tlian 
they  were  in  years  gone  by.  We  knew  tliem  ordinarily  only  as  tvoollen  or 
worsted  goods  ;  but  modem  ingenuity  has  devised  flannel  made  of  mingled 
wool  and  silk.  Its  inventors  claim  for  it  a  superiority  over  ordinaiy 
flannels,  in  being  "  less  irritating  to  tho  slvm ;  it  shrinks  less  in  washing ;  tlie 
silk  increases  the  strength  and  durability  of  tlie  ttxture,  and  renders  it  less 
liable  to  tear. '  Such  flannels  have  even  been  enibroidercd,  and  used  for 
ladies'  opera  cloaks.  Then  we  have  choice  '  Tibet'  flannels,  made  from  the 
finest  wool;  and  flax  flannels,  in  which  flax,  prepared  on  Claussen's  process, 
is  mixed  with  wool ;  and  fancy-coloured  flannels — pmk.  rose-colour,  cherry, 
crimson,  blue,  orange,  and  otbef  dainty  tints.  The  philosophy  of  cheapness 
has  also  visited  the  flannel  regions,  for  some  of  the  low-priced  flannels  con- 
tain a  portion,  more  or  less,  of  cotton.  There  are  striped  flanviels,  and 
cricketers'  flannels,  and  'antirheumatic'  flannels,  and  many  other  special 
and  oddly-named  kinds. 

As  it  is  with  Rochdale  and  its  flannels,  so  it  is  also  with  Dewsbuiy  in  respect 
to  blankets ;  each  is  the  central  market  for  the  commoditj  which  is  nianmactured 
there  to  a  larger  extent  than  in  any  other  town.    It  might  appear  that  flannel 


i 


6 


wool,   ANP  BILK,    FUR   AND   FEATHEBB. 


md  blankets,  so  similar  in  many  of  Uxeir  charactenstic  ,  would  find  a  home 
in  the  same  factories,  or  at  least  in  the  Hame  town  ;  but  such  is  not  tiie  case 
-Dewsbury  yields  Uie  pain,  to  llochdale  in  the  one.  but  expects  equal  dcfer- 
ijews  Juiy  y.t.iu',         1  .  Yorkshire  Directory.' which  we 

ence  to  be  paia  to  itsclt  m  tnc  ctncr.      J  "i-     iuir mt  .      ,       ,     . 

nmy  assume  to  be  a  trustworthy  authority,  gives  us  no  less  than  a  hui  dred 
and  eighty  '  blanket  mimufacturers '  at  Dewsbmy  ;  and  as  among  these  Uiere 
are  torfies,  six  Crawshaws,  six  Seniors,  and  four  or  hve  ^.^  '^'J^^^^^^^ 
lialf  a  dozen  other  names,  we  see  at  once  an  indication  of  the  old-fashioned 
West  Riding  custom,  where  one  particular  trade  remains  m  tlie  same  lamUy 

for  genemtions^  feature  in  the  modem  history  of  the  woollen  manufac- 

ture   thTt  the  wool  or  rather  hair  of  the  Cashmere  goat   is   becommg  a 
&rS^m!  tiidh;  cloth  of  the  bottor  kind      Not  that  all  the  '  Cash™ 
of  Uie  shops  arc  really  Cashmeres  ;  the  morak  of  trade  has  not  ft  reached 
Se  point  when  Uiings  are  called  by  their  right  names ;  and  tW  beautiful 
Tslat^iciy  is  quito  innocentof  the  greater  paitof  those  products  which  rejoice 
in  tlie  name  of  'Cashmeres;     Still  the  higlvbom  and  tlie  wealthy  occasum^ 
ally  purchase  shawls  which  were  really  made  m  that  region;  ^^^^ j™]^ 
more  interesting  to  us)  ..tu^mpt^  are  being  made  to  naturalise  in  this  country 
tlie  animal  which  produces  the  beautiful  filamentous  material  m  question.    1  he 
fleece  of  the  CasUere  goat  consists  of  two  veiy  different  kinds  «[  hbie- 
one  of  which  is  a  fine,  soft,  pliable,  rich  wool,  equal  to  the  finest  lamb  s  w  ool 
while  tlie  other,  called  kemp,\s  a  hard,  stiff,  coarse,  rough  kind  of  hair,     Ihe 
kemp  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  cloth ;  but  every  fibre  must  bo 
removed  before  tlie  fine  wool  can  be  employed  in  shawl-makmg ;  this  removal 
s^eiy  difficult  and  tedious,  and  will  bo  a  bar  to  the  spread  of  the  mariufacture 
milesi  some  expeditious  system  to  effect  it  can  be  devised.  /"^^J^l^^'** 
has  some  Cashmere  goats  at  Windsor;  and  some  ^^/^^^'^^^^^^^^'^  f,  J^,^ 
Great  KxhibiUon  was  opened  he  caused  tlie  fleeces  of  tliose  f^^  Jo  be  foi^ 
waidcd  to  two  manufactming  firms,  one  near  Leeds  and  one  neoi"  Halifax  the  e 
to  be  subjected  to  manufacturing  processes.    The  sepaa-ation  of  tlie  fine  ^«"1 
from  tlie  kemp  was  a  slow  manipulaUve  process,  whjch  many  persoi^s  undei- 
tS  volunSSly  and  pleasurably-for  it  wiU  be  somethiiig  to  talk  of  in  future 
years'   hat  the  younger  members  of  many  respectable  Yorkshire  families 
assisted   tlie  Prince   Consort  to  make  a  Cashmere  shawl.     Of  course  U  e 
expense  which  would  attend  such  a  mode  of  manufacture  ^^^  oi^dinaiy  sde 
would  be  quite  disproportionate  to  the  result  obtained;   but  the  Pimce. 
praiseworthy  object  was  ansAvered  by  showirg  that  the  C^^l^^^'-^^g^^f/Xt, 
feared  m  this  country,  and  that  tlie  fleecy  covenng  can  be  wrought  into  clo  h. 
The  articles  produced  from  the  wool  in  question  consisted  of  a  piece  ot  white 
clotb,  with  silk  wai-p  and  Cashmere  weft,  woven  witli  a  brocaded  f^nre;^ 
piece  of  similai-  character,  but  dyed ;  two  shawls  made  wholly  of  the  Ca^  - 
mere  wool;  and  a  coai-se  piece  of  woollen  clotli  made  from  the  kemp  or  hau. 
As  witli  tJie  Cashmere  goat,  so  wiai  the  cdpcwa;  attempts  are  bemg   oi 
have  been,  made  to  naturalise  it  in  this  country.     The  alpaca  is  one  ^uong 
manv  species  of  tJie  llama,  the  wool  of  which  is  very  ^eau  *d.     Ihe^^^^^^ 
visit  of  these  animals  to  Em'ope  was  an  adventurous  one.    Thirtj-six  tiavelled 
across  the  whole  breadth  of  South  America,  from  Lima  to  Buenos  Ayres,  in 
180R,  and  .vere  there  shipped  to  Europe  as  a  prestmt  to  ^e  LmprsbS  -Jo- 
gephine.     At  Cadiz  the  poor  animals  were  ill-treated  by  a  rabble,  and  «nly  a 
small  number  were  ultimately  preserved  ip  Spam-they  never  readied  J?^ 
'sephiae.    By  degrees  it  was  found  thftt  alpaca  wool  was  longer,  solter,  more 


mam» 


r 


*p«f«»' 


1 


),  would  find  a  home 
t  such  is  not  tlie  case 
It  expects  equal  dcfer- 
n  Directory,' which  we 
less  than  u  Imndred 
as  among  these  there 
or  five  repetitions  of 
1  of  the  old-fashioned 
[IS  in  tlie  same  family 

the  woollen  munufoc- 
goat   is   hecoming  a 
at  all  the  '  Cashmeres ' 
3  has  not  yet  reached 
les ;  and  the  beautiful 
I  products  which  rejoice 
I  tlie  wealthy  occasion- 
region;  and  (what  is 
tnraUse  in  this  country 
terial  in  iiuestion.    The 
erent  kinds  of  fibre — 
the  finest  lamb's  wool ; 
igh  kind  of  hair,     The 
but  every  fibre  must  be 
l-making ;  this  removal 
ead  of  the  manufacture 
levised.     Prince  Albert 
ew  montlis  before  the 
if  tliose  goats  to  be  for- 
[  one  neai-  Halifax,  there 
nation  of  the  fine  wool 
h  many  persons  under- 
ling to  talk  of  in  future 
ible  Yorkshire  families 
shawl.     Of  com-se  the 
.cture  for  ordinary  sale 
ned;   but  the  Prince's 
B  Cashmere  goat  can  be 
1  be  wrought  into  cloth. 
isted  of  a  piece  of  white 
h  a  brocaded  figure;  a 
ide  wholly  of  the  Cash- 
from  the  kemp  or  hair, 
attempts  are  being,  or 
le  alpaca  is  one  among 
ry  beautiful.     The  first 
ne.    Thirty-six  travelled 
iia  to  Buenos  Ayres,  in 
3nt  to  the  Empress  Jo- 
by  a  rabble,  and  only  a 
they  never  reached  Jo- 
Yas  longer,  softer,  more 


WOdl-  ASn  SILK,   frtJB  AKD   BiSATHEns.  7 

pliant,  and  more  lustrous  than  sheep's  wool ;  and  the  manufacturers  of  Brad- 
ford began  to  import  it  for  use.  Her  Majesty  possesses  om-  or  two  of  those 
animals  at  Windsor ;  and  some  articles  of  dress  were  mado  from  the  alpaca 
wool  In  IKll— one  was  an  apron,  entirely, of  alpaca;  another  was  a  striped 
and  figured  dress,  with  silk  warp,  alp'aca  weft,  tmd  alternate  silk  (uid 
alpaca  figures;  a  third  was  a  plaid  dress,  woven  with  an  intermixture  of 
alpaca,  silk,  and  worsted  ;  while  ii  fourth  was  n  [)lain  black  dress,  with  cotton 
wari)  and  alpaca  weft.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  establish  the  breed 
of  the  alpaca  in  this  country,  but  hitherto  the  enterprise  has  not  been  com- 
mercially successful. 

Wool: — CABrjsTs  and  Tapestiiy. 

We  must  depart  a  little  from  our  '  clotliing  materials '  to  tflke  a  glance  at 
carpet  curiosities  and  novelties. 

Among  the  luxuries  in  which  England  indulges  to  a  greater  extent  tlian 
her  continental  neighbours  are  ca^ietit.  The  parquetry  or  inlaid  flooring  of 
the  Continent  is  much  superior  to  our  own  modem  flooring,  because  it  is 
intended  to  remain  micovered  ;  while  the  slippery  Avaxed  floors  of  French 
mansions  exhibit  another  phase  of  the  same  system.  John  Bull  attaches  (i 
notion  of  chilliness  to  an  uncarpcted  floor ;  it  has  none  of  the  '  comfort ' 
which  he  so  much  loves.  "  We  Enghshmen,"  it  has  been  said,  "  have  dainty 
feet ;  we  must  have  velvet  lawns,  as  smootli  as  satin  and  as  springy  as  leather; 
and  carpets— fleecy,  soft,  glossy,  peachy  carpets— as  smooth  and  as  springy 
as  our  lawns."  Yet  it  was  not  always  so  ;  we  Avere  not  in  advance  of  other 
nations  in  this  respect  in  bygone  ages.  It  was  not  till  the  time  of  Charles 
11.  that  the  apartments  of  the  wealtliy  began,  as  a  regular  custom,  to  be  car- 
peted ;  and  any  person  now  tolerably  advanced  in  years  may  well  recollect 
that  oak  floors,  deal  floors,  sanded  floors,  sawdust  floors,  rushed  floors,  concrete 
floors,  brick  floors— were  much  more  prevalent  in  his  early  youth  than  they 
now  are,  even  in  houses  of  similar  character. 

It  is  nevertheless  remarkable  that  England,  which  uses  so  many  carpets, 
was  by  no  means  one  of  the  earliest  nations  which  manufactured  them. 
Turkey  and  Pei-sia  supplied  the  soft  and  costly  carpets  for  our  drawing  and 
dining  rooms ;  while  Flanders  and  France  furnished  those  in  which  artistic 
beauty  of  design  became  gradually  developed.  The  first  English  attempts  in 
the  manufacture  appeal-  to  have  had  relation  to  cheap  ratlier  than  beautiful 
carpets ;  but  the  manufacture  has  made  a  vast  stride  witliin  a  recent  period ; 
and  it  is  pretty  generally  agreed  that  in  material,  in  colour,  and  in  pattern, 
we  are  approaching  nearly  to  a  level  witli  tlie  most  skilled  of  our  continental 
neighbours. 

The  names  given  to  carpets  are  singular;  for  they  are  mostly  those  ot 
towns  or  countries,  which  give  very  little  information  concerning  the  texture 
and  quality  of  the  cai-pet  itself.  Persian,  Turkey,  Venetian,  Toumay, 
French,  Brussels,  Axminster,  Wilton,  Kidderminster,  Scotcli— these  are  the 
names  of  the  carpets  with  which  we  are  most  familiar.  In  all  these  towns 
and  countries  cai-pets  ai-e  or  have  been  manufactured ;  and  doubtless  each 
kind  of  carpet  had  originally  some  distinctive  qualities  which  its  name  sened 
to  indicate ;  but  there  are  now  distinctions  without  difterences,  and  diff"er- 
ences  which  the  names  fail  to  point  out.  Toumay  cai-pets,  Axminster  car- 
pets, and  Wilton  carpets,  are  very  nearly  alike  •  Axmmster  now  produces  no 
carpets  at  all ;  not  one  of  our  modem  Brussels  cai-pets  comes  from  Brussels ; 


wool-   AND    SILK.    Fim    AND    FEA'niEKB. 


ft^ti-Huch  ar.  the  anomalieB  in  the  .U.iKnatiou  ot  '=7«/«,  JV«^„^^ 
ZSn.  we  may  n.-ntion  ,hat  the  caipete  for  the  new  I^^,"^.^^  ^re 
comprising  many   thousand   yards,   though    maao    at    Ividdcrmnistti, 

'  ''TL:^et:To  ii^Suc  processes  in  making  a  carpet-one  adonted  in 
the  more^'ostly  vaJi.ties,   and  the  oth.T  for  those  of  lesser  cost  and  more 

S™f  the  fSLto.  accorftag ,.-  it  i,  loop«d.  or  a. ,  or  Ae.red  p  ; 
T„ce.  the  v.riou,  kimU  ot  Bn.«i.ol»  and  Saxor^v  «"'  1»1«  ^t  ordtol 
,«roi.f«  The  n'her  or  chouper  kmds  aie  produced  laUioi  Dy  ine  oraiuarj 
St  o/«a    ug!  in  which  a  »huUl, .  or   set  of  »hutte,  f^«}-\"^^" 

ll^-t  xZ^^-rS  StS,?  c'XeKeta.S,r;S; 
J„™f  „,emiZce"To7l,„aking,  iuasmncl,  .,  U-e  f;;™  "  f^tSelcl' 

''\'i'Tth«fctpl'''eS'yarn  or  separate  thread  U  dyed  „r  one  colour 

Ihe  right  spot.     Some  of  Mr.  Whytock's  carpets,  produc-l  on  this  prmciple. 

"Sr^XiB  Messrs.  Templets  ./..7/.  c^f—^e^ift'e 
but  costly.     These   are  maxle   in   a   smg.ilar  way.      1^^«  J^^^^^^^ 


wool,  AND  srr.K,  fiib  and  fkathebs. 


0 


J,  but  has  raised  its 
;  Uie  Kidderminster 
inado  in  the  north  of 

0  hulk  of  our  cheap 

1  of  cari)et8.  As  an 
1  HouHO  of  Commons, 

Kidderminster,    are 

irppt — one  adopted  in 
lesser  cost  and  more 
specimens  of  needle- 
nie  in  which  the  foun- 
r  or  Berlin  work  ;  and 
introduced  little  tufts 
produce  any  desired 
tuft ;  and  tlii^  arrange- 
)r  cut,  or  sheared,  pro- 
id  '  pile '  and  '  velvet ' 
rather  by  the  ordinary 
mttles,  throws  in  tlie 
ations  of  a  double  weft 
rticulai"  kind  to  bo  pro- 
the  miumfacture  bears 
fabric  or  foundation  of 
l-processcs  as  the  doco- 
•eviously  ai-ranged,  and 

is  dytMl  of  one  colour 
!  yams  as  colours  in  tlie 
making  is  to  apply  to  it 
s  and  silks,  viz.,  printing 
lay  have  a  j>aiu  coloured 
ice  adjustment,  so  that 
how  the  right  colour  at 
luccd  on  this  principle, 

carpets — soft,  beautiful. 
The  warp-threads  are 
d  tlie  weft  is  thrown  in 
bead  of  mere  yam  ;  and 
eads  of  the  chenille  arc 
they  are  cut  and  saeared 
n  is  dyed  in  the  chenille 
)t  except  the  ends  of  the 

lessen  tlie  price  of  well- 
weaving  with  the  print- 
to  no  dyeing  or  printing 
ind  is  in  that  state  woven 
lite  cai-pet  is  prmted  witli 
;h  the  whole  substance, 
'of  Commons  is  carpeted 


with  '  Bnissels '  made  at  Kidderminster ;  and  it  may  here  he  stated  tliat  the 
House  of  Lords'  library,  and  some  of  the  other  apartnunts  of  the  new  legisla- 
tive palace,  r.re  carpcfiil  with  the  more  costly  himI  luxurious  'velvet  pile,'  in 
which  the  foot  Hniks  into  .'.  downy  bed  at  each  ^.i  'Via-  is  the  true  'Wilton' 
carpet,  which  din'ers  from  '  Brussels' chifHy  in  huving  tht  loops  at  the  sur- 
face cut  in  the  manner  of  velvet,  therehy  fonniitj?  a  nap  or  pile.  Most  of  our 
carpets  are  made  of  mingled  worsted  and  linen — tlio  latter  hidden  from  sight 
by  being  placed  at  or  near  the  back  of  tlie  fabric.  Cotton — luiit  substitute 
for  all  the  dearer  kinds  of  textile  fibres  at  the  present  day — ^has  not  yet  been 
used  much  in  carpc  In  A  sugp^'cstion  Iuah  been  made,  however,  that  such  an 
apjilication  might  not  \n\  at  all  unreasonable.  Cotton  carpets — stout,  service- 
able, and  handsome — are  made  aid  used  in  India;  they  are  generiUly  striped, 
rod  and  blue,  or  with  thr»;e  shades  of  l)!ue ;  but  sometimes  they  have  figured 
patterns.  Our  cotton  manufacturers  <'an  now  produce  very  8to\it  and  durable 
goods;  and  we  II  :iy  yet  see  the  day  for  cotton  carpets.  Let  them,  however, 
be  called  cotton,  lul  not  palmed  off  as  being  made  of  more  costly  materials; 
if  known  at  all.  let  them  be  honestly  known  by  their  proper  names. 

'I'he  'ladies'  carpet,'  which  has  acquired  such  notoriety  in  connection  with 
the  recent  Exhibition,  is  noteworthy  on  many  grounds.  It  is  not  a  woven 
carpet,  in  the  ordinary  sense,  but  is  really  needlework,  and  was  intended  by 
tiie  lathes  partly  as  n  specimen  of  the  profitable  employment  of  tlieir  leisure 
hours.  Mr.  Papworth  sketched  the  original  design,  to  be  worked  in  lierlin 
wool  The  carpet  measures  thirty  feet  by  twenty  ;  it  was  divided  into  a  hundred 
and  fifty  squares  measuring  two  feet  each  way,  and  each  square  was  worked 
by  one  lady ;  tlie  whole  were  then  sewn  together,  and  were,  of  course,  so 
planned  as  to  form  part  of  tlie  general  pattern.  In  the  pattern,  besides  geo- 
metrical and  floral  devices,  there  is  an  heraldic  border  so  laid  out  as  to  con- 
tain the  initials  of  all  the  lady  executants.  From  an  address,  presented  by 
the  ladies  to  Her  Majesty  on  the  occasion  of  presentation,  it  appears  that  the 
gift  was  an  afterthought.  "  It  (the  carpet)  was  commenced  with  a  wish  that 
their  skill  should  be  represented  at  the  Industrial  Exhibition  of  all  Nations ; 
but  the  opinions  expressed  of  tlieir  work  have  so  foi"  exceeded  |their  expecta- 
tions, that  they  are  led  to  trust  it  is  not  unwortliy  of  your  Majesty's  favour- 
able notiie."  The  Irish  ladies,  too,  produced  their  joint  cai-pet ;  it  was  pro- 
duced by  a  hundred  and  fifteen  fair  executants,  and  occupied  six  months  in 
fabrication  ;  it  was  worked  in  squares,  thirteen  in  length  and  seven  in  widtli, 
and — unlike  the  English  ladies'  carpet — each  square  foniied  a  distinct  design 
in  itself,  tliough  all  aided  to  form  one  general  and  more  comprehensive  pat- 
tern ;  the  subjects  of  the  several  squai'es  were  flowers,  fruit,  birds,  and  land- 
scapes. Other  examples  of  patience  in  carpet-making  are  not  wanting, 
there  is  Agnes  Grosmann's  caiiiet,  in  which  the  stoiy  of  the  Finding  of 
JNIoses  is  worked  in  with  the  needle  ;  and  "Weygold's  carpet,  in  which  half  a 
million  stitches  are  devoted  to  the  stoiy  of  Boaz  and  lluth — but  all  such 
specimens  are  merely  individual  'curiosities;'  they  are  of  no  commercial 
importance. 

As  tapestry  is  associated  with  the  past  rather  than  witli  modem  inventions, 
we  will  say  a  few  words  respecting  it  only  to  show  in  what  it  differs  from 
cai-pet-making  and  from  ordinaiy  weaving.  What  is  Oobelin  tapestiy,  and  who 
was  Gobelin,  and  where  did  he  live  ';*  Many  admirers  of  tapestry  have  had 
to  ask  these  questions.  Gobelin,  then,  was  a  French  dyer,  who  resided  in 
the  Faubourg  St.  Marcel,  at  Paris,  some  two  centuries  and  a  half  ago ;  he 
was  succeeded  by  others  who  added  cai-pet-making  to  dyeing,  and  these  by 


to 


itooi.  AKd  BILK,  nm  Asn  vtatukm. 


f  cZ'\L'VrZ\  .uuMinhmenU  which  it  hm   evr   Bi.,ce  remHin.-a- 

merit  twenty  or  tliirty  years  tigo. 

Wyot :— HosiEUY,  KNirtTNo  Machinks. 

.hn  hfwiprv  fluinis  a    ttle  attention,  m  respect  to  tn«-  wooi  wimu 

the  V?*'"-'^.  ,"♦;,,  it      Nftv  ttltliouuh  cotton   HtoeiiingH  Imvc  to  ii  liirRo 

notable  an  n.gredient  »  '  ' .   ^."^y- S^S  ,j^,„  tended  U,  malce  Nottingham 

'T.rit1^;:^ttsTJ^v     Ue*^  fi  the  lirst  knitting  frames 

what  it  18,  y«''^'"^^teu  was  ui  material  lor  the  hosiery  coimocted 

,„..  ,ii..avo„, ;  the  J^^^^^^^^^^  "-^JJini  "a  wcid  .pi,- 

WM  hiiwked  ato.it  Iheuii  1107.     rien.  J  i„„,.„ed  the  resources  of  the 

ning  "t^hto^""  ■""°«;^'  "i,''^rp^^^^^^  in  Leicester  and  a,e 

TJ7^t«  u'jTn.o^rSy  t  a,e  value  of  Lry  p^r,  the  »e.v.„g  or 
'•tt/.^e'Sn!."^n^Ts^ttlfeS;.:":^'T„Vs«.in,.^^^^^^^ 


I4 


4iMU.« 


lent  <'ontiniw«l  t<»  Iw 
"  lAUiis  XIV.  mwle 
f«r  Riiipo  remiiintfl — 
)  tlio  tuition.  Them' 
j'very  lino  and  colour 
actiiftl  HUifaco,  it  irt 
)U(4  to  i»n)(lncf  ;  bi«h- 
Dut  it  i«  Ht  tlio  Haiuci 

hi8    bfHt,    lit    tho    J>t!Ht 

I  ft  yfljir ;  n»  woiidcT, 
\  iiiiiimftu'tiir(<  of  ricti 
1)0  Oobeliim  osUblish- 


NE8. 

ye  nothing  lurtlior  to 
,  cotton  niateriiil ;  Imt 
wool  whirl)  foniis  ho 
ickingH  hiivo  to  a  Irtrgo 
d  U)  make  Nottinghan) 
I  first  knitting  i'rau)«s 

the  hosiery  connocted 
>rstcd  \h  tlio  only  home 
.(itnrf  ;  worsted  is  Htill 
hat  piuT»09«-  HoHimy, 
;  gloves  and  nil   other 

webbing  made  on  the 

)  the  lieicestcr  district, 
nd — except  tlie  cottage 
;  of  any  such   locntiou. 
ade,  Derby  that  of  silk, 
r  knitting  frames   first 
a  half  ago,  they  were  in 
cretly  ;  and  the  produce 
terwar^s  u  worsted  spin- 
led  the  resources  of  the 
DC,  in  Leicester  and  the 
sand  frames'or  machines 
rts,  dnxwei-s,  waistcoats, 
such   like  articles — all 
!  produced  by  a  kind  of 
It  is  one  among  many 
des,  that  the  material  for 
d  its  neighbourhood,  but 
I  up  in  Worcester  and  its  • 
I  its  tliousands  of  glovers 
g-web  at  Leicester,   and 
very  pair,  the  weaving  or 

3  stocking-manufacture  is 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY    14580 

(716)  872-4503 


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Collection  de 
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Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  nnicroreproductions  historiques 


wool,  AND    SILK,    Pmi   ANI>   FEATHERS. 


}1 


h  social  rather  than  a  mechanical  question.  Large  machines  are  occasionaUy 
worked,  in  large  factories,  for  making  stockings ;  but  the  wages  of  hand 
labour  in  this  branch  of  industry  are  so  low  that  manufacturers  seem  to  view 
the  faetoiy  System  with  indifference. 

Improved  hand-machines  are,  however,  now  employed.  The  circular 
hosieiy  or  knitting  machine  is  certainly  among  the  most  beautifol  contri- 
vances of  the  age.  It  is  said  that  the  first  idea  of  this  machine  was  due  to 
our  French  neighbours,  who  tried  it  in  a  rough  way  nearly  a  century  ago. 
The  late  Sir  M.  I.  Brunei,  whose  extraordinary  mechanical  genius  manifested 
itself  in  so  many  directions,  greatly  improved  the  machine  in  question,  and 
brought  it  over  to  England,  where  it  was  patented  about  forty  years  ago ;  but 
the  machinei  worked  slowly,  and  failed  to  establish  itself.  While,  however, 
the  English  machinists  and  knitters  allowed  this  matter  to  sleep,  those  of 
France  and  Belgium  were  steadily  engaged  in  working  out  improvements 
either  in  principle  or  in  detail ;  and  we  meet  with  the  names  of  Touve,  Gel- 
lett,  Jacquin,  Fouguet,  Berthelot,  and  Claussen,  in  connection  with  these 
improvements.  Chevalier  Claussen,  whose  praiseworthy  labours  in  respect 
to  the  flax  manufacture  have  attracted  so  much  attention,  is  one  of  the  most 
successful  of  these  improvers  of  the  circular  loom.  His  machine  is  now 
largely  employed  at  Nottingham.  The  machine  can  manufacture  all  kinds  of 
'  looped  fabrics.'  In  the  ordinary  stocking  frame  the  loops  are  made  by  an 
alternating  motion ;  but  in  the  circular  loom,  whether  worked  by  hand  or 
steam  power,  the  motion  of  the  web  while  being  formed  is  circular  and  con- 
tinuous. The  machine  produces  the  looped  fabric  with  astonishing  rapidity  ; 
one  gi.rl  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  old,  by  attending  one  machine,  can  pro- 
duce material  enough  intone  day  for  twenty  dozen  pairs  of  stockings.  To 
describe  in  words  this  beautiful  machine  is  quite  impossible  ;  to  show  how  the 
ten  or  twelve  hundwf*  delicate  needles  start  out  and  up  and  down,  and  loop 
the  thread  into  a  c*iii.a  as  the  machme  revolves,  is  impracticable  without 
many  delicate  drawings.  Little  as  may  be  the  skill  necessary  to  learn  the 
use  of  the  ordinary  stocking-frame,  this  new  machine  (requires  less — a 
woman  turns  a  handle,  as  if  it  were  that  of  a  barrel-organ,  and  a  stocking,  or 
a  jacket,  or  a  petticoat  weaves  itself. 

Besides  the  circular  machines,  other  knitting  machines  of  smaller  pi'eten- 
sions  have  been  produced.  Messrs.  Wliitworth,  the  celebrated  machinists, 
have  patented  one  of  this  kind,  to  be  worked  either  by  hand  or  steam  power ; 
it  knits  one  stitch  at  a  time,  similar  to  hand-knitting.  A  small  machine  fbr  a 
similar  purpose  has  also  been  patented  by  a  Mr.  E&stman  in  the  United 
States.  One  of  the  prettiest  knitting  machines  on  a  small  scale  is  that  of 
M.  Lauenville,  for  making  purses,  watch-guards,  and  such  like  trifles.  Al- 
though only  eighteen  inches  long  by  twelve  in  width,  it  is  a  perfect  maze  oi 
intricate  little  mechanism ;  a  handle  is  turned  (which  a  child  of  six  years  old 
[  might  do)  and  presently  we  see  levers,  wheels,  needles,  hooks,  pulleys,  bob- 
bins, cnuoks,  axles,  spmdles,  sliders — all  working  among  and  around  each 
other,  and  twisting  a  thread  of  silk  into  the  form  of  a  purse  or  other  small 
knitted  article. 


Felting;  Hats. 

One  of  the  most  notable  explications  of  wool  and  other  animal  fibres  to 
Ithe  purposes  of  dress  is  that  which  we  owe  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  hat-maker. 
Ilf  it  is  not  fur,  it  is  wool ;  if  not  fur  or  wool,  it  is  silk ;  one  of  tiie  three, 


I 


i — ,^Jf- 


J.j  WOOL   »BD   MLK,    FUJI  AUD   PEATHEM. 

or  l«o  Of  the  tl,r«  combined,  fonn  the  hat-material  for  ''''»'«?;*«S^"'» 
r*  oT :kS"'nSr„?  Z  I7,i.^rn,  at  hi.  own  count^en  around 

seemed  a  probability  that  ^viU^  our  l^ll^^i^^J^^^^.^^t^J^s^t^^^^ 

And  if  >ve  e'ffect  a  change,  what  shall  ^lf^^^'^^^:,\^^tm^tso^l 
of  the  modem  Turks,  q^^te  as  ungraceful  as  Uie  hat    but  e^^^^^^^   g 

diversity  '^    Shall  it  be  tlie  benwvse  ol  the  Bedomn,  tliat  "'^""b^  »  , 

S7-  midway  between  a  cowl  and  a  m^-cap  V     ShaU  U  be  ^^e^h^h 
conical  .'«n2ar  or  sheep-skm  hat  of  tl^^  l^ei-sian,  Uie  wooi  y^ 
shields  the  head  from  the  heat  ot  the  sun.     hhall  »^  be  a  trencn 

;aror3nt^-tarh„r^^^^^ 

Until  tliese  questions  are  answered,    beavers  and    gossamers 

*^tSe  who  were  so  disposed,  there  were  at  Je^^^-^,f  ^^^^.^^^^^^^^ 
ties  for  a  sort  of  extemporaneous  apprenticeship  to  "^^  tiade  ot  na^m^mK 
Messrs  Cannes  and  Sanders'  model  was  quite  a  cunosity  in  ^^  ^ay.     Ihere 

Sie  miniature  shops  -^i^^^^^^'^^^^^^Xi^-te  raSat'e  Tr^nt 
.vomen,  each  about  two  inches  ^'gh.   "^aking^^^^^  ^es 

even  aminiatare  Pij"'- ,'-' >>y„^»  fffecti  °.^1  4«  co™d  reireoU,d  b, 
"Slltog'  Siy  of  *e  LTand  .hi,  ,ame  boSy  clothed  with  rt.  gta, 


•w*-*""— *»^^ 


18. 

"or  nmeteen-twentietlis 
ire  thaii  this  ratio;  so 
lie  the  limit.  Any  one 
wn  countrymen  around 

BS. 

nonths  ago  ;  and  there 

the  varieties  of  oddly- 
n  the  busy  year  1861, 
levised.  George  Cmik- 
(S,'  if  not  beauties.    But 

noble  and  the  ignoble. 
e  ?  Shall  it  be  the  jez 
t,  but  exhibiting  some 

piece?  Shall  it  be  the 
f  which  differ  in  differ- 
employed  in  such  great 
at  strange  sort  of  cotton 
>  Shall  it  be  the  high 
I  woolly  fleece  of  which 
,  be  a  French  dress  hat, 
r  ahnost  put  into  your 
lay  subject  to  almost  any 

tlie  hemispherical  white 
re;  or  the  muffin-cap  of 
n-shielding  slouch  hat  of 
)ut  not  slouching  hat  of 
rench  soldiers,  which  we 
the  humblest '  Jeannot?' 
gossamers '  must  continue 

3  Great  Exhibition  facili- 
tlie  U-ade  of  hat-making, 
iosity  in  its  way.  There 
)  model  men  and  model 
ts;  the  miniature   irons, 

the  miniature  processes 
stretching,  brun-forming, 
ool-bowing,  batt-pressing. 
rhich  the  men  work ;  and 
f  the  workmen.  Messrs. 
that  could  be  effected  by 
lats  in  the  i-aw  state,  tbf 

all  the  stages  of  its  pro- 
B ;  the  skins  with  the  coarse 
;  skins  of  the  musquash, 
.rhich  now  form  cheap  sub- 
1  these  kinds  of  skin ;  the 
ir  forming  the  'body'  of  a 

the  hat  itself,  m  a  dozen 
e  was  also  the  interesting 
lush,  the  plush  itself,  the 
y  clothed  witli  its  glossy 


WOOL  AND   SILK,   FUB  AND   FEATHERS. 


13 


silken  garment.    And  not  without  its  mterest  was  the  old  cocked  hat  of  1 790. 
with  its  Excise  stamp  of  7».  U.,  which  duty  was  then  paid  on  such  hats. 

Haib-wobk;  Fubs;  Fcrbieby. 

Hair  and  fur  and  wool  have  so  many  analogies  to  connect  them,  that  we 
cannot  always  say  to  which  of  the  three  any  particular  species  belongs. 
Generally  speakmg,  wool  is  derived  from  hoofed  animals  and  fur  from  animals 
furnished  with  claws,  while  hair  is  obtained  more  or  less  from  nearly  all. 
But  be  tliis  as  it  may,  all  three  ai-e  used  very  largely  for  man's  convenierice, 
either  to  fomi  part  in  the  production  of  articles  of  attire,  or  for  the  fabrication 
of  other  articles  intended  either  for  personal  or  household  adornment. 

Hair-working  is  now  made  to  yield  some  veiy  curious  results.  Portraits 
are  formed  in  hair,  with  considerable  likeness  to  tlie  individuals,  if  not  with 
artistic  effect.  Emblems  and  symbols  of  religion,  government,  arts,  sciences, 
commerce,  industry,  &c.,  form  another  favourite  class  of  representation. 
Flowers,  bouquets,  bracelets,  brooches,  and  personal  ornaments  are  made 
or  imitated  in  unmense  variety,  and  in  some  cases  with  considerable  effect. 
Devices  for  the  binding  of  Bibles  and  Prayer  Books  have  recently  been  in- 
troduced in  hair  work.  Some  of  the  imitations  of  feathers  are  truly  re- 
markable, from  the  delicacy  with  which  all  the  minute  details  are  wrought 
out.  The  French  artists  work  up  hair  in  very  elaborate  forms  with  gold  or 
jewels,  to  fonn  earrings,  bracelets,  necklaces,  brooches,  rings,  shirt-studs, 
and  such  like  adornments.  ,     ■  v  c 

Peril  >  ^  the  wig-trade  is  one  of  the  most  curious  connected  with  manulac- 
tures  iu'hair.  The  French  are  famous  in  this  department.  There  is  a 
regular  hmx-harveit  in  some  of  the  central  districts  of  France ;  Pans  firms 
send  agents  into  those  districts  in  the  spring  of  the  yeai-,  who  purchase  tJie 
beautiful  tresses  which  the  country  maidens  have  been  cultivating  for  that 
purpose  •  tliis  hair-crop  is  as  much  an  annual  affair  as  a  corn-crop  m  the 
fields.  The  price  paid  is  about  threepence  (English)  per  ounce ;  but  the 
agents  usually  pay  for  the  hair  with  ribbons,  handkerchiefs,  and  oUier 
Snkets,  at  fau-s  and  markets.  Not  the  least  ciuious  featm-e  is,  that  the 
agents  can  distinguish  the  hah  of  one  district  from  that  of  another  not  lar 
distant^an  ethnographical  feat  which  might  puzzle  a  learned  naturalist— 
and  attach  a  money  value  to  this  difference.  If  it  be  txue,  as  is  asserted, 
that  two  hundred  thousand  pounds  weight  of  women's  hair  is  thus  annually 
sold  in  the  country  districts  of  France,  it  must  be  admitted  to  lorm  a  very 
singular  kind  of  commerce.  The  .agents  sort  and  clean  the  hair,  and  then 
dispose  of  it  to  the  Paris  firms  at  about  double  the  former  price.  Ihen 
comes  the  art  of  the  perruquier  to  fashion  this  hair  into  wigs,  perukes,  and 
scalps— some  of  which  command  a  very  high  price.  Of  the  'transparent 
wiM,'the  'ventilating  wigs,'  the  'bald  white  wigs,' the  ' gossamer-partmg 
wigs,'  the  'fronts  with  each  hah  fixed  separately,'  and  other  wonders  of  wig- 
mSdng— our  advertising  perruquiers  have  made  us  abundantly  acquamted. 

The  hair  for  woven  textures,  such  as  hah  damask,  striped  hair  seating. 
hair  weft  to  silk  warp,  &c.,  is  chiefly  horse-hair,  taken  from  the  tail,  and  dyed 
or  otherwise  prepared.  Weavmg  such  fabrics  is  a  slow  and  difficult  process. 
¥nr  is,  however,  more  commercially  important  than  ban-.  The  skins  and 
fiu-s  imported  by  or  for  our  manufacturers  are  more  varied  and  more  nu- 
merous, perhaps,  than  would  generally  be  supposed  When  we  consider, 
too,  how  many  countries  must  be  ransacked  to  produce  this  variety— the 


1 


a:  1 


l« 


iMMMlMaiinM 


I 


u 


WOOL  AKD   silk,    9VR  AND   FBATUER8. 


beaver,  the  bear,  the  erniine,  the  otter,  the  racoon,  the  chinchilla,  the  wolf, 
the  fox,  the  musquash,  the  sable,  the  martin,  th  >  squirrel,  the  fitcb,  th«  mink, 
the  seal,  and  otliers — it  will  be  plain  that  the  commerce  in  furs  must  be  con- 
siderable. In  1850  the  squirrel  furs  imported  exceeded  two  millions,  the 
musquash  one  million,  the  racoon  half  a  million  ;  while  the  rest  made  up  the 
total  number  to  nearly  five  millions — not  hides  for  tanning,  be  it  remem- 
bered, but  skins  imported  for  the  sake  of  tlie  fur.  The  beauty  of  a  fiir  does 
most  unquestionably,  in  the  eye  of  a  purchaser,  depend  largely  on  the  price 
he  pays  for  it ;  and  this  price  depends  on  the  scarcify  in  the  supply.  Why 
else  should  a  black-and-sDver  fox  ftir  command  a  price  of  thirty  or  forty  gui- 
neas, or  a  sea-otter  skin  still  more?  It  is  true  that  fashion  also  tend*  to 
determine  the  price ;  and  it  seems  that  the  different  tastes  of  different 
countries  curiously  illustrate  this.  Thus,  tlie  black-and-silver  fox  Skins  are 
mostly  purchased  for  the  Russians  and  Chinese ;  the  red-fox  skins  are  in 
demand  in  the  East  for  cloak  linings  and  dress  trimmings ;  the  otter  skin  is 
used  in  the  same  regions  for  caps  and  collars ;  the  beaver  fur,  now  getting 
out  of  use  for  hats,  is  being  made  available  as  a  beautiful  kind  of  cloth  for 
dresses ;  the  lynx,  now  out  of  fashion  in  England,  is  a  favourite  in  America ; 
the  Wolf  yields  a  coarse  fiu",  which  tlie  Russians  employ  for  cloaks  and  coats ; 
the  sable  has  long  been  a  favourite  in  England,  and  when  dark  m  colour  com- 
mands a  high  price ;  tlie  mink  (^the  choicest  specimens)  is  said  to  be  noW  in 
high  favour  in  Paris;  the  musquash  is  largely  used  in  England,  it  being 
made  to  do  duty  for  more  costly  furs  by  a  little  '  doctoring ;'  the  fur  of  th« 
black  bear  is  chiefly  appropriated  by  military  men,  for  caps,  holsters,  rugs, 
hammer-cloths,  Ac. ;  the  sea-otter  fur  is  a  royal  fur  ui  China,  and  a  noble  fui- 
in  Russia,  and  hence  commands  high  prices  in  those  countries. 

Most  of  the  furs  named  m  the  above  paragraph  are  procured  from  North 
America,  through  the  medium  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company ;  biit  thCTe  are 
some  European  furs  which  command  an  extravagant  price.  The  Russian 
sable,  for  instance,  will  sometimes  sell  for  as  much  as  ten  guineas ;  and  so 
many  of  these  are  employed  to  form  a  lining  for  a  cloak,  that  such  a  lining 
has  not  unfrequently  involved  a  cost  of  a  thousand  guineas.  The  Corporar 
tion  of  Ijondon  display  their  sable-furred  gowns  or  robes  on  official  occar 
sions.  The  fur  called  French  sable  is  really  that  of  the  stone  martin,  which 
the  French  show  much  skill  in  dyeing.  The  ermine  or  minever,  from  Russia 
and  Sweden,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  furs,  naturally  as  well  as 
socially.  Its  beautiful  and  delicate  white  can  only  be  msuved  by  killing  Ihd 
animal  in  winter,  when  all  is  white  except  the  tip  of  the  tail.  In  Social  dig- 
nities the  ermine,  perhaps,  takes  the  lead  of  all  furs  ;  for — ^not  only  in  many 
countries  of  the  Continent,  but  in  less-despotic  England — ^there  is  a  smnpluaiy 
law  or  custom  respectmg  ermine ;  the  sovereign,  the  royal  family,  the  pMrs, 
the  peeresses,  and  the  judges,  all  wear  ermine  on  state  occasions  ;  and  this 
ermine  is  'powdered*  (as  the  heralds  term  it)  with  small  blftek  spots  or  stripes 
of  some  other  fur ;  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  spots  opd  stripes  being 
indicative  of  the  rank  of  the  wearer,  and  no  deviation  therefrom  being  per- 
mitted. For  the  squirrel  fur,  which  is  used  in  larger  quantity  in  England 
than  any  other,  we  are  chiefly  indebted  to  Russia;  it  is  cheaper  than 
any  other  equal  to  it  in  appearance ;  and  some  of  the  while  portions  are 
admired  for  tiieir  beauty.  The  fitch,  with  its  strong  and  durable  fibres,  has 
latterly  been  passing  out  of  favour.  The  lamb  skin,  at  a  tender  age,  has  all 
the  beauty  of  fur ;  and  some  of  the  foreign  specimens  oommand  a  high 
price.    The  cat  skin  is  noMr  used  largely  in  England  as  a  fur,  greatly  to  the 


; 


( 


B0. 

he  chinchilla,  the  wolf, 
rrel,  the  fitcb,  the  mink, 
ce  in  fura  must  be  con- 
"jeded  two  millions,  the 
le  the  rest  made  up  the 
tanning,  be  it  remem- 
he  beauty  of  a  fur  does 
id  largely  on  the  price 
by  in  the  supply.  Why 
B  of  thirty  or  forty  gui- 
t,  fashion  also  tend^  to 
rent  tastes  of  different 
and-silver  fox  skins  are 
\he  red-fox  skins  are  in 
[nings ;  the  otter  skin  is 
beaver  fur,  now  getting 
lutiful  kind  of  cloth  for 
a  favourite  in  America ; 
oy  for  cloaks  and  coats ; 
rhen  dark  in  colour  eom- 
ns)  is  said  to  be  noW  in 
id  in  England,  it  being 
MJtoring  ;'  the  fttr  of  the 
"or  caps,  holsters,  rugs, 
I  China,  and  a  noble  fur 
countries. 

e  procured  from  North 
Company ;  biit  there  are 
uit  pi-ice.  The  Bussian 
as  ten  guineas ;  and  so 
uak,  that  such  a  lining 
guineas.  The  Corporar 
r  robes  on  official  occa- 
the  stone  martin,  which 
or  minever,  from  Bussia 
•8,  naturally  as  well  as 
B  insui-ed  by  killing  the 
the  tail.  In  socltd  dig- 
;  for — ^not  only  in  many 
nd — ^there  is  a  sumptuiuy 
royal  family,  the  pedrs, 
tate  occasions  ;  and  this 
tail  blaek  spots  ot  stripes 
le  spots  and  stripes  being 
on  therefrom  being  per- 
•ger  quantity  ia  England 
sia;  it  is  cheaper  than 
['  the  white  portions  are 
and  durable  fibres,  has 
1,  at  a  tender  age,  has  all 
mens  command  a  high 
ul  as  a  fur,  greatly  to  tbe 


WOOL  AND   BILK,   PUR   AND   FEATHERS. 


II 


danger  of  the  domestic '  puss'  in  general.  Tho  rabbit  is  also  an  extensnrely- 
used  fur ;  and  the  white  varieties  are  made  to  do  duty  as  substitutes  for 
cnnino.  The  littl.;  rhinchilla  yields  a  .soft  and  delicate  fvir,  much  used  in 
England  and  France.  Angora  goat  skin  was  at  one  time  worn  extensively  as 
a  fur  ;  hut  it  is  now  more  eustomarv  to  remove  the  hair  or  wool,  and  manu- 
facture it  into  cloth.  Seal  skins,  when  to  be  worn  as  furs,  have  the  long 
coarse  hair  removed,  and  the  rich  silky  down  which  lies  beneath  it  is  dyed  oi 
a  brownish  colour. 

When  tliese  various!  furs  are  gathered  together  from  every  quarter  of  the 
globe,  and  consigned  to  the  hands  of  the  furriers,  they  undergo  certain  pro- 
cesses, which  transform  them  from  quadrupeds'  attire  into  bipeds'  attire.  The 
'  pelt,'  or  hinder  surface  of  each  fur,  has  to  be  converted  into  a  kind  of 
leather,  by  greasing,  and  pressing,  and  scraping,  and  other  processes  ;  and 
the  hairy  or  downy  surface  has  to  be  dyed  and  prepared  in  various  ways,  to 
develop  all  the  beauty  which  naturally  belongs  to  it.  and  sometimes  to 
impart  extraneous  beautv  to  it.  When  the  light  flocculent  down  from  birds  is 
employed  as  a  fur,  it  requires  much  patient  labour  to  adjust  all  the  little  fibres 
to  their  places,  since  there  is  no  natural  '  pelt'  or  skin  attached  to  the  down 
when  removed  from  the  animal.  As  instances  of  this  kind  of  work,  we  may 
adduce  the  Parisian  muft"  and  boa  lately  made  from  the  down  of  a  bird  called 
the  egret ;  their  value  was  one  hundred  and  sixty  guineas ;  tliere  had  been 
only  three  similar  sets  previously  made— for  the  Empress  of  Russia,  the  Prin- 
cess Adelaide,  and  the  Duchess  de  Berri. 


Silk. 

One  circumstance  distinguishes  silk  from  the  other  three  gi-eat  sources  of 
textile  fabrics ;  viz.,  the  silk  is  already  a  continuous  filament  before  it  reaches  the 
hands  of  the  manufacturer ;  whereas  cotton,  wool,  and  flax  are  all  short  in  the 
fibre ;  and  these  fibres  have  to  be  combined  end  to  end  by  spinning.  The  little 
silk-worm,  intent  upon  making  a  warm  habitation  for  himself,  wraps  or  builds 
around  him  a  cocoon  or  small  egg-shaped  hollow  envelope,  fabricated  of  one 
very  long  and  exquisitely  fine  filament  of  silk.  This  filament  the  silk  grow- 
ers—whether in  Italy.  Turkey,  China,  or  India  (these  being  the  chief  silk- 
producing  countries)— unwind  by  various  ingenious  means ;  and  many  fila- 
ments are  then  combined  into  one  to  form  a  thread  sufficiently  strong  to  form 
into  hanks  or  skeins.  Such  silk  is  called  raw  silk,  and  in  this  state  most  of 
our  supply  is  obtained.  It  thence  follows  that  the  twisting  and  spmnmg 
machinery  differs  from  that  employed  for  the  other  three  kinds  of  fibre  men- 
tioned above.  The  silk  is  transferred  from  hanks  to  reels,  around  which  it 
is  wound  It  is  twisted,  and  wound,  and  doubled,  and  wound  again,  and 
transferred  from  one  machine  to  another,  until  there  is  sufficient  thickness 
to  form  a  thread  for  weaving  or  for  sewing,  and  sufficient  twist  to  give  it 

strength.  .  ,  ^v.-    i.      .if  i 

Among  the  novelties  of  recent  years  m  connection  with  this  beautiful  ma- 
nufacture is  the  appUcation  of  the  Jacquard  apparatus,  for  weaving  figured 
patterns ;  or  rather,  as  silk  was  the  first  material  to  which  this  admirable  con- 
trivance was  applied,  we  ought  to  say  that  many  recent  ingenious  applications 
of  the  Jacquard  loom  have  been  made,  either  to  produce  novel  combinations 
or  to  work  with  more  than  usual  rapidity.  Another  notable  mvention  is  a 
loom  without  any  shuttle  whatever,  for  weaving  fringes  and  other  narrow  but 


Hi 


r 


.-■i«(faH!*iiiyiiii>Mliiia»<i;ir» 


I 


I. 


16 


WOOL   AND  BILK,    FUR   AND   FEATHERS. 


thick  silken  goods :  the  silk  is  threaded  into  a  number  of  hinged  amis  or 
long  needles,  and  then  thrown  in  among  thn  silk  weft  in  a  highly  mgenious 

"^^Perhaps  the  attention  to  the  silkworms  themselves,  and  to  the  birth  (so  to 
speak)  tmd  reariiig  of  the  silk,  is  airiong  the  most  valuable  of  recent    <mnosi- 
ties  •  in  this  department.    M.  Dnseigneur.  an  emment  manufacturer  at  Lyons, 
has  lately  shown  extraordinary  patience,  skill,  and  energy  in  exanunmg  the 
aSatomy  of  a  filament  of  silk  ;  he  has  taken  filamente  of  different  ages  and 
kinds,  magnified  them  by  tlie  microscope,  and  fixed  the  images  by  the  photo- 
graphic process— thus  letting  each  distinct  filament  tell  its  o^vn  history     It  >8 
worUi  knowing  that  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  at  Lyons  has  assisted  M.  Du- 
seigneur  with  funds  to  conduct  these  researches,  in  its  desire  to  loster  every- 
thing which  can  possibly  improve  the  silk  manufacture ;  and  it  is  just  possible 
that  the  "  tight  little  island  "  might  learn  a  useful  lesson  Uierefrom.     Another 
foreigner,  Count  Brouski,  has  been  growing  silk  at  his  estate  in  Gironde,  wiUi 
a  view  of  increasing  the  beauty  and  value  of  the  filament  in  the  highest 
degree;  the  quantity,  too,  seems  to  have  engaged  his  attention,  tor  the  ordi- 
nary yield  from  a  cocoon  is  about  live  hundred  yards,  whereas  he  has  caused 
his  silkworms  to  yield  a  Uiousand  yards.  .  .    ,-    ,    j    •    ♦•«„  <•„,. 

With  respect  to  our  own  countiy,  it  is  impossible  not  to  Jeel  admiration  loi 
the  unwearied  attempts  made  by  the  late  Mrs.  Whitby  t«  luster  the  rearing  ox 
sUkworms  in  England.     True,  it  is  no  new  i(^a-this  enablmg  England  to 
rear  its  own  silk  for  its  o^vn  manufacturers.     It  is  well  known  that  James  L 
endeavoured  sedulously  to  bring  about  such  a  result,  and  Uiat  the  mulberry 
trees  near  some  of  our  old  mansions  are  remnants  of  the  attempt,     ine 
attempt  failed,  appai-ently  owing  to  the  coldness  of  our  climate;  but  this  ma 
nordeter  other  experimenters' from  further  trials.     In  1718  a  silk-rearing 
company  leased  Chelsea  Park,  planted  thousands  oi  mulbeny  trees  to  feed 
the  silkworms,  and  built  extensive  works  ;   but  the  project  failed     Sof*  ^as 
been,  on  a  smaller  scale,  on  numerous  subsequent  occasions.     Mrs.  Whitby 
was  among  the  latest,  but  certainly  not  the  least  untinng  of  the  experi- 
menters.   This  lady,  about  fifteen  years  ago,  began  to  attend  to^^he  subject  ol 
sill-worms  at  her  residence  in  Hampshire ;   she  studied  the  habits  of  the  litUe 
insect,  and  experimented  on  the  relative  value  of  different  kmds  ot  mulbenr 
trees  as  food  ;  she  gave  her  election  in  favour  of  the  Phihppme  mulbeiry  (the 
Mmiis  midticaiUis),  some  seeds  of  which  she  imported  into  England  for  the 
purpose.    She  communicated  the  results  of  her  experiments  to  the  Royal  Agii- 
cultural  Society  and  to  tlie  British  Association  from  time  to  time     Writing 
in  1849  she  said:—"  There  are  many  persons  in  England,  and  a  tew  in  ire- 
land  who  have  begun  the  experiment  on  a  smaU  scale ;  it  requires  time  to 
matiiire  and  perfect  any  undertaking;  but,  if  I  live  long  enough    and  the 
growth  of  Uie  mulberry  becomes  generally  encouraged,  I  have  no  doubt  my 
Sdent  wish  to  see  tiie  cultivation  of  silk  estabUshed  m  England  will  be 
reahsed  "    Mrs.  Whitby  did  not  live  to  witness  tliis  realisation  ;  and  it  may 
be  that  modem  attempts  wiUfail,  as  earlier  ones  have  done,  to  make  English 
silk-rearing  a  commercially  profitable  enterprise.    Yet  was  it  not  a  httle  mte- 
resting  to  see  the  beautiful  banner  which  was  recently  made  by  Messrs. 
Houldsworth,  from  silk  reared  by  Mrs.  Whitby;  tiie  tiimg  can  be  done— but 

will  it 'pay?'  '  .    .  ..      xi,„* 

As  an  interesting  fact  in  recent  silkworm  statistics,  we  may  mention  that 

M.  Nourrigat,  a  silk  rearer  of  Lunel,  m  France,  placed  U  ounces  ot  sUk- 

worm  eggs  under  proper  treatment  in  1850 ;  tiie  worms  consumed  many  hun- 


I 


wool*  AND   SILK,   FUR   AND    FEATHERS. 


17 


sr  of  hinged  arms  or 
in  a  highly  ingenious 

ind  to  the  birth  (so  to 
ble  of  recent  '  curiosi- 
onufacturer  at  Lyons, 
gy  in  examining  the 
of  different  ages  and 
images  by  the  photo- 
its  own  history.    It  is 
18  has  assisted  M.  Du- 
desire  to  foster  every- 
and  it  is  just  possible 
I  tlierefroni.     Another 
estate  in  Gironde,  with 
ament  in  the  highest 
attention,  for  Uie  ordi- 
/hcreas  he  has  caused 

t  to  I'eel  admiration  for 
to  loster  the  rearing  ox 

enabling  England  to 
1  known  that  James  I. 
ind  that  the  mulberry 
of  the  attempt.  The 
■  climate ;  but  this  did 
In  1718  a  silk-rearing 
mulberry  trees  to  feed 
oject  failed.  So  it  has 
icasions.  Mrs.  Whitby 
uitiiing  of  the  experi- 
attend  to  the  subject  of 
I  the  habits  of  the  little 
rent  kinds  of  mulberry 
hilippine  mulberry  (the 

into  England  for  the 
[lents  to  the  Royal  Agii- 
time  to  time.  Writing 
gland,  and  a  few  in  Ire- 
ale  ;  it  requires  time  t» 

long  enough,  and  the 
I,  I  have  no  doubt  my 
ed  in  England  will  be 
realisation  ;  and  it  may 

done,  to  make  English 
was  it  not  a  little  inte- 
lently  made  by  Messrs. 
hing  can  be  done — but 

is,  we  may  mention  that 
ced  24  ovmces  of  silk- 
as  consumed  many  hun- 


dredweight of  mulberry  leaves;  and  produced  ;V2  cwt.  of  cocoons,  which 
were  sold  for  somewhat  above  300i.  It  tlius  appears  that  one  ounce  weight 
of  these  little  eggs  has  in  it  the  '  potentiality '  (as  Dr.  Johnson  would,  perhaps, 
have  termed  it)  of  more  than  Vil.  wortli  of  silk. 

Enoush  Silk  Towns;  Workers  and  Products. 

The  silk  manufacture  has  sought  out  for  itself  an  English  home  in  Spital- 
fields,  Derby,  Coventrj-,  Macclesfield,  Manchester,  and  a  few  other  districts — 
A  strangely-scattered  domain.  It  would  be  pleasant  to  be  able  to  record  any 
notable  advance  of  Spitalfields  and  its  silk  weavers.  From  the  time  of  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  more  Uian  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  when 
the  French  Protestants  sought  refuge  in  England,  Spitalfields  has  been  one 
great  seat  of  the  silk  manufacture.  The  weavers  have  often  shown  the  pos- 
session of  intellectual  tastes ;  tliey  have  at  different  times  established  a  mathe- 
matical society,  an  entomological  society,  a  historical  society,  and  a  horti- 
cultural society  ;  they  have  sent  forth  a  Dollond,  a  Simpson,  and  other  emi- 
nent men :  tliey  have  become  proverbial  for  their  humanising  love  for  birds 
and  flowers;  and  yet— what  are  they  now?  They  are  amongst  the  most 
lowly  paid  of  London  artizans ;  then-  ten  or  twelve  thousand  small  houses 
in  Bethnal  Green  and  Spitalfields  are  badly  built,  badly  drained,  badly 
wanned,  badly  served  with  the  conveniences  of  life;  they  walk  abroad  as  a 
pale,  sad,  sickly  race  of  men,  meanly  clad,  and  msufficiently  fed.  If  it  be 
asked  how  the  Spitalfields  weaver  has  fallen  so  low,  the  answer  is  manifold. 
The  weavers  have  been  in  the  habit  of  appealmg  to  public  sympathy  so  often, 
that  they  have  lost  the  self-reliance  which  might  otherwise  be  their  stay. 
They  have  m  such  a  mistaken  spirit  called  aloud  for  '  protection,'  that  they 
neglected  the  best  of  all  means  of  protection,  viz.,  improved  mechanical  con- 
trivances and  improved  artistic  designs.  They  have  brought  up  all  "leir  chil- 
dren to  the  same  trade,  so  that  there  are  now  too  many  mouths  to  be  fed  by 
the  work  which  is  to  be  done.  That  there  was  no  real  inevitable  reason  for 
the  decay  of  Spitalfields,  is  shown  by  the  vast  spread  of  the  silk  manufacture 
at  Manchester.  England  never  produced  so  many  silk  goods  as  she  now  does, 
and  Spitalfields  might  have  had  a  share  of  the  increase  had  she  adopted  the 
right  course  to  procure  it ;  but,  in  truth,  that  district  is  behind  the  age,  and 
siiffGrs  ftCCordinGfiY* 

Let  us,  however^  not  press  too  hardly  on  Spitalfields  and  its  weavers.  Now 
that '  protection'  to  the  silk  trade  is  almost  universally  given  up,  the  Spital- 
fields manufacturers  are  showing  an  energy  which  was  not  before  exhibited. 
They  have  recently  produced  some  silks  of  especial  beauty,  and  ai-e  evidently 
trying  to  regain  some  of  then-  lost  ground.  The  goods  manufactured  by  them 
are  varied— comprising  gros-de-Naples,  gros-de-t»ur,  gros-royal,  ducapes, 
satins,  glace  silks,  barratheas,  Balmorals,  paraphantons,  armozmes,  radzimores, 
levantines,  velvets,  sarcenets,  Persians,  and  others  whose  names  would  be  a 
puzzle  to  most  persons.  Among  these  are  beautiful  and  costly  sOks,  which 
show  that  Spitalfields  can  do  worthily  if  it  will.  A  brocaded  sdk  has  been 
lately  produced  there,  which  required  thirty  thousand  Jacquard  cards  and  a 
hundred  shutUes  to  weave  it,  and  comprised  silk  of  fiileen  different  colours. 
We  need  only  mention  the  '  Spitalfields  trophy'  to  recaU  to  memory  a  beau- 
teous array  of  goods  from  that  districts- comprising  damasks,  brocateUes,  bro- 
cades, and  furniture  silks  of  great  costUness.  Nor  should  we  omit  to  renaark 
that  there  is  a  School  of  Design  m  Spitalfields,  at  which  the  pupUs  study 


1 


M 


l\ 
Hi 

-  * 


iaiiiiiMWriitiwi' 


I 


id 


wool,  AND  BILK,   F«Il  AKt)   FEATIIEBfl. 


many  other  processes  to  which  Urn    '1^  is  ^cted  boys  g^^^^  ^^  ^^_ 

greater  part  of  tlie  work  women  the  next  g~^J^  j^  ^^,^  broad-silk 
the  meA's  work  is  chiefly  spinning  and  "»^^«^.^«^X  "  'l^^,,j,  Derby,  in 
manufacture,  much  of  Uie  weaving  is  done  mj^e  ;«»ages^  eZoyers.  'fho 
the  houses  of  the  weavers,  but  m  ^^^^  ^^^^"^^^^^^^^  tlmt  of 

employment  ot  boys  and  girlb  "/"y^j^'X  which  adult  workmen  cannot 
silk  just  adverted  to-.s  F"'lu«t^  «  P^  «;  ™/its^^      its  inevitable 

,Uk;  tor  U,;.  ■■ -P'3^'=*^ '*J^rstSE.d   l»?Sf  «  cnlu.,.  ag»,  on 
towns  which  took  trade  away  irom  ^l""*"  j  ^y    j^  ^^ich 

account  chiefly  of  dT""5:™X^:Up?^^^^^^^  silk  and  its 

women,  boys,  and  ^''^''^f^^.^^^^^^^^Zklt  their  oVn  homes,  in  and 

prepai^tory  P/«««««f  ** '  ^te  .^i^^  j^TS  sXen  goods  produced  here  appear 
around  Macclesfield.    Ihe  cmei  Junas  "i  «"^     »         f-j.     ^^    ^      |  gyta 

silk  towns.  „.»,„„„  +Viftt  tba  larae  old  villace  of  MiddletoU) 

Tf  ;«  n  vprv  curious  curcumstance,  that  tne  large  »nu  » »"»«'=         .  . 

lies,  keep  up  many  old  customs  wmcn  nave  u  high-pressure 

Ltu/otSr^'Si.o'^^.  "^vFS.£3r.i.rxL'S';o"r:: 


iteita»»^_ 


g^^^u^iidaiAia 


:. nfirVfr— ^"  '■■   ■■•■■-■■■■■  ■ 


iiifacturorfl  foster  this 
to  elevate  the  tone  of 
a  brighter  future  for 

08   it  has  long  hoen. 
s»lanil  in  tlio  midst  of 
and  tliirty  yuars ;  and 
i  Hi)un  into  yam  and 
!,  dress  silks,  hosiery, 
ho  silk  hosiery  U'ade. 
te  eBtablishraents,  ono 
thousand  hands.    The 
ch  gicater  tlian  that  of 
,(j,  filling,  picking,  and 
boys  and  girls  do  the 
men  tlie  least  of  all ; 
ng.    In   the  broad-silk 
ages  ai-ound  Derby,  in 
)  the  employers.     Tho 
[ufacture — as  in  tliat  of 
adult  workmen  cannot 
distance.    Its  inevitable 
for  the  higher  or  more 
s  probably  that  the  silk 
es  than  the  cotton  and 

is  Macclesfield  in  an- 
lively  than  Derby  upon 
own.  It  was  one  of  the 
t  half  a  century  ago,  on 
are  large  mills  in  which 
I  in  spinnhig  silk  and  its 
leir  own  homes,  in  and 
Is  produced  here  appear 
)  veils :  plain  broad  silks, 
the  Macclesfield  weavers 
n  accustoming  a  body  of 

the  weaving  is  effected 
iployed  ;  and  for  figured 

Congleton,  in  the  same 
)rd,  are  tvo  other  notable 

old  village  of  Middletoni 
le  very  heart  of  huge  fac- 
ues,  and  power-looms — is 
i.  they  carry  on  their 
f  with  each  other's  fami- 
B  obsolete  in  most  other 

with  the  high-pressui^ 
troduction  of  this  branch 

a  time  when  the  power- 
loom  cotton  weavers  near 


WOOL  AND  SILK,   FtJK  AND   FBATHRRS. 


10 


Manchester,  tho  SpituUields  weavers  were  earning  a  high  average  rate  ol 
wages,  and  it  was  thought  that  Middleton  men  might  earn  more  at  silk  than 
at  cotton ;  it  was  tried,  and  seems  to  have  so  far  succeeded  as  to  have  con- 
verted Middleton  into  a  silk-weaving  village.  The  Inhabitants  work  cheaply 
enough,  it  is  true,  but  then-  earnings  are  said   to  bo   better  tlian  those  ol 

HpitalfieWs.  ,    .     .   .      ,       .••  *. 

As  to  Manchester  itself,  the  great  advance  made  by  it  ui  tlie  silk  manumc- 
ti^-e  has  been  duo  to  the  production  of  npun  silk.  The  best  silk  goods  lu-e 
made  of  what  is  called  thromi  silk— the  long  continuous  thread  obtained  from 
the  silkworm ;  but  the  shorter  and  wast(!  fibres  can  only  be  wrought  »ip  by 
processes  analogou.i  to  those  of  cotton  spinning.  Manchester  set  those  pro- 
cesses on  foot,  and  hence  has  arisen  a  wholly  new  brandi  of  uulustry.  All 
our  very  cheap  silk  goods  are  now  made  of  spun  silk  (with  an  unacknowledged 
quantity  of  cotton  often  added),  and  are  made  at  Manchester.  True  it  is  that 
silks  of  the  highest  order  are  also  produced  there  ;  but  it  remains  not  the  less 
true,  that  tho  spinning  of  waste  silk  into  yam  for  cheap  goods  loi-ms  the  cha- 
racteristic of  Manchester  silk  manufactures.  It  is  at  Manchester  that  wo  may 
consistently  look  for  the  application  of  steam-power  in  silk-weaving  ;  such  an 
application  has  only  lately  been  first  made,  and  it  would  be  unsafe  to  predict  a 
future  career  for  a  system  while  in  its  infancy.  Yet  it  is  impossible  not  to  see 
that  the  silk  manufacture  at  Manchester  may  lead  to  gi-eat  results;  lor 
although  <;/i«rt/«m  began  it,  there  is  no  reason  whatever  why  excellmcP  may  not 
mark  its  subsequent  progress,  in  a  town  where  all  tho  elements  of  progress 
are  so  intensely  active.  Where  the  Schwabes  and  tho  Houldsworths  are  en- 
gaged, fine  yams  and  rich  fal)rics  may  well  be  expected.  Our  modem  silk 
mills  have  produced  yam  or  silken  tliread  so  fine  as  to  give  a  length  ol 
twenty-four  miles  to  a  pound  weight ;  in  woven  goods  some  of  the  modem 
'shaded  glace'  silks  have  the  threads  shaded  mto  twenty  diff^erent  tints  by 
dyeing ;'  and  in  embroidered  goods,  we  see  the  etlects  of  Houldsworth  s  ele- 
gant machine,  which  embroiders  both  sides  of  a  piece  of  silk  alike. 

The  Coventry  ribbon  trade  is  a  puzzle.  Why  the  same  town  should  make 
watches  and  ribbons,  so  dissimilar  in  material,  manufiicture,  and  use,  and  in 
such  vast  quantities,  is  one  of  tlioso  '  curiosHies  of  indiistiy '  which  it  is  rather 
difficult  to  understand ;  but  certain  it  is  that  the  factories  of  the  employers 
and  tlie  humble  homes  of  tlie  employed  exhibit  these  two  kinds  of  manu- 
factm-e  to  an  extent  tliat  quite  excludes  all  others.  Floral  ribbons,  natural  his- 
tory ribbons,  heraldic  ribbons,  architectural  ribbons,  geometrical  ribbons,  por- 
trait ribbons,  landscape  ribbons,  scroll  ribbons,  arabesque  ribbons,  nondescript 
ribbons— all  are  made  at  Coventry.  And  so  are  ribbons  of  all  widths,  from 
an  eighUi  of  an  inch  to  nine  inches,  Until  a  recent  period  Coventry  aimed 
rather  at  the  production  of  cheap  than  of  high-class  ribbons  ;  but  tlie  removal 
of  'protective'  duties  has  had  an  effect  here  similai-  to  that  observable  m  so 
many  other  quarters  ;  it  has  driven  the  manufacturer  to  depend  on  his  own 
resom-ces;  he  studies  design  and  artistic  grace,  he  perfects  all  the  mechanical 
arrangements  of  his  spinning  and  weaving  apparatus,  he  attends  to  the  cbe- 
mistrj'  of  colours,  and  hence  he  is  now  enabled  to  show  a  nearer  approach  to 
his  confreres  at  Lyons  and  St.  Etienne  than  at  any  former  period. 

When  Prince  Albert's  industrial  gathering  was  about  to  take  place,  the 
Coventi7  manufacturers  adopted  an  excellent  plan  to  display  the  present 
resources  of  theh  art.  Besides  all  the  ordinary  productions  of  the  ribbon- 
loom,  they  resolved  to  produce  a  specimen  which  should  eclipse  all  yet  done 
in  England.     A  committee  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  manulacture  ot 


m 


I 


4 


»»«_ 


1 


1 


..«4^t.ft;^r-.i*^-,i 


I 


JO  wool.  AND   BILK.    FtIR   AND    KKATHERS. 

thU  ribbon,  at  the  Joint  expense  of  «on.eof  tho  c«  «rn«  :  ^J;^ «[f  ^^^jS 
haviuK  relation  b..Ui  to  tho  oxcellonce  an.l  tho  pr  to  oi  "  «  ^       i^^^^ 

£  L  dono;  and  U.c  rosujt  wan  '' "S^ut  t '^a      «5  the  ribbon- 
equalled  hi  this  country.     Ibat  -mr  ^Z  y;'"^f  "^^^^^^^ 

weavcpH  of  France.  povhapH  they  then^H^^'  v^^J^  f  CovL^-y  ix  "ot  the  only 
working  onward  in  good  heart  ^>;^'»'f.«,^;;^"^J^f  "^  .y^m.  ^vlhas  Nuneaton 
ribbon  town  in  Warwickf-hiro;  ' ,!«  »^« ''^^ '"/l  "  "^  a Uning  to  equal  Uie 
Ld  otlier  towuB  fui  »atelliteH.  The  ^'^^f,"  J«r'u,r  for  "ns^^^^^^  haH  'recently 
greater  body  in  merit  if  not  m  HizeNun^^^^^^^  ^j^^^^  ^^  ^^^,, 

produceda'fjaniituro-ribbon   whichrcauired  l^^^^^^  ^1,^^  I, 

i;SS^;i^fi^^Son'SS;:/S^^^  tbonarro.  BOO  Jac- 

•^"SJr'Ld  Norwich,  .idc-ly  '^tl^cy  ^ -P-^;^^^^^^^^^^^ 

«ome  singular  analogies  in  respect  to  ^j"' "'X^ir  g^^^^^^  i"  -hich  silk 

fame  for  die  product  oti  of  certam  ^'^^LS^^J^^^Jt  Krd^f  Irish  poplins? 

and  worsted  or  woollen  are  '"'^'''i-  ,  ^^*°  ^."^^  ."^ '^^^^ 

They  have  a  wide  reputation  among  tj.ose  ^^H  '£''  f^E  Toniprise  silk  for 

are  wiUing  to  pay  ar.  '«l«q"''f  .X/weft  •  but  theriS^ther  textile  goods- 

tho  warp  tVeads  and  worsted  for  tlie  w«'^  •  P"|.2n  is  famed.     In  Norwich. 

damasks,  tabh.ets.  tabaretB.  ^^T-/""- ^^^'^o^iS   boniens.  crapes,  para- 

however,  the  variety  is  more  ««"«;'1<-'"^'^^1^,;S  stuffs  cLmlets.  '  Lindiam«'  (a 

mattas.  challis.  chines,  silk  and  barege  «l^f^^:,«^"f ' J^J^  ^^  Norwich:  some 

Smningly-devised  name  to  -''^'^^'^"^'^."^Slretwo     Bomblen-resembling 
arosilk'^iomeworsted  some  a  mixture  of  the  t^^  a  Norwich  manu- 

poplin  in  so  far  as  it  has  a  sdk  warp  «"«^;;«'^f ^Jd  ^^arcely  a  vestige  of  it 
Utuve  which  fashion  has  almost  completely  k.lled«carceiv 

remains,  cheaper  goods  having  «"Pei^«J«'  >^  th  "  Norw  ch  ^Norwich,  at  the 
is  cheaper  th.il  Dublin,  but  Dublm  IS  better  thjiNo^^^^^^  ^^^^ 

present' tnne.  exemplifies  the  large  amo-^^  StLufacture ;  the 

^'"Z'a.-e  not  able,  while  thus  speaking  of  ^f  •  ^J-^^^^^^^^^^^ 
use  of  ceitain  substitutes  fo/,^-^„lf;;tn';£^^^^^  its  Uy.us 

the  pinna,  a  monster  ?^"\«el*^«.^«^*i,"X  of  deUcatr  fibres,  with  which  the 
as  a  silky  material;  this  byssus  ^%^^.V^^J  ^J^^^XS^^^^^^  at  the  present  day 
animal  attaches  itself  to  rocks  or  to.the  shore     A"^  ^^^  .     ^^  ^  i^to 

Jlalk  «e  S  L  dweU  further  ou  toir  •  c»r,o».Ue,.   . 


I 


118 ;  the  object  in  view 
tho  article  itioducfd. 
porimpH,  nover  been 
■an  eiiuiil  the  ribbon- 
ly  ttSHert ;  but  they  arc 
veiiti-y  is  ""t  tlio  only 
em,  ftn<l  boH  Nuneaton 
i  aiming  to  oqual  the 
iiiBtance,  haw  recently 
qutti-d  oardK  U)  weave. 
)()d  by  ladieH  than  by 
Lhe  one  witle  and  tho 
to  each  other.     In  tlio 
d  the  narrow  BOO  Jac- 

topographicaUy,  present 
i.    Each  has  acquired  a 
lier  gooda  in  which  Hilk 
ifard  of  Irish  poplins  ? 
good  workmanship  and 
)plin8  comprise  silk  for 
xa  other  textile  goods- 
is  famed.     In  Norwich, 
ombozeens.  crapes,  pa,ra- 
,  camlets,  '  Lindianos   (a 
made  at  Norwich :  some 
Bombazeen — resembling 
ft— is  a  Norwich  manu- 
;  scarcely  a  vestige  of  it 
pect  to  poplins,  Norwich 
orwich.     Norwich,  at  the 
•k  rendered  for  a  small 
e  silk  manufacture;  the 
rls  or  women  for  winding 
iris  wind  a  dozen  skeins 
Ik  thread,  for  about  one 

■ecord  any  progress  in  the 
There  was  a  time  when 
aiode  to  yield  up  its  byssm 
ate  fibres,  with  which  the 
id  even  at  the  present  day 
ish,  spin  the  byssus  into 
caps,  and  other  light  ar- 
r  being  used  as  a  material 
I  by  human  hand, 
scome  more  commerciaUy 
nties.' 


Bha 


WOOL  AMD  WI.K,   rUB  A!fD   FEATHKRS. 


Oi,A88-Ti8BiiK ;  EMniiuiDKnT  Machines. 


SI 


The  Hhawl  manufaciure  has  on  interesting  history,  not  only  in  n!8j)ect  to  its 
oMtem  origin,  but  to  its  romarkable  location  in  certain  towns  in  Britain,  and 
to  th«  ingenuity  displayed  in  its  management.  India  shawls  are  still,  «w  ihvy 
have  long  been,'grcatly  coveted  by  tliosts  who  possess  the  means  of  purchasing 
such  costly  productions.  The  colours  are  in  goiieral  very  splendid,  likti  the 
flowei-s  and  plumage  of  the  suiuiy  soutli ;  and  although  tli«  spuuiing  and 
weaving  appamtui  are  .)f  tho  rudest  possible  kind,  those  shawls  are  wrought 
with  a  high  degree  of  delicacy.  The  patterns  ai-e  strange,  scai-cely  admitting 
of  <lescription  ;  yet  so  identified  have  they  become  with  tho  shawls  tliemsclves, 
that  our  manufacturers  imitate  tlmni,  and  can  scaicely  he  brought  to  attempt 
anything  ulsc.  It  was  about  seventy  years  ago  that  Norwich  began  the  nionu- 
facture  of  shawls  in  imitation  of  those  of  India;  and  about  the  beginning  of 
the  present  centmy  Paisley  enttired  on  a  similar  course.  Shawls  of  a  ditl'erent 
kind  were  mode  in  those  towns  previously  ;  but  the  rise  of  a  i)rofitable  market 
for  India  shawls  led  our  manufacturers  to  try  their  skill  in  imitation.  Those 
who  cou'd  pay  for  real  Iixiia  shawls  did  so ;  those  who  could  not.  preferred 
Frendi  shawls  to  those  of  Norwich  and  I'aisley ;  and  it  was  not  until  tlie 
.Tac(iuard  loom  facilitated  the  production  of  sliawls  (juickly  aud  chea[>ly,  that 
our  home  sale  became  large. 

The  variety  in  shawls  is  rendered  ye'  lore  striking  by  the  recent  intro- 
duction of  printing  as  a  means  of  producing  tho  whole  or  a  part  of  the 
coloured  pattern.  There  are  a  few  print-works  in  the  home  comities,  at 
Crayford,  Merton,  and  elsewhere,  where  tliis  higher  class  of  printing  is  con- 
ducted. The  processes  are  slow,  and  require  much  care ;  cheapness  is  not 
attempted ;  but  shawls  and  other  goods  are  produced  of  oxtiuisito  beauty  by 
the  block-printing  method.  The  material  called  bamje  is  now  wrought  into 
printed  shawls  of  great  delicacy. 

There  is  one  '  curiosity '  or  novelty  in  tlio  silk  manufacture,  the  very  name 
of  which  is  so  beautiful  that  one  feels  as  if  it  ought  to  establish  a  place  for 
itself  in  public  favour.  Tmue  de  verre — ijUun-timu: — the  designation  points  to 
something  delicate,  graceful,  glossy,  rich.  We  must  of  course  dismiss  from 
our  minds  the  rigid  choi-acteristics  of  glass  in  its  more  familiar  forais.  and 
think  only  of  the  tender  filaments  which  are  drawn  out  by  means  of  tlie  blow- 
pipe and  the  spirit  lamp.  One  of  the  very  prettiest  of  work-bench  processes 
is  tliis  glass-spinning,  as  carried  on  at  tlie  Polytechnic  Institution  and  other 
places  to  which  the  public  have  access.  The  softened  ductile  glass,  attached 
to  a  sort  of  spinning  wheel  at  one  end,  and  exposed  to  tlie  action  of  a  flame 
at  the  other,  yields  to  the  double  influence,  and  spins  out  into  a  perfectly  even 
and  fine  crystal  thread.  When  thousands  of  these  threads  are  grouped  side  by 
side,  nothing  can  exceed  their  lustrous  beauty ;  and  we  need  scarcely  wonder 
that  the  display  should  suggest  the  use  of  such  fibres  in  woven  goods.  A 
patented  method  has  been  devised ;  tho  glass  threads  are  combined  with  other 
threads  of  silk,  or  of  gold  and  silver,  and  woven  into  a  delicate  tissue,  which 
may  have  the  characteristics  of  satin,  or  velvet,  or  brocade,  according  to  the 
mode  in  which  the  weaving  is  conducted.  The  manufacture  is  very  difficult ; 
for  the  glassy  filaments  ai-e  of  course  fragile ;  and  the  time  has  not  yet  arrived 
when  the  novelty  will  be  commercially  advantageous  to  the  inventor;  like 
many  others,  it  is  too  costly  to  Imve  a  large  sale,  aud  will  scarcely  pay  with  a 


-i 


ii 


I 


^g  WOOIi  AND   8ILK,   FUR  AND   FEATHEB8. 

very  small  sale.    A  glass  slipper  may,  however,  by  and  by,  be  something  else 

*'Zr7emm  "'^rSs'-    A  curious  idea  has  been  lately  put  forth  by 
But  f .  ^^J""' .% ''iJ',,!'  gin,,entina  patterns  ad  infinUum ;  he  has  patented 

It  is  intended  for  application  to  any  woven  goods— silk.  wooUen.worsT^o^ 
c^tSn  fkfS^any  combination  of  them ;  aiui  the  patterns  to  be  P-^oduced  are 

Secessar^  to  paint  the  pattern  on  paper  after  viewing  »' ^^"•^"^i^f  ""J"^!; 
S^^alesWhed  Thow  at  once  the  "^^^^^  ^rStlf  of^e  web  •  ^d 

rre%Erora^rrfayttrtdutr^^ 

:™fot'thrJ^^^^^  an  interminable  variety  might  be  produced  by  com- 
bSg'dftSenJ  coloured  glasses.  The  idea  is  not  -'f^V^lZZv^m^ 
in  a  comitiy  wliere  artistic  taste  in  design  is  <«'^fe««f  ^y.^^^  JT";*/;^^^ 
U  seems  sm-cely  desirable  to  lead  designers  to  a  n^chanu^f  mode  «  F^^ucmg 
the  patterns  th'ey  require.  If  we  can  produce  gracetul  curves,  mtersectang 
atrnitrVit  lines  will  ahnost  produce  themselves.  ju.,„^ 

Some  rtiil' curiosities'  of  modem  ingenuity  consist  m  the  expenditure 

Persons  of  taste  have  not  yet  quite  agreed  ^l^^t/^f„^?«-\Y„r,'S V,^^^^^^ 
ap^iffns  for  carpets  wall-papers,  fmniture  damasks,  table  Imen,  and  dress  suKS 
desi^s  *«^^^*^^®.^; '''''JJ :,  „  growing  perception  of  a  certain  measure  of 

Lvered  wiUi  hot  dishes  in  the  one  case,  and  to  be  apphed  to  the  nose  in  tbe 
*^wi;il^  sneakina  of  silks  and  velvets,  woollens  aad  worsteds  we  may  say  a 

Ssi^hi^issr^s^s^^ 

Selof  ci      "a^  d^^^  fl«t  upon  a  cushion;  ^^.^'^!^fi''' ""fZ^^l 
ffe  malh^esit^atakindof  lathe  on -hich  tlie  cu^-^  "a  ^^^^^^^^ 
treadle  with  her  foot;  at  each  movement  of  the  treadle  a  ub^-^^  J^^^^ 
verticaUy  and  pierces  the  cloth,  canying  with  it  a  tJuead,  Uie  nteaie  nab 


r 


1^ 


18. 


by,  be  something  else 

3en  lately  put  fortli  by 
nitum;  he  has  patented 
jutting  it  in  operation, 
silk,  woollen,  worsted, 
srus  to  be  produced  are 
J  has  Boiiifi  analogy  to 
)pe,  the  patterns  being 
3  inventor  tells  us  that 
ti  which  aaiy  pattern,  or 
ariety  of  designs  it  can 
;  them.  It  is  not  at  all 
'it  tlirough  the  mirrors, 
nber  of  threads  of  each 
readth  of  the  web ;  and 
B  breadtli  and  a  consi- 

By  this  invention,  the 
oinse  of  a  few  minutes, 

it  may  be  enlarged  or 
;  as  straight  lines  bound 
;ht  be  produced  by  com- 
Uiout  its  ingenuity ;  but 
ily  lower  than  in  France, 
irdcal  mode  of  producing 
eful  curves,  intersecting 

isist  in  the  expenditure 
and  skill,  in  producing 

they  are  quite  unfitted, 
really  the  best  classes  of 
.ble  linen,  ajid  dress  silks 

of  a  certain  measure  of 
clfis  and  the  puri>o8e3  to 
srfoot,  in  a  caipet  design, 
^es  or  gothic  porches  one 
1-paper ;  nor  does  a  royal 
ket  handkerchief— to  be 
pphed  to  the  nose  iu  the 

i  woreteds.  we  may  say  a 
lose  materials.  Whether, 
ii-s  are  barely  earning  the 
•  expeditious  sewing  and 
o  the  aspect  iu  which  the 
been  introduced.  Witness 
ention  for  stitching.  The 
he  sempstress  who  works 
isliiou  is  laid,  and  works  a 
readle  a  needle  desceaids 
tlnead ;  the  needle  ims  a 


WOOL  AMU   SILK,   PUR  AND   FBATHEE8. 


33 


small  book  or  noteh  on  one  side,  which  catches  and  brings  up  &  thread  on  its 
return  from  the  hole ;  and  thus,  two  or  three  hundred  times  in  a  minute,  a 
thread  becomes  interlaced  in  the  cloth  in  the  manner  of  '  chain-stitch '  or 
't«nabom'-work.'  The  machine,  which  costs  twenty  or  thirty  guineas,  can 
CRilm)i<U'.r  as  much  clotli  iu  «u  huui'  as  an  embroideress  can  complete  in  a  day. 
Anothek-  French  machine,  by  M.  Seneschal,  of  Paris,  is  more  complex  in  its 
construction,  and  is  intended  for  sewing  coarse  cloth.  Great  ingenuity  is 
shown  in  the  onangement  of  the  several  parts ;  the  machine  pierces  its  own 
holes,  insei-ts  its  own  thread,  tightens  the  tliread  after  insertion,  and  sliifts  the 
cloth  as  the  work  advances,  at  the  rate  of  forty  or  fifty  stitclies  a  minute. 
England,  too,  has  not  thou^t  such  machines  beneath  her  notice.  There  is 
Baiiow's  patent  stitching  machine,  for  making  articles  of  dress ;  two  di  ninct 
threads  are  used,  one  at  the  front  and  the  other  at  the  back  of  the  fabric,  so 
that  each  stitch  forms  an  independent  fastening.  There  is  Judkins'  sewing 
nukchine,  said  to  be  "  suited  to  sewing  either  a  circle,  curve,  or  straiglxt  line, 
at  the  rate  of  500  stitches  per  minute ;"  there  are  racks  or  tootlied  anus 
employed,  straight  or  curved,  according  to  the  shape  of  the  work  to  be  done ; 
there  are  two  threads,  one  in  a  reel  and  one  in  a  shuttle ;  and  a  needle  in- 
geniously entangles  these  threads  one  in  another,  through  the  holes  pierced 
in  the  cloth.  There  is  Mather's  sewing  machine,  working  out  similar  results 
by  different  means.  The  United  States,  too,  have  contributed  to  this  class  of 
machines.  Of  Morey's  sewing  machine,  made  at  Boston,  tlie  following 
character  is  given : — "  By  a  veiy  simple  process,  straight  and  curvilinear  seams 
are  sewn  in  cotton,  linen,  or  woollen  cloth  witli  great  rapidity;  with  one 
attendant,  it  will  aceompUsh  the  work  of  five  sempstresses;  it  is  easily 
wroo^t,  is  not  liable  to  get  out  of  repair,  and  is  readily  applicable  to  almost 
every  variety  of  plain  stitch ;  in  the  lai-ge  ready-made  clothing  establishments 
in  the  United  States  it  is  imiversally  used." 

Feathers. 

The  last  of  tliese  useful  animal  contributions  to  our  wants  which  will  be 
noticed  here  aie  feathei's. 

Feathers,  as  a  filamentous  material,  seem  to  liave  attracted  admiration  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  exceedingly  beautiful  forms  which  they  naturally  assume,  but 
also  for  the  brilliant  colours  which  many  of  tliem  display.  Feathers,  we 
know,  give  us — besides  the  beauteous  plumes — articles  which  ai'e  valuable 
either  for  the  elasticity  and  hollowness  of  tlie  quill,  or  for  the  softness  of  the 
bai'bs.  They  give  us  the  quill  pens  which,  notwithstanding  die  competition 
of  steel,  &re  still  mad^.  and  sold  and  used  in  millions  imnually.  But  we  ai'e 
here  speaking  of  featliera  only  in  tlxeir  relation  to  the  labours  of  tlie  plumassier 
and  the  feather-bed  maker. 

One  of  tlie  most  notable  of  these  decorative  fieatliers  is  that  of  the  osti-ich 
— that  eppendage  which  makes  the  martial  appeai-ance  of  the  soldier  still 
moiie  martial.  It  is  the  long  feathers  of  the  wings  and  the  tail  which  consti- 
tute the  ordinary  ostrich  plume.  The  animal  is  captm-ed  and  killed  witli 
much  cai-e,  to  prevent  any  injury  to  the  plumage.  The  feathers  are  sorted 
into  vaiious  quaUties,  scoured  or  cleaned,  bleached,  dried,  shaken,  and  opened, 
the  ribs  scraped  Avith  a  bit  of  glass,  the  filaments  made  to  assmne  a  curly 
form  by  scraping,  dyed  or  not  according  to  circumstances,  and  adapted  for 
adjustment  in  military  hats  or  other  gamients.  Those  who  are  versed  in  tlie 
heraldry  of  pomp  and  formality  would  know  the  osti-ich  plumes  worn  by  the 


ill 


I 


,  ( 


l\ 


J4  WOOL  AND  SILK,    FCB  AND   FEATHEB8. 

Knights  Of  the  Garter  or  the  ^^^l^Ztv^^^^'^^c^^^^^^ 
couS  plumes  adapted  ^ovj^^^'^^^^  haTe  berLised  for  imparting  brd- 
land  regiments.    In  recent  years,  ^e^B  nave  u  graduaUy 

liant  dyes  to  ostrich  feathers,  several  diff^i^nt  coloxnrs  to  ^^B^^^^  ^^^ 

shaded  or  Vended  one  mt«  another      ih«.,be^J^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^ 

feathers  ofVe  mai-about,  ^e  ^^'b.  the  bijd  of  pw^is^.  j^  ^j^^  tyj,- 

the  emu,  the  heron,  the  Pl«i"«' t^^^^^i^S^a",!^^^^  L  ornaments  to 

key,  tlie  swan,  the  eagle,  and  ^^^^  «J^*'^  j^f  ^e  ^sed  almost  exclusively  for 
dress.  Some  of  these  are  very  f  o«\' J^^XeiTLhionable  and  unfashionable 
one  particular  purpose  ;  while  o'^'J^J'^^ZS^Zrs  are  knotted  with 
periods  m  public  favour.  «°''^«J^.^^"^f  The  emu  feathers  ai-e  more 
gold,  to  make  a  mostly  tommingfoi  dresses,     ine  ^^^        ^^ 

Lnl  on  the  Continent  than  »«  En£and^,^The  h^r^  le^^^^  .^^  sometimes 

Knights  of  Uie  Gaiter,  frequently  <^««/f  ♦^g^^^^cHv  T^e  ^ge  egret  fea- 
^ove  a  hundred  guinea.s,  on  account  of  tixeu-  scaicity.     xu        b 

thers  are  worn  by  the  H^fsars.  ^  ^^^^  ^^^  beautiful 

It  is  a  departure,  perhaps,  ^°?^^  .f*™"^  ^^^^^^  is  much  more  abund- 

material  as  a  means  of  ™«^^ly  ""^^jf  ^H^ SeCers ;  but  this  afifords  no 
ant;  feathers  are  Natures  o^'^^'^t^'.^.^^X  latter     Nevertheless  feather- 
reason  for  employing  the  iomer  to  jUa^^^  ^^^.i^able. 
flowers,  as  examp  es  of  P'^^f.'J^^Xu?  b^d^feathers  and  tiieh- preparati^^^ 
It  lies  not  exactly  m  om  patii  to  talk  about  jea  lea  ^  .  ^^^^ 
but  it  is  wortii  whUe  to  remember  tiiat  oui  fj^^^^^^^^^^^uld  Ippear  a  littie 
it  'in  their  bed-room  arrangements,  to  a  <if  f  ^«  ^^^JJ^^     j^^Oie  days  of 
sl^ge  to  tiie  soft-lying  dwellers  m  the  "meteen ^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^. 
rHem-ys  and  the  Edwards,  bed  X'neSe;sbecanSsuLtitutod for  these 
chaff,  wei  slept  on  by  the  gen^^  ^^'''^^^^'ZZ^  Ais,>\v.yeA^esi  the 
less  yielding  kinds  of  ft^S'^,,^^^              be  mjured  by  sleeping  upon 
health  of  the  sovereigns  liege  ««hject  shoma  oe     j            j      iji^tance,  no 
hair,  or  down,  or  featiiers,  uiJess  ^^  ^^f  ^^eTs  we^^^^      witli  ihe  dry- 

feather-beds  were  to  be  ^^^'J^^^^^^^Xwe^^^^  ^«  ^'''^ 

puUed  feathers ;  no  dowivheds  were  al  oweu  to  na  v^  ^^  mattresses 

li  the  Lincohishire  fens)  ""^e^^.^^i^^J,",^  J'^^  '^^^^  Jair.    It  is  worthy  of 
^ere  to  be  stuifed  with  '^^'^ti' Sl^'^Arti^r^^^  that  the  feathprs 

rtiie^'rrSfretS^nrK^  -  bJs  Sti-ait,  are  now 

-r¥r,ttai%^s.^^^^^^^  ; 

curious  application  of  the  ^iffj^.T^^^oi  feathers  sewn  on  to 
kind  of  textile  fabric,  «o™P««f  J^  P^^  Seing  so  close  togetiier  as  to  present 
any  kind  of  woven  matenal;  the  pieces  oeing  »  .  ^  ^  fe^ed  are  those 
fJontinuousfeatiiery  or  downy  ap^^^  ,,ripped  off 

of  the  turkey,  from  which  the  fi\^™f,';'^^"^^°'„iJ„  ^^  skin  or  cuticle  of  the 
in  such  a  manner  a.  to  bring  mtii  ^^^^^^^1^;,^  securing  the  feather 

t^j^^^X^^^^   "a^:irvietrwn":trm'St 

necessarily  be  costly. 


I' 


iHMWii 


MTwrn  -iniiirii 


of  the  Bath  from  the 
or  officers  of  the  High- 
sed  for  imparting  bnl- 
,  one  feather,  gradually 
le  ostrich,  we  have  the 
the  vulture  or  rhea, 
t,  the  peacock,  the  tur- 
plied  as  ornaments  to 
I  almost  exclusively  for 
able  and  unfashionable 
hers  are  knotted  with 
emu  feathers  aie  more 
feathers;  worn  by  the 
plume,  and  sometimes 
,     The  large  egret  fea- 

e,  to  use  one  beautiful 
1  is  much  more  abund- 
;rs ;  but  this  afifords  no 
Nevertheless  feather- 
etimes  veiy  admirable, 
rs  and  then-  preparation ; 
i  were  obliged  to  '  rough 
lat  vyould  appear  a  little 
centurj'.     In  the  days  of 
d  with  straw  or  heath,  or 
ame  substituted  for  these 
e  was  displayed  lest  the 
liured  by  sleeping  upon 
state.    For  instance,  no 
ere  mixed  witli  the  dry- 
fen-down  (from  the  geese 
tid  no  beds  or  mattresses 
,t's  hair.     It  is  worthy  of 
ndustry,  that  the  feathprs 
sar  Bass  Stiait,  are  now 

y  obtamed  a  patent  for  a 
ice.  He  manitfactures  a 
gs  of  feathers  sewn  on  to 
ose  together  as  to  present 
iathers  pi-eferred  are  those 
f  portions  are  stripped  ott 
the  skin  or  cuticle  of  the 
ns  of  securing  the  feather 
uread.  The  material  thus 
or  velvet-down,  and  might 
aparted  to  it;  but  it  must 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  MANUFACTURES. 


It  is  difficult  to  say  whetlier  productive  industiy  is  more  indebted  to 
mechanical  skill  or  to  chemistry  for  its  recent  astonishing  advance.  Indeed 
this  may  be  an  insoluble  [  problem :  for  almost  every  mechanical  process 
requires  the  aid  of  chemistry  in  its  development ;  while  chemistry  would  be 
nothing  Avitliout  the  aid  of  the  machines,  the  furnaces,  and  the  vessels  which 
permit  the  processes  to  be  cai-ried  on.  What  we  have  to  do  is,  to  estimate 
properly  both  these  invaluable  assistants  to  om-  industry,  without  establish- 
ing a  rivaln-  between  them. 

The  '  curiosities '  of  chemistiy,  in  its  application  to  manufactures,  are 
many  and  varied ;  and  we  will  attempt  a  brief  notice  of  some  of  them. 

The  Chemistry  of  Metal- Wouking. 

Let  us  begin  witli  a  few  miscellaneous  facts  relating  to  metals — tliose  re- 
markable material  products  without  which  man  could  never  have  risen  far 
above  the  level  of  the  brutes,  even  if  existence  itself  were  possible. 

The  chemistiy  of  the  lead-works  is  often  very  interesting,  and,  in  some 
cases,  really  beautiful.  The  metal  is  mostly  obtained  in  this  countiy  by 
operating  upon  galena  or  sulphuret  of  lead,  a  hard  grayish  substance  found 
in  considerable  quantity  m  Derbyshire,  Nortlmmberland,  and  other  counties. 
The  problem  here  is,  how  to  get  rid  of  the  sulphur  which  forms  one  compo- 
nent of  the  galena ;  and  it  is  found  that  the  best  way  to  effect  this  is  to  give 
a  dose  of  oxygen  by  some  means,  so  tliat  the  union  of  the  sulphur  with  the 
oxygen  may  cai-ry  off  both  in  the  form  of  sulphurous  acid  gas.  The  galena 
is  i-oasted  in  a  furnace,  under  circmnstances  which  produce  this  result,  and 
the  lead  is  separated  in  a  metallic  form.  But  some  of  the  highly  heated 
lead  goes  off  in  the  state  of  vapour,  and  a  sad  perplexity  this  is  to  the 
smelter ;  for  lead-furaes  are  so  deadly  poisonous  tliat  he  tries  all  practicable 
means  to  catch  the  vapom-  before  it  flies  off  into  the  atmosphere,  and  re- 
transform  it  into  the  sohd  state.  These  processes  are  not  particularly 
remai-kable  ;  but  anotlier,  which  generally  follows,  is  much  more  so.  Neaily 
all  lead  ore  contains  a  little  silver,  and  it  is  usually  worth  while  to  incur  the 
trouble  and  expense  of  extracting  tliis  silver.  When  the  metallic  lead  has 
been  prepared  from  tlie  galena,  if  it  is  fomid  to  contain  even  so  minute  a 
quantity  as  five  ounces  of  silver  to  a  ton  of  lead,  it  is  deemed  wortli  while  to 
subject  it  to  a  retining  process,  for  the  sake  of  the  silver.  The  lead  of  the 
Northumberland  and  Cumberland  district  averages  about  ten  ounces  of  silver 
to  the  ton  ;  and  it  will  therefore  warrant  the  adoption  of  this  process,  where 
operations  ai"e  conducted  on  a  large  scale ;  some  specimens  give  as  higli  a 
ratio  as  a  hundred  ounces.     The  pigs  of  lead  are  slowly  melted  in  huge  iron 


til 


d 


,1 
ii 

\ 

■' 

i 


■■  ..^  Jiju.^aiaitiiiimtiiat»m 


'mwfmmmim 


M^V-^V^ 


0. 


THE   CHEMISTRY   OP   MANrFACTUHES. 


vessel,,  the  molle,,  metal  berng  kept  »line,l.     T''" J»  "' "!° .^^taTX'; 
Use  while  co„linB.  fall  to  the  bollo,,,,  and  «f '^T '"j' "^J  .,X  '^^J  '  .ie.l 
nn<l  as  these  cn-stals  conla  n  less  silver  Umn  the  ii  maiiimg  unu j 
ZltZ  E  removal  loaves  the  nmlten  .„ass  rieher  than  betoe     ho  nmtWr, 

S  ng  near  200,00.)  tons  of  copper  ore  year  y,  Irom  f^^^^^'^'f^^^fZTl 
cmDloveilhY  tlie  m  iie  owners  to  smelt  the  ore  ,  they  purcnase       '       '    „ 
fortnight  in  a  hotel  at  Swansea;  ^'^^y .f  ,^^2e'^^^^f'\^,  ,^^^^^  not  by 

bLrsJrgfte^-psiJ.g=HiJSS 

for  tin  will  not  bear  the  requisite  heat.     All  tin  goods  oi  tnis  kuw 

of  sheet  iron,  washed  witJi  liquid  tin  to  shield  them  fr«™  JX/ite     these 

mical  action.'    The  thin  sheet  h-on  is  cut  -^o  'luad-ngi^,;^^^ 

sheets  lu-e  steeped  in  muriatic  acid,  heated  in  an  oven,  ''^o^^"'  ^.     .». ,   .  • 

Ind  beaten  smooth,  dmwn  between  rollers,  '^^^^  ^  ^^^J^^^^^^^^^ 

sulphuric  acid,  scoured  with  sand  and  water,  washed  in  clean  ^''^^Z;  "^ 

in  melted  ill  ow,  dipped  in  melted  tin,  drained  till  diy,  and  y^^^^^J^ 

making  the  best  tin-plates  in  the  world.  ottPntion  in 

The  wonders  of  the  iron  manufacture  have  engaged  a  little  atteniom 
former Iheet  of  this  work;   but  a  few  fui'thcr  notabilities  occur  to   us   i.. 


3 


ns  of  the  lead  crystal- 
l  by  a  pci-ionited  ladle  : 
■mainiiig  unei-ystallised 
ban  before.  So  matters 
iie-twenticth  part  of  the 
portion  is  ther.  exposed 
mbmes  witli  oxygen  to 
il  brilliant  civke.  Some 
vnd  magnificent  ser\ices 
'  refining  the  lead. 

Nearly  all  tb<^  copper 
nd,  is  smelted  in  South 
hat  region.    Commercial 

South  Wales  can  send 
1  can  send  back  copper 
istrict  now  smelts  some- 
diich  about  ao.OOD  tons 
iterling.     About  ten  or  a 
).     The  smelters  are  not 
T  purchase  it  on  specula- 
llic  copper.     The  sellers 
larty,  which  meets  once  a 
other,  and  every  firm  is 
!rs.     The  sale  is  not  by 
1  experience  has  enabled 
p  tenders  for  each  parti- 
n  to  spend  nearly  half  a 
is  the  machinery  and  the 
e  smelting  itself  we  need 
ngs,  calciningB  and  melt- 
by  which  all  the  sulphur 

metallic  copper  alone  is 
very  unacceptable  one ;  it 
ers  over  each  of  the  great 
le  once  beautiful  Swansea 

•ted  with  tin,  in  tlie  che- 
is  called  tin-plate.  A  tin 
rould  be  very  evanescent ; 
ods  of  this  kind  are  made 
1  from  rust  and  fi'om  che- 
iiadrangular  sheets;  these 
oven,  cooled,  straightened 
.  in  bran-water,  pickled  in 
}d  in  clean  water,  dipped 
till  diy,  and  rubbed  with 
tons,  considering  that  the 
ary  to  ensure  an  intimate 
3  to  herself  the  credit  of 

raged  a  little  attention  in  . 
otabihties  occur  to   us   in 


THK   OHEinSTRY   OP   MANUFACTITRES. 


8 


respect  to  the  hot-blast.  This  invention,  simple  as  it  may  seem,  has  added 
almost  mcalculably  to  tlie  wealth  of  our  nation.  Before  this  remarkable 
method  was  introduced,  and  when  only  cohi  air  was  blown  into  tlie  iron  fur- 
naces, anthracite  was  too  stubborn  a  kind  of  coal  to  be  used  conveniently  as 
a  fuel,  and  black-band  iron-stone  was  too  stubborn  a  kind  of  ore  to  be  a 
favourite  among  the  smelters ;  but  now,  when  the  blast  is  foreed  at  a  high 
temperature  into  the  smelting  furnace,  the  anthracite  is  found  to  yield  in- 
tense heat,  and  the  black-band  to  yield  a  rich  percentage  of  good  iron.  The 
maiket  value  of  tlie  autliracite  of  Soutli  Wales  and  of  tlie  black-band  of 
south  Scotland  nmst  have  been  increased  by  millions  sterling  by  the  hot- 
blast  alone.  Well  may  Mr.  Neilson  be  regai'ded  as  a  public  benefactor,  by 
introducing  it. 

There  ai-e  otlier  examples  in  which  a  great  revolution  has  taken  place  in 
one  or  other  of  the  metal  trades,  owing  to  the  application  of  some  notable 
chemical  discoveiy ;  though  few  so  important  in  its  results  as  tliat  of  tlie  hot- 
blast.  There  are  also  a  number  of  minor  cmiosities  arising  from  tlie  appli- 
cation of  metal  refuse  to  useful  purposes.  Brass-ashes,  or  the  contents  of  a 
furnace  in  which  copper  and  zinc  have  been  melted  to  make  brass,  used  to  be 
deemed  no  better  tlian  common  ashes  and  cinders  ;  but  it  has  recently  been 
found  that  they  contain  enough  of  tlie  mixed  metals,  which  reach  them  in 
vaiious  ways,  to  give  them  a  commercial  value.  The  ashes  become,  in  fact, 
a  kind  of  substitute  for  copper  ore,  from  which  copper  can  be  extricated  by 
smelting.  It  is  said  that,  scarcely  a  dozen  years  ago,  brass-founders  often 
paid  money  to  have  their  ashes  removed ;  but  that  now  there  are  thirty  thou- 
sand tons  which  can  annually  find  a  ready  market,  at  ten  to  twenty  shillings 
per  ton.  Even  the  slag  which  results  from  this  smelting  is  useful ;  for  it  is 
in  demtmd  at  Swansea  to  assist  as  a  flux  in  smelting  ordinaiy  copper  ore. 
The  slag  or  dross  of  iron  furnaces  has,  by  the  ingenuity  of  a  French  in- 
ventor, been  made  applicable  to  veiy  useful  purposes ;  by  a  careful  process 
of  casting  or  founding,  this  slag  may  be  made  mto  paving  flags,  large  building 
blocks,  and  even  pipes — of  great  hardness,  polish,  durability,  and  cheapness 
Lead  dross  has  a  commercial  value;  it  forms  on  the  surface  of  lead  while  in 
process  of  melting ;  and  by  careful  processes  it  is  made  to  yield  up  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  metallic  lead  which  had  become  combined  with  it.  Type- 
founders' dross,  in  like  manner,  or  the  dross  which  fonns  on  the  surface  of 
melted  type  metal,  is  made  to  yield  up  its  metallic  treasure  by  subsequent 
smelting.  As  to  clippings,  cuttings,  raspings,  filings,  borings,  turnings, 
sweepings,  and  other  minor  fragments  of  metal  which  fomi  the  refuse  of 
manufactories,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  they  may  be  made  available  in  tlie  pro- 
duction of  clean  good  metal. 

Of  gold  a  previous  sheet  has  jotted  down  a  few  of  the  'curiosities;'  and 
we  can  here  only  say  that  tlie  marvels  of  the  '  diggings'  in  Australia  continue 
to  increase.     Two  turn  of  pure  gold  have  been  brought  over  in  one  ship. 

There  is  a  modera  metal,  or  a  metal  of  modem  discoveiy,  the  chemistry  of 
which  is  rendered  remarkable  by  the  unconquerable  properties  (if  we  may  so 
speak)  of  the  metal  itself;  this  k  platinum.  It  differs  from  all  otiier  metals 
in  respect  to  the  great  difficulty  with  which  it  is  brought  into  the  ordinaiy 
metallic  form.  It  is  usually  found,  mixed  with  other  rare  metals,  in  grains 
or  small  pieces  in  sandy  formations.  To  melt  it  into  a  mass  is  out  of  the 
question,  on  account  of  its  extreme  infusibility ;  and  although  it  may  be 
welded  when  softened  by  heat,  yet  the  extreme  slowness  and  difficulty  of  the 
process  are  such  as  to  render  the  attempt  almost  hopeless.     Had  not  Dr, 


ui 


g  « 


it 


I 

f 


r" 


-  iWiw  'mitmamttiamuM 


MtMMW 


i<*iaite»*litetllMl<iBr»»'it'f«*'^Ml'i  >»« wiiiliMiiHWrBmrt  ■i.a.. 


J  THE   CHEMISTRY   OF   MANUFACTiniES. 

WoUaston  discovered  a  better  -thod    tWs  j^^J totht 'STto^rioi 

remained  almost  valueless ;  for  unless  it  '='^"  ^^^^'^^XUe  from  it.     Wol- 

..ontinuous  sheet,  cinicibles  and  -«««««  ^ji^^f^/^,^^^^^^^  can 

laston  showed  how,  by  ar'^''"^''^/'^    ^  t  theTrls  iTthe  fonn  of  a  fine 

he  separated  from  the  other  ^«"t  "h«  ^"i^^l^.f  Sn ^  he^  and  intense 

hlack  powder ;  how  this  powder,  by  «;«  ^^^^^"^^^''S  tgot  or  block;  and 

pressure  in  steel  moulds  can  be  condensed  into  a  ««"Sj^        ^j  touph- 

how  this  block  can  be  forged  ""f/^«  ^"^"^^'L^,*' P^fLefSness  of  this 

ness  and  to  any.required  degree  of  ^^imi^f^  -^  ^ct  iTresiat.  neax'ly  all 

remarkable  metal  results  from  the  °^f  ^^^J^SkSs--^^^  alike  are  nearly 

external  agents;  heat,  light,  air,  ^0lst^^e^^vAs  agahes    f}  -^  ^ho 

powerless  in  respect  to  this  refractoiy  «"^ft*°*="„,  ,"u^f,."cid  stills,  crucibles. 

kbrication  of  vessels  for  chemical  Fu-poses^  .f  SnmterTal     At  one  time  its 

capsules.  &c.,  ax-e  of  great  value  ^vhen  made  of  '^^^^^^\^^  ^.^Ui  gave  a 

tinum. 

Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Colours. 

•  It  would  be  impossible  to  notice  ^-^  -^  ,t^  SS^f  trCtmf 
the  •  curiosities '  which  mai-k  the  chemistry  ^^  ^^mef  ^e  meUlh  or  regu- 
tions  incident  to  manufacturing  P'-f  «^  ,f J  •  .f^^^me^^^^  ^'^ 

little  further  illustration.  ,,    .    ,  „H.:„„eW    before   nublic    notice,    illus- 

otherwise.     Hence  attempts  are  bevngi^^^^^^^  ^manufacture  of  the 

seems  at  present  the  ^^^^^^^^^^^/^^^^^^^  Metallic  zmc 

white  oxide  of  zinc  is  a  'f  »^"^"  ,,^'^^";*' ,  .- .  :„  admitted ;  the  zuic  vapour- 
is  heated  in  a  furnace  to  which  a  <r^"ent  "f^"  J .  and  her^  it  collects  on  Uie 
ises :  the  vapour  passes  mto  a  f  ^f  «f  ,f  ^^^  "craped  otf  and  removed, 
walls  as  a  light  do^^ny  flocculent  oxide  jhi^^^^^  paint,  which  may 

When  ground  up  >^f  \^^^!^^^J;^^^^^^^^  S  in  houseWing-     Then 

be  the  ground  or  substance  tor  omer  colours  r  ^^  ^^^ 

comes  tiie  rivahy  between  the  two  '  ^^^»^f -*£"  ^^^^f  ii  upon ;  but 
honate  of  lead.     The  chemical  virtues  of  the  fo™f  J^^  jSi„  ich  it  is 

the  advocates  for  the  latter  have  "^^'^f -^  P^ilvb  g^^^ 
unciuestionablytliebet^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

z  nc-white,  and  having  more     Doay  yi  »"  nnintine.    In  this  manu- 

modes  of  applying  tlie  -nc-white^s  ."  flj-;^^SlSrSv.i11^  a  brush  and 
iacture,  as  every  one  knows,  od  P^:"^*  ;™^^^^  ^he  quantity  of  paint  con- 
afterwards  through  the  medium  o  cjved  Wocks-     ihe  qua      y       P^ 


r- 


L.. 


Ic  metal  would  liavo 
^ht  into  the  form  of  a 

made  from  it.     Wol- 
eatment,  platinum  can 

in  the  f<inn  of  a  fine 
)n  of  heat  and  intense 
id  ingot  or  block;  and 
roper  degree  of  tough- 
reat  usefulness  of  tins 
lich  it  resists  nearly  all 
Bs— all  alike  are  nearly 
ee  its  impoi-tance  in  Uio 
ric-acid  stills,  crucibles, 
iterial.    At  one  time  its 
,t  in  the  nortli  gave  a 
tliousand  ounces  of  pla- 


DBS. 

a  very  small  portion  of 
during  the  transforma- 
es  the  metallic  or  regu- 
mes  the  compounds  with 
tises  on  chemistry  are  full 
1  accepted  as  specimens ; 
J  will  furnish  us  with  a 

re   public    notice,    illus- 
8  for  remedying  an  evil, 
ition  to  popular  custom, 
succeeded  in  rendering  it 
id  a  substitute  ;  and  zinc 
The  manufacture  of  the 
lical  action.    Metallic  zinc 
mitted ;  the  zmc  vapour- 
ind  here  it  collects  on  tlie 
scraped  otf  and  removed, 
a  white  paint,  which  may 
m  house-painting.     Then 
cide  of  zinc  and  the  car- 
r  are  insisted  upon ;  but 
out  qualities  in  which  it  is 
•yuig  more  quickly  than  the 
One  among  many  proposed 
I  painting.    In  this  manu- 
ikly,  first  with  a  brush  and 
The  quantity  of  paint  con- 
i  it  becomes  a  sad  enemy 
a  recent  attempt  has  been 
mt  the  result  is  considered 
It  therefore  wait  for  better. 


THE    CHEMISTRY   OF   MANDPACTURES.  ft 

One  thing  at  least  seems  imdisputed,  tliat  zinc-Avhite  is  less  deleterious  than 
white-lead. 

This  white-lead  is  ordinarily  producecHn  a  way  still  more  renmrkablo  tlmn 
zinc-white.  Let  the  reader  picture  to  himsolf  the  following  scene,  and  tlie 
actors  in  the  scene.  There  is  a  large  lofty  room,  with  an  eartlien  floor.  On 
the  floor  is  strewed  a  layer  of  ashes  ;  on  the  ashes  is  placed  a  stratum  of  tan- 
ners' spent  bark,  two  or  three  feet  in  thickness ;  on  the  bark  arc  linndreds  of 
earthen  pots,  placed  closely  side  by  side,  and  each  containing  about  a  pint  of 
vinegai" ;  on  the  eailhen  pots  are  layers,  five  or  si.x  in  depth,  of  plates  of  lead, 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  ;  on  the  lead  is  a  covering  of  boards  ; 
then  other  superposed  series  of  tan,  vinegar  pots,  lead,  and  boards — tan, 
vinegav  pots,  lead,  and  boards — and  so  on,  until  the  mass  is  built  up  to  a 
height  of  twenty  feet  or  more.  Women  do  the  work ;  they  cast  the  lead 
plates,  they  fill  the  vinegar  pots,  and  they  build  up  the  curious  stmcture — or 
it  is  at  least  true  that,  in  the  Newcastle  district,  where  white  lead  is  made  in 
immense  quantity,  more  women  than  men  are  thus  employed.  The  hetero- 
geneous strata — often  comprising  ten  tliousand  pots  of  vinegai*  and  thirty 
tons  of  lead — being  then  closed  in  for  several  weeks,  what  ensues?  The 
spent  tan  gives  off  heat;  this  heat  evaporates  the  vinegar;  the  vinegar  vapour 
acts  upon  the  lead  ;  and  by  a  series  of  chemical  actions  the  suiface  of  the 
lead  becomes  changed  into  a  white  carbonate,  which  then  constitutes  white- 
lead. 

This  process  is  so  tediously  slow,  that  chemists  are  seeking  around  them 
for  one  more  expeditious.  Mr.  Pattinson,  of  Newcastle,  one  of  our  leading 
manufacturing  chemists,  has  succeeded  in  producing  what  he  calls  oxivhloride 
of  lead — manufactured  directly  from  the  mineral  galena  or  sulphuret  of  lead, 
without  all  the  paimle  of  vinegar  pots  and  tanners'  bark  ;  it  is  cheaper  than 
white-lead ;  but  its  introduction  has  been  too  recent  to  determine  its  relative 
excellence  as  a  colour-material.  Ten  thousand  tons,  or  more  than  twenty 
million  pounds,  of  white-lead  are  said  to  be  produced  annually  in  Great  Britain  ; 
and  there  is  tlius  great  inducement  to  seek  for  new  and  improved  processes. 
So  enormous  is  the  quantity  of  spent  tan  required  for  this  singular  operation, 
that  the  manufacture  can  only  be  can-ied  on  in  the  vicinity  of  tan-yards. 

It  is  a  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  respect  to  lead,  that — dull  and 
neutral  as  it  is  in  its  metallic  state — it  is  the  source  whence  many  of  our 
most  brilliant  colours  are  obtained.  The  carbonate  of  lead,  or  white-lead,  is 
ehiefly  valuable  as  a  gi'oundwork  for  other  pigments  ;  but  many  of  the  other 
salts  of  this  metal  give  to  the  painter  some  of  his  most  lively  tints.  Take, 
lor  instance,  the  compounds  of  cliromic  acid  with  oxide  of  lead  ;  these  pro- 
duce the  beautiful  yellow  and  red  chromates  of  lead.  Take,  also,  the  com- 
pounds of  bichromate  of  potash  with  lead ;  these  yielil  tlie  well-kno\vn  chrome- 
yellow.  If  tell-tale  chemistiy  speaks  the  truth,  chrome-yellow  takes  part  in 
the  manufacture  of  our  common  mustards,  being  used  to  give  the  requisite 
yellow  tint  to  the  flour  or  oatmeal  with  which  tlie  mustard  is  said  to  be  often 
plentifully  mixed. 

This  relation  between  the  metals  and  the  coloure  used  for  painting  is  very 
intimate.  Iron,  for  instance,  is  the  source  of  many  of  the  colours  employed 
by  the  painter  and  the  calico-printer.  AVhen  the  beautiful  yellow  prussiate 
of  potash  is  combined  witli  iron,  there  results  the  well-known  Prussian  blue, 
which  is  so  largely  employed  by  paper-makers  and  paper-hanging  manufac- 
turers. Then,  again,  if  this  Prussiiin  blue  be  mixed  with  chrome-yellow, 
there  is  produced  one  among  the  many  beautiful  varieties  of  gi-een. 


r" 


iiiililii   iWiilMillifiliiirll 


m 


THM  CTfflMISTRT  or  MAN0FAOTURB9. 


But  copper  is.  perhaps,  a  more  prolific  source  of  «°l?"""?,r,**"'jL?^*!; 
iron.  The  deadly  arsenious  acid  forms  with  copper  the  brilliant  Schedes 
green,  which-when  used,  as  it  ofteiTis,  in  painting  sweetnieats  and  toys^is 
a  dangerously  poisonous  enemy.  When  copper  is  combined  >^f  »""«'": 
«tead  of  arsenic,  another  tint  of  green  is  produced,  ^he  singularly  vcmed 
carbonate  of  copper,  lately  rendered  so  familiar  to  us  ""/f'*.  ^^^  "^Twhat 
.nalnchiU,  is  sometimes  ground  to  powder  to  forni  a  useful  but  «o«;ewhj^ 
costly  green  colour  for  artists.  But  sulphate  of  ''"PPer.  more  popularly 
kn..wn  by  the  name  of  blue  vitriol,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  .f  f  i  e'uark^ 
able  of  these  copper  blues  ;  the  crystalline  masses  in  which  it  is  spinet  mes 
exhibited  are  indescribably  splendid.  Nor  is  its  mode  of  production  unin- 
structive  or  uninteresting.  Wlien  a  ship  returns  from  a  long  course  of  voy- 
aging, battered  and  worn,  its  copper  ahcatliing  is  oft«n  found  to  be  HI  Mtea 
to  bear  further  wear;  it  is  stripped  off,  and  replaced  with  ".ew-  A^nong  other 
purposes  to  which  this  old  copper  is  applied  is  tliat  of  making  blue  vitnol.  t 
is  roasted  in  a  furnace  until  it  becomes  converted  into  an  oxide,  and  this 
oxide  of  copper  is  made  to  combine  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  crystallise  into 
the  beautiful  blue  sulphate.  .  » 

One  of  the  most  extraordinaiy  metallic  colours,  however,  m  respect  to  the 
mode  in  which  it  is  produced,  is  unquestionably  vermihm.  Chemistry  pn,- 
senta  few  transformations  more  striking  than  this  If  the  reader  were  to 
submit  to  himself  the  question,  what  colour  and  what  form  of  ^Vf  *^^! 
would  result  from  melting  togetlier  solid  yellow  brimstone  and  liquid  white 
quicksilver,  he  would  guess  long  before  he  hit  upon  the  correct  reply,  ine 
substance  tlius  produced  is  the  lovely  red  powder  known  to  eveiy  one  by  the 
name  of  vermilion.  How,  when  the  melted  sulphur  combines  with  tjie  heated 
mercury,  change  of  state  and  change  of  colour  ensue,  is  yet  a  mystery ;  cne- 
mista  only  know  that  such  is  tlie  case— they  cannot  yet  dive  into  corpuscular 

The  exquisite  blue  colour  nltramarim— in  respect  both  to  its  natural  origin 
and  to  its  factitious  imitation— is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  colouring 
substances.  The  blue  is  intensely  vivid,  and  possesses  the  valuable  property 
of  being  ahnost  unaltcsrable  by  time— so  much  so,  indeed,  tliat  when  all  the 
other  colours  of  a  picture  have  faded,  the  ultramarine  blue  remains  as  bright 
as  ever,  rather  to  the  detriment  of  the  harmony  of  colour  m  the  picture,  it 
is  procured  from  a  blue  mineral  called  lapis  lazuU,v/hich  is  occasionally  found 
as  a  vein  in  masses  of  granite  in  Bokhaia  and  other  countries.  The  stone  is 
roasted  by  heat,  and  pounded  to  powder :  it  is  then  mixed  witli  oil,  wax, 
piteh,  and  other  substances,  and  melted,  which  enables  the  colourmg  matter 
to  separate  from  the  other  ingredients  of  tlie  stone,  and  f^l  to  the  bottom 
So  rare  is  the  mineral  itself,  and  so  difficult  the  process  of  preparation,  that 
the  exquisite  blue  ultramarine  powder  is  often  valued  at  its  weight  in  gold— 
nay,  there  has  lately  been  exhibited  a  specimen  valued  at  twenty  guineas  per 

*^"That  chemists  and  manufacturers  should  endeavour  to  imitate  this  costly 
pigment,  is  what  might  reasonably  be  expected.  During  the  last  twenty-four 
yeirs  Gmelin,  Peraoz,  Eobiquet.  and  others,  have  devised  modes  of  pro- 
ducing very  excellent  substitutes  for  ultramarine;  so  cheaply,  too,  that  a  blue 
colour,  more  beautiful,  intense,  and  brUliant  than  smalt  can  now  be  obtained 
for  fifteen  pence  per  pound.  This  novelty  is  seriously  aflTecting  «ie  smalt 
dealers  of  Saxony ;  for,  by  a  clumsy  anomaly  in  our  customs  tariff,  smalt  pays 
an  import  duty  of  in.<.  per  cwt.,  whereas  ultramarine  is  admitted  duty  tree. 


..-  rfrijamfauiiiihij 


i'i9««»#MWiilR!illMii«Htf^ 


vr 


louring  mftterials  than 
the  brilliant  Scheole's 
eetnieats  and  toys—is 
mbined  with  limo  in- 
The  Hin^'ularly  veined 
s  tinder  the  name  of 
useful  but  somewhat 
pper,  more  popularly 
beautiful  and  remark- 
vhich  it  is  sometirnes 
le  of  production  unin- 
i  a  long  course  of  voy- 
i  found  to  be  ill  fitted 
ith  new.  Among  other 
making  blue  vitriol ;  it 
rito  im  oxide,  and  this 
d,  and  crystallise  into 

'ever,  in  respect  to  tlio 
nilimi.  Chemistry  pre- 
If  the  reader  were  to 
hat  form  of  substance 
itone  and  liquid  white 
ho  correct  reply.  The 
m  to  every  one  by  the 
mbines  with  the  heated 
is  yet  a  mystery;  che- 
it  dive  into  corpuscular 

5th  to  its  natural  origin 
nteresting  of  colouring 
>s  the  valuable  property 
leed,  tliat  when  all  the 

blue  remains  as  bright 
our  in  the  picture.  It 
ch  is  occasionally  found 
ountries.  The  stone  is 
a  mixed  witli  oil,  wax, 
is  the  colouring  matter 
nd  fall  to  the  bottom. 
ess  of  preparation,  that 

at  its  weight  in  gold — 
i  at  twenty  guineas  per 

:  to  imitate  this  costly 
ing  the  last  twenty-four 
devised  modes  of  pro- 
eheaply,  too,  that  a  blue 
lit,  can  now  be  obtained 
jsly  affecting  the  smalt 
ustoms  tariff,  smalt  pays 
is  admitted  duty  free. 


TUK  CUEMIflTBY   OV  MANUFAOTtlBKH.  7 

Tho  blue  colour  called  smalt  just  adverted  to,  and  of  which  little  loss  than  two 
million  pounds  arc  nianufu(!tured  annually,  has  many  interesting  points  con- 
ni'cUHl  witli  its  production.  Mr.  Tonilinson,  in  a  valuable  paper  rciid  before 
tho  bociety  of  Arts  in  1851,  remarked  : — "I  think  I  may  safely  attirm,  that 
tho  blue  colour  which  is  so  extensively  used  in  painting  and  varnishing  porce- 
lain and  eai-tlienwai-e,  for  tinging  crji'stal,  and  for  (enamelling,  for  imitating 
opmiue  and  transparent  precious  stones,  for  imparting  a  magnificent  blue  to 
jjlass,  for  givuig  a  blue  tint  to  writing-paper  and  to  linen,  for  fresco-painting, 
lor  the  blue  figuies  which  adorn  paper-hangings — tliat  tlie  blue  colour  for 
these  and  for  various  other  useful  purposes  hi  our  arts  and  maimfactures,  is 
almost  entirely  obtaijied  from  two  small  districts,  one  in  Saxony  and  tlio  otlior 
in  Norway." 

The  discovery  of  smalt,  or  ratlier  of  the  cobnlt  from  which  it  is  made,  was 
closely  connected  with  tho  legends  of  mining.  In  tlie  mountainous  district 
on  the  confines  of  Saxony  and  Bohemia,  Uiere  have  for  many  ages  been 
valuable  silver-mines  i  and  tlu-eo  or  four  centuries  ago  there  was  a  belief  in 
kobolds,  or  spirits,  who  protected  the  metallic  riches  of  the  mines.  The 
silver  ore  became  by  degi-ees  depreciated  by  tlie  admixture  of  a  brownish  ore 
which  no  one  could  understand ;  it  was  tliought  tlie  kobolds  had  spitefully 
converted  the  silver  ore  into  this  brownish  nibbish ;  and  the  rubbish  came 
by  degrees  to  receive  tho  name  of  the  mischievous  spirit  himself.  A  glass- 
maker,  however,  on  trying  to  melt  some  of  this  ore,  found  hhnself  enabled 
by  its  meiins  to  impart  a  beautiful  colour  to  glass ;  and  from  that  day  the 
much-despised  kobold  (or  cobalt  in  modern  orthography)  became  a  valuable 
material. 

The  manufacture  of  smalt  from  cobalt  is  rather  a  complicated  operation. 
The  Swedish  chemist  Brandt  found  out  that  the  mineral  in  its  purest  state  is 
the  oxide  of  a  metal,  to  which  ho  gave  the  name  of  cobalt.  The  ore,  how- 
ever, as  met  witli  in  the  mines,  is  a  veiy  complex  affair ;  it  contains  not  only 
cobalt,  but  also  iron,  nickel,  bismuth,  sulphur,  and  arsenic — all  of  which 
must  be  driven  off  before  tlio  beautiful  blue  colour  can  be  obtained.  The  ore 
is  stamped  into  fragments ;  it  is  plentifully  washed  with  water ;  it  is  roasted 
for  niimv  hours  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  to  get  rid  of  many  impurities  ;  it 
is  mixed  with  calcmed  quartz  and  purified  potash ;  the  mixture  is  melted  in 
pots,  in  a  fmnace  somewhat  resembling  that  used  by  the  glass-maker ;  the 
resulting  melted  compound  is  a  blue  glass,  which  is  poured  out  in  a  white 
liquid  state  into  cold  water;  the  smalt  tlius  produced  is  crushed,  sifted, 
ground,  washed,  and  otherwise  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  which  constitutes 
(according  to  its  quality)  tlie  azure  and  smalt  of  tiie  colour-dealer — varying  in 
tlieir  delicate  blue  hues  by  almost  imperceptible  shades.  The  commonest  kind 
of  smalt  is  called  zaffre.  A  part  of  the  smalt  used  in  tliis  country  is  prepared 
at  Bu-minghara ;  it  is  sepaiated  from  the  nickel  witli  which  the  so-called 
'  Gemian  silver '  is  made,  and  is  tlien  sent  to  Staffordshire  to  be  employed  in 
painting  porcelain. 

In  reference  to  artists'  colours,  modem  chemical  discoveries  and  inventions 
have  enabled  them  to  be  produced  at  much  cheaper  prices  than  at  any  former 
period.  The  Society  of  Arts  has  recently  put  this  question  to  the  test. 
Wishing  to  aid  in  this  matter,  the  Society  offered  a  prize  for  the  best  box  of 
water-colours  which  could  be  sold  retail  at  one  shilling— undertaking  to  pur- 
chase a  certain  number,  to  give  a  commercial  start  to  the  undertaking.  The 
prize  has  been  competed  for  and  gained;  and  an  excellent  shilling  box  of 
colours  is  the  result. 


■daw 


"WH 


TIIK  CHEMIUTKY  «)K  MANUIfAClURKU. 


Thk  Cmausruv  oi'  Dyf.ino  anp  CAUco-PRtNTiNn. 

ColoureheniiHtry  hun  no  more  beHUtiful  and  important  appliciUion  than  in 
tlio  clyeinK  and  printing  of  tuxtilo  nuuiufactures.  . 

When  a  puico  of  cloth  is  dyed,  does  th.^  colonrinK  matter  combnu;  chonih 
cally  with  tiio  lilament.  or  does  it  sinvply  lo.l^e  in  little  cells?  f;!^^^'"'"^^.  "»,« 
Hci.'ntitic  dyers  ha>e.  lon^  been  discussint;  this  .im-stion  but  without  arriMip 
ftt  undoul.tod  results.  Ail  that  s.^etns  to  be  known  is.  that  it  any  one  pa  ti- 
cular  dye  bo  applied  to  textile  luaterials  of  cotton,  tlax,  h.anp,  silk,  wool,  lur, 
or  hair;  it  will  adhere  to  tliem  with  different  def^'rees  ot  hnnnesH,  and  wi  I 
prestint  ditferent  decrees  of  brilliancy,  according  to  the  nature  of  tbo  I  la- 
ment. Whether  there  bo  an  attraction  or  affinity  (as  chemists  tenn  it)  Dt- 
tween  th.^  filament  and  Uie  dy.N  varying  in  str.mgth  in  different  instances  ;  oi 
whether  the  little  cells  or  pores  of  the  filament  b.ar  a  certain  relation  in  si/e 
to  the  dyt^  particles— seems  to  !)0  left  for  the  dotemiination  ot   science  at 

some  future  i)eriod.  ,    .  ,  •  i     i  „    i,„„,. 

lUit  there  is  another  source  of  divei-sity  in  the  relations  which  dye^s  b  ai 
to  tlio  various  filamentous  substances  above  named.  Wiuther  it  is  that  tli 
colls  of  the  filament  and  the  particles  of  the  dye  do  not  suit  each  ;^>«ho  m 
size  without  a  little  'doctoring.'  or  wh.>aier  prmc.p  es  of  a  more  chennc  I 
eluu-acter  ai-e  at  work,  it  is  seldom  that  a  piece  of  .loth  w.  I  receive  a  dye  w^tl  - 
out  the  intervention  of  some  third  material-some  friendly  agent  wh'ch  wi  I 
adapt  Uie  other  two  t<j  each  other.  All  suc-h  agents  are  called  by  tj le  dyu 
■nJdants;  they  have  a  'biting'  action  (as  the  ongm  of  the  word  shows  t  cy 
bite  tliedye  intoth-  lilament.  Thus  there  arises  a  great  dmn-sity  in  m.  - 
dants  ;  for  they  depend  not  only  on  the  nature  of  the  dye  which  is  to  pene- 
trate, but  also  on  Uiat  of  the  filament  which  is  to  be  penetrated. 

But  the  chemistiy  of  dyeing  and  c.dico-printing  is  far  moj-.<V''«'"P'/''' .^n^" 
tlio  '  mordants '  seem  to  imply.     There  ai-e  no  ess  than  six  «l>ff«rent  kinds  o 
effect  to  be  produced  on  woven  cotton  goods,  by  chemical  means  before  Uic 
dyeing  and  printing  can  be  fully  attained.     One  is  the  clemuui).  Uie  removal 
of  all  extraneous  matters  from  the  filaments;  another  is  tlie  wburuuj,  or  the 
imparting  of  actual  tint  to  the  cloth;  a  third  is  tho Juiny,  or  compulsoiy 
union  of  the  dye  with  Uic  cloth  tlirough  tlio  medium  of  a  mordant ;  a  fourth 
is  Uie  iVmhavqbui,  or  Uie  removal  of  colour  from  particular  parts  of  the  clot,h 
by  chemicals"  subsequently  appUed;  a  fiftli  is  the  protecUn,j,  or  «l»elduig  the 
cloth  from  Uie  action  of  pai-ticular  colours  at  particular  spots  by  a  preparation 
called  a  'resist;'  and  la.stly.  a  sixth  is  the  bri„htenw!j,  or  tlie  development  ot 
Uie  beauty  of  Uio  colours  by  an  after  application  of  certam  chemicals.     Now 
every  one  of  Uiese  six  effects  has  its  own  particular  group  of  agents— its  own 
range  of  chemical  substances  fitted  to  produce  it^its  own  peculiar  connection 
with  the  chemistry  of  colours ;  and  it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  Uiat  almost 
every  discoveiy  in  chemistry  is  made  available  for  one  or  oUier  of  Uie  above 

''\\i"enumerate"tho  crj'stals,  the  liquids,  Uie  powdei-s,  Uie  gases  Uius  em- 
ployed, would  take  us  a  long  journey  Uirough  U.c  range  of  acids  alkalies, 
salts,  earUis,  and  oUier  bodies  on  which  the  attention  of  Uie  chemist  is 
bestowed.  Sulphur  assists  in  bleaching,  and  is  the  source  whence  ttie  in- 
valuable sulphuric  acid  is  obtained;  and  Uiis  sulphuric  acid  is  one  of  the 
means  for  obtaining  Uie  chlorine,  the  muriaUc  acid,  and  the  soua,  which  entei 
so  largely  mto  dyeing  imd  calico-printmg.     Common  salt— the  removal  ol 


'lu, 


■MMM 


HINTINO. 

I  appliciitioii  tlian  in 

uittcr  combiiu!  chonii- 
cells?  ChciniHlH  and 
I,  but  without  arriving 
that  it'  any  ono  parti- 
lidiup.  silk,  wool,  fur, 
of  tirnnJi!S8,  and  ^yill 
16  nature  of  tlio  fila- 
rhcniiKts  t«nn  it)  be- 
ditfcrent  inntanccH  ;  or 
certain  relation  in  size 
lination  of  science  at 

tions  which  dyes  bear 
A'lu  ther  it  is  that  the 
Lot  suit  each  other  in 
^s  of  a  more  cheniical 
L  will  receive  a  dye  with- 
;ndly  agent  which  will 
ire  called  by  the  dyer 

the  word  shows) ;  they 
great  diversity  in  mor- 

dye  which  is  to  pene- 
icnetrated. 

far  more  complex  than 
an  six  different  kinds  of 
inical  means,  before  tlio 
ho  cleanhuj.  tlie  removal 
•  is  tlie  colouriiuj,  or  the 
e  fixintj,  or  compulsoiy 
of  a  mordant ;  a  fourth 
ieular  parts  of  the  cloth 
)tevtinij,  or  shielding  the 
ir  spots  by  a  preparation 
,  or  tl»e  development  of 
certain  chemicals.  Now 
roup  of  agents — its  own 
own  peculiar  connection 
much  to  say  tliat  almost 
16  or  other  of  the  above 

lei-s,  the  gases  thus  em- 
range  of  acids,  alkalies, 
ntion  of  tlie  cUemist  is 
B  source  whence  the  in- 
huric  acid  is  one  of  the 
ind  the  soda,  which  enter 
ion  salt — the  removal  of 


TIIK   CIIKMIBTUY    o[.'    MANtlFACTUKK.S,  » 

the  duty  IVoni  which  has  been  an  inestimable  good  to  science  and  manufac- 
tures— is,  however,  the  gi'eat  storehouse  for  the  last-named  three  substances ; 
sulphur  btiiiig  an  agent  for  developing  them  from  tliis  storehouse.  Then,  again, 
tliere  are  nitre  and  nilrii!  aciil,  hot  and  iiitiiig,  to  act  upon  various  Huhstances 
wliich  will  not  yield  to  less  cnergetir  iicids.  Then  the  metals  copper,  tin, 
iron,  lead,  Ac. — when  in  tlio  state  of  oxide — are  most  valuable  adjuncts  to  tlui 
dyer's  store.  Again,  the  acids,  when  combined  with  the  metals  and  earths 
and  alkalies,  give  another  series  ever  widening  as  chemistry  advimces.  Add 
siiiiihmic  acid  to  ahunina,  and  W(!  get  alum ;  add  it  to  iron,  and  we  obtain 
coppems ;  ailil  it  to  copper,  imd  there  results  bhu;  vitriol ;  add  it  to  soda, 
and  we  produce  Glauber's  salt ;  add  it  to  lime,  and  we  obtain  plaster  of  Paris  ; 
and  so  forth.  It  is  not  here  meimt,  of  coume,  to  imply  that  if  we  place  the 
two  in  ccmtact,  the  compound  named  will  bo  imhiediately  produced ;  but  that 
the  compound  is  tiie  result  of  the  chemical  union  of  those  ingredients.  Thus 
it  is  that,  if  such  organic  acids  as  the  acetic,  tailaiic,  or  citric,  or  such 
niinend  acids  as  the  sulphuric,  muriatic,  or  nitric,  be  made  to  act  uixni  tlie 
oxides  of  tlie  metals  tin,  lead,  copper,  iron,  Ac.;  or  upon  the  earths  lime, 
alumina,  4c. ;  or  upon  Uie  alkalies  soda,  potash,  or  ammonia — there  result 
compomids  so  numerous  as  (luitc  to  balHe  any  ordinaiy  enumeration ;  and  it 
is  the  duty  and  tlie  interest  of  the  dyer  and  the  calico-printer  to  see  which  of 
these  numerous  bodies  will  be  available  to  him  in  the  production  of  colour 
in  any  one  of  the  six  different  ways  enumerated  in  the  last  paragraph.  There 
really  seems,  therefore,  something  akin  to  tlie  apparently  inexliaustible  powers 
of  a  pemiutation  series  in  the  double,  trii)le,  luid  ipiadruple  compounds  of 
chemical  substances  applicable  to  the  dyer's  art. 

If  we  were  to  classify  chemicals  according  to  the  dyes  which  they  tend  to 
produce,  instt;ad  of  according  to  their  constituent  ingredients,  we  should  lind 
sti-ange  companions  grouped  together.  For  a  yellow  colour  we  should  find 
brilliant  crystals  obtained  from  horses'  hoofs  and  blood,  and  known  as  prussiate 
of  potash ;  chromate  of  potash  ;  fustic  wood ;  quercitron  bark ;  weld  and 
turmeric;  and  other  vegetable  substtmcos.  If  it  be  red,  we  have  a  great 
variety  of  sources :  there  arc  the  little  bodies  of  the  cochineal  insect  and  of 
the  lac  insect;  Uiere  are  the  vermilion  and  tlie  lake  series;  and  there  are 
numerous  minei-al  substances,  such  as  the  acetate  of  alumini^.  If  it  be  blue, 
there  are  ultramarine  and  smalt,  indigo  and  weld,  and  numerous  oilier  sources. 
And  so  might  we  glance  one  by  one  at  all  the  colours:  we  should  mid  that 
the  three  kingdoms  of  nature — animal,  vegetable,  luid  mineral — idl  contribute 
under  singulai'ly  diverse  forms.  The  coloure  denominated  lakes  fonn  a 
«urious  gi'oup.  They  comprise  animal  or  vegetable  juices,  rendered  ojiaque 
itid  substantial  by  admixture  with  alum  or  some  otlier  mineral  substance. 
CVuTOine,  for  instance — one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  colours — has  for  its 
oi'ganic  element  the  little  cochineal  insect,  which  forms  such  an  impoi-tant 
ttilicle  of  commerce  in  Mexico.  The  vegetable  substance  called  madder 
yidds  anotlier  and  cheaper  kind  of  carmine.  Brazil-wood,  by  a  peculiar 
mode  of  treatment,  yields  brown  lake ;  while  Persian  berries,  annatto,  and 
iiuei'citron  bark  are  sources  whence  various  kinds  of  yellow  lake  ai-e  derived. 

(Jreat  is  the  array  of  tubs  and  vats,  boilers  and  cisterns,  employed  by  those 
who  dye  laigely  in  Uie  manufacturing  districts ;  and  great  the  ingenuity 
requVed  to  adapt  the  means  to  the  end  to  be  attained.  Sometimes  the  cotton 
or  the  wool  is  dyed  in  the  filamentous  or  unspun  state  ;  sometimes  as  a  spun 
yard  t)r  thread ;  sometimes  as  a  woven  cloth.  Silk  is  too  fine  and  fragile  to 
be  djtd  until  after  spinning.     The  chemisti-v  of  this  dyeing  is  often  very 

a  3 

\ 


to  THtl   CHKMtBTUY   0»'   MANUVACTURM. 

doop  aiul  rtciontUic.  Let  it  be  n  bluo  colour  which  \t  to  be  given  to  cotton 
cloth,  and  indJKo  thn  dye  material.  Much  luaiiaKouient  is  noctHuarj'  U)  lit  tho 
iiKonl  lor  th(i  work  it  has  to  lu'rfonn.  It  is  lirat  (l.'-oxidiH.ul.  to  k-imU'I  it 
Holuble,  and  to  ♦mahle  it  lo  t-nUir  the  littlo  pons  of  lli.t  lilanioiit;  and  then  U 
ia  rc-oxitlii*e<l.  to  lix  it  in  iti  new  home.  Uurinn  Uiis  procoBn.  it  ciiiiiig.  h  to  a 
Rroenish-yttUow  colour;  but  tliiH  mattern  not,  Hince  the  re-oxidation  roKlorert 
tho  blue.  ChemiHtry  hiw  lo  entice  liie  nidino  to  enter  tl>e  little  eellH.  and  U>en 
entice  it  to  nUiy  there. 

One  most  important  difUculty  of  the  dyer'H  tu-t  ih  to  range  all  his  coIoui-h 
into  two  groups— iiu/«i<ri;i<»t'tf  and  ^MOt"'"'"— ''ompriHing  Uiomo  which  adhere  to 
the  cloth  by  their  own  chemical  energy,  and  those  which  will  not  coimtituU) 
'fast  colours  '  without  Uie  aid  of  a  mordant.  Not  <m\y  .lo  dyes  diHer  among 
themHclves  in  tl.in  reHpect,  but  one  particular  dy.i  1  u*  ditlerent  habitiidert  in 
relation  U)  diflerent  textih-  materials— eot»>u  will  ofKn  v.ject  that  which  wool 
woul.l  receive  kindly,  and  Hilk  yet  more  lii.idly  .  and  tliere  Iuih  been  mueli 
more  thought  and  expi-rimeutal  reMciirch  ..uce'tHn-y  to  .)btom  brilliant an<l  |>er- 
maiiont  dyes  for  cotton,  than  for  Bilk  .-r  wool,  lu  respect  to  Uio  two  designa- 
tions used  above,  of  substantive  a'  .1  u.yective.  we  may  ailduce  the  colours 
called  Inken  lis  examples  of  ot^octive  dyes,  which  cannot  bo  hxed  m  the  cloth 
wiUiout  the  aid  of  a  mordant.  WheUier  made  from  madder,  c^chmeuJ  Ura/.il 
wood,  saflron  wood.  logwoo<l,  quercitnjn,  fustic,  or  w<'ld  ;  whether  called  re.1, 
crimson,  puride,  blm;k,  or  yellow— all  lakes  seem  to  have  this  higitive  (iliarac- 
ter,  unless  rendered  substantive  and  fixed  by  the  aid  of  a  mordant. 

Nothing  can  betU^r  illustrate  the  extraordiiiaiy  complexity  which  sometmies 
maiks  the  operations  of  the  dyer,  than  the  mode  of  producing  Uie  eelebmted 
Turkey  /w<  tlye- that  which  has  been  brought  so  much  into  lavour  by  the  ban- 
dana handkerchiefs.     Here  Uio  brilliiuit  tint  is  obtained  by  a  long  series  ol 
processes,  each  of  whi<!h  is  intended  to  effect  one  particulai-  change  m  Uie 
relation  between  the  materials  and  the  cloUi.     The  doth  is  steeped  m  lui  oily 
liquid  ;  it  is  allowed  to  fennent  or  *  sweat'  for  several  hours ;  it  is  exposeil  to 
tlie  boat  of  a  hot  closet  for  several' more  hours;  these  three  processes  are 
repeated  a  second  time,  and  tlien  a  Uiird  time ;  the  cloth  is  steeped  in  an 
alkiJine  TKiuid  ;  it  is  steeped  in  a  solution  of  alum  e.nd  galls ;  it  is  steeped  in 
lime-water ;  it  is  boiled  in  a  solution  of  madder ;  it  is  washed,  cleaned,  mid 
dried;  it  is  again  steeped  in  alum  and  galls,  and  agahi  boded  with  madder; 
it  is  boiled  for  many  hours  witli  soap  and  pearlash ;  it  is  boiled  a  second  imd 
aUiird  time,  witli  some  additional  ingredients  ;  it  is  exposed  U)  tlie  hesh  air 
for  some  time ;  it  is  boiled  in  water  containing  bran ;  and  fm.dly  it  is  dried. 
Now  evei7  one  of  these  manifold  processes  is  tlie  result  of  laborious  investi- 
gations, which  have  cost  much  time,  anxiety,  and  capital,  olUiough  Uio  result- 
ing product  may  perchance  bo  sold  very  cheaply.     The  dyer  knows  that  it  he 
once  obtains  a  reimtation  for  a  beauUful  dye,  it  may  avail  bun  tor  a  sale  ot 
millions  r'  >  u-d-  .  and  he  Uierefore  scniples  not  to  devote  his  bv^st  attention 
toUiatwhio.    ii.'V'"ake  its  appearance  ev*"-  in  a  cotton  handkercluel  sold 
for  a  fe"f   pu    o      "the  abov*  r.a  ,.ed  processes  for  Turkey  red  are  Uiose 
adopted    ■■  "'.'.HiOe;  *ile  Lancashire  and  Glasgow  dyers  adopt  various  modih- 
cations  in  ono  or  other  of  Uie  manipulations.     It  is  said  tliat  this  rich  tint 
owes  more  to  the  dyers  than  to  Uie  chemists;  Uie  dyers  have  discovered  it 
by  a  series  of  attempts,  while  the  chemists  ai-e  yet  at  fault  concemmg  Uie 
rationale  of  Uio  several  effects  produced. 

From  Uie  dyer  to  Uie  calico-print«r  is  but  a  step.    Few  persons  at  Ui.)  pre- 
sent day,  knowing  to  how  extraordinary  a  degree  the  business  ol  callco-pnn^ 


-  -'I'fftii'i'ifii'M"!  T-iinr'iilirMMMMaata 


1 


TIIM  CHKMIHTUY    OI'    MANIJKAfni'llM. 


II 


to  be  givwi  to  cotton 
1 1»  ii»c«tuiar}'  to  fit  t)in 
()xi<liM«tl,  ti»  iciiilor  it 
!  liliiiiitint;  uiiil  tluui  it 
rocoBN.  it  cliungori  to  u 
(1  re-oxiJutioii  roHtorcrt 
ho  little  coUm,  unci  tlmn 

)  raiigf  all  his  (U)U)urH 
thorn)  which  lulhore  to 
lic'h  will  not  coimtituto 
f  do  (lyes  (liH'er  among 

(liB'ei-ent  huhitiulos  in 

vcject  that  which  wool 
tiicre  hiiM  hoon  nnu-h 
)l)tttin  brilliant iintl  i>«'i- 
(cct  to  tlin  two  (h^Migna- 
iiy  a<l(luc()  tho  colours 
»t  bo  lixtnl  in  the  cloth 
mUlor,  cochineal,  Brazil 
1(1 ;  wheth«r  called  rod, 
iivo  this  I'u-^itivo  charac- 
1"  a  mordant, 
lexity  which  Honietunos 
rodueing  tho  celebrated 

into  favour  by  the  ban- 
ned by  a  lon(J!  Hcrios  of 
irticulai-  change  in  tlio 
jtli  is  Hteeiied  hi  lui  oily 
hours  ;  it  is  exposed  U) 
!80  three  processes  are 
1  doth  is  steeped  in  an 
I  galls  ;  it  is  steeped  in 
D  washed,  cleaned,  and 
un  boilefl  with  madder  ; 
t  is  boiled  a  second  and 
exposed  to  tlie  fresh  air 
;  and  finally  it  is  dried, 
jult  of  laborious  investi- 
itol,  altliough  tlio  resiilt- 
lie  dyer  knows  that  if  he 

avail  him  for  a  sale  of 
evote  his  b^st  attention 
otton  handkercliief  sold 
•  Turkey  red  are  tliose 
rs  adopt  various  inodifi- 

said  Uiat  this  rich  tint 
dyers  have  discovered  it 

at  fault  concerning  the 

Few  persons  at  ih.;  pre- 
businoss  of  calico-print- 


ing U  c»rriwl  on  in  Uie  norUi.  would  suspect  that  it  wuh  fu**t  practised  (so  lar 
as  F.MKland  is  cncerned)  in  and  near  London.  At  Ui.hm.md,  at  M.rton.  at 
tlrayford.  and  a  few  other  places,  these  pi. .cesses  wer..  com.ucteil  belore  J.an- 
cwhiro  had  .Uni.r..d  its  enciKies  to  tho  subject;  but  it  was  not  to  be  siu.posod 
that  cheap  labour,  cheap  steam,  and  the  vicinity  of  Uie  cotton  miuiutacturo 
would  do  otherwise  than  attract  tlus  cahco-jirinting  operations  towar.lH  llmt 
busy  county,  ihe  founder  ..f  the  now  distinguished  lamilv  o  I  eel  may  bo 
.■onsidered  the  founder  of  Uncashiro  calico  limiting.  Whether  '  Peels 
paisley  leaf  is  yet  in  existence  as  a  patUsm  for  cotton  dross  goods  we  uo  not 
know'  but  it  would  be  a  curious  memento  of  tho  progress  <.f  Uu!  art;  tor 
Home  of  the  members  of  Uio  first  Sir  llobert  reel's  family  a.o  said  to  have 
peWecU^  the  fust  printed  specimens  of  this  pattern,  wiUi  the  uid  ot  tlie  do- 
mestic flat-iron,  on  the  domestic  ironing-board.  , 

Tho  higher  class  of  iirinled  goods  at  Uio  present  day  coti.prises  barego 
shawls,  printed  velvets,   jiriiited  lla.uiels.  and  the  more   costly    varieties  of 
printed   muslins.      Great  artistic  skill  is  shown   m  devising   the    de8igi|s 
!„ech.uiical  skill    in   preparing  the  blocks,  cheniua    skill  ui  selecting  Uio 
cobmrs.  and  manipulative  skill  m  die  p.intnig.     A    the  cheaper  printed  cot- 
tons  are  now  printed  by  Uie  cylinder-process.     The  pattern  is  engmved  on 
the   surface   of   a   copper   cylinder;    and   by    an    a<  luirablo   aa.)ustment   of 
mechanism  Uiis  cylinJer  feeds  itself  with  colour,  cleatis  itself    r. mo    super- 
Ihu.us    colour,  draws  in  the  cloth   t.,  be   pruited.  and  etlects   the  pi  i.ting. 
lOvery  colour  re.iuires  ft  separate  cylinder;  so  Uiat  lor  the  niorr'  .omplicated 
patterns  tho  cylinder-machino  is  really  a  very  fine  e.wui.lo  ol  ongmcering. 
irrespective  of  the  beautiful  chemical  results  which  it   aids   m   producing. 
JJut  for  the  more  costly  and  .lelicatc  goods  sue  i  as  the  shawls  and  ve  vets 
above  noticed,  Uie  original  block  method  is  still  adhered  to.     In  this  method 
each  colour  has  a  block  for  itself,  on  which  a  cerUun  portion  of  the  pat teiii   .s 
cut  or  engraved;  and  tJio  bb)cks  are  used  singly  .uid  bv  hand  each  jinntmg  as 
much  as  its  si/.e  and  its  colour  will  permit.     Where  the  whole  design  is  but 
a  ropoUtion  of  one  small  pattern,  the  whole  surface  o    the  c  ..th  is  printed  by 
a  succession  of  applications  of  the  same  two  or  tJiree  b  ocks  ;  but  ^vUere  a  large 
shawl  (for  example)  displays  a  design  which  is  not  merely  a    et.ot  tion  ol 

extraordinary  degree.  One  of  tlie  ex.phsite  ban-ge  shaw  s  recently  produced 
s  saTto  have  required  more  thuii  live  hun.lred  carved  blocks  to  produce  it. 
^very  one  <,f  wliidi  represents  a  .litlerent  part  of  tlu-  device  (either  m  colour 
or  irpatt«n.)  from  any  of  Uie  others,  it  is  the  mode  of  weaving  that  giN^« 
f.  diese  shawls  the  title  of  baiego ;  the  materia  inay  be  silk  or  wool  oi  a 
mixtui^  of  the  two,  or  a  mixture  of  either  one  with  cotton--according  to  the 
price;  but  the  priliters  art  has  enabled  him  to  impart  beautiful  printed 
designs  to  all  tlie  varieties. 

The  CitKMisTnx  of  Pobcklain. 
From  tho  dyer  and  tlic  calico-printer  we  will  turn  to  the  manufacturor  of 

^TS  "!'it;;;Sav<,  appUed  themselves,  hi  a  «roat..  or  less  degr.-,  to 
the  potters  art.  If  we  look  to  the  tribes  of  central  and  western  Africa,  we 
ere' fifd  rou.h  and  migb^-ed  pottery,  often  baked  in  the  smi;  and  sudi  ,m^ 
also  be  said  of  semi-civilised  nations  all  over  tho  wovld^  I"  ^^^  ^"^ 
Japan  more  neatness  and  ingenuity  are  displayed.     In  China,  as  is  well 


1 


12 


THE   CHEMI8TRV    OP   JtANUFACTDRES. 


known,  fine  porcelain  was  produced  centuries  before  anything  of  the  kind 
was  known  ui  Europe.  In  southern  Europe,  the  oil-jars  and  wine-jars  are 
tlie  chief  varieties  of  native  pottery,  the  higher  khids  of  earthenware  and 
porcelain  being  derived  from  otlier  countries.  At  Sevres,  Meissen,  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  Copenhagen,  royal  encouragement  by  the  g<n'emraents  of 
France,  Saxony,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Denmai-k,  has  led  to  the  formation  of 
establishments  in  which  enamelled  and  gilt  porcelain  is  produced  in  great 
beauty  and  variety.  Holland  produces  a  homely  dell't  or  earthenware,  fitted 
for  the  steady  homely  Hollanders.  But  it  is  in  our  own  country  that  the  gi-eatest 
variety  exhibits  itself;  from  the  exquisite  porcelain,  which  we  owe  to  the 
skill  of  the  Copelands,  Mintons,  Ohamberlains,  and  others,  down  to  the 
coarse  red  flower-pot,  every  kind  is  produced  in  England ;  and  in  tlie  middle 
portion  of  the  series — that  which  comprises  the  cheap  but  well-made  and 
neat  white  and  blue-and-wliite  eai-thenwai-e — we  confessedly  take  tlie  lead  of 
the  world. 

Strictly  speaking,  tlie  chemistry  of  the  potter's  art  is  not  very  extensive ;  it 
is  rather  to  a  mixture  than  to  a  chemical  combination  of  the  ingredients  that 
pottery  is  due.  In  the  finer  kuids,  however,  where  the  clay  undergoes  a  kind 
of  viti-ification,  a  chemical  change  really  takes  place,  for  the  substance 
becomes  semi-Uanspai-ent.  The  china  clay,  produced  from  gi-anite,  and  form- 
ing tlie  body  of  our  porcelain ;  the  china  stone,  also  the  result  of  tlie  disinte- 
gration of  granite,  used  for  glazing  porcelam ;  tlie  clays  necessary  for  pro- 
ducing white  earthen  .vare  ;  and  the  commoner  clays  for  the  various  sorts  of 
brown  and  stone  ware — all  are  met  with  in  this  countiy.  The  discovery  of 
the  proper  materials  for  English  porcelain  was  quite  a  curious  episode  in  tlie 
histoiy  of  tlie  pottery  art.  The  peculiar  clay  used  in  Chma  for  this  piu|)0se 
is  called  kaolin ;  M.  D'Entrecolles,  who  visited  China  in  the  Isist  century,  sent 
home  a  few  specimens  of  this  kaolin ;  and  Mr.  Cookwortliy,  of  Plymouth, 
found  on  examination  that  it  was  identical  with  a  very  fine  clay  which  he  had 
seen  neai-  Helston,  m  Cornwall.  It  was  nearly  a  centm-y  ago  that  tliis  disco- 
very was  made  ;  and  from  that  day  the  English  porcelain  manufacture  may 
date  its  commencement— though  many  struggles  had  to  be  borne  before  suc- 
cess attended  the  enterprise.  This  fine  china  clay  differs  from  other  clays 
chiefly  in  having  a  percentage  of  the  very  rare  eai'th  called  Uthia;  all  alike 
contain  about  two-tliu-ds  of  their  weight  of  silica  or  flint.  At  St.  Austle  and 
otlier  parts  of  Cornwall,  in  the  summer  months,  busy  operations  are  being 
carried  on,  by  which  the  quartz  and  mica  are  washed  out  of  the  clay  (tliey 
having  fonned  part  of  the  granite  which  by  disintegration  constitutes  Cornish 
clay),  and  the  pure  kaolin  or  porcelain  clay  is  left  behind.  It  is  supposed 
that  at  the  present  time  not  less  than  twenty  thousand  tons  of  clay  are 
annually  shipped  firom  Devon  and  Cornwall  to  the  pottery  districts — so 
enonnous  is  the  manufacture  of  porcelain.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  how- 
ever, tliat  the  clay  is  not  all  so  employed ;  there  is  much  demand  for  it  by 
the  paper-makers  and  the  calico-piinterfj,  who  employ  it  as  a  stifFenuig 
material— perchance  to  make  things  appear  better  than  they  really  are.  These 
statements  relate  to  the  carefully-prepai-ed  clay  for  fine  porcelain ;  a  much 
greater  weight  of  commoner  clay  is  sent  from  those  two  counties  to  the 
Staffordshire  potteries. 

One  of  the  most  pleasing  advancements  in  the  potter's  art  is  that  which 
has  led  to  the  production  of  tlie  beautiful  statuettes  now  so  extensively 
known.  It  is  not  wholly  a  modem  phase  of  the  art,  but  within  the  last 
few  yeoi-s   it  has   reached  its  highest  degree  of  excellence.     The  great 


"<mi\mwimm^0mmnti)fmm» 


I 


)  anytliing  of  the  kind 
-jars  and  wine-jars  are 
as  of  earthenware  and 
ivres,  Meissen,  Berlin, 
f  tlie  governments  of 
led  to  file  formation  of 
1  is  produced  in  great 
t  or  earthenware,  fitted 
country  that  the  gi*eatest 
,  which  we  owe  to  the 
1  others,  down  to  the 
and  ;  and  in  tlie  middle 
eap  hut  well-made  and 
fessedly  take  tlie  lead  of 

IS  not  very  extensive ;  it 
.  of  the  ingredients  that 
le  clay  undergoes  a  kind 
ace,  for   the   substance 

irom  granite,  and  fonn- 
he  result  of  tlie  disintc- 
jlays  necessary  for  pro- 
for  the  various  sorts  of 
ntiy.  The  discovery  of 
I  curious  episode  in  tlie 

Chuia  for  this  purpose 
in  the  hist  century,  sent 
okwortliy,  of  Plymouth, 
y  fine  clay  which  he  had 
tury  ago  that  tliis  disco- 
:elain  manufacture  may 
I  to  be  borne  before  suc- 
iiffers  from  other  clays 
h  called  lithia;  all  alike 
[int.  At  St.  Austle  and 
isy  operations  are  being 
3d  out  of  the  clay  (tliey 
ition  constitutes  Cornish 
behind.  It  is  supposed 
usand  tons  of  clay  are 
he  pottery  districts — so 
be  borne  in  mind,  how- 
much  demand  for  it  by 
iploy  it  as  a  stiffening 
1  tliey  really  are.    These 

fine  porcelam ;  a  much 
se  two   counties  to  the 

Jotter's  art  is  that  which 

ttes  now  so  extensively 

art,  but  within  the  last 

excellence.     The  great 


THE   CHEMISTRY   OF  MANt)FACTURES. 


13 


firm  of  Messrs.  Copeland  was,  we  believe,  the  first  to  introduce,  about 
184'2,  that  delicate  variety  of  porcelain  to  which  tlie  name  of  Parian  is 
given ;  and  from  that  time  may  be  dated  what  we  will  call  the  sculpturesque 
period  of  English  pottery.  Some  call  the  material  Parian,  some  call  it 
Carrara ;  but  be  it  called  what  it  may,  it  very  successfully  imitates  the  more 
delicate  kinds  of  marble  employed  in  statuary.  Gods  and  goddesses,  nymphs 
and  graces,  satyrs,  heroes,  vases,  urns — all  are  produced  in  this  material, 
generally  in  miniature  dimensions.  The  names  of  some  of  our  best  sculptors 
are  now  to  be  seen  associated  with  graceful  productions  in  this  material — 
mind  infused  into  clay.  We  must  not,  however,  estimate  this  branch  of 
art  too  highly.  It  is  not  really  more  sculpturesque  in  the  mode  of  production 
tlian  humbler  departments  of  the  art.  The  sculptor  supplies  a  model ;  the 
moulder  is  very  careful  in  prepai'ing  a  mould  from  this  model ;  the  ingredients 
are  combined  with  more  than  usual  care ;  and  the  casting,  baking,  and  sub- 
sequent processes  are  all  sedulously  attended  to ;  but  still  it  is  not  less  a  manu- 
facture, in  its  details,  than  the  production  of  plates  and  cups  and  dishes.  Of  the 
ingredients  of-  this  Parian  nearly  two-tliirds  are  silica  or  flint,  about  one-third  is 
alumina  or  clay,  and  the  small  remainder  is  made  up  of  minute  portions  of 
soda,  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  and  iron.  All  that  careful  pounding,  calcining, 
grinding,  sifting,  mixing,  boilmg,  evaporating,  and  kneading  can  do,  to  bring 
these  ingredients  into  a  perfectly  fine  and  smooth  state,  is  done,  and  aU  that 
the  moulder's  skill  can  effect  is  duly  brought  to  bear  on  the  perfection  of  the 
moulds.  The  Paiian  is  not  used  in  the  state  of  clay,  but  as  a  liquid,  analogous 
to  the  state  in  which  plaster  of  Paris  is  employed  in  making  casts.  The 
creamy  mixture  is  poured  into  the  mould ;  some  of  it  solidifies,  and  the  rest 
is  poured  off;  the  solidified  portion  is  baked  until  it  assumes  a  firmness  of 
texture ;  the  mould  is  taken  to  pieces  and  the  cast  liberated ;  and  all  crudities 
of  surface  are  removed. 

But  this  is  only  a  part,  and  the  less  artistic  part,  of  what  is  to  be  done ; 
formidable  difficulties  yet  remain.  A  '  Dorothea '  or  an  '  Ariadne '  cannot  be 
extricated  whole  from  one  single  mould ;  the  head,  the  limbs,  the  drapery, 
have  so  many  cunes  and  undulations  of  form,  that  only  a  small  part  can  be 
yielded  by  one  mould.  Some  of  the  gi-oups  recently  produced  have  required 
as  many  as  fifty  moulds.  Then  comes  the  difficulty — the  building  up  of  a 
graceful  fonn  from  many  moulded  fragments;  the  Parian  artist  is  the 
Frankenstein  of  his  art.  The  pieces  have  to  be  cemented  together,  and  the 
joinings  so  obliterated  that  their  existence  can  hardly  be  traced.  There  is  a 
fm-ther  source  of  embarrassment ;  tlie  drying  of  the  Parian  makes  it  shrink 
to  a  remarkable  degree ;  and  unless  gi'eat  nicety  be  observed  in  the  proportions 
of  the  several  parts,  and  in  the  drying  processes,  the  portions  may  not  fit  well 
together  when  all  are  ready.  A  '  Venus '  witli  one  leg  shorter  than  the  other, 
or  the  '  Graces '  with  crooked  shoulders,  or  a  '  Una '  too  big  for  the  lion  on 
which  she  is  seated,  might  be  awkward  results  of  any  failure  of  accuracy  in 
these  particulars.  Ajid  it  is  not  merely  in  putting  these  pieces  together  that 
gi-eat  care  is  required;  but  also  in  the  subsequent  diying  and  firing.  Let 
the  goddess  be  ever  so  well  shaped  when  her  component  limbs  are  set  in  their 
places,  yet  the  slightest  want  of  caution  in  adjusting  it  in  the  annealing  oven 
may  occasion  a  twist  or  bend  which  would  render  her  a  defonned  goddess 
from  that  moment. 

Such,  then,  is  the  mode  in  which  the  beautiful  Parian  statuettes  are  pro- 
duced. Within  the  last  few  months  a  large  number  of  such  productions  have 
met  the  public  view,  illustrating  the  talents  of  Bell,  Gibson,  Marochetti, 


T 


r 


1^  THE   0HEMI8T11Y  OK   MANU  FAOTTinES. 

pm-puses,  ore  decidedly  more  clay-like  m  their  «'»'?«''".;,'^>  'X'',™ 
^viti^  judgment,  and  the  firing  is  al8«7«ll  ™*»ff  ^^mt  ve  rnS-S  iS  the 
°'td°'w!rrs1Sl  of  Krr».co«.  m«y  be  .aid  nearly  -  ■"- »' ^1;^  S°aT. 

mrtl^^a  cUy  to  to  pm»«l  iuto  moulds,  and  partly  .B  a  c^n  "  l»  J»»  «^ 
F>;jrm"iTMS  tS,^  the  material,  haw  brilliant  colom:.  nnpaited  to  them 

'^Ttt^^frLp,  "^'"clSSuy  in  the  gbt.mg,  the  painting,  .mdjhe 

feisfco^i-s^raS^^aSeSHi 

Srafacta«.S  have  ether.  «hich  they  wi.h  '»J»«1' ^f  J  «?S  ,^«SXe 
Be  the  ingredient.  »hat  they  ^'J.  *«J,«?^«  ."1  gl^oTe''  LvetS  £ 

5id^ri3tiM^:^i^.32£3^^^^^ 
ipSisr  n^irsrjipoiei^^^^^^^^^         f-.  tr.ri£ 

of  the    ®»»n^«^"*°.  ""'."'  -^   (._„„,  is  ^e  attention  necessaiy  m  tins  hring ; 
deveiopes  very  bnUia^t  JmU..  ^J^^^^^^  f^  continuance  be  either  more  or 

;rrt'  but  the  rojland  «m™^,rSS,r::«T.tpin^    '  ^"^ 


"^iimnwi 


MMN 


MNM 


THK    OHEMIBTHY    OF    MANUFACTUIIKS. 


15 


Canova,  Townshend, 
of  Million,  Copeland, 
>tlier. 

11  of  pottery  to  fine-art 
ractcr;  they  make  no 
but  yet  they  are  sus- 
cai-efully  selected,  tho 
(1  pressing  ai-e  effected 
he  leHulting  terra-cotta 
>rative  mateiial  for  tho 
ihurch  near  Bolton  aie 

Y  as  much  of  the  now- 
pavements.  The  clays 
rocesses  are  sedulously 
lat  tlie  material  is  used 
as  a  cream  to  be  jMured 
)lours  irapai-ted  to  them 

,  the  pfunting,  and  tho 
r  stages  of  inauufoctm'e. 
em  lias  been  to  discover 

into  the  state  of  a  solid 
jredients  employed;  but 
secret,  each  for  liimself. 
to  a  liquid,  in  which  tho 
glaise-oveu'  converts  this 
le  witli  which  we  ai-e  so 
ilding  of  the  more  costly 
Olio  oxides,  mixed  to  tlie 
nds  of  oils  and  spirits, 
and  dingy ;  but  the  heat 
lelibly  into  the  ware,  but 
L  necessary  in  tliis  tiring ; 
nuance  be  either  more  or 
jpment,  and  perhaps  also 
B  glass-stainer  are  equally 
irs. 

tlie  stony  particles  adhere 
iial  to  the  power  of  stone 
1  famous  for  iti  cohesive 
need  far  excels  it.  In  an 
I  prepared,  one  of  Boroan 

placed  in  such  positions 
lloman  cement  yielded  to 
e  Portland  cement  stoutly 
ight  of  nineteen  hundied. 
s  strength  when  used  as  n 
de  Park,  a  brick  beam  was 
5  bricks  were  hollow,  and 
n  height  by  two  in  width. 
Its  more  than  twenty  feet 


asunder,  and  weights  were  suspended  from  the  centre;  and  not  until  tlie 
astonishing  weight  ol'  neaily  seventy  thousand  pomids  wtxs  thus  applied  did 
the  beam  yield  and  break.  It  was  not  the  actual  binding  power  of  the  cement 
alone  tliiit  resisted  this  enormous  force,  for  tliin  slips  of  ii'on  were  introduced 
at  difl'erent  ])urt;s;  but  tho  experiment  was  intended  to  show  how  much 
strength  might  be  obtained  by  hollow  bricks  and  Portland  cement,  aided  by  a 

little  ii-on.  ,       ,  ^  ,    ., ,.  , 

Tho  production  of  '  artificial  stone."  now  employed  for  many  building  and 
decorative  iiurposes,  has  in  it  sometliing  of  a  more  clicmical  character  than 
that  of  cement ;  for  flmt  is  actually  dissolved  to  enable  it  to  combhie  wiUi 
other  substjuiccs. 

What  we  owe  to  onn  Ratt-Mtnes  and  Ai-mm-Pits. 

The  chemistry  of  our  invalmible  salt  district  is  not  so  notewortliy  for  the 
processes  by  whii^h  tlie  salt  is  brought  inU)  marketable  form,  as  for  those 
which  tho  salt  itself  subserves  in  the  manufacture  of  cheniictds  and  drugs. 
Y<,'t  is  tlie  Cheshire  routine  of  operations  very  interesting.     Beneath  the  val- 
leys of  tlie  Weaver  and  its  tributoi-y  streams  are  those  vast  saline  teeasures 
wliich  seem  as  if  thev  would  bo  inexhaustible.     There  are  near  Northwich 
two  beds  of  hard  dirty-looking  rock  salt,  one  at  a  deptli  of  about  three  hun- 
dred feet,  and  one  much  nearer  tho  smface  ;  tlie  beds  are  very  little  less  tlian 
a  hundred  feet  in  thickness,  imd  have  each  an  area  of  about  a  square  mile. 
The  contents,  tlierefore,  of  tho  Nortliwicli  beds  can  be  approximately  calcu- 
lated.    There  ai-e  nearly  twenty  mines  tiiere,  from  which  the  salt  is  obtained 
by  a  series  of  operations  nearly  analogous  to  tliose  of  coal-mining,   and  in 
(juantity  amounting  to  sixty  or  seventy  thousand  tons  ounually.     But  this  is 
not  tlie  sidt  with  which  we  are  familiar  ;  it  is  neaily  all  exported.     Our  well- 
known  and  precious  table-salt  is  obtained  almost  entirely  from  brme-springs, 
which  fonu  in  unknown  quantities  beneath  the  ground,  by  water  flowing  over 
salt-beds  of  unknown  dimensions.     Pumps,  well  applied,  never  i'ail  to  draw 
up  tliis  sti-ongly  saline  liquor ;  it  is  pumped  by  steam-engines  into  vast  reser- 
voirs, from  which  pipes  convey  it  to  shallow  iron  on  .i)omting  pans,  where 
heat  causes  the  water  to  evaporate  and  the  salt  to  crystaUise.     There  are 
evaporating  houses   in  Cheshire  which  exceed  even  tlie  Crystal  Palace  in 
length,  and  in  wliich  a  thousand  tons  of  salt  can  be  produced  in  a  week. 
These  brine-springs  yield  prodigious  quantities  ;  it  is  said  that  tho  Cheshire 
l)roduce  has  now  reached  neaily  half  a  million  tons  annually. 

In  ti-acing  tlie  manufactm-iug  uses  of  salt,  we  may  observe  that  it  is  really 
little  less  than  impossible  to  follow  out  correctly  the  steps  by  which  valuable 
chemicals  result  from  tho  production  of  other  chemicals.  Ahuost  all  chemical 
trausfonnations  result  from  a  play  of  affinities.  A  will  combme  wiUi  B,  but 
it  has  a  still  stronger  liking  for  C ;  while  B  has  a  more  energetic  affinity  for 
D  than  for  A:  if  these  four  elements  get  togetlier,  they  busily  reai^just  tlieir 
connections ;  their  former  states  of  combination  will  very  probably  be  over- 
thrown, and  we  shall  have  two  resultant  compounds,  AC  and  BD.  Among 
many  chains  of  processes,  let  us  take  one  particular  chain  as  exhibited  in  the 
great  chemical  works  of  tlie  north,  in  connection  with  the  use  of  salt,  and  see 
how  curious  are  the  gradual  developments  of  new  compounds. 

We  begin  with  sulphur — tlie  crude  yellow  brimstone  wliich  is  brought  in 
such  large  quantities  from  Sicily,  and  is  also  one  of  the  residual  products  of 
our  copper-smelting  works.    It  is  put  into  a  furnace  and  bm-nt  away— form- 


16 


THB   CHEMISTRY   OF  MAKUFACTURE8. 


in"  sulphurous  acid  gas  by  its  combination  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmo- 
sphere The  gas  is  collected  in  leaden  chambers,  some  ol  which  are  so  vast 
as  to  have  a  capacity  of  a  hundred  thousand  cubic  feet ;  and  in  Uiese  chambers 
it  is  made  to  combine  with  a  little  more  oxygen  and  then  wUh  water  whence 
results  liquid  sulphuric  acid— the  well-known  but  stnuigely-named  oil  ot 
vitriol  This  hot  burning  acid,  produced  from  tasteless  sulphur  and  salu- 
brious oxygen,  is  heated  in  a  fumnce  wifli  common  salt ;  and  one  ot  the  con- 
sequences is  that  muriatic  acid  gas  is  driven  out  of  the  salt.  Ihis  acid, 
mixed  with  water,  and  allowed  to  trickle  upon  common  chalk,  will  produce 
cai-bonic  acid  gas  in  great  abundance— either  for  making  soda-water  or  tor 
any  other  puriwses.  Muriatic  acid,  too,  if  heated  carefully  m  a  stone  vessel 
with  oxide  of  manganese,  gives  up  its  chlorine  in  the  fonn  ot  a  ga.s;  and  this 
chlorine,  if  admitted  to  a  chamber  in  which  slaked  lime  is  placed  upon 
shelves  converts  this  lime  into  chloride  of  lime  or  hleachtmi  jmtvder—a.  nnh- 
stance  which  has  created  quite  a  revolution  in  bleaching  and   dyeing   pro- 

CGSS6S  • 

But  we  must  now  go  back  to  the  point  at  which  the  muriatic  acid  was 
•sepai-ated  from  the  salt.  The  sulphuric  axiid  cannot  drive  the  muriatic  acid 
out  of  the  salt  without  being  itself  brought  widiin  the  range  ot  attinities  ; 
tlie  granulai"  salt  becomes  a  pasty  sulphate  of  soda.  A  little  coal  and  a  little 
chalk  are  added,  and  another  action  of  affinities  commences,  which  settles 
down  into  the  production  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  sulphuret  of  calcium. 
Carbonate  of  soda  is  that  invaluable  form  of  soda  which  is  now  used  to  so 
enoiTOOUs  an  extent  in  glass-making,  soap-making,  bleaching,  washmg,  mA 
other  operations.  When  anotlier  dose  of  carbonic  acid  gas  is  given  to  this 
carbonate  of  soda,  it  becomes  bi-carbonate,  the  nice-looking  white  powder 
which  foi-ms  an  essential  ingredient  in  soda-water  and  ginger-beer  PO^ders. 

Thus,  then,  we  see  how  extraordinaiy  is  the  production  of  valuable  che- 
micals from  tlie  decomposition  and  recomposition  of  some  of  the  cheapest 
and  most  familiar  of  substances.    Brimstone,  salt,  coal,  chalk— nothing  very 
beautiful  or  costly  about  tliem;  and  yet  with  a  littie  aid  from  other  sub- 
stances, we  find  them  yielding  sulphuric  acid,   muriatic  acid,  carbonic  acid, 
chlorine,   bleaching-powder,    sodarwater    powder,    and    carbonate   of  soda. 
There  is  one  thing  which  chemistry  has  not  yet  done  in  the  matter  but 
which  it  must  do  before  this  beautiful  train  of  processes  can  be  considered 
complete ;  it  must  discover  some  use  for  an  earthy  substance  called  sul- 
phuret of  calcium.    In  the  production  of  the  carbonate  of  soda,  although 
sulphuric  acid  and  chalk  are  required  as  agents,  to  bring  about  changes  by 
the  play  of  affinities,  yet  the  sulphur  of  the  one  and  the  calcmm  of  the  other 
form  no  component  parts  of  the  carbonate  of  soda  itself,  the  resultMit  ot  the 
process;  they  constitute  a  solid  refuse  which  is  a  sad  burden  to  the  manu- 
facturers.    This  refuse  or  waste  is  sulphuret  of  calcium ;  no  means  have  yet 
been  devised  of  making  it  profitably  available ;  it  cannot  be  ignored ;  it  must 
not  be  thrown  into  rivers  or  canals ;  it  is  a  '  great  fact,'  i^'hich  has  necessi- 
tated the  purchase  of  acres  upon  acres  of  land,  upon  which  the  refuse  is 
thrown  up  in  huge  heaps  as  high  as  a  moderate  house,  and  with  a  bulk  ol 
many  hundred  thousand  cubic  feet.    When  we  find  that  every  fraction  of  the 
refuse  from  gas-works  has  been  rendered  serviceable  for  some  purpose  or 
other,  we  must  not  doubt  that  chemistry  wiU  by-and-by  do  something  with 
these  monster  heaps  at  the  soda  factories.  ,     ,       .       •  * 

\s  salt  has  its  chemical  notabilities,  co  has  alum.    In  truth,  the  chemistry 
of  this  substance  has  not  a  little  that  is  remarkable  about  it.    The  three  very 


rilK    (  IIKMISTHY    l)t    IIANL'KACTIJUKS. 


17 


c  oxygen  of  the  atmo- 
mc  of  which  are  so  vast 
;  and  in  tliese  chambers 
lien  with  water,  whence 
strangely-named  oil  of 
3les8  sulphur  and  salu- 
Jt ;  and  one  of  the  con- 
•f  the  salt.  This  acid, 
lion  chalk,  will  produce 
aking  soda-water  or  for 
refuUy  in  a  stone  vessel 
fonn  t)f  a  gas ;  and  this 
lI  lime  is  placed  upon 
bleachhuf  powder — a  sub- 
iching  and   dyeing   pro- 

li  the  muriatic  acid  was 
t  drive  the  muriatic  acid 

the  range  of  affinities  ; 

A  little  coal  and  a  little 
mraences,  which  settles 
id  sulphuret  of  calcium, 
which  is  now  used  to  so 

bleaching,  washing,  and 
£id  gas  is  given  to  this 
ce-looking  white  powder 
d  ginger-beer  powders, 
eduction  of  valuable  che- 
of  some  of  the  cheapest 
coal,  chalk — nothing  very 
tie  aid  from  other  sub- 
■iatic  acid,  carbonic  acid, 
and    carbonate  of  soda. 

done  in  the  matter,  but 
ocesses  can  be  considered 
hy  substance  called  sul- 
bonate  of  soda,  although 
I  bring  about  changes  by 
I  the  calcium  of  the  other 
itself,  the  resultant  of  the 
sad  burden  to  the  manu- 
cium ;  no  means  have  yet 
mnot  be  ignored ;  it  must 
t  fact,'  which  has  necessi- 
ipon  which  the  refuse  is 
house,  and  with  a  bulk  of 
.  that  every  fraction  of  the 
able  for  some  purpose  or 
and-by  do  something  with 

In  truth,  tlie  chemistry 
about  it.    The  three  very 


dissimilar  substances— sulphuric  acid,  clay,  and  potash— combine  to  form  it : 
and  when  so  combined,  its  scientific  name  becomes  '  sulphate  of  alumina  and 
potash.'  For  many  ages  it  was  produced  chiefly  from  a  piuticnlar  kind  ot 
earth  or  ore  ;  but  modem  ingenuity  has  devised  a  mode  of  prepiuing  it  by  a 
direct  union  of  the  materials.     T-et  ns  briefly  glance  at  both  methods. 

In  many  countries  there  are  strata  of  alum-stone  or  alum-slate,  which  will 
yield  alum  by  proper  treatment.  There  is  a  thin  layer  of  alum-stone  between 
layers  of  coal  and  lime ;  and  when  the  coal  has  been  removed  by  mining,  the 
alum-stone  becomes  gradually  so  acted  upon  by  tlie  atmosphere  as  to  become 
disintegrated  and  powdery.  But  whether  stony  or  powdery  it  is  all  brought  up 
to  the  surface,  as  it  contains  sulphuric  acid  and  alumina— two  of  the  ingre- 
dients for  almn.  The  stony  portion  is  made  to  yield  to  lire,  instead  of  air 
and  moisture  ;  it  is  built  up  into  huge  pyramidal  heaps,  and  there  fired  until 
brought  to  a  state  of  disintegration.  Then  do  tlie  processes  of  steeping  and 
boiling  and  crjstallising  take  away  from  tlie  alum  that  which  it  does  not  want 
(iron),  and  impart  to  it  that  which  it  needs  (potash) ;  the  potash  being  added 
just  before  the  crystallisation.  The  alum-maker  obtains  an  additional  product, 
too,  beyond  his  alum ;  for  tlie  iron  which  forms  part  of  the  alum-stone  he 
contrives  to  separate,  and  to  convert  into  beautiful  green  crystals  of  copperas 
—so  surely  does  any  complicated  chemical  process  lead  to  the  production  of 
substances  besides  that  which  is  tlie  immediate  object  in  view. 

Hut  the  Newcastle  chemists  have  devised  a  mode  of  making  alum  inde- 
pendently of  the  aid  of  alum-stone.  Give  them  sulphuric  acid,  clay,  and  pot- 
ash, and  they  will  return  you  a  mass  of  ci-ystalline  alum  as  the  resulting  pro- 
ductr— not  among  the  least  of  the  curiosities  of  chemistry.  Oonush  clay, 
calcined  and  ground  very  cai-efully,  is  mLxed  with  sulphm-ic  acid ;  the  two 
boil  up  togetlier  furiously,  witliout  any  heat  being  applied  (another  ot  the 
'  curiosities ') ;  water  is  added ;  and  after  a  time  for  subsidence,  the  liquid  is 
pumped  into  another  vessel,  where  potash  is  added  to  it.  Crystallising,  and 
steaming,  and  re-crystallising  then  convert  this  liquid  into  a  solid  mass  ot 
alum— ready  for  any  of  the  purposes  which  it  is  fitted  to  subserve  in  the  arts. 
When  tlie  ciystallisation  takes  place  hi  a  veiy  lai-ge  vessel,  and  the  staves  of 
the  vessel  are]  pulled  asunder  to  liberate  the  solidified  alum  (a  frequent  prac- 
tice) the  appeai-ance  of  the  huge  mass  is  really  magnificent,  especially  if  we 
look  at  the  brilliant  i-adiating  ciystals  in  the  mterior  cavity.  One  of  the 
many  strikhig  results  of  these  combinations  shows  itself  in  this  manufacture. 
Alum  is  the  product  sought  for,  but  Prussian  blue  is  also  obtauied  in  immense 
quantity  ;  the  clay  employed  contains  some  iron,  which  must  be  got  rid  of  in 
some  way  or  other  ;  and  it  is  finally  driven  out  in  that  form  which  constitutes 
the  beautiful  Prussian  blue. 

It  is  one  of  the  grand  feats  of  chemisti-y  that— eveiy  now  and  then— it 
gives  commercial  value  to  materials  hitherto  useless:  converts  into  a  boon 
that  which  has  been  a  burden.  There  is  an  example  m  point,  connected  witli 
our  present  subject.  Around  our  numerous  collieries  are  huge  heaps  of  a 
slaty  substance  called  shak,  which  forms  the  material  of  the  interlying  beds 
between  the  seams  of  coal ;  it  is  removed  when  tlie  coal  is  mined,  and  is  a 
perpetual  source  of  annoyance  to  the  coal-ovmers,  who  do  not  know  where  to 
put  it  or  what  to  do  wiUi  it.  How  great  would  be  the  advantage,  then,  of 
any  project  which  might  bring  tliis  shale  into  use  !  So  thought  Mr.  Spence, 
of  Manchester,  who  formed  a  plan,  about  seven  yeai-s  ago,  for  producing  alum 
from  the  shale ;  he  adds  one  aimoying  refuse  (gas-works'  waste  liquor)  to  an- 
other annoying  refuse  (shale  from  coal-mines),  and  from  the  two,  by  various 


19 


THK   CHEMiSTBV   OF   MANUFACTUBKH. 


chemical  proceBses,  be  produces  alum,  copperas,  and  sulphuric  acid.  M.  I^- 
bin  exhibits  few  marveli  n.ore  '  mysUL-rieu^es '  than  those  which  chenusUT  often 
Sieves -and  what  is  more  to  the  purpose,  these  cheuucal  marvels  have  a 
most  potent  influence  on  the  well-being  <>t  the  world  m  general. 

AnoC  interesting  fact  in  connection  wiUi  tlic  recent  manutactunng  his- 
toid ofal. mis.  that  dyers  aiid  calico-priiiters  ai-e  now  begnmu.g  to  use  only 
tiSeTsenUdmr\»  of  it?  rejecting  those  which  have  no  mordant  quality  Alum 
U  a  Sl'ol  alumina,  iith  '.e  or  other  of  U.e  three  alkalies,  potiv^h  joda 
or  amnionia  ;  but  chemists  now  kn.>w  that  the  alkali  simp  y  causes  the  alum 
to  cmtTlUse  witijout  adding  to  its  mordant  power.  The  dyers  say  "  we  care 
notS  the  crystalline  stmcture.  give  us  the  mordant;"  and  tortliwiUi  the 
mlXturing  c^iemists  of  Newcastle  devised  a  way  to  produce  slabs  or 
SSiof  op^aque  sulphate  of  alumina,  which-though  neither  ciTstallme 
nor  beautiful— have  all  Uie  potency  for  which  alum  la  valued. 

The  Chemistht  of  Febmented  Dhinks. 

There  is  perhaps  no  department  of  manufacturmg  chemistry  marke.l  by 
more  interesting  circumstances  dian  Uiat  which  compnses  tlie  Pro'luc/'""  »* 
fermented  liquids.  The  wonders  of  organic  chemistry  are  mimy.  and  some 
otTem  are  iiade  mainfest  in  this  department.  Di^Vrent  a« --e  may  cor^^der 
the  jreneral  vegetable  structure  of  corn,  sugar-cane,  Iruit,  beet^root  and  potato 
they  may  aU  be  employed  as  som-ces  whence  to  obtam  alcohol  or  spuit 
dWere^t'as  are  spiril  ieov,  vinegar,  imd  quaitem  loaves,  they  njjy  aU  ^e 
obtained  from  the  same  com;  and  different  as  are  wine,  beer,  cider,  malt, 
sufftu'.  and  molasses,  vinegai-  may  be  t)btained  from  any  or  all  ot  tnem. 

It  is  a  curious  sUse  in  the  chemistry  of  this  subject,  that  sugar  inust  be 
developed  before  any  of  the  fermented  drinks  can  be  produced ;  indued,  sugui 
is  the  substance  which  undergoes  the  fementation. 

In  the  fli-st  place,  then,  sugai-  is  a  very  abundant  component  Part  of  ve^e- 
table  substances.     It  is  found  in  the  sugar-cane,  m  tlie  maple,  m  b««t-ioot,  i 
carrots  and  turnips,  m  potatoes  and  pai-sneps.  m  giiipes  md  fimts  oi  al 
Ss  in  mamia.  in  liquorice,  in  mushrooms,  in  every  kind  of  gram-mdeed 
uTone  of  the  most  generally  diffused  of  vegetable  principles,     ^racticd  y 
the  sugar-cane  is  the  source  whence  the  sugai-  of  comrae^o  .^^  mo^^re^ddy 
Ob  -ained.    How  the  canes  grow  in  U-opical  counti-ies ;  how  the    slave-question 
is  iSxed  up  wiUa  everything  relating  to  the  commerce  m  these  cantos;  how 
lelZZo  cut  whei  ript-tliese  are  questions  which  precede  what  we  niay 
term  the  chemistry  of  the  subject.     The  canes  are  rich  m  jmce,  a  sweet  but 
Se  UquidT  this  is  expressed  from  them  by  die  crushing  force  of  ponderous 
rX^.  2nd    rickles  inti)  a  cistern  beneath.     Then,  to  prevent  an  addUying 
procTss,  the  juice  is  at  once  boded  rapidly,  the  impurities  removed  kom  the 
surface  the  watery  portion  evaporated,  and  the  rest  brought  to  tlie  state  ol  a 
Sk  symp.    A  hundred  average  sugai-canes  will  yield  about  Ave  gallons  ot 
iuice,  frorn^  which  six  pounds  of  ci-ystalhsed  sugai"  result      The  syiup  is 
looTed  inihallow  vessels,  and  Uien  packed  in  hogsheads     The  drammgs  or 
motsses  from  Ure  syrup  a,-e  fermented  to  yield  mm.  and  the  «'"^|^lf  .f  «"gjr 
in  ihe  hogsheads  foms  our  '  moist'  or  '  brown '  sugai-^     Then,  when  brought 
to  England,  the  sugm-  is  either  sold  in  the  imported  state,  or  is  chemically 
t^eaSd  to  foi-m  'white'  sugar.     la  tlie  latter  case  it  has  to  pass  through 
strange  ordeals.     Melted  ui  hot  water,  sti-ained  tlu-ough  canvas  bags  to  get 
S  of  tire  impuiities,  filtered  through  pounded  charcoal  to  dissipate  colour. 


I 


ll',H. 

1  sulpUiuio  acid.  M.  Ko- 
ose  which  cheniisUy  often 
chemical  man'els  have  a 
I  in  general. 

recent  manufacturing  his- 
ow  beginning  to  use  only 

0  mordant  quality.  Alum 
ree  alkalieH,  potash,  soda, 
i  simply  cuuaci*  tlie  alum 

The  dyers  say,  "  we  care 
rdaut;"  and  fortliwith  the 
ivay  to  produce  slabs  or 
hough  neither  ciystalline 
is  valued. 

DlUNKS. 

ing  chemistry  marked  by 
niprisoB  tlie  production  of 
istry  are  miuiy,  and  sonic 
[fforent  as  we  may  consider 
fruit,  beet>-root,  and  potato, 
obtain  alcohol  or  spirit; 

1  loaves,  they  may  all  be 
re  wine,  beer,  cider,  malt, 

any  or  all  of  them, 
iubject,  that  su^ur  must  be 
le  produced ;  indeed,  sugar 

i  component  part  of  vege- 
tlie  maple,  in  beet-root,  in 
n  grapes  and  fruits  of  all 
^ery  kind  of  grain— indeed 
lie  principles.    Practically, 
comraerco  is  most  readily 
i;  how  the  'slave-question' 
lerce  in  these  cam^s;  how 
vhich  precede  what  we  may 
5  rich  in  juice,  a  sweet  but 
rushing  force  of  ponderous 
Q,  to  prevent  an  acidifying 
npurities  removed  from  the 
It  brought  to  tlie  state  of  a 
yield  about  five  gallons  of 
igar  result.    The  syrup  is 
?8heads.     The  drainings  or 
n,  and  the  granulated  sugar 
agar.     Then,  when  brought 
jrted  state,  or  is  chemically 
ise  it  has  to  pass  through 
hrougli  canvas  bags  to  get 
harcoal  to  dissipate  colour. 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OK   MAWUPACTUBEfl. 


19 


boiled  in  vacuo  to  drive  off  much  of  tlie  water,  granulated  to  prepare  for 
crystallisation,  crj'stallised  to  separate  the  treacle— all  these  arc  processes 
through  whinh  the  sugar  must  pass  in  its  transfomiation  from  brown  'moist' 
to  white  'lumj),'  imd  in  which  many  curious  processes  are  involved. 

One  of  the  novelties  in  this  sugar-chemistry  is  connected  with  beet-root. 
Sugar  has  been  prepared  from  this  useful  vegetable  for  many  years  past  in 
Fituice  and  (lermany;  and  hopes  are  now  entertained  respecting  it  as  a 
panacea  for  poor  Ireland.  A  hmidred  and  fifty  thousand  tons  of  beet-root 
sugar  are  now  said  to  bo  made  annually  on  the  (Jontinent ;  and  bh  Ireland 
grows  the  beet  favourably,  an  atttmipt  is  being  made  to  establish  this  manu- 
facture there.  A  factory  has  been  built  at  Mountmellick,  in  Queen's  County, 
witli  a  subsidiary  establishment  for  cutting  and  drying  tlie  beet.  The  factory 
ciufi  operate  on  .*}00  tons  of  beet  per  week,  Kui»r)osing  a  supply  to  be  obtainable. 
The  roots  are  gathered,  cut,  topped  and  tailed,  washed,  and  rasped  into  pulp ; 
the  pulp  is  pressed  to  yield  the  juice ;  the  juice  is  boiled,  jmrified  with  lime- 
water,  evaporated,  boiled  tu  vacuo,  and  crystallised.  Perhaps  we  may  yet  see 
the  day  when  tlie  beet-root  will  benefit  the  sister  island. 

As  sugar  exists  in  so  many  vegetables,  so  must  there  be  sugar  in  all  the 
substances  which  yield  fermented  drinks  ;  and  the  mode  of  compelling  tliis 
sugar  to  render  up  its  properties  is  full  of  chemic^al  niceties. 

Let  us  see  what  results  when  beer  or  ale,  porter  or  stout,  is  to  be  produced. 
Any  kind  of  corn  will  yield  beer ;  because  the  starch  contained  in  a  gram  of 
com  is  convertible  into  sugar,  and  the  sugar  into  a  fermentable  substance. 
But  by  the  process  of  malUntj  (in  wliicli  moisture  and  heat  ai'e  applied  to 
barley)  the  starch  of  the  grain  is  converted  into  sugar  in  such  a  state  as 
greatly  to  facilitate  the  brewing  process.  Malt,  therefore,  or  malted  grain,  is 
employed  by  our  brewers.  The  malt  is  crushed  between  steel  rollers  to  a 
powder,  or  rather  giist  (we  are  speaking  of  tlic  operations  at  the  gi'eat  porter 
breweries) ;  it  is  mashed  with  hot  water  to  extract  the  saccharine  matter  from 
it;  the  extract  is  boiled  in  huge  coppers  with  the  flowers  of  tlie  hop,  to 
impart  bitterness;  the  extract  or  'wort'  is  cooled,  then  fermented  in  vssels 
of  an  enormous  size,  then  '  worked '  or  deprived  of  it"?  frothy  yeast,  an  hen 
fined  or  cleared.  The  chemistry  of  brewing  is  placed  in  an  interesting  light 
by  the  recent  declaration  of  the  Burton  ale-brewers  (made  under  circum- 
stances which  enforce  belief),  that  the  high-class  Burton  ale  is  made  from  no 
other  ingredients  whatever  tliiui  malt,  hops,  and  pure  water. 

But  the  spirit  or  alcohol  of  the  distiller  is  more  chemically  important  than 
the  ale  or  beer  of  tlie  brewer  ;  since  it  passes  through  more  advanced  stages 
of  progress.  Brandy  is  produced  from  wine,  mm  from  molasses,  whiskey 
and  gin  from  com ;  they  ai-e  all  alike,  however,  in  owing  their  fundamental 
qiialit)'  to  Uie  alcohol  which  they  contain.  Each  country  employs  the  sac- 
charine material  most  readily  obtained;  and  thus  tlie  flavour  of  diflerent 
kinds  of  alcoholic  bevei-age  depends  on  local  circumstances  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate. The  wine-regions  of  France  have  in  the  grape  an  abundant  supply  of 
sweet  juice  which  yields  spirit  by  distillation ;  the  sugar-planters  of  the  West 
Indies  have  a  thick  sweet  residue  from  their  sugai'-drainings  which  is  rich  in 
alcoholic  elements ;  and  corn-gi'owing  countries  have  in  store  the  stai'chy 
supplies  which  become  transformed  first  into  sugar  and  then  into  spirit. 
The  differences  between  brandy,  rum,  and  whiskey  depend  on  the  differences 
between  grapes,  sugar-canes,  and  corn ;  the  resemblances  depend  on  the  alcohol 
which  they  are  all  in  common  capable  of  yielding. 

So  far  as  our  own  English-made  spirits  arc  concerned,  they  can  be  pro- 


30 


THE    CHEMISTnT    OF    MASUFACTI'RES. 


curod  cither  from  raw  grain  or  (ron,  nmltcd  Rra.n.     So.no  '1  «t.ll.n-s  omp % 
jnalt  only,  but  as  this  is  very  costly,  raw  Rrau.  la  usually  .'niployr.l  u»  laiRei 
nul%-barloy.  chietly ;  but  also  wh..at.  rye,  an.l  oats;  .t  .s  a  q»^- »"»  < 
£.  8.  r/.  wiUi  the  .listillcr,  at  any  particular  tiu.o  am    place,  to  combnie    U3 
iuKredients  according  to  the  state  oi  the  market.     These  ingredients,  then 
^fregdarly  hrea-ed  before  tliey  can  be  distilled;  the  saccharine  rnatter  nut 
Z^  extmcted  and  fennented  before  alcohol  can  be  o  .tamed.     The  ma     i 
mished,  Uio  grain  is  ground,  tJ.c  >vater  is  heated,  and  all  three  are  mashed 
^togeUier  in  a  mash-tun ;  the  sickly-sweet  extract  or  '  wort '  that  i-eaults  is 
cooled  and  then  fennented,  by  which  the  sugar  of  the  gram  becomes  con- 
verted into  alcohol.     To  separate  tliis  alcohol  from  the  water  is  the  objc^  o^ 
distilling;  the  fermented  liquor  or  '  wash '  is  boiled  m  '"^f  «/^\'^^*';.7\, '^'^ 
alcohol,  becoming  vaporised  sooner  than  water,  passes  out  of  the  still   in  a 
•aporic  form,  and  is  Uien  condensed  into  liquid  spirit  by  the  vicmi  y  of  coM 
water.     Real  good  whiskey  is  much  more  scumtihcally  pure  (so   t.)  spt.ak) 
than  any  kind  of  gin  or  cordials;  the  latter  are  '  doctored   in  various  mysU. 

nous  and  questionable  ways.  i         „  ,.„„„  „r.irU   in 

,    As  spirit  is  an  advance  upon  beer,  so  is  vinegar  an  advance  "Pon  spnit    i 
respect  to  Uie  chemical  history  of  the  liquid  produced.     It  may  be  made 
from  any  ..f  the  substances  which  will  produce  beer,  or  from  any  which  will 
produce  spirit,  or  from  beer  and  spirit  themselves ;   but  it  goes  one  stage 
beyond  them  in  the  chemistiT  of  its  manufacture.     Various  sources  a  e  em- 
ployed  by  different  vinegar  makers,  but  malt  is  more  generally  used  by  tl  c 
manufacturei-s  in  Uie  neighbouriiood  of  tlie  metropolis.     It  would  be  a  soie 
"rnplaint  to  make  against  the  usquebaugh  of  L-eland,  or  the  '  mountain-dcw 
ofTSighlands,  that  it  was  soii  or  acid ;  and  yet  Uiese  l^"™'"?  l^^^;;  j^,-; 
produced  from  the  very  same  kind  oi  malt  as  the  gi-eater  part  of  the  London 
Vinegar.     The    vinegir-maker    grinds    his    malt    into    grist ;    he    extrac  s 
'  worf  from  this  grist  by  mashing;  he  cools  tlie  wort  m  a  refrigeratoi ;  he 
ferments  the  wort  into  oyfe  (a  distiller  would  call  the  liquor  u-o^  t,  while  to  a 
brewer  it  would  be  simplv  unfinished  beer  or  ale);  he  transiers  the  gyle  into 
casks;  and  he  there  causes  it  to  undergo  the  acetous  fenncntat.on  which 
converts  it  into  vinegar.     This  acetous  change  is  very  remarkable,  for  it  ma> 
be  brouRht  about  either  by  the  heat  of  a  closed  room  or  by  the  fresh  air  ol  u 
lield     In  Fi-ance  the  stoving  is  most  practised,  and  it  is  gradua  y  becoming 
extended  in  England;  since  the  f.eld-n>  thod,  by  leaving  the  l"iu'd;"«'y 
weeks  or  even  months  in  the   ca.sks,   renders   much  capital  unproductive 

*XdUheXK2sses-in  the  extraction  of  juice  from  the  sugar-cane,  in 
the  preparation  of  brown  sugar  from  the  juice,  in  tlie  retming  ot  this  brown 
!iu!r£.  iJto  white,  in  the  production  of  beer  and  ale,  in  tJie  distillation  of  U  e 
various  kinds  of  spirit,  in  the  making  of  vinegar-tho  recent  improvements 
have  been  so  many  and  varied,  that  we  cannot  even  ^""•"^^•ftf ,  ^^«'?;;  ^/J^" 
niceties  of  chemistry  have,  one  by  one,  been  rendered  avaUable,  either  lor 
Sie  improvement  of  the  liquid  produced,  or  for  the  economy  ot  the  matenals 

"""Wme-raakmg  has  also  its  chemistry,  tliough  not  to  so  notable  an  extent  as 
the  examples  just  adduced.  Take  the  case  of  ordmaiy  f  «7' /«^;,»"«.X^^; 
The  fine  Spanish  grapes  are  gatliered  m  September,  when  tully  ripe ,  thcj 
are  sorted,  turned,  and  exposed  to  tlie  sun  for  a  couple  of  days;  they  au. 
placed  in  a  shallow  trough,  and  are  jumped  upon  in  an  uncouUi  manner  .) 
men  wearing  wooden  shoes.     The  bruised  grapes  are  subjected  to  the  action 


THE   CIIEMISTllT  OF  MANUFACTDnES. 


31 


^oino  (listilloi-s  employ 
ly  t'mj)loy<'(l  in  larj^'er 
r,  it  is  II  question  of 
place,  to  combine  hia 
use  ingrctlients,  then, 
laccharine  matter  must 
:)tainecl.  'I'ho  malt  is 
all  three  arc  mivshcd 
'wort'  that  results  is 
le  grain  becomes  con- 
ic water  is  the  object  of 
n  close  stills;  and  the 
s  out  of  the  still  in  a 
t  liy  the  vicinity  of  cold 
illy  ptire  (so  to  spc^ak) 
ured'  in  various  niystt;- 

advance  upon  spirit,  in 
ced.     It  may  be  made 
or  from  any  which  will 
but  it  goes  one  stage 
/arious  sources  ai'e  em- 
3  generally  used  by  the 
IS.    It  would  be  a  soro 
I,  or  the  '  mountain -dew' 
hese  buming  liquids  are 
ater  part  of  the  London 
rito    grist;    he    extracts 
ort  in  a  refrigerator ;  he 
3  liquor  wash,  while  to  a 
3  transfers  tlie  gyle  into 
tous  fermentation  which 
y  remarkable,  for  it  may 
1  or  by  the  fresh  air  of  a 
it  is  gradually  becoming 
eaving  tlie  licjuid   ma.ny 
ch  capital  unproductive 

from  the  sugarcane,  in 
le  refining  of  this  brown 
in  tlie  distillation  of  tlie 
ho  recent  improvements 
i  enumerate  tliem.  The 
ered  available,  either  for 
economy  of  the  materials 

o  so  notable  an  extent  as 
iiai-y  sherry,  for  instance. 
)er,  when  fully  ripe  ;  they 
couple  of  days ;  they  me 
in  an  uncoutli  manner  by 
ire  subjected  to  the  action 


of  a  wooden  press,  by  which  the  miiM  or  juic^e  is  pressed  out ;  and  this  must, 
received  into  proper  vessels,  is  allowed  to  ferment  into  wine.  The  great 
])oint  of  difference  between  wine  and  the  other  fermented  drinks  is,  that  the 
former  gains  very  greatly  in  (juulity  by  keeping ;  the  fermented  juice  contains 
many  more  substances  tlian  merely  alcohol  and  sugar ;  and  these  substances 
acriuire  by  age  many  attributes  which  tlio  connoisseur  knows  well  how  to 
appreciate.  Why  '  fine  old  crusted  port,  twenty  years  in  bottle,'  is  different 
from  new  port,  vegetable  chemistry  must  tell  us.  Wine-making  is  not  a 
steam-engine  process ;  it  is  an  old-fashioned  operation  of  old-fkshioned  coun- 
tries, and  is  but  little  subject  to  change  or  improvement. 

CuK.Mr(Ar,    MlSCEt.LANIKS. 

We  will  group  together  a  number  of  miscellaneous  examples  which  present 
curious  or  novel  aspects. 

The  boracic  acid  lagoons  of  Tuscany  afford  a  notable  example  of  a  dreary 
desolating  natural  phenomenon  being  made  available  to  man's  use  by  the  aid 
of  chomistrj'.  In  a  mountainous  district  about  twenty  miles  from  Sienna 
there  is  a  fearful  region.  Biu-e  and  bleak  mountains  are  inmiersed  in  clouds 
of  tliick  biili)hurous  vapour;  boiling  hot  water  bursts  from  tlie  ground  witli 
explosive  noise,  giving  oft"  abundance  of  smoke  and  vapour ;  miniature  erup- 
tions frequently  occm-  in  the  ground,  producing  dismal  hollow  reverberating 
noises ;  the  heat  is  close  and  suffocating;  tlie  suri'ace  of  tlie  gromid  is  covered 
with  much  crystalline  and  efflorescent  matter ;  and  there  lu-e  lagoons  or  ponds 
containing  liquid  of  such  a  dread  character  that  no  living  thing  can  bear 
immersion  in  it  for  an  instant.  The  water  of  these  lagoons  has  been  found 
by  modern  cihemists  to  contain  boracic  acid  ;  and  hence  it  becanie  an  object 
to  try  whether  the  useful  substance  borax  could  thence  be  obtained.  The 
(piantity  of  the  acid  in  tlie  water  is  not  large ;  but  it  is  known  that  tlie  va- 
pours which  curl  about  tlie  mountains  include  boracic  acid  vapour ;  and  a 
happy  mode  has  been  suggested  of  making  these  vapours  useful  instead  of 
deleterious  to  mankind.  Artificial  cavities  are  formed  at  vaiious  heights  in 
the  movmtains,  which  become  gi-adually  filled  with  water  by  the  mountain 
streams  ;  the  hot  vapours  which  burst  from  tlie  ground,  in  tlic  beds  of  these 
cavities,  combine  witli  the  water,  and  convert  it  into  a  kind  of  weak  boracic 
acid  ;  and  this  acid,  by  concentration  and  crystallisation,  produces  borax.  It 
is  awful  work,  however:  an  accidental  fall  into  one  of  the  lagoons  is  almost 
certain  death. 

Nothing  can  be  more  curious  and  instructive,  in  connection  with  manufac- 
tures, than  the  contrast  between  the  sources  whence  chemical  subsUmces  are 
obtained,  and  the  purposes  to  which  tliose  same  substances  are  appropriated. 
Acids,  alkalies,  salts — all  exhibit  these  contrasts.  We  have  noticed  many 
such  examples ;  let  us  glance  at  a  lew  more. 

Jjet  tartaric  acid  he  soi  histmce.  This  acid  is  obtained  from  the 'tartar' 
(as  it  is  familiarly  called)  which  is  deposited  in  wine-vats  during  fermentation, 
and  which  is  subjected  to  melting  and  ciystallising  and  otlier  processes  to 
make  it  yield  up  the  acid.  Many  thousand  tons  are  procured  annually  from 
France,  Spain.  Italy,  and  other  wine-producing  countries;  and  when  the 
beautiful  acid  crystals  are  derived  by  chemical  aid  from  the  tai-tar,  they  are 
employed  in  calico-printing,  and  in  tlie  preparation  of  lemonade  and  other 
cooling  beverages.  White  wines  and  red  wines  yield  two  different  kinds  of 
tartar,  similarly  designated  as  white  and  red ;  and  according  to  the  mode  of 


M 


THK   CHKMIBTBY   OF   MANUPAOTUBBB. 


I 


treatment,  In  tho  man«fHCtori.>K  n«ar  UmAou,  Hther  cream  of  tarlar  or  tarUiru 
lid  is  nn,.lucea  iV-.n,  tl..  onuh-  tH.t«r.     A.u.ther  ac.d,  the  cUrn;  is  obta.ne<l 

identical  t..  tl.ose  lor  wfiich  firturic  acid  is  lilted.     Thn  co.u-cntmtc.l  juiee  oi 
the  fttiit  is  mibjeoted  U>  vai-i.-us  crystHUising  and  othm;  pr(>c«Hs,.« 

Oxttlio  acid,  iallic  acM<l.  honzoic  acid-uU  arc  crysUlhuo.  an.l  all  aro  ..  ,t,imod 
from  animal  or  vegetable  Hubstances.     It  HemnH  Htrango  to  ^.'"^':  '"''";"" 
with  <henu8t.y  that  mub  a  HobHtance  an  oxalic  ftcul-ciyst^illine  m  torn   a.  1 
poiHonons  in  .inalily-Hhonld  be  derived  from  such  I'"  «'-"«;:'»'"";.i;\'";;. 
an  sug.ir,  nilk.  saw-d,.«t.  hair,  and  glu.— substance,  n.jlnbly  unlike  <■  "=h  '  IJ.    . 
'Ibo  but  is,  however,  that  there  are  .rerbiin  chemical  elements  i.i  each  '•  .1'"'  ' 
which  may  bo  Si^j.arated  by  vai'ioua  processes,  an.    ma.le  so  to  >*=^^»'"';'»';  ';^ 
to  lorui  oxalic  .f  .1 ;  lor  this  acid  .onsists  ..f  nothmg  but  oxyg.'U  caibon,  au.l 
water      The  sorrel  which  school-boys  ,.ick  in  tin,  (i.'lds  derives  Us  sourness 
fn.m  th.^  presence  of  this  acid.     In  niMUufaclur.is  an.l  varu.us  process.'S  it  has 
so    et  ling   of    a  bleaching   acti..n ;   for   it   is   use.l    by   .Mihco-printers   lor 
'd^charglng-  colours  from  ch.th  ;  an.l  it  is  ,dso  employe.l  l..r  whit.nmg  boo  t- 
topH.  stmw  bonnets,  and  ..ther  articles.     Gallic  acid.  an.UluT  ut  the  tluee 
n,.ntione.l  above.  i«  prepared  from  nut-galls;  it  t..rms  a  y,*^'^"^  "»ff;;;;f '"  ,'" 
writing-ink.  whi.'h  in  i.art  owes  its  blmkness  to  this  a.-id.     ««"'■«'«     '^^'^ 
pmduced  from  a  gum  or  resin  called  benzo  n-^.r.  in  more  p..pula    language^ 
he„jamin :  it  is  tho  juice  of  a  tree  growing  m  tropical  climates,  and  has  a  very 

"^'Therl'n^^mry'oUier  acids  employed  in  manufactures  or  in  medicine  the 
sources  of  which  are  very  remarkable.     Thus  the  '^f'f'^'^'^/'Z-mZ 
arsenLius  acid,  is  derived  largely  from  the  tm-mmes  .d  ^»"'^^" '  f;.*:' 'ft?' 
arsenic  is  combined  with  most  ..res  of  tin.  and  m  the  process  of  loastm^  the 
on,  tho  arsenic  is  sepaiated  in  the  form  of  arsenious  a.'id  «V'     t,'"'*"'"L,.^ 
Nor  are   the   salt«   less  wortln-  of  attention   m   respect  to   the   souici^s 
whence  they  are  obtained.     These  salts  are  generally  compounds  ..1  aci.ls 
with  alkalies,  earths,  or  metallic  oxides.     Take  tho  munate  ..t  amnumia  or 
al-ammonia;.  as  an  exampl...     The  first  i,.fonnat,..n  -^'^  '   '• -^^  ;* . '  ,' 
respecting  this  salt  was  that  it  came  from  Egypt,     it  is  w.-H  kii.  wn  tha   U.  . 
samly  districts  of  that  country  aro  very  deficient  in  fuel ;  tlie  '"  if  f  f    J^ , 
to  tai  their  ingenuity  to  find  a  substitute ;  and  one  such  «"»^«^»  "  «  *"  i", 
camels'  dung,  which  gives  a  dull  smoul.lering  kind  o    fire,     fhe  bo<^t  o 
'Srcks-  which  rises  ft-om  this  fuel  is  f.,und  to  contain  much  "'""ate  « 
ammonia ,  and  means  aie  n.lopte.l  for  .xtricatmg  tins  salt  trom  the  soot    1  htne 
meanl  as  adopted  by  Uie  Egyptians,  aro  singularly  rude  und  primitiye.  a  .1 
weie  not  likely  to  maintain  ^-ound  (so  far  as  the  supply  ot  Europe  is  con- 
m^ed)  after  chemist.^-  made  its  recent  gigtmtics- rides.     Ammonm.  m  one 
or  other  of  its  ombhiations,  is  now  known  to  be  present  in  a  «"";'^'    «' 
animal  substances,  such  as  silk,  hair,  and  wool-bone    blood,  and  llesh--- 
hZ  hoof,  and  claws;  and  the  cai'cases  of  slaughteix^d  animals  suppy  an 
abundance  of  such  substances  at  a  v-ery  cheap  rate,     ^(.dem  chennstxy   s 
the  most  universal  a,id  tl.e  most  useful  of  all  s.nu.3ngers;  it  «f  ^^J*  ™ 
from  everv  possible  quarter,  and  extracts  value  and  beauty  from  it.     A  Morses 
hoo™  or  2, L  hom.ls  quite  a  treasure  to  tire  chemist ;  he  -iU  utterly  destroy 
it  so  far  as  fonn  and  component  structure  are  concerned;  but  look  at  tie 
gliUering  crystals,  and  the  brilliant  colours,  and  the  uselu    aci.ls  ami  salt^ 
ffichTe  will  obtain  by  the  transformation.      The  gas-woi-ks,  too,  which  are 
obliged  to  use  liquids  to  wash  and  purify  the  gas,  would  be  burthened  with  an 


niR    rHKMIHTRY    OF    MANUPAOTHRKfl. 


ftB 


am  of  tartar  or  tartaric 

ihe  citric,  is  obtained 

iicliuUnR  mmio  nearly 

(!0iU!cmtmU!(l  juice  of 

10,  and  all  iiro  obtiiinod 
[e  to  thoso  unfttiniliur 
■i-j'stjdlino  in  ionn  and 
lit'tcr<if<onooUH  HourwK 
ibly  unliko  tiich  olhtT. 
iiirnts  in  t;aih  of  tlicin 
ill!  HO  to  reeondiini'  us 
lilt  <).\yj,'«'n,  ciuliou,  autl 
s  donvcH  its  sounioss 
tvrioiis  proci'SHcs  it  has 
by  cKlico-printora  lor 
yod  i'ov  wliitiiiinu;  boot- 
,  anoUu  r  of  tbe  three 
a  chief  ingredient  in 
luid.  Benzoic  acid  is 
iiore  jxipular  langua^'e, 
i!linuites,  and  ban  a  very 

n-eH  or  in  medicine,  thc^ 
U(!h-dreaded  arsenic,  or 
)f  Cornwall ;  the  nietnl 
process  of  roasting  tbe 
icid  or  white  arsenic, 
•espect  to   the   sources 
ly  compounds  of  acids 
munato  of  amiiioniu,  or 
»n  which   chemists  hud 
;  is  well  known  that  tbt! 
jl ;  tlu!  inhabitants  have 
uch  substitute  is  dried 
il  of  fire.     The  soot  or 
ntain   much  muriate  of 
alt  from  the  soot.  These 
nide  and  primitive,  and 
ipply  of  Europe  is  con- 
ides.     Ammonia,  in  one 
present  in  a  number  ol 
one,  blood,  and  llesh — 
en;d  animals  supply  an 
.     Modem  chemistry  is 
ngers  ;  it  collects  refuso 
eauty  from  it.     A  horse's 
t ;  he  will  utterly  destroy 
icemed  ;  but  look  at  the 
i  useful  acids  and  salts, 
gas-works,  too,  which  are 
uld  be  burthened  with  an 


unsavoury  anmioniacal  liquor,  werw  it  not  that  the  chemist  kindly  stflps  in  and 
UHOH  this  li(pior  as  a  source  wbnice  to  obtain  sul-ammoniiic. 

The  nitre  which  forms  such  a  notable  ingredient  in  gunpowder  is  another 
of  those  salts  which  occur  in  queer  and  out-of-the-way  places.  That  the  walls 
of  Btubles  and  cellui's,  tlie  sides  of  cavems,  and  the  sinface  of  the  ground  in 
hot  climates,  should  yield  nitre  in  a  line  powder}'  state  seems  8oniowhat 
stninge;  yet  such  is  the  case,  ami  a  large  portion  of  tbe  commercini  supply 
is  thus  obtained.  In  some  of  tbe  tropicid  regions  of  Africa  and  Asia  nitre 
forms  (m  tbe  ground  as  a  white  etllorescenee,  when  heavy  rains  have  b«wn 
succeeded  by  intense  beat:  the  rain  first  acts  on  certain  constituents  of  the 
soil,  and  the  heat  then  developes  the  nitre  as  a  cheinicul  resultant.  The 
natives  scrape  olV  mi  inch  or  two  in  de|)tb  of  tbe  soil,  steej»  it  in  water  so  as 
to  wash  out  the  nitre,  allow  the  earthy  matter  to  subside,  e.\[iose  the  nitreous 
liquor  in  shallow  vessels  to  tiio  heat  of  tlio  sun,  and  evapomte  it  so  as  to 
produce  crude  coarse  nitre.  In  other  countries  of  the  Kast  the  nitre  is 
scraped  annually  from  tlio  walls  of  caverns,  and  treattid  nearly  in  a  similar 
way. 

liike  as  in  the  ease  of  sal-ammoniac,  bo  in  the  present  cttse,  modem 
chemistiT  has  found  tJio  means  of  producing  the  compound  from  sourceg 
independent  of  any  particular  localities.  A  little  nitre  is  contained  in  tobacco, 
maize,  b(!et-root,  luul  other  plants,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  for  manuli«5- 
tiiring  purposes.  Uy  making,  however,  a  sort  of  artificial  nitre-ground,  or 
a  bed  containing  nitreous  materials,  the  foniialion  of  nitre  is  ensured  at  any 
convenient  spot.  Stable  dung,  vegetable  mould,  wood  ashes,  and  other  sub- 
stances which  contain  either  nitrogen  or  potash,  are  worked  up  into  a  sort  of 
clay  and  Iniilt  into  beds  or  heaps,  the  slow  action  on  which  by  the  atmosphere 
leads  ultimately  to  the  jjioduction  of  nitrate  of  potash,  the  chemical  name 
for  nitre. 

'J'he  bones  that  used  to  be  thrown  away,  unless  suHiciently  large  and  good 
for  the  purposes  of  the  turner,  aro  now  sedulously  preserved.  Either  tb(i 
mill  grinds  them  up  kito  a  powder  for  manure,  or  the  chemist  extracts 
pliosj)liorus  and  other  valuable  matters  from  them.  The  soot  luid  sweepings 
and  sewage,  which  used  so  to  iieiple.x  our  forefathers,  and  which  still  i)erplex 
those  who  have  been  slow  to  avail  themselves  of  modern  discoveries,  are 
jirecious  stores  to  the  chemist,  whence  he  obtains  products  often  of  singular 
l)eauty  and  usefidncss.  J51ood,  lime,  charcoal,  and  t)ther  substances  used  in 
tbe  refining  of  sugar,  were  foniierly  consigned  to  the  dust-heap  or  the  common 
sewer  when  the  relining  was  completed.  Not  so  now,  however ;  for  the  addi- 
tions they  have  uccpiired  in  the  pnjcess  render  them  actually  more  valuable  to 
the  chemist  than  in  their  fonner  pure  state.  Twenty  years  ago  guano  was 
utterly  witliout  value  in  the  market ;  but  agricultural  chemisti-y  has  now  given 
it  such  a  value  that  hundreds  of  ships  are  employed  in  wmvcying  it  across 
the  seas.  'J'he  gas  companies  used  to  pay  money  for  pennission  to  throw 
away  their  refuse  anmioniacal  li(iuor  into  the  common  sewers ;  but  chemistry, 
aa  we  have  just  remarked,  has  created  a  juofitable  market  for  this  liquid. 
The  water  in  which  Heeces  are  washed  becomes  impregnated  with  the  gi'ea.sy 
impurities  with  which  tlie  wool  filaments  are  coated,  and  this  water  used  to 
be  thrown  into  ditches  or  drains ;  but  now,  by  addhig  a  little  alkali  to  it.  a 
kind  of  soap  is  produced  which  is  available  in  the  subsequent  scouring  oiiera- 
tions  in  the  woollen  manufacture. 

The  chemical  history  of  cowireres  or  luci/ers  is  by  no  means  devoid  of 
interest.     The  days  of  Uie  Hint  and  steel  ore  j-'assed,  so  far  as  England  is  con- 


1 


■MR 


-.1 


jj4  -mfc  cnEMISTBV   ok   MANDrACnitlPJ. 

the  phosphomH;  then,  wa«  Uio  «"ll' l""*^  ''^^.^tS '  i  h  '^  co-npIialuHl 
with  cl.lorau,  of  potaHh;  tl.ere  wu8  tl.e  1''''  ",,"'..''. J'  ,.,j  ',,„  tl.e 
TpparatuH  to,  proaucing  mu\  chroctinK  ^  "fj^'lm  c2rovt-th.  very 
plltina.  But  Kll  theno  have  gm'u  ^'^y,  »;\\"*; '"^  vvfflhor  the  con.po- 
perfection  of  simplicity  and  u«ef«h.eBH  and  ^^^  ,„Ser  of  U»e  various 
»ition.vith  which  the  nmtchos  are  tlPl^^^*"/;""; '  ',^  „  i'ily 
fixtures  now  known  U,  chenustn  "J^Vtv^^i^^^^^^^^  "    '  Jition  simply 

or  .inietly  like  (^onqreves.  they  all  ol  ko  '>''\«  "        ^     l\,\^,,xto  of  potiwh  as 
hy  thction.     All  the  n.atchos  have  ♦'I  J".  !  V^^^^^  L  splintn 

oL  ingredient  in  the  compos.t.on  wr^  win   i  ^W  ^   '1 P     ^j^^,^^  ^.^,,,i„g  ^^ 

or  matches  themselves  ^^«  J'^  .  ^iif^l'^  .^amhJd  a  f.wyea.^  ago  before 
Wood;  'v»d  we  may  hero  add.  that  a  witness,  tx^^^^^  J       ^  Uiousand 

the  Children's  Employment  ^.«'"""X Tn  '  iL^^    '  o'/  meifer-boxes.     He 

pom.ds'  worth  of  Amencaix  pme  g^^y 'jJ^^^^X^^ 


oltlfaRliionoa  UoiweH. 
it  nhowy  iitnl  lul)()iir«'<l. 
y  means   of  Urn  hfiit 
(Hlucfd  by  11  piHtoii  III 
Inir  niuUili  to  iv't  upon 
,  with  nmtt!hi»  ii\)\wd 
\',  with  II  coiiiphcutiul 
hych*og«!ii  Kft>*  <>»  ^''« 
rn  ct)iigr«!V*!— th»)  vt^ry 
WhetlK  r  tho  conipo- 
unotlu'i-  of  tlie  vaiioiis 
uite  noi^^ily  hko  lucifurw 
erty  oi  ignition  wimply 
)v  chloruto  of  potiwh  m 
tipped.     Of  the  splints 
II  the  sheet  reliiting  to 
1  ft  few  yi'-avs  iigo  before 
mt  ho  used  a  tliousand 
ig  of  lucifcr-boxes.     He 
i8«  were  made  every  week 
;hea,  tlio  voarly  produce 
usand  miUions. 


STEAM-POWER  AND   WATER-POWER. 


CoNHiDi'.RrNo  that  winds  blow  and  streams  run  thoir  course  without  man's 
agency,  and  witiiout  requiring  any  labour  of  mind  or  body  on  liis  part  it 
might  seem  that  wind-power  and  water-powcsr  ow/ht  to  be  more  ethcient  and 
economical  tlian  stoam-i)()wer.  Yet  our  modern  engineers  and  manufacturers 
do  not  act  as  if  such  were  the  case :  they  are  building  their  steam-mills  in 
substitution  of  tho  old  familiar  windmills ;  and  even  in  the  valleys  of  York- 
shire and  Lancashire,  where  running  streams  have  furnished  tho  motive 
power  for  water-wheels  during  many  geneiations,  steam-engines  oi'e  multi 
plying  rapidly,  and  aie  taking  tho  place  of  the  older  machines. 
The  truth  is,  that 

"  Wlien  the  wind  blows, 
Then  tho  mill  goes," 

— is  not  merely  the  assertion  of  a  simple  fact ;  it  contains  witliin  itself  a 
virtual  admission  of  something  else,  viz.,  tliat  when  the  wind  does  not  blow, 
then  the  second  line  will  fail— uideed,  anotlier  couplet  in  tlie  song  propounds 
this  impoi-tant  trutli.  Now  mill-owners,  in  tlie  present  day,  io  not  like  to  be 
dependent  on  a  fickle  or  uncertain  source  of  power ;  tlie  steam-engine  is  an 
obedient  servant,  which  will  work  whore,  when,  and  how  its  owner  pleases — 
being  nourished  with  proper  steam-engine  food ;  and  these  advantages  over- 
weigh  those  which  might  be  supposed  to  render  windmill-power  cheaper  than 
steam-power.  Again,  though  a  running  stream  will  set  in  niotioii  all  the 
machinery  of  a  large  factoiy.  yet  a  cessation  to  its  flow,  in  seasons  of  drought, 
may  throw  all  the  economicaran-angements  into  confusion ;  indeed,  there  are 
factories  m  the  north  in  which  it  is  found  necessary  to  mak<;  special  agree- 
ments between  mastors  and  men,  as  to  wages  being  dependent  on  tlie  conti- 
nued supply  of  water-power. 

It  will  probably  ever  remain  true,  however,  that  wind-power  and  water- 
power  will  have  tlieir  ranges  of  usefulness,  let  steam  advance  as  it  may :  and 
that  steam-power  will  continue  to  be  a  mighty  available  agent,  even  if  Uie 
sanguine  expectations  of  some  inventors  be  realised  concerning  electro-motive 
power.  It  is  of  immense  advantage  to  be  able  to  do  things  in  more  ways 
than  one ;  since  the  best  method  is  not  tdways  tlie  most  easily  obtainable  : 
and  a>  r  other  becomes  temporarily  the  best  if  we  have  it  at  command  when 
mop'  anted.  There  is  one  particular  stage  in  most  of  our  machinery,  in 
which  a  wheel — call  it  a  *  fly-wheel,'  or  by  any  otlier  name — is  made  to  rotate, 
and  if  tliis  rotation  be  produced,  the  machinery  wUl  work  throughout :  the 
machine-owner  has  to  determine  whether  a  man's  muscles,  a  current  of  wind, 
a  How  of  water,  or  a  boiler  of  steam,  shall  turn  the  wheel ;  he  may  choose 
from  all,  for  all  are  available  in  different  degrees. 


L 


STEAM-POWER  AND   WATER-POWEB. 


The  IfBiQUiTy  of  the  Steam-Enoine. 

It  will  be  scarcely  necessary,  considering  the  limited  object  of  the  present 
panel  to  say  much  concerning  the  mechanical  detaUs  ot  the  s  eam-engnj^; 
but  a'few  words  will  suffice  to^how  the  leading  facts  which  disUnguish  diffe- 

"mel^steSirSy  required  to  press  the  pist<m  irton«  direction  (as  in  a 
steanwp  in  which  the  buckets  aJ-e  able  to  descend  by  their  own  weight) 
tZrZufle-action  engine:  but  where  st.am  is  admitted  both  abov-e  aiu 
below  the  piston,  for  more  efficient  action,  we  haye  a  doubk.actwn  enrjine.     In 
TeatZphenc  mgine,   displaced  by   Watts   improvements,  the   dowivward 
movement  of  the  piston  was  caused  by  atmospheric  pressure    f  ^h^^^  J^ 
anv  eravitating  weight ;  so  that  it  formed  a  particulai"  kind  of  smgle-action 
engiS  CoTless^effidency.     When  Watt  supplied  a  separate  condensing 
yossel  to  the  atmospheric  machine,  he  produced  the  candeimny  enguie    Seeing 
that  complex  machh.ery,  a  water  pump,  an  '''^;,  ?"""?' ^"f  jJ-Sgy  °}  ^^^^ 
water,  are  necessary  for  the  condensing  engme,  the  frequent  difficulty  of  sup 
nS  these  appendages  led  to  tlie  construction  of  the  high-pressuro  enyim  m 
S  Ae  pis2  iTnLed  in  one  direction  by  the  elastic  power  of  the  steam 
being  Set  than  that  of  the  atmosphere.     But  a.  high-pressmre  steam  is 
Slfed  in  some  condensing  engines  (the  Cornish  "?"^'°?  ^^X  buil^^^^^^^^ 
sometimes  steam  of  50  lbs.  pressme  on  the  squai^  inch,  although  buil   on 
tlie  condensing  principle),  it  is  occasionaUy  urged  that  all  may  be  class^^d  a^ 
TnZulensing^  Ujh.presLre   condensing,   and   Ion-pressure   condensing  engnes^ 
Se  '  low-preW-  in  England,  is  considered  to  imply  m  excess  akiye  atmo- 
spheric pressure  of  only  a  few  pounds  on  the  square  inch;  J«t  *"  *«  ^"'^/^ 
States  it  would  still  be  deemed  low-pressure  unless  it  ^^f^^^^^/l";^  P^^S 
in  some  of  Ihfc  Mississippi  steam-boats  the  pressure  ••«a«l'«^.^^'?^f  !^""'iE 
of  150  lbs.  per  inch-enough  lo  blow  up  everything,  on  the  slightest  mishap. 
In  marine  engiim  the  action  may  be  condensmg  or  not ;   in  this  countrj 
it  is  condensing,  but  not  in  America.     In  locomotive  emjines  the  action  cannot 
be  conJenSig,^fbr  there  are  no  facilities  for  Oie  Pon^^rous  condensmg  appa- 
ratus ;  tiiey  Me  therefore  always  higb-pressm-e,  .^jnountmg  to  50  or  60  lbs. 

^VheTp^iv^  engine,  oi'  the  steam-engine  acting  e^panmely,  affords  a  beaii- 
tiful  example  of  th«  economy  of  power.  In  an  o/dina.y  ste^  c^  inder  Ae 
piston  is  urged  onward  bj  the  simple  pressure  of  the  steam  behind  it,  and  n«J 
because  th?  steam  is  elastic;  the  moyement  would  H™'larlytake  pl«e  if 
water  or  any  other  substance  pressed  with  e.iual  force  on  the  piston.  «"t  l)e 
Si  this  there  is  an  additional  power  due  to  the  expansiye  tendency  of 
st^jam;  and  engineers  now  save  a  portion  of  their  steam  by  making  th«  othei 
poilion  bring  its  expansive  tendency  into  action.  If  the  cylinder  be  (sg 
Kmlf  filled  with  steam,  the  piston  will  be  driven  to  the  ^enf  jrf  Ae 
cylLet  aimply  by  pressure  firom  behind  ;  but  then  this  steam  will  expand^ 
by  virtue  of  Its  elasticity,  and  in  so  expanding  it  will  impel  tlie  P'^ton  further 
onward.  The  piston  In  such  a  case  owes  its  motion  to  two  forces-first  the 
^lure,  and  then  the  ^«««o«  of  the  steam.  When  a  Steam-engine  is  said 
to  be  •  working  expansively,'  the  supply  of  stoam  is  cut  «ff  «"*^^f^y;/«„  *7 
the  cylinder  is  only  one-fourth,  one-tliird,  or  some  other  aM"«t  part  filled. 
The  mechanism  by  which  the  steam  is  shut  off  at  a  given  point  is  ofton  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful.    The  ctvses  in  which  the  expansive  action  becomes  most 


L 


STEAM-POWER  AND  WATEHtOWER. 


8 


IKE. 

d  object  of  the  present 
3  of  the  steam-engine ; 
which  distinguish  diffe- 

n  on«  direction  (as  in  a 
[  by  their  own  weight), 
mitted  both  above  aiul 
iouble-actwn  engine.  In 
ements,  the  downward 
•ressure  ratlier  than  by 
ar  kind  of  single-action 

a  separate  condensing 
jndensing  engine.  Seeing 
ip,  and  a  supply  of  cold 
equent  difficulty  of  sup- 
le  high-pressure  engiiw,  in 
istic  power  of  the  steam 

high-pressure  steam  is 
h  mining  engines  have 

inch,  although  built  on 
It  all  may  be  class;^d  as 
ssurt:  condensing  engines. 
ly  an  excess  above  atmo- 
inch ;  but  in  the  United 
xceeded  20  lbs.  per  inch  ; 
.ches  the  dangerous  pitx^h 
on  the  slightest  mishap. 
)r  not;  in  this  country 
engines  the  action  cannot 
derous  condensing  appa- 
ounting  to  50  or  60  lbs. 

fpansively,  affords  a  beau- 
iinaiy  steam  cylinder  the 
stoam  behind  it,  and  not 
d  similarly  take  place  if 
p  on  the  piston.  But  be- 
e  expansive  tendency  of 
sam  by  making  the  other 

If  the  cylinder  be  (say) 
van  to  the  centi-e  of  the 

this  steam  will  expand, 
I  impel  the  piston  further 
n  to  two  forces — first  the 
n  a  steam-engine  is  said 

cut  off  suddenly,  so  that 
other  aliquot  part  filled. 
I  given  point  is  often  ex- 
jive  action  becomes  most 


serviceable  are  those  in  which  eteam  of  high  pressure  or  great  density  is 
employed. 

We  made  a  brief  allusion  to  the  food  of  a  steam-engine.  This  food  is  a 
subject  of  much  earnest  inquiry  to  engineers,  and  is  made  the  groundwork 
of  many  curious  calculations.  Just  as  a  horse-ownor  placos  in  different 
columns  the  value  of  the  food  eaten  and  of  the  work  done,  so  does  an  en- 
gineer measure  the  efficiency  of  his  dumb  worker — tlie  never-tiring  ever- 
available  steam-engine. 

A  bushel  of  coius  is,  to  an  engineer,  a  representative  of  a  cei-tain  amount 
of  '  power.'  What  this  power  is  he  cannot  te)'.  us  ;  ho  only  knows  that  it  is 
a  soraetliing  which  sets  other  somethings  hi  motion :  he  cannot  see  it  or 
describe  it,  but  he  can  mecmtre  it  accurately.  As  the  perfection  of  machincrj- 
becomes  more  apparent,  the  '  power '  elicited  from  a  given  quantity  of  fuel 
bocomes  greater  and  greater ;  the  coal  heats  tlie  water,  the  water  changes  into 
steam,  the  steam  moves  the  piston,  and  the  piston-movements  act  upon  fly- 
wheels and  so  forth ;  and  any  improvement  in  any  part  of  this  series  of  opera- 
tions is  followed  by  an  increase  in  the  power  obtained.  The  mode  in  which 
engineers  estimate  this  power  is  curious ;  tliey  reckon  by  the  number  of  pounds' 
weight  which  the  power  would  raise  (by  proper  intei-vening  mechanism)  to  a 
height  of  one  foot— or  (which  is  equivalent)  the  number  of  feet  high  to  which 
one  pound  could  be  raised.  In  a  well-managed  Cornish  mining  steam-engine 
a  bushel  of  coals  will  produce  power  enough  to  raise  HO  or  90  millions  of  lbs. 
one  foot  high  :  and  in  some  carefully-conducted  experiments  this  number  has 
been  raised  so  high  as  125  millions;  this  is  called  the  divty  of  an  engine — the 
number  of  millions  of  pounds'  weight  which  a  bushel  of  coals  would  enable  it 
to  raise  to  a  height  of  one  foot.  In  ordinaiy  steam-engines  for  manufacturing 
pm-ijoses  the  fuel  is  never  so  scrupulously  economised  :  and  the  '  duty '  is  hero 
believed  to  be  not  more  than  '^0  millions  on  an  average.  The  diihj  of  an 
engine  refers,  as  here  explained,  to  the  ratio  between  tlie  fuel  consumed  and 
the  force  produced  ;  but  the  power  of  an  engine  relates  to  tlie  space  of  time 
in  which  a  given  amoimt  of  force  is  exerted.  Thus,  '-20  million  lbs.  raised 
one  foot  is  the  duty  of  an  ordinary  engine  from  a  bushel  of  coals ;  but  it  is 
also  the  jwtwr  of  a  10  horse-power  engine  working  for  about  one  hour;  in  the 
fonner  we  reckon  not  the  time  consumed  :  in  the  latter  we  are  equally  regard- 
less of  fuel  consumed.  A  '  horse-power'  has  ceased  to  bo  really  significant ; 
it  now  only  indicates  size  of  cylinder,  for  a  '  100  horse-power'  engine  now 
()ft(m  possesses  double  the  power  of  one  similarly  designated  in  the  days  of 
James  Watt.  To  show  the  singular  way  in  which  sources  of  power  are  com- 
pared, it  may  be  worth  while  to  mention  that  tlie  evaporation  of  one  cubic 
foot  of  water  into  steam  produces  power  about  equal  to  that  of  one  horse 
working  one  hour. 

Neither  height  nor  depth  defers  steam  from  its  triumphant  course ;  it 
climbs  mountains  and  descends  mines  regardless  alike  of  the  rarefied  air  on 
the  one  and  the  condensed  air  in  the  other.  The  application  of  stciam  to 
deep  mines  is  too  well  known  to  need  notice  here  ;  but  the  mountain  feats  of 
the  steam-engine  are  not  so  well  knoAvn.  The  '  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute '  stated,  about  two  years  ago,  that  a  steam-boat  had  made  its  ajjpearance 
on  the  waters  of  Lake  Titacaca.  Now  this  lake  is  situated  among  the  Andes 
of  Peru,  at  an  elevation  of  1 '2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  tlic  sea,  and  close  to 
the  base  of  the  mighty  Nevada  Sorata,  the  highest  mountain  in  '.Jie  world 
except  a  few  peaks  among  the  Himalaya.  The  nearest  point  of  the  lake  is 
not  more  tlian  1 50  miles  distant  in  a  straight  line  from  tlie  Pacific ;  and  it 

n  ^ 


1 


STEAM-POWER   AND   WATER-POWL 


planned  Uiat  no  single  piece  should  ^^^^ig^^^^'^'^J^^'ei  piling  from  end 
he  shores  of  tlie  lake,  it  was  put  together,  and  '^o™"^^"'^,^  P^^^"?    .JeU.tim- 
'i'end  of  the  lake,  a  distance  of  100  mdes  or  ^^^^^^^^^  -  -l^^tim 

bered;  and  it  seems  very  probable  that  this  litue  sieamei  »m  f 

"  n'S  fZy  onf class  of  machines  respecting  which  there  are  moie 

numetuTinven^ons  than  any  other  it  is  Pf  ^^^  ^«  «»f  ^^^^^^^^.fX  pa 
can  better  illustrate  tl.e  mechaincal  '"^^^^'^^  ^^  T^^^V*^^  ^«  ^^^^^^^^^ 

of  action  in  the  engine,  and  which  give  to.     one  or  othei  .«*  *^»;,f^  ^^i„„   - 
.actors  denoted  by  the  words  '  ^o^'   .«««'"^^  ^^  *™^^^^^  pistons 

'reciprocating." expansive,  anfsoloiih      XSrom  'safety'  to  'absolute 
or  the  stuffing-boxes ;  and  anoUier  ^^^^^^^^Jf  Jed  Ts  means  for  reme- 

,md  tlie  inventors  suppose  tlmt  P^^^^^.^^^^tv  ^balThere  S^Y  gain  of  power 

l;;t;trofTucKgh:^/G^^^^^^^^^^^ 

irfril^'^otai/-  theoiy,  and  ^^^^^Z^S^^^on.,  still 
But  if  tl.e  -veUies  -^  — ^o"^^^  «P- 

r:  "wh'Stnow'^SieTX^^^^^^^^^^  ^^-^^TrtfTi 

T       .f  lal?r,r  9     T^numps  water,  pumps  chemicals,  pumps  air  ;  it  sets  m 

tMmmm 


i. 


t  rise,  and  how  diffi- 
as  a  steam-boat.     It 
)oat  was  built  by  Mr. 
ns,  being  only  55  feet 
les  of  l(»-horse  power 
le  was  fitted  together 
;  whole  pulled  asunder 
38  were  carried  up  to 
and  fittings  being  so 
1  350  lbs.     AiTived  on 
need  plying  from  end 
rhe  coast  is  well-tim- 
aer  will  be  a  pioneer  of 

which  there  are  more 
;team-engine.  Nothing 
ge  than  the  newly  pa- 
2Ct;  and  it  is  woilh  a 
ich  subjects,  to  see  the 
find  that  some  such  in- 
•ai-ticular  aiTangements 
3  very  numerous)  relate 

to  the  furnace  and  to 
aave  reference  to  safety- 
's, and  other  regulative 
ate  to  the  general  mode 
ther  of  die  several  cha- 
unk,"  disc,' '  pendulous,' 
ass  relates  to  the  pistons 
m  'safety'  to  'absolute 
ded  as  means  for  reme- 
in   steam-boilers.      The 
•ous  of  recent  novelties. 
tctly  in  turning  a  wheel, 
IS,  or  other  mechanism; 
iby  saved.     On  the  other 
lere  is  any  gain  of  power 
s  experienced  hands  keep 
3r  experimentere. 
ave  been  num*^rous,  still 
r  in  manufacturing  opera- 

which  the  steam-engine 
s,  pumps  air ;  it  sets  in 
(nering,  slitting,  forging, 
g  machines;  it  lifts  nn- 
hs  ;  it  supplies  steam  for 
g  buildings ;  it  rolls  iron 
d  for  plumbers'  work,  and 
.  blanks  for  needles,  and 
dough  for  biscuits ;  it  will 
vay  train;  it  will  make  a 
id  pounds'  weight ;  it  will 


STKAM-POWF.n   AND   WATEH-POWER.  0 

drain  a  small  field,  or  will  drain  Haarlem  Lake  ;  it  will  plough  land,  thresh 
wheat,  grind  tlour,  make  bread ;  it  will  spin  cotton,  make  it,  into  cloth,  press 
the  cloth  into  bales,  transport  the  bales  to  ships,  and  transport  the  ships  to 
every  sea  on  the  globe — in  short,  what  the  steam-engine  cnniiut  do,  or  aid  iu 
doing,  is  becoming  more  and  more  difficult  to  say. 

To  illustrate  these  various  useful  sei-vices  by  e.vamples  is  (juite  beyond  our 
present  scope.  Nearly  ever)'  paper  in  this  short  series  affords  some  such 
exemplifications.  There  ax-e,  however,  su(!h  abimdant  modem  proofs  of  the 
mighty  agency  of  steam-power  in  respect  to  tratisit,  tliat  we  cannot  do  better 
than  dwell  upon  tliis  matter — confining  our  notice  to  land-transit,  steam-navi- 
gation having  already  occupied  a  little  of  our  attention. 

Steam,  as  the  great  Transit-Agent. 

Nothing  can  bette':  illustrate  tlie  general  chajracter  of  steam-power  as  ap- 
plied to  railway  locomotion,  than  a  few  statistics  derived  from  Sir  Francis 
Head's  well-kno^vn  article  in  the  Quarterly  lleview,  written  in  1848,  and  re- 
ferring to  the  London  and  North-Westem  Railway.  For  supplying  the 
locomotives  which  start  from  London  there  are  (or  were  in  1848,  the  number 
being  now  probably  increased)  18  coke  ovens  at  Camden  Town,  making 
30  tons  of  coke  per  day ;  30  tons  more  per  day,  required  for  the  London 
service,  being  brought  from  the  nortli.  Coke  is  not  put  into  the  locomotives 
in  a  cold  state,  as  it  would  require  too  long  a  time  to  heat  the  boiler ;  it  is 
given  in  a  white-hot  state,  from  an  oven  applied  to  this  especial  service.  To 
feed  tlie  boilers  with  pu'-e  water,  an  artesian  well  was  dug  to  the  deptli  of 
140  feet  at  Camden  Town,  at  a  considerable  expense ;  but  the  water,  although 
good  for  all  other  purposes,  contained  too  much  soda  for  the  delicate  stomachs 
of  the  locomotives  ("  who  would  ever  suspect  thein  to  be  more  delicate  than 
om-  own  ?  "  asks  Sir  F.  Head) ;  and  a  supply  had  to  be  obtained  from  anotlisr 
source.  A  passenger  locomotive  usually  takes  in  about  a  tliousand  gallons 
of  cold  water  and  about  a  ton  of  coke,  which  will  caiTy  it  a  distance  of  about 
forty  miles.  The  large  locomotives  of  the  present  day  cost  more  than  JE2000 
each;  the  tenders  about  £500.  Each  goods  locomotive  and  tender,  fully 
suppHed  with  coke  and  water,  may  be  taken  to  weigh  50  tons,  and  to  be 
able  to  draw  000  tons  at  the  rate  of  12  miles  an  hour. 

The  Wolverton  depot  fonns  an  "  immense  hospital  or  '  Hotel  dcs  Invalides' 
for  the  sick  and  wounded  locomotive  engines  "  of  the  southern  part  of  this  groat 
Company's  line.  The  locomotives  themselves  are  purchased  of  various  makers  ; 
but  liie  repaii-s  ai-e  executed  by  the  Company  at  their  o^vn  shops.  There  are 
immense  engmeering  shops,  provided  with  steam-worked  planing,  screw-cutting, 
turning,  slotting,  cutting,  punching,  polishing,  and  other  machines ;  foundries 
for  casting  ii'on  and  brass ;  a  smith's  shop  with  twenty-four  forges ;  steam- 
engines  for  pumping  water ;  a  hydraulic  press  for  squeezing  wheels  upon  tlieir 
iixles ;  and  other  works  of  great  magnitude.  At  Crewe,  which  constitutes  tlie 
depot  for  the  northern  division,  tlie  works  are  on  a  scale  of  still  greater  magni- 
tude ;  for  they  comprise  all  the  requisites  for  building  as  well  as  repairing  loco- 
motives. These  works  turned  out  a  new  locomotive  and  tender  eveiy  Monday 
morning  during  tlie  year  1848 ;  and  when  it  is  considered  that  a  well-made 
locomotive  comprises  more  than  5000  sepimite  pieces  of  carefully-formed  metal, 
it  may  be  imagined  how  complete  must  be  tlie  organisation  and  the  division  of 
labour  in  such  an  establislnfient ;  for  it  is  no  rough  smith's  work  which  is  in 
hand.  Mr.  Robert  Stephenson  has  laid  down  a  maxim,  that  "  a  locomotive 
engine  must  be  put  together  as  cai'efuUy  as  a  watch." 


0  BTEAM-FOWEB  AND   WATER-POWER. 

Let  us  take,  as  examples  of  locomotives,  a  few  \t'»'=|';.\^«  J^tere^steS 
Placed  in  a  very  favourable  position  for  exanunation  by  all  those  inteieswa 
f„  such  matteS.  There  is  Mr.  England's  tiny  locomotive  ior  Itgh  trams  ; 
tL  Si  weiSof  the  engine  with  the  tender  and  water  being  only  ten  tons 
The^  Mr  a1„s-s  miniature  production,  to  which  he  gives  the  fanc^ul 
name  S' Ariel's  Girdle,' and  intended  for  similar  purposes  to  that  of  Mr. 
Sand.  There  is  M^  Crampton's  powerful  and  ponderous  locon.o  .ve 
•FolSne.'  belonging  to  the  Solith-Eastem  Railway  Company;  and  another 
b^lS'eta.^invenL^e.Liverp.a.'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^        ^^^^^  "it^^ot 

'  stroke ; 
B2  tons, 

b^sidesTtons" of  "coiTe" and  water;  the  pressure  o7the  steam  i«  "^-^  l^S^J^ 
120 lbs  on  the  square  inch;  uu.l  the  evapomtion  ol  the  boiler  when  at  ftill 
work  is  emiS  to  Jo  less  than  1140  horse-nower.  In  no  other  ma^hm^s  what. 
Tver  is  wi  converted  into  steam  so  rapidiy  as  in  ^l^'g^/J'^'^./^^r^S  ™ 
S^e  e  ant  of  the  locomotive  world  is  one  of  those  adapted  for  the  broad  gauge , 
SjenU  e  ^capable  of  drawing  a  passenger  tnun  weighmg  120  tons  at 

TteZym  mUes^nhour;  the  laden  ^-S^^^ --i'^^^^^^^iTvlr 
and  at  an  ordinary  mail  speed  the  engine  consumes  about  20  los.  ot  coke  per 

""'Sr   Lardner  adopts  some  ingenious  arguments,  or  rather  illustmtions,  U> 
ren^'/er  faSS  theTxtraoi-dina^'velocity  with  which  our  exF-  «  ^ 

i^^s^::^^:^^^^^       «« r/p^ge^r^ 

S£S  mTa^sy  of  60miles  an  hour  is  adopted  midway  l>etween  some 
SfTe  atiSis  an^  in  certain  experimental  trips  70  ™les  an  hour  Wbeen 
reached.  A  speed  of  70  miles  an  houv  is  about  «q»i^«^«"t  *"  .'^•V^TJw' 
sSd  or  85  vards  between  two  beats  of  a  common  clock ;  all  obj^'^^f  "«^  *]*; 
eye  of  a  passenger  .ravelling  at  this  rate  will  pass  by  Ws  eye  ^ri  the  V^n^^y- 
fiKart  of  a  second ;  and  if  36  stakes  were  erected  at  the  side  of  the  road,  a 
vard  asundei  tJiey  would  not  be  distinguishable  one  from  anoUier ;  if  pamted 
LjCv  would  a~  collectively  as  a  continuous  flash  of  red  colour  It 
Iwo^VainswUhthir  speed  passed  each  oUier,  tiie  relative  velocity  would  be 
70  vaXoS  second!  aiid  if  one  of  the  tmins  were  70  ya.-ds  long,  it  would 
JUbv  in  a  sSe  second.  Supposing  the  locomotive  which  draws  such  a 
S  to  hTve  driving-wheels  seveA  feet  in  diameter,  these  wheels  will  revdve 
fivTtimesTn  a  second;  the  piston  moves  along  the  cylinder  ten  times  na 
seconrthe  valve  mov^s  and  the  steam  escapes  ten  times  m  a  sf  o"*^  Bu 
LsTher;  .ire  two  cylinders,  which  act  alternately,  there  are  really  twenty  pufe 
^•escicio'flaSin  ase;ond.  The  locomotive  -n  be  heard  to '^  ;-^n 

«,r.vinf^8lowlv  the  cough  being  occasioned  by  the  abrupt  emission  ot  waste 
rSm  ff  eh  nneyfbut  twenty  coughs  per  second  cannot  be  separated  by 
t^Tai  thdr  inSualily  becoming  lost.  Such  a  locomotive  speed  is  equa 
to  neilY  one-fourth  that  of  a  cannon-ball;  and  the  momentum  of  a  whoe 
LrSv?n2  at  such  a  speed  would  be  nearly  equivalent  to  the  aggregate 
E  7  a  numbed  of  clion-balls  equal  to  ^ne-foui1h  tl-  weight  of  tiie 
tmin  --that  a  '  smash  '  should  follow  a  '  collision.'  is  no  subject  for  marvel, 
Ta  train  moving  afsuch  speed-ur  anything  like  such  speed-should  meet 

"'SS  tSylVneS^'in  these  days,  to  dwell  at  -y -f^-We 
lengtiriXe  important  services  rendered  to  society  by  tiio  rapid  travellmg 


■""^SB 


v^mmmm\mmmmmmiiiimmm 


3R. 

which  have  lately  been 
1  by  all  those  interested 
omotive  for  light  trains  ; 
rater  being  only  ten  tons, 
lich  he  gives  the  fanciful 
purposes  to  that  of  Mr. 
d  ponderous  locomotive, 
y  Company ;  and  another 
»  tlie  London  and  Nortli- 

on  that  line.  The  loco- 
ter,  and  '44  inches'  stroke ; 
^emotive  weighs  32  tons, 

the  steam  is  as  high  as 
of  the  boiler  when  at  full 
1  no  other  machines  what^ 
ligh-class  locomotive.  But 
pted  for  the  broad  gauge ; 
rain  weighing  190  tons,  at 
nd  tt^nder  weigh  52  tons ; 

about  20  Ids.  of  coke  per 

,  or  rather  illustmtions,  to 
li  our  express  trains  move, 
e  rate  of  43  miles  an  hour, 
t  including  stoppages  ;  to 
ited  midway  between  some 

0  miles  an  hour  have  been 
equivalent  to  S5  yards  per 
clock ;  all  objette  near  the 

1  by  his  eye  in  the  thirty- 
d  at  the  side  of  the  road,  a 
e  from  another ;  if  painted 
IS  flash  of  red  colour.     If 

relative  velocity  would  be 
!re  70  yai-ds  long,  it  would 
notive  which  draws  such  a 
1%  these  wheels  will  revolve 
le  cylinder  ten  times  in  a 
m  times  in  a  second.  But 
lere  are  really  twenty  puffs 
'x  be  heard  to  '  cough '  when 
e  abrupt  emission  of  waste 
and  cannot  be  separated  by 
a  locomotive  speed  is  ecplal 
Lhe  momentum  of  a  whole 
iquivalent  to  the  aggregate 
j-fourth  the  weight  of  the 
X,'  is  no  subject  for  marvel, 
e  such  speed— should  meet 

1  dwell  at  any  consideroble 
liety  by  Uio  rapid  travelling 


HTBAM-POWEB  AND   WATBR-POWBB.  7 

which  tlie  steam-engine  has  placed  within  our  power ;  .  but  wo  will  merely 
point  to  a  few  well-known  facts,  as  so  many  dues  which  the  reader  may  follow 
at  his  pleasure. 

In  tlif!  first  place,  Uien,  cheap  transport  lowers  the  prices  of  all  commodities 
in  tho  market,  and  thereby  stimulates  production.  The  expense  of  transport, 
with  insurance  for  risk  and  interest  for  sunk  capital,  foi-ms  a  notable  pait  of 
the  price  of  every  ai-ticle;  in  some  cases  tliey  constitute  newly  the  whole 
coat,  and  eveiything  which  mcreases  the  speed  without  increasing  tlie  cost 
of  tlie  transport,  or  decreases  the  cost  witliout  decreasing  tho  speed,  is  so 
much  clear  gain  to  the  commmiity.  How  tho  steam-engine  has  wrought  tliis 
benefit,  in  steam  ships  and  on  railways,  the  world  well  knows.  Why  are  we 
able  at  tlie  present  time  to  purchase  coals  m  London  at  a  lower  price  than 
formerly?  Is  it  not  mainly  by  lessening  the  cost  of  transport?  We  can 
hardly  realise  in  our  own  country,  at  the  present  day,  the  painful  contriviUKses 
which  alone  can  be  adopted  in  countries  ill  supplied  with  transit-accommo- 
dation. Lot  us  draw  an  example  from  the  beautiful  Dnieper  Bridge,  now 
being  consU-ucted  by  Mr.  VignoUes  at  Kiefi',  in  Russia.  It  is  the  largest  sus- 
pension bridge  in  tlio  world  ;  and  ;(.')( 10  tons  of  iron-work  intended  for  it 
have  freighted  sixteen  ships  from  Liverpool  to  Odessa.  At  tliat  point  begim 
Uui  (litticulties  of  transit.  All  tliis  jjonderous  mass  of  iron-work  had  to  bo 
ti-ansported  in  rough  carts,  dmwn  by  bullocks,  from  Odessa  to  Kieff,  a  distiuice 
of  four  hundred  miles.  The  granite  for  the  roadway,  too,  hatl  to  be  brought 
from  a  distance  of  a  lumdred  miles  through  a  comitry  destitute  of  roads. 

The  value  of  many  nnimal  and  vegetable  products  depends  greatly  on  their 
qiikk  transmission  to  the  hands  of  the  consumer;  such  as  farm  produce, 
garden  produce,  daiiy  produce,  and  fish.  Tho  changes  which  the  steam- 
engine  have  brought  about  in  tliis  respect  are  most  remarkable.  Live  sto(!k 
is  killed  in  the  grazing  counties,  and  the  dead  meat  is  sent  up  (say)  to  London, 
sweet  and  good — thereby  saving  the  expense  of  transporting  tlie  entire 
animal.  liabbits  are  sent  to  us  from  Ostend,  ready  skinned,  and  are  sold  to 
die  consumers  before  there  has  been  time  for  deterioration.  Milk  is  now 
regularly  brought  to  liondon  every  morning  by  railway,  from  open  liealthy 
districts  where  cows  can  be  kept  more  cheaply  Uian  in  London.  Fresh  fish 
now  reach  the  busy  inland  towns,  where  they  were  before  almost  unknown. 
Many  kinds  of  foreign  fruit  are  now  sold  cheaply  among  us,  simply  because 
the  Southampton  steamers  afford  fiicilities  for  rapid  ti-ansport.  We  know,  also, 
diat  cheap  and  quick  ti-Misport  tends  to  equalise  prices,  and  to  bring  about 
justice  between  the  producer  and  the  consumer.  An  article  of  gn»wth  or 
of  natural  produce  may,  at  or  near  the  place  of  its  production,  be  not 
merely  very  low  priced,  but  it  may  be  not  required  at  all ;  whereas  it  would 
be  highly  «>cceptable  in  a  far  distant  region  if  quickly  and  cheaply  transported 
thither. 

All  the  above  adviuitf^es  relate  to  commodUm ;  those  relating  to  pastenffera 
have  an  interest  peculiar  to  themselves.  Every  industrious  man's  time  is 
equivalent  to  money;  quick  travelling,  by  economising  time,  economises 
wealth.  Cheap  and  quick  travelling  is  an  important  element  in  the  industrial 
proceedings  of  the  operative  classes;  for,  if  local  circumstances  create  a 
demand  for  labour  in  a  particular  spot  at  a  particular  time,  tliere  may  be  an 
opening  for  operatives  living  in  a  district  already  (jierhaps)  overstocked. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  this  transfer  of  labour  from  place  to  place  is 
rapidly  spreading  in  England,  owing  to  tlie  increased  facilities  for  travelling. 
The  wool-combers  of  Leicester  go  to  Bradford  in  Yorkshire,  in  considerable 


8 


STEAM-rOWKR    AND    WATEn-in)\Vl!  U. 


h 


I 


numbers,  aniuially ;  tlie  brisk  demand  for  combed  wool  occurs  at  (liftereut 
l)eriods  in  the  year,  at  the  two  phices ;  and  cheap  traveUing  has  induced 
till)  men  to  adapt  themselves  to  variation  in  the  demand  for  labour.  This 
makes  a  man  practically  a  political  economist,  whether  he  be  awaro  of  it  or 
not.  The  intellectual  labourer,  too,  is  in  many  respects  a  more  efficient  agent 
than  in  bygone  times ;  the  steam-engine  has  doubled  his  working  power.  Take 
the  case  of  a  lecturer.  We  con  rai-ely  take  up  the  Twies  newspaper  witaout 
meeting  with  advertisements  announcing  that  a  certain  lecturer  will  lecture  at 
(say)  Livei-pool  on  Monday,  at  Manchester  on  Tuesday,  at  Leeds  on  Wednesday, 
at  Sheffield  on  Thursday,  and  so  on :  the  distance  between  the  towns  being  now 
no  bar  to  tlie  easy  triuisference  of  his  services  from  one  to  another  on  tlie 
morning  of  each  day.  Of  that  truly  great  wonder,  a  modem  daily  newspaper, 
it  is  scai'cely  necessarj-  to  speak  in  relation  to  the  advantages  of  quick  travelling. 
It  is  steam  that  tells  us  what  Bombay  is  doing  in  a  month  aftfir  the  events 
recorded ;  it  is  steam  that  gives  us  New  York  news  in  twelve  days,  and  Pans 
news  in  twelve  hours ;  it  is  steam  that  gives  Edinburgh  a  London  newspaper 
on  the  day  of  publication. 

Miscellanies  of  Steam. 

There  aio  many  minor  aspects  in  which  steam  and  steam-power  present 
tliemselves  to  our  notice.  Not  the  least  curious  is  that  often  observable  in 
Birmingham  and  other  towis,  where  steam-power  is  let  or  hired  out,  by  one 
person  who  has  more  than  he  requires,  to  another  who  wants  a  little,  but  can- 
not atford  to  buy  a  stdom-engine.     A  belt  or  a  cog-wheel  will  effect  such  a 

transfer.  .  ,    „ 

The  steam  travelling  crane,  patented  by  Messrs.  M'Nicholl  and  Vernon,  ol 
Liverpool,  illusti-ates  at  once  tlie  ii/tiiKj  and  locomotive  application  of  steam- 
power.  It  is  mtended  for  hfting  and  removing  heavy  weights  at  the  goods 
depot  of  railways,  in  timber  yards,  in  foundries  and  otlier  manufactories,  and 
for  loading  and  discharging  the  cargoes  of  vessels.  The  crane,  besides  hoist- 
ing a  load,  may  be  moved  backward  and  forwaid,  and  also  to  the  right  and 
left ;  and  its  activity  is  such  that  it  will  perform  all  three  movements  at  once. 
The  loail  is  suspended  from  a  kind  of  low  four-wheeled  cai-riage  ;  this  can-iage 
moves  along  a  platform  ;  the  platfoiTO  itself  moves  in  a  transverse  direction ; 
and  all  these  movements  tu-e  communicated  by  a  stationary  steam-engine. 
There  ai-e  cranes  on  this  principle  which  command  an  area26«  feet  long,  by  5a 
wide ;  that  is,  the  crane  can  lift  a  load  from  any  pai-tof  this  area,  and  deposit  it 
at  any  other  part,  by  a  combination  of  its  remarkable  tliree-fold  movements.  It 
is  said  that  one  of  tliese  cranes,  on  one  occasion,  removed  13  logs  of  timber, 
contaming  1050  cubic  feet,  andweigliing  19^  tons,  a  distance  of  100  feet  (one 
log  at  a  time),  and  piled  them,  in  a7i  minutes,  at  an  expense  in  wages  of  only 
threepence;  Uie  machine  travelled  iiOOO  feet  (about  half  a  mile),  and  made  -40 
stoppages  in  the  time  named,  with  an  average  load  of  30  cwt.  for  hall  the  dis- 
tance. This  illustration  shows  how  nearly  the  machine  is  automatic,  the 
steam-engine  rendering  manual  aid  almost  unnecessary. 

There  have  been  recently  many  applications  of  steam  in  what  is  called  a 
'surcharged'  state— that  is,  heated  beyond  tlie  ordinary  temperature— to 
manufacturing  purposes.  So  long  as  steam  remauis  in  contact  with  the  water 
which  produced  it,  it  can  only  have  the  temperature  of  that  water ;  but  if  sepa- 
mted  into  another  vessel,  it  may  be  heated  to  any  degree  that  the  vessel  wUl 
bear,  and  it  then  possesses  remarkable  drying  or  baking    qualities.      M. 


'"^fm 


.■.f^rmaa^amsc^  j 


R. 

kvool  occurs  at  (litVorent 
travelling  has  induced 
■nmnd  for  labour.  This 
ler  he  be  aware  of  it  or 
Ets  a  more  efficient  agent 
lis  working  power.  Take 
TiiMs  newspaper  witiiout 
in  lecturer  will  lecture  at 
,  at  Leeds  on  Wednesday, 
veen  tlie  towns  being  now 
I  one  to  another  on  tlie 
modem  daily  newspaper, 
iitages  of  quick  travelling, 
a  montli  after  the  events 
n  twelve  days,  and  Paris 
rgh  a  London  newspaper 


md  steam-power  present 
i  that  often  observable  in 
s  let  or  hired  oiU,  by  one 
10  wants  a  little,  but  can- 
-wheel  will  effect  such  a 

VI'NichoU  and  Vernon,  of 
)tive  application  of  steam- 
avy  weights  at  the  goods 

other  manufactories,  and 
The  crane,  besides  hoist- 
ind  also  to  the  right  and 
three  movements  at  once, 
ed  cai-riage ;  this  can-iage 
in  a  transverse  direction ; 

stationary  steam-engine, 
m  area26t)  feet  long,  by  5>i 
of  this  ai-ea,  and  deposit  it 
tlu-ee-fold  movements.  It 
moved  13  logs  of  timber, 
I  distance  of  100  feet  (one 
1  expense  in  wages  of  only 
lalf  a  mile),  and  made  "^0 
of  30  cwt.  for  half  the  dis- 
lachitj  i3  automatic,  the 
sary. 

steanx  in  what  is  called  a 
ordinary  temperature — to 
3  in  contact  with  the  water 
of  that  water ;  but  if  sepa- 
degree  that  the  vessel  will 
n-  baking    qualities.      M. 


STEAM-rOWEB   AND    WATEIl-POWEB. 


9 


Violette  read  before  the  Academic  des  Sciences,  a  few  years  ago,  a  memoir 
on  such  applications.  Steam  is  produced  from  an  ordinaiy  boiler,  and 
thence  passes  through  a  coil  of  tube,  where  it  is  exposed  to  a  higher  heat ;  it 
is  then  sufficient  to  convert  wood  into  charcoal,  the  charcoal  having  different 
degrees  of  blackness  or  carbonization,  according  to  the  temperature  imparled 
to  the  steam.  A  command  is  obtained  of  a  range  of  temperatures  vailing  from 
tiW  to  nearly  1000°  F. ;  and  the  steam  thus  heated  is  applied  to  many  uses. 
Steam  at  39--i°  will  bake  bread  and  biscuit;  it  will  extract  wood-vinegar 
(l)yroligneous  acid) ;  and  is  very  efficient  in  seasoning  timber.  In  this,  as  in 
many  modern  inventions,  over-sanguine  persons  tliink  they  have  found  a  new 
source  of  power.  Highly-heated  steam  is  more  elastic,  or  exerts  more  pres- 
sure, than  ordinaiy  steam ;  and  hence  it  has  been  urged  that  we  niay  have 
almost  any  amount  of  power  we  please,  by  heatuig  the  steam  sufficiently. 
But  power  must  be  given  for  power  gained ;  fuel  must  be  consumed  for 
evei-y  increase  of  temperature  in  the  steam  ;  and  it  is  not  till  after  tiie  quan-  * 
tity  of  this  fuel  is  ascertained,  together  witii  that  which  originally  produced 
tiie  steam  from  the  water,  tiiat  the  experimenters  will  be  at  all  in  a  position  to 
pronounce  oh  the  economical  merits  of  this  surcharged  steam. 

Steam  is  tlireatened  by  electricity,  which  bids  fair  to  be  a  formidable  com- 
petitor in  some  at  least  of  our  numerous  engineering  and  manufacturing 
exploits  ;  and  coal  itself  is  placed  upon  its  trial  by  a  new  aspirant  to  public 
favour.  Jumping  to  a  conclusion  fi-om  insufficient  data,  some  journalists 
begin  at  once  to  read  a  funeral  oration  over  coal — its  occupation 's  gone  ;  tiio 
pits  are  to  be  desei-ted ;  the  colliers  are  to  take  their  swartiiy  persons  else- 
where ;  the  coal-owners  are  to  bo  banki-upt ;  the  coal-ships  are  to  find  employ- 
ment in  other  kinds  of  traffic ;  tiie  housemaid's  jubilee  is  to  commence  by  the 
absence  of  dust  and  ashes  in  the  grates ;  her  Majesty's  fresh  air  is  to  be  un- 
polluted by  smoke  and  soot,  and  her  Majesty's  subjects  are  to  reap  the  benefit 
thereof  in  their  lungs  and  on  their  clean  garments ;  and,  as  an  agi;eeable  wmding 
up  to  tiie  whole,  a  gi-eat  economy  of  money  imd  money's  wortii  is  to  be  effected. 
All  this  is  to  spring  out  of  the  employment  of  the  polytechnic  Jire — a  peculiar 
mode  of  applying  gas  to  platinum,  whereby  the  latter  metal  becomes  heated  to  a 
red  or  a  white  heat,  giving  out  much  warmtii  witiiout  imdergoing  much  combus- 
tion or  waste.  That  a  platinum  fire  may  be  produced,  chemists  well  know ; 
tiiat  it  may  be  susceptible  of  advantageous  application,  is  very  probable ;  but 
a  carefully  prepared  balance-sheet,  a  debtor  and  creditor  account — foiuided, 
too,  on  long  experience — will  alone  show  what  is  the  actual  expense  at  which 
a  given  amount  of  heat  can  be  thus  produced.  All  this  relates  rather  to  coal 
tiian  to  the  steam  produced  by  coal ;  but  if  the  project  be  sound,  steam-power 
will  be  affected  when  coal  is  affected. 

We  have  not  yet  arrived  at  the  day  when  steam  can  be  bottied  up  like  water 
or  gas,  and  carried  from  place  to  place ;  but  we  have  reached  that  degree  of 
skill  by  which  steam  can  be  made  at  one  place  and  used  at  a  place  a  furlong 
or  more  distant  from  it.  Witness  the  Hyde  Park  arrangements,  so  instruc- 
tive in  this  as  in  many  othjr  matters.  Beyond  the  western  extremity  of  the 
building  was  an  engine-house,  whore  steam  was  raised  by  a  judicious  an-ange- 
inent  of  furnaces  and  boilers.  This  steam  was  conveyed  underground  to  tiie 
'  machinery  in  motion '  department,  the  east  end  of  which  must  have  been  at 
least  a  sixth  of  a  mile  from  the  engine-house.  If  tiiis  steam  had  fallen  in 
temperature,  it  would  have  become  water— one  cubic  foot  would  suddenly 
have  conti-acted  its  dimensions  to  one  cubic  inch,  and  tiie  moving  power 
would  have  been  lost.     How,  then,  was  this  disaster  prevented?    The  pipes 

R  3 


t 


'T- 


jp  gTBAK-rOWKtt   AND  WATBH-POWEB. 

LS!rm;tSJo?of  Sawann  and  closelyfUting  ga.nueut  to  then-  H«3um 

^' There  are  many  recent  contrivances  and  prooe^seH  in  ^hich  it  «  not  easy 
to  Say  Xthrstc!;.m.power.  water-power,  or  ^iri-wer  mo,t  prevailB :  two  «^t 
of  To  three,  or  sometimes  aU  three,  be.ng  conjomed  m  ^''^'■^J^'^yXlt 
al«nnl«R  in  which  two  or  three  kinds  of  action  arc  reqmred  at  once,  au<l  it 
™r.?s  itl  whkh  of  them  we  take  as  Uie  don.mant  power.  Machmes  of  u 
Sod  hy»  action  wUl  receive  attention  in  a  lal.r  pago :  two  or  throe 

«X«=S^:?  Sr  hSK  hrid^  or  c^or  w^  ij 

of  heavy  appj^atusm  -  -^  -^^^^^^^^  fcenrath  U.e  pile,  inste.l 

induced  to  aak—   Can  ^<;"°;;,?r"^i  t„  t^is  question  led  U>  the  m- 

mmmmm 

'Ti're"^«  Slrproduced  by  an  air-pump  has,  m  .  renrntaWe  >™y.  !««. 
Another  gutta-percha  tube,  f^^^^^^^^  tu^ZnmT  t  few  grabis  of 


OTKAM-POWEB  AMD  WATEfrPOWBB. 


11 


loUied  with  thick  hair- 
nviw;  thuH  was  lii^li- 
(•mpted.  Tho  Covaiiih 
re  purticularly  sedulows 
arment  to  their  sieiun 

in  which  it  is  not  easy 
•  most  i)revailsi ;  two  out 
d  in  tliera.  They  aro 
■equired  at  once,  auil  it 
power.  Machmes  of  a 
Iter  page  ;  two  or  three 

dges  or  otlier  worka  in 
diile  it  is  not  strictly 
jompriso    some  of   tho 

piles  into  tiio  bed  of  a 

U>n\i  a  foti'er-dani,  tlio 
ding ;  and  whether  it  is 
by  many  men  pulling  at 
,'  it  requires  tlie  erection 
!  Hence  Dr,  Potts  was 
beneath  tlie  pile,  inst^iul 
IS  question  led  to  the  in- 
auch  used  by  our  great 

the  sandy  bed  of  a  river, 
uid  is  brought  over  Uie 
ipt  an  openuig  for  a  tube 
iiwn  out  of  tlie  cylinder, 
Imder  descends  into  tho 
11  a  railway  bridge  lately 
»n  feet  in  diameter ;  but 
[y  soil,  where  they  form 
e  now  being  consti-ucted 
«n  sunk  by  this  method 
rises  forty  or  fifty  feet  at 

enabled  the  engineer  to 
,  by  the  combined  aid  of 

m  a  reroaikable  way,  been 
n  raming  operations.  Tho 
ent  in  a  position  to  use  its 
ilaced  ua  its  proper  cleft  in 
ards  from  the  gunpowder. 

containuig  sulphuric  acid, 
ice  requisite  for  tho  safety 
r-pump.  A  few  grains  of 
laced  upon  the  top  of  tlie 
pevation.  The  au-purop  is 
ng  tube  to  tho  vessel ;  Uns 

syphon  tube,  and  brings  it 
;  a  chemical  action  results. 


which  inntanUy  produces  an  explosion  ol  the  gunpowder  Thoro  is  son  etlung 
very  ingenious  in  Uiis  armngement,  which  is  due  to  Mr.  Taylor,  ol  Dublin, 
he  caUs  it  a  •piwumatic  buttery.'  imd  his  object  has  been  to  produce  a  sub- 
Htitute  for  U.o  more  costly  and  delicate  galvanic  blasting  m  ordinaiy  mining 
or  qunnyij.a.  ll  is  not  dillicult  to  «<««  that  air-power,  water-power,  or  st^jam- 
power,  may  be  made  to  produce,  analogous  results  by  a  htting  arrangement  ot 
mechanisin;  provided  a  few  drops  of  sulphuri.;  acid  be  made  \a  lull  upon  Uio 
i.owdere.l  mixture,  Uio  explosion  will  take  place ;  and  many  htUe  contrivances 
Jnight  bring  abo.it  this  ivsult.  The  power-air.  waUa-.  or  st4,'am-set«  som- 
thifin  in  motion  which  causes  contact  between  the  acid  and  the  powder, 

chemisU-y  etlects  tlie  rrst.  -•     r  .1       „  •„„  „«• 

Messrs.  Moilon's  'patent  slip'  is  an   insti-uctive  proot   of  tho  sayng  ot 

expense  which  stoam-power.  appli.^d  hi  .ud  of  uigcnious  hydmidic  rnachineiy. 

may  effect  l. .  shipowners.     When  a  ship  is  out  of  repair,  sh.^  must  bo  removed 

wholly  out  of  tlie  wat^-r,  as  th.>.  only  m.mns  for  enablmg  the  artihcers  U>  gain 

a.!ce8S  to  evei:y  part.     It  is  for  this  purp..se  that  J,  ./-,/o./v«  are  constructed  m 

our  royal  dockyards,  at  an  enormous  expense.     Messi-s.  Moiton,  oi  Ldinburgh. 

some  years  .igo.  -onstructed  a  '  slip,'  or  sloping  platform,  up  which  a  ship  cm 

be  dmwn  widi      u:h  ease  for  puqioses  of  repair.     One  of  these  shps  can  be 

constructed  ut        -eighth  of  the  expense  of  a  diy-dock  ol  ecjual  size,     llio 

Mediterranean   t-.i-ts   have   long  been  accustomed  to  the  use  o     «hP«  »"» 

repau'ing  vessels;  but  Uie  operation  was  so  excessively  slow  and  laborious 

tliat  the  hauling  up  of  a  ship  of  500  tons  is  said  Ui  have  involved  an  expense  ot 

no/  •  wheroiis  Mortons  slip  has  reduced  the  expense  to  a  mere  tritlc.     A 

steam-engine  exerting  o.Kvhorse  power  tor  eveiy  100  tons,  and  acting  upon  a 

column  of  water  hi  a  tube,  will  draw  a  ship  along  or  up  the  Morton  slip  at 

the  rate  of  two  feet  and  a  half  in  a  minute. 

CRNTRlFtKiAr.   PuMPS   KVV    HvDBAnUO    PuESSFS. 

But  it  is  tune  now  to  turn  our  attention  to  the  novelties  and  curiosities 
which  modem  ingenuity  has   presented   to   us  in  water-power  and  watei-- 
processes  of  many  kinds.     Abmidant  proofs  have  rocentij'  been  .ifforded  tha 
steam  agency  h.ui   not  yet  eclipsed  hydraulic  agency  in  engineering  and 
manufacturing  operations.  .  ,  ./.      1 

Great  attention  lias  lately  been  paid  to  those  curious  centrifugal  pumps 
which  mise  water  by  the  revolution,  m  that  water,  ol  a  sniaU  wheel,  producing 
a  result  very  much  greater  Uian  would  by  most  persons  bo  expected.  Iheso 
centrifugal  pumps,  whether  we  take  Mr.  Appolds  or  Mr.  Bessemer s  fonn  o 
the  apparatus,  ai^o  exceedingly  beautiful  in  pruiciple.  It  may  appeal-  a  descent 
from  a  great  result  to  a  very  hmnble  one,  to  appeal  to  tlie  '  ti-undlmg  ol  a 
mop  as  an  illustmtion  of  this  centrifugal  aetion;  but  it  is  reaUy  one  of  the 
best  tiiat  can  be  adopted.  The  wet  mop,  set  into  rapid  rotiition  gives  a 
centrifugal  tendency  to  Uie  water  entangled  among  Uie  hbres,  and  tins  water 
flies  off  with  considemble  force.  If  tho  mop,  by  other  mther  than  manual 
power,  were  made  to  rotate  yet  more  x-apidly,  the  water  wouhi  dart  off  violently 
If  the  handle  of  the  mop  were  a  hollow  tube  connected  witli  a  water  tank,  it 
the  mop-head  were  a  flat  circular  box,  and  if  the  porous  fibres  were  repre- 
sented by  channels  proceedmg  from  Uie  cenU-e  to  orihces  at  Uie  circum  erence 
of  the  box,  we  should  have  a  mde  representation  ot  Mr.  Bessemer  scentiihigal 
Dump.  Water  gams  admission  to  the  centre  of  a  rapidly-ieyolvmg  box ; 
channels  convey  Uio  water  from  Uie  centoe  towards  the  cucumfcreuce ;  and 


1 


msmf^^"^-' 


I'i 


STEAM-roWEB  AND  WATEB-POWER. 


the  water  ia  driven  tlionco  up  a  vortical  tube  loft  open  for  its  reception ;  the 
height  to  which,  or  tlie  force  witli  which,  the  water  is  so  driven  being  wliolly 
dependent  on  Uie  centrifugal  torco  which  drives  it  from  Uie  cenU-e  to  tiw  cir- 
cumference of  the  box.  in  Bessemer's  machine  the  axis  of  the  box,  disc,  or 
drum  is  vertical ;  in  Appold's  it  is  horizontal ;  but  the  principle  of  action  is 
nearly  the  same  in  the  two  cases.  As  compared  with  ordinary  pumps,  these 
centrifugal  macihines  are  best  adapted  to  the  njovement  of  a  great  body  of 
water  to  a  small  height,  whereas  valve-pumps  are  better  fitted  for  forcing  water 
to  a  gi  eat  height  ratlier  than  in  large  quantity. 

Mr.  Appold's  pump  raises  a  remarkably  large  body  of  water  witli  a  com- 
paratively small  i)ower.     Witli  a  hollow  cylinder,  la  inchea  in  diameter  by 
;j  inches  deep,  to  which  a  rotation  of  000  times  in  a  miimte  is  given  by  a  steam- 
engine,  this  little  machine  can  raise  1800  gallons  of  water  per  minute  te  a 
heiglit  of  10  feet.     The  cyUnder  Itself  holds  very  little  more  than  one  gallon ; 
and  yet  such  is  tlie  lV)rce  generated  by  the  rapidity  of  revolution,  that  eighteen 
hundred  gallons  pass  through  the  cyluider  in  the  short  space  of  a  minute. 
On  one  occasion  (to  test  the  simplicity  of  the  machine)  half  a  gallon  of 
widnuts  were  put  into  tlie  cyUnder ;  tliey  were  driven  out  without  injury  to 
tliemselves  or  to  tlie  cylinder — tliere  being  no  valves  of  any  kind  in  tlie  latter. 
A  cylinder  one  foot  in  diameter  has  been  matle  to  drive  wate'r  to  a  height  of 
nearly  seventy  feet.     In  November,  lHr»l,  one  of  tlieso  pumps  was  set  to  work 
to  assist  in  draining  Whittlesea  Mere.     The  cylinder  was  four  feet  and  a  half 
hi  <liameter,  and  was  immersed  in  one  of  tlie  channels  or  cuts  by  which  tlic 
Bedford  Level  is  intei-sected.     A  steam-engine  was  erected  on  the  spot,  and 
steam-power  applied  to  the  turning  of  the  cylinder.     Up  rose  Uio  water,  and 
I)oured  into  a  channel  prepared  for  it,  in  immense  volume ;   if  raised  just 
sufficiently  to  escape  from  its  fomier  channel,  it  rose  in  greater  quantity  tlian 
if  forced  up  to  a  greater  height.     No  less  than  sixteen  tliousand  gallons  of 
water  per  minute  were  raised  by  tliis  means,  all  of  which  passed  tlirough  Uio 
cyUnder  of  the  machine.     Those  are  notable  results.     One  of  Mr.  Bessemer's 
jtumps,  witli  a  cylinder  nine  feet  in  diameter,  has  raised  as  much  as  two 
hundred  tons  of  water  in  a  minute  by  Uie  aid  of  a  thirty-horse  power  engine. 
Something  approaching  to  tlie  centrifugal  action  seems  to  be  involved  in 
Messrs.  Marsden's  new  'washing,  wringing,  and  niangluig  machine '—one 
among  many  proofs  of  tlie  successful  search  for  mechanical  novelties  in  our  day. 
The  name  sounds  oddly,  it  is  true ;  but  tlie  manual  operations  to  which  the 
machine  relates  are  really  of  a  laborious  kind ;  and  there  seems  no  reason 
for  witliholding  mechanical   aid   therefrom,  other  than  the   timid  fear  of 
disturbing  the   demand   for   labour   in    that    particular    occupation.     This 
machine,  we  are  told  by  the  inventors,  "  exliibits  much  novelty  m  the  fitting- 
up  and  action  of  tlie  cylinder,  mcluding  oscillating  frames,  springs,  &c.,  and 
resembles  the   action  of  the  human  hand."    The  machine  occupies  little 
room,  can  be  easily  removed,  and  will  '  wash  an'',  wring '  four  blankets  in  ten 
minutes;   it  can  be  worked  with  ease  by  a  gjrl ;   it  saves  time,  soap,  and 
labour ;  and  infected  linen  can  be  washed  by  it  safely.    When  constructed  of 
larger  size,  it  can  readily  be  worked  by  steam-power. 

But  the  drjfiiuj  process,  by  this  centrifugal  agency,  is  of  very  wide  applica- 
tion. Bleachera,  dyers,  caUco  printers,  all  use  it.  The  wet  mass  of  clotli  or 
yam  is  put  into  a  hollow  cyUnder ;  this  cyUnder  is  made  to  revolve  from  one 
to  two  thousand  tunes  in  a  minute ;  the  moisture  is  driven  from  the  cloth 
with  great  violence ;  openings  are  left  to  afford  an  exit  for  this  water  into  an 
outer  vessel;  and  in  a  few  seconds  the  cloth  is  ncai'ly  dry.    Nothing  but 


miSifmiBmmmgnsmmmimifi^ 


1 


HTKAMl'OWKK    ANI»    WATEll-l'OWtill. 


18 


1  for  it«  rt'coption;  flui 
81)  driven  btting  wliuUy 
in  tlie  centi'e  to  the  cii- 
ixiH  of  thu  box,  diHC,  or 
10  |)rinciplu  of  uction  is 
I  ordinary  jiunips,  thoso 
lent  of  II  greut  body  of 
r  fitted  for  forcing  wutor 

ly  of  water  witli  a  coni- 
inchea  in  ditunetor  by 
mtc  i8  given  by  a  Hteain- 
wutor  per  niinuto  to  u 
[j  more  tlian  one  gallon ; 
revolution,  tbat  eighteen 
bort  space  of  a  minute, 
ichine)  half  a  gallon  of 
m  out  witliout  injury  to 
)f  any  kind  in  tlie  latter, 
irive  water  to  a  height  of 

0  pumps  was  set  to  work 
was  four  feet  and  a  half 

31h  or  cuts  by  which  tlie 

rected  on  the  spot,  and 

Up  rofjo  tlio  water,  and 

1  volume ;   if  raised  just 
in  greater  quantity  than 

Lcen  tliousaud  gallons  of 
Inch  passed  tlu'ough  tlio 
One  of  Mr.  Bessemer  s 
raised  as  much  as  two 
lirty-horse  power  engine, 
seems  to  be  involved  in 
langling  machine ' — one 
tiical  novelties  in  our  day. 
I  operations  to  which  tlie 
I  there  seems  no  reason 
than  the  timid  fear  of 
cular  occupation.  This 
ich  novelty  in  the  fitting- 
frames,  springs,  &c.,  and 
machine  occupies  little 
ing '  four  blankets  in  ten 
it  saves  time,  soap,  and 
y.    \Vlien  constructed  of 

',  is  of  very  wide  applica- 
rhe  wet  mass  of  cloth  or 
made  to  revolve  from  one 
is  driven  from  the  cloth 
3xit  for  this  water  into  an 
leai'ly  dry.    Nothing  but 


actually  witnesMing  the  |)n)ceH8  can  convey  an  adeejiiato  iilea  of  tiio  rapitlity 
of  tliiM  drying  proi-cHs.  In  some  of  the  l)aths  and  washhoiisoH  now  eHtablislud, 
machines  of  tliis  kind  iiro  employed  to  supersede  tlio  hard  necessity  of 
'  wringing '  the  w<t  linen — a  great  boon  to  the  poor  women  who  avail  tlieni- 
selves  of  tliesc!  advuutages. 

A  curious  appli(;ation  of  centrifugal  force  is  ui  the  separation  of  cry(ttalli/,ed 
sugar  from  molasses — (piite  a  modem  process.  When  'lump'  or  "loaf  suf,'ur 
has  be-'U  bleached  and  purified  and  ciystallised.  tliere  still  remains  mixed  up 
witli  tlie  crystals  a  yt-llowish  brown  viscid  liqiiiil,  whicli  will  mil  crystallise ; 
luul  this  must  be  separated  before  the  beautifully  white  sugar  will  be  tit  for 
till!  market.  Under  the  old  method,  tlie  sugar-loaf  mould  was  turned  u|)sido 
down,  and  liijuid  was  made  to  tackle  slowly  through  the  sweet,  spongy  ma.ss; 
tin;  li(piid  was  either  watx-r,  or  alcohol,  or  a  solution  of  sugar  in  water ;  and 
the  molasses,  washed  out  by  these  means,  escaped  by  a  holes  at  the  small  end 
of  the  sugar  mould.  But  it  has  recently  been  found  that  the  same  remarkablt! 
centi-ifugal  action  which  drives  out  moisture  from  cloth  will  do  the  same  in 
respect  to  a  mass  of  wet  sugar.  The  cryhtallised  or  granulated  sugar,  steeped 
in  a  murky  bath  of  molasses,  is  made  still  more  moist  with  water ;  about 
half  a  hundredweight  is  put  into  a  sieve-like  circuloi-  vessel ;  tliis  vessel  ia 
made  to  rotate  UJOU  or  l«i>(i  times  in  a  miniUi ;  and  tlie  whole  of  the  molasses 
luid  water  are  driven  violently  and  i|uickly  out  of  tlie  mass,  leaving  the  sugai- 
in  a  nearly  dry  and  pure  state.  M.  Van  Cloethem,  a  Belgiiui  sugai-  refiner, 
has  invented  a  surprising  machine,  in  which  fifty  sugar-loaves  aio  rangisd 
radially  in  a  kind  of  horizontal  wheel,  imd  then  the  whole  made  to  revolve 
with  a  speed  of  eight  hundred  revolutions  in  a  minute.  The  proper  liquid  is 
applied  by  a  beautiful  contrivance; ;  and  in  about  twenty  minutes  tlie  whole  of 
tlie  fifty  loaves  of  sugar  are  found  to  be  not  only  freed  from  molasses,  but 
rendered  almost  completely  diy.  Many  days  would  be  required  to  effect  tliis 
by  the  old  method. 

Another,  and  u  very  pleasuig  application  of  this  force,  is  that  adopted  by 
Mr.  Masters  in  making  ice  for  confectionery  purposes.  One  apparatus,  of  a 
large  size,  is  capable  of  freezing  upwards  of  one  hundred  cpiarts  of  liquid 
into  ice  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour — six  different  kinds  of  ice  being  producible  in 
the  one  machine,  at  one  time.  Not  only  can  the  machine  make  dessert  ices, 
such  as  raspberry  ice,  lemon  ice,  &c.,  but  it  can  as  readily  produce  huge 
hollow  cylindrical  blocks  of  pure  ice,  into  the  liolh)W  of  which  may  be  placed 
decanters  of  water  or  bottles  of  wine  to  bo  cooled.  Some  of  these  ice- 
cylindoi-s  are  made  in  ornamental  forms ;  and  when  placed  on  a  properly- 
constructed  stand,  tliey  diffuse  an  agreeable  coolness  hi  a  heated  room. 
This  ice-making  process,  however,  is  in  piu-t  chemical.  Many  salts  and 
acids,  when  mixed,  produce  an  intense  degree  of  cold  in  the  sun-ounding 
space.  Mr.  Masters  has  discovered  a  mixture  which  produces  this  reduction 
of  temperature  to  a  very  exti-aordinary  degree.  The  confectionery  or  liquid 
which  is  converted  into  ice  is  placed  in  a  vessel  of  white  metal,  around  which 
is  the  space  filled  witli  the  freezing  n.ixture ;  and  around  tliis  agaui  is  another 
space  filled  with  pure  spring  water.  Of  these  three  cylinders,  the  innennost 
is  made  to  revolve  witli  gi-eat  rapidity,  by  which  the  freezing  mixture  acts 
quickly  on  the  cream  or  liquor,  and  ices  it ;  while  at  tlie  same  time  the  s_priiig 
water  is  converted  into  a  cylinder  of  beautiful  ice.  The  centrifugal  action  of 
the  inner  cylinder  drives  tlie  confection  forcibly  against  the  sides,  where  it  can 
be  more  readily  acted  upon  by  the  freezing  mixture  outside  that  cylinder. 

The  applications  of  tliese  centrifugal  machines  in  miumfactures  ai-e  no' 


now  so 


a»jW»Pi?eR7ei3Wis?ifciri| 


It 


dTPIAM-IHtWKB   AND   WATKR-WWRIl. 


WUMWm  md  varied,  that  we  may  reai»onabl>  cxpunt  to  8<>o  many  intoroHtiiiK 
*nKdtt|>»t«ite<i  l>y  tli'Mii.  ,     ,    ,        .       u.  . 

AnotluT  <la»>i  of  hyilmulic.  miuliiiios,  whii!li  1ms  liitfly  lipon  brought  to  a 
hiffh  <l««rno  ot  .'tttciencv.  i«  tlio  hyilriiuli.'.  jiross.  or— from  tlic  iiiiiiu)  ot  its 
iiiL'eiiioiis  inventor— betUtr  known  us  tho  Hnunuli  press.  For  producing  a  h bw 
but  irrflHJstiblo  preHHurn,  lew  forms  of  machinn  bavo  over  cq»all«d  tlus,  whoUur 
moveil  by  Kteani  or  by  any  otlur  Houmo  of  power. 

Nevfir  before  tho  riuninK  of  tho  Jhitannia  IJridgo  wcro  Uicre  I'niployod  Huch 
ponderouH  inasHes  of  iron  in  tiie  conHtniction  of  a  hydraulic.  pr«Hn ;  for  never 
before  was  there  mich  a  (hiring  ont<!n)nKO  in  which  Hiich  a  prens  was  rorpiired. 
Two  wrought-iron  ginlors,  woighinK  \i  tons  each;  two  i-ast-iron  beams  ot 
5  tonH  each;  a  ')<M^'l«'t'  "♦'  Pft"'  '""^  wrought  iron,  around  the  cylinder,  weigh- 
ing H  tons;  the  cawliron  rylimlor  itself,  of  15  tons;  die  ram  or  pist^jii  to 
work  within  tho  cylinder,  of  nearly  1  tons ;  tlie  ciMt-iron  croHs-beiul  o« 
|!»  tons ;  besideH  the  damps,  chains,  guide-rods,  valves,  iiiul  other  parts  ot  the 
rnechan ism—such  w^re  the  weights  given  to  the  parts  of  a  machiiu)  intendeil 
for  only  one  single  operation,  tlio  raising  of  tho  tubular  bridge.  A  special 
goods  train  was  re<piired  to  bring  this  press  to  lionilon  foro.\hibition,and  sixty 
horses  to  convey  it  from  Muston  Sfpiare  to  Hyde  I'lirk. 

It  foniiH  no  part  of  tho  pn^ent  subje.a  to  treat  of  the  casting  and  manu 
facture  of  these  huge  masses ;  but  it  is  worthy  of  t)eing  borne  in  recollection 
that  the  cylinder  was«  feet  high,  '.\\  feet  i.i  external  diameter,  and  formed  witli 
It  inches'  thickness  of  m(*tftl.  Although  in  it«  Hnishcnl  stati;  it  weighed  only 
I.'',  tons,  yet  'i^  tons  (moro  than  f»0,l»(l(tlbs.)  of  molten  iron  were  required 
for  the  casting:  this  was,  we  believe,  nearly  if  not  quite  the  largest  single 
casting  ever  exeouU'd.  The  mass  of  iron  was  red  hot  three  days  afUir  the 
casting ;  it  was  removed  from  the  pit  on  tho  seventh  day,  and  wa«  too  hot 
even  on  the  tenth  <lay  to  be  appiowihod  except  by  those  accustomed  to 
tlie  fierce  glowing'  musses  of  an  iron  work. 

To  show  how  skilfully  our  modem  engineci-s  now  adapt  their  materials  to 
the  partioulai*  kind  of  pressure  which  they  have;  to  bear,  we  may  mention 
tliat  two  upright  'sandwich'  girders,  which  had  to  bear  a  weight  ot  U7T 
tons,  were  formed  simply  of  six  parallel  upright  ranges  of  boiler-plate,  ^^ths 
of  an  inch  thick,  int^rlayorcd  (or  inter-sandwiched,  we  might  perhaps  say)  with 
planks  of  American  elm  'i  inches  thick. 

The  greatest  weight  actually  lifted  bv  this  extraordinary  proas  at  any  one 
time  was  1144  tons  (more  thiui  -^  million  lbs.);  which  was  effected  in  lilts 
or  distances  of  «  feet  each,  requiring  a  little  over  half  an  hour  for  each  lift. 
Now  what,  tlie  reader  may  ask,  was  the  body  of  water  which,  by  preusuro, 
lifttHl  this  unparalleled  weightr-unpaiallele<l  by  anything  which  tlie  ingenuity 
of  man  had  before  achieved  ?  It  was  simply  Hl^  gallons,  about  a  hogshead 
and  a  htdf !  A  hogsheatl  and  a  half  of  water  flowed  Into  the  cylinder  irom  a 
pmall  pipe  ;  It  had  not  room  in  tho  cylinder  below  the  mm,  and  it  therefore 
thrust  up  the  ram  to  make  room ;  and  in  so  thrusting  up  the  ram  it  forced 
up  at  the  same  time  the  weight  which  pressed  on  the  ram,  viz.,  the  chains 
supporting  one  of  the  long  tubes  for  the  bridge.  Even  one  man  working  Uie 
pump  has  raised  '2'i  tons.  Never  before  did  eighty  gallons  of  water  do  such 
work.  If  we  trace  the  operation  further,  we  shall  of  course  find  that  the 
real  source  of  power  exhibited  itself  at  an  earlier  stage ;  it  was  the  steam- 
engine  which  force<l  the  water  ;  but  still  it  remains  true  that  the  remarkable 
incompressible  quality  of  water  was  the  immediate  instrument  employed. 
The  water  was  forced  from  the  pipe  into  the  cylinder,  by  the  steam-engine, 


uoQ  iiiatiy  intoroNtinK 

ly  lipon  brought  U>  a 

from  the  iiiiinn  of  itn 

Kor  prodiuMiij^nHlow 

cqiialUtd  Umh,  whotiuu- 

(>  Uicru  cniployod  mucH 
iiiiUn  pnmn ;  ibr  novnr 
1  tt  ])reHs  wiiH  r<!(|iurtid. 
,vo  tnwt-iron  bt»aniH  c)f 
1(1  tliii  (iylindftr,  wnigh- 
tiui  ram  or  piston  to 
iwt-iron  crosM-huml  of 
and  ollior  piirtM  of  tlie 
if  a  niuchini)  intcndod 
lar  hri<lK«'.  A  upeoiftl 
or  exhibition,  and  Bixty 

tho  rusting  and  raanu- 
g  honui  in  rocoUection 
ikUt,  and  formed  with 
I  Htati!  it  weighed  only 
ten  iron  were  required 
iiite  tht)  largest  single 
t  three  days  after  Uks 
1  day,  and  wa8  too  hot 
thoHi!  accuBtomed  to 

ulapl  their  materials  to 
l)ear,  we  may  mention 
bear  a  woiglit  of  117T 
Si  of  boiler-plate,  i^^ths 
night  perhaps  say)  with 

inaiy  press  at  any  one 
;h  was  effected  in  lift* 
'  an  hour  for  each  litlt. 
«r  which,  by  prcsBurc, 
ng  which  tlie  ingenuity 
Ions,  about  a  hogshead 
nto  the  cylinder  I'rom  a 
le  mm,  and  it  therefore 
ig  up  the  rani  it  forced 
16  ram,  vi?.„  the  chains 
n  one  man  working  the 
aliens  of  water  do  such 
of  course  find  that  the 
age ;  it  was  tho  steam- 
•ue  that  the  remarkable 
instrument  employed, 
r,  by  the  steam-engine, 


BTEAM-POWRR  AND   WATlB-rOWlR. 


IB 


with  a  prewHure  of  nearly  four  tons  per  Hcjuaro  inch ;  and  this  pre«»ure  was 
trauHfenvd  to  the  whole  muler  surfiu-e  of  th.'  ram,  ftlr.  Kdwin  (Jlark,  ui  hw 
v.-rv  inlerestiug  account  of  the  Ihitnnnia  Ihidge,  gives  Home  sturthng  iIIuh- 
tratiouH  to  j^iiow  Uiu  ri;al  amount  of  this  power;  he  shown  that  Uw  p"W«r 
with  which  the  water  waH  forced  and  coutimiud  during  the  whole  elevation 
of  the  tube,  would  have  been  Huthcient  to  drive  it  up  a  |.ipe  to  a  greater 
lieight  than  any  mounUiin  on  the  globe,  HuppoMing  that  such  a  pipe  could  Imi 
fonned  and  mnintuined  ;  or  tluit  Huch  a  power,  if  made  to  work  lUi  ordinary 
pendulum  dock,  W(.ul.l  set  itgoing  for  yui,(i0()  years!  Such  iliuHtratioiiH  may 
appear  extravagant,  and  extravagant  they  would  be  if  leeant  to  im))ly  any  ro  lUy 
practicable  result;  but  they  lu-o  intelligible  and  true  if  taken  Hiniidy  us  esti- 
mates of  the  (fmntity  of  pouwr  pioduiu'd  and  exerted.  The  hogshead  and  a 
half  of  WHtei  is  made  virtually  to  contain  die  enomious  mechanical  power 
above  adverted  to,  by  tho  state  of  compression  which  it  is  forced  by  the 
Kteam-englne  to  asHUino.  ..  i     u    i      r» 

Among  the  recent  produ^'tions  exhibiting  the  amazing  power  of  Uie  hyaraulic 
press  is  one  manufactured  and  worked  by  Messrs.  Hick,  of  Bolton.  It  con- 
sists of  a  press  with  four  cylinders,  having  an  aggregaUt  power  of  -^rjOO  tons 
pressure.  Two  objects  are  attained  by  the  use  of  four  cylmdera ;  the  inetiU 
castings  are  much  less  ponderous  eollectivoly,  than  one  would  bo  haying 
equal  power ;  and  thoru  are  facilities  for  using  either  two  or  four  at  a  time, 
according  to  tlie  amount  of  power  required.  Many  poisons  nuiy  have  re- 
cently seen  the  model  of  this  hydraulic  i)ress,  accompiuiied  by  witnesses  to 
testify  to  Uio  wondrous  power  of  "the  real  press  :t«elf.  These  witnesses  were 
in  the  fonn  of  circular  pieces  of  iron,  cut  (mt  of  thick  slabs  while  cold  by  the 
pressure  of  the  machine  ;  and  it  was  difficult  to  bring  the  mind  to  die  beliet 
that  such  work  could  be  done  by  such  means.  Tho  pieces  were  about  eiglU 
inches  in  diameter ;  one  was  an  inch  and  a  half  in  Uiickness,  and  had  been 
cut  out  of  a  slab  of  iron  by  a  punch  pressed  with  a  force  of  700  tons ;  another, 
«  inches  thick,  required  a  force  of  m)  tons;  a  third,  -i^  inches,  retpiired 
I«i5;l  tons;  a  fourth,  !»  inches,  needed  ItKK)  tons;  while  tho  giant  ot  the 
whole  HA  inches  thick,  had  refused  to  yield  to  a  less  pressing  force  than 
W!SV  tons— more  than  four  millions  of  ])oundH.  Such  was  the  work  which  a 
smal.  pump  enabled  tlie  hydraulic  press  to  peribnn. 

Water  Suitly;  riioJEcis  and  Capabilities. 

There  are  many  curious  matters  arising  out  of  Uie  supply  of  water  to 
towns  Whether  a  steam-engine  raises  water  from  a  river  (as  at  old  London 
Bridge),  or  an  aqueduct  brings  water  from  a  distiuice  (as  theCroton  Aquetluct 
at  New  York),  or  an  artesian  well  draws  water  from  a  great  deptli  (as  at  South- 
ampton), tlio  engineering  arrangements  involve  many  highly-intfirestrng  points. 
We  shall  not,  however,  dwell  upon  the  well-known  charactoristicB  ot  tiiis 
subject,  but  shall  glance  at  a  few  aspects  of  the  '  water  question    at  Uio 

present  day.  .        „  .  .,,.        „,.  • , 

This  question  of  water  supply  for  a  monster  city  of  two  nulhons  of  in- 
habitants is  entangled  by  a  greater  number  of  conditions  than  would  at  hrst 
seem  probable.  One  is,  that  there  ought  to  bo  litde  or  no  caibonate  ot  lime 
in  die  water.  M.  Soyer  tells  us  diat  '  hard '  water  (water  contammg  hine) 
turns  boiled  vegotc'les  to  a  yellowish  colour,  and  diat  it  does  not  well  open 
die  pores  of  boiled  meat ;  every  housewife  knows  diat  it  h  unfitted  for  making 
taa  and  odier  infusions,  and  for  wasliing  clothes.      The  Board  ot  Health 


L 


ji     iiiJiiwi.nwmn' 


1ft 


HTF.AM-POWER   AND    WATER-POWEK. 


Report  on  this  subiect  states  that  "more  money  is  expended  m  washms 
clothes  than  in  the  manufacture  of  the  fabric,  or  ot  the  clothes  themselves  ; 
and  that,  in  I.ondon,  "  before  a  shirt  is  woi-n  out,  five  tmjes  as  m«ch  monc^^ 
as  it  originally  cost  will  have  been  expended  on  it  m  washmg.      Hard  xsatei 
l^quires^morJfuel.  too,  to  mise  it  to  boiling  heat.     Professor  Clark  Ij  pro- 
posed  that,  when  a  gallon  of  water  contams  one  gram  of  carbonate  ol  lime 
I  shall  be  said  to  have  on.  degree  of  hardness  ;  so  that  different  «Pecmien«  of 
water  can  be  easily  compared  in  this  respect.     In  the  process  of    softening 
hard  water,  to  fit  it  for  domestic  pm-poses,  2  ounces  ol  hard  soap  are    e- 
quired  in  100  gallons  of  water  for  every  degi-ee  of  hardness;  consequently 
4hen  tlie  water  is  very  hard  the  consumption  of   soap  is^  seriously  large 
Bathing  is  much  more  effective  and  pleasant  in  soft  than  in  hard  water.     Ihe 
.Teat  porter  brewers  go  to  a  vast  expense  m  obtaining  soft  water.     1  he  lioaia 
oi  Health  chemists  found  that  the  water  from  surface  drainage  in  various 
parts  of  England  averages  about  5  degress  of  hardness,  from  nvers  and 

Cks  13  degrees,  .uidl-rom  wells  and  «P""g%^«  <i«g^r';  frl  nrTft 
the  New  River,  and  other  sti-eams  which  supply  London,  have  from  -J  to  IH 
degrees.  It  is  said  tliat  twenUjuix  tons  of  lune  are  mixed  up  with  tlie  dauy 
supply  of  water  for  tlie  metropolis.  .     ,    ,,         v  •  „.  „<•  .u„ 

The  Board  of  Health,  whose  duty  it  was  to  investigate  tlie  subject  of  the 
supply  of  water  to  London,  enumerate  the  foUowing  as  the  qualities  which  such 
3ei4iould  possess  -.-softness,  or  freedom  from  lime ;  freedom  from  ammal 
and  vegetable  matter;  aeration  by  a  pure  atmosphere;  freedom  ^om  ^Uiy 
and  mineral  matter;  medium  temperature;  limpidity  or  ckamess ;  absence 
Sspedal  flavour  o;  taste.     Wlien  it  is  recollected  that  the  Board  had  to  toke 
all  these  data  (or  rather  desiderata)  into  account,  as  well  as  those  relating  to 
the  geological  and  to  the  commercial  aspects  of  the  inquiry,  it  will  be  evident 
Sat  the  task  was  a  somewhat  formidable  one.     Of  the  seven  qua  ities  re- 
quired in  the  water,  the  Thames  is  pronomieed  to  be  very  dencient,  m  the 
part  near  London.     It  is  also  said  by  the  Board  that  the  Thames  wi  hm 
Lsonable  distance  of  London,  and  all  rivers  flowmg  into  tb«  Thames  w^m 
that  limit,  though  better  than  Thames  water  at  London,  are  yet  lamentably 
deficient  in  the  requisite  qualities ;  and  it  is  recommended  in  plain  temis 
that  "the  water  of  the  Thames,  the  Lea,  the  New  lUver,  the  Cohie  and  the 
Wandle,  us  well  as  that  of  flie  other  tributaries  and  sources  of  the  same 
de.'rees  of  hardness,  should  be  as  early  as  practicable  abandoned. 

River-^vater  being  thus  'Uirown  overboard '  by  the  Commissioners,  they  tried 
i,ell-water:  but  here,  also,  they  were  dissatisfied.  Such  water  has  many  mineral 
impuritie;.;  but  a  greater  obstacle  is.  the  limit  in  the  supposed  available 
quantity  There  are  one  or  two  facts  which  throw  a  curious  light  on  this  deh- 
ciency  of  supply.  "  The  great  porter  brewers  have  arranged  among  them- 
selves to  brew  respectively  on  different  days,  so  as  to  equalise  the  demands 
on  the  water-bed ;  it  is  farther  stated  that  water  is  higher  in  the  wells  on 
Mondays  than  on  any  other  days,  by  reason  of  there  bemg  no  brewing  on  the 
SundaT  This  difference  in  the  level  of  the  water-bed  is  felt  as  fai-  from  to^^'n 

""^  WhaHs  t^be  done,  then  ?  If  river-water  be  bad,  and  well-water  deficient, 
what  shall  be  our  resource  ?  The  Lancashire  plan,  say  the  Commissioners,  a 
plan  by  which  surface  land-drainage  is  obtained.  The  nearer  to  the  actual 
rain-fall  the  water  is  collected,  the  freer  it  will  be  from  adventitious  impurities; 
and  tliis  principle  has  been  made  the  basis  of  operations  m  many  parts  ot 
Lancashire.     The  engineers  "take  some  elevated  ground,  generally  sterile 


L 


STEAM-rOWER  AND   WATER-POWEn. 


17 


ixpended  in  washing 
clothos  themselves  ;" 
imes  as  much  money 
ishing."     Hard  water 
lessor  Clark  has  pro- 
of carbonate  of  lime, 
different  specimens  of 
arocess  of  '  softening ' 
of  hard  soap  are  re- 
irdness;  consequently 
ap  is  seriously  large. 

I  in  hard  water.  The 
oft  water.  The  Board 
e  drainage  in  various 
less,  from  rivers  and 
iegrees;  the  Thames, 
on,  have  from  13  to  1« 
ixed  up  with  tlie  daily 

[ate  the  subject  of  the 
he  qualities  which  such 
;  freedom  from  animal 
;  freedom  from  earthy 
or  clearness;  absence 
;  the  Board  had  to  take 

II  as  those  relatuig  to 
juiry,  it  will  be  evident 

the  seven  qualities  re- 
e  very  denciei;t,  in  the 
at  the  Thames  within 
into  the  Thames  within 
on,  are  yet  lamentably 
nended  in  plain  temis 
iver,  the  Colne,  and  the 
d  sources,  of  the  same 
abandoned." 
immissioners,  they  tried 
water  has  many  mineral 
the  supposed  available 
iurious  light  on  this  defi- 
arranged  among  them- 
i  equ5ise  the  demands 
higher  in  the  wells  on 
behig  no  brewing  on  the 
1  is  felt  as  fai-  from  to-vsTi 

and  well-water  deficient, 
ay  the  Commissioners,  a 
The  nearer  to  the  actual 
adventitious  impurities ; 
rations  in  many  parts  of 
ground,  generally  sterile 


moorland  or  sandy  heath  ;  and  mn  a  satch-water  trench  or  conduit  round  the 
hill,  midway,  or  as  high  up  as  mav  be  convenient  for  the  sake  oi  fall,  regard 
being  had  to  the  space  of  the  gathering-ground.  An  embankment  is  thrown 
acitoss  gome  natunil  gorge  at  the  nearest  point  at  which  a  reservoir  may  be 
formed  witliout  the  expense  of  excavation.  Into  this  the  ram-water  is  let  and 
stored."  The  sad  calamity  at  the  Holmfirth  reservoir  resulted  from  the 
neglected  state  of  an  embankment  of  this  kind.  If  the  drains  and  channels 
can  be  judiciously  made  through  a  sandy  stratum,  the  water  may  be  obtained 
veiT  pellucid  and  pure. 

Such  being  the  case,  then,  tlie  Commissioners  are  looking  around  Uiem  to 
find  a  water  supply  of  tliis  kind.  Some  have  had  an  eye  to  Richmond  1  ark, 
tlie  gravelly  loam  of  which  affords  beautiful  water.  Others  have  been  ex- 
amining the  disti-ict  between  Bagshot  and  Woking.  "  Farnham  has  for  some 
time,"  we  are  told,  "been  supplied  with  soft  water  by  the  drainage  ol  less 
than  two  acres  of  common  land ;  the  water  is  clear  and  limpid  at  all  times  of 
tlie  yeai- ;  and  there  ai-e  many  square  miles  of  similai-  countiy  near,  almost 
wholly  useless  for  any  agricultural  purposes."  The  Commissionere  are  of 
opinion  that  an  abundant  supply  for  the  metropolis,  of  very  beautiful  soft 
water,  may  be  obtained  from  this  district.  One  difficulty  is  the  paucity  of 
any  natural  hollows  into  which  the  water  could  flow  as  reservou-s.  Estiniates 
have  been  made  that  the  construction  of  the  enormous  covered  resei-voirs  at 
Bagshot  to  contain  the  water  for  two  millions  of  souls,  and  of  tlie  covered 
channels  from  thenceto  I-ondon,  would  not  be  less  than  one  million  sterling; 
but  it  is  at  the  same  time  urged  that  "  two  years'  saving  from  the  use  of  the 
purer  water  would  fully  repay  this  portion  of  the  outlay." 

There  is  a  proposition  of  considerable  interest  and  importance  connected 
with  the  future  water  supply  of  London.  Wiat  supply  may  ultimately  be 
adopted  no  one  can  yet  tell ;  whether  tlie  six  or  eight  companies  may  con- 
tinue their  own  plans,  or  river  water  be  dra%vn  from  Watford  or  elsewhere,  or 
artesian  wells  be  sunk,  or  surface  drainage  be  brought  from  Bagshot.  But, 
supposing  an  ample  supply  be  obtainable,  it  is  proposed  in  many  quartei-s 
that  the  water  should  always  be  at  hiijh  pressure,  by  powerful  steam-engine 
aiTangements  at  the  resenoirs ;  at  present  water  is  '  turned  on '  and  '  turned 
oft"  at  certain  days  and  hours  ;  but  the  '  continuous  supply,'  now  adopted  m 
a  few  towns  in  the  north,  is  found  to  have  many  advantages,  and  a  high  proji- 
sure  is  necessary  to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  this  continuous  supply.  Sup- 
posing, then,  the  water-pipes  of  a  house  to  be  always  full  of  water  in  a  state 
of  pressure,  ready  to  rush  fonvard  when  any  opening  offers,  should  we  not 
have  a  source  of  mechanical  i)ower— a  working  agent— always  at  hand? 
■Pressure  of  water  will  move  machinery  as  effectively  as  p/cssure  of  steam  ; 
and  hence  has  arisen  the  question  of  combinmg  water-supply  with  power- 

The  Board  of  Health,  in  the  recent  Report  on  the  Water  of  Towns, 
touches  on  tliis  matter  in  the  following  words:— "At  present  many  trades 
employ  very  small  steam-engines  for  purposes  that  may,  almost  as  cheaply,  be 
accomplished  bv  hand ;  for  instance,  coffee-grinding.  There  are  many  pur- 
poses for  which'steam  might  be  substituted  for  manual  power  with  advantage, 
were  it  not  for  the  cost  of  skilled  labour  required  to  attend  to  it,  and  the 
expense  and  trouble  of  keeping  up  the  steam  when  the  power  is  not  wanted. 
If  some  hydraulic  engines  (such  as  the  tourbine  or  tlie  centrifugal  pump) 
were  employed  and  worked  by  water  from  the  pipes— which  could  be  set  to 
work  and  stopped  in  an  instant,  which  consumes  no  power  except  Avhen  at 


IB 


BTEAM-POWKB  AND  WATBB-roWER. 


work,  which  requires  no  skilful  mechanic  to  work  it,  and  is  quite  free  from 
risk  from  tire  or  explosion — there  is  no  doubt  that  numerous  applications  of 
such  power  would  be  introduced  which  ai'e  as  yet  scarcely  thought  of.  It 
would  be  easy  to  work  eranes  and  hoists  for  raising  or  lowering  goods  or  per- 
sons in  warehouses,  where  the  occasions  for  tlieir  use  are  not  sutticiently 
numerous  to  render  a  steam-engine  economical.  Such  an  instrument  would 
work  presses  in  the  sujaller  printing-offices,  where  it  is  not  woilli  while 
having  a  steam-engine.  For  many  purposes  a  simple  hydraulic  press,  with  a 
large  cylindtjr  acted  upon  by  the  direct  pressure  from  tho  pipes,  would  be 
sufficient  for  packing.  In  others,  Bramali  presses  might  be  worked  by  the 
hydraulic  machine.  Tmnera  might  work  tlieir  lathes,  and  smiths  their  bel- 
lows, by  water-powei- ;  chatt'  might  be  cut,  and  outs  and  beans  crushed,  by 
tlie  same  means — in  fact,  it  is  impossible  to  mention  all  the  various  uses  to 
which  it  might  be  applied  if  water  were  supplied  constantly  and  at  high 
pressm'e." 

Water  and  Watku-Powek: — Misceu^neous  Sckaps. 

The  remainder  of  tliis  sheet  may  conveniently  be  occupied  by  a  few  mis- 
cellaneous matters  arising  out  of,  or  connected  with,  the  subject  before  us. 

A  word  or  two,  then,  upon  Jilt4!rs.  Mr.  Forster's  preamrc  filter  is  a  very 
pretty  application  of  a  well-known  hydraulic  principle.  There  are  two  hollow 
hemispheres,  exactly  fitting  one  to  tlie  other,  and  both  formed  of  a  pecuhar 
kind  of  porous  sandstone ;  and  tliese  are  enclosed  in  a  larger  sphere  fonned 
of  metal,  glass,  or  earthenware.  The  water  which  is  to  be  filtered  is  made  to 
flow  into  the  open  space  between  the  two  globes,  tlirough  a  pipe  arranged  for 
that  purpose.  The  water,  with  the  ordinary  pressure  which  it  has  from  the 
common  street  supply,  has  suthcient  momentum  to  force  itself  through  the 
porous  substance  into  tlie  inner  globe ;  but  the  impurities  cannot  so  find  a 
path  for  themselves — they  are  left  behind  in  the  space  between  the  globes. 
The  filtered  water  has  an  outlet  by  a  tap  which  communicates  witli  the  inner 
globe.  Otlier  filters,  of  a  more  familiar  kind,  act  simply  by  the  descent  of 
water  by  its  own  weight  through  a  porous  stratum  of  sand  or  charcoal  or 
some  other  finely-divided  substance. 

A  word  or  two  also  concerning  fire-en  f/incs.  These  engines  occupy  a  peculiar 
place  among  hydraidic  mechanism,  in  nearly  the  whole  of  the  manufacture 
(for  this  countrj)  being  in  the  hiuids  of  two  or  three  tinns.  The  largest  of 
these  engines  require  twenty-fom-  men  to  work  them,  twelve  on  each  side. 
Small  engines  for  private  mansions,  and  garden  engines,  can  often  be  worked 
by  one  person.  There  has  been  recently  amongst  us  a  magnificent  tire- 
engine,  sent  from  Canada — much  to  the  surprise  of  John  Bull,  who  was  not 
aware  that  his  Canadian  bretluen  had  reached  so  high  a  pitch  of  house-on-tire 
civilisation  ;  it  reiiuired  forty  men  to  work  it,  and  had  many  peculiarities  of 
construction.  The  French  fire-enguies  ai-e  smaller,  being  worked  by  six  or 
eight  men. 

There  is  an  American  fire-engine,  recently  invented  by  Mr.  Lay,  of 
Philadelphia,  which  has  a  clever  contrivance  for  economising  time  as  much 
as  possible.  The  machine  itself  is  a  steam  fire-engine,  worked  by  steam- 
power  instead  of  by  men ;  and  is  so  far  analogous  to  one  invented  in  London 
about  twenty  years  ago  by  Messrs.  Braithwaite  and  Ericsson :  but  it  has,  in 
addition,  another  working  power  to  be  made  available  while  it  is  being  heated 
and  tlio  steam  generated.    Carbonic  acid  gas  can,  nowadays,  be  made  to 


ad  IS  quite  free  from 
lerous  a{)plicatioiis  of 
ircely  thought  of.  It 
Dwering  goods  or  per- 
e  are  not  Hutliciently 
an  instrument  would 
;  is  not  woilli  while 
jfdraulic  press,  with  a 
tho  pipes,  would  bo 
ht  be  worked  by  the 
Euid  smitlis  their  bel- 
nd  beans  crushed,  by 
11  the  vaiious  uses  to 
nstantly  and  at  high 


78   SCKAPS. 

:cui)iod  by  a  few  mis- 
;  subject  before  us. 
essure  filter  is  a  very 
There  aie  two  hollow 
1  formed  of  a  peculiar 
larger  sphere  fonned 
be  filtered  is  made  to 
jh  a  pipe  arranged  for 
iiich  it  has  from  tlie 
•ce  itself  through  the 
ities  cannot  so  find  a 
B  between  the  globes, 
licates  witli  the  inner 
ply  by  the  descent  of 
f  sand  or  chaicoftl  or 


BTEAM-POWEB  AND  WATKB-POWER. 


10 


jfines  occupy  a  peculiar 
le  of  the  manufacture 
tinns.  The  lai'gest  of 
twelve  on  each  side. 
■s,  cim  often  be  worked 
us  a  magnificent  tire- 
)lm  Bull,  who  was  not 
I  pitch  of  houso-on-fire 
,  many  peculiarities  of 
ing  worked  by  six  or 

ited  by  Mr.  Lay,  of 
)mising  time  as  much 
ne,  worked  by  steam- 
le  invented  in  London 
icsson:  but  it  has,  in 
hile  it  is  being  heated 
owadaya,  be  made  to 


drive  machiner}',  and  it  is  only  kept  in  the  background  because  steam-power 
cati  be  obtained  and  worked  cheaper.  The  engine  is  kept  ready,  with  water 
in  the  boiler  and  fuel  iji  the  fire-box,  to  generate  steam  in  ten  minutes.  On 
an  alarm  of  fire  being  given,  the  fuel  is  kindled ;  and  at  the  same  time  a 
supply  of  ciurbonic  acid  gas  is  placed  in  a  suitable  apparatus  sufficient  to 
j)ropel  the  instrument  to  the  spot  required,  and  begin  working ;  the  steam 
then  takes  up  the  duty,  and  finishes  the  work  to  be  done.  By  a  very  curious 
mechanical  an-imgenient,  tho  hind  wheels  are  lifted  from  the  ground  when 
the  engine  Is  stationary,  and  made  to  act  as  fly-wheels.  The  engine  is  said  to 
be  able  to  force  three  or  four  hunth-ed  gallons  of  water  per  minute  upon  the 
burning  materials.  This  ingenious  machine,  it  will  be  perceived,  illusUates 
nt  once  tlie  action  of  a  gas-engine,  a  steam-engine,  and  a  force-pump. 

Different  in  action  from  the  fire-engine,  from  the  centrifugtd  pump,  from 
the  hydraulic  press,  and  from  tho  common  pump  and  tlie  common  water- 
wheel,  is  the  hydraulic  ram,  which  produces  power  in  a  way  somewhat 
remarkable.  It  was  originally  invented  in  Franco  by  Montgolfler,  who  ob- 
tained a  widely  populai-  notoriety  for  his  feats  in  connection  with  ballooning ; 
he  patented  the  invention  somewhat  above  half  a  century  ago  ;  and  tlie  Eng- 
lish patent  has  passed  into  the  hands  of  Messrs.  Easton  and  Amos,  our  dis- 
tinguished hydraulic  engineers.  The  hydraulic  ram,  as  compared  with  the 
various  kinds  of  pumps,  is  best  adapted  for  raising  moderate  quantities  of 
Water,  for  household,  or  workshop,  or  farming  purposes.  It  consists  of  an 
air  vessel,  provided  with  two  water-valves  and  one  air-valve ;  and  it  is  the 
curious  alternation  of  action  between  these  valves  that  causes  a  column  of 
water  to  be  raised.  Although  it  is  difficidt  to  describe  this  action  in  words, 
it  is  very  instructive  to  those  who  will  study  it.  It  requires  no  steam-engine, 
no  crank,  no  wheel- work  to  set  it  in  action — a  cistern  merely  '  nmning  over' 
would  supply  all  the  force  necessary.  A  pipe  would  convey  the  water  down 
from  tlie  top  of  the  cistern  to  a  lower  level,  where  it  would  enter  the  ram ; 
and  by  the  mere  momentum  acquired  by  tho  water  in  making  this  descent  a 
force  is  created,  which  force  is  by  the  action  of  the  valves  made  to  drive  a 
stream  of  water  to  a  considerable  height  tlirough  a  vertical  tube. 

Mr.  Armstrong,  of  Newcastle,  has  adopted  a  remarkable  mode  of  applying 
water-power  to  machineiy;  lui  apparatus  which  rather  resembles  the  steam- 
engine  thaa  a  pump,  as  far  as  concerns  the  movement  of  a  piston.  In  these 
'  water-pressure  engines '  the  motion  is  caused  by  water,  under  a  great  head  or 
pressure,  acting  upon  a  piston  in  a  cylinder ;  and  various  machines  are  attached 
to  the  piston  rod,  according  to  the  kind  of  movement  required  to  be  produced, 
or  the  work  to  be  done.  One  of  these  machines  is  a  crane  for  lifting  heavy 
goods  at  a  quay  or  wharf;  another  is  a  coal  lift,  for  loading  or  unloading 
ships ;  a  third  is  a  corn-lift,  for  use  in  gianaries  and  wareliousei ;  they  are,  in 
fact,  all  more  or  less  of  the  crane-kind.  Many  of  these  machines  are  in 
use  in  the  West  India  Docks.  At  Newcastle,  Mr.  Armstrong  has  devised 
tlie  means  of  working  the  crane  by  the  pressure  of  water  in  tlie  common 
water-pipes  of  tlic  town ;  tlie  crone  is  on  the  quay ;  but  tlie  meelianism 
for  working  it  is  underground.  The  chief  appendage  visible,  besides 
the  crane  itself,  is  a  sort  of  diid-plate,  with  handles  for  guiding  all  the  move- 
ments of  tlie  machine,  such  as  raising,  lowering,  stopping,  &c. ;  these  handles 
act  upon  valves  which  regulate  the  water-pressure  beneath,  so  that  the  move- 
ments produced  can  be  proportioned  to  tlie  work  reijuired  to  be  <lone.  We 
may  yet  see  water-power,  in  our  streets  and  houses,  working  bravely  for  us. 

The  uijecting  apparatus  now  employed  in  the  presenation  of  timber  pre- 


w.        — 


20 


STEAM-POWF.n   AND    WATER-POWER. 


I 


sents  a  very  instructive  combination  of  steam-pressure,  water-pressure,  and 
air-pressure.     We  have  adverted  to  this  when  treating  of  Wood. 

Some  of  our  modem  contrivances  have  relation  to  tlie  quahty  of  the  water 
itseh"  rather  than  to  mechanical  movements  given  to  it,  and  to  these  our  con- 
cluding page  may  not  unfittingly  be  devoted.     The  conversion  of  salt  water 
into  fresh,  for  use  on  board  ship,  would  be  one  of  the  most  valuable  means 
of  economising  space  ever  adopted,  on  account  of  the  necessity  which,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  exists  for  taking  such  a  large  bulk  of  fresh  water. 
The  project  of  this  conversion  is  an  old  problem;  but  it  does  not  appear  that 
the  Government  or  the  ship-owners  have  yet  done  much  in  the  way  of  adopting 
any  of  the  recent  inventions.     Seamen  are  proverbially  slow  to  change; 
and  it  may  be  that  they  have  a  prejudice  against  the  use  of  freshenetl 
sea-water;  or  it  may  be  that  tiie  coals  necessary  to  heat  the  water  for 
distiUation  may  be  considered  a  burthen  nearly  as  cumbrous  as  the  casks 
of  fresh  water.     Nevertheless  there  is  something  domg  in  this  way,  for  we 
occasionally  heai-  of  the  employment  of  Grant's  'Cooking  Galley    for  this 
purpose.     The  following  is  one  such  announcement  made  in  the  Tjwi^.?  be- 
tween two  and  three  vears  ago :— "  During  the  present  month  three  ot  Her 
Majesty's  ships— the  Arrogant,  the  Plumper,  and  the  i%jiartZ— have  sailed 
from  Portsmouth,  furnished  with  the  Government  distilling  and   cookuig 
gaUey,  constructed  by  Mr.  Grant.     Other  gaUeys  of  the  same  kind  are  also  in 
course  of  manufacture  for  tlie  lai-gest  class  of  vessels.     The  Dauntkss,  149() 
tons;  the  Termagant,  1656  tons;  and  the  Encounter,  906  tons— all  new  ships, 
on  tlie  screw  principle— are  ordered  to  have  first-class  machines  of  the  above 
description.     By  the  improvements  made  since  the  introduction  of  tlie  gaUeys 
into  tlie  naval  sei-vice,  the  quantity  of  fresh  water  obtained  by  the  disUllation 
of  salt  water,  during  the  period  it  is  required  to  keep  the  fires  alight  m  the 
callev  for  purposes  of  cooking,  will  on  the  average  supply  each  individual  on 
board  tlie  vessels  with  one  gallon  of  distilled  water  eveiy  day.      The  latter 
kind  of  water  continues  to  be  preferred,  for  drinking  and   culinary  pui-poses, 
to  water  usually  supplied  to  ships;  it  passes  immediately  from  the  condenser 
into  tha  water-tanks  at  Uie  same  temperature  as  the  sun-oundmg  ocean.     In 
these  tanks  it  becomes  perfectly  aerated,  losing  altogetlier  the  vapid  tiayour 
common  to  all  distilled  water  in  tlie  com-se  of  a  few  hours,  ^yltllout  the  aid  ol 
chemical  preparation  or  mechanical  arrangement,  by  the  simple  iact  ot  the 
action  imparted  to  the  tiuid  by  the  motion  of  the  ship  when  at  sea.      Ihis 
account  is  so  laudatory,  that  we  may  wonder  why  any  ships  are  without  such 
apparatus.     The  heat  of  the  cooking-fires  effects  all  the  distilling.     Ihe  dilh- 
cultv  in  all  these  contriviuices  has  been  in  preventing  the  distilled  water  from 
retainmg  its  tasteless  insipid  quahty  :  it  has  none  of  tlie  briskness  of  spring 
water     In  March,  1852,  the  Sivioom,  iron  troop  steam-ship,  was  provided  with 
a  cooking  galley  to  distil  fresh  water  from  salt  water  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon 
per  minute. 


^A 


.  .i  ■■(  u 


1/  ■' 


-Q/ 


R 


L. 


n. 

me,  water-pressure,  aiid 
g  of  Wood. 

I  tlie  quality  of  the  water 
it,  and  to  these  our  con- 
conversion  of  salt  water 
the  most  valuable  means 
le  necessity  which,  under 
ii-ge  bulk  of  fresh  water, 
at  it  does  not  appear  that 
ich  in  the  way  of  adopting 
■rbially  slow  to  change; 
5t  the  use  of  freshened 
y  to  heat  the  water  for 
i  cumbrous  as  the  casks 
loing  in  this  way,  for  we 
Cooking  Galley'  for  this 
It  made  in  the  Times  be- 
sent  mouth  three  of  Her 
he  Reynard — have   sailed 
t  distilling  and   cooking 
the  same  kind  are  also  in 
jIs.     The  Dauntless,  149(5 
906  tons — all  new  ships, 
ss  machines  of  the  above 
introduction  of  Uie  galleys 
)tained  by  the  distillation 
;ep  the  fires  alight  in  tlie 
supply  each  individual  on 
ir  eveiy  day.     The  latter 
ig  and   culinary  purposes, 
liately  from  the  condenser 
e  suiTOunding  ocean.     In 
togetlier  the  vapid  tiavour 
f  hours,  without  the  aid  of 
by  the  simple  fact  of  the 
ship  when  at  sea."     This 
iny  ships  are  without  such 
1  the  distilling.     The  dici- 
ng the  distilled  water  from 
of  tlie  briskness  of  spring 
am-ship,  was  provided  with 
ir  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon 


r 


^ 


^ 


HM^ 


■!H'Mj;J'^^!Si<iW*Jigv^f^-»*'SB^"WAa^ 


'.mmM^- — ' 


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