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THE MOTION PICTURE CAMERAMAN AND HIS OUTFIT
AND LUGGAGE, READY FOR A LONG JOURNEY
THE CINEMA
HANDBOOK
A GUIDE to practical motion
picture work of the non-
theatrical order, particularly as
applied to the reporting of
news, to industrial and educa-
tional purposes, to advertising,
selling and general publicity, to
the production of amateur photo-
plays, and to entertainment in
the school, church, club, commu-
nity center and home.
BY
AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA
Managing Editor, Scientific American ;
Author of "Behind the Motion
Picture Screen/' etc.
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN PUBLISHING CO.
MUNN & COMPANY
NEW YORK
1921
Copyright 1921 by
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN PUBLISHING CO.
All rights reserved.
The right of translation is reserved in all
languages, including the Scandinavian.
AGRIC, nFPT. ,^/c.
Printed in the U. S. A.
PEEFACE
THE possibilities of the motion pic-
ture, screen are almost without limit.
Year after year the screen is put to still
greater use in the divers fields of enter-
tainment, publicity, education, research,
propaganda of all kinds, and so on. In-
deed, it seems but a matter of time when
the theatrical phase of the motion picture
industry will be a minor one, because of
the wide application of cinematography
in business, college, school, church, club,
and home.
With a growing appreciation of the
importance of non-theatrical cinematog-
Preface
raphy, I turned to motion pictures as a
hobby some five years ago. Beginning with
an inexpensive camera which, by the mere
addition of an incandescent lamp, could
be converted into a projector, I under-
took the filming of educational and news
subjects for the news and magazine reels.
From that first and simple outfit, I went
to better equipment and by a process of
evolution I finally came to professional
cameras and projectors.
Some two years ago I wrote the work
entitled "Behind the Motion Picture
Screen/' which was intended as a book
of general information on the broad sub-
ject of motion pictures. No sooner did
the book gain a fair degree of circulation
than I was veritably flooded with inqui-
ries from even the farthermost corners of
the world, asking for more definite infor-
mation on the selection, operation and
Preface
application of motion picture equipment.
It was in order to answer these inquiries
and many potential inquiries that I set to
work putting my experiences and collated
data down on paper. And here is the
result.
Please do not misunderstand this work.
It is not intended for the professional
motion picture man, for it must needs be
too elementary for him. But it is in-
tended for the non-theatrical worker who
wishes to make use of motion pictures for
pleasure or for profit. It is intended for
the industrialist who wants to know the
possibilities of the screen in his activities,
and how to realize them. It is intended
for the naturalist, traveler, explorer,
microscopic worker, teacher, engineer,
and others who would aspire to seeing
their work on the screen. It is intended
for those who seek the highest form of
Preface
entertainment for the club, church,
school, community gathering or the home.
If this work should help others to se-
cure the enjoyment, profit, and broadened
knowledge which I have received in its
preparation, I shall feel more than amply
remunerated for the effort.
A. C. L.
YORK, N. Y.
September 5th, 1921.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
Principles of Motion Picture Apparatus. ... 1-30
CHAPTER II.
Selecting the Proper Type of Camera for
the Job 31-100
CHAPTER III.
Tripods and Other Accessories for the
Camera 101-138
CHAPTER IV.
The Operation and Care of the Motion
Picture Camera 139-202
CHAPTER V.
Developing and Printing the Film 203-242
CHAPTER VI.
Projectors for Professional and Amateur
Use 243-276
CHAPTER VII.
Projecting and Caring for the Positive Film 277-314
Contents
CHAPTER VIII.
The Animated Album: Films of Family,
Friends and Pets 315-326
CHAPTER IX.
Planning and Filming the Amateur Photo-
play 327-348
CHAPTER X.
Filming News and Magazine Features for
the Screen 349-368
CHAPTER XI.
The Why and Wherefore of Screen Adver-
tising. , 369-384
CHAPTER XII.
Telling the Business Story in the Film
Language 385-406
CHAPTER XIII.
The Acetate Film, or Motion Pictures Made
Safe 407-434
CHAPTER XIV.
Special Applications of Motion Picture
Photography 435-484
CHAPTER XV.
Miscellaneous Data and Formulae 485-500
xiv
CHAPTER I.
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION PICTURE
APPARATUS
PHOTOGRAPHY is nothing more than the gather-
ing of the reflected or direct rays from any object
or group of objects, and bringing them to a surface
that is sensitized to light in such a manner that it
.undergoes certain chemical changes. These changes
only become evident when the sensitized surface is
treated with certain chemicals, and since the original
sensitized surface employed in the camera usually
gives the reproduction of the object or group of
objects photographed in negative terms — with the
whites showing -in black, and the blacks showing in
white, it is necessary to transfer the negative image
on to another sensitized surface by passing light
through it. This is known as the printing process.
Where the negative is most transparent, the most
light will pass through and make the second sensi-
tized surface, known as the positive, the darkest, and
vice versa. So the blacks and whites and half-tones
of the original subject are rendered more or less
faithfully in the positive reproduction.
So it is evident that the starting point in all pho-
[ 1 ]
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tography is a means of gathering light. While it is
true that photographs can be made by means of
pin-holes, it is just as true that such photographs
require an exposure of many minutes; hence schemes
of this kind are not practical for the usual run of
work. Furthermore, the pin-hole camera does noti
render the crisp definition that is obtained with a
lens. Therefore, all cameras for practical purposes
must use a lens of some kind or other for gathering
the rays coming directly or being reflected from the
object to be photographed, and concentrating them on
to the negative.
Lenses play such an important part in all forms
of photography that it is perhaps well to give a
brief treatise on photographic optics at this point,
compiled from information supplied in largest meas-
,ure by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company of Roch-
ester, N. Y.
The A B C of Lenses
Technical terms used in photography are often
puzzling to the amateur, particularly, perhaps, those
terms which relate to the science of optics. The fol-
lowing glossary of optical terms has been prepared
with a view to giving general information as to the
descriptive words and phrases in ordinary use.
Equivalent Focal Length: Focal plane is the plane
in which a far distant object is imaged by the lens.
The line drawn perpendicularly through the center of
the lens is its optical axis; the point at which the
focal plane intersects the optical axis, the focal point
of the lens.
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The Focal Length of a lens is the value upon which
depends the size of the images produced by that lens.
Its magnitude can be determined only by comparing
the size of a given object with its image as formed
by the lens. The distance of the object, unless very
great, must also be considered. With far distant
objects the size of the image is in direct proportion
to the focal length. A lens of 12-inch focal length
will produce an image of a distant steeple twice as
large as the image formed by a lens of 6-inch focal
length. By the same token it follows that a 6-inch
motion picture lens will produce an image just three
times as large as the image of the usual 2-inch focus
lens.
Back Focus is the distance from the focal point to
the rear surface of the lens. In the case of very thin
lenses this back focus is equal to the focal length,
while in the case of lenses of considerable thickness
and in combination of lenses, the back focus cannot
be relied upon as any indication of the value of the
focal length. The focal length of such a lens is equal
to the focal length of a thin lens, which gives an
image equivalent in size to the one formed by the
combination lens, hence the term Equivalent Focal
Length.
In the majority of photographic lenses the equiva-
lent focal length is greater than the back focus, an
exception being found in certain series of lenses where
the back focus is longer.
By measuring back from the focal point a distance
equal to the equivalent focal length, we find the posi-
tion of the cardinal point of the lens.
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Angle of View is the angle under which the diam-
eter of the circular area covered sharply by the lens
appears from the center of the lens (the point where
the rays cross ) . If the largest plate which the lens
covers sharply, is used, the angle of view is equal to
the angle under which the diagonal of the plate ap-
pears from the center of the lens. The angle of view
increases with the decrease of the focus of the lens
for the same sized plate. Lenses for general purposes
are calculated for an angle of about 60 deg. Lenses
covering from 50 deg. to 100 deg. are termed Wide
Angle Lenses. Wide angle lenses have necessarily
shorter foci than other lenses rated for the same
plate. The usual motion picture lens has an angle
of vision of 60 deg.
The circular area which is covered by the lens on
the ground glass is called its Image Circle, and its
diameter is expressed in linear measure (inches or
centimeters).
Effective Aperture is measured by the diameter of
the beam of light transmitted by the lens. The effec-
tive aperture is not, as often thought, equal to the
diameter of the front lens, nor is it equal to the
linear diameter of the diaphragm opening used. It
equals the diameter of the diaphragm as it appears
when observed through the front lens; therefore, the
effective aperture cannot be found by unscrewing the
front lens and measuring the actual diameter of the
diaphragm. Only in the case of a landscape lens,
where the diaphragm is placed in front of the lens,
Ehe effective aperture expressed by the linear diam-
1 of the diaphragm. The effective aperture varies,
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of course with the size of the diaphragm opening.
Relative Aperture is a fraction which expresses the
ratio of effective aperture to focal length; for in-
stance, relative aperture of 1:6.3 means that the
focal length is 6.3 times greater than the effective
aperture. The denominator of the fraction, in this
instance the figure 6.3, is called the F value. If the
relative aperture is known, the effective^ aperture can
be found by multiplying the relative aperture by the
focus. For example: F:160; relative aperture 1:8;
effective aperture = 160 x 1:8 = 20. The relative
aperture is a term of greatest value and convenience
in judging the time of exposure. All lenses of the
same relative aperture, no matter what their focus
may be, require the same exposure under, the same
general conditions. An exception will be mentioned
under the heading "Depth of Focus."
The exposure necessary for different relative aper-
tures can easily be found because they are propor-
tionate to the square of the F values. For instance,
if two lenses are compared with the relative apertures
of 1:4 and 1 : 8 respectively, the squares of the F
values are 16 and 64 respectively, which means that
the 1 : 8 requires four times as long exposure as the
1:4 lens, since 64/16 = 4. This, of course, also holds
true in comparing the different stops.
Speed: The relative aperture is very commonly
called the speed of the lens, although the speed of two
lenses is not proportionate to their relative apertures
but to their squares. In other words, a lens with
the speed of 1:4 is not twice as fast as a lens with
the speed of 1:8, but four times so, as the comparison
[ 6 ]
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of the squares of their relative apertures 1/16 and
1/64 shows.
There are two methods of designating lens stops,
viz.: The so-called F System of the Royal Photo-
graphic Society, wherein the stop is expressed by
fractions of the focal length, and the U. S. (Uniform,
System), in which every following stop requires a
doubling of the exposure or represents half the speed
of the foregoing, the exposure required with F:4
being taken as the unit.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE F SYSTEM AND THE U. S.
(UNIFORM SYSTEM) OF STOPS
F System
F:4 F:4.5 F:5.6 F:6.3 F:8 F:11.3 F;16 F:22.6 F:32 F:64
U.S. System
1 1.2 2 2.5 4 8 16 32 64 128
The foregoing table gives the comparative stops
in the two systems and shows at the same time the
exposure values of the different stops in the F sys-
tem. For instance, F:11.3 requires four times as
long an exposure as F:5.6; and F:32, an exposure
sixteen times longer than F : 8, since 8/2 — 4 and
64/4=16.
Depth of Focus: Very closely connected with the
speed of a lens is its depth of focus. All well-cor-
rected lenses image only one plane of the object space
sharply. The reason why a lens focused at a house
images also with sufficient sharpness, say a horse in
front and a tree back of it, lies in the fact that a
slight racking out of focus will not cause an indis-^
[ 7 ] /
The Cinema Handbook
tinctness great enough to be noticeable to the eye.
{The range of sharpness forward and back of the
object is called "depth of focus" or "depth of field."
It depends on several factors, viz.: the focal length
of the lens, the aperture used (consequently the
A demonstration of depth of focus. Note that the
smaller the aperture used, the finer the beam of
light, hence the greater the depth of focus. S- S1
represents desired degree of definition, X depth of
focus with big aperture, Y with small aperture.
speed), the distance of the object, and the amount of
lack of sharpness which seems permissible to the
operator. Of these factors, focal length, aperture
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long focus and the same speed may not even image
an object of the depth of a head sharply within the
range of the length of a studio. Speed, great focal
length and depth of focus cannot be combined in the
same lens. This is an unalterable law of optics. If
speed be the most desirable quality, depth of focus
must be sacrificed; if depth of focus, speed. This
does not detract from the value of fast lenses, because
with a given lens the depth of focus can be increased
by diaphragming down the lens, which means reduc-
tion of speed. If a short exposure demands the use
of the lens wide open, one must not expect great depth
of focus. Under ordinary conditions of light and
distance, with fair judgment, and with lenses not too
long in focus, these opposing qualities may be happily
combined, so that lack of depth is hardly perceptible.
Some apparent exceptions may be stated, for in-
stance, a lens which produces images of general "soft-
hess"; i.e., a lens in which the aberrations are not
corrected to the utmost perfection. Such lenses,
which lack snap and brilliancy, may show greater
depth of focus than a first-class lens. There is less
difference between the "sharpest" focus and the image
of objects forward and back of it, simply because the
"sharpest" focus itself is not really sharp. Thus
the statement that one lens has a greater depth of
focus than others of the same aperture and focus
must be regarded as a rather doubtful compliment
to the lens, for, as stated above, the depth of focus
cannot be made subject to special correction.
Another case may be mentioned in which one lens
may really have an advantage over another one, in
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The Cinema Handbook
regard to depth of focus. In some constructions cor-
rection of astigmatism is obtained at a great sacrifice
of simplicity by employing an unusual number of
lenses separated by air spaces. There is a certain loss
of light by reflection on a lens surface and it is in-
telligible that the fewer the reflecting surfaces in a
lens, the smaller the loss of light. In some construc-
tions the number of the lens surfaces runs up as high
as ten, while the Tessar contains only six. The
consequence is that the lens with the greater number
of reflecting surfaces requires a longer exposure than
the lens of simple construction, although both may
have the same relative aperture.
The usual motion picture lens, with a focal length
of two inches and a speed of F:3.5, represents a
happy combination of speed with depth of focus. Thus
the motion picture lens even when used wide open
still permits of obtaining a remarkable depth of
focus. By the same sign the motion picture lens when
sufficiently cut down, permits of photographing an
actor or object moving toward the camera from in-
Ifinity to within several feet without having to change
the focus of the lens, yet without having a blurred
image.
In motion picture work practically all the lenses
employed are anastigmat lenses, as differentiated
from the simpler rapid rectilinear lenses, which do
not render sharp images over the entire field when,
used wide open.
Illumination: We speak of even illumination when
the margin of the plate receives as much light as the
center, and when the negative shows an even density
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all over. A perfectly even illumination is only possible
with small stops, especially when a larger plate is
used than the lens is rated for. All speed lenses show
more or less drop in the illumination (vignetting)
toward the margin of the field covered when used
with the full aperture.
The Covering Power is expressed by the area which
the evenly illuminated flat field covers with perfect
definition. It depends upon the diameter of the lenses
and on the degree to which the different aberrations
are corrected and may, in some cases, be increased by
using smaller stops. The greater the relative aperture
and the greater the covering power, the more valu-
able the lens.
Among the defects to be guarded against in lenses
are Curvature of Field, which is that undesirable
quality that brings a flat object to a focus in a convex
field. The consequence is that it becomes impossible
to focus a flat object sharply on the plate at the cen-
ter and at the edges of the field at the same time.
Distortion is a fault that causes straight lines in
the object photographed to be rendered as curved lines
in the negative. This distortion is generally noticed
only along the edges of a plate, and is characteristic
of single achromatic lenses and other cheap lenses.
With a single lens back of the diaphragm, lines are
bowed out, causing "barrel-shape" distortion; with
the lens in front of the diaphragm, the reverse effect,
or with lines bent in to cause the "pin-cushion dis-
tortion," is obtained. Now then, by placing one lens
in front and another back of the diaphragm, these
defects are counterbalanced and therefore rectified.
r ^ ]
Positive prints for non-professional and standard pro-
fessional use. The film at left is Safety Standard; the
one at the right is the professional standard.
The Cinema Handbook
This arrangement, in brief, is the principle of the
rapid rectilinear lens.
What Makes Motion Pictures Move?
So much for the principles of photographic lenses
and the terms used in speaking and writing about
them. The next step is to consider what happens to
the rays of light that are gathered by the lens and
brought to the negative. In the case of the motion
picture camera the negative usually takes the form
of a flexible and continuous length of transparent rib-
bon coated on one side with the photographic emul-
sion, and provided with a system of perforations for
facilitating its handling in the camera or projector.
The material employed for this flexible ribbon is gen-
erally celluloid for the negative film, and either cellu-
loid or acetate of cellulose, which is practically non-
inflammable, for the narrow-width films, both kinds
being employed for projection.
The standard film measures one and one-third
inches wide, and carries a picture for each four per-
forations, the vertical position of the picture being
longitudinal of the film. The dimensions of standard
or professional-sized film are shown in the drawing
on page 22. There are sixteen pictures or "frames'7
to every foot of film. Standard practice calls for the
perforations alongside each picture or frame, with
the frame line midway between perforations, although
some European producers have their frame line even
with every fourth perforation. Th»re is the Safety
Standard or narrow-width film of acetate of cellulose
stock, shown detailed on page 25, intended for use
[ 14 ]
i
Negative and positive film. The negative is made in
the camera while the positive is printed from the
negative in the laboratory.
The Cinema Handbook
where a non-inflammable film is desirable, and practi-
cally the same thing with slightly different perfora-
tion arrangements, on page 28, a chapter on both of
which will be found further on in this work. Motion
picture cameras of the professional types handle 400-
foot or 200-foot rolls of negative at one loading, while
amateur cameras and semi-professional types, as
well as portable cameras for news and travel work,
handle 200-foot or 100-foot rolls.
The motion picture camera is nothing more than
a special camera taking a series of snapshots, so
to speak. The film is exposed by a revolving shutter
which has an adjustable opening, so that as the shut-
ter revolves and the opening comes in line with the
lens, light passes through and impinges on the sensi-
tized coating of the film. The film, meanwhile, is sta-
tionary. However, as soon as the light has been per-
mitted to fall on the film for the required length of
time, the shutter, turning continuously all the while,
shuts off the light from the film, which is then pulled
down the distance of one frame, thus bringing a fresh
section of film into position for exposure as the open-
ing of the shutter again comes in line with the lens,
and so on. The principle is simple enough; what
makes the motion picture so complicated as compared
to the usual "still" camera is the mechanism for
feeding, the film and shifting it along intermittently
and between exposures, as well as the "taking up" of
the film that has been duly exposed, into a light-proof
magazine.
The fresh, unexposed film is contained in one maga-
zine which is light-proof and can be loaded into the
[ 16 ]
The Cinema Handbook
camera in broad daylight, and after passing through
the camera mechanism to be exposed, the same film
is taken up or rolled up in a second magazine which
is also light-proof and can be removed from the
camera in broad daylight. The magazines, however,
have to be loaded with film in a darkroom, but by
a
J>iagrramatic presentation of a motion picture camera,
The film travels from the top magazine to the bottom
magazine, being: exposed just behind the lens.
carrying a number of loaded magazines about, the
cameraman is assured of the desired supply of film.
Then again, the motion picture camera is compli-
cated because it must have all kinds of accessories
for focusing, measuring the exposed footage, measur-
The Cinema Handbook
ing the speed, masking the pictures, and so on. In
the latest professional cameras the accessories bulk
up as strikingly in proportion to the camera as the
accessories of the usual Ford car. There is always
something else that must be added, so it seems.
The succession of pictures recorded on the motion
picture negative are printed on to a positive film,
which is of the same size and perforations as the
negative, but is coated with a much slower emulsion.
This work of printing is done in a laboratory, as is
explained in Chapter X. The positive film is the one
that is placed in the projection machine, and by pass-
ing light through it — the reverse to the camera prin-
ciple— the original subject is portrayed on the screen.
The projector is designed very much along the same
general lines as the camera, except that the details
are necessarily altered to suit the specific require-
ments of projection. Thus the intermittent movement
is of a different type, the lenses are larger, the maga-
zines are considerably larger, handling many times as
many feet of film as the camera, and so on. But the
principle remains the same, namely, that light pass-
ing through the stationary film is permitted to reach
the screen intermittently by means of a continuously
revolving shutter, while the film is pulled down one
image at a time as the light is cut off from the
screen.
Now the human eye is by no means as fast to detect
motion as it might be, so that anything faster than
one-twelfth of a second cannot be detected. This is
the principle on which the sleight-of-hand performer,
his nimble hands, depends. And the same may
[ 18 ]
Diagrramatic presentation of a projector. The film
travels from the top fire-proof magazine through the
"head," and thence to the bottom fire-proof
magazine.
The Cinema Handbook
be said for motion pictures, since the -pictures, thrown
on the screen at the rate of sixteen per second, are
no longer made out as separate pictures by the human
eye, but appear as one continuous picture. The per-
sistence of vision of the human eye is such that it is
impossible to detect the jump from one image to the
next at that rate of speed, but the eye does detect the
changing position of the objects, which then appear
as continuous action. As projection is slowed up the
eye detects the separate images of the film and the
flicker.
Motion Picture Nomenclature
Cinematography, like any of the highly spe-
cialized arts, has its language, and it is but proper
that we should start out with some knowledge of this
language, or nomenclature, in order to understand
the technical verbiage in the chapters that follow.
Hence the author made use of the splendid collection
of motion picture nomenclature prepared by the
Nomenclature Committee and adopted by the Society
of Motion Picture Engineers, as follows :
ACTION — The director's command to the players to
begin performing.
BACK Focus — Properly called working distance.
BUSINESS — Action by the player; e.g., business of
shutting door.
BUST — A small, magnified part of a large scene.
CAMERA — An expression used to command the photog-
rapher to begin taking the scene.
CHANGE OVER — The stopping of one projecting ma-
chine and the simultaneous starting of a second
The Cinema Handbook
machine in order to maintain an uninterrupted
picture on the screen when showing a multiple-
reel story.
CINE — A prefix used in descriptions of the motion-
picture art or apparatus.
CLOSE-UP— Scene or action taken with the character
close to the camera.
CONDENSERS — The lens combination which deflects
the divergent rays of the luminant into the objec-
tive.
Collector Lens — The lens next to the source of light.
Converging Lens — The lens nearest the objective.
Middle Lens — Of a three-lens combination, the lens
lying between the collector lens and the converg-
ing lens.
CUTTING — Editing a picture by elimination of useless
or unacceptable film.
CUT-BACK — Scenes which are returns to previous ac-
tion.
CUT-IN — Anything inserted in a scene which breaks
its continuity.
DEVELOPING — Making visible the latent image in an
exposed film.
DISSOLVE — The gradual transition of one scene into
another.
DIRECTOR — The person who directs the actual produc-
tion of the photoplay.
DOUBLE EXPOSURE — The exposure of a negative film
in a camera twice before development.
DOUBLE PRINTING — The exposure of a sensitive film
under two negatives prior to development.
DOUSER — The manually operated door in the project-
[ 21 ]
Dimensions of the Standard film, which is em-
ployed for theatrical and professional pur-
poses. This drawing is actual size.
The Cinema Handbook
ing machine which intercepts the light before it
reaches the film.
DUPE — A negative made from a positive.
EFFECTIVE APERTURE — The largest diameter of a lens
available under the conditions considered.
EQUIVALENT Focus — The equivalent focus of a plu-
rality of lenses in combination is the focal length
of a simple thin lens which will under all condi-
tions form an image having the same magnifica-
tion as will the given lens combination.
EXTERIOR — A scene supposed to be taken out of doors.
FADE-IN — The gradual appearance of the picture
from darkness to full screen brilliancy.
FADE-OUT — The gradual disappearance of the screen-
picture into blackness. (The reverse of fade-in.)
FEATURE — A pictured story, a plurality of reels in
length.
FIXING — Making permanent the developed image in a
film.
FLAT — A bit of painted canvas, or the like.
FLASH — A short scene, usually not more than three
to five feet of film.
FLASH-BACK — A very short cut-back.
FOOTAGE — Film length measured in feet.
FRAME (verb) — To bring a frame into register with
the aperture during the period of rest.
FRAME (noun) — A single picture of the series on a
motion-picture film.
FRAME-LINE — The dividing line between two frames.
INTERMITTENT SPROCKET — The sprocket which en-
gages the film to give it intermittent movement
at the picture aperture.
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IRIS — An adjustable lens diaphragm
IRISING — Gradually narrowing the field of vision by
a mechanical device on the camera.
INSERT — Any photographic matter, without action, in
the film.
INTERIOR — Any scene supposed to be taken inside a
building.
JOINING — Splicing into a continuous strip (usually
1,000 feet) the separate scenes, titles, etc., of a
picture.
LANTERN PICTURE — A still picture projected on a
screen by means of an optical lantern or stere-
opticon.
LANTERN SLIDE (see slide) — The transparent picture
from which a lantern picture is projected.
LEADERS — That piece of blank film attached to the
beginning of the picture series.
LIGHT BEAM — A bundle of light rays.
LIGHT RAY — A thin line of light.
LOCATION — Any place selected for the action of an
outdoor scene.
MAGAZINE VALVE — The film opening in the magazine
of a motion-picture projector.
MASKS — Opaque plates of various sizes and shapes
used in the camera to protect parts of the nega-
tive from exposure.
MOTION-PICTURE — The synthesis of a series of related
picture elements, usually of an object in motion.
MOTION-PICTURE FILM — The ribbon upon which the
'series of related picture elements is recorded.
MOTION-PICTURE PROJECTOR — An optical lantern
equipped with mechanisms for suitably moving
r n ]
0/7 6
Dimensions of "Safety Standard" film, which
is always made of a slow-burning: or fire-
proof stock, and approved for non-profes-
sional use anywhere and by anyone.
The Cinema Handbook
motion-picture film across the projected light.
MOVIES — Motion pictures.
MULTIPLE-REEL — A photoplay of more than a thou-
sand feet of film in length.
NEGATIVE — The developed film, after being exposed in
a camera.
NEGATIVE STOCK — Light sensitive film intended for
motion-picture camera use.
OBJECTIVE — The picture-forming member (lens) of
the optical system.
OPTIENCE — A collection of persons assembled to see
motion pictures.
PAM — Contraction for panorama.
PANORAM — The act of, or device for, turning a mo-
tion-picture camera horizontally, to photograph a
moving object, or to embrace a wide angle of
view.
PHOTOPLAY — A story in motion pictures.
POSITIVE — The developed film, after being printed
through a negative.
POSITIVE STOCK — The light-sensitive film intended to
be printed upon through a negative.
PRE-RELEASE — A picture not yet released for public
showing.
PRINT — Same as "positive."
PRODUCER — The maker of photoplays.
PROGRAM — The complete show for a single optience.
PROPS — Contraction of properties. Objects used as
accessories in a play.
PROJECTION DISTANCE — The distance between the ob-
jective and the screen of a stereopticon lantern
or motion-picture projecting machine.
The Cinema Handbook
PROJECTING LENS — Properly called projection objec-
tive.
PROJECTION OBJECTIVE — The objective which forms an
image of the lantern slide or film upon the screen.
KEEL — The flanged spool upon which film is wound
for use in projecting machines.
REEL — An arbitrary unit of linear measure for film —
approximately a thousand feet.
REGISTER — A term denoting facial expression of emo-
tions.
RELEASE — The publication of a photoplay. .
RETAKE — Rephotographing a scene.
REWIND — The process of reversing the winding of a
film, usually so that the end to be first projected
shall lie on the outside of the roll.
REWINDER — The mechanism by which rewinding is
accomplished.
SCENE — The action taken at a single camera setting.
SCENARIO — A general description of the action of a
proposed photoplay.
SCREEN — The surface upon which a picture is opti-
cally projected.
SHOOTING A SCENE — Photographing the scene.
SHUTTER — The obscuring device, usually a revolving
segmental disc, employed to intercept the light
during the movement of the film in motion-
picture apparatus.
Shutter — Working blade — (also variously known
as the cutting blade, obscuring blade, main blade,
master blade or travel blade ) . The segment which
intercepts the light during the movement of the
film at the picture aperture.
[ 27 ]
Dimensions of the Pathescope film, which,
like the "Safety Standard," is made of a
slow-burning material. This film is inter-
changeable with the "Safety Standard."
The Cinema Handbook
Shutter — Intercepting blade — (also known as the
flicker blade). That segment which intercepts
the light one or more times during the rest or
projection period of the film to eliminate
flicker.
SINGLE PICTURE CRANK (sometimes referred to as
trick spindle) — That spindle and crank on a mo-
tion-picture camera which makes one exposure at
each complete revolution.
SLIDE (Stereo slide) — The transparent picture from
which a screen still is projected.
SPLICING — Joining the ends of film by cementing.
SPLIT REEL — A reel having two or more picture sub-
jects thereon.
SPOT — The illuminated area on the aperture plate of
a motion-picture projector.
SPROCKET — The revolvable toothed member which en-
gages the perforations in the film.
STEREOPTICON — A lantern for projecting transparent
pictures, i.e.,, lantern slides, often a double lan-
tern for dissolving.
STILL — A picture from a single negative.
TAKE-UP (noun) — The mechanism which receives and
winds the film after it passes the picture aper-
ture.
TAKE-UP (verb) — Winding up the film after it passes
the picture aperture.
THROW — Projection distance.
TILT — The act of, or device for, moving a camera ver-
tically while in use.
TINTING — Coloring a film by dyeing the gelatine side
of it.
The Cinema Handbook
TONING — Coloring a film by chemical action on the
silver image.
TRICK CRANK — A camera crank giving a single ex-
posure for each turn.
TRICK-PICTURE — A picture in which unnatural action
appears.
TRAILER — That piece of blank film attached to the end
of a picture series.
VISION — A new subject introduced into the main pic-
ture, by the gradual fading-in and fading-out of
the new subject, as, for example, to visualize a
thought.
WORKING DISTANCE — The distance from the principal
focus of a lens to its nearest face; e.g., the dis-
tance from the slide or film to the nearest lens of
the objective.
CHAPTER II.
SELECTING THE PROPER TYPE OF
CAMERA FOR THE JOB
IT goes without saying that the camera is the very
keystone of the motion picture structure. It is the
,tarting point, for there can be no motion pictures un-
ess there is a camera to record them.
Of late years there has been a steadily expanding
rariety of motion pictures as compared with a few
rears back, when the barrier of basic patents on film-
hifting mechanisms, backed up by a powerful organi-
ation, limited the production of motion pictures to
»ut a chosen few. In those early days it was vir-
ually a crime for an unlicensed person to attempt
o make motion pictures, hence there was no need for
nany different makes of motion picture cameras.
But with the smashing of this monopolistic grip on
he young industry and the universal demand for
ameras by professional and non-professional workers
like, there has been a steady increase in the number
•f offerings until today, when one is truly puzzled
.s to what camera to select from among the bewil-
iering array.
Elements of Inexpensive Construction
There can be no such thing as a really cheap motion
ricture camera. The mechanism of such a camera
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The Cinema Handbook
is bound to be intricate, for it must be capable
of passing a film through the optical system at
the rate of sixteen pictures per second, not . in a
continuous movement, but in an intermittent move-
ment.
As will be noted in the diagram on page 17 of a
simple motion picture camera, it consists of a lens,
an intermittent movement for shifting the film
through the optical system, a revolving shutter, a
continuous movement for bringing the film to the
intermittent movement and then taking it away
therefrom, and two light-proof magazines for facili-
tating the daylight loading of the camera. The opera-
tion is quite simple. As the crank is turned, the main
sprocket engages with the film's perforation and pulls '
it out of the top magazine in which the film has been
placed, and delivers it by means of a loop to the
intermittent mechanism. This mechanism consists of
tiny claws operated by any one of a variety of
movements, depending on the type of camera. At
any rate, the claws are caused to engage with the
film sprocket holes or perforations, move downward
for the space of one frame or image, disengage the
sprocket holes, and, moving freely, swing up and again
engage with new perforations so as once more to bring
down the film one frame, and so on. Passing out of
the intermittent mechanism, the film forms a second
loop and goes on to the continuous sprocket, which
picks up the film as fast as it is passed out by the
intermittent movement, and . on to the lower maga-
zine, known as the take-up magazine. The lower maga-
zine is power driven in this case, in order to pull
[ 32 ]
The Cinema Handbook
The Cinema Handbook
smaller, according to the desired exposure, has its
open portion in line with the lens so as to permit the
rays of light to pass through to the film, thus making
the exposure. The shutter, revolving all the while,
brings its solid or opaque section into line with the
lens, shutting off the light; whereupon the intermit-
The Bell & HoweU camera at left, and the Pat he
No. 1 or studio model at right.
tent mechanism shifts the film along for the space
of one image, bringing a fresh section into line. The
shutter, still turning all the while, brings its oper
section into line with the lens, thus permitting the
rays once more to pass through and fall on the frest
section, making a second exposure, and so on.
[ 34 ]
The Cinema Handbook
A Question of Transmission
Now the continuous mechanism, consisting of one
or two sprockets, the intermittent movement and the
shutter must all be interconnected so that they will
function as a unit. This may be accomplished by dif-
ferent methods of transmission, such as gears, chain
drive, spring-belt drive, or any combination of such
drives. And it is generally in the matter of the drive
that the mechanism of the inexpensive camera differs
most from the expensive cameras, let alone the more
obvious differences of finish and completeness of
equipment.
There are inexpensive cameras in which the inter-
mittent movement is quite excellent, but the transmis-
sion system consists of poorly meshed cast iron gears
and troublesome belts that must forever be tightened.
There is considerable play in cast gears, especially
the cast-iron variety, and such cameras are apt to be
'unduly noisy and anything but precise in their work.
However, where the filming need not be of the very
best, such cameras may do. In fact, for such work
as animated cartoons and animated models, where
pictures are taken one at a time by means of the trick-
or single-picture movement, even these cheap cameras
are often quite satisfactory, whereas they would prove
an unfortunate choice for the usual run of work.
Thus it is obvious that where the work permits, an
inexpensive camera may be purchased because the
highest precision in the machine work involved in
good cameras is not necessary.
One element in considering the proper camera to
The Cinema Handbook
use for a given job is the footage or capacity of said
camera. For the simplest kinds of amateur work,
a 100-foot capacity is considered ample. Such footage
A typical inexpensive camera for amateur use.
This type is quite favored in England. It takes
10O feet of negative at one loading:, and is often
used for news or topical work.
permits of making short bits of film which prove quite
sufficient for recording the desired action. However,
where serious work is to be undertaken, such as Indus-
f 36 1
The Cinema Handbook
trial, scientific, educational, topical or news work, nor
camera with a capacity less than 100 feet should be
considered; and even 200 feet is apt to prove unfor-
tunate at times. Even with a capacity of 400 feet,
which is the standard for all professional cameras,
the film has a way about it of running out — being all
exposed — right in the middle of some important scene.
The not over-careful cameraman, while turning his
crank and watching intently the scene being filmed,
is often apt to find the crank suddenly turning easily
and free, with its film load released because the film
has run out. Of course, there is an indicator on the
camera, which indicates the1 footage exposed and the
footage still unexposed ; but one cannot 'tell, on occa-
sion, when a scene is going to end, with the result
that one starts with 10, 20 or more feet left to go,
only to discover that the scene required more footage
than was still available. Obviously, with a 400-foot
magazine there is an end to the film every four hun-
dred feet, whereas with the 200-foot magazine there
are two ends — two opportunities for running out of
film — for every four hundred feet.
The Cinema Handbook
a finder, which may be of the brilliant type with a
simple rectangular lens through which the subject
may be sighted, or a miniature camera type of finder,
with a lens and ground glass. The finder may be
mounted on top or on the side of the camera, or
Professional camera of rather inexpensive con-
struction. Note the claw movement and the
arrangement of the 400-foot magazines. Also, note
the two continuous sprockets which bring and
remove the film from the intermittent movement.
arranged to be used in two or more positions for the
convenience of the cameraman. No camera can be
complete without a finder, and even the most inex-
pensive cameras have finders either mounted outside
r an i
The Cinema Handbook
the cabinet, or built into the case. Some cameras,
generally of foreign make, are provided with large
direct-view finders, consisting of a wire frame and a
simple sight for viewing the subject on a large scale
vision. Such finders fold up against the camera case
when not in use.
Another essential is a footage dial or counter, in
order to keep track of the unexposed film in the
camera. Some of the cheaper forms of cameras are
not provided with such dials, and the cameraman is
forced to improvise some means or other of keeping
check on the footage exposed and the film remaining
to be exposed. This can be done by keeping accurate
count of the turns, since every two turns represent
one foot of film. The writer, speaking from practical
experience with his first inexpensive camera which
had no footage indicator, strongly urges against all
forms of cameras which have no such device.
Still another essential is daylight loading. Cameras
have been developed for amateur and semi-professional
use in which no magazines are used. Instead, nega-
tive stock is supplied by the manufacturer in the
form of large metal spools containing the film which
terminates in a length of black perforated paper.
Indeed, this scheme is identical with the roll film
camera in that the cartridge or spool protects the
film from daylight until it is safely placed in the
camera and unrolled for exposure. Such spools, be it
understood, are special, and specials are often apt to
prove inconvenient in filming operations, especially
those far afield. It is always better to use the regular
magazines or film retorts, holding the desired amount
[ 39 ]
The Cinema Handbook
of film. These magazines are loaded with film in the
dark room, and can then be handled in the broad day-
light. The camera can be loaded with one magazine,
while an empty magazine is placed in the camera for
taking up the film that is being exposed. When the
filming is completed, the camera case is opened and
the exposed film, safely rolled up in the take-up
magazine, may then be removed in the daylight. A
fresh magazine is now placed in the camera, and the
magazine that has just been emptied of its film may
be shifted to the take-up position, there to perform
its new functions. Meanwhile the magazine contain-
ing the exposed film is safely put away until the
darkroom is reached, where it is opened and the ex-
posed film removed either for immediate development
or for storage in some other safe container, such as
a film can, so as to release the camera magazine.
It must be obvious that in threading a camera, that
is, passing the free end of the film through the
sprockets and intermittent mechanism, whatever film
is exposed to the daylight must be ruined. This is
quite true, and the usual camera calls for the wastage
of three to five feet of film to thread it properly.
Here again it becomes obvious that in the case of
the 400-foot capacity camera^ the wastage from
threading is just one-half what it is with the 200- foot
camera, and one-quarter ,what it is with the 100-foot
amateur cameras.
Deciding Between Fancy and Plain Photography
Where the matter of cp$t \comes in is largely in the
additional features of a camera. Thus the camera
[ 41]
The Cinema Handbook
available for straight filming, without the numerous
accessories and fittings required for the elaborate
photographic effects now featured in practically every
photoplay, may be obtained at a reasonable price.
Front view of the Debrie camera. The square
rods at the right and top indicate the focns and
diaphragm adjustments.
However, the moment the cameraman seeks a camera
that can be used for accurate double-exposure work,
fade-iirs and fade-outs, with a multiplicity of lenses
[ 42 ]
The Cinema Handbook
readily brought into action, with a counter for keep-
ing track of the turns in making double-exposures
and split-stage pictures, and so on, the price .goes up
by leaps and bounds. But straight photography is
well within the limits of the amateur cinematog-
rapher, whereas elaborate photography is in the pro-
fessional's field and the equipment is therefore quite
costly.
Of the several American, British and German
cameras of moderate price — cameras that are thor-
oughly practical for straight photography, and not
to be confounded with the toys or near-toys selling for
$100 or less — the most widely employed is the Uni-
versal Camera. Through experience and ability on
the part of the designer of this American camera, a
large number of highly practical features have been
worked into* its mechanism without complicating it to
a point beyond the desirable limits. In fact, this
camera combines simplicity with good common sense,
and it will do all the work that any other camera,
regardless of price, will do in the field of straight
photography. It is not intended for studio work, nor
for the filming of photoplays, because it does not
include the numerous later-day accessories that go
to produce the fancy effects now so common on the
screen. Nor is it adapted to filming subjects at
several times the normal speed, so as to make slow-
motion films. For that matter no camera except a
special slow-motion camera can be satisfactorily used
for such purpose. But for the production of indus-
trial, educational, scientific, advertising, news, screen,
magazine, and other films of this general class, it is
[ 43 ]
CRANK
LENS
FILM PUNCH
PANORAMIC
CRANK
Front view of Universal camera, with the various
features indicated. This model takes 200 feet of
film at one loading:.
The Cinema Handbook
unexcelled. Its compactness has made it a great
favorite with explorers and travelers who do not wish
to be burdened with the heavier outfits.
The Universal Camera
The Universal Camera is so constructed that every
moving part is directly connected to one main casting,
which insures permanent optical adjustment, perfect
operating mechanism, and protection against disar-
rangement through rough handling or climatic
change. The case is of reinforced aluminum and sea-
soned hardwood, especially treated, to ensure against
warping, climatic changes, etc., with a durable water-
proof enamel. The latches, which hold the two side
doors and the front removable panel in place, are
operated without the use of a key. Every working
part and adjustment is easily accessible, but thor-
oughly protected. There are no bulky protruding
parts to interfere with handling. A black leather
carrying handle is attached to the top of the case
with strong brass screws. There are also brass rings
for attaching shoulder straps. The size of the
camera over all is 4% by 11 by 12 inches, and com-
plete the weight is only 20 pounds.
The mechanism of the Universal camera is simple
yet ample for the requirements of good photography.
There is one large master gear from which all moving
parts are driven. This centralization of power simpli-
fies the machine, gives the highest efficiency, and
makes every piece accessible. The gears, both large
and small, are cut with extreme accuracy. The effect
is smooth, noiseless operation.
[ 45 1
FINDER
CRANK
HANDLE
VISE TO
HOLD LENS
SCREW CONTROLLING
LENS VISE
SHUTTER
FLYWHEEL
Universal camera with the front panel removed, so
as to show the shutter and fly-wheel.
The Cinema Handbook
The balance wheel, which ensures a smooth opera-
tion for the camera when being cranked, is mounted
on a strong pinion shaft with an outboard bearing
to give it absolute rigidity. It is turned by the main
gear, and by means of a positive action cam operates
both the shuttle and pin yoke. The perfect registra-
tion of the film is secured by an intermittent shuttle
movement propelled by a positive mechanical cam
directly connected to the fly-wheel shaft. All of the
parts are hardened and ground to ensure long wear.
The top and bottom of the shuttle are fitted with
adjustable gibs to insure precision of adjustment.
The pins which engage with the perforations of the
film move in a straight line and enter the set of per-
forations slightly above the point of registration with
positive straight in and out motion which cannot
mutilate the film in any way. It is made to operate
forward or backward.
The shutter is quickly adjustable, and may be set
for from 25 per cent, to 50 per cent, opening. Under
ordinary light conditions and ordinary speed, 37 ^
per cent, is found to be the correct opening, but for
quick action and extra strong light, or vice versa,
the shutter opening can be instantly set to suit the
condition, thus giving the best possible results for
all occasions.
As for lenses, the standard equipment of the Uni-
versal Camera is a Bausch & Lomb Tessar F:3.5,
mounted in a screw adapter of suitable length for
proper focus, which may be quickly removed or ad-
justed by a screw that terminates in a knurled head
at the top of the camera. By a simple twist 'of this
[ 47 ]
FINDER
FOOTAGE
INDICATOR '**
CRANK
Bear view of Universal camera, showing the footage
indicator at the back, the crank,
and the finder.
The Cinema Handbook
knurled head, a pajr of clamps are loosed and the
iens can be removed for inspection or for replacement
by another lens. The author, who has used a Univer-
sal Camera for over three years in various kinds of
social, industrial, educational and special scientific
studies, has the standard 2-inch focus B. & L. Tessar
.ens for the usual run of work, and a Dallmeyer
(British) F:6 lens of 6-inch focus for long-shot work,
where it is necessary to film subjects from some dis-
tance away yet secure a close-up effect. The 6-inch
lens, as we 'have learned from the data on lenses
given in the previous chapter, gives three times as
Large an image as the 2-inch lens for subjects photo-
graphed at the same distance away. The author has
found such a lens invaluable for filming wild animal
iife; and many a time a subject, such as structural
iron workers, important persons, news events and so
on can only be secured by using a long-focus lens. The
author's outfit further includes a 2-inch Faliez
(French) lens of F:2.5 speed, which he employs for
indoor pictures and on unusually dull days. Used
wide open, this lens proves quite excellent in in-
stances where the slower lenses would produce a very
much under-exposed negative.
Sooner or later every practical cameraman,
whether amateur or professional, is obliged to obtain
a collection of lenses for various kinds of work. The
author would suggest a 3-inch lens, a l^-inch lens
for wide-angle work, such as interiors where the
camera cannot be moved back a sufficient distance
from the subject to take in the entire subject when
using the usual 2-inch focus lens, and a soft-focus
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The Cinema Handbook
ens for highly artistic, diffused focus pictures which
,re so widely appreciated in still and motion picture
>hotography alike.
The ease with which lenses can be put in place and
•emoved with the Universal Camera makes it a quite
iimple matter to change from one lens to another in
liming operations, with very little loss of time.
Refinements of the Universal Camera
The focus tube is located just back of the aperture
ind attached to the film gate, which when closed
onnects with a window in the main door, provided
vith a sliding gate. This focusing tube is fitted with
magnifying lens which enlarges the image on the film
everal times its size, making it possible to get CL
harp focus on a small subject, and the eye is so near
he focusing point that no detail need be lost. The
ens can be focused either on a piece of ground film,
>r while the film is in place, the latter being the quick-
r when the illumination is good. Of course, the lens,
mounting is calibrated in feet, so that the focus can.
>e set by referring to the focus scale after estimating
;he distance between camera and subject. However,,
or accurate work it is always best to focus on the
film or ground glass, as will be explained in the next
jhapter.
An adjustment for instantly raising and lowering-
;he position of the image in relation to the perfora-
tions on the film is supplied on the Universal Camera.
This feature, the variable frame line, as it is called,.
s quite important, since some film producers in,
Europe still perforate opposite the frame line instead
[51]
PEEP HOLE (ctosEo)
-FINDER
SLOT FOR
MASKS
Side view of Universal camera, showing the eight-
pictures-per-turn crank usually employed, as well as
the various parts that figure in filming operations.
The Cinema Handbook
MASTER
GEAR
TAKEUP DRIVES
AND CLUTCHES
CRANK
FINDER
Cears and transmission system of the Universal
camera exposed to view. Note how the crank and
finder are placed inside the case while not in use.
The Cinema Handbook
or trick-picture shaft, for novelty effects. This device,
making one exposure at a time, is on the left side
of the case, and is operated by the regular handle
so that it will never be used by mistake.
A view finder is attached to either the top or the
Bide of the case so that the operator can see the image
at all times, enabling him to follow and keep in view
the object to be photographed. This feature, in con-
nection with the usual tilting head and panoramic
tripod, gives the operator the fullest control; the
panoramic attachment gives full horizontal move-
ment, and the tilting head permits of an angle either
up or down of 45 deg. from level.
The film channel is made to open like a gate. It is
made of steel, carefully hardened and ground true.
The tension block and shoes are of highly polished
steel. There is also a self-adjusting side tension rail
which guides the film in a perfectly straight line. An '
important feature which should be carefully consid-
ered in the purchase of a moving picture machine is
that of static troubles — tiny tree-like or lightning-like
streaks which turn up in the developed negative, indi-
cating that charges of static electricity have been
generated while the negative was being passed
through the camera mechanism. This static marking
often ruins an otherwise perfect film; for once it is
on the negative there is no possible way of eradicating
it. It forms part of the image. The Universal
Camera is practically free from this hindrance ; owing
to its metal construction, the camera is thoroughly
grounded at all times through the body of the opera-
tor. In his long experience with the Universal
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The Cinema Handbook
Camera the author has never had static markings on
his film, even those taken during extremely cold
weather. However, he has always been cautious in
selecting the so-called Eastman X-back negative for
filming operations during extremely cold and dry
weather. X-back film is provided with an extra coat-
ing on the reverse side, which serves to ameliorate
static troubles.
The footage indicator dial of the Universal is
unique in that it tells not only how much film has
been used but also indicates the amount used on the
last scene. The figures are large and clear and easy
to read. The dial is located on the outside of the
back of the case in full view of the operator, who can
ascertain at a glance how near is the end of the film.
The take-up mechanism is a positive mechanical
gear drive which can be operated forward or back-
•vvard. Friction disks with adjustable spring tension
are used on the take-up shaft, which steadies the
action and gives the desired tension.
The magazines are made of cast aluminum with
hinged doors. They are provided with two outlets and
are interchangeable. Only one empty magazine is
required no matter how extended a trip. Each maga-
zine has a capacity of 200 feet, hence four extra
magazines, making a total of one thousand feet, will
be more than is required for an average day's work
out-of-doors. They are light in weight, easy to han-
dle, and are attached by a simple spring clamp that
automatically grips each magazine in place. The
outlets are velvet lined and have detachable brass
clips, which r render them absolutely light-proof,, and
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klso permit of their being taken apart for cleansing.
<rhis is an important consideration, since film, passing
continuously over the little velvet pads, in time wears
them down on the one hand, and, on the other, leaves
Universal camera equipped with a 6-inch lens.
Lenses may be readily changed on the Universal
camera by means of its lens vise feature.
small bits of film which are apt to scratch the fresh
negative.
Still another important characteristic of the Uni-
versal Camera is the fact that the spindle of the
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The Cinema Handbook
magazine is arranged to receive the original spool on
which the film comes from the maker. No rewinding
%is required as in certain other cameras wherein a,
special metal spool is used in each magazine, and
wherein, as a consequence, the film must be unwound
from the usual wood spool and on to the metal spool,
with the attendant danger of fogging, scratching,
dirtying or otherwise spoiling the film. No rewind-
ing is required with the Universal. Then again, load-
ing and threading are so simple that the Universal
Camera can be rapidly handled, which is an important
consideration in fast work. The outlets in the maga-
zines are so slotted that the film can be slipped into
place from the side of the open magazine with one
hand. In fact, the author has come to the practice
of loading his Universal magazines by the sense of
touch, using a heavy blanket or bed quilt as a pro-
tection against light. More elaborate magazines might
not permit of such ready loading.
So much for the Universal Camera, which is recom-
mended without hesitation to the amateur and pro-
fessional alike for all straight photography under-
takings. Perhaps the best recommendation is that of
the United States Army Signal Corps, which made
use of hundreds of Universal Cameras for recording
the story of our part in the great war. In fact, in
order to meet the particular requirements of the
Army, the Universal Camera has been designed for
four-hundred foot capacity, with the same mechanism
but of larger proportions. Also, the later-day models
are provided with an automatic dissolver in the form
of a shutter that can be manually or automatically
[58]
Side view of the Wilart camera, with the various
parts indicated. The vignetting: and mask-box at-
tachments are extras, of course, and are not to be
considered as integral parts of the camera.
The Cinema Handbook
opened or closed while the camera is in action. Thus
the shutter may be gradually opened, by hand or by
a train of gears set for the desired footage to be
covered by the fade-in effect, or gradually closed in
the reverse manner.
The Wilart Professional Camera
For those who seek a more elaborate camera than
the Universal, with various additional features that
permit of fancy photography, there is the Wilart Pro-
fessional Camera, which is the outcome of years of
experience. Here again refinement in construction
has been given the closest study in order to combine
simplicity of operation with the most perfected types
of mechanism and so accomplish with the greatest
ease every photographic possibility in the production
of motion pictures.
Let us begin with the case, which is a logical start-
ing point. The Wilart case is constructed of a com-
position alloy metal that combines lightness with the
greatest degree of strength. In fact, the Wilart
Camera consists of metal parts throughout, which
assures an instrument that is unaffected by climatic
conditions.
The lens equipment may be either a B. & L. Tessar,
a Goerz Hypar, or a complete set of special lenses
imported from France by M. H. Schoenbaum, as
regular equipment, but any other lens may be sub-
stituted if desired. The lens holder is made with
threads on two quadrants so that the lens may be
removed by a quarter turn, thus expediting the
changes of lenses. Extra lenses may be mounted on
The Cinema Handbook
[the inside of the door and secured in holders
•threaded in the same manner as the principal holder.
•The change from one lens to another, therefore, can be
^accomplished without the slightest inconvenience and
[in the shortest space of time. The lens focusing
fcnount is attached to the side of the camera case at
e operator's left hand and is provided with a,
||i crometer adjustment.
Now the focusing indicator is provided with mark-
ings which may be depended upon to produce the most
accurate results. The location of the focusing dial
at the back of the camera is the most convenient
arrangement for the operator, as will be noted when
we come to the chapter on camera work.
The view finder is at the left of the operating posi-
tion. It is mounted on the side of the camera in a
dove-tail slide bearing making it easily removable.
A pin latch holds it securely in its regular position.
The view finder lenses are matched with the photo-
graphic lenses, and are provided with adjustable dia-
phragms so that the image may always be seen in
proper focus, whereas with the ordinary view finder
the object may always appear well defined. There is.
also a magnifier for enlarging the image.
The focusing barrel of the finder is fitted to the
cylindrical casing of the finder by means of a microm-
eter adjustment. The barrel has calibrations for
various distances, with a registration line on the
cylinder casing. The cylinder casing is carried on
swivel ;bearings to effect a side-to-side adjustment
for the range-finder, which also carries calibrations.
When the proper focus is obtained with the view
Rear view of the Wilart camera, showing the crank,
finder, footage indicator, peep-hole and
other features.
finder, the range-finder is set to the same distance
registration so that the photographic lens and the
Tiew finder lens coincide on the point of focus. This
is a highly commendable feature, especially when it is
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remembered that the usual finder is aimed parallel
to the photographic lens, so that their lines do not
coincide. Thus in working on close-ups the margin
of error between view finder image and recorded image
is apt to be sufficient to mean a serious error. With
the Wilart Camera the view finder is so adjusted that
it represents exactly what the photographic lens is
recording.
The Wilart Camera is equipped with two shutters.
The principal shutter is mounted on the main shaft,
while the auxiliary shutter is mounted on an external
sleeve which is fastened to an internal sleeve fitted
with spiral slots by means of which the aperture
opening may be regulated by a pin operating in the
spiral slots. The shutter opening is controlled by a
revolving disk of the shutter dial which registers the
degree of shutter opening on the graduated dial on
the upper side of the camera case. Shutter adjust-
ments are made without opening the camera. It is
possible to reduce from the full shutter opening to a
complete closing by this manual control in as short
or as long a period as may be desired, or the dissolve
may be effected automatically by the pressure of a
button.
The Wilart Professional Camera — for let us not
forget that this is a true professional camera — has
a shutter equipment so arranged that the reduction
from full aperture opening to complete closing is ac-
complished automatically in 4y2 feet, or 9 turns of
the handle. By pressing a button the gear is thrown
into mesh with the dissolve gearing mechanism and
operates the opening and closing of the shutter and
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The Cinema Handbook
automatically and at the same time the shutter indi-
cator on the graduated dial shows when the dissolve
is completed. Pressure on the button should be
released when the indicating dial shows closed, and
a few turns given to the crank to insure that sufficient
film to produce the entire dissolve has been wound
into the magazine. The button should then be pressed
again until the registering dial shows a full opening.
The shutter indicator being in black and the dial in
aluminum facilitates the reading of the exact degree
of the shutter opening.
The automatic dissolve mechanism of this camera
is of the utmost importance in the making of "trick"
or "visionary" pictures and insures success over the
ordinary camera where the dissolve must be accom-
plished by slowly closing the diaphragm on the lens,
which not only is inconvenient but makes it quite
difficult to obtain good results.
The film movement in the Wilart Camera is con-
trolled by the film feed sprocket, the shuttle, the aper-
ture plate, the gate, pressure pad, pressure shoes, and
parallelogram. The film is fed from the magazine
through a slot in the top of the camera and is engaged
by the feed sprocket. A slight loop in the film is
made between the feed sprocket teeth and the claw
teeth of the shuttle.
The film is held against the photographic aperture
plate by means of the gate, which has a removable
pressure pad and also pressure shoes which hold the
film against the aperture plate to ensure the proper
engagement of the claws of the shuttle with the per-
forations of the film. A parallelogram is used for
The Cinema Handbook
the guidance of the film on the aperture plate to avoid
the possibility of any side motion. The tension of
the pressure pad can be adjusted by a tapered thumb
nut.
The movement of the claws of the shuttle to pull
the film downward in a vertical plane is actuated by
a special Wilart cam and "drunken" screw mechan-
ism, which assures the correct position of the film
before the photographic aperture.
The removable pressure pad in the gate is provided
with an opening in line with the camera lens which
permits of direct focusing on the film by opening a
gate at the back of the camera case, when desired.
A tube mounted on the inside of the rear door closes
against a flange of the pressure" pad so that no more
than one picture would be fogged when focusing
through the back. Focusing in this manner is done
without opening the camera, same as the Universal
Camera. It is possible also to use a solid pressure
pad if desired so that by removing the film from the
aperture, ground glass may be inserted in place of
pressure pad for focusing.
A special feature of the focusing dial which is very
useful is the ability of the operator to obtain a
follow-up focus on an approaching or disappearing
object. By gauging the focal distance of the moving
object it may always be kept in proper focus by turn-
ing the focusing indicator forward or back as occasion
requires. For instance, if the object is six feet from
the camera and starts to move away, the dial would
be turned accordingly. It might stop again at fifteen
or twenty feet, but the dial would have been turned
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for that distance so that perfect focus would always
be possible. In outdoor work, when the lens is cut
down, follow-up focus is unnecessary.
For special stop motion effects, speeding up scenes,
trick pictures, etc., a special crank shaft is supplied
so that the regular crank may be attached to a gear
ratio which will give %th of the shutter speed with
the normal crank revolutions of two turns per second.
This insures the same accuracy in making these ex-
posures as is obtained in the regular operation of
the camera.
In trick picture work the Veeder Counter is of great
assistance. This registers each turn of the crank so
that it is necessary only to note the number of revolu-
tions from the time the exposure is started to the
finish. Then reverse the belt that drives the take-up
magazine by crossing it on the magazine pulleys and
note again the same number of revolutions on the
counter and the film will be set back at exactly the
same point that the picture was started. CThe
Veeder Counter is built into the Wilart Camera with
its dials showing through a window at the rear of
the case, right above a lateral level indicator.
Another distinctive feature of this camera is the
design of the magazines, which are adapted to re-
ceive 400 feet of film. These magazines are made
of cast aluminum. The cover is threaded so that it
is easy to remove and replace. The magazine unit is
made in halves. The receiving and delivery contain-
ers are interchangeable and reversible so that when
a film has been exposed a compartment containing
the fresh film may be put in its place and the re-
TAKE UP BELT
Rear of Wilart camera with door opened to expose
the film track and gate. The right-hand Par* of the
cover also opens to give access to the gears
and other mechanism.
The Cinema Handbook
cently emptied compartment transferred to the
receiving side.
A flanged opening allows the passage of the film
from the magazine compartment into the camera
through a slot in the top of the camera case. This
joint is accurately fitted for the exclusion of the
light. Grooved pins, cast on the magazine, fit into
accurately machined holes in the top of the camera
case. Sliding tongues of keyhole design engage the
grooves of the pins and hold the magazine securely
in place by the setting of two thumb screws. Within
the magazine compartment, directly back of the
flanged opening, is the light gate. This is normally
closed and is opened only when the magazine is in
place and the camera door is closed and locked by
means of the milled disk on the back of the camera
which drives a bolt into a socket. Therefore, when
the door- is unlocked the magazine light gates are
automatically closed again. The light gate, when
open, allows an absolutely free passage of the film
without any chance of friction on rubbing surfaces.
When set for operation the two magazine sections
are securely fastened together by means of a grooved
latch.
Of course the Wilart Camera has a film marking
punch, consisting in this case of a small lever on the
side of the camera. There is also a graduated foot-
age dial above the crank handle.
Static trouble is claimed to be a practically un-
known quantity in negatives made with the Wilart
Camera. Static is produced by difference in tempera-
ture and it is a well-known fact that static electricity
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is produced by film being in contact with non-con-
ducting material such as wood, cloth, etc. The Wilart
Camera being of metal construction throughout, with
no lining of any kind in the magazines, preserves a
uniform temperature which is most essential for
the prevention of static.
In this camera provision has been made for the use
of masks in order to accomplish, in the most conve-
nient manner, the making of the very widest range
of dissolve scenes, "trick" and "visionary" effects.
By sliding the view finder backwards, two slots are
uncovered for the insertion of masks which can be
obtained in a large variety. The insertion of a ray
filter in the slotted openings in front of the photo-
graphic aperture makes it possible to obtain beauti-
ful cloud effects. A special advantage in being able
to use the front mask opening for a ray filter lies in
the fact that the filter may apply only to the upper
or sky portion of the picture and allow the natural
lighting for the lower portion. This is possible since
the filter mask is a sufficient distance away from the
lens to allow for proper diffusion.
The Later-Day Wilart Camera
As daring as the design of the Wilart Camera
already described may be, it is tame, so to speak,
when compared with its younger brother known as.
Model B, which has just been developed. The Model
3B Wilart Professional Camera represents a radical
departure from all the standard types of motion pic-
ture cameras, as may be noted by studying the accom-
panying illustration.
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Like the Model A Wilart, the Model B is of all
metal construction. The similarity also extends to
^Latest type of Wilart camera, known as Model B, in
which the magazines are contained
within the case.
the ball-bearing features, which make for extra long1
wear and light running. Spiral gears are used
throughout. The weight of the Model B, loaded
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with 400 feet of film, is 19 pounds, the camera alone
weighing approximately 14 pounds. Indeed, the
weight of this all-metal camera, with its substan-
tial construction, is the same as the lightest wooden
camera.
The bizarre shape of the new Wilart Camera is
accounted for by the fact that all waste space has
been eliminated. The designer has aimed at extreme
compactness. The magazines are placed inside the
case instead of outside as in the older Wilart. Each
magazine has an automatic light trap which is nor-
mally closed while the magazine is being handled, but
opens with the closing of the door lock on the camera
case.
The take-up is in the form of a spring belt, which
is indicated in one of our views. This take-up, being
on the outside of the camera, is always visible to the
cameraman who can therefore tell if the take-up is
functioning. The change from the forward move-
ment to the reverse movement is effected by shifting
the spring belt from the lower pulley to the upper
one.
The designer claims that, owing to the narrow
width of the Model B case, this camera can be carried
about with the utmost convenience.
To sum up, the Model B is equipped with auto-
matic and hand dissolve, the lever for changing the
shutter opening being placed above and a trifle ahead
of the crank, as depicted. The camera can be fur-
nished without automatic dissolve if desired. The
mounting of the lenses is such that they may be
changed quite readily. In the matter of lenses the
SHUTTER OPENING
: 'CONTROL LEVER
FILM LENS
FINDER LENS
: :>•..•,.. • ;
CRANK
Front view of the Wilart Model B, The simplicity of
tliis camera is quite striking, and is quite distinctive
in view of the elaborate types now in use.
The Cinema Handbook
same principle as with the Model A is carried out,
namely, having matched lenses for the photographing
lens and for the view and range finder, placed side
by side. There is a footage dial, Veeder counter ana
a film punch.
Features of the Debrie Camera
The compactness and light weight of the Debrie
Camera, which is manufactured in Paris, together
with its 400-foot magazines and numerous features
that permit of doing the most elaborate filming, have
made it a favorite with American cameramen for
studio and outdoor work alike. In fact, it is em-
ployed to a considerable extent for news work, since
it is one of the most compact cameras extant. It
is well up among the higher priced cameras and must
only be considered for the highest grade amateur
work and for professional purposes.
A small walnut case bound with black metal trim-
mings characterizes the Debrie camera. Its maga-
zines are arranged side by side, and while this means
a somewhat more complicated path for the film to
travel, it makes for extreme compactness, as is
obvious from the accompanying illustration. In-
deed, one is surprised to notice how many features
have been worked into the mechanism of the Debrie,
which is one of the lightest and most compact outfits
made for serious work.
The new model Debrie Camera embodies the follow-
ing features:
It is fitted with a film measuring device for foot-
age. The Debrie has a cranking speed indicator
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The Cinema Handbook
showing the number of pictures taken per second.
The mechanism incorporates an automatic take-
up both forward and reverse so that it may be
cranked in either direction without adjustments or
changes of any kind. Further, the Debrie is pro-
vided with a new type of intermittent movement
which is said to make for a smooth and precise
action.
Focusing is accomplished from the rear, an optical
system being provided for showing the image right
side up in a magnified form. Focusing can be accom-
plished while the camera is being operated, without
spoiling the film, by means of a special red glass
window which excludes all active light when the eye
is pressed against the focusing tube. Hence it be-
comes possible accurately to focus and to follow any
given bit of action, which is an invaluable and abso-
lutely necessary feature in some forms of filming.
Focusing can be accomplished on a ground glass at
the aperture at any time without opening the camera
or removing the film. A hole is punched in the film
and a ground glass introduced into the opening thus
formed from the outside of the camera, thereby calling
for a minimum effort and practically no waste of
film.
The automatic dissolving shutter of the Debrie
Camera is built into the mechanism. It is arranged
to close in three and one-half feet, when the camera
crank locks. In reversing to the original point with
the shutter closed, the camera crank again locks. The
dissolve is accomplished in the same number of feet
every time it is employed, without regard for the
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The Cinema Handbook
shutter opening being used. This feature is believed
to be unique with the Debrie.
The special lens mounting of the Debrie Camera
permits of changing the lenses without trouble or
loss of time. The diaphragm can be changed from
the rear while the camera is being operated, thus
allowing for fluctuating light conditions. In order
to facilitate the changing of lenses, it will be noted
that the Debrie camera is provided with a square rod
on the right-hand side, looking at the front, and
another at the top. These rods are marked on one
or more sides with the diaphragm stops and the dis-
tances in feet for one or more lenses. Thus when the
operator changes from one lens to another, he has
only to turn the square rods around until the proper
scales face the rear. He then adjusts his lens for
distance and for diaphragm opening by moving the
long rods that work in front of the scales facing him.
The magazines are of four-hundred foot capacity,
and of metal construction. They fit side by side in
the camera case. For threading, the two sides of the
camera are opened, while the front portion is thrown
up on its hinge as shown in one of our illustrations.
The film is then threaded through the mechanism
which is thus exposed to view. Once threaded, the
front is dropped down in position and locked, and
the two side doors are closed.
The Debrie Camera weighs 14*£ pounds and meas-
ures lO1^ inches long, 7% inches high, and 6 inches
wide. The case is of five-ply walnut and is par-
ticularly designed for use in all climates. All in
all, the Debrie is an ideal camera — and its wide use
The Cinema Handbook
by American cameramen attests to its efficiency. It
is excellent for news and travel work.
Features of the Russell Camera
Somewhat similar to the Debrie Camera, but not
so well known and only employed to a limited extent
at present because it is a relatively new type, is the
Russell Camera. This camera includes so many inter-
esting departures from current camera practice that
it has made a place for itself in what was already a
much crowded field.
No doubt the most striking feature of the Russell
Camera is the ground glass device, which makes it
possible to swing aside the film and the gate and to
swing into their place a ground glass, by the mere
manipulation of a tiny lever on top of the case. This
operation is accomplished in an instant, and without
wasting film. By turning the small lever ever so
slightly, the entire gate, with its rollers and tension
shoes holding the film in the proper position, is
swung away from its natural position taking the
film with it. No sooner is this done when, by the
same action of the lever, an auxiliary aperture con-
taining a ground glass is swung into position, in
line with the lens and with the focusing tube at the
rear of the camera. The focusing completed, the lever
is turned in the opposite direction, swinging the
ground glass carrier out of the way and throwing the
film gate and film into normal position, ready to go
ahead with the scene.
Like all the better types of cameras, the Russell
is provided with a built-in dissolving shutter with the
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widest latitude and sureness of operation. A lever
is adjusted for any one of three speeds of dissolve.
VIGNE'
VIGNETTE DIAPHRAGtl
LEVER
Front view of the Russell camera. The vignette forms
an integral part of this camera, and the lens, being:
set some distance back, has an effective sunshade.
On the opposite side of the case is the angular setting
of the shutter opening. The controlling lever which
The Cinema Handbook
starts the dissolve in operation is conveniently locat-
ed, and after the proper adjustments have been made
this lever is pushed slightly forward or backward
according to whether it is desired to fade-in or fade-
out. Upon the completion of the operation the
mechanism locks. The shutter, which can be set for
any angle from 170 to 0 deg., can be operated by hand
if desired.
The arrangement of the magazines in the Russell
Camera forms another novel feature. One of these is
placed on either side of the camera casing, after
the manner of the Debrie design. The general con-
struction of the case calls for the location of the
lens some distance from the front plane of the case,
so that the arrangement forms a natural sunshade,
as shown in one of our illustrations. The vignetting
and double-exposure devices are placed on the extreme
front of the camera and when in place do not inter-
fere with the rapid changing of lenses.
The lenses for the Russell Camera are mounted in
special mounts supplied with the camera. The change
from one lens to another is accomplished in a few
seconds. The lens mounting and spade available are
such that up to a six-inch lens can be accommodated.
Focusing is accomplished either by a scale mounted
at the rear of the camera, or by looking through a
focusing tube at the rear which shows the image on
the film or ground glass, in magnified form and right
side up.
The mechanism is arranged for automatic take-up
in either direction. The intermittent mechanism of
the Russell Camera makes use of the claw movement,
[79]
loCUSING' PEEP HOLE OR OCULAR
/ FOOTAGE. INDICATOR .01 At-
.YEE0E.R COUNTER
Reai- view of Russell camera, with the footage indi-
cator and peep-hole plainly indicated. The crank is
placed low down in this camera, so as to reduce
vibration to a minimum.
but the manner in which this well-known movement
has been altered and improved is noteworthy. The
movement is ruggedly constructed, perfectly balanced
and mounted in ball bearings.
Like all cameras in general use, the mechanism
provides for the ordinary eight-to-one crank move-
ment and the one-to-one. The crank itself is situated
The Cinema Handbook
at the lowest center of gravity, which reduces vibra-
tion. It is permanently attached to the camera and
when not in use folds close up against the camera case
and locks itself. Hence there is no danger of going
out on a job without the crank, and, to use the
popular expression, being "out of luck."
Instead of using wood or metal for their case, the
Kussell Camera designers have gone to a special
moulded material known as Condensite. The various
parts of the case are* moulded into smooth panels,
which are at once durable, non-warping and unaffect-
ed by weather conditions. Complete, the Russell
Camera weighs slightly less than 20 pounds, with a
400-foot roll of film in place ready for work. The
size of the camera is 9 inches high, 7%- inches wide,
and 10% inches long.
The Bell & Howell Camera
The most elaborate camera and no doubt the most
widely employed in regular film productions is the
Bell & Howell Camera, but so great is its cost that
it would seem to be quite beyond the reach of anyone
except the professional cameraman. At any rate, the
Bell & Howell represents the last word in motion
picture cameras, being provided with almost no end
of attachments that expedite filming and make pos-
sible the numerous unusual effects that characterize
America's leading film productions.
First of all, the Bell & Howell Camera is a sturdy
piece of mechanism. The camera frame consists in-
tegrally of but four parts — the main frame, door,
turret plate mounting and turret plate. It forms
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the complete housing of the entire camera mechanism.
The main frame is cast in one piece from special
aluminum alloy.
Access is had to the interior of the camera by open-
The Bell & Howell camera as it appears when
equipped with a special electric motor drive. This is
the most elaborate camera extant, and incorporates
practically all the refinements known to the art.
ing the door, which falls down to the horizontal posi-
tion. The door is provided with a combination spring-
actuated latch and contact plate. When the door is
closed this plate engages with and operates the valve-
opening mechanism of the magazine, which is mounted
on top of the camera.
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The Cinema Handbook
The main characteristic of the Bell & Howell is the
lens turret plate, which is a revolving plate built
to receive a plurality \of lenses. It is composed of a
6-inch flanged plate with four circular openings
machined to receive a corresponding number of lens
mounts. This plate is mounted on a central bearing
and is held in any one of the four positions corre-
sponding to the desired lens to be used before focus-
ing and photographing apertures. These apertures
are identical as to dimensions and positions relative
to the horizontal and focal planes. In traveling
through its circular path the turret plate passes the
position occupied by the high-power focusing micro-
scope at the right-hand side of the camera, and can be
stopped at this point when using this device.
The lenses generally employed with the Bell &
Howell are the B & L. Tessars and the Carl Zeiss
Tessars, or again the Goerz Hypar lenses. The lens
equipment of the camera commonly consists of the
following:
One each of 50 mm., 75 mm. and 32 mm. lenses in
micrometer focusing mounts with matched view finder
lens for each, or
One each of 2-inch, 3-inch and 1%-inch lenses in
micrometer focusing mounts, with matched view finder
lenses for each and with choice of either combination.
One 6-inch long focus lens (the 3-inch finder
lens is used as view finder for the 6-inch long focus
lens by using only parts of its field).
Two distinct methods are provided for the focusing
of the lenses of the Bell & Howell :
First, through a ground glass which is mounted in
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a special focusing aperture on the operating or right-
hand side of the camera and in the exact focal plane
as the photographing aperture. This ground glass has
Bell & Howell camera opened, showing the path
taken by the film. The magazines are combined in
one unit, held in place by a long: thumb-screw.
an aperture frame corresponding to the exact dimen-
sions of the photographing aperture, thereby giving
the same marginal lines or limits of the field to be
photographed and insuring absolute accuracy in
focusing. When the camera is shifted to the extreme
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The Cinema Handbook
left side of the tripod, by means of a special sliding
base arrangement, this aperture occupies the same
optical axis as the photographing aperture when
operating. An extension sleeve is provided which
projects rearwardly to allow the insertion of a magni-
fying lens for the purpose of assisting the focusing
of the object feature to extreme sharpness. Focusing
by the use of the ground glass is thus accomplished
without the waste of time or film, and without open-
ing the camera.
Secondly, by measurement from the focal plane to
the feature object to be photographed. Measurements
are carefully noted in the graduations in the lens
mounts which may be set to the line indicating the
corresponding distance.
In order to follow any given bit of action with pre-
cision, the finder of this camera is provided with
lenses that are matched with the photographing
lenses.
The camera is provided with an adjusted shutter
which consists of a principal disk and an auxiliary
disk. The principal disk is mounted on the main
shaft of the camera. It has a fixed minimum opening
of 170 deg. radially slotted within the disk. The
auxiliary disk has a projecting shutter segment of
170 deg. and is mounted on an auxiliary shaft carried
within the main shaft of the camera. It is used to
change the size of the opening in the principal disk
when reduced time or exposure is required. The shut-
ter is adjusted without opening the camera. The
adjusting mechanism is operated by means of a pin-
ion and registers the degree of shutter opening on a
[861
Some of the details of the Bell & Howell camera,
including: Veeder counter, single picture crank for
careful trick work, and dissolving control.
The Cinema Handbook
graduated dial. The shutter index dial is sur-
rounded by a narrow ring which, when turned to the
left, locks the camera mechanism.
The film movement of the Bell & Howell consists
of the film feed and take-up sprocket, and the shuttle
mechanism. The sprocket performs the double service
of continuously drawing the unexposed film from the
forward compartment of the magazine and delivering
the exposed film to the rear compartment, where it is
automatically rewound. The shuttle comprises:
1st. — The shuttle bar carrying the engaging pins
which impart the feeding motion to the film. 2nd. —
The register leaf forming the guideway for the film
before the aperture. 3rd. — The pilot register pins
which cause the accurate register of the film before
the exposing aperture. Their specific function is to
prevent inaccurate spacing, since an error in spacing
to an infinitesimal degree causes unsteadiness on the
screen in the projection of the picture. 4th. — The
aperture plate against which the film is brought to
register before the exposing aperture is mounted to
the register leaf mounting and is in fixed relation
thereto. The opening in the aperture plate definitely
establishes the marginal limits of the picture. Its
rearward surface forms the seat against which the
film is held in contact by the register leaf during the
exposure, thereby accurately locating the film in the
focal plane.
The film movement mechanism thus described pro-
vides for the free travel of the film from the maga-
zine through the camera and back to the magazine.
The film is not brought into rubbing contact with the
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mechanism at any point — no friction or tension is
applied to it — no marginal guide rails contact it at
the sides.
Like all leading cameras, the Bell & Howell is
provided with an automatic dissolve mechanism which
"dissolves an established length of 64 pictures or four
feet.
The magazine is made of aluminum east in one
piece and is of the double compartment type. It is
provided with dust and light-tight screw caps or
covers. The base of the magazine has suitably shaped
matching grooves which correspond to the grooves
constructed on top of the camera for the purpose of
forming a light-proof mortised joint. When in proper
position for operation, the magazine is secured to the
camera by means of a clamping screw contained with-
in the magazine. The two light valves placed at the
openings where the film passes from magazine to
camera and vice versa, are automatically closed
tightly by the action of a spring and plunger co-acting
with the valve plates, all of which is contained within
the magazine. A corresponding plunger co-acting with
the door plate contained within the camera auto-
matically opens the valves for the free passage of the
film when the camera door is closed. The magazine
carries 400 feet of film.
The masks for this camera are made of thin bronze
plates in matched pairs, the shorter for use before
the focusing aperture and the longer before the
photographic aperture. The purpose of the shorter
mask is to indicate the limits of the field image on
the ground glass in the focusing aperture, thereby
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defining with accuracy the identical field limits which
will result from the use of the longer mask before
the photographing aperture. This feature insures
the utmost accuracy in masked pictures.
A shutter index, film marking punch, and film foot-
age dial complete the regular equipment of the Bell &
Howell.
Now it is a fact that no camera has as many acces-
sories for special results as the Bell & Howell. There
is the hand dissolve attachment, which is indispensable
where dissolves, fade-outs, or visionary effects of vari-
ous lengths are to be made. With this device, dimin-
ishing or increasing exposures of any length can be
made independently of the automatic dissolve built in
the camera. It consists of a gear with suitable oper-
ating handle and is held in position on the operating
side of the camera meshing with the shutter control
pinion and can be detached at will.
The camera picture and footage recorder serves a
two-fold purpose and entirely eliminates the uncer-
tainty in dissolve, visionary and other special working
requiring a minute check on the individual pictures
exposed. By tabulating the footage and picture
lengths when the dissolve or fade-out is accomplished
the operator is enabled to establish the point to the
exact individual exposure on the film where increased
or decreased exposure began or ended. This counter
also indicates film footage up to 1,000 feet.
The Bell & Howell can be fitted with a small electric
motor so as to eliminate hand cranking. This -motor
is compact and has reversible and variable speed
characteristics. It is attached at the rear of the
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camera. The driving speed is anywhere from 1 to 32
or more frames per second.
A centrifugal governor of extreme sensitiveness in-
sures uniform operation, compensating for fluctuations
in the supply voltage and at the same time responding
instantly to the changes of speed as desired by the
operator when using the motor drive. For instance,
the reduction or increase of speed of from 24 pictures
per second to 4 per second or vice versa, may be made
instantly. The operation of the driving motor is said
to be absolutely free of all vibration and eliminates
the unsteadiness of turning, which is a factor of trou-
ble when operating by hand. In this connection it
dispenses entirely with the human element and the
accompanying variations, and completes the chain of
mechanically-operated apparatus for photographing
which further insures the quality of the output.
As for the various vignetting devices, double-expos-
ure attachments, extension bellows and so on used
with the Bell & Howell, these are more or less dupli-
cated with other professional cameras, hence they
will be treated in a separate chapter.
The Pathe Camera and Other Standard Types
Aside from the standard cameras already described,
there is the Pathe studio model, with outside maga-
zines, and the Pathe enclosed-magazine camera. Both
these models have all the features that go to make for
professional work and are widely employed through-
out the entire world.
Then there are the Pittman and the De Franne
cameras of American manufacture, which follow the
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general lines of a British camera known as the Pres-
witch, at least so far as external appearance is con-
cerned. Both are good cameras for professional and
semi-professional work, taking 400 feet of film at one
loading and being provided with an automatic dis-
solve. They are rather tall and narrow cameras,
with a wooden case bound in metal.
Of the less expensive British cameras there are the
Ensign and the Butcher models, which are small
cameras intended primarily for amateur work. Either
of these takes 200 feet of film at one loading. In
;some cases the film is placed on daylight loading
spools that do away with the necessity of magazines
and a darkroom. Then there are the Williamson and
the Moy cameras, intended for serious work. These
cameras are of the tall and narrow wooden case type,
similar to the American Pittman.
The Akeley — An Unusual Camera for
Unusual Work
For following rapidly moving objects, such as air-
planes and birds and race horses, the usual camera,
mounted on the usual tripod, is by no means an ideal
instrument. Furthermore, the usual camera has cer-
tain limitations which preclude its convenient use
for such subjects, and right here is where we come
to a camera that has been designed for recording the
rapidly moving object and keeping up with said ob-
ject. That camera is the Akeley.
The Akeley Camera is different from all other cam-
eras, and stands in a class by itself. Let us begin
with its tripod head, which forms a vital part of the
The Cinema Handbook
camera design. The tripod has not a single thumb-
screw adjustment, yet it is the quickest adjusting
tripod extant and locks rigidly in any position. It
is the lightest, yet is rock steady. It is the only
Cameraman focusing a scene with a Pathe" studio
model camera. Like the Wilart camera, the Path6
is cranked at the rear.
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adjustable tripod with trusses. The Akeley Camera
is the only camera that can be orientated in any
direction with but one handle — the long handle at the
rear of the camera, which is shown in the accompany-
ing illustrations.
The case of the Akeley is round, with a handle at
the top for carrying the camera about. The maga-
zines are arranged for the full spool and take-up spool
combined, and fit into the round case with very
little space to spare. The shutter of the Akeley con-
sists of a revolving band with a slit in it, similar
to the focal plane shutter of the usual reflecting type
camera. This shutter can give an opening of 240
degrees, which is unapproached by any other camera.
{The movement calls for the shortest loops and there
are no sprockets in the camera box, the main sprocket
forming part of the film magazine. The emulsion
side of the film does not come in contact with any
parts that might scratch it throughout the entire
route of film.
Now one interesting feature of the Akeley Camera
is the focusing arrangement. Matched lenses are used
as in other cameras already described. However, these
matched lenses are arranged in such a way that as
the image is focused in the finder, while looking
through the eye-piece fitted with the magnifying glass,
the same movement also focuses the lens that does the
photographing. Thus the cameraman can follow up
the focus while taking the picture. Furthermore, the
finder is so mounted and hinged and provided with a
prismatic reflector that the finder can be made to
follow any object with the matched lens of the
HANDUE FOR TRAINING CAMERA
ON MOVING OBJECT
FOCUSING KNO5
LE-N5
DIAPHRAGM
ADJUSTMENT
The Akeley camera, with the leading features indi-
cated. This camera is especially intended for
following rapidly moving objects by means of the
long lever attached to the case.
The Cinema Handbook
camera, while the eye-piece remains in the same posi-
tion so as not to inconvenience the cameraman. This
feature is known as the floating finder.
The handles on the Akeley Camera are hinged so
that they can be folded back and out of the way, and
tinder no circumstances is it possible for the camera-
man to start out on a job without his means of crank-
ing the camera.
But the main feature of the Akeley Camera is its
use in following rapidly moving objects by means of
long focus lenses. In the "Race of the Age," the great
picture taken of Man o' War in his great race, the
renowned horse was filmed by means of two Akeley
Cameras from start to finish, without a break and
keeping the subject in the center of the screen at
all times. One camera was equipped with a 6^-inch
lens, while the other had a 12-inch lens.
It is best to set up the Akeley Camera at the center
pivotal point of the track on which the object is
moving and to use the 6^2 -inch lens to bring the
object close-up. By doing this the speed of "panning"
is greatly reduced and, therefore, made easier, as the
object travels slower across the field than it would
when one is using a 2-inch lens and attempts to set
up with a shorter radius.
When the Akeley Camera is "panned" and kept on
the object with the optical axis of the lens always
pointing towards the object taken, it is equivalent
in results to the object and camera standing still. The
only change in results is that the background is mov-
ing at the equivalent speed at which the object goes
forward, the results of this on the screen being that
[96]
Akeley camera tilted to the extreme upward position,
so as to demonstrate the remarkable flexibility of this
equipment, which is used in filming: rapidly moving:
objects, such as airplanes, racehorses, and wild life.
The Cinema Handbook
the object is sharp, while the background travels
across the screen in a blur. It will be seen that by
being at the pivotal point of the arc of the track the
object when circling the track is always on the screen.
If the object is traveling on a straight track and it is
followed by the "pan," the result on the screen would
be that the object when first coming toward one would
be small, increasing in size until it was exactly oppo-
,
The odd magazine of the Akeley camera with cover
removed and shown at right. The magazine has
the master sprocket.
site and then diminishing in size until it went away,
and would not have such a pleasing effect as when
following it on a circular track where the distance
from the camera is maintained.
As already stated, the panoramic effect is produced
with the Akeley Camera by means of the long handle
at the rear of the case. No matter in which direction
[981
Akeley camera opened, showing how the film maga-
zine is inserted. The shutter of this camera is of the
focal plane type, consisting of a belt with a slit,
revolving about the inside casing.
The Cinema Handbook
this long lever is pushed or pulled, the camera follows
in a nice, easy, steady and positive movement, due to
a train of gears and a fly-wheel arrangement in the
base of the camera. The movement may be up or down
or diagonally, and the camera will tilt over a range
of 140 degrees, which is not attained by other
cameras.
All in all, the Akeley is unique in its field, and
for that reason it has met with approval of certain
cinematographers who specialize in the recording of
sports, wild life, military events, races, and so on.
So much for cameras. Day after day new models
make their appearance so that there need be no danger
that the needs of the cameraman, whether amateur
or professional, will not be met. Aside from the
camera, a tripod is necessary, together with special
lenses and attachments, the description of which is
better left for the following chapter.
[100]
CHAPTER III.
TRIPODS AND OTHER ACCES-
SORIES FOR THE CAMERA
THE motion picture camera by itself is seldom a
complete instrument. It is true that there are
certain types of cameras that are self-contained, and
do not even require a tripod. These cameras are
driven by a self-contained pneumatic motor, operating1
off a number of compressed air flasks contained within
the camera case, a small electric motor, or even clock-
work, in any event eliminating the necessity of hand
cranking. Such cameras are sometimes provided with
a small gyroscopic stabilizer, in order that they may
be held more steadily. However, these hand cameras
are a rarety, and ninety-nine out of every hundred
cameras require at least one accessory, namely, a
tripod. In fact, the tripod is to the motion picture
camera what the tender is to the steam locomotive,
and we may well say that the best camera is no better
than its tripod.
The Question of a Rigid Foundation
Remember, motion pictures are nothing more than
numerous pictures projected one after the other on a
screen at such a high rate of speed that the phenome-
non of persistence of vision causes the eye to carry
over from one picture to the other, so to speak, with-
out a gap being apparent. Now if these pictures do
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not fit perfectly one over the preceding one, we do
not have perfect register and the eye soon detects a
The Bell & Ilowell tripod, representing the essentials
of a good solid tripod for serious work.
blur due to this lack of register. So it is absolutely
essential to have the camera rigidly held in position
while taking a picture, so that there may be no move-
The Cinema Handbook
ment, swaying, jumping, or shifting of the camera.
The need of a rigid foundation for the camera is
what accounts for the heavy and elaborate tripods in
use. Besides, the cameras are heavy and there is
usually some vibration arising out of their operation,
which must be absorbed by the tripod. It is only too
often the case that the purchaser of a camera, having
bought the best camera which he could afford, will
skimp on the tripod, with unfortunate results. A
good tripod has to cost a good deal — anywhere from
$75 to $200. It is unavoidable. Solid wooden legs,
well shaped; good fittings to tighten the various
members into a rigid structure when set up ready
for action; carefully cut gears for the panoramic and
tilting movements; a carefully planed metal rest to
receive the camera — all these features cost money to
produce.
To purchase a cheap tripod — except where the low
cost is due to circumstances rather than the absence
of quality in the product — is only to court poor re-
sults even with the best camera. The author speaks
from practical and sad experience, for he started his
filming activities with a good camera but with an
inexpensive tripod. Said, tripod had cast gears, a
tiny aluminum head, and flimsy legs of light wood.
The tripod was light to carry about, and that feature,
coupled with the low price, made it an attractive
proposition. But the disappointment of having
several hundred feet of otherwise perfect negative
turned down by the various film companies because
there was too much "play" or "jump" in the pictures
soon convinced him that lightness and cheapness were
1 103.}
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not desirable qualities in a motion picture tripod.
The pictures, when projected on the screen, rose and
fell, in wave-like motion, very much after the fashion
of pictures taken from a small boat in a rough sea.
The Precision ball-bearing: tripod, which is widely
employed in the art, because of its excellent design.
The tilting: and panoramic movements are calibrated
for reference purposes,
So it is well to pick out a tripod that is sufficiently
heavy to- be rigid and sturdy. The standard motion
picture tripods are almost invariably provided with
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what is known as the tilting and panoramic head. That
is to say, by turning one crank the head which carries
the platform can be traversed or swung about to any
point on the horizon, while another crank causes the
head to be tilted up or down, so that the camera
can be pointed at any angle within the limits set. A
combination of both movements enables the camera
to be trained on any object and to follow a moving-
object while taking pictures.
The main thing in picking out a tripod is to make
sure that it stands rigidly on its three legs, and that
the legs can be locked in position so as to preclude all
play or slippage. The next step is to examine the
tilting and panoramic mechanism and to make sure
that the gears mesh properly and that there is no
play. The better types of tripod have due provision
made for adjusting the gears so as to take up play
when wear occurs. The next requisite is to make
sure that the platform is amply large and properly
shaped to take the camera with which it is to be
used.
The camera is mounted on the tripod head and held
in place by a thumbscrew that comes up through the
center of the platform and engages with the screw
hole in the base of the camera. There are certain
exceptions to this arrangement, such as a special
tripod sometimes used with the Pathe studio camera,
the Bell & Howell, and the Akeley camera. Some tri-
pods are so designed that the thumbscrew can be
readily driven home into the camera screw hole, while
with others it requires quite a bit of exasperating
effort to get at the thumbscrew and then find the hole
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The Cinema Handbook
in the camera resting on the tripod platform. The
better types of tripod simplify the fastening of the
camera on to the tripod platform as much as possible.
Perhaps the most popular type of tripod in general
use is the Ball Bearing Precision Tripod, which repre-
sents the embodiment of many new and desirable
features. Furthermore, the description of this might
well serve as a specification for judging tripods in-
tended for serious work.
First of all, the worms and worm wheels of the
Precision Tripod are entirely enclosed, thereby obvi-
ating what has always been a serious proposition
with the average tripod, namely, having sand and
grit accumulate on the surfaces and being ground in-
to the mechanism. The author has a rather small and
simple tripod which has exposed gears, but he always
keeps its head covered with a duck cover held in place
by means of a strap when the tripod is not being
used. In this manner there is no opportunity for dust
and dirt to get into the mechanism.
Then the Precision Tripod is ball-bearing through-
out. The panoramic top and also the tilt top are
both graduated in actual degrees. There are no pro-
jecting shafts and knobs on the tripod which are
liable to interfere or get bent or broken off. The
tripod handles are attached by means of a spring
latch and are inserted into hollow shafts. The entire
top can be released and swung round quickly without
disengaging the worm from the panoramic worm
wheel, simply by releasing the milled nut underneath
one-quarter of a turn.
The legs are of polished beechwood, properly de-
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signed, with a wide spread at the top. However, they
are fastened to the tripod by metal locks and not
by wood. The top of the legs are braced with a metal
sector between the two portions, the metal sector
being cut out to make it light and at the same time
absolutely rigid.
Another feature which is unique with this tripod is
that the centerpieces of each leg terminate in an
aluminum chuck with a brass binding nut which can
be released and the point removed and a new one*
replaced within a few moments' time. The worm
wheel and tilting top sector are cut in bronze, not m
aluminum. Ample adjustment is allowed at every
point where wear is liable to occur. Adjustment is
made by releasing the lock screw and taking up a
quarter of a turn or so every three or four months
or as needed, in the case of the bearings of the tilting
top which is suspended by means of steel cones. The
adjustment on the tilting top sector consists of two
bronze wedges, regulated by means of flanged screws,
which are used to take up any wear that may occur.
End play in the worms can be taken care of instantly
from the outside and the entire top can be dis-
assembled in 30 seconds for thorough cleaning at
intervals. The Precision Tripod weighs about 23^
pounds, and the height extended is about 80 inches.
The Akeley Tripod
The Akeley Tripod is just as unusual in its own
way as the Akeley Camera. Thus while it has been
previously necessary to make a tripod of a consider-
able weight in order to get it steady, the theory being,
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The Cinema Handbook
the heavier the tripod the steadier the filming, the
Akeley Tripod has been made surprisingly light.
Weight has been eliminated by a special design that
makes for extreme rigidity.
The Akeley Tripod weighs 12 pounds. The head is
of cast aluminum, triangular in shape. The legs are
of straight grain mahogany. The wide spread at the
top gives rigidity and good support. Thumbscrew
attachments permit legs to be quickly removed from
the head. Simple straight sticks make possible quick
replacing of a substitute in case of breakage. An
ingenious method of locking the legs in position is
employed, consisting in trusses which, when locked,
slightly bow the legs outward and give tension, which
results in the remarkable rigidity. In this position
the end of the truss bears against steel springs, which,
bearing leather washers to prevent slippage, hold
tightly against the outer and upper sticks and thereby
lock the tripod. To unlock, the thumb is placed on
the upper thumbpiece of lock and the middle finger
presses the lock lever which releases the catch, while
the pressing down with the thumb breaks the lock.
By another pressure of the thumb the second half of
the lock is broken, as shown in the accompanying
illustration, and then this lock serves as a handle to
actuate the lower leg freely up or down. While the
Akeley Tripod is primarily designed for use with the
Akeley Camera, it can be employed for any other
camera by being provided with a special head.
Still another popular tripod is the Universal Tri-
pod. In this type the vertical tilt is obtained by a
segmental slide which is a departure from the pivot
F 109 ]
The Cinema Handbook
action heads now so extensively in use. The seg-
mental slide operates in a U-shaped cradle which gives
the maximum width of bearing surface. The full
weight of the camera is carried on the grooved base
piece, which insures smooth, steady action when in
motion. All vibration, twitching and jerky effects are
eliminated. The head tilts up and down through 90
degrees. When locked it is secured at both ends of
the cradle piece.
The panoramic worm box can be instantly disen-
gaged when it is desired to turn the camera quickly
to any position. The panoramic disk can be locked
to prevent any accidental movement. The worm and
worm gears are of special design with ample thread
depth, which adds materially to their durability, and
gives a high degree of accuracy and freedom from
loss motion.
The lock bolt is provided with a compression screw
which is depressed by the weight of the camera, so
that it is easy to shift about and see when the screw
engages the threads of the camera. It is a great
time saver, and will be much appreciated for field and
news reel work, or wherever rapid preparations are
essential. Instead of turning the screw from the
bottom, it is operated from the side of the head, which
makes it accessible and easy to operate. Moreover,
there is no danger of stripping the thread. In un-
mounting, the camera is known to be disengaged
when a clicking sound is heard from the turning of
the lock bolt. All locking mechanism on the tripod
is mounted on the operating side. It is said that
this tripod can be set up in ten seconds. It weighs
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20 pounds. The wide spread top legs give truss
strength and rigidity.
It is well for the cameraman to hold his left hand
on the rear end of the camera when there is apt to
be slight play in the tripod head. Besting the hand
on the camera and applying a little pressure often
counteracts any play that might rise out of a faulty
tripod. At any rate, it is generally a good precau-
tionary measure.
The Bag Full of Tricks
For years cameramen were satisfied with plain
photography, because there was no special demand for
unusual effects. Then, too, the photoplays were in
their infancy and very little was spent on produc-
tions. So why go to extra expense and trouble in
filming operations?
However, with the growth of the motion picture
industry and the gradual development of the photo-
play art, more and more special effects have been
requested of the cameraman in order that the filming
operations might keep apace the progress made in
scenery, direction, acting, lighting, plot, and so on.
Today the cameraman must have a whole bag of
tricks, so to speak, in order to make his pictures as
attractive and even as unusual as possible. Obviously,
most of these special effects call for numerous acces-
sories, which it is our purpose now to take up in
detail.
Probably the best known and most widely used of
all the motion picture camera attachments is the
round closing and vignetting device, usually called
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the iris. It is shaped like the ordinary iris dia-
phragm of the camera lens, only that it is larger and
the blades are so constructed that they close entirely
without leaving even a pinhole in the center. The
usual mounting is upon a sliding base and extension
tube. The extension tube is required to permit mov-
Debrie camera with special tripod extension attach-
ment to carry circle vignette and mask box,
ing the round closing dissolving and vignetting device
toward or away from the lens, thus maintaining
control over the sharpness or diffusion of the circle
effects required when circling in or out.
Another effect which the sliding frase; and exten-
The Cinema Handbook
sion tube service for is vignetting either head or bust
close-ups. The cameraman will find the sliding base
absolutely essential when he is called upon to feature
the expression of a certain actor who is not in the
center of the picture. Especially is the device impor-
tant if for any reason the cameraman cannot change
Goerz circle vignette mounted on special carrier
which is intended in this case for use with the
Bell & Howell tripod
the position of his camera ; for by means of the sliding
base he can move the round closing dissolving and
vignetting device into any required position, and
thus make round closing vignetting or dissolves any-
where in the picture, center, top, bottom or left, and.
in any of the four corners.
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The Cinema Handbook
With Sliding Base and Extension Tube
When using the sliding base the length of the
extension tube is shortened so that the round closing
dissolving and vignetting device clears the size of
Front view of Goerz mask box fastened to a Goerz
vignette. The leaves of the vignette are shown
completely overlapped, so as to shut off the light
completely.
the picture. When the cameraman wishes to make
five vignetted close-ups, four to be near the edges and
•one in the center for introducing the actors on the
The Cinema Handbook
title, the round closing dissolving and vignetting de-
vice is used at small aperture. The actor is first
circled in for a certain length of film, then circled
out. The film is then run back and the same method
Side view of the Goerz mask box and the circle
vignette, mounted on a sliding: base and an exten-
sion tube for the necessary adjustments.
repeated with the round closing dissolving and
vignetting device set near the edges of the picture
and so on until each close-up of the actors is made
in whatever make-up they are to appear in the pic-
The Cinema Handbook
lure. As many as eight close-ups have been made on
the same strip of film in this manner. For this pur-
pose the round closing dissolving or vignetting device
is fitted with a stop pin attachment, which allows the
lever only a limited movement, or, in other words,
the aperture of the round closing dissolving and
vignetting device may be set for any diameter re-
quired.
In the case of the Goerz round closing dissolving
and vignetting device, the aperture is 2% inches,
while the largest outside diameter is 4% inches. The
sliding movement of the sliding base is limited, its
entire length being 5% when kept in the center. It
can be worked either by gear action or set by hand.
A special round closing and vignetting device is made
to order, having an aperture of 3~y2 inches and an
outside diameter of 6 inches. The sliding base for
this is 7 inches long. The extension tube closed meas-
ures 1% inches, extended 3 inches, and is arranged
to fit on various makes of cameras. In some cameras
where attachment to the lens mounting is not practi-
cal, the vignetting attachments may be held in front
of the lens by a system of supporting rods, as shown
on page 132.
The usual iris for the Bell & Howell camera is the
Thalhammer combination iris. By its use all the
effects that are in vogue at present can be obtained,
and, unlike other apparatus made for this purpose, it
is claimed to allow the operator greater latitude in
producing visionary and masking effects by reason of
its graduated masks and unified construction. The
•3 14 -inch iris can be operated directly by hand or indi-
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The Cinema Handbook
rectly through a bevel gear and hand wheel, permit-
ting greater uniformity and precision in opening and
closing. The mounting, which consists of two hori-
zontal tubular rails, clamps directly on the regular
Bell & Howell tripod head. The Labrely iris, intro-
duced by -M. H. Schoenbaum in this country, is a
French invention which has won its laurels practically
over night. Its leaves are of a novel design that per-
mits of an even closing movement and maintains a
perfect circular opening at all times, from pinhole to
full opening.
The Mask-Box Attachment and Its Uses
One of the most important supplements to the round
closing dissolving and vignetting devices is the mask-
box attachment. This is mounted detachably to the
front thread of the round closing device. It has a
rectangular opening in exact proportion to the
picture size and can be adjusted to perfect align-
ment with the aperture of the camera. A slot
cut in the mask-box on both sides enables the
cameraman to insert masks of metal, cardboard or
colored celluloid (green or yellow) for the purpose
of making vision effects and double exposures where
it is required to cut the shape of the mask to fit the
scene for which a double exposure or vision exposure
is wanted. It will be found more advantageous to
use masks in the mask-box attachments, since they
can be cut larger and are easy to trim and easy to
adjust. For a certain kind of double exposure, where
a perfect optical plane glass plate is used in the
mask-box, arrangement can be made so that the glass
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The Cinema Handbook
in its mounting will screw in the front thread of the
mask box attachment.
The Double Exposure Device
The double exposure device is designed to produce
three different effects, all of which are essential to
the best pictures:
1st. When the control lever is operated the blades
open or close in opposite directions. If turned at
right angles it gives the effect of two sliding doors
for opening or closing a picture.
2nd. The upper blade is detached from the control
lever and fastened by means of a thumbscrew to the
base. This leaves only the lower or longer blade con-
nected to and operated by the control lever. When
operated in either direction the effect produced is
similar to the raising and lowering of a curtain in
front of a scene.
3rd. The blades may be used independently. For
this purpose the double exposure device is turned
around and used so that the blades move horizontally
towards the center. They may be set by hand to
divide the stage in two or more parts for double
exposures. This is used when one actor plays a dual
role in the same scene. The diffused division line
of the first exposure will blend with the one of the
second exposure, thus leaving no division line at all
in the finished picture. The double exposure device
is attached to the front of the mask-box attachment
by means of a clamp screw and it may be readily
removed when not needed. This method of making
double exposures is by far superior to any other
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Double exposure device which may be used in a
wide variety of ways. It is employed in making
two or more exposures on the same Him. and for
various sliding: door, rising: or falling- curtain and
other pleasing screen effects.
The Cinema Handbook
method, as the device is sufficiently far away from
the lens as to allow a larger movement and a more
exact adjustment. The aperture of the Goerz double
Typical double exposure produced with double ex-
posure device. In this case the same actor appears
twice in a given scene.
exposure device, which is shown on page 119, is
2% by 2%, and lines are engraved for the picture size
21/4 by 2%. inches.
The Square Closing Device
The square closing device is an attachment designed
to be used in a similar manner to the round closing
dissolve and vignetting device and the double ex-
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posure device. All four sides of the parallelogram
move towards the center and the rectangular shape
is preserved until the picture finally disappears. This
device is also applied to the mask-box attachment and
should be used as far as possible in front of the
lens, depending upon the aperture, which is 2% by
2% inches. This attachment can be used just for
opening or closing a scene or it can be used when
a man is walking towards or away from the camera,
in the first case opening the attachment slowly, in
the second closing the attachment slowly, always
keeping the man the same distance away from the
top and bottom lines, which when correctly staged
will give the effect as if the camera were running on
tracks and moved toward or away from the man. Some
cameramen, it would seem, could improve their pic-
tures by substituting the square closing device for
opening or closing a picture, especially such pictures
where a long road, railroad tracks or trestle work run
toward the camera, instead of the usual round closing
device. The effect of the round closing device circling
in or out, although pleasing, is not always adapted to
all kinds of pictures, and a cameraman as well as his
director, would do well to think over what kind of
devices should be used to make every scene a success.
The framing, it goes without saying, can often add to
or detract from a picture.
The dissolve and vignetting devices described are
adaptable to any camera on the market, although in
the form illustrated they are intended for the Pathe
No. 1 or Studio Model, and for the Bell & Howell.
The dissolving and vignetting devices for the Bell &
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Howell cameras are furnished only with short tubes
which fit into the standard of the Bell & Howell
vignetting attachment, lor all other cameras to
which the devices cannot be attached without altera-
Rear view of the Goerz multiple exposure device for
double exposure and trick work. This device is
clamped to the usual camera tube or accessories by
means of the collar and set screw.
tions, a charge is made only for the tube and for
the fastening device with which these attachments
can be clamped or otherwise held to the frontboard.
The Goerz Multiple Exposure Device
The new Goerz multiple exposure device has met
with wide approval ever since its introduction, espe-
cially with those cameramen who do plenty of double
exposure and trick work. The device is slightly
larger in dimensions than the regular double exposure
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or square closing device, but the back fits the mask-
box, as every Goerz device is standardized.
As will be seen in the accompanying illustration,
which shows the instrument as seen from the back,
and the next illustration which shows it from the
front side, the long lever or rod is screwed into a
pillar which has on its lower end a flange to which,
by means of two small clamp-screws, the two semi-
Front view of the Goerz multiple exposure device.
The plates, of different designs, can be readily
changed to produce different shaped openings.
circular actuating levers can be clamped indepen-
dently of each other. These two semicircular levers
are connected by means of pivoted thumbscrews to
the straight slotted pieces, which at the other end
are mounted on pivots fastened to the sliding bars,
which carry the blades on the opposite side. If a
clamp-screw on one side of the pillar flange is re-
The Cinema Handbook
leased, the long lever will actuate only one side. The
movement of' the blades is thus made independent of
each other. The stroke of the movement can be
adjusted either by setting the clamp-screw on the
pillar flange or by adjusting the pivot thumbscrew
in the slot of the straight slotted pieces.
The square opening can be rotated by hand and
One of the many different shaped openings produced
by using certain combinations of plates with the
Goerz multiple exposure device.
brought in alignment with the camera aperture when-
ever necessary. The device itself can be rotated and
clamped in position on the mask-box. In our second
illustration of this device, which is a front view, the
two sliding bars to which the blades are attached can
be seen. To one of the bars there is attached a blade
with a cutout of one-quarter the aperture, for making
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one, two, three or four exposures in each frame.
Now the blades come in a variety of different styles,
as will be noted in the illustration appearing on
this page. These blades may be readily mounted
in place on the device in order to produce any com-
bination of openings, especially with a little ingenuity
on the part of the operator. Thus two half-circle
blades can be attached opposite each other, each half-
A few of the many different sets of plates or blades
used with the Goerz multiple exposure device.
circle representing the small and the wide side of the
aperture. The square opening can be turned now so
that the half-circle blade either blocks or exposes just
one rounded corner. By rotating the whole device on
rounded corners can be either
In each case the blades can be
the mask-box, four
blocked or exposed.
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adjusted at will to limit the slide of the blade. The
double exposure can always be made to slide into the
picture gradually, not suddenly.
Then again, two blades of different shapes can be
mounted on the device, one the half-circle blade and
the other the rhomboid-shaped blade, for instance.
The resultant shape suggests a side view of a cut
diamond — a triangular base with a rounded top. Or
two rhomboid-shaped blades can be attached, one of
them in the reversed position, i.e., with its straight
edge towards the aperture. The shape thus formed
represents the outlines of a house, and is used mostly
for framing, blocking out undesirable lighting coming
in through tree tops and causing too much halation.
Either blade; however, can be dissolved separately or
together.
It is but a waste of valuable space to go on with
a description of the various combinations of blades
that can be used; but suffice it to say that with a
complete kit of blades the cameraman is never at a
loss to frame his pictures in any way he sees fit. The
blades are readily inserted and clamped by means of
the thumbscrews to their respective carriers, and
either side or both sides may be moved independently
or together as the requirements may dictate.
The blades are of steel sheet, but can also be made
of transparent colored celluloid whereby still other
effects can be gained. These celluloid blades may be
made in green, yellow, blue or white with a ground-
glass finish. The operation of the device is so simple
and positive that the cameraman can set and reset
the blades without consulting the ground glass or
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film when making double exposure or special effects.
In using the outside vignetting devices it is neces-
sary to place them a considerable distance from the
lens in order to obtain the correct degree of softness
in the outlines of the picture, thus permitting light
to enter the lens other than that which comes through
the device, if the proper extension tube is not used.
Obviously, this is undesirable if a perfectly dark
ground is wanted. To overcome this obstacle, a
square bellows that attaches directly to the rear of
the vignetting device, the other end being clamped
over the lens mount, is available when required. It
is frequently employed with the Bell & Howell outfit.
The Question of Ray Filters
With the increasing use of orthochromatic film
stock, the ray filter is fast becoming an essential item
with any equipment. By virtue of its color separat-
ing properties, beautiful cloud and landscape effects
are obtainable, and a more faithful rendering of rela-
tive color values obtains in the negative. Aside from
these features, its softening effects on the ultra-violet
rays encountered in outside work makes it a valuable
adjunct when working with strong back lighting or
glaring reflection. The densities found most suitable
to employ in order to avoid unnecessarily long expos-
ures are the Wratten Kl and K2 filters. These filters
can be obtained in the form of supplementary lens
units, which fit over the flange of the usual camera
lens. In some cases a special holder is mounted on
the lens, with the separate color filter units fitting
into said holder. These filters are also desirable for
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filming through a fine mist or haze, which is apt to
prove troublesome when no filter is used. Further-
more, there are special filters or screens now avail-
able which serve to equalize the otherwise unequal
reflective powers of the foreground and background
of a picture, so that a uniform exposure may be
obtained for both these elements.
And the All-Important Matter of Lenses
It is perhaps well here to add a few words regard-
ing lenses, for while lenses may be considered part
and parcel of the motion picture camera, there are
always additional lenses to buy for any camera when
a large variety of work is to be undertaken.
The rise of the motion picture industry has brought
up new problems, including a demand for lenses of
great speed, since the motion picture operator cannot
control the weather conditions and must usually take
his pictures just as he finds them. Owing to the
'short focal lengths which are ordinarily demanded,
the speed of f :3.5 is readily attained with fair depth
of focus. This means that the light admitted to the
film is almost double that of the f:4.5 lens used on
the fastest types of "still" cameras. Compared to
the ordinary camera lenses, the f:3.5 is five times
faster.
Owing to the short focal length of these lenses,
generally 2 inches, they have remarkable depth of
focus even at full aperture. A greater speed than
f:3.5, while attainable in some lenses and useful on
certain occasions, generally shows a considerable lack
of depth. The f:3.5 represents the highest practical
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speed for most work, and it will be found that even
f:3.5 lenses must be stopped down in good light so
as to prevent over-exposures.
Speaking from first-hand experience, the author
generally uses the Bausch & Lomb Series Ic f:3.5
lens, which he finds an excellent objective. In fact,
persuaded by the incessant lauding of German lenses
by so many cameramen, he did try a Carl Zeiss f :3.5
lens for a while, but the negatives obtained with that
German objective did not show any points of superi-
ority over the domestic lens. This generally accepted
belief in German superiority in optical goods seems
to be a hang-over from the pioneer days, when other
nations, our own included, were trying to learn the
art of making lenses. The author uses a 2-inch
B. & L. lens for general work, which is the standard
lens in the field and studio. The 1%-inch focus lens
is another standard, especially in studio work where
a wider angle must be taken in because the camera
cannot be backed far enough away from the subject
when a 2-inch lens is used. Then there is the 3-inch
lens, which gives an image half again as large as
when the 2-inch lens is employed. Finally, there are
the 6-inch and longer focus lenses which are used in
making close-ups from the same point where the scene
has been taken with the usual 2-inch or the 1%-inch
lens, and for photographing distant or inaccessible
subjects outdoors.
The author has made good use of a special French
lens of 55 mm. focus, which is approximately 2 inches,
imported and mounted for him by Mr. Maurice H.
Schoenbaum of New York City, who is a specialist in
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motion picture lenses. This lens gives remarkable
results when working in poor light. It is rated as
an f:2.5, yet possesses considerable depth of focus
when used wide open. Still another lens employed by
the author is a 6-inch Dallmeyer lens of British manu-
facture, with a rating of f : 6, which is used for making
close-ups from a distance and for photographing dis-
tant objects.
Motion picture lenses may be furnished in barrels
with iris diaphragms, in ifocusing mounts with a
lever that moves the lens in and out of its mounting,
or in special mountings fitted with a rack and pinion
jacket. By revolving the lens hood of the B. & L.
standard lens mounting the diaphragm openings are
changed and a pointer operating against a scale on
the hood of the lens indicates the opening used. The
lever on the side pushes the lenses in or out, indicat-
ing the distance on the scale around the body of the
mount.
In the rack and pinion mount we have an ideal
outfit for the man who wishes, to use two or more
lenses. The lenses set back in a double tube, the outer
one fitting the jacket by a sliding fit and the inner
one rotating so as to control the diaphragm. The
mountings also serve as lens hoods, and the dia-
phragm settings can be read off on the outer end of
the tubes.
For wide-angle effects the Tessar Ic, f:4.5, 32 mm.
(l1/^ inches) focus can be used. This lens is useful
also for fixed-focus work. It can be fitted to the
focusing mount if desired. On the standard-sized
film, the 3-inch B. & L. lens gives 20 deg., the 2-inch
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gives 29 degrees, and the l^-inch gives 44 degrees.
Another popular lens for motion picture work is
the Kino Hypar made by the Goerz American Optical
Company. The Hypar series is made in 1%-inch,
2-inch, 2% -inch, and 3-inch focus, with an effective
working aperture of F:3.5. A special Hypar lens of
F:3.5 with a focal length of 20 mm. or %-inch is
also made for special work, covering a circle of %-inch
diameter.
The Hypar belongs to the series of unsymmetrical
lenses, the lens system being composed of three single
lenses only, of which two are mounted in front of
the diaphragm, and one back of the diaphragm. The
aperture of the diaphragm of the Hypar lenses will
be found somewhat smaller than the effective aperture
of the lenses, for the reason that the front combina-
tion is a positive or converging element, bringing the
beam of light entering the front lens down to a
smaller diameter when it enters the iris diaphragm.
The second nodal point from which the focal length of
a lens is to be measured, lies about ^4 inch in front
of the diaphragm, which accounts for the short back
focus of the Hypar in comparison with other lens of
the same focal length.
Telephoto Lenses and Their Work
For telephoto work, where it is required to take
pictures at a great distance away, the author does
not recommend telephoto lenses of the kind employed
by the still photographer, for the reason that they
are too slow and give insufficient definition. He
recommends any one of the several excellent domestic
1131]
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and foreign cinematographic lenses of 6-, 7-, 8-inch or
even greater focus, working at anywhere from F:4.5
to F:6. There is the Dogmar, made by the Goerz
organization, working at F:4.5, and the Celor of the
same make with a speed from F:4.8 to F:5.5. A
lens of 8 ^4 -inch focus is often the best suitable for
long range work, giving as it does a little over four
times magnification in comparison with the regular
2-inch lens. But it is obvious that when using lenses
for long-distance filming, one must not expect a micro-
scopically sharp definition every time, because atmos-
pheric conditions, such as a slight haze or certain
light conditions invisible to the human eye, are noted
by the lens and result in a noticeable lack of defini-
tion. In fact, the use of optically corrected ray
screens is recommended when taking long-distance
views. For photographing wild life, such as birds in
their nests, the telephoto lenses will be found in-
valuable on account of one's ability to shoot the
subjects from a distance with little loss of speed.
Of late years "soft-focus" photography has come
into vogue, especially in still photography where ar-
tistic expression is desired. Motion picture photog-
raphers, wishing to emulate and even surpass the very
best work the still photographer is capable of produc-
ing, have recently turned more and more to soft-focus
photography with pleasing results on the screen. .
Soft-focus pictures possess a softness which can never
be obtained when using standard lenses with their
needle-sharp detail, except by some uncertain im-
provision such as photographing through muslin.
It was with the desire to meet the demands of
l
The Cinema Handbook
Sample strip of positive film
made with soft-focus lens.
motion picture
cameramen for
soft - focus lenses
that the Wollensak
Optical Company
of Rochester, N. Y.,
recently began to
make their Verito
lens in special fo-
cal lengths of 3-
inch and shorter.
Today a considera-
ble number of mo-
tion picture cam-
eramen are using
Verito lenses of
2-inch and 3-inch
focus, with speeds
of F:4 to F:6.
The soft - focus
lenses are used
largely in making
close-ups, where an
idealistic treat-
ment is desired.
Lenses of this type
render an atmos-
pheric quality that
is beautiful in the
extreme, especially
when accompanied
by well worked out
The Cinema Handbook
lighting effects. They are also suitable where a pic-
torial quality is desired in a landscape. Indeed, it is
said of soft-focus photography that a tenement house
may be made to possess all the charm of a French
chateau! Even the most commonplace things take
on a new and beautiful aspect when reproduced in
soft focus.
An advantage of the Verito motion picture lenses
are their convertibility. It is possible to use either
the double combination or the rear lens alone, which
has a focal length of about twice that of the doublet.
Aids to Focusing
The selection of a suitable focusing device for the
cinematographic camera is a very important consider-
ation. In fact, some cameramen fail to produce good
pictures because they are not working with a satis-
factory focusing device.
Something has already been said regarding the
standard types of focusing mounts which are gener-
ally supplied with cameras. However, where careful
work is to be done, it is well to give due consideration
to the micrometer mounts Chat are special equipment.
One of the most popular of these micrometer mounts
is that made by the Goerz organization, which comes
in two models. The Model A is a small mount to
which only one lens can be fitted, while the Model B
is larger and takes a series of lenses interchangeably,
each lens being fitted to a separate lens tube which
is screwed into the main focus barrel. Both Goerz
micrometer mounts have the same design, the differ-
ence being in the diameter of the main focusing bar-
[135]
Goerz micrometer mount for lenses, which permits
of extremely delicate yet positive focusing where
the greatest care is called for.
The Cinema Handbook
rel. This main focusing barrel consists of three
tubes: the indicator tube, the micrometer tube, and
the barrel. The thread of the micrometer tube is of
the triple thread type, having 1 mm. pitch or 24
threads to the inch. One revolution of this tube is
equal to %th inch. The model A mount allows three
complete revolutions or %th inch; the model B, on:
the other hand, allows five complete revolutions or
%th inch.
The indicator tube of either mount, which is con-
nected with the micrometer tube, is divided into fif-
teen parts and each revolution is marked by cross
lines on the barrel. These fifteen engraved lines do
not indicate any focusing scale at all. They are
simply equally spaced lines. Their purpose is to en-
able the operator to place his lens repeatedly at
exactly the same position. Now, in case the camera-
man has three lenses to be fitted in the Model B mount,
and as each lens requires a different displacement for
the same distance between camera and object, this
method of dividing the tube in equal spaces offers a
ready means of setting up a tabulation of the dis-
tances required for the various lenses.
These tables are made as follows: The camera is-
set up and focused at a point far away with a 2-inch
lens and focused through the focusing tube of the
camera. Upon turning the mount back and forth until
the acme of sharpness is obtained, the reading of the
indicator is noted and recorded. The same is done
for a certain set of lesser distances, say 4, 6, 7, 9, 12,,
15, 18 and 21 feet. The same procedure is followed
when using the 3-inch and 6-inch lenses.
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While all the standard makes of cameras of the
better kind are provided with magnifying focusing
devices as an integral part of the mechanism, there
is occasionally a call for something better where the
most accurate kind of work is desired. Therefore
the Goerz organization has developed a new focusing
microscope built along the lines of a short telescope,
giving six to eight times magnification, right side up,
and covering the full picture size. Its adjustable
ocular carries a fine cross-wire, which lies in the plane
of the picture image and serves to facilitate focusing
on this plane for eyes of different strength. The
focusing microscope consists of several sliding tubes
which carry the objectives and the ocular. The ocular
is fitted with an indicator tube which is turned to
the right or left till the sharpness of the crosshairs
is obtained dependent on the eye of the observer.
•This position can be read on the engraved tube of the
ocular and the operator must bring the ocular always
into this position when the microscope is used, no
matter whether the object focused on is near or far.
CHAPTER IV.
THE OPERATION AND CAEE OF
THE MOTION PICTURE CAMERA
THE difference between good camera work and
poor camera work is not so much a matter of
possessing an excellent outfit as it is a matter of
knowing how to use any outfit properly. Carelessness
in little details makes for poor results, no matter
how excellent the outfit employed may be. From start
to finish the cameraman should always exercise the
maximum care, not only in order to turn out good
work, but in order not to jeopardize the subjects
which he is filming; for if a film turns out poorly,
all the work that went to produce the scene being
filmed has been wasted.
Negative Film and the Magazines
The first step in discussing camera work is to men-
tion the negative film. This film is several times
faster than the positive film on which the prints are
made from the finished negative, and great care should
be exercised in handling it until development in order
to avoid fogging its super-sensitive emulsion. In
fact, so sensitive is its emulsion that negative film
ages rapidly and becomes fogged even if kept in light-
tight containers. For that reason it is preferable
to buy film in such quantities as will ensure its rapid
consumption, except where large quantities have to
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be carried in stock, such as during long voyages to
distant lands where film cannot be obtained on short
notice.
Film comes both perforated and unperforated. The
large producing companies generally prefer to buy
their film raw stock unperforated, so that they may
do their own perforating. In this manner they have
a definite control over the accuracy of the perfora-
tions, so they claim. For the amateur user, however,
the perforated film should be used, since a perforating
machine represents a heavy outlay and there is vir-
tually nothing gained in doing one's own perforating
on anything but a vast scale.
Of negative stock, there are several different makes.
The negative produced by the Eastman Kodak Com-
pany is the standard in the United States and in most
other countries. The author has employed Eastman
to a greater extent than any other negative stock,
and has found it by far the most rapid and certainly
the most constant. Eastman is a safe standard for
all cameramen, although there is perhaps no harm in
trying the other brands now on the market. There is
a Belgian negative stock, the Gevaert, which is also
good, but not as fast as Eastman. This means that
due allowance must be made for the difference in the
speeds of the emulsions when using slower film, and
some experience or tests are required to accomplish
this satisfactorily. Then there is the Pathe negative,
which the author has employed to good advantage.
Pathe negative is about as fast as Eastman and pro-
duces excellent negatives. In normal times there is
a German negative film, the Agfa, which is worth
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trying. Since there has not been any Agfa negative
on the American market for so many years, it is im-
possible to state at this writing just how the German
product now beginning to arrive compares with
others.
At any rate, negative film should be selected with
care, and the few cents per hundred feet that may
be saved on one brand over another should not induce
the cameraman to choose a cheaper brand, unless he
is certain, through long experience, that said cheaper
brand will produce satisfactory results. There is
generally too much at stake in filming operations to
take a chance on doubtful negative.
Eastman film comes in two varieties, the plain film
and the X-back. The plain film is used under normal
circumstances, while the X-back is used during ex-
tremely cold weather, when there is danger of static.
Static, as mentioned in the previous chapter, is fric-
tional electricity generated during the operation of
a camera in extreme cold and dry weather. It makes
known its presence by marking negatives with fine,
tree-like or lightning-like markings which cannot be
eliminated. Bad cases of static ruin a negative be-
yond recovery, since whatever is on the negative is
certain to print on the positive and hence get on the
screen. The X-back film prevents static to a great
extent, being coated on its celluloid side with a cer-
tain preparation that lessens the dielectric properties
of the film. This preparation, on the other hand, does
not interfere with the use of the film in any way,
and washes off during development. The amateur
cameraman should ask for X-back negative whenever
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the weather is extremely cold and dry; in fact, it i&
best to use it throughout the late fall, winter, and
early spring, as a precaution.
Eastman film comes in 200-foot and 400-foot lengths.
The cameraman who uses a camera with 200-foot
magazines should make sure that he buys his film
in 200-foot rather than 400-foot lengths, for otherwise
he will be obliged to rewind the film into two 200-foot
rolls, and this entails considerable work, not to men-
tion the danger of fogging or marring the delicate
negative. In the case of Eastman X-back, the film
does not come in even 200-foot or 400-foot lengths.
It comes in odd lengths, such as 179 feet, 183 feet,
189 feet, and so on. However, the cameraman can use
any of these lengths if he but exercise proper care
in setting the footage indicator on his camera after
the film has been loaded, so that he does not run out
of film in the middle of a scene towards' the end of
the roll.
The film being at hand, the next step is to load the
camera magazines. These devices, as previously men-
tioned, make possible the daylight loading of the
camera. But the magazines have to be loaded in the
dark, to be sure, just as in the case of plate-holders;
but once loaded the magazines may be placed in and
taken out of the camera in broad daylight.
Different makes of cameras have different kinds of
magazines, as we learned in the previous chapter. How-
ever, the author shall attempt in this chapter to make
the instructions as broad as possible so that they may
apply to all makes of cameras, especially if the camera-
man has the special instructions that go with what-
The Cinema Handbook
ever particular make of camera he happens to be
using.
The magazines should always be kept in the best
condition possible. In some cases the magazines are
provided with velvet or felt light-traps or pads, which
are apt to accumulate dust in the course of protracted
use. It is well to examine these light-traps at fre-
quent intervals, and to brush them off with a soft *
brush. Small bits of film sometimes become imbedded
in the hairy material, and if they are not brushed
off they tend to scratch the negative. If the pads
show signs of wear, and there is danger of their leak-
ing light, it is best to discard them and use new pads.
In some makes of cameras, the Universal in particu-
lar, the pads may be readily renewed at frequent
intervals. Other cameras, such as the Bell & Howell,
Wilart and others, have special automatic light traps
that are only closed while the magazine is being
handled, but open wide when the camera case is closed
and the camera is ready for action. Obviously, such
magazines require the minimum of attention, having
no wear and tear to speak of.
The magazines should be thoroughly brushed out to
make sure that they contain no dust to mark the film.
If the magazines have spindles, these should be tested
to see that they turn freely. The loading of the maga-
zines should be done in a dark room, if possible, with
only the aid of a ruby light. The emulsion is so sensi-
tive that even ruby light is apt to fog it if the light
is too strong. Whenever possible the cameraman
should Toad the magazines in pitch blackness, depend-
ing on his sense of touch rather than sight.
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Some magazines take the negative roll as it is,
wooden spool and all. These magazines have a shaft
that holds the usual wooden spool that comes with the
roll of film, and rewinding is therefore unnecessary.
This is an advantage, to be sure ; for every additional
handling of the film entails that much more risk of
fogging.
Some camera magazines require the rewinding of
the film on special metal spools', and this work should
be done in a safe dark room with as little red light
as may be necessary. Once the negative roll is in the
magazine, care should be exercised to make certain
that the film is firmly in place and protrudes through
the slot. The end of the film is turned back and
placed in the slot, so as to form a loop. This prevents
the end of the film from being accidentally rolled back
into the magazine.
Now a darkroom is not absolutely necessary for
the loading of magazines. The author has occasion-
ally resorted to a heavy blanket when loading maga-
zines at night, thus avoiding the trouble of having to
set up a safe darkroom. Again, the cameraman can
make use of a changing bag, which is a contraption of
light-proof fabric provided with two sleeves into
which the cameraman can thrust his hands and open
film cans and magazines inside the bag without danger
of fogging the film, even in bright sunlight. A chang-
ing bag is a very necessary part of the cameraman's
equipment, for it enables him to load and unload
magazines in the field, and to make any necessary ad-
justments in a magazine that develops trouble during
filming operations.
The Cinema Handbook
Preparing for the Day's Work
The camera should be kept in first-class running
order. It should be frequently examined, cleaned and
oiled where necessary. It is a delicate piece of
mechanism and requires all the care that any auto-
mobile, sewing machine or other elaborate mechanism
requires. When preparing for a day's work the
cameraman will do well to go over his camera, thread-
ing it with a short length of waste film which should
always be available for such tests and adjustments.
The instructions that come with the various makes
of camera tell just where oil should be applied, in
order* that no oil may get on the film-bearing members
and thus ruin the negative.
After examining and oiling the camera, the camera-
man should get his outfit together and ready for the
day's work. It is a fact that unless care and thought
are exercised, the cameraman gets out to his work
with part of his equipment missing. Thus he may be
ready to film his subject and discover that he has not
brought along the tripod handles, without which he
is more or less helpless. Again, he may even forget
the camera crank, unless it is a camera that has the
camera crank hinged to the mechanism so that it
cannot be removed. In this respect the author can-
not help but praise the Universal camera, because
the finder, crank handle, ground film and so on are
placed inside the camera case.
At any rate, the cameraman should make sure that
he has all the necessary equipment together before he
starts out. While it is true that a carrying case adds
1 1481
The Cinema Handbook
a great deal to the weight of the outfit, it serves to
save the camera from bad knocks and also keeps the
whole outfit together. Most cameras can be supplied
witfr suitable carrying cases which take the camera,
extra magazines, extra lenses, crank handles, acces-
sories and so on, in one or more cases. If the camera-
inan is not using cases, he had best make up a list
of t'he things required on any job, and before starting
out on the day's work check off this list to make sure
that everything is being carried along.
One word of caution: If the camera is of the
Universal type or any make that takes the film on the
original film spool, it is well always to have a supply
of wooden spools on hand. The author was filming
a social film not so long ago and experienced trouble.
The bottom magazine did not take up, with the result
that the film piled up in the camera case and became
torn by the sprockets. An examination of the bottom
magazine and take-up showed that the mechanism
was functioning properly. Yet three times this same
difficulty developed, each time causing much embar-
rassment since twenty or more persons were wonder-
ing why each effort to film such a simple scene should
prove futile. Finally, the author discovered the
trouble. The wooden spool used in the bottom maga-
zine was worn out; that is to say, the hole through
its center had been scraped out by the action of the
magazine spindle, and the tiny prongs on the spindle
were not engaging with the wooden sides of the en-
larged hole. So the spindle was turning, but the
wooden spool was not; hence the film was not being
taken up. So this word of caution: always carry
T/ic ( 'I
Ihunlbuok,
extra wooden spools and make sure \\v.\\. the take-up
upool used lirnilv eni^i^es wilh the spindle,
Threading the Camera
DHVerent e;uner;is ;ue Ilireaded in dilTer<Mlt
lull, the prineiple is always the same. The ma^a/i
I IK- :iu( h«»i-'s I iu\< is.il I.MMI i a .UK! iK'ccssoru-s in
rln- <.irr>iiii: « :is<\ Nolo (he «'\(r:i IM:I»;:I/.IIH'S :it
Irll. and (i.niU-.. (»-inrli lens ami <-\ posurt- iiH-l<>r
in loi ri;i oiimi.
are plaeed in position, with the empty inaira/ine in
the take up position and the loaded ma^a/ine at. the
top or feeding position. Se\«-rai iVei of negative! de-
[ ISO ]
77/r C'unnnt Handbook
pending on the make of camera, is pulled out of the
loaded maga/inc for 1 li rca( 1 i ng purposes. The nega-
tive is threaded through Ihr various sprockets and
idlers, with ample loops left at top and bottom. The
loops should be of such a si/.e that they do not Map
ngainst the sides of the camera, yet are of s dlicient
length to allow free movement. Tin- lilni should be
placed in the ga 1 e with care, so that, it, is not pinched
when the gate is closed. The lower or take up maga-
zine is then opened and the end of the film is folded
back about one <|ii:ir!er of an inch to make a crease
transversely across the film, this little bond being used
to lit into Hie slot in the lilm spool. Then, turning
the spool once or twice, the lilm is certain to make,
a linn connection with the spool. Some spools have
a clip arrangement for receiving t lie end of the lilm,
in which case the plain straight end is inserted. With
everything in place, the crank handle is engaged with
the cranking shaft and given two or three turns
while the camera case is left, open, in order to make
eel-tain that, the lilm is properly threaded and every
thing is working satisfactorily. Then the camera,
case is closed and the camera is ready for action.
The footage indicator should always be set, with
regard to the lilm in the inaga/ine. Tims if the lilm
is of the standard length, the camera footage indicator
can be set at f> feet, which represents the amount,
more or less, used in threading. Thus if the film is
400 feet long, and the footage indicator records up
to 400 feet, the indicator needle is set at 5 feet and
everything is in readiness. If, on the other hand,
the film is 186 feet long, the indicator is placed ;it
r tr,t i
The Cinema Handbook
5 and the cameraman must remember that the film
will run out at 186 feet. Better still, the indicator
can be placed at 219, which makes allowance for the
5 feet of threading, and the cameraman then need not
worry about calculations, knowing that the film will
run out when the indicator swings around to 400 feet.
Some footage dials have two pointers or indicators,
one indicating the footage passed through the camera,
and the other remaining in whatever position it is
placed. The object of the second pointer is to indicate
the beginning of a scene, so that a footage reading
can be had for the scene as well as for the total. In
the case of the Universal camera the dial itself re-
volves to indicate the total footage opposite a mark
on the stationary ring that frames the indicator
dial, while a stationary pointer can be set to zero
before each scene. In this manner the total footage
is indicated as well as the footage for the last scene.
Each time, of course, the stationary indicator must
be moved up to zero on the dial.
The setting of the footage indicator is important,
for there is nothing more annoying than to run out
of film in the middle of an important scene. If there
is any doubt about the length of negative being placed
in a magazine, the footage indicator better be set
with plenty of film to spare, rather than too short.
Setting Up Preparatory to Shooting
Arriving on the scene of the filming operations, the
motion picture apparatus should be prepared for ac-
tion. This is known as setting up. The cameraman
should select the best possible position for his camera,
The Cinema Handbook
being guided by the light, subject, action and other
considerations. The tripod should be opened up and
set on the ground, with the legs at the required
height. Just how high to make the tripod is a matter
which circumstances and experience dictate. The
author finds that the average tripod is of about the
proper height for the general run, of subjects, without
extending the legs. However, if children or other
subjects close to the ground are to be filmed, the
tripod should be spread out so that it will be lower;
and if close-ups of adults are to be made, the tripod
legs should be extended and the camera placed rather
high, on a level with the neck of the subjects. If the
camera is placed too low in the filming of adults, the
adults appear unduly tall and consequently unnatural
on the screen.
It is well always to have the tripod legs spread
out to an angle of at least 60 degrees with relation
to the horizontal. If the legs are not spread out to
any extent, the camera is not afforded a solid foun-
dation on which to operate. It is better to pay out
some of the extension legs and to have the legs spread
apart. In places where the ground or other founda-
tion for the tripod is irregular, some ingenuity is
required to set the tripod legs. In such cases the
three legs need not be extended to a common length,
but it is well to make sure that each tripod tip
makes a solid contact with the -ground on which it
stands. The usual tripod tips are of sharpened steel,
so that they will not slip. However, when working
on smooth pavements there is some danger of slip-
page. Needless to say, if the tripod slips during
[ 153 ]
The Cinema Handbook
filming, the scene may be ruined because of the
sudden jump and shifting of the picture. When
working on smooth surfaces, such as sidewalks, the
tripod tips should be placed in cracks whenever pos-
sible, or even in corners. When working on very
smooth surfaces, such as tiled floors, it is sometimes
impossible to obtain a secure footing, so to speak,
for the camera, in which event the cameraman should
obtain a large square of wood on which to place his
tripod. In many studios the cameramen make use
of triangular wooden frames for holding the tripod.
Again, some cameramen use straps or wires between
the legs of their tripod so that the legs will not slip
away from each other.
After the tripod has been set up with the head
perfectly level and straight, the cameraman should
apply his full weight on it to make sure that the
tripod is steady. The camera is then placed on the
tripod stand and screwed tightly in place. The
knack of screwing the camera in place is one to be
acquired, especially where the cameraman must work
fast, such as in news work. The author generally
settles this phase of the multitudinous operations
of filming, by placing his Universal camera on the
stand and, holding it in one hand, by tilting it over
to one side while pushing up the wing nut of the
tripod screw with the other hand. The screw hole
at the bottom of the camera can then be seen in
bright light, as well as the relative position of the
screw protruding up through the tripod stand. The
camera is then shifted slightly one way or the other,
until the screw hole comes in position over the screw,
[1551
The Cinema Handbook
the latter being then driven home. In mounting the
camera, the worm box of the tripod should be at the
rear of the camera. The position of the legs with
relation to the camera is of little importance, but the
author generally prefers to have one leg straight
ahead of the camera, and the remaining two on either
side of him.
Determining the Exact Focus
Focus is always an important step in making
photographs of any kind, for improper focus makes
all the difference between a sharp photograph and a
blurred one. There are two ways of focusing with
the general run of cameras, namely, the guess-focus
and the exact-focus. In the case of the guess-focus,
the lens, which is generally provided with a distance
scale, is adjusted so that the scale indicates the
approximate number of feet that the subject is from
the lens. Because of the small focal length of the
usual motion picture lens, there is little danger of
blurred images when using the guess-focus method,
although for extremely accurate work it pays to take /
the time and trouble of focusing by means of the /
peep hole or focusing door. Some cameramen carry
long tape measures on their tripods, and use them
in scaling off distances up to 25 feet in order to sell
their lenses with great precision. But with a little
practice one soon becomes competent to estimate dis-
tances within a fair degree of accuracy.
The precise method of focusing is to focus on the
negative film itself or on a piece of ground film or
ground glass. Different cameras have different
The Cinema Handbook
methods of focusing, as we have learned in the pre-
vious chapter. Some cameras are provided with
matched finder and photographing lenses, simplifying
this process. With the less elaborate cameras, how-
ever, focusing may be accomplished right on the
yellow negative film by looking through the peep
hole or focusing door. The image is then seen just
as it will actually register on the film, upside down,
and sufficiently magnified by the magnifying lens
of the focusing arrangement so as to facilitate sharp
focusing. If, upon looking through the peep hole or
focusing door, the image does not show on the film,
the crank handle is given a slight turn so as to turn
the shutter, thus bringing the light from the lens
to the film. If the image is too dark, the lens should
"be opened by turning the iris diaphragm control. It
is generally best to focus with the lens wide open,
thus obtaining the maximum illumination.
The yellow film is, of course, a poor medium on
which to focus. When the light is rather dull it is
often difficult to see the image with sufficient clear-
ness to make an accurate adjustment. Therefore,
where careful work is being undertaken, it is gener-
ally advisable to insert a piece of ground film in the
film gate. Ground film is nothing more than a piece
of standard film or a piece of somewhat heavier
celluloid, which has been treated in such a way as
to give it a frosted or translucent finish on one sur-
face. The author has made ground film from ordi-
nary film by first removing the emulsion with warm
water, arid then rubbing the plain celluloid with steel
wool and even with scouring powder or pumice. The
The Cinema Handbook
insertion of the ground glass or film naturally means,
in many instances, that the camera must be opened,
thus causing the loss of whatever film happens to
be threaded and outside the magazines. The regular
film is removed from the gate and the ground glass
or ground film put in its place, after which the
Cameraman focuses carefully on same. The ground
13 14 15
Masks used with the Universal camera and which
are typical of those employed with most cameras
for various effects.
or dull side of the glass or film should face towards
the lens. The focusing being accomplished, the ground
glass or film is removed, the negative put back in the
film gate, and the camera closed. The crank is given
several turns in order to make sure that the light-
struck film has been wound into the take-up magazine
and fresh film is in position for recording the scene.
[159]
The Cinema Handbook
Speaking of the depth of focus of the usual motion
picture lens, it may be of value to refer to the accom-
panying table, which indicates that if a lens is
focused on objects at the distances indicated, every-
thing is supposed to be sharp from one-half that
•distance to infinity. This is known as the hyperfocal
•distance, and applies to the usual 2-inch lens :
F:1.9 70 feet
F:3.5 40 feet
F:4.5 30 feet
F:5.6 24 feet
F:6.3 22 feet
F:8 18 feet
F:16 10 feet
The focus being determined for the scene, the next
step is the exposure. The amount of exposure is, of
^ -course, regulated by the lens opening or diaphragm
reading. It is impossible to give any general rule gov-
erning the correct exposure. Experience is the best
teacher. A beginner should make a few tests under
different conditions of illumination, so that he can
judge by comparison. The changeable iris of the
human eye makes this organ very unreliable in judg-
ing different degrees of illumination. A source of
light which appears to be one-half as bright as an-
other is apt to be only one-quarter or even less. For
this reason, the beginner is liable to overexpose in
good illumination and underexpose in poor illumina-
tion. Fortunately, there is considerable latitude in
motion picture negative, so that a little variation
from the correct exposure will not spoil the picture.
[160]
The Cinema Handbook
In general, it is better to overexpose than to under-
expose.
There is another factor in motion picture exposure,
aside from the diaphragm opening, and that is the
shutter. The shutter, as we have already learned, is
a revolving affair with an adjustable degree of open-
ing. The opening in the shutter is usually adjusted
to suit the speed of the moving object. For an object
in slow motion the shutter may be left wide open,
while for rapid motion it is better to set it at one-
quarter open. Three-eighths open is a good working
average. Any movement which produces a blurred
picture with the shutter set at one-quarter open (one-
eixty- fourth of a second) must necessarily be suffi-
ciently rapid to appear blurred to the eye. For this
reason it is seldom necessary in ordinary work to
close the shutter more than one-quarter.
Obtaining the Proper Exposure
Fortunately, there are several exposure meters
which may be used by the amateur in determining the
correct exposure for any subject withou guesswork
and without months and even years of experience. It
is true that after considerable experience one becomes
quite competent to guess at the exposure required for
any given light and subject, but that requires time
and thousands of feet of film taken under all kinds of
conditions.
There is no handier form of motion picture ex-
posure meter than the Harvey meter, which shows
the shutter setting or angle of opening instead of
fractions of a second as in the meters not intended
[1611
HARVEY
MOTION-PICTURE
1!- OH THC ».«.C"«»« CO«T«I«II«« T«.« 11*1
»00« »I««C«T CITY OH COU«T«»0» C»T
VNO» THE Nt*0'NGS SU«"«C«
FCRENT CLASSES OF SUBJECTS
YOUR SUBJECT.
THE. CORRECT STOP TO BE USED
FOR ANY SHUTTER ANCLE is GIVEN
ERTICALLV ABOVE THC SHUTTER
ANGLE YOU ARE USING.
FOR ANGLES THAT SHOW ON THC
ERTICAL BLACK LINES. SET STOP
ONE-HALF WAV BETWEEN THE AOJA-
i i i i ret i i !
Front and back views of the Harvey exposure meter. Tl
meter gives the correct lens aperture for all classes of outdo
subjects and lighting:.
The Cinema Handbook
primarily for motion picture work, and which gives
automatically the proper stop to be used for any
lens. No calculations whatever are required. How-
ever, the Harvey Exposure Meter, like all devices of
this general character, is only intended for outdoor
exposures, and when it comes to interiors with arti-
ficial light, the cameraman must fall back on tests
and experience.
The Harvey Exposure Meter is shown in the two
accompanying illustrations, which depict its two
faces. It is made of celluloid, and has two sliding
members contained within the outer case or envelope.
One slide takes care of the time of the year and local-
ity, while the other regulates the strength of the light.
Thus if pictures are being taken in New York, during
the summer, the first slide is moved so that its indi-
cator points to New York in the summer column. The
second slide is then moved up or down until the con-
dition of the light, whether it is intense sun, bright
sun, faint sun, bright cloudy, dull cloudy or very dull
cloudy, appears opposite the cranking speed. Two
turns per second is the normal exposure or cranking
speed. Then the exposure meter is turned over, and
on the opposite side appear the various classifications
of subjects. There are "View of sea or open water
only, or clouds only; snow only, glaciers, airplanes
in flight; snow with dark, small objects, boat away
from dock, pictures on boats, distant landscapes,
beach subjects; people in open, lahdscapes with near
subjects, races, docks, white buildings without heavy
shadows," etc., all as indicated in one of the illus-
trations. By determining the classification of the
The Cinema Handbook
subject to be filmed, one finds immediately the shut-
ter settings for the different diaphragm openings, as
shown.
When cranking at the normal speed, two turns per
second, which exposes sixteen pictures per second, the
shutter angles shown below give the exposures indi-
cated in seconds.
Shutter 1/2 open =180 deg. = 1/32 second
Shutter 3/8 open = 135 deg. = 1/48 second
Shutter 1/4 open = 90 deg. = 1/64 second
Cranking at iy2 turns per second:
1/2 open — 1/24 second
3/8 open — 1/36 second
1/4 open = 1/48 seconh.
Cranking at 1 turn per second, or 8 pictures per sec-
ond, often used for still subjects:
1/2 open = 1/16 second
3/8 open — 1/24 second
1/4 open = 1/32 second
These figures are rather complex, but it is not neces-
sary to remember them when using the Harvey Ex-
posure Meter.
If the sun is directly behind the cameraman's back,
he will obtain what is known as flat lighting, as the
shadows will be cast straight behind the subject. It
is better with any camera to expose with the light
coming at an angle of 45 deg. on the subject — more
as though it came over either hand when extended
from the cameraman; the shadows will then be
The Cinema Handbook
clearly seen and the objects will then stand out in
greater relief. Portraits are best when the subject
is in the shade or on cloudy days. In fact, some of
the best films are made when the light is diffused,
such as in the shade or on bright cloudy days. How-
ever, whether to use intense shadows or diffused
lighting is a matter to be determined according to
the subject filmed.
Highly artistic effects are obtained by photograph-
ing against the sun, securing what is known as back
lighting. In this case the camera lens should be
provided with a lens hood, so that the sun light does
not strike the glass of the lens, causing halation.
Indeed, a hood on the lens is good practice at all
times for any camera. In photographing against the
source of light, it is necessary to use the next larger
stop than the meter calls for. Sometimes a white
sheet or metal reflector must be used in order to
illuminate the face of the subject by throwing back
some of the sun light.
Clouds and distant landscapes, especially the Grand"
Canyon, snow pictures, yellow or red and most sub-
jects photograph best when a color screen or ray filter
is used. A 2- or 3-times filter is best for outdoor
work. When using such filters, due allowance must
be made for the cutting down of the actinic light.
Thus with a 2-times filter, the next larger stop
should be used, with the 3-times use 1% larger stop,
with 4-times filter use second larger stop, and with
5-times filter use 2^ larger stop.
The Harvey Exposure Meter for motion picture
cameras only should be part and parcel of the ama-
The Cinema Handbook
eur cinematographer's kit. It eliminates all guess-
work and may be the means of saving much film
botage in the long run. There are other exposure
neters, true, but these are generally designed for
still photography only, and their application to
notion pictures calls for considerable calculations
ind allowances, therefore complicating their opera-
ion. At best, they are only improvisions when con-
sidered from the motion picture standpoint.
The Gentle Art of Even Cranking
If the exposure of motion pictures depends on the
liaphragm opening and the shutter setting, it also
lepends on even cranking. In fact, one of the pre-
iminaries to successful filming is to gain proficiency
n cranking the camera. The beginner will do well
to put waste film or "dummy" film in his camera
ind try cranking it. Some cameras are provided
tvith a nice mechanism that is almost automatic in
so far as the smoothness of cranking is concerned.
Fhat is to say, the mechanism is so nicely balanced
ind provided with flywheel momentum that the crank-
ing is bound to be smooth. Others grind somewhat
hard, and the operator must supply the even crank-
ing himself.
The proper way to crank is to have the elbow
remain stationary and on a line with the center of
the crank, while the forearm and hand turn about
with the handle. The "piston rod" manner of crank-
ing, in which the cameraman stands at the rear of
the camera (we are now speaking of cameras with
crank on the side) and turns the crank with a
The Cinema Handbook "
reciprocating movement of the entire arm, cannot be
condemned too strongly. Uniform movement is more
essential than the exact number of revolutions per
second. Each revolution of the crank produces eight
-pictures. The normal speed is two revolutions per
.-second, or 120 revolutions per minute. With a little
practice anyone can readily acquire the proper speed
\\vithin small variations.
In shooting a scene it is good practice to start
•-cranking before the actual scene begins, just so
as to get the cranking up to speed and to make sure
that unexposed film is in position for -recording the
action. Two or three turns will serve in this con-
nection. It is understood that the cameraman has
carefully aimed or set his camera before beginning
the filming operation, making sure that it will take
in all the desired action.
Settling the Field of Action
This matter of aiming the camera, so to speak,
is worthy of considerable thought if the best pictures
are desired. In the case of children or other subjects
that are apt to run around a good deal and even get
beyond the range of the camera at unexpected mo-
ments, the cameraman is obliged to use a larger
field of action. That is to say, he must place his
camera some distance away from the subject, in order
to provide a larger stage for his subjects; otherwise,
he would have trouble in keeping his subjects within
range if they should move one way or another. Where
there is plenty of action of an uncertain kind, such
as athletics, animal studies and so on, it is well to
The Cinema Handbook
have a large stage, otherwise the cameraman may
find to his keen disappointment that part of the
action has been out of bounds and therefore cut off.
The author, in much of his careful filming opera-
lions for the leading- motion picture "magazines,"
lias generally rehearsed each scene while looking
through the finder, in order to make sure that all
the action would come within the field of the camera.
Of course, the close-up, or small field of action, is
always the most desirable form, but the field is then
;so limited that the subject is apt to go out of bounds
without realizing it. It is very difficult to keep
•within a space of five feet or less in width. By re-
hearsing a scene this can be avoided, since the subject
then knows how much space is available for the ac-
tion— the boundaries of the stage, in other words.
In making an athletic picture the author ran across
a case in point. He did not allow for sufficient over-
head space, desiring a close-up of his subjects. So,
when the film came to be developed and printed, he
discovered to his keen disappointment — and loss —
that each time one of the athletes threw his com-
panion over his back, said companion went out of
the picture. If that scene had been rehearsed while
the cameraman viewed it through the finder, or even
the peephole for the sake of greater accuracy, this
failure would have been noted and the camera moved
far enough back to allow for more "ceiling," if we may
borrow a good aeronautical term.
Of course, the tripod head, being equipped with
the tilt and panoramic movements, may be used in
shifting the field of action and following any subject
The Cinema Handbook
in movement. As a rule, however, the use of these
movements is not to be encouraged, except for taking
relatively slow-moving subjects and panoramic views
of still subjects, It is not the easiest thing in the
world to follow some rapidly moving object with the
usual motion picture camera. The tilting and pano-
ramic movements have to be cranked while the
camera is being cranked, and these dual functions
are often confusing when executed at the same time.
In the case of a panoramic or a tilting scene, it
is well to rehearse the action if possible before actual
shooting. Thus if some still or moving object is to
be filmed, the camera can be turned or tilted while
looking through the finder, in order to make sure
that the desired range will be obtained.
Perhaps these precautions are too fussy — perhaps;
but film costs money; subjects cost money in many
cases; and failures might as well be avoided when-
ever possible. In cases wherein the subjects are news,
wild-life or other features that must be photographed
on the spur of the moment, without control of any
kind over them, then the panoramic and tilting move-
ments can be brought into play without preparation.
The only word of advice, in that case, is to have the
head of the tripod perfectly level, so that the tilt
or panoram will be straight in its entirety.
In making a panoramic view with the motion pic-
ture camera it is good practice to have an assistant
turn the crank, so as to ensure smoothness. In this
manner the cameraman can turn the camera crank
at the usual speed for the proper exposures, while the
assistant, at his command, starts the panoramic
The Cinema Handbook
movement, goes at any speed desired, and stops when
so told.
The end of each scene should be indicated on the
film by means of the film punching or clipping de-
vice. Practically all the better makes of cameras
have a device that either punches a hole in the film,
or clips a small piece out of the edge. Such marks
assist the laboratory hands in determining where
scenes start and end.
The Adjustable Aperture
The aperture of most motion picture cameras may
be set to any position to correspond to films out of
register with the standards. It is also convenient for
title work. The usual position for the picture on the
film is on a line halfway between the perforations.
By some simple adjustment the mechanism of most
cameras may be shifted so as to change the relative
positions of the picture and perforations.
Practically all cameras are provided with a trick
movement or single-picture movement. When the
crank is engaged with that movement, each turn
only exposes one frame. All manner of trick pictures
and animated cartoon films may be made with this
movement, as described elsewhere.
In the matter of lenses, much was said in the last
chapter. The cameraman should choose whatever
lens he requires for a given scene, if he has a
variety of lenses. It is true that the standard 2-inch
lens can be used for practically the entire run of
regular work, but it is an advantage to have other
lenses, such as a l%th-inch, a 3-inch and a 6-inch.
The Cinema Handbook
The 1%-inch lens comes in very nicely for work in
confined quarters, where the camera cannot be backed
up far enough to cover the desired field of action
with the usual 2-inch lens. The 3-inch lens can be
used where a larger image than that produced by
the 2-inch lens is desired at the same distance, and
the 6-inch lens is used for the same purpose, pro-
ducing an image three times as large as the 2-inch
lens at the same distance. It is employed in making
close-ups from the same point as the one used in
making the long shots with the 2-inch lens Thus
the camera does not have to be shifted, and perfect
continuity is secured in going from the long shot to
close-ups and back to long shots. The amateur
cinematographer will also find the 6-inch lens of
great value in filming wild life, children, news events,
and so on.
The Use of Masks and Vignettes
For straight work, the camera is used just as it is,
registering sixteen rectangular pictures or frames
to the running foot of film. If the shape of the pic-
tures or frames is to be changed, then a mask is
employed. Various shaped masks can be obtained
with all the better makes of cameras. These masks
come in such shapes as a circle, an oval, a keyhole,
a binocular effect, star, an upright oblong and so on,
as well as in matched pairs that permit of trick
effects. These masks are inserted in the aperture
plate of the camera in such a manner that the re-
corded image takes the form of the mask opening.
The simplest trick effects are produced by means
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of matched masks. One mask is first inserted in the
camera, and the scene exposed in that portion of
each frame that is left open by the mask. The turns
are counted, except if the camera is provided with a
Veeder counter. Then the first mask is removed and
the companion mask inserted, after which the subject
Double exposure effect made with matched masks.
This is a simple tlouble exposure method which
can be made with almost any camera.
of the second exposure, which is to fill the section
of each frame left unexposed in the first shooting,
is carefully focused to fill said space. The film is
now cranked backward or rewound into the top
magazine, with the lens covered. When the original
position of the film is attained, either by counting
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the turns or by the Veeder counter indication, the
second exposure may be made on the same length
of film, so as to fill the remaining or unexposed
section of each frame.
The film can be divided into halves by means of ;
matched masks, and two bits of action recorded in
this manner for simultaneous appearance on the
screen. Vision effects may be obtained by companion
masks. However, these effects are largely out of
the range of amateur work, and for this reason the
author has preferred not to go deeply into this sub-
ject. Suffice it to say that these trick effects can be
mastered* by the amateur for himself, after securing
a good working knowledge of the camera, and the
author feels that all these advanced forms of camera
work are so well covered in Carl Gregory's Condensed
Course in Motion Picture Photography that it would
be but unnecessary duplication to cover the same sub-
ject here.
In making standard sized negatives for reduction
to the Safety Standard or Pathescope size, it is best
to avoid using the usual masks for obtaining fancy
shapes. In the reduction printing it often happens
that the images are somewhat cropped; that is to
say, the entire frame is not taken in by the printing
machine. In which case, it goes without saying,
special shapes like circles, ovals, keyholes and so
on are apt to be chopped off at the ends or corners
with unfortunate screen results. Where reduction
printing is contemplated, it is safer to stick to plain
photography.
The various vignetting and double-exposure attach-
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ments were described at some length in the past chap-
ter. Motion picture photography of today has
reached the stage where it is necessary for the pro-
fessional cameraman to have on hand a number of
different dissolve devices with which to add charm
and unusual touches to his work, but these hardly
come within the province of the amateur cinematog-
rapher.
The best known and most commonly used of all
these attachments is the round closing dissolver for
circling in and out. It is shaped like a large iris
diaphragm, but its blades come to a perfect close
in the center. This attachment is mounted upon an
extension tube and sliding base. The extension tube
is used to move the dissolver toward or away from
the lens, thus having control over the sharpness or
diffusion when circling in or out. It is also used
for vignetting either the head or bust pictures of
close-ups. When the cameraman is called upon to
isolate the expression of a certain actor who is not
in the center of the picture, and when, for some rea-
son, the camera cannot be shifted, the sliding base is
absolutely essential for the purpose of shifting the
center of the iris to the desired position. In this
case the extension of the extension tube is shortened
so that the shutter clears the size of the picture; or
when the cameraman desires to make about five
vignetted close-ups, four to be near the edges and
one in the center, for the purpose of introducing the
actors, the dissolver is used only with a small aper-
ture, being first circled in for a certain length of
film and then circled out. The film is now run back
The Cinema Handbook
and the same operation repeated with the dissolver
set near the edges. There is no limit in this kind of
vignetted close-up. For this purpose the dissolver
is fitted with a special stop device which gives the
lever a limited movement; that is to say, the aper-
ture can be set for any diameter.
One of the most important supplements " to the
round dissolve or iris is the mask box, which is de-
tachably mounted to the front thread of the iris.
The mask box has a rectangular opening in propor-
tion to the picture size, which can be adjusted so as
to be in perfect alignment with the aperture of the
camera. A slot running through the mask box per-
mits the cameraman to insert masks or cardboard
cut-outs for vision and double exposure effects.
A most popular appliance is the double exposure
device, which is designed for use in obtaining three
different kinds of effects:
First, when the control lever is operated, the blades
open or close in opposite directions, or when turned
at right angle it gives the effect of two sliding
doors, either for opening or closing a picture.
Second, the upper blade is detached from the control
lever and fastened by means of a thumbscrew to the
base, which leaves only the lower blade to be operated
by the control lever. When the control lever is oper-
ated in either direction, it gives the effect of a rising
or lowering curtain in front of the scene.
Third, the blades may be used independently, i.e.,
set by hand for double exposures, so as to divide the
stage in two or more parts. This scheme is especially
useful where one actor plays a dual r6le in the same
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scene. The diffused division line of the first exposure
will readily blend with the division line of the
second exposure, thus leaving no line at all in the
finished picture. In this respect this method of
making double exposures, vision effects and so on is
far to be preferred to the camera mask method, be-
cause the masks of the camera often do not fit with
sufficient accuracy to make good double exposure
effects. The dividing line is generally too conspicu-
ous when using camera masks, thus ruining the
effect.
The double exposure and square dissolving devices
are best used in front of the mask box and can be
readily removed when not required. The double ex-
posure device and the square closing device are two
separate devices and are designed to be used inter-
changeably.
Double exposures which show a corner or the center
double exposed are made with the help of the mask
box into which a cardboard piece of certain shape is
inserted, thus blocking a portion of the picture which
has to be exposed after the film has been run
back in the camera, while a second mask made of
cardboard is used for blocking the first exposed por-
tion. This can be done in any desired shapes, and
the effect can be varied by using yellow or green
celluloid instead of the cardboard, thus giving the
appearance to the picture of the so-called spot-light.
The cut-out portion of the celluloid naturally results
in part of the picture being thoroughly exposed, while
the solid portion of the celluloid retards the passage
of light and results in an under-exposed area of the
The Cinema Handbook
picture. The effect is a clear, well-defined section of
picture framed by a diffused section through which
the remainder of the scene can be noted, like a pic-
ture taken in a fog. The effect is most pleasing when
the round closing device is fitted with amber leaves
instead of steel leaves, or when the regular round
closing device or iris and the amber leaves device
are combined, using both alternately for making
double exposed circles, which circle in and out, show-
ing only a fine line circle which is gradually getting
smaller or larger, when lever is operated, and show-
ing on the inside a different picture than on the
outside in changing from one scene to another. For
this purpose it is sometimes possible to connect the
two devices with the camera mechanism in such a
manner that they will close or open when the crank
of the camera is turned, otherwise it is impossible
to make the fine line circle.
But all these effects get into the more profound
kinds of camera work which, as already stated, are
out of the amateur province, which is the only one
with which this work attempts to treat. These
effects are only mentioned by way of general infor-
mation and in order to give some idea as to what
can be done by the resourceful amateur cinematog-
rapher, by means of iris attachments, celluloid slides,
double exposure masks, and so on, either manufac-
tured or home-made.
The Fade-Out and Fade-in
The one effect that should interest the amateur
cameraman is the fade-out and fade-in, which is that
The Cinema Handbook
effect where the entire picture gradually darkens
until it disappears in total blackness, or the reverse
effect, where the total blackness gradually lightens
and develops into a perfectly illuminated and de-
tailed image.
This effect can be produced in two ways, viz.: The
iris diaphragm of the lens can be gradually closed
or gradually opened, to obtain the fade-out or the
fade-in effect. This effect, it will be noted, is noth-
ing more than the gradual under-exposure or the
increasing exposure of the negative. However, when
using the iris diaphragm of the lens for this purpose,
it is generally impossible to obtain a perfectly tight
closing diaphragm. The leaves only close down to a
pin-hole, which means that it is virtually impossible
to obtain absolute blackness in the screen effect, par-
ticularly in the high lights. It is true, of course,
that the cranking can be speeded up when the lens
has been closed as far as it will go, and the camera-
man can place his hand in front of the lens to close
off the light altogether. But these are improvisions,
and improvisions are not generally favored in careful
work. They are only mentioned here because the
cameraman working with a camera that is not pro-
vided with one of the automatic fade-in and fade-out
devices may make use of this improvision.
So popular is the fade-out and fade-in effect that
cameras have for some time back been provided with
automatic devices for accomplishing same. The first
attempts along this line were to provide an auto-
matic arrangement within the camera for gradually
closing or opening the lens diaphragm. However, as
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already stated, the lens diaphragm is not an ideal
method.
The present method of achieving the fade-out and
fade-in is by varying the opening of the revolving
shutter, and has been described in the various speci-
fications of standard cameras given in a preceding
chapter. The two leaves of the usual camera shutter
are gradually brought together so as to permit less
and less light to pass through, or the reverse operation
for the reverse effect. This can be done by hand
where quick fade-ins or fade-outs are desired, or
can be accomplished automatically by the camera
mechanism.
Not only is the fade-in and fade-out effect of value
for opening or closing a film or a scene, because it is
gradual and not abrupt, but it also permits of dis-
solving, that is to say, blending or flowing one scene
into another without a gap. For this effect the first
scene is faded-out in so many feet or turns, a careful
count being kept of the action. Then the lens is covered,
so as to cut off the light, and the film is wound back
into the top or loaded magazine by counting as many
turns or number of feet as were used for the fade-out.
Then the lens is uncovered, and the next scene is
faded-in in the same number of turns or feet as the
fade-out. Thus it will be noted that while one scene
is growing dim, the overlapping one is getting
brighter, so that the two lap over and there is
nothing but a pleasant blending effect from one
scene to the other without a break. A somewhat
similar effect is also obtained with the iris vignetting
attachment already referred to.
The Cinema Handbook
Filming by Artificial Light
So far we have only dealt with filming by daylight.
There are many instances where motion pictures
must be taken in dark corners of buildings where
daylight never penetrates in sufficient volume, if at
all, to permit of photography. Motion pictures being
nothing more or less than snapshots, it stands to
reason that a great volume of intense illumination
is required for proper exposures. One cannot imagine
how much light there is in sunlight until one at-
temps to get along with artificial light. In fact, an
amateur's troubles begin when it is necessary to
resort to artificial light. The expenses also mount
up when we turn from daylight to artificial light.
A large amount of light is required in motion pic-
ture work, because of the short exposures ( 1/30 to
1/50 second) and need for definition, we learn from
Wm. Roy Mott of the Research Laboratory, National
Carbon Company, in a recent paper read before the
Society of Motion Picture Engineers. The pictures
are only 1 inch by % inch in size on the celluloid
film. These are magnified over 10,000 times in area
on the screen and therefore need to be taken with
greatest sharpness. There are sixteen pictures per
foot and these sixteen are moved through the camera
or projector in about one second. Each picture is
brought into exact position with a closed shutter.
This shutter is then opened for about 1/30 second
and the exposure is made. In case of projection the
eye in this period receives the full impression of the
picture and by the persistence of vision retains the
The Cinema Handbook
image perfectly for the next 1/20 second during which
the shutter is closed and the screen blackened until
the next picture is exactly placed.
So much for this short resume. Now in the in-
terest of definition and depth of focus it is highly
desirable to work with small lens opening. For in-
stance, with the white flame arc lights, F : 5.6 is often
used in motion picture studios whereas F:4.5 and
Typical arrangement of side lights in making* a
studio scene. Note how reflectors are placed on
the lamps.
even F:3.5 have been recommended with other sources
of artificial light. Some of the flame lamps, with
their reflectors and diffusing screens, can be used to
give a light intensity of 10,000 and more candles
per square foot, so that even daylight is surpassed
if so desired. While in ordinary artificial lighting
5 and 10 foot-candles is good illumination, yet on the
moving picture stage at least a hundred times this
should be used. This means a stage illumination of
500 to 1,000 foot-candles as a minimum.
For interior scenes daylight must be diffused to
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avoid outdoor appearances caused by the direct
shadows from the sunlight. This diffusion is secured
Ly using prism glass in the roof and sides of the
studios. If the studio work for interior scenes is
done outdoors, then awnings of light sheeting or
muslin are used to secure proper diffusion and this
is sometimes done in studios with glass roofs, espe-
An arrangement of diffused lighting which is
obtained by means of flaming: arc lamps, a wall
painted with aluminum paint, and a tracing: cloth
screen.
cially if clear glass has been used. A serious objec-
tion to daylight in such studios is the hothouse
effect, especially in summer. As these glass houses
receive continuously one to two horsepower of solar"
energy per square yard of projected area normal to
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the light, the heating effect is many times greater
than with good artificial light alone, because the
full amount of artificial light is used intermittently
and seldom for more than a total of an hour a day.
The artificial light used generally for side illumina-
tion with daylight should be given by the light of
the greatest photographic power in proportion to the
Another lighting: arrangement which calls for arc
lamps, aluminum painted walls and tracing: cloth.
The tracing: cloth gives a rare degree of diffusion
which makes for pleasing studio pictures.
energy liberated in the studio. For this reason flame
arcs are commonly used with daylight. In the winter
daylight is rather poor after penetrating the glass
and screen, and so dependence is largely placed on
the artificial light.
The white flame high amperage arc, states Mr.
The Cinema Handbook
Mott, gives a light which is remarkably close to
daylight in both color and photographic values. Like
daylight the spectrum is not entirely continuous, but
the effect of being practically continuous is obtained
by the enormous number of light-giving lines in
Still another lighting: arrangement on a small
scale, in which a single powerful arc lamp is em-
ployed, together with aluminum painted walls for
diffusion.
every part of the spectrum, including the ultra-violet,
which with the white flame arc is very similar to
that given by sunlight.
The Question of Make-Up
In make-up the motion picture artist soon learns
that red will photograph black because the ordinary
film is not sensitive to red light. For this reason the
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make-up of a moving picture artist should not include
rouge on the cheeks (and it is best to avoid having
gold-filled teeth). On the other hand, an excessive
amount of white clothing should be avoided as this
may give rise to halation which results in a blur*
Hence yellow, gray, and other colors of clothes are
25 it 40 Watt Mazda
Lighting arrangement for illuminating a prize
fight. The lights in this case are suspended
. e gs n s case are suspended
over a prize ring, out of the way of the
fighters.
used. This halation, Mr. Mott assures us, needs to
be watched carefully with the lights having low
latitude on the photographic plates. It is interesting
to note that the light of the white flame arc shows
a very wide latitude on films. This means the pic-
ture will show parts highly lighted and dimly lighted
with clear definition.
In regard to film sensitiveness the ordinary motion
picture film has a maximum sensitiveness in the vio-
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let with considerable sensitiveness in the blue and
ultra-violet and much less in the green and yellow,
and no sensitiveness in the red. Some motion pic-
ture laboratories are making orthochromatic films
fairly sensitive to yellow light. For panchromatic
photography and color photography, of course, all
parts of the light are used. Because of the use of a
yellow screen with these, special flame carbons can
be used not only to give me?e light, but such light
that a screen of better transparency can be used.
But we are getting beyond our field again, so let us
return to our modest premises.
The flame arc, according to the same authority,
shows a rapid increase in actinic light with increase
in current. In fact, the flame arc with doubling of
the current at the same arc voltage increases its photo-
graphic effect not twice but three to four times. This
makes it profitable to use the flame arcs at high am-
perages of 15-25 to 35 amperes. In some cases much
higher amperages have been used. The enclosed arc
lamp soon reaches a limit of current because of the
danger of globe melting down; or if a very large
globe is used, then the amount of air at the start
decreases the initial efficiency, which is very impor-
tant in motion picture work because the actual scenes
are short and usually last from ten seconds to a
minute or two.
A vertical flame arc is generally preferred, but the
arc will burn well in a great variety of positions.
In general, flame upper carbons and flame lower car-
bons are used in motion picture flame lamps so that
the lamps can be used on either direct or alternating
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current and without any regard to polarity if it is
direct current. This arrangement is different from the
photo-engraving field, where a very common trim is
a neutral enclosed upper carbon with a white flame
positive lower. In this case the flame carbon must
always be made positive because the flame chemicals
travel through the arc stream from the positive
crater to the negative crater. It is the flame mate-
rials that produce the light, and wrong polarity or
pure carbon open arc gives about one-sixth the photo-
graphic light of the white flame arc. However, a
positive flame upper carbon gives better efficiency
with a flame negative lower as against a neutral
negative lower.
On alternating current, both carbons should be
flame carbons, as here the flame material feeds from
both electrodes, and so this arrangement gives the
maximum efficiency.
Special flame lamps have been developed to oper-
ate on alternating current or direct current and in
series on 220 volts or in parallel on 110 volts. This
makes the lamp of universal use, and calls for no
special attention to the electrical conditions. The
resistance of the flame lamp to mechanical shocks,
electrical shocks such as over-voltage, and to bad
weather conditions, has made it universally used for
outside motion picture work. Combined with all
these advantages is the remarkably small weight of
these lamps. For instance, some of the twin arc
lamps weigh no more than 20 pounds for lights giving
8,000 or more horizontal candlepower, and with the
light of a little greater actinicity than daylight.
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The amount of light is probably greater in propor-
tion to weight than any other artificial light used
in motion picture studios.
There are many different kinds of flaming arc
Pair of spotlights mounted on a swivel bracket in one
of the Western studios and especially intended for
back-lighting effects. Note the enclosed switch on the
back of each lamp house which ensures absolute and
instantaneous control of the lighting effect.
lamps available for the permanent installation of
the amateur studio, and for portable purposes. For
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illuminating limited fields, the amateur cameraman
need not have more than two small naming arc units,
each of the twin-arc type. There is the Aristo lamp,
for instance, which is an enclosed arc lamp which
has been much used in portrait studios and in mo-
tion picture studios. It is used with or without the
globe. Then there is the Allison and Hadaway lamp
of twin-arc design, which is especially intended for
portable uses in its suit-case form. Another ^model
by the same company has a diffusing cabinet with
flame lamp, and still another, a small amateur flame
lamp is provided with shunt control to raise greatly
the current at the time of taking the pictures. The
horizontal candlepower of the 15-ampere flame lamp
is said to be 8,000.
Lights for Getting Along Without Daylight
Then there is the Klieglight portable, with twin
arcs and of light construction. The Simplex lamp is
a twin flame lamp which is quite portable and can
be carried around in a suit-case. This lamp is de-
signed for 15 to 25 amperes. There are many other
portable lamps suitable for the amateur cameraman
in search of satisfactory illuminants of moderate
power. One of the most satisfactory is the new Spec-
tro twin arc portable lamp, which operates on either
direct or alternating current without adjustment
and produces 15,000 candle power of light rich in
actinic rays. The lamp proper is made in one piece,
mounted on a light stand that is adjustable for any
height or angle, and supplies four hours of steady
illumination without any attention.
The Cinema Handbook
Lighting is a highly technical subject and we can-
not afford to go very deeply into it in the limited
space at our disposal. Suffice it to say that the
Typical spotlights employed in a Western studio,
the one on the right being provided Avith a switch
control. These lights, it will be noted, are used to
illuminate some particular part of the scene, and
do not figure in the general illumination,
excellent pictures of today are in a large measure
due to the lighting effects, which are in the hands
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of skilled electricians and photographers who have a
fine sense of the artistic. In fact, if the pictures of
today are in such relief, with so much depth and
feeling to them, it is due to the masterly handling
of the illumination.
In the usual motion picture studio the lighting
is divided into two broad classes, namely, the over-
head lighting and the side lighting. The overhead
lighting may be either diffused or concentrated. The
overhead lighting serves to flood the entire set below
with the necessary primary light, so to speak, while
the side lighting, supplied by powerful flame arcs
mounted on stands that may be wheeled about to any
position, provides the special lighting effects. The
best lighting for the usual motion picture stage, we
are told, calls for 50 per cent, more side lighting than
top lighting.
The use of real scenery in place of painted scenery
gives, according to Mr. Mott, the best results. Real
scenery should be lighted from the side. Painted
scenery should be lighted directly from the front
with the light striking nearly perpendicular. If the
scene is set up with painted scenery, two sets of
lighting should be used if possible, one for the fore-
ground and the other for the painted scenery. This
same principle applies to panorama where near ob-
jects are lighted in one way and the panorama in a
different way to give suitable blending of the illusion.
Diffused light is advantageous in cutting out the
harsh black shadows and giving what is known tech-
nically as luminous shadow effects. Most arc lamps
are provided with special diffusers, such as spun-
Large flaming arc light for side lighting. The
switch controls for the arc units of this lamp are
provided at the base, and the lamp may be
wheeled about as a complete lighting outfit.
The Cinema Handbook
glass sheets, that can be used when diffused lighting
is desired. Diffused light can also be obtained by
indirect light; that is to say, the light from the lamp
is directed on some reflecting surface and from that
surface spread over the scene to be illuminated. But
the photographic intensity of the light should be
very high in order to get the camera to operate satis-
factorily with the F:5.6 opening. The flame arc can
be used with a camera lens at F:5.6 to give good
lighting on a small stage with 20 kilowatts of energy.
The jump from F:5.6 to F:4.5 or even F:3.5 makes
a big difference in the definition and clearness of the
picture. The depth of focus can be maintained better,
of course, with F:5.6, and because of the important
artistic value of the background and the great dis-
tances with rapid movements that should be covered,
it is highly desirable to work with a good depth of
focus. In general,' the motion picture stages will use
with flame arcs the following amounts of power when
having the lens at F.-5.6.
Small stage .... 20 kilowatts 4 to 6 flame lamps
Medium stage.. 50 kilowatts 10 to 16 flame lamps
Large stage. ... 100 kilowatts 20 to 32 flame lamps
Using the larger opening of the lens, F:3.5, as low
as 20 kilowatts with flame lamps can be used to
secure the illumination of large stages. These figures
are given here not so much because the amateur cine-
matographer, for whom this work has been prepared,
may be in need of such data, but rather to show the
gigantic problems in the way of tackling ambitious
things. When the amateur cinematographer plans
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indoor scenes, he should think of the illumination re-
quired and limit his field of action to the smallest
possible compass. Two flaming units are sufficient
for illuminating a very small stage, such as is used
for close-ups. The author has made use of two small
portable arc lamps for filming scientific subjects with
a field no larger than 10 feet deep by about 10 feet
wide, with the lens set at F:4.5
Aside from the flaming arc lamps, there are the
mercury-vapor tubes which provide excellent illu-
mination in the case of permanent installations. For
portable and general amateur use perhaps such lamps
are not as satisfactory as the arc type, because they
are more subject to breakage and are more bulky. They
have certain advantages over the arcs, however, which
have caused them to be used in many of our leading
studios. For one thing, they are steady. Again, the
light is far less trying on the eyes, and there is
little heat. There are also the nitrogen-filled incan-
descent bulbs of high candlepower. However, it re-
quires a great number of these bulbs to illuminate a
small sized stage, and in the long run the arc lamps
prove more satisfactory and less costly.
Unloading the Camera at the End of the Day
The camera, after being used for a given job, should
be unloaded. The film that has been exposed is con-
tained in one of the magazines, while the other maga-
zine is entirely empty if all the film has been used.
If some of the film remains in the first magazine, it is
best not to waste the few feet of film necessary to
rethread the camera unless the exposed film is ur-
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gent, in which case the camera is opened, the exposed
film cut, the lower or take-up magazine taken out, an
empty magazine put in its place, and the camera
rethreaded.
The spindle of the magazine containing the exposed
film should be turned so that the free end of the film
disappears into the box, if it has not already done
so while in the camera. The magazine can now be
brought to the motion picture laboratory for develop-
ment, or the cameraman can do his own developing
if he possesses the necessary equipment. In instances
where the cameraman is dealing with a regular la-
boratory, it may be well for him not to send his
magazine along, but rather to unload it in a dark
room or under a blanket as described for the loading
operations, or in a changing bag, and to place the
exposed negative in the original black paper wrapping
and tin can in which the negative came. Such a tin
can is then sealed carefully with the same adhesive
tape that came with it, or with fresh adhesive tape.
Magazines cost a good deal of money, and labora-
tories sometimes lose them. If magazines must be
sent to the laboratory, the cameraman will do well
to mark his name on each magazine he owns, so that
his property can be identified. It is also good practice
to do the same thing with the negative film, at the
time when the film has been placed in the magazine
and the end protrudes out ready for threading.
Care of the Camera Lenses
The following suggestions regarding the care of
lenses are given by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Com-
The Cinema Handbook
pany, and if put to good use will be found quite worth
the extra trouble.
A lens should remain for an indefinite time in as
good condition as when it leaves the manufacturer's
hands, providing a few simple rules are observed, to
which we draw attention.
Protect the lens as much as possible from dust and
finger marks.
Keep the cap on the lens when not in use.
Do not subject the lens to sudden and extreme tem-
peratures.
Do not expose the lens to the heat of the sun or
steam pipes.
Avoid damp places.
Never use any sort of polishing material, alcohol,
or other solvent on the lens or lacquer.
Never use acids of any kind for cleaning.
Do not allow the lens to fall or get a sudden jar.
Occasional cleaning is not only advisable, but also
very necessary when the lenses show dust, finger
marks or moisture on the surfaces.
Tp clean, use a well washed linen handkerchief
]only. If dusty, blow off the dust first, then wipe. To
remove finger marks or moisture, breathe upon the
Isurface, and wipe; always wipe lightly, and with a
circular movement; a camel's hair brush is convenient
to remove dust before cleaning, and afterwards to
remove lint.
If the inner surfaces of the lenses require cleaning,
the utmost care should be observed in removing the
lenses one by one, cleaning them, and then replacing
before others are taken out.
The Cinema Handbook
Should lenses or mounting require more attention
than the afore-mentioned, do not entrust the same
to any but the maker.
When the lenses are not in use it is well to keep
them wrapped up so as to protect them from moisture,
dust and so on. Either tissue paper or an old lint-
less rag is suitable for this purpose. In fact, all
lenses should be provided with some kind of cap
which is placed on the front of the lens when not in
use. If the lens is removed from the camera, it is
well to have two caps, one for the front and one for
the rear. . In the absence of caps, paper caps or plugs
will do quite nicely.
[2021
CHAPTER V.
DEVELOPING AND FEINTING
THE FILM
FROM the camera the negative film, containing the
latent images, must go to the laboratory for
development, just as the kodak film or the glass plate
of the still photographer must go to the dark room
for finishing. There is this difference, however, that
still photography is a relatively simple matter, and
very little in the way of equipment and experience is
necessary in order to do the necessary work. In
motion pictures, on the other hand, with film measur-
ing hundreds of feet in length and with developing
solutions, fixing solutions and other solutions running
into many gallons, it is obvious that a large collec-
tion of elaborate equipment is required.
Furthermore, in the case of motion picture nega-
tive, a good deal is generally at stake, and the lack
of experience or knowledge in the handling of the
film means a serious loss. Certainly it is no task
for the amateur to attempt. There is no question but
that all work, wherever possible, should be given to a
regular laboratory, not only because of the superior
results which may thus be obtained, but moreover
for the reason that laboratory work on a small scale
does not pay.
Then again, developing is only a small part of
the laboratory routine. As soon as the film is de-
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veloped, it must be printed, and good printing calls
for elaborate printing machines. The only time the
amateur cinematographer is justified in doing his
own laboratory work is when he is far removed from,
all laboratories, and time is the very essence of the
undertaking. Then, and only then, is he warranted
in undertaking his own finishing. f
Elements of Laboratory Work
In brief, motion picture finishing calls for the
developing of the negative film, just as it is received
from the cameraman. Negative, as we have already
learned, has an exceedingly fast emulsion and must
be handled with considerable care to avoid fogging.
,The film, after it is taken from the camera magazine
or the tin can in which the cameraman may have
placed it, is wound on wooden racks with the emul-
sion side out. These racks take anywhere from 100
to 400 feet of film, depending on their dimensions.
Once the film is wound on the rack, the rack is
placed in a high, narrow tank containing the devel-
oping solution. The rack is vigorously shaken up
and down a number of times in order to make sure
that no bubbles or air bells, as they are called, cling
to the film, which would give rise to clear spots on
the finished film.
Now, as the average amateur cinematographer
should know from his general knowledge of pho-
tography, negative development depends on several
factors. First of all, there is the extent of the
exposure of the negative, which may be under-
exposed, correctly exposed, or over-exposed, depend-
Strips of negative and positive film. The negative,
shown at the left, is the film exposed in the camera,
while the positive at the right is printed from the
negative by the laboratory hands,
The Cinema Handbook
ing on the cameraman's skill — and luck. Then
there is the strength of the developing bath, for a
stronger bath develops the image quicker than a
weaker bath. Third, there is the temperature factor,
for the warmer the developer the more rapid its
developing action. Fourth, there is the time factor,
which depends on the exposure, strength of devel-
oper, and temperature of same. Thus with the
strength and the temperature of developer known,
the laboratory man can soon tell how long it will
require for the complete development of any nega-
tive. If the negative is under-exposed, the correct
development may not bring out sufficient density and
it may be necessary to over-develop. Vice versa,
with an over-exposed negative the correct develop-
ment may make the negative too dense, and it may
be necessary to shorten the development. But either
of these measures are only improvisions, for it is
becoming more and more realized that the place to
correct such faulty exposures is in the camera, at the
time of taking the pictures, and the laboratory reme-
dies cannot be more than crude at best. So, with the
temperature and the strength of the developer known,
the laboratory man knows that so many minutes are
required. It is an exact science.
After the developer has done its work, the film
rack is removed with the frames clearly showing on
the yellow celluloid ribbon. The rack is then placed
in the "short stop," which is a solution intended
to stop the developing action immediately. Then the
rack is shifted into the hypo or fixing tank, where
it is allowed to remain until the £ree or unexposed
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silver, which appears as the yellow background for
the images just out of the developing tank, is re-
moved. From the fixing tank the rack goes to the
washing tank, where the film remains until every
trace of hypo is removed.
The film, being quite wet, of course, must now
be dried. For this purpose the film rack is brought
to the drying room, where the film is unwound
from the rack and wound on to large circular drums,
emulsion side out. These drums, revolving at a
speed that is sufficient to spread out the drops of
water so that rapid drying is secured, are located
in a warm and dry room which further hastens
drying. In some instances only twenty minutes' time
is required to dry a given film.
From the drums the dry film is wound into a roll,
ready for examination, after which it is passed on
to the printing department for the purpose of mak-
ing one or more prints. This process is analogous
to the printing process in still photography. The
negative, face to face with the unexposed positive
stock, the emulsion of which is considerably slower,
is drawn through the mechanism of a printing ma-
chine. There are two general types of printing ma-
chines, namely, the step-by-step type and the con-
tinuous type. In the step-by-step printer, which is
in common use, the films are shifted one image at
a time after each exposure, in a very similar man-
ner to the operation of the camera and the projector.
In the other type, the continuous projector, the two
films, face to face, are continuously moved past a
window through which the light passes in order
••eg
£ x .*•
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to make the impression. The continuous printer,
because of its simplicity, is generally used for
amateur work.
After the positive film has been run through the
machine in contact with the negative, it is sent to
the positive dark room, where it is wound on a rack
and developed, fixed and washed, followed by drying,
in the same manner as the negative film, except
that the work can be carried on in stronger ruby
light.
That, in brief, explains the laboratory work. It
is useless to go into details for the reason that this
is quite out of the amateur field. However, there
are on the market a number of outfits intended for
the man who must do his own darkroom work, espe-
cially the traveler and the explorer.
Laboratory Work on a Miniature Scale
Perhaps no equipment is better adapted to ama-
teur laboratory work than the Stineman sys-
tem, which is the invention of Jl. P. Stineman of
Los Angeles, Calif. Here is a little outfit that can
be used to develop two hundred feet of film in two
gallons of developer, yet can fit into the ordinary
suit-case. It is made of metal, which ensures long
wear. The emulsion is not touched by the hands
or equipment, hence clean work is assured. Pyro
or any other developer may be used with equal
Success, since the tanks and rack are acid-proof.
In brief, the Stineman system consists of shallow
pans for the developer, fixing solution and so on, a
special developing reel which takes the film, a print-
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ing machine when prints are to be made, and other
accessories. The smallest outfit consists of three
nesting tanks and one fifty-foot reel, while a special
traveling outfit consists of three nesting tanks and
one 100-foot reel. As many reels as are deemed
necessary can be employed, in order to expedite
Tvork. Two hundred-foot reels can be had for studio
work, where the matter of portability is not being
considered."
To develop a film by means of the Stineman outfit,
it is only necessary to place the spiral reel on the
stationary winding pin at a convenient angle to the
film magazine so that the film will slide smoothly
into the reel. The end of the film is fastened to
the slot or slipped over the peg, in the center of
the reel, and the reel is then revolved with the left
hand, using the right hand against the outer edge
of the film to guide it into the reel. When wound,
the other end of the film is fastened to the reel with
a metal clip. The film should be firmly wound into
the reel and fastened with a clip. Of course, this
work has to be done in a safe darkroom. A beginner
should practice winding an old piece of film into the
spiral reel until he can handle it smoothly and
become familiar with the operation.
The reel is then picked up by its center member
and immersed in the developer pan or tank and
moved rapidly up and down several times to prevent
air bells or bubbles. When using pyro developer
this operation should be repeated several times dur-
ing development to prevent air bells.
When the development is complete, the reel is
[212]
Hand-printer employed with the amateur finishing
outfit shown on page 211. This little printer is
cranked at about the same speed as the camera,
while the illumination is supplied by a connection
with any light socket.
The Cinema Handbook
removed, rinsed, and placed in a pan containing the
hypo or fixing solution. After fixing, the reel is
placed in the pan of clean water and thoroughly
washed. Water or hypo should not exceed three
inches in depth, for if it is too deep in the tank it
will float the film out of the reel. When thoroughly
washed the ends of the film are released and the
reel is lifted out of the water and drained for a few
seconds. After that the reel is placed face down
on the screen that comes with the outfit, in about
four inches of water. Then, by grasping the reel
by finger holds on the reverse side in the center,
the reel is agitated slightly and raised gradually,
leaving the film on the screen. The next step is to
raise the screen out of the water, place it on the
stand with the revolving top, and wind the film on
a drum or rack to dry. The film is not touched at
any time, the reel being always lifted by the handle
in the center.
The Stineman system also includes a small print-
ing machine, which takes 200 feet of positive film
in its magazines at one loading. The printer weighs
about eight pounds, can be connected to any electric
light circuit, and is operated by hand at about the
usual camera speed. This little printer is excellent
for making test prints in far-off places.
There are other developing outfits of the same
general character, making use of shallow tanks, flat
reels for taking the film in a spiral form, and hand-
driven printing machines which are usually of the
continuous type. The ingenious amateur can per-
kaps make some of this apparatus himself. The
Another type of hand-printer, which is available
for the modest requirements of the amateur.
The Cinema Handbook
developing apparatus is not difficult, for two cross-
arms placed together, provided with pegs at ^3 -inch
intervals along the resulting four radial arms, may
be used very nicely as the reel, while wooden boxes
of the proper shape, lined with sheet rubber, may
orm the shallow tanks. The advantage .of the shallow
tanks for short lengths of film is that they require
a relatively smaller quantity of developer, but for
regular laboratory purposes the deep narrow tanks
are employed because of their relatively small ex-
posed surface. Exposed surface with most develop-
ers means rapid oxidation, and in laboratories where
solutions are in constant use for several days or
even a week before they are completely exhausted,
the question of reducing oxidation to a minimum is
naturally an important one.
As for printing, the handy amateur may possibly
oe able to devise some form of continuous printer from
a collection of odd sprockets and idlers, and a .simple
case containing the lamp. But perhaps the better
scheme is to make use of a discarded motion picture
camera or the head of an old projector, so as to have
a step-by-step mechanism.
Developing Solutions for Negative
Should the reader be anxious to do his own de-
veloping, he may be interested in the following for-
mulae which are considered as standards. Of course,
the average laboratory man soon works out his own
formulae for various kinds of film, because his ex-
perience teaches him that he can obtain better re-
sults under the conditions peculiar to his establish-
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ment with certain modifications from the usual
standard practice.
The formula recommended by the Eastman Kodak
Company for the development of Eastman negative
is as follows:
Avoirdupois Metric
Water (8^ Imperial gals.)
Elon
E. K. Co. Sulphite of Soda
Hydrochinon
E. K. Co. Carbonate of Soda
Potassium Bromide
Citric Acid
Potassium Metabisulphite
10 U.S. gals.
180 grains
3 Ibs. 5 oz.
8 ozs.
1 Ib. 9 ozs.
1 oz. 63 grs
400 grains
2 ozs.
40 litres
12 grams
1590 grams
240 grams
750 grams
36 grams
28 grams
60 grams
Maintain temperature at 65 degrees Fahr.
A good pyro formula is as follows:
Pyrogalic Acid
Nitrous or Sulphurous Acid ,
Water..
Sulphite of Soda (Crystals) .
Carbonate of Soda (Crystals)
Water
% oz.
20 minims
32 oz.
6 oz.
4 oz.
32 oz.
To develop a strip of film, the worker should take
10 oz. of the pyro solution, 10 oz. of the soda solu-
tion, and mix these with 80 oz. of water for the de-
veloping bath.
As a restrainer, which is used only in cases of
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over-exposure, the following formula may be used:
Bromide of Potassium 1 oz.
Water 6 oz.
After development, the film should be rinsed and
then placed in the fixing solution. The usual fixing
solution comprises:
Hyposulphite of Soda 24 oz.
Water ; 96 oz.
The important part in development is to maintain
the temperature of all baths as near as possible to
65 deg. Fahrenheit. In summer ice should be added
if necessary to bring the developing and fixing baths
down to that temperature, while in winter the solu-
tions should be slightly heated to raise them to that
temperature. Temperatures lower than 65 deg.
cause the developer to act too slowly, while higher
temperatures cause too rapid development and also
may lead to the fraying of the film, that is, the
peeling of the emulsion from the celluloid base.
As for the positive film, on which the prints are
made, there are various kinds of stock that may
be used. Eastman is, to be sure, the standard in
this country and in many others. However, there
are other positive stocks made in this country, such
as Powers and Bay State films. Of foreign films,
there are Pathe, Gevaert, Agfa, and others. In the
case of positive stock there is little risk in experi-
menting with various brands, and in this respect
it is quite a different matter from negative stock,
where the chances taken on some unknown stock
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may *be serious and costly if unsatisfactory results
are obtained. The author has employed various
kinds of positive raw stocks, and finds several of
them most satisfactory. The Gevaert positive stock
can be obtained with a tinted celluloid base; that
The "timer" of the usual laboratory determines
the density of the negatives and decides on the
lamp adjustments for the printers.
is to say, the color is in the base itself. Thus for
fire scenes, red celluloid positive can be purchased,
and so on. The Eastman Kodak Company also offers
colored positive raw stock. This eliminates the ne-
cessity of tinting films when making positive prints
on a large scale.
After the positive stock has been decided upon, it
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is passed through the printer face to face with the
negative film as already described. Most large la-
boratories have an experienced man who can tell at
a glance how much exposure to give each scene.
Obviously, as a negative changes in density from one
scene to the next, the printing time, as it is erro-
neously called, must be changed. In reality it is not
the time that is changed but the strength of the
printing light, more light being employed to print
through a dense film, and less light through a weak
negative. The "timer," as this expert is called, de-
cides on the printing adjustment for each roll of
negative, and the girl operators tending to the print-
ing machines have but to set the printing lamps so
many "points" for each scene in order to obtain the
proper results.
After being printed, the positive rolls are sent to the
darkroom, where they are developed very much after
the fashion of the negatives, except that different
solutions are employed. A positive developing solu-
tion which gives good results is as follows:
No. 1
Oxalate of Potash 10 pounds
Hot Water 30 pints
Acidify with Sulphuric or Citric Acid.
Test with Litmus Paper.
No. 2
Proto-Sulphate of Iron 2 pounds
Hot Water 3 pints
Sulphuric Acid 1' dr.
Or Citric Acid % oz.
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No. 3
Bromide of Potassium 1 oz.
Water 1 quart
To develop with this formula, Nos. 1 and 2 are
poured and 5 drams of No. 3 are added. They should
be mixed in the order given. The developer should
be allowed to act until sufficient density is obtained
in the shadows; then the film is rinsed and fixed.
If there is a tendency to frill, a saturated solution
of common alum should be added. Less of the No. 2
solution will give less violent contrasts.
The Pathe organization suggests the following for-
mula to be used with Pathe positive stock:
FORMULA FOB ONE U. S. GALLON
Water 1 U. S. gallon
Metol or Rhodol 58 grs.
Hydroquinone 1 oz. 102 grs.
Soda Sulphite (anhydrous) . 4 ozs. 409 grs.
Soda Carbonate (anhydrous) 9 ozs. 332 grs.
Citric Acid 82 grs.
Metabisulphite 175 grs. .
For use take one part of stock solution and one part
of water.
The fixing solution, suggested by the same film,
manufacturers, is as follows:
FORMULA FOR ONE U. S. GALLON
Water 1 gallon
Soda Hyposulphite 30 ozs. 158 grs.
Soda Bisulphite 4 ozs. 409 grs.
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The practice is for each manufacturer of ra^
stock to issue complete directions covering the devel
opment of positive and negative films. Generally
slips of paper, containing development and fixing for
mulae, are contained in the film cans.
But as was stated earlier in this chapter, the aver
age amateur is pretty far afield when he endeavors
to do his own laboratory work. It should only be
undertaken as a last resort.
This must not be understood to mean that the
amateur should not know something about laboratory
work. In fact, he should know more or less the gen
eral details of such work so that he can meet the
laboratory men and talk to them with some degree
of intelligence, in order that they will take special
care of his work. Furthermore, the amateur should
know whether any given faults in the films delivered
to him are due to his errors or those of the labora-
tory. Hence the following notes must prove of inter-
est in the way of checking up on the laboratory:
Negative Troubles and Their Causes
Most negative troubles start with the exposure. li
the exposure is at fault, then it is hardly fair tc
•expect good results in the development of the nega-
tive and the subsequent print; for, despite all popu-
lar belief to the contrary, darkroom methods cannot
correct exposure mistakes to any marked extent.
A correct exposure can always be identified with
little difficulty. It produces a well balanced image
in which the detail in the shadows is clearly pre-
sented without over-development in the high lights,
The Cinema Handbook
If a picture is over-exposed, on the other hand, there
is a lack of contrast. If the development is carried
past the safe point the shadows and half-tones be-
come black and fill up, so to speak. The whole
image becomes clogged up, and it is so dense that
the negative is difficult to print from. Such prints
as are obtained are certain to be flat and lack bril-
liancy, since there were no true transparencies and
near transparencies in the negative. An under-
exposed negative reveals itself by the fact that there
is no detail in the shadows, and if the development
is carried beyond the safe point, in order to bring
out something in the shadows and half-tones, the
high lights fill up or become chalky. The resultant
print is harsh and does not possess the soft grada-
tions to be found in a properly exposed picture.
Most laboratories, when they discover a negative
too much under-exposed or to much over-exposed,
advise the cameraman *to that effect and suggest his
making a new negative. Of course, human nature
is such that a • request of this kind is often not
heeded, and the laboratory men are told to go ahead
with the negative as it stands. This they can do,
but the screen results can never be of the best. The
capable laboratory man can do something to help
along the under-exposed or over-exposed negative,
but in the long run there is nothing much to do
that can offset faulty exposure.
If the negative film appears gray all over, where •
it should be clear and perfectly transparent, it indi-
cates that it has been fogged or light struck. Such
trouble may come out of carelessness in loading the
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magazines, and in taking chances with an unsafe
ruby light. Again, it may be due to the use of
old negative film. Negative film, unlike positive,
has a rather limited life, and even though it is kept
in hermetically sealed tin cans it does fog from
deterioration after a given time. All reliable film
dealers sell only fresh film, and the buyer need never
worry about fogged or aged film.
Another cause for fog is the camera lens. If the
lens is dirty or covered with a hardly perceptible
layer of dust or even oil, it may produce a foggy
image. Camera lenses should be carefully cleaned
at frequent intervals, as explained in the chapter
dealing with camera work.
Fog may also be caused by the handling of the
film in the laboratory. While most laboratories of
reputation are careful in the extreme, film is some-
times fogged accidentally. Furthermore, fog can
develop as the result of too much alkali in the de-
veloper or too warm a solution.
Halation is a film fault that is occasionally noted
in even careful work. It takes the form of sharp
splashes of light about certain objects, making a
most unpleasant spot on the picture. It occurs
usually in interior pictures taken towards bright win-
dows, when dark objects are photographed against
the sky, or when white o'bjects are photographed
against dark backgrounds. Halation is due to ex-
cessive light at one point with reference to the light
reflected by the rest of the scene. It can also occur
through reflections inside the camera, such as when
the lens hood or other piece of equipment is not
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properly blackened, and a ray of the sun happens
to illuminate that bright spot at an unfortunate
angle.
The exposure of the negative is not always the
whole cause for the blame. Sometimes the negative
is under-developed, in which case a thin^ and weak
negative results, without sufficient density and de-
tail for making a good print. Such under-development
may be due to carelessness in timing or in judging
the progress of the development, and in using de-
veloper of too low a temperature. Again, it may be
due to the exhaustion of the developer. In rare in-
stances the fault may be laid to the cameraman,
who has used such excessive diffusion in his lighting
that there are no shadows of any kind to relieve
the picture.
A very rare trouble in the better film laboratories
is the frilling and softening of the film emulsion.
This trouble usually occurs only when the developer
and other baths are of too high a temperature.
Sometimes this may cause the emulsion actually to
slide off the film base. Violent changes in tempera-
ture are also liable to cause frilling. An old hypo
bath may also cause frilling and softening, since the
object of the hypo bath is also to harden the emul-
sion. The emulsion sometimes softens if the drying
is carried on in too warm a room. But as a general
thing frilling and softening are only troublesome fea-
tures in warm climates, and may be readily avoided
with ordinary care.
Occasionally stains are to be found in negative
after development, due to careless handling. Brown
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and yellow stains are generally due to incomplete
fixing or the lack of thorough washing after fixing.
Decomposed fixing bath or oxidized pyro developer
may also cause stains. Yellow stains along the edges
of the negative are due to the same general causes.
Purple spots may be due to decomposed pyro or other
chemical impurities in the rinsing water.
Tiny transparent spots on the negative may be
due to drops of oil that have been deposited on the
film prior to development, thus keeping the developer
away from the emulsion at that point and preventing
development, or to improper shaking of the rack
during development, thus allowing air bells to form
and remain in place.
Finger marks on the film indicate careless han-
dling. Dirt and other marks also indicate careless
handling.
The same faults may be found in positive prints,
although much of the trouble in positives goes back
to the negative, for without a good negative to work
from the positive can hardly be expected to be good.
Adding Color to the Pictures — Tinting
Whatever may be the difficulties in obtaining good
photography and laboratory work, the matter of
coloring films is a relatively easy one and its results
are immediate; so that one can, under ordinary con-
ditions, observe the effects of one's labors in full
daylight and, like the chameleon, keep on changing
colors at will.
Leaving aside free-hand coloring or coloring ap-
plied by means of stencils, either of which is not
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practical for the layman, we will speak only of the
two current methods of applying color to films as
they are practiced in the usual motion picture la-
boratory.
The simplest method of coloring in general use is
called tinting, and generally consists of dipping a
finished film in a tank containing a solution of ani-
line dye and leaving said film submerged until it has
absorbed the necessary amount of color. There is
no reason to fear that the film will be ruined by too>
much or not enough tinting, as the aniline dyes
used for motion picture work are all water soluble.
Indeed, if the tinted film should turn out unsatis-
factorily as far as the tint intensity is concerned,,
not matching another piece of film or failing to pro-
duce a certain desired effect, it is a simple matter
to place the film back into the tank and wait until
the correct amount of color has been incorporated.
Should there, perchance, be too much color, it can
readily be washed out by soaking the film in plain
cold water.
To avoid mysterious formulae which are bound to
complicate matters for and discourage the beginner,
it will suffice to know that it is by far easier, cheaper
and certainly better not to try to mix a variety of
dyes together in order to obtain certain shades.
There are aniline powders (water soluble) known as
orange, amber, yellow, red, salmon, green, blue, etc.,
which, when highly concentrated, can be diluted at
the rate of about one-half of one per cent, of powder
to one hundred volumes of water; in other words,
to one gram of dye one can add two hundred cubic
[2311
The Cinema Handbook
centimeters or grams of water. Large quantities
can be mixed by observing the same proportions and
increasing to any desired amount. To mix the dye,
it is preferable to use hot water, not necessarily
boiling, and to stir the solution with a wooden
stick or glass rod, and then pass the solution through
;a thin piece of lintless fabric, such as an old hand-
kerchief. The dye solution must be cooled off before
Busing.
Before attempting to color a length of film, one
must always make sure that it has been fully washed
^and freed of all traces of hypo.
Any amateur motion picture worker who is suffi-
ciently interested in the tinting of film will get a
great deal of enjoyment out of his first experiment,
provided he goes about it in the right way. All films
take on new interest when they are tinted; and a
far more interesting picture can be produced by
proper tinting.
Any old piece of film will do for a test. Take, for
instance, ten feet of film and wind it on a simple
rack. The rack is then placed in running, water for
about ten minutes and then removed and dipped
directly in the color tank From time to time the
film is examined to study the extent of the tinting,
and once the desired degree of color is obtained, the
" film rack is removed and rinsed by dipping it three
to five times in running water. It is then dried.
Toning the Film Images
Toning io a somewhat more complicated method of
coloring film, because mistakes are not as easily
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corrected as in tinting, and accidents and failures
are more numerous. Besides, the toning solutions
are more costly because they are subject to deterio-
ration by exposure to air and light, and also become
consumed much faster than aniline dyes. Before
toning, films must be washed for at least one hour,
then treated according to the formula answering the
specific purpose or color required.
The following indications will enable any careful
person to obtain a wide range of shades, especially
when tinting is combined with the toning operations.
It must not be forgotten that toning modifies only the
shadows and half-tones, while the tinting affects the
ligh lights. In this manner, if a piece of film is
toned blue, the blacks and half-tones will take on
a varying degree of blue, while the high lights will
remain white or clear. Thus the picture becomes
)lue and white, the black giving way to blue. But
if that same picture had been tinted instead of
boned, then the entire picture would take on a blue
tint although the blacks would remain superimposed
on the blue. The picture then becomes blue and
black, instead of white and black. Toning gives
prettier effects than tinting, to be sure.
One ,of the most popular tones is sepia An excel-
lejit method for producing a warm sepia tone consists
of preparing two solutions as follows:
SOLUTION A
Ammonium Bromide 6 grama
* Potassium --Ferricyanide *». .„ 15 grams
Water 300 c.c.
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The Cinema Handbook
SOLUTION B
Sodium Sulphide '. 10 grams
Water (pure) 300 c.c.
As soon as the film has been washed for about an
hour or more, it is placed in Solution A, where it is
left until the image is bleached out; that is, when
the image is a creamy white, without any dark
spots. Then the film must be washed in clean, cold
water for about one minute. After washing the
film is placed in Solution B until it has acquired
a warm brown tone. Then it is rinsed and dried.
Some amateurs, particularly those who do not
maintain a fully equipped darkroom, and accordingly
are forced to do their work at home, will find the
above toning solution difficult to employ for the
reason that sodium sulphide has a rather objec-
tionable odor. So when sodium sulphide is objected
to, the best substitute is the uranium nitrate brown
toning, which is prepared as following:
Uranium Nitrate 40 grams
Potash Oxolate (neutral) 40 grams
Potassium Ferricyanide 16 grams
Hydrochloric Acid 10 per cent,
solution 40 c.c.
Numerous formula have been recommended for
blue tones, but in truth they are all more or less
too complicated for the amateur. The simplest of
any of them will give the average layman fair results,
provided he is careful in compounding the chemicals
1235]
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and in washing the film before toning. The formula
for blue toning. is as follows:
Water 300 c.c.
Citric Acid 150 grams
Potassium Ferricyanide 30 grams
Ammonium Alum 96 grams
Iron and Ammonium Citrate 30 grams
Now, with a brown and a blue tone one can obtain
almost any color with the proper combination of ton-
ing and tinting. Take, for instance, a blue toned
film and dip it in a pink solution of aniline dye, and
a surprising result is obtained, particularly if there
are any clouds in the scenes. Green grass and trees
will look almost natural when the film is first toned
blue and then tinted amber. Blue toned films being
of a different shade than the color which is obtained
with aniline blue, a film sometimes shows up better
when tinted blue after it has been toned in a blue
toning solution.
Examples can be multiplied, but the tinting and
toning angle is one which must be left to the indi-
vidual taste of the user, for, as the French proverb
has it, "One does not discuss tastes and colors." At
any rate, all first-class laboratories are prepared to
tint and tone films at a slight cost.
Cementing Short Lengths Into Reels
With the positive films printed up, and colored if
desired, a very necessary operation in the preparation
of motion picture films is the editing and cutting.
The various bits of films are carefully examined so
The Cinema Handbook
as to make certain that the photography is satisfac-
tory, the action comprehensive, and that the footage
is of the proper length. All superfluous footage can
be eliminated. The various bits of film, following
this cutting, are assembled into one long strip by
means of a cementing outfit. Full details regarding
T? : ' ; " ;• ;, : .
Graigellachie,
Bedford Hills, N. Y
- September, 1920
A
Typical title card for the main title of a family
film. This card measures 8 by 10 inches in the
original,
this phase of motion picture work are given on page
287, since projector operators must often make splices
in damaged reels of film.
Another phase of motion picture production is title
• making. The camera can be used for making titles
i^'f desired, although it is best to use some form of
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title machine. When using the ordinary camera, the
titles are either hand-lettered or printed on white
paper and placed some distance away from the
camera so that the title just fills the aperture of the
camera when viewed through the peephole. There
are two ways of making these titles, namely, to
January, 1921
A
Typical title card for sub-title of a faimly film,
If desired, the border may be dropped in
sub-titles.
photograph black lettering on a white background,
in which case the film taken out of the camera is
ready for projection purposes following development,
since it has white lettering on a black background,
which is the ideal arrangement for standard-sized
film titles. This method is known as making titles
n
The Cinema Handbook
o
'0
Strip of title film of an
industrial film.
in camera, and
eliminates the ne-
cessity of a nega-
tive, which is quite
costly, and certain-
ly useless where
only a few feet of
title are required
for one positive
print of the pic-
ture. The other
method is to use
white lettering on
a black back-
ground, and then
photograph the ti-
tle to obtain a
negative film. From
the negative any
number of prints
can be made.
With a makeshift
arrangement for
photographing ti-
tles, the amateur
cinema togr a pher
should endeavor to
make his title copy
as large as possi-
ble so that through
the reduction he
will obtain a sharp
The Cinema Handbook
image on the film. Larger copy, too, means that the
camera can be placed further away, and that leaves
much more room for manipulating the apparatus.
For really good results the camera should be
mounted on a stand somewhat similar to the animat-
ing stand described in Chapter XIV. The copy for
the titles can be placed on the table of such a stand,
and the camera operated from overhead. Besides,
trick titles can be made with such an arrangement,
using cut-out letters on either a white or black back-
ground, as the case may be. The letters can be
moved about' by hand and the exposures made one
at a time with the camera, so as to obtain trick titles.
Sample title copies are shown on pages 237 and 238,
reduced, of course, since the originals measured 8x10
inches. These titles appear in the reverse effect on
the screen — white letters on a black background. It
is best to leave the matter of titles to a laboratory,
since this work really requires laboratory equipment
for proper results. The copy for titles should be
given to the laboratory in typewritten form, so as to
i avoid all chances of misspelled names and words.
With the delivery of the finished titles to the amateur
cinematographer, he should see to it that he also
receives the title copy or "cards," since the same cards
can be used as many times as may be desired, and it
avoids an extra expense if old cards are kept when-
ever there is a chance of their being of some future
use.
In preparing titles it is well to bear in mind that
the number of words is very much limited. A long
title is one with 50 words, and where skill comes
The Cinema Handbook
in is to express a given thought in the least number
of words. The amateur will be surprised to find
how many superfluous words are used in everyday
descriptive matter for expressing thoughts. So in
many titles the original typewritten copy should be
gone over a number of times until the words have
been reduced to the irreducible minimum. As for
footage on titles, the author finds that it is well
to have one running foot to every two words, espe-
cially in amateur projection, where the film is often
sent through the machine at a higher rate than the
usual 65 feet per minute.
Positive film should be placed on a reel so as to
be ready for the projector. If the film is to be added
to other film, then it can be cemented in the usual
way. The reel of film should always be kept in the
tin can, whether it is of celluloid or non-inflammable
stock, for safe keeping.
As for negative, it is simply wound in a roll,
wrapped up in tissue paper and placed in one of the
usual film cans in which negative and positive stock
come from the manufacturer. Most laboratories
maintain a special film vault for the benefit of their
customers and store their films for little if any
fee.
CHAPTER VI.
PROJECTORS FOR PROFESSIONAL
OR AMATEUR USE
PROJECTORS fall into two general classes,
those using standard celluloid professional film and
those using safety film of the non-professional sizes.
In the present chapter we are only concerned with
the first class, making use of standard sized or pro-
fessional film, since the Safety Standard and other
non-professional film projectors are covered at length
in Chapter XIII. of this work.
Analyzing the standard sized film projectors, we
find that the class divides itself quite nicely into
three sub-divisions, for the convenience of this treat-
ment. First, there is the standard type of projector
for strictly professional use, such as is used in our
theatres both large and small. Secondly, there is
the semi-professional projector, which is a compro-
mise between the standard theatrical machine and
the amateur and portable types. Usually projectors
of this type are miniature copies of theatrical projec-
tors, with such modifications as go to simplify the
mechanism for the convenience of the amateur oper-
ator. Thirdly, there is the portable projector, gener-
ally made in the form of a suit-case for the sake of
portability, and quite adaptable to the needs of the
amateur who desires to project standard sized films.
W 1
The Cinema Handbook
Portable Projectors of the Suit-Case Type
We had best start our survey of projectors with
the portable or suit-case types, for the reason that
these will be found best for the needs of the average
amateur who desires to project standard sized film.
Condensing Lena
Elements of a professional projector employing an
arc lamp. Compare this with the simple arrange-
ment for the incandescent lamp type, shown on
the following page.
lAgain, this style is well suited for non-theatrical
projection in general, such as for salesmen, traveling
shows, welfare and factory work, schools, churches,
and so on. Professionally, too, this type comes in
for consideration, since there are several uses for it
in everyday film activities, such as the review of films
by the theatre manager, the projection of reels that
are being edited, and other similar purposes where it
is not desirable to employ a standard projector.
Today there are quite a number of excellent port-
able projectors of the suit-case type, so that the
prospective buyer need not be at a loss for want of
variety. Basically, all the offerings follow the same
general idea, with incandescent lamps as the source
of illumination, an electric motor for the drive, some
E 244 ]
The Cinema Handbook
form or other of safety device to prevent film fires,
proper controls for the rate of projection, rock-steady
mechanism, and an asbestos-lined or otherwise fire-
proofed carrying case which encloses more or less
the entire equipment. In other words, the projector
is enclosed in its own fire-proof booth, so to speak.
To attempt to describe all the offerings would be
impossible in the limited space at our disposal, but
in a spirit of impartiality and a desire to point out
certain striking features of some of the machines, we
touch upon the better known ones. It must be re-
membered that others, not mentioned in detail, are
none the less worthy of attention, duplicating in
many cases the features here mentioned.
One of the oldest of the portable projectors is the
DeVry, weighing 20 pounds. The mechanism head
of this projector is made of cold-rolled steel which
Elements of an amateur projector employing- an
incandescent lamp. The arc lamp is being- re-
placed by the incandescent lamp in professional
projectors of limited throw.
assures the greatest possible tensile strength. The
sprockets, as well as the automatically locking idlers,
are from solid bars of tool steel. It is well to men-
tion these features since they indicate that just as
The Cinema Handbook
much care is required in the construction of these
portable projectors as in the standard theatrical
projectors, if proper screen results are to be obtained.
The DeVry intermittent mechanism, which moves
the film at the standard rate of sixteen pictures per
second, when operating at normal speed, is of the
standard Geneva star and cam type, which is an
eccentric mechanism where the star makes one com-
plete revolution to every four of the cam..
In a projector designed for non-professional use,
it is as essential to include helpful devices as to
eliminate all superfluous non-essentials. For this
reason it will be found that the DeVry, which is
typical of several other portable projectors, contains
only those devices that are essential to projection,
and nothing more. Thus there is no stereopticon
attachment, for the reason that such additional equip-
ment does not make for an efficient arrangement.
The DeVry has neither film magazines nor fire
rollers, in which particular it differs .from most
other portable projectors, some of which are de-
scribed further on. The designer of the DeVry claims
that in only some 40 per cent, of the time these
devices are effective or can be depended upon to
snuff out a flame after a fife is started. This, of
course, is a controversial matter which the author,
after presenting the arguments put forward by
other designers later on, prefers to leave with the
reader for his decision.
The DeVry designer states that in recent tests
before State fire officials it was proved impossible
for the DeVry projector to ignite the film, even when
[ 246 ]
The Cinema Handbook
the automatic fire shutter was removed. When the
light was permitted to ignite the film, only one frame
of the reel could be burned. The snuffers on the
film shoe, as well as a snuffer tube and the addi-
tional fire guard with which the projector is pro-
vided, prevent a spreading of ignition beyond the
source. Guards that prevent the film from coming
in contact with any place that permits of any pos-
sible chance of fire, are also provided on the DeVry
machine.
In these tests, so the author is told, a thousand-
foot reel of inflammable film was ignited with a
match inside of the DeVry, and the door closed. The
film smoldered, but at no time did open flame appear
on the outside of the projector case. During these
tests the DeVry was picked up and carried about
while the film was burning within the case, as there
are many who incorrectly believe that films are ex-
plosive. Films by themselves are not explosive.
Under certain conditions, where the film has been
ignited but is decomposing rather than burning with
a flame, in a closed space, it generates certain gases
which, when mixed with air, may prove explosive.
But films, per se, are not explosive, nor are they
spontaneously combustible.
The case of the DeVry projector thus affords excel-
lent protection. One of the latest additions is that
of another "view opening" or "porthole" in the door
of the projector case. The original opening has been
moved over to take in more specifically the feed and
take-up sprockets, as well as the lower loop, so that
they can be readily seen from any angle. The new
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The Cinema Handbook
opening is at the side of the feed reel, so that the
amount of the film on the reel can at all times be
instantly known. That is a decided advantage, as
becomes immediately obvious to anyone giving it due
consideration. The operator is enabled to know the
conditions inside the projector during actual projec-
tion without opening the case.
As in all present-day portable projectors, the
DeVry makes use of a high-power incandescent lamp,
combined with a highly efficient optical system. So
simple is this optical unit that only one adjustment,
focusing, is necessary, regardless of the size of the
picture or length of throw. The adjustment of
focusing is accomplished by simply turning the
focusing button attached to the exterior of the pro-
jector case. The standard equipment of the DeVry
projector is a lens of 4-inch focus, although on ac-
count of the construction it is possible to use a 6-inch
lens to project a 12 by 9 foot picture at a dis-
tance of eighty feet from the screen Smaller pic-
tures are projected at a shorter distance from the
screen.
A Power Plant for the Portable Projector
The DeVry generator unit is a little device which
may be attached to any automobile, generally the
Ford car, enabling anyone to produce current to
operate the motion picture projector as well as to
light the building or the grounds with a string of
lights, operate the stereopticon, or to operate any
30-35 volt electrically-driven device. Obviously, the
projector employed in conjunction with such a power
r 248 1
The Cinema Handbook
plant must be made for that voltage, and not for
the standard lighting circuit voltage.
The DeVry portable generator, so it is claimed,
gives the itinerant projectionist city conveniences
and makes him independent of any outside assistance
in his exhibition. The outfit is more or less indis-
pensable to the exhibitor in small-town theatres,
rural circuits, propaganda work — health, political,
Americanization, etc., for Chautauquas, tent shows,
open air shows, summer resorts, community work,
large pastorates, consolidated schools, etc. The com-
plete outfit is readily installed in one and one-half
hours' time a-nd requires no mechnical experience
either in installation or operation. The voltage is
controlled with panel box at the projector, and is so
simple to handle that a youngster can operate it as
easily as a veteran, so it is claimed. The generator
is so mounted on the engine frame that it can be
driven by a special gear on the engine shaft and a
chain transmission, while the* car is at rest.
Another portable projector, which is of about the
same general appearance and weight as the DeVry
projector, is the Transatlantic portable projector. It
is claimed to be fire-proof, flickerless, compact, noise-
less and portable. It is operated by electric motor,
with all its gears running in oil. Like the DeVry
and most other portable projectors, this machine
gives a clear, sharp image at distances of from 20
to 90 feet, with rock-steady results. No useless
parts are incorporated in its construction to confuse
the operator.
The novel feature of the Transatlantic projector,
[249]
The Cinema Handbook
which distinguishes it from most other portable pro-
jectors, is the device that makes it possible to stop
the film at any point, so as to have "still" projection
of any desired frame. Thus it is said to combine the
advantages of the stereopticon with those of the
motion picture machine. This feature is brought
about, in complete safety, by having an ingenious
system of water circulation for the condenser appara-
tus. The light, passing through the water-cooled
condenser, is freed of much of its heat by the water,
which is kept in circulation through the pipes and
a little reservoir above by the thermo-siphon method.
It is claimed for this projector that film has been
left in it all night long, at rest, with the light full
on, yet without a fire, indicating that the automatic
water circulating device provides ample cooling for
the powerful rays of the lamp. Besides, the case is
lined with asbestos to provide further protection
from fire. The various controls are on the front
of the case, operable from outside, while the machine
is in operation.
Still another portable projector is the National
Projector, also of the suit-case type, which possesses
certain radical differences that distinguish it from
others of this class. To begin with, it has a dual
lighting system, which is controlled by lugs in the
governer, so that when the machine is operated these
lugs connect by centrifugal force, making contact
that steps up the light automatically. When the
machine is stopped, these lugs drop and cut down
the li.srht to one ampere, which gives a safe light on
the picture with no danger of burning or blistering
The Cinema Handbook
the film. Another novel feature is a unique framing
device, which frames the whole mechanism head of
the machine, allowing the film to remain in mesh
with the intermittent and feed sprocket. In this
This projector, the Aladdin, has the top magazine
folded down into the ease for the sake of
portability.
manner the picture can be framed while the machine
is in motion or stationary.
Again, the National projector drives its inter-
mittent sprockets and the reels by one single silent
chain. All extra belts and gear trains have been
eliminated in this projector. Another feature of
this machine is that all units for projection purposes
[ 251 j
The Cinema Handbook
are assembled on a cast frame, making one solid
unit; and when the machine is completed it is then
fastened into the carrying case by two hinges, which
construction permits it to be swung out of the ma-
chine, independent of the case, for threading up and
inspection of the mechanism. So in this form of
construction there is ready access to all parts, and
the operator is not obliged to work in cramped
quarters.
The controls of the National projector are only
exposed when the machine is in operation, being at
all times housed in the rheostat compartment
at the top of the case. These controls comprise all
connections of, namely, lighting system, reversible
motor switch, and rheostat motor speed control. The
speed of this machine is controlled by the simple
turning of the rheostat motor control to a faster or
slower speed as the operator may desire. The light,
as already stated, is automatically controlled by the
speed of the motor. The machine may be operated
backwards as well as forwards, thus giving ample
opportunity for trick effects. The film reels are en-
closed in metal magazines and placed side by side.
Then we come to the Aladdin Projector, which is
also of the suit-case type. Here the claim to origi-
nality is most strongly exemplified by the arrange-
ment of the reels when set up, which, instead of
being placed side by side as in the usual portable
projector, has one reel above and outside the case,
and the other one inside and in the lower half of
the case. It is true that this arrangement makes
the passage of the film through the mechanism
[252]
The Cinema Handbook
considerably simpler than the side-by-side arrange*
ment, which calls for two sharp twists, as a rule*
The Aladdin projector, which is shown closed on
page 251, opened up and ready for action. The
reel placed above the case provides a simpler
path for the film.
The upper or outside magazine of the Aladdin is s<*
arranged that when the machine is being carried
it is folded down into the case. Otherwise the pro-
[ 253 ]
The American Projectoscope, which throws a pic-
ture with clearness and rock-steady results up to
60 feet away. The various controls for the mech-
anism are placed outside the case so that they
may be available during: projection.
The Cinema Handbook
jector follows more or less the accepted standard
practices, such as incandescent lamp, motor drive,
external controls, and suit-case assembly. The film
is contained in metal magazines.
Then there is the American Projectoscope, which is
a portable machine of the suit-case type weighing 25
pounds. Like the other projectors of this general
class, it draws current from any electric light socket,
either alternating or direct current. It can be
operated forwards or backwards. This machine will
throw a picture at from 6 feet to 80 feet with clear-
ness and rock-steady results. It can be operated
either by motor or by hand.
The mechanism head of the American Projecto-
scope, which contains the motor, motor base, patented
reversible snap switch, shutter, driving gears, star
and cam, sprockets, framing mechanism, aperture,
reel drive pulley and flywheel, is the most impor-
tant part of the assembly. The motor is of the
universal high-speed reversible type, while the pat-
ented reversible motor switch is simplicity itself,
giving universal control from one key. Needless to
say, the workmanship is of the finest in order to
ensure excellent screen results.
The framing device is built into the intermittent
sprocket of the machine. This framing device gives
control of one-twentieth of an inch to each picture.
The American Projectoscope is different from
most projectors in that the shutter is mounted be-
tween the aperture and the projecting lens for pro-
tection, which construction also adds to the com-
pactness of the mechanism. The aperture tube is
f 955 ]
The Cinema Handbook
lined with the most durable and least reflecting ma-
terial obtainable— dead-black velvet. A rewind de-
vice operated from the outside of the case makes it
possible to lock the mechanism and allow the driving
Close-up view of the mechanism of the American
Projectoscope, showing the lamp, film loop, film
magazine and the fire traps of the magazine. The
lens is mounted as shown, while the projector is
being carried.
sprockets to idle. The reel can then be rewound by
hand at a high speed.
The projection lens of this projector is composed
of two sets of compound lenses. These lenses can
be obtained ground to different focal lengths which
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The Cinema Handbook
vary the projecting range from one to eighty feet.
The lamp is mounted nine inches from the aperture,
allowing the light to be cooled before it reaches the
film. A system of three condensing lenses concen-
trates the full value of a 200-watt nitrogen incan-
descent bulb, which produces an extremely brilliant
and white light. The lamp housing is made of alu-
minum and is asbestos-lined, designed to carry most
of the heat off at the side or out through the top.
There are two magzines, each having a separate
door with the film entrance protected by patented
roller snuffers, which are claimed to prevent any
flame from reaching the interior. The reel shafts
which project into the magazines are mounted on
ball bearings.
Still another type of portable projector is the
Universal, which is shown in the accompanying
illustrations. This machine is small, compact and
light, yet projects an excellent screen image. It
takes standard film up to 1,000-foot lengths and
operates from any lamp socket, either alternating or
direct current, or from a storage battery. The lamp
is only 25- volt 100- watt rating, which means a mini-
mum of heat and a minimum of fire danger.
The accessibility of the Universal projector is quite
characteristic of its construction. It is easy to
thread the film in this machine, because the suit-
case cabinet can be thrown open by swinging the
two sides out and clear of the bottom section which
holds the mechanism. Thus every part may bo
readily reached for threading, inspection, oiling ur
even repair.
The Universal projector, entirely closed and ready
to be carried. This machine uses a 25-volt
100-watt gas-filled incandescent lamp and operates
up to 80 feet distant from the screen.
A universal motor which can be used on either
alternating or direct current supplies the driving
power. The motor drives through a worm gear shaft.
The machine is reversible; by means of a special
f £.50
The Cinema Handbook
switch on the outside of the case, the film may be
quickly reversed for purposes of repetition without
rethreading.
The intermittent movement of the Universal pro-
jector deserves special mention. By means of an
exclusively designed and patented twin star and cam
intermittent movement, a brighter, clearer and
steadier picture is obtained than is the case with
many other projectors of the portable variety. In
fact, the flicker is reduced to a minimum. This is
accomplished by a speed ratio of 6 to 1. By this
speed ratio the film moves in one-seventh of the
time and remains stationary six-sevenths of the
time, making the travel time of film 1/114 part of a
second, and insuring better definition of picture on
the screen. The twin intermittent movement is said
to eliminate the old style tension shoes and there-
fore reduces the strain on the sprockets and lessens
the wear and tear on the film.
An illuminating system that throws an intense
light, using a standard 25-volt 100-watt tubular
gas-filled incandescent lamp having a concentrated
filament, is incorporated in the construction. The
lamp is backed up with a highly polished mirror re-
flector and, in connection with the specially designed
condenser, will throw a brilliant and distinct picture
any distance up to 80 feet and from a small screen
image to one 8 feet in width.
Both reels are enclosed in separate metal contain-
ers. An automatic fire shutter is provided which
comes down over the aperture opening the instant
the film stops. The film may be rewound by hand
f *ftO ]
Mechanism of the Universal projector. The doors
of the case swing: back so as to make every part
of the mechanism readily accessible,
or power into one of the containers without operating
or going through the mechanism. The framing may
be done while the machine is in operation.
Reproducing the Theatrical Projector in
Miniature
So much for the suit-case type of portable projec-
tors. Among the several offerings of semi-profes-
the Cinema Handbook
sional projectors is the Zenith projector, which is in
every way capable of projecting pictures comparable
with those in the regular run of motion picture the-
atres. In fact, it may be considered side by side
with the standard projector, except where extremely
long throws and large screen sizes are required, such
as in our largest picture theatres.
The Zenith projector looks very much like the
standard theatrical projectors, to be sure; and the
author was very much impressed with the demonstra-
tions of its work. It has a capacity of 1,000 feet
of standard film, while the stereopticon arrangement
takes the usual 31/! by 4^ inch lantern slides.
First of all, the Zenith has magazines of thick
aluminum construction, with latches and felt safety
iire valves. The lamp used is a 1000-watt, 110- volt
incandescent lamp. The lamp house is large and
well ventilated, keeping the lenses cool. Adjust-
ments of light reflector are possible in all directions
and are easily and quickly made by large hand-
screws. The light can be shifted from the motion
picture mechanism to the stereopticon without adjust-
ment.
Following the modern practice, the motor drive is
employed. A universal motor for 110-volt direct or
-alternating current, with speed controller adjustable
at the turn of a lever, furnishes the driving power.
Hand power can be used if desired. Rewinding is
accomplished by means of a hand crank that is
placed on the upper reel and serves quickly to re-
wind film from the lower to the upper reel, when
operating in the field.
FILM SHIFTING
MECHANISM OR"HEAI
The Zenith semi-professional projector, which contains
practically all the elements of the largre theatrical pro-
jectors, The machine will project pictures of the
same quality as the theatrical pictures for the largest
schoolrooms, churches, clubrooms, and other non-
theatrical gatherings.
The Cinema Handbook
The intermittent movement makes use of the usual
Geneva star and cam. It is easily adjusted to take
up wear, merely by loosening one screw and moving
a small lever. The framing is extremely simple, being
accomplished by a convenient handle while the ma-
chine is running. A safety shutter, which is en-
tirely automatic in its operation, opens as the
machine starts up and closes when the speed drops
below normal, shutting light off at once from the
film. The film is entirely enclosed in a fire-proof
case at all times, only the center of one picture being
exposed to light when running, even the edges being
covered. Safety chambers block the film and stop
the machine at once in case of broken film. In fact,
one of the convincing tests made with the Zenith
projector in order to show its fire-proof features, is
to open the safety shutter and, while the machine
is stopped, allow the film to catch fire from the
light. This it does, but only the space of a single
frame is destroyed, the rest of the film being un-
damaged.
The film take-up is automatic and winds the film
snugly on the lower reel. Legs are quickly detachable
from the machine, yet when in place are strong and
rigid. The front legs are adjustable for height. The
material consists of cast aluminum with glass win-
dows for the frame and body. The gears are of
phosphor bronze and steel, bronze bushed. The bear-
ings are of phosphor bronze. The weight of the
Zenith projector, complete, is 65 pounds, so that
despite its rugged construction and professional ap-
pearance it is still quite portable.
Close-up view of the mechanism of the Zenith pro-
jector. Only one frame of the film is exposed to the
powerful beam of light at one time, and at most
only one frame of the film can possibly burn if the
film should become ignited.
The Cinema Handbook
Somewhat similar to the Zenith projector, in broad
outlines, at least, is the Burwood projector, which is
also designed to meet the particular requirements of
educational, social, civic, industrial and religious
organizations which use the screen for purposes of
instruction and entertainment. The Burwood has
enclosed film magaiznes, incandescent lamp, stereopti-
con attachment, entirely enclosed mechanism, and
four legs that can be adjusted to any height and
angle desired. The machine can be driven by its
own motor or by hand. The design of the worm drive
mechanism, an exclusive feature of the Burwood, is
simple and efficient. It operates on the principle of
the single shaft drive, which gives a constant sliding
motion, thus reducing vibration to a minimum and
producing pictures of greatest distinctness. The
Burwood design seems to be composed of a minimum
of parts, and therefore should cost very little to
maintain in order.
Other projectors, such as the Cosinograph, in this
same general division have very much the same fea-
tures. There are several European offerings which
are somewhat less costly than their American counter-
parts, yet with all fairness to them it seems that their
construction is inferior to our domestic makes. Then
again, some of the European machines have exposed
film reels — no fire-proof magazines are employed —
which, it goes without saying, is dangerous practice.
A Different Machine Designed by a Pioneer
The Graphoscope is a new motion picture project-
ing machine, unique in many features, and abso-
1266']
The Cinema Handbook
lutely distinctive. It has been designed by (X
Francis Jenkins, of Washington, D. C., who is a
pioneer and an authority in motion pictures.
The lamp house of the Zenith projector, showing
the tubular gas-filled incandescent lamp and the
reflector. The condenser is located in the cone-
shaped member at the right.
First of all, the film-handling mechanism of the
Graphoscope is inclosed in a box, with a glazed door.
The Cinema Handbook
The Geneva gears are in a box of oil, and silent
connecting rods are used in place of the usual gear
train. Ball bearings are used on the heavier shafts,
and the sprocket teeth are of tool steel. All handles
are within easy and comfortable reach of the opera-
tor.
The film tension members are long, hardened steel
strips which bear lightly against the film. For this
reason, and because the film comes in contact with
few sprockets, rollers and similar devices, it is
claimed that the strain on the film is reduced to the
smallest possible amount and the life of the film is
correspondingly lengthened.
The reels are supported side by side in the base
of the machine below the probable source of ignition,
and sealed with fire-quenching rollers. In the same
metal box the films can be rewound after the show
is over, for the rewind is direct-belted to the motor,
relieving the mechanism of this source of wear.
The Graphoscope Junior, which is the smaller
machine, uses standard film and projects brilliant
pictures up to 12 feet wide, with projection distances
up to 100 feet. For larger pictures or a greater
throw the Graphoscope professional model with its
arc lamp alone is suitable. The magazine takes the
universal 10-inch reel of 1,000 feet of film. All
wiring is concealed, the switch wiring and connec-
tions being enclosed in the magazine.
The adoption of a total refracting prism of finest
lens glass gives a beauty of screen picture which is
claimed to be unusual, and also enables the shutter
to be mounted directly on the Geneva drive shaft,
J
STEREOPTicAN DEVICE
HEAD SHUTTER .7
\ •.'••"./• /
TAKEUI
PULLEY AND
BEL
The Graphoscope projector of medium size, suit-
able for use in the large auditorium or small-sized
theatre. Unlike the usual projectors, this machine
has the lamphouse arranged at right angles to
the projected beam.
thus eliminating slack between shutter and Geneva
drive.
The Graphoscope Junior is readily carried from one
classroom to another, when used in schools, and
f 269 ]
Close-up view of the mechanism of the Grapho-
scope. The film comes up from the magazines
below. The beam of light from the lamp house
conies in from the left, passes through the film,
and is bent by the prism so as to pass out through
the lens.
when set on a table, desk or the like, is ready for
instant projection. There are no legs to fasten on
or loose pieces to be accidentally left behind. The
current is taken from any standard lighting socket.
The adoption of a triangular connecting rod in-
stead of a train of gears to synchronize the upper
[270]
The Cinema Handbook
and lower sprocket is claimed to reduce wear, and,
incidentally, makes the machine more quiet. The
driving system is simple and unique in design. The
power is applied through a mechanical speed adjust-
ment to the intermittent drive shaft, where the most
power is needed, and through a decreased ratio to
the sprockets.
One of the new incandescent lamps is employed,
and the magazine of the Graphoscope Junior forms
the support for the mechanism, motor, and lamp
house. The construction is claimed to be absolutely
fire-proof, for the film in use is locked up in a
single metal magazine below. Even the loops and
length of film in the intermittent mechanism of the
projector are enclosed in the glazed metal case.
There are several other projectors in the semi-
professional field which space does not permit us to
review. However, those already mentioned serve to
represent the class.
The Big Machines of the Professionals
The Graphoscope, big brother to the Graphoscope
Junior, is intended for theatrical or professional
use. Its constructional features are practically a
duplication of those of its smaller brother, except,
of course, on a much larger scale. The use of the
prism to project the light laterally is pointed out
as increasing the space in the projection booth, for
the machines stand parallel to the front wall of the
booth. The arc lamp, which is now used because we
are dealing with professional work, is of the univer-
sal two-carbon type, of substantial construction and
[271]
The Cinema Handbook
provided with all adjustments. Double walls and a
ventilator flue keep the lamp house surprisingly cool.
The incandescent spot of the positive carbon is
maintained in the axis of the lens without shadows
Front view of the Graphoscope head, showing: the
shutter, lens, and the ingenious triangrle member
whieh takes the place of the usual elaborate gear-
ing for transmitting the power to the various
sprockets.
from a large negative carbon. This brings the incan-
descent spot of the positive carbon in the exact
focus of the condensing lens, the latter being mounted
in a moulded lens-holder having a plurality of lens
[272]
The Cinema Handbook
grooves therein. For this reason the greatest efficiency
is said to be obtained, and no condenser breakage
is experienced.
We have dealt with the Graphoscope only because
• in this case it is considerably out of the ordinary
among professional type machines. When it comes to
other professional projectors now in general use,
the author has not picked out any one make for
the reason that this would not be fair to others. At
any rate, the professional projector today is more
or less of standardized design an construction, like
most of the other machinery in the motion picture
industry. There are the Powers' Cameragraph, Sim-
plex, Motiograph, Baird, and others.
The main point of variance between professional
and non-professional projectors is in the matter of
size and projecting capacity. The professional ma-
chines are more heavily built in order to meet the
gruelling service of the theatre, and in order to pro-
ject pictures a great distance and to fill a larger
<screen. These requirements naturally call for more
powerful light than is ever required in amateur
work, and for that reason the arc lamp is employed.
In fact, the main point of variance, after all, between
the professional and non-professional projectors is
that the latter do not use arc lamps today, making
use of the incandescent type exclusively, while the
former use arc lamps in almost all instances. There
is a tendency, however, to use incandescent lamps
today in the professional projectors of medium
throw.
The advantages of the incandescent lamp are mani-
[ 274 ]
One of the several leading: types of professional pro-
jectors employed in theatres. An electric motor drives
the machine so that the operator can devote his time
to other duties.
The Cinema Handbook
fold. Better projection results, as well as greater
convenience. When once adjusted, the incandescent
lamp requires no further attention, and so permits
the operator to devote his entire time and thought
to the actual projection of the picture. Carbon ad-
justment is eliminated and a steadier illumination
is assured.
The best results are obtained when the incandescent
lamp is used in its proper sphere of duty. To expect
it to project a 16 by 20 foot picture will only result
in disappointment, for that is strictly in the province
of the powerful arc light. This simple statement of
fact must not be misconstrued. Where the length
of throw and size of picture permit its use, it will
produce results in every way the equal of, and in
some cases superior to, those of the arc lamp equip-
ment. The incandescent lamp can be used for all
professional projection where the size of picture de-
sired is 10 by 13 feet or less, and the throw not
over 90 feet.
But the professional machine is the professional
man's machine, and the amateur is little concerned
with it outside of knowing what a professional pro-
jector looks like and how it differs from the non-
professional types. Suffice it to say that there are
several excellent works on the subject of professional
projection, so that little could be done here in the
way of contributing to this branch of the motion
picture art in the limited space at our disposal.
CHAPTER VII.
PROJECTING AND CAKING FOR
THE POSITIVE FILM
BEFORE launching on a discourse on motion
picture projection of the non-professional cate-
gory, it is perhaps well to give the following brief
review of the leading principles of projection com-
piled for the reader who, having no knowledge of
optics, wishes to understand the operation of pro-
jection apparatus. The author is indebted to the
Bausch & Lomb Optical Company for this informa-
tion.
With the aid of the apparatus we throw or project
upon a screen an enlarged image of a transparent
object, either, in the form of a glass slide or film.
The process is almost the reverse of ordinary pho-
tography. For example, in photographing a scene
by means of the photographic objective or lens, we
obtain a reduced image of that scene on the ground
glass. This glass is replaced by the sensitized plate
and by the use of chemicals is fixed thereon. Now in
projection we reverse this process. From the picture
made with the lens we make a transparent slide, or
we use a positive film, and by means of a condensed
light we strongly illuminate these, while with an
objective lens an enlarged image is projected upon
the screen, this screen image corresponding with the
real objects first photographed.
[277]
The Cinema Handbook
Again a Matter of Optics
From this illustration it will be seen that the first
essential in projection work is the lens or objective.
Just as in photography the quality and tone of the
picture depend to a very great extent upon the
quality and character of the lens, so in projection
s
General scheme of projection, showing- the passage
of the beam of light from the illuminant to
the screen.
the objective is the factor which determines the ex-
cellence of the screen image.
The condensing lenses must be of a diameter
slightly larger than the diagonal of the slide or film
in use.
As the condensing lenses are in close proximity to
the arc or other source of light, they are, of course,
subjected to considerable heat and will expand and
contract accordingly as they are heated or cooled.
Some arrangement should, therefore, be made for
this expansion and contraction so that it will be as
even as possible.
The optical principle of projection for both lantern
The Cinema Handbook
slide and moving picture apparatus will be more
readily understood from the accompanying diagram.
At E is an electric light or other suitable illumi-
nant the light from which is caught up by the
condensing lenses or condenser C ; this condenser is
an arrangement of lenses so constructed as firstly
to gather up as great a volume of light as possible,
and secondly, to concentrate the light which it gathers
at the center or diaphragm plane of the objective
when the objective is located at the proper distance
from the slide or film, which distance is determined
by the focal length of the objective.
The slide or film should be placed at such a point
that the entire area of the opening is fully illu-
minated, and it should also be placed so that the
greatest number of light rays possible should pass
through it. Taking into consideration the fact that
the opening in the mat in the lantern slide is 2%
by 3 inches, and in the moving picture film is 11/16
by 15/16, it will at once be evident that the slide
must be placed at the point D in the diagram in
order that its entire area be covered, and the moving
picture film must be located at the point F in order
that it may take in the greatest number of light
rays.
Proceeding from the slide the light passes through
the objective 0, where the rays cross and the object
is hence reversed, and by means of the objective the
object is imaged or delineated upon the screen 8.
The degree of sharpness and flatness of the image
depends upon the optical correctness of the lens.
The relative positions of the arc or incandescent
The Cinema Handbook
lamp used as the illuminant, condenser, and objective
must be such that an image of the light source will
be formed at the diaphragm of the objective. All the
light coming from the condenser is then utilized and
the image on the screen is at its brightest.
Oftentimes lantern slides and films are used inter-
changeably, and approximately the same sized image
is desired with both. As the opening in the slide mat
is approximately three times that of the moving pic-
ture film, it is, therefore, necessary to have a lens
for lantern slides approximately three times the
focal length of that of the lens used for films. It is
possible to match the size of the images in one
dimension only (either width or height) as the two
openings are not proportionate in size.
It is necessary, therefore, in ordering lenses for
such purpose, to specify -whether the images are to
be the same height or width.
Selecting a Lens for Projection
The most important consideration in projection
work is the lens, for on its selection depend the
quality and size of the image on the screen. Not the
lens mounting, nor even the diameter of the lens
itself, but its equivalent focus and distance from the
screen, determine the size of the image.
At a given distance the greater the focal length
the smaller will be the image. Shorter focus lenses,
therefore, will give large images. Do not make the
mistake of selecting lenses of such short focus that
the magnification will be so great that when the
observer is near the screen much of the definition
[280^
The Cinema Handbook
and perspective will be sacrificed. Brilliant pictures
of medium size are far more satisfactory. However,
Equiv. focus
Inches
15
ft.
20
ft.
25
It.
30
ft.
35
ft-
40
ft.
45
it.
50
ft.
60
ft.
70
ft.
80
ft.
90
ft.
100
ft.
2Ya
4.8
6.4
8.0
i..
,,.3
12.9
14.5
16.1
6.5
8.7
11.0
13.2
15.4
17.6
19.8
22.0
2y2
5.4
6.8
8.2
9.6
10.9
12.3
13.7
16.4
7.4
9.3
11.2
13.1
14.9
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18.7
22.4
3
4.5
5.7
6.8
8.0
9.1
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13.7
16.0
6.2
7.7
9.3
10.9
12.4
14.0
15.6
18.7
21.8
VA
4.9
5.8
6.8
7.8
8.8
9.8
11.7
13.7
15.7
6.6
8.0
9.3
10.6
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13.3
16.0
18.7
21.4
4
4.2
5.1
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6.8
7.7
8.5
10.3
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13.7
15.4
5.8
7.0
8.1
9.3
10.5
11.6
14.0
16.3
18.7
21.0
4H
4.5
5.3
6.2
6.8
7.7
9.1
10.6
12.2
13.7
15.4
6.2
7.2
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9.3
10.5
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16.6
18.7
21.0
5
4.8
5.4
6.1
6.8
8.2
9.6
10.9
12.3
13.7
6.5
7.4
8.4
9.3
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13.0
14.9
16.8
18.7
5M
4.3
5.9
4.9
6.7
5.6
7.6
6.2
8.4
7.4
10.2
8.7
11.9
9.9
13.6
11.2 12.4
15.3 17.0
6
4.5
5.1
5.7
6.8
8.0
9.1
10.3 11.4
6.2
7.0
7.7
9.3
10.9
12.4
14.0
15.6
6K
4.7
5.2
6.3
7.3
8.4
9.6
10.6
6.4
7.1
8.6
10.0
1M
13.0
14.5
7
4.4
4.9
5.8
6.8
7.8
8.8
9.8
6.0
6.6
8.0
9.3
10.6
12.0
13.3
TA
4.5
5.4
6.4
7.3
82
9.1
6.2
7.4
8.7
10.0
11.2
12.3
8
5.1
6.0
6.8
Y.7
8.5
7.0
8.1
9.3
10,5
1M
Projection table for motion pictures. By glancing:
across from the focus figure to the column indicating
the distance of throw, the screen height and width
of image may be obtained.
a specially corrected series of projection lenses, re-
cently introduced by M. H. Schoenbaum of New
1
The Cinema Handbook
York, are said to give a perfectly flat field at any
distance with objectives of very short focal lengths,
such, for instance, as 1^-inch equivalent focus.
The projection distance must be measured from
the film or slide to the screen. The accompanying
tables show the size of image obtained with lenses
of different focal lengths at varying distances. Other
sizes, focal lengths and distances can be computed
as follows:
The size of the image can be determined by multi-
plying the difference between the distance from lens
to screen and the focal length of the objective, by the
/size of the slide or film, and dividing the product
by the focal length.
For example:
Let L be the projection distance, 40 feet (480
inches) ; S, the slide mat, 3 inches; F, the focus of
the lens, 12 inches; then we have the formula (in
which d is the size of the image)
d = 8 (L-F)
F
Substituting for the letters their known values we
have
d = 3 (480—12) _ 117 .ncheg or 9% feet
To determine the focal length, it is necessary to
multiply the size of the slide or film opening by the
distance from lens to screen, and divide the product
by the sum of the size of the image and the size of
tin- slide.
f 2(9.? 1
The Cinema Handbook
Thus we have the formula
F =
S X
d + s
substituting their values ae before
F = - == 12 inches.
117 + 3 120"
With the other factors given, we can determine the
distance from slide to screen by multiplying the sum
of the image and the si/c of the slide mat, by the
focal length, and divide this product by the size of
slide mat, thus :
L = ' * substituting values
L = 12 := 48o inches = 40 feet.
3
So much for the matter of lenses and the mathe-
matics thereof. Now we are ready to go ahead with
the actual work of projecting, first considering the
film and its inspection, which is a very necessary
procedure if good projection is to result.
The Care, Use, and Abuse of Film
If all the film you employed were your own per-
sonal property and always under your personal care,
there would be little need for inspecting the film prior
to projection. But film is expensive, and new film is
constantly required in order to vary one's motion
picture shows. Hence it is quite obvious that one
[ 283 ]
Equiv. focus
IS
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
Inches
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.
ft.^
5
8.0
10.8 13.5
16.3
19.0
8.8
11.8
14.8
17.8
20.8
5#
7.3
8.8
12.3
14.8
17.3
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7.9
10.7
13.4
16.1
18.8
21.6
6
6.6
8.9
11.2
13.5
15.8
18.1
20.4
7.3
9.8
12.3
14.8
17.3
18,8
22.3
6K
6.1
8.2
10.4
12.5
14.6
18.7
18.8
6.7
8.0
11.3
13.6
15.9
18.2
20.5
7
5.7
7.6
9.6
11.6
13.5
15.5
17.5
19.4
6.2
8.3
10.5
12.6
14.8
16.9
19.0
21.2
VA
5.3
7.1
8.9
10.8
12.6
14.4
16.3
18.1
5.8
7.8
9.8
11.8
13.8
15.8
17.8
19.8
8
6.6
8.4
10.1
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13.5
15.2
17.0
20.4
7.3
8.1
11.0
12.9
14.8
16.6
18.5
22.3
V/2
6.2
7.8
9.5
11.1
12.7
14.3
16.0
19.2
6.8
8.6
10.3
12.1
13.9
15.6
17.4
20.9
8
5.9
7.4
8.8
10.5
12.0
13.5
15.1
18.1
21.1
6.4
8.1
8.8
11.4
13.1
14.8
16.4
19.8
23.1
VA
5.6
7.0
8.5
8.9
11.4
12.8
14.2
17.1
20.0
6.1
7.6
9.2
10.8
W.4
14.0
15.5
18.7
21.9
10
5.3
6.6
8.0
8.4
10.8
12.2
13.5
16.3
19.0
21.8
5.8
7.3
8.8
10.3
11.8
13.3
14.8
17.8
20.8
23.8
12
5.5
6.6
7.8
8.9
10.1
11.2
13.5
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18.1
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6.0
7.3
8.5
9.8
11.0
12.3
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17.3
19.8
22.3
14
5.6
6.6
7.6
8.6
8.6
11.6
13.5
15.5
17.5
18.4
6:2
7.3
8.3
8.4
10.5
12.6
14.8
16.8
19.0
21.2
16
5.8
6.6
7.5
8.4
10.1
11.8
13.5
15.2
17.0
6.3
7.3
8.2
8.1
11.0
12.8
14.8
16.6
18.5
18
5.1
5.9
6.8
7.4
8.8
10.5
12.0
13.5
19.1
5.6
6.4
7.3
8.1
8.8
11.4
13.1
14.8
16.4
20
5.3
6.0
6.6
8.0
8.4
10.8
12.2
13.5
5.8
6.5
7.3
8.8
10.3
11.8
13.3
14.8
22
5.4
6.0
7.3
8.5
1 9 J
11.0
12J
5.9
6.6
7.9
8.8
40.7
12J
13.4
24
5.5
6.6
7.8
^8.8
tO.1
11.2
6.0
7.3
8.5
8.8
rr.ff
12.3
Projection table for lantern slide projection. By
glancing across from the focus figure to the column
indicating the distance of throw, the screen height
and width of image may be obtained.
The Cinema Handbook
reel must serve for a large number of projectionists,
and it becomes, therefore, more or less public prop-
erty. Coincidently, it is only human nature that
some projectionists should not be as careful with
said film as they might be, and as a result the film
is often damaged in the course of its u,sage and
travels from one place to another.
So the first step is to examine the film before pro-
jection, so that any flaws or damage may be
detected and mended before the film is run through
the projector, not only in order to preclude the
annoying delay occasioned by the breakdown of the
film, but also because damaged film is apt to cause
certain complications in the projection.
Film, when received from the exchanges, generally
comes rewound and ready for the projector. The
reliable exchange always sees to it that the film has
been inspected and repaired, and when the projection-
ist is dealing with a reliable exchange he need not
necessarily inspect the film, especially if the time
and effort can ill be spared. However, inspection is
a simple procedure. Either a regular rewinder set
can be used, or the film can be run through the
rewinder arrangement on the projector actually em-
ployed. The reels are placed so that the film being
rewound travels from left to right, with the emulsion
side up. The film is grasped between the left fore-
finger and left thumb, with just enough pressure
slightly to cup the film. In this manner it becomes
possible to detect every damaged sprocket hole, tear
and patch, if the rewinding is carried out at a reason-
able rate of speed. Rushing the film through is apt
[MS]
• •
The Cinema Handbook
to accomplish nothing, hence is only a waste of time
and effort.
The damaged or torn sprocket hole should be cut
as indicated in the accompanying illustration. While
it is true that the defect may pass through a pro-
jector without hitch of any kind in its damaged
state, the probabilities are that one part or the
Rewinding outfit of the simplest kind employed
for rewinding: after projection and also for
examination.
other may catch on the idler, thus tearing the film
and causing the loss of the loop, and otherwise
damaging the film so that the machine has to be
stopped anyway. It is better to take the time re-
quired to make the repair before starting the pro-
jection.
Film is delicate, it goes without saying. A certain
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number of repairs must be counted on, especially
when it is borne in mind that the long celluloid
Universal splicing machine, showing iiow a piece
of film is held in place and the straight-edge
applied so as to clean just the right amount of
film for the splice.
ribbon is composed of many short lengths of film
cemented together; and due to the heat, friction,
The Cinema Handbook
bending, stressing and other factors rising out of
projection, these joints often give way and the film
parts in the course of handling.
Universal splicing: machine, with one end of film
laid over the other, ready to have the cement
applied and the press closed for cementing.
Still, there is nothing formidable about cementing
or joining film. A little care is required and the work
must be neatly done, since an improperly made patch
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The Cinema Handbook
shows up on the screen, let alone coming undone with
all the inconvenience which that entails. As shown
in the accompanying illustration, the film should be
cut immediately on the frame line, while the other
end is cut about one-eighth inch beyond the frame
line. The latter film is then taken in hand, and the
one-eighth inch of extra picture or frame is carefully
moistened and the emulsion scraped off clean with a
safety-razor blade. Remember, a good patch cannot
be obtained unless all the emulsion is removed and
the celluloid base is bared.
Some form of splicing machine or film press is a
positive necessity, for the cementing operation par-
takes somewhat of the nature of a weld, since the
film cement dissolves the celluloid of both pieces to
be joined and virtually causes one to flow into the
other, so to speak. Therefore, unless a firm pressure
is applied the joint cannot be satisfactory.
The author has found the Universal type of film
splicing machine most convenient for all-round work
on standard sized film. With this machine, which
is shown in the accompanying illustration, the film
is first cut at the left, about 3/32 to 1/8 inch to the
right of the frame line. Then it is located on the
machine as shown, emulsion side up, and the straight
edge is brought parallel with and on* the left border
of the frame line. Then the previously slightly
moistened »emulsion from the portion of the film pro-
truding from the straight-edge as illustrated, can be
safely removed with a safety-razor blade, with a
square edge scraper, or better still, with a special
steel wire brush made for the purpose, which safe-
The Cinema Handbook
guards against undercutting. This done, the film
thus prepared is placed on the machine as shown in
the second illustration, holding it there by bringing
the hinged arm down on it. The other end of film
is then cut through at the middle of frame line. Film
cement is now applied on the bared portion of the
.first end of the film. The pins of the cementing
machine serve to hold the two film ends in place
so that the joint may be properly made with the
sprocket holes maintaining the proper step after the
splice has been brought about. So, after applying
the cement, the main hinged member is brought down
and locked in place. If, after three to five seconds,
the machine is opened, the surplus cement, still in
semi-fluid condition, may be removed by gentle rub-
bing with a clean piece of cheese cloth. Quick move-
ments, from applying the cement to and including
the application of pressure, are recommended, as the
adhesive quality of partly hardened cement is very
poor. This work requires considerable practice before
dexterity is gained. In fact, in the motion picture
industry girls are trained for just this kind of
work.
Unless care is exercised in making the splices,
misframes or bad spots are the result. A dirty patch
shows up big on the screen. Misframes are detected
when the framing of the projector is thrown out of
gear, and it becomes necessary for the operator to
reframe the image so that the picture just fills the
screen nicely, instead of having the bottom of one
frame and the top of the next showing on the screen
at the same time.
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The Matter of True Reels
What we have learned about rented film also ap-
plies to the reels on which the film is wound. The
usual reels that come with film are apt to be the
victims of pretty rough wear and handling, with the
result that they are bent out of shape and are any-
thing else but true. So the careful projectionist never
fails to transfer the film from the exchange reels
to his own reels, which he keeps in perfect shape
and absolutely true and clean. This is but another
precaution that makes for perfect projection. It
requires but little time and effort to carry out, and
is well worth the bother. Nothing can give rise to
more trouble for so little cause than a slightly bent
reel. The film in that event catches on the bent por-
tion and either fails properly to unwind from the
top reel, or climbs on the rim of the damaged take-up
reel until it causes trouble in the projection. Obvi-
ously, when the films have been used and are to be
returned to the exchange, they can be wound back
on the exchange reels and the projectionist's own
reels returned to their place, ready to receive a fresh
batch of films.
The foregoing-mentioned practice takes time and
trouble, true; but it will be found to pay in the
long run. Unfortunately, it is not common practice.
Care of the Film Between Projections
Film should always be kept in a cool, damp place
when not being used in the projector. It is a fact
that heat and a dry atmosphere destroy the pliability
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The Cinema Handbook
of the celluloid base of the film, making it brittle
and weakening the strength of the joints. In fact,
the extreme heat generated in some of* the modern
high-power projectors, such as those used in our
largesst picture houses, with throws of 200 feet and
over, is responsible for weakening the films which are
passed through such machines. The truth of the
matter is that certain film companies have been ac-
cused of producing film stock of poorer quality during
recent years; but that is not the case. The films
are often exposed to such intense heat in the larger
projectors that they are virtually baked and their
pliability destroyed. Such films then become brittle
and are liable to break and tear at the slightest
application of undue strain. However, as far as the
amateur projectors are concerned, there is no danger
of this, since the light employed is not sufficiently
powerful and hot to injure the film. These facts
are only mentioned by way of general information.
An air-tight humidor is a very desirable piece of
equipment for the amateur projectionist who has
some regard for his films and those entrusted to his
care. A blotter moistened with a solution of glycer-
ine, camphor, eucalyptol and menthol, placed in the
film container, is often of value in improving the
condition of a hard, brittle film. The reason for this
is that the celluloid of the usual film contains what
is known as a "solvent," which gives it the pliable
characteristic. The solvent of most films is camphor,
which accounts for the strong camphor smell of some
celluloids. Again, a blotter dampened with water
is apt to prove of value in reviving the pliability of
The Cinema Handbook
a film. But it is well to exercise some care when
using water near films, for if the film is subjected
to excessive moisture, the emulsion soon softens and
even runs off the celluloid base.
So much for the film. Now when it comes to the
projector, it is well to exercise extreme neatness and
care. The difference between good projection and poor
projection is largely a matter of attending to the
many little details which, while seemingly insignifi-
cant if considered alone, in the aggregate go to make
perfect projection.
First of all, the projector should always be kept
clean, which is an easy task if done at regular inter-
vals and preferably before showing pictures. So
much oil, grease and graphite are employed to
lubricate the usual projector that it is quite to be
expected that oil and grease find their way to the
film-handling members, such as the sprockets, idlers
and gate. While the projector should be oiled before
each exhibition, if possible, it should certainly be
wiped clean of excess oil so that the film will not
be soiled. The presence of oil in the path of film
generally results in the accumulation of dust which,
sooner or later, marks the film and results in dirty
projection. Any oil that should accidently fall on
film may be removed with a soft, lintless cloth,
whether on the emulsion or celluloid side.
Housekeeping Around the Projector
A common source of trouble is the accumulation of
tiny hairs or wooly substance in the aperture, which
make their presence known by showing about the
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The Cinema Handbook
frame of the projected pictures. These can be
avoided by cleaning out the aperture with a soft,
lintless cloth before and after each reel is projected.
Film, of course, is subject to wear in its travel
through the projector; and much wear results in the
accumulation of considerable dirt in the sprockets,
between the sprocket teeth. In order to clean this
dirt off the sprockets, a stiff tooth-brush or type-
writer brush should be used as frequently as the
accumulation is noticed. The steady accumulation
of such dirt, if not checked in time, causes the film
to climb with a noticeable unsteadiness on the screen,
results in the loss of loop, and even causes injury
to the delicate sprocket holes.
Dirt and dust are the arch enemies of the film
throughout its career, or from the time when it is
made in the film factory until it is loaded into the
camera, exposed, developed, washed, dried, shipped
and projected. The projectionist cannot exercise too
much care in cleaning out his projector as frequently
as possible. The entire film track should be kept
free of all dirt accumulations. The idlers or rollers,
on which the film rests, should be examined to see
that they turn freely, especially if the emulsion or
dull side of the film is in contact with them. Film
is delicate, and the friction produced by passing over
the stationary face of a roller that is not rolling is
sufficient to produce severe scratches. The same may
be said about the rollers employed in the magazine
openings for fire guard. These should revolve freely.
Tlien again, the felt or velvet pads, which are also
used for fire guards, should be frequently examined
' f 296 ]
The Cinema Handbook
in order to brush off and clean off the accumulations
of dust and dirt and even tiny film particles which
are apt to cause film scratches.
Trouble is often experienced with new film being
projected for the first few times. A hard material
collects on the tension springs and causes a loud,
pounding noise. In such event the machine should
be immediately stopped, the gate opened and the
accumulation removed from the tension shoe with
the fingernail or by means of a slightly moist rag.
The use of a knife or other sharp metal edge should
be avoided, for this practice is apt to scratch the
highly polished surfaces of the projector and cause
subsequent trouble.
The difficulty just mentioned may be avoided by
waxing the film before it is projected, so claim some
authorities. In fact, there are special machines on
the market which wax a film in short order, thus
ensuring better projection and longer life, so it is
said. Film manufacturers often wax their films
before shipping them to the exchanges, although an
occasional news reel or other urgent release comes
through unwaxed. A simple way of applying wax
is to hold a cake of paraffin against either edge of
the film during rewinding. Another expedient is to
apply a little paraffin on the polished metal surfaces-
of the tension springs and gate of the projector.
A machine, designed by M. H. Schoenbaum of New*
York, is said not only to cause new or "green" film
to run smoothly through the projector without waxr
but also to clean both sides of the film, when old,
in one operation.
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The Cinema Handbook
The Adjustment of the Light
Successful results in projection depend largely
upon the correct adjustment of the lamp, which
must throw a brilliantly illuminated circle or rect-
angle upon the screen. After the objective or lens
Circles showing illumination on the screen when
the lamp is improperly adjusted and when it is
correctly adjusted.
is focused, as will be evidenced by a sharp clear
image on the screen, the adjustment of the lamp
may be studied. In the case of some projectors
which include a stereopticon attachment, the slide
and slide holder should be removed so as to project
a full circle, as shown in the accompanying illustra-
tions. If the light is centered and the lamp cor-
rectly adjusted this circle will be clean and entirely
free from coloration or shadows. However, if the
effects shown in Figs. 1 and 2 appear, the operator
must know that the source of illumination needs to
be properly adjusted laterally, being too far to the
[£98]
The Cinema Handbook
right or the left. Figs. 3 and 4 show the effects
when the light is too high or too low. Figs. 5, 6
and 7 represent the effect of having the light too near
or too far from the condenser. Fig. 8 shows the
light in the correct position, the field being entirely
clear. Of course, if the rectangular field of the
motion picture projector is being used for these
tests, the same results will be more or less noted
and can accordingly be corrected.
The Screen That Receives the Pictures
The screen may be anything from a white wall or
ceiling used in conjunction with the projection of
films with a portable projector, in which case the
operator does not wish to be burdened with the
additional weight and bulk of a screen, or one of
the numerous screens now available. For those who
desire to make their own screens, the author sug-
gests the following:
Mix boiling water and whiting until the mixture
is of a creamy consistency. To one gallon of this
mixture add one pint of fluid glue and one pint of
glycerine. Paint on the stretched canvas with a
wide brush and lay it on smoothly. When dry, the
canvas can be rolled.
The same preparation may be used for painting
a screen on a wall, where the installation is a
permanent one. The author has made good use of
aluminum paint which, if anything, produces better
results than the plain wKite surface just mentioned.
Aluminum paint has excellent reflecting qualities,
and for that reason it is to be preferred to white
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The Cinema Handbook
surfaces. The greater the reflecting qualities of the
screen, the brighter the pictures with a given amount
of light.
It is of interest to note that the eye sees a picture
on the screen not by the light which strikes the
screen, but by the light which the screen reflects to
the eye. If we imagine a perfectly black screen, one
which reflects no light at all — we see at once that
no matter how strong the beam we project on the
screen we will obtain no picture at all. Screens used
in practice vary in reflection factor; that is, in their
power to reflect light, through very wide limits;
hence it is obviously necessary to consider the re-
flection factor of different screens when discussing
screen intensities. Nor is it correct to assume that
the screen which reflects the highest percentage of
light striking it is necessarily the best screen to use,
for the manner in which the reflected light is dis-
tributed is also a factor which affects the brightness
of the picture. For example, it is possible to con-
ceive of a screen which reflects a very large propor-
tion of the light striking it, yet which, due to the
fact that it distributes the reflected light far out to
the sides, is actually less satisfactory than one which
reflects a lower percentage of the light striking it
but which confines its reflected light within useful
angles.
From the standpoint of their reflection character-
istics, screens in common use may be divided into
two classes :
Diffuse reflecting screens ;
Spread reflecting screens.
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The Cinema Handbook
Of the first class, white cloth screens and plaster
screen are typical. A white cloth screen when clean
can be made to reflect as high as 70 to 75 per cent,
of the light which strikes it; and a plaster screen
80 to 88 per cent. Please note, however, that the light
is reflected at wide angles. Such screens are well
adapted to theatres in which the position of the
seats with respect to the screen is such that the
picture must be viewed at relatively large angles, for
no matter from what angle the screen is viewed, the
brightness is the same because of the way in which
the light is reflected.
Aluminumized screens and ground-mirror screens
are examples of the spread reflecting class. A clean
aluminumized screen can be designed to reflect
about 60 to 65 per cent, of the light striking it and
will confine the reflected, light within an angle of
approximately 30 degrees. Ground-mirror screens
when clean can be made to reflect approximately 80
to 90 per cent, of the light and confine the light
within about 30 degrees. Such screens are well
adapted to theatres in which the seats are so ar-
ranged that the picture does not have to be viewed
at large angles.
The author is indebted to Mr. R. P. Burrows of
the Society of Motion Picture Engineers for these
valuable facts regarding screens. That authority
emphasizes the point that the reflection factors
already mentioned assume a clean reflecting surface;
a very slight accumulation of dust can reduce the
screen brightness very materially. He believes that
with a schedule of regular and frequent cleaning.
[ 301 ]
The Cinema Handbook
theatre managements can in many cases increase
their screen brightness by fully 50 per cent, of their
present average values if they desire to do so.
Thus, it is seen that the intensity of the beam
projected determines only relatively the brightness
of the picture.
Uniformity of screen illumination is another factor
which must be considered in connection with screen
intensities. It is not uncommon to find screens upon
which the intensity near the center is several times
the intensity near the edges of the picture, or where
the intensity on one-half of the screen is much higher
than upon the other half. When this condition of
non-uniformity obtains, certain portions of the pic-
ture are, of course, brighter than others, and while
the eye cannot readily detect small differences in
brightness the fact remains that to say a screen is
illuminated to a certain average intensity is not
definite when a wide difference exists between mini-
mum, average and maximum intensity values. Good
projection requires a screen intensity approaching
uniformity, and the nearer the intensities at different
points come to being equal the better will be the
projection from this standpoint. The uniformity of
intensity at different points on the screen is affected
by the condenser design, steadiness of the light, and
by refinement in focusing adjustment.
Another factor which we must consider is extra-
neous light. Obviously a higher screen intensity is
required in a theatre in which daylight is allowed
to enter or where lights are kept burning at all times
than in one where all the light comes only from the
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The Cinema Handbook
projection apparatus. The effect of extraneous light
is to decrease the contrast between the high lights
and the low lights on the screen. If for example the
intensity of the beam in a low light of the film is,
say, 1/50 of a foot-candle at the screen, and in high
light the intensity is, say 2-foot-candles, the contrast
is 1 to 10"0. If upon the screen image is now super-
imposed an intensity of 1/10 of a foot-candle, due
to extraneous light, the contrast becomes approxi-
mately 1 to 17. From this it is apparent that even
a very low intensity of extraneous light calls for
considerable increase in screen intensity if good
contrast is to be secured.
For the past few years the author has made use
of a handy little screen put out by the Pathescope
Company of America in conjunction with the Pathe-
scope projector. This screen has an aluminum sur-
face and produces brilliant pictures with a minimum
of illumination. Furthermore, it can be rolled up
for convenient storage or portability.
There are several kinds of special screen now in
use, but these are of perhaps more interest to the
professional than the amateur projectionist. Some of
these screens depend upon certain metal or even metal-
lized fibres for their effective reflecting properties,
while others depend on corrugation or special shapes
in order to eliminate distortion and even produce a
stereoscopic effect. Thus there is the Trans-Lux
screen, which is a translucent, nearly indestructible
composition, unaffected by weather conditions and
not easily inflammable. The surface of the screen
is very finely corrugated, which, in combination with
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The Cinema Handbook
the character of the material, produces what is
claimed to be a perfect projection surface that will
hold the light without harsh reflections and that
results in a bright, clear and exceptionally plastic
picture. This screen is made in two varieties, for
front and for rear projection. The front projection
screen is made from the same material as the rear
projection screen just described, but by a special
process is rendered opaque.
Now the rear projection screen is especially de-
signed for use in daylight, although it can be used
under any conditions of either daylight, artificial
light or darkness. This screen seems to be well
adapted for use in schools, churches, clubs and indus-
trial plants, offices and showrooms, where it is de-
sired to exhibit either stationary or moving pictures
for educational, business or other purposes during
the hours of daylight. Incidentally, this screen can
be rolled up for portable purposes. When using
translucent screens anastigmat projection lenses are
recommended.
Still another screen is the Glifograph, which is the
result of twelve years of scientific experimental re-
search by Dr. Louis Pech, professor of physiology at
the University of Montpellier, France. In brief,
it is a concave screen made up of hyperboloid sur-
faces, accurately calculated, showing the pictures
projected on it with the same natural aspect as when
viewed direct by the human eye. This screen is one
of several others that have for their object the
elimination of the distortion that is so evident when
a picture on a flat screen is viewed from off center.
The Cinema Handbook
The surface of the Glifograph screen is an ex-
tremely finely woven gummed canvas, especially
impregnated, reinforced and cured, with rubber
backing, which, by reason of lacing on the frame,
insures at all times a perfect surface. This surface
is quite durable and may be washed when it becomes
soiled. It is claimed that with this screen the light
is evenly spread over the entire area, yet there is no
reflected glare.
The Glifograph screen, being a concave hyberbolic
screen, the pictures projected on it will appear with
the same natural aspect as when viewed direct by the
human eye. The third dimensional eflfect, so notice-
able in pictures shown on this screen, is explained
by Dr. Pech in this way:
If we examine an object approaching progressively
to an observing eye, the object occupies a part of the
visual field so much greater as it is nearer. The pic-
ture of this object on the retina is greater in propor-
tion to the nearness, and, at the same time, the mar-
ginal distortion will be greater in proportion to the
nearness. Having been accustomed to these varia-
tions of distortion since the beginning of our life,
we have been in this way educated to locate the
various objects far or near in the atmosphere, ac-
cording to the degree of the more or less strong sen-
sation of distortion.
The Glifograph screen, which is now employed in
several leading picture theatres, is so constructed
that it recreates the natural marginal distortions
very much stronger when the object is near, the spec-
tator receiving the same impression as in nature,
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The Cinema Handbook
and, instead of locating all the objects on the same
plane, he locates them on various planes in the depth.
It is well to have any screen framed, whenever
possible. That is to say, the reflecting surface of the
screen should be surrounded by a black or other
non-reflecting border which sharply delineates the
screen picture. Just as any other picture requires
a frame in order to set it off to the best advantage,
so does a projected picture require a suitable frame.
In the case of most manufactured screens, a dull or
matt black border surrounds the reflecting area. The
projector is so adjusted that its rectangle of light
fills the reflecting area and overlaps just a trifle
into the border on the four sides. The object of the
border is also to have a sharp, clean-cut edge to the (
projected picture, and one which is absolutely im-
mobile. If a projector is not absolutely rock-steady
it must have a slight up-and-down motion in its
projected picture which is noticeable if a framed
screen is not employed. With the non-reflecting bor-
der on the screen, however, the picture is held rigidly
in place.
\ And Now for the Pictures
Everything having been prepared and ready for
action, the film is now threaded into the ways and
byways of the projector. The reel of film is placed
in the top magazine or, in the case of non-inflammable
film, on the top arm (no magazine being required for
such film) in such a manner that the emulsion side
will be toward the light at the aperture. The
sprocket teeth and sprocket holes must mesh per-
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The Cinema Handbook
feetly wherever they engage, and the operator should
exercise the greatest care in this respect. It is well
to make sure of the perfect engagement of teeth and
holes at each point before proceeding to the next
step in the threading of the film. The idlers should
only be pushed into place when the sprocket teeth
and sprocket holes are in perfect mesh. Ample large
tipper and lower loops should be made, but the oper-
ator should not go to either extreme. If the loops
are too large, they cause the film to strike the hous-
ing or other parts of the machine, perhaps resulting
in scratches. Also, exaggerated loops sometimes
make an unpleasant noise while the machine is in
operation. If the loops are too small, on the other
hand, the film is apt to be subjected to undue tension,
causing the sprocket holes to be torn or even the film,
to tear apart.
One feature of projection that requires some care
is the tension on the take-up reel. If the tension
is too strong it is apt to strain or even tear the
sprocket holes, and cause the film to part at weak
patches. On the other hand, if the take-up is too
loose, the film may not wind up on the take-up reel,
and, instead, it may pile up in the machine with
serious consequences. The operator should keep an
eye on the take-up reel during actual operations, to
make certain that the bottom reel is taking up
properly.
After the film has been threaded and the operator
is ready to start, it is well to give the projector just
a few turns, in order to make certain that everything
is properly adjusted and functioning correctly. This
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is done without the light turned on, in cases where
the machine is not provided with an automatic light
shutter or fire shutter. Then, when everything ap-
pears in tip-top shape, the projector is started slowly
and then speeded up to normal, or one .foot per second.
Then the light is thrown on. It is presumed that the
machine has already been focused and properly
framed, but if necessary the final touches can be
made with regard to focusing and framing while
the machine is in operation. It goes without say-
ing that such adjustments are not pleasing when
viewed on the screen, and the efficient operator
always makes all his adjustments before he starts
his show.
If anything goes wrong with the machine while it
is in operation, it is well to stop it immediately. No
chances should be taken with an inoperative take-up,
for instance, which is piling up the film on the floor,
even if the interruption of the show is apt to prove
a keen disappointment. Loose inflammable film is a
potential source of danger and should be avoided. If
a break should occur during projection, the loose
ends may be fastened together temporarily by the use
of a paper clip. Clips do not damage the film and
there is no danger to the* inspector's hands during
the rewinding operations. When pins are used there
is danger of the inspector's hands being seriously
injured, since inspection work consists of passing
the film through the hands in order to detect breaks,
sprocket hole damage, loose patches, and so on, as
already described. After clipping the film together,
the projector can be restarted.
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Rewinding the Films After the Run
Rewinding may be done in a variety of ways, but
it is a very necessary operation with most machines.
There have been attempts made at projectors which
require no rewinding, because they rely on some
scheme or other for taking the film from either end
at will. But with the usual run of projectors the film
that has been run through has the tail end first and
the beginning at the inside end of the reel, and it
must therefore be rewound to bring it back into its
original and proper order.
With many of the amateur and semi-professional
projectors in general use, the rewinding may be done
on the machine itself, either by hand-cranking or by
motor. Of course, where the rewinding is done by
motor, a great deal of time is saved. The most
desirable form of rewinding on the projector itself is
where provision is made for rewinding by motor with-
out operating all the projector mechanism.
In some instances it is desirable to rewind as an
independent operation, in which case one of the
rewinding stands in general use is used. The film
being rewound should be guided slowly and accurately
into the reel, care being exercised that the film does
not climb over the side of same. How much tension
to apply on the film being rewound is a problem,
for if too much tension is applied, the film may be
badly scratched, and if too little is applied, the film
bulks up and more than fills the reel. The operator
should never attempt to tighten a reel by pulling on
the end of the film, for this practice causes every dirt
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particle to dig into the soft emulsion, causing "rain"
or streaks. It is far better to rewind the film again,
and even two or three times if necessary, until the
desired degree of tight rewinding is obtained without
injury.
When returning reels to exchanges it is not neces-
sary to rewind the films if they are being returned
on the original reels. If, however, they are to be
returned on the exchange reels, after they have been
shown on the projector's reels, it is obviously necessary
to rewind anyway. Exchanges generally rewind films
and inspect them at the same time, after they are
returned by a subscriber or exhibitor, hence they
would as soon not have the films rewound by the
rentor.
For the protection of films, it is common practice
to place reel bands, or strips of tough paper, about
the film, holding it in place by means of a rubber
band. These reel bands serve to protect the outer
turns of the film.
It seems necessary here to say a few words re-
garding the care of rented films. The exchange sys-
tem, whereby anyone owning a projector can rent
certain reels for one or more entertainments, makes
possible the wonderful variety of our motion picture
shows, amateur and professional alike. Were it
necessary for the projectionist to own his own films,
it stands to reason that he would have to show more
or less the same films over and over again. But by
securing his reels from an exchange, which has
thousands upon thousands of reels to rent, he can
have different subjects every week or every day,
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with all the interest and satisfaction that such prac-
tice entails.
The rented reels, be it remembered, are not the
property of the projectionist. They are entrusted
to his care for a given length of time and in con-
sideration of a certain rental charge. The exchange
places the projectionist on an honor basis, and ex-
pects him to respect and care for the property rights
of the exchange. The projectionist is bound to take
as good care as he knows how of the reels entrusted
to him, making such repairs as may be necessary,
and to return the reels in good condition to the
exchange so that they may be passed on to the next
rentor, and so on.
Care of Projector Lenses
The shipping of films is subject to certain restric-
tions and rules, if they are of the inflammable kind.
Non-inflammable film can be shipped by mail or any
other way without restrictions of any kind. The
regular celluloid film must be shipped in accordance
with Interstate Commerce Commission specifications,
which can be learned from any express or forward-
ing company. Shipping cases marked "ICC-32" are
approved by the commission. The package must be
marked "Motion Picture Film" in large letters, and
must carry the new yellow caution label every time
it is shipped. If an old container is being used,
care should be exercised to make sure that all the
previous addresses are removed or erased, and only
the new one remains.
Before bringing to a close this chapter on projec-
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tion, it is well to say something regarding the care of
lenses. For this information the author is again
grateful to the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company.
To secure the best results the lenses must be kept
perfectly clean and should be protected as far as
possible from dust and finger marks.
A soft, oft-washed linen cloth is the best appliance
for cleaning lenses.
Do not use any kind of polishing material, alcohol
or other solvent on a lens.
To remove finger marks breathe upon the surface
and wipe lightly, with a circular movement.
A lens should not be exposed to the heat of the
sun or of steam coil pipes, and should not be allowed
to remain for a long time in a damp place.
The condensers can be quickly removed from their
mountings, cleaned or replaced, and care should be
exercised to place them in the correct position.
The breakage of condensers is due to unequal ex-
pansion or contraction caused by sudden extreme
changes in temperature. It is obvious, therefore,
that they should not be removed from the lantern
while heated, or exposed to cold draughts. This has
more to do with machines using arc lamps, with all
the heat which such illumination entails.
If the lantern has been for some time in a cool or
damp place, moisture will collect on the lens surfaces
when the heat of the arc reaches them. As soon as
the parts are uniformly heated no more moisture
will collect. It is well to bear this in mind and see
that the lens surfaces are free from moisture before
beginning to operate the lantern.
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CHAPTER VIII.
THE ANIMATED ALBUM : FILMS OF
FAMILY, FRIENDS AND PETS
IT is well to be prepared when about to make motion
pictures of any kind. Film costs money — a great
deal of money ; and it is this item of heavy costs that
no doubt causes one to think more than once before
"shooting" any given subject. Is the subject worth
the film involved? Will it be interesting on the
screen? Is it sufficiently animated? How does it fit
in with other scenes of the same category? Is the
background satisfactory? These and many other
questions generally flash through the mind of the
careful motion-picture amateur, and as a direct result
said amateur is apt to develop a case of what the
author calls "camera paralysis/' for want of a 'better
name.
At any rate, it is a fact that the presence of a
camera only too often drives away those many bril-
liant ideas which have been formulated and gathered
together in anticipation of the coming filming opera-
tions.
Hence it is well to have something to fall back on —
some scheme of action which may be taken up when
one's own ideas vanish like thin smoke before the
stern gaze of the motion-picture camera lens. If
possible, too, the scheme should be set down on paper,
scene by scene.
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A Question of Personal Vanity
Make no mistake about it: we are a proud people.
Films of pets and sports and favorite haunts are in-
teresting enough to all of us; but above all else we
like to see ourselves on the screen. We all crave to
look ourselves over ; or, otherwise said, to see how we
appear to the other man or woman. It is decidedly a
treat to see one's self on the screen. Truly, it is
almost supernatural when experienced for the first
time.
At any rate, one of the essentials of a good film
for family entertainment and permanent use is to
have plenty of cinematographic studies of the various
members of the family.
Now, motion pictures differ from snapshots and
"still" camera pictures in that they are animated.
Merely to make a motion picture of a person means
nothing unless that person is doing something or
other. If that person is merely standing still or sit-
ting still, it is but a waste of good money to make
motion pictures. In fact, in that event a snapshot
or "still" would be just as effective.
So in posing persons for motion pictures, the
cameraman should always find something for them to
do. Of course, when photographing a single person
this is rather difficult. In such a case the person can
be shown telephoning, which offers ample opportunity
for a frown, a couple of smiles, consternation, irrita-
tion, and whatnot in the gamut of facial expressions.
Or, what is a different version of the same idea, the
person can be talking to someone who is either in or
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out of the picture. But the person must be shown
doing something in order that the picture may be
interesting on the screen. Remember, it requires a
good deal of action fo make a true motion picture.
The mere cranking of the camera doesn't produce
action unless there is action in the subject.
In the instance of children, especially infants, it is
not difficult to obtain action without encouragement
of any sort. Children are generally without self-
consciousness when posing for motion pictures; and
after the first curiosity has worn off they are apt to
play without paying further attention to the camera.
That is the case with most children, but there are
exceptions which must be treated tactfully.
With timid children it is often impossible to make
a close-up picture. In this case it often becomes
necessary to hide the camera behind some suitable
object, such as a bush or fence if outdoors, or behind
a piece of furniture if indoors, and try to get up as
close to the child as possible. But then again the
camera, in nine cases out of ten, makes a character-
istic noise as it is cranked and the timid child is
very quick to detect what is going on, with further
trouble and plenty of it for the persistent cameraman.
The only alternative, then, is to place the camera
some distance away, out of sight if necessary, and
use a long-focus lens. The author has found a six-
inch lens ideal for this purpose. In the case of a
timid child he made a 400-foot film largely with the
aid of the six-inch lens, the camera being about forty
to sixty feet away or more for practically every
scene.
The Cinema Handbook
Close-Ups — The Prime Requisite
By pictures of individuals, we have in mind close-
ups, with the camera not more than ten feet away,
and preferably nearer. The criticism we have to
register regarding many amateur films is that their
subjects are too far away — too small on the screen.
With many amateur projectors and amateur films
the degree of sharpness on the screen is such that
persons fifteen feet away cannot be distinguished with
ease; at any rate, their facial expressions are none
too clear. Of course, this is due in large measure to
the fact that amateur negatives are not always of
the best photographic quality, and the screen results,
accordingly, leave something to be desired in the way
of crystal-like clearness.
So to be on the safe side, it is always best to make
close-ups of individuals, with the camera as close as
six feet wherever permissible. At such a distance
every little facial expression can be registered suc-
cessfully and reproduced on the screen. Such pic-
tures are of the most intimate character and are cer-
tain to please the individuals thus featured.
From the camera operating standpoint, it must be
remembered that in these close-ups the field of the
picture is quite limited, being perhaps not more than
three feet high by four feet wide. Great care must be
exercised that the person or persons appearing in
these close-up scenes are entirely in the picture — it
would not do to chop off the gentleman's scalp or the
lady's left ear! The action must accordingly be
limited so that there is no danger of going out of the
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picture. The subject should be carefully centered
and focused by looking through the peephole of the
camera, since finders are no longer accurate at such
close range, and the focus becomes quite shallow; so
much so, in fact, that a foot or two out of the way
on one's guesswork is apt to mean a fuzzy picture, if
the operator sets the focus by guessing at the dis-
tance.
In the case of fixed-focus cameras, such close-ups
can hardly be attempted, except when working in the
brightest summer sun with an aperture of f:16.
The fixed- focus lenses are generally set at 15 feet or
25 feet, and by referring to a chart of their hyperfocal
distances at various openings it becomes quite evident
just how near one can come to the subject and still
have a sharp picture. In the case of one of these
fixed focus cameras, the old model Pathescope of
French manufacture, the hyperfocal distance is 4 feet
at f:16.
Now close-ups, while the very essence of all ani-
mated album films, are by no means everything. A
film would be pretty monotonous if it comprised noth-
ing but close-up studies. And as already mentioned,
there can be only limited action in the close-ups —
just sufficient animation to make a motion picture.
Filming the Children
Children, strange to say, are easier to film than
grown-ups, as a general thing. Here and there one
may come across a child who is disinterested and
unwilling and — well, we might as well say it — stupid*
The author had such an experience with the child of
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a well-known woman. Over 300 feet of film was
cranked away, and in that entire footage there was
nothing really worth while. The child simply
wouldn't co-operate ; yet successful filming is largely
a matter of co-operation, or at least a complete lack
of self-consciousness in the case of an infant. When
dealing with infants there is no use planning any
given action; the infant does the planning for the
cameraman. The infant may be shown with its mother
and father, eating or drinking its bottle, playing, and
laughing and crying. There is usually plenty of ac-
tion without encouragement of any kind.
In the case of older children, one finds the task
rather easy if the general line of action is only sug-
gested to them. Aside from close-up studies as
already mentioned, the children can be shown at
play, with their pets, picking flowers, and so on.
But the author's experience has been that it is best
to work a little story into the film, no matter how
simple and inconsequential it may be. One that proves
very successful is to have the father reading his
paper. The child or children, perceiving their father
from some distance, believe him to be asleep. The
father surmises the plot and feigns sleep. The child
or children creep up on the father from behind, and
tickle him with a weed. The father, still keeping up
the deception, makes several passes at the weed but
fails to get it. The child or children believe the
father is being fooled and creep up closer. Suddenly
the father, with a quick swing of his arm, catches
one of the little arms and captures the mischief
maker — or both if there are two.
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Such a little plot as this makes good action for
150 to 200 feet of standard film, depending on how
much detail is included. It offers excellent oppor-
tunities for close-up studies of the father and the
child or children. It combines close-ups with long
shots. Best of all, howeVer, it gives the cameraman
a definite plan of action and helps to cure "camera
paralysis." The children and the adults fall in with
the spirit of photoplay acting, and positively love it.
Obviously, other stories can be made up for the
same purpose. Mother can be shown making a pie,
which she places on the window sill. The mischievous
children can be shown stealing the pie and replacing
it with a pie plate filled with mud. Mother is as-
tonished to find the mud when she comes to look at
her pie. She plans to fool the children. That after-
noon, when they sit down at the table for tea, mother
serves them the mud pie and expresses amazement
when they refuse to eat it. She makes believe she
does not know their trick. Then, when the children
confess and shed a few tears, mother laughs at their
little prank and produces another pie which she had
in reserve.
Many other such stories suggest themselves. But
remember, always prepare your story in advance. It
is the most difficult thing in cinematography to
attempt to make a film with extemporaneous ideas.
Furthermore, such a procedure is only too often a
failure, since there is apt to be a complete lack of
continuity which is so vital to a good film presen-
tation.
If a story is not desired, then the children can be
The Cinema Handbook
shown as already stated in a number of studies, both
close-ups and long shots. During the summer they
can be shown playing in the sand or dirt, playing
ball, playing in water or swimming, rollicking with
their dogs or other pets, and so on. A most effective
picture is the feeding of chickens. Such a picture
always proves replete with animation, since the
chickens gather about the children with the feed.
It may be well to show the children the camera
before making the picture. The author has found it
good policy to open up the camera and explain its
mysteries in words of one syllable to the children
about to be filmed. In this manner, when the filming
is under way the camera is no longer an attraction
any more than a tree, fence, suit-case, chair or
whatnot.
Filming the Adults
When it comes to the adults, it is generally more
difficult to find something for them to do. Why, of
course, the adults have all sorts of plans as to what
they are going to do when the cameraman arrives on
the scene. There will be a burlesque on Mary Pick-
ford's latest success, by sister, who has longed to get
into the "movies"; her beau, a staunch admirer of
Charlie Chaplin, will emulate that noted comedian's
antics; father believes himself a second Douglas
Fairbanks — without the opportunity, naturally — and
here is a chance to prove his claim; mother longs
for a chance to display her highly emotional acting;
and the little tots plan to ring in the Teddy bears,
cats, dogs, chickens, birds, toys, skates, sleds, wagons,
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and all the little playmates they have ever known.
Then when the cameraman arrives on the scene, all
those brilliant ideas and hopes vanish away. Time
and again this proves to be the case. Unfortunately,
too, with the adults alone it is more difficult to intro-
duce a little story because, unlike the children, they
are not apt to consider a story if it does not contain
a worth-while plot; and a worth-while plot is quite
out of the question in a limited footage.
The only thing to do, then, is to make a number
of scenes of more or less popular interest. If there
are visitors present, the author has found through
experience that a never-failing stunt is to have said
visitors come up to the host and hostess and shake
hands with them. The host and hostess stand on
the porch or the terrace or elsewhere, while the guests,
one by one, come up and shake hands with them.
Everyone enjoys this bit of action, and it consumes
anwhere from 50 to 125 feet of film, depending on
the number of persons.
The host and hostess can be seen head-on, while
the guests come up from one side and cross over to
the other and out of the picture. Or again, the host
and hostess can be shown side-on, if that makes a
better picture. A pleasing effect is to have the action
begin with the host and hostess seen head-on, and
after the first visitor has come up and shaken hands,
shift the camera to the back of the host and hostess
and show the first and subsequent guests passing by
the camera. This is particularly pleasing when the
host and hostess are standing at the foot of a stair-
way and the guests pass up the stairs and by the
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camera stationed on or quite near the top landing.
Another stunt that can be worked in when things
lag is to show the persons drinking or eating, for that
affords plenty of action. Pets always help things
along; thus if the man has a horse, he can be shown
riding and then standing by his horse. Dogs are
a big help to any picture, especially if they are lively.
If there are several young men to be filmed, they can
be shown in a lively amateur boxing match or wrest-
ling contest.
After all, this matter of filming is one of experi-
ence. The cameraman soon gets the knack of finding
something to do for his subjects in each case. Like-
wise, he soon learns how to choose the best backgrounds
and how to frame his pictures so as to produce un-
usual effects on the screen. One of the prettiest
effects available to the amateur cameraman can be
obtained by filming one or more persons walking down
a path under grape arbors, or coming towards the
entrance to a house in which is stationed the camera.
So far all the pictures mentioned have been outdoor
subjects. The truth of the matter is that amateur
filming indoors is a difficult undertaking. Unless the
subject is taken near a window, where there is excel-
lent illumination, it is almost impossible to obtain
good results except at the cost of using one or two
powerful arc lights. Such lights draw anywhere from
15 to 50 amperes, and in the instance of most house
circuits it is impossible to draw that much current.
Therefore, arc lights are generally out of the question,
and indoor filming must be carried on near a well-
jlluminated window. The author has obtained excel-
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lent results with an f :2.5 lens, and also with an f :1.9>
in each case using the largest aperture. Obviously,,
the depth of focus with such lenses is materially cut
down, and the cameraman must be very careful not
to have a fuzzy picture, unless such a result is per-
missible on the grounds of artistic license.
In truth, it is best to limit motion pictures to out-
doors. In summer the subjects are no doubt at their
best, because of the warm weather which permits of
absolute freedom in arranging the action. In winter,
however, the lack of freedom is made up to some
extent by the beautiful snow effects which may be
obtained. Indeed, some of the best films are made in
the winter, if due precautions are taken against the
danger of static markings on the film.
And What Shall They Say?
The private film is not complete if it does not con-
tain some of the atmosphere of the surroundings in
which it has been produced — the locale, to use the
technical name. So it is well for the cameraman to
introduce some of this atmosphere early in his picture.
The author generally starts his picture with a pano-
rama of the grounds and house. Choosing some
suitable point, elevated, if possible, a panorama view
is made with some of the persons who are to be subse-
quently filmed, standing on the grounds in front of
the house. In this manner the persons are "located,"1
so to speak, for the subsequent action. On the screen:
the "sweep" shows the setting of the picture, and all
the scenes that follow can be placed. The same ap-
plies with the close-up studies, which should be
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introduced only after suitable long shots, so that they
can be "located." There is nothing more confusing
than to have a jumble of close-ups and long shots
strung along into one film without continuity or
relationship of any sort. The cameraman, therefore,
should always bear in mind the continuity of the
pictures he is making, and, to be on the safe side,
even take additional scenes when he is afraid there
may be missing links in the film story. This applies
with more force to films which have no particular
plot, representing, as they do, an assembly of pictures
and nothing else.
After the film has been made and printed, it is
necessary to edit it carefully. Here is where a good
deal can be done in the way of making a good picture
better, making a poor picture passable, or even making
an excellent picture appear a failure.
Finally, we come to the matter of titles. No pic-
ture is really complete without titles of some sort.
If nothing more, the picture should have at least a
main title, which tells where it was taken, the date,
and, if desired, the persons filmed.
Titles add a great deal to any picture. The clever
amateur photoplay maker can insert humorous titles
throughout his film so as to punctuate it with laughs.
Or, if he desires, he can put favorite expressions into
the mouths of his players, so to speak. At any rate,
titles, even if they represent quite an item in the costs
of picture making, are indispensable in attaining the
greatest success in amateur films. A picture is un-
finished and crude if it does not contain at least a
main title at the very start.
r 3?6 ]
CHAPTER IX.
PLANNING AND FILMING THE
AMATEUE PHOTOPLAY
THE motion-picture screen is deceptive, lest we
forget. Those of us who have great ambitions
in the way of producing elaborate amateur photoplays
should be reminded that there is a great deal more to
the work than appears on the screen. The finished pro-
duction, obviously, is the result of what has finally
come through the many processes involved in photo-
play production; and there may have been anywhere
from 100 to 1,000 per cent, as much negative film
exposed and eliminated for some reason or other in
the final assembly. Certain scenes may be rehearsed
a dozen times and filmed three times or more before
they are finally passed on as satisfactory. In sum,
photoplay making is not an easy task, whether the
object is a theatrical film or an amateur production.
The True Foundation: A Good Plot
Just as in the case of house building, a photoplay
cannot be undertaken without a definite plan. A
general idea of what is to be filmed is not sufficient
for the purpose. Because of the impracticability of
filming scenes in the same order as the story, it is
usually necessary to film the last scene first and the
first scene last; hence the work is apt to become quite
involved and confusing when dealing with an elabo-
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rate photoplay calling for many different scenes.
Without a more or less detailed scenario, then, the
producer becomes hopelessly entangled and cannot
hope for a successful production.
In producing an amateur photoplay, it is well to
bear in mind the limitations. Instead of a profes-
sional director, there is the amateur director with
only a general idea of how to film and assemble the
scenes; for professional actors there are willing but
inexperienced tyros, who cannot be called upon to
play difficult roles; and even the cameraman may be
more or less inexperienced. But the fact remains that
amateur photoplay producing is one of the most
•entertaining hobbies extant, and with a little care
and patience surprisingly good results can be ob-
tained. Indeed, many amateur photoplays produced
during the past few years have proved of high
standard, and in a few instances quite comparable
to the productions of regular companies.
The limitations already referred to mean that the
producer should select a simple plot in th« first place.
This does not mean that the plot must be common-
place and transparent; far from it, the plot may be
an exceptionally clever one, though simple to pic-
turize, since intricacy would add nothing to the
novelty anyway. But the plot should call for simple
action and simple camera-work. Once the plot is
selected, it should be worked up in a simple scenario
form which describes each scene, as will be shown
presently.
Perhaps the best plots are those which have a
touch of humor rather than pathos. A little love in
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the picture makes it interesting, especially if young
people are taking part in the photoplay. The old-
time chase plot works out admirably for an amateur
photoplay. The chase permits of plenty of action,
much comedy, and yet there need be no difficult acting.
The beginning of the chase plot may be any circum-
stance that suits one's fancy; thus it may be an
elopement, with the irate parents following the young"
lovers in all manner of vehicles, yet with the young
folks always a few laps ahead of them until the
climax. The climax may come either at the parson's
or in a less happy ending in the form of a spanking
for the unsuccessful lovers.
In selecting a plot for the amateur photoplay, it
may be well to avoid fast-moving comedy of the
slapstick variety, for the reason that such photoplays
are far more difficult to produce than they seem.
It requires no end of special action to keep a comedy
moving along; and when the best comedians in motion
pictures find it hard work 'to make such comedies,
it is obvious that this, indeed, is hardly a task for
the layman to undertake.
At any rate, the producer should cast about and
select a suitable plot, always bearing in mind that it
is better to select a simple plot and film it success-
fully, than to select a wonderful plot with many
thrills, yet score a perfect failure in the photoplay
attempt.
Let us see how the scenario, in this case, should be
prepared. First of all, a synopsis of the film should
be sketched out in order to have it down in black
and white, so to speak. Then we should make up a
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dramatis personce or cast, followed by a' list of the
different sets and locations, and in which scenes they
appear. Finally, we should have the action of the
story, arranged scene by scene for 'the direction of
the players. Since there is no fixed standard for the
scenario, any form will do just so long as it serves
the purpose of the producer. The object of it all is
to provide the director and players with a working
plan.
Here is a typical amateur photoplay and its
scenario :
"THE BIT THAT BIT"
BY AUSTIN C. LESCABBOUBA
SYNOPSIS
Percival Edison Swanson is the sissy of Swellington
Manor. He doesn't play baseball, skate, fight, swear,
climb trees, steal apples, and the other things the regu-
lar fellows do. But he is a wonderful swimmer, as
fortune would have it.
The rival gangs are about to have a special fight
on the pond. Each side is in a flat boat, stolen from
the German hotel-keeper for the occasion. The boats
are to meet out in the center of the lake, and the
crew of each boat are to be equipped with long poles
fitted with soft pads or buffers. The object of each
crew is to bowl over the members of the opposing
crew. Whichever side succeeds in disposing of its
enemy wins the fight. It is the biggest event of the
neighborhood, and whichever side wins is going to
have things pretty much its own way with the girls.
Percival asks to join the gang from his immediate
neighborhood. The leader turns him down. What
good would he be anyway? Percival does some deep
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thinking and decides that after ail he is going to take
part in the fight.
The scene shifts to the fight. Percival's own side,
which he would be with if permitted, is losing the fight.
Two out of its eight members have been disposed of
and are struggling in the water. While the fight is
going on, a little float, carrying a glass tube extending
several inches above the water, is seen to approach the
enemy's flat boat. It comes alongside the boat. Pres-
ently a bit is seen to come up through the bottom of
the enemy's boat. It is pulled back again, leaving a
liole which admits water. The bit appears again in a
new place, and again leaves a hole. Several times this
performance is repeated, until the craft, filled with
lioles, slowly sinks. The enemy is decisively beaten as
a result, and the triumphant crew row to shore. Once
they land, they are confronted with smiling Percival
^Edison Swanson, with brace and bit and with a col-
lection of rubber tubes, float and glass tube. So it was
lie who won the fight ! And all the girls of the neigh-
borhood hail the new hero who won by brains rather
than brawn.
CAST
Percival Edison Swanson: Twelve-year-old boy with
long hair, rim spectacles and all-round studious
look. Must be good swimmer.
"Spike" Mulligan: Typical youthful roughneck, with
more nerve than brains. Good swimmer. Ath-
letic build.
"Skinny" Moran: Another typical youthful rough-
neck, with more nerve than brains. Good swim-
mer. Athletic build. Preferably much taller
than preceding character.
Hans Schlossbergheimer: German hotel -keeper of 50
years of age, with cropped hair, beer-barrel front,
and stern but fat face.
Village girls: As many girls as are available for the
picture. All the girls should be between 12 and
16 years old.
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Village boys: A dozen boys, all of them good swim-
mers and fairly athletic, to be employed in the
water wrestling scenes.
SETS AND LOCATIONS
Typical village street: Scenes 1, 7, 11, 18, 33.
Rowboat landing : Scenes 2, 4, 6, 12, 14, 30.
Middle of lake : Scenes 3, 5, 9, 13, 15, 17,
19, 20, 22.
Backyard and woodshed : Scenes 8, 10, 24, 26.
Hotel porch, near lake : Scenes 23, 25, 27, 28, 30.
Bank of lake : Scenes 29, 32.
PROPERTIES
Two flat-bottom rowboats, one dozen long poles,
preferably bamboo rods, fitted with buffers at one end.
Small piece of wood for float, seltzer bottle, hatchet,
brace and auger bit.
POSITIVE CONTINUITY SCENE BY SCENE
(Title) Boys will be boys, the world over. In the
absence of a League of Nations and arbitration,
the boys of Swellington Manor settled all disputes
by force of arms — or fists.
Scene 1. — Fade-in on village street. Group of boys,
headed by "Spike" Mulligan, coming down street.
Percival Swanson walking in opposite direction,
or towards them. They hail him. "Spike" in-
forms him in a haughty, boastful manner that
they are going to the lake for the big fight with
rival gang.
(Sub-Title) "It's going to be some fight — and to the
finish. We are going to show them stiffs that we
ain't no dumbbells either."
Percival takes it all in, with awe. Registers a
slow smile.
(Sub-Title) "Say, * Spike,' can't you let me in on this
fight. Of course, mother would never approve of
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such an action on my part; but 1 should love to
participate in the conflict."
"Spike" slaps his forehead with his open palm,
as if to faint. The rest of the gang- burst out
with rude laughter and make all kinds of fun of
the very much embarrassed Percival.
(Sub-Title) "Does your mother know you're out?
Better run along, Percival dear, and not play with
the rough boys. They ain't fit company for you,
dear. Besides, this is going to be a real fight."
With a snap of his fingers, "Spike" starts off,
followed by his gang, leaving Percival high and
dry. He starts off in the opposite direction.
(Title) And all the while the enemy was busily en-
gaged in putting its fleet in shape, with secret
sailing orders — secret because Herr Schlossberg-
heimer was furnishing the men-of-war without
knowing it.
Scene 2. — Scene at boat dock. "Skinny" Moran and
his gang sneak up to boat dock and push one of
the boats into the water. They climb in and push
off from shore, rowing out of the picture. Then
come "Spike" and his men, sneaking in like their
predecessors. They select another of the several
flat-boats and also push off and row out of the
picture. Then comes Herr Schlossbergheimer,
puffing from a short run, and, seeing the two row-
boats gone, he scowls and shakes his fists at the
boys in midstream.
Scene 3. — Scene in middle of lake. Rival gang leaders
hail each other and rowboats manoeuvre about for
advantageous positions. They draw nearer and
the boys begin using their poles, thrusting them
at each other.
Scene 4. — Back to boat dock. Percival conies serenely
along and is surprised to see the boats out in
middle of lake. Expresses great excitement as
fight progresses.
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(Sub-Title) "My, oh my! There goes one of 'Spike's*
men — and another, too. Oh, dear! that will
never do. Oh, if I were only a boy !"
Scene 5. — Back to middle of lake. One boy from
"Spike's" boat is struggling in water and another
is just being pushed overboard by the rival crew.
Things going badly for "Spike's" side.
Scene 6. — Back to boat dock. Percival, leaning for-
ward with hands on knees, surveying fight in-
tently. Shakes his head, sadly. Face brightens
up. Slaps his hands together and prances about.
(Sub-Title) "Eureka! I have it! I'll show them if
I can fight!"
He starts running towards the shore and dis-
appears at high speed.
Scene^ 7. — Village street. Percival tearing up street.
Group of girls coming in opposite direction. They
hail him.
(Sub-Title) "What's your hurry, Percy?"
"Nothing ! Merely giving my lower appen-
dages a much needed exercise, you know."
Scene 8. — Backyard of country home. Percival rushes
in, throws off hat and coat. Looks about franti-
cally. Picks up a piece of wood and shakes his
head with approval. Looks about some more.
Spies a box of seltzer bottles on porch. Sneaks
up and takes one. Plays the stream from the
bottle on the cat dozing on window sill. Takes
empty bottle to nearby stump and, with hatchet,
breaks bottle without injuring inside tube. Takes
tube and places it in a crack in piece of wood.
Looks around and discovers some rubber tubing
on door of shed. Takes this and fits it to end
of glass tube.
(Sub-Title) "And now, my proud man, we shall see
how brawn must give way to brains !"
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Percival, smiling and enthusiastic, starts out of
the yard and out of the picture. Fade-out.
Scene 9. — Middle of lake. "Spike's" boat has only
"Spike" and two boys left. Rest struggling in
water. "Skinny's" boat still has five, having lost
one. "Spike" grabs a pair of oars and endeavors
to flee, with enemy in close pursuit.
Scene 10.— Close-up of wet cat, licking itself and
stretching out to dry in the warm sun.
Scene 11. — Village street. Percival comes tearing
down street, with his paraphernalia trailing after
him. Villagers look at him in amazement.
Scene 12. — Boat landing. Percival comes rushing up
to boat landing. Begins to undress himself, while
watching the fight in middle of lake. Displays
great haste in his undressing operations. Gradual
fade-out.
Scene 13.— Middle of lake. "Skinny's" boat catches
up with "Spike's." Fight renewed. "Spike" can
be seen crying. (Preferable to show a close-up of
"Spike" and his crew in tears.)
Scene 14. — Back to boat landing. Nothing to show
where Percival was before, except a pair of
glasses hanging from the hand-railing. Close-up
of glasses.
Scene 15. — Middle of lake, with fight on between boats.
In foreground queer little float with glass tube is
seen moving towards "Skinny's" boat. Then a
head comes to the surface, but only back of it
faces camera. Owner of head does not reveal
identity. Float again starts off towards "Skinny's"
boat.
Scene 16. — View looking down on "Skinny's" boat,
showing fighters in boat and boat bottom. Bit
appears through the floor, again and again, leav-
ing holes, through which pours in the water.
Water rises steadily and surely.
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Scene 17. — Back to general view. "Skinny's" boat is
seen to settle. "Spike" becomes courageous
again, seeing his opponent's dilemma. "Skinny"
becomes panic-stricken, and, being thrown off his
guard, he is bowled overboard. One by one his
men are disposed of as their boat disappears
below the surface. "Spike" picks up the oars and
with an air of triumph he starts back for the
landing with his companions. Fade-out.
The balance of the scenario follows in the same
general manner, the action being given scene by
scene. Of course, the action, may be more or less com-
plete; indeed, the directors of even the professional
pictures have plenty of latitude in what they cover
for each scene. It is largely left to their discretion
as to how much attention to give each phase of the
story, and they use trick effects and close-ups as
they see fit. The scenario is merely the skeleton-
outline, nothing more.
The titles, too, may be arranged very much to suit
the fancy of the director. In some instances they
are not included in the scenario, but it seems in
amateur productions that for a better understanding
of the action they are really necessary. Of course,
these titles may be only the working titles, since it
is always possible to improve on them after the pic-
ture has been completed. Titles play an important
r6le in any picture, and too much care and thought
cannot be exercised in making the Cities as appropri-
ate and entertaining as possible.
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The Amateur Director
Something more than a checkered cap, a pair of
puttees and a megaphone is necessary to qualify as
a director of the amateur photoplay. Some experi-
ence in acting is an excellent foundation, to be sure;
but it is by no means imperative. Many of our best
directors in the motion picture industry have never
acted and have had no connection whatsoever with
the stage. Some of them have been trained as engi-
neers, others as doctors, and still others as Army
officers. A queer assortment, true; but that is pre-
cisely why it is hard to say just what makes a good
director. It seems that the first essential is an inborn
sense of leadership, for if anything motion picture
directing is a matter of knowing what to have the
actors do and then telling them how to do it.
In the producing of an amateur photoplay the
director should not attempt to be a cameraman as
well. When one tries to operate the camera and
direct at the same time, something is almost certain
to go wrong. The operation of the motion picture
camera is such an intricate matter, especially if any
special effects are to be obtained, that the operator
must concentrate on the camera work to the exclusion
of everything else. The directing of the picture, on
the other hand, also calls for concentration ; so it is
quite obvious that each task must be kept separate
for the best results.
If the production being attempted is at all elabo-
rate, it is well to have an assistant director, whose
duty it is to check up the work of the director. We
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humans are far from infallible, and it is so easy to
make serious mistakes. Thus one man can see the
errors committed by another, even though the latter
knows far more about the work in question. Hence
seeta
Schematic presentation of the theatrical stage
and its relationship to the audience. Note
that the field of actors narrows down the
farther back the players go.
-with two men on the directing end — the director and
the assistant director — errors are much less likely
to creep in, particularly glaring errors.
The Cast and Its Selection
In the matter of selecting the cast for the amateur
photoplay, it must at once be evident that the task
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is a more difficult one than in regular motion picture
productions. In the latter instance the director has
hundreds of experienced, professional players and
types from which to select those best suited for the
r61es to be filled, while in the amateur photoplay the
more or less inexperienced players, whose numbers are
limited, must be fitted somehow to their respective
roles. In fact, it is well to know just who are the
players before selecting the plot, and then write the
scenario around the players whenever this is possible.
Photoplay acting, at least speaking of the amateur
variety, is not difficult. Indeed, it is simpler than
the amateur theatrical, for the reason that the play-
ers are not required to memorize page after page of
dialogue. In photoplay production the players are
told what to do for each scene, rehearsed several
times if necessary, and the scene is then "shot."
Where the difficulty comes in is when highly emo-
tional acting or otherwise difficult rOles are to be por-
trayed— but then there should be nothing of this
kind in the amateur photoplay.
It goes without saying that the players should be
picked out as nearly as possible for the r6le that suits
their natural appearance and ways, since that
eliminates the additional problem of difficult make-up.
However, there still remains a good deal to do in
the way of make-up. Remember, we are going to do
things photographically, and colors of all kinds are
to be translated into simple black and white. Thus
red photographs black, since the ordinary motion
picture film is not sensitive to the reflected red rays.
Hence as little rouge as possible should be used by
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the players. An excess of white clothing should be
avoided, because such clothing reflects too much light
and results in serious halation on the film. It is best
to use clothes which tend towards yellow, gray, blue
and the darker colors and shades.
The Gentle Art of Make-Up
There are two reasons why the amateur players
must make-up: first, to accentuate or tone down
their features and to hide slight imperfections which
J&ute J,in«
Schematic presentation of motion picture
stage. Note that, unlike the legitimate stage,
the field of action grows with the distance
from the camera.
loom up big in the motion picture close-up ; secondly,
to even up all the players, so to say. In a given
scene there may be a blond and a brunette. Without
make-up, the blond will register faintly on the nega-
tive of the motion picture camera, while the brunette
will register perfectly in a given length of exposure.
Now in order to bring up the blond to a perfect
exposure, it is necessary to prolong the exposure;
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but the moment this is done the brunette becomes
over-exposed and the screen result will then be a pasty
white face, with little or no detail, for the brunette.
So it is necessary by means of make-up to accentuate
the face of the blond, and, in some instances, tone
down the face of the brunette, in order that both
may affect the film emulsion with equal intensity
during the same exposure.
Make-up, as practiced by many of our leading mo-
tion picture players, is an art. Then again, with
others it is nothing short of an atrocity — photo-
graphically speaking, of course. It is only too easy
to overdo make-up, with unfortunate results on the
screen.
The standard make-up consists in rubbing the face
over with cold cream, followed by an application of
Stein's No. 2 grease paint. In order to avoid the
shiny or glossy effect, the face is then powdered with
sufficient flesh or brunette powder. In the case of
ordinary complexions, which are neither exceptionally
light nor dark, and which have no prominent skin
defects, such as pimples, wrinkles, moles, freckles,
cuts, and so on, it is only necessary to use the cold
cream followed by a slight application of suitable
powder. In either event it is necessary to carry the
make-up not only over the entire face, but down and
around the neck and behind the ears, since the camera
is almost certain to take a side view of the face in
some scenes.
As for the eyes, the most important bit of make-up
here is to shade the orbits very slightly with black
or brown. Thin persons and persons with sunken
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eyes do not require this make-up. The eyelashes, as
a rule, do not have to be beaded, except for persons
with blonde eyelashes or very sparse eyelashes, in
which case black cosmetic is employed. A thin
black line, made as close to the lashes as possible,
serves to line the eyes of everyone except those pos-
sessing heavy black lashes.
Rouge is not a motion picture make-up; if any-
thing, it is disastrous before the camera. If the
player insists on rouging, it should be done on a
very slight scale, since red photographs black on the
screen. Lips should not be heavily rouged for the
same reason.
Where wrinkles and other lining are required for
the purposes of filling a certain part, they should be
applied with dark red or brown and carefully worked
into the rest of the make-up so as not to stand out
like a sore thumb. The difficulty of elaborate make-
up of this kind is that it is not an easy matter to
deceive the camera, particularly in the close-ups.
The same thing applies to wigs and mustaches and
beards, which should be sparingly used. The mere
fact that professional players are picked out as close
to type as possible, and that these same players are
required to grow a natural beard or mop of hair for a
given production, even if such a procedure requires
several months with pay, indicates how important
it is to avoid artificial features when it is at all
possible to do so.
Wigs, beards, mustaches and so on can be rented
from a theatrical make-up concern or a costume rental
agency when required, at a slight cost.
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The Question of Rotation
With the cast selected and ready to face the camera,
we are ready to go ahead with the "shooting" of the
scenes. The director should decide on the order in
which he will take his scenes, and as far as possible
make all the scenes with the same background at one
time. Thus by referring to the scenario list of sets
find locations, on page 333, we find that the Typical
Village Street setting is used for scenes 1, 7, 11, 18
and 33. If everything is in readiness to "shoot" those
scenes, it is just as well to start operations here.
Scene 1 is made first, or even scene 7 or 18 or 33,
according to which arrangement is best. All the
scenes called for with this background are made,
after which the director moves his company to the
next setting and proceeds to film the scenes called
for with that background. It is this business of
taking scenes out of order, so to speak, that calls
for the exercising of no little care on the part of
the director and the assistant director in order that
there shall be no serious errors or omissions in the
continuity of the scenes when arranged in their
proper order. So if a player has a hat in one scene,
it is absolutely necessary to remember that fact and
see to it that the same player has the same hat in
a related scene in the final film arrangement. Or
if a young lady has a gingham dress in one scene
in which she is leaving the house, she can hardly
wear an evening gown in the next scene which, though
taken two weeks later, shows her leaving the house
supposedly the same day and at the same hour and
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minute. Such errors are quite readily committed.
The director must use his head as to how to film
his scenes. Good judgment will go far to expedite
the work and thus consume a minimum of time and
effort on the part of all concerned.
The Hand of the Artist
While the scenario outlines the skeleton action of
the film story, the director can, of course, use un-
limited license in filming each scene in order to secure
the best possible film story. Thus he can call for
close-ups and other little touches in each scene, re-
sulting in a more complete and more understandable
picture. Today the close-up is very much in vogue,
and it is well to use it as much as possible. But
in this and other matters pertaining to production
the limiting factor is the footage at the disposal of
the director. Most amateur photoplays run a thou-
sand feet or less in length, and the director must
endeavor to keep within the length specified. As
an aid towards this end, he may jot down the tenta-
tive footage of each scene before he films it, and then
try to keep within that limit. However he may
decide to handle his footage question, the elaborate-
ness of his picture is largely a matter of how much
film he is to use for the final production.
It is really up to the director and the cameraman
to frame the scenes as artistically as possible. Here
is where the hand — or should we say the eye? — of
the artist comes into play. A scene may be enhanced
a thousand-fold by "shooting" it through a frame of
trees or doorway or grape arbor. Instead of "shoot-
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ing" scenes straight on, they may be filmed from an
angle, thus adding to the interest of the picture. This,
of course, is something which no book or instructions
of any kind can ever teach; it must come from the
individual cameraman or director, himself.
The amateur photoplay should be such as to avoid
indoor sets, except where money is no object and the
services of professional workers may be enlisted. In-
terior sets require a good deal of equipment except
if the weather is warm, and these "interior" sets can
be filmed on an outdoor stage. Little more than
simple walls built of compo-board and properly wall-
papered, togetner with the requisite furnishings, are
required for a simple interior scene filmed outdoors.
If the weather is more or less cloudy, the light is
diffused and excellent for photographic purposes.
But if the sun is shining, the set should be placed
in the shade, or it should be covered over with suit-
able muslin strips to act as diffusers so that the
direct light of the sun will not fall on the set and
the players.
Indoor sets require artificial illumination, and then
and there the players require powerful arc lamps or
mercury vapor tubes for the purpose. The mercury
vapor tubes are not as portable as the arcs, and for
that reason the latter are more suitable. Two arcs
of 25-ampere capacity each are sufficient to illuminate
a very small set with two or possibly three persons
taking part. For larger settings the amount of cur-
rent required mounts up rapidly into hundreds and
even thousands of amperes, making it prohibitively
expensive. The author has obtained excellent results
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with sets using actual home interiors, illuminated by
two 25-ampere arc stands of the portable variety.
After all the scenes have been filmed, the negative
is developed and a single print is made for purposes
of examination. The print, which may be in one
piece or a number of lengths, is projected on the
screen so as to study the action and photographic
qualities. Despite the fact that at the time of filming
much of the action seemed vitally important, in the
screen inspection it is usually discovered that much
trimming can be effected with a decidedly improved
presentation. So the director gets busy with the
trusty scissors, and cuts here and there until the
film is reduced to its essentials.
The titles must be prepared, and the working titles
offer a good starting point. Many new titles suggest
themselves and some of the working titles are sus-
ceptible to considerable improvement. But titles are
of cardinal importance and too much care cannot be
given to this phase of the amateur production.
Finally, when the titles are available, the positive
print is assembled complete and projected on the
screen for final approval. If it passes this final mus-
ter, as many prints as may be necessary are made
after this pattern and the photoplay is finally ready
for screen audiences.
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CHAPTER X.
FILMING NEWS AND MAGAZINE
FEATURES FOE THE SCREEN
WITH many of us, a motion picture camera is
merely a means of entertainment, but with
others it is a means of making money. A camera to
the free-lance cameraman is very much the same as
a typewriter to the free-lance writer : it is a potential
source of money, but it cannot produce money unless
the proper raw material, in the form of unadulterated
brains, is supplied — and supplied plentifully.
The author is not pessimistic in this respect, but
he merely wishes to tone down the over-optimistic
spirit of many of those who rush into buying a motion
picture camera and a few cans of film, and then
expect to become a film magnate with little or no
further effort. There is money to be made at free-
lance motion picture work, yet it is anything but art
easy game. The only thing that is easy about it is the
cranking of foot after foot of negative film which
proves to be absolutely worthless from a selling stand-
point. Still, it is very much the same as free-lance
writing for newspapers and magazines; because, for
every article that is sold and appears in print, at least
ten articles are never sold. Yet the capable writer,
like the capable cameraman, sells article after article
with little or no rejections, just because his ideas
are good and he knows how to prepare them for the
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editors. So with the free-lance cameraman; if he
will study the requirements of his clients and then
strive to please them, he can average a high percent-
News reel cameraman in action. There is no more
difficult camera work than this kind. The men
work fast and positively, and there are usually
no "retakes."
age of acceptances and make a very attractive income
from the sale of his film. At worst, it is no more
difficult than writing as a profession or diversion.
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The Inevitable Nose for News
The parallel between writing and film work is so
closely drawn that we must dwell at length on the
problems of the free-lance writer and how he solves,
them. Writing, after all is said and done, is a means
to an end. Only too often is it considered as the end
itself; that is to say, the beginner is apt to believe
that if his essay is written in the choicest English
and in a most brilliant style, he has a salable story.
Far from it! The essay or article or story is a col-
lection of words and sentences and paragraphs in-
tended to convey a certain thought or bit of infor-
mation. If it fails to convey the thought or infor-
mation, it is nothing. If it does not contain an inter-
esting thought or bit of information, or if said
thought or information is old or too well known, the
collection of words is useless from a selling stand-
point.
In writing, the idea is the big thing — the very
.heart of the article or story. A worth while idea*
will cause the acceptance of an article or story that
is poorly written.
Paralleling all this is the filming of short features
for the news and magazine films now released by
many of the leading film producers. These producers
maintain large staffs of cameramen throughout the
world, but as in the case of newspapers and maga-
zines, they must depend to a large extent on the films
submitted by free-lance cameramen. So important
are the free-lance cameramen to these producers that
they pay attractive rates for such films as they buy.
The Cinema Handbook
Indeed, this phase of motion pictures is no doubt the
most profitable and simplest one for the enterprising
cameraman seeking a means of earning money with
his equipment.
But how about the ideas? That is just the point.
No one is going to supply the cameraman with ideas
except on rare occasions when, happening as he does
to be located in some out-of-the-way corner, a film
news reel editor may telegraph him to cover a given
event. These assignments are generally few and far
between, and the cameraman must dig up his own
ideas. The digging process calls for a knack of know-
ing where to dig, and what constitutes a usable idea.
This knack is known in the writing profession as a
nose for news. It is usually a natural knack which
is well-developed in some writers and .cameramen,
while with others it may be fostered by constant prac-
tice and experience.
The cameraman who aspires to contributing short
features to the screen will do well to study the
various magazines on the screen and news films, in
order to gauge their requirements and general treat-
ment. This is precisely what the successful contribu-
tor to magazines does in order to make sure of sales.
The next step is to obtain a list of news films and
magazine films from a motion picture trade journal,
and then drop a line to the editor of each, inform-
ing him of one's name and address, make of camera
and the lenses available, territory that can be covered
on special assignments, and where one may be reached
by telegram. Most of the screen editors have some
sort of form which they forward to the free-lance
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cameraman and which he can fill out, so that they
have his name and location properly filed away
among their records, ready for instant reference.
What Is Screen News?
A study of the present-day screen news reels will
reveal the fact that they attempt to be as broad aa
possible in their treatment of the current events.
They do not parallel the newspapers so closely, mostly
due to the fact that they are nation-wide in their cir-
culation, as compared to the limited sphere covered
by even the largest metropolitan newspaper.
So the usual screen news reel does not cover a
murder case or a daring hold-up or startling burglary.
It does, however, cover the important personalities of
the day. Accidents are always covered by screen news
reels, especially when they are of a spectacular na-
ture. Important military events are good material,
too. Strikes are acceptable, as well as other indus-
trial subjects of importance. Sporting events of im-
portance are very much sought by screen editors,
especially horse races, airplane stunts, automobile
races, motor boat races, and so on. Queer inventions
and startling engineering undertakings are also ac-
ceptable.
Of course, the policy of the news reel varies from
one editor to the next, and the free-lance cameraman
will do well to see the various current news reels
before making up his mind just what to submit to
each one.
Perhaps the greatest error that is made in filming1
news for the screen is to overestimate the importance
The Cinema Handbook
of an event. In a small town, a given event, such
as the fire department tournament, may be the great-
est happening for miles around, and hundreds and
even thousands of inhabitants from the countryside
and neighboring villages may come to witness it. Yet
to the news reel which circulates throughout the
country, the fire department tournament of Armonk
or whatever may be the name of the town, is of no
interest whatsoever. Now if the tournament should
by chance develop a startling feature, such as bowl-
ing over the squire's house by means of a stream
directed from a hose, it may become so unique as to
warrant space in one of the news films. But without
spectacular features, it is purely a local event.
Unusual things, no matter where they happen, are
acceptable material for the reason that the unusual is
always news. Thus if the colored folk of a certa^
small town are to be baptized in the ice-covered water
of a river, and the ice must be broken first so that
the colored converts can go up to their necks in the
water, that is a suitable news feature. Again, if
the local smelter smokestack is to be felled by some
exceptionally clever method, such as undermining its
foundation and then supporting it with wooden
beams, which are then set afire so that as they burn
and collapse the smokestack topples over, that too is
ia news feature. If a villager is 125 years old, that
is a good feature. Or if another villager makes his
living in some exceptional manner, such as carving
statues out of peanut shells, that makes good material
for the news weeklies.
But in the final analysis the best way to determine
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what is suitable material is to study the contempo-
raneous news films. Note how many subjects there
are to the reel, and, by timing them with an ordinary
watch, note how many feet of film are allowed to each.
The average projector operates at 65 feet of film per
minute.
Since motion picture negative is expensive, when-
ever there is sufficient time the cameraman who can
ill afford to gamble on a possible acceptance will do
well to communicate with the editor of a news reel,
asking the editor if a given idea or event is worth
"shooting." In this manner it is possible to deter-
mine what are the opportunities of selling the con-
templated picture and if it is worth making. Ine
editor may be advised by telegram in order to save
time in urgent instances.
Covering the Story
The free-lance cameraman operating in any of the
big cities will do well to secure a police card and fire
card in order to go about his work unhampered and
unmolested. In certain cities the authorities issud
a combination police and fire card or pass which
entitles the bearer or holder to pass fire and police
lines for the purposes of making pictures. These cards
are generally good for six months, although renewable.
Then again, the cameraman will do well to culti-
vate the acquaintance of one or more local newspaper-
men who can keep him informed as to what is taking
place. In fact, it is even worth sharing part of the
money received from the sale of films with the news-
papermen in order to receive their tips from time
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to time; because, let us not forget, the idea is the
main thing in all film work.
The filming of an event should not be done in a
haphazard, last-minute way. If the event is in the
nature of a parade, tournament, sporting news,
demonstration or anything else that cannot be con-
trolled by the cameraman, and not as in the case of
filming an invention or personality subject, the
cameraman should be sure to go over the ground a
day or two in advance and select and reserve the best
positions from which the event may be filmed without
obstruction.
When the event is about to take place, the camera-
man should go over his camera, make sure he has
the film properly threaded and the shutter and lens
properly set. Events generally happen rapidly, and
the cameraman must either film them without loss
of time or ruin his chances of a salable film. In
fact, it is generally admitted that news work is the
most difficult and trying kind of camera work in the
motion picture profession, for the reason that the
cameraman has no control over his subject, he mus1
work rapidly and under the most adverse conditions,
and he cannot fall back on a retake when the results
are not satisfactory.
There is no fixed rule for the handling of a news
event, unless it be first to obtain a general view of
the event, and then the details. Thus in the case oi
an automobile race, the cameraman might take a
panorama of the race track with the cars speeding
round and round, one or two close-ups of accidents, a
shot at the finish, and then a close-up of the winner,
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It is always well to start out with the general view
and then feature the details ; and when there is a man
concerned, to wind up the job with a close-up of that
man.
The main limitation on news features is their per-
missible length. Most features of this kind must not
run over 50 feet of pictures, although the cameraman
can send in one hundred feet or more and leave the
job of cutting to the editor. It must be obvious that
in order to have ten or more subjects on a 1,000-foot
reel, the editor is obliged to cut down the pictures
to 50 feet, since titles must be inserted, together with
their appreciable footage. This matter of footage is
a rather difficult one to circumvent at first, for the
cameraman is apt to expend,, far too much film on,
his subjects by being too thorough. But after a while
he learns what the "high spots" of any subject are,
and finds little or no difficulty in telling the usual
news story in 50 feet of action.
Kow News Differs from Magazine Features
It was during 1015 that the first so-called magazine
film made its appearance. In order to cover certain
short features which could not properly be grouped
with the usual news features, one of the leading com-
panies inaugurated a magazine reel which was re-
leased weekly. Today there are a number of screen
magazines being released every week, which have for
their object the featuring of all kinds of interesting
things in science, travel, industry, fashion, discovery,
and so on.
As far as the free-lance cameraman is concerned,
[859]
The news cameraman in war time has plenty of oppor-
tunities of seeing action. His outfit must be of the
most compact and light construction, so as not to
impede rapid movement.
The Cinema Handbook
the magazine reel is, if anything, a better market
than the news reel, for the reason that time is not
the very essence of the work. Whereas a news feature
must be handled while it's hot, so to speak, the maga-
zine feature may be made at almost any time within
reason, so long as no one else gets around to it and
films it first. Then again, the footage on the usual
magazine reel is considerably greater than with the
news film, so that the features may run as long as
250 feet in some instances. Some magazine reel
editors believe in the short features, with five or six
to each reel. In this case each feature runs about 125
to 150 feet, without titles. Other editors believe in
longer features, say of 250 or 300 feet, exclusive of
titles, with three subjects to the reel.
There is a definite line of cleavage between news
and magazine subjects. The news must be timely and
brief : the magazine material must be informative and
rather detailed. Ideal magazine subjects are indus-
trial subjects, such as how salt is obtained from the
ocean, hbw tall trees are converted into masts, and
so on. New methods of cooking are also acceptable
as magazine subjects. Startling inventions can be
covered in brief form for the news reels and in a
more complete manner for the magazine reel. Travel
subjects are used to a large extent in magazine films.
Animal stuff of all kinds is excellent magazine ma-
terial.
As in the case of news features, the cameraman
would do well to study the present magazine reels and
decide on their scope and treatment of material. One
thing is certain, there is more opportunity of sending
The Cinema Handbook
suggestions to the editors of magazine reels and get-
ting their approval before "shooting" the pictures. In
this respect there is less gamble to the magazine
features than the news, since there is plenty of time
to submit a more or less detailed synopsis from which
the editor can make up his mind. Indeed, editors
like to receive the synopsis of a picture before the
cameraman undertakes to shoot it, for the reason that
they may want to make slight changes or improve-
ments in the proposed handling of the subject.
Getting Away from Advertising
Earmarks
One thing is fatal in all kinds of film work for the
regular film companies, and that is advertising ear-
marks. There has been so much abuse of news and
magazine reels in the way of accepting paid adver-
tising films to parade as news or magazine material,
that most exhibitors today are constantly on the look-
out for anything that looks like screen advertising.
The result is that most of the news and magazine
editors will reject any film, no matter how good it
may be, if it contains what appears to be publicity
or advertising matter.
So in making subjects of either class the camera-
man should keep an eye open for name plates, signs,
and other earmarks of advertising. Often, in order
to make sure of receiving permission for filming a
given thing, the cameraman may make rash promises
to the manufacturer or other party interested in the
subject. There are too many parties always ready to
exploit themselves on the screen or public print in
I]
The Cinema Handbook
return for information and facilities extended to
cameramen and writers. When taking a picture
that shows a name plate, sign, lettered part, or other
sign of advertising, the cameraman should not hesi-
tate to point his lens in such a manner as to avoid
such things or, if necessary, efface them with black
paint or white paint or by the use of some form of
cover or screen.
This also leads to the subject of accepting money
from parties who are anxious to have their products
or ideas shown on the screen. While the cameraman
may be justified in accepting money from such parties
in return for the publicity, it is dangerous business
in the long run. For somehow or other information
of this kind always leaks out and soon becomes known
throughout the business. And any cameraman who
is known to be accepting money from persons or firms
in order to have their products or ideas shown on
the screen, is bound to find himself without friends in
the business and without means of disposing of his
films, even when they have absolutely no advertising
value.
There is a definite place for advertising films; in
truth, two chapters are devoted to them in another
part of this work. But when it comes to news and
magazine films, there is little room for advertising and
publicity matter, no matter how cleverly it may be
camouflaged. Perhaps some film companies themselves
have been introducing paid advertising and publicity
matter into their regular releases; but that is their
business. They can afford to do it, since they are
only accountable to themselves for their actions. But
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they positively will have none of this practice from,
cameramen.
Getting the Film to Market
The news film should be rushed to the editor of
the news reel selected without delay. It can be taken
out of the camera magazine and carefully wrapped in
black paper and placed in the tin can, which is sealed
with adhesive tape. The news reel editors have ample
facilities to rush the undeveloped negative through
their laboratory and make a print, whereas several
days would be lost by the cameraman. Furthermore,
most editors prefer this practice for the reason that,
outside of the time saved in the case of acceptable
material, they are assured the first chance at the
film.
The film may be sent by parcel post or express.
The regulations in either event are quite complicated,
but the local post office or express office will furnish
full details and special labels which must be affixed
on packages containing film. If the film is sent by
parcel post, the cameraman should send a letter at
the same time, informing the editor that the film is
going forward to him under separate cover, and also
enclosing a data sheet. The latter should give full
details regarding what each scene is and what it
covers, in order that the news reel editor can write
his titles. Where there are personalities, the data
sheet should give their names, thus: "Left to right,
Mr. John Thayer Naylor, Hon. Mathew Egghorn, Mrs.
John Thayer Naylor, and Rev. Alexander Beverley
Hollingsworth."
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In the case of magazine film the treatment is some-
what different. Instead of sending the undeveloped
negative, it is best to Tiave the negative developed and
also obtain a print of it. The print is then submitted
to the magazine reel editor, together with a data
sheet. The editor can then examine the positive print
and make up his mind as to its acceptance. If he
decides to buy the subject, he so advises the camera-
man, who then sends the negative.
If only the negative is submitted, the conscientious
editor may refuse to pass upon the film in the absence
of a print. If, however, he is impressed by the data
sheet as to the importance of the subject, he may
have a print made at the firm's expense for his own
use. But as a general rule the conscientious editor
will not pass on a negative and the cameraman is
merely losing time. Then again, the absence of a
positive print generally leads the editor to believe
that the subject, in the cameraman's own opinion, is
hardly worth the expense of a print. It is a confes-
sion of weakness.
There are a few editors — mighty few, let us be
thankful for that — who may not hesitate to pass a
negative through their projecting machines. Now
negative film is delicate and should never be used in
a projector, in which it may be subjected to strains
and tears and even scratches. Such practice is un-
fortunate in the extreme, but it is certainly the
cameraman's own fault for not submitting a positive
print.
The rates for short features vary anywhere from 30
cents per foot to $1.00 for the regular run of good
The Cinema Handbook
material. For exceptional material the better news
and magazine reels are paying $1.50 and $2.00 per
foot. These rates, of course, apply to the film which
is actually used, and not to the entire footage sub-
mitted. Some editors return the cuttings, or film
which has been eliminated; others do not.
Aside from news and magazine reels, there is a
market for short features running up to 500 feet in
length. Certain companies are interested in split
reels and do not hesitate to buy travel, scientific,
educational, industrial and other subjects covered in
500 feet of film. But by far the best market is with
fhe screen newspapers and magazines which are
issued weekly and even semi-weekly, thus requiring
a steady flow of material for the enlightenment of
the peoples of the world.
[368]
CHAPTER XI.
THE WHY AND WHEREFOEE OF
SCREEN ADVERTISING
NO lesser man than Edison once made the remark
that he could teach more science in twenty min-
utes by means of motion pictures than could be
taught in a week with the usual text books. Edison,
was quite correct. But it has taken the world a,
mighty long time to put that wisdom to practical
use ; and even at this late date, when motion pictures
have attained such phenomenal development in the
fields of entertainment and news, our methods of
screen advertising and selling leave much to be de-
sired. In truth, this particular phase of the motion
picture art — motion picture advertising — is still in
its swaddling clothes, so to speak.
Where Motion Pictures Fit In
There is grave danger that motion-picture or screen
advertising be misunderstood. The mere mention of
motion pictures conjures all sorts of fantastic ideas.
Screen advertising has come to be considered as an
advertising cure-all by so many of the uninitiated.
The millions of persons who attend the motion pic-
ture theatres of this country have been considered
as so much circulation for advertising pictures. Yet
after these matters are studied in the cold light of
logic, the motion picture resolves itself into an excel-
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lent form of advertising and selling, with tremendous
possibilities if properly applied, but with many limi-
tations nevertheless. Truly, motion picture publicity
is not a substitute for all forms of publicity: it is a
definite branch of publicity and merchandising, with-
out which many a campaign is woefully incomplete.
By itself, it may mean little ; but in conjunction with
the more conventional forms of publicity, such as
magazine, newspaper, billboard, direct advertising,
and so on, it is a powerful force. It is, in truth, the
heretofore "missing link" in the highly intricate
process of merchandising.
Having established the place of motion pictures in
the scheme of business, let us consider what it can do.
Motion pictures, first of all, are pictures, which means
that they speak the only universal language extant.
Secondly, motion pictures are animated, which means
that they can describe any operation, process, feat,
test or whatnot. Thirdly, the advent of the animated
cartoon permits of showing any given bit of action
etep by step, so that anyone can become acquainted
with it. Fourthly, the present-day technique of mo-
tion picture presentation' enables a story to be told in
detail, with pictures, animated cartoons and titles,
and with such devices as the close-up, the cut-back
and so on for accentuating certain points. Fifthly,
the stage of any motion picture is the entire world.
In the same reel can be incorporated scenes taken in
China, South Africa, Canada, Texas, and Finland.
lAnd sixthly, let us not forget that motion pictures
when presented on the screen have virtually one hun-
dred per cent appeal or attention value. If there are
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iive thousand persons in a large hall where a film is
teing projected, it is a pretty safe bet that almost
«very one of the five thousand persons will pay atten-
tion to the screen story from start to finish. In that
way the screen producer is assured of an attentive
audience and can go ahead on that basis.
A Study in Camouflage
It is the attention value of the motion picture story
that has caused advertising films to be made and
presented in theatres. There are some firms which
specialize in screen advertising, undertaking not only
the writing and producing of the screen advertising
film, but also its distribution in hundreds and even
thousands of theatres throughout the land. Such
companies have arranged for the showing of advertis-
ing reels in certain theatres and can guarantee ad-
vertisers a certain number of bookings, just as a
reputable periodical publisher sells a stated number
of subscribers and newsstand readers to his adver-
tisers.
At first blush this form of screen advertising ap-
pears highly effective— and it is in some instances.
But one cannot deny the fact that there is a distinct
note of unfairness in such a transaction, in that the
iheatre audience, which has paid admission for the
explicit purpose of being entertained, is confronted
with paid advertising on the screen. It generally
follows that the greater part of the screen advertising
must either be highly camouflaged so that the adver-
tising angle is subtly and rather incompletely pre-
sented, or the film is a glaring piece of publicity and
The Cinema Handbook
only results in ridicule. In either event the adver-
tiser fails to obtain what he paid for.
Now there are some advertising stories that are
highly interesting. Thus there have been films made
of the manufacture of American airplanes during the
war. Such films, being released at the proper moment
when airplanes were uppermost in the public mind,
were gladly accepted as well worth while features for
the usual theatrical program and consequently en-
joyed a wide circulation. Then, too, there have been
films of unusual industries which were of great edu-
cational value. There have been numerous scenic
films which, while advertising some given route, have
not smacked over strongly of publicity.
But when it comes to the advertising film that
shows a given manufacturing process of a highly in-
tricate character, with a crude attempt at sugar coat-
ing it with a little human interest or a touch of
romance, there is grave doubt today whether such film
is of real value to the advertiser who pays for its
production and distribution.
One can never tell what will be the outcome of
screen advertising: it seems to be such a chance game.
For instance, in certain sections of the United States
the theatre audiences have taken quite kindly to good
•advertising pictures of the industrial character, and
as a consequence the theatres are even paying a mod-
erate rental for such films. But this is exceptional;
in most sections the theatres will only run the films
for a consideration, and then all theatres are not open
to such arrangements.
One of the great failings of many screen advertising
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attempts is their long windedness. On the one hand
the motion picture company is certainly not adverse
to making as much film as the advertiser cares to pay
for, and on the other the advertiser only too often
believes that his screen story is the most interesting
thing that has even been presente'd to an audience.
60 between the willingness to gain footage on the one
hand, and the super-ego on the other, many lengthy
films get to the theatre screen with unfortunate re-
sults. For example, there might be a certain film
showing how rivets are made from start to finish;
some two dozen views of a given piece of electrical
machinery photographed from every conceivable
angle; the story of tires from the gathering of the
rubber to their use under every conceivable circum-
stance, and others. In each instance the story is too
long, too complete, too detailed, for the usual theatre
audience.
The Attention Value of "High Spots"
Screen advertisers should and must learn, sooner
or later, what magazine editors have come to appre-
ciate through bitter experience, namely, that this is
a superficial age and the general public only wants
the "high spots" of any given story. What cares the
average theatre audience if the iron for rivets comes
from Pittsburgh, is shipped in flat cars, must be re-
fined and made into rods, then converted into rivets,
packed in kegs, shipped to Borneo by tramp steamer,
used in a dozen different ways, and so on? As far
as the general public is concerned, perhaps the only
thing of interest in that entire rivet story is the
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The Cinema Handbook
machine that forms the rivets — that is the "high
spot." Everything else simply becomes monotonous
and militates against the value of the advertising
appeal, if there be any such appeal in the presentation
of such a highly specialized subject before a theatre
audience.
The firm considering screen, advertising should con-
sider the popular interest in their product and story,
just as the same firm consider the probable value to
them of an advertisement in any of the general peri-
odicals. For after all, who cares where rivets come
from and how they are produced ? Who cares whether
spaghetti grows like wheat or if it is neatly cast in
a pipe foundry? Whose concern is it if there are
sixty-five distinct operations in producing an electric
lamp or whatnot? Is it not the application of these
products in which the general public is interested?
Most assuredly, yes. If more screen advertisers were
to bear that fact in mind, their efforts would be more
effective.
Thus a silk manufacturer, instead of showing how
the worms are cared for and how the cocoons are
stripped of their silken coats, could show the cham-
pion embroiderer of the United States at work, scenes
in some convent where wonderful pieces are made,
and so on. The manufacturer of some prepared cereal
could give animated recipes by leading dieticians and
doctors. Such films would have a real educational
value to the usual audience; and they would surely
encourage the use of the products in question.
It is the application, rather than the manufacture,
of any given product that is interesting to the general
The Cinema Handbook
public in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred.
But sooner or later the question comes up : Of what
use are such films if the name of the advertiser can-
not be conspicuously displayed in the films? And the
answer is that under the usual system of showing
such films in the regular run of theatres, all argu-
ments to the contrary notwithstanding, it is impos-
sible to do full justice to the advertiser's story, and
still get the films before worthy audiences. This
matter of paid advertising films in regular picture
houses has been a matter of bitter controversy ; there
are many widely divergent opinions ; and the outcome
of it all must be awaited for the final verdict.
Screen Advertising That Is Good Advertising
Frankly, the paid advertising film in theatres has
worked an injustice against screen advertising in
general. It has created the wrong impression con-
cerning the use of motion pictures in many quarters.
As a matter of truth this form of screen advertising
is only one of several — the simplest to sell to the
usual advertiser, but the most difficult with which to
realize results. It appeals to the imagination in the
greatest measure. Its possibilities, on its face, are
stupendous. For what advertiser can resist the temp-
tation of placing his story before eight million persons
or more!
The author, a keen student of motion picture pub-
licity, believes that the near future shall see paid ad-
vertising films banished from practically all picture
houses of standing. In place of this practice there will
be the commercial theatre in every sizable town, where
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paid advertising films will be shown to an audience
which will be admitted free, but on special invitation.
Hence the manufacturer of prepared breakfast foods
will have his reel shown at the commercial theatre
in a given town during a certain week; and prior to
and during that time his local dealers will distribute
invitations among their trade, asking them to go see
the film in order to learn how the breakfast foods
may be used to the greatest advantage.
The manufacturer of folding beds will have his
reel shown during a given week in that same town;
and prior to and during that week the local furniture
dealer will hand out invitations to his trade, asking
them to see the film which shows how New Yorkers
are making a two-room apartment do the work of
six rooms, thanks to the folding beds and other /col-
lapsible furniture of the manufacturer in question.
And the clothing manufacturer will show his reel,
giving the latest styles worn by many notable per-
sons; the talcum powder manufacturer and perfumer
and others will show their reels on how to keep
young and pretty and attractive, and so it will go
without end. The various manufacturers will pay so
much for the production of their films and their dis-
tribution. The latter will be quite costly, but no
doubt well worth the cost in the long run.
In smaller towns and villages, a commercial theatre
will obviously be out of the question. In such in-
stances arrangements will be made with the local
theatres to run the advertising pictures early in the
day, before the regular show starts. In this manner
advertising reels will be shown everywhere. Such
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films will carry the real advertising story, name, ad-
dress, prices, terms and everything that the advertiser
may desire, just like a piece of advertising copy in a
magazine. There will be nothing to camouflage,
sugar-coat, or soft soap. There will be no apologies
asked for or granted; for this will be a direct appeal
to an audience assembled in the theatre for that pur-
pose. There will be no disappointments.
A Parallel with the Periodicals of Yesterday
The author cannot help comparing all this with the
history of periodicals. It is well within the recollec-
tion of most of us when periodicals of standing ran
paid write-ups or reading notices for advertisers, who
believed in this form of sugar-coated publicity rather
than the out-and-out, aboveboard publicity of the ad-
vertising pages. And we all know that the write-ups
and reading notices passed away through compulsion,
and that the advertising columns came to be the sole
medium for advertising expression in all periodicals
save the usual trade papers. Readers of general and
class periodicals came to condemn those periodicals
which ran write-ups and reading notices, and forced
the publishers to abandon such practices or go out of
business.
Now the motion picture advertising film need not
be shown in the regular picture houses. There are
many other places where it is certain to do more
good. Thus the usual advertising firm may be shown
at a convention, exposition, special show, before a
body of interested persons, at a club meeting, engi-
neering society, or even in the school or college room.
[ 378 ]
This handy little cabinet projector runs automatically
and gives a motion picture exhibition anywhere and
without attention of any kind. The pictures are
shown in the shadow box. The film is in a continuous
belt, and repeats over and over again.
The Cinema Handbook
There are organizations today which undertake to
circulate advertising films among schools, before com-
munities, in factories, and so on, and such distribu-
tion is apt to be quite profitable, if somewhat an in-
direct way.
Advertising films can be used to excellent advantage
in any show window, booth, corridor or elsewhere by
means of an automatic projector with shadow box.
There are several machines of this kind now avail-
able, which solve the problem of projecting pictures
where many persons pass by. Such machines are
generally made of steel and the film, with its ends
cemented together so as to form a continuous belt, is
passed through the machine without attention of any
land. The shadow box makes it possible to see the
pictures even in the most brilliantly illuminated spot ;
and when the pictures are to be projected on a wall
or screen, an opening can be used at the rear so as to
project the beam of light beyond the cabinet. An
automatic switch arrangement shuts off the current
in the event of a break in the film. In order to have
no difficulty with insurance companies, municipal au-
thorities and so on, it is well to use the Safety
Standard or the Pathescope film in such machines.
Commercial films, which include advertising films,
can be definitely divided into two classes, namely:
general advertising or publicity films, and concen-
trated selling films. But both classes of films are
more or less interchangeable. The general advertising
or publicity film has more to do with broad selling
ideas, such as interesting the public in the process of
manufacture, the plant and organization behind the
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product, the product in use, and so on. The selling-
film, on the other hand, gets right down to cold busi-
ness: it shows why the product is necessary; why it
is the best of its kind ; and what it can do.
A Silent Yet Dynamic Salesman
There is a tremendous selling force in the well-
handled film story. The talking points on any given,
product may be brought out to the best advantage in
film form, and again we have the one hundred per
cent, attention value. Often a salesman will have
difficulty in securing a lengthy audience with a pros-
pective buyer, hence it is impossible to present the
necessary arguments one by one. Again, the prospect
may be skeptical as to how the product or machine
would serve his requirements. It may be that the
product or machine is being used by a manufacturer
or other party in a similar line of business or circum-
stance but a few miles away; yet one can hardly ex-
pect the prospect to spend several hours visiting
perhaps a rival plant in order to see the results for
himself. It is the salesman's job to sell the prospect;
the burden of proof rests with him, not with the
prospect.
The motion picture story changes all this. The
salesman, equipped with one of the several excellent
portable projectors now on the market, already de-
scribed in this work, can invariably obtain the re-
quired time to show his pictures. Connection is
made to the nearest electric light socket and the pic-
tures are thrown on a white wall or small screen. The
pictures may show the factory behind the product,
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the manufacturing process, the product in actual use
under adverse conditions, and so on — all general pub-
licity matter; or it can come right down to selling
talk. The film can contain animated testimonials in
the form of products or machines in long and success-
ful use; comparisons may be drawn between this ma-
chine or product and rival machines or products, as
regards prices and quality. Animated cartoons can
bring out the superior construction of a desired ma-
jhine over others. In brief, the prospect sees the
product or machine for himself, receives a highly con-
centrated yet lucid selling talk, sees how the product
or machine is being used by others, and all without
leaving his desk or losing valuable time.
Please note, all the while the prospect is giving his
full attention to the screen. Compare this 100 per
cent, attention value with the usual attempt of a
salesman !
No longer is the selling film a problematical busi-
ness force. Large machinery houses, store equipment
companies, automobile companies, agricultural and
tractor builders, and others are using portable pro-
jectors and films in their selling campaigns. Typical
of the value of such methods was the case of a large
millinery firm which, during the serious curtailment
of railroad facilities some years ago, made use of
many reels of films for showing the coming styles in
hats worn by pretty models. In this manner the
salesmen saved the time and trouble of taking along
with them their usual dozen or more trunks. A num-
ber of reels of films and a light, simple projector
served the same purpose. Only a few accessories in
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the form of samples of felt, ribbons, trimmings,
flowers, and so on, were required to complete the sale
story. Obviously, the firms could not permit the
buyers to decide on the quality of the materials used,
hence the samples.
Bringing the Factory to Foreign Prospects
It is in the export field that the author looks for
a surprising increase in the use of selling films and
general publicity films. What is commonplace to us
is of unusual interest to, say, the Chinaman, and vice
versa. So little wonder, then, that we hear of the
keen interest taken in American advertising films in
distant lands. Indeed, such films can be shown in the
regular theatres without the slightest hesitation, in
marked contradistinction to their frequent unfavora-
ble reception in these United States.
Then again, the selling films may be employed to
excellent advantage by foreign representatives. What
better assistance can the foreign representative have
than a set of films showing the factory, manufactur-
ing process, line of products, packing methods, ship-
ping facilities, exceptional uses of the products, and
so on? Such films are of incalculable value to the
firm aspiring to a big trade with foreign lands. This
is particularly true in those countries where a real
confidence must be established with the prospective
buyer before anything like trade can begin. The
films may show the factory, organization and other
features to the end of familiarizing the prospect with
what the product stands for.
All of which comes down to the matter of cost.
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Film is a quantity production proposition in this
way: The negative is costly to produce, yet once pro-
duced, any number of prints may be made from it at
a slight cost. Hence the more prints made the lower
becomes the production cost per print. Considering
the number of times a print may be shown to an
interested audience and the large number of persons
that can be accommodated at one time, the cost of
film in reasonable quantities compares more than
favorably with printed matter telling the same story
.and circulating among as many persons. But again,
the author wishes to point out that film does not
take the place of publicity and printed matter: it
merely supplements them and rounds out the adver-
tising and selling campaign.
Remember, film advertising and selling is not an
advertising and selling cure-all. It is the "missing
link" in many a merchandising campaign. It is prac-
tically indispensable in some form or other. But
like all advertising and selling, it must be intelli-
gently applied to produce the desired results.
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CHAPTER XII.
TELLING THE BUSINESS STOEY
IN THE FILM LANGUAGE
IN the previous chapter we dealt at length with the
possibilities of motion pictures from an adver-
tising and publicity standpoint. But it is one thing
to discuss the possibilities of motion pictures and
quite another to tell the business story in the film
language.
It is usually out of the question for the average
firm to make its own motion pictures, because of the
heavy investment called for by a camera and other
equipment. Furthermore, the making of motion pic-
tures requires a deal of experience, and unless a con-
siderable volume of such work is to be done, it will not
prove satisfactory for the average firm to undertake
its own filming. On the other hand, the large firm
or organization that has a large amount of filming
to be done can well afford to maintain its own motion
picture cameraman and equipment, since by so doing
the work can be turned out at a far lower cost than
by calling in an outside party.
What Is the Job for the Film?
In considering the business motion picture, the first
question to decide is, What is the purpose of the
film? Broadly speaking, there are two main purposes
for all motion picture films, namely, organization
[385]
Another view of the same projector shown on page
379. Note how the band of film passes through the
mechanism, how the light is projected at right angles
on to an inclined mirror, and from another mirror on
to the inclined screen in the shadow box at the top.
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work and merchandising work. The organization
work includes films of safety first and welfare varie-
ties, films showing better ways of doing certain tasks,
and films of a general educational character, serving
to inform the workers as to their daily work and its
bearing on other activities. The merchandising films,
on the other hand, are intended for outside showing,
and serve to depict the size and activities of the
organization to prospective customers, and to depict
the advantages and applications and special features
of the products being turned out by the organization.
The first essential of any film is that it be made
interesting. A film that is not interesting will not
appeal to anyone and therefore will be worthless.
There has always been and always will be a tendency
to rush into films just as there is to rush into print.
The organization planning to use motion pictures
should analyze its business story most carefully, de-
cide how much it is worth in film form, so as to know
how many feet to confine it to, and then make a care-
ful synopsis and working plan for the guidance of
the film producer, whether it be an inside man or an
outsider.
There is no more potent force in solving labor
problems and industrial difficulties than film propa-
ganda. For the motion picture enables the telling of
a story in a direct, simple, yet most effective manner,
whereas it would require thousands upon thousands
of carefully thought out words to .convey the same
idea, and even then one might not be very successful
when dealing with a low class of alien help with a
very limited knowledge of the language. After all is
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said and done, there is only one universal language
and that is the motion picture.
Take, for instance, the doing of a certain bit of
work in the shop. There is a right way and a wrong
iway, and as often as not the workmen will insist on
doing it the wrong way just because they are ob-
sessed with the idea that their way is better in the
long run. Verbal arguments are often of little avail
in such instances and it becomes necessary to use the
motion picture method of discussing the matter. In
this instance a motion picture can be made showing
the wrong way first and then the right way, followed
by a simultaneous showing of the right and wrong
ways by splitting the picture and making a double
exposure. Again, the difference in time required by
the right and wrong ways may be brought out by
including a large clock or even a stop-watch in the
pictures. At any rate, such a film serves to convince
the workmen that a given method is the correct one.
The influence of wrong methods on the pay envelope
can also be brought in, for with many workmen the
pay envelope is the final criterion.
From Grinding Drills to Filing Letters
A leading twist drill manufacturing company has
had films made showing the proper methods of grind-
ing drills for use on different metals. It seems that
much of the grinding has to be done in the tool-rooms
of the manufacturers' customers, and no better way
of giving instructions could be found than a series
of films. Printed matter was tried, but it is one
thing to get out good printed matter and quite an-
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other to get customers to read it. But the films
showed the proper way to grind drills for various
uses and this method proved successful in getting
everybody's attention.
Such films are, obviously, organization films on the
one hand, and merchandising films on the other.
There are many cases of this kind where a film can
serve both categories.
Leading telephone companies have had films made
to show the intricacies of a telephone call. Thus the
employees of the telephone company are soon ac-
quainted with the main details of the work in which
they are engaged and get a broader idea of their
relationship to the entire organization. Such an un-
derstanding is always bound to make for better ser-
vice, since man was never intended as a mere bit of
machinery. If man be permitted to think, he gives his
best work, and not otherwise. A material saving in
the time required to train an operator or repairman
can be effected by the use of such films. Then again,
the same films can also be employed for the general
public, particularly at such times as the telephone
service becomes somewhat less efficient, due to one
cause or another. The films give the public a general
idea of the many operations involved in routing a
telephone call through two or more exchanges.
Thanks to the animated cartoon and animated
model, it is possible to show the workings of elaborate
mechanisms in a simple manner. Thus the intricate
telephone mechanisms, automobile engine functions,
loom operations and so on can be shown in a simple
manner. A leading manufacturer of cash registers
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has been using a film made up of animated cross-
sections in order to provide technical instruction for
repairmen. This is particularly true when a part is
so small that to deal with it in its actuality would
be difficult, especially when handling a fair number
of students. But by means of the motion picture
that part may be magnified to any desired proportion
and shown to any number of students at one time.
The war served to prove the value of the film as
«in instructor. The war was largely one of ma-
chinery, with its ultimate ideal a flame projector or
a rapid fire gun in almost every fighter's hand. Depth
bombs, steam shovels, and machine guns had to be
understood and operated almost in myriads, and in
a great many instances by men who had nothing to
do with such equipment before. All sorts of raw
recruits had to be taught how to use these complex
and costly mechanisms.
Animated sketches in films were made first of some
of the simpler mechanisms and the results were so
satisfactory to the officers detailed on them that plans
were quickly made on a larger scale. Soon a student
group in an officers' training camp was taken into a
hall to be shown "moving X-rays" of the hand
grenade, the operating interior of a machine gun,
and cross-sections of cannon in the act of firing.
And so it went.
Explosions were slowed down so that they were
viewed as a progression of movements, seen through
the open side of a gun. All the ordinary faults of
operation were exposed, and their results, however
dangerous, shown plainly and repeatedly without
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harm. Once filmed, disaster and destruction were
repeatedly reproduced in a hall without damage.
Darkness except on the screen excluded all distrac-
tion. Subjects were displayed and removed from the
canvas at will. There was no difficulty of crowding
or craning. Everybody could see what was being
exhibited.
By such means it took little time to turn raw
recruits into expert operators of the most expensive
and delicate machines of war. Before complicated
instruments were touched they were perfectly under-
stood in theory. From that point it was a short step
to the proficiency that comes with manual f amiliari ty .
It was not merely illiteracy and the confusion of
languages that were more or less brushed aside with
the films, but deficiencies of vision as well. The least
perceptive minds came before the screen on a level,
in many respects, with the more imaginative.
Animating the "Help Wanted" Sign
There is almost no end to the uses of motion pic-
tures in organization work. One leading company
has found the film method invaluable for recruiting
-high grade help. A film has, been made showing the
activities of the organization, the ideal working con-
ditions, the interesting range of products, and the
advantages of working for such a concern. This film
is circulated among colleges and engineering schools,
thus serving to interest the young men to a more or
less degree. What is the consequence? Many of
these young men, who are seeking something to do
as soon as they leave college or engineering school,
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remember the film and apply for work at the com-
pany in question. Thus a truly high grade of help is
secured at a minimum of trouble and expense.
So much for organization work. But how about
the merchandising films — the films that are intended
for the outsider?
Motion pictures can serve to bring the factory to
the prospective buyer. In fact, that is one of the most
important uses for motion pictures in business. Now
*iny manufacturer can have a film made showing the
extent of his factory and the processes involved in
turning out his products. Such films have a wide
appeal and at the same time have a very definite sell-
ing value. Thus the manufacturer of high grade
clothing can have a film showing why his suits cost
more than competitive clothing, laying great stress,
on the ideal working conditions, the consummate
care used in building his clothes, the kind of men
who wear them, and so on. The packer of canned
goods can show scones in his factory, depicting the
extreme care exercised in handling the fruit, cooking
it, packing it, and so on.
Films of this kind can be strictly technical, or a
slight touch of human interest can be injected, de-
pending on whether they are intended for the out-
and-out hard-headed business man who has no time
for any extra touches and frills, or for a more general
audience. Films intended for theatrical showing
must, "of course, have a touch of human interest — a
little story woven in somehow or other — to make it
more attractive to the average layman.
Aside from the film introducing the factory and
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its methods, there is the film that has to do with
the products themselves. Thus in the case of ma-
chinery, it is well to show examples of the machinery
being handled, with animated diagrams to bring out
the essential features. The machinery can be shown
in actual operation under adverse conditions. Such
films follow the same general line of reasoning as
would the usual descriptive matter in printed form,
providing, of course, that they are intended for a
prospective buyer and not for the theatre.
Putting It First on Paper— The Scenario
for the Industrial Film
it is impossible in the space at the author's dis-
posal to discuss how each business can be filmed to
the best advantage, for each case has its own peculi-
arities and must be treated as something quite apart
from anything else. Indeed, originality is very much
to be desired, hence the less one knows about how
others have filmed their stories the better the chances
of success, providing, of course, that the essentials
of a business film are understood and appreciated.
Once having decided on the type of film that is
required, who is to be the audience, and how much is
to be told, the next step is to reduce the idea to a
synopsis on paper. The synopsis should then be sub-
mitted to various company officials for their sug-
gestions and final approval, following which a regular
scenario is prepared, quite similar to that for dra-
matic productions.
Here follows a synopsis and a typical working
scenario or script of a publicity film:
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SYNOPSIS OF THE MOTION PICTURE FILM ENTITLED
"PUTTING FLAX ON A MODERN BASIS"
BY AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA
The story of flax culture is the story of 3,000 years
of doing the same thing in the same old way. No one
ever troubled himself to find new ways of doing the
back-breaking work connected with pulling flax plants
from the soil, or if anyone did, his efforts were unsuc-
cessful.
Labor shortage of late has hampered all industries
in a more or less serious way, proving especially harsh
towards flax culture. Indeed, many of the flax fields
have been abandoned or turned over to something else
requiring less tedious labor.
With that background to begin with, this film story
has to do with flax culture and its hardships under the
former manual harvesting system. A workman is
shown at work, breaking his back and wearing himself
out, and finally accepting work with a farmer who has
labor-saving machinery. The flax workers are shown
to be growing less in number. Meanwhile the use of
flax in the home and for other purposes is brought out,
as well as the high prices asked for this material.
Animated statistics are presented to show the demand
for flax and the reduced output of late years.
Then comes the new XYZ Flax Harvester, which
handles flax plants with the delicacy of the human
hands yet does the work far faster and more efficiently
than the former manual method. Conditions are
changed by the introduction of this machine. Flax is
again restored to its former importance and a promise
for more linen and cheaper linen is made.
This story attempts to outline all these phases in a
simple yet forceful manner. The arrangement of the
scenario is based on the use of 1,000 feet of film,
titles included.
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LIST OF SCENES CALLED FOB IN SCENARIO
Scene in Typical Home: Bedroom, with bedstead,
sheets, pillows prominently displayed. SCENES :
1, 27«
Scene in Typical Home : Dining room, with usual fur-
• niture but prominently • displaying table with
tablecloth, napkins and fine tableware, SCENE: 2.
Scene of Airplane : In flight and on the ground, the
latter being a close-up of the wing surfaces.
SCENES : 3, 4.
Scene of Flax Field : General view and close-up views
with workers at work pulling flax. SCENES :
5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 18, 20, 29.
Copy of Old Wood-Cut : This wood-cut, showing the
ancient way of cultivating flax, can be obtained
in some old work on textiles. It may be bor-
rowed from a library long enough to be copied on
to the film. SCENE: 6.
Scene Along a Road : Any rural road will be satis-
factory for this setting. SCENES : 10, 11.
Scene in Store : Corner of studio arranged to repre-
sent store, or this scene can be taken in a store
if there is suitable light. Bargain counter with
a few sheets and with extras for lending atmos-
phere and realism, will suffice. SCENES : 13, 14.
Scene in Textile Mill : Any interesting corner of a
textile mill will do if modern equipment is being
used. SCENES : 24, 25.
Another Scene of Flax Field : This may be somewhat
different from the other flax field in order to break
away from the same view. If so, then use it for
SCENES : 21, 22, 23.
Animated Cartoon : Simple animated cartoons which
can be made by anyone who can letter rapidly and
easily. These scenes are not really animated car-
toons in the sense of being taken one image at
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a time. They are taken at the usual rate of speed,
while the artist works at top speed. SCENES :
15, 16.
Outline Map of U. S. :, Good outline map of U. S.
without lettering but with the outlines of the
various States plainly indicated. SCENE: 26.
TITLES AND CONTINUITY
(Main Title)
THE XYZ FLAX HARVESTER CORPORATION
presents
"PUTTING FLAX ON A MODERN BASIS"
A living account of how flax culture has
been finally simplified and made possible
on a gigantic and profitable scale after
three thousand years of uneventful and
even humdrum existence.
(Following main title)
Produced by
THE PHOTOFAX SERVICE
(Sub-Title 1). — Linen — The pride of the housewife.
Scene 1. — View in a typical home, showing a woman
making the bed with fresh sheets and pillow cases.
Scene 2. — Another view in the house, this time in
dining room, showing same woman setting the
table with fresh tablecloth and napkins.
(Sub-Title 2). — Even to the wings of the airplane
does linen find its way.
Scene 3. — View of a typical airplane, preferably flying
sufficiently low to be clearly seen. Stunt flying
if possible.
Scene 4. — Close-up of the same airplane, showing the
taut linen wings. The aviator presses the wing
surface with his finger to show strength of
stretched linen surface.
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(Sub-Title 3). — Where linen comes from.
Scene 5. — Fade-in or circle in on a field of flax, and
then panoram to show as much of the expanse as
seems desirable, to give idea of magnitude.
(Sub-Title ^). — Flax, from the fibre of which cornea
our linen, has been cultivated for the past 3,000
years. Throughout that period, and up till the
present, the slow, laborious hand-labor system of
harvesting has been in vogue.
Scene 6. — Copy of an old wood-cut, showing the culti-
vation of flax as far back as possible and which
indicates the date or era, if possible. This cut
must show hand-labor operations of some sort,
preferably pulling the flax plants. Fade-in on
such a cut, and, after five feet or more, fade-out.
(Sub-Title 5). — Today, in the age of the harvester,
telephone, radio telegraph, printing press, rail-
road, automobile and airplane !
Scene 7. — Fade-in on flax-field, showing several work-
ers pulling the flax plants. If possible, have the
workers in this scene correspond in position and
work to those shown in cut comprising Scene 6.
Scene 8. — Close-up of worker pulling flax plants. After
pulling several times, the worker stops and closes
his eyes to register fatigue. He stretches his arms
and curves his back, registering aches from con-
stant bending and pulling. Returns to his work,
with a shake of the head to register that this,
after all, is the inevitable way of obtaining flax
for the world's linens. Circle out.
(Sub-Title 6). — The end of the hard, long day.
Scene 9. — General view of flax field and workers, taken
with sunset effect. Workers lay down tools and
put on their hats and coats, departing one by one
from the field.
Scene 10. — Same worker as in Scene 8, walking along
country road. Meets farmer, coming in opposite
direction, who stops him to engage in conversa-
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tion. Worker registers great interest in what
farmer tells him. Farmer bangs fist on open palm
to indicate the weight of his arguments.
(Sub-Title 7). — "Why do you work with your hands
and back? This is the twentieth century, my boy !
The age of machinery ! Why, you are a fool to
stick to that nerve-racking work. Come and
work on my farm — work with a gasoline tractor,
seeder, cultivator, and so on !"
Scene 11. — Flash back to Scene 10. Farmer still talk-
ing emphatically. Reluctantly, with a nod of his
head, the laborer accepts the offer. Farmer pats
him on back and nods head to register that he is
making a wise change. Gradual fade-out.
(Sub-Title 8). — It is the nature of the work that has
turned workers away from the flax fields, espe-
cially of late years. Our requirements now would
call for 400,000 acres devoted to flax culture to be
independent of European flax raisers. But how
can we cultivate without cultivators?
Scene 12. — Same scene as Scene 9, showing half as
many workers and taken during the day, instead
of at sunset. Workers still bending over and
pulling flax plants. Fade-out.
(Sul-Title 9).— And the inevitable result.
Scene 13. — Same woman as in Scenes 1 and 2, in
store, buying linen sheets. The sheets are on dis-
play, with large cards reading, "Bargains — Linen
Sheets, only $3.00." Woman picks up one of the
sheets, examines it, and registers disgust. Clerk
comes up to wait on her, registering a smile.
Wbman, with indignant glare, faces the clerk.
(Sul-Title 10). — "Do you call this linen? It is noth-
ing more than cotton. You would have to use a
microscope to find the linen threads. Why, this
is an outrage. I used to buy real linen sheets for
much less than you ask for these cheap imita-
tions. What is the world coming to !"
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Scene 14. — Cut back to Scene 13, same characters in
same position. Woman is shaking her head as
she talks and expresses her opinion. Registering
contempt, she throws sheet back on counter and
walks away. Clerk shrugs her shoulders and folds
up sheet. Fade-out.
(Sub-Title 11). — More flax and still more flax, is the
cry of today. But flax becomes increasingly
scarcer as the workers turn to other fields in which
labor-saving devices are in use. Here are a few
statistics indicating the true flax situation :
Scene 15. — Animated Cartoon: Lettering appears at
the point of pen of artist, as follows : "To meet
the present requirements of about 10,000 tons of
raw flax a year, the United States would need
about 50,000 acres devoted to flax raising."
Now draw square and mark it 50,000 acres.
Lettering continues as follows :
"To raise the flax needed for our present raw
material requirements and to manufacture our
own linen fabrics, we would need 400,000 acres."
Now draw square eight times as big as first
square, and label it 400,000 acres. This lettering
may be down on a long sheet of paper or card-
board, which can be shifted along as the lettering
progresses.
And so it goes, scene after scene, with all the titles
indicated on the working script. But it should be
remembered that there are almost as many ways of
preparing a scenario as there are persons doing this
kind of work. There is no fixed rule. The author,
who has done considerable scenario writing for in-
dustrial purposes, as well as produced industrial
films, is in favor of the foregoing form because it is
quite complete as it stands. By making several copies
of such a script, it is possible to follow the work
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right through without a hitch. The same script ii
given to the title maker for titles, and to the editor
or assembler of the film for the proper arrangement
of the scenes and titles.
For those who are engaged in producing industrial
films for companies large and small, it is well to
produce some sort of a script for the client before
starting actual work. It is a fact — and there is no
use attempting to get away from it — that the client
always feels that he knows more about his product
and sales story than any one else. Why not appeal
to this ego? And then it is safer; for once the
client approves of the script there is that much less
chance of his complaining about the finished film
story. Most of the producers of commercial films go
to great pains in preparing their scripts for clients.
These scripts follow more or less the general lines of
the foregoing sample, being neatly typed in black
und red inks and having the sheets bound in heavy
paper folders. Generally, the script includes a
schedule, showing on what days the cameraman and
directors will take certain scenes, in order that the
client can arrange to have certain departments ready
on those days and in this manner disturb the plant's
usual routine as little as possible. Such a schedule,
too, is of great help to the electricians, who must
wire up the lamps when the films have to be made
in dark corners of a plant.
Wherein Motion Pictures Differ from "Stills"
It is difficult to say much regarding the making of
an industrial subject, since each case stands by itself.
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But one rule that may be applied to all subjects is
to make them as interesting as possible, not only by
selecting those phases which are replete with infor-
mation of the worth-while kind, but full of action,
as well. A motion picture must have action in order
to make it interesting; otherwise, one might as well
make a "still." So as far as possible the producer
of an industrial film should seek to get plenty of
animation in all his scenes.
Another feature which should not be overlooked in
making the advertising picture is to use plenty of
detail scenes; that is to say, close-ups that show the
details of any given bit of manufacturing or the
operation of equipment of all kinds. The trouble
with many existing advertising pictures is that they
deal solely in broad generalities, and overlook the
important details. Thus if a view of a machine shop
is included in the film, it is well to have close-ups
showing the operation of an automatic lathe, planer,
gear cutter and so on. Or if a gasoline engine is
shown, it may be well to show some of its details,
such as the governor, ignition equipment, and so on.
As far as possible, the producer of the picture should
place himself in the position of the audience; remem-
ber, the audience knows very little about the subject,
and everything must be made perfectly clear without
making the picture monotonous. Naturally, if the
picture is intended for a popular audience, then the
details do not have to be so complete; but if the
picture is intended for an interested audience — for
business purposes, so to speak — then the film should
contain all the necessary close-ups, just as a trade
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paper article differs from a story on the same subject
in the daily newspaper.
Too much attention cannot be paid to the how-it-
works side of filming, especially when dealing with
mechanical subjects. This is an age of mechanical
curiosity; by that the author means that the people
of today want to know how a thing functions, when-
ever possible. The automobile, electric bell, tele-
phone, electric light, electric motor and other present-
day devices have made mechanics and electricians out
of most men and women; hence we can film subjects
with simple diagrams without fear of making our
film presentations too formidable. To this end it is
well to employ models that are broken away or cut
in half in order to show how the parts function.
Better still, it is well to employ simple wooden or
cardboard models,, as described elsewhere, in order
to emphasize certain features. The animated cartoon,
too, can be resorted to with excellent results. Since
this work is quite technical and requires special train-
ing, the producer would do well to outline what he
wishes to cover with animated cartoons, and then
turn the job over to a concern specializing in cartoon
work.
The editing of the finished advertising film calls
for a good deal of skill and judgment. As in all
filming activities, it will be found upon reviewing
the many bits of film that some of the action that
was considered indispensable and remarkable at the
time of filming proves quite useless and monotonous
on the screen. Of course, it is difficult to discard
film, just as it is difficult to discard type matter that
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has been set up and paid for. Still, there is nothing
that tends to ruin a story, whether it be in film or
type form, more than to carry a lot of useless detail
which impedes rather than aids the story. Editing
should be done as thoroughly as possible, and without
regard to how much film must be thrown out in the
final cutting. Better to have a shorter film with the
story well told than a long film which repeats and
draws out and tires the audience. Padding is always
fatal to success.
Captions should be prepared with a great deal of
care. In ey,ery instance the wording should be con-
sidered from the standpoint of conciseness and clear-
ness. Remember, a screen caption cannot be as long
las a printed article: the information must be told
in the smallest possible number of words. Further-
more, titles should be sparingly used, for there is
nothing that tends to make a film story more unin-
teresting than too many titles.
Once the film is ready for use, the advertiser should
decide on his projecting equipment, if he has no such
equipment to begin with. If the film is intended for
aion-theatrical use, it is well to have it printed on
non-inflammable, "safety standard" film, and to em-
ploy one of the several makes of projectors intended
for such film. If the film is to be employed both for
theatrical and non-theatrical purposes, the prints may
be made on standard film and used in conjunction
with standard theatrical projectors and with one of
the many portable and semi-portable projectors de-
scribed elsewhere in this work. Standard professional
sized film with slow-burning base is excellent.
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There are many opportunities by way of obtaining
distribution for advertising and industrial pictures.
In fact, there are various organizations which under-
take to distribute such reels in schools and colleges
at a very moderate fee, and in many instances such
distribution is bound to prove profitable, especially
Sat this time when the advertising fraternity believes
in "selling" the young folk because they are more
receptive and ideas embedded in their minds persist
till later life.
Then it is also well to distribute advertising and
industrial films among the immediate tra^e. Dealers
should be told that reels are available for their use
whenever they desire to show them. The reels are
only loaned, of course. At any rate, advertising and
industrial reels do little good in vaults, and it is
imperative to keep them in circulation in order to
realize full value from them.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE ACETATE FILM, OR MOTION
PICTURES MADE SAFE
BEYOND the shadow of a doubt, the greatest step
forward in the development of motion pictures
during late years has been the introduction of the ace-
tate of cellulose film — a virtually non-inflammable
base carrying the photographic emulsion, yet posses-
sing practically all the physical and optical advan-
tages of celluloid. Indeed, just so long as motion
pictures were limited to celluloid, motion pictures
were more or less limited to theatrical usage ; for it
is obviously not good practice to project and to han-
dle such highly inflammable films anywhere but in
the projection room of the theatre, where a skilled
operator is in charge of the projector and has aii
hand every possible means of preventing or com-
batting a fire at its very inception.
A Question of Safety First
The first commercial non-inflammable film came
out of France — out of the big laboratories of the
firm of Pathe Freres. With characteristic imagina-
tion the French film men realized that in the
development of a safe film they had the means of
expanding the field of motion pictures to an un-
limited degree. Safe film immediately made it pos-
sible to introduce motion pictures in the home,
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church, club and school ; and the portable projector
became a reality, not in some makeshift form but in
a properly designed, simplified, safe form. The
idea soon took shape in a practical projector of
The New Premier Pathescope Projector set
up, ready for operation. This machine makes
use of safety film, and is available for use
everywhere and by anyone.
utmost simplicity, known as the KOK projector,
and in numerous reels of safety film that were copied
from standard reels. In order to differentiate be-
tween the theatrical film and the new safety film, the
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latter was made of a smaller size and provided with
a characteristic perforation which is shown in the
drawing on page 28. This special size as well as
the special perforation prevents standard celluloid
film from being employed in a safety projector under
any circumstances, while rigid patents covering the
perforation serve to prevent unscrupulous parties
from making celluloid film of that perforation to
fit the safety projectors. Hence safety is assured
under all circumstances.
Some years ago the non-inflammable KOK film was
brought to the United States and introduced under
the name of Pathescope. An extensive collection of
non-inflammable films was brought from France and
to this were added numerous reels of American sub-
jects, thus laying a foundation for the Pathescope
Library. Films have been added regularly and syste-
matically until today there is practically no end
to one's choice of subjects, whether one's interest
runs in the direction of science, travel, natural his-
tory, classics, drama, or just plain and wholesome
comedy. Indeed, the Mary Pickford, Douglas Fair-
banks, Charlie Chaplin, Norma Talmadge, and other
films are printed on Pathescope stock but a short
time after they have appeared in the theatres. Hence
the Pathescope patron may bring his favorite star
to his home screen whenever he chooses. The reels
may be rented by the day or week ; again, the Pathe-
scope patron may be an annual subscriber to the
Pathescope Library with the privilege of exchanging
his current five reels or more every week for as many
new reels.
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Americanizing a French Projector for
Various Uses
For many years the French KOK projector was
employed by the American Pathescope organization,
but with the advent of the war and the difficulty of
obtaining KOK projectors from France it was de-
cided to design an American projector for handling
Pathescope films. This projector, known as the
New Premier Pathescope, has been on the market
for several years and has proved to be more practical
in many respects than its French counterpart, being
more in keeping with American ideas and practices.
No end of credit is due to Mr. Willard B. Cook for
bringing the KOK projector and Pathescope film to
this county; for designing the New Premier Pathe-
scope projector, and establishing the Pathescope
library and non-inflammable film service on a sound
and practical basis.
As long as the non-inflammable film remained the
e'xclusive property of one firm, because of the pat-
ents protecting the size and the perforation, it is
quite obvious that the new film could not be taken
up by other interests and developed to the fullest
extent. But in April, 1918, the matter of a standard
non-inflammable film was brought up before the
Society of Motion Picture Engineers by Mr. Alex-
ander F. Victor, with a view to putting an end to
the indiscriminate use of portable projectors which,
in some instances, has been a menace to public safety
and the good repute of the industry. It appears
that this suggestion, namely, to adopt a new Safety
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Standard film for non-theatrical use, met with a
great deal of opposition, particularly from certain
manufacturers of portable projectors.
When an industry such as the motion picture in-
dustry had reached what amounted to 100 per cent,
standardization, with a film that would fit in any
machine, whether theatrical or portable the whole
world over, it was not very willing to listen to a
proposal for a second standard. One of the greatest
arguments against this new standard was that only
projectors using standard films would be accepted,
since there existed a voluminous list of available
subjects. But when this list came to be examined
in detail, it was discovered that it had little to offer
the non-theatrical patron in the way of educational
and religious subjects.
The Safety Standard film was finally introduced,
of the same size as the Pathescope film and with a
perforation which, while not infringing on the Pathe-
scope patents, would enable it to be used on Pathe-
scope projectors. Thus the Safety Standard film and
the Pathescope film are interchangeable. As will be
noted by studying the drawings in Chapter I, the
Safety Standard has the same number of perforations
along both margins while the Pathescope film, has the
same perforations along one margin and only every
third one on the opposite margin, thus "framing"
automatically in the projector. As already stated,
however, both films are interchangeable, thereby giv-
ing a greatly increased scope to the Pathescope
projector and films, as well as to all other Safety
Standard projectors and films.
The Cinema Handbook
With the Approval of the Fire Underwriters
The adoption of the Safety Standard and Pathe-
scope films by the Society of Motion Picture Engi-
neers was a vast forward stride in the industry.
Special carrying: case for the Pathescope pro-
jector, The reels of film are carried in a
separate fibre case.
The clearly recognized hazards of the use and even
the storage of celluloid film have not only been
pointed out by the Underwriters' Laboratories, but
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have been by them so insistently urged that not
only the States, but practically all important munici-
palities have been compelled to surround the use and
storage of celluloid films, within their jurisdiction,
with such wise and protective restrictions as would
tend to reduce to a minimum the hazards to which
the members of the Commonwealth are constantly
subjected in attending public and private cinemato-
graphic exhibitions.
The regulations calling for a fireproof booth, com-
plicated and expensive standard projector, the ser-
vices of a licensed operator, and other items have
tended to retard the development of motion pictures
in such fields as education, church and club enter-
tainment, home use, and so on. This does not mean
that there have not been and still are portable and
semi-portable projectors intended for such non-
theatrical use; but the fact remains that all pro-
jectors employing celluloid film should, according to
the Underwriters' regulations and numerous ordi-
nances, be used only in conjunction with fireproof
booth, licensed operator and so on. To do otherwise
is to nullify fire insurance policies and to break cer-
tain laws.
Yet schools, churches, clubs, homes and other
non-theatrical users could not afford to go to the
expense and trouble of complying with the regula-
tions and ordinances, and so motion pictures have
had to be left aside in the past, in many instances.
The obvious solution of the problem of hazard lay
in the adoption of approved, slow-burning film, but
the Underwriters' Laboratories again pointed out
The Cinema Handbook
that unless the portable projector should be so con-
structed that it would be impossible to use ordinary
celluloid film therein, it was a foregone conclusion
that in the absence of any considerable quantity of-
available slow-burning film the owners of such pro-
jectors would be sure to attempt the use of celluloid
films therein — if such use should be possible — and
the potential hazard would still remain exactly as
before.
The new Safety Standard film and the Pathescope
film have met with the specific qualification of the
Underwriters' Laboratories and the National Associa-
tion of Fire Prevention, which says: "Approved
miniature projectors must be so constructed that
they cannot be used with films employed on the full-
sized commercial moving picture machine." Today
the non-inflammable or slow-burning film and the
projectors that handle it are approved for use any-
where, without fire-proof booth or licensed operator.
This makes motion pictures available to everyone,
anywhere, and at any time. At last motion pic-
tures may be said to be a universal commodity.
Characteristics of Non-inflammable Film
There is something like 30,000,000 feet of Pathe-
scope non-inflammable film available today for
Pathescope and other Safety Standard projectors, as
well as other large quantities of Safety Standard
film with the interchangeable perforations. There
is no longer any fear that the projectors may have to
remain idle for want of film and good subjects.
Furthermore, the time is soon coming when there
The Cinema Handbook
will be even more extensive library facilities than
there are at present.
The Eastman Kodak Company has been furnishing
the new Safety Standard film at 75 per cent, of the
cost per foot for ordinary celluloid of standard width.
Furthermore, the new Safety Standard narrow-width
film contains twenty pictures per foot as against
sixteen for the theatrical standard film. These two
factors result in a combined economy or saving of
40 per cent, in the cost of stock for any given pro-
duction. There is also, of course, a very considerable
saving in the use of chemicals for developing, and
also in the general handling and transportation of
the narrow-width film, of which 800 feet in length
is the equivalent of the ordinary 1,000 foot celluloid
reel. Speaking of transportation, it is well to bring
out the fact here that there are no restrictions or
special regulations applying to the shipping or even
mailing of non-inflammable film, whereas there are
numerous and elaborate regulations applying to the
inflammable standard films.
As for size, the difference between standard the-
atrical film and the narrow-width film is so slight
that virtually nothing is lost in projection.
It is of opportune interest to note the recent in-
corporation of the Associated Manufacturers of Safety
Standard Films and Projectors, which is composed,
as its name implies, of the various manufacturers
interested in the Safety Standard film industry.
The Association will be able to accomplish much in
the way of furthering the use of Safety Standard film
and equipment. This is but one more proof that this
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standard is well established and is a permanent
institution.
There are two ways of preparing the Safety Stand-
The New Premier Pathescope Camera,
which reduces amateur fllm photography
to its simplest terms. This camera takes
the narrow width negative fllm.
ard or Pathescope positives, namely, by filming a
subject on narrow-width negative film and printing
The Cinema Handbook
by contact therefrom, or by filming on standard-sized
negative film and then printing on to a narrow-width
positive by reduction. Many laboratories, aside from
the Pathescope and other laboratories specializing in
Safety Standard film work, are now prepared to print
standard negatives on to Safety Standard stock.
The Pathescope Company have developed a Safety
Standard film camera especially intended for amateurs.
The film is wound on special spools and provided with
light-proof paper ends in such a manner that they
are daylight-loading, thus eliminating the compli-
cated magazines or film retorts of the usual cine-
matographic camera. In every way possible the new
Pathescope camera has been simplified so as to re-
duce motion picture photography to its very essen-
tials.
Projection Reduced to Its Simplest Terms
Obviously, the employment of an inert, non-inflam-
mable film renders projection a simple matter. Non-
inflammable film, or call it slow-burning film if you
prefer, will not burst into flame nor explode. If a
match is applied to it, it merely melts and smolders,
and the moment the flame is removed it supports
only a feeble combustion. Hence the use of this
film makes complicated fireproof magazines and fire-
proof shutters and other precautions unnecessary,
which fact is reflected in the simplicity of all Safety
Standard projectors.
The new Premier Pathescope projector, with which
the author is quite familiar, having used one for
several years back, has all the advantages of a
The Cinema Handbook
standard theatre projector with none of its dis-
advantages. Indeed, it is little short of a boiled down
standard projector, so to speak, with magazines and
fire shutters and other safety devices left off since
the fire danger has been eliminated at the starting
point, namely, the film. The Pathescope projector
can be taken down by folding up the arms that hold
the reels, and made quite compact for carrying it
about. Its weight is but 22 pounds, yet it projects
a rock-steady picture when set up and placed on even
a light table, because of the absence of vibration.
For the source of light, an argon-filled, condensed
monoplane filament incandescent lamp is employed.
A highly efficient optical system, combined with a
novel eccentric star intermittent movement, makes
for a remarkable degree of screen illumination in pro-
portion to the actual light available at the lamp
house. In fact, the Pathescope will fill a twelve-foot
screen with a clear, well-illuminated picture despite
its small size.
The Pathescope projector is motor-driven, being
equipped with a small high-speed electric motor. Both
the light and the motor are operated off any standard
lighting circuit. Where the projector is to be em-
ployed for portable use, it can be operated from
storage batteries and hand cranked if desired, or
from a special hand-cranked generator.
Rewinding is done right on the projector in a
simple and expeditious manner. In the latest model
Pathescope projector the motor is disconnected from
the main driving pulley and instead connected to the
upper spindle pulley by means of a spring belt. The
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film is then rewound from the lower reel back on to
the upper reel, or to its starting point, so to speak.
The author has employed the Pathescope in his own/
home for several years, as already mentioned, and
has never experienced the slightest trouble. This is
quite significant in view of the intricate mechanism
of the usual motion picture projector. He has had
narrow-width films made of his children, both from
Pathescope negatives and from standard-sized nega-
tives, and these films have afforded no end of enjoy-
ment to family and friends alike. In fact, nothing
can compare with the joy of seeing one's children
and one's self on the screen, especially with the roll-
ing by of year after year. Half the pleasure of
home "movies" consists of having one's own animated
family album, and the other half in subscribing to
the library service so as to have a complete change
of film once a week or oftener.
While speaking of the Pathescope projector and
films from actual experience, and therefore with
positive authority, the author wishes to direct atten-
tion to other safety standard projectors now on the
market. The Victor machine, while of a quite dif-
ferent design from the Pathescope, appears to be an
efficient machine. It stands rather high, with the
motor resistance in the hollow base. The shutter,
instead of being placed in front of the machine, is
enclosed in a casing.
Another safety standard projector is the Cosmo-
graph, which appears to be of neat design. Some
of the suit-case projectors are also adapted to safety
standard film.
The Victor projector, which is available for Safety
Standard or Pathescope film. The shutter is enclosed
in the casing of this projector, quite out of the way.
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From Smaller to Still Smaller Images
A move in the direction of still smaller film than
Safety Standard has come and gone from time to
time, and at least one such effort has persisted,
namely, the Movette. This system employs a slow-
Carrying: case for the Victor projector. This ma-
chine is quite light and may be used by salesmen
and others seeking: a portable machine.
burning film of about half the width of standard
theatrical film. The Movette system makes use of
a camera of compact and simple design, which may
be mounted on an ordinary camera tripod. The
camera is loaded with daylight-loading film contain-
The Cinema Handbook
ers in a quite simple manner. The lens is of fixed
focus and the operator has merely to line up the
camera by means of the finder and then turn the
crank. The negative is sent to a laboratory for
developing and printing, and the positive is placed
in a special magazine for projection. The projector,
which is hand-cranked, appears to be of simple, com-
pact design. The author has witnessed several
demonstrations of Movette projection and in con-
sideration of the small size of the film and the sim-
plicity of the projector, the screen presentation is
fair.
One thing in favor of Movette is its low cost. OR
the other hand, it is well to remember that, because-
of the small-sized film, it is limited to short throws
and small screen dimensions. It cannot be expected
to serve the same serious purpose as the Safety
Standard and Pathescope systems employing larger
film. Again, it is only within the past year or so
that the Movette organization has introduced film
subjects. Up till that time the Movette patron had
to make all his own films, and his projector stood
idle until a sufficient library was built up. Now
there is a limited number of subjects available, al-
though in no way comparable to the extensive
offerings of the Pathescope and Safety Standard
libraries.
Another attempt at the small film idea is the
Actograph system, which is represented by a camera
and a projector of small dimensions. Both these
instruments have been designed by the same organi-
zation that produced the well-known Wilart cameras,
The Wilart professional camera and the Actograph
amateur camera standing side by side. Note the con-
trast in size, yet both produce good motion pictures.
The Cinema Handbook
which must explain why they bear a certain resem-
blance to their bigger brothers.
Cinematographic Multum in Parvo
A good idea of the Actograph camera can be obtained
by studying the accompanying illustration. The
claim that the Actograph projector gives as good
The Actograph camera for amateur purposes.
This tiny camera makes use of small films in-
tended only for a very limited throw.
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projection as the usual standard portable machines,
and at a distance of 18 feet it gives a picture 3 by 4
Another view of the Actograph camera, with a
foot-rule to indicate the relative size.
feet. It will be noted that the film, which is con-
siderably smaller than Pathescope or Safety Stand-
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ard, is contained in a double magazine which fastens
on to the rear of the camera, as shown. The camera
case, in turn, slides into a slot provided in the simple
tripod head. The film is readily threaded over the
simple sprockets, and an outside spring belt takes
care of the take-up. The crank can be arranged for
the usual eight-pictures-per-turn movement or the
single- or trick-movement. The finder lens is directly
above the photographic lens. The photographic lens
is of the fixed focus type and is universal from three
feet on.
The projector, on the other hand, is of the suit-
case type, so to speak, with everything contained
inside a case. The entire projector weighs but nine
pounds, which makes it a convenient outfit for sales-
men. It can be set on a tripod, if desired.
The small sized film of the Actograph system
results in a marked economy. It is claimed that the
cost of prints is about one-quarter that for standard
prints. However, in view of the small size of the
images it goes without saying that the Actograph
system is suitable for such industrial uses, churches,
schools and especially home use, where the throw
and the size of the image are not excessive. Any
standard negative can be reduced to an Actograph
film.
The mechanism of the Actograph projector appears
quite plainly in one of the accompanying illustrations.
It consists of a small high-power incandescent lamp
which is operated from a standard lighting circuit
through a suitable resistance, a mirror, condenser,
film-handling mechanism, lens, and external two-
The Cinema Handbook
bladed shutter. The film being of the non-inflam-
mable order, no enclosing magazines are required.
Another miniature system of motion pictures is
the Sinemat, in which the camera mechanism is used
The Actograph projector, which is mounted on the
same tripod as that used for the camera. The
positive film is of the glow-burning., safe kind.
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interchangeably in the camera and the projector, to
reduce cost. The film is made by taking standard
film and splitting it in half, then obtaining a narrow-
width film with perforations along one edge only. The
positive is made from slow-burning stock to ensure
safety.
Disks, Glass Plates, Paper and Whatnot
Film will always be expensive, albeit it may always
be the sole means of obtaining suitable % motion pic-
tures. Still, we cannot accuse inventors of not trying
in every possible way to give us some other means
of motion pictures than the film one.
Thus from time to time a disk arrangement has
been re-introduced for amateur motion pictures.
These disks, made either of glass or slow-burning
material, with the images arranged in spiral form,
are inexpensive to produce and quite simple to handle.
In fact, .the processes involved in producing such
disks in quantities are quite analogous to the produc-
tion of phonograph disk records in point of precise-
ness and dispatch, making disks a commercial propo-
sition of the first order. But disks have their limita-
tions from the standpoint of final results. Due to
the small size of the images, such devices are gener-
ally designed for very small throws and quite small
screen images. There cannot be much detail in the
screen showing. Then again, the number of images,
even despite their microscopic size, that can be placed
on a single disk, is so small that only short bits of
action can be presented. The presentation of a real
film story is quite out of the question. It seems
[431]
Why not carry a motion picture camera on the motor
tour? Here is the tiny Actogrraph camera mounted
on the windshield of a car, ready for instant action.
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that such apparatus is rather in the nature of a toy
than a serious attempt at motion pictures.
Several schemes have been worked out and intro-
duced from time to time utilizing glass plates and
even large pieces of slow-burning material, with the
images arranged in rows. The projection in such
cases calls for one image after another in one row,
after which the optical system picks up the next
row and so on. Such systems, while highly in-
genious and representing a low cost of operation, are
usually incapable of projecting the steady, clear
pictures that are obtained with the regular run of
film projectors.
Then again, paper has been used — paper ribbons
with the images printed in the usual way. A reflect-
ing principle is employed for projecting the opaque
images. The fault here is merely a matter of secur-
ing sufficient reflection and illumination for the
screen. Paper is certainly cheaper than the usual
film materials, and its wearing qualities are fair.
Rut the matter of securing sufficient illumination on
the screen is such as seriously to limit the applica-
tion of paper projectors.
In one ingenious form of paper ribbon system the
inventor made his projector in the form of a cabinet,
with a shadow-box, so that only a short throw and
a small screen were necessary. Such a cabinet can be
placed in a corner of the living room and the pictures
viewed by a small gathering. It appears that this
idea gets away from the objection of paper ribbon
motion pictures, since the limited amount of light is
compensated by using a small throw and a very small
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screen. But as already stated, the paper ribbon is
very limited in its application, and it is problematical
whether it has a real commercial value in the long
run.
Be all that as it may, the fact remains that the
acetate of cellulose film has proved the greatest boori
to motion pictures. It has made motion pictures safe.
There is no longer a technical excuse for not going
ahead with visual education in our schools and
churches, and for motion picture entertaimment in
the home quite on a par with our phonographic reper-
toire of the world's best music.
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CHAPTER XIV.
SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF MO-
TION PICTURE PHOTOGEAPHY
AS the reader must no doubt know by now, the
usual motion picture camera is provided with
two movements, namely, the usual movement or
cranking shaft, which exposes eight pictures or y2 foot
of film for each turn, and the single-picture or trick
cranking shaft, which exposes but one picture or
frame for every revolution. There is virtually no
end to what can be done with the single-picture move-
ment, although, unfortunately — and perhaps fortu-
nately, after all — there is little to say regarding these
various effects except in a very general way. Ani-
mated cartoons, animated models, trick pictures in
general, films showing the growth of a flower in a
few minutes' time — all these things are more or less
jealously guarded secrets, so the author will have to
speak more or less in generalities, leaving the master-
ing of the details to the resourceful and inventive
reader.
With One Picture at a Time
The basis of animated cartoons, animated models
or so-called mechanigraphs, animated sculpture and
so on is the fact that one frame can be exposed at a
time with the usual motion picture camera. To illus-
trate, if the cameraman wishes, he can show an ani-
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mated chair in a very simple manner. All he has
to do is to set up his camera, then take, say, several
feet of film in the usual manner, showing the chair
at rest. Then he stops the camera, transfers the
crank to the single-picture or trick movement, and
either he or an assistant moves the chair, say y2 inch,
in the desired direction. If the chair is moved more
than that distance, it will result in faster movement
when the film is projected on the screen. In fact, how
far and how often to move any given object depends
on the object, the distance away from the camera,
and the desired screen speed. All these factors have
to be solved in each individual case, and that requires
considerable experience. At any rate, if the chair
is moved, say y2 inch, the person gets out of camera
range and an exposure is made by turning the crank
a single revolution. Then the chair is moved another
y2 inch, and another frame is exposed, then another
3/2 incn °f movement, and another frame, and so on.
Of course, this is slow work. It requires almost
endless patience. But highly interesting screen re-
sults may be obtained in this manner. Some small
producers have made considerable money merely by
animating dolls, teddy bears and so on in this same
manner. The work is not so difficult, once the camera-
man has mastered the details and knows something
about animation, which seems to be a definite branch
of cinematography by itself. Where real difficulty
arises is when the animation extends to a number
of subjects which must be animated simultaneously
and at different rates. The animation of a doll and
the action of a man in the same scene, for instance,
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calls for great deal of care and patience. The man
must move ever so slowly in order to keep in perfect
step, so to speak, with the animation of the dolls.
The Animated Cartoon in the Making
Because the animated cartoon, which is so well
known in our present-day motion picture programs,
tells its story by means of drawings, its production
is a matter of preparing thousands of drawings in
order to carry out the creator's idea. The animation
of a picture calls for a collection of separate
drawings, each a trifle different from its predecessor
so as to present progressive action ; and it is in know-
ing just how different to make the successive pic-
tures that much skill and experience and real in-
genuity are called upon. This, the all-important
task, is usually entrusted to one who is the master
artist, in a studio specializing in this class of work,
the other work being relegated to a large staff of
assistants.
The various backgrounds of an animated cartoon
are drawn but once wherever possible, for it would
obviously involve a great volume of unnecessary work
if each drawing included its own background. On the
other hand, the moving figures .must each be drawn
over and over again in progressive positions, with
each successive drawing slightly different in order
to convey the proper illusion when flashed rapidly on
the screen in the proper sequence. The sheets, on
which are drawn the animated objects, are used in
conjunction with the different backgrounds so as to
make a complete cartoon when properly assembled one
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over the other. Sometimes the background or the
figure or part of the figure is in the form of a sheet
of transparent celluloid, especially if the animated
figures are to pass back of the objects pictured on the
celluloid, or keep in the center of the picture, free
of the scenery, or only a part of the figure must be
animated, the rest remaining stationary. More gen-
erally, however, the background is in the form of
a border covering certain parts of the sheet carrying
the animated objects. Often the latter are cut out
more or less so that the figures can be made to overlap
portions of the background, so as to give the appear-
ance of passing in front of the background.
Considerable artistic talent and knowledge of mo-
tion are requisites in the proper and successful anima-
tion of a drawing, despite the seeming simplicity of
the cartoons as they are viewed on the screen. The
movements of the characters in an animated cartoon
must be convincing and at the proper speed. If a man
is walking down a street, for instance, the animator
must know how many sketches are necessary to have
his character cover the distance at the proper gait.
If he uses too many sketches, the picture lags; if he
Uses too few, the movements become very jerky and
quite trying on the eyes of the audience. It is there-
fore necessary for the animator to know how to make
each drawing with relation to its companion sketches;
and his is the art of indicating the difference between
one drawing and the next with a few bold strokes of
his pencil, leaving the detailed finishing of each draw-
ing to other members of his staff.
The animator works on an unusual easel, consisting
The Cinema Handbook
of a slanting piece of frosted or ground glass held
in a suitable frame and through which pass the rays
of an electric lamp placed below it. The simplest form
of such an animator's easel is shown in the accom-
panying sketch. Thus it is possible for the artist
to lay a clean piece of paper over the last drawing and
Simple home-made easel with electric light shin-
ing through a glass rest, which may be used in
making animated cartoon drawings.
indicate on the blank piece the new or progressive
lines for the animation. And by rapidly waving one
end of the new drawing while it is still in place over
the preceding one, he can tell at a glance the extent
and correctness of the animation. The drawings are
made on sheets of paper of suitable size, 7^£ by 9
inches being considered a good working size.
Perfect register is a vital consideration in the
preparation of animated cartoon drawings, because
of the great magnification of the films on the
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screen. The simplest way to obtain perfect register
of all sheets is to have the sheets perforated with two
or three holes along one edge, and to use metal pegs
corresponding to these holes on the easel. In this
manner every sneet fits precisely over the same field as
Perforated sheet of paper and registering
pegs used in making animated cartoon
drawings. The same arrangement of pegs
is used in the camera stand.
any other sheet. The same system of pegs is employed
in the animating stand, where the sheets are photo-
graphed.
A Matter of Clear Understanding
A considerable amount of thought must be devoted
to the audience's understanding of the picture. The
center of interest in a cartoon must always be played
up prominent!}7" by the simple procedure of subduing
other features. For instance, if one of the characters
throws a missile, it is necessary that there be no
further movement of the arm after the missile begins
to travel across the picture. The character — and every
The Cinema Handbook
other character in the drawing, for that matter — must
remain absolutely rigid so that the attention of the
audience will not be distracted from the missile which
at that moment is the center of interest. Then again,
when a character is made to speak by the introduction
ofwhat is known as a "balloon" within which appears
the hand lettering, there must be no motion in the
cartoon until the audience has had time to read the
legend, which then disappears.
It is the preparation of so many progressive draw-
ings that requires time. After the master artist or
animator has indicated the changes from one drawing
to the next, his assistants work out the drawings in
detail. Sometimes these are quite simple and can be
done in a few minutes' time, while in other instances
they are quite involved, calling for special shading
and even special tints or wash, in order to cut down
the glare when shown on the screen. There are no
definite figures to indicate the quantity of animated
cartoon work that can be turned out in a week, since
this depends as much on the elaborateness of the work
as it does on the worker. Suffice it to say, however,
that a well-known cartoonist turns out on an average
about one hundred feet of film per week.
The photographing of animated cartoons is a sim-
ple matter, so to speak. It is accomplished by using a
motion picture camera mounted on a substantial
wooden or metal frame, with the lens pointing straight
downwards. A framing or registering device is placed
on the table directly below the camera, this device
being provided with pegs or other device to correspond
with that used in the easel in which the drawings
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have been made. Sometimes a sheet of glass must be
laid on the drawings to make them lie perfectly flat.
Suitable lights, preferably mercury vapor lamps, are
mounted on each side of the table to supply the neces-
sary illumination. A simple outfit for photographing
Sheet holder of the camera stand. The glass sheet
in the frame serves to hold the paper perfectly flat,
so as to avoid shadows caused by wrinkles in the
paper.
animated drawings, which is called an animating
stand, is shown in the drawing on page 444.
Now the camera may be operated by hand, if the
operator can spare the time to turn the crank one
revolution each time a picture or frame is to be ex-
posed. This method, aside from being tedious, also
calls for a uniform turning of the crank in order to
obtain even exposures. However, if the amateur cine-
matographer is anxious to go into this line of work
on a serious scale, he should have his camera equipped
The Cinema Handbook
with a motor drive and positive clutch arrangement,
which turns the crank one revolution every time a
button is pressed, the motor operating all the while.
By the clever manipulation of a set of drawings it
is sometimes possible to avoid making a large nunmber
of drawings for conveying a certain idea. For example,
Typical camera stand for making animated cartoons.
This stand is of the simplest design and may be con-
structed by the handy man.
a long freight train moving past one point may be
represented quite nicely by a drawing of a locomotive
and tender and several freight cars, after which the
same freight car drawings are repeated over and over
again until the desired length of train has been repre-
sented. Or if a figure is shown doing the same thing
for a few seconds, such as jigging or exercising or run-
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ning in a circle, it is only necessary to draw the com-
plete action once, after which the same set of drawings
is used as often as necessary. These measures, which
CELLULOID
The principle of time-saving: in animated cartoon
work. Note that the celluloid sheet carries the
drawing: of the little man, while the accompanying:
paper sheets carry only the action of the arm and
horseshoe.
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are in reality short cuts, go far to reduce the amount
of work and the time required in producing a cartoon.
With the completion of the drawings, it is necessary
to draw up a schedule of the order of the filming and
how it shall be done. This schedule gives full details
as to the sequence of the pictures, how they are as-
Scene from an animated doll film. This is the
most interesting: kind of trick .'work, and the re-
sults are well worth the trouble involved.
sembled in the case of celluloid transparencies, how
many exposures for each, when fade-ins or fade-outs
as well as vignettes are called for, and so on.
All these facts are only given in order that the
reader may have some idea of how the work is done.
The author feels that in the limited space here avail-
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able it is impossible to go into details, for this sub-
ject is highly intricate and requires a good deal of
study for successful results. He therefore recommends
the very excellent and ably handled work entitfed
Animated Cartoons, written by Mr. E. G. Lutz,
which covers the subject in detail. The present facts
are merely to give the reader a foundation in order
that he can intelligently take up this matter with
firms specializing in such work when he wishes to
have cartoon films made.
Screen Comedies in Clay
Possessing every feature that goes to make a good
comedy on the screen, and having in addition a dis-
tinct note of novelty, the animated sculptures intro-
duced several years ago have proved a pleasant
change from the usual run of film subjects.
The principle of the new films is precisely that of
the animated cartoons: the photographing of succes-
sive subjects or positions of the same subject, each a
trifle different from its predecessor so that the
proper animation will result when the strip of film
is projected on the screen. The exposures or frames
are made one by one.
Like the production of animated cartoons, the
making of animated sculpture films is something that
cannot be undertaken without some preparatory
study. It requires months of experimentation before
the results obtained are satisfactory.
The work of the animated sculpture producer runs
about as follows:
First, the film story is worked up, much after the
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fashion of the regular scenario, although of course
the plot is simple and the action is reduced to a
minimum. Then the cast is assembled in the form
of the required number of clay figures. As far as
possible these figures are made entirely of modeling
clay of different shades, painted when necessary to
make them more attractive. Occasionally the little
figures are dressed in real clothes and have real
hair. When the design is mechanically weak, the
clay is reinforced with wood or wire.
The little clay figures are placed in front of the
camera and filmed in the usual single-picture man-
ner. That is to say, one frame is exposed, and the
figures are moved say %th of an inch; then another
frame is exposed, followed by another slight move-
ment of the figures, and so on. The extent of the
movement in each case depends on the speed desired
on the screen, and is a subject for experience and
study.
Dolls, toys, and letters for a title or other reading
matter, parts of any device and so on can be ani-
mated in about the same way. In fact, most of these
things are relatively simple compared to animated
cartoons, and are well within the means of the average
amateur cameraman.
Animated Technical Drawings to Give
Instructions
A strip of celluloid is transforming modern educa-
tional methods. Heretofore, the school teacher has
had-a three-fold problem to face. Every educational
method tries to arouse the pupil's curiosity, stimu-
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late his interest and free his imagination. To obtain
results, the teacher has only the five senses of his
pupils to play upon. These are the channels of
learning, with the visual sense by far the most active
in the absorption of information.
The difficulty of the instructor's task is not only
a psychological and a biological one, but is also
compounded by a practical obstruction. The student
may be temperamentally prejudiced against a par-
How the sound waves from an electric bell can
be shown in animated drawings. The bell is
painted in wash on cardboard, while the drawings,
such as the two shown, depicting: the sound waves,
are made on celluloid.
ticular subject. So may the teacher; and as a conse-
quence his lecture may not be stimulating. More-
over, both the child and the instructor have their
"off" days, on which the learning process halts almost
completely. Furthermore, the mechanical aids of
teaching may be inadequate. It is an indictment of
our entire public school educational system that the
leisurely methods and the scientific aids now in use
in some of the best equipped elementary private
The Cinema Handbook
schools in America are unknown in the public schools.
Besides, the present dearth of instructors, not to say
good instructors, presents a practical obstacle which
the very best of educational methods will find it
difficult to overcome.
But an entirely new method is gradually attract-
ing the attention of educational boards. With it no
subtle effort on the part of the instructor is needed
to arouse the pupil's interest or to stimulate his
curiosity. This is due to the fact that it aims at
instruction through the medium of entertainment.
That is what the modern educational motion picture
is doing. The making of the educational film has
gone through several phases; but an experiment suc-
cessfully tried during the war has proved the prac-
ticability of making this type of film by a new
process.
At the West Point Military Academy, previous to
our entry into the war, the manual of instruction on
the constitution and operation of bombs was supple-
mented by a lecture course of twenty-four teaching
hours. The Government commissioned Lieut. F. J.
Leventhal to make a picture of the processes in-
volved, with the result that the course was reduced
from twenty-four hours to fifteen minutes.
This new type of educational picture is called the
animated technical drawing and is a development of
the animated cartoon. The process by which these
films are made consists of photographing about 1,500
individual drawings and explanatory titles on a roll
of motion picture film. The drawings are made on
thin paper and then traced on transparent compo-
The Cinema Handbook
sition plates. These plates are numbered and ex-
posed to the camera in succession. As in the motion
picture taken from life, it is often necessary to
emphasize certain phases of the subject. Moreover,
the same drawing may be used in several places to
tell the story clearly. This is comparable to the use
of what is known in motion photography as "flash-
backs." In the animated technical drawing the result
is achieved by photographing the drawing desired in
its regular numerical order and again inserting it
at some later point in the picture. For example,
drawing number 9 may be shown as the ninth picture
on the reel, and may again appear in forty-fifth posi-
tion when the reel is completed.
In photographing the transparent plates, it is
often necessary to superimpose two or more of them
and photograph them together. This is necessary to
obtain the illusion of movement. It also obviates the
necessity of making an indefinitely larger number of
drawings than are now used in a single animated
technical drawing.
The principle on which this phase of the work
operates is based on the fact that several pictures
are alike except for minor changes. If a flower is to
be represented as blossoming, the stem remains the
same throughout the process. Consequently, a trans-
parent plate showing only the stem is photographed
as a background with a succession of other drawings
that reveal the stages of the blossoming process.
This results in a great economy in the number of
drawings to be made, as well as in a saving of time.
In fact, if this idea had not been reduced to an
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economically scientific basis, the so-called techno-
graph drawings that have been developed would not
be practicable.
Drawings Made Up of Backgrounds and
Transparencies
In all the subjects several dark-toned backgrounds
are used with the transparent plates. An instance
of this may be seen in a physiological study showing
the action of the human heart. The heart is first
photographed from a dark cardboard background ; then
a transparent plate on which the chambers of the
heart are drawn in outline is superimposed, and the
two drawings photographed together. Several other
plates showing changes in the chambers are then laid
over the background and photographed. Of course,
several different backgrounds are used; but a single
one is often combined with as many as twenty or
even thirty transparent plates.
Interspersed with the animated drawings are
titles; and, when necessary, a pointer is introduced
to draw attention to something that is to be em-
phasized. Up to the present time, a fairly complete
library of scientific subjects has been prepared. Even
text books are being "animated" by this process.
Within a comparatively short time, as educational
developments are reckoned, it is certain that cata-
logues and libraries of pedagogical films will spring
into being and vie with our public book libraries.
Then it will be a simple matter for a school to order
a series of films on any subjects desired. These will
of course be returned within a few days, as entire
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courses of study can be clearly outlined to students
by the motion picture method in a very short time.
Furthermore, subject? formerly taught in colleges
ure now made understandable for children of ten.
And it is now possible for the man-in-the-street to
fill in many gaps in his incomplete education by see-
ing the animated technical drawing in the regular
motion picture theaters.
Astronomy Made Simple for the Man in
the Street
Even astronomical phenomena have been portrayed
by the animated technical drawing. The effect of
the moon on tides is exposed in a simple way. A
series of moving arrows between the earth and the
moon pictures the pull that the latter exerts on the
former. The force is similar to magnetism; and this
comparison is shown by replacing the moon by a
magnet, showing the water rising from the earth's
surface in response to the pull of the magnet. When
the magnet is replaced by the moon again, the phe-
nomenon has been perfectly explained. This attrac-
tion of the moon for the earth's waters is shown in
action on opposite sides of the earth's surface. The
explanation is conveyed in a title:
"The opposite side of the earth will have high
tide at the same time because the earth itself is
drawn towards the moon away from the water."
The reason for low tide follows inevitably. How
two tides a day result from the revolution of the
earth is shown in the same graphic way that high
and low tides are explained. Perhaps the most in-
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teresting phase of this educational picture explains
the difference between spring tides and neap tides.
In spring tides the position of the moon is directly
between the sun and the earth. Consequently, the
double pull exerted by them results in extremely
high tides. However, when the sun and the moon are
This drawing:, and the drawings shown on facing:
page, depict how an astronomical feature may be
brought out on the screen, The drawing here
shown is painted on a black background, and
forms the basis for the scene.
at right angles to the earth, the pull of the moon
is somewhat diminished by the attraction of the sun.
When the earth is in this position, with reference
to the sun and the moon, we have what are known
as "neap" tides.
Instruments for indicating as well as for predict-
ing high tides are carefully explained. At the con-
Drawing: showing: how the moon's influence causes
the earth's tides. This drawing is made on cellu-
loid, and is photographed when superimposed on
that shown on facing: page.
Another drawing of this series, this time showing
the arrows that indicate the gravitational pull of
the moon on the earth. This drawing- is also
made on celluloid and is photographed when
superimposed on that shown on facing- page.
The Cinema Handbook
elusion of this animated technical drawing, the sub-
ject has been quite thoroughly presented. In fact,
any child is able to follow the "story" because it is
constructed on sound pedagogical principles. All
the animated technical drawings begin with a phe-
nomenon that is common everyday knowledge; and
by adding fact to fact and by making intelligent use
of the process of analogy an entirely new fund of
knowledge is built up in' less than fifteen minutes.
The Mechanigraphs and What They Mean
Let us explore a little in one corner of the vast
field that will some day be completely covered
through the agency of the motion picture. A manu-
facturer of automobiles, we will assume, desires to
get before the public the complete story of his car.
Or an institute of technology or some other educa-
tional institution desires to make the construction
and operation of the automobile absolutely clear and
understandable. It is desirable to save time in im-
parting knowledge and to create an impression that
will be lasting and accurate and that will not be the
result of tedious mental drudgery. How is it to be
done?
A specialist in the making of mechanical motion
pictures is consulted, the objects sought explained,
the data supplied. The making of the picture is com-
menced.
It is a simple enough matter to make, in the usual
way, moving pictures of all parts of the car that are
visible. It is equally simple to dismantle the engine,
or the gearset, or any other unit, then to photograph
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the various parts and, in some cases, to show them
in motion. But to make clear the actual action,
under working conditions is a different matter alto-
gether. Take, for example, the familiar vacuum sys-
tem for keeping the carburetter supplied with gaso-
line. All that is visible is a little tank and a few
Various parts of a Mechanigraph, prior to assem-
bly. These parts are made of cardboard, carefully
painted and retouched to produce good photo-
graphic effect. Note assembly on page 461.
pipes. Lay bare the working parts and they will not
work. Some recourse must be had to a series of
drawings, supplemented by verbal or printed explan-
ations. In the last analysis the whole matter sim-
mers down to the ability of the instructed to use
their imagination and so mentally to visualize the
apparatus. And it requires something more than an
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average imagination first to comprehend the analysis
and then mentally to construct and finally mentally
to operate the system.
Your motion picture engineer makes it his business
to sweep away these difficulties, to eliminate the
mental drudgery and to get at once to the heart of
the subject — to show what the machine is for, what
it consists of and how it works when the car is
running. And, be it said, in doing this he takes
upon his shoulders a task of no mean magnitude,
which has a good deal to do with the fact that such
interesting and truly invaluable pictures are not more
common that they are.
At this stage of the proceeding another considera-
tion enters. When the motion picture was in its
early youth any picture that moved on the screen
was acceptable. After the proverbial nine days,
however, people became more discriminating; they
demanded — and were given — pictures with an appeal
beyond that of mere moving photography. Later
there appeared the animated cartoon — the comic line
drawing in which the characters and "props" moved
in a more or less lifelike way. As a novelty, this
was popular for a time, but the novelty soon wore
off, and the animated cartoon is being supplemented by
pictures that, while still designated as cartoons, have
all the earmarks of being motion photographs of real
things. They are produced by highly complex sys-
tems of double exposure, rephotographing photo-
graphs and so on. In fact, almost monthly some
ingenious method of making animated cartoons or
drawings finds its way to the Patent Office.
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Showing the Public What Makes the Wheels
Go Round
So it is with the instructive and educational
mechanical picture. In its best-known form it has
been chiefly an animated line drawing. While satis-
The Mechanigraph of a vacuum feed system of an
automobile, the parts of which are shown on page
459, completely assembled, ready for filming1.
The various members of this Mechanigraph are
animated during filming operations.
factory in some respects, such a picture is lacking
in, the very important element of reality. It is a
representation of an idea, rather than a picture of
the thing itself. Consequently, the present endeavor
is to incorporate in the picture every possible ap-
The Cinema Handbook
pearance of actuality. And, to go back to the vacuum
fuel-feed system, the end is accomplished as fol-
lows:
A drawing is made showing the system in cross-
section, taken at a point that exposes all the work-
ing parts. Separate drawings are made of all the
moving parts, all exactly to scale and of the correct
form. All the parts are painted until they look quite
real. Here a special knowledge of tone values is
highly important. The tinting and shading that
make an excellent half-tone cut, for instance, will
often fall short of the appearance of reality when
photographed under the motion-picture camera. For,
that reason, illustrations of the work are usually far
less convincing in appearance than the images pro-
jected on the screen.
All the parts are assembled, joints and bearings
being used so that they will move as they should.
It is usual to make also toned drawings showing all
exteriors, to show the external appearance of the
apparatus at the beginning of the picture. These
exteriors are "dissolved out" later, exposing the
working parts.
Photographing the job involves special apparatus
in the shape of an "animating stand." The animat-
ing stand, as we already know, consists, first, of a
wooden or an angle-iron framework in the lower part
of which is a broad table, at convenient working
height, upon which the drawing — called a "mechani-
graph" now that it is finished — is placed. The
camera is carried overhead, with its lens pointing
down toward the table, and is mounted on slides so
Animating: camera stand employed in filming Me-
chanigraphs. Note the Mechanigraph of an automo-
bile tire pump and tiret which is being filmed.
The Cinema Handbook
that it can be moved up or down to permit covering
any size of field.
The motion picture camera has two shafts for
operating its shutter and film-moving mechanism,
When the shaft ordinarily used is rotated, each rota-
tion causes eight exposures to be made. The second
shaft causes one exposure to be made at each revo-
lution and is known as the "stop-motion" shaft. This
is the shaft used in making mechanigraphs. Instead,
however, of being driven by hand through a crank,
it is driven by a small electric motor. In photo-
graphing a job the motor is allowed to run continu-
ously. It does not turn the shutter shaft, however,
unless a trip is operated, by hand or by foot. When
the trip is operated a positive clutch engages the
shutter shaft, gives it one turn and makes one ex-
posure, and then automatically disengages, the motor
running idle until the trip is again operated. Needless
to say the clutch is so adjusted that when idle the
shutter is closed.
The mechanigraph is placed on the table and ad-
justed as to position so that it is in proper relation
to the field of the lens, the camera's height is ad-
justed so that all or as much as may be desired of
the drawing is in the field, the lens is focused, the
stop or opening set, and the camera loaded with film
and closed.
With everything finally ready for work the lights
are turned on. These are mercury-vapor lamps
suspended adjustably on each side of the table, so
that the field is brilliantly and evenly illuminated
by the greenish glow.
The Cinema Handbook
Using the Cross-Dissolve to Tie Different
Drawings Together
In the case of the vacuum fuel-feed system, the
picture is started by showing the exterior of the appa-
ratus. There is no motion to be registered, so the
trip is held in the operating position and the camera
shaft is turned continuously until a sufficient length
of film has been exposed. Then the exterior parts are
"dissolved out." The most effective way of doing
this is to use a "cross dissolve." By pressing a but-
ton on the camera a mechanism is engaged which
gradually closes the shutter while the motor rotates
the camera shaft. The result is that the light ad-
mitted through the lens is decreased slightly in each
successive exposure until finally the shutter is com-
pletely closed and no light enters. If this film were
developed the result would be a gradual fading of
the picture until it would disappear completely.
At this point the drawings representing exteriors,
which have been temporarily laid over the sectional
drawings, are removed, bringing the working parts
into view. Then with the shutter closed the film is
run back to the exact point where the "fade" was
commenced. The motor is then run forward and the
fade is repeated, going over the same film as before —
with one important difference. Where the shutter,
on the "fade-out," began to close it now begins to
open, and when the point is reached where the shut-
ter was completely closed on the fade-out, it is wide
open on the fade-in. This is called a "cross dissolve"
or an "overlap dissolve." On the screen, the result
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is that the exterior view dissolves — there is not a
better word — into the interior.
A few feet of film are then run through showing
the working parts stationary, after which the real
work of the "animator" begins. The parts must be
photographed in such a way as to show their move-
ment. They cannot, however, be moved and photo-
graphed while they are moving, as in the familiar
process of "straight" motion picture work. The
parts are moved by hand a small fraction of an inch.
Then the trip is operated and the motor causes the
camera to make a single exposure. In motion picture
parlance, one "frame" is exposed. Then the parts
are moved another fraction of an inch and another
exposure is made, and so on — a little movement
and one exposure, another movement and another
exposure, still another and another until the
parts have completed a movement, or a series of
movements. All movements must be equal when a
steady motion is required; otherwise there will be a
jump on the screen. In the case of the subject in
question the movements were each about a thirty-
second of an inch.
A curious feature of this work is that it is not
really motion picture photography at all. It is sim-
ply a series of "still" photographs showing a succes-
sion of different positions of the object photographed.
On the screen, however, the illusion of movement is
perfect. Even if the animator, through an error of
judgment, moves the parts too far at each exposure,
the projected picture still maintains the illusion of
motion rather than a succession of "stills," but the
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motion will be a series of very rapid jerks or jumps.
The Problem of Combining Movements
One of the difficulties of mechanical animation be-
comes evident when there are several parts to be,
moved and it is impracticable so to connect them that
they will move together. They must be moved separ-
ately, and the movements must be so gauged that the
proper relative positions, will always exist. Usually
this involves a schedule, prepared after all the move-
ments have been exactly calculated and tabulated.
There is a good deal more to be done, however,
before the work is finished. The object sought is
not merely to show how the parts move, but rather
to create a picture showing the effects caused by theso
movements as well. In the present instance this
involves showing the flow of gasoline from the main
tank to the vacuum tank, through the valves, from
the upper to the lower tank and out to the carbu-
retter. The principle used in creating the illusion of
the rising or falling of liquid in a tank, or its flow
through a pipe, is simple and can be applied in a
number of ways. In the case of a tank, a piece of
transparent celluloid is cut that will fit in the tank
drawing, and provision is made for moving it up and
down while showing only that portion which should
properly be shown in the tank; the exact method
will depend upon the nature of the job. On the cellu-
loid lines are drawn, much as in drawing the con-
ventional water of the drawing-board. When this is
moved and photographed as described, the lines are
"lost" on tb^ screen and there is left the illusion of
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movement of a transparent body. By using celluloid
the tank can still be seen through the liquid, making
the illusion so much more complete. Other equally
simple tricks are employed to show the liquid falling
in a broken stream and splashing foamily into the
tank.
Part of the animator's stock in trade consists of
unlimited patience. Such a picture as that of the
vacuum fuel-feed will run about 400 feet. With six-
teen frames per foot, this means a total of 6,400
frames. Some of these are run off rapidly under the
camera, where there is no motion to be shown. There
remain, however, about 5,000 frames that must be
exposed individually, each after a careful setting of
a number of parts. Small wonder, then, that the
making of a film that will show on the screen for
three or four minutes may involve anywhere from
two days to two weeks of work under the animating
camera — to say nothing of the time required for the
preparation of the mechanigraphs by the draughts-
men and artists.
When a Few Drawings Make Gears Turn
There are cases where it is necessary to show move-
ment that cannot be simulated by the methods al-
ready referred to. For instance, suppose it is desired
to make a mechanigraph of a power-driven tire pump,
such as is used in automobiles. In order to get the
whole pump in section at the same time it is neces-
sary to draw it in the plane of the crankshaft. This
gives an edgewise view of the gears and crank; yet
their motion must be shown. In the case of the
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gears the "three-position" trick, well known to ani-
mators, is used. A drawing of the gear is made with
the teeth carefully placed and spaced. Then a second
is made precisely similar, but showing the teeth
advanced through a distance equal to one-fourth of
a tooth and a space, and a third shows a similar
advance over the second. The first gear is laid in
position and photographed — a single frame. Then
the second, and then the third. Then the first is
laid down again, and the second and third, and so
on, for as many feet of film as may be necessary.
If the drawing has been properly done the projected
picture will show perfect motion. The person who is
informed on the subject of motion pictures will
recognize at once the connection between this pro-
cedure and the various illusions which are encoun-
tered in photographing tKe wheels of a moving
vehicle.
The crank has to be handled differently, for it
changes its appearance as well as its apparent length
with every move throughout its swing. A separate
drawing is made for every position of the crank, and
cut out. The cut-outs are laid down one at a time
and photographed, the piston and connecting-rod
positions being changed each time the crank is
changed. When the connecting rod moves back — that
is, away from the spectator — it naturally goes into
the shadow of the cylinder and crank-case. So a
separate piece, precisely like the connecting rod but
darker, is laid on when the rod is in the shadow.
This gives the impression that the rod swings back
and forth, when in reality it simply moves straight
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up and down in its operation before the camera.
There are innumerable other tricks and devices
that are called into play by the mechanical animator,
and many pieces of special apparatus are devised to
attain specific results. Many of these ideas are
more or less jealously guarded as "trade secrets,"
but the truth is that once a picture is shown on the
screen, a good animator can figure out pretty accu-
rately how it was made, and can generally do the
same thing himself. There are few set rules and
processes in the type of mechanical animation de-
scribed. Every job brings its own individual prob-
lems, and solving them ever involves new schemes and
tricks — it is just one little invention after another.
But this very fact makes the work more than fasci-
nating in spite of its difficulties, and the greatest
reward an animator can ask is a perfect picture on
the screen. That brings with it a thrill that is even
beyond that of the author who sees his work in type
for the first time.
Filming the Invisible With the Microscope
and Motion Picture Camera
The resourceful cameraman can secure many an
interesting subject with the aid of the microscope.
The elements of microscopic motion picture photog-
raphy are a camera, microscope of the desired power,
a condenser, and a powerful source of light. Gener-
ally an arc light is necessary, in order to secure suffi-
cient light for the instantaneous exposures. The
usual lens is removed from the camera, the reflecting
mirror is removed from the microscope, and the
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microscope is connected up with the camera in the
manner shown in the accompanying illustration. A
short length of rubber hose serves to make a good
light-tight connection between microscope and cam-
era, the usual camera lens being removed. The
microscope, in other words, furnishes the lens.
One or two points must be observed to ensure suc-
cess. First of all, however simple the camera or
microscope employed, it is essential to have both
firmly supported in some -manner so as to avoid move-
ment of the apparatus during focusing or when oper-
ating the camera. It is true that passable results
may be obtained with nothing more elaborate than
the microscope placed on a table with the tube hori-
zontally led to the motion picture camera mounted
on its tripod or resting on the same support as the
other apparatus. However, it is far better to have
the microscope clamped in position on a long, stout
board, and to mount the camera, by means of a heavy
screw passing up through a long slot in the board and
screwing into the camera screwhole, to the same
board. Thus there is no danger of moving the
camera or microscope out of alignment while crank-
ing or making the necessary adjustments.
The lamp house with arc lamp taken from an obso-
lete motion picture projector makes an excellent illu-
minant. The usual incandescent lamp is useless for
anything but very low power work, and even then
must always have ground glass interposed, or even
lighting will be out of the question. The arc lamp is
unquestionably the best illuminant, since we are deal-
ing with instantaneous photography, which requires
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a powerful illumination, as we must realize by now.
If the apparatus is set up on a board, all clamped
in place, the first step is to place the specimen to be
photographed on the glass slide, and to turn on a
light. The arc is unnecessary for the preliminaries.
\Yith a one-inch objective and low power eyepiece in
position, the operator can focus as usual by looking
through the microscope. This may be done quite
roughly as at this point we merely want to get the
object in the field of view. Unless our instrument is
a very old pattern, it will almost certainly possess
some form of condenser under its stage with or
without means of focusing, and have an iris dia-
phragm. The top lens of this condenser should be
removed when using the one-inch or lower powers and
replaced for the %-inch or higher ones. The iris is
opened out and then the camera is moved up as the
microscope, held at a convenient distance all this
while, is swung down to the horizontal position, so
that the eyepiece of the microscope projects into the
place usually occupied by the camera lens. All stray
light at the junction of the two instruments can be
stopped by some loose covering, such as a length of
rubber tubing, a piece of heavy velvet, or a sheet of
focusing cloth. Looking now through the peephole
of the camera, it is possible, after considerable ma-
noeuvering and focusing of the miscroscope, to see
the image on the film or focusing ground glass. The
lighting must be jockeyed along until the illumina-
tion noted in the focusing is more or less even.
Now, nearly all miscroscopic outfits include a sim-
ple stand condenser, called a "bull's-eye" condensei,
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and by placing this close to the light it is possible
to obtain, when it is in the proper position, a parallel
beam of light covering the back of the substage con-
denser. The path of the beam will be clearly seen
if tobacco smoke is blown across it. If an iris dia-
phragm can be fitted to the bull's-eye, or placed just
in front of it, it will be a useful help, or failing
this, a few pieces of card faced with circular holes
from % inch to 2 inches in diameter will be of ser-
vice. Assuming that we have such an iris, this must
be closed down to a small opening and then by moving
the substage condenser to and fro we shall get an
image of this small opening on the focusing screen.
Having this image central and as sharp as possible
(the focusing being done by moving the substage con-
denser), we gradually open it out till it just encloses
the image we want to photograph, after which we
close down the substage iris till we get the best pos-
sible definition and finally focus as accurately as
possible with the microscope. If a light filter is
being used, this must be placed between the bull's-eye
and the microscope before the final focusing.
The use of a light filter, or color screen as it is
called, is always advisable, since the definition of
ordinary objectives is always improved if a yellow or
yellow-green filter is used. It should be understood
that in photomicrography such filters may be used
as in ordinary work for the purpose of getting cor-
rect tone values, but their chief use (in addition
to improving definition) will be to increase either
contrast or detail. By using various color filters
any particular color can be emphasized or subdued. For
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general use a green filter, such as that used in three-
color process engraving, will be found the best all-
round filter for photomicrography. The following
table is only a rough guide to the selection of the
most suitable filter to use when photographing col-
ored preparations and contrasty results are required.
It must be remembered that the usual film, which
is not sensitive to red and orange, must be replaced
by panchromatic stock when using certain color
filters.
With a blue stained preparation use a red filter.
" " green " " " red "
" " red " " " " green "
" " yellow " " " " blue "
" " brown " " " " blue "
" " purple " " " " green «
" " violet " " " " yel'w "
There are many things to learn regarding micro-
photography in motion picture form, and the ama-
teur will find this an interesting field for the exercise
of ingenuity. Many of the specimens which he at-
tempts to film may not be able to withstand the
intense heat of the arc lamp, with the result that he
may have to improvise certain liquid condensers and
ray filters intended not only to eliminate undesirable
color rays from the light, but also to absorb some
of the heat. Then again, he may have to devise some
form of shutter which works synchronously with the
motion picture camera shutter, in order that the
specimens may only be subjected to the heat of the
light at such times as the camera shutter is opened.
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At any rate, this is a worthwhile field to try, and there
is always a good demand for good films of this class.
Reducing Months to Minutes on the Screen
One of the most interesting effects that is ever pro-
duced on the screen is the speeding up of plant growth,
Typical microscopic scene, showing: how one of
the lower forms of life ensnares its prey.
building operations and other things. That is to say,
what normally requires say two or three months, is
shown on the screen in the short span of five to ten
minutes. Here again the trick is turned by the stop-
motion or single-picture movement of the average
motion picture camera. It is a matter of exposing
one frame at a time, in this case at long intervals,
say half an hour or an hour or more with some sub-
jects, and when such a film is run off in the projector
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at the rate of sixteen images per second, it stands to
reason that eight hours or sixteen hours of develop-
ment may be shown in one second.
A most ingenious apparatus for automatically mak-
ing motion pictures showing the growth and develop-
ment of plants, insects and micro-organisms, has re-
cently been perfected by E. S. Rinaldy of New York
City, who has applied for a patent on same.
The Rinaldy apparatus not only eliminates the
human equation of error in making a series of expos-
ures at properly spaced intervals, but does away with
the necessity of constant supervision by expert cam-
eramen while the period of picture making is under
way. The apparatus consists of a universally adjust-
able stand, accommodating the camera, the subject,
and one or more lights, and is so adjusted that the
camera may be manipulated, the object focused, and
the lighting system arranged to the best advantage.
The stand permits of making the picture by sunlight
if this is desired, and both the subject and the camera
may be held in proper position with regard to the
position of the sun at the time of exposure.
The operating mechanism of the Rinaldy apparatus
consists of a fourteen-day time clock, supplied with a
set of interchangeable timing disks which permit of
exposures being made at intervals of from one second
to twelve hours, as may be desired; and these disks,
which may be interchanged without loss of time, per-
mit of the variation of time between the exposures of
the film with the varying rate of development or pro-
gress of the subject at different stages of plant or
organic life, as the case may be.
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The time clock, at predetermined intervals, opens
and closes a switch, furnishing current to a motor
that actuates the mechanism which switches on t^e
current for the lighting equipment, exposes the fib.
and then switches off the lights. The lights are
switched on a quarter of a second before the exposure
of the film and are extinguished one-quarter to a sec-
ond after exposure. By reducing the artificial light
to a minimum of time beyond that actually required
for the exposure, the injurious effects of light upon
many forms of micro-organisms are obviated to the
greatest possible degree.
The Rinaldy apparatus may be used for the scien-
tific recording in motion pictures of the growth of a
flower, the opening and shutting of a flower, and its
method of following the sun in its course, the growth
of insect life from the egg to the perfected image or
the cultivation of bacteria as viewed through the
microscope, in which latter case the camera is utilized
in connection with microscopic apparatus.
Pictures Shot from the Air
A fruitful field for the cinematographer is the air
— that is to say, filming from the air. Aerial pictures
are in great demand, not only for entertainment and
educational purposes, but for advertising and selling
purposes. The manufacturer can present a better idea
of the magnitude and arrangement of his plant by
means of an aerial view than in any other manner;
and the real estate promoter, developing a new tract
of land, can tell more about the location, layout, geo-
graphical and topographical features of his land by
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means of an aerial film than in any other conceivable
way.
Of course, this means an airplane, for there is no
Motion picture camera equipped with an electric
motor so as to eliminate hand cranking. This
camera is especially intended for aerial
photography.
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other satisfactory way of making aerial views.
Throughout the United States there are intrepid
young aviators who are ready to rent their machines
by the minute,, hour or day for the purpose of making
pictures. The usual charge is a dollar per minute
in the big cities, but even though this charge seems
exorbitant, one must remember the footage that can
be ground out in that time.
While the usual camera serves very nicely for aerial
filming operations, there have of late appeared special
cameras for this kind of work. A New Yorker, Frank
T. Morris, has lately developed a motor-driven camera
which is proving quite popular for this kind of cine-
matography. His camera is driven by an eighth-
horsepower electric motor which takes its current
from a storage battery. The camera is also provided
with a pair of stout handles, and by means of these
the cameraman can aim the camera in any desired
direction and press a button to start the filming,
there being no hand cranking to bother with. By dis-
pensing with the usual tripod, wonderful freedom of
action is obtained. In this connection a pneumatic
breast cushion worn by the cameraman and against
which the camera is pressed for better support, serves
to absorb all vibration from the airplane motor.
The camera can be adapted to all sorts of trick
pictures, because of the ease with which it may be
swung about. It can be used for filming fast moving
objects, such as football players, baseball players,
horse and automobile racing, racing boats, etc. The
total weight of the camera complete is 21 pounds. It
carries 400 feet of film. The storage battery which
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drives the motor has a capacity of ten consecutive
hours, or sufficient driving power to crank 30,000 feet
of film.
Motion Analysis
Most unusual effects can be obtained by taking
pictures at a high rate of speed and projecting them
at the standard speed. Such pictures show tennis balls
and hurdling horses floating through the air, boxers
gently and nonchalantly fanning and tapping each
other, and so on. There are various special cameras
for this kind of work — high speed filming.
A new speed camera for motion picture work, de-
signed to overcome the objectionable features of the
makeshift devices heretofore used for this work, has
been invented by a Pacific Coast man. The chief
characteristic of the new camera is a straight pull
on the film. With a camera capable of taking 14
feet of film (224 separate pictures) per second, it
\Vill be readily appreciated that there is a terrific
strain on the film, to say nothing of similar destruc-
tive influence on the camera itself.
With the film magazines mounted at the back, the
new camera takes the film in a direct line to the aper-
ture and in another direct line back to the take-up
magazine, thus providing an instrument that has only
one turn for the film.
With a turning mechanism that is geared very
{high, each turn of the handle exposes seven feet of
film. The handle is turned at the same rate as on
an ordinary camera — two turns a second — hence to
the operator there is no difference in manipulation.
The Cinema Handbook
Of course, when such a film is projected at the ordi-
nary rate of speed, objects move very slowly, one step
of a runner, for instance, taking ten seconds or more
One of the various models of ultra-rapid camera.
Each turn of Hie handle exposes seven feet of film
instead of the usual half foot.
on the screen. This makes the instrument of incal-
culable value in scientific work, as well as providing
an inexhaustible field for makers of screen magazine
pictures.
CHAPTER XV.
MISCELLANEOUS DATA AND
FORMULAE
Fire Regulations Regarding Handling of
Inflammable Film
Most municipalities have ordinances applying t<
the handling and storage of film. It is well for th<
person handling considerable quantities of inflam
mable film to inquire of the proper authorities jusl
what the restrictions are, in order to avoid compli
cations should some unfortunate accident take place
So the author has taken the liberty of presenting
the following Article 20 from Chapter 10 of the Cod<
of Ordinances of the City of New York, relating t(
the handling and storage of inflammable motion pic
ture films. This information is published in full ir
a booklet that is obtainable from the Bureau of Fin
Prevention, Fire Department, Municipal Building
New York City. Other cities have very similar regu
lations, so that these rules may be considered sa
quite typical :
ARTICLE 20
Inflammable Motion Picture Films
Section 240. Permit.
241. Restrictions.
242. Storage-rooms.
243. Work-rooms.
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244. Fire prevention.
245. Projecting machines.
246. Transportation.
§240. PERMIT.
No person shall store or keep on hand any Inflam-
mable motion picture films in quantities greater than
5 reels, or aggregating more than 5,000 feet in
length, -without a permit.
§241. RESTRICTIONS.
No permit for the storage of inflammable motion
picture films shall be issued for any building —
(a) Which is situated within 50 feet of the
nearest wall of any building occupied as a school,
theatre, or other place of public amusement or as-
sembly ;
(6) Which is occupied as a tenement house,
dwelling or hotel;
<c) Which is artificially lighted by any means
other than electricity;
(d) Which is of wooden construction;
(e) Which is not equipped with an approved
system of automatic sprinklers;
(f) Which does not contain one or more separ-
ate rooms used exclusively for the storage of such
films.
§242. STORAGE ROOMS.
A room, vault or compartment used for the stor-
age of inflammable motion picture films shall not
be artificially lighted except by electric lights having
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air tight bulbs, globes or tubes encased in suitable
wire cages and fitted with keyless sockets.
§243. WORK ROOMS.
1. Construction and fittings. All examining, re-
pairing or piecing together of inflammable motion
picture films shall be done in a room used for no
other purpose and separated from the rest of the
building by fire-proof partitions and self-closing fire-
proof doors. All furniture and fittings in a roomi
where inflammable motion picture films are repaired!
or pieced together shall be of metal or other fire-
proof material.
2. Quantity of film permitted. Not more than-
10 reels, nor more than 10,000 feet in the aggregate-
of motion picture films, shall be under examination;
or repair at one time; and each reel of films shall
be kept in a tightly closed metal box when not being
examined or repaired.
3. Receptacles for waste. Each room used for the
repairing or piecing together of inflammable mo-
tion picture films shall contain a metal can, wherein
all waste parts and scraps of such films shall be
placed and kept covered with water.
4. Supervision. All storage, manufacturing, re-
pairing and examination of inflammable motion pic-
ture films shall be under the direct supervision of"
one or more persons holding a certificate of fitness
from the Fire Commissioner; such persons shall be
charged with the enforcement of Section 8 of this
chapter prohibiting smoking.
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§244. FIRE PREVENTION.
1. Storage of cements. No collodion, amyl ace-
tate or other similar inflammable cement or liquid
in quantities greater than 1 quart shall be kept in
a room where inflammable motion picture films are
stored or repaired. Premises wherein inflammable
motion picture films are stored, manufactured, re-
paired or examined shall be equipped with a number
of sand and water buckets and fire extinguishers
satisfactory to the Fire Commissioner.
2. Heating appliances. No heat other than steam
or hot water,, and no stove, forge, torch, boiler, fur-
nace, flame or fire, and no electric or other appli-
ance likely to produce an exposed spark shall be
allowed in any room used for the storage or repair
of inflammable motion picture films.
§245. PROJECTING MACHINES.
No inflammable motion picture film shall be used
in any moving picture projecting machine not en-
closed in an approved booth.
§246. TRANSPORTATION.
No person shall transport inflammable motion pic-
ture films in any underground subway train, or
carry the same into any underground subway sta-
tion, provided, however, that the provisions of this
paragraph shall not apply to inflammable films
transported in the course of interstate commerce in
railway baggage or express cars under the jurisdic-
tion and subject to the regulations of the Interstate
Commerce Commission. No person shall transport
The Cinema Handbook
inflammable motion picture films in any street car,
elevated train, omnibus, ferryboat or other public
conveyance, or carry the same into any railway sta-
tion or ferryhouse unless each film shall be separ-
ately enclosed in a tightly closed metal box. Not
more than 8 films so enclosed shall be carried at
one time by any person.
ARTICLE 26
Miscellaneous
§300. VIOLATIONS.
Any person who shall wilfully violate or neglect
or refuse to comply with any provisions of this-
chapter, in addition to any other penalties pre-
scribed by law or ordinance, shall, upon conviction,
be punished by a fine of not more than $500 or by
imprisonment not exceeding 6 months, or by both
such fine and imprisonment.
THERMOMETER SCALES
Reaumer divides the space between the freezing"
and boiling points into 80 degrees. France uses that
of Celsius, who graduated his scale on the decimal
system. The most peculiar scale of all, however, is
that of Fahrenheit, a renowned German physicist,
who, in 1714 or 1715, composed his scale, having
ascertained that water can be cooled under the freez-
ing point, without congealing. He therefore did not
take the congealing point of water, but composed a
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mixture of equal parts of snow and sal ammoniac,
about — 14 deg. R. To change a temperature as
given by Fahrenheit's scale into the same as given
by the centigrade scale, subtract 32 degrees from
Fahrenheit's degrees, and multiply the remainder by
5-9. The product will be the temperature in centi-
grade degrees.
To change from Fahrenheit's to Reaumer's scale,
subtract 32 degrees from Fahrenheit's degrees and
multiply the remainder by 4-9. The product will be
the temperature in Reaumer's degrees.
C = Centigrade.
R = Reaumer.
F =. Fahrenheit.
C.
R.
F.
(I
R.
F.
—30
— 24.0
—22.0
— 7
—5.6
10.4
—29
—23.2
—20.2
—6
—4.8
21.2
—28
—22.4
—18.4
—5
—4.0
23.0
—27
—21.6
—16.6
— 4
—3.2
24.8
—26
—20.8
—14.8
—3
—2.4
26.6
—25
—20.0
—13.0
—2
—1.6
28.4
— 24
—19.2
—11.2
—1
—0.8
30.2
—23
—18.4
—9.4
0
0.0
32.0
—22
—17.6
—7.6
1
0.8
33.8
—21
—16.8
—5.8
2
1.6
35.6
—20
—16.0
— 4.0
3
2.4
37.4
—19
—15.2
—2.2
4
3.2
39.2
—18
—14.4
—0.4
5
4.0
41.0
—17
—13.6
1.4
6
4.8
42.8
—16
—12.8
3.2
7
5.6
44.6
—15
—12.0
5.0
8
6.4
46.4
—14
—11.2
6.8
9
7.2
48.2
—13
—10.4
8.6
10
8.0
50.0
—12
—9.6
10.4
11
8.8
51.8
—11
—8.8
12.2
12
9.6
53.6
—10
—8.0
14.0
13
10.4
55.4
— 9
—7.2
15.8
14
11.2
57.2
— S
—0.4
17.3
15
12.0
59.0
[ 490 ]
The Cinema Handbook
c.
R.
F.
C.
R.
F.
16
12.8
60.8
59
47.2
138.2
17
13.6
62.0
60
48.0
140.0
18
14.4
61.4
61
48.8
141.8
19
15.2
66.2
62
49.6
143. G
20
16.0
68.0
63
50.4
145.4
21
16.8
69.8
64
51.2
147.2
22
17.6
71.6
65
52.0
149.0
23
18.4
73.4
66
52.8
150.8
24
19.2
75.2
67
53.6
152.6
25
20.0
77.0
68
54.4
154.4
26
20.8
78.8
69
55.2
156.2
27
21.6
80.6
70
56.0
158.0
28
22.4
82.4
71
56.8
159.8
29
23.2
84.2
72
57.6
161.6
30
24.0
86.0
73
58.4
163.4
31
24.8
87.8
74
59.2
165.2
32
25.6
89.6
75
60.0
167.0
33
26.4
91.4
76
60.8
168.8
34
27.2
93.2
77
61.6
170.6
36
28.8
96.8
78
62.4
172.4
37
29.6
98.6
79
63.2
174.2
38
30.4
100.4
80
64.0
176.0
39
31.2
102.2
81
64.8
177.8
40
32.0
104.0
82
65.6
179.6
41
32.8
105.8
83
66.4
181.4
42
33.6
107.6
84
67.2
183.2
43
34.4
109.4
85
68.0
185.0
44
35.2
111.2
86
68.8
186.8
45
36.0
113.0
87
69.6
188.6
46
36.8
114.8
88
70.4
190.4
47
37.6
116.6
89
71.2
192.2
48
38.4
118.4
90
72.0
194.0
49
39.2
120.2
91
72.8
195.8
50
40.0
122.0
92
73.6
197.6
51
40.8
123.8
93
74.4
199.4
52
41.6
125.6
94
75.2
201.2
53
42.4
127.4
95
76.0
203.0
54
43.2
129.2
96
76.8
204.8
55
44.0
131.5
97
77.6
206.6
56
44.8
132.8
98
78.4
208.4
57
45.6
134.fi
99
79.2
210.2
58
46.4
136.4
100
80.0
212.0
[491]
The Cinema Handbook
OUR THREE SYSTEMS OF WEIGHT
Apothecaries' Weight is the official standard of the United
States Pharmacopoeia. In buying and selling medicines not
ordered by prescriptions avoirdupois weight is used.
Lb.
1 =
Oz.
12 rr
1 rr
Dr.
90
8
1
Scr.
288 —
24 rr
3 rr
1 =
Gr,
5760
480
60
20
Avoirdupois Weight. — Used for weighing all goods except
those for which troy and apothecaries' weight are employed.
Gross
or Long
Ton. Cwt. Qr. Lb.
1 rr 20 rr 80 rr 2,240
1 = 4 rr 112
1 = 28
1
Short
or Net
Ton.
1 =
Oz.
35,840
1,792
448
16
1
Dr.
573,440
28,672
7,168
256
16
Cwt. Qr. Lb. Oz. Dr.
20 rr 80 = 2,000 = 32,000 = 512,000
1 rr 4 rr 100 = 1,600 = 25,600
1 rr 25 rr 400 rr 6,400
1 rr 16 rr 256
1 rr 16
The "short" ton of 2,000 Ibs. Is used commonly in the
United States. The British or "long" ton, used to some extent
in the United States, contains 2,240 Ibs., corresponding to a
cwt. of 112 and a quarter of 28 Ibs.
Troy Weight. — Used by jewelers and at the mints, In the
exchange of the precious metals.
Lb.
1
Oz.
12
1
Dwt.
240
20
1
Gr.
5760
480
24
7000 troy grains = 1 Ib. avoirdupois.
175 troy pounds rr 144 Jb. avoirdupois.
175 troy ounces rr 192 oz. avoirdupois.
437% troy grains rr 1 055. avoirdupois.
1 troy pound — .8228 + Ib. avoirdupois.
r w i
The Cinema Handbook
The common standard of weight by which the relative
values of these systems are compared is the grain, which for
this purpose may be regarded as the unit of weight. The pound
troy and that of apothecaries' weight have each five thousand
seven hundred and sixty grains; the pound avoirdupois has
seven thousand grains.
The relative proportions and values of these several systems
are as follows:
Troy. Avoirdupois.
Oz. Dr.
1 pound equals 13 2.65
1 ounce equals 1 1.55
1 dwt. equals 0 0.87V
Troy. / Apothecaries' ^
Lb. Oz. Dr. Scr. Gr.
1 pound equals 10000
1 ounce equals 0 1 0 0 0
1 dwt. equals 0 0 0 1 4
1 grain equals 0 0 00 1
Apothecaries'. Avoirdupois.
Oz. Dr.
1 pound equals 13 2.65
1 ounce equals 1 1.55
1 drachm equals 0 2.19
1 scruple equals 0 0.73
Apothecaries'. , Troy \
Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr.
1 pound equals 1 0 0 0
1 ounce equals 0 1 0 0
1 drachm equals 0 0 2 12
1 scruple equals 0 0 0 20
Avoirdupois. , Troy \
Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr.
1 long ton equals :. 2722 2 13 8
1 cwt. equals 136 1 6 16
1 quarter equals 34 0 6 16
1 pound equals 1 2 11 16
1 ounce equals 0 18 5%
1 drachm equals ^ 0 1 311/32
[.453}
The Cinema Handbook
Avoirdupois.
Lb.
1 short ton equals 2430
1 cwt. equals 121
1 quarter equals 30
Avoirdupois. , Apothecaries' >
Lb. Oz. Dr. Scr. Gr.
1 pound equals 1 2 4 2 0
1 ounce equals 0 0 7 0 17 V2
1 drachm equals 0001 711/32
Troy Weight
12 ounces = 1 pound 24 grains = 1 pwt.
20 pwts. rr 1 ounce
Used for weighing gold, silver and jewels.
Apothecaries' Weight
20 grains rr 1 scruple 8 drams = 1 ounce
3 scruples =. 1 dram 12 ounces — 1 pound
The ounce and pound in this are the same as in Troy weight.
Avoirdupois Weight
27 11-32 grains = 1 dram 4 quarters = 1 cwt.
16 drams i= 1 ounce 2,000 Ibs. — 1 short ton
16 ounces = 1 pound 2,240 Ibs. = 1 long ton
25 pounds = 1 quarter
Dry Measure
2 pints rr 1 quart 4 pecks zr 1 bushel
8 quarts = 1 peck 36 bushels == 1 chaldron
Liquid Measure
4 gills = 1 pint 31 1/2 gallons = 1 barrel
2 pints = 1 quart 2 barrels == 1 hogshead
4 quarts = 1 gallon 16 fluid ounces = 1 pint
Time Measure
60 seconds = 1 minute 24 hours = 1 day
60 minutes = 1 hour 7 days rr 1 week
28, 29, 30 or 31 days = 1 calendar month (30 days — 1 month
in computing interest.)
365 days = 1 year 366 days = 1 leap year
The Cinema Handbook
Long Measure
12 inches .= 1 foot 40 rods = 1 furlong
3 feet = 1 yard 8 furlongs = 1 sta. mile
5% yards = 1 rod 3 miles = 1 league
Cloth Measure
2% inches = 1 nail 4 quarters = 1 yard
4 nails — 1 quarter
Square Measure
144 sq. inches = 1 sq. ft. 40 sq. rods = 1 rood
9 sq. ft. — 1 sq. yard 4 roods — 1 acre
30% sq. yards = 1 sq. rod 640 acres = 1 sq. mile
Surveyors' Measure
7.92 inches = 1 link 4 rods = 1 chain
25 links = 1 rod
10 sq. chains or 160 sq. rods = 1 acre
640 acres — 1 sq. mile
36 sq. miles (6 miles square) = 1 township
Cubic Measure
1,728 cubic in. — 1 cubic ft 27 cu. ft. — 1 cubic yd.
128 cu. ft. = 1 cord (wood) 40 cu. ft. = 1 ton (shpg.)
2,150.42 cubic inches = 1 standard bushel
231 cubic inches = 1 standard gallon (liquid)
1 cubic foot = 4/5 of a bushel
Metric Equivalents
LINEAR MEASURE
1 centimeter = 0.3937 in. 1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile
1 decimeter = 3.937 in. 1 in. = 2.54 centimeters
rr 0.328 feet 1 ft. = 3.048 decimeters
1 meter =r 39.37 inches 1 yd. — 0.9144 meter
= 1.0936 yards 1 rod = 0.5029 dekameter
1 dekameter = 1.9884 rods 1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers
SQUARE MEASURE
1 sq. centimeter r= 0.1550 1 sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yds.
sq. in. 1 are = 3,054 sq. rds
1 sq. decimeter = 0.1076 1 hector = 2.47 acres
sq. ft. 1 sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq.
mile
i mi
The Cinema Handbook
1 sq. inch = 6.452 sq. cent!- 1 sq. yd. == 0.8361 sq. meter
meters 1 sq. rod r= 0.2529 are
1 sq. foot rr 9.2903 sq. dect- 1 acre = 0.4047 hectare
meters 1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. kilo-
meters
WEIGHTS
1 gram = 0.03527 ounce 1 ounce =: 28.35 grams
1 kilogram = 2.2046 Ibs. 1 Ib. = 0.4536 kilogram
1 metric ton = 1.1023 1 English ton = 0.9072
English tons metric ton
Approximate Metric Equivalents
1 decimeter = 4 inches 1 liter r= 1.06 quarts liquid
1 meter — 1.1 yards 0.9 quarts dry
1 kilometer = % of a mile 1 hektoliter = 2% bushels
1 hectare = 2% acres 1 kilogram =2% Ibs.
1 stere, or cu. meter — % of 1 metric ton rr 2,200 Ibs.
a cord
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES AND THEIR
COMMON NAMES
Common Name Chemical Name
Alcohol Ethyl alcohol
Alum Potassium aluminium sulphate
Aqua fortis Nitric acid
Aqua regia Nitro-hydrochloric acid
Banana ether Amyl acetate
Black lead Graphite carbon
Borax Sodium tetraborate
Brimstone Sulphur
Calomel Mercurous chloride
Carbolic acid Phenol
Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide
soda Sodium hydroxide
Chalk Calcium carbonate
Choke damp Carbon dioxide
Chrome yellow Lead chromate
" green Chromium oxide
Clay Aluminium silicate
Copperas Ferrous sulphate
[496]
The Cinema Handbook
Corrosive sublimate Mercuric chloride
Cream of tartar Potassium hydrogen tartratt
Epsom salts Magnesium sulphate
Fire damp Methane
Fusel oil Amyl alcohol
Glauber's salt Sodium sulphate
Grape sugar Glucose
Goulard water Basic lead acetate
Iron pyrites Iron disulphide
Laughing gas Nitrous oxide
Lime, quick Calcium oxide
" slaked " hydroxide
Litharge Lead oxide
Lunar Caustic Silver nitrate
Marsh gas Methane
Mosaic gold Stannic sulphide
Muriatic acid Hydrochloric acid
Orpiment Arsenic trisulphide
Paris green Copper arsenite
Plaster of Paris Calcium sulphate
Prussian blue Ferric ferrocyanide
Realgar Arsenic disulphide
Red lead Lead oxide
Rochelle salt Sodium potassium tartrate
Sal ammoniac Ammonium chloride
Bait, common Sodium chloride
Salt of tartar Potassium carbonate
Saltpetre " nitrate
Salts of lemon Oxalic acid
Soda, washing Sodium carbonate
" baking " hydrogen carbonate
" ash Sodium carbonate
Spirit of hartshorn Ammonium hydroxide
Spirits of salt Hydrochloric acid
Tartar emetic Potassium antimonyl tartrate
Verdigris Basic copper acetate
Vermilion Mercuric sulphide
Vinegar Acetic acid
Vitriol, blue Copper sulphate
" green Ferrous Sulphate
oil of Sulphuric acid
white Zinc sulphate
Volatile alkali Ammonium hydroxide
White lead Basic lead carbonate
Wood alcohol Methyl alcohol
Zinc white Zinc oxide
[497]
The Cinema Handbook
TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF
FRACTIONS OF AN INCH
1/64 - .015625
11/32 = .34375
43/64 = .671875
1/32 = .03125
23/64 = .359375
11/16 =: .6875
3/64 — .046875
3/8 = .375
45/64 = .703125
1/16 = .0625
25/64 = .390625
23/32 — .71875
5/64 = .078125
13/32 =r .40625
47/64 — .734375
3/32 = .09375
27/64 =: .421875
3/4 — .75
7/64 = .109375
7/16 = .4375
49/64 — .765625
1/8 = .125
29/64 = .453125
25/32 — .78125
9/64 = .140625
15/32 = .46875
51/64 — .796875
5/32 — .15625
31/64 — .484375
13/16 — .8125
11/64 = .171875
1/2 = .50
53/64 — .828125
3/16 — .1875
33/64 = .515625
27/32 ~ .84375
13/64 = .203125
17/32 — .53125
55/64 = .859375
7/32 = .21875
35/64 = .546875
7/8 = .875
15/64 = .234375
9/16 — .5625
57/64 — .890625
1/4 = .25
37/64 = .578125
29/32 — .90625
17/64 — .265625
19/32 = .59375
59/64 = .921875
9/32 = .28125
39/64 = .609475
15/16 = .9375
19/64 — .296875
5/8 = .625
61/64 = .953125
5/16 — .3125
41/64 — .640625
31/32 = .96875
21/64 = .328125
21/32 = .65625
63/64 = .984375
PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIO LAMPS
COMPARISON OF WHITE ARC AND MAZDA LAMPS
By Wm. Roy Mott
Photographic Materials
Orthochro- Pancb.ro-
For Equal Candle Power Ordinary matic matic
100
181
257
64
108
100
155
234
68
99
100
130
215
76
106
Skv
Carbon Arc — white
Tungsten nitrogen
(Tungsten nitrogen
flame
filled
filled
clear
blue
glass
glass
[4981
The Cinema Handbook
Copyrights on Motion-Pictures
While the United States Copyright Statutes pro-
Tide for the grant of copyright registrations on
motion-pictures, this refers to the complete photo-
graphic films from which the motion-picture is
exhibited. There are no provisions by which a copy-
right registration may be secured on an unpublished
scenario or story.
As long as the scenario or story remains unpub-
lished, it is protected by the Common Law, which is
expressly affirmed in the Copyright Statutes, but it
should be remembered that if the work is to remain
unpublished for a considerable interval of time, that
it is advisable for the author to have several copies
of the work made, dated and distributed among
friends, so that if necessary, witnesses will be at hand
to testify as to the facts. If the scenario or story
is printed, it may, of course, be copyrighted as a
book.
When the photographic films have been made, they
may be copyrighted. The copyright office has divided
works of this character into two classes, motion-
picture photoplays, and motion-pictures not photo-
plays, and these classes have been subdivided into
published and unpublished works. A published
motion-picture is one which is placed on sale, sold
or publicly distributed. If the motion-picture which
is to be copyrighted has been published, two complete
copies of the work or film should be filed with the
application for copyright, accompanied by the title
and a description of the work. The procedure is the
[499]
The Cinema Handbook
same whether the work is a photoplay or not. Very
often these two copies of the film may be withdrawn
from the copyright office after the copyright for-
malities have been completed. When the work has
not been published, the copyright application should
be accompanied by a description of the work. If the
work is a photoplay, prints should be made from
each scene of every act, and if the work is not a
photoplay, the prints should be taken from different
sections of the complete motion-picture film. These
prints should be filed with the description.
In cases where a copyright has been secured on a
motion-picture as an unpublished work, the author
Should remember that if the work is subsequently
published, a new entry must be made on the copy-
right records.
[500]
INDEX
Abuse of Film, 283
Accessories: Celluloid
Blades, 126
— Double Exposure Device,
118
— Extension Tube, 112
— Focusing: Microscope. 138
— Iris, 111
— Mask Box, 117
— Masks, 159, 173
— Multiple Exposure De-
vice, 122
— • Ray Filters, 127
— Sliding Base, 112
— . Square Closing Device.
120
Acetate of Cellulose Film,
407
Acting for Amateur Photo-
play, 341
— Make-up. 342
Actograph Camera and Pro-
jector, 425
Adjusting Projector Light,
298
Advertising, Avoiding Ear-
marks of, 362
— Fallacies of Screen, 374
— Films, 385
— Films, Use of Abroad,
, 383
— Screen, 369
Aerial Motion Pictures, 480
Akeley Camera, 92
— Tripod. 107
Aladdin Portable Projector,
252
Amateur Acting, 341
— Developing and Printing,
210
— Director. 339
— Photoplays, 327
— Systems of Cinematog-
raphy, 407
American Projectoscope.
255
Angle of View, 5
— of Lenses. 130
Animated Album 315
— Cartoons. 435
Register of, 440
« Use of Celluloid in,
444
— Cut-Outs, 458
— . Models. 459
— . Sculpture, 448
— • Technical Drawings, 450
Animating Camera Stand,
463
— Models. 466
— Objects, 435
Apothecaries' Weights* 492
Arcs, Types of. 190
Assembling Photoplay
Film, 348
Avoirdupois Weights, 492
Back Focus, 4
Backgrounds for Filming,
324
Bell & Howell Camera, 82
Bird's-eye Views, 480
Breakage of Condenser, 314
[501]
Index
Calculations for Projection,
282
Camera: Actograph Type,
427
— Akeley Type, 92
— Bell & Howell Type, 82
— Debrie Type, 73
— DeFranne Type, 91
— Care of, 148
— Elements of, 32
— Field of View, 168
— for Animated Cartoons,
443
— Glass Plate, .431
— Inexpensive Types of. 32
— Lenses, Care of, 198
— Loops of, 33
— Mechanism of, 35
— Motor-Driven, 91
482
— Movette Type, 424
— Pathe Type, 91
— Pathescope. 418
— Pittman Type, 91
— Preswitch Type, 92
— Principle of, 16
— Russell Type, 77
— Setting up the, 152
— Slow-Motion Type, 483
— Stand, 444, 463
— Threading of. 150
— Ultra-Rapid Type, 483
— Universal Type, 43
— Wilart Model B, 69
— Wilart Type, 60
Cards, Title, 240
Care of Camera, 148
— Camera Lenses, 198
— Film, 283
— Projection Lenses, 312
— Projector, 295
Carrying- Cases, 148
Cartoons, Animated, 435
Cast, How to Describe a,
332
— Its Selection, 340
Celluloid Blades, 126
— in Animated Cartoon,
444
— Masks. Using the, 178
Cementing Film, 236
Chemical Substances and
Common Names, 496
Circle Vignette, 111
— — Using the, 176
Clay, Screen Comedies In,
448
Close-ups, 317
Cloth Measure, 495
Code, Fire, 485
Coloring the Positive Film,
229
Combining Movements. 467
Commercial Theatre, 376
Condenser Breakage. 314
Continuity for Commercial
Film, 397
Continuity Script, 333
Copyrights on Motion Pic-
tures, 499
Cosmograph Projector. 266
422
Counter, Film, 152
Covering Power of Lenses,
12
— Screen News Events, 357
Cranking, 164, 166
Cross Dissolve, 181, 465
Cubic Measure, 495
Curvature of Field. 12
Cut-Outs Animated, 458
Data, Miscellaneous, 485
Daylight. Diffusion of, 183
— Projection. 305
Debrie Camera, 73
Decimal Equivalents of
Fractions of Inch, 498
Definitions, 20
DeFranne Camera. 91
Depth of Focus, 7, 160
Developing Formulae for
Negative, 218
for Positive, 222
— the Film, 203
DeVry Portable Projector,
245
Diffusers for Lights, 196
Diffusion of Light, 183
Director, The Amateur, 339
Dirt on Film, 229
r 502 1
Index
Disk Type of Projector. 431 Filming Children, 317, 319
Dissolve Effect, 181 — Close-ups, 317
Distortion of Lenses. 12 — • Commercial Film, 402
Double Exposure Device, — Indoors, 324
118 — of Photoplay Scenes, 345
Using the, 177 — Schedule for, 401
__ — with Matched Masks, — the Family, 315
173 — with the Microscope, 470
Drawings for Animated — Advertising, 385
Cartoons, 442 — Motion Analysis, 483
— Technical Animated, 450 — News, 349
Dry Measure, 494 — Organization, 387
— Paper, 431
Easel for Animated Draw- — Shipping of, 312
ings, 440 — Slow-Burning. 415
Editing Photoplay, 348 — Use of in Foreign Lands,
— the Film, 236 383
Educational Films, 391 Fire Regulations, 414, 485
Effective Aperture, 5 Focus, Back, 4
Elements of the Camera, 32 . — Depth of, 7, 160
Equivalent Focal Length, 4 Focusing. 157
Equivalents, Metric, 495 — Microscope, 138
Exposure, 161 — Mounts, 135
— Meters, 161 Fogged Negative, 225
Extension Tube, 112 Footage Indicator, Setting
of, 151
!F System, 7 Formulae for Developing
Fade-Out and Fade-In. 179 Negative. 218
Family Films, 315 — -Projection, 282
Field of Camera, 168 — 'Toning, 233
Film Backgrounds, 324 • — Miscellaneous, 485
— Care of, 283 Frame Line, Altering the,
— Developing, 203 172
— Ground. 158 Frilling of Negative, 228
— Mending of, 285
— Ideas, 323 Generator Unit for Projec-
— Inspection of, 285 tors, 245
— Negative Stock, 139 Glass Plate Camera and
— Pathescope, 28 Projector, 431
— Positive Stock, 219 Graphoscope Professional
— Press, <290 Projector. 271
— Printing, 208 — School Projector, 266
— Safety Standard, 14, 25 Ground Film, 158
— Splicing of, 288
— Standard, 14, 22 Halation, 227
— Storage, 486 Handling of Film, 283
— Stories, 321 Harvey Exposure Meter.
— Waxing of, 297 163
— X-Back, 142
Filming Adults, 316. 322 Ideas for Films of Family,
— Against Light, 165 323
[ 503 ]
Index
Illumination Calculations,
198
— Indoor, 182
— of Lenses, 11
Image Circle. 5
Inch, Decimal Equivalents
of Fractions of, 498
Indoor Filming, 324
— Sets. 347
Inflammable Films, Regu-
lations Regarding. 485
Inspecting Film, 285
Instructional Films, 451
Iris Attachment, 111
— Using the. 176
Joining of Film, 236, 288
Laboratory Work, 203
— — Amateur, 210
Lamps, Arrangement of,
183
— Studio. 498
Lenses, Angle of View, 5,
130
— Back Focus, 4
— Care of Camera, 198
Projection, 312
— Comparison between U.S.
and F Systems. 7
— Covering Power of, 12
— Curvature of Field, 12
— Depth of Focus, 7
— Distortion, 12
— < Effective Aperture, 5
— Equivalent Focal
Length. 2
— F and U.S. Systems, 7
— Focal Length of, 4
— Focusing Mounts, 135
— for Filming, 172
Projection, 280
— Illumination of. 11
— Image Circle of, 5
— • Principles of, 2, 5
— Relative Aperture of, 6
— Selection of, 128
— Soft-Focus. 133
— Speed of, 6
— Telephoto, 131
— Various Types of. 3
Lenses: "Wide Angle, 5
Library, Film. 409
Lights, Arrangement of,
183
— . Diffusers for. 196
Lighting, Flaming-Arc. 190
Lights: Number Required,
198
— Portable Types of, 194
— Studio, 498
— Types of. 186
Liquid Measure. 494
Loading the Magazines, 143
Long Measure, 495
— Interval Pictures, 478
Loop of Camera, 33
Loops of Projector, 308
Magazine Features. 359
Magazines, Care of, 145
— • Loading of, 143
— Unloading of, 198
Make-Up, 188, 342
Mask Box 117
Using the. 177
Masks, 173
— Celluloid, 178
Measure, Cloth, 495
— Cubic, 495
— Dry, 494
— Liquid, 494
— Square, 495
— Surveyors', 495
— Time, 494, 495
Measures and Weights. 492
Mechanigraphs, 458
Mechanism of Camera, 35
Mending Film, 285
Metric Equivalents, 495
Microscopic Subjects, 470
— Subjects. Ray Filters
for, 477
Miscellaneous Data and
Formulae, 485
— Formulae and Data, 485
Motion Analysis, 483
— Picture Copyrights, 499
— Pictures. Principles of,
14
Motor-Driven Camera, 91,
482
[504]
Index
Movements, Combining, 467
Movette Camera and Pro-
jector. 424
Multiple Exposure Device,
122
Names of Chemical Sub-
stances. 496
National Portable Projec-
tor, 250
Negative Film, 139
— . Fogged, 225
— . Frilling or Softening, 228
— Halation. 227
— Troubles and Causes, 224
News, Covering the, 357
— • Features, Length of, 359
— Films. 349
— • Nose for. 349
— . Reels, Getting List of,
353
Nomenclature of Motion
Pictures. 26
Oil on Film, 229
Organization Film, 387
Overexposure. 225
Overlapping Scenes, 181
Panormas, 171, 325
Paper Films. 431
Pathe Camera, 91
Pathescope Camera, 418
— Equipment, 407
— Film, 28
— Library, 409
— Projector, 408
Permit for Film Storage,
486
Photography, Principles of,
1
Photo-Micrograph Films.
470
Photoplay Acting, 341
— Amateur. 327
Pictures from the Air, 480
Pittman Camera, 91
:Plate, Camera and Projec-
tor for, 431
Portable Generator for Pro-
jectors. 245
Portable Lights, 194
Positive Developing Formu-
lae, 222
— Film, Tinting the. 229
— — Toning the. 232
— Printing the, 208
— Stock, 219
Press for Film Splicing, 290
Preswitch Camera. 92
Principle of Camera, 16, 18
Principles of Lenses. 2
Motion Pictures, 14
— — Photography, 1
— • — Projection, 277
Printers, 214. 217
Printing the Film. 208
Prints of Commercial
Films, 405
Projecting Machine, Regu-
lations Regarding, 488
Projection: Adjustment of
Light, 298
— Care of Lenses. 312
— Daylight. 305
— • Formulae, 282
— Lenses for, 280
— Mathematics, 282
— Principles of. 277
— . Reels. 293
— Rewinding. 310
— Tables, 281, 284
— The Loops, 308 .
— Threading. 307
— When Film Breaks. 309
Projections: Types of
Screens. 299
Projector: Actograph Type,
429
— Care of. 295
— • Cosmograph. 422
— Disk Type of, 431
— KOK Type, 408
— • Lamps, 276
— Movette, 425
— Principle of. 18
— Victor. 422
— Aladdin Portable Type,
252
— American Projectoscope,
255
[505]
Index
Projector: Automatic Type
of, 380
— Cosmograph Semi-Pro-
fessional Type, 266
— for Business Use. 405
— DeVry Type. 245
— Graphoscope Profes-
sional Type, 271
— — Semi-Professional
Type, 266
— National Portable Type.
250
— Pathescope Type, 408
— Professional Type, 274
— Show Window Type, 380
— • Transatlantic Type, 249
— Types of, 243
— Universal Portable Type,
258
— • Zenith Semi-Professional
Type, 262
Rate of Cranking1. 164
Ray Filters. 127
— — for Microscopic Work,
477
Reels for Projecting, 293
Register of Animated
Drawings. 440
Regulations, Fire. 485
— on Film. 414
— Regarding Projectors,
488
Rewinding Films, 310
Rinaldy Camera Stand, 479
Rotation of Scenes, 345
Round Closing Dissolver,
176
Russell Camera, 77
Safety Standard. 25
Film, 14, 407, 411
Scales, Thermometer, 489
Scenario, Amateur Photo-
play, 330
— for Commercial Films,
394
Scenery, Painted, 196
Scenes, Rotation of, 345
Schedule for Commercial
Filming. 401
Screen Advertising. 369
Solution of. 376
— Comedies in Clay, 448
— Magazines, 359
— • Magazine Features,
Length of. 361
— News 349
What is. 354
! • and Magazine Mar-
keting Features, 365
Screens. 299
Script for Commercial
Film, 391
. Continuity. 333
Sculpture. Animated. 448
Selling the Idea with
Films. 381
Sets, Indoor, 347
Setting the Shutter, 161
— Up the Camera, 152
Shipping Film. 312
Show Window Projectors,
380
Single-Picture Crank, 172
Sliding Base, 112
Slow-Burning Film, 415
Slow-Motion Pictures. 483
Social Films, 315 •
Soft-Focus Lenses, 133
Speed of Lenses, 6
Speeding up Slow Subjects,
478
Shutter Setting, 161
Splicing Machine. 290
— of Film, 236, 288
Spots or Stains on Film,
228
Square Closing Device,
120
— Dissolving Device, Using
the, 178
— Measure, 495
Stains or Spots on Film,
228
Stand, Camera, 444, 463
Standard Film, 14, 22
Storage of Film, 486
Studio Lamps, 498
Submitting Screen News
and Magazine Fea-
tures, 367
15061
Index
Surveyors' Measure, 495
Synopsis for Advertising or
Commercial Film, 395
Synopsis, How to Prepare
a, 330
Technical Drawing's, Ani-
mated, 450
Technograph Drawings, 454
Telephoto Lenses, 131
Thermometer Scales, 489
Threading the Camera, 150
— Projector, 307
Tilting Scenes, 171
Time Measure, 494
Tinting the Positive, 229
Titles, 237
— ' for Amateur Photoplay,
348
Family Pictures, 326
Toning the Positive Film,
232
Transatlantic Portable Pro-
jector, 249
— of Film, 488
Trick Effects: Animating
Drawings and Objects,
435
Cross Dissolve, 181,
465
Double Exposure, 173
Fade-out and Fade-
in. 179
Trick Effects: "Spot Light,"
178
— Movement, 172
Tripod, Akeley Type, 107
— Setting Up the. 153
Tripods, 101
Troy Weights, 492
U. S. System, 7
Ultra-Rapid Camera, 483
Underdeveloped Negative.
ili'S
Underexposure, 225
Universal Camera, 43
— Portable Projector, 258
Veeder Counter in Use, 174
Victor Projector, 422
Vignette, Circle, 111
Waxing Films, 297
Weights and Measures. 492
— Apothecaries, 492
— Avoirdupois, 492
— Troy, 492
Wide Angle Lenses, 5
Wilart Camera, 60
— Model B, 69
Workrooms, Regulation
regarding, 487
X-Back Film, 142
Zenith Projector, 262
1507]
14 DAY USE
RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED
LOAN DEPT.
This book is due on the last date stamped below, or
on the date to Tvh i rhjrflf W^dtj
; recall,
JU 3 1961
\\\
URR/xt<Y I
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