Full text of "Civil and mechanical engineering : popularly and socially considered"

See other formats

GIFT OF
MICHAEL REESE

CIVIL AND MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

POPULARLY AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED

J. W. C. HALDANE, C.E. AND M.E.

SECOND EDITION IMPROVED AND ENLARGED.
WITH TWELVE PLATES

LONDON

E. & F. N. SPON, 125 STRAND
NEW YORK: 12 CORTLANDT STREET

1890

Si I ()Lf

PRINTERS:

D. MARPLES & CO. LIMITI
LIVERPOOL.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The Scientific and general Engineering literature at the present
time is of a very extensive and varied character, but however
valuable it may be to those who make it a study, the ordinary
reader will naturally find such volumes unintelligible and uninter-
esting. It has, therefore, occurred to the Author — who has had
thirty -five years' experience in various branches of the profession —
that a brief outline of its history ; a description of the inner life,
of the Works and those connected with them; the system of
management in great establishments; and the construction of ships
and engines, might prove interesting and instructive to readers of
all classes, if treated in a free and unconventional style.

In furtherance of this object, the language employed in this
Work has been made as simple and as free from technicalities as ,
possible, while a few of the experiences of private practice, a variety
of useful information, and a sprinkling of anecdotes have been
added, for the purpose of giving a little animation to the whole.

While endeavouring to impart in a pleasant way as much
professional knowledge as possible, the writer has specially dedicated'
Chapter VI to those numerous people who " wish to know what to
do with their boys" It is also hoped that Chapters XXIV,
XXV and XXVI, will be instructive to those who desire a glimpse
of the secrets of private practice.

vi PREFACE.

The intention has been to try to interest everyone, but the
difficulty of doing this is so apparent, that the kind consideration
of the generous reader may perhaps be more easily extended to one
who has done his best, though conscious of numerous failings.

Many thanks are due to the authors of various books, papers,
and perodicals, who have supplied information regarding the early
history of Railways, Canals, and Steam Navigation ; to Mr. B.
H. Thwaite, C.E., for revising the MS.; and to the firms who
have sent photographs, &*c., from which the Engineering Views
have been taken. Reference will also be made to many other sources
of knowledge on similar subjects which in the following pages
have only been briefly touched upon. It is hoped, therefore, that
this volume may not only afford instruction, but prove sufficiently
interesting to repay perusal.

J. W. C. H.
LIVERPOOL, May, 1887.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The highly appreciative manner in which the first edition of
this Work was received by the press and by the public, has induced
the Author to make many improvements and important additions,
but without altering in any way the style of writing which has
made the book so popular. The text has been carefully revised
throughout, and so much fresh information given concerning the
latest phases of Engineering, that it is hoped the volume will become
even more acceptable than its predecessor.

]. W. C. H.
30 NORTH JOHN STREET,

LIVERPOOL, September, 1889.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

STEAM NAVIGATION CANALS AND RAILWAYS.

PAGl

First steamer to India — Defects in Machinery — Junius Smith and
"British Queen" — First voyage of "Sirius" and "Great
Western " — The Pioneer Cunarder " Britannia " — Bridgewater
Canal — Liverpool and Manchester Railway — Railway Mania —
Difficulties of Railway Engineers — Q.C. of the period —
Woosung Railway — Japanese Students in England I

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL ENGINEERING.

Fairbairn and Hodgkinson's experiments — Brittania Bridge — Fair-
bairn's Canal Street Works — Begins Shipbuilding at Millwall —
Heavy Losses — Character of Sir William Fairbairn — Whit-
worth's machinery — Different kinds of Marine Engines — P.S.N.
Company and the Compound Engine — History of a " New and
Improved" Design — Lucrative Inventions — Value of good
Machinery — What it did at the North London Railway Works —
Richard Roberts 12

CHAPTER III.

DUMBARTON AND THE CLYDE.

My apprenticeship in Denny's 1852 — Great prosperity in the various
Works — Engineer Workmen — Strikes in the Shipyards —
William Denny hands over a large contract to Caird & Co. —
Later Strikes among Coal and Iron people — Belgian Iron
Trade — How Strikes begin — Generalship of the Masters — The
" Delegate " — Unhappy Workmen — Dumbarton at this period —
Disastrous Storm — Death of William Denny — Engineer Fore-
men— S.S. " Yorkshireman "— The Penalty— The Wreck— A
good Speculation 28

viii CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAPTER IV.

GLASGOW AND OCEAN STEAM SHIPS.

Dumbarton as it is now — Neilson & Co., Glasgow — Tod & McGregor—
S.S. " Bengal " for P. and O. Company — First Sunday Steamer
on the Clyde — River Steamers " Columba " and "Lord of the
Isles " — Great Works on the Clyde— Cunard Atlantic Ships in
1850— Mediterranean Liners, 1852— P. S. "Persia" — Robert
Napier & Sons — Compact between Cunard, Burns and Mclver. 41

CHAPTER V.

THE BIRKENHEAD IRONWORKS.

Difference between Marine and Locomotive establishments — Descrip-
tion of the Birkenhead Iron Works — The Firm — The Staff —
Pupils in Drawing Office — Billy Taylor's " Unlucky " Dinner —
Fatal Tea Party in Chester — Troublesome French Pupil — Chief
Engineeer of H. M.S. " Captain " — Foremen and Workmen in
the Birkenhead Iron Works — Value of "old hands" — Fore-
men in Small Works — The " General Utility " Engineer —
H.M.S. " Euphrates " 55

CHAPTER VI.

APPRENTICES.

Different kinds of Apprentices — How they get into Works — Premi-
umed Pupils in England — The Clyde System — Origin of Premium
System — Maudslay's objections to Pupils — James Nasmyth in
early days— His troublesome Youths at Patricroft — The use of
Idle Apprentices — " Marine Works " — " General Works "-
" Special Works " — Cause of false steps in entering the pro-
fession— Lives of the great Engineers — History of Harland and
Wolff — Workshop Practice, past and present — Prospects of
Engineers at home and abroad — " Repairing Works " — Tools
and Instruments for Pattern- Shop and Drawing Office — Work-
ing Dress 71

CHAPTER VII,

CIVIL ENGINEERING.

Meaning of the term "Civil Engineer" — The Great Pyramid —
Ancient Suez Canal — Hero of Alexandria — Archimedes— Their
Mechanical genius — Euclid — A Dream of Antiquity— Great

CONTENTS. ix

PAGE

Tunnels — Railway Ferry Boats — Bridge Engineering at home
and abroad — Drainage and Reclamation of Land — Gigantic
Pumping Operations — Origin of the Goodwin Sands — Freaks
of Rivers in India and China — Gradual Elevation by Silting
process — Vast Inundations and change of Bed — The Hoang
Ho etc. — Scouring and Deepening process in Rivers, etc. —
Ordnance Survey of United Kingdom 93

CHAPTER VIII.

PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING.

Preliminaries of Contract for Merchant Ships — For Ships of War —
Conference between Shipowner, Builder and Engineer — Descrip-
tion of proposed Ships and Engines— The Estimate— Contract
settled — Drawing Office — How Working Plans are prepared —
Good and Bad Engineering — Chief Draughtsman — Results of
interference by unqualified people— Style and system in modern
working drawings — Also in olden times — Swell Draughtsman
from Maudslay's? — Heliographic Process — "John Russell's
Sailor " — " Urgent " Plans of Machinery for Ironclads 1 16

CHAPTER IX.

DRAWING OFFICE CALCULATIONS.

Faulty Design and Construction of early Engines — Value of Hand*
Sketches — Accuracy in Working Drawings — Two distinct
systems of Calculation — Simple practical rules in general use —
Method of recording leading dimensions of Machinery — " Allow-
ances " made by Engineers — The graphic system of Calcula-
tion— Complicated Rules — How to construct safe Empirical ^
Formulae — Rational Science Considerations — Drawing Office
Practice — Value of Tabulated Proportions — Economy in Design
and Manufacture — Office " Tables " — Sudden changes in Engi-
neering Practice — Costly results of Injudicious " Improvements "
in Machinery 134

CHAPTER X.

ENGINES IN PROGRESS — THE SCREW PROPELLER.

Triple Expansion and other Engines in the Works — Ship Drawings —
Steel Boilers — History of Steel and Iron Crank Shafts — Detec-

xii CONTENTS.

PAGE

Machinery — The Engines taken down — Boilers completed— All
ready for the Launch of Ship — Distinguishing Marks of
Ships — " House Flags " — Funnels — Names — Preparations for
Launching — The Chairman's Daughter — Visitors and Officials —
Launch Failures 251

CHAPTER XVII.

LAUNCHING A SHIP.

How it is done— Launches of H.M.S. "Black Prince" and S.S.
"City of Rome" — Method of undocking a great Ironclad —
Captain Henderson — The Captain in charge of a Launch —
Launch of the " Rosalind " — Newspaper comments — Ship in
Dock — Machinery on board ready for Trial — Starting the
Engines 267

CHAPTER XVIII.

SHIP AND ENGINES COMPLETED.

Vessel in the River — David Kirkaldy — Ferry passengers' remarks —
General Survey of the Ship — Boiler Room and Appliances —
Engine Room and Fittings — " Larboard " and " Port " — Pump-
ing Machinery — Watertight Compartments — S.S. "Arizona"
in Collison with an Iceberg — The Tunnel and contents —
Materials used in Engines — View from Starting Platform —
Different kinds of Engines — How controlled from Deck — Com-
plicated modern Machinery — Economy in Working and Main-
tenance— " Crisp word of Command " 278

CHAPTER XIX.

SHIP'S APPLIANCES TRIAL TRIP.

Steering Gear in small and large ships — Control of ship from bridge —
The "Quartermaster" — Clyde and Thames boats — Steam
winches — Steam windlass — View of ship from bow — Official
Trial Trip — Duties of Staff in Engine and Boiler rooms — Scene
in Grand Saloon — "Running the Mile" — "Indicated Horse
Power" — Successful Trial — Unsatisfactory Trial Trips — Flag
Signalling in the Navy and Merchant Service — Cunard and other
Atlantic Captains and officers — Sea-going Engineers — Descrip-
tion of the " Rosalind '' just before sailing — Her departure on
First Voyage —Farewells 294

CONTENTS. xiii

PAGE

CHAPTER XX.

" BREAKDOWNS," AND MYSTERIOUS LOSSES AT SEA.

Meaning of the Term — Their Causes — Experience gained by them—
Great Safety of Railway travelling — Protective System in Cunard
Ships — S.S. " Atlas " on Fire — Drill in Mail Steamers — Original
Advertisement of "President" and "British Queen" — New
Captain of " President " — Departure on Last Voyage — The
Storm — Arrival of "British Queen" — The Missing Ship —
Theories concerning the Lost Ship — Disappearances of S.S.
" City of Glasgow "— " Pacific-"—" City of Boston " 316

CHAPTER XXI.

LOSS OF WEST INDIA MAIL STEAMER " AMAZON "

ENGINEERING SMASHES ON LAND.

Farewell to Southampton — First Night at Sea — "Heated Bearings" —
Alarm among the Passengers — "No Danger of Fire?" — Strong
Gale — Neilson's vigilance — The Little World asleep — All's
well — Fire \ FIRE ! ! — Wild excitement — Swift destruction —
Awful scenes — Ungovernable Engines — A Flying Inferno — The
End — Spontaneous Conflagrations — Cause of Safety in Travel-
ling— Death of a Railway Engineer — Promotion by Influence —
The New "Chief" and his "Improvement" — The smash on
the Line — National disaster through bad Engineering — Stage
Coaches and Sailing Packets reinstated 329

CHAPTER XXII.

STORY OF A DISASTROUS TRIAL TRIP.

Visit from a Shipowner — " Ship for Sale " — Engaged for Trial Trip —
Handsome fee — Off to Gravesend — Locomotives and Railway
Travelling past and present — Mr. Coventry, the Agent — First
view of S.S. "Orinoco" — Description of an Engineer's
"Report" — Beauty of Ship— Disappointment — The Captain —
A Coffin Ship — Mystery about the Machinery — Vile Workman-
ship— Chief Engineer — Preparations for Starting— Something
wrong in the Tunnel 348

CHAPTER XXIII.

END OF THE FATAL TRIAL TRIP.

Ship off at Last — Slow speed of Engines — Mr. Coventry's promise —
Increased Velocity — Bad working Engines — Suspicions aroused —

xiv CONTENTS.

PAGE

Study of Characters in the play — High speed, and effect on
hull — Heated bearings in Tunnel — The Remedy — Painful dis-
coveries in Engine room— Terror-stricken " Chief" — Dreadful
Smash, and Boiler Explosion — Loss of the "Orinoco" —
Reflections upon the event — Practical Lessons 363

CHAPTER XXIV.

HOW I COMMENCED PRIVATE PRACTICE.

Birkenhead Iron Works in 1867 — Dull times — Idle Engineers in
London — Crisis in 1872 — Retirement from the Works — First
movements in a new direction — Advice of friends — Serious
obstacles — The Generous C. E. — Success at Last — Cause of
difficulties in Private Practice — Hints to those intending to
enter upon it — Index Books and Engineering Literature 373

CHAPTER XXV.

HOW " COMPETITIONS " ARE CONDUCTED.

Architectural and Engineering Schemes — Eatanswill Bridge Competi-
tion— Town Councillors' Invitation to Engineers — The Opening
Day — Arrival of Plans — Character of the Town Councillors —
S. J. Drayne, the Borough Surveyor — Alfred Sketchly, the
Draughtsman — How he spent his Apprenticeship — Private Note
Books — Discussing the Plans — Mr. Drayne's Advice — The
Draughtsman's Logic — Results — Present System of Competi-
tions— Skill and Labour required in preparing Designs and
Estimates— Improved System — " Iron Pier Competition " 386

CHAPTER XXVI.

CLIENTS: AN IRON WORK SPECULATION.

Varieties of Clients in Private Practice — Mr. O'Brien's character — His
Law Case — Wrongful Dismissal from the Works — An enthusi-
astic " Invintor " — Duties of a Scientific Witness — Inspection
of the Works — "New and Improved" Patent Machinery —
Collecting information — The Bones of one of O'Brien's Pets —
Three Lines of Argument in a Report — High Court of Justice,
London — Opening the Case — O'Brien in the Witness-box —
An Opposing Q.C. — Scientific Witnesses, past and present —
Professional and non-Professional Clients— Two more Designers
and their Works — Hints to Inventors 400

CONTENTS. Xv

PAGE

CHAPTER XXVII.

VOYAGE FROM SYDNEY TO LONDON IN 1845.

Early Days in Australia — Engineering of the period — Arrival of
H.M.S. "Vestal," 1844— Departure from Sydney— At Sea-
Moon Poisoning Story from S.S. "Magellan" — Marvellous
Transmission of Sound — Ocean Depths — Soundings, past and
present — Two vast Depressions — Motive Power in Volcanoes —
Arrival in London — " Life " in the " Orient" and " P. and O."
liners, 1889 414

CHAPTER XXVIII.

ENGINEERING OF THE PAST AND PRESENT.

James Watt and his followers — What Engineering has done in the
Past — Effects produced by simple Improvements — Application
of different kinds of Motive Power — Hydraulic Power on a
vast scale — Great Compressed Air Schemes — Hydro-Pneumatic
System of Sewerage and Drainage— Atmospheric Gas Engines —
Electric Motors for Launches, &c.— Cunard S.S. "Umbria"
and " Etruria" — The " One Man " system — Charles Maclver —
Engineering in the Newcastle District — Allusions to Messrs.
Denny and Messrs. Laird — The " Practical Man" in fancy
and in reality 428

CHAPTER XXIX.

TRIPLE EXPANSION MACHINERY.

Shipowners' idea of Marine Engines — Results of "Tripling" two
long voyage Steamers-1— Cause of Economy in Triple Engines —
Table of mean Pressures at different rates of Expansion — Table
of Powers produced by variously Expanded Steam — Ratios of
Expansion in Compound and Triple Engines — Long Voyage
Experiments — Space required for Engines — Reduction of
Weight — Newest style of Triple Engines — Wear and Tear-
Management at Sea — Steamship performances — Trial of S.S.
"Meteor" — Indicator Cards and Coal Consumption — Liquid
Fuel in Steamers — Yarrow's Vaporised Spirit Engines 442

CHAPTER XXX.

QUADRUPLE AND NEW COMPOUND ENGINES.

Important Improvements — Chemistry the Destroyer — Boiler Room
Difficulties — Tubular and Tubulous Boilers — Strange disaster to

xvi CONTENTS.

PACE

a new Boiler — Simple Apparatus for purifying Water — Water
Tube Boilers and their failures — The latest type of Tubulous
Boiler — Opinions of Experts — Table of Horse Powers per ton
of weight — Peculiarities of the Forced Draught System — Latest
types of Quadruple Engines — Turner's new two cylinder Com-
pound Engines — Their performances compared with Triples —
Loss of a Ship through broken Shaft — Extended use of Man-
ganese bronze Propellers — Willis' protected Propellers — Steam-
ships of the future — Conclusion , 462

INDEX 481

REVIEWS OF FIRST EDITION 491

LIST OF PLATES.

PAGE

FRONTISPIECE — GENERAL VIEW OF PALMER'S IRON
AND STEEL MANUFACTURING, SHIPBUILDING,
AND ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENT AT JARROW,
from a Photograph.

P.S. " COMET " ON THE CLYDE, IN 1812 46

INTERIOR OF PATTERN SHOP AT THE NEPTUNE WORKS 91

INTERIOR OF NEW ERECTING SHOP AT THE MARINE
WORKS OF WIGHAM RICHARDSON & Co.,
NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE, from a Photograph ... 219

INTERIOR OF HEAVY TURNERY AT CLARK'S MARINE

WORKS, SUNDERLAND, from a Photograph ... 256

INTERIOR OF THE MERSEY FORGE, LIVERPOOL, from

a Photograph. ... ... ... ... ... 286

WEST INDIA MAIL P.S. "AMAZON" SIGNALLING ... 334
INTERIOR OF FORGING DEPARTMENT AT THE

NEPTUNE WORKS 385

ELECTRIC ENGINE FOR PUMPING, WINDING, &c. ... 435
CUNARD S.S. " UMBRIA" ON THE MERSEY, from a

Photograph by F. Frith &> Co., Reigate 436

TRIPLE EXPANSION ENGINES OF S.S. " MISSOURI "

from a Photograph... ... ... ... ... 453

ELECTRIC ENGINE FOR LAUNCHES, &c 459

QUADRUPLE ENGINES OF S.S. " SINGAPORE " from a

Photograph ... ... ... ... ... ... 473

CHAPTER I.

STEAM NAVIGATION CANALS AND RAILWAYS.

First steamer to India — Defects in Machinery — Junius Smith and " British
Queen" — First voyage of "Sinus" and "Great Western" — The
pioneer Cunarder " Britannia" — Bridgewater Canal — Liverpool and
Manchester Railway — Railway Mania — Difficulties of Railway
Engineers — Q.C. of the period — Woosung Railway — Japanese
Students in England.

THE history and the practice of Engineering are so varied
and comprehensive, that it will be rather difficult to com-
press them into a very small space, nevertheless, their
leading events may be touched upon, and their principal
features referred to, in the following pages. People
generally seem to have a pretty fair knowledge of the
legal and medical professions — some of the unamiable
may say, " a great deal too much " — but they also
possess, so far as can be learned, somewhat limited ideas
concerning the education and inner life of the engineer,
and for reasons which will afterwards be explained.

It is, indeed, surprising, that while the Arts and
Sciences flourished in ancient Greece and Rome, and
works in earth, and brick, and stone, attained colossal
dimensions, the mechanical branch of engineering was
asleep through all those ages, and only wakened up at the
beginning of this century with a giant's power, transform-
ing our modes of travel and manufacture, and revolution-
ising the world in fifty years. It may be mentioned,

2 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. i.

however, that mechanism of a minute and philosophical
description had been developed in a variety of ways during
previous centuries, but was chiefly' employed in the con-
struction of wonderful clocks, such as those in Strasburg
Cathedral and elsewhere, toys of various kinds, and other
useless, though, no doubt, ornamental curiosities. All of
which led to the great future, when the wheels, and
pinions, and shafts, then employed, would be reproduced
on a vast scale in mill gearing, and in the innumerable
details of powerful steam engines and constructive
machinery.

Leaving out of sight for the present the primitive
efforts of Mr. Miller of Dalswinton, to introduce miniature
steam navigation in the year 1788, and passing over the
advent of the " Comet" on the Clyde, in 1812, and also
the coasters which subsequently arose, we come down to
1825, when a bold effort was made to steam to India.
The merchants in Calcutta had offered a premium of a
lac of rupees for the first voyage out and home, averag-
ing seventy days each way, and this at last resulted in
the fitting out of the paddle-steamer " Enterprise,"
of 470 tons, and with engines of 120 horse-power, by
Maudslay.

She sailed when completed, but with so many vital
defects in her machinery and arrangement that the wonder
is she ever arrived. For example, unprotected cylinders,
and an equally naked boiler, created such intense heat that
the men could not work below in safety. Her entire cargo
consisted of coals and stores for an expected run of thirty-
five days to the Cape, and in consequence of a quantity
of coals in bags having been stowed on the top of the
boiler to gain extra space, the ship caught fire. The
average speed on the voyage was five knots an hour, and

CHAP. i. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 3

the time occupied amounted to one hundred and fourteen
days, forty of which were under sail, and eleven at
anchor. In every respect the undertaking was a com-
plete failure. It, however, exposed defects which the
engineers were quick to rectify, and her commander,
Lieutenant Johnstone, R.N., received £10,000 for his
arduous services.

In 1832, an American Doctor of Laws, named Junius
Smith, was fifty-four days in crossing by a sailing ship
from London to New York, and thirty-two on the return
voyage to Plymouth, which was quite too much for him.
He, therefore, carefully considered the subject, and at
last became convinced that " any ordinary sea- going steamer
could do the distance in fifteen days with ease." He then
energetically set about organising a company in London
for the purpose of building Atlantic steamers, but, like
the railway people before him, was considered by many
a semi-lunatic. Persevering, however, in spite of all
opposition, particularly from the sailing-ship proprietors,
and supporting his opinions by many calculations based
upon facts, he succeeded in forming a company with a
capital of ^100,000, which enabled him eventually to
build the " British Queen " of 2,400 tons !

The failure of the contractors caused a serious delay,
but she was at last completed, and left London on her
first voyage in July, 1839, arriving in New York fourteen-
and-a-half days afterwards. In the meantime, Dr. Smith's
firm had chartered the " Sirius," of 700 tons, for a voyage
out and home, and started her from Cork on April 4th,
1838, while another company had specially built the
" Great Western," of 1,340 tons, which sailed from
Bristol on the 8th, their respective runs being eighteen
and fifteen days.

4 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. i.

Both vessels arrived in New York the same day, and
were received with salvoes of artillery, and the joyous
acclamations of vast multitudes on land and water. Their
captains and officers were almost deified, and the people
ran wild with excitement over the great and long wished-
for event. Captain Hoskin took charge of the " Great
Western," and Lieutenant Roberts, R.N. — subsequently
lost in the " President " —commanded the " Sirius." A
passenger in the former contributed a very interesting
description of the voyage, and their reception in New
York, to Chambers Journal of the period.

The " British Queen's " owners now proceeded with
the building of the " Britannia," which was put on the
station in 1840, to carry the mails between Liverpool
and Boston, &c. The first voyage occupied fourteen days
eight hours, and those in the ship received a perfect ova-
tion from the inhabitants on their arrival, and it is said
that Mr. Cunard, who crossed in her, had eighteen
hundred invitations to dinner sent to him within twenty-
four hours afterwards.

Charles Dickens crossed in the " Britannia," and one
of the most interesting chapters in his American Notes, is
occupied with an account of the voyage. A notable
event in the history of this pioneer Cunarder was the
cutting of a channel, 100 feet wide and 10 miles long,
through the ice which filled Boston harbour in 1844, to
enable her to sail at the specified time, thus disappointing
the hopes of the jealous New Yorkers, who said " Boston
was an icebound port in winter." The contract price for
the work was 10,000 dollars, but it cost 20,000 ; numerous
tugs, however, kept the ice in future from consolidating,
and thus prevented a recurrence of the difficulty. This
new era in civilisation, successfully inaugurated by Dr.

CHAP. i. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 5

Smith, was the forerunner of an immense traffic, and of
a wonderful rapidity of communication between the two
continents, which has been swiftly developed down to the
present time.

The original name of the " Britannia's " firm was now
slightly altered to the " British and North American Royal
Mail Steam Packet Company," but as this grand and
impressive title was too ponderous for daily use, it
was changed to the " Cunard Line," whose long-sustained
fame is before the world, and needs no further comment.

CANALS AND RAILWAYS.

Simultaneous improvements were now made on land,
some of which, canals, for example, were of much earlier
date than the introduction of steam navigation. In 1760,
the roads around and between Manchester and Liverpool
were so wretched as to be often impassable, and the trade
of Manchester, small as it was, found its way on pack
horses to the Severn, down which it was floated to Bris-
tol. The Duke of Bridgewater, who at this time ardently
studied engineering under Brindley, proposed connecting
the two towns by means of a canal, and soon afterwards
began its construction. Want of capital, however, for
carrying on the work compelled him to sell off nearly all
he possessed ; he borrowed small sums from his tenants,
and, as a last resource, mortgaged the Worsley Canal —
his first scheme — to a London firm, who gave him suffi-
cient money to enable him to complete the undertaking
to Runcorn.

It must be borne in mind that all previous English
attempts in canal engineering had simply been to widen
out existing ditches and small streams, whereas those
just mentioned were cut through solid ground, involving

4 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. i.

Both vessels arrived in New York the same day, and
were received with salvoes of artillery, and the joyous
acclamations of vast multitudes on land and water. Their
captains and officers were almost deified, and the people
ran wild with excitement over the great and long wished-
for event. Captain Hoskin took charge of the " Great
Western," and Lieutenant Roberts, R.N. —subsequently
lost in the " President " — commanded the " Sirius." A
passenger in the former contributed a very interesting
description of the voyage, and their reception in New
York, to Chambers Journal of the period.

CHAP. i. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 5

Smith, was the forerunner of an immense traffic, and of
a wonderful rapidity of communication between the two
continents, which has been swiftly developed down to the
present time.

CANALS AND RAILWAYS.

Simultaneous improvements were now made on land,
some of which, canals, for example, were of much earlier
date than the introduction of steam navigation. In 1760,
the roads around and between Manchester and Liverpool
were so wretched as to be often impassable, and the trade
of Manchester, small as it was, found its way on pack
horses to the Severn, down which it was floated to Bris-
tol. The Duke of Bridgewater, who at this time ardently
studied engineering under Brindley, proposed connecting
the two towns by means of a canal, and soon afterwards
began its construction. Want of capital, however, for
carrying on the work compelled him to sell off nearly all
he possessed ; he borrowed small sums from his tenants,
and, as a last resource, mortgaged the Worsley Canal —
his first scheme— to a London firm, who gave him suffi-
cient money to enable him to complete the undertaking
to Runcorn.

6 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. i.

careful surveys and difficult and costly works, such as
bridges, viaducts, &c. Now that Manchester had a
direct outlet to the sea, its trade went up with a bound,
and Lancashire manufacturers flourished.

The Bridgewater Canal ultimately brought in a
revenue of about ^100,000 a year to its proprietors, who
became very exacting in many ways. It was frequently
blocked by an excess of traffic, and in winter often frozen
up, so that goods sometimes occupied as much time in
transit as they did in coming by sailing ship from New
York. To try to remedy therefore this unendurable evil,
the Liverpool merchants held a meeting, with Mr. Joseph
Sanders as president, and the result of their discussion
was that George Stephenson should be applied to for
advice on the subject. Having gained useful experience
on the Stockton and Darlington, and previous colliery
lines, he immediately proposed a railway. The county of
Lancaster was in arms against such an idea ; the landed
proprietors, the little villages and towns, and all the
country houses too, declared that they would not have
their territory desecrated by such an innovation, which
was sure to bring with it many serious evils. The
unkindest cut, however, came from the canal people, who
waged a war of extermination against all railways.

The surveyors had a rough time of it, and by the
merest chance the bill before Parliament was passed.
The line was accordingly commenced, and thus began
the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which, with
Stephenson as engineer-in-chief, was successfully opened
with great eclat on September i5th, 1830, and through the
fabulous prosperity which almost at once attended it, set
every one on fire for other similar schemes, Hudson, the
" Railway King," was deified because he had made

CHAP. i. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 7

^"100,000 in one day, and helped others to be " success-
ful;" but he led many to ruin, and when he fell, it was
like Lucifer. A few kind friends saved him from absolute
penury, and he often said afterwards that his happiest
days were when he sold linen behind his counter in the
city of York.

Some idea of the extent of the speculative mania,
which existed at this time, may be gathered from the fact
that from 1823 to 1844 the total cost of completed lines
had been ^70,681,000; those in progress in the latter
year were estimated at ^67,360,000 ; but in the same
year, there were fourteen hundred and twenty-eight pro-
jected railways, with an estimated capital of ^701,243,000,
many of which were only gigantic frauds. In the amus-
•ingly satirical " History of the Glenmutchkin Railway,"
in Blackwood, the rise, progress, and end of one of these
ethereal schemes is fully described.

At this period, lawyers and engineers quickly made
large fortunes; the former received immense fees, not only
for their professional labours, but also for doing nothing ;
or, at least, for withholding their services from others
who wished them. The engineers had a regal time of it ;
but they were worked like slaves, and, in many cases,
were not in bed for a week at a time, in their anxiety to
finish the Parliamentary plans for a new line by a certain
day, or they would not have been received.

Holding, as they did, the key of the position, they
were bullied unmercifully when in the witness box by
opposing counsel, under, over, and through every possible
and impossible phase of the question, and required not
only to be masters of their art, but masters of strategy
as well, to enable them to carry their point. They had to
know how to advance their crushing statements under

8 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. i.

fire from the enemy's batteries, and when to retire behind
their defences. If the scientific witness were too closely
pressed, he had one safe retreat at all times, into which
none could follow him ; he would retire into a thicket of
algebra, from which he could shoot forth a furious volley
of arguments relating to sines and co-sines, tangents and
co-tangents, optical squares and chord angles, zenith
distances, equatorial axes, the curvature of the surface of
a spherical triangle in relation to the ellipticity of the
earth, and so on, until his persecutors were glad enough
to let him alone.

What magnificent opportunities, too, the Q. C. of the
period had for the display of forensic genius ! Under his
eloquence one would have imagined that raising embank-
ments, crossing rivers, and penetrating mountains, was
quite an elegant recreation. " The talent of the engineer
would easily overcome every obstacle ; in short," he con-
tinued, " there never was a line so advantageous in every
respect, nor one which would prove so remunerative to
the shareholders." The opposing counsel, however, did
not quite entertain the same views. He, too, could give
a brilliant oration, but concluded his remarks by observ-
ing that " he had the greatest confidence in the ability of
his learned friend, who had spoken so truly on many
points, but opinions differ, and he had every reason to
believe, from what their engineer had informed them, that
although the tunnels, bridges, and embankments, could,
no doubt, be successfully executed, it would be at such an
enormous cost, as to entail a heavy loss, if not ruin, on all
concerned in the undertaking ; therefore he, for one,
would not sanction the scheme." In this manner, rail-
ways, in early days, were lost or won.

They are now spread nearly all over the world, and

CHAP. i. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 9

have, at last, made a good beginning in China, where
there is unlimited scope for extension.

In 1875, Messrs. Jardine, Matheson & Co. conceived
the idea of constructing a small railway from Shanghai to
Woosung, 9 miles. It was. only a tentative scheme,—
just to see, in fact, how the Celestials would take to it.
The " Woosung Road Company " was therefore formed,
and the line commenced, Ransomes and Rapier, of
Ipswich, supplying the locomotives and other requisite
machinery. When the line was opened in 1876, the
people were enthusiastic — many thousands of visitors per
day coming to see it work. There were, moreover, none
of the dreaded " disturbances of the spirits of the air and
earth," — everything went well, — the adjoining land went
up in value, and a magnificent future seemed to be in
store for all. Unfortunately, however, the dispute, which
at this period arose between the British and the Chinese
Governments, in reference to the murder of Mr. Margary,
gave the authorities an opportunity of alleging a griev-
ance in the matter of the railway ; and, although
everything was done that could be done by the more
enlightened officials to retain the line, the whole of the
obnoxious plant and machinery were dismantled and
shipped to Formosa, where they lay for years rotting and
rusting in the mud.

Thus ended a professionally successful, but diploma-
tically unfortunate scheme, which was expected to have
been the beginning of the Railway System in a vast
empire possessing only the most primitive means of
transport.

They manage these things better in Japan, where
engineering has not only been warmly received, but is
making astonishing progress in all branches. They have

io ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. i.

an Engineering College at Tokio, under English profes-
sors, and, in railway matters, are making rapid advance-
ment. Those who come here to learn are most indus-
trious, and, as a people, they are very intelligent, as the
following example out of many will show. It is said that
on one occasion a new steamer had gone out for a trial,
but, on her return, the Japanese engineer, somehow or
other, forgot, at a critical moment, his "formula for
stopping the engines." No time was to be lost, so he at
once drew his fires, put the helm hard over, and gave the
ship a little practice in circle sailing, until the steam was
used up ; he then anchored. Very many students have
come to this country, and in numerous instances com-
peted most successfully with their British associates, and,
only recently, two of them carried off first prizes in
Sir William Thompson's class at the Glasgow Univer-
sity.

There are many amusing as well as ghastly stories told
in connection with our own railways — the following may
lie between the two extremes. There used to be on the
North British line, a driver who was profanely called
" Hell-fire Tom." The name originated in this manner.
Coming along the main line one day on his unattached
locomotive, he discovered, when too late, that a bridge
had fallen in. There was not a moment to lose, and he
couldn't stop, so putting on full steam, he came down at
a fearful speed, and with one supreme effort made in the
engine leap the chasm in safety !

On another occasion — which I well remember — a cow
strayed into forbidden territory, and would not move off
in time to clear the express which was approaching.
Down came the engine — bang went the "coo," as
Stephenson himself had predicted— and in a twinkling the

CHAP. i. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. n

whole of the machinery was interlaced with the flesh and
bones of the annihilated animal. In America, buffaloes
often get on the road in the same manner, but the " cow-
catcher " pushes them off and thus prevents the possi-
bility of accident.

The ghastly stories are very numerous, but refer
chiefly to early days. In this respect, however, England
and America are far ahead of any other nation. The
most appalling disasters that have happened in this
country, were the fall of the Tay Bridge, and consequent
destruction of a passenger train which was running over
it at the time, and the burning of the Irish Mail at
Abergele, in Wales.

Many similar calamities of a modified description
have occurred in the United States, but were it not for
the " spark arrester," which adorns the chimneys of
American locomotives, cities and towns, villages and
hamlets, forests and prairies, would all be exposed — as
they formerly were — to wide spread destruction through
the sparks thrown out by the wood fires of Transatlantic
engines. Now, however, such evils are almost unknown.

ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. n.

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL ENGINEERING.

Fairbairn and Hodgkinson's experiments — Britannia Bridge — Fairbairn's
Canal Street Works— Begins Shipbuilding at Millwall — Heavy
Losses — Character of Sir William Fairbairn — Whitworth's Machin-
ery— Different kinds of Marine Engines — P.S.N. Company and the
Compound Engine— History of a " New and Improved " Design —
Lucrative Inventions — Value of Good Machinery — What it did at
the North London Railway Works — Richard Roberts.

DURING the time that railways and steam vessels were
being established, engineering in other branches was
springing into vigorous life. Penn, Maudslay, Napier,
and others, were rapidly simplifying, skilfully proportion-
ing and generally improving the construction and arrange-
ment of engines and boilers. Mill-gearing, another most
important branch, received all attention from Fairbairn,
who greatly benefited the mill proprietors by introducing
his improved shafting, engines, water-wheels, &c., to their
works. He also developed the best proportions and
designs for iron bridges of every description. In con-
junction, too, with Professor Hodgkinson, of Manchester,
he entered upon a most elaborate and careful series of
experiments and calculations relating to the strength of
columns, girders, trussed beams, &c., which were of the
highest value to the profession.

On such points little was known at this time, theo-
retically or practically, it was all guesswork, which
resulted, naturally enough, in very serious disasters.
Another subject of very careful investigation was the

CHAP. ii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 13

art of " Construction," which every engineer knows is all-
important, neutralising as it does, when defective, the
most accurate calculations and plans.

The wonder of that day was the Britannia Bridge
over the Menai Straits, but neither Fairbairn nor Robert
Stephenson would venture to construct it until a com-
plete series of experiments on a grand and costly scale
had been made, to verify their calculations and confirm
the accuracy of their designs. In this branch of En-
gineering, variations in size range from the colossal
" Forth" down to the smallest foot-bridge. In style also,
there is extreme diversity, and, in most cases, separate
computations and sets of drawings have to be made, to
suit the ever-changing conditions of general practice.

The late Sir William Fairbairn carried on for fifty
years an increasing and most lucrative business, and his
Canal Street Works, in Manchester, were considered one
of the finest establishments in this country for general
engineering. He also started, in 1835, a large ship-
building and marine establishment at Millwall, where he
built upwards of one hundred vessels during the thirteen
years the works were in operation, the largest orders for
which came from the Admiralty and East India Com-
pany. Partly owing to the distance, however, between
the two places, his frequent and prolonged visits to the
Continent, and other causes combined, Millwall caused
him a loss of ^"100,000 in twelve years, which he fortu-
nately covered by his profits in Manchester.

This was a time of great anxiety, and notwithstanding
his immense energy, perseverance, and buoyancy of
spirit, he had fits of melancholy, during which he fancied
he saw every possible aud unhappy contingency. When
the railway system began to spread, the canal people

i4 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. n.

thought they could, to some extent at least, compete with
it by the use of high-speed steamboats. A series of ex-
periments were therefore made by Fairbairn on a little
iron vessel named the " Lord Dundas," but so conclu-
sively did those efforts demonstrate the impossibility of
high speed ever being attained, on account of the shallow
and narrow channel, that the project was abandoned.

This great engineer was one of those intellectual
people who are never happy unless they are fully occu-
pied. He had extreme earnestness of purpose — work was
a necessity of life, and business a pleasure. He was also
unceasingly occupied with his pen, his pencil, and his
draughtsmen, in planning, scheming, and improving.
Besides all this, he was a most able and prolific writer of
books and papers for learned societies on practical
science, and his treatises are among the best ever written.

He received many marks of distinction from foreign
governments, and in England his principal titles, besides
knighthood, were D.C.L., and LL.D. Simple-minded
and amiable, good, kind, and courteous to all, he became
a universal favourite both at home and abroad.

Born in 1789, and sustaining throughout a long and
arduous career a highly honourable character, which may
be taken as a model by all aspiring workers, Sir William
Fairbairn passed away in 1874, but his name will long
live in what he has done.

Another "eminent," who flourished contemporaneously,
was Sir Joseph Whitworth, but his " line " differed from
Fairbairn's, inasmuch as he devoted himself almost
entirely to constructive machinery, or machines for mak-
ing engines and other work, such as those for turning,
planing, slotting, boring, &c., which every engineering
establishment possesses to a greater or lesser extent.

CHAP. ii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 15

When I thought about commencing business, it was
intended that I should enter an Edinburgh bank, and
application was accordingly made in furtherance of this
object ; but as it proved there would not be a vacancy
for two years, I had to look out for something else.
Strangely enough, I had a great love of engineering and
architectural drawing, in which I made rapid progress.

This induced one or two of my friends to propose that
I should learn practical engineering, and efforts were
made in that direction to accomplish their wishes on
my behalf. There was one serious drawback, however,
and that was that I did not like the idea.

Jim Macfarlane, a young friend of mine, was at that
time a pupil in Hawthorn's locomotive establishment, in
Leith, and had to get up at five in the morning, to enable
him to be at the works by six. He was also obliged to go
in " dirty clothes " — which an old and excellent uncle of
mine rather objected to — and when he hadn't time to trim
himself up, occasionally came among us in his war paint.

He used to speak about the strictness in the works,
what they did if he came late, and what they didn't do
if he did something else, and how they were fined for
"jobbing," or making tools of any description for them-
selves. All this set me more against it, but it was of
no avail, as I had lost my father in a far-off clime
when very young, had only my own efforts to trust to,
and had to take what I could get, and that was a
start in practical engineering, which a kind friend was
fortunate enough to obtain for me.

No sooner, however, did I see Whitworth's machinery,
with which the works abounded, than all my objections
vanished, and 1 became almost fascinated with it, and
from that day to this have never ceased to take a deep

16 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. n.

interest in every thing relating to the profession. On
this point, however, I shall have more to say further on.

In the first place, Whitworth's machines were remark-
able for extreme elegance and simplicity of design ; in the
next place, their fitting together was absolutely faultless ;
and lastly, their finish could not be surpassed. I saw
other people's productions as well, but they were common-
place in comparison, although they did good work. There
was one lathe in particular, which was made by a firm in
Leeds, who subsequently acquired celebrity ; but for badly
constructed wheels, complicated arrangement of parts,
and ugly outline, I have seldom seen anything to equal it.
The foreman said it was " only fit for the melting pot."

There is nothing of such vital importance in all manu-
facturing processes, from that of making a match box
or pin to the colossal engines of the " City of Paris "
or " Umbria," or, indeed, large or small work of any
kind, as good machinery. By this term I do not mean
machinery which merely looks well, or works well, but
that which turns out the best work with the greatest
rapidity. In our time of extreme competition and very
low profits, nothing else will do, and hence it is not
uncommon to find the most admirable machines and
engines set aside as useless, on account of some small
improvement which effects a great saving, and soon
repays the money expended in obtaining it. Nowhere,
perhaps, has this been more remarkable during late years
than in the iron and steel manufacture, and in steam
navigation.

I remember the time when almost every engineering
firm had its own pet type of engine. John Penn had his
"oscillators" and "double-trunk," the latter of which he
made in large quantities for war vessels. Napier had the

CHAP. ii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 17

" side-lever," which he put into all the Cunard steamers
of that period. Tod & McGregor highly valued their
" steeple " engines, which they supplied to the Inman and
Peninsular and Oriental Companies, as well as others ;
and Caird, Denny, and a few more, made an immense
quantity of the " inverted direct action " species, which
were of the same family as those now so generally used
in ships, but of a different construction.

The other kinds referred to have become obsolete, as
the two cylinder compound, and, eventually, the triple
and quadruple expansion engines proved to be more
economical.

In all these engines there was a vast amount of excel-
lent work done by hand, which is now executed by
machinery, and the engineers of that time had splendid
opportunities of learning practically what those of the
present day will never have in their power. As may be
supposed, however, labour of this description was slow
and expensive ; the increased use of machinery has,
therefore, greatly lessened the cost of production, and
wonderfully expanded manufactures of every conceivable
kind, which has been most beneficial to the world at
large ; but, in this respect, a very great amount of
prejudice has been shown, in connection with the
introduction of engines as well as machines.

About the year 1852, John Elder, — who had been
educated in Napier's, but was now the head in the marine
department of his very eminent firm, — introduced, in a
greatly improved form, what had been known as the
"compound engine," invented in 1781, and first used in
the steamers " Union" in 1829, and "Le Corsair Noir" in
1842. Many of Napier's splendid " side levers " were
taken out of steamers to be re-engined with those of the

i8 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. n.

new type. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company, who
owned them, quickly saw the great advantage they would
derive by adopting it in their numerous ships, thus
reducing considerably the consumption of coal, which
was rapidly swallowing up their profits, and from
that time until the year 1887 they used no other
description.

Here, then, was a splendid and economical engine
thrown into the market, which had been most success-
fully tested on long voyages, and possessing virtues
hardly anyone could see but the great Company just
named. The Cunard people clung pertinaciously to the
old "side levers" which had helped them to fame and
fortune ; the Inman Company were quite as faithful to
the " steeple " and "horizontal" engines they had
learned to esteem ; and all the other people had their
own favourite types which they would not relinquish,
even for the new one.

In the year 1868, I happened to be in the employ of
Messrs, Laird Brothers, whose Birkenhead Iron Works
did an immense quantity of work of every description and
of all sizes for home and foreign governments, and for
the merchant service, jogging comfortably along with
the old and universally recognised systems of marine
machinery. Unconsciously, however, a change was at
hand of which we little dreamt. Some one outside of
the Pacific Company discovered that the " Compound "
was, after all, a first class and very desirable engine,
and we got our first order to " convert" a large steamer —
the " Belgian." Like an epidemic the idea spread amaz-
ingly, it came upon the world like a flash, and plenty of
similar orders came pouring in; at one time for a new
ship and engines, at another for the alteration of one

CHAP. ii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 19

or two more, and we were all kept extremely busy for
several years.

Now why was this " good thing " not discovered by
the general public long before ? The Liverpool and other
shipowners had it working in their midst for many
years, and yet could not appreciate its value. I suppose
the answer is " prejudice." The writer and others asso-
ciated with him have also, in a small way, been the
victims of this unhappy failing, as the following narrative
will show.

Some time after I began private practice, two sea-
going engineers came to me in the hope that I could help
them with a not by any means matured idea of theirs,
and put it into practical form. This idea took the shape
of an extremely rude sketch of a " New and Improved
type of Compound engine " with Corliss valve gear. I
told them I had about as high an opinion of this gear as
they possessed, on account of the ease with which it is
worked when exposed to high steam pressures, and also
from the fact that in America it had for a long time been
most successfully used on land and sea, and also in this
country on mill engines, " but," I said, "you will find the
British public won't adopt it on the water, particularly
when it was tried in one Liverpool steamer and taken out
again." Well, they would persist in having their own
way, so after stretching a large sheet on a drawing board,
and making a preliminary sketch, I began the design
with diameters and stroke of pistons, and steam pressure
of 100 pounds per square inch as a basis.

I had frequent visits from these worthies to see how I
was progressing, or " getting on," and to hold conferences
on important points. Alterations were suggested, lines
taken out and put in again, shafts were removed, levers

20 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. n.

shifted, and the position of every detail rectified so as to
approach perfection as nearly as we could.

What earnest discussions we had over those engines !—
sparing neither time nor trouble in our anxiety to obtain
the very best results, which we aimed at quite as much in
this speculative design as if it had been for a mail steamer.
Our individual proposals were sometimes unitedly con-
demned, or in other words, what was statically right,
proved to be dynamically wrong. They were plain men
with small means, and I saw clearly that I would get
very little for my trouble, but did my best for them never-
theless. They were also good, experienced, sea going
hands, who knew well what they were talking about, and
we accordingly got along most pleasantly.

At last the design was finished, complete in its
details — two elevations and two plans — but our ideas
having developed faster than we imagined, we unitedly
condemned the whole thing. The engines looked " too
sprawly," — not compact enough, — but that was my
clients' fault, so we at once began No. 2 design.

This time we shortened the stroke six inches, and
made a sweeping alteration in the position of the low
pressure cylinders, still adhering, however, to the Corliss
valve arrangement, and the result was a plan which
pleased us all. We now had a quantity of lithographs
taken of them, with printed descriptions, which were
sent to shipowners and engineers throughout the country.
The general opinion was that the design was excellent,
almost everyone liked it, but the Corliss valves were
condemned on all sides.

We were not going to be sat upon in this way, so we
made a third attempt. " Now," I said to my clients,
" we'll cut out the obnoxious Corliss gear for the high

CHAP. ii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 21

pressure cylinder, and treat them to the piston valve,
equilibrium type, easy to work, you know. Keep the
common slide valves for the low pressure cylinders as
before, and let all the pumps and other gear remain
exactly where they are." We also designed an " Im-
proved marine boiler."

At last success smiled on our continued efforts, for the
general opinions now were — " a very nice arrangement,
indeed; " — " fine long connecting rod ; " — " very compact
and symmetrical;" — "very get-at-able;" — and so on.
The valve gear was also approved of, and the boiler
received great praise, indeed, an eminent authority in
Liverpool, himself an engineer as well as shipowner,
spoke most highly of both ; but when I asked him if he
wouldn't introduce them into his own fleet, he said, " they
had never been tried ; his own special engines gave him
every satisfaction, and he did not wish to make altera-
tions ; besides," as he wisely added, " if anything should
go wrong at sea, it is not the cost of repairs that I dread,
but loss of time on the voyage."

Everyone seemed to have similar opinions, too, and
asked if they had " been tried ? " We said " no," and that
was enough, they all waited till " someone else " made the
experiment before they would have anything to do in the
matter, and thus our work in the end went for nothing. I
like to point a moral, as well as adorn a tale, if I can, and
I think the moral is this: avoid, as much as possible,
dabbling in big and expensive things. Our engines would
have cost thousands of pounds to make, and therefore
people were afraid of them. Had we, however, designed
an improved pencil-holder, or something similarly useful,
to sell by the million, the plans for which could have
been sketched in a fewljftitrs^jjiv clients might have

22 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. n.

made a fortune, as some people have done through the
most trivial, but nevertheless popular, inventions.

A few individuals have made immense incomes out of
simple devices they have patented, but certainly did not
originate. In this respect, schoolboys have unconsciously
disclosed a perfect mine of wealth by means of their
ingenious discoveries. If, for instance, anyone had — about
thirty years ago — turned inside out the pockets of some of
those youths, there would have been found amongst other
treasures, a small piece of lead pencil stuck into the nib
end of a steel barrel pen, the other end of which contained
a plug of india rubber. Sometimes slate pencil and a
piece of rag were used instead, but, at any rate, this was
the germ of the now well known india rubber tip pencil,
which has yielded a profit of ^"20,000 to the patentee,
merely from royalties paid by its manufacturers.

The " return ball," with elastic cord attached to it, is
another schoolboy invention which brought in a revenue
of about £10,000 a year to the person who appropriated it
in legal form. Long ago, those youths sometimes fastened
to their feet two little flat boards on wheels, and then got
some one to haul them along. This was the beginning —
the crude idea — of the roller-skate, the patentee of which
made nearly a quarter of a million sterling through the
working of his " invention." Truly the boys deserve
looking after in more ways than one.

Mr. Fox realised ^"170,000 out of his " paragon
frame " for umbrellas, and the owner of the " stylographic
pen " made ^40,000 a year by his discovery. A few
patent toys have also produced magnificent results, but
one of the most profitable novelties of the present day
has been the sewing machine, which was invented by
Elias Howe in 1844. After the idea had flashed upon

CHAP. ii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 23

him, he worked upon it earnestly for years, struggling
with poverty, until his beautiful mechanism was per-
fected, and eventually his income rose to £100,000 a year.
Wheeler and Wilson were each equally prosperous, and
Mr. Singer left behind him as clear profit from the
same source, three millions of pounds.

Fortunes may still be made in a similar manner, if
people can invent something really useful,— like the per-
forating machine for stamps, etc. — something that will
save time and labour, or catch, in some way or other, the
popular taste. It may appear strange, but it is neverthe-
less true, that the shareholders' available profits, derived
from some of our most stupendous railway undertakings,
fade completely away when compared with the mag-
nificent results of the humble and inexpensive Switchback
lines, whose lives are short and merry, and wonderfully
beneficial to all concerned.

In the history of this branch of engineering, there are
indeed many dark shades. Fortunes have been lost,
health has been ruined, hopes have been blighted, even
by the most deserving people, while trying to win the
success which, after all, was achieved by others who
profited by their labours. Fortunes have also been lost
by those who thought they had discovered something of
real value, but had not done so. The aim of designers is
to make their schemes remunerative, but between a pro-
fessional triumph on the one hand, and commercial
prosperity on the other, there is sometimes a very wide
chasm. Probably there may not be a demand for the
article even when perfected, or perhaps the cost of
manufacture is too great to enable it to compete success-
fully with what is already in existence. Occasionally,
however, the so-called " improvement " is only the dream

24 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. n.

of an unpractical enthusiast, whose aim may be to
produce perpetual motion, or something approaching it,
if possible. The history of inventors abounds with
cases similar to those referred to, but perhaps enough
has been said to shew the difference between two
distinct and well known classes of ingenious experimen-
talists.

The field of invention is vast and varied, and open
to everyone, regardless of age, sex, station, or means,
but it is often very disappointing, and those who enter it
have frequently to exercise sound judgment combined
with unlimited patience and perseverance under difficul-
ties, to enable them to attain their desired end.

Good machinery is absolutely necessary in conducting
every kind of manufacture rapidly, successfully, and pro-
fitably, and perhaps one of the best illustrations I can
give, relative to the " constructive " species, is to be
found in the history of the North London Railway.

This line was opened in 1850, but its locomotive
works were not built until five years afterwards. In the
meantime, a gigantic traffic had sprung up, and when the
making of their own engines was added to that of repair-
ing, they were nearly overwhelmed with work which the
superintendent was obliged to execute at all hazards.
So great was the strain thrown upon the establishment
at one time, that the Directors hardly knew how to deal
with it. The men were working on night and day shifts
doing repairs, but in spite of this, no engine could be
spared long enough to enable its defects to be properly
rectified at one lying up. It is said that goods trains were
worked in the dead of the night, with the engine leading
tyres so loose that they had to be run only at such speed
as would enable men to follow them with lanterns and

CHAP. ii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 25

hammers to see that they did not come off. I fancy,
however, that this is a mythical story, but it nevertheless
had a foundation of truth.

The fact was the line and workshops were taxed far
beyond their capacities, and, to tide them over the diffi-
culty, special, and in some cases very simple machinery
had to be devised. Besides this, there were little things
known as " appliances," which helped very materially in
rendering assistance, and to crown all, a most admirable
system of management was planned and carefully worked
out in every little detail. These united and well directed
efforts eventually produced the happiest results.

Constructive machinery has now attained great perfec-
tion, and nowhere is this more observable than in vast
establishments, such as the London and North Western
Railway Works at Crewe. All the fixed and movable
plant, including bridges, canal boats, locomotives, steel
rails for the lines, steel plates, &c., for the steamers at
Holyhead, and everything else, great and small, is
made on the premises by means of special machines and
engines, which execute everything to perfection and with
great rapidity. The same remarks may also apply to
similarly colossal and unique establishments of another
description, such as the Elswick Works of Lord Arm-
strong & Co. at Newcastle, and those of Sir Joseph Whit-
worth & Co. in Manchester, where some of the most
costly and gigantic machinery in the world is to be found.
The former, however, is now closed against non-official
visitors. In Messrs. Platt Brothers' Works, at Oldham,
and also those of the Singer Sewing Machine Co., on the
Clyde, constructive machinery of a more or less delicate
kind is employed in the manufacture of textile mechanism
and appliances in the one case, and of the American

26 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. n.

invention, combined with steam-boilers of a special
description, in the other.

All these works are interestingly instructive, both to
professionals and non-professionals, as they are among
the best and largest of their class in this or any other
country. The Elswick establishment alone employing
fully 13,000 hands, Platt Brothers at least 5,000, and
Crewe about 16,000 in all departments.

The term " special " is applied to everything which is
used for one particular purpose, and, in locomotive and
some other establishments, there is such a large quantity
of details of a similar kind and- size constantly in hand,
that the adoption of the generally useful machines of a
" marine " work would neither be desirable nor economi-
cal. Having had a turn among locomotives myself, I
cannot admire those branches of engineering which
change men and boys almost into automata, as they
are kept such a long time doing the same thing, and, in
too many cases, of such a simple character, that it might
easily be learnt in a month. So far, however, as the
apprentices are concerned, a good premium protects
them from this evil ; and in the manufacture of engines
for ships, and also a great variety of heavy " general "
work for pumping, winding, mill-driving, and other pur-
poses, it cannot well exist.

To carry on the indescribably miscellaneous assort-
ment of everyday manufactures, such as wood-work, and
metal work of every conceivable description, there is an
immense quantity of machinery employed, which would
astonish an outsider. For example : a " splint " machine,
in the hands of a boy, will cut splints for at least 10,000
matches in one minute, and even this can be greatly
exceeded. There is, however, no establishment in Great

CHAP. ii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 27

Britain so instructive in this respect as Woolwich
Arsenal, on account of the extreme variety of the
machinery employed in the production of everything,
large and small, connected with warlike stores and
appliances on a gigantic scale. This vast institution
covered in 1866 three hundred acres, and during the
Crimean War employed 15,000 men and boys night and
day.

The last class to which we shall refer is that most
important one used so extensively for all textile fabrics in
silk, wool, cotton, alpaca, &c., which the united efforts of
many able engineers have done so much to improve. To
them alone the ladies owe a debt of gratitude, for enabling
them to obtain every article of dress they wear at such
extremely low prices, and to no one ought they to
be more thankful than the late Richard Roberts, of
Manchester.

He was a man of great ability, and one of the most
prolific and useful inventors of his time. To the highest
practical and scientific knowledge, he added the qualities
of great perseverance, and studious research. Ultimately
he became a partner in the firm of Sharp & Roberts —
now Sharp, Stewart & Co. — but, after coining wealth for
the cotton spinners, and benefiting the world at large, he
unhappily died in poverty, and left his family to be
provided for by others.

28 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. in.

CHAPTER III.

DUMBARTON AND THE CLYDE.

My apprenticeship in Denny's 1852— Great prosperity in the various
Works— Engineer Workmen— Strikes in the Shipyards— William
Denny hands over a large contract to Caird & Co. — Later Strikes
among Coal and Iron people — Belgian Iron Trade — How Strikes
begin— Generalship of the Masters — The " Delegate " — Unhappy
Workmen — Dumbarton at this period — Disastrous Storm — Death of
William Denny— Engineer Foremen— S.S. " Yorkshireman "—The
Penalty — The Wreck— A good Speculation.

IN the end of 1852, I entered the works of Messrs.
Tulloch & Denny, now Denny & Co., for the purpose
of learning marine engineering.

Dumbarton at this time was a very quiet place, pro-
vided you kept out of hearing the clattering of hammers
in the ship yards with which it abounded. If you walked
down the main or " High " Street during the day, you
were forcibly tempted to ask " Where are all the people?"
as the only individuals visible were a few stragglers, or
one or two shopkeepers standing at their doors looking for
customers who were at that time elsewhere. At one end
of this street stood the Parish Church, and a little
distance down, the " Elephant and Castle " and " King's
Arms " hotels rose to view, then came a bridge across
the Leven, and proceeding onwards to the other extreme
end, you arrived at the beautifully situated place where
all the engines and boilers were made for ships built in
three of the yards. The engine works were washed on
two sides by the Leven, — a broad outlet of Loch
Lomond, — and were also fully open to the Vale of Leven,
and the charming mountain scenery of Dumbartonshire.

CHAP. in. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 29

In short, there never was a work of this kind so pleasantly
located, — to my knowledge at least.

In fine evenings everyone was out promenading, the
magnates of the town and others marching up and down
the centre of the High Street, while the workmen, in a
similar manner, occupied their leisure time in crowding
the street generally. An air of peace and serenity pre-
vailed everywhere, except in some late working establish-
ment, and on Sundays this was of a very marked char-
acter, as all traffic by land and water had ceased.

Such, then, was the place where I had to reside for
the next few years, the monotony of which was only
broken twice a year by a fortnight's holiday in July and
December, and by occasional brief visits to Glasgow. In
former times, Caird of Greenock had made all the engines
that were required for the ships built by the Dennys, but
in 1850, the establishment I had just entered was opened
to meet a want which had been increasingly felt, and the
result was, that for a long time afterwards, they had as
many orders in hand as they could possibly execute,
indeed, for about two years, eight and ten o'clock work
was the order of the day — or night, — for most of the
hands.

The men and boys were remarkably steady, respect-
able, and well conducted, and during the whole period I
was among them, often worked a great deal more than six
days a week on account of " overtime," which many got
tired of however, although " time and a quarter " from
six to eight, and "time and a half" from eight to ten,
were considerable advantages in a pecuniary way, Such
was my opinion then, of those employed in the engineer-
ing department, and such it has ever been, but no similar
commendation can I give the shipbuilders, who were,

30 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. HI.

without exception, the most cantankerously unmanageable
crew I have ever seen. They were very fond of drinking,
and much liked striking. At one time the rivetters would
strike, and the " holder up " boys go off for a holiday.
Then the youths would have a turn at the same employ-
ment, and their masters — the rivetters — " go on the
spree," compulsorily or otherwise, generally otherwise,

Next in order came the platers, who thought they
might try their fortune, and the carpenters and joiners
followed in the rear. Thus they went on by stages until
some one found out that " union was strength," then they
all struck. I remember on one occasion Mr. William
Denny had received an order for four steamers of 1,000
tons each, which were to be built with all despatch. No
sooner did this become known, than the men thought it
would be a fine chance for obtaining more pay, and
accordingly struck at once. This was a very imprudent
movement on their part, as the work was not quite
begun. Mr. Denny therefore rounded on them cleverly,
by immediately handing over the whole contract to Caird,
and left them to come to at leisure. We, in consequence,
lost the engines.

Another striking era, with which, however, I was
not associated, occurred about the year 1876. This time
it was among the coal and iron people of Wales. Iron
ran up by degrees until it reached the highest price
ever known, which was very embarrassing to engineers
and shipbuilders. Coal was also advanced to fabulous
rates, thereby causing the British householder much
annoyance and loss. It was curious to note how these
two classes of workmen, while studying their own indi-
vidual interests, played into each other's hands, until
they were, we might say, masters of the situation, and

CHAP. in. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 31

enriched by conquest. Such, at least, was my own
opinion, when I heard of them wearing sealskin jackets
and caps, and also gold watches. Luxurious living, too,
was highly prized, and first-class travelling on railways,
&c., was frequently adopted, all of which became, for a
time at least, somewhat unfashionable.

There is an old saying that " every canine animal has
his day," and I think the aphorism quite applicable in
this case. The colliers and ironworkers had now reached
the summit of their ambition, but, like old Rome and
ancient Greece, their glory trembled in the balance and
then departed. Things righted, as many, though not all,
do in time, and the two products of the earth gradually
came down in price until they were lower than they had
ever been ; but this was only part of the play. A great
deal of mischief had been done by the iron people, from
which they have never recovered.

The Belgian manufacturers, seeing the state of affairs
here, at once began to open a connection with this coun-
try, which, in course of time, became most powerful and
damaging. They commenced supplying us with all sorts
of iron beams, girders, and bridge or roof-work generally,
and at such low prices, that English iron for such pur-
poses was a] most driven out of the market, and even now,
with our own materials so extremely cheap, their impor-
tations are extensively used in all kinds of building
constructions.

At one time those continentals bought our iron ore,
worked and manufactured it for themselves, and delivered
it in England for much less money than we could do on
our own territory ; and the reason was this. The Belgian
workmen were very steady and reliable, they had longer
hours and less pay than the British, and were content

32 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. in.

to live in a style corresponding to their position, and,
above all, to keep sober. Those who know this subject
intimately have also their tales of disaster to relate on
a gigantic scale, of men and women impoverished and
trade ruined; such, I believe, was the case with the
once prosperous business of iron ship-building on the
Thames.

The annoyance such men as I have mentioned cause
their employers is sometimes very great. Say, for ex-
ample, a large firm gets an extensive order to execute
with all possible speed, under, it may be, heavy penalties
for delay beyond the time specified. In the first place,
their estimate, which must be adhered to, has been based
not only upon the current prices of material, but upon
current wages as well. Whenever the contract is signed,
the work commences, and the greatest activity reigns in
all departments.

The men knowing this, or their " delegates " for them,
at once organise a strike, and try to compel the masters
to give them an increase of pay. Well, now, what is to
be done, with the whole establishment in full swing ? If
the employers agree to give what is asked, they may be
put to serious loss; if they do not, the hands may leave off
work, and perhaps a greater disaster arise on account of
the penalty, unless protected by the " conditions of con-
tract." The best course to pursue, in similar cases, is for
the men to stay where they are and be content, but they
will not always do this. A medium course is to settle the
matter by arbitration, as the lesser of two evils, and a
third is to treat them as Mr. Denny did, provided the
work has not gone too far, and will not involve the firm
in another harassing difficulty — " breach of contract."
You will, therefore, clearly see the unhappy complications

CHAP. in. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 33

which may arise, almost at once, through the conspiracy
of a set of discontented, and, it may be, drunken and
dissolute workpeople.

It is deeply to be regretted that such a state of things
should exist, but I am afraid it will continue, .so long as
men and women are what they are. I do not, however,
blame the " hands " so much as I do the " delegates,'*
who are only men advanced from the ranks, and dressed
in a little brief authority. Their pay is, I think, about
£2 a week with all expenses ; besides this, they go about
" like gentlemen," which is a coveted honour. For these
valued benefits, they of course feel that something must
be done in return, just as you or I would, under similar
circumstances, and thus an honourable feeling is degraded
into acts which cause heavy loss, if not ruin, to the
employers, and incalculable misery to those who have
been led into them. If you wish to study the subject in
all its bearings, and if you should desire to fathom the
inner workings, and even terrible crimes, such a system
educates people to, the newspapers for the last twenty
years will give the necessary information.

When I speak of crimes, no matter of what kind, as
well as minor evils, I think most people will allow that
they are all mainly due to one blasting, blighting,
desolating curse, which pervades the British Isles, — the
love of drink. When I take a retrospective glance at
the people I have known in the various classes of society,
the amiable and kind, the good and true, those whose
prospects were bright, as well as those from whom the
sunshine of life had departed, men and women, gentle-
men and — ladies ! it seems to me as if the English
language did not contain words strong enough wherewith
to crush the grim fiend, and yet I believe there is a

34 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. in.

quotation from Lalla Rookh which will be sufficiently
powerful.

It refers to the veiled Prophet of Khorassan who,
when disclosing his horrible features to Zelica, ex-
claimed :—

" Here,— judge if hell with all its powers to damn,
Can add one curse to the foul thing I am."

So awful was the sight, when he raised the veil — that —

" The Maid turned slowly round,

Looked at him,— shrieked,— and fell upon the ground."

The poor " heathen Chinee " destroys himself just
about as surely by opium smoking, but when in the
seventh heaven of delight, through the use of the fatal
drug, he is an inert, insensate, harmless mortal, whereas
when our people use their beverage too freely, they
become raging demons, and this makes all the differ-
ence.

When I went to Dumbarton, I was young, very
prejudiced and conceited, ai?d a great deal more ignorant
of the world than I hope I am now. At this period, there
were no reading rooms, no lectures, and no enter-
tainments of any kind, beyond an occasional " Grand
Concert" in the Odd-Fellows' Hall, by Glasgow stars,
among whom Stembridge Ray, Gus. Lloyd, Sam. Cowell,
and others used to shine. Miss Emily Ray, too, at that
time very young, assisted in a small way. When not
enlivened by these festivals of song, the town was
extremely dull in the evening. Fortunately for me, how-
ever, Sheriff Steele, — an intimate friend of ours from his
boyhood, — and his good lady, who resided there, helped in

CHAP. in. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 35

no small degree, by their kindness and attention, to make
my few years residence among them more agreeable.

I had not been long in the works before I discovered
that it would be a source of great pleasure and advan-
tage if I could get permission to sketch and take dimen-
sions of the engines in progress during leisure hours, and
draw them out fully at home. This privilege I succeeded
in obtaining, and during the whole of my apprenticeship
esteemed it all the more highly because engineers at that
time were very jealous of anyone in their employment
taking notes, and as " leisure time " proved to be part of
the dinner hour, as well as Saturday afternoons and
summer evenings when necessary, I had always plenty to
do. The system I adopted was this : — every detail, big
and little, about the engines, was overhauled and care-
fully sketched and dimensioned, so that I could from the
rough particulars make complete general drawings at
home — plans, elevations, and sections, to scale.

It was splendid and fascinating practice, but it often
gave me more work than I cared for, and very frequently
allowed me only four-and-a-half hours' sleep, when the
drawings had to be sufficiently far advanced before the
engines were taken to pieces in the erecting shop. No
one, perhaps, could have made a greater hobby of any
employment than I did of mine, and I rather fancy that
if the Firm had had any idea that the plans of every
kind of engine they made were to have found a place
in my portfolio, the favour would not have been granted.

One of the memorable events that happened in my
time was the storm of February 6th, 1856. We were on
that occasion working till midnight, erecting the engines
of the " Min," a China steamer, and, as one of those so
employed, I went home for tea at six. A calm prevailed,

36 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. in.

but soon afterwards the wind began to rise in gusts, until
about eleven o'clock, when we were in the middle of a
perfect West Indian Tornado, and as the works were fully
exposed, we felt the tempest in all its fury. Call it a
cyclone, hurricane, or anything else you please, there was
one thing very certain, and that was, that things seemed
as if they were going to pieces, and had the great doors of
the building not been securely stayed inside with timber
props, they would have been blown in, and great damage
might have resulted.

Since that eventful night, I have witnessed many a
terrible storm, but never one so destructive to property,
or one which left its marks behind it for such a length of
time. Helensburgh stone pier was destroyed, and many
house windows blown in, tall chimneys, etc., thown
down, and amongst a variety of other disasters, was the
wreck of Tod & McGregor's building shed, which had
recently been erected in Crystal Palace style, at a cost of
£15,000.

A correct knowledge of the force of wind is most
essential to an engineer, but strange to say, until after the
Tay Bridge came down, the greatest authorities on the
subject differed very widely. Some said one thing, and
some another, but no one seemed to know what the
greatest wind stresses really were. If this disaster had
not occurred, we might still have been in the dark, but
that terrible calamity caused a searching enquiry to be
made with the view of elucidating facts which were
certainly mysterious. In this respect, however, the engi-
neers of the Forth Bridge have done good service to the
profession, by making a series of experiments on a very
large scale, which enabled them to ascertain, not only
the ordinary storm pressures per square foot, but also

CHAP. in. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 37

what those extraordinary and unaccountable blasts of
intense severity over a small area sometimes amount to.
In this, they have been to some extent successful, as it
has at last been officially decided that the greatest wind
pressure to be safely allowed for on all flat and fully
exposed vertical surfaces, need not exceed fifty- six pounds
per foot.

During a recent excursion to the country, I came to
know something about atmospheric disturbances which
might be useful to scientists in general.

While our party were visiting the residence of Mr.
Worsley, near Winwick, Lancashire, he showed us a
part of his grounds which had been injured by a storm
some years before. Upon questioning him closely about
it, he told me that, when at its height, a blast of most
intense and concentrated energy had swept over his
garden, cutting like a knife through some rhododendron
bushes, and snapping off two large trees near the root,
besides doing other damage. The strange part of it was,
that outside of what we might call the line of fire no
mischief was done. In the tropics, however, such expe-
riences are by no means uncommon.

Another event that happened at Dumbarton in those
days, was the death of Mr. William Denny — The Denny.
He was of short stature, and had a very mild, gentle,
unassuming manner. He also was the genius of the
family, and had conducted most successfully the very
celebrated establishment over which his father had
reigned before him. The day of the funeral was a day of
silence, as the various works were closed, and we all
escorted his remains to their resting place. Thus passed
away from among us, at an early age, one to whom
Dumbarton owed much of her prosperity.

40 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. in.

The judicious employment of various metals has thus
been the means of greatly reducing the weight of
machinery, and this in itself is an important advantage
for shipowners and others. We may only add, that the
training apprentices received in Denny's, in everything
that required skilful hand labour, was of such a nature as
to prove valuable to those who afterwards went to foreign
lands, and were thus cut off to a great extent from
good workmen, and from high-class appliances of every
description, which is a great deal more than can be said
of workshop practice at the present time.

CHAP. iv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 41

CHAPTER IV.

GLASGOW AND OCEAN STEAM SHIPS.

Dumbarton as it is now — Neilson & Co., Glasgow — Tod & McGregor —
S.S. " Bengal " for P. and O. Company — First Sunday Steamer on
the Clyde — River Steamers " Columba" and "Lord of the Isles" —
Great Works on the Clyde — Cunard Atlantic Ships in 1850 —
Mediterranean Liners, 1852 — P.S. "Persia" — Robert Napier &
Sons — Compact between Cunard, Burns and Maclver.

I LEFT Dumbarton in 1857 to enter, as a draughtsman,
the celebrated establishment of Messrs. Neilson & Co.,
Hyde Park Foundry, Glasgow, but only recently had a
prolonged opportunity of revisiting the old and well-
remembered scenes of early days on the banks of the
Clyde. One day I paid a visit to the little town I knew
so well, but it was as changed to me as Rip van Winkle's
village was to him after his twenty years' sleep. I looked
for relics of bygone days, and saw only a few. I went to
my old works, and did not see one I could recognise, but
was most courteously received by Mr. Denny, and shewn
through the present splendid establishment. I walked
over the remains of the past, which had not yet been
obliterated by modern improvements, and thought I could
see again the well-remembered faces of my contempor-
aries. But it was only fancy, and had it not been for
those around me I should

Have felt like one

Who treads alone
Some banquet-hall deserted,

Whose lights are fled,

Whose garlands dead,
And all but he departed.

42 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. iv.

Having carefully surveyed everything I saw in the
shops and drawing office, I must give Messrs. Denny &
Co., great credit for their elegance in design, and also
for the elaboration and carefulness with which their
drawings are executed ; nor must I omit to mention the
four young ladies, whose work I had much pleasure in
examining, and who trace those drawings so admirably
in every respect.

Messrs. Neilson & Co. were, in my time, considered
the best " general" engineering people in Glasgow, and
made marine, locomotive, pumping, blowing, &c., engines,
and a variety of other work. They had such a large
business that the firm eventually removed to the suburbs,
where they built a very extensive and carefully arranged
establishment, and devoted their whole energies to rail-
way engines, large numbers of which were sent to India
and other foreign parts.

Tod & McGregor, of Clyde Foundry, Glasgow, was
another celebrated firm I had the honour of being asso-
ciated with. After a very long and successful career,
however, they closed their premises a few years ago — the
Inman S.S. " City of Richmond" being their last ship.
At one time they were constantly building vessels for the
Peninsular and Oriental Company, whose last paddle
steamers, the " Ganges " and l< Singapore," were built, I
think, in 1852. At that time the screw-propeller was
becoming better known, the above Company, therefore,
gave it a trial by requesting Mr. Tod to build the S.S.
" Bengal " for them, and so highly pleased were they with
the performance of this ship, that paddles were discarded
ever after.

Amongst the numerous ships which followed for the
same Company, was the " Delhi," which had vertical

CHAP. iv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 43

trunk engines, but owing to the Indian Mutiny atrocities
at this period, they changed her name to " Nemesis " — or
the " Avenger." The Inman Company also gave them
many vessels to build, having in nearly every case Mr.
Tod's steeple engines. Their machinery was elegantly
designed : light, strong, and highly-finished in all the
parts above the cylinders, — which lay at the bottom of the
ship. The engine-room had also abundance of natural
light, and every detail was easily accessible and easily
seen ; whilst those on the starting platform, or on the
upper deck, could take in at a glance everything around
them. With many other firms too, these engines were
very popular, for paddle as well as for screw steamers of
all sizes.

Tod & McGregor were also greatly in favour with the
Egyptians, and especially with the Pasha, for whom
they built several beautiful steamers having oscillating
engines, one of which— the " Paid Rabani," or "Light of
Heaven," — was fitted up as a steam yacht in magnificent
style, and at a cost of ^70,000. It was reported that on
one occasion she ran upon a bank in the Nile, and as
they could not well get her off, His Imperial Highness
became so enraged that he went about the ship des-
troying the costly ornamental work with his own
hand.

Mr. Tod died in 1859, and Mr. McGregor, of the ship-
yard at Partick, six weeks afterwards. Mr. William Tod,
the eldest son, now assumed the management of the
engineering department, and I entered his drawing-office
in 1860. This gentleman was without exception the most
genial and kind-hearted engineer I ever knew in Scotland.
He was highly esteemed by all, was rich, and had a good
business, but " died young," and this, unhappily, may be

44 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. iv.

said of too many of the choicest and most promising
people we have known in life.

Another Clyde Foundry worthy was Mr. R. F. Pearce,
the business-manager, and formerly of Chester. There
are people we sometimes meet who have an unhappy
talent for looking on the dismal side of everything, either
in expectation or in possession, and for colouring their
surroundings with Payne's grey or neutral tint, not to
mention Indian ink or lamp black. If the sun shines, or
the flowers bloom, or the health-giving breezes blow, they
think they are for others, but not for them, and all
because these unfortunates are unable to extract the sting
from the nettle, — the bitter from the sweet in life, — and
either do not know, or seem to forget, that the world in
general is pretty much what we make it for ourselves.

There are others, however, who, in the midst of
anxiety, and perhaps trouble, are bright and happy,
though often cast down, and still more happy when the
end draws near, because they are masters of the art of
painting their thoughts and actions with liquid sunshine,
and helping to tint those around them in a similar
manner. To a large extent Mr. Pearce was one of the
latter. He was essentially a "happy man" — one who
never seemed to feel he was getting older, or that there
was any care and anxiety in his part of the world at least.
He enjoyed his own jokes immensely, and much liked
sometimes to come into our office to tell some funny
story, and ask kindly for all of us. He too, I regret to
say, has recently departed, but with me the memory of
those two good, kind friends, will be ever green.

One of the ancient remains of the Clyde Foundry is
still to be seen on that river in the shape of the old
paddle steamer " Inverary Castle." She was built in

CHAP. iv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 45

1839, but, during the interval, has had at one time a new
bow, at another a new stern, and, after that, she was
lengthened. When I had the pleasure of seeing her come
into Rothesay some years ago, with her saloon filled with
flour and meal bags to feed the Highlanders, she looked
as smart and youthful as if only a few years of age. One
of her crew told me about the alterations in her hull, and
emphatically added, " Her plates were very tough, sir."

I well remember the advent of the first Sunday
steamer, " Emperor," on the Clyde, in 1855, and also the
howl that ran through Glasgow and down both banks of
the river when the " Sawbath breaker " made her appear-
ance. The " Nelson " followed. Her owner, however,
was excommunicated, along with his family, from their
church ; but those who helped to do this did not think it
any sin to put their own vessels on the slips, to clean,
paint, and otherwise titivate on the Day of Rest.

For twelve miles below Glasgow the Clyde is almost
as artificial as the Suez Canal, and during the early part
of the present century was only navigable to the Broomie-
law during spring tides, by vessels drawing about eight
feet of water. The only communication between the city
and places down the river in those days was by boats,
and a story of the period is, that one dark or foggy night
a party went on board one of them for a row to Greenock.
They started, and in the early morning one of the oars-
men cried out, " Hey, Jock, here's Dumbarton Castle ! "
" Where ? " said his friend at the other oar. " There,"
said he, pointing to what on closer inspection proved to
be the Broomielaw after all. They had toiled all night,
quite forgetting that the boat was moored by the stern !

The river steamers have always been celebrated for
their speed and beauty, and have caused as much rivalry

46 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. iv.

among their builders and engineers as if they had been
ocean liners. At the present time some of them are truly
magnificent, and may be said to have no equals in
Europe. Especially is this the case with the " Columba"
and " Lord of the Isles." The former goes to Ardishaig
and back the same day, or a distance of 180 miles in
about eleven hours, including numerous stoppages, and
the latter to Inverary and back, or 218 miles in thirteen
hours. It is interesting to contrast these vessels with the
earliest steamboat "Comet," an engraving of which is
annexed.

The "Columba" carries the mails, and is 316 feet
long, by 50 feet broad over the paddle boxes, her draft
being nearly 6 feet. The deck saloon, which runs about
three-fourths of her length, and full breadth of ship, is
elegantly fitted up in the Pullman car style, and below
this is the dining saloon, where 140 can sit at table with
as much comfort and style as in a first-class hotel. At the
post office, letters and telegrams are received, and money
orders paid. There is also a hair dressing establishment,
a bathroom, a bookstall and fruit stall, a cloakroom, and
two circular tables for writing letters, at which ladies and
gentlemen are so constantly engaged during the season,
that I am afraid the description I have given has now
been read by the public in many thousands of their
epistles. Besides a handsome piano at the end of the
saloon, they are otherwise well off for music, as there is
generally a good instrumental band on deck, which
great}7 adds to the enjoyment of a trip which only costs
six shillings for the whole day.

The vessel, externally and internally, has the finish
and appearance of a modern Cunarder, and is propelled
by a pair of splendid engines at a speed of 22 miles an

CHAP. iv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 49

hour. The ** Lord of the Isles," on her run to Inverary,
although not quite so large, can do 23 miles in the same
tjme. The following well-known story is told about the
Kyles of Bute, through which these steamers pass every
day : —

When the late Mr. Charles Maclver went to live at
Rothesay, he engaged John Taylor, an old man-o'- war's
man, as pilot for his steam yacht. The first time Mr.
Maclver sailed through the dangerous " narrows," he
said to his Ancient Mariner :

" Now, are you sure you know this place well ? "

"Know it?" said John, "I ken every rock on this
coast, from Cape Wrath to the Mull o' Galloway — there's
one o' them," he coolly added, as the ship bumped
against a sunken reef, apparently in proof of his asser-
tion.

It is on the banks of the river where the great exten-
sions are to be seen that have taken place during the last
twenty ^years, in connection with the engineering and
shipbuilding establishments for which the Clyde is so
famous. The largest of these are the works of the Fair-
field Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, and the
Singer Sewing Machine Co., which have been already
referred to. The enclosed ground space of the latter
amounts to 46 acres, and the land now covered by
handsome buildings is 22 acres in extent. Their foundry
alone is 448 feet long, by 352 feet wide, while the other
parts of the works correspond to this, and are from one
to four stories high, giving, on the whole, a handsome
appearance from the river. To drive the machinery,
engines of 1,600 and boilers of 2,000 horse power are
required, while the extent of railways throughout the
factory amounts to 2^- miles.

ENGINEERING, POPULARL Y

CHAP. IV.

Amongst the numerous steamships built on the Clyde
in early years were the Cunard Atlantic liners, which in
1850 were as follows : —

Caledonia..

i25otons

500 h-p.

Niagara ..

iSootons

700 h-p.

Hibernia...

1400 „

550 »

Europa . . .

1 800 „

700 „

Cambria ...

1400 „

550 »/

Asia . .

2250 „

800 „

America ...

1 800 „

700 „

Africa . . .

2250 „

800 „

Canada ...

1 800 „

700 „

All the above were paddle-wheel vessels, the general
length of the six largest being from 275 to 300 feet, and
beam from 40 to 42 feet. Their steam cylinders were 90
inches in diameter, with an 8 feet stroke of piston for the
700, and 9 feet for those of 800 horse-power, while the
diameter of the wheels was from 32 to 36 feet.

In 1852, the Cunard Company established steam com-
munication between Liverpool and the Mediterranean
ports, and in that year made a new departure pf great
importance. Previous to this, their fleet consisted
entirely of timber built ships as above ; they now,
however, gave an order for the iron screw steamers
'* Alps" and "Andes," to Messrs, Denny, of Dumbarton.
Their engines, of the " beam " description, had powerful
spur gearing, to increase the velocity of the propeller,
and were of a type frequently employed in those days,
but which, for practical reasons, has long since been
abandoned. Other similar vessels followed, and on
March 3rd, 1855, the iron paddle steamer " Persia " was
launched from Napier's.

What a sensation this ship caused on the Clyde while
building ! The largest vessel hitherto launched on that
river was Tod & McGregor's P. and O. steamer «' Simla,"

CHAP. iv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 51

of 2,600 tons, and 600 horse power ; but here was a
paddle ship of the unheard of size of 3,500 tons, and goo
horse power. The descriptions given in the newspapers,
must, I think, have caused every young engineer to wish
he was in the Lancefield Foundry, helping to make her
truly splendid machinery. Many a discussion we had
about her in Denny's — indeed, before the order was
settled, the general hope was that our firm might have
the building of the vessel, since we had a reputation good
enough for anything. As our erecting shop, however,
was not quite high enough in the roof, and the cranes
hardly strong enough for such colossal engines, we were
content to let Napier get the contract.

The " Persia's " length over all, was 390 feet, breadth
over paddle boxes, 71 feet, and depth 32 feet. Her hull
was immensely strong, and every care was taken to make
her the best, safest, and quickest ship at that time afloat.
Mr. David Kirkaldy, of London, who was then in the
Lancefield Works, made the most exquisitely finished
drawing, in many views, of the ship and engines, that had
ever been seen, and was the first of its kind admitted to
the Royal Academy.

When Commodore Judkins was in command of this
vessel, a passenger one day found fault with the wine,
and added —

" Can't you give us something better ? "

" No, sir," said the Captain, " it is the best I have in
the ship, but when we arrive in Liverpool you shall come
and dine with me, and I'll give you some that you will
like."

The " Persia " arrived in due time, so also did the
banquet.

" What do you think of that wine ? " asked the host.

52 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. iv.

" Splendid ! some of the best I ever tasted."

" I am glad you like it, for it is a bottle of the same
quality you had on the voyage ! "

In 1862, the iron paddle steamer "Scotia" was built
by the same firm for the Cunard Company, She was of
still larger dimensions than the " Persia," but as it
soon became fully apparent that the screw was the best
means of propulsion for ocean navigation, paddles were
henceforth abolished. In 1879 this once famous ship was
sold to the British Telegraph Construction Company,
who substituted compound twin-screw engines for the old
side levers, and otherwise altered her to suit their own
requirements.

At this period none of the great Engineering people
in the Clyde district attained such high celebrity as
Robert Napier. This was attributable to two main
causes, — one being the antiquity of his establishment,
and the other the excellence of the work he turned out,
in design, material, and also workmanship, which could
not be surpassed. From the time that Mr. Napier
obtained the engines of Junius Smith's steamer, " British
Queen," to complete, owing to the failure of Claude
Girdwood & Co., her first contractors, his business
increased greatly, and a most important event in his
career was a visit he received from Mr. Cunard, in 1839,
relative to the formation of the British and North Ameri-
can Steamship Company, which they unitedly had the
honour of originating.

In consultation with Mr. Cunard, who had purposely
come over from America to carry out a scheme, the great
results of which he clearly foresaw, Robert Napier deve-
loped what proved to be the best arrangement in connec-
tion with the first four ships of the newly created line,

CHAP. iv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 53

and at once obtained the contract for their engines, while
the vessels themselves were given to Mr. Wood, of Port
Glasgow, to build. Long previous to this, however,
Messrs. Burns, of Glasgow, and Maclver, of Liverpool,
who had been running coasting steamers for several
years, amalgamated their undertakings in 1830, and this
firm of Burns & Maclver was, at the time Mr. Cunard
came to England, one of the most prosperous shipping
Companies in Great Britain. When, therefore, the pro-
posal to form a great Atlantic steamship organisation was
made to those gentlemen by Mr. Napier, they at once
agreed to it, and the result was the foundation of what
ultimately became the well-known " Cunard Line."

Sir Samuel Cunard may therefore be regarded as its
originator, and now that so many years have rolled away,
it may only be added that his enterprising partners, the
Maclvers and the Burnses, have proved themselves to be
amply capable of sustaining the grave responsibility they
then assumed.

Tod & McGregor, who in later years were considered
the wealthiest engineers in Glasgow, also turned out
large quantities of splendid work, but amongst their
workmen they had not a good reputation, as so much
importance was attached to the speedy execution of a
contract. Mr. William Tod, however, rectified this in
his usual happy way. On the other hand, Napier's was
not only a very steady, but a very comfortable place to be
in, and, so far as I could learn, mfen were never found
fault with for taking what some might think a long time
to what they did, provided it was of the very highest
character.

This system, however, occasionally involved Mr.
Napier in heavy loss. For instance, the first of the

54 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. iv.

ironclads, or "batteries," as they were then called, proved
a financially disappointing business for him as the builder,
but so pleased were the Government with the way in
which the contract had been carried out, that they
liberally made good the loss which had been sustained.
At other times, however, he was not so fortunate.

It was by no means easy for visitors to get inside
either the Lancefield or the Vulcan Works if they were
known to be engineers ; anyone else, however, the pro-
prietors did not greatly object to. Twice did I try,
though unsuccessfully, to obtain admission, but when in
later years I could send in my card as a " Consulting
engineer," I was courteously received, and allowed to
inspect everything. For their kindness I now thank
them. By this time, however, the charm was broken, as
I had become intimate with marine engines of all
descriptions in other places.

On this point, Messrs. Laird Brothers were most
generous, and, during the time H.M.S. " Agincourt " was
building, from twenty to thirty visitors a day were fre-
quently allowed to go through the establishment, after
signing their names in a book, and giving a trifle to the
Birkenhead Infirmary. One can hardly think, however,
that this liberality to outsiders was purely disinterested,
because, not long before, the " Alabama " had left their
yard on a secret mission organised by her owners. As all
the world knows, her career called forth very strong
expressions of opinion in America towards the British
Government, and I therefore fancy that the public were
freely admitted, so that all might see for themselves that
there were no more lurking pirates on the premises to
give cause for international quarrels.

CHAP. v. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED.

CHAPTER V.

THE BIRKENHEAD IRONWORKS.

Difference between Marine and Locomotive establishments — Description of
the Birkenhead Iron Works— The Firm— The Staff— Pupils in
Drawing Office— Billy Taylor's "Unlucky" Dinner— Fatal Tea
Party in Chester — Troublesome French Pupil — Chief Engineer of
H.M.S. "Captain" — Foremen and Workmen in the Birkenhead
Iron Works — Value of " old hands " — Foremen in Small Works —
The " General Utility " Engineer— H.M.S. " Euphrates."

THE only establishment on the banks of the Mersey to
which I shall refer will be the Birkenhead Iron Works,
because I had the honour of being on the staff for many
years, and therefore can speak confidently of much that
I was intimately acquainted with. The number of men
employed amounted to about 4,000, but, a few years ago,
upwards of 6,000 were on the books, and considerable
occupation was given to others in the foundries which
supplied the firm with brass and iron castings, and copper
work, and also in the great forges where the heavy
wrought iron parts were made.

In this respect there is considerable difference between
marine and locomotive works, the former giving out all
their heavy forgings, and in many cases all their castings,
to other people, as it is more economical to do so owing
to the extreme variations* in size that exist in steamship
engines. The railway engineers, on the other hand, have
no such variations, as locomotives do not alter much
either in dimensions or in description ; hence they make
all their own castings, brass, copper, and all other work,

56 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. v.

and are thus completely self-contained in their operations.
Everything, however, in the way of plating, as in boilers,
tender water tanks, side frames, etc., are given to the
rolling mills.

Besides the 4,000 men just mentioned, the Birkenhead
Ironworks had a large staff of able foremen and experi-
enced draughtsmen, both in the engineering and ship-
building departments, and also a full complement of
clerks in the general office. I cannot say how long some
of the foremen have been in the works, but I know that
the late Tom Williams, of the ship yard, was about forty-
five years on the premises, and some of the others also for
very extensive periods. The establishment comprised a
pattern shop ; one light, and two heavy turning shops ;
two erecting shops, in the last of which the most powerful
engines in existence could have been fitted up ; a boiler
shed — which has recently been superseded by a very
spacious and admirably arranged new building outside
the works ; an extensive smithy, containing several steam
hammers, and all other appliances for executing ship and
engine work generally. At this end of the premises were
placed a large joinery and cabinet-making shop ; also a
saw mill, with complete assortment of machines for
sawing, planing, mortising, etc.

Over the smithy was a spacious mould loft, where the
sections and plans of the vessels were drawn full-size on
a black floor, so that the greatest accuracy might be
ensured in their construction ; and, adjoining this, was a
drawing office, for preparing a few of the necessary plans
on paper. In the same locality were to be found the
rigging loft, storerooms, and buildings containing the ship
constructing plant, including plate bending, punching and
shearing, planing, drilling, and other machinery.

CHAP. v. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 57

At the other end of the works stood an extensive
building containing all the principal offices, keeper's
rooms, and a model room, which contained a large
collection of very handsome models and oil paintings of
ships built by the firm. Next to this, were the paddle-
wheel and also the armour-plate shops ; the latter of
which was part of the second of the heavy turneries
referred to, and contained shafting lathes, planing, dril-
ling, screwing, and other machines ; also a most powerful
hydraulic press, for bending the heavy armour-plates
cold.

Lastly, we may add a large shed full of shipbuilding
appliances, where all the frames or ribs of the vessels
were bent to shape on a large iron face-plate. The erect-
ing shops were swept longitudinally and transversely by
very powerful overhead travelling cranes, and, the larger
of the two had, on one side, a few valuable machines,
including one of gigantic size for planing and slotting
work of the heaviest character, also a lathe, whose face-
plate was 15 feet in diameter, and bed of great length. As
the foundations of these buildings had been excavated out
of the solid rock, the floors were beautifully clean com-
pared with others. The practice, however, adopted at
Woolwich Arsenal and elsewhere, is a good one, as the
floors are composed of hexagonal pieces of wood bedded
in the ground with the end fibres uppermost — as in
wood pavements — which makes them easy to keep clean,
and in other respects is very suitable.

The amount of medium and small sized gear in all
engines is very considerable. This is sent to the light
turnery, where it is operated upon by machines and
appliances of every description for rapidly executing first-
class work. Nowhere is this more observable than in

58 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. v.

locomotive and machine making establishments ; in such
places the visitor will see quite a forest of belts, shafts,
pulleys, etc., and everything arranged in the most sys-
tematic order to suit their own class of work, and facilitate
every operation to the utmost.

There were five graving docks, two of which were
covered, and under their roofs H. M. Ships " Agincourt,"
" Euphrates," " Captain," " Vanguard," and other vessels
were built, while another was used as a fitting-up basin
for ships getting in their machinery and masts, previous
to being taken to the Birkenhead docks to finish. There
were also six building slips, which, in conjunction with
the graving docks, had, during my time, sufficient employ-
ment to keep them in full operation for many years.

The heads of the firm were very good in giving us
most spacious and handsome offices, and, indeed, every-
thing that tended to make us comfortable. In this
respect, however, many first-class works of the old style
are very deficient. Sometimes we all received invita-
tions to a grand dinner, which latterly was given in the
large general office. The first banquet I had the honour
of attending was on the occasion of the launch of H.M.S.
" Agincourt," and the last immediately before the mar-
riage of the senior partner. At this entertainment
there were about 150 clerks, draughtsmen, foremen, and
visitors. A most excellent dinner was provided, and
afterwards there were a great many speeches, one of
which the author was kindly asked to contribute. Some-
how or other his humble effort gave great pleasure to the
whole company, but inasmuch as he had to return
thanks for " the ladies," it is most likely the subject of his
remarks was the cause of their enthusiasm, and, in that
case, it shewed their good taste.

CHAP. v. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 59

The manager at this period, contrasted materially in
disposition and appearance with Mr. R. F. Pearce, of
Tod & McGregor's, as the former was sombre, and did
not say much ; while the latter was bright, lively, happy.
Had they both been on the stage, one would have made a
splendid heavy tragedian, and the other an equally
admirable light comedian of the Charles Mathews type.
The gentleman I am referring to, however, was one of
the best managers I- have ever known.

He was kind and good to all, and had a quiet,
pleasant way of speaking to people, — even when things
went wrong, — that did him great credit. He never hurried
us with our work, unless pushed for time ; but under all
circumstances would have nothing that was not done in
the very best style. And if anything were wrongly made —
which rarely happened — through an error in the draw-
ings, he would point it out to the draughtsman, and
mildly say : " I am surprised that one of your experience
could have done such a thing, don't let it occur again."
The amount of time spent on plans he supervised was
considered of little value compared with excellence in
design, proportion, and arrangement. This was specially
the case when the drawings for a new type of engines had
to be worked out, involving every kind of alteration as
one's ideas became developed and matured, until at last
perfection was arrived at as nearly as possible under the
circumstances.

In the engineer's office, to which I was attached, there
were at least twenty draughtsmen and apprentices —
English, Irish, Scotch, American and Brazilian, and, as
the last named were foreigners, I must say a few words
about them.

Eugenio Lopez de Gomensauro — whom we may call

60 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. v.

the head of the tribe — was a perfect Adonis, elegant and
refined in taste, and a remarkably pleasant little fellow
besides. He was very steady and attentive, had appa-
rently no faults, and, so far as we knew, no vices. He
returned to his country, and, although possessed of
influence, as his father was an admiral, I believe his
expectations were not quite realised.

Next in order came Antonio De Silva, a mild dis-
positioned, amiable youth. He was a hard student, and
took care to read the best and newest scientific books.
If he got too much tracing to do, he would go off for a
day or two to study his literature, and leave his work to
be finished by others. A painstaking gentleman he was
in what he liked, and what he did not care for he tried to
avoid. Just before he left the works, he gave a party, to
which we were all invited, but as two of us, including
myself, were absent, we were asked to dine with him at
his lodgings. When we arrived at the house, he received
us in his shirt sleeves, made us heartily welcome, and
then left us to take care of ourselves for a time.

It turned out that he was cooking the dinner down-
stairs ! but came up now and then to see how we were
progressing. At last the feast was spread, all in good
order, and to his own entire satisfaction. I really forget
now what the banquet was composed of, but we did ample
justice to the good things, which were so admirably
cooked and so liberally provided, and altogether we spent
a most pleasant evening. What has become of De Silva
I do not know, but I have no doubt he has found his
culinary attainments very useful in a far-off clime, and I
also hope that his studies have been remunerative and
pleasantly profitable.

Jose Ferreira, another of the tribe, was as dark com-

CHAP. v. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 61

plexioned as if he had lived for many years under an
African sun. He was a merry youth, took things very
easily, and seemed to make the study of engineering a
sort of elegant recreation. He used to place his drawing
board on trestles, and, leaning back on his stool against a
chest of drawers, looked the very picture of indolence
and good humour when, with tongue lolling out of his
mouth, he idly played with his instruments, and made
personal remarks upon those around him, with whom he
was much amused. Ferreira also went home to Brazil,
but not long afterwards revisited his old establishment,
and, from what he said, it appeared as if the world had
not treated him as kindly as he wished.

A sad event happened at this period to an English
pupil named Billy Taylor, who was then amongst us. He
was a fine, amiable, good looking, studious boy, one who
promised well, and was quite a general favourite. On
one occasion, however, thirteen of us, including Billy and
myself, sat down to dinner in a Birkenhead hotel, quite
well and hearty. When our number was mentioned to
him, he made some slighting remark, such as, " What
did he care ? He could eat his dinner just as well."
Poor fellow ! By a curious coincidence, within a fort-
night we had the melancholy duty of laying him in his
grave.

On another occasion I went with a large party of
ladies and gentlemen to Chester. Under Dean How-
son's able guidance we spent fully an hour in rambling
over the beautiful cathedral, then had a walk around the
ramparts, and, after that, tea. Our party was now
divided, and it was again discovered that the table I
was at contained thirteen. Well, I didn't care a single
pin, but said little. One of the gentlemen, however,

62 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. v.

following on Billy Taylor's lines, made a frivolous
remark about it, and lo ! he caught cold that very
evening when we were rowing on the river, and in three
weeks was dead. Still more remarkable is the fact
that the night before the Liverpool and London S.S.
" Cheerful " was run down by H.M.S. " Hecla," in
the Bristol Channel, thirteen people left the former at
Plymouth ; the same number sat down to tea, and thirteen
were drowned.

There are a few superstitions that ignorant people
still cling to, but it seems astonishing, in our time of
enlightenment that they are not all consigned to oblivion.
I cannot, for example, bring to mind a single instance of
a ship's keel having been laid, or the vessel herself being
launched, on a Friday ; and, so far as the shipping adver-
tisements are concerned, one would suppose upon reading
them, that it was not considered proper to start an ocean
liner on that day. In some cases, however, private com-
mercial reasons may be the cause of this. There is a
well known story told of a shipowner who said, "He
didn't believe in any such rubbish, and would expose the
fallacy to the world." In proof of his statements, he laid
the keel of one of his ships on a Friday, launched her on
a Friday, and named her the "Friday." She began her
first voyage on a Friday, but from that time to the pre-
sent has never been heard of!

Some of our drawing-office pupils were studious and
persevering, others not so. A few seemed to consider
engineering as a kind of doubtful amusement, and two or
three of these gentlemen retired from the profession when
their apprenticeship was out, and tried something else.
They had a magnificent school of practice before them,
and, if they had only availed themselves of it as they

CHAP. v. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 63

should have done, might have become, with fair opportu-
nities, successful engineers.

In this respect, foreigners set us a very good example.
They come here, pay all attention, and try to pick up as
much as they can to take away with them. From this
cause alone, a Frenchman in Napier's gave a great deal
of trouble to the firm. He had been in some Continental
technical school, and went to the Lancefield Works to
study practice, which he did in the most persistent and
audaciously appropriating style I ever heard of.

This youth took notes of everything he could lay his
hands on, and although reprimanded by my old and
esteemed friend, the manager, for doing so, continued to
trace and copy drawings in the office for his own use —
and with the help of others too. He was sent into the
works, but, when there, got some of the apprentices to
assist him in making figured sketches, and also in taking
down the names of the makers of every machine in the
place, despite the foreman's remonstrances. The firm at
last became tired of him, so he politely departed in
accordance with their wishes, saying at the same time,
" He had all he wanted." It may be mentioned, how-
ever, that his people in France had given Mr. Napier
large orders for ships and engines, which, of course,
covered much that was disagreeable.

One of our frequent visitors during the time H.M.S.
" Captain " was building was Mr. George Rock, her
appointed chief engineer. He was " a fellow of infinite
jest," or, as Mark Twain would have said, " full of
laugh," and, as he was far on in years, put me much in
mind of King Cole, for he was just as merry. His
relations had advised him to retire from the Navy, as he
had been long enough in it, but he preferred staying a

64 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. v.

year or so longer in the service so that his pension might
be increased.

Not long afterwards, the ship sailed on her last cruise,
taking with her Captain Cole, R.N., the inventor of the
turret system, and poor George Rock also, and, during
the squall on that eventful night in the Bay of Biscay,
the vessel went down suddenly and drowned nearly all
on board, including the two gentlemen I have named.

The foremen and workmen in Messrs. Laird Brothers'
establishment were, so far as I could judge, similar in
character to those I knew so well at Denny's, but,
having had little to do with either, I cannot say much
about their peculiarities. Mr. Young, of the pattern
shop, and Mr. Barton, of the erectors, were the two I saw
most of, however. The former had been a long time
in Maudslay's, and was a very fine specimen of his class,
but, being somewhat aged, was generally called, in our
office, "Old Young." In Smiles' "Life of James Na-
smyth," the latter, while describing those associated with
him in the Bridgewater Foundry, at Patricroft, refers
most kindly and interestingly to his various foremen, who
were such valuable assistants.

For my own part, I look upon the heads of depart-
ments in the workshops, much in the same light as the
non-commissioned officers in the army. They have
considerable responsibility, as they stand between the
masters and the men, and their object is to please the
former by getting as much good work from the latter as
possible, and, at the same time, to be kind, just, and not
overbearing to them. Some foremen are very disagree-
able and exacting, and cannot keep their "hands" if
they can get employment elsewhere, as they dislike such
overseers far more than bad masters, because they are

CHAP. v. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 65

always among them. When both, however, are good,
the men take much greater interest in their work, and
the result is a happy state of things all round. In the
establishments of some large employers of skilled labour,
this has been pre-eminently the case.

In my early years, foremen had more to do in one
sense than they have now, because first-class engineering
firms get up their drawings so completely in every respect
that the men work to them implicitly, whereas, long ago,
a great many little details were left out of the plans to
save trouble and expense in the office, and thus the
foremen had often to use their own discretion in giving
the necessary instructions to turners, fitters, etc., which
caused considerable loss of time. There are other ways
in which careless or imperfect working drawings are per-
nicious, but this will be referred to under another head.

The chiefs of the executive are simply good, steady,
reliable workmen, advanced to a higher position. They
have little or nothing to do with science, but are emi-
nently practical in their respective branches, and are
able sometimes to give valuable advice to those above
them, and, however accomplished an engineer may be,
he can always learn something to his advantage in con-
ference with these workshop lieutenants.

A thoroughly organised staff of foremen and workmen
is of the utmost importance, as their complete knowledge
of the system adopted in the establishment they belong
to greatly facilitates the execution of a contract. This is
fully recognised by the managers and partners of great
firms, who often take orders at prices which will yield no
profit, simply to keep the men together and the works
going during dull times. When an old and experienced
proprietor dies, and his sons succeed to the business, this

66 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. v.

state of things is still more keenly felt, because the young
men are thrown upon their own resources, and, unless
they have used their time well in getting as much inform-
ation as possible, will find themselves entirely in the
hands of their assistants, so far as practical and scientific
work is concerned.

Many of the great engineers of the past superintended
everything personally so long as an increasing business
would allow them. Fairbairn, for example, controlled all
his own departments from the drawing office downwards ;
and led such an active life, scheming this, and planning
that, improving his details, and altering his arrangements
of machinery to suit the end in view, that his great
success was, we might say, the result of untiring efforts,
sound and extensive knowledge, and great administrative
ability.

When young engineers, therefore, take up the reins of
government, relinquished by their fathers who have won
fame for themselves, they cannot but feel that they are
resting upon a reputation acquired by others before
them, and hence will be seen the great necessity for
keeping the " old hands" together, who know so well the
late commander's ideas upon all those points which
unitedly and individually insured success. We are quite
aware, however, that with but little practical knowledge
on the part of the new government, the works may never-
theless be admirably conducted ; but, in that case, they
must have an accomplished manager to look after things,
as well as the regular staff already mentioned, who will
run as much as possible upon the old lines.

The same reasoning may apply more or less to all
complicated employments ; but, with that of the engineer,
it is often necessary to use the highest skill, in order to

CHAP. v. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 67

avoid great errors of judgment which, if acted upon, may
produce terrible results. In proof of this, we have only
to refer to some of the great disasters of the last twenty
years, and, in some instances, to the very simple causes
which created them.

In large works, the foremen occupy a very comfortable
position, are well paid, and have permanent employment,
notwithstanding the changes induced by dull times.
They do nothing but superintend operations, and " go
about," as the saying is, " like gentlemen." Mr. Barton
and Mr. Young always wore dress hats, and were,
therefore, the swell lieutenants of the Birkenhead Iron-
works. The former supervised the erecting shops, and
the colossal machinery in his department, but had
able leading hands under him to take charge of each
pair of engines, and see that everything was properly
done.

Mr. Jones, of the light turners and fitters, had a
forest of belts, drums, and pullies, to clear with his head.
Mr. Ashton, of the boilermakers, had many curiously
curvilinear corners to calculate, consider, contemplate,
and contend against in his part of the premises ; and
Mr. Williams, of the ship yard, had a great variety of
cantankerously crooked crannies and crevices to crawl
and creep into. These gentlemen were, therefore, obliged
to be content with ordinary felt hats, which, in their
respective cases, suited admirably. They all had their
own peculiarities of mind and manner. Any information,
however, you wished from them at anytime, was kindly
and pleasantly given, and everyone I have named, as well
as the others, knew exactly what had to be done, and
how to do it to perfection.

In small factories the foremen are required to assist in

68 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. v.

many ways, and are for this reason called "working
foremen." In a Glasgow establishment, about forty years
ago, one of these overseers had taken on a " new hand,"
who soon afterwards asked for a file.

" What d'ye want a file for ? " asked the chief.

"To file they j'ints."

"Weel," said the gaffer, "If ye canna mak' a j'int
wi'oot filin' " — that is to say, by chipping — " ye're no
worth a big big D ! " This, at least, is the euphemistic
translation of the speech, in conformity with the require-
ments of modern language.

In very small places, a foreman may be anything and
everything in all departments, and get little for it too.
He may also have to do the work with or without what
we call "drawings" — a chalk sketch on a board or bench,
or the point of an umbrella trailed over the dusty floor by
the master, being often considered sufficient for the pur-
pose. I once heard of an establishment of this descrip-
tion at Galashiels. An order had come in for a small
engine, and the proprietor and foreman were holding a
consultation about it.

" What size am I tae mak' the seelinder ? " asked the
gaffer.

" Oh," said the person addressed, " mak' it that size,"
scribing a circle round him on the floor with the point
of his boot.

" And maister, what stroke wull I gie her ? "

One stride over the "stour" — dust — and, "Gie her
that," settled the preliminaries.

This engine was probably of the horizontal kind, with
a steam cylinder eighteen inches diameter, and three feet
length of stroke ; all the details, such as piston and con-
necting rods, valve gear, etc., having been made no

CHAP. v. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 69

doubt in a rough-and-ready style from sketches such as
we have mentioned.

An old and versatile friend of mine ultimately pos-
sessed a small establishment of his own in Leith. He was
highly accomplished in every sense, and combined in
person all the appointments belonging to such establish-
ments, as he occupied the posts of proprietor, manager,
draughtsman, foreman, cashier, clerk, and bookkeeper.
He took in his own orders and saw them duly executed,
but, in spite of every effort, could not succeed financially.

The engineers in the Birkenhead Ironworks were
steady and well-behaved, and, in this respect, much
the same as those in similar places. The shipbuilders
also conducted themselves satisfactorily ; at least, during
my stay of nearly nine years in their midst, I never heard
of them acting indiscreetly at any time, which was cer-
tainly very creditable to all concerned, and especially
so when the same class of workmen have, within a
recent period, given much trouble elsewhere by their
conduct.

There were many accidents, fatal and otherwise, in
the shipyard during my time. This I attribute to the
dangers incidental to shipbuilding, such as falling into
dry docks, stepping on to planks not properly fixed, and
sinking through holes in the decks which should have
been well covered over, and so on ; as a class, however,
they are, from some cause or other, too often very care-
less. To give an example. One evening when H.M.S.
" Euphrates " was lying in the fitting-up basin, having
her engines put in, I went along one side of the main
deck to the engine room, but returned by the opposite
side. In doing this, however, in semi-darkness I fell
through a small open hatchway, which had been left

7o ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. v.

uncovered, and came down so heavily upon the wooden
coaming, that I thought some of my ribs were broken.

Fortunately, however, they were not, but had it not
been for a ladder which providentially caught my feet,
and prevented me from falling into the hold, the con-
sequences might have been as serious as they had been
for others. In about three days I was quite well again,
but have good reason ever to remember that ship, which
it may only be added, is considered by some people the
finest of the five similar transports built at that time by
different firms for the Indian transport service. This,
however, was only a natural result of the carefulness in
design, selection of material, and of every little detail in
ship and engines, from first to last, which characterised
all the productions of Messrs. Laird.

The general arrangement of engineering and ship-
building works depends greatly upon the extent and con-
figuration of the land they occupy, but, in any case, the
fixed and movable plant and other details do not vary
much. From the brief description already given of the
constructive machinery in the famous Birkenhead estab-
lishment, a very fair idea may be formed of the interiors
of all other places of similar magnitude. The character
of the men of all ranks who conduct operations only
seems to follow the natural law of improvement by kind
treatment from their superiors. Those, however — men-
tioned in this chapter — with whom I was so long and so
pleasantly associated, may be considered excellent speci-
mens of the people who successfully conduct some of the
most important undertakings of modern times.

CHAP. vi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 71

CHAPTER VI.

APPRENTICES.

Different kinds of Apprentices — How they get into Works — Premiumed
Pupils in England — The Clyde System — Origin of Premium
System— Maudslay's objections to Pupils— James* Nasmyth in early
days — His troublesome Youths at Patricroft — The use of Idle
Apprentices — " Marine Works " — " General Works " — " Special
Works " — Cause of false steps in entering the profession — Lives of
the great Engineers — History of Harland and Wolff— Workshop
Practice, past and present — Prospects of Engineers at home and
abroad — " Repairing Works " — Tools and Instruments for Pattern-
Shop and Drawing Office — Working Dress.

I HAVE known very many apprentices, good, bad, and
indifferent, premiumed and free, in works and offices,
some of whom no doubt hoped to occupy important
positions in after life, although they had a strange way of
qualifying themselves for such appointments. A few of
those who paid entrance fees seemed to have a high
opinion of the efficacy of their father's gold, and also a
strong belief that the prestige of the great firm they were
with would make their path to distinction smooth and
easy. This was very complimentary, no doubt, both to
the parents and to the eminent firm, but any earnest
efforts on their own part to benefit by surrounding
advantages seemed to be quite a secondary affair. The
following sketch may help to illustrate the characteristics
of one of these pupils.

Charles Hardinge is a youth of sixteen, just leaving
school, — he has one brother in the army and another in
the navy ; his father is a barrister ; and he has also an

72 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vi.

uncle in London, who is a rich merchant. This gentle-
man considers the advancement and pay of the officers in
both services very unsatisfactory, but hearing from others
that engineering is a " good profession," he fancies it
would do for his nephew, and accordingly tells his brother
so, adding, at the same time, "that it is often very diffi-
cult to know what to do with a youth, and Charley
doesn't seem to have made up his mind on any subject."

Application is now made to several well known firms
for his admission as a pupil. They all say " they have
not a single vacancy at present, and may not have one
for some time to come." A firm is at last discovered,
however, who promise to do what they can ; and, in about
six months afterwards, Mr. Hardinge, upon payment of a
handsome premium, has his son fairly installed in a
celebrated locomotive establishment. His mother, who
comes to see him settled, boards him with a suitable
family in a good locality, and leaves the youth to take
care of himself. As he lives so far away from the works,
he soon finds out that the half-hour allowed for breakfast
is too little to enable him to return in time. The firm is,
therefore, appealed to ; they are asked to let him come at
nine instead of six in the morning, as " he is not strong."
They say " it is against their rules to do so," — " sets a
bad example," — and so on, but eventually the point is
conceded.

This shortening of the ordinary hours interferes seri-
ously in course of time with steady work ; but the kind
foreman treats him as a " young gentleman," and gives
him plenty of simple employment which there is no
hurry for, such as cutting quantities of stud bolts to a
certain length, or polishing hand rails and other things.
If he is occasionally " ill," as he says, and off duty, the

CHAP. vi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 73

foreman makes few remarks, but takes care that all the
really good practice he might have had is given to
others with more robust constitutions, and of more
regular attendance.

When he gets into the drawing office, he comes in for
a vast amount of tracing, because he cannot do anything
else ; and has even to learn the simplest rudiments of
drawing and the use of his instruments, which he ought
to have known well long before. Every one likes him, as
he is a fine, gentlemanly youth — amiable and humorous
also. He writes very many letters in office hours, and
larks about in great style, to the annoyance of the
draughtsmen who have serious work in hand, but to his
own amusement. Becoming in time a goodish tracer, he
is promoted ; that is to say, he now copies drawings
and makes details, with the help of those around him,
from other similar details, refreshing himself at frequent
intervals with a few holidays ; but, the manager is con-
siderate, or, perhaps, has long since discovered that it
is " no use saying anything to that fellow."

At last his apprenticeship expires, but, as he has not
taken any real, practical, foresighted interest in his work,
and has looked upon home study as a myth, he finds in a
short time that his services are no longer required, and
leaves with a certificate which states, that " he has served
a five years' apprenticeship with us, and has been in our
employ as a draughtsman for six months."

If they can manage to squeeze in something about
being " steady and attentive, and conducted himself to
our entire satisfaction," they may do so on his father's
account ; but, most likely they will not, as first-class firms
are very particular on this point, and sometimes say too
little. The name of the great people he has left gives

74 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vi.

young Hardinge a good standing, but such appointments
as he wishes cannot be obtained ; so after waiting a
considerable time in the hope of " something suitable
turning up," he enters the drawing office of a locomotive
and machine making establishment as junior draughts-
man, at, say, thirty shillings a week, and here we shall
leave him for the present.

Apprentices in the works are of a very miscellaneous
description, and comprise the sons of noblemen, pro-
fessional men of all ranks, commercial, and manufactur-
ing people, tradesmen and workmen ; and the varieties
of character are perhaps as comprehensive. Some are
industrious, and some are not ; some are well bred, and
others are the reverse ; some are enterprising and per-
severing in lines of thought and action too numerous to
mention ; some are witty, and others dull. In short,
every class of society, and every shade of morals and
disposition — the good and the worthless — are to be
found among the youths of a great engineering establish-
ment.

They obtain admission in three ways: firstly, by
influence ; secondly, by money ; and, lastly, by both.
The first system is, I believe, exclusively adopted now in
Scotland, and the two latter seem to be largely used in
England, thus forming what we may call two distinct
systems, — the premiumed and the free, — whose operations
I shall endeavour to describe. In works on the Clyde,
even of the highest celebrity, no premium is taken, and a
boy gets into them because his father, or uncle, or some
other relative or friend has given the firm orders for
ships, engines, or machinery of any kind. Perhaps they
have been otherwise useful, or may indeed from pure
friendship, have a sort of claim upon the kind assistance

CHAP. vi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 75

of Messrs. So-and-So, who in cases of this kind will
gladly do all they can.

Some engineers have so many friends of this descrip-
tion, that it is extremely difficult to find an opening in
their works or offices; and, as frequently happens in
other pursuits, a long period may elapse between the
application and admission. On the other hand, — and as
I found it, — the latter may quickly and unexpectedly
follow the former ; at any rate, you must take your
chance, and this applies even to places where premiums
are accepted. Both systems, however, are defective.

In the first instance, a premium is paid as an entrance
fee, and also to enable the pupil to obtain certain advan-
tages which those who do not pay are not expected to
possess. This, everyone must allow, is very fair; but,
unfortunately, it opens out a serious evil that I have seen
and known, which is injurious to the boy, and bad for
every one concerned. When the young gentleman thus
begins his career, he is frequently treated too indulgently,
or at least not kept sufficiently in check. He may work,
or be idle ; he may be steady, or the reverse; and may,
indeed, be a source of great annoyance to foremen and
leading hands, if they are occupied with important work
upon which no time must be lost. And all this arises
because a handsome premium has been paid, which
imposes too many restrictions on one side, and gives too
much liberty on the other.

I fancy, however, that engineering firms may some-
times consider it the best policy to say as little as possible
about the vagaries of their apprentices, lest they may
offend good clients, who might perhaps transfer their
favours to other quarters, and thus it may often be safer to
bear the ills they know, than fly to those they know not of.

76 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vi.

Well do I remember a pupil who came to the ship
drawing office of the Birkenhead Iron Works in my time.
His father was a very celebrated marine engineer in
London, who had won his way to fame and fortune by his
own merits, and wished his son to have a good oppor-
tunity of learning shipbuilding amongst people with whom
he was intimately acquainted. This youth evinced from
the first a sort of aristocratic dislike to labour, and his
amusements were of a diversified character, one of which
was, I believe, to sit at times upon the entrance rails of
the general office and admire the clerks, or note those
who came in or went out. On one occasion, a partner of
the firm came upon him suddenly in this attitude, and
was at once saluted in a sprightly, off-hand, friendly
style, with —

" Well, Henry, are you coming out to hunt to-day ? "

They did not send the youth off quite, but we heard
that a polite letter had been written, asking his father to
take him away. What happened behind the scenes I am
unable to say, but soon afterwards the young gentleman
departed. In another sphere of usefulness, however, he
developed latent talent, and eventually became a partner
in his father's firm.

Having briefly described what may be termed the
English side of the apprentice question, I shall now
endeavour to treat that of the Scotch in a similar manner.
In doing this, however, I think I am correct in stating
that, at the present time, none of the engineers in the
Clyde district take premiums, although in earlier days
some of them did so ; but there is reason to believe that
this habit entailed upon them so much unpleasantness
and loss, that it was ultimately abolished. They now
virtually say to intending pupils, " We'll take you if we

CHAP. vi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 77

can, and not charge anything for doing so, but you will
have to work steadily and attentively, keep good hours,
and behave yourselves, as you should do, or we shall have
to part with you."

So fully was this principle recognised and acted upon,
that its results were highly beneficial, at least to those
apprentices I was associated with in Denny's, Neilson's,
and Tod & McGregor's. In Denny's, for example, where
I knew them best, they had an excellent character for
steadiness and good conduct generally. They rarely lost
even a quarter of an hour at 6 a.m. ; they attended to
their duties, and were hardly ever away except on special
occasions, for which they obtained leave. We were a
very healthy race, too, and seldom lost time from indis-
position of any kind. We were a merry lot also, and got
along pleasantly and happily, and some of us have done
well in various parts of the world.

Looking, then, through the vista of many years which
lies between the time I am now writing about and the
present, I have every reason to speak favourably of those
who were my contemporaries when an apprentice. This,
however, I attribute in a great degree to the excellent
system adopted in the establishment, which, however, has
recently been much improved in various ways. As an
example of wonderful steadiness in a young engineer, it
may be added that a well known, highly esteemed, and
most prosperous shipowner in Liverpool was never once
late during the whole of a five years' apprenticeship.

Napier's was a favourite place in those days, and very
comfortable for good men in all departments, but they
had the character of being very strict with their pupils,
some of whom were dismissed because they did not attend
properly, or were otherwise careless. The foreman's

78 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vi.

authority in this, as in all other similar establishments,
was supreme, as it is not considered etiquette for masters
or managers to interfere with, or give directions to, men
or boys. Turners, fitters, etc., were discharged at a
week's notice, or received instant dismissal on the fore-
man's own responsibility, for misconduct, and although
in some places an apprentice could have been easily
enough sent away for a time, they were not dismissed
before a statement of the grievance had been made to
the manager or principal, and a conference held as to
what should be done. In practice this system worked
admirably, and caused remarkable steadiness among
those who, in after years, no doubt realised its advan-
tages.

From what has been said, therefore, on this subject,
the whole question may appear simple enough. In other
words, you may pay for your son's admission to a
Work, and, if an idler, he may do what he pleases, and
at the end of five years have only a general sort of
smattering — a very superficial knowledge indeed — of that
valuable practical branch of the profession he will
never again have such an opportunity of acquiring. On
the other hand, get him in without a premium if you
can, and he will either have to do what he is told or
go elsewhere. In many cases this is certainly the
best plan, but there is another aspect of the question
which is complicating, and which will be referred to
further on.

The premium system, in its application to good
marine establishments, is, to some extent, unnecessary,
unless it provides for ample practice in the drawing office.
Its legitimate objects are, however, too often neutralised
by the conduct of those upon whom it is intended to

CHAP. vi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 79

confer benefits, and to confirm my own ideas on the
subject, I may add those of others well qualified to
judge.

The system originated, no doubt, in the persistent
efforts of those who had means, to get their sons into
engineers' offices and works in earlier days at any cost.
They offered handsome fees, and were in some instances
additionally supported in their applications for admission
by powerful private influence. On the other hand, engi-
neers themselves were so overwhelmed by the number of
these applications, that they were compelled to ask high
premiums, and thus probably Brunei's, and others' since
his time, ran as high as ^"1,000. At present, however,
the sum generally required by great firms in England is
£100 a year, when sufficient influence is not forthcoming
to enable them to take the youth without payment.

In 1829, a Mr. Nasymth of Edinburgh, started from
Leith in a sailing smack, and after a four days' voyage
arrived in London. He took his son with him in the hope
that after an interview with Mr. Maudslay, whom he had
previously known, he might succeed in getting the youth
installed in his celebrated establishment. Mr. Nasmyth
could not pay for his son's admission, and although he
knew that Maudslay and Field had ceased to take pupils,
he nevertheless made the attempt.

They were both received most kindly, and upon the
elder Nasmyth explaining the object of their visit, Mr.
Maudslay replied, " I must frankly confess to you, that my
experience of pupil apprentices has been so unsatisfactory
that my partner and myself ha.ve resolved not to take any
more of them, no matter at what premium," and the
reason was, as he said, " because they gave the firm
so much annoyance by irregular attendance, — setting

8o ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vi.

a bad example to others, — and, on the whole, being
such disturbing elements in the work of the establish-
ment."

A ramble through the works was now proposed, to
enable the visitors to see the fine machinery they con-
tained, and upon observing the beautiful engines which
drove it, young Nasmyth was so delighted that he begged
for employment in any capacity, which rather surprised
Mr. Maudslay, who said to him, " So you are one of that
sort, are you ? Bring your drawings and models to-
morrow at noon, and let me see them." This was accord-
ingly done, and so astonished was the great engineer with
the ingenuity and skill displayed in these productions,
that he at once decided that the boy should have a week
to himself, to enable him to see as much as he could of
London, and then be employed as an assistant in his
private and admirably arranged workshop and office, in
which he remained for several years.

This youth became in time the celebrated James
Nasmyth of Patricroft Foundry, whose reputation was
little, if at all, inferior to Fairbairn's, and his own
experience of pupils may be thus given. " We had a few
apprentices who paid premiums, — in some cases we could
not well refuse to take them, — and yet they caused a great
deal of annoyance and disturbance. They were unsteady
in their attendance, and consequently could not be
depended upon for the ordinary operations of the foundry.
They were also careless in their work, and set a bad
example to the unbound. We endeavoured to check this
by agreeing that the premium should be payable in six
months' portions, and that each party should be free to
terminate the connection at the end of each succeeding
six months, or at a month's notice from any time. By

CHAP. iv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 81

this means we secured better conduct on the part of the
apprentices."

Slavish, or even constant labour of any kind is not
desirable. We are all the better for a little amusement,
and a hearty laugh does us quite as much good now as it
did to those who attended banquets in the time of the
jesters, or even as it sometimes does among the barristers
in our law courts, but there is a very great difference
indeed between this legitimate relaxation and the con-
tinuous hilarity of those who ought to know better.

I must not, however, be too severe upon these festive
young gentlemen, as they are very useful to us. The
profession is terribly over-stocked, and if every youth
who entered it persistently aimed at getting by his own
merits to the top of the tree, some of us could never
expect to be promoted. Things are bad enough as
they are, but they would be overwhelmingly so if the
young idlers in our works and offices did not keep a
good many ambitious ones out, and cause them to try
something else. What we have said, therefore, on this
subject, has been only through a desire to explain the
true state of the case for the guidance of others ; and
if the hints thrown out in this chapter are the means
of preventing people from sending their sons to engi-
neering when they have no capacity for it, and also
from spending money and time uselessly when they
might be better employed, it is probable that what has
been written will not be in vain.

I have mentioned in the previous pages the disadvan-
tages of the premium system, and now propose to shew
the benefits it confers.

In marine establishments the work is always chang-
ing. In the olden times this was especially the case,

82 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vi.

when no two orders were alike, and when every possible
variety of paddle and screw engines were frequently being
made. Even at the present day, when one type, — the
direct action triple expansion engine, — is almost uni-
versal, there are great variations constantly arising.

For instance, in places like Elder's or Maudslay's, an
order may come in at one time for a tiny pair of launch
engines you might almost carry in your arms, and at
another, for those of 10,000 or even 15,000 horse power in
one set alone. This extreme diversity of size necessitates
great alterations in design and construction, to suit the
ever changing circumstances of each particular case.
Hence it will be seen that a good marine work is the
best school of engineering in existence, and often a
source of fascinating study to those who practise in it.

To general engineering establishments a similar line of
argument may be applied, but in places where a large
quantity of special machinery is made, say for flax and
cotton spinning and other textile manufactures, also
steam winches, and a variety of work which is got out
rapidly and extensively, the men and boys are, by the
division of labour system, turned more or less into autom-
atons. They are kept, for a very indefinite period,
turning this, planing that, and boring something else, also
fitting up details, say connecting rods, valve gear, shaft
and wheel work, etc., until those who wish for a change
of employment are completely wearied on account of the
extreme monotony of their occupation.

No doubt the extra pay for work of this kind is an
encouragement to those who will never be anything more
than workmen of a special description, but for appren-
tices whose aim is to rise to the higher branches, such a
system is disadvantageous in every respect. Looked at

CHAP. vi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 83

from a commercial point of view, it is, no doubt, good for
the masters, and perhaps also for the men, on account of
greater remuneration thus obtained, but nothing could be
worse for gentlemen apprentices, who are not protected
from it, and this is what the payment of a premium does,
or ought to do. Under these circumstances it therefore
becomes a source of great advantage, so long as, for the
reasons already given, it is not abused.

In locomotive work, even at the best, there is too
much sameness in description, and very little variety in
size. For example, passenger and goods engines on our
main lines have their cylinders generally from 16 to 18
inches diameter, and a large establishment may perhaps
get an order for 50 of the latter from India ; not long after-
wards 40 more might come in for Australian or other
lines, to the former size, and at another time a lot more
of ly-in. cylinder engines for English railways. Thus
involving an immense quantity of details, similar in
kind and size, which have to be executed by the division
of labour system.

That so many false steps are made in the choice
of engineering as a profession, is attributable, on the
one hand, to a want of proper knowledge of what is
required of them by those who wish to enter it, and on
the other hand, to unsuitability, or want of application, on
the part of those who feel somewhat inclined to study it.
The former is not to be wondered at, when we consider
the private nature, generally speaking, of a vast amount
of engineering employment. Of course there are great
schemes, which everyone knows about, such as the Forth
Bridge, etc., but there is also an immense variety of
excellent practice constantly carried on, of which few,
indeed, outside of the interested people, have any idea.

84 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vi.

The error of judgment so many make in such matters,
seems to be an idea that the practical and scientific
branches are easily learnt : that drawing-office work is
simple ; and that, as a whole, neither energy nor patience
are necessary. Never was there a greater mistake, as
those who have been successful know well. Locomotive
engineering may be comparatively easily learnt. Marine
needs a much longer time to acquire ; but those who aim
at private practice, or foreign appointments, which throw
men entirely on their own resources, and necessitate a
thorough knowledge of many branches, will find that
close and prolonged observation and study confer advan-
tages of inestimable value.

If we study the lives of some of the great engineers,
such as Watt, Fairbairn, Penn, Maudslay, Nasmyth and
others, we shall find that they owed their prosperity to
innate energy, industry, skill, and opportunity from first
to last, and we might also add, the possession of that
useful quality which enables people to make whatever
they undertake a pleasure instead of a labour.

The history of Sir E. J. Harland, the celebrated ship-
builder of Belfast, is briefly given in Smiles's admirable
book, Men of Invention and Industry. In a chapter written
by himself, Mr. Harland interestingly describes his appren-
ticeship in Stephenson's, at Newcastle, and his employ-
ment in the marine works of J. & G. Thomson on the
Clyde, as a draughtsman. After this we find him occupy-
ing the post of manager at Mr. Toward's on the Tyne,
and soon afterwards at Belfast in a similar capacity until
1852, when he became sole proprietor, ultimately taking
in Mr. Wolff — of Whitworth training — as partner.

The rise and progress of their immense establishment
is given in detail, and throughout the narrative one can-

CHAP. vi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 85

not but see that industry, intelligence, and perseverance,
during a long career, have in this case been fully
rewarded.

Looked at broadly, engineering is so complicated in
its higher ranges, and composed of such an infinite
variety of details, the arrangement and proportions of
which have to be carefully worked out, that we can only
excuse indifferent students upon the supposition that
they are financially independent, or that they really have
no conception of what lies before them.

Some people are born engineers ; these need no com-
ment, as they are quite able to look after themselves.
Others are engineers by education, having, like myself,
been obliged to take to it almost against their will.
Whilst a few are totally unsuited for it, and ought to have
been, we might say — anything else. In my own case,
however, a love of drawing proved invaluable, and
enabled me at starting, and ever afterwards, to take a
deep interest in all I saw relating to machinery, and it is
this same taste for mechanical drawing which so often
indicates who should be engineers, and makes all the
difference between those who will never be anything else
but " hands," and others who show that they have heads.

A youth's surroundings may have occasionally origin-
nated the idea that engineering was an easy-going profes-
sion. His father, for instance, may be a barrister who
apparently does nothing but watch law cases in a Court
of Justice, and one or two of his uncles may get a very
fair income as clergymen by preaching two short written
sermons, without a spark of vitality in them, on Sun-
days, and taking recreation for the rest of the week ;
and, therefore, for want -of information on the subject,
engineering may sometimes be looked upon in a similar

86 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP, vi

light. Another very strong reason why so few people
have even the most superficial knowledge of its require-
ments, is that the mechanical branches are only of recent
date, whereas civil engineering and the other professions
I have mentioned are of great antiquity.

Thirty years ago, workshop practice was very different
indeed from what it is now, as a great amount of time
was spent in acquiring sufficient manual dexterity for the
proper execution of difficult and important parts. Now-a-
days machinery does almost everything, and thus prac-
tical instruction has been robbed of its charms and
general usefulness. If a youth, therefore, is content to
remain as a workman, and take the ten-thousand-to-one
chance of being a foreman, or become a sea-going
engineer, the training he now receives will be sufficient
for the purpose; but for those who aim at higher
positions, their whole future hangs upon a thorough
knowledge of the scientific branches practised in the
drawing-office, which; as already stated, are only open to
the privileged few.

In view of all this, the best plan appears to be to
send the ambitious ones for about three years to the office
of some good mechanical engineer, where they will be
carefully educated in drawing office routine, including the
construction, application, and arrangement of machinery
details. A large amount of valuable knowledge may thus
be acquired, which will greatly assist them to understand
what is done in the Works, and extensively enlarge their
future prospects.

Those prospects are not quite so encouraging as they
were in earlier days, because there are now so many
engineers in the field. But although England may be
overdone in this respect, engineering enterprise is extend-

CHAP. vi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 87

ing so rapidly abroad that many good appointments are
to be had in other lands for those who are capable of
holding them. This, however, depends largely upon the
manner in which the apprentice employs his time when
surrounded with advantages. An excellent thing to
observe in life is — Do not wait until your rich relations —
if you have any — or your poor, but kind, relatives and
friends help you out of a difficulty. Act for yourself with
all the power and ability you possess, and they will think
all the more of you for doing so, and be more inclined to
give their aid.

If you cannot command the winds, you can spread the
sails, and well-directed and sustained efforts are generally
rewarded in some form or other, and frequently in the
most unexpected manner. The art, therefore, of doing
as much as possible for one's self is highly to be com-
mended, and especially so because some of the most
eminent men in the various walks of life have, in this
respect at least, been most diligent.

During the early American war, a gentleman in plain
clothes occupied himself on one occasion by having
a quiet walk among the soldiers, just to see how
they were getting along. He came at last upon a man
in a very unhappy state of mind, whom he tried to
comfort.

" What is the matter with you, my good friend ? " said
the visitor.

" Boo-oo-oo," replied the soldier, " here's a job I want
done, and can't get anyone to do it for me."

" Can't you do it yourself? "

" No, sir ; I am the sergeant-major of the regiment ! "

" Indeed ! Can I be of any assistance to you ? "

" Thank you, sir, I wish you would."

S8 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vi.

The visitor set to work. Bang went one thing, splash
went another, and in a short time the "job" was finished.

" The next time you want anything done," observed
the departing stranger, " send for General Washington !"

Said a lady to me one day —

"The So-and-So's have got their son into the engi-
neering establishment at Blanquetown, without paying
any premium, and they are giving him six shillings a
week to begin with ! "

" Quite right, ma'am," I replied, " he may well have
such liberal treatment, because he is only in repairing
works, where he will not learn much, and where they will
make a machine of him."

So it was, and is, and ever will be in such places, so
long as they are what they are. With the exception of
the Crewe Works, and others of similar nature, where, in
addition to continuous repairs, they make their own loco-
motives, there is really nothing that an ambitious appren-
tice need trouble himself with, even, if possible, for
double the above pay. The reason is this : — In those
establishments — marine included — the work is connected
with damaged, worn, or broken details, which may have
been long in use, and require renewal in some form or
other. Pins of various sizes have to be turned, new
brasses fitted, valves of different kinds need rectification,
the working gear needs touching up in various places,
broken framings want patching, and so on to the end,
amidst greasy dirt of the most atrocious nature. The
patterns are very limited in number, as well as in size,
and the drawings are just what might be expected in
places where no new machinery is designed or made.

Hence, for all these reasons, a repairing shop is in
every respect the worst possible school of thought and

CHAP. vi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 91

practice a youth can enter. People generally do not
know this, and the poorer members of the aristocracy are
quite ignorant of it, fancying all the time that their sons
are highly favoured by being admitted for nothing to
what they consider a great " engineering establishment,"
and getting, besides, the sum of six shillings or more per
week for their valued services.

The annexed plate shews the interior of the pattern-
shop at the Neptune Marine Engineering Works, New-
castle-upon-Tyne. Those who enter this department in
any locality must provide themselves with a chest of
tools for working in wood, which may be had for
about £6, but in the iron departments, files, chisels,
hammers, and all other appliances, are supplied by the
firm. In the drawing office, however, every draughts-
man and apprentice needs to have his own instru-
ments, that is, a 36-inch ebony-edged tee square ; one
ditto 45° set square, 8 inches long, and another of 60°,
10 inches in length ; two oval section 1 8-inch boxwood
scales, one of which will be divided to £", J", V' and
i" to the foot, and the other similarly to f", f", i|-"
and 3 inches. One of Faber's H.H.H. pencils, a good
piece of vulcanised indiarubber, and, say, three good
colour brushes will complete this part of the outfit. The
most important thing, however, is a box of instruments
of first-class quality, and of book form for conveniently
carrying in the pocket, the cost of which need not exceed
/3, even for those who love luxury.

The best place for obtaining the squares and scales
above mentioned, is Mr. W. F. Stanley's, Great Turnstile,
Holborn, London, which I can confidently recommend to
architects, as well as engineers, having used his produc-
tions for the last twenty-five years, and supplied them in

92 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vi.

every case to my own numerous pupils. Such instru-
ments last a lifetime, and, therefore, well repay the care
bestowed upon their selection.

The dress of the engineer should be of the simplest
character, and perhaps no materials can be better suited
for the purpose than good Navy blue serge and white
duck. For dirty work, the latter is very useful in the
form of " overalls," as it can be so easily washed.
Especial care, must, however, be taken when ordering a
suit, as the tailor, having in view the fashionable style of
trousers, breeks, or galligaskins, will probably make them
much too tight to allow for future shrinkage, and thus
cause considerable discomfort afterwards, not to mention
the attenuated appearance they will certainly give to the
legs of their unhappy wearers.

CHAP. vii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED.

CHAPTER VII.

CIVIL ENGINEERING.

Meaning of the term "Civil Engineer" — The Great Pyramid — Ancient
Suez Canal — Hero of Alexandria — Archimedes — Their Mechanical
genius — Euclid — A Dream of Antiquity — Great Tunnels — Railway
Ferry Boats — Bridge Engineering at home and abroad — Drainage
and Reclamation of Land — Gigantic Pumping Operations — Origin
of the Goodwin Sands — Freaks of Rivers in India and China —
Gradual Elevation by Silting process — Vast Inundations and change
of Bed — The Hoang II o, etc. — Scouring and Deepening process in
Rivers, etc. — Ordnance Survey of United Kingdom.

As the exact meaning of the words " Civil Engineer " is
very important, and has given rise to much discussion,
the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers con-
sidered it desirable to state the sense attached to them by
the Institution.

The charter defines ''the profession of a civil en-
gineer " as " the art of directing the great sources of
power in nature for the use and convenience of man,"
and some examples of this definition are given. But it
was pointed out by Thomas Tredgold, who drew up the
" Description of a Civil Engineer," — partly embodied in
the charter — that " the scope and utility of civil engineer-
ing will be increased with every discovery in philosophy,
and its resources with every invention in mechanical or
chemical science." Consequently, since the charter was
drawn, the range of practice of the profession has become
much enlarged.

Thus the practitioners in this art may now have to do
with many classes of work ; for example : —

94 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vn.

1. Works for facilitating and improving internal com-
munications— as roads, railways, tramways, navigation
by canals and rivers, bridges, and telegraphs of various
kinds.

2. Works connected with the sea-coast, and for
facilitating communication between the sea and the land,
such as harbours, docks, piers, breakwaters, sea-walls,
lighthouses, etc.

3. Works for facilitating communication across the
seas, including naval architecture, iron shipbuilding, and
the construction and laying of submarine telegraph
cables.

4. Works for the reclamation, irrigation, or drainage
of land ; and for the prevention or the regulation of
floods, including the improvement of rivers, as arterial
drains.

5. Works for cities and towns, such as sewerage,
water supply, lighting, and street improvement.

6. Large and massive buildings generally, in their
scientific and mechanical arrangements.

7. The operations of mining and of metallurgy, so far
as they involve the application of mechanical science.

8. The design and construction of the mechanical
prime movers, such as steam engines, water-wheels, and
other hydraulic motors, windmills, electric and other
engines.

9. The design, construction, and adaptation to prac-
tical use of machinery and mechanical appliances of all
kinds.

10. The design and manufacture generally of all large
and important metallic structures, including artillery,
and other munitions of war.

This is a comprehensive but by no means complete

CHAP. vn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 95

catalogue, and if an estimate is attempted to be formed
of the work done under it during the last century, and of
the effect this work has had on the development of trade
and commerce, on finance, on government, on every
branch of industry, and indeed on every possible aspect
of human interest, it must be admitted that the pro-
fession of civil engineering has become truly a great
power.

It is important to define accurately what is meant by
the prefix " civil."

There has sometimes been a disposition to confine this
word to those who practice in works of building and
earthwork construction, such as railways, roads, har-
bours, docks, river improvements, and so on, to the
exclusion of engineers who are engaged in some of the
other branches of engineering enumerated.

There is no authority for such a limitation. The
meaning of the word " civil " is quite clear when the
history of the profession is borne in mind.

The earliest application of the term " engineer " was
to persons in military service, and down to a compara-
tively recent period it was only known in this application.
But when the construction of public works in England for
civil purposes began to take a large development, their
designers, finding their work analogous to that of military
engineers, adopted the same term, using the prefix "civil"
to distinguish them. There is reason to believe that
Smeaton was the first civil constructor of large public
undertakings who called himself an engineer, and who
used accordingly the distinguishing compound title.

The term " civil engineer!' implies, therefore, an
engineer who is a civilian, and it is intended to include all
classes of engineers who do not belong to the military

96 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vn.

service. This, it may be added, is the meaning now
attached to the words by the " Institution."

When we think of the stupendous edifices, and other
great works of ancient days, it is astonishing that the
people of past ages were so ignorant of the prodigious
power we now use so effectually, and which, strange
to say, is in its successful application only about a
hundred years old. Had they only possessed a little of our
knowledge on such points, what an immensity of labour
and time it would have saved them !

The ancient Suez Canal, during its excavation, is said
to have cost the lives of 120,000 people, and the Wall of
China occupied for a long period the efforts of every third
man in the empire. We have also reason to believe that
no mechanical appliances of any kind were employed
upon either of them during their construction.

Briefly told, the Canal was a scheme originated by
Darius the First for connecting the Red Sea with the
Mediterranean ; but so gigantic did it appear to the
people — who were afraid it might be the means of inun-
dating the country — that they caused the priests to stop
all the works.

WTe are also informed that the causeway, leading from
the quarries to the great Pyramid, required the labour of
100,000 men for ten years, and 360,000 additional men
were required for twenty years in building the Monument
itself. As the Canal was excavated by the labourers or
slaves paddling out the sand and mud with their unaided
hands; and the colossal stones of the pyramid were
pushed along and lifted, partly by the use of rollers
underneath, and the sheer force of the multitude, it will
at once be seen that the methods adopted were of the
most primitive description, and entailed an enormous

CHAP. vii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 97

amount of severe and unnecessary exertion, which a few
of our modern machines would have abolished.

Amongst those who flourished in ancient Greece were
three very remarkable men. One was Hero of Alexandria,
another was Archimedes, and a third was Euclid. The
the two former touched the very borders of our system of
mechanical engineering, but were unable to develop their
ideas sufficiently on this subject.

Hero flourished about 130 B.C., and his extremely
primitive steam engine, named the ^Eolipile or " Ball of
^Eolus," was almost identical in principle with the
" Barker's Mill " of our own time. He also employed
steam as an agent in giving life-like actions to the gods of
the period, and thus deluded their worshippers, who
attributed those movements to Divine interposition.

A writer in the Quarterly Review observes that :
" Archimedes was a profound genius ; he drew from
his intellectual treasury a rich store of the most curious
theoretical discoveries, and of the most useful practical
inventions. He maintained a rank among ancient
philosophers, similar to that of Newton among the
moderns. He may also be considered the father of the
science of statics and hydrostatics, for to him we owe
the true theory of the equilibrium of forces in machines,
and also in the pressure of fluids. He understood the
theory of optics, as is evident from his invention of the
burning mirrors, by means of which he set fire to the
Roman fleet at a furlong's distance. He was a man of
taste and activity, and combined in an extraordinary
degree theoretical knowledge and practical skill. His
discoveries in pure geometry alone would secure for him
the admiration of all ages, as he travelled in so many
unbeaten paths, and adopted methods to aid him in his

98 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vu.

investigations which were so admirable, that antiquity
has assigned him the first place among geometricians.

" When we contemplate the extraordinary effects pro-
duced by the machines of Archimedes, we cannot but
lament that so great a man should have been infected
with the ridiculous notions of the Platonists, which would
not allow them to leave anything in writing, relative to
the details of mechanical contrivances In consequence
of this, posterity has unfortunately lost not only the
benefit of those particular inventions, but also the high
proficiency in mechanical arts to which an acquaintance
with them would naturally have led."

Plutarch tells us — in his Life of MarceUus — that
Endoxus and Archytas were the first to give attention to
the science of mechanical engineering, which was so
highly developed by Archimedes not long afterwards.
Plato was greatly annoyed at this, and inveighed against
them for " destroying the real excellence of geometry, by
making it leave the region of pure intellect, and thus
become sensuously associated with bodies which required
so much servile labour in order to perfect them." In
this manner practical engineering was separated at the
outset from mathematics, and although regarded with
contempt by philosophers, it was nevertheless reckoned
amongst the military arts.

Archimedes had a mind so exalted that, in accordance
with the ideas of the Platonists, he would not condescend
to leave behind him any writings upon what he himself
considered the vulgar business of mechanics and the
useful arts, preferring rather to immortalise in his various
treatises the sublimely intellectual science of pure mathe-
matics, in which he was so profound.

Thus we have a distinct reason given for the applica-

CHAP. vii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 99

tion of steam to the various systems of modern engineer-
ing remaining a dead science throughout all those
centuries, until James Watt arose, and, with a few
master strokes of genius, laid the foundation of its pre-
sent world-wide extension in ten thousand and one
different forms.

We cannot now learn much more of the history of
Euclid than is generally known, nor is it indeed necessary
to do so. Those, however, who have studied his analyti-
cal science must be fully aware that it is the only pure
and exact science we possess, and one that is entirely free
of all terms such as "very near," "just about," "some-
thing like it," and so on. It is not surprising, therefore,
that some people are fascinated by it, as the logic of
mathematics is crushing, — the reasoning beautifully clear
and simple, though at times requiring profound considera-
tion,— and its statements incontrovertible. Besides this,
there is such variety in Euclid's problems and theorems,
and so much practical benefit to be derived from them,
that they become invaluable to those who need their aid
in many ways.

If it were possible for those three worthies to revisit
the earth, and witness the changes that have taken place
since they left it, how they would stare and rub their eyes
in blank amazement, wonder and surprise ! How they
would solemnly gaze all around in mute astonishment,
and, after recovering themselves a little, begin to chatter
away in choice Greek about what they saw and what
they thought of things in general ! I can imagine the
scene.

.There stands the trio of grave, thoughtful, antiquated
gentlemen, with the stamp of intellect on their handsome
features. Archimedes breaks the silence with —

ioo ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP, vi

" Well done the Moderns ! "

" Very well done ! " says Hero.

" Remarkably well executed ! " adds Euclid.

• Ah ! " says the Alexandrian, " didn't I just give them
the start with my steam engines? Didn't I shew them
how the thing could be done ? If I had only lived a little
longer, wouldn't I have James Watted them — quite ?
But, dear me ! have they taken all this time ? — all these
centuries — to find out for themselves a practical solution
of the grand ideas I had on my mind when Death
snatched me away ? It is indeed astonishing ! "

" I quite agree with you, sir," observes the mechan-
ician. " Their engines and machines, and wheels and
shafts, are admirable, but I am surprised to hear they are
not even one hundred years old. What in the name of
all the gods and goddesses, have they been doing or
thinking about for ages past ? Is it possible that much
of what they pride themselves on was known to myself ?
My mind was so filled with magnificently useful schemes
I hoped to accomplish that it is hard to say what I would
have done if the Destroying Angel had not paid me a
visit and put a stop to them ; and to crown all, those old
fools the Platonists would not let me write out my
valuable experience for the benefit of future ages."

" Very sad indeed to see such folly," the mathema-
tician musingly observes. " What a benighted race these
Moderns must have been to take so long to find out
for themselves the grand improvements you made in
engineering. I am glad to see, however, that they
appreciate my science, which is reflected in many of
their works. They have simplified the solution of many
of the problems and theorems which fascinated me in
ancient Greece, but the truths contained in them remain

CHAP. vii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 101

unaltered. I left twelve volumes behind me, and, if
Marcellus had only left me alone, it is difficult to say how
many more I might have given them. That wretch, the
Caliph Omar, had an idea that if the books in the
Alexandrian Library agreed with the Koran they were of
no use, and if they didn't agree they should be destroyed,
so he fired the building, and deprived the world of four of
my best treatises. Too late now to restore them."

The ancient sages again smile and laugh at the
" stupidity of the Moderns." But why this sudden lull
in the merriment ? Wherefore that thoughtful expression
which clouds their noble faces ? Ah ! their time is upr
their frolic is ended, and they know it. ... We try
to scan a great but distant railway bridge which has been
pointed out to us by Archimedes, and as we turn round to
speak to him about it, find to our astonishment that all of
them— have vanished !

It was only a dream — a dream of antiquity ; but fanci-
ful as the idea of their visit has been, the fact remains
that two of them at least have left a fame and a name
that will endure to the end of time, and serve as noble
examples of what the higher ranges of the intellect could
accomplish under great disadvantages in days of yore.

Civil engineering as it was, and as it is, are two very
different things indeed. When railways in large numbers
had to be constructed; when canals were greatly in
demand ; when the road system throughout the country
was being developed ; and when, in these three cases, an
immense amount of highly skilled labour was required,
and few in the land possessed -the requisite experience,
engineers prospered greatly, large fortunes were fre-
quently made, and good incomes easily obtained. Now,

102 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vn.

however, Great Britain has become so overrun with
railways, roads, and canals, that there is not much left to
be done at home in this direction. On the other hand,
so enormous is the demand for similar undertakings in
foreign countries, and so extensive are the resources of
modern civilisation, that a bright future appears to be
still in store for the engineering profession in all its
branches.

Since the present Suez canal was completed, other
gigantic projects of a similar nature have been brought
forward from time to time, and are now in progress. The
most prominent of them, however, are now so well known
that further comment is needless.

Another branch of civil engineering that has been
wonderfully developed in later years is the science of
tunnelling, which even yet appears capable of great
extension. The Mont Cenis and St. Gothard tunnels
were great undertakings, but they sink into insignificance
when compared with what has been proposed, or what
may yet be thought of in the near future, by enterprising
speculators. From an engineering point of view, there
is apparently no serious obstacle in the Channel Tunnel
scheme, beyond its prodigious cost of from fifty to eighty
millions sterling. Three gigantic steamers, however, of
great beam, and capable of carrying loaded trains at all
times, would probably perform what is required in the
most satisfactory and economical manner. Indeed, Sir
John Fowler and Mr. B. Baker have designed an excel-
lent Channel ferry on this principle, the total cost of
which is estimated at two millions only.

At Granton, near Edinburgh, where the Forth is five
miles in width, and greatly exposed to storms, this system
has long been successfully adopted. And across the

CHAP. vn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 103

three mile wide Straits of Carchenas, near San Francisco,
four lines of trains, amounting in all to fifty cars, are
ferried across at one time in the easiest possible manner,
by means of a steamer 450 feet long, and 130 feet broad.

The difficulties attending the excavation of the Mont
Cenis Tunnel were very serious, owing to the extreme
hardness of the rock, but they were most successfully
overcome by the aid of excellent machinery, and so
accurately were operations conducted from both sides of
the mountain at the same time that the junction in the
centre was all that could be desired. A sad story is
related in connection with a similarly important under-
taking.

At the Inter-Oceanic Canal congress, held some years
ago in Paris, there sat among the leaders of the enterprise
a grey-haired and intellectual-looking man, with a some-
what melancholy expression of countenance. The assem-
bled visitors congratulated him upon the approaching
termination of one of the grandest engineering schemes
of the century. Turning to a friend who stood beside
him, he said: —

" I have worked all my life for a little renown, and a
little wealth, and now, in the moment of my triumph, I
find that neither is worth the trouble it has cost me.
Indeed, the only use of the money I have made is to
help those who are less strong and less happy."

The speaker was Louis Favre of Geneva, the con-
tractor for the famous St. Gothard Tunnel, which had
just entered upon its eighth and last year of construc-
tion. He went straight from the congress to Airolo, at
the mouth of the tunnel, and was shewing the levels to a
French engineer, when he suddenly complained of cramp,
called for a glass of water, and instantly expired.

104 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vn.

In future years, some ambitious promoter of great
schemes may endeavour to form a Company for the
purpose of working what he proposes to call the " Anglo-
American Submarine Railway Company Limited," the
object of which is to unite the Old and New Worlds by
a tunnel underneath the bed of the Atlantic. But here
we must draw a line between the practicable and the
impracticable, and, so far as we can see at present, apply
a word which Napoleon said was not to be found in the
French dictionary, and that word was — ''Impossible."

Civil engineering also includes the designing and
construction of bridges, in timber, iron, brick, and stone,
and there is probably no kind of structure in which more
ingenuity and fertility of resource have been needed than
in those which cross rivers, ravines, etc., requiring in
most instances to be specially adapted to the ever- varying
conditions of site, locality, width of span, loads to be
carried, such as those which are created by railway,
road, or foot-passenger traffic, and we may also add the
caprice, fancy, practical considerations, and taste of the
designer or promoter.

In countries such as England, which abounds in
rivers, bridges are invaluable, So long as the population
was limited, intercourse between one place and another
was of the most primitive nature, hence there did not
exist any necessity for our modern methods of sustaining
the continuity of the roads or tracks which then pre-
vailed. The shallow parts of rivers were naturally
selected as the proper places for fords, which could easily
be waded by men and horses when the water was low,
and even in times of flood might be crossed by swim-
ming.

CHAP. vn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 105

The magnificent City of Palmyra owed its origin to a
little oasis in the midst of the Syrian desert, which
formed the favourite camping place of roving tribes, or of
caravans on their journey, and thus we have an apparent
reason for the subversion of a natural law, which has
caused towns and great cities to arise chiefly on the
banks of navigable rivers, or on the sea coast.

Towns and villages sprung up at some of the ford-
able localities we have referred to, from which they
derived their names, such as Deptford — " deep ford "
originally — Dart/0^, Oxford, and so on, and in course of
time the civil engineer was called upon to design and
erect the much-desired bridges, which in many instances
are to this day lasting records of his skill.

Between the simplest and most primitive form of
bridge, consisting of a piece of timber spanning a small
stream, and the colossal structure on the Forth, there is,
indeed, a very wide gulf, and between these two extremes,
bridges are to be found in endless variety, and involving
considerations of the most diversified character. A plank
thrown across a ditch may cost a few pence, and if it
should break in the middle with a passing load, the
the damage will be insignificant ; but if, on the other
hand, a structure such as the Britannia Bridge across the
Menai Straits, or that across the Niagara, were to give
way while a train was passing over it, the rolling stock
and all it contained would be annihilated, and one
country at once become severed almost, if not entirely,
from another, so far as the traffic was concerned. Thus
the importance of high-class bridge engineering will at
once be seen.

The Forth bridge, already mentioned, has a clear
headway of 150 feet from the surface of the water. Its

106 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vn.

two central spans are each 1,700 feet in width, while the
other spans — 22 in number — are much narrower. The
total length of the bridge, including approaches, measures
upwards of a mile and a half, and the contract price of
the whole was £1,600,000, or nearly £200 per lineal foot.

The East River Bridge, between New York and
Brooklyn, is the largest yet constructed on the suspension
principle. It is 6,000 feet in length, by 85 feet in width,
and is divided into three great spans, while its cost has
been about £2,800,000, or £467 per lineal foot.

In India, where skilled labour is not easily obtained,
a special type of bridge is required which involves the
least amount of trouble in erection ; and, in places diffi-
cult of access by the ordinary means of transport, the
weight of each part has to be reduced considerably for
convenience in carriage. In the Colonies the rudest
system of construction is sometimes quite sufficient for
the purpose, as a tree thrown across a stream, or a rope-
bridge of the simplest form, spanning a deep ravine, are
equally advantageous to those whose heads are not easily
disturbed, and whose feet are somewhat of the prehensile
kind.

Amongst the most useful and least expensive bridges
on the suspension principle, are those so frequently
employed in mining districts, consisting of wire ropes,
sometimes of great length, extending from a high level to
a low level, such as from a mountain side to an adjacent
river wharf, or to a seaside pier. Trucks containing
minerals, etc., are suspended from these ropes, and made
easily workable by means of grooved pulleys which run
upon them, and thus enable the loaded wagons in their
descent to haul up the empty ones. As the strain upon
the ropes is equal to many times the load upon them, the

CHAP. vii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 107

greatest care should be taken to make their end fixings
secure. When this is properly done, passengers as well
as goods may be carried with safety across chasms 1,000
feet deep, in any part of the globe.

At Monte Penna a continuous span system is adopted
over openings ranging from 85 feet to 2,230 feet, so fully
recognised, however, is the value of this method of trans-
port that it it now extensively employed both at home
and abroad.

The timber trestle railway bridges of America are
very suitable in some localities, but they are complicated
looking structures compared with others. This is spe-
cially observable amongst those of large size, such, for
instance, as one in the far West, which spans a ravine
and is 164 feet high and 1,086 feet long.

These are but a few of the leading characteristics of
bridges in different countries, which require to be adapted
to the ever changing conditions already referred to.

Works connected with the drainage, irrigation, and
reclamation of land, also fall within the province of the
civil engineer, and contribute in no small degree to
the welfare of nations as well as that of private com-
panies and individuals. The reclamation of land on a
great scale gives considerable employment to the mechan-
ical engineer, upon whom so much of the success of the
scheme depends when pumping operations are necessary ;
and one of the most notable examples is to be found at
the Ferrara Marshes, in Northern Italy. To give an idea
of the magnitude of the project, it may be stated that the
tract reclaimed covers an area of nearly 200 square
miles, and that the total quantity of water lifted to a
height of 12 feet, by means of four pairs of centrifugal
pumping engines, exceeded 2,000 tons per minute. This

io8 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vn.

machinery was made by Messrs. John & Henry Gwynne,
of London, and is said to be amongst the most powerful
of its kind in the world.

The reclamation of territory in England has been of a
most extensive character, as vast expanses of valuable
land were two or three centuries ago completely under
water. This has especially been the case on the banks of
the Thames, and also in the great fen district, which was
from sixty to seventy miles long, and from twenty to
thirty miles broad, but now contains about 680,000 acres
of rich pasture. The territory thus reclaimed by the
skill and labour of successive generations of engineers is,
however, only protected from injury by continuous watch-
fulness from day to day.

Works of this kind are among the greatest that energy
and perseverance have ever achieved ; indeed the king-
dom of Holland may be said to owe its very existence to
the great dykes that protect it from inundation by the
sea. Almost from Richmond to Gravesend, the Thames
is quite an artificial river, vast tracts of country along
the banks having at one time been completely submerged,
and these, too, owe their present fertile condition to the
labour of many talented engineers, who directed their
attention towards confining the river between its present
boundaries by means of embankments, the failure of
which has often produced great havoc in the neighbour-
ing counties. On one occasion a large part of Kent was
thus laid under water, when the gap in the river wall
became so deeply scoured out by the tide, as to bafHe for
a long time the sustained efforts of those most experi-
enced in this kind of practice.

What is now known as the Goodwin Sands formed
at one time part of an estate belonging to the Earl

CHAP. vii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 109

Godwin, but the cause of its destruction was unknown
to many in later years. Bishop Latimer, — in a sermon
preached before Edward VI, in the year 1550, — described
the method adopted for clearing up the mystery. He said
that a Mr. — afterwards Sir Thomas — More paid a visit to
the little town of Tenterden with the object of ascertain-
ing the cause of the disaster, which greatly excited his.
curiosity. Upon discovering that well-known individual,
" the oldest inhabitant," he questioned him in the " be
careful " style as follows :—

" Have you known this place long ? "

" All my life, sir," replied the man of one hundred
summers.

" Do you remember when the Goodwin Sands were
dry land ?"

" Oh, yes, that was before Tenterden church steeple
wor built."

" Now, tell me, when did the water come in ? "

" After the steeple was built."

" What then do you think was the cause of the sea
covering all that land, and bringing about such a deplor-
able catastrophe? "

" Well, sir, you see, afore the steeple wor built the sea
was far away, but after the steeple was finished it came in
and flooded us — I think, sir, the steeple wor to blame."

This reasoning was illogical, but the old man told the
truth — the steeple was indeed the cause of the evil !

For ages the Godwin estate had been protected from
the ravages of the sea by a strong embankment, which
was constantly kept in good order. Unfortunately, how-
ever, during several consecutive years, storms were
almost unknown. This lulled the people into fancied
security, and the money which should have gone towards

i io ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vii.

keeping the sea wall in repair was applied in beautifying
the village church. Immediately after the steeple was
finished, a great tempest arose — the wall was destroyed —
the land inundated, — and thus it has remained to the
present day.

At no period since the Deluge, has the world been
visited by such an appalling calamity as that which
devastated the rich province of Honan in 1887, the cause
of which was the bursting of the Hoang Ho embank-
ment, and the consequent inundation of a vast territory.
England is happily protected from such occurrences
owing to the configuration of the country, and the nature
of its rivers, but in India and China the case is completely
different, as some of the great arterial streams flow for
hundreds of miles through a flat and alluvial district,
which creates a sluggish current, and consequent deposit
of silt along their whole course. Thus, slowly but surely,
laying the foundation of a serious danger, which the
highest engineering skill is sometimes unable to prevent.

This method of raising a river bodily, extends more or
less over various periods of time, and requires a gradual
increase in the height of the embankments, until at last,
the surging pressure of a mighty torrent causes them
to give way at some weak point. A province is con-
sequently wrecked, the old channel leading to the sea is
forsaken, and a new one is formed which finds another
outlet.

Amongst numerous practical examples of the processes
referred to, the Hoang Ho stands pre-eminent. This river
is larger and swifter than the Ganges, and possesses the
peculiar property of enriching the land through which it
flows by the silty deposit of a previous inundation, and
then again destroying it by overwhelming floods. The

CHAP. vn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. in

Po, whose bed is in some localities forty feet above the
Lombard plain, acts in the same manner, and so also do
other similar streams, hence the urgent necessity of
guarding them at all dangerous places. Since its out-
burst in 1852, the bed of the Yellow River has risen so far
above the plain, that enormous embankments, from 300 to
500 miles long, have been constructed for the purpose of
protecting the country from floods. These require very
careful supervision, as any faulty or leaky part will
rapidly insure disastrous failure.

The Hoang Ho is, therefore, a source of great danger
to those who live near it. Its ordinary width is about one
mile, — or the same as the Mersey at Birkenhead, — and its
depth about 70 feet, but when the mountain snows melt,
it rises upwards of 20 feet, and in some places has a very
high velocity.

The freaks of alluvial rivers are sometimes of a sur-
prising character. The Mississippi, for instance, has
obligingly shortened itself nearly 250 miles in 176 years.
That is, it has, from time to time, cut through the narrow
isthmus of an elongated horse-shoe bend, and made a new
channel for itself, to the delight of some planters, who
thus had a navigable waterway unexpectedly opened out
for them, but to the dismay of others, whose estates could
not now be approached for want of water. In India and
China, some of the rivers travel from 2,000 to 3,000 miles
before they reach the sea, and the greater part of their
course lies across dead level plains, so devoid of rocky
boundaries that the water may run in any direction
during a flood, and of this we have many examples.
Amongst them may be mentioned the Damoodah, — a
tributary of the Ganges, — which has baffled the most
skilful engineers; and the Brahmapootra, which, up to

ii2 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vn.

1830, entered the sea 200 miles eastward of where it now
joins the Ganges.

In 1852, the Hoang Ho burst its bank 250 miles
inland, and cut out a new channel, which discharged its
contents into the ocean 500 miles from its old mouth ; but
the calamity which overshadows all others was the flood
of 1887, previously mentioned, which laid a tract of
country much larger than Wales, or at least 10,000
square miles in extent, from ten to thirty feet under
water, and destroyed the lives of, it is said, nearly seven
millions of people. Although the Chinese built another
embankment, at a cost of £"2,000,000, it was again carried
away in 1888, thus exemplifying the capricious nature
of these earthwork barriers in Asiatic countries.

This branch of engineering chiefly refers to the work-
ing of rivers and tidal estuaries, and possesses two distinct
features ; one of which involves a correct knowledge of
the silting process, just described ; and the other, of the
scouring powers of running water. When the currents
caused by the tide are sufficiently strong at any particular
place, the scouring effect thus produced will shew itself
by local deepening of the channel, and this is especially
observable in seaports such as Liverpool. The action of
the Mersey on its channel and estuary, clearly illustrates
what takes place more or less in other navigable rivers,
according to the nature of their beds ; and the cause of
this action is the enormous volume of water which rushes
through the narrow passage opposite Birkenhead, and
fills the greatly expanded upper reaches of the river. A
vast reservoir is thus formed, which, on discharging its
contents by the ebb-tide, creates sufficient scouring power
to keep the estuary channel sufficently free from silt.

The Forth provides a good example of what may be

CHAP. vii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 113

done in time by rapid currents similarly originated, and
passing over alluvial beds. On both sides of Inchgarvie
Island, which forms one of the pier foundations of the
great bridge, the narrow passages have been scoured out
to a depth of 180 to about 220 feet, but shallow rapidly,
as the river widens both above and below. The most
wonderful of all rivers in this respect, however, is the
Saguenay, in Canada, a tributary of the St. Lawrence,
whose astonishing depth of 600 to 900 feet is maintained
throughout nearly the whole of its length.

One of the most curious and instructive examples of
the manner in which scour may be created, is to be found
at Coney Island, near New York, where, in 1888, a hotel
three stories high, 465 feet long, by 150 feet broad, and
weighing 5,000 tons, had to be removed bodily, on wheel
work framing, a distance of 239 feet inland. The cause of
this was the construction of protecting sea walls on the
adjacent property, which had thus produced an amount
of scouring power sufficient to carry away the beach in
front of the hotel, and allow the sea to encroach to such
a dangerous extent upon the building, as to necessitate
an alteration of its position.

The greatest work of modern times is the Ordnance
Survey of the United Kingdom, which was begun in
1784, and has been continued without intermission ever
since. At the end of 1885 the staff of Royal Engineers
and Civil Engineers thus engaged numbered 3,240, and it
is now expected that the whole of the survey will soon
be completed. We may here observe that a cadastral
survey is carried on by means of a series of triangles
proceeding from a base line — that is, a piece of level
ground, usually about five miles long — which is measured
by chain in the most exact manner. Upon this base line

ii4 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vn.

a triangle is formed, and the length of the two unknown
sides computed by trigonometry, From the primary
triangle other triangles are formed and similarly calcu-
lated, until the series, extending like a network all over
the country, is completed. These measurements, how-
ever, have also to be verified by other base lines, termed
"bases of verification."

As an illustration of the marvellous accuracy of the
survey, it has been found that the length of those base
lines, calculated from the original one by trigonometry
through all the intervening triangles, coincides within
four inches of the length actually measured by chain. We
have thus, from one or two measured spaces, a system of
triangulation worked out over the whole country, and its
area and the relative geographical position of every spot
on its surface fixed for all time.

Previous to 1840, a scale of i inch to the mile was
largely adopted, after that the 6-inch scale was used ; but
the four northern counties of England were re-surveyed,
and maps published to a scale of 25 inches to one mile.
It is impossible to form an adequate idea of the in-
estimable benefit conferred upon the nation by this vast
undertaking. It has proved of great value in matters of
the highest public interest, including the drainage of
land, water works, railways, and engineering projects
generally. And, as a practical example of the public
advantage thus obtained, as well as of the vastness of
the work, it may be mentioned that, on a recent occasion,
no less than 453,000 maps were required by the Boundary
Commissioners to enable them to carry out their in-
vestigations.

These few remarks will perhaps serve to show the
great advantages conferred upon the world by the

CHAP. vii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 115

" Civil " branch of the profession. It must be borne in
mind however, that although the ancient undertakings
mentioned in this chapter might well have been carried
out in the past with the aid of the pickaxe, the spade,
armies of workmen, and unlimited time, the mechanical
resources of modern times are now so enormous as to
render Civil engineering, even on the most colossal
scale, perhaps still more of an "elegant and intellectual
recreation " than it was supposed to be by some of the
members of the legal profession in the early days of
railways.

ii6 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vin.

CHAPTER VIII.

PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING.

Preliminaries of Contract for Merchant Ships — For Ships of War —
Conference between Shipowner, Builder and Engineer — Description
of proposed Ships and Engines — The Estimate — Contract settled —
Drawing Office — How Working Plans are prepared — Good and
Bad Engineering — Chief Draughtsman — Results of interference by
unqualified people — Style and system in modern working drawings —
Also in olden times — Swell Draughtsman from Maudslay's? —
Heliographic Process — "John Russell's Sailor" — "Urgent" Plans
of Machinery for Ironclads.

So FAR as we have gone, the history of engineering has
been very briefly touched upon, because those who wish
to study it fully may do so in many well-known books,
especially those of Samuel Smiles, such as : Life of
George Stephenson ; Boulton &> Watt; Lives of the Engineeers ;
Life of Sir William Fairbairn; and his recent production,
James Nasmyth; all of which will be found interestingly
instructive to those who like this kind of literature.

I have described works on the Clyde and Mersey, and
in the latter have referred to the principals, glanced at
the manager, — mentioned the peculiarities of some in
the drawing office, — explained the duties of foremen and
workmen, and enlarged considerably on the apprentice
question. In all cases I have given my own experience
of them during many years' practice in their midst, and
now propose to give a rough sketch of the operations
usually adopted in the construction of marine engines

CHAP vin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 117

and ships. Whilst attempting to do this, it is not neces-
sary to refer to any particular establishment, because
first-class firms generally do not vary much in their
system of management. The descriptions, will, however,
be largely drawn from what I knew of the Birkenhead
Iron Works, and other places I have been associated with.

Let us suppose, for example, that a shipowning firm
wish a few additional vessels built for a particular service
and with a certain speed, cargo and passenger capacity,
draught of water, and so on. This would be right enough
for the merchant service, but for home or foreign govern-
ments, the "cargo and passenger capacity" is an unknown
quantity, except in troopships. In gunboats, armed
cruisers, ironclads, and others, a somewhat different set
of conditions is adopted.

If the Admiralty desire an ironclad of say 6,000 tons,
built in a private yard, and in accordance with the latest
and most improved principles, they will either submit
their own plans and specifications to people they invite
estimates from, or they may give only a few leading par-
ticulars of ship and engines, and leave certain favoured
firms to design, in a sketchy style, what they consider the
best arrangement, reserving to themselves, however, the
right of judgment in such matters, and also the selection
of the most suitable firm to whom to give the contract.

In the merchant service this last-named system is
frequently employed in a greater or lesser degree; but
at other times the shipowner, through his consulting
engineer, somewhat sketchily designs his own ships,
and then requests builders, etc., to estimate for their
construction in accordance with these plans, and also a
specification, which is a very carefully written document,
giving in detail the leading proportions, material, work-

ii8 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP, vin

manship, and other conditions too numerous to mention
here, in reference to the required work. But even in this
case, full liberty is given to engineers to adopt their own
most approved methods of executing those details.

It may so happen, however, that a Company has had
a number of successful vessels built and engined on
suitable terms, and with the least trouble to themselves,
by firms in which they have every confidence, such as for
example in olden times, the Peninsular and Oriental
Company and Tod & Macgregor ; also the Cunard Com-
pany and Napier. Now, if a steamship owner, even at
the present day, wishes to act in a similar manner, he will
hold a conference with the builders, and thus arrange
speedily all that may be necessary regarding the new
ships, and in furtherance of his views will pay them a
visit, when he will be most cordially received by the
principal partner, — who is probably the director in the
ship department, — and also the engineering- manager,
both of whom will, very likely, conduct the interview
in the following manner :—

The latter gentleman telephones to the drawing office,
" Send down immediately the general plans of engines
801 and 816." The draughtsman, or apprentice who
replies, now opens a large drawer, containing a great
variety of similar plans, in the fire-proof room, and upon
finding what he wishes, takes them downstairs.

" Now," says the manager to his client, spreading out
the drawings on a large table, " here are the plans of two
fine sets of triple expansion engines we made recently
for the * Hispania ' and ' Corcovadore,' which gave great
satisfaction ; they worked remarkably well upon a very
small consumption of coal, and indicated about 4,000
horse-power.

CHAP. vin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 119

" Very admirable arrangements indeed," replies the
shipowner, " and as those of the same type you have
already supplied us with have been most economical,
I think you could not do better than make similar
machinery for our new vessels, but of much greater
power. You are also quite at liberty to introduce any
novelty or improvement you may consider advisable."

A lively discussion now takes place upon the relative
merits of different kinds of engines and ships, in which
they all join. The senior partner has a good deal to say
about " style of ship," " watertight bulkheads," " economy
of steel in construction, in reference to increased carry-
ing capacity," and other matters which the visitor quite
agrees with. The manager also fluently describes in
detail his ideas about "long stroke," "rate of expan-
sion," " high-pressure steam," " simple arrangements,"
" steel shafts," " steel boilers," — so on and so forth —
in all of which he is ably confirmed, in a general way,
by the shipbuilder, until the client feels he is in the
presence of people who know everything, and this causes
him to think that his proposed vessels could not be
placed in safer hands.

During this interview, three talented people have
discussed in the happiest possible manner, and with the
greatest intelligence and ease, a scheme which involves
an outlay of several hundred thousand pounds, quite as if
it were an everyday occurrence. They have all been
perfectly above saying anything that was not absolutely
correct, and free from that colouring which inferior per-
sons so often adopt, but they are, nevertheless, masters of
the art of " putting things," and also of clothing their ideas
in expressive and elegant language. In short, this confer-
ence has enabled them to explain all that was necessary,

120 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vin.

and the only thing that now remains is to arrange about
the cost of the ships. Before the ship-owner leaves the
office, the following particulars are agreed upon, on which
the builders are to base their estimate for the vessels,
complete in every respect.

"Three steel-built steamships, length over all, 460
feet ; beam, 49 feet ; depth of hold, 35 feet 6 inches.
Each vessel to have accommodation for 126 first class,
154 second class, and 400 steerage passengers.

" Engines to be of the triple expansion type, and
6,000 indicated horse power. The crank shaft, tunnel
and screw shafts to be of Vickers' mild steel, and the
propellers to be of cast steel, with movable blades.

" Boilers to be of steel of the most approved quality,
with Fox's corrugated furnaces, and capable of carrying a
steam pressure of 160 pounds per square inch.

" Design, material, and workmanship to be in every
respect of the highest class, and speed of ships on trial
trip to be i6£ knots per hour."

The above simple and expeditious method of des-
cribing a shipowner's requirements is adopted in this
case because, with the exception of the modifications
referred to, the builders know almost exactly, from past
experience, what is desired, as they possess full specifica-
tions of similar vessels supplied to the same firm,
between whom and themselves the greatest confidence
exists. Were it otherwise, a carefully prepared specifica-
tion would have been drawn up by the owner's consulting
engineer, lithographed copies of which would have been
sent to engineers and shipbuilders who were " invited "
to tender for the contract.

In the course of a few days, our friend the eminent
steamship owner receives a statement 'of cost of the pro-

CHAP. vin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 121

posed addition to his fleet, which is carefully examined
and commented upon in his private office. '"These
people," he observes, " ask a high price for the three
ships and I know I could get a lower estimate else-
where, but they turn out splendid work, and we shall
make up for the extra expenditure by economy in repairs
and maintenance," The other partners of the firm express
the same opinion, so without further delay, the contract
is handed over to the builders, with strict injunctions
to execute it as speedily as possible.

In bridge, roof, and other work, however, of a more
regular character, "Quantities of Materials" are also
added to the specification, and thus estimates can be
given with greater exactness and less trouble. But how-
ever binding this arrangement may be upon both parties,
there is always provision made for alterations which may
suggest and develop themselves as the work proceeds,
involving, it may be, an increase or perhaps a reduction
in the cost, and this is clearly understood by those who
give the order, as well as by the people who execute it.

THE DRAWING OFFICE.

In good establishments, the drawing office is prac-
tically the seat of government. The fact is that this
department locks or unlocks the whole of the compli-
cated and extensive machinery of the works, and a great
deal that is outside of them as well. In short, all the
immense capital that may be provided for carrying out
some great scheme remains idle until set in profitable
motion by the scientific staff, who have to provide plans
and details of everything, large and small, before the
workmen can do anything.

When, therefore, an order is received, such as the one

122 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vin.

we have mentioned, it is at once handed over to the
drawing office authorities, who initiate the first move-
ments. The diameters and stroke of the steam cylinders
having been already fixed, a preliminary sketch design, to
a small scale, consisting of front and side elevations, and
also plan, is begun with the object of ascertaining the
general arrangement of parts, in which numerous calcula-
tions, and large scale details of a temporary character,
and roughly executed, are of great assistance.

After finding the size of crank shaft, distance apart of
centre lines of engines, and also centres and diameters of
air and circulating pumps, and dimensions of condenser,
etc., the working design is commenced to a scale of at
least one inch to one foot on a sheet of web-paper damp-
stretched on a large drawing board. When this is done,
the general arrangement of details, which have afterwards
to be separately designed and considered, is proceeded
with, while working drawings of some of the details them-
selves are put in hand.

These are drawn to various scales, according to
circumstances, but i^ inches and 3 inches to one foot,
half size, and for small gear, full size, are very generally
used. Everything has to be most carefully and patiently
worked out with the greatest accuracy and elaboration,
and every dimension figured so that neither scales nor
foot rules need be applied in the shops, except for the
purpose of checking, if required. In this last operation
every line and every figure has to be critically examined,
rectified, or added to, before the draughtsman will allow a
tracing of the drawing to go into the works, and after all
this is done, it is surprising sometimes how errors will
creep in, in spite of every effort made to avoid them.

These inaccuracies, however, are very seldom worked

CHAP. vin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 123

to, perhaps they flash unbidden into the draughtsman's
mind when he is going home at night, the manager may
possibly detect them, but sometimes it is the foremen
or workmen who make the discovery, and get them put
right in the office.

It is at this point where the very highest practical and
theoretical skill of the engineer is most required, and
where any mistake may easily cause serious results if
not detected in time. Numerous calculations have to
be made, verified, and compared with past practice — the
" Theory of strains " is fully worked out, so also is the
" Strength of materials," and between these two valuable
branches of engineering science the proper proportions of
all the parts is determined, and the work proceeds.

However excellent, from a scientific point of view,
these proportions may be, they are all more or less over-
ruled by practical considerations, which generally cause
greater strength to be given to the details than theory
alone would indicate, and in this respect good designers
generally keep well on the safe side in everything.
Another most important consideration is " Construction,"
since upon this depends the economical, or, indeed, pos-
sible execution of all the parts, and also the accessibility
of, and facility in working and repairing the engines at
sea. On all thes.e points the skilled draughtsmen, in
whose hands the drawings are now placed, as well as the
manager who superintends them, have many opportuni-
ties of realizing the value of their early training.

It is here, too, that the difference between good and
bad engineering begins to show itself. Under the former,
and with due care and constant vigilance, everything goes
on well, the progress in the shops is rapid and satisfac-
tory, patternmakers, founders, turners, fitters, erectors

124 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vin.

and others all work together, and when the engines and
ship are completed and sent to sea, the result is most
gratifying to all concerned.

With bad engineering the case is very different, since
at the outset, grave errors may creep in which threaten
the life of the machinery. Boilers may be too small,
condensing surface insufficient, steam ports and valves
improperly proportioned ; patterns are made which cause
cracked or unsound castings ; forgings, and other parts
are made of an unnecessarily expensive and unsuitable
form ; indeed, much may be done unwittingly to bring in
the end heavy financial loss, decreased prestige, and loss
of clients.

As an illustration of this, it may be mentioned that
while visiting, some years ago, a marine establishment
which had been added to a small shipbuilding yard, I
observed a few wretchedly designed working drawings of
machinery in the shops, and also a curious looking cast-
ing of a " bed plate " in the yard without any holding
down bolt holes or flanges for fixing the engines to the
keelsons. These engines proved a failure.

The same thing happened a few years ago to a large
and costly pumping engine for water works in America,
simply through bad design ; and not long since, a large
ocean steamer had new machinery which could not give
out the power required ; and another vessel " improved "
boilers which would not work properly until important
and extensive alterations had been made in them.

This, therefore, is the point where three distinct
classes of engineers begin to manifest their powers.
Those who adhere rigidly to old ideas because long
practice has shewn their value, notwithstanding that
better, though newer, systems are within easy reach.

CHAP. vni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 125

Those who are always on the look out for novelties, or
rather the numerous " improvements" which enterprising
inventors are so delighted to introduce, and so ready to
prove capable of doing great things. And, lastly, those
who — taking a middle course — reject the old but well
known systems, in favour of modern innovations which
their own sound judgment indicates must be really bene-
ficial. This, it may be added, is the true reason why
marine and other machinery of the present time is so
greatly superior to that of earlier years, in strength com-
bined with lightness, and also in general suitability and
economical construction. The requirements of engineer-
ing drawings, which may represent very many thousand
pounds worth of good work in one order alone, will thus
we hope, be clearly understood.

The presiding genius of the drawing office is the head
draughtsman, whose duties are perhaps more anxious and
harassing than those of any other head of department in
the works. Besides possessing high scientific attainments,
he must have a thorough knowledge of the possible and
impossible, and also the simplest and best systems of
construction. As a complete set of drawings for marine
engines are elaborate, expensive, and require much time
in execution, a large amount of administrative ability is
necessary to keep all the others going, so as to lose as
little time as possible.

When many orders are in hand, the "chief" has a
very busy time, having not only his own special work to
do, but also to supervise every drawing and examine
every tracing made in the office before it is sent to its
respective department. The regular draughtsmen have
all their own responsibility to bear for any mistakes that
may occur through wrong figures or lines, or misinterpre-

126 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vm.

tation of plans for want of clearness, or insufficiency of
views ; and, although the chief draughtsman cannot be
expected to check everything, he nevertheless verifies,
to some extent, the proportions and arrangements of
machinery before they leave his hands. A certain amount
of mental toughness is also required to protect him from
the meddling propensities of heads of firms, and managing
directors or others, whose position may entitle them to
advise professionally, without being qualified to give their
opinions on such points.

However clever and able these gentlemen may be in
general business, they often damage their own interests
as well as those of their draughtsmen by this line of
action. Most of our best modern engineers are thorough
masters in design as well as in practice, and, therefore,
know exactly how to advise, or even to receive counsel
in the drawing office. Others cannot do so ; and the
consequence is, that the principal in this department is
sometimes worried when work is in a hurry with their
proposed alterations, which are anything but " improve-
ments."

There is a vast amount of time thus lost which cannot
be clearly realised, as an alteration made in what appears
to be only one drawing may involve erasures and additions
in many more, which is bad enough if the plans are still
in the office ; but expensive as well as troublesome, if
patterns and forgings are partly made from them. If a
director, therefore, fancies that increasing the stroke of
engines, say, from four feet six inches to five feet, when
the details are well in hand, is a trifle, he will be much
mistaken.

A good chief draughtsman in a large marine establish-
ment is accomplished in many ways. He is generally one

CHAP. vni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 127

who has closely and persistently studied everything in his
profession — has worked while others played — and, in
course of time, has accumulated an immense quantity of
rules, tables, memoranda, data, etc., from his own and
from other people's practice. These are invaluable, as
they enable him to design and proportion the most
important work with facility and confidence, whether for
a firm, or on his own account at a future time.

When, therefore, an inexperienced proprietor says to
him, "I am afraid you have not made that strong enough,
or this light enough," or comes into the office with his
head full of " ideas " he wishes carried out, it will be
easily seen that a principal draughtman's lot is not
always a happy one, particularly when, in addition to
these unnecessary changes, he has to push on the work
expeditiously, see that everything is right, and, if any-
thing breaks when the engines are at sea, probably get
the blame of it.

The style in which drawings are prepared is of the
highest importance. The practice pursued in some
offices, of unduly hurrying them, is perhaps more per-
nicious than that of allowing dawdling and idleness to
prevail. Before a drawing can be properly understood,
the piece of machinery it represents must be clearly and
fully shewn in a sufficient number of views, and if any
one of these is left out through a wish to economise time,
the detail is very likely to be made wrong, unless one of
the foremen insists upon having the additional view put
in. Every engineer, therefore, who designs or executes
work, knows this well, perhaps occasionally to his sorrow.
Another source of error and trouble is sending out trac-
ings carelessly or insufficiently dimensioned, under the
belief that the foremen or workmen can measure them

128 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vin.

with their foot rules. This, we need hardly say, is a
vicious practice, and entails mischief and loss in various
ways.

In the Birkenhead Iron Works, and other similar
places, every working drawing, large and small, is so fully
and carefully figured, that no one need at any time apply
a rule or scale, except for the purpose of verifying some
doubtful measurement. In this way the work is greatly
facilitated, and the risk of error reduced to a minimum.
Besides this, everyone in the office knows exactly how
things have been made, when referred to in future, and
should any departure from the original become necessary,
the plan is altered, even to the smallest bolt holes,
generally in red lines — to shew the distinction — before
anything can be done with it in the shops.

In olden times they seldom troubled themselves about
office alterations. If the manager saw anything outside
which he could possibly improve, he simply said to the
foreman, " Make that a little thicker," or " I wouldn't put
quite so much metal there," and if the bolts were not
quite to his mind, directions would be given to alter them
from |ths to i-in. diameter, or from 5^-in. to 6-in. pitch,
no notice being taken of the drawings, and thus no one
exactly knew where they were unless they saw the thing
when made.

The above described modern system is in every
respect most admirable. With some firms, however, it
has a deterrent aspect because it is costly, and requires a
large staff of draughtsmen ; but the saving of labour and
time and loss from other causes in the works, combined
with easy adaptation of the drawings to similar engines
and boilers in future, is a sufficient recommendation.

The usual practice is for the regular hands to make

CHAP. viii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 129

full and correct plans of what is required, and then get
the apprentices, or perhaps young ladies — as in Denny's,
and elsewhere — to trace them on transparent linen, — if
for the shops, — or on tracing paper if to send by post.
The former is very tough and durable, and lines and
figures in Indian ink or colours can easily be taken out by
washing them delicately with a brush, and drying up with
blotting paper. If a similar operation is required for
tracing paper, wet the lines as before, drying with blot-
ting paper, and while they are damp rub them with
vulcanised indiarubber, and they will come out as cleanly
as if they had never been put in.

Writing about draughtsmen and drawings puts me in
mind of a gentleman who came to Laird's when I was
there. He was a handsome, stylish-looking man, of about
thirty-five, and was formally introduced to us all by

Mr. B , our chief. We bowed, smiled, and said

pleasant things, and fancied our new comrade might have
been a swell from Penn's or Maudslay's, but when he
made a start he did not seem to know much.,. The turn-
ing gear for a pair of engines was given him to draw, but
he had to ask what the " pitch line of the wheel " meant.
Ultimately he struggled through somehow or other.
Afterwards he had to make a small scale drawing from a
tracing of the machinery end of an Egyptian frigate, but
here he was out of his depth entirely, and someone else
had to do the plan over again.

We saw no more of our friend after this performance,
but often wondered how the talented Mr. B— - could
have brought such a " duffer " to the place. My own idea
is, that he must have known him long before as a gentle-
man apprentice with means, one of those festive youths
who can spend five years in a first-class establishment

130 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vin.

without learning anything useful, — and that he may have
exhausted his fortune in various ways, like the prodigal of
old, and, when it was gone, had taken up engineering
again to make a living. Such at least was my theory,

since Mr. B was as reserved and reticent in character

as his predecessor, Mr. T , was frank and genial.

The plan of keeping drawings in the office, and send-
ing tracings into the works, is reversed in some places,
but I cannot see the advantage of it, as the originals get
irreparable damage through rough usage. Sometimes,
however, they are framed and varnished, and that also is
objectionable. At other times the drawings are kept
clean and nice in the office, and heliographs taken of
them. This is a good and rapid method of copying plans
that are thoroughly matured, and not likely to be altered
in any way ; but when you have the apparatus at hand,
it is not difficult to take new and amended impressions
if required. A full description of the heliographic process,
by Mr. B. H. Thwaite, C.E., is given in The Engineer
of December 24, 1886.

The various systems adopted in the preparation of
engineering drawings above mentioned, have reference
chiefly to first-class firms, but there are some, no doubt,
who seem to imagine that, so long as they turn out good
work, the plans may be done in any sloppy, off-hand
style. There are others, however, who think differently,
and we commend them for it, especially because there
are so many people in the world who reason like John
Russell's sailor. John was a fellow apprentice of mine at
Denny's, and had been several voyages before the mast.
Amongst the various stories he used to tell us was one
about a coloured sailor on board his ship, who always
exclaimed when he saw anyone do something difficult,

CHAP. vin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 131

" Well ! well ! ! well ! ! ! — de man dat could do dat ting
could make a chronometer/"

It may be well to add that the term "picture draw-
ing," so much used by engineers, indicates something
very different indeed from what has been referred to.
Plans of this description are of the high art species, and,
while intended to give non-professionals a clear and
general idea of proposed arrangements of machinery, they
are, at the same time, expected to attract their admira-
tion and attention by means of beautiful shading, colour-
ing, and sometimes shadowing as well. Very pleasing
effects, however, of a similar nature, are produced simply
by the drawing pen and Indian ink, but for practical
men, good, clear, steady lines, well laid on flat tints, and
first-class figuring, are quite sufficient.

I have said that we were seldom pushed with our
drawings in the Birkenhead Iron Works ; sometimes,
however, when necessity demanded it, we made a grand
dash to enable us to get finished in time. When the
engines of merchant steamers were in a hurry, we worked
steadily and earnestly at them, and lost as little time as
possible, but some of our greatest efforts were spent
over Admiralty orders in prospect, or for those in
possession.

On one occasion we had a tracing of a large plan of
machinery to prepare for an ironclad in great haste. It
was big enough to let a draughtsman into each of its four
corners, and away we drove at it as merrily and heartily
as we possibly could. The lines and circles grew rapidly,
and when they had all been put in, we turned the tracing
paper upside down, pinned it tightly round the edges,
and laid on the colours in light flat tints, of prussian blue
for wrought iron, neutral tint for cast iron, crimson lake

132 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. vm.

for copper, yellow ochre for brass, and darkened all aper-
tures such as the furnaces of boilers, with washes of
Indian ink. After trimming the tracing all round, we
turned its face uppermost again, and when the finishing
touches had been put in, the plan had a handsome
appearance, and no doubt created the desired impression
on the minds of their Lordships when they received it.

It may be added, that all tracings should be coloured
on the back, as it prevents the possibility of that most
unsightly " running " of the lines or figures, when put
in too strongly. Another reason is, because the tints,
when looked at from the right side, have a subdued and
very pleasing appearance, which they do not possess
on the reverse side owing to the nature of the paper
or cloth.

On another occasion, I had been engaged on a large
" general arrangement " drawing for a twin screw iron-
clad. To the uninitiated, this costly and important plan
could only appear as a confused, and, in some places,
intensified conglomeration of lines, every one of them,
however, having a distinct practical meaning which will
be referred to further on. As all these lines were in
pencil, and a few additions and alterations had to be
made before tracing the drawing, I had to do everything
myself. Firstly, because the Admiralty wished the trac-
ing as soon as possible, and secondly, and more impor-
tantly, because I was anxious to get away for my holidays.

It was one of those cases where the engineer in charge
of a plan has no time for anything else, and is so carried
away by the urgency of the work, as to stand by it almost
like a slave by day and by night. If this were unduly
sustained, some of our constitutions would get out of
order, and perhaps bring on an attack of the dismals.

CHAP. vni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 133

To avoid such an evil, however, we have outbursts of
hilarity occasionally, which do us great good. So much
indeed has this been the case' with myself, that I would
recommend all men and women who are closely engaged
in intellectual work, to relax their earnest efforts from
time to time, turn their minds into a new channel by way
of change, and fancy themselves boys and girls again.

Speaking from my own experience, the application of
this principle has helped to keep me in continuously
splendid health and elastic spirits, for which I am
extremely grateful. Celsus advised those who wished to
keep in good health to have a variety of pursuits, and
think of many things — this, we countersign in full.

After three weeks' close application, the tracing
referred to was satisfactorily completed, and it was cer-
tainly one of the handsomest and most elaborate works
of art that ever left the Birkenhead establishment. I
cleared out just in time to catch the boat for Liverpool,
and then the train for the north, glad enough to get off
for a little change and relaxation. That was many years
ago, but it is nevertheless a pleasant reminiscence of by-
gone and very prosperous days.

These two examples just mentioned will be sufficient
to indicate the manner in which, with willing hearts
and active hands, we carried through our work when
speed combined with excellence were particularly desired,
and will no doubt represent the practice of the present
day in the same place, under similar circumstances.

134 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

CHAPTER IX.

DRAWING OFFICE CALCULATIONS.

Faulty Design and Construction of early Engines — Value of Hand
Sketches — Accuracy in Working Drawings — Two distinct systems
of Calculation — Simple practical rules in general use — Method of
recording leading dimensions of Machinery — "Allowances" made
by Engineers — The graphic system of Calculation —Complicated
Rules — How to construct safe Empirical Formulae — Rational Science
Considerations — Drawing Office Practice — Value of Tabulated Pro-
portions— Economy in Design and Manufacture — Office "Tables" —
Sudden changes in Engineering Practice — Costly results of Inju-
dicious "Improvements" in Machinery.

THERE is nothing in the whole range of Engineering
which is of greater importance than a correct knowledge
of the science of proportion, as applied to the multi-
tudinous details which unitedly constitute a statical or a
dynamical structure, and this will be apparent to everyone
who studies the subject carefully. There was a time
when engineers had to feel their way by a kind of trial
and error process, but their failures became the pillars of
success. Not only were all the parts of machinery badly
proportioned, but they were also unskilfully arranged, and
this produced many evils of a serious nature.

In the framings of early side lever and other engines,
the architectural orders were much used, and while
massive columns and entablatures may have been con-
sidered beautiful adornments, they were, at the same
time, excessively heavy, and structurally weak at vital
points. The bearings of main shafts heated greatly,

CHAP. ix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 135

because the lubricants were squeezed out, on account of
the rubbing surfaces being so small in area as to create
excessive friction. Pins were fractured, one thing after
another gave way, and one detail after another was added
for the purpose of producing greater safety in working.
For instance, some of the early marine engines had no
escape valves on the cylinders; when water, therefore,
got into them through condensation of steam, or through
priming of boilers, it could not free itself, and thus the
bottoms of the cylinders were knocked out, or the pistons
or covers were smashed.

The early engineers had thus to gain their experience
by sheer practice, and in time machinery became greatly
improved, and disastrous boiler explosions much reduced
in number, as their defects in design and construction
were more fully realised.

There is reason to believe that what is now termed
"Drawing office practice" was at this period almost
unknown, and that a large amount of work was executed
either from verbal orders given to the foremen, or from
rough hand sketches. Those sketches have been very
useful, even from the earliest times, and will always
continue to be, because they are the expressed ideas of
their originators, and form the bases of every engineering
scheme as a whole, or as a detailed part. And it is
from those rough, though carefully considered, designs —
dimensioned in accordance with the required propor-
tions—that the exact and elaborate working drawings are
now prepared. A set of these plans ought to be so
complete in every respect that, when the details are made
from them, they should be capable of erection in position
with the least amount of trouble, and thus facilitate the
execution of a contract.

136 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

Even after everything has been done to perfect a new
set of drawings, there is always something to amend as
the work proceeds, and as one's ideas become matured,
which cannot be avoided if the highest excellence is
aimed at. The plans for Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem
are, perhaps, the finest example of correctness on record,
because all the various parts came into position without
even the sound of axe or hammer being heard on the
premises. It is probable, however, that faulty work was
removed to a distance, and chipped or chiselled to fit.

Two distinct systems of calculation are utilised in the
profession, one of which is adopted by pure scientists and
philosophers — who seem to float in a sea of algebra and
mathematics — and embraces everything that is learned
and perplexing. The other, by practical engineers, who
aim at obtaining what they require in the simplest and
most direct manner. The former is exemplified in some
engineering books, but frequently attains full maturity in
the technical journals, whose pages are sometimes filled
with algebraical and other calculations of a wonder-
fully intricate character. Even practical engineers of
eminence have not been free from this cumbrous system ;
and, in some instances, have given in their books rules
and formulae very different indeed from what might
reasonably have been expected from them.

In a well known thick quarto, and at one time very
useful volume on Land and Marine Engines, by an
"eminent," as above described, there are — in the 1862
edition — some complicated methods of proportioning vari-
ous details, which is all the more surprising when many
celebrated firms, long before this date, made their splendid
machinery from extremely simple formulae. Take, for
instance, the piston rod of an engine. This most

CHAP. ix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 137

important detail may be treated scientifically as a solid
column fixed at both ends ; or empirically, in accordance
with a thoroughly reliable rule based upon long estab-
lished practice. The most vital part of these rods is the
screw for securing them to the piston. If this is large
enough all is well, but if not, a sudden and disastrous
breakdown will take place, no matter how strong the rest
of the rod may be.

To avoid this, care must be taken to give the screw
sufficient area at the bottom of the threads to enable it to
withstand the full tensile strain that will occur at any
time. In other words, find the total load in tons upon
the piston, either from steam alone, or from steam and
vacuum combined ; and, as no greater working strain
should be allowed for than 2j tons per square inch for 22^
ton iron, or 3 tons per square inch for 30 ton steel, the
total load on piston, divided by 2j or 3, will give the area
required at bottom of threads for each metal.

In all engines, this true science rule is employed, but
in triple expansion machinery, the body of the piston rod
for the low pressure cylinder is proportioned by means of
the well-known formula D-f-io, that is: — for a cylinder,
say 100 inches bore, the rod will be 10" diameter if of iron,
and g|" if of steel. For the sake of uniformity and also
interchangeability, the piston rods of the intermediate and
high pressure cylinders — say 66" and 40" diameter
respectively — are made exactly the same, although they
would be too large for those cylinders if used as single
engines. This, however, is constantly being done, and
forms only one of the numerous instances where practical
considerations overrule the deductions of mere science.

Many other useful rules, similar to the above, were
frequently employed when the marine engine was running

138 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

with 25 or 30 pounds steam, and when the stroke of piston
was generally about two-thirds of the diameter of the
cylinder. Tod & McGregor, for instance, reduced their
calculations to such a simple form, that some of the
leading proportions for any size of engines — say, 60"
cylinders and 3' 6" stroke — could have been given at once,
and in such a way as to lead the algebraical professor
to fancy there were some sleight of mind secrets in the
business. Suppose, for example, that you had asked
Mr. Tod to give you the dimensions of the piston-rod,
crank-shaft, single acting air-pump, branch steam pipe to
each cylinder, and exhaust steam pipe, for the aforesaid
engines, having D = 6o" and 8 = 42", the calculations
would have been worked out in this style : —
" Piston-rod, D -f- 10 = 6" + J" for turning down when

worn = 6J" diameter.
Crank-shaft, D-^5 = i2", but put on another inch for extra

safety, = 13" diameter.

Air-pump, Dx "6 = 36" diameter; and stroke, D -1-2 = 30".
Branch steam pipe, D~5 = i2" — better make it 13" diamr.
Exhaust do., 0-^4=15" diameter — quite large enough."

What ! " a regular smash-up, breakdown system, was
it?"

Well, no ; not exactly. These formulae were certainly
empirical, but they saved a great deal of trouble, and
were all based upon practice which was known to be
good and sound by engineers who quite knew what was
wanted, and who modified all their calculations so as to
be on the safe side with everything. Besides this, the
firms who used those beautifully simple rules among the
" fifties " and " sixties," became famous and acquired
wealth, which were certainly strong recommendations in
their favour. The engines of this period rarely broke

CHAP. ix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 139

down, and everything went well — so well, indeed, as to
create confidence all round. I may add, however, that
Mr. Tod's P.S. " Juno " fractured her paddle shaft and
smashed the paddle centre on her first voyage, but as the
forging was unsound internally, she got another shaft
the same size. Then, again, the S.S. ''United States"
mysteriously broke her air-pump crosshead, the new one
was therefore made a little stronger ; thus exemplifying,
in these two cases, practical rules which are constantly
used by all designers of machinery.

They had in the Clyde Foundry a very good method of
recording the leading sizes of engines for future inspection
and comparison. Down the left-hand side of a number of
foolscap sheets, a list of names of the principal parts was
printed, all of which referred in systematic order to ships,
engines, boilers, propellers, and paddle-wheels, the lines
opposite them being left for filling in with the exact
finished dimensions. The upper part of these sheets
contained the name of the vessel, the number of the
engines, etc., and space was also left down one side for
" general remarks." These loose pages thus became very
useful, and gave at a glance desired particulars of the
most trustworthy nature.

The value of the system of calculation just mentioned
greatly depended upon the care and judgment exercised
in the collection of data from existing engines of different
sizes. In addition to this, the circumstances of each case
had to be studied, and when these particulars were com-
pared with each other, the formulae deduced from them
could be relied on. Although every pair of engines was
designed more or less in accordance with the rules thus
found, the skilled engineer used his own experience in
making "allowances" when advisable, and also in con-

140 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

firming the accuracy of any doubtful calculation by more
scientific formulae. The same style of doing things may
even now be utilised in triple and quadruple expansion
and other engines, and in a great variety of engineering
work generally. Care must be taken, however, to verify
the strengths of important parts when necessary, by
resolving the strains upon them directly into those of
tension, compression, torsion, and transverse breaking.
And, secondly, to ascertain by a knowledge of the strength
of materials if sufficient metal has been allowed for to
meet those strains.

In this branch of science, there is no better book
than Box's Strength of Materials, which, in common
with the same author's treatises on Heat, Mill-gearing,
and Hydraulics, combines great perspicuity with sound
practical reasoning and appropriate examples. Equally
valuable in their own lines of marine and general engi-
neering, are A. E. Seaton's Manual of the former, and
W. S. Hutton's Practical Engineers1 Handbook for the
latter.

But whilst recommending these and other volumes,
it may be well to add, that no engineer should trust
implicitly to any of them for the proportions of details,
or of machinery for which he is responsible, unless com-
pared with executed work, owing to the simple reason
that, in text-books generally, the ever-varying surround-
ing circumstances of each case cannot well be given,
whereas in actual practice they are clearly understood.

In roof, bridge, and other kinds of constructions, the
graphic system of calculation is invaluable, as it enables
one to see at a glance, by means of diagrams, not only
the strains at different parts of a structure, but almost
annihilates the chances of error. If, for example, the

CHAP. ix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 141

pressures upon the sides of a water tank 40 feet square,
and 20 feet deep, are required at every foot in depth : —
Multiply 20 by -434. = 8-68 pounds per square inch, and
this x 144 = 1250 pounds, or say n£ cwt. per square foot
of side at the bottom.

Now draw a right-angled triangle to any scale — say half
inch to a foot — whose vertical side of 20 feet = depth of
water, and whose base of n-J feet = load in cwts. Then, if
you divide the vertical line into twenty equal parts, and
draw horizontal ordinates inside the triangle, each line
will give at once, by scale measurement, the exact pressure
upon the side of the tank, beginning with nothing at the
water level, and ending with the full load at the bottom.
For ready calculation, however, half a pound for every foot
in depth will give the approximate pressure per square
inch. The same system can be used in a great variety of
ways. Take, for instance, a plate girder 20 feet span,
2 feet deep, and carrying an equally distributed load of
10 tons. The strain on centre of the top and also of the
bottom flanges will be

Span x weight = 20 x 10 _ , tong

8 times depth 16

Now draw a line 20 feet long to any scale you please, and
also a vertical line on the middle of it measuring 12^
inches by the same or any other scale. Then construct a
parabola with these dimensions for base and height, and
this will give, by means of vertical ordinates, the tensile
and compressive strains in the flanges at any point. If,
in addition to the E. D. load, we add a central one of
10 tons, extra strains of 25 tons will arise at the middle
of the top and bottom flanges — calculated thus : —
S x W 20 x 10

= 25 tons.

OF THE

Lv UNIVERSITY )

142 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

On the same 20 feet base line, erect another perpen-
dicular 25 inches high at centre, and complete the figure
as a triangle. The ordinates thus enclosed, added to the
others, will shew the combined strains at any point in the
flanges of girder ; and further, if any irregular method of
loading the beam were adopted, the same system of
triangles and parabolas would give all that was required
without further calculation, if specially arranged to suit
each case. In beams as above, having E. D. loads, the
shearing strain is gradually reduced from each end where
it is greatest, to the middle where it is nothing, but with a
central load it is the same throughout. Therefore, in the
former instance, the diagram will be a triangle, and in the
latter a parallelogram — the sum of the ordinates of both
indicating at a glance the shearing strains caused by the
compound loads referred to.

Lattice and other bridges, roofs, etc., can all be calcu-
lated in a similar manner, and, although the diagrams
are of a more complicated nature, they nevertheless — if
properly worked out — shew clearly the various strains in
the whole structure. The graphic system is consequently
invaluable on account of its exquisite simplicity, its
clearness, and its accuracy. We have only incidentally
given an outline sketch of its application ; those, how-
ever, who wish to study it fully, may find what they
desire in special books on the subject, one of the best of
which is Humber's Handy Book for Strains in Structures.

This, then, is one side — the sunny side— of the pic-
ture. Lights and shades produce beautiful effects in art,
in nature, in literature. The shades are coming.

Upon turning to one page of the thick quarto volume
previously mentioned, we find, amongst a variety of cal-
culations, a wonderfully empirical method of finding the

CHAP. ix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 143

exterior diameter of the large eye of a crank, which
requires for its description fully ten lines of about thirteen
words each. In a simplified form, this rule is as follows :
Exterior diameter of eye of crank equals

Dia. of Shaft + <^£^jjgjp^l )?.

The formula for ascertaining the thickness of the web
of crank is of a still more advanced kind, and need not
here be given. A very simple and good rule adopted by
engineers generally, while calculating the former, is D -7-3,
that is, we make the length of the large crank eye, for
marine or other engines, equal to f or % diameter of shaft,
and the thickness of metal round the eye one-third of the
diameter. Therefore, the length of eye or "boss" for a 12"
shaft would be 9" if cramped for room, and about 10^"
otherwise, while the metal round the aperture would be
4" in thickness when finished, thus giving 20" as the dia-
meter of eye externally.

The thickness of the web = D x '55, which, in the
present instance, would be 6f".

In small sized shafts, which are not used as prime
movers of machinery, the cranks, or " levers," as they are
termed, have their bosses equal in length to D — the metal
round the eye D -f- 3 — the thickness of web D -4- 3 — the
breadth being found geometrically by drawing two lines in
the well known manner, and, after putting in the beauty
curves, the thing is completed. If treated, however, in
the rational science style, the web may be considered as
a solid rectangular beam fixed at one end and loaded at
the other. The sizes of the end pins are found directly
by ascertaining the load which is to come upon them,
and allowing, say, two tons per square inch for single
shear, and three tons for double shear, with as much

144 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

extra as you think proper for wear, or any other
consideration.

The thickness of steam and other cylinders in iron
and steel — of valve boxes for steam pressure, and water
pressure, etc. — and of large and small pipes for all pur-
poses, when made of cast and wrought iron, brass,
steel, copper, and lead, should be proportioned directly
in reference to the tensile strain per square inch on
their sides due to the internal pressure. But ample
allowance must be made in every case for extra thick-
ness of metal, with a view to sound and true casting,
re-boring when worn, if required, also for strength to
resist shocks caused by the sudden closing of valves, and
for corrosion.

It is most important to have trustworthy methods of
finding the transverse strength of timber, and this is ascer-
tained by taking as a basis the breaking weight of full
sized beams loaded on the centre. In some text books
the formulae give too high results, as the original experi-
ments were made upon small sample pieces of wood
instead of large balks of timber, where imperfections
which considerably diminished their strength were sure
to exist. In this respect, the Mersey Docks and Harbour
Board have performed valuable service by means of
costly experiments on a large scale, the records of which
are extremely useful to engineers.

Molesworth and Hurst, in their well-known Pocket
Books, and D. K. Clark, in his i,ooo-page tome —
Rules and Talks — as well as other authors, have given an
infinite variety of excellent formulae in the various
branches of the profession. These treatises are most
useful in many ways ; but practical considerations, such
as those already mentioned, compel the designer of

CHAP. ix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 145

statical or dynamical structures to study all the circum-
stances of each case, and make allowances accordingly.
Tabulated records of detailed proportions from complete
and varied sets of working drawings are invaluable, as
they are not only useful for future reference, but form in
themselves a substantial basis for the construction of
simple rules, much more serviceable to those who make
them than any treatise can supply. Here again, how-
ever, the printed books come in handy for guidance and
for comparison. And here also, it may be added, that we
stand upon the brink of a course of study some people
enter upon enthusiastically, and which in at least a thou-
sand-and-one different forms may occupy their attention
for the best years of their lives.

Bridge engineers sometimes delight in abstruse and
extensive algebraical calculations, their object no doubt
being mathematical exactness ; but it is an exactness
that is liable to be vitiated by a misplaced bolt or rivet,
or by some other unforeseen cause, all of which are
covered by the simpler methods of computation previously
mentioned, combined with sound judgment.

The technical journals previously mentioned occasion-
ally treat us to page after page of profound calculations
of this class, which may be charmingly attractive to some
of their readers, but perplexing and tedious in the extreme
to those who prefer simpler methods.

In the drawing offices of good engineering establish-
ments there are very many simple and valuable formulae
of a far-reaching nature which extensively permeate their
every day practice. These refer to the proportions of
bolts and nuts, and everything connected with them : to
pipes of every description for high pressure and low
pressure steam, and for water pressure : to valves of all

I46 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

kinds for the same purposes, and a variety of other details
too numerous to mention.

For solitary cases such rules may not appear of much
consequence, but their great importance will be seen
when it becomes known that the good design and eco-
nomical construction of machinery so much depends
upon them, and also that the parts referred to are made
in large quantities for all kinds and sizes of engines. A
well-known axiom among engineers is this : — " Economise
material when you can possibly do so in general work ;
but when things are made by the hundred, or by the
thousand, and especially in the costly metals, their pro-
portions cannot be too carefully considered with a view
to reduction of weight and also of labour. Hence the
numerous office tables of dimensions which exist in some
places — tables that shew at a glance what is required,
and, when well constructed, save a great deal of time, a
large amount of material and workmanship, and thus
prevent in every way the useless expenditure of capital.

For example — the thickness of a bolt head is usually
| of its diameter, a nut from % D. to D. ; both of them
are ij D. across the sides, but in a good " Bolt and Nut
Table" for marine work no calculations are required,
as the sizes run from J" to 6" diameter, advancing by £"
at a time, and on to 8" or 10" diameter by quarter inches.
In such a table — divided into the required number of
vertical and horizontal lines — the diameter at top and
bottom of the screws, and also the number of threads per
inch for each size of screw, are given. Then follow the
"width across the sides," — " width across the angles," —
" thickness of head," — " thickness of nut," and various
other particulars, including the safe tensile strengths in
pounds for each bolt. All our tables of proportions are

CHAP. ix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 147

valuable, this one, however, is simply invaluable ; and
connected with it are a few short rules which closely
affect the strength, simplicity, and economy of almost
every detail in land and marine engines, and machinery
of all kinds. Take, for example, the following : —

Centres of bolts from f" to i" diameter to be D + Ty
from outside of pipe or other flanges when truly faced,
and D + TV from body of pipe. Thickness of cast iron
flanges = D + i" about, and, when of brass, = D minus
|" to about D for high pressures.

All faced joints to be ij" wide for £" bolts; i|" for
f"; 21" for f"; and so on; but if the flanges are to be
fixed in a rough state to boilers, or ship's sides, and liable
to corrosion, bolts i" larger, and joints a little wider than
the regulation sizes mentioned above are necessary.

Then, again, all copper pipes connected with the
boilers and cylinders of triple and quadruple expansion
engines, as well as those for steam or water purposes in
general, have the diameters and numbers of their bolts, —
the diameters and thicknesses of their flanges, — the
weight in pounds per square foot of copper, — and other
particulars, fully given in carefully arranged tables,

Different standards of taper for rods, etc., are in con-
stant use, such as i in 7 to i in 8 for piston and pump
rods inside of their respective pistons or buckets. This
is an excellent and well-known method of fixing them,
both in the Navy and in the Merchant Service ; indeed,
nothing better can be desired. Rods having such a taper
require no "shoulder" upon them, and, besides being
incapable of " draw," possess the useful quality of being
easily disconnected.

A very general taper for the plugs of all kinds of brass
cocks is i in 5. For the cottars of some kinds of connect-

148 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

ing rods, and for every description of pin, etc., which
requires to be driven tight against a shoulder, a taper of i
in 1 6, or f" to i foot, is usually employed. . The same
taper has been very much used for the ends of shafts
which fit into screw propellers, Owing, however, to the
difficulty of disconnecting the screw after long submerg-
ence in the water, a taper of about i in 12 is considered
more suitable.

The strengths of a great variety of steam, water, and
other circular box valves, for pressures under 30 pounds
per square inch, are determined chiefly by practice. But
for all pressures, the safest plan is to have good reference
tables of the bursting strains of cast iron and brass pipes
of different thicknesses and diameters, and of a certain
quality of metal, and make ample allowances according
to circumstances.

Note books filled with particulars similar to those we
have given, are the result of many years' close observa-
tion, but they handsomely repay the time and trouble
spent upon them as the days go by.

The simple and efficient, though empirical, methods
of calculation adopted by practical engineers whilst
designing machinery, etc., and preparing working draw-
ings, have only been briefly referred to in this chapter for
want of space. The true science system of computation
has also been similarly touched upon, with, it is hoped,
sufficient clearness to indicate in a general way how the
thing is done. It may be well to add, however, that the
former is liable to vitiation at any time by means of
sudden changes in practice, and hence will be seen the
importance of having a clear view of the first princi-
ples upon which these simple rules are based. When
the compound engine came into general use, and steam

CHAP. ix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 149

pressures went up with a bound from 30 to 60 and
70 Ibs. per square inch, many serious breakdowns
occurred, because engineers had not sufficiently modified
their old and trusty formulae to suit the new order of
things.

The experience thus gained has proved of great value,
and especially since the introduction of triple and
quadruple expansion machinery, which caused boiler
pressures to rise to more than double what they had
hitherto been.

As already stated, however, when the tensile, compres-
sive, shearing, transverse breaking, and other strains due
to those increased pressures, are once met by the skilful
distribution of material, and the altered circumstances
are thoroughly understood, a new set of empirical rules
may be constructed, and, as formerly, safely trusted
within reasonable limits.

From what has been said about the drawing office,
it will be seen that it is a ruling power for good or evil,
and that, while laying the foundation of successful engi-
neering, it has also originated some of the most costly
mistakes. For these reasons it holds the key of the
position, and as the great engineers of the past owed
much of their prosperity to a clear knowledge of every-
thing that constituted good practice in this department,
so those of the present would do well to cultivate, as far
as possible, the sciences of design, of proportion, and of
practical construction. They may further record in their
morocco-bound note books, that the whole of the colossal
system of civil and mechanical engineering in its multi-
tudinous branches, may be reduced to two separate heads
as follows : —

(i.) Find out exactly what has to be done.

150 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

(2.) Use your skill to the utmost in discovering the
best and simplest methods of executing it.

When these have been satisfactorily accomplished,
put your machinery in motion and go ahead full speed as
happily as possible.

As an appropriate ending to this chapter, we may
add that a very eminent and still prosperous marine
engineering firm had for many years an almost total
exemption from failures of any kind. This created a
somewhat rash confidence, and they began to make novel
"improvements." Things were done that should not have
been done with the working drawings of large steam
cylinders, which resulted in some of the castings cracking
at the foundry. Then again, the screw propellers of a
few of their ships were trimmed until they looked a little
more genteel, but this unfortunately created a sort of
epidemic amongst them when at sea, as one blade after
another gave way, to the astonishment of every one.

The causes of both evils were discovered — the neces-
sary alterations were made in the plans — and the successes
of the past were renewed in the future.

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 151

CHAPTER X.

ENGINES IN PROGRESS THE SCREW PROPELLER.

Triple Expansion and other Engines in the Works — Ship Drawings — Steel
Boilers — History of Steel and Iron Crank Shafts — Detection of
Errors in Drawings — Arrangement of Machinery in Ship Plans —
First Appearance of Mr. Macdonald, the Superintending Engineer —
Peculiarities of the Screw Propeller — "Positive" and "Negative"
Slip — Influence of a Ship's Lines upon the action of a Screw —
Modern Propellers — Cause of Destruction by Irregular Corrosion —
The Remedy— Screw of Cunard S.S. «' Etruria "—Mr. Macdonald's
ideas of Screw Propulsion — Condemns the Manager's Calculations--
Fortunate Discovery — Unnecessary alteration of Plans.

OUR triple expansion engines are now " progressing
favourably," as a physician would say, and tracings of
some of the principal parts have been sent to the works,
and also to outside people ; but there are very many detail
and other plans to follow in course of time. It must be
borne in mind, however, that the firm has several other
orders in hand more or less advanced. There are, for
instance, an ironclad of 6,000 tons for our own Govern-
ment ; another of 3,000 tons for the Brazilians ; two turret
ships for the Dutch ; one magnificent paddle steamer for
a great railway company, whose guaranteed speed is to be
nineteen knots an hour ; and two mail screw steamships
of 4,000 tons each, one of which, recently launched, is in
dock having her machinery fixed on board.

No sooner was this vessel in the water than prepar-
ations were made for laying the keel for the first of the
three ships we have been specially observing. Since the

152 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

time the order was received there has been great activity
in the ship drawing office and mould loft. The immense
black painted floor has been partially covered with the
" lines " and various sections of the ship, all of which are
drawn full size to ensure the greatest accuracy, and
facility of transfer to the frame bending department.

A working model to a scale of half an inch to a foot
has also been prepared, shewing the position of frames or
ribs and the whole of the outside plating, the length,
breadth, and thickness of every plate being marked on
for reference. These, as well as the stem, keel, stern and
rudder posts, also deck beams, angle iron for frames, and
other parts are ordered from the rolling mills and forge
people, and upon arrival are operated upon in various
ways, such as drilling, punching and shearing, planing,
bending, etc., to enable them to come together properly
in place, and to provide for all necessary rivetting.

The boiler plans, too, are so far advanced as to enable
orders for the different kinds of plates used in their con-
struction to be given out to the manufacturers. For such
a high pressure as we are going to use steel is preferable
to iron for the outside shell, because the latter would
require to be too thick for convenient rivetting; but in
the production of the former at the rolling mills, and also
in its subsequent manipulation in the boiler works, the
greatest possible care is taken in every part of the
process.

In the engineering department the work is getting on
by degrees, the forge and pattern shop being the first to
receive orders ; the former of which has been supplied
with tracings of the connecting rods, piston rods, and
other gear, to be put in hand at once. The latter,
however, is doing its best to get the castings of pistons,

*••

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 153

cylinder covers, etc., into the hands of the turners, and
thus considerably facilitate matters at the outset.

The crank shafts have a little history of their own
which may here be referred to. In former times they
were all of iron, even for large ships, and complete in one
length, which made them most unwieldy to manage in the
lathe, and, if fractured at sea, too often entirely disabled
the vessel. This caused them to be constructed in two
pieces exactly alike, which were firmly bolted together,
thus rendering them much easier to manufacture, and if
the forward or after part were broken, the "spare" half
which the ship carried could be used at either end.

This was a very good plan, but the increased speed
and consequent vibration of the engines, combined with
other influences, caused such disintegrating action to take
place in the fibres of the metal, that frequent disasters
occurred, involving serious inconvenience and loss.
Hence, forged steel was used instead of iron, but this was
not satisfactory, as the failures continued, sometimes in
the most unexpected manner. Whitworth's improved
steel was therefore resorted to, with the best results.
The method adopted in manufacturing shafts of this
material is as follows : —

The metal is first cast in hollow ingots, and while in
the melted state is subjected, by means of an 8,000 ton
press, to a load of at least six tons per square inch, thus
insuring the exclusion of all gases, and the thorough con-
solidation ot the entire mass. It is then reheated, and
squeezed by hydraulic pressure into the required shape,
that is to say, a straight shaft with coupling flanges at the
ends for bolting together. It is now cut in two, the
cranks and crank-pins, which have been made separately,
built up and securely fastened in position ; and each half,

154 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

or, in triple engines, each third, is firmly bolted together
with the utmost nicety, until the whole becomes almost
as rigid as if it had been solid. In important details such
as those we have mentioned, the slightest deviation from
absolute " truth " in construction will entail much trouble
afterwards, hence the adoption of every precaution which
can possibly secure accuracy.

The crank shaft of the " City of Rome" was made as
described above. It is 26 inches diameter, and has a
central hole 14-in. diameter throughout its entire length,
and when completed weighed 64 tons ; but had it been of
solid iron would have weighed 73 tons, and cost at least
£7)3°°' This massive detail is frequently supplied by
Messrs. Vickers, of Sheffield, to steam ship companies by
whom their own special steel is highly esteemed. In the
plate of Wigham Richardson's erecting shop, two very
fine built up crank shafts for engines in progress are to be
seen. These views explain themselves.

The pattern-makers, who have now made a fair start,
are very busy indeed, as few of the old patterns will
" come in " for the new type of engines. The condenser
is being pushed forward, but here an incident occurs
which will illustrate the effect of a wrong dimension on
the tracings. In the sectional elevation there is a row ot
figures which reads thus : 3' 9"— 2' 8"— i' 10"— 2' 8"— 3' 9",
and below them is a dimension line giving " length over
all " 14 ft. 8 in. In the plan, the same detailed figures are
given, but the " over all" measurement is 14 ft. 3 in., thus
indicating an error somewhere ; and so thinks the work-
man, who looks at the tracing enquiringly.

Running his hand through his hair to enable him to
collect his ideas, he " tots up " all the dimensions in each
view two or three times, and finds the sum of them,

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 155

14 ft. 8 in., quite right, as stated in one case, therefore
the other must be quite wrong, although the measure-
ment by foot rule gives the correction at a glance.
Euclid says : " If equals be added to equals, the sums are
equal," but the worker in wood, while unconsciously
trying to confirm the truth of this axiom, finds them to be
unequal, "which is impossible, Q. E. D."

As his instructions, however, are to take only figured
dimensions, he will not do anything until he sees the
foreman. This gentleman, on being appealed to, does
not say anything, but, taking the tracing in his hand,
goes straight to the draughtsman who originated it and
observes, " I think there is something wrong here, Mr.
Dalrymple," pointing to the condenser plan.

" Oh," replies Mr. Dalrymple, after gazing intently at
the figures, "it is most astonishing, I checked that draw-
ing twice, and, after all, I have made a mistake ; those
' threes ' and * eights ' are so like each other sometimes
you can hardly tell the difference."

The alteration is made while the visitor waits, and,
in a minute or so, he goes away happy and contented.

This error, which the head draughtsman failed to
discover, is of a very harmless kind, because the discrep-
ancy in the dimensions created suspicion and prevented
danger. It might easily have been otherwise, however,
as all the figures might have appeared correct, and yet
some inaccuracy might have crept into both views, which
neither foreman nor workman could have detected, and
the condenser would consequently have been spoilt.
Happily, unpleasant discoveries of this kind are of rare
occurrence. In course of time, intelligent engineers
become wonderfully sharp in finding out faults in draw-
ings. They will, for example, look at a complicated mass

156 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

of all kinds of arrangements in a plan, and pick out a
flaw no one else can see, just as if it were the only thing
they did see.

They also appear to have a latent distrust of other
people's figures in work they are responsible for until
they have mentally run over them, and yet these clever
and experienced people will sometimes make the most
absurdly stupid mistakes themselves — not through ignor-
ance, but owing to a temporary mental blindness, we
may call it, which for the time clouds their faculties.
This I have frequently seen in others, and have some-
times experienced myself. Strangely enough, however,
the mind often recalls in the most unexpected and
gratuitous manner something which has been done wrong,
and which is in consequence rectified at once.

Oliver Wendell Holmes tries to describe the " mech-
anism of the mind " in one of his books, but neither
logicians nor metaphysicians, nor any other " icians,"
have ever been, or ever will be able to solve satisfactorily
such a mysterious science, or explain how it is that
fancy's flash and reason's ray have so often done
infinitely more than the most studiously calculated plans
could possibly accomplish.

Under the guidance of the office staff, the drawings
for our engines are making progress, and ideas on the
subject generally are becoming more matured. The
" shafting plan " is given to one draughtsman, and the
" general arrangement plan " to another. The former
involves all the working drawings of shafts in the tunnel,
thrust blocks, plummer blocks, stern tube, propeller, and
all their attachments. The latter is a most complicated
affair, as the main engines and boilers, and all the
pumping engines, valves, cocks, pipes, ladders, gratings,

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 157

ventilators, and other gear belonging to the machinery
itself, or connecting it in any way with the sides or bottom
of the vessel, have to be shewn on it, and afterwards in
full detail on very many sheets. This plan requires a
board about five feet by four feet, and usually from four
to five views drawn to a scale of half an inch to a foot
for large engines, and to a larger scale for small engines.
Should, however, the whole of the machinery be too large
for one board, the engines and all attachments are drawn
on one sheet, and the boilers similarly on another.

One view consists of a longitudinal section of the
machinery part of the ship, and underneath it is a full
plan ; there are also transverse sections through engine
and boiler rooms, so that everything may be fully shewn
and clearly understood individually and collectively.
All these sections of the vessel are accurately drawn
from full-size measurements from the mould-loft floor,
and include the frames, plating, decks and deck beams,
bulkheads, coal-bunkers, hatchways, funnels, etc., so that
the connection between every part of the ship and all the
machinery may be easily seen.

Let us suppose that one of these general arrangement
plans has been commenced. After drawing in the
sections of the hull, the first thing to be done is to fix
the positions of engines and boilers in the vessel in the
most suitable manner possible, bearing in mind the
proper distribution of weights of machinery, including
water in boilers and coal in bunkers, so that the ship,
when light, will be in proper trim, and neither too much
down by the stern, nor too deep in the water at the bow.
The height of the centre of shaft is dependent upon the
diameter of the propeller, but in fine-lined gunboats, etc.,
with horizontal engines, it requires sometimes to be a

158 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

little higher at the engine-room end, to allow the widest
part of the machinery to clear the bottom of the vessel.

The manager, chief draughtsman, and draughtsman
who has charge of this plan, have a consultation regard-
ing the best position of the engines and boilers fore and
aft, and also vertically, and at the same time the most
suitable arrangement of bulkheads. The exact positions
of the latter are determined by the spacing of the frames
of the ship, which, from amidships to the stern, are
figured i, 2, 3, etc., whilst those going forward are
lettered A, B, c, and so on, until the alphabet is ended,
when they begin again with AA, BB, etc.

The conference is ended, and the manager — Mr.
Bouverie — has just given instructions to " place the
centre of shaft eleven feet above the top of keel, and the
bulkheads as we have decided," when a very important
personage enters the office to see *' how things are
getting on." This gentleman — whose will is to some
extent law — is Mr. Macdonald, the superintending
engineer for the owners, and his duty is to visit the
works from time to time, see that the specification
is adhered to in every respect, and also to suggest
any improvement, or reasonable alteration which can
be effected before the work has gone too far. If he
knows his own mind, the builders and engineers will
have little trouble with him, because they quite under-
stand each other, but if he is uncertain and vacillating,
his intentions, however good, will involve them in unne-
cessary trouble and loss, and also considerable delay in
the execution of the contract.

This visitor, who now makes his first appearance,
possesses the entire confidence of his employers, having
been with them for very many years. He served his

•*•

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 159

apprenticeship most creditably in Napier's, but did not
enter the drawing office, as this department is reserved
only for the privileged few. Not long after his time
expired, he went to sea as fourth engineer in one of
his present Company's ships, and by steady and good
conduct, ultimately became chief engineer of the S.S.
" Miranda," and latterly the S.S. " Cymbeline," in both
of which he commanded the steam department so suc-
cessfully as to be rewarded with promotion to the sphere
he now occupies — that is to say, the general super-
intendence of machinery of the ships of the fleet, in
which he takes a fatherly interest.

Although somewhat blunt in manner, he is a very
pleasant man when you come to know him. He does not
" bother his head with science," but knows exactly how
to drive a vessel at the highest speed upon the least con-
sumption of coal, and also the best methods of rectifying
every defect caused by wear and tear, and by the great
variety of accidents engines are liable to at sea ; and,
what is of still more importance, to prevent them from
happening at all, if possible. In addition to this, he
possesses a great amount of humour ; and has the power
of illustrating his remarks by many amusing anecdotes,
some of which, however, are rather wire drawn. His sole
aim in life is to do the best he can for his Company;
his intentions are good and highly honourable in every
respect, but he has a curious— some people would call it
an aggravating — way of sanctioning things one week,
condemning them the next, and, perhaps, reverting to
his original ideas at a future time, in such an easy, happy
style, however, that none is really the sufferer, but the
firm who makes his engines.

This, then, is a rough sketch of the visitor who is now

160 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

inspecting our "general arrangement" drawing, and,
who much resembles a superintending engineer I well
remember — professionally, with sorrow — socially, with
much pleasure.

The manager explains in detail all that had been pre-
viously gone over, and adds — " You see, Mr. Macdonald,
we have given you a fairly proportioned propeller, and I
think, on the whole, that this arrangement will work out
very nicely."

" Oh yes, very good indeed ; but, don't you think we
might advantageously make the screw two feet larger in
diameter — get a better hold of the water, and drive the
ship faster, you know ? "

Now it so happens that Mr. Macdonald could hardly
have selected a more "kittle" subject for his opening
remarks ; that is to say, one more difficult to elucidate
or explain with clearness. If, however, he had said any-
thing else about the engines, he would have been more
successful, and created a good impression of his talents
at the outset.

THE SCREW PROPELLER.

The action of a propeller in the water, and its
influence upon the speed of a ship, have puzzled all the
shining lights in scientific and practical engineering,
and perhaps none more so than the late Mr. Griffiths,
whose patent screws are to be found in very many of the
naval and mercantile ships of the world. After thirty
years' study of his pet subject, however, he is reported to
have said that he had been unable to master it, or give
clear and satisfactory reasons for certain results.

The diameter and pitch of a propeller depend upon
so many things affecting both ship and engines, that it is

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 161

very difficult to give any definite or trustworthy rule for
the guidance of others, and much must always be left
to the experience of the designer, so that all the circum-
stances of each particular case may be fully allowed for,
and the proper dimensions of the screw reasonably deter-
mined. Even with experienced people great mistakes
have sometimes been committed, as the investigations
carried out in reference to the failure of H.M.S. " Iris "
to attain the required speed until important alterations
were made in her twin propellers will clearly show.

To the professional engineer, as well as to people in
general, the means employed to produce high, or even
moderate speed in screw steamers, appear insignificant
when compared with the results obtained. This is par-
ticularly the case when a great ocean racer in a graving
dock is the subject of study. On the one hand, there is
the gigantic hull of the ship, and on the other, a small
propeller, which those unacquainted with its mysteries
would consider quite unsuitable for the purpose.

In side wheel steamers, the huge paddle-boxes look as
if they contained the means of producing great power,
whilst the splash of the floats in the water confirm this
idea by shewing at a glance an amount of energy amply
sufficient for the purpose. In screw vessels, however,
when on load draft, and steaming full speed at sea, this
fluid disturbance differs but slightly from what is usually
to be seen in the wake of a sailing ship, and, therefore,
the irresistible logic of facts compels us to believe much
that seems paradoxical until we know the true cause.

The water in which a ship lives and moves is com-
posed of oxygen and hydrogen, whose chemical combina-
tion has been extremely beneficial to the inhabitants of
the earth in a great variety of ways, and especially

162 ENGINEERING. POPULARLY CHAP. x.

to those who are engaged in commerce, or in the naviga-
tion of ships and steamers. This fluid has a few striking
peculiarities. Exposed to a gradually reduced tempera-
ture, it becomes denser and heavier until it reaches 39°
Fahr., when a change takes place which causes the
expansion and consequent decrease in the weight of the
water, until at 32° it becomes floatable ice. At 212°
water is changed into a highly elastic vapour, which
forms the motive power, not only of marine and other
steam engines, but is the occult cause of those disastrous
and wide-spread convulsions which originate in the
earth's interior and create such havoc on its surface.

Another property of this fluid is its wonderful power
of resistance to compression, and the latest experiments
have proved that the compressibility of salt water under
a load of 1,500 pounds per square inch is only ^6 °f its
original bulk. This peculiarity fully explains the reason
why the hydraulic press is so enormously powerful, and —
most importantly in the present case — why the screw
propeller is so efficient in its action. The apparent
inability, therefore, of this instrument to drive a great
and heavily laden ship at high speed, is immediately
dispelled when we clearly understand the nature of the
element in which it works, and which provides the
necessary reactionary resistance. All that is therefore
required is, to give a propeller dimensions suited to the
ship it is intended for, and to make the blades amply
capable of sustaining the greatest transverse strains that
may possibly come upon them.

Notwithstanding the incompressibility of water, it is
so flexible that a vessel's bows can easily wedge its
particles asunder, but, at the same time, the resistance
offered increases proportionately as the squares of the

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 163

velocities ; that is, if a steamer required 100 horse-power
engines to propel her two knots an hour, this would have
to be increased to 400 at four knots, or as 22 to 4*. By
doubling the speed, however, we have, in addition to the
aforesaid fluid resistance, the whole weight of the ship
passing over twice the distance in the same time ; the
power already found must therefore be increased to 800,
or, in other words, as the well-known "cubes of the
velocities," which in this case are 23 and 43.

Hence, doubling the speed of a ship requires eight
times the original engine power, or the power required to
accelerate her velocity, say from 12 to 15, or any other
number of knots, will be proportional to the cubes of
these numbers, and thus the great cost of working fast
steamers will be at once apparent.

Cargo vessels are usually run at 8 to 12 knots an hour
by means of low speed machinery, and mail steamers from
16 to 18 knots, on account of the attendant commercial
advantages. For the same reason, it is now considered
advisable to drive the engines of ocean racers at 75 to 85
revolutions per minute, instead of 55 to 65, as formerly.
But inasmuch as the resistance of the water to a pro-
peller increases as the squares of the number of revolu-
tions, it naturally follows that a high speed screw may be
made less in diameter than one intended for low veloci-
ties, and this can judiciously be done on account of the
fine after-lines or " run " of the ship.

The importance and intricacy of the subject of screw
propulsion may be gathered from the fact that several
books have been written — two of them thick quartos —
with the object of elucidating all that could be learnt
concerning it, and also that a great variety of valuable
contributions on the same subject, by the members of

164 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

learned societies, are to be found in their own publica-
tions, as well as in the technical journals.

Briefly described, the screw propeller may be termed
an instrument for driving ships at high or low speeds, as
may be desired, and that it derives its efficiency from the
resistance of the water in which it works. If, for example,
a screw having a pitch of 20 feet revolved in a solid iron
nut, every revolution it made would propel the ship to
which it was attached exactly the same distance. Inas-
much, however, as it works in a fluid whose solidity is
more or less impaired by currents created by the motion
of the ship, and additionally, perhaps, by imperfect form-
ation of the screw itself, this forward movement is gener-
ally reduced in well proportioned and fast steamers from
8 to 12 per cent., and in cargo ships from 5 to 8 per cent.
That is, a 2O-knot speed in one screw produces about 18
knots in the ship, and in the other, a jo-knot velocity of
propeller gives, say, 9^- to the vessel.

This is termed " positive slip," which may naturally
and reasonably be expected. Here, however, we stand
on the verge of what was at one time considered as great
a marvel as the best Hindoo juggling performances —
something that appeared to subvert a law of nature and
accomplish an utter impossibility. It was proved that in
some instances a ship overran her screw, or, in other
words, the propeller actually drove a vessel from one
to one-and-a-half knots an hour faster than if it had
worked in the hardest steel instead of water. The
facts were incontrovertible, but no satisfactory reason
could be given for them. Engineers pondered and
wondered over this weird-like and unnatural discovery,
which was called " negative slip." They wondered, and
pondered, and meditated. Some said one thing, and

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 165

some another, but for a long time nothing could be made
of it.

If the ships had only run as fast as their screws,
or without any slip, their builders and engineers would
have been considered perfect masters of the art of
design, and the water of the ocean would have been
thought absolutely incompressible — in some places, at
least.

All the mysterious events of the world have been
created by some natural cause, as in one instance an
Egyptian monarch had the pleasure of discovering for
himself. This gentleman had built a treasure house of
much more solid construction, and even perhaps greater
safety, than the future Bank of England, but his riches
disappeared, nevertheless, as if by magic.

" Whisked away by the deities ! " you suppose ?

Oh, dear, no ! they were not quite ethereal enough for
that. The Emperor's faithful and trusted architect put
in the very best workmanship and finest jointing of the
masonry, so that the building should be perfectly fire-
proof and thief-proof, but he also took care that one of
the granite blocks in the edifice was made capable of
being easily withdrawn, and through this secret aperture
the specie and other valuables were abstracted.

In like manner, the screw propeller mystery was
eventually — but not completely — solved, by the discovery
that, owing to faulty design in the screw itself, and
improper formation of the " run " of a vessel, currents
were created in the water, which, by impinging upon the
hinder part of the ship, had the effect of increasing her
speed beyond what could have been expected even under
the most favourable circumstances. When this occurred,
the propeller was changed, and hence the question will at

166 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

once arise : — " Why discard it, after performing such
good service gratuitously ? "

The answer is : — " The service was only apparent,
because some of the engine power was expended in
making the propeller churn the water, in one sense use-
lessly, but in another — strangely enough — for the benefit
of the vessel, by indirectly accelerating her velocity as
above described."

This will be clearly seen when it is stated that the
same speed with, in some cases, less engine power could
have been obtained in a natural way, with positive slip,
by means of a screw scientifically designed in pitch,
diameter, and form, to suit as closely as possible the
circumstances of the case, and thus allow the machinery
to give out its full energy in the best manner. Many
years ago, an Inman steamer lost one of the blades of her
propeller, and she actually ran faster with the remaining
three than she had previously done with four. This,
however, was not appreciated by the Company. The
screw was therefore taken off, and a new one put on,
because the three remaining blades produced an un-
balanced distribution of power, which was bad for the
engines and dangerous for the shait.

The correct pitch of a screw and its diameter
depend in a great measure upon the proposed number
of its revolutions per minute, as well as upon the
lines of the vessel, which are regulated by considerations
relative either to slow or moderate speed cargo ships,
or to swift mail steamers. In the former case, the
propeller requires to be of large diameter, for reasons
which were carefully investigated as far back as the year
1846.

At that period, the S.S. " Dwarf" was experimented

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 167

upon with the object of ascertaining the effect upon the
speed of a ship of variously altered formation below
water, in the immediate vicinity of the sternpost. When
first tried in her ordinary condition, a velocity of 9.1
knots per hour was obtained; but, in the next experi-
ments, the run of the vessel was made fuller by adding
two separate layers of timber, and the result of this was
a reduction of speed to 5, and then to 3.25 knots per hour.
Upon removing the layers, however, it rose to 5, and then
to 9.1 knots as before, thus conclusively proving the evil
effect of a full run upon the screw.

In those experiments, care was taken to make each
layer of timber represent as closely as possible the true
lines of ordinary ships, and the results then obtained have
been confirmed by subsequent practice. It has, therefore,
been clearly proved that full-built cargo ships require
propellers relatively larger in diameter than mail or
other fast steamers, so that the ends of the blades will
work in water as free as possible from current dis-
turbance, and also on account of the slow speed of the
engines.

The formation of the blades of screw propellers has
been endlessly " improved " by inventors, some of whose
ideas can only be treated as philosophical novelties. No
doubt, real improvements have been made, as the
patentees themselves declare, but the shipowners are
very slow in adopting them. It is certain, however, that
nothing but continued and successful practice at sea will
enable any new propeller to supersede those which have
been so long and so favourably known in connection with
the late Mr. Griffiths.

The cheapest screws are those cast in one piece,
which do very well for coasting steamers ; but for ocean

168 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

liners the movable blade arrangement is best, because if
one blade should break, the " spare " one can be
bolted on, the pitch can also be altered slightly, if
required. One of the most useful modifications of this
system is Mr. Bevis's feathering propeller, which allows
the screw blades of a yacht, or any similar vessel, to be
angularly altered, and thus prevent them from becoming
a drag upon the ship when under sail only.

The materials chiefly used are cast iron, steel, and
manganese bronze. The former, however, is liable to
serious corrosion and pitting of the blades, which greatly
weakens them near the ends, and causes increased friction
in the water. Cast steel, though a much stronger metal,
possesses the same objectionable quality in a higher
degree; and it is by no means uncommon to find the ends
of the propeller blades of ships bitten, nibbled, cracked
and riddled, and broken off, on account of the mysterious
and destructive process of pitting and furrowing they are
subjected to. Manganese bronze is the best material for
such purposes, as it possesses immense strength combined
with non-corrodibility. The screw blades can therefore
be made thinner than in cast steel, and this, together
with a smoother surface has, in some cases, given a ship
about half a knot more speed at sea.

There have been many theories concerning the cause
of pitting in cast-iron and steel, but the best one appears
to be that of Mr. J. F. Hall, of Messrs. Jessop & Sons,
Steel Manufacturers, Sheffield. In his opinion, the evil is
occasioned by the sucking action created by the blades of
a screw always working in the same direction, and thus
in time, drawing out of those metals the particles or
molecules which have not sufficient affinity in themselves
to hold together as corrosion takes place.

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 169

My elder brethren, and perhaps contemporaries in
engineering, will remember the time when this plague
among the propellers was unknown, owing no doubt to
the great stiffness of the broad-pointed or fan-shaped
blades then in use preventing the metal near the tips
from being disintegrated by vibration, as it now is in those
of the narrow-pointed and more elastic form. This has
been proved indisputably by the fact that old broad-
pointed screw blades of cast iron have been in constant
use for thirteen years without shewing any sign of decay ;
whereas those of the modern type in steel and iron only
last from three to five years. Hence we may safely
consider that the vibration, which in time destroys crank
and tunnel-shafts, also loosens the particles of metal near
the tips of propeller blades, and that the suction at the
back — as described by Mr. Hall — does the rest of the
mischief.

With the view of counteracting this costly evil, Mr.
Willis, of the " Specialty " Steel Works, Sheffield, has
patented a method of facing the blades of propellers with
various anti-corrosive metals whilst in a state of fusion in
the foundry. By this process solid castings, either in
steel or iron, are now made with the protective facing
of gun-metal, Delta metal, etc., which in practice will
probably be sufficient for the purpose.

When made of strong cast-iron, a screw-blade usually
has a thickness at the root of y per foot diameter, or 10"
for a 20 feet propeller, and the cost when finished may be
^from £20 to ^24 per ton. If steel is employed, the thick-
ness will be about 7^", and the price from £35 to ^40 per
ton ; but if the blades are of manganese bronze, the
thickness need not exceed 7". In this case, however, the
cost will reach ^130 or ^135 per ton ; but, even at such

1 70 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

high rates, this material is frequently preferred for long
voyage ships, on account of its superior advantages.

Owing to the imperfect knowledge which at one time
existed regarding the laws which govern the propulsion of
ships, engineers have sometimes been unable to obtain
the desired speed for their vessels, thus giving rise to
considerable disappointment to all concerned. The sub-
ject was certainly perplexing, but the late Dr. Froude, of
Torquay, was so greatly interested in it, that he con-
structed a large water tank, of special form, for the
purpose of experimenting upon the resistance of models
of vessels while passing through the water. In this he
was so eminently successful, that his system has now
enabled engineers to ascertain with considerable accuracy
the power required to drive a ship of a certain size, form,
and weight, at a specified velocity.

The following particulars, taken from the log book of
the Cunard S.S. " Etruria," in reference to her fastest
voyage from Queenstown to New York, in July, 1888, will
appropriately illustrate the efficiency of the propeller
employed in that ship.

Diameter of cast steel propeller 24' 6".

Pitch of „ „ 33' 6".

Total area of blades 225 square feet.

Highest number of revolutions, 68f per minute.

Length of day on longest run, 24 hours 37 minutes.

Knots run by observation, 503.

„ „ „ propeller, 551.
Slip „ 8*7 per cent.

Mean speed of ship, 20*3 knots per hour,
Indicated horse-power of engines, 15,200.
Displacement of ship, 11,000 tons.

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 171

Other particulars in reference to the hull and machin-
ery of the sister vessel, " Umbria," are given in another
chapter, and from the continuous performances of these
two ships much may be learnt regarding the high state of
efficiency now attained by the marine engine. Those
who wish to study the subject of screw propulsion prac-
tically and scientifically — analytically, algebraically, and
mathematically, dynamically, pedantically, and conclu-
sively— may perhaps find what they require in the litera-
ture of the past and present, and also in the books and
technical journals of the future.

When ladies and gentlemen of enquiring minds stand
gazing at the propeller of an enormous ship, they will
now cease to wonder how it can possibly drive her
through the water at a speed of eighteen or nineteen
knots per hour, because there is — as we have endeavoured
to show — sufficient well directed energy in the screw, and
sufficient resisting power in the water, to do this, or such
high results would not be forthcoming.

To non-professionals, the side wheels and boxes of
paddle steamers are — as we have shewn — somewhat
delusive, as they create too exalted an idea of their
power, and it is, therefore, not surprising to find some
people led away considerably in this respect by what
they see. On one occasion, when crossing the Mersey, a
clergyman said to me, most impressively, as we passed
close to the " City of Rome," " Don't her three funnels
give you the idea of power !" I replied, "Yes, they do,"
and so they did. It is. said that for a similar reason
a towing Company had a new tug built into which the
engineers only put one funnel, because it was quite
sufficient. The owners, however, objected to this arrange-
ment, because the sailing ship people would not consider

172 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

her powerful enough for their purpose. The steamer was
almost finished, and could not well be altered. A dummy
funnel, with the smoke leading into it, was therefore set
up, and this solved the difficulty.

For the purpose of having a chat on practical science,
we abruptly left Mr. Macdonald and Mr. Bouverie in
earnest conversation about the diameter of the " Rosa-
lind's" screw, and now return to our two friends who
have thus been apparently neglected.

In reply to the former gentleman's opening speech,
the manager gives his reason for introducing such a small
propeller. If he were a pompous man, anxious to display
his learning, he might unconsciously crush the super-
intendent at the outset, by telling him in the " hum! ha!"
sort of style, that " when the variability of the eccentri-
city is taken into account while integrating differential
equations involved in the problem of screw propulsion,"
etcetera, etcetera. Since, however, he is merely a practi-
cal minded gentleman of high professional attainments,
he talks away fluently and confidently about " ratio of
area of disc of screw to immersed midship section," —
"speed of engines," — "fine lines" and ''full lines," —
" cargo ships, and mail steamers," including some of the
reasoning already given in the previous pages. The
superintending engineer, however, cannot follow such
arguments on account of the want of drawing office train-
ing, and as his ideas are of the empirical kind in some
cases, he reasons thus : —

" My last ship, the ' Cymbeline,' had a large propeller,
and she went along at a fine rate ; the ' Miranda ' also,
did very well under similar circumstances, and what was
good for them, ought to do for these new vessels. Have
you ever noticed how a duck in the water increases her

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 173

speed, by enlarging the area of her feet, why then, should
a large screw not have more power than a small one, and
be able to drive a ship faster ? "

To use a well-known quotation, Mr. Macdonald might
from his appearance " be taken for forty-two in the dusk
with the light behind him," and as everyone knows, when
men and women attain this age, they generally hold
pertinaciously to their own opinions, whether right or
wrong. Mr. Bouverie has protested against the altera-
tion, but not wishing to be too stiff at the outset, agrees
to make the screw two feet more in diameter, — thus
raising the centre of shaft and also the engines, twelve
inches higher. He has given the best advice as clearly
as he could, and if the superintending engineer for the
owners rejects it, he must take the responsibility. This
gentleman's last words are, — " Put two feet more on to
the diameter of the screw, but keep the bulkheads as you
have them, and that will do first-rate. Good morning."

For the next ten days or so, Mr. Macdonald has a
lurking suspicion that what the manager said may have
been right after all, but he is unable to satisfy himself on
this point. His time is fully occupied with the other
ships of the fleet, but he is occasionally in a " swither,"
or state of doubt, regarding the propellers of the new
vessels, and is afraid that if any loss of efficiency should
ultimately arise from this cause, he will get the blame.

A little incident, however, causes him to decide
quickly upon what he ought to do. The " Miranda " is
in a graving dock being cleaned and painted, so he goes
down to see how they are progressing in all departments,
but, on the way to his old ship, he passes the stern of one
of the Atlantic " greyhounds," also in dry dock. " What
a splendid model ! " he mentally exclaims, and adds,

174 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. x.

"what a small screw she has, too, for her size," remem-
bering at the same time that, on a recent voyage, this
famous vessel steamed 480 knots in one day. The
" Miranda " is also carefully inspected, by way of com-
parison, when the disagreeable truth suddenly flashes
upon him that, although she certainly has a large pro-
peller, her lines are *' full," and the build and engine
power of the ship adapted for carrying a large cargo at
only a moderate speed.

Here then is a discovery which prompts the super-
intendent to exclaim — " Good gracious ! can it be possible
that I am wrong after all ? "

There is no time to be lost, so he goes off immediately
to the works to rectify his mistake, and is delighted to
find Mr. Bouverie in the erecting shop, calmly surveying
everything around him.

" Good morning, sir," observes Mr. Macdonald. " I
hope you haven't done anything to those screws of ours
yet ? "

" Well, no, we have not, as they will not be required
for some time to come." What a relief!

" Well, sir, I have just been thinking that it would not
be at all amiss if you made them as we had them at first."

" What ! two feet less in diameter ? "

"Yes."

" Why that is exactly what I proposed ; but you
objected to it, and now we are well on with the general
arrangement in accordance with your ideas. I tried to
explain to you that fine lined ships with quick running
engines, such as those we are building, do not require
such large propellers ; whereas cargo ships do, for obvious
reasons. It is a pity you did not tell me about this
before letting us go on so far."

CHAP. x. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 175

" I am very sorry to trouble you," observes Mr.
Macdonald ; " but, really these screws are such puzzling
things, you never know where you are with them." . . .
The draughtsman, in a rather unamiable humour, had to
rub out all his work relating to the engines and their
connections in the longitudinal and transverse sections,
and begin again by lowering everything one foot. Were
it not for the boilers, however, which have to be kept as
they are, it might perhaps have been better to let the
engines alone, and raise the ship twelve inches in those
two views. This would have given exactly the same
result ; but the easiest and simplest way of accomplishing
the end in view depended upon the judgment of the
draughtsman, who, no doubt for his own comfort, used it
to the best of his ability.

1 76 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xi.

CHAPTER XL

ORIGIN OF MARINE ENGINEERING — STEAM POWER
ON CANALS.

Duties of Superintending Engineer — Repairing damaged Engines— Marine
Propulsion among the Ancients — Blasco de Garay's "Trinidad,"
1543 — Miller's First Experient on Dalswinton Loch, 1788 — Canal
Steamer " Charlotte Dundas," 1801 — Scheme abandoned — Houston's
experiments on Canal Boat, 1830 — Expected Railway Opposition —
Fairbairn's Iron Steamboat " Lord Dundas" — Trial on the Irwell —
Strange Discoveries — Perilous voyage to the Clyde — Compass
Deviation and Correction — Success at low speed on Canals — Steam
on Ship Canals — Belgian Cable System.

THE duties of a superintending engineer are numerous
and responsible. He has charge of the whole of the
engineering staff in the fleet, which requires consider-
able administrative ability; he has also to rectify all
complaints, and see that the men in both engine and
boiler room departments do their work properly. Besides
this, he has to keep a vigilant watch over the machinery
of all the ships, in which he is greatly assisted by the
chief engineer of each vessel, who reports to him what-
ever alterations or repairs may be necessary to execute
before she sails again.

On visiting each ship at the end of her voyage, he
finds out whether the engines have worked satisfactorily,
or otherwise, and whether any breakdown has occurred.
If any important smash should have taken place, such as
loss of part of the propeller, fracture of shaft, etc., it will
be known to the owners long before the ship arrives,

CHAP. xi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 177

and prompt measures taken to countervail the damage,
by having a new propeller cast at once, — if they have not
a spare one at the repairing works, — or giving an order to
the forge people for a new shaft, if sufficient particulars
have been obtained to enable them to do so. Since time
is required for these and similar operations, it is of the
utmost consequence to have the repairs carried out as
rapidly as possible, and thus save the vessel from pro-
tracted and expensive detention in dock. As an illustra-
tion of this, it may be added that a few years ago two
steamers arrived at Queenstown the same day, each
having lost her funnel. Both returned to Liverpool, and
one of them was repaired in two days, whereas the other
required twelve.

Steamers in general carry sufficient " spare gear" to
provide for all ordinary contingencies, but occasionally
disasters happen at sea which are entirely beyond the
power of those on board to rectify. Minor accidents,
however, can be repaired easily enough, or if they cannot,
may stand over until arrival in port, as they do not inter-
fere with the safety, or even perhaps the speed of the
ship. The most irreparable breakdown that can happen
is serious damage to the propeller, or fracture of the screw
shaft, the latter of which has caused large ships to be
towed very long distances— in one notable instance 3,700
miles, and in another 4,200 miles.

The superintendent has also to look after all vessels
" now building," and this is what our friend, Mr.
Macdonald, is at present occasionally occupied with. In
the course of a few months, the appointed chief engineer
of each ship will help him in his duties by inspecting the
work in progress from time to time. It may be mentioned,
however, that nearly all the alterations and improvements

178 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xi.

that are made refer to the first of the ships, but with the
others, everything will be plain sailing.

It will thus be seen, that the superintending engineer
has considerable authority, which he may wield suc-
cessfully or unsuccessfully, generously or tyrannically,
according to his disposition and temperament. Generally
speaking, superintending engineers to lines of steamers
are now-a-days selected from the ranks of those who are
or have been at sea, instead of the professionals on land.
The former are obviously more suitable for the post,
whereas the latter are better adapted for the scientific
branches of engineering, such as the design, construction,
and supervision of marine and other machinery in the
works and elsewhere.

Hence it appears to a great extent unnecessary for
those who are simply and entirely practical men to inter-
fere with the drawing office arrangements, and this will
be at once seen when we consider the question. In the
first place, men who are good hands on board ship very
often know little of the higher branches, as practised on
shore. On the other hand, a manager of works may be
most accomplished in every sense of the word. He has
also under his own control full and complete records and
sets of drawings of every ship and set of engines made by
the firm, for reference and future guidance, and thus
knows exactly whether certain arrangements, or propor-
tions of engines, boilers, etc., have been successful or not.
Everything good is adopted and improved if possible,
while everything faulty is eliminated.

The chief draughtsman, too, as previously explained,
is one who has, through many years of close study and
application, collected an immense quantity of useful infor-
mation of the most varied character, all of which he

CHAP. xi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 179

finds invaluable while getting out designs, or working
drawings.

These two gentlemen also thoughtfully and intelli-
gently help each other in every possible way, in their
endeavours to obtain the best results, and nothing,
however small, escapes their eagle-eyed scrutiny. A
superintending engineer will, therefore, find it more
conducive to his peace of mind to let the eminent firm
who are making his engines have their own way in the
office, and direct his attention almost exclusively to
inspection in the workshops and yard. He will thus
prevent them from incurring unnecessary loss by the
undertaking; and in proof of what has been said, it
may only be added, that we have never known any
superintendent who interfered with the scientific staff,
as Mr. Macdonald is now doing, and as the original
character actually did, through over anxiety to promote
the welfare of the company he represented.

ORIGIN OF MARINE ENGINEERING.

Hitherto we have referred only to the screw as a pro-
pelling agent for steamers, but may now introduce a few
remarks concerning the paddle wheel system, which,
although very nearly a thing of the past, has nevertheless
been greatly used from the earliest times.

The principle upon which nearly all marine propellers
work is the projection of a mass of water in the direction
opposite to that of the required motion. The only excep-
tion to this rule is to be found in ferryboats, and barges
on some of the Continental canals, where the motive
power is produced either by a steam engine or by manual
labour operating on a drum on the deck of the vessel,
which pulls in a rope or chain lying at the bottom of the

i8o ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xi.

water, a system which has been extensively and success-
fully used in Belgium and elsewhere. The paddle wheel
still maintains its position in river steamers, and also in a
few sea-going vessels of large power and light draught,
similar to those so much used in America, inasmuch as
the screw, to work efficiently, must be wholly submerged,
and any addition to its diameter demands an increase in
the draught of water, which cannot always be obtained.
This difficulty, however, is sometimes got over by the
adoption of twin screws of reduced size.

On the other hand, the power of the paddle wheel can
be increased by making the floats longer, instead of
deeper, and thus preventing the necessity of increasing
their dip. These wheels may also be placed in the
centre of the ship, instead of outside, or at the stern, an
arrangement which is frequently adopted abroad. On the
Mississippi, they used to take great liberties with their
steamers, quite apart from the traditional racing and
occasional blow-up of the whole machine, as it was not
uncommon for those vessels, after having been run in
shore at some cotton depot for cargo, to crawl out into
deep water again on their wheels if they should sink in
the mud. At other times, when the river was low, and
they had to cross a bar with a stern-wheel steamer, they
simply turned her round, and at once got over the diffi-
culty. The reason was that, with the wheel aft, the
water receded from her, and she grounded, whereas with
the wheel in front the water flowed under her, and
the boat rose.

With these few exceptions, the screw may be said to
have almost entirely superseded the paddle wheel, whose
services, both in ancient and modern days, have been so
generally appreciated, but which are now of little value

CHAP. xi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 181

on account of the great advances made in practical and
economical science during recent years.

The action of a fish while swimming gave the earliest
idea of marine propulsion to the ancient people of
Assyria, Egypt, Babylonia, and China, who floated on
bundles of reeds or inflated skins, propelled by the legs of
those who sat upon them ; and such methods are still in
use on the Nile, the Euphrates, and in the West Indies.
The Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians also employed
wicker boats— made water-tight by plastering bitumen
inside and outside, — which were propelled by either one
or two men with short oars or paddles, as is yet done in
the Mediterranean.

The Chinese used a round boat driven by the palm of
the hand ; and Pliny tells us the ancient Britons used a
similar boat worked by oars, very much like the coracles
which are even now sometimes employed on the Severn
and other rivers. The use of sails as a propelling power
is of unknown antiquity, but the common paddle wheel
on each side of a vessel was used by the Chinese very far
back in the history of the world, and to them we are
doubtless indebted for the idea. The screw propeller
also was known to the Chinese for ages, but in Europe
its conception seems to have been derived from the wind-
mill and Archimedean screw.

In A.D. 1472, galleys were moved through the waters
of the Mediterranean by means of side wheels connected
by a shaft having a crank in the middle, which could be
worked by manual labour, in a manner similar to that
which is sometimes adopted in small yachts, or boats on
lakes at the present day.

In 1543, Blasco de Garay, a Spaniard, is said to have
driven the " Trinidad" at Barcelona, by having a paddle-

182 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xi.

wheel on each side, worked by an " engine," which
consisted of a large cauldron of boiling water, but how
the plan was carried out we are not informed. During
succeeding ages other people tried various schemes of
an extremely primitive character, down to the end of last
century, but none of them were of any practical value,
beyond leading the way to the great future which at that
period was just beginning to dawn.

The first experiment which led directly to the intro-
duction of steam navigation was made by Mr. Patrick
Miller, of Dalswinton, in Dumfriesshire. This gentleman
had made a fortune in Edinburgh as a banker, and
having partially retired from business, devoted the most
of his time to useful pursuits, among which was the
improvement of agriculture on his own estate. Being
also a large shareholder in the Carron Ironworks, he
invented the famous " Carronade," a gun at one time
most popular in the Navy, but his greatest fame arose out
of his efforts to introduce steam power as a means of
propelling ships.

The experiment referred to was carried out in the
Firth of Forth, on June 2nd, 1787, with a little double-
hulled boat. Its motive power consisted of a five-barred
capstan worked by men who, however, soon became
exhausted with the arduous labour, and this constituted
the great difficulty to be overcome in an otherwise
favourable trial. A divinity student named Taylor, who
witnessed it, at once observed that " steam might possibly
be used instead of manual exertion." Mr. Miller took up
the idea, which he tried to develop, and meeting soon
afterwards with William Symington, — a young engineer,
who was exhibiting a road locomotive in Edinburgh, —
entered into conversation with him on the subject as

CHAP. xi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 183

fully as circumstances would permit. " Why don't you
try the steam engine ? " Symington asked, shewing at the
same time a working model he had made, and explaining
its action. Mr. Miller was so much pleased with what he
had thus seen, that he gave him an order to make a pair
of one-horse-power engines to drive a little pleasure-boat
on Dalswinton Loch.

The trial took place in October, 1788, when the highly
satisfactory speed of about five miles an hour was
obtained. This was the first steamer that ever trod the
water like a thing of life, and proved the herald of a
new and mighty power in river, lake, and ocean navi-
gation. The hull was constructed of tinned iron plate
which, we may add, initiated the now well known
system of " iron shipbuilding." It was also similar in
plan to the Channel steamer "Castalia," built nearly a
hundred years later. After repeated and satisfactory
experiments on the lake, the engines were taken out of
the vessel and placed in Mr. Miller's library, where they
were kept until their removal to South Kensington •
Museum.

Steam navigation having been thus successfully
attempted on a small scale, Mr. Miller commissioned
Symington to make, at the Carron Ironworks, a twelve-
horse-power pair of engines to put into a larger vessel,
which was tried in the end of 1789 on the Forth and
Clyde Canal. During the first trial trip the paddle wheels
broke down, and after having been replaced by stronger
ones, a speed of seven miles an hour was obtained ; but
as the boat was far too light to be propelled by machinery
she was soon dismantled, and Mr. Miller, who had spent
upwards of ^"30,000 upon his pet scheme, became tired of
the constant vexations and disappointments to which he

1 84 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xi.

was subjected, and abandoned the project just when
success was at hand.

The experimental trial trip on Dalswinton Loch forms
a landmark in the history of the world, quite as distinct
as that of many other important events which have
proved new departures in the arts of war and peace.
The iron boat, the horizontal engine, and the practically
useful employment of steam as a motive power, clearly
foreshadowed what was to take place in future years.
The Edinburgh banker may therefore be said to have
touched the border land of an entirely new system of
engineering, which has been developed in the most
extended form by many talented inventors down to the
present time.

Much has been done in this respect since 1788, but
much still remains to be accomplished before marine
propulsion is perfected. As it now stands, however,
there is sufficient to indicate the extremely complicated
nature of the science of steam navigation, which Mr.
.Miller so successfully introduced on a miniature scale,
and which has proved so beneficial to the world.

The experiments referred to, which had been thus
far successfully conducted, were resumed in 1801, when
Lord Dundas, — at that period Governor of the Forth
and Clyde Canal Company, — employed Symington to
construct a small steamboat for towing their barges,
and after considerable preparation, a vessel named the
" Charlotte Dundas " was completed, and fitted with
a horizontal engine having a steam cylinder 22 inches
diameter, and a paddle-wheel fixed in the centre of
the boat and close to the stern. The performance of
this little craft was admirable so far as mere towing
was concerned, but the surging motion of the water

CHAP. xi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 185

created by the wheel, and apprehended danger to
the banks of the canal, caused the scheme to be
abandoned. The Duke of Bridgewater, however, had
been so satisfied with the result of the trial of this vessel
that he gave her builder an order for eight similar ones
for his own canal ; but on the day the Forth and Clyde
Navigation people gave their adverse decision, news was
received of his death.

Nothing appears to have been done towards the
development of steam navigation on canals until the
early part of 1830, when a Mr. Houston, who was the
principal proprietor of the Ardrossan Canal, made an
attempt to increase the speed of the packet boat running
between Glasgow, Paisley, and Johnstone, by experi-
menting with a light gig, similar to those frequently used
in rowing matches.

To this boat he attached two of the track horses, and,
driving them at their utmost speed, found to his surprise
that, instead of a heavy rolling surge in front, it actually
skimmed smoothly over the surface, and the horses
worked with greater ease at the high velocity than they
appeared to do at a lower one. This was so contrary
to all the received theories that doubts were entertained
concerning the accuracy of the results. Mr. Houston
was not a scientist, and therefore could not investigate
the subject for himself; in order, however, to ascertain
the true state of affairs, Mr. William Fairbairn, of Man-
chester, was requested by the Forth and Clyde Canal
Company to visit Glasgow and conduct a series of experi-
ments on a light twin boat, which was built for the pur-
pose. In his autobiography Mr. Fairbairn says : —

'* Mr. Houston's experimental trip with the gig, and my own experi-
ments on the twin boat appeared to bring out a new law in the resistance

186 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xi.

of fluids, which encouraged the idea of obtaining quick speeds on canals.
This was a subject of vital importance to every one connected with them,
as the Liverpool and Manchester railway had just been opened with
unexpected and extraordinary success.

"A new principle of traction had come into operation. The flight of
the swiftest bird and the fleetness of the racehorse were surpassed by the
iron bones and muscles of the locomotive, the tales of the Arabian Nights
were realised, and no wonder that such apparent magic should create fear
and consternation in the minds of proprietors and shareholders of canal
stock. A speed of four and a half miles an hour for passengers, and
two and a half for goods, were all that they could then boast of, and a
new project, which held out hopes of increased velocity, was seized upon
with avidity. Hence, every encouragement was given to the new theory,
as exhibited by the experiments on the Forth and Clyde, and Ardrossan
canals.

"The proprietors of the former, who had great interests at stake,
confirmed the report I sent in, viz. : ' That after having duly ascertained
the resistance to a floating body passing through the water of a canal at
from five to fourteen miles an hour, it was found that such resistance
might be overcome by a light iron boat with a steam engine on the
locomotive principle to drive her.' In this report I was advised not to
raise hopes that might not be realised, but I considered the experiments of
such importance as to recommend further trials, and was accordingly
ordered to proceed with the construction of a new vessel and all the
necessary machinery requisite to propel her at the desired velocity of from
nine to ten miles an hour.

" The business I had now in hand was to ascertain how, and at what
cost, the object I recommended the Forth and Clyde Canal Company to
pursue could be attained. It was not an abstract question of practica-
bility, but how far a very high jrate of speed could be advantageously
obtained, at what outlay, and what might be the comparative difference of
expense between the proposed new principle and the present mode of
haulage."

Fairbairn now proceeded to design and build the
" Lord Dundas," which was 68 ft. long, n ft. 6 in. beam,
4 ft. 6 in. deep, and having a i6-inch draught of
water. Her shell was of iron plates ^th of an inch thick,
strengthened with light angle and tee iron ribs, and fitted
with cabins fore and aft. The engine, which was of
the locomotive type — with one cylinder on each side,

CHAP. xi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 187

and equal to about ten horse power — worked a single
paddle wheel 9 ft. diameter and 3 ft. 10 inches wide,
placed a little aft of midships, and intended to make
50 or 60 revolutions a minute. The wheel worked in
a trough, extending fore and aft to allow of the flow of
water to and from the paddles. From this arrangement,
it was called a " twin boat," although the general con-
struction of the body was single.

This little boat was made of special lightness although
at the same time put together in a very substantial
manner, and was finished in 1831. Continuing his
narrative, Mr. Fairbairn observes : —

" I waited with anxiety our first experiment, and having launched the
vessel and fixed the machinery, we proceeded down the Irwell a few miles
below Manchester, for the purpose of making the preliminary trial.

" During the time required for building, I had frequent opportunities
of considering the nature of the engagement I had entered into with the
Forth and Clyde Canal people. It was true I had made no promise to
accomplish by steam what had been done by horses, but I considered it
worthy of trial, and undertook to construct the boat and engines, and also
to superintend the experiments. So far, the agreement was clear on both
sides, but subsequent considerations and greatly matured reflections
modified my hopes, and, notwithstanding the lightness of the vessel and
power of her engines promised success, yet my doubts continued to
increase, and I approached the day of trial in a state of nervous excite-
ment of no enviable kind. I had certainly (as I used to reason with
myself before the boat was finished) given no pledge to the company, but
the public as well as the proprietary would expect the realization of
their wishes, and if I did not suceed I must fail, and failure was of all
things, to my mind, the most disagreeable.

" In this way I tormented myself, and passed many a sleepless night,
in order to devise the best means of ensuring success. At last the
dreaded day arrived, and a party of friends from Glasgow, Liverpool, and
Manchester embarked for the purpose of testing the qualities of the new
boat. The spot selected for the trial was a narrow straight reach of about
a mile in length, and after the distance had been carefully measured, we
commenced to run with and against the current, when the maximum
velocity was found to average about eight miles an hour, and that with

i88 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xi.

considerable surge in front. The whole day was spent in the experi-
ments, and a faithful record was kept of the time occupied in running the
distance both ways.

" Mr. Graham, of Glasgow, who took great interest in all that was
done, maintained that, as a first essay, it was very successful. I thought
differently, but kept quiet, since, with all the power we could obtain, we
did not materially increase the speed, but raised a much greater surge
before and behind than it had ever been with horse traction, and thus by
sinking the vessel in a trough between the crests of the preceding and
following waves we appeared to hang on the water with a persistence
which no power emanating from the boat itself could overcome.

"The result was to me far from satisfactory, as I thought, even in this
early stage of the experiments, I could see what was afterwards realized,
that the propulsion of a vessel having the propelling power within itself is
entirely different from the force employed in the shape of traction from a
towing path. In the latter case, the vessel is free from the load of
machinery which in the former sinks her to a greatly increased depth.
With horse traction, however, the boat rises upon the surface of the water,
and with comparative ease and diminished resistance overrides the wave ;
but when hampered by a steam engine and all connections, including
coal, the vessel, from its increased weight, sinks much deeper in the
water and considerably intensifies the amount of surge.

" The ' Lord Dundas ' had a second trial on the river from Warring-
ton to Runcorn, and a third from Runcorn to Liverpool in the open
tideway. On the narrow canal our speed was reduced to less than six
miles an hour, but in the Mersey the engines had good play, and we
drove along at the rate of ten miles in the same period.

"During the trip from Runcorn I had the pleasure of the company of
Mr. George Rennie, to whom I was greatly indebted for many useful and
friendly suggestions. He took great interest in the experiments, and
made many enquiries as to the results, which he considered highly satis-
factory under the circumstances. As we steamed down the river, Mr.
Rennie got alarmed about the safety of such a fragile boat and when he
heard that she was to be taken by sea to the Clyde, advised all who
intended going in her to wear cork jackets."

At five o'clock one fine morning in June, 1831, she
sailed for Douglas, with instructions to wait for Mr. Fair-
bairn, who would arrive next day by the regular steamer
from Liverpool ; but during this adventurous trip, a
discovery was made which became of great value in the

CHAP. xi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 189

navigation of the future iron ships. After crossing the
bar, the captain steered what he considered the proper
course, and about two o'clock in the afternoon land was
in sight, which he said was the west side of the Isle of
Man. For some time they kept steaming as before, but
the commander could not make his course agree either
with the chart or with the appearance of the land ; and
on nearing the shore, he found to his surprise that they
were on the coast of Cumberland. This very wide dis-
crepancy completely upset the calculations of the skipper,
who had now to run for Morecambe Bay to avoid a gale
which was approaching.

On the following afternoon they started again for
Douglas, where they arrived in safety, and found Mr.
Fairbairn waiting for them most anxiously. Upon learn-
ing the incidents of the voyage, he had the compass
tested with the aid of a second one fixed on shore, and
thus determined the effect of the iron hull of the boat in
causing such a dangerous deviation. This is now a very
well known method of treating the compasses of iron
ships, but at the time referred to a boat of this material
was quite a new thing, and the prompt detection of the
error, the experimental discovery of its exact amount,
and the immediate application of an efficient remedy,
shewed great ability on the part of the young engineer.
To correct this error, a piece of iron was placed in a
position opposite to that of the ship's attraction, until the
needle on board was brought in a line parallel to the
one on shore. With this rough-and-ready correction
the voyage was continued with certainty, though at con-
siderable risk, and they all eventually arrived safely in
Glasgow.

The boat was afterwards tried on a long reach of the

190 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xi.

Forth and Clyde Canal ; but these experiments not only
confirmed the results previously worked out on the Irwell,
but proved indisputably that high speed could never be
obtained on canals when the vessel had to carry her own
propelling machinery. Fairbairn adds : —

"This was undeniable, and although we had abundance of power to
drive her nine and ten miles an hour in open water, we never, even in our
most successful experiments, attained more than seven and a half miles an
hour on the canal, with a high swell in front and a corresponding one
following behind. At a speed of five to five and a half miles the ' Lord
Dundas ' steamed beautifully, and at that rate she carried passengers from
Port Dundas to Port Eglinton for upwards of two years.

" These experiments were sufficient to convince the most sanguine of
the proprietors that nothing could be done with high velocities on canals
to enable them to compete with the new locomotives then in process of
development on the Liverpool and Manchester railway. Strongly
impressed with this conviction, I advised the Governor and Council of the
Forth and Clyde Company to abandon the attempt of carrying the
passenger traffic by light steamboats, and to confine their operations to
a class of steamers that would act as tugs, taking the barges in fleets, and
thus expedite the delivery of goods at both ends of the navigation. I
further advised the construction of iron vessels adapted to canal and sea
navigation, which by increased rapidity of transit would meet the
demands of an extended traffic in parcels and light goods. These
suggestions were acted upon, and I had the satisfaction of being the first
to open the new system of transport, and at the same time to direct atten-
tion more prominently to the construction of iron ships in general.

The employment of steam as a towing power on
canals, has now been found very advantageous on
account of the adoption of the screw propeller. There
is less rubbing of the vessels against the banks, the
power being in the direct line of pull and not at an angle,
as with horse traction. The wear and tear of ropes is
much reduced, speed is increased, and bad weather pre-
sents no obstacles on the track, as it does with horses.
Another of the advantages offered by the use of steam
tugs is the cleansing of the sloping sides from the

CHAP. xi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 19!

deposit of mud which, falling to the bottom, can easily
be removed by the dredger.

On a ship canal with deep water as many as thirteen
loaded vessels, from 50 to 100 tons register, have been
towed by one tug at the rate of three to three and a half
miles an hour, the speed, however, for small vessels
may occasionally attain about four miles an hour, but
on ordinary canals it cannot well exceed three miles
without causing such a disturbance in the water as would
be injurious to the banks.

A system of cable towage is much used in Belgium,
and considered in that country at least, to be very
advantageous. A wire rope is laid along the bottom
of the canal throughout the whole length of the course,
and fastened at both ends. Tow-boats are provided
with engines for giving motion to a clip-drum or
pulley, which is so arranged as to enable it to grip
the cable in such a manner as to prevent it from
slipping — an operation which is automatically regulated
by the amount of the load. In working this system, the
cable is raised from the bed of the canal, and placed
in the groove of the clip-drum which is fitted with
suitable appliances, on the deck of the tug near the
bow. When the engine is started, it pulls the tug along
with its fleet of boats, by "clawing" in the cable, which
is delivered over the stern, and left to sink to the bottom
until required again.

It may be asked, " Why is this system not used
in England ? " Well, what suits one country may not
suit another, on account of altered circumstances. In
Belgium, for instance, the land is flat, and stations
far apart, whereas in Great Britain the latter may
frequently be very close to each other, and therefore a

192 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. ix.

more independent and generally useful system is neces-
sary.

This is to a large extent accomplished by means of the
screw propeller, which has been found to answer very
well, when modified to suit the requirements of our canal
traffic, and is now extensively used in England. No
mechanical system, however, has yet been invented
which can increase the speed of a boat economically,
beyond what is now so generally allowed, in consequence
of a natural law which is more unchangeable than that of
the Medes and Persians, and which governs the resist-
ance of water to moving bodies in narrow and shallow
channels such as those just referred to.

The preceding remarks sketchily describe the early
stages of steam navigation under the most disadvantage-
ous circumstances. We need only add, in conclusion,
that so correct was Mr. Fairbairn in his opinions derived
from experimental researches on this subject, that no one
has been able to controvert them. The system and style
of reasoning also which he employed to enable him to
ascertain conclusively the true state of the case, will
furnish non-professional readers with excellent examples
of the manner in which engineering problems are solved,
even to the present day.

CHAP. xn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 193

CHAPTER XII.

BAD WORKMANSHIP.

Troubles of the Engineer-in-Chief— Ambiguous Specifications — Contrary
readings of the documents — Responsibilities of "The Engineer" —
Reckless Competition — "Lowest Tender" — Cause of variation in
Estimates — " Cheap " Machinery unprofitable — Splendid wearing
qualities of high-class Machinery — The "Rosalind's" Engines —
Office work far advanced — Mr. Macdonald's Improvements.

THERE is nothing, perhaps, in the whole range of the
experiences of an accomplished engineer which tends to
make him more irritable and anxious, and more inclined
to use unparliamentary phrases, than having to super-
intend, survey, or be in any way associated with bad
workmanship. The defects of inferior material are some-
times of such an occult character as to render their
detection rather difficult, if not occasionally impossible ;
but bad workmanship is the curse of engineering, and
indicates gross negligence or ignorance, if not premedi-
tated dishonesty on the part of those who produce it.
It includes everything that is thrown together in that
wretchedly fitted and vilely finished style which is often
the result of the " lowest tender" system.

It also embraces a great deal that is fair externally, at
least so far as you can see, but is in many places tight
where it should be easy, or what is worse, perhaps, slack
where it should be tight. Joints may be dangerously
reduced in strength, or weak in the fixing at some
vital but apparently insignificant point, owing to rivets
or bolts having been squeezed into holes which should

194 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. XH.

have been cylindrical, but are, nevertheless, spherically
triangular, semi-demi-circular. or of some other shape
unknown to Euclid. In short, this style of work takes
in the one-hundred-and-one different methods adopted by
inferior hands when they execute what is libellously
called, in Scotland, a " Manchestered job."

An engineer's annoyance and anxiety, which the
superintendence of such work entails, may be easily
explained. He acts professionally for his clients, and
is expected to see that a contract is carried out in
first-class style, generally from his own drawings, but
sometimes from those of other people. If the accepted
estimate is a fair one — though the lowest — and the people
who sent it have a character to lose, they will take care,
for their own reputation, that everything is properly
executed, even at a loss to themselves, and this is what
some of the great firms we have mentioned in previous
pages have frequently done. Under these circumstances
the private engineer will have no reasonable cause for
grumbling.

If, on the other hand, it should happen that some rash
speculator has seized the order, determined to evade in
some way or other what may be legally, but not morally,
a somewhat ambiguously-worded specification, then the
superintending engineer may look out for himself, or he
will soon get into trouble, as some of the evils we have
mentioned will be secretly sowing the seeds of future
disaster and loss.

Although the engineer-in-chief is responsible for the
quality of the work generally, he cannot be expected to
treat any firm so shabbily as to go round and try every
bolt, and nut, and "bearing," and also take to pieces
every detail of engines, boilers, ships, or indeed any other

CHAP. xii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 195

class of machinery, as if the builders were so many
thieves and robbers. If such a state of things existed,
we think the sooner this gentleman resigns his position,
the better it will be for his peace of mind.

Supervision of this kind is utterly unknown among
good people, where the most honourable feeling prevails
on all sides. I am constrained to say, however, that
were it not for careful inspection on the part of the engi-
neer, workmanship would often be introduced which was
not in accordance with the specification, simply because
that document wanted clearness in its statements, and
gave occasion for contrary readings ; that is to say, the
superintending engineer studies it from one point of view,
and the contractor from another, possibly one that is
more favourable to himself. Hence the necessity of great
perspicuity and simplicity in describing what is required
in specifications for small as well as for large contracts,
otherwise expensive and troublesome litigation may arise
which might easily have been avoided. So fully has the
subject been written about in our scientific journals, that
engineers are now much better educated on this point
than they were some years ago, and know pretty well
what to avoid.

Calculations may be very accurate, and working draw
ings very clear and exact, but there are many instructions
relating to the execution of the work shewn on the plans
that may be quite intelligible to the person who origin-
ated them, although hazy in some respects to others. A
good specification is very binding on all parties con-
cerned, and a lawyer sometimes has a hand in giving
force to its statements, for the purpose of securing what
is desired in the fullest possible manner.

For example, the specification for great and, indeed,

196 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xn.

for many small undertakings, states what the words
" corporation," " contractor," " engineer," etc., definitely
mean, and also to whom they refer ; what kind and
quality of materials are to be used ; how the work is to
be done ; what class of workmen are to be employed on
it ; and what the foremen have to do, so that no inferior
methods of construction are resorted to by careless
" hands." Full particulars are also given as to testing,
erecting, painting, and finishing, " to the satisfaction of
the engineer," who has authority to condemn everything
that is not in accordance with the specification, or with
his own ideas, and make the contractor rectify all faulty
parts at his own expense.

" The engineer " is also the judge in all cases where
disputes arise regarding " quantities," and " extras,"
which are allowed for, or " deductions " in the work,
which are subtracted from the estimate. As the time for
completion of contract is in many cases fixed beforehand,
and, perhaps under a penalty, that gentleman has also to
be the arbitrator for his clients, and settle what is to be
done in the event of any unnecessary delay, and besides
his other duties, has to apportion periodical payments to
the contractor as the undertaking proceeds.

There is nothing in professional life that gives us more
pleasure than to see our schemes prospering, — everything
" coming in " nicely, and an air of joy and peace, happi-
ness and serenity pervading all those we are associated
with. But, on the other hand, it is extremely disagreeable
either to find out that some mistake of ours has been
acted upon, or that the contractor has done something
which must be put right at all hazards, no matter how
low the estimate has been. All engineers know this more
or less, and the only protection they have is, in the first

CHAP. xu. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 197

place, to send out accurate and well-considered plans,
and in the next, clearly-worded and full specifications.

There is such severe competition nowadays, that the
" lowest and accepted tender " may leave, mildly speaking,
no room for any profit. With eminent firms, however,
such as those we have so frequently alluded to, their own
exalted name and character is a sufficient guarantee that,
at any loss to themselves, the contracts they accept will
be faithfully executed ; and I am sure that people such as
Napier, Denny, Laird, and Maudslay, would as soon
think of eating a piece of stewed cylinder cover or fried
air-pump valves for breakfast, as of sending out machinery
which was not fully in accordance with their own high-
class ideas of excellence.

The obnoxious " lowest estimate " is variable, even
with the same people, but at different times. For
instance, suppose a great bridge, or set of pumping
or other engines, or even small gear of any kind in large
quantities have to be made. When the estimates arrive,
it may be found that Messrs. Crank, Flywheel & Co. are
at the top, and Snatchblock & Pulley at the bottom of
the list, and if the latter firm are considered good enough
to do the work, they will get it.

Six months later, however, this state of things may be
reversed, because by that time Messrs. S. & P. have
received large orders, are very independent, and ask
what they please, without troubling themselves much
when invited to tender ; whereas C., F. & Co. have
finished all their work, and are glad enough to take a
contract at almost any price, so that they may be
enabled to keep their staff together and their establish-
ment going.

The effects of bad workmanship and unduly low esti-

198 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xii.

mates on private as well as manufacturing engineers
have been briefly stated, but there is another side of the
question, and this concerns the clients, who are some-
times the sufferers, because they fancy that sloppy
though " cheap " engines and boilers are profitable.
Such machinery is indeed objectionable at any price,
because it may involve loss of time and fortune through
stopped factories, delayed and perhaps lost ships, boiler
explosions, and other disasters too numerous to mention.

The only cheap machinery deserving recommendation
is that which is carefully made by trustworthy people at
a moderate price, and from its design and construction
capable of doing what is required of it in the most
efficient manner, and with the least outlay for working
expenses and maintenance. So thoroughly is this known
to those who are extensive employers of every description
in mills, on railways, and in steam navigation, that
they rigidly exclude everything of a second-rate nature,
because the saving in first cost would be more than
counterbalanced by the evils just mentioned.

It was amongst Whitworth's machinery, that I had the
honour of beginning my career, and even now, when
standing beside one of his early productions, great or
small, I feel myself in the presence of a machine whose
material is of the very highest and most suitable quality,
and whose workmanship cannot even now be surpassed.
It may only be added that these qualities, combined with
the most admirable design, have built up a reputation of
world wide celebrity. Only recently, I saw a few of
these machines in a great railway establishment, and
although about thirty-seven years old they were still in
fair order and working satisfactorily. It would be unjust
to other engineers not to mention that there are many of

CHAP. xii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 199

them now who can do quite as well in their own establish-
ments, but some of them, at least, are indebted to the late
Sir Joseph Whitworth for the education they obtained in
his most admirable school of thought and practice.

The hulls, engines, boilers, and all other gear belong-
ing to our three ships, "Rosalind," "Andromeda," and
" Clytemnestra," — now building — , are all of this high-
class standard, and Mr. Macdonald is delighted with
them. Only the other day Mr. Bouverie said to him in
the erecting shop—

*' Well, Mr. Macdonald, how do you think we are
progressing ? "

" You are getting on first-rate, sir ; things seem to
come in very nicely, and they are making a magnificent
job of these engines,'' was the reply.

The fact is, that all the plans and details are working
out splendidly, with, of course, a few small but import-
ant alterations from time to time, that is to say, a little
shortening here, and a wee bit lengthening there, — a
few more bolts in one place, and perhaps a few less in
another. I can promise Mr. Macdonald this, however,
that whether he visits the works or not, neither Mr.
Bouverie, nor the firm, will let those engines out of their
thoughts by night or by day, and from first to last, until
they have done all that mortals can possibly accomplish,
to attain the highest excellence in their arrangement and
construction. Non-professionals can hardly realise this,
because the machinery is of a new type, which requires
a complete and most extensive set of fresh drawings, and
it is only through a long and intimate acquaintance with
the internal working of great marine establishments that
even professionals can comprehend it.

No engineer, however talented, can grasp at once all

200 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xn.

he wishes to know. His ideas expand from day to day —
things previously unseen are made manifest — general and
also detail drawings, are altered in every way to suit
the latest flash of thought — materials are more scientifi-
cally distributed so that strength may be combined with
lightness and economy in manufacture. Indeed, nothing
can be too small or apparently insignificant to escape the
rigid scrutiny of men who well know that life or death,
safety or destruction, so often depend upon little things.
One of the latest examples of this was the bursting of the
Royal Mail S.S. "Elbe's" main steam pipe in 1887,
during her trial trip. It was only a small rent in a new
copper pipe, for which no one could be blamed, and yet
it killed ten people before the steam from the boiler could
be shut off. This, however, is only one of the numerous
side-lights of good engineering practice.

The office work is now far advanced, and whatever
improvements have been introduced into the first set of
engines, will be utilised without further trouble in the
second and third sets. Mr. Macdonald has become quite
a favourite with everyone he comes in contact with, and
especially with his friends in the drawing department,
who fancy themselves well out of the wood, that is to say,
all the additional " eighths " in diameter to bolts through-
out the engines, and extra " quarters " and " half inches "
given to rods and shafts, have been put into the drawings
from time to time, as well as other little alterations of
a varied character the superintending engineer thought
advisable.

Things are, therefore, well past the rectifying stage,
but even now a discovery has been made in the " General
arrangement of engines and boilers." Mr. Watt, the
draughtsman, has been explaining different parts of the

CHAP. xn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 201

plan to this gentleman, — who has paid him a visit, — and
showing to his own satisfaction, at least, how well all the
details will work out, and how handy they will be in
every respect.

"Yes," says Mr. Macdonald, "everything looks first-
rate, but you have too sprawly an arrangement in that
corner — pointing to the port-forward end of the engine-
room — which will have to be altered."

" Well, I could have made a more compact arrange-
ment, but I wished to give you a little more room for
working," observes Mr. Watt.

" Very true ; but suppose you had a field you wanted
to build houses in, what would you do ? "

" I don't know."

" Wouldn't you like to put them as close together as
possible ? "

" I don't think I would."

" Well, that is just exactly what I wish you to do in
this case. Put that donkey more into the corner, shorten
the bends of those pipes, and put these suction and
delivery valve boxes a little closer together, and then you
will be right."

Mr. Ellington, the chief draughtsman, is appealed to
before anything previously sanctioned can be amended,
and his opinion is that " the arrangement could not be
better, but I suppose we shall have to alter it to please
him." It is altered.

In course of the next fortnight, Mr. Macdonald is
again making a tour of observation in the works, and
again looks at this plan approvingly.

"That will do very nicely," he remarks, "just go on
as you are doing, but man," — he says, bringing himself
up with a jerk — " what is this you are about ? You have

202 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xii.

jammed everything into that corner in such a way that
no one can get at it. That will never do."

" I thought," replies Mr. Watt, " that was just what
you wished."

" Yes, but you have gone to the other extreme now,
you surely couldn't expect men on board a ship to work
these things properly."

If the truth must be told, Mr. Macdonald has found
out that they were better as they were, but as it would be
rather humiliating to adopt a discarded idea fourteen
days old, he suggests a medium arrangement, which the
draughtsman informs him " will be very awkward, as
all the details are in the shops, and may be partly made
by this time — pity he didn't know about it sooner, etc."

The end of it is, that every tracing referring to the
disputed subject has to be sent for, inquiries made con
cerning what has been done, and the work stopped until
the alterations are put in in crimson lake, and the
tracings returned. As the superintending engineer has
never made a half-inch scale drawing of this kind in his
life, he has, of course, a rather hazy idea of distances on
a plan, hence the unnecessary and troublesome altera-
tions just referred to. Had he, however, seen the real
work in the actual ship, he would have told you exactly,
straight off the reel, whether it would have done or not,
and maintained his opinions, too. It may be useful to
add that there is a kind of ocular deception about
drawings which has to be guarded against. This is
particularly the case with full-size details, as they always
look larger than the work they represent when finished.
The figured dimensions, however, efficiently correct these
false impressions.

As previously observed, everyone in the office engaged

CHAP. xn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 203

on the plans for the " Rosalind " and her sister ships,
feels as if he were getting clear of his difficulties, and
looks upon a visit from Mr. Macdonald as a source of
enlivenment, as he is full of quaint narratives, funny
illustrations, tales of the ocean, and yarns from the engine
room to fire off when he has time to do so. On one
occasion, he came in upon Mr. Ellington, when he was
busy examining about a dozen tracings of details before
sending them out, and also entering them in a large book
kept for the purpose. He had just got as far as
"Engines, No. 850; Air Pump Levers, No. 31,999,
January i8th, 1889;" when the visitor arrives, and work
is for a few minutes suspended, so that both may have a
chat upon things in general.

204 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xin.

CHAPTER XIII.

SYSTEM OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN
MARINE ENGINES.

Method of proportioning Engine Power to required Speed of Ships —
Experiments with Steamers at various speeds to ascertain the
actual Powers — Leading Dimensions and Calculations of the
" Rosalind's " Engines and Boilers — Rules for determining size of
Triple Crank Shafts, etc. — Arrangement of Drawings and Tracings
in Office — Mr. Macdonald's Sea-going experiences — Board of Trade
Examinations — Great activity in Erecting Shop — Description of
"Rosalind's" Engines as they now appear — Leading principles in
Machinery Construction — Lifting Gear and Tackle — Engine Founda-
tions— Shrinking on the " Connaught's " Cranks — Modern system
of finishing Crank Shafts — Serious Galvanic action in a Propeller
Shaft.

WE may now briefly describe the preliminary operations
that have to be performed before the sketch design for
the engines and boilers of a ship can be proceeded with.

After the leading particulars and speed of the pro-
posed vessel have been decided upon, the first thing to be
done is to ascertain how much indicated horse-power is
required to drive her at the intended velocity. This is
accomplished chiefly by calculation, and partly by means
of data referring to other similar ships, and additionally
in some instances, by means of model experiments in a
specially constructed watertank on Dr. Froude's system.
These computations are more or less affected by the lines
of the ship, which give the " coefficient of fineness " —
by " the displacement in tons " — by " the immersed mid-
ship section " — by the friction of the ship in passing

CHAP. xin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 205

through the water, and by the fluid resistance at various
speeds already mentioned in connection w;th the screw
propeller.

As previously stated, the power required to drive a
ship at different velocities varies as their cubes, which
may be considered fairly correct in a general sense when
above ten knots per hour. The following particulars,
however, taken from the trial trips of well known
steamers, will shew at a glance the practical utility of the
above rule. The " true speeds " given are in knots per
hour, and the cubes of these velocities, with their corre-
sponding indicated horse -power, as well as the calculated
powers, are added for comparison.

S.S. " EGYPTIAN MONARCH."

True speeds ... 13-26 ... 12-58 ... 11-21 ... 6.4 knots.

Cubes of do. ... 2330 ... 2000 ... 1410 ... 263

Actual I.H.P.... 2822 ... 2298 ... 1498 ... 287

Calculated do.... 2677... 2125 ... 1538... -

S.S. " TAUPO."

True speeds ...

12-44

... 9-97 ...

8-2

- 5-25

Cubes of do. ...

1911

... 993 ...

552

... 145

Actual I.H.P ...

1084

... 520 ...

295

... 102

Calculated do.... 1001 ... 530 ... 388 ... —

When the required horse-power has thus been found,
the diameter of the high pressure, intermediate, and low
pressure cylinders, and also the stroke of the proposed
engines are calculated, having as a basis a steam pressure
of about 150 pounds per square inch, and the intended
number of revolutions per minute.

The empirical method of proportioning the boilers, is
to allow about 2f square feet of total heating surface, and

206 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xm.

•085 of a square foot of fire grate per indicated horse-
power. From these leading particulars may be found the
number of boilers, and also their diameter and length.

The rational science rule, however, is to ascertain the
number of cubic feet of steam the high pressure cylinder
will use per hour at so many strokes per minute, and
cutting off for expansion at any fixed point of the stroke.
Having found the quantity of steam required in the
engines, and also the quantity of water from which to
make that steam at the given pressure, allow in the next
place for the ordinary coal consumption of fifteen pounds
per square foot of fire grate per hour. Then upon this
basis calculate the amount of fire grate and heating
surface necessary to evaporate the water, and thus create
sufficient steam to drive the engines at their highest
speed. This is right enough in theory, but in practice
ample allowance must be made to cover waste from a
variety of causes.

As the leading proportions of the " Rosalind's" 6,000
indicated horse power machinery have now been deter-
mined in the drawing office, a few of them may be given
as follows : —

High pressure cylinder, 40" diameter.
Intermediate cylinder, 66" diameter.
Low pressure cylinder, 100" diameter.
Piston rods, for all the cylinders, of mild steel, gj"

diameter.

Crank shaft, of Vickers' mild steel, in three interchange-
able pieces ; each bearing 21" diameter.
Tunnel shafts, 20" diameter; and propeller shafts, 21"

diameter, all of Vickers' steel.

Total cooling surface in condenser tubes, 11,546 square
feet.

CHAP. xiii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 207

Two single acting air pumps, 30" diameter and 33" stroke.
Two centrifugal pumps, for condenser, each being driven

by a pair of engines, having steam cylinders 8" and

1 6" diameter by 10" stroke.
Two feed pumps, 7" diameter and 33" stroke.
Two bilge pumps, 7" diameter and 33" stroke.
Six boilers, 13' 6" diameter by 18' o" long, suitable for a

working pressure of 160 pounds per square inch.
Total heating surface, 17,640 square feet.
Total fire grate surface, 627 square feet.
Propeller, of Willis's anti- corrosive steel, 22' o diameter ;

and pitch, varying from 27' o" to 30' o".
Total flat area of blades 149*6 feet.

These dimensions refer only to some of the principal
parts, whose details, as well as all the minor details of
engines, boilers, and their connections throughout the
ship, have to be very carefully calculated and arranged as
the work proceeds.

The application of a few of the rules mentioned in a
previous chapter may here be appropriately introduced.
For example, the areas of the cylinders of our engines —
40", 66", and 100" diameter — must have a certain ratio, so
that the power given out by each will be nearly uniform.
The ratios, therefore, of the above cylinders are i, 2-7,
and 6*25 ; the mean, however, of sixteen sets of engines,
by as many different makers, is i, 2-54, and 7-07, where
the steam is cut off at three-fifths of the stroke.

If the piston rods had been of iron, 10" diameter, or
100 -=- 10, they would have done well, but as they are to
be of steel, we have reduced them 10 per cent, in area,
that is, to 9^" diameter.

The crank shaft could safely be = high pressure
cylinder diameter ~- 2 = 20", instead of 21" diameter, but

208 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xm.

as the " Rosalind " is intended for long voyages, a frac-
ture of that most important part might entail very serious
consequences. On the Atlantic station, however, a
similar breakdown would not be so disastrous, owing to
the shortness of the trip, and the number of vessels in
the track which could give assistance when required.

The Board of Trade formula for three crank com-
pound engines is : —

2016 = f

Where d = High pressure cylinder diameter.
,, D = Low pressure cylinder diameter.
,, P = Steam pressure in boilers.
,, C = Length of crank in inches.
,, f = Constant for three crank shafts.
,, 15 = Assumed pressure in low pressure cylinder.

By applying this rule to our own engines, and leaving
the intermediate cylinder out of the question, we get igj"
for the diameter of shaft, which is the least dimension
the Board of Trade will permit. Since, however, their
proportions are in all cases taken as the lowest limit of
strength, good engineers make ample allowances when
necessary, not only to prevent the bare possibility of
accident, but also to insure the highest performances of
their machinery in every sense of the word, and thus it is
that some ships are so wonderfully successful in speed,
and also in freedom from accident on ocean voyages.

The condenser cooling surface is very nearly two
square feet per horse power, or in this instance, thirty-
five times the content of the 100" cylinder, which is equal
to 327-24 cubic feet.

CHAP. xni. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 209

The content of both air pumps is 27 cubic feet, or
almost exactly TV of the 100" cylinder.

The circulating pump gear is driven as already
described ; but in smaller ships it is generally worked by
the main engines, and the quantity of water delivered
through the cooling pipes depends more or less upon
whether the ship is to run in tropical seas or in Atlantic
waters.

The content of each feed pump — 7" diameter by 33"
stroke — is 1,270 cubic inches, and as the content of the
high pressure cylinder — 40" diameter by 72" stroke —is
90,475 cubic inches ; the ratio of their capacities is there-
fore i to 71*25.

The bilge pumps are, as a rule, made the same size,
and the diameters of all the pipes through which water is
forced are so determined as to allow a fluid velocity of
not more than 450 feet per minute. This, however, is
often much reduced.

The total boiler heating surface of 17,640 square feet-^
6,000 = 2-9 square feet per indicated horse power, and the
fire-grate surface of 627 feet -f- 6,000 = nearly T\> of a
square foot per H.P. Therefore, the ratio of fire grate
area to heating surface is in this case = 17,640 -f- 627, or
or as i to 28. In general, however, this proportion is
about i to 30.

These few examples may perhaps be sufficient to indi-
cate in a general way how the leading proportions of
engines and boilers are directly ascertained, but if the
reader wishes to study the subject in detail, the text-
books, aided by practical observation, will no doubt
prove useful. It may be added that the dimensions and
particulars given above for the S.S. " Rosalind " may be
safely trusted, because they are exactly the same as those

210 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xin.

of the magnificent and highly successful Orient liners
" Oroya " and " Orizaba," recently built by the Barrow
Shipbuilding Company, whose " allowances " — profes-
sionals must admit — have been liberal.

MR. MACDONALD'S SEA-GOING EXPERIENCES — MARINE
ENGINE CONSTRUCTION.

When an engineering firm begins to make its first pair
of engines, these engines are ever afterwards known as
" No. i," and the first drawing or tracing has also the
same title applied to it, but every additional one is
numbered in consecutive order, — as indicated in the last
chapter, — and continued throughout every set of engines
and boilers as long as the firm is in existence ; hence,
in time, very high numbers may be arrived at.

This practice not only shews how many plans have
been made since the beginning, but is of great assistance
when reference is made to drawings months or years
back. The engines are numbered from the first set
onwards, and in regular order, no matter what their size
or description may be, or whether they are paddle or
screw, hence " No. 750 " may represent a set of twin
screw machinery of 10,000 indicated horse power for an
ironclad, and "No. 751" a pair of tiny launch engines
you might almost carry in your arms. The boilers, too,
are similarly numbered, so also are the ships, but in all
cases independently of each other, and the reason is,
that some firms have built very many ships before
starting as marine engineers, and vice versa.

Then, again, numerous engines are made for ships
built elsewhere, and for old vessels requiring improved
machinery. Multitudes of boilers are also in the same
manner constructed either for home use or to send

CHAP. xni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 21 1

abroad ; it will therefore be clearly seen that carefulness
in numbering is absolutely necessary to prevent confu-
sion, with its attendant worry and loss of time.

Another point of the system is the arrangement of
drawings and tracings, in drawers or otherwise. Cloth
or paper tracings for a set of engines and boilers are
generally folded and tied up in bundles when done with,
and have a large parchment label attached, giving
"number," or in some cases a class term, such as
"Valves," "Boiler mountings," etc. Drawings and
heliographs, on the other hand, are put away in large
drawers about three inches deep, for easy reference at
any time. One of the best methods of accomplishing
this is to let all the drawers have printed titles, such as
"Engines," "Boilers," "General arrangements," "Brass
fittings," and so on, but in other cases two or more
" numbers " are given instead for the general details,
which should be kept in the places assigned for them, or
endless confusion would arise.

As previously stated in the last chapter, Mr. Mac-
donald has paid the chief draughtsman a visit, and both
are now engaged in lively conversation.

" Yes," observes the former, " you are quite right to
give plenty of strength to everything. I like in all cases
to keep well on the safe side, having seen so many
breakdowns in my time. One night, when I was in the
4 Miranda,' outward bound, we had a terrible gale in the
Bay of Biscay. The ship was deep in the water, and the
sea swept our decks in awful style ; indeed we never
expected to reach land again.

" All hands were on watch that night, I can tell you,
sir. We had reduced our speed, and were trying to make
some headway with the storm dead against us, when, in

212 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xin.

the early morning, we heard a crash in the tunnel, and
felt a shock throughout the vessel. Mr. Brown, my
' third,' had the steam shut off in a twinkling, and just
at that moment a tremendous sea broke over us, which
washed three of our hands overboard, carried away two
of the boats, and came down the engine-room skylight in
tons. We all thought the ship was going to the bottom
in two thousand fathom water, but she weathered it
magnificently. It turned out that the screw shaft had
given way at the aftermost coupling, and the overhanging
part had swayed about so much as to tear open one
side of the tunnel, and very nearly cut a hole through
the bottom of the ship. All the plummer blocks were
moie or less damaged and wrenched from their seats,
indeed everything had gone wrong with a jerk.

" Never in my life have I seen such a divvle of a
smash in the inside of a tunnel, and never in the whole
course of my existence have I had such a rampagious
night, both above and below. We screwjacked the shaft
into line, fished, and timber-strutted everything the best
way we could, and then headed at slow speed for
Bordeaux, where we had a few temporary repairs, and
after that we came home again at half speed, attended by
a tug in case of accident.

" Between one thing and another, that business cost
our Company a fine round sum of money, which would
have been immensely reduced if we had had Thomson's
patent coupling for broken shafts on board, as we could
soon have put everything right, and gone ahead full speed
as before."

Mr. Ellington has been smiling his approval from
time to time, and now the two worthies have a hearty
laugh over the incident, the draughtsman because he con-

CHAP. XIII. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 213

siders it an amusingly instructive narrative, and the late
chief of the " Miranda " because he is now looking on the
perils of that eventful night through the haze of modern
antiquity, but feels, nevertheless, that in all his sea-going
career he had never been in a ship which ran so close to
the gates of death, simply because the screw shaft broke
at a critical time.

The friction of two minds thus engaged in different
spheres of usefulness has proved beneficial to both. The
superintending engineer goes away delighted, and the
principal draughtsman, feeling refreshed and invigorated,
proceeds with the examination of the tracings before him,
resolved more than ever to strengthen everything that
may possibly be just a little too weak when exposed to
great and irregular strains in heavy seas.

At another time, Mr. Burton, the foreman of the
erecting shop, receives a visit from Mr. Macdonald, and
both are as merry as larks, while the former relates a
strange experience of his during a long apprenticeship in
Maudslay's, and the latter fires off some amusing recol-
lections of Napier's, of which place he has many happy
remembrances. While thus engaged, however, he is
casually surveying all the large and small gear belonging
to his engines, by which he is surrounded, and trying
to discover where any improvement might be intro-
duced.

" By-the-bye, Mr. Burton" — he parenthetically ob-
serves— "don't you think these high pressure cylinder
covers have rather too few bolt-holes in them ? Napier
would have given them more."

" Mr. Maudslay would not have put in so many. I
think they will do first rate," replies the foreman.

" Very well, keep them as they are ; I fancy they are

214 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP, xin.,

not far out, after all. Ever since my last voyage in the
* Cymbeline ' I have been nervous about these things."

" Indeed ! How did that come about ? "

" Well, you see, we had had a splendid run home,
until we reached the chops of the Channel, fully expect-
ing to enjoy New Year's day on shore. I was busy in my
room making entries in the log-book. The engines were
running at sixty-five revolutions a minute, with a strong
breeze on the quarter, and every sail set, when all at
once there was a tremendous smash in the engine room,
close to my lug, and the whole place filled with scalding
steam. Good gracious ! thought I to myself, what's gone
wrong now ? and on groping my way to the starting
platform, I found that Mr. Cameron, my ' second,' had
shut the stop valve before you could say ' Jack Robinson,'
and all danger was over.

«' It turned out that the high pressure piston was
broken, and the cylinder cover smashed to pieces. After
disconnecting, however, we worked the other engine, and,
with the help of our sails, managed to get into Liverpool
all right the day after, instead of the day before, the New
Year. I can tell you, sir, that ever since that breakdown
I have been very careful about the strength of such gear.
Good morning ! "

It is only right to add, that Mr. Cameron is now the
appointed " chief" of the " Rosalind."

As we said before, Mr. Macdonald is somewhat vacil-
lating in his opinions, but he is, nevertheless, a man of
great experience, and quite capable of giving valuable
hints to those who know perhaps but little of engineering
life at sea. When he imparts information, he does it in a
way that will prevent people from ever forgetting it. Un-
consciously he runs upon the lines of Sir David Brewster,

CHAP xin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 215

who said that " Philosophy in sport is science in earnest."
He follows the lead of another writer, who " gossipped
pleasantly while instructing solidly," and thus it came to
pass that much good was done all round wherever he
went, by means of his own chatty, simple, and humour-
ously instructive style of language. It is therefore much
to be regretted that some of our learned but pedantic
lecturers and authors do not similarly modify their high-
toned oratory, and say what they mean simply and
brightly. If they did so, it would keep the minds of their
audiences from becoming torpid — their nervous faculties
from getting benumbed — and would at least enable them
to leave a lecture hall, or put down a book, with the
feeling that they had derived some benefit.

As non-professional readers may exclaim, " These
accidents on the ocean seem to educate sea-going engi-
neers in very good and sharp practice, which is no
doubt most useful to them in cases of emergency," let
me inform them how the necessary knowledge is obtained.

Long before the occurrence of the disasters we have
mentioned, the second and third engineers of the ships
just referred to had passed Board of Trade examinations
in practical engineering at sea, which involved satisfac-
tory answers to a great many questions relative to the
construction, uses of various parts, and general manage-
ment and repairs of engines and boilers. Among the
numerous questions asked, were, for example —

" What would you do if your screw shaft broke, or
how could you possibly repair it when damaged ? "-
" What course would you pursue if the piston gave way,
and how could the remaining engine be worked when
thus disabled ? " — " If a boiler-tube burst, how would you
remedy the evil ? " — so on and so forth. What had to be

216 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xm.

done in these cases, and also a multitude of others,
was fixed in their minds, and thus they became qualified
to hold the above mentioned appointments.

The necessity of this is clearly obvious, since there is
no time to think about what is the best thing to do when
a breakdown occurs, and in many cases little enough to
perform at once what is absolutely necessary for the safety
of the vessel. All the engineers of the fleet know their
duties exactly, and hence the passengers and the Com-
pany have complete confidence in those who, in the
steam department, have charge of their lives and pro-
perty. The same may also be said of the captains and
navigating officers, whose technical knowledge has often
proved invaluable at a critical time, and perhaps not
more so, nor more frequently, than on board the ships
of the Atlantic and other well-known Companies.

The erecting shop at this period is in a state of great
activity, and would be quite a study for those who take
an interest in such matters. Standing at one end, you
will have in front of you a set of small twin-screw
engines for the steam launch of one of the ironclads
now building. Close beside them are the very handsome
oscillating paddle engines, of 6,000 indicated horse power,
for the " Duke of Connaught." Then you have the great
engines of the British ironclad, in a forward condition,
and, in their immediate vicinity, the costly machinery
for another ship of war ; while lying about on the floor
promiscuously are brass and iron castings of all sorts
and sizes, including condensers, air-pumps, slide valves,
wrought iron work of every description, copper pipes, etc.,
etc., and which are being operated upon in various ways.

You will also observe, among much that may interest
you, the great lathe, in which the " Rosalind's" propeller

CHAP. xin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 219

is being bored. The end of the screw-shaft will next
be fitted to it, then " key seated," and ultimately screwed
up tight by means of a large nut at its extremity. As
nearly the whole power of the engines will be trans-
mitted to this point, it is very necessary, in this manner,
to prevent the possibility of a disaster at sea.

One of Sharp, Stewart & Co.'s slot drilling machines
is making cotter holes in air-pump rods, and this will be
done to perfection. The same operation, even in the
heaviest butt and strap connecting rods, was at one time
performed by hand ; that is to say, four holes were first
drilled right through ; the rest of the metal was then
chipped away in the usual manner, and the aperture filed
perfectly true for the reception of the gibs and cotters,
which were accurately fitted to it.

A large radial drilling-machine is boring bolt-holes in
a massive casting. Buckton's colossal slotter and planer
is fully occupied with the slide valve face of the " Andro-
meda's " low-pressure cylinder, and the rest of the mach-
inery is similarly engaged upon various other details. A
great many fitters, erectors, and apprentices, are busy
chipping this, filing that, and scraping the steam-tight
faces of pistons and slide-valves to a true surface, while
the labourers are lifting light and heavy gear with the
overhead travelling cranes. An air of prosperity seems
to pervade the whole place, and upon inquiry we are told
the firm has orders in hand for the next two years, and
that most of the hands are working until eight and ten
o'clock every night.

The plate opposite shews very clearly the new erecting
shop and part of the heavy turnery, at the works of
Messrs. Wigham Richardson & Co., of Newcastle, and
may be considered a very good illustration of the general

220 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xm.

arrangement of this department of a marine engineering
establishment. Two sets of triple expansion engines are
being constructed in a deep recess in the floor of the
building, to enable them to clear the overhead travelling
cranes, and a few of the details belonging to them are
lying scattered about for convenience. Amongst the
most conspicuous objects are the crank shafts for the
aforesaid " Triples," whose built-up construction is very
clearly seen, and also a piston partly finished. The
large boring machine in the foreground, forms in itself a
handsome illustration of the various kinds of gearing so
much used in constructive work.

" Where are the ' Rosalind's ' engines ? "

If you come with me, I will shew you them. Let us
go to the other end, beside the great lathe.

After descending a flight of steps, we find ourselves in
front of the engines we are in search of. There you see
the massive bed-plate in position, on one side of which
are the air and circulating pumps and condenser, and,
on the other, the columns which assist in carrying the
cylinders. Between them, also in its place, is the steel
crank shaft, and a splendid piece of work it is. Overhead
you will observe the three cylinders, — high pressure,
intermediate, and low pressure, — all in position and
bolted down, while the piston and connecting rods, and
other gear, are on the ground ready for setting up. The
connecting rod is considered one of the handsomest and
most costly details of an engine, and its crank end is now
formed in the almost universal "Tee head" style, which
was so fully developed and perfected by Mr. Penn.

Although the ''Rosalind's" machinery has a some-
what imposing appearance, there is an amount of work
to be done in reference to the fixing of minor details

CHAP. xni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 221

that would astonish an outsider, not only before the
ship is ready for sea, but even before the erection is
completed. Including the main engines, and other
engines for various purposes, the boilers and their con-
nections, shafting, and all other gear, large and small,
throughout the vessel when finished, a recent writer has
calculated that the number of separate parts in the
machinery of a first-class Atlantic liner amounts to
103,722, counting all rivets, bolts and nuts, pins, levers,
rods, pipes, etc. This may now be considered too low,
but we shall take the statement as it stands.

In the erection of the engines before us, and indeed
in all others, two grand ruling principles are rigorously
adhered to from beginning to end, viz. : — All vertical
surfaces must be truly perpendicular t and all horizontal surfaces
exactly level. The first is obtained by means of the plumb-
line, and the second through the use of the spirit-level.
If there should be any deviation from the above hard-
and-fast rule, the error will most assuredly have to be
rectified, since this is the basis upon which not only
machinery in general is constructed, but all architectural
works as well, from the cathedral to the cottage.

In this department, the greater portion of the ponder-
ous work of the establishment is built up and finished,
consequently there is a large quantity of heavy lifting or
moving about in some way or other. It is also towards
this point that all the efforts of the drawing office, pattern
shop, foundry, turneries, etc., converge, and if something
has been made wrong in any of them, it will be discovered
here if not previously detected. Jib or radial cranes were
used long ago for erecting purposes, but for general
utility nothing can equal the overhead travellers, which
have superseded them. Although the lifting is performed

222 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xm.

by labourers, great care should be exercised by experi-
enced hands in slinging the heavy weights, and the slings
themselves must be well made. These consist of various
lengths of chain or rope spliced at the ends, thus forming
convenient attachments for the crane hooks.

Unimportant as this art may appear, a good know-
ledge of it helps in various ways to facilitate the execution
of all engineering contracts, indeed, some undertakings
have been unnecessarily delayed through the want of
special information. There is a very simple, but never-
theless valuable double-loop, which is much used when
lifting cylindrical objects vertically, and there is also a
special kind of knot particularly adapted for sustaining
very heavy strains without jamming. Both of them
are admirable contrivances, but can only be explained
experimentally ; the latter, however, may be constantly
seen at the end of hawsers connecting ships to the quays
of docks or harbours.

Heavy machinery is frequently erected upon massive
timber supports, but a much better plan is to have strong
cast-iron plates planed on the top surface, well bedded in
the floor, and set perfectly level throughout. In the
Central Marine Works at Hartlepool, a somewhat similar
system is adopted, but with the addition of strong
movable cross girders resting on the bed plates under-
neath them, thus forming in each case a very good and
easily adjustable foundation. Although the latter is an
expensive arrangement, it has proved economical as well
as useful. In many first-class establishments on the Clyde
and Tyne, the old-fashioned timber system still prevails,
notwithstanding the revolutions that have occurred in
marine engineering during the last twenty years, but,
antiquated and imperfect as it now appears, it is never-

CHAP. xni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 223

theless simple, easily adaptable to different sizes of
engines, and sufficiently well tried to enable it to hold its
ground in spite of all improvements.

Do you see those men bringing in something of a dull
red heat? That is one of the " Duke of Connaught's"
cranks, which is going to be " shrunk on " her inter-
mediate shaft, lying beside you. The " eye " of the
crank has been bored just a little less in diameter than
the part it has to fit, but the heating has expanded it so
much that it will now easily slide on to its place. When
that is done, water is poured over it, and the contraction
in cooling causes the crank to embrace the end of the
shaft so firmly that, when " keyed up," it will be practi-
cally solid, and fully able to withstand all the severe and
irregular strains that will be brought upon it at sea. For
marine work the above process is very popular, but for
fixing railway wheels in a cold state on their axles,
powerful hydraulic pressure is invariably used.

The above mentioned detail is so important, that a
few further remarks in reference to it may be interesting.
As we have before observed, the " Rosalind's " crank
shafts were made upon Sir Joseph Whitworth's improved
principle. Other similar work, however, is generally
accomplished in the various forges, where all the heavy
parts of ships and engines are executed in accordance
with tracings sent to them by different people.

Formerly, engineers received their crank shafts in a
rough state, and did all the machine work themselves,
but it was discovered that flaws very often did not shew
themselves until a great amount of such labour had been
expended, and hence the forging of many tons weight
had to be returned. This system became so inconvenient
and troublesome that the forge people were allowed to

224 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP, xm.

complete the work in every respect, so that any fault
which existed could be found out on the premises at an
early stage. Visitors to these establishments will see
much to interest them in the manufacture of iron and
steel, and also in the ponderous machinery employed in
the various processes, a small portion of which can be
seen in the plate of the Mersey Forge.

Notwithstanding the extreme care adopted in all these
instances, shafts frequently give way at sea most unex-
pectedly, and when we consider the amount of loss thus
entailed, it is evident that no expense should be spared
in order to obtain the most trustworthy material, and also
the best contrivances for promptly rectifying such evils
when they do occur, and especially so when terrible
calamities sometimes arise on land and sea from similar
failures.

In proof of this we need only refer to the dreadful
railway accidents at Penistone in 1884 and 1889 ; the loss
of the S.S. " American " in mid Atlantic some years ago ;
and many others of kindred nature but minor importance.

It is generally supposed that the main cause of so
many shaft fractures is the disintegration of their particles
owing to the vibration caused by quick running engines.
There is another cause, however, which we had an oppor-
tunity of noting only recently in connection with a very
well known ocean mail steamer that had only been eight
years on her station.

The diameter of her " tail" or stern tube shaft was 24",
and, in addition to the usual brass liners at each end
bearing, it had an intermediate liner which butted against
both of the others, but without being watertight. This
had caused galvanic action which had cut the shaft, as if
by a saw, to a depth of fully 2^" all round, and reduced

CHAP. xin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 225

its strength in the ratio of 243 to ig3 or as 13824 to 6859.
Owing to the sharpness of the corners of the groove at
the bottom, it was also in the best condition for snapping
like cast iron when exposed to sudden shocks. In the
navy these shafts are cased with brass all over to protect
them from rust, but every joint is made thoroughly water-
tight to avoid the galvanic action above described.

From this it will be seen that the protective casing
may easily become a source of grave danger, and espe-
cially on account of the great difficulty of discovering the
evil. A much simpler plan is to coat the shaft with a
composition which will adhere so firmly to the metal as
to prevent corrosion, and this has already been done very
satisfactorily in the merchant service, where the casing
referred to is almost unknown.

226 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP xiv.

CHAPTER XIV.

BOILER YARD, AND BOILERS IN CONSTRUCTION.

Difficulties in Boiler Design and Construction — Structural, Mechanical,
and Chemical Difficulties — Peculiarities of Steel Boilers — Board of
Trade Supervision — Increase of Steam Pressure, 1850 to 1889 —
Racing with unlimited Pressure — Awful Disaster — "Rosalind's"
and other boilers in progress — Hydraulic Testing — Fatal Explosion
in a Locomotive Work — Boiler Coverings and economy of Heat —
Fairbairn's Experiments and Improvements — Materials and mode of
Manufacture.

AND now, may I ask you to come with me and survey the
contents of the boiler shop ? Yonder lie two of the
" Rosalind's " boilers in a far advanced stage, and also
two more not so far on. Externally, they are of steel
plates, double and trfeble rivetted, and in every other way
immensely strong, on account of the high pressure of
steam they have to bear. " Plebeian-looking things,
compared with the engines," are they ? " Not much in
them," do you say ?

Not at present, certainly, but they will be full enough
in course of time. Perhaps you think anyone might
design these apparently simple articles ? Would you
therefore be surprised to hear that there is, perhaps,
nothing in the whole range of engineering practice that
has more fully exercised the talents, energy, skill, fortune,
and patience of practical and scientific men, for the last
fifty years, than the boilers which supply our land and
marine engines with steam ?

Their value may, however, be best understood when
we consider the important part they have to play, and

CHAP. xiv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 227

the difficulties that beset the successful performance of
their duties. What your lungs are to you, the boilers are
to the engines, because they provide the. very life of the
whole system of the machinery, and without their aid the
most costly and best arranged engines would be utterly
useless. The difficulties which surround the design,
construction, and management of boilers on land and sea
are very numerous, and sufficiently powerful to have
retarded for very many years their efficient application in
manufactures and in steam navigation. These obstacles
comprise three great classes, — structural, mechanical, and
chemical, — all of which have formed the bases of
patented inventions involving an expenditure of hundreds
of thousands of pounds, in costs alone, down to the
present time.

The first-named class refers to the internal arrange-
ments, whose objects are to create rapid circulation of
the water in the boiler when heated, so as to produce a
somewhat uniform temperature throughout, if possible,
and to prevent the sediment contained in the water from
settling down on the flues and tubes, thereby reducing
their heat-conducting powers, efficiency, and economy in
maintenance, and retarding the rapid generation of
steam.

The second class is most extensive, and embraces
everything in reference to economy in manufacture, and
ultimate safety and durability. In connection with steel
plates and iron plates ; single, double, and treble rivetting,
ordinary draught and forced draught ; staying, fitting,
and mounting, of various descriptions, indeed everything
which comes within the province of the engineer and
boilermaker, we have such an abundant supply of valu-
able scientific, practical and experimental information in

228 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xiv.

our professional literature, as would satisfy all, one would
think ; but it doesn't. The wonder is that so much has
been said and written by clever people to prove or
disprove theories which looked so simple, not only in
this, but in every other science. One of the puzzling
questions of the day has been the consideration of steel
as a suitable material, which has now to be used instead
of iron for the shell plates of large cylindrical boilers,
as previously mentioned.

So long as pressures were about 70 to 80 pounds per
square inch, iron did very well, but when they ran up
to from 130 to 160 pounds, it was necessary to make the
iron plates so thick that it became difficult to rivet them
satisfactorily, hence the adoption of steel on account of
its superior tensile strength allowing thinner shells to be
used.

This was a very good arrangement, but, like every-
thing else, it had defects, sometimes of a serious character.
If the quality of the steel could be thoroughly relied on,
nothing could have been better, but, unfortunately, this
was not always so, as plates made by the most eminent
firms, and in the most careful manner, and passing
successfully the most rigid tests imposed upon them,
occasionally proved failures during the process of manu-
facture into boilers. The cause of these failures has,
however, been scientifically investigated, and the steel
Companies are now enabled to produce, and the engineers
to manipulate, a material which is in every respect
trustworthy.

The Board of Trade is much interested in everything
we do, and not only provides sea-going engineers with
full instructions regarding the management of boilers,
but furnishes us with an elaborate and extensive set of

CHAP. xiv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 229

rules, regulations, and formulae, for our guidance in
proportioning their various parts, and further, will not
"pass" any boilers which are not made in accordance
with those rules, which give the lowest limit of strength
in all cases. Such, however, is the leniency of the court
that engineers have full permission to make them con-
siderably stronger if they please, but subject to its official
examination as they proceed.

The reason of this is no doubt apparent to everyone,
and especially to those who expect to be carried safely to
their destinations when travelling. Were it otherwise,
we should have a lively time of it on land and sea,
amongst all the dangers arising out of improper con-
struction and bad management, some of which will be
described in another chapter.

The chemical obstacles to the proper working of
boilers consist of injurious substances, either existing in
the water they contain, or getting into it from the con-
denser, through the feed pipes, and thus causing irregular
and serious corrosion of the plates in course of time.
The remedy for which is found more or less in the appli-
cation of various anti-corrosives, such as zinc plates
suspended at intervals inside the boilers, and also various
fluids mixed with the water they contain.

We do not quite see at present what will be the future
limit of our steam pressures. From 1850 to 1860, twenty-
five pounds per square inch was quite the order of the
day, and engineers jogged along very comfortably with
this pressure. Great improvements, however, have taken
place since those days. In 1861, Tod & McGregor
received an order from the Inman Company to build the
" City of New York," with boilers to have a working
pressure of 30 pounds per square inch.

230 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xiv.

This was so unusual for such large ships, that Mr.
William Tod took especial care that everything should
have very ample strength. He told us that the cylinder
covers of H.M.S. " Himalaya," by Penn, " surged like a
pair of bellows, and that he would not have such things
in his engines ; " and from the working sketches now
beside me, and the light of modern days around me, I
have reason to believe that undue importance was
attached to the additional load of five pounds above
mentioned. Such was the state of public feeling at this
period regarding high pressure steam, that if anyone had
whispered to the passengers of an ocean steamer those
awful words, " We have sixty pounds pressure in the
boilers, sir!" — or "ma'am!" — no doubt the greater part
of them would have jumped overboard, or taken to the
boats.

All this time, an extremely high pressure was quite
common in American river steamers, even of the largest
class, and 150 pounds per square inch seems to have been
considered of little consequence on those vessels, judging
from the treatment their boilers were frequently subjected
to in ordinary running. Racing used to be a favourite
amusement on the Mississippi ; for instance, two steamers,
say the "Baton Rouge" and the "President," sighted
each other on the way to New Orleans, — the former
leading.

The "President's" people would not allow this, and
if the captain, or that still more autocratic individual,
the pilot, did not take sufficient interest in the proposed
race, the passengers would spur them on to do so. The
engineers received their orders in consequence ; the ship
began to increase her speed by degrees, and in a short
time they were close to the other boat, which was also

CHAP. xiv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 231

driving ahead in magnificent style. The passengers
became very excited, and did everything they could to
outstrip the " Baton Rouge," until at last the fuel was
exhausted, but that was of no consequence when they
had the cargo to fall back upon. Boxes of bacon were
opened, the wood thrown into the furnaces, and the fat
pork after it. The steam pressure went up with a bound,
and the panting, quivering ship forged gradually ahead
of her rival. The passengers and crew cheered in the
wildest enthusiasm, until something happened, and all at
once a " most awful disaster " — as the Picayune would call
it next morning — occurred, which shook the country for
miles around

After a few survivors, who had clung to floating pieces
of the wreck, were taken on board the other steamer,
there was hardly anything left to indicate the grave
of what had once been a swift and magnificent floating
palace.

What the bursting pressure of the steam had been we
are unable to say, — probably it was 400, 500, or any
other number of pounds per square inch, — as the safety
valve levers were tied down, and, if that could not be
done conveniently, some one would be glad enough to sit
or stand on them to the last. These events were rather
frequent in the early days of steam navigation ; now they
are not so, for obvious reasons.

If you look to the left of the " Rosalind's" boilers,
you will see part of a set for H.M.S. " Vitellius." The
mountings, that is to say, the steam stop valves, safety
valves, main feed and donkey feed valves, blow-off and
surface blow-off cocks, and other accessories are nearly
all on, and will soon be tested by hydraulic pumps to
double their intended working pressure of 150 pounds

232 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xiv.

per square inch, so that any leaky places may be recti-
fied, and the strength of the boilers practically ascer-
tained. This hydraulic test is invariably adopted on
account of its safety, since, if it were continued until
the boiler burst, no evil results would happen to those
around, and this is owing to the fact that water, when
subjected to great pressure, is almost incompressible, and
when the load is removed suddenly by fracture of any
part, or otherwise, its expansion is practically nothing,
hence its safety when applied in the manner indicated.
Any failure caused by steam pressure, on the other hand,
would be productive of very serious consequences.

As an example of this, it may be mentioned that in
1858, Sharp, Stewart & Co., of Manchester, were com-
pleting an order for forty locomotives for the Russian
railways. They were large and powerful engines, and
had, with the exception of the last, been started satis-
factorily under steam, but, strange to say, when the test
was applied to this one, the boiler burst and killed nine
of the men who were around it, including Mr. Forsyth,
the manager. A rigorous inquiry was made concerning
all the circumstances of the case, which resulted in the
discovery that inequality of strength in the fractured
plate was the cause of the disaster.

All these boilers, when in the ships and completed,
will be carefully covered with nonconducting substances,
and finished on the outside with strips of wood neatly
jointed together, and secured to the plating. The steam
cylinders will be similarly treated, so will also the steam
pipes, but the latter will be covered with caavas painted
white, instead of wood, for convenience. The object of
this is, not only to prevent a great waste of heat, and
indirectly of coal, but to protect the men who work

CHAP. xiv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 233

the engines and boilers from an unbearable tempera-
ture similar to that which proved so detrimental to the
engineers and firemen of the " Enterprise," previously
mentioned, on her voyage from London to Calcutta.

The boiler-room will also be provided with ventilating
pipes, about two feet six inches diameter, having large
bell-mouthed, movable cowls on deck, to catch the wind
and direct a current of cold air to the regions below. In
modern ironclads, however, this is frequently accom-
plished artificially, by means of a fan-blast driven by
independent engines.

Besides all this, the heat which constantly radiates
from the necessarily unprotected boiler fronts and other
parts, is guided in its ascent to the casing around the
funnel on deck by means of sheet iron " curtains," which
are fixed outside the " uptakes " conveying the smoke and
heated gases to the chimney. As everything on board a
ship is utilised to the utmost, the warm air that eventually
reaches the upper deck is taken advantage of in the
" drying-room," where wet clothes, and boots or shoes
may be left till called for.

From what has been said on this subject, it will be
seen that economy of heat, and therefore of fuel, is of the
highest importance in steamships, especially those on
long voyage stations, and we have reason to believe that,
were it not for the great reduction in coal consumption,
brought about by the use of compound engines in ocean
ships, it would be a commercial impossibility to run
steamers to the West Coast of South America, Australia,
or indeed on any other long voyage station. The term
" compound " is now somewhat misleading, as it is quite
as applicable to the triple and quadruple expansion
engines of the latest design, as it was to the double

234 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP, xiv

expansion two cylinder, three cylinder, and four cylinder —
or "tandem" engines— of the old type. Hence in corre-
spondence, care should be taken to state clearly what is
meant, otherwise confusion may arise, as there are many
of the old engines still in use.

The boilers of the " Rosalind," as well as those of the
other ships have been very carefully designed throughout,
and especial attention has been paid to the staying of all
the flat surfaces. Here, again, however, Sir William Fair-
bairn's elaborate investigations have proved invaluable to
the world, because he not only determined experimentally
the best proportions of rivetted joints and flat stayed sur-
faces, but opened out at the same time a field of scientific
enquiry relating to these and kindred subjects, which has
extended to the present day. He also invented the well
known double-furnaced "Lancashire" boiler for land
engines, which is still a general favourite, despite of all
the new types that now exist.

The simplest and strongest form of boiler is the old-
fashioned, externally fired, egg-ended, cylindrical type,
that required no stays of any kind, but was ultimately
found unsuitable. Then came the "Cornish" boiler,
with flat ends and one internal flue. This, however, Mr.
Fairbairn greatly improved upon in the larger sizes, by
using two small flues instead of one, which gave them
much greater strength to resist the collapsing pressure of
steam.

The sphere, and also the cylinder with dished ends,
possess in their simplest forms great powers of resistance,
which engineers utilise in every possible manner. Were
it otherwise, it would be almost impracticable to make
the old style of flat-sided boilers strong enough to work
safely with such high pressures as we are now using. A

CHAP. xiv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 235

steel boiler shell for example, 12 feet diameter and 15 feet
long will carry safely 150 pounds steam, if made of plates
1-jJg in. thick and treble rivetted, no staying whatever
being required, except for the flat ends and internal
surfaces of similar form.

When the working plans have been well matured, and
finally approved, the orders for the required number and
description of plates are sent to one of the Steel Com-
panies, while those of iron — if used at all — and specified
as " Yorkshire," *' Staffordshire," or " Lowmoor," are
given to the iron manufacturers. The latter brand is
of a remarkably tough quality, and commands a very
high price, as it is the most suitable for internal parts
exposed to great heat, and also for the flanging and
bending operations it is subjected to in the boiler shop.

When the shell plates arrive, they are planed on their
edges at a large special planing machine, and are next
passed through a plate bending machine, which gives
them the necessary curvature, say five, six, seven, or any
other number of feet and inches radius. After this they
are put together in place, and the rivet holes drilled,
thus ensuring great exactness. Punching the plates by
machinery used to be the system adopted, but it does not
make sufficiently accurate work, and is considered very
objectionable on account of the damage which may be
done to the fibres of the metal surrounding the holes.

After all the parts are carefully rivetted, either by
hydraulic pressure or by hand, and finished off with the
caulking chisel, the mountings and fittings are put on,
the boiler finally tested to double its working pressure,
and, when painted, it is ready for shipment.

As steel is now so much used in engineering construc-
tions, it may here be mentioned that, in order to make

236 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xiv.

the ordinary metal workable by machine or hand tools, it
should be allowed to cool very slowly after forging. Cast
steel is somewhat similarly treated, but, curiously enough,
turning, planing, and other tools may be operated upon
with a second cut file, if dipped in water after being
heated to cherry redness, when this colour has dis-
appeared in the dark. The reason why "cheap" knives
sometimes have such bad edges is the overheating, or
" burning," the blades have been subjected to, which
makes them useless. On one occasion, I had a very prac-
tical illustration of this, in a handsome and generally
useful pocket knife, that came to me from Calcutta. All
the blades were rubbish, and evidently the English
makers considered them quite good enough for the Indian
market. Steel has many peculiarities, but there is per-
haps nothing that can give one a clearer idea of the value
of good material than the extraordinary amount of wear
and tear that screw-taps and dies will stand in ordinary
use. Their tempering was at one time a secret, and justi-
fiably so, as it is certainly the perfection of the art.

Before leaving this department of the works, we may
only add that, so important is this apparently simple and
uninteresting branch of engineering considered by those
who practise it, that after all that has been done, its
improvement is likely to go on for some time to come.
And, moreover, there are few practically scientific sub-
jects which have so fully occupied the attention of engi-
neers, and been so largely experimented upon, as that
which refers to the economical production of steam as a
motive power in machinery.

CHAP. xv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 237

CHAPTER XV.

THE BUILDING YARD SHIPS ANCIENT AND MODERN.

" Rosalind " and other ships in progress — Precautions for giving Safety at
Sea — Watertight Bulkheads — New and old style of Bow— Boats of
the Phoenicians — Origin of Masts and Sails — Galleys of Greece and
Rome — Modern Ships — " Lightning" — " Marco Polo " — " Cham-
pion of the Seas," and others —England to Australia in 1808, 1850,
and 1889 — Fastest long voyage Steamers afloat — New Inman
Liners of 10,500 tons— Swiftest River Steamer, and Torpedo
Boats —American Steamers — Changes in Naval Ships and Engines —
Ironclads of 19,500 horse-power.

LET us now pay a visit to the building yard, and see
what they are doing. Yonder, in a far advanced state,
lies the " Duke of Connaught." What a handsome ship !
What beautiful yacht-like lines ! What paddle boxes !
Beside her you will observe the Brazilian ironclad, and
other vessels we need not refer to, so let us take notes of
the " Rosalind," which is just before us. Her frames are
all up, deck beams in place, and plating pretty well
on. One special feature is her bow, which is of the
handsome figurehead type, but many other merchant
vessels have straight rowing-boat stems, which give them
a very abrupt and unfinished appearance forward. Nearly
every steamship Company, however, has during recent
years adopted this form of bow for the sake of economy.

Since 1839, the attention of shipbuilders and owners of
steamers has been directed to the production of vessels
which would not only be fully adapted for the purposes
for which they were intended, but possess, in the highest

238 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xv.

degree, the elements of safety under all the conditions of
service to which they would be exposed. One set of con-
ditions refers to the engines and boilers, which have
already been described, and another set refers to the
stability and strength of the ship herself and her floating
powers after collision with rocks, icebergs, or with other
vessels.

The use of numerous transverse watertight bulkheads
has tended in a very great degree to protect ships in
times of serious danger, and in many cases has prevented
them from foundering. In spite however, of every pre-
caution which the most skilful people can devise, it is
surprising that, in our days of advanced practice, ships
should so often sink in a few minutes after having been
run into, and the inference to be drawn is that either the
bulkheads are unable to save them when struck in a vital
part, or that the damage done by the colliding vessel is
so crushing in its effects that all the resources of modern
science are of no avail.

For very apparent reasons we have no means of
ascertaining what was the condition of naval architecture
before the Flood, beyond the account given in Genesis
concerning the ark, which was not only the first built up
vessel we have any record of, but the most gigantic in
general dimensions the world had ever seen until the
" Great Eastern " appeared. This wonderful vessel was
three hundred cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and
thirty in depth, and if we take the cubit at twenty-one
inches, the above dimensions will become 525 feet,
87 feet 6 inches, and 52 feet 6 inches respectively.

After the Deluge, — 2,348 B.C., — the art of navigation
is justly considered to have had a beginning, and the
earliest people so engaged that we have any knowledge of

CHAP. xv. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 239

were the Phoenicians, who are stated to have been the
first nation on the shores of the Mediterranean who were
actually engaged in nautical affairs, and practiced the art
of underwriting or marine insurance, but where they
learnt the science of shipbuilding, or what their vessels
were like, is almost unknown. There is a story, however,
connected with that primitive race which may be worth
repeating.

It is said that on one occasion a Phoenician went out
with his lady for a row in the rudely constructed skiff
of the period, which, in this case we may suppose was
large enough for two, but rather small for three people.
Actuated by a sudden flash of thought, and a wish to help
her lover, the lady sprang to the bow, and, while standing
in that position, held up with one hand the skirt of her
dress to catch the breeze. Thus was created the idea of
sail power, and especially the Lateen sail, which to the
present day is so well known in Eastern seas, and also in
the smaller sized vessels of various kinds throughout the
world. The graceful figure of the lady originated the
mast, and her arms, yard-arms, to which were afterwards
added the studding sail booms.

That most ancient of European nations, the Greeks,
who date their history as far back as the eighteenth
century, B.C., paid great attention to the art of ship-
building, but many centuries rolled away before their
vessels passed beyond the rank of row boats or galleys.

Throughout the whole of Solomon's reign this style of
build continued, and not until about 588 B.C., do we arrive
at the first distinct mention of a " sail " Ezekiel xxvii, 7.
From this period until the Christian era, the progress
of shipbuilding was very slow, and the compass still
unknown. Even the rudder was not invented, and the

240 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xv.

motive power was chiefly the oar, made of oak ; heavy,
cumbersome, and capable of application for even mode-
rate distances only by the forced labour of slaves, who,
when at work, were driven by cruel task- masters with
long whips. It is not to be wondered at, then, that the
ancients never ventured out of sight of land — were totally
unacquainted with the art of navigation, — and that the
type of vessel for coast service remained unaltered from
age to age.

The ships of war of ancient Greece and Rome were,
for their class, of a very powerful and formidable nature,
a remnant of which is still to be found in some of the
vessels in the Mediterranean. They consisted of the
galley, with one row of oars on each side, the bireme with
two rows, trireme with three rows, and the quadrireme
with four rows, the three former of which were very
clearly illustrated by the beautiful models recently lent
by the Venetian Government to the Exhibitions of Liver-
pool and Glasgow.

In the Peloponnesian war, a trireme's crew consisted
sometimes of 170 oarsmen, exclusive of the other hands,
and her speed was equal to that of our racing boats, or
even some quick steamers. By St. Paul's time, the art of
shipbuilding seems to have improved very much, since the
ship in which he was wrecked at Melita had "276 people
on board, besides a cargo of wheat, and that famous
vessel was capable of running the distance from Rhegium
to Puteoli, 182 miles, in one day. It is also recorded,
that the Alexandrian corn ships of this period had a
capacity varying from 500 to 1,000 tons.

Within the last two or three centuries, the shape of
vessels' hulls has been very much modified. At one time
they had extremely lofty poops and forecastles; indeed

CHAP. xv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 241

the word " fore-castle " owes its origin very naturally to
the huge constructions which once adorned the forward
part of a ship ; and the after part was still higher, as
may be seen in many old engravings of such vessels.
Their rig has also been altered from time to time, in
accordance with the dictates of changing opinions in
naval architecture, and the sails arranged and propor-
tioned so as to act most efficiently.

Many years ago, a Mr. Cunningham invented an
arrangement of gear for abolishing the old-fashioned
system of reefing, which was accomplished simply by
lowering the yards from the deck, and allowing them to
revolve upon their axes. By this process, the sail was
automatically coiled up, and a great deal of time and
trouble were saved. In the model experiments, the appa-
ratus worked admirably, and so it did also in practice.
In course of time, however, yards originally straight
became slightly bent, which prevented them from turning
as they should have done, and thus the improved system
was gradually relinquished.

Double topsail yards were next introduced, the lower
one being fixed in position, and the upper one being
made capable of rising and falling in the usual way.
But here a great mistake was made at the outset. Ship-
builders thought that, because the lower topsail was so
much smaller than the full-sized sail would have been,
the yard could be made lighter, quite forgetting that a
close-reefed topsail in a storm strained it quite as much
as the ordinary sail would have done at other times. The
yards broke ; they were then strengthened, and thus
they have remained to the present day.

These two examples clearly indicate that people who
invent improved mechanical appliances for ships should

242 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xv.

study simplicity to the utmost, and bear in mind that an
apparatus which works beautifully when everything is in
complete order, may fail at a critical time through some
unforeseen defect, and perhaps cause the loss of the
vessel. The same thing may also happen with other good
inventions whose practical value depends upon the per-
fect arrangement of their surroundings, and which cer-
tainly deserve success, if they cannot command it.

The hulls of vessels, which in former days were of the
bluff-bowed or " tub " species, have been gradually
improved, and, as time rolled on, the "clipper" type
became a favourite, and perhaps reached maturity among
the "sixties," when timber-built ships of the "Lightning"
class made such wonderful voyages, and ran, in some
cases, at least four hundred miles a day. I remember
seeing this vessel occasionally in the Coburg dock, Liver-
pool, where at that period some of the famous " White
Star," " Black Ball," and other liners used to lie. She
gave one the impression of a ship that would cut through
anything under heavy sail pressure, and attain very high
speed, and looked in every respect what she really was —
one of the fastest ships afloat. On one occasion this
vessel ran the distance from Melbourne to Liverpool in
the wonderfully short period of sixty-three days. She
has sometimes made fully 18 knots an hour with her lee
rail under water, and actually logged, on her greatest run,
436 knots in 24 hours. The "James Baines," however,
exceeded this on her famous 12 day 17 hour voyage from
Boston to the Mersey, when by the log, she was at one
time running 21 knots an hour, under a crowd of canvas,
which included all the starboard stunsails and main
skysail.

However much, from a professional point of view, we

CHAP. xv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 243

may admire the steamers, and in however great a degree
they may win the brotherly love and sisterly affection of
all those connected with them, it is certain that, in one
respect, they will never equal the sailing ships. Every-
thing that constitutes magnificence in masts, and spars,
and sails, is fast disappearing from the former, and in
vessels of the "City of Paris" class they are hardly
required, owing to the use of twin-screw machinery. A
great ocean liner in a stiff breeze is, therefore, a somewhat
uninteresting object, when compared with some of the
splendid three and four masted sailing clippers of London
and Liverpool. And when tearing along at sixteen or
seventeen knots an hour, under a crowd of canvas, the
passengers of the Indian, Australian, and Cape of Good
Hope mail steamers will see in these vessels the highest
order of beauty among the white-winged descendants of
an ancient race, who perpetuate the art of practical
seamanship as it used to be long before the introduction
of steam navigation.

The famous " Marco Polo" was not at all inferior to
the " Lightning " in speed, but the contrast between them
was striking, especially when lying together, as the com-
paratively full-shaped bow of the former could not lead
any one to suppose she was so finely modelled below
water. Her commander, Captain Forbes, was then in the
zenith of his fame as a skilful navigator and inventor of
the system of circle sailing ; indeed, his name was " well
up " both at home and abroad. It is said that one wet
day he tried to get into an omnibus, which was com-
pletely occupied.

" No room, sir, we're quite full," said the conductor.

" Oh ! but my good man, I must get in ; I'm Captain
Forbes."

244 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xv.

" I don't care who ye are, sir, ye ain't the captain of
this 'bus ! " was the unexpected reply.

Fully twenty years ago, we had some of the largest
and most magnificent wooden sailing ships in the world.
There were, for example, the " Morning Light," the
" White Star," the " Champion of the Seas," and many
others, all of which have now disappeared. Then came
the rage for steamships, which went on increasing until
it attained such gigantic dimensions as almost to extin-
guish whole lines of what used to be sailing passenger
ships of the class just mentioned; and at no time has
this been more marked than in the ocean traffic during
the last few years.

In 1808, the convict-laden vessel did well if she
reached Botany Bay within 150 days from Spithead. In
1850, the eager gold digger considered himself fortunate
if he landed in Melbourne in 90 days after leaving the
English Channel. Then followed the age for clippers,
when 75 days was thought a rapid passage, but a new
era dawned on the history of Australian navigation,
when the " Orient " line, which led the way, enabled
passengers to reach the colony in the short space of
32 days, including stoppages. In other words, the S.S.
4< Austral," in 1883, ran the distance from Plymouth to
Melbourne, via Suez, 11,162 miles, in 32 days, 14 hours,
49 minutes. In October, 1887, however, the " Ormuz "
landed the mails in King George's Sound, Australia, in a
little under 24 days from London, which gave an average
speed of 18^ statute miles per hour for the whole voyage.

Amongst the quickest steamship runs for long voyages
were two races with cargoes of tea by the " Stirling
Castle," which at one time belonged to Skinner's China
Line. This vessel was built by Elder, and though not

CHAP. xv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 245

exceeding 4,500 tons gross register, had engines of 7,000
indicated horse power.

At 4 a.m. on May 22nd, 1883, she started on her
second voyage from Shanghai with 5,400 tons of the first
of the new season's tea, and arrived at Singapore on the
2gth, at i p.m. After fifteen hours coaling she sailed for
Suez, where she arrived on June i2th, at 1-30 p.m.
Upon taking in coals again at Port Said, she started on
June I4th, at 6-30 a.m. ; passed Gravesend on the 22nd,
at i p.m. ; and entered the London Docks an hour later,
thus performing the voyage from Shanghai, including all
detention, in 31 days 10 hours, or 29 days 2 hours'
steaming time. The average speed of 16 knots an hour
was maintained for the whole voyage, but the ship some-
times ran 19 knots, and her daily runs against the South-
West monsoons ranged from 371 to 401 nautical miles.

A new system of construction has recently been intro-
duced into Atlantic steamships, which has been fully
developed in the latest vessels of the Inman and White
Star Companies. The " City of New York " and " City
of Paris " belonging to the former, are each 560' o" long,
63' 3" broad, 42' o" deep, and 10,498 tons gross, which
makes them the largest steamers in the world. They are
built of steel, and, from the numerous watertight bulk-
heads, and other important improvements that have been
introduced, may be, termed " unsinkable." The engines
are of the twin screw triple expansion description, having
cylinders for each set, 45", 71", and 113" diameter, stroke
of piston 5' o", steam pressure 150 pounds per square inch,
and indicated horse power 20,000. Many other engines
are also employed for driving the circulating pumps,
and for electric lighting, hydraulic hoisting, refrigerating
apparatus, steam steering, steam haulage, pumping water

246 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xv.

throughout the ship, and for other purposes. The speed
of each vessel is fully 20 knots an hour, and the internal
arrangements are in every respect quite equal to those of
the highest class hotels.

Some of the swiftest steamers afloat are to be found on
the Clyde and Mississippi. The " Columba " and the
" Lord of the Isles," previously mentioned, run 21 and
23 miles an hour respectively, on their usual daily trips,
but even this is exceeded by the performances of torpedo
boats on the Thames, which have attained the astonishing
speed of 24 knots, or 27^ statute miles per hour.

As we have frequently used the words " knots " and
"miles" in reference to a ship's velocity, it may be well
to mention that the former is the sixtieth part of a degree
at the , Equator, or 6,082 feet, and is therefore called a
nautical mile or knot, whereas the English statute mile
on land only amounts to 5,280 feet. For simplicity in
calculation, we usually take the number of knots run per
hour by a ship, and add one-seventh, which reduces them
to miles, that is to say, 21 knots are equal to 24 miles.

The American river steamers are very different in
every respect from ours, but are nevertheless well suited
for what is required of them. Their leading features are
light draught, high speed, curiously trussed and tied
framings in ship and engines, and magnificent hotel-like
interiors. The following are the dimensions ot one of the
largest, named the " New World." Length 468 feet,
breadth of beam 50 feet, and over paddle boxes 85 feet.
The hull is of timber and flat bottomed, with bilges
nearly square, and draught of water 5 feet 6 inches. In
such a shallow vessel the trussing is immensely strong,
and although the great high pressure engine, with its
huge " walking beam " and other peculiarities may not

CHAP. xv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 247

be in accordance with our ideas, the Americans never-
theless obtain results which are quite satisfactory to
themselves.

Some of the greatest changes in engineering and iron
shipbuilding have taken place in the Navy, and so sweep-
ing and rapid have been their character that one eminent
authority in such matters stated, a short time ago, that
we were " most extravagant people, because every few
years guns and ships that had cost millions were put
aside to make room for some improved system of con-
struction costing a few more millions, which superseded
all that had been previously accomplished." To so
great an extent has this been carried that uncharitable
individuals might feel inclined to say that gunnery
engineers, such as Sir William Armstrong, Sir Joseph
Whitworth & Co., and others, had formed a conspiracy
with the shipbuilders and armour-plate people for their
mutual benefit, and practically directed all their efforts
towards neutralising each other's improvements.

This may appear to have been the case, but the truth
is, that practical science has made such rapid strides
in recent times, and so overwhelming have been the
changes, that really we can hardly tell what the next
movement may be, or how it may affect us. Among the
" fifties," the greater part of our naval ships were built of
timber, and heavily masted to enable them to sail well.
The introduction, however, of good horizontal engines,
such as Penn's double trunk, and Ravenhill's and
Maudslay's return connecting rod types, created a great
demand for them in these vessels, because both engines
and boilers could easily be kept below the water line, and
out of danger from shots penetrating the sides.

These engines were chiefly used at first as auxiliaries

248 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xv.

to help the ships on in calms or against head winds, and,
to render them still more serviceable, the propellers were
made with only two blades, so that, on being disconnected
from the end of the shaft, they could easily be lifted by
winch gearing into a recess which was made for them in
the stern. This gave the ship full scope for the use of
her sails, and prevented her from uselessly dragging the
screw through the water.

In course of time, ironclads came into use, with full
powered machinery, and with magnificent masts and
spars as well. Of this class may be mentioned H.M.S.
"Black Prince," "Warrior," and others. The next
movement consisted in cutting down the masts until
hardly any were left, thus throwing the whole work of
propelling the ship upon the engines, and the result has
been the introduction of a class of vessels which, though
well suited for modern warfare, are as devoid of every
element of beauty as it is possible to conceive. Within
the last few years, the vertical compound engine, and
latterly the triple expansion engine, have been adopted,
because the armoured sides form a sufficient protection
from shot.

All this time a struggle was persistently maintained
between guns and armour plates, and every now and then
an improved and more powerful gun was invented for the
purpose of smashing all opposing ironclads in existence.
This, in turn, led to considerable strengthening of the
sides of these vessels, which, however, was neutralised by
a great increase in the power of the artillery, and thus the
friendly strife was maintained, until wonderfully con-
structed steel ordnance, and ships something marvellous
to behold, were ultimately arrived at. A first-class iron-
clad of this description now costs about ^"750,000 ; the

CHAP. xv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 249

no-ton guns she carries, cost ^19,500 each; a single

charge £55 ios., and a single cast steel shot

The machinery used in the manufacture of these guns,
includes 200 ton hydraulic cranes ; lathes costing £6,000
each ; boring machines, ^4,000 ; combined gun-boring,
turning, rifling, and lapping machines at ^7,000 each ;
and a great variety of powerful engines, tools, and
appliances suited to the work they have to perform.

The largest and m.ost powerful war vessels in exist-
ence are the Italian ironclads " Sardegna," " Italia,"
" Lepanto," " Sicilia," and " Re Umberto.'s The dimen-
sions of all but the first-named are, length 400' 4", breadth
76' 9", and mean load draft of water 28' 8". Their engines
were designed in 1884, by Maudslay, Sons & Field, as
ordinary twin screw compounds of 19,500 horse-power;
and with a displacement of 13,298 tons, the speed of
each ship will be 18 knots. These vessels have excited
much criticism at home and abroad, as their machinery is
now out of date, and the ships — as Herr Spiridion
Gopcevic himself declares — are neither useful as iron-
clads, nor as unarmoured cruisers. He further states
that, for the cost of the " Re Umberto " — which will not
be finished till 1892 — four ships could be built which, in a
variety of ways, would be much more serviceable. As the
" Sardegna " is 22,800 I. H. P., she has at present reached
the limit of power in marine machinery. The last
named vessels, however, in the naval and mercantile
services, clearly indicate what has now been attained in
at least two branches of practical science.

We have with extreme brevity run over the peculiari-
ties of ships from the time of the Phoenicians to the year
1889 ; those, however, who wish to study the History of
Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce, will find very

250 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xv.

interesting information in the late W. S. Lindsay's
exhaustive treatise in four volumes, bearing the above
title. Great changes in land engineering may be antici-
pated in the future as time rolls on and the powers of
nature become better known, but what those changes are
likely to be no one, perhaps, can predict with any degree
of accuracy. So far, however, as we can discover at
present, steam, as a motive power, will continue to be
employed in ocean navigation, on account of its general
suitability.

The marine engine of to-day will, on the whole, remain
pretty much as it is now — at least for some time to
come — but we may expect changes in the boiler depart-
ment which will economise fuel in the furnaces, and also
weight in the ship ; thus directly decreasing her coal
expenditure, and enlarging her cargo earning powers, to
the delight of shipowners in all parts of the world, and for
the benefit of shipbuilders and engineers at home and
abroad.

CHAP. xvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 251

CHAPTER XVI.

FINISHING THE ENGINES IN THE WORKS.

Modern Types of Engines — Cycle of operations in working Triple Expan-
sion Machinery — Errors detected by the " Turning Gear" — Finishing
touches, past and present — Painting of Machinery — The Engines
taken down — Boilers completed — All ready for the Launch of
Ship — Distinguishing Marks of Ships — u House Flags " — Funnels —
Names — Preparations for Launching — The Chairman's Daughter —
Visitors and Officials — Launch Failures.

THE " Rosalind " is now so far advanced as to enable
the builders to fix a day for her launch ; the engines, too,
are receiving the finishing touches in the erecting shop,
before being taken to pieces ; and, as this is the best
opportunity we shall have of seeing them all round, let us
inspect them a little.

There they stand, with all their gear in position,
with the exception of various attachments which will be
added to them when in the ship. The main difference
between this improved type of engines and the now
obsolete " compound " arrangement of machinery is, that
the latter consisted of one high pressure and one low
pressure cylinder, except in the case of very large
engines, when two low pressure cylinders, of unitedly
equivalent area, were employed, chiefly with the object
of reducing the risk of an unsound casting, and also for
the sake of greater convenience.

The largest mercantile engines of the two cylinder
class, that have been made, were those of the Inman ships
" City of Berlin " and " City of Richmond," having, in

252 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvi.

each case, steam cylinders of 76 and 120 inches diameter,
and 5 feet 6 inches stroke. Valuable practical lessons
were learnt from them which induced engineers to
adopt the three cylinder type already mentioned, and
also the four cylinder or "tandem" arrangements, at
one time so popular in the White Star and other com-
panies. In this instance, however, the high pressure
cylinders were placed on the top of the larger ones, thus
producing a very lofty, but nevertheless good working
set of engines, the working pressure of which seldom
exceeded 75 pounds per square inch.

In the engines before us, a very important modifica-
tion, of the most recent date, has been introduced,
consisting of a three cylinder arrangement, which in-
cludes one high pressure cylinder, worked by steam of
160 pounds pressure, which escapes at greatly reduced
pressure into an intermediate cylinder of much larger
size, and then — in a very expanded state — passes into
the low pressure cylinder of still greater diameter, and
from that to the condenser, where it is changed into
water by coming in contact with a large number of small
brass tubes, through which the sea-water is driven by
means of a circulating pump.

The cycle of operations from this point is exactly the
same as in ordinary engines ; that is to say, the con-
densed steam, now at the bottom of the condenser, is
drawn off by the feed pumps, and discharged into the
boilers as partial compensation for the water which is
evaporated to supply the engines with their motive power.
It may be mentioned, however, that on these points
everything that skill and science can suggest is freely
made use of to prevent the possibility of any accident
happening at sea.

CHAP. xvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 253

The air, circulating, and bilge pumps, with all their
gear and attachments, have duties to perform just as
usual, with the exception of a few modifications to suit
the requirements of the case.

A variety of platforms, ladders, pipes, valves, and
other connections with the ship's side and bottom, can-
not be seen here, because some of them are fixed in the
vessel, and others will be put in afterwards. There is no
danger of any lurking mistake now remaining undis-
covered, because the engines have been turned round by
hand and critically examined to see if the " clearances "
are all right, such as the pistons when at top and bottom
of cylinders, etc. The setting of the steam slide valves,
upon which the proper working of the engines so much
depends, has been adjusted in the same way. These
movements are effected by the turning gear, which,
though slow in its action, is very powerful, and in many
engines is arranged so as to be worked by steam power.
If the machinery passes successfully through this opera-
tion, all is well, and those in charge of it may rest in
peace.

We have referred already to the manner in which
errors in drawings are made, and also discovered in the
works, but there is nothing more surprising perhaps than
the grave and most unaccountable blunders which are at
rare intervals committed, — even by the most experienced
engineers, — and which will escape every one's notice until
the engines are erected, and passed through a revolution
as described. Three of these costly mistakes come to my
remembrance now. The first happened in Denny's to a
pair of trunk screw engines for China, which were so
urgently required that we were working at them till ten
o'clock every evening.

254 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvi.

When they came to turn the cranks round, it was
discovered that the connecting rods, at one point of their
vibration, cut into the trunks. There was no remedy
whatever in this case except by making new cylinder
covers, cutting the trunks off the pistons to which they
were cast, and making the second set oval instead of
round, so that the required clearance could be obtained.
This operation was troublesome and expensive, as it
involved a great deal of difficult turning and planing,
indeed the trunks were perfect master-pieces of art of the
latter kind, since they had to be finished as truly as if
executed in the lathe. The alteration was ably carried
out, and the office mistake satisfactorily rectified.

On another occasion, a pair of oscillating engines were
being made by a firm on the Tyne, when the turning gear
revealed a serious error. In this instance, the cylinders
cut through the bed-plate, new castings for which had to
be made at once, which considerably reduced the profits.

The third of these curious events happened some time
ago in a large establishment on the Mersey, where a set
of powerful twin screw Government engines were build-
ing. The foreman of the erectors was revolving the
machinery in the usual way, and fancying everything was
right, when lo ! the connecting rod of one engine — which
meant the whole of them — fouled a large casting con
taining the air pump valves. This also had to be
remedied in the most efficient manner, and as quickly as
possible.

And now it may be asked how such things occur,
when experienced draughtsmen prepare the drawings,
when the manager is gazing at them every day for many
months, and when foremen and workmen fail to see
anything wrong until too late, the answer is, " I really

CHAP. xvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 255

cannot tell." Cases of this kind only prove the necessity
for great vigilance on the part of those who design com-
plicated machinery, to prevent even the possibility of
mistakes existing.

In the engines before us, everything has " come in "
splendidly, and Mr. Macdonald has expressed his great
satisfaction to Mr. Burton, who is delighted with the
compliment. After being thoroughly overhauled with the
object of finding out any lurking defect, the machinery
receives a coat of slate-coloured paint, and when that
is dry it is taken to pieces, and each separate detail, —
previously type lettered for reference, — receives the finish-
ing touches. Until within the last twenty years, this
operation was a most important one ; it meant that
everything upon which high art could he displayed was
carefully polished in the lathe, and all the other parts
were filed and drawfiled, and then burnished with emery
cloth, until not a scratch however small could be seen,
and every joint was so beautifully true as to be almost
invisible.

This style of doing things is now changed, for com-
mercial reasons, but the fitting of machinery is as
faultless as ever, because its very life depends upon the
way in which all the parts are put together. As super-
fine polish is not necessary, from a practical point of
view, the various machines execute in a perfectly satisfac-
tory manner, nearly all that is required, thus saving a
large amount of expensive manual labour. When there-
fore the engines in front of us are taken down, they will
only get touched up here and there, because all that is
needed has already been accomplished.

Painting and colouring generally prove most attractive
when tastefully arranged and harmoniously blended with

256 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP xvi.

a view to usefulness as well as ornamentation, but
nowhere is this more necessary than in engineering
structures. The " Rosalind's " engines are of a dark
grey or slate colour, because it harmonises with the
polished work and impresses one with their solidity ; but,
if scarlet, or bright blue, or brilliant green had been used
instead, it would have given them a paltry appearance.
The same may be said of nearly all other kinds of engines,
and of constructive machinery in general. Roofs and
bridges, however, are treated very effectively in a lighter
style ; but in agricultural engines and machines, and
also in American locomotives, etc., a different system is
employed.

The farm labourer is fond of gaudy colours, and if he
is thus treated liberally in the implements he uses, will
take greater pleasure in them. Since also a love of the
beautiful, in some form or other, pervades the various
races of the earth, those who live in the prairie and other
states, will be induced to travel more frequently when
taken in tow by a brilliantly illuminated and pictorially
treated locomotive and tender.

In high class work the castings are carefully scoured,
and, after 'several coats of paint have been laid on, a
beautifully smooth finish is given to them. Proper
attention to such matters is very important, because, in
addition to the preservative qualities of good oil colours,
a certain amount of elegance and cleanliness is conferred
upon all kinds of constructions, which— as we have
shown — does good in various ways.

The annexed plate is a view of the heavy turnery at
Messrs. Clark's marine establishment at Sunderland, and
clearly illustrates the interior of similar places.

There is no machine in engineering establishments

CHAP. xvr. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 259

that holds such high rank as the lathe, owing to its
extreme usefulness and economy of labour. It executes
work that no other can accomplish, and performs much
that is done by drilling, boring, screwing, planing,
slotting, and milling machines. It is also capable of
cutting screw threads of all sizes out of the solid metal.
This invaluable machine is of endless varieties, and ranges
in size from the amateur's foot lathe to those with 6 feet
centres and 60 feet beds, employed in the manufacture of
the no-ton guns previously referred to, and its cost will
run from about £$ to over £6,000. Some of the machines
mentioned above are shown in the plate opposite.

If you were to look into this part of the erecting shop,
say next day, you would see a heterogeneous collection of
cylinders, also the condenser, air, and other pumps, crank
shaft, and other gear, lying in every direction upon the
floor, the bright parts of which will be painted with a
mixture of white lead and tallow, to prevent them from
rusting. This, however, can easily be wiped off with
cotton waste when required. The massive bed-plate of
the engines will be first taken down to the fitting-up
basin, to be in readiness for putting on board as soon
after the launch as possible. The boilers, too, are also
ready to be lifted into the ship when she is alongside of
the great crane. This, however, only forms part of the
system which prevails in engineering establishments, and
assists in no small degree to facilitate the economical
execution of a contract.

I cannot at present remember a single instance of a
ship having been launched on a Friday. My good friend,
the late manager of the Barrow Works, however, informed
me that they " did not consider what day they launched
a vessel on," and perhaps that is the most sensible

260 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvi.

method. As it is now definitely arranged that the
" Rosalind" is to glide into her native element on Thurs-
day next, we may in the meantime have a little to say
about the distinguishing marks of ships, or in other
words, those special features which enable people to
ascertain at a distance what Companies they belong to.

The salient points referred to, include the names of
vessels, their "house" flags, the colour of the funnels,
and to some extent, at least, the rig. The first is not
only the oldest and best known, but in our day is capable
of great expression, and indicates, in all parts of the
world, the ownership of a large vessel. Take for example
those of the Inman line, they are all " cities " — " City of
Berlin," " City of Paris," etc.

The Cunard Company adopt the names of countries,
and call their steamers " Servia," " Gallia," and so on,
whereas the Allan line pursuing a similar course, alter
the last syllable slightly, as in the names " Sardinian,"
"Peruvian," &c. Solomon used to say that "a good
name was more to be desired than great riches." A good
name! Well, who would not prefer being called a Van-
deleur, a Farquharson, or a Seymour, in preference to
Snooks, or Bludd, or Bugge ? And so it is with ships.
Give them handsome titles, classical or modern, and
people will think all the more of them, and this will no
doubt help to increase the revenue of their owners.
Favourable first impressions are most important, and
every legitimate method ought to be used to obtain them
since unsuitable designations create false ideas, and this
will be apparent if we suppose the " Etruria " to be called
a "Lily," and the " Mirzapore " a "Violet," — pretty
little titles in themselves, but only suitable for river
steamers.

CHAP. xvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 261

Anything will do for canal boats and mud punts, from
" The Pet " upwards, and yet not quite, because a name
that is popular with the ladies and gentlemen who work
them, may command their admiration for the ships they
sail, and thus produce the best results. This principle
seems to permeate, in some form or other, all classes of
society, but in too many cases it is unwisely disregarded.
If you wish to see at a glance the impropriety of giving
unsuitable names to ships, try the reductio ad absurdum
style of argument and you will succeed.

For example, suppose the largest vessels of the Penin-
sular and Oriental Company were re-named the S.S.
" Flea," " Cat," " Dog," " Brotherly Love," " Sisterly
Affection," " Polly," and so on, those magnificent steam-
ers would become lightly esteemed by people who had
never seen them. And it is also probable that if pas-
sengers were to head their letters " S.S. Flea, at Sea," or
with any of the other names mentioned, their friends at
both ends of the line would fancy the Company had char-
tered a three hundred ton coaster for their own especial
use, and for the sake of variety.

And thus it is all through the shipping world. A well-
selected name wins admiration from the public, and the
affection of officers and crews, whereas unsuitable ones
do no good. Upon looking over the extensive list of
P. and O. ships, and also those of other Indian lines, we
find many handsome titles, the best of which are of three
and four syllables. Such names, however, as " Rome,"
"Clyde," &c., cannot do justice to floating palaces.
They are too short — they want massiveness — and are
deficient in that euphony which is to be found in such
words as " Golconda," " Massilia," " Navarino," &c.

The names of rivers, lakes, mountains, and cities, are

262 ENGINEERING, POPULARL Y CHAP. xvi.

very popular amongst shipowners, who generally give
handsome appellations to their vessels, taken from the
foreign countries to which they sail. This is only natural,
because in a pleasant way it helps in some degree to win
the kind consideration of the inhabitants of distant
climes. Indeed, we may add that a gentleman who ran
his ships to Bombay named them after Hindoo Rajahs,
and so pleased were those personages with the graceful
compliment, that they presented the enterprising owner
with a handsome amount of rupees for every vessel thus
designated.

The branch of literature just referred to may, perhaps,
appear trivial to some people, but it is nevertheless of
more importance than many would suppose, and of an
antiquity considerably greater than that of the celebrated
ship of Alexandria whose sign was " Castor and Pollux."

"House" flags form another good distinguishing mark.
That of the Cunard line consists of a golden lion ram-
pant, on a scarlet ground, carrying the world in his arms ;
and all the other Companies arrange their colours and
devices to suit their own ideas.

Flags of this kind are not only very useful, but, if
tastefully designed, highly ornamental appendages to a
ship, and whilst in every case they should be as distinct
as possible from all other flags of similar nature, they
ought to be clearly legible at a distance. This is accom-
plished by means of striking contrasts in various ways,
and when initial letters are used, by making them of large
size and bright in colour, say red on a white ground, or
white on a blue field. The latter being most expressive
and tasteful when contrasted with each other, as in the
simple and well-known " blue peter," or sailing signal.
From sunrise to sunset these flags are carried at the

CHAP. xvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 263

main when a ship is in port, thus indicating at a glance
the Company to which she belongs, and enabling people
at a distance to find out the vessels they are in search of.

Amongst the most suitable and distinctive house flags
are those of the Peninsular and Oriental and Anchor
Companies. The former consists of red, blue, yellow,
and white triangles, whose bases form the sides of the
flag. The latter is simply a large red anchor on a white
ground, which expressively tells its story. The Allan
Company carry the red white and blue of France, under
a red pennant. Floating at the stern of their ships, and
without the pennant, this would signify French nation-
ality, but when at the main it indicates the private
colours of the firm. If, however, the foremasthead of an
incoming or outgoing steamer is decorated with the same
flag, or indeed with that of any other country, say the
United States, Chili, or Brazil, it effectively announces
that the ship is either arriving from or departing to a
French, American, Chilian, or Brazilian port.

While admiring the good taste displayed in the selec-
tion of the Allan house flag, it is only natural to suppose
that the originators of the line intended it as a delicate
compliment to the French Canadians whom they hoped
to receive as passengers ; and this, like many other polite
attentions in ordinary life, has, no doubt, in a pleasant
way, done much more good all round than some would
imagine.

Another very expressive distinguishing mark is the
colour of the funnels, which are variously painted, — red,
with black tops ; black all over ; cream coloured, as in
the Navy ; and in other ways too numerous to mention.

The rig is the last, and also the least important,
because there is so little room for diversity, as a two-

264 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvi.

masted, three-masted, and four-masted brigantine are the
styles generally adopted for large steamers. The Inman
people, for very many years, appropriated the full ship
rigged masts and spars, by means of which their vessels
could be distinguished, even when the hulls were below
the horizon. Now, however, they have taken the yards
off the main and mizzen masts, because they are not
required.

We admire the names " Rosalind," " Andromeda,"
and " Clytemnestra," given to our three ships now
building, the first of which is, however, a compliment
paid by the Chairman of the Company, not only to the
original lady, but to his eldest daughter, who is also a
" Rosalind," and the engaged queen of the launch. And
now the day has arrived when the noble vessel is, in
newspaper language, to " glide gracefully into her native
element." The hour fixed for the event is twelve o'clock,
that is to say, just a little before high water, because the
steamer when launched will swing with the tide up the
river, and thus avoid all vessels which are likely to be in
the way lower down. About eleven o'clock the works are
thrown open, and visitors begin to arrive, but during
the whole morning the ship-building authorities have
been completing their arrangements.

At 11-40, the representatives of the owners, the
invited guests, and the members of the firm, are all
assembled on a raised platform, which is placed at the
bow. First and foremost among them, is the Chairman's
daughter, who is to have the honour of naming the ship.
What an elegant and charming young lady ; so tastefully
and simply attired, and all smiles and sweetness to those
around her ! Although the centre of observation, she
nevertheless tries to look quite unconscious of the atten-

CHAP. xvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 265

tion bestowed upon her, just as if a launch was a sort of
everyday amusement. She has been taught to think a
good deal, and to suppress every heartfelt or enthusiastic
emotion. In spite of this, however, she is full of sym-
pathy and good wishes towards the noble vessel which is
very soon to bear her own name, and which will be a
substantial addition to her father's splendid fleet.

The Bishops of Chester and Liverpool have been
invited, and it is quite possible that if either or both of
these gentlemen can get away for a short time they will
favour the company with their presence, and derive much
benefit by the change. Amongst the visitors are an
admiral, two military officers, and numerous friends of
the owners and builders, with their wives, sisters, cousins,
and other ladies.

The partners of the firm are actively employed in
bowing and smiling, smiling and bowing to every one,
and making themselves generally useful and agreeable.
Mr. Macdonald is there too as happy as a king ; he has
however to restrain his enthusiasm, in deference to the
people he is among, but will make up for it afterwards.
Mr. Bouverie is also there, with gloves on, and looking
quite like a gentleman at large. His cares are lightened,
and all responsibility for the present has ceased, as the
sole management of affairs has been transferred to the
shoulders of the shipbuilding manager, who will have to
look out for squalls if the ship should stick on the ways,
or topple over altogether.

Twice within my own knowledge have each of these
disasters happened. When everyone thought that the
" Great Eastern " was fairly off at the Isle of Dogs, she
suddenly came to a standstill, owing to the enormous
friction of the rough iron launching ways which were

266 ENGINEERING, POPULARL Y CHAP. xvi.

of novel construction, and her builders had to expend
nearly ,£120,000 before she could be pushed into the
water. The worry and anxiety thus brought upon the
responsible people was very great, and it is said that
Mr. Brunei's health was so much injured by the constant
strain that he never recovered from its effects.

Many years after this event, the Brazilian ironclad
" Independencia," stuck in a similar manner, near the
same place, and it cost about ,£22,000 to get her off. In
this case, however, the disaster was caused by the sinking
of the foundations under such a tremendous load. Then
again one of the great Galway liners fell over in a
Birkenhead graving dock, and was so seriously damaged
as to be of little use. And who does not remember the
launch of the " Daphne," on the Clyde, and her sudden
overturn, which caused the drowning of a large number
of workmen.

Not one of these evils we have mentioned can happen
to the " Rosalind," because she is built on rocky ground,
and is well ballasted. The ship herself, taken as she
is, looks well. Her lines are fine, and the model very
pretty throughout. The stern is elliptical, and hand-
somely finished, and the bow is terminated with a
beautiful figurehead, in white and gold, of Shakspeare's
heroine.

The bottom of the vessel is painted a strong flesh
colour, and her sides black, but, had she been an Indian
troopship, they would have been painted white, because
in a hot climate the heat is not absorbed so much by that
tint. As great preparations for the launch have been
made during the last two days, we shall briefly refer to a
few of them in the next chapter.

CHAP. xvn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 267

CHAPTER XVII.

LAUNCHING A SHIP.

How it is done— Launches of H.M.S. "Black Prince" and S.S. " City
of Rome " — Method of undocking a great Ironclad — Captain
Henderson — The Captain in charge of a Launch — Launch of the
" Rosalind " — Newspaper comments — Ship in Dock — Machinery on
board ready for Trial — Starting the Engines.

A SHIP is usually built upon a piece of ground called a
slip, which slopes towards the water, and which should
have a very rigid foundation, not only to prevent any
irregular strains upon a vessel while building, but also to
insure her safety during the launch. The keel is sup-
ported upon a row of temporary blocks of large sized
timber, placed about five feet or so apart, centre to centre,
and wedged upon both sides, so that they can be easily
removed from below when required.

Previous to a launch, the sliding ways, on which the
ship will move when once started, are carefully prepared,
and have an inclination given to them which ranges from
about i in 12 to i in 24, the latter slope being more suit-
able for the largest vessels, as it will prevent them from
acquiring too great a speed when entering the water.
This, however, is largely regulated by the amount of
water space available. To enable the ship to maintain
her equilibrium while being launched, a strong frame or
cradle of timber is built upon these " ways," and suffi-
ciently wide to give the requisite steadiness, otherwise
she might capsize. Guide pieces of timber are also

268 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvn.

securely fixed in such a position as will keep the cradle
from moving from side to side.

As the whole weight of the ship rests upon the keel
blocks during the time she is building, a system of
wedging is employed, by means of which the vessel may
be slightly lifted, and thus caused to rest upon the cradle
alone ; but if the blocks are capable of being easily
lowered, this process is unnecessary. These sliding ways
and cradles are completed a day or two before the launch
is to take place ; the ship, however, still rests upon the
keel blocks, and is kept upright by props and shores.

Shortly before this, the sliding ways are rubbed over
with hard tallow to stop the pores of the wood and give
a smooth surface, which is afterwards well lubricated
with soft soap. Just previous to the launch, the props
which kept her steady while building are removed, so
also are the keel blocks, now relieved of the ship's weight,
the whole of which is therefore borne by the cradle and
sliding ways. The former, however, is held in check by
two dogshores, which are protected by triggers, otherwise
the great event might come off prematurely.

When all is ready, the dogshores are released, and the
ship is named as she glides into the water ; but, if she
will not go of her own accord, the action of screw-jacks
or hydraulic presses will give her a start, and the force of
gravity will do the rest. The reason she moves at all is
that the launching ways have had given to them an inclina-
tion slightly in excess of the " angle of repose." Among
the immense collections of memoranda possessed by
engineers and shipbuilders are a few which have been
based upon experiments made to ascertain the angle at
which bodies of different kinds will slide — by gravity
alone, under various circumstances, — upon each other,

CHAP. xvn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 269

and also their frictional resistances ; that is to say, iron
upon iron or brass, smooth, dry, wet, or oiled ; wood
upon wood, and so on in great variety.

If you were, for example, to put a smooth block of ice
upon a table, and tilt it gradually on one side, an inclina-
tion would soon be reached which would cause the ice to
slide, but if this slope were slightly reduced the ice would
stop. This is called the " angle of repose," which for
obvious reasons varies greatly under different conditions.
In launching a ship these conditions are, " smooth timber
upon wood well lubricated." It is this, however, which
guides the shipbuilder in the choice of inclination of the
launching ways suitable for vessels of different sizes.

I have seen many a launch, big and little, but consider
those of H.M.S. " Black Prince" from Napier's, and the
S.S. " City of Rome" from the Barrow Works, as the two
finest. I was also present at the launch of H.M.S.
" Agincourt " from Laird's, but it was somewhat uninter-
esting when compared with the other two, as this
enormous ship was built in a covered dock, and floated
out at the last. The attendant circumstances, however,
and the dinner in honour of the event in the evening,
delighted us all. The gigantic hull of the "Rome"
entered the water in magnificent style, so also did the
" Black Prince," but the difficulty of getting the latter
safely into the Clyde was very great.

In the first place, the river was so narrow at Govan,
that a vessel, much less in length, could easily have
blocked the passage broadside on.

Secondly, the " Black Prince " was very heavy, and in
the last place, the ship, angled as she was on the sliding
ways to get as much water space as possible, was cramped
even in this respect, owing to a bend in the river, which

270 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. XVH.

could not be avoided. The result of these combined evils,
was an elaborate and carefully calculated system of
cables and checking gear, for the purpose of bringing the
vessel well up after she entered the water, and to keep
her from running into the opposite bank. The day was
very wet, nevertheless many thousands of people went to
see her off, and really nothing could have been more
splendidly carried out than the launch of that magnificent
ironclad.

The other system of "launching" referred to, is in
reality only the simple process of undocking; the ship
which is subjected to it, having been built under cover of
a large roof. The shed thus formed contains all neces-
sary appliances, including a powerful travelling crane,
which sweeps the building longitudinally and trans-
versely, and assists very materially in the construction
of the vessel. By means of this arrangement, not only
are the workmen protected from the weather at all times,
but the engines, boilers, and all connections, can be fixed
in position before launching, thus leaving as little as
possible to be accomplished afterwards.

The dock in which the vessel is built is closed by a
caisson having tapered ends, which fit watertight into
grooves in the sides of the entrance. When everything
is ready for launching, the sluice valves in the caisson are
opened for the purpose of admitting water gradually,
until the vessel is fairly afloat, and all the props which
kept her steady while building have been removed.

The ship is allowed to rise with the tide until her keel
will safely clear the dock sill. And after the caisson is
floated out, the attendant steam tugs tow her to the
fitting-up basin, where the masts are put in and the vessel
completed in every respect. If we wished to know

CHAP. xvii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 271

approximately the total weight of the vessel now before us —
which for example, may be called the Italian ironclad
" Italia " — the process would be a very simple one.

This ship — already mentioned — is 400 feet long, 74 feet
broad, and the draught of water is 27 feet 6 inches. Her
displacement at this depth amounts to 13,900 tons, and
according to a well known law — which can easily be
proved by experiment — is exactly equal to the total
weight of the vessel as she now lies in the water.

Let us suppose, for the sake of simple illustration, that
her hull has been built in the form of a rectangular water
tank, having the same length, breadth, and draught as
above, and is floating in sea water, 35 cubic feet of which
weigh one ton ; 36, however, being required for fresh
water.

Then 400' x 74' X 27^' = 814,000 cubic feet, which,
if divided by 35, will give 23,257 tons.

This formula is beautifully simple for calculating the
weight of all floating structures of rectangular form, but if
the same information as to a ship were required before-
hand, the weight of plating of every description, frames,
deck beams, woodwork, engines, boilers, shafting, and
everything throughout the vessel, would have to be ascer-
tained, thus involving immense labour, and forming a
very striking contrast to the simple process just men-
tioned. In addition to this, the shipbuilder has to per-
form many more calculations before he can ascertain the
draught of water, the stability, and other important
questions relating to the proposed ship he has in hand.

The " Italia's " hull is supposed to be of box form, for
convenience, but we must now make allowance for its
actual shape, and if the above mentioned 23,257 tons is
multiplied by -6 a constant varying slightly according to

272 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvn.

the shape of vessel, the product — 13,954 tons — will
approach very closely to the actual weight, or " displace-
ment," as it is generally termed, already given.

This grand principle in hydrostatics, although applied
chiefly to ships, is nevertheless frequently employed in
other branches of engineering, and with the most advan-
tageous results.

Besides the finishing touches which have been given
to the outside of the hull of the " Rosalind," a large
number of flags are most effectively displayed throughout
the vessel, while two or more steam tugs, similarly
ornamented, are lying in readiness in the river. There
are also a few men on deck, who will be required to work
her when afloat, and who are under the orders of a
captain who directs their movements. Who that com-
mander now is, I cannot tell, all I wish is, however, that
it could be Captain Henderson.

There was in Laird's, in my time, a gentleman who
was well known to all of us. He had spent some of his
best years at sea, and was a good specimen of the ancient
mariner — one of the old school of ship commanders who
could " chew baccy," and swear, and scorned to wear
gloves. He also seemed to have but little regard for the
refinements of polite society, and in this respect presented
a striking contrast to the aristocratic navigators of some
of our modern mail steamers. The gentleman referred to,
was Captain Henderson. The day before the launch of
the " Agincourt " took place, he put his head inside of our
office door and shouted out, " Now then, all you fellows !
you're to come down to-morrow morning, and give us a
hand to get the ship out of dock."

Everyone of us went of course at the hour named, but
I rather think we were more ornamental than useful. The

CHAP. xvii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 273

machinery was stopped, and a great number of people
had assembled in the yard to witness the event. The
captain was quite equal to the occasion, and I verily
believe crowded into that one hour of active service the
energy of a whole week of his past life upon the ocean.
It would now be rather difficult to state, with any degree
of accuracy, what he actually did on that eventful day,
but I think I shall not be far wrong in saying, that he was
everywhere on the deck of the great ironclad. One moment
he would be at the after end, the next at the bow, and
then amidships, putting one in mind of the Corsair, when
he exclaimed : —

" Who would not brave the battle fire — the wreck,
To move the monarch of her peopled deck ? "

Captain Henderson was in his element while thus
employed, and no doubt considered it a high honour to
have the opportunity of shouting his commands to the
right and to the left, about " hawsers," " bow ropes," and
all the rest of them. His professional position in the
Birkenhead Iron Works was that of superintendent of
the riggers, and no one knew better how a ship's masts
and yards ought to be stayed and braced than he did.

I regret to say, however, that my remarks only apply
to one who will never again be associated with such
animated scenes, as our good friend has long since
departed this life. May he rest in peace !

It is impossible for me to describe, from actual know-
ledge, the characteristics of the present commander-in-
chief of the " Rosalind's " launch, I must therefore
imagine that the late captain is in charge of the vessel.
There he is again as he used to be, high up at the
extreme end of the quarter-deck next the river, and his
figure standing out in bold relief against the sky.

274 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvn.

The tide is just about full, and he is anxious to be off,
but obstacles are in the way, vessels are coming and
going, because this is the busy time for docking, etc., on
the Mersey, and it would never do to run into any of
them. There goes the African Royal Mail steamship
" Teneriffe," outward bound to the West Coast, and here
comes the Cunarder " Etruria," steaming up to her moor-
ings off Rock Ferry, to be in readiness for Saturday's
departure. Highly respectable people both of them are,
dip your ensign to each, and be quick about it, as this is
the first opportunity of doing so. Other vessels are
paddling, screwing, and sailing about, much to the
captain's annoyance. At last the course is free, the
supreme moment has arrived, and the order is given :—

" Stand by ! all clear below there ? "

" Aye, aye, sir."

« Let go ! "

"Hi! hi!! HOLD ON THERE! HOLD ON, WILL
YE ! ! Drat it all, if there ain't a dirty little beast of a
Runcorn flat just entering upon our course, whatever we
do we must not run her down."

There she comes, crawling along at the rate of three
miles an hour, and trying to beat out to sea against the
tide, and with little wind.

The captain is wild, and waves his hat frantically, but
she still carries on as if she had as much right to be there
as anyone else. At last those on board recognise the
gravity of the situation, and head for the opposite shore.
When this is sufficiently done, the order is again given : —

11 Now then ! all clear below ? "

" All clear, sir."

" LET GO ! "

Word is passed to the bow, where all the visitors and

CHAP. xvn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 275

officials are standing, the dogshore men are signalled to,
the chairman's daughter is requested to dash the bottle of
champagne, — which has been hanging by a silk ribbon, —
against the bows, naming the ship the " Rosalind" at the
same time, and immediately, a space which up to this
moment measured 15^ inches, has become 16 inches, and
is rapidly increasing in the accelerando style. Down
goes the splendid vessel, amidst the cheers of the multi-
tude, until her rudder touches the water, then the stern
sinks deeply into it, and raises a large wave.

The bow next crashes through the floating timber of
the cradle, the hull oscillates fore and aft for a minute or
so, then steadies itself, and runs far out and up the river,
as was intended. The tugs in the meantime are after
her as fast as their wheels can drive them, and eventually
capture the runaway, which they unitedly tow to the
entrance of the fitting-up basin. The " Rosalind " is now
warped in, and finally brought to rest under the great
crane, where operations are at once begun for putting her
engines and boilers on board.

While this movement has been going on, the guests
and others, now assembled in the model-room, have been
partaking of a handsome cold lunch, and inspecting, at
the same time, the numerous and beautifully finished
models of naval and mercantile ships built by the firm,
and the paintings with which the walls are adorned.
The visitors seem to be highly pleased with their morn-
ing's performance, and are delighted to learn something
about ships and steamers they had not known before.
The conversation is most animated. Everyone is charmed
with everybody else, and soon afterwards the party breaks
up and they all disperse.

The newspapers of the following day take care, while

276 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvn.

describing the event, to give as much information as
possible. The chairman's daughter is complimented upon
the elegantly successful manner in which she performed
her part of the ceremony. The " graceful gliding of the
ship into her native element " is commented upon. The
number of ships built by the firm for the same owners ;
the number, tonnage, and horse power of all the vessels
they have now in hand, are fully given. In short,
everything is mentioned that may be interesting to the
general reader, involving, perhaps, one or two technical
errors, which the initiated smile at, and ordinary ladies
and gentlemen cannot quite understand.

Having got the " Rosalind " safely into dock, the next
thing to be done is to set a small army of workmen upon
her. These consist of engineers and boiler-makers, ship-
wrights and riggers, carpenters and joiners; and, when
the vessel is far enough advanced, plumbers, painters,
upholsterers, and decorators will be added to the number.
Everything is now being pushed forward with rapidity all
over the ship until sufficiently near completion to enable
the engines to be started. This is an indispensable oper-
ation, and forms a prelude to the official trial trip. Briefly
described, it is as follows.

After the engines and boilers have been fixed in place,
and all connections formed between them and the sides,
bottom, and other parts of the ship ; when the propeller
with its line of shafting has been fitted, as well as all
cooling and lubricating gear, and ladders, handrails,
gratings, etc., are in position, steam is got up, and the
machinery set in motion, the vessel having been pre-
viously secured fore and aft to the quay.

Upon rectifying all defects which may now appear,
such as leaky piston and valve-rod stuffing boxes, and

CHAP. xvii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 277

bearings which may require easing a little, the engines
are allowed to run, in some cases for hours. During
this preliminary trial, everything is carefully watched,
both in the engine and boiler rooms, and all stiffness in
the working parts, which is incidental to new machinery,
gradually reduced. In course of time, a highly polished
surface is given to the main bearings, and piston and
other rods. The insides, also, of the steam cylinders, air
and circulating pumps, etc., acquire a glassy surface,
which is much desired, as it contributes greatly to the
success of the trial and to their future working at sea.

With small engines, such as those for launches and
torpedo boats, the speed of the working parts is so great
as to prevent one from following their movements, but with
great engines, such as those before us, the motion is com-
paratively slow, and you have time to look at and admire
them ; but whatever size the machinery may be, the
operation we have mentioned has invariably to be per-
formed.

278 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvm.

CHAPTER XVIII.

SHIP AND ENGINES COMPLETED.

Vessel in the river — David Kirkaldy — Ferry passengers' remarks — General
Survey of the Ship — Boiler Room and Appliances — Engine Room
and Fittings — "Larboard" and "Port" — Pumping Machinery —
Watertight Compartments — S.S. "Arizona" in Collision with an
Iceberg — The Tunnel and contents — Materials used in Engines —
View from Starting Platform— Different kinds of Engines— How
controlled from Deck — Complicated modern Machinery — Economy
in Working and Maintenance — " Crisp word of Command."

DURING the interval between the "start'' and the official
trial trip, everything throughout the vessel, fore and aft,
below, and aloft, is being touched up here and titivated
there. The painters, decorators, and upholsterers are in
full swing ; the grand-saloon begins to look noble ; the
masts and yards are all up, and the " Rosalind " is at last
almost finished.

Another event in her early history has now arrived.
The ship is in the river, just a little above the track of
the Birkenhead boats, and is getting up steam previous
to departure for the open sea, on her first run, which is
to test the speed of the vessel, also the power and other
qualities of the engines and boilers.

One evening, more than a quarter of a. century ago, I
paid a visit to the Glasgow Art Gallery, and after gazing
at the pictures for some time, came at last to a place
where an exquisitely beautiful drawing of the Cunard S.S.
" Persia " was exhibited. As I stood admiring it, one of
the visitors said politely to me, " Let me give you this
hand-glass, and you will see it better."

CHAP. xvni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 279

" Thank you very much," I replied, and immediately
added, " What a splendid drawing ! so exquisitely shaded
and coloured ; so minute, and in so many views, too !
What taste and patience the engineer who made it must
have had! "

" Yes," observed the gentleman beside me, " although
it is my own production, I must say it does look well."

Little did I think that my kind friend was Mr. David
Kirkaldy, who at that period flourished in Robert Napier
& Son's Lancefield works, while I at the same time was
in the employ of Neilson & Co., at their adjacent Hyde
Park Foundry, with only a brick wall between us. Since
those days, however, Mr. Kirkaldy has acquired quite a
world-wide reputation in an experimental branch of engi-
neering he then practised very successfully at Messrs.
Napier's.

I have mentioned my art gallery experience, because
the idea it conveys may be utilised in similar cases. If,
for example, the builders of a great ocean liner on the
Mersey or the Clyde wish to learn what the public think
of her, they could not do better than place the ship in a
position where passengers on the river steamers can
easily see her to advantage. After this is done, those
gentlemen may cross as often as they please, and observe
the remarks of people around them, which may be some-
what in the following style : —

" What a magnificent vessel ! "
" Dear me ! what power those funnels must have ! "
" I do like that rig," observes a " White Star " or
"Cunard" captain. Such a beautiful model, too; quite
equal to any of ours. 'Pon my word, those people know
how to build a ship ! "

II Oh ! ' says one lady, " what a handsome bow ! "

280 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvin.

" What a lovely stern ! " is the remark of another.

So on, and so on, in great variety. Many similar
observations have I heard on board these old familiar
ferryboats of the Mersey, and, indeed, have not been
backward sometimes in contributing my own share. It
will therefore be seen that ships so situated are exposed
to an amount of criticism from all classes that might
gratify, if it did not quite instruct, their builders who
overheard the remarks.

But here comes the tender with the " select company"
of visitors, who have been invited from Liverpool, Lon-
don, and perhaps the Clyde. The representatives of the
owners are among them, as also are those of the builders
and engineers ; some ladies may perhaps be added, and
in a few minutes all are on board. It will be a little time
before everything is quite ready; may I, therefore, ask
you to accompany me on a tour of observation below, as
this is the last opportunity I shall have of describing the
mechanical interior of the ship. Let us begin at the
boiler-room, in what is called the " stokehole."

This deserves our first attention, as it is the centre of
that life-giving energy without which the machinery will
be useless. The arrangement of the boilers varies
greatly, according to circumstances. Sometimes they lie
fore and aft, along the sides of a ship, and are fired in a
transverse direction, but in large vessels they are gener-
ally placed transversely in rows of two or three each, and
fired longitudinally, but whatever their position may be,
economy of space is the first thing aimed at. There you
see the furnaces giving out their fierce heat, which is
immediately transmitted to the water covering them, and
also to the numerous tubes, which give the name of
"tubular" to all similar boilers. If steam has to be

CHAP. xvin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 281

raised quickly, the furnace doors will be shut, and those
of the ashpit opened, thereby causing a rush of cold air
under the fire bars to assist combustion and cause intense
heat. If the engines are at rest, and you wish to check
the supply of steam, all that is necessary is to reverse the
operation.

" Where is the forced draught part of the business ? "
do you ask ? Well, we haven't it in this ship, whatever
we may do in others. Some people seem to admire it,
especially the inventors — others don't like it. For the
present, at least, we shall be content with the natural
draught arrangement you see before you.

The coal bunkers are furnished with sliding doors,
through which the coal is taken when required, while
the floor we stand on is of iron plates, on which the
ashes are raked previous to being discharged overboard.
This is accomplished by means of iron buckets, which
are hoisted when filled by a little engine at the top of
one of the ventilators you see overhead. When the water
in the boilers becomes too salt, owing to the evaporation
constantly going on when the ship is at sea, some of it is
discharged through the " blow off" pipes to make room
for a fresh supply. "Surface blow off" pipes are also
provided for the purpose of clearing away any impurities
that may float on the surface, and both of these most
useful appendages deliver overboard.

The steam stop valves, with their connections for each
boiler, are all overhead, and join into one large main,
called the " main steam pipe," which conveys their united
contents to the high pressure cylinder of the engines, but
before the machinery can be fully started, the main stop
valve, and also the throttle valve for regulating the
supply of steam instantaneously, must be opened. In

282 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvm.

addition to the above, small auxiliary or "starting" valves
are provided for convenience in handling the engines.

The safety valves are on the top of the boilers, and
are of great value, as they allow the superfluous steam to
escape through the waste steam pipe at the back of the
funnel. They act much in the same way as volcanoes, —
which by their eruptions prevent a whole country from
being blown to pieces, — and thus the possibility of a
disastrous explosion is at once averted.

There are other appliances and connections you will
see around you, to which, however, we need not refer,
beyond merely adding that they also are indispensable,
and conduce greatly towards the safety of the boilers,
and their economical working.

Besides the main boilers, there is a " donkey-boiler,"
of small size, which is used when in port to supply
steam to the winches for unloading the cargo at each
hatchway, and in addition to all these, are numerous
ladders and gratings, fixed at different levels, and in the
best position for getting up and down from the deck, and
working at everything. Gear and tackle of every descrip-
tion for general use are also liberally provided.

Let us now take a turn in the engine room, and see
what is to be seen there. As we have already described
the engines in the erecting shop before being taken to
pieces, it may only be mentioned that, as this lowest
platform has no particular name, we may call it, for the
sake of distinction, the " mezzanine floor," because it
corresponds to the floor bearing the same title, which lies
underneath the stage of a theatre, and also because all
the pumps, crank shaft, and some of the valve and other
gear, are here congregated. Before us, in the port for-
ward corner, stands the donkey engine, whose position

CHAP. xvni. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 283

Mr. Macdonald curiously altered on the plans. It looks
right enough, but it would have been better if — well, well !
as Lady Macbeth used to say, " What's done, cannot now
be undone."

This useful little engine is named after the well-known
animal, because it does so much slavish and dirty work,
and is chiefly employed in feeding the boilers with sea
water when the main engines are at rest. It also pumps
from the bilge any water that may get there, — either
through the ship leaking, or from any other cause, — and
discharges it overboard. Another of its duties is to take
water from the sea for washing down the ship, and
deliver on deck through ordinary hose pipes. By means
of " communication " boxes containing a number of
valves, any of which can be opened or shut at pleasure,
the donkey's sphere of action may be greatly enlarged.

Previous to the year 1845, the terms " larboard " and
" starboard " were used on board a ship ; now, however,
the former is styled " port," because the similarity of the
words was too great, and led to confusion, perhaps, at
critical times. Since that date the altered phrase has
been applied to the left-hand side of a ship when looking
towards the bow.

In the event of a serious leak occurring, not only will
the services of the donkey engine be utilised, but the cir-
culating pumps for supplying the condenser with cooling
water from the sea will be made to draw water from the
bilge. Various other pumps throughout the ship can
also be used for the same purpose, and thus an immense
quantity of water can be thrown overboard in a short
time.

Over our heads is the starting platform, which may be
called the seat of government of the engine department,

284 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvm.

because every movement of the machinery is controlled
from that commanding position. We shall be on it
before we leave, so let us in the meantime go through the
tunnel. At its very entrance is one of the watertight
bulkhead doors of the ship, which are worked by screw
gear from the main deck. This vessel is divided into
numerous watertight compartments, for the purpose of
localising any water that may enter during a collision, or
otherwise, a plan which, we may say, has been the means
of saving many ships from foundering, especially the
" Arizona," when, steaming at 15 knots an hour, she ran
into an iceberg some years ago. It may be added that
the foundering of the magnificent Cunarder " Oregon "
after collision with a ship — to this day unknown — was
entirely due to the jamming of one of these bulkhead
doors with a block of coal, which prevented it from being
closed as the water rushed in.

The tunnel itself is strongly made of plating, and
arched on the top, as all kinds of cargo will be placed
over and around it, and is only wide enough and high
enough to allow the engineers to walk up and down
comfortably, and attend to the bearings of the screw shaft
which runs through it.

At the entrance to the tunnel lies the " thrust block,"
very securely fixed in position, as it will have to sustain
the whole thrust of the propeller in driving the ship ; and
going aft, we pass several "plummer blocks," whose duty
is to carry the shafting, which is bolted truly and rigidly
together, in several lengths, by means of flange couplings
formed on each. It is also rough turned all over, and
painted white, except at the bearings, where a high finish
is necessary. A line of copper pipes is carried near the
roof of the tunnel and throughout its whole length, for the

CHAP. xvin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 285

purpose of supplying water for cooling these bearings
when heated.

Oil boxes are also provided for effectually lubricating
all the working surfaces. The same system is applied to
the crank shaft in the engine room, and it may here
be observed that, without a very complete arrangement
of lubricating gear connected with the whole of the
machinery, it would very soon be cut up, and perhaps
smashed to pieces, through extreme friction and the great
heat caused thereby. It is only within a very recent
period that the scientific laws which regulate perfect
lubrication have been even partially comprehended, and,
although the subject is too frequently treated in an
empirical manner, it is now well known to engineers that
a careful selection of lubricants, and their judicious
application to machinery of all kinds, produces highly
satisfactory results.

We are now at the end of the tunnel, and close to
the last bulkhead in the ship ; the shafting, however, is
continued through it, and also through the stern post, out-
side of which the propeller you saw in the great lathe has
found a resting place for the present. Between the screw
and the bulkhead just named, the shaft is encased by
what we call a " stern tube " of cast iron, which contains
two most important bearings, the inner one being of
brass, and the outer one of lignumvitae. It was discovered
many years ago that, when a steamer sailed in muddy
water, the earthy matter contained in it quickly cut up
the outside bearings of brass upon brass, as the shaft
itself had " liners " of this material shrunk upon it. To
remedy this defect, Mr. Penn experimented upon lignum-
vitae similarly in contact with brass, and, as he found out
that these materials could safely bear a working pressure

286 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvm.

of 2,000 pounds per square inch, when, at the same time,
the two metals had their surfaces seriously abraded at 200
pounds per square inch, the wooden bearings have been
used ever since.

Having gone as far as we can towards the stern,
let us return to the engine room. I may now tell you
that all the parts about these engines which could not
possibly, or even economically, be made of wrought
iron, — including the steam cylinders, condenser, framing,
and a great variety of other gear, — are formed of cast
iron, or cast steel, on account of the great suitability of
these metals for work of this character. Those details,
however, of a simple nature, which require great tough-
ness and lightness, are made of wrought iron or steel, but
all the internal working parts of pumps and valves,
exposed to the corrosive action of water, must be of
brass, gun metal, or phosphor bronze. Steam, and
other pipes throughout the ship, are made of copper
for lightness and convenience, but those directly in
contact with bilge water in the bottom of the ship are of
lead.

People in general imagine that brass and iron are
somewhat uniform in quality; their variations, however,
are so diversified that these materials require great cir-
cumspection and rigid testing on the part of engineers
who turn out machinery of a high class. As the great
forges occupy a very important position in the manufac-
ture of every kind of heavy ship and engine work, part
of which we have already seen, the annexed view of the
interior of a portion of the Mersey Forge, Liverpool, will
shew clearly the arrangement and system of working the
powerful steam hammers and their connections. The view
of the forging department at Messrs. Wigham Richard-

CHAP. xvni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 289

son & Co.'s Newcastle Works — introduced further on —
will also prove interesting.

Let us now go up the ladder to the starting-platform,
which, as you see, consists of an iron floor, having grat-
ings of an open diamond pattern for the purpose of
admitting light to the lower regions. There is Mr.
Bouverie examining everything carefully, trying this, and
inspecting that, and Mr. Macdonald is looking on. " Off
at last ? " " Oh no ! we are not off yet, thank you ; they
are only warming the engines previous to our departure."

When steam comes into contact with cold iron, as the
cylinders now are, it becomes condensed, and the water
which is formed has to be drained off, otherwise internal
accidents would arise, as the pistons have very little
clearance at top and bottom of stroke, and might thus
strike with great force an incompressible fluid. When the
cylinders, however, become hot enough, full steam may
be admitted with safety, and the ship started on her
voyage. As all the hands are busy above and below,
the sooner we go on deck the better. A hasty glance,
therefore, at what we can easily see, will be quite
sufficient for our purpose.

The view from this position is considered very interest-
ing, as we have before us the handsome valve gear,
including quadrants, eccentric rods, starting wheel, and
small engine for working the- gear ; also numerous levers,
rods, and a great deal of other beautiful work. This
type of engine is the extremely popular and practically
useful " inverted cylinder direct action " species, but
there is one thing I don't like about them.

"Now then, haven't you got these bolts screwed up
yet ? " Mr. Bouverie shouts to some of the hands on the
mezzanine floor.

2QO ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvm.

" Very nearly finished, sir."

" I wish you would be quick about it."

As I said just now, there is one thing I do not like
about these most admirable engines, and that is, they
have very little to shew when gazed at from the deck, as
the cylinders on the top shut out everything from view,
and obstruct the light very much for those below ; but we
cannot have all we wish, and this is only one example out
of multitudes, where a great benefit is obtained at the
expense of perhaps several minor advantages. The prac-
tice of an engineer abounds with similar instances, and
the highest skill and judgment are often displayed in the
selection of what is really best, out of much that only
appears so.

Horizontal engines can easily be seen from the deck,
and they also admit of a very light and spacious engine
room, but nothing in this respect could have equalled
Tod & Macgregor's steeple engines, such as those of the
P. and O. S.S. " Simla," a handsome three inch scale
model of which stood for many years in the Crystal
Palace. This machinery was completely under view from
the deck downwards, from which point you could take
in the whole of it at a glance, including highly finished
piston and connecting rods, crossheads, cranks, shafts,
and all other gear, right to the bottom of the ship.

For screw propulsion, however, nothing can be better
than these engines of the "Rosalind," on account of
the practical and important advantages they possess.
Powerful as they are, the whole of the machinery is
entirely and instantaneously under control from this plat-
form, as every improved invention that science could
devise has been utilised for the purpose. The officers on
the bridge, for example, telegraph their orders direct to

CHAP. xvin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 291

the engine room, and these requests are musically re-
corded on that apparatus before you, which by the
striking of a gong, supplemented by index pointers, tells
'the engineers in charge to " stop," " stand by," and " go
ahead," or "go astern," "slow," " half speed," "three-
quarter speed," or " full speed," as required. Such an
arrangement, we need hardly say, is in times of danger
of the most vital importance.

Overhead is a very compact travelling crane, for lift-
ing the cylinder covers and pistons, or anything else not
too heavy, and conspicuously fastened to one of the bulk-
heads you will observe a handsome brass plate, backed
with teak, which in Egyptian block letters informs all
who look at it, that the engines were made, — let us
suppose, — by " Laird Brothers, Birkenhead Iron Works,
1889," and that their "number" is 810. This statement
also conveys as true an idea of the excellence of the
machinery as " Collard and Collard" does on a grand
piano, or Noel Paton's signature on a picture.

" What is all this wonderful and complicated mechan-
ism for ? " do you ask ?

Let me tell you.

In days of yore, marine engines were much more
simply designed than they are now. They were, how-
ever, very inefficient, and also expensive in maintenance.
In other words, they were not economical in fuel con-
sumption, and this induced engineers to consider some
improved method of construction, and very many advan-
tageous modifications were the result. The surface con-
denser took the place of the jet condenser. High pressure
steam superseded low pressure steam. The old fashioned
box boilers were exchanged for those of cylindrical form,
and a host of minor alterations were made from time to

292 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xvm.

time, which unitedly and extensively increased the com-
plications of this most important class of machinery.

The principle adopted by shipowners was this. If
you find that £100 per annum can be obtained by invest-
ing £1,000 in engines, and also discover that ^300 may
be safely made in the same time by increasing your
outlay to ^2,000, then by all means expend the last named
sum. The secret, the mainspring, we might say, of all
these modern complications is economy, or saving in coal,
in management, in maintenance. I hope you will there-
fore not be surprised to hear that all this costly mach-
inery I have had the pleasure of explaining to you is for
no other purpose than that of turning a shaft with a
screw at the end of it, in the least expensive manner.

There are wonderfully simple steam and electric
engines for yachts, and others driven by gas, water, and
compressed air, etc., for land purposes, with extremely
few parts, but such an arrangement cannot possibly exist
in the machinery before us.

"Is that circulating pump Kingston valve open?"
Mr. Bouverie now asks.

"No, sir."

"Well, then, open it!"

"Rather a blunt man," did you say? Just wait till
you know him, and you will change your opinion. He is
going to a dinner party this evening, and, if you were
there, you would find him one of the most accomplished
gentlemen, in every sense of the word, you ever met. If
any one remarked —

" I hear you had a very successful trial trip to-day,
Mr. Bouverie," his reply would be —

" Yes, we have every reason to be satisfied with the
* Rosalind's ' performance," and then — delicately avoid-

CHAP. xvin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 293

ing all professional talk — he would drift away into an
animated discussion about astronomy, vulcanology, music,
the fine arts, or any other kindred subject, to the delight
of everyone, — so happy is his manner, so brilliant his
conversation. When you join the ladies in the drawing-
room, you will hear one of them remark —

" What a charming man Mr. Bouverie is ! " another —

" How refined and intelligent ! "

" Yes," adds Lady Bareacres, " and how modest and
unassuming, too ! "

This gentleman's style of speech in the engine-room —
that of the Captain when on duty — and similarly, of all
officers in the Army, Navy, and Mercantile Marine, is
simply what Mark Twain used to delight in so much
when among the Mississippi pilots, and which he termed
the " crisp word of command." No one is offended, or has
his feelings hurt by such plain language, and a great deal
of time, and probable danger, are saved by its use.

Just fancy what we should come to, if those gentlemen
blandly observed, " I am very sorry to trouble you, but
would you mind porting the helm a little ? " or, — " I shall
esteem it a favour if you would stop the engines," or, —
with a squall coming down on the ship, — " I'll be obliged
to you if you would kindly let go all sail."

If this state of things unfortunately existed, we should
soon hear of a Cunarder being lost because the captain
was so polite to his officers and men when on duty, or a
magnificent clipper thrown on her beam-ends because the
sails could not be taken in before the blast was upon
them. The Roman centurion set a good example when
he said " Go ! " " Come ! " and " Do this ! " and we who
follow in his footsteps, by adopting his style of language,
are saved from much tribulation.

294 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

CHAPTER XIX.

SHIP'S APPLIANCES— TRIAL TRIP.

Steering Gear in small and large ships — Control of ship from bridge —
The "Quartermaster" — Clyde and Thames boats — Steam winches —
Steam windlass — View of ship from bow — Official Trial Trip —
Duties of Staff in Engine and Boiler rooms — Scene in Grand
Saloon — "Running the Mile" — "Indicated Horse Power" —
Successful Trial — Unsatisfactory Trial Trips — Flag Signalling in the
Navy and Merchant Service — Cunard and other Atlantic Captains
and officers — Sea-going Engineers — Description of the " Rosalind"
just before sailing — Her departure on First Voyage— Farewells.

THEY are all busy getting ready for a start, and here
come Mr. Macdonald, and Mr. Cameron, the "Rosa-
lind's" chief engineer, so we may now go upstairs by this
main entrance ladder. As we mount the steps you will
have a fine view of the cylinder covers, tail rods, escape
valves, hand railing and other small gear, but that is very
little indeed compared with what is underneath them,
which we have already seen so much of.

I may mention that this ship, like others of her class,
has her steering apparatus worked by machinery, and
this I will shew you. In little coasters, the ancient
"tiller" is quite sufficient for steering purposes; larger
vessels, however, require to use the " wheel," which is
much more powerful ; but modern monsters need some
superior agency, on account of the tremendous strain
thrown upon the rudder, especially in bad weather. It
has, therefore, become necessary to introduce steam, or
hydraulic power, for the purpose of overcoming such a

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 295

force, and in our case, the result has been the installation
of these pretty little engines just in front of us, which
perform all the work, and leave the steersmen nothing
to do but turn the wheels.

There is no such thing known now-a-days, in a great
liner, as the captain shouting to the men at the wheel,
" starboard," or " port your helm," since everything that
relates to the guidance of a ship is done systematically,
silently, and instantaneously from the bridge amidships,
and this is how it is accomplished.

The commanding officer, in that post of honour, by
night or by day, is keeping a good look out ahead, so also
are two men at the extreme end next the bow. If, say in
a pitch dark night, the vessel is steaming 17 knots an
hour, and comes suddenly upon an iceberg, or another
ship whose lights could not be seen, the forward look-
out reports at once to the bridge, when the officer in
charge, standing perhaps between the engine and com-
pass telegraphs, signals with one hand to the engineers to
" stop," and then " go astern full speed," and with the
other, orders those in the wheel-house to put the helm
" hard-a-port," or " hard-a-starboard," as the case may
require, and all danger is averted.

A relative of mine was on one occasion coming into
Liverpool by steamer, and when off the Welsh coast
encountered a gale of wind and dense fog. The ship got
out of her course somehow, and those in charge suddenly
discovered that she was running straight upon a precipi-
tous wall of rock. Not a moment was to be lost ; bang
went the helm hard over, and as her head swung round
the spray from the rocks fell on the quarter-deck, and the
vessel was saved by a hair's breadth. Under, we believe,
somewhat similar circumstances, and at about the same

296 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

place, the S.S. " Dalmatian " was lost a few years ago,
but not one escaped to tell the tale.

In the handsome and admirably arranged steering
department of an ocean liner, the quartermaster stands
in front of the wheel, with the helmsmen on each side,
and a telegraph apparatus before him, similar to one of
those on the bridge, and fitted with a gong, and pointer
which indicates on a dial plate, " course," " steady,"
" port," and " hard-a-port," and also " starboard," and
" hard-a-starboard." If, then, in the event of threatened
danger such as we have mentioned, or indeed at any other
time, the officer on the bridge wishes the course of the
ship altered, he simply transmits his order direct to the
wheel-house official, who instantly acts upon it. These
arrangements will clearly shew that modern steam vessels,
even of the largest size, are at all times under the most
complete, and we might say instantaneous, control.

Steering gear, however perfect it may be, is occasion-
ally liable to derangement in stormy weather, either
through the fracture of a steering chain, or through a
break-down of the steam machinery. Either of these
disasters will cause the rudder and quadrant tiller to
sway about in a dangerous manner, and any attempt to
connect the hand gear at such a critical moment may
create another break-down, and render the ship helpless.

To prevent the possibility of such an evil occurring,
Messrs. John Hastie & Co., of Greenock, have fitted the
steamers of some of the principal ocean lines with a very
simple and efficient " safety rudder brake," of their own
design, the object of which is to control, at a moment's
notice, the action of a rudder when the steering gear is
disabled, and hold it in check until the necessary discon-
nection is made, or repairs are effected.

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 297

In small coasting steamers the wheel is generally on
the bridge, and the captain is therefore his own quarter-
master ; but, on the old Clyde boats, the commander, by
means of a sliding rod, hammers his orders smartly
on the roof of the engine-room to those below, in the
one, two, three style, and takes the helmsman under his
own immediate care. On the Thames, however, the
captain of a little river steamer has a small boy for his
lieutenant, whose duty is to stand at the open skylight,
and shout to the driver of the machinery the well-known
words, " easa, tobacca, stop-a-a," which appear to be
quite sufficient for the purpose.

If we now go towards the bow, you will see, at the
after and forward hatches, those most useful little engines
called steam winches, by means of which the ship is
loaded and unloaded with wonderful rapidity, but, like
many little people we meet in life, they make a great
clattering in the performance of their duties. In high
class steamers it is a pity that so much noise, and dirt,
and objectionable steam should thus be created. The use
of grooved frictional gearing — such as they have in a
few vessels — would much reduce the noise, but the
wheels are apt to slip when wet, or when lifting heavy
loads. Hydraulic apparatus is the best, but it is not
always convenient. Taking one thing with another,
therefore, we are generally compelled to adopt the present
system of hoisting and lowering cargo ; but, at the Royal
Albert, and other new docks, hydraulic wharf cranes are
employed which perform all that is required in a beauti-
fully simple and expeditious manner.

The last portion of the "Rosalind's" mechanical
appliances I shall have the pleasure of shewing you is the
steam windlass and capstan, which simply run the anchor

298 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

in by means of the powerful engines in front of us. They
are doing so now, and if we go to the bow, you will see
it arrive, with a piece of Mersey mud attached to one of
its flukes. The roaring of the steam through the waste
steam pipes is gradually subsiding, and we are off at last.
From this elevated position we have a splendid bird's-eye
view of the vessel, which will be still more beautiful when
under full sail ; at present, however, we have before us the
masts, spars, the whole of the rigging, and the two black
funnels smoking away, the bridge, with the officers and
pilot on it, in short, everything great and small that con-
stitutes a well-found and highly finished ocean liner.

The docks are passed, one after the other, as also is
the Rock lighthouse. Under easy steam we reach the
bar, and then putting on full speed, a course is taken
which will include a run of twenty miles or so down the
coast.

While all this is going on, the utmost attention is
being paid to everything in the engine and boiler depart-
ments. The furnaces are carefully fired, and steam
pressures noted, all the bearings are watched, well lubri-
cated, and cooled if necessary. " Indicator cards " are
taken, which record the highest, intermediate, and lowest
pressures of steam in the cylinders, and vacuum in
condenser, the number of revolutions of the engines per
minute is also carefully observed, and from all these, the
indicated horse-power is calculated. The speed of the
ship is registered from time to time, in short, there is
nothing that great experience can suggest or avoid, which
is not acted upon so as to insure a successful official trial
trip. The vacuum will be about " 26 inches of mercury,"
which is equal to thirteen pounds pressure on piston.
May we ask why such a misleading term is still in use,

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 299

when we only wish to know the pressure. To tell anyone
that this is equal to so many inches of mercury, is worse
than giving a price per ton when the cost per hundred-
weight is desired, and, therefore, a real improvement may
here be easily introduced.

Mr. Bouverie, Mr. Macdonald, and Mr. Cameron are
everywhere, but neither the superintending engineer for the
owners, nor his lieutenant, will give any word of com-
mand, as it would not be etiquette to do so. The ship is
still in the hands of the builders; the others are merely
visitors, though, of course, interested ones. At the same
time, however, Mr. Bouverie will not neglect any little
mild proposal in the " Don't you think ? " style the
superintendent or his "chief" may make. He must be
more than mortal if he did so, and we may also add that
one of the characteristics of an accomplished engineer, is
that he will never despise good professional advice, no
matter how humble the person may be who gives it.

There is another scene of activity to which I must
refer, and that is the grand saloon amidships, where the
upper ten of the ship's company, and also the visitors,
are now having lunch. This most handsome apartment
is in the very waist of the vessel, where pitching motion
is least felt, where the greatest breadth exists, and where
everything that can minister to the comfort and luxury of
the future passengers is utilised to the utmost. The
saloon extends the full width of the ship, and is amply
lighted and ventilated by the spacious side ports and
skylight, and also in the evening with electric lamps.
At one end stands a piano, and, at the other, a handsome
library. In some liners, however, a separate and most
elegantly decorated " music-room " is provided. In addi-
tion to this, the ladies have their own boudoir, and the

300 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

gentlemen a smoking-room. A modern steamship thus
becomes a floating hotel, and, on a long voyage, such as
to Valparaiso or Melbourne, presents a very striking con-
trast indeed to sailing ships.

If you could now take a glance at the "Rosalind's"
saloon, you would have before you a scene where happi-
ness, and good humour prevailed. The representatives of
the owners are very glad to find the ship all they wished.
Mr. Macdonald is brim full of enjoyment, because he has
in his own way helped to bring this about. The builders
and engineers are serenely contented with the perform-
ance of the vessel, because it proves that all their calcu-
lations regarding her speed, power of engines, size of
boilers, and diameter and pitch of propeller have been
correct.

The ladies must, however, excuse me for not mention-
ing them sooner. This I regret, but the truth is that,
although first in social rank, they are last in official
position ; but if we had been out in any other way, or
in any other steamer, they would most certainly have had
the preference. Our fair companions are delighted with
everything and everybody, and after a few speeches have
been made, somewhat in the mutual laudation style, the
company separate, and preparations are made for running
the " measured mile."

Two tall posts, exactly this distance apart, are per-
manently fixed on the beach in a suitable locality, and
some distance inland other two are placed at right angles
to a line drawn between the first two posts. Now, if
those on the deck of a ship running the mile note the
exact moment the first pair are in line, and drive the
vessel to her utmost until the next pair are similarly
sighted, they will then know, from the time occupied in

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 301

doing so, and with the help of a little calculation, what
her speed has been. This, however, is not enough,
because they may have been going either with or against
the wind or tide, and with only one run a false impression
would have arisen. To prevent the possibility of such an
error, several trips are taken each way, the mean of which
gives the true result, and thus the official trial is declared
satisfactory or otherwise.

The Clyde is a favoured place for trial trips, as they
are generally made between the Cloch and Cumbrae
lighthouses, — a distance of sixteen miles, — which gives a
more correct idea of a ship's capabilities than the forced
run of one mile on the Gareloch.

What the stethoscope is to the physician, so is the
"indicator" to the engineer, as this most useful instru-
ment enables those in charge of engines to ascertain with
considerable accuracy what is going on inside, that is to
say, what the varying pressure of steam in the cylinders
amounts to in pounds per square inch at each part of the
piston's stroke, and whether the slide or other valves are
efficiently working. The vacuum in the condenser is also
faithfully recorded, and thus full information is given on
vital points which could not otherwise be obtained, and
the method adopted to accomplish this consists simply in
attaching a piece of paper or " card " to the indicator in
such a way as to enable it to trace a curvilinear diagram
upon it. By means of ordinates drawn across this dia-
gram, which are measured by scale and taken in
connection with other particulars already mentioned, the
indicated horse power of each engine is ascertained.

And now, the " Rosalind's" official trial is over. The
indicator diagrams are all that could be desired, and
declare a total horse power of 6,441, whereas the contract

302 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

only allowed for 6,000. On the other hand, the average
result of several runs gives a speed of 17 knots, instead
of i6J, as originally specified. Those concerned may
therefore congratulate themselves upon having obtained
such very satisfactory results. All that now remains to
be done is to head for the anchorage, and, if the river is
clear of ships, won't they just enter the port of Liverpool
for the first time in grand style, as Laird's Peruvian iron-
clad " Huascar " did when her trial was over ; and, upon
my word ! won't the visitors at New Brighton make a
rush to the end of the pier to see her come in, and com-
ment upon and admire the magnificent vessel which is
now passing them. I well know how the thing is done,
and can almost fancy I have the scene before me.

The moorings are reached ; the temporarily cat-headed
anchor is down again deep in Mersey mud ; the " select
party " are landed in the tender, and everyone goes home
delighted with the day's proceedings.

Trial trips are not always successful; indeed some
have led to expensive litigation, and others to great dis-
appointment. That of H.M.S. " Iris " was of the latter
description, since they could only get a i6| knot speed at
first, but, after giving her new propellers two feet less in
diameter, and two feet more in pitch, the desired velocity
of i8J was obtained, with almost exactly the same engine
power.

When I was on the staff in Tod and 'McGregor's
we built a fine little twin-screw steamer for Dr. Living-
stone's use, named the " Lady Nyassa," but, when she
started on her first trip down the river, it was discovered
that, although the engines were all right, the vessel would
not go at the proper speed. This was very annoying and
inexplicable, — the first mistake apparently of the kind the

CHAP, xix, AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 303

firm had ever made. Upon returning however, a careful
examination of her hull in dock disclosed the fact that
one of the launching ways had stuck to her bottom.
When this was removed the ship did all that was required,
and the speed contracted for was realised.

The admiral of a fleet has now such an effective system
of signalling as would enable him to convey his innumer-
able commands to the other ships of his squadron with
almost mathematical exactness. The signal-staff on board
the flagship consists of about twenty persons, divided
into three watches, who keep a vigilant look-out, by night
and by day, on every vessel in the squadron. On being
commissioned, every ship is provided with a " General
Signal Book," " Vocabulary Book," and a " Semaphore."
For use at night, a flashing lamp, and an electric
apparatus, are supplied ; and by an ingenious arrange-
ment any of the signals contained in the books can be
made during foggy weather by means of a steam whistle
or foghorn.

The instructions contained in the General Signal
Book are varied and comprehensive, and contain upwards
of a thousand separate signals, adapted to every probable
change of circumstances in times of peace or war. The
Vocabulary Signal Book is a sort of dictionary, and con-
tains signals of a more homely and social character, such
as " Admiral intends," " Admiral desires," and also the
happy announcement, " Admiral requests the pleasure of
your company to dinner."

This system so nearly approaches perfection that the
Board of Trade have adopted it as a basis for the Inter-
national code of signals, which is now used by nearly all
the maritime countries of the world, so that ships of

304 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

every nation may easily converse with each other on the
open sea, and at long distances. For general purposes,
eighteen flags and a copy of the Code are required, and
the combinations which are possible with these flags
amount to the extraordinary number of 78,642, using two,
three, and four flags at one hoist. We remember the
time when the captain of one ship, wishing to " speak " to
another, ran his own vessel close up to the stranger, and
then, holding on to the lee or weather rigging with one
hand, and supporting the " trumpet " with the other,
bellowed forth the questions, " Where from ? " and
" Where bound to?" "What latitude and longitude?"
and perhaps the awful statement, " We are starving ;
send — beef, and — biscuits."

The latitude and longitude were given in great chalk
figures on a black board, but the other questions and
answers were very indistinctly heard in many instances.
On the voyage home we spoke several ships in this
manner. One magnificent, calm, moonlight night in the
tropics, a vessel was sighted all at once on our starboard
bow, which, curiously enough, no one saw at sunset just
a short time before. Our captain shouted out, among
other things, " Send a boat," but the visitor, who had
backed her sails for the time, immediately braced her
yards round, and was off again.

The signal system we have briefly described has
abolished this most inefficient arrangement, and the
necessity of doing so will be at once apparent, when two
ships running in opposite directions at twenty miles an
hour, may sight each other three miles off, and perhaps
collide in four and a half minutes.

The bunting of which flags are made is of the best
wool, and although flimsy looking and open in texture to

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 305

offer as little resistance to the wind as possible, it is
nevertheless tough and strong. An ensign may not quite
withstand the breezes of a thousand years, but it is amply
capable of long and trying service. With the price of the
material at 8d. a yard, 18 inches wide, an English flag, of
the best quality, 12 feet by 6 feet, will cost about 145.,
and a blue peter, 7 feet by 5 feet, about 53. gd.

The Cunard captains have been so long before the
world, that their names have almost become household
words on both sides of the Atlantic, and this is not to be
wondered at when we consider the immense number of
passengers who have sailed with them during a long
series of years. There have been numerous portraits
from pen and pencil, of well-known commanders in
various Atlantic Companies, a few of whom may here be
referred to. It is by no means unusual for intending
passengers to call at the Cunard office and ask, " What
captain sails on Tuesday ? "

" Captain Blanque, ma'am."

" What ! that horrid man ? Catch me sail with him
again ! "

" Who leaves on Saturday ? "

" Captain Dashe."

" Ah ! he's a nice fellow ; I'll wait, and go in his ship."

There are natural reasons for this. The Atlantic com-
manders are not all alike in social qualities. Some are
reserved and blunt, or, at least, have been ; while a few,
in various ways, combine the art of pleasing with the
highest professional attainments. Perhaps the most
celebrated of them all, at one time, was Captain Judkins,
who, although highly esteemed by the Company, was not
admired by passengers in general, because he possessed

306 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

an amount of bluff straightforwardness which his pro-
found knowledge of ocean navigation does not appear to
have subdued. Many stories are told of him in illustra-
tion of this, including the following.

On one occasion, the " Scotia " was carrying on full
speed, tearing through and over everything on her way to
New York, in a mist. The commander was leaning over
the side, anxiously looking out for the banks of New-
foundland, when a lady ventured to say to him —

" Oh ! captain, do tell me, is it always as foggy and
nasty at this place ? "

"How the devil do I know, madam? I don't live
here ! " was the disappointing answer.

Captain McMickan, of the " Umbria," or the " social
captain," as he is called, is a great favourite, because he
is brimful of stories of the ocean, tales of the sea — of fire
and flood —of storm and tempest, on the element which
through life-long associations has become almost a part of
himself. The "Umbria's" chief may at times be found
with some of the passengers in his private saloon, for
whose benefit he fires off enthusiastically some of the
aforesaid tales, and if anything can exceed his delight in
doing so, it is the pleasure of listening to the general
conversation of those around him.

The commanders and officers of the ships of the differ-
ent Companies are variously gifted, and esteemed by
those who sail with them in a greater or lesser degree,
according to circumstances ; but whatever their social
qualities may be, their professional attainments are of
such a high order as to command universal admiration
and confidence. There are people of both sexes con-
stantly travelling by these liners who no doubt sometimes
expect too much from those occupying such important

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 307

official positions. A little consideration, however, will
shew the true state of affairs.

In the first place, these modern floating palaces cost,
say, from ^"200,000 to ^"350,000 for hull and machinery
alone ; they are driven across the great highway between
two worlds at a speed of eighteen to about twenty-one
miles an hour, through storm and fog, iceberg and ice-
field, and occasionally run the risk of annihilating some
vessel, as the " Oregon " did. What with the ship her-
self, her cargo, and crowds of passengers, the prestige of
the Company, and his own reputation as a skilful navi-
gator, the captain of a great ocean liner has immense
responsibilities, and, when on active duty, has his mind
so intensely preoccupied that he is seldom inclined to be
disturbed in his thoughts, and this, we fancy, is the chief
reason why some commanders are so unsocial, and per-
haps at times discourteous, when they are expected to be
otherwise. The junior officers have their own share of
responsibility, and if they, too, did not exercise sound
judgment and extreme carefulness when on duty, we
should hear of many appalling calamities on the Atlantic
station, for the reasons just given.

The engineers, whose efforts greatly conduce to the
successful working of steamships, much resemble — in
mind and manner — the navigating officers with whom
they are so closely allied. As a class they are extremely
varied. Some are highly accomplished — others not so.
Some are most courteous and affable — others the reverse,
which, however, may occasionally be owing to some
annoyance hanging on their minds that cannot easily be
dispelled. And while many of them are students of
general literature, there are a few who would hardly read
a gift book of any kind. In short, there is to be found

3o8 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

amongst those who direct the steam department of ocean
liners, an extremely diversified set of men, whose constant
aim is to perform their duties faultlessly and happily.
Those duties are responsible and arduous. When a ship
is at sea, the whole of the management of the steam
department, for weal or for woe, devolves upon the engine
room staff, and when the vessel comes off a voyage, the
engines, boilers, driving gear of all kinds, and connec-
tions throughout the ship, are carefully examined and put
in the best condition for continuous working during the
next trip.

Socially speaking, the gentlemen I am referring to
possess a marked and very creditable peculiarity of their
own. They frankly say what they mean, and mean what
they say, without any of the sophistry so frequently to be
found amongst those in other pursuits. I have, however,
been much disappointed with many of them — pleasantly
so, it may be added. This book was originally written
with the object of benefiting all classes on shore, and as I
did not then think that sea-going engineers read much of
a non-technical character, I naturally concluded that my
treatise would not quite suit them. I have since dis-
covered, however, that none could have appreciated its
contents more fully than they did, as I have had very
many opportunities of knowing. For this I sincerely
thank them, and hope that the present edition will prove
still more acceptable to my professional brethren at home
and abroad, who run their ships across the seas, and
throughout the world.

When you wish to see a mail steamer to perfection,
never unconsciously hurt the feelings of your engineering
friends by asking them to take you over one of their pets

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 309

whilst in a state of semi-undress. That is, when the
carpets are up, the handsome cushions turned over, the
berths dishevelled, and everything in disorder. We all
like to put our best feet foremost, and would never permit
anyone to form erroneous opinions of our floating beauties
if we can in any way avoid it.

If you will therefore allow me the honour of being
your conductor, I shall endeavour to show you a splendid
ship in full costume, and just on the point of sailing.
Before this can be done, however, we must obtain a card
from the office of the Company for permission to go on
board the S.S. "Rosalind" which is again in the river,
but on this occasion with a full cargo, which has sunk her
quite deep enough in the water to give her a good appear-
ance. The card which is kindly given to us, states that
" Mr. Dashe and party of three, are to go out with the
Tender which leaves the landing stage at noon with the
first class passengers and mails, and receive the usual
courtesies from the officer in charge."

Upon reaching the "Satellite" steamer, we find our-
selves amongst many people of various nationalities, the
letter bags, and heaps of passengers' luggage. There
lies our vessel, a thing of beauty, fresh and clean from
stem to stern. The steam is again blowing off at the
funnels, the blue peter is flying at the fore, the house flag
from the main, the "Royal Mail" flag— red letters on a
white ground — at the mizzen, and the ensign floats grace-
fully over the stern ; but here we must disclose the name
of her owners, and also her destination, which have
hitherto been kept secret, but not for State reasons.

From the character of the Cunard Company's latest
acquisitions in the mercantile marine, it is very evident
that the " Rosalind " will not suit them, because nothing

Sf%

VEBSITT

3io ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

under 10,000 tons and 20,000 horse power now appears to
be acceptable. Our new ship will certainly not do at all
for the White Star people, because their own vessels are
so exactly suited to their requirements that it would be
almost impossible to induce them to try any others,
unless, indeed, of the most gigantic size.

In the next place, the National Company would not
have her at any price, because their's are all Atlantic
liners, whereas the " Rosalind " would do better as a
Pacific cruiser, or an Australian mail steamer. She
might, however, with considerable internal alterations, be
greatly prized by the public if handed over to the Inman
and International Company, but even in this case, she
would be much too small for them. The Orient people
would be delighted to have her, and we are sure of this on
account of our intimate acquaintance with many of their
present ships in past years. The owners of them, how-
ever, are located in London, whereas those of the " Rosa-
lind " are in Liverpool.

After she has got her name "well up" on the ocean,
I fancy Messrs. F. Green & Co., or Anderson, Ander-
son & Co., will carefully consider her capabilities, and
ultimately make her their own, for the purpose of running
the letter bags to Melbourne and Sydney. For the
present, however, we have much pleasure in handing the
ship over to the Pacific Steam Navigation Company —
whose initials you will find in each of the four corners of
her house flag — and start her at once for Valparaiso. It
is most probable that some handsome Chilian or Peruvian
name has been given to her in place of the one she has
hitherto possessed, but to me she has been, and ever will
be, the " Rosalind."

After walking the plank — or rather the gangway — we

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 311

find ourselves on deck surrounded by numerous passen-
gers who have previously arrived. The Company's repre-
sentatives are on board, and so also is Mr. Macdonald,
who is busily engaged looking after things in the engine
department — where Mr. Cameron is now the presiding
deity — and all the rest of the staff are at their posts. The
captain and officers of the ship are also at their's, and the
pilot is amongst them for the purpose of taking her to
Bordeaux, and returning, as usual, with the owners' next
inward bound steamer.

We gaze admiringly at the deck, so beautifully clean
and white — at the steam winches now so silent — at the
boats and their attachments — and mentally note the ex-
quisite order which prevails around us, as well as in all
the gear and tackle above us. After looking at everything
and everybody in the upper regions, we descend to the
saloon, which is in a state of bustle and excitement.
Friends and relations are saying their last few words to
those now on the verge of an 8,795 mile voyage. Hat
boxes and band boxes, sticks, umbrellas and parasols
bundled up together, along with cloaks, shawls, and
mantles, and heterogeneous collections of small gear, are
lying on the tables, on the floor, on the seats, and in the
sleeping berths.

What a spacious, elegantly decorated, and luxuriously
furnished saloon this is to be sure ! And how charmingly
the carpets, the floors, the walls, and the ceilings,
harmonize with each other.

" Lovely, is'nt it, Miss Oliver ? "

" What exquisite flowers, too, they have overhead in
the hanging garden, pensile paradise sort of style ! "

" Babylonish idea ! did you say, Miss Rhineveldt ? "

" Quite so. The Queen of Babylon certainly origin-

312 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

ated it, and it is equally certain, that if we cannot create
ideas for ourselves, we are glad enough to utilize those of
other people — however ancient they may be — so long as
they are good. The state rooms, music room, ladies' room,
and other apartments you see, are all that could be
desired for comfort, compactness in detail, and tasteful-
ness in every particular. Heating, ventilation, electric
lighting throughout the ship, bathroom accommodation,
sleeping berths, and everything else that can make this
vessel a floating palace has also been carefully attended
to."

As we cannot now ask for the passenger list, let us
have a look at the names on the luggage which is lying
around us.

Ah ! here is our old friend, " John Smith, Esq., "
bound for Valparaiso. When he gets to his Chilian home,
he will be known as " Mr. Smith of London."

" The Macnab." I wonder where the other Macnab is ?

" Miss Emily Vandeleur." Now what can be taking
her so far away from home ?

" To change her name perhaps."

Very likely, but she will never have a better one.

" The Marquis of Toddiemains ! " Dear me, how
amusing ! His father was a director of the famous Glen-
mutchkin railway, twelve miles long, six of which were
to have been through tunnels.

" Baroness Schlippen Schloppen," and " Count Peri-
winkoliski." It is very evident that he is not of much
account, or he would'nt write his name in such a scribbly
style for people to gaze at.

Well ! well !! well !!! Upon my word ! this is too much,
Who would have thought of finding my charming Italian
friend Angeletta Fourdrinier amongst the outward bound ?

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 313

" Excuse me, ladies, but I must see her before she sails —
Steward, where is Miss Fourdrin — ? "

At this very moment we all heard a furious bell ring-
ing outside, and also the harsh and most unwelcome voice
of someone inside, asking if there were — " Any here for
the shore ? — Tender just going off."

We rushed on deck at once, and, threading our way
amidst groups of passengers, and others connected with
the ship, reached the gangway just as they had hauled
it in. We sprang, however, to the top of the " Satellite's "
paddle box, and the hawser was at once cast off. The
" Rosalind's " anchor appears above water with the last
piece of old England it will touch for some months to
come adhering to a fluke. The tender falls off a little,
and as she does so, the passengers crowd the side of the
ship to have a last view of us, and amongst them is
Angeletta, joyously waving her handkerchief to me, and
looking positively radiant !

The moment of departure has arrived, and just as the
"peter" disappears from the masthead, and the hand-
some Chilian flag takes its place, the screw begins to
revolve, slowly at first, but gradually faster, and the noble
ship moves off on her first voyage, amidst cheers and
waving of hats and handkerchiefs, and perhaps tears from
those who have parted with relatives and friends — it may
be for years, — it may be for ever. To her, and all on
board, we, too, say — good-bye ! good-bye !

Although this closing scene refers to the Mersey, it is
equally applicable to Southampton, Plymouth, &c., and
also to the ships of the Peninsular and Oriental, the
Orient, and other mail lines. A slight modification how-
ever, is necessary in the case of the P. & O. steamers,
whose passengers largely consist of military officers of all

314 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xix.

ranks with their wives, Governor-Generals and civil
service officials, attended by their ladies, and occasionally,
perhaps, a sprinkling of Oriental potentates, such for
instance, as the Rajah of Travancore, the Sultan of
Zanzibar, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and all the rest of
them — without their wives.

Another most interesting time to visit a mail steamer
is the day before sailing, during the drill and inspection of
officers and men, and also women, whose total number
may range from 150 to about 300. In the Indian liners,
this performance — previously described — is made pic-
turesquely attractive, owing to the presence of so many
Hindoo attendants and Lascars in full native costume.

The passenger traffic from the Mersey has now attained
colossal dimensions, and during the season some of the
Atlantic steamers have carried at least 1,400 people at
one time. Accommodation for 1,800 is provided in each
of the new vessels, "City of New. York" and "City of
Paris;" and the S.S. " Umbria " and "Etruria" have
frequently carried upwards of 600 saloon passengers each
during one trip.

The Atlantic voyage is not deficient in amusingly
interesting and sometimes tragic events. For wit,
humour, and romantic incidents of various kinds, how-
ever, nothing can exceed what is so often to be found
amongst the upper strata of society when out upon the
ocean sailing in one of those magnificent long voyage
ships I have delightedly referred to.

And now, having taken my kind reader through the
cycle of operations from first to last which relate to the
building of steamships, it only remains for me to say that
a very great deal more might have been added, had it not
been for a desire to keep this book in a somewhat com-

CHAP. xix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 315

pact and readable form. What has been said will perhaps
be sufficient for the purpose, and however incomplete it
may be in many respects, it will still represent, from
the author's own experience, the inner life of first-class
shipbuilding and engineering establishments when actively
employed.

Let me, therefore, in conclusion, bring together, for
the last time, my good friends, Mr. Bouverie and Mr.
Macdonald, to express to them the great pleasure I
have had in their society, and also the hope that long
life, health, happiness, and prosperity, may be theirs, and
to say — Farewell !

316 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xx.

CHAPTER XX.

" BREAKDOWNS/' AND MYSTERIOUS LOSSES AT SEA.

Meaning of the Term — Their Causes — Experience gained by them — Great
Safety of Railway travelling — Protective System in Cunard Ships —
S.S. " Atlas " on Fire — Drill in Mail Steamers — Original Advertise-
ment of "President" and "British Queen" — New Captain of
" President "—Departure on Last Voyage — The Storm — Arrival of
" British Queen" — The Missing Ship — Theories concerning the Lost
Ship — Disappearances of S.S. "City of Glasgow" — "Pacific" —
"City of Boston."

HAVING put the " Rosalind " on her station, we now
propose to make a few observations concerning the
dangers she, or indeed any other steam vessel, will be
exposed to at sea, and also to extend our remarks to the
subject of accidents and disasters on land, so far at least
as engineering is concerned.

When people read in the evening papers that the
" top floor of Messrs. So-and-so's mill has given way,"
they may discover next day that this simple phrase means
that through the failure of a column, or girder, not only
the top floor, but ail the others as well, containing ma-
chinery, have fallen in, killing perhaps twenty or thirty
people, and reducing the whole inside of the building to a
mass of ruins. When these same individuals learn at
another time that " the engines of the S.S. * Messalina '
have broken down" some of them may naturally enough
conclude that there has been a general smash-up of
everything; that, in fact, her cylinders had burst, con-
necting rods doubled up, condenser crushed to atoms,

CHAP. xx. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 317

bed -plate fractured in several places, and the whole of the
machinery lying like a heap of rubbish on the floor, the
only redeeming feature being that it had not gone through
the bottom of the ship and sunk her.

Such people may hardly believe that the same words
occasionally mean something of a very different nature,
and sufficiently trivial to cause only a few hours' deten-
tion. In reality, the word " breakdown " may either refer
to a trifling event of this description, or an appalling
disaster which may cause the loss of a vessel, with many,
if not all, on board, and this latter case is not by any
means unknown. For instance, something may have
gone wrong with the valve gear, which could easily have
been rectified at sea by the aid of the "spare" details,
and without much trouble, or, on the other hand, as
happened some time ago, one of the connecting rods of
a great and almost new ocean steamer might break
through the middle, and cause the fracture of the
cylinder and cylinder cover, piston, framing, and con-
denser, to such an extent as to cause the ship to lie up for
repairs for several months, involving the re-erection of
the engines, with heavy loss to all concerned.

The importance of a breakdown also depends greatly
upon circumstances, as the valve gear derangement just
mentioned, simple as it is, might possibly bring al?out the
destruction of a ship, if trying, like the " Royal Charter,"
to keep off a lee shore in a storm.

In the same manner, how often do we find that on
railways, and in land engineering generally, the old
saying, '* great results from trivial causes flow," is too
frequently and unhappily verified. From this it will
be seen that careful attention to the most minute and
apparently unimportant things is of vital consequence,

318 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xx.

thus bringing to our minds the old story of " the nail, the
shoe, the horse, the man."

Accidents to machinery arise from one or more of
the following causes, (i) unskilful design or arrangement
of parts ; (2) bad materials ; (3) bad workmanship ; and
(4) improper management ; and this last may be said
to neutralise the engineer's best efforts. Hence when
everything is executed in first-class style, we have the very
elements of the success which has greatly distinguished
so many commercial and manufacturing firms. In addi-
tion to this, we may state that another reason for the
prosperity of those who employ machinery of any kind
consists, not only in using every possible means of pre-
venting disaster, but in possessing the art of rectifying it
speedily when it does come. In the case of ships at
sea, all the skill available will sometimes not avert a
catastrophe, but when it does overtake them, in spite of
every precaution, it may still be robbed of its power by
the promptness and energy with which the evil is met,
and this forms part of the discipline on board ocean
steamers to which we have previously referred.

Ever since steam navigation began, engineers and
shipbuilders have gained their experience in the most
practical and impressive manner by a long series of
breakdowns, disastrous and otherwise, and the same may
be said, to some extent, at least, of railway engineering.

For instance, when a terrible calamity overtakes a mail
steamer or a passenger train, the whole of the circum-
stances connected with it are investigated as far as
possible, and the cause is frequently discovered to have
been a hitherto unobserved weak place in the engines or
ship, or something that required amendment in the rolling
stock, signal apparatus, or even the road itself of a railway.

CHAP. xx. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 319

All this proves most valuable, though costly, information,
and has resulted in building up a gigantic system which
has made railway travelling the safest of all occupations
on land. Indeed, we have the authority of Mr. F. S.
Williams for stating (Our Iron Roads, page 438) that
"nearly as many persons are slain in the streets of
London every fortnight as there are passengers killed on
all the railways of Great Britain in a year, from causes
beyond their own control."

Further, it is said that " 2,000 people are lost in
London every year, and only half of them are found
again, and also that above 1,000 lives are lost annually
in the mines of the United Kingdom. It may still
further be added that about 500 lives are destroyed every
year upon the coasts of the British Isles by ship and boat
wrecks."

At the half-yearly meeting of the London and North
Western Railway Company in August, 1882, the chair-
man stated that " for 3^ years only one passenger had
been killed, and that one a lady."

" I have in this room proved," said Sir E. Watkin on
one occasion, " that railway travelling is safer than walk-
ing, riding, or driving ; than going up and down stairs ;
than watching agricultural machinery, and even less
dangerous than eating, because more people choke them-
selves in England than are killed on all the railways of
the United Kingdom."

From these statements, the only logical inference to be
deduced for the benefit of those who wish to live to a
good old age is, that if they continually travel by rail, their
object will most likely be attained ; and this will no doubt be
confirmed by all the great Companies, and by railway
people in general.

320 ENGINEERING, POPULARL Y CHAP. xx.

The perfection of our railway system at the present
time has been, we need hardly say, the result of pains-
taking care and ever watchful vigilance on the part of the
engineers who design, as well as those of all ranks who
practically work this class of machinery. Ocean traffic,
however, though infinitely safer than it was in early days,
is far from being so free from disaster ; indeed, slightly
altering well-known words, it might be observed that

" Much has been done, much more remains to do ;
Our railways flourish, why not our steamships, too?"

A great variety of stories from the sea have supplied
shipowners, shipbuilders, and engineers with much valu-
able information, of which they have not been slow to
avail themselves ; and this, taken in connection with a
most complete and admirable system of management,
gave the Cunard Company total immunity from fatal
disaster to any of their Atlantic ships, from the year 1840,
until the S.S. " Oregon " was lost by collision in 1886,
and this is all the more remarkable when we consider the
terrible losses sustained by some other Companies in a
very much shorter space of time. Accidents to the
machinery of the Cunarders have occurred, but even
these have been extremely rare, and, when they did
happen, the only result was a temporary delay of the ship,
without endangering the safety of those on board.

Many things have conspired to protect these vessels
from serious disaster. In the first place, the Company
have always insisted on having them built of the very
best materials, and with the most thorough workmanship.
They have also kept their ships under such careful super-
vision as to ensure the discovery of the slightest defect in
strength or seaworthiness, and they have never allowed a

CHAP. xx. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 321

steamer to start on a voyage unless they have been satis-
fied that it was complete, perfect, and efficient in every
department. In the next place, they have marked out
separate routes for outward and homeward bound
steamers, somewhat apart from the direct course — those
on the outward voyage crossing the meridian of 50* at
43° N. lat., while homeward bound ships cross the same
meridian at 42° N. lat. By adopting this plan, the trips
have been lengthened slightly, but the loss of time has
been fully compensated by the greater sense of security
which has been created.

Mr. Fraser Rae tells a little story in connection with
a voyage of the Cunard steamer " Atlas," a few winters
ago. The ship had reached mid-ocean, and one night,
while the passengers were amusing themselves in the
saloon by reading, playing cards, chess, or draughts, —
the weather being too rough for promenading on deck, —
the boatswain came down, and whispered the awful
words, " The ship is on fire, sir," in the captain's ear.
The commander at once went on deck, and was followed
by others to whom he had communicated the intelligence.
There they saw a large volume of dense smoke rising
from the forward hatch. One of them returned to the
saloon, and told the dreadful news. Anxiety was mani-
fested as to how soon the flames would be extinguished,
but there was little excitement, and no sign of panic,
most of the players resuming their games, and the readers
returning to their books. Confidence was evidently felt
that everything that could be done to avert a terrible
calamity would be performed.

In the steerage, on the contrary, there was ignorance
without self-possession ; women shrieked, while men
rushed about in aimless despair. Some of the first-class

322 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xx.

passengers, offering to aid the crew, were asked to help in
carrying the terror-stricken men, women, and children,
from the steerage to the cabin, where they would be out
of the way and give less trouble. These people, however,
refused to be comforted, or even to be quiet.

All this time, the officers and crew were as cool and
reticent as if nothing unusual had happened. The officer
on duty walked the bridge, giving his entire attention to
the navigation of the ship ; the men on the look-out were
at their posts ; the engineers were in their places in the
engine-room ; the stewards were at their usual employ-
ment ; indeed the business of the ship went on uninter-
ruptedly, while a fire was raging in the hold, and all were
in peril ! At the end of half an hour from the time the
alarm was given the danger was over, and the fire
thoroughly mastered.

The cause of the accident was the ignition of some
combustibles which had been shipped contrary to the
company's regulations, and as an instance of the excel-
lent order and discipline which prevails on board these
ships, and also the readiness with which any emergency
can be met, this incident forms a very good illustration.

On another occasion, while the " Russia " was steam-
ing along at the rate of fourteen knots an hour, with a
strong breeze blowing, the cry went forth that a man had
leaped overboard. The next moment a second splash was
heard — a sailor had jumped after his unhappy shipmate,
in the 'hope of saving him, The vessel was stopped and
put back with amazing promptitude, but it was found
that the gallant attempt at rescue had failed. This daring
swimmer was taken up and a purse of one hundred sover-
eigns, subscribed by the passengers, was presented to
him for his conduct. Subsequently, as u Captain Webb,"

CHAP. xx. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 323

he gained great celebrity at the Straits, of Dover, and
ultimately, but fatally, in his attempt to swim across the
rapids of Niagara in the same manner.

Before the passengers are allowed to come on board
an outward bound mail steamer lying in the Mersey, the
crew is assembled for drill in the presence of the captain
and officers, the marine superintendent, and some repre-
sentative of the company, who make a full inspection of
the ship, boats and crew. All the boats are manned,
lowered, and replaced to prove they are in complete
working order ; the firemen are put through their drill,
the pumps are manned and tested, the rockets and signals
are examined, the steering apparatus is tried, the store-
rooms are inspected, and every part of the vessel is
thoroughly looked into. When this is done, the ship is
reported upon, and, if everything is satisfactory, the pas-
sengers are admitted at the time announced, and sail at
the appointed hour, every possible precaution having
been taken to ensure the safety of all on board.

"The British and North American Company's steamship 'President,'
2,366 tons, and 600 horse power, Lieutenant Richard Roberts, R.N., com-
mander, is intended to leave Liverpool on loth February, 1841, and New
York on loth March next, and to continue running each alternate month
during the season, until the loth October.

"And the 'British Queen,' 2,016 tons, and 500 horse power, Lieu-
tenant Edward Franklin, R.N., commander, is to leave London on 1st
March, and Portsmouth on loth March.

" For freight, application may be made to Joseph R. Pirn, Derby
Buildings, Liverpool."

Such were the newspaper announcements of the
period regarding these ships. The " President " sailed as
advertised, arriving safely in New York, and starting on
her return voyage on the nth March, 1841. Previous,
however, to leaving England, Captain Fayre, who was

324 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xx.

then in charge of the vessel, was asked to retire from
the service of the company because he could not accom-
plish the mechanical impossibility of driving the ship
faster, and he was at once superseded by Lieutenant
Roberts, from the " Sirius." The former no doubt felt
quite disappointed, and the latter gratified at finding
himself promoted from a steamer of 700 tons to another
fully three times her size, and yet, could both these
gentlemen have had the power of foreseeing the awful
event which was soon to follow, how changed their
opinions would have been ! ! The dismissed captain on
the one hand rejoicing in his safety, the other horrified
at his approaching doom.

If the passengers, too, in New York could have had
the same gift of prescience, how they would have stood
appalled on the deck of the vessel in harbour, and, dis-
regarding the loss of passage money, fled from her as from
a plague ship ! But no, the impenetrable curtain which
hides from everyone what is to happen even in the next
half hour, hid also from them their inevitable destruction.

This is an old and well remembered story, but it never-
theless awakens in my own mind many similar circum-
stances, which the reader may be familiar with in various
forms. Just before the S.S. "Dalmatian," previously
referred to, left the dock in Liverpool for the last time,
her chief officer was superseded by another, for no fault
of his own ; this saved his life, as a few hours after-
wards the ship was dashed to pieces in a gale on the
rocky coast of Wales, and not one escaped to say how it
came about.

Immediately before the S.S. " Austria " sailed from
Bremen for New York on her last voyage, a gentleman
who had taken his passage was much annoyed to find that

CHAP. xx. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 325

his berth had been previously engaged by someone else.
The company were very sorry for it, of course, but could
not give him another, so he had to go by the next stea-
mer, leaving his luggage, however, which was on board,
to proceed in advance.

In mid Atlantic the ship was destroyed by fire ; about
400 persons lost their lives, and he might have been one
of the number had he not been left on shore.

People may go with so-called " charmed lives " through
fire and flood, and storm and tempest. Even in the
midst of many battles, soldiers have been exposed to
such a hail of bullets, shell, and cannon shot, that hardly
any around them could exist, and yet they themselves
have been untouched, and after living to a good old age,
died at home comfortably in bed. This unconsciousness of
the future on our part is a wonderfully beneficial arrange-
ment, because if we had the power of accurately anticipa-
ting our prospective joys, sorrows, and end, the result
would be a grand upheaval of the very foundations of social
happiness and advancement. Therefore it is better to be
in blissful ignorance and know not what awaits us.

There is also a still more important and visible reason,
which is, that all may be thereby stimulated to shape such
a course through time as to be enabled to turn an appar-
ent disaster into a victory, and to look upon death only as
the " Gate of Life."

To return to our story, the " President " sailed from
New York for Liverpool on March nth, 1841, with 136
passengers and a valuable cargo, everyone on board fully
expecting a favourable passage. Her previous runs
between the two ports had occupied about fourteen days,
but on this occasion she was so long overdue that the
greatest anxiety was felt concerning her safety, and all

326 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xx.

the more so, because ships had arrived and reported
dreadful weather, indeed some old navigators declared
they had never seen it so bad in the Atlantic. There was
also an immense quantity of field and berg ice floating
about. In the face of this, and in spite of prolonged
delay, people still hoped that everything would yet be well.

It was stated that a large steamer of similar rig had
been seen under sail alone, and of course everyone
thought she must have been the " President." This hope
was soon blighted however, because the disabled ship
turned out to be another. In the meantime the " British
Queen " arrived, and brought no tidings of the missing
vessel, indeed, she had such a fearful time of it herself on
the voyage, that none expected to reach land again.

The storm she passed through lasted ten days — her
sails were blown to rags, and the lee paddle floats were
stripped off — in short, nothing saved her from foundering
but the inherent strength of the hull, and good seaman-
ship. Time rolled on, and every scrap of supposed
information was seized with avidity, but in every case it
proved delusive. Hope gave way to despair, and at last
the terrible truth came home to all, that the ship they so
eagerly waited for was lost — but how ?

This was the next question, and all sorts of theories
were put forward in support of certain statements regard-
ing the cause of the disaster, some saying one thing, and
some another. Wise people shook their heads and said,
she " struck an iceberg," or " broke in two," or " was
overwhelmed by the sheer force of the sea," but who the
correct theorists were we have no means of ascertaining.

One fact alone remains, which is, that a noble steamer
sunk in mid Atlantic, taking with her all on board, and
leaving behind not a vestige of anything which from that

CHAP. xx. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 327

day to the present could shed a ray of light upon her
mysterious disappearance. If one engine had broken
down, she could still have used the other, and carried on
at reduced speed. Probably she ran into field ice, and
sank immediately; perhaps she broke her back on a
mountain wave, and gave her passengers an awful
awakening ; but it is not unlikely that the sea over-
powered her, and sent her to the bottom like the S.S.
" London " in the Bay of Biscay.

All these theories are good and sound, but their proof
is beyond our power, and ever will be. When people
read in the newspapers — " The Cunard Steamer * Servia '
arrived at New York yesterday, being three days overdue.
During a heavy sea the boats, the bridge, and the funnels
were carried away, and the saloon was flooded." and when
those who have read this see for themselves the immense
vessel, and also her great height out of the water, it will
give them a much better idea than words can convey of
the force of those vast Atlantic waves, and the dangers
weakly built, badly engined, and unskilfully navigated
ships are at all times exposed to.

In the summer of 1852, when passing through Glas-
gow, I had the pleasure of going on board the Liverpool,
New York, and Philadelphia S.S. "* City of Glasgow," and
accustomed as I had been to see the old-fashioned Leith
and London paddle steamers " Royal William," " Royal
Adelaide," and " Royal Victoria," I could not but admire
the beauty and finish of this ship. She was of 1,087 tons
and 330 horse-power, and had recently left the hands of
Tod & McGregor— her builders. Her engines, her hull,
and general appearance were therefore objects of great
interest to one who gazed at them for the first, and as it
proved, for the last time.

328 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xx.

On March ist, 1854, this fine vessel sailed from the
Mersey for New York, with 480 people on board, includ-
ing officers and men ; but, strange to say, during all these
intervening years no one has been found who could give a
single scrap of information respecting the mysterious dis-
appearance of the ship during that memorable voyage.

In the same manner did the Collins liner "Pacific"
vanish from sight. This vessel, of 2,707 tons, 1,000 horse-
power, and commanded by Captain Asa Eldridge, sailed
from New York for Liverpool on January 23rd, 1856, with
46 passengers and 141 of a crew, but since that time
nothing has ever turned up which could throw any light
upon her sad story. During a previous voyage, the side
lever crosstail of the port engine broke, and, before they
could stop the machinery, nearly the whole of it on one
side of the ship was hopelessly destroyed. This, however,
had been repaired upon her arrival in the Mersey.

The last of these unaccountable losses to which we
shall refer is that of the Inman steamer " City of Boston."
It is now about seventeen years since she sailed on her
fatal voyage, and I well remember the conflicting news-
paper reports which first cheered and then depressed
those who read them ; the hopes, the fears, and blighted
expectations, and the Wearing anxiety of people who had
relatives on board, which in some cases proved too great
a strain for them. It may be added that sailing ships and
cargo steamers are still being lost from causes which can
only be conjectured. In mail steamers, however, the
discipline is so perfect, and their construction and internal
organisation so complete in every respect, that not one of
them has mysteriously disappeared since the " City of
Boston " vanished from sight.

CHAP. xxi. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 329

CHAPTER XXL

LOSS OF WEST INDIA MAIL STEAMER " AMAZON "

ENGINEERING SMASHES ON LAND.

Farewell to Southampton — First Night at Sea — "Heated Bearings" —
Alarm among the Passengers — "No Danger of Fire?" — Strong
Gale — Neilson's vigilance — The Little World asleep— All's well —
Fire ! FIRE ! ! — Wild excitement — Swift destruction — Awful scenes —
Ungovernable Engines — A Flying Inferno — The End — Spontaneous
Conflagrations — Cause of Safety in Travelling — Death of a Railway
Engineer — Promotion by Influence — The New "Chief" and his
" Improvement " — The smash on the Line — National disaster through
bad Engineering — Stage Coaches and Sailing Packets reinstated.

WE naturally expect to find the greatest disasters
happening to ships and steamers when out on the wide
ocean, exposed to hurricanes and cyclones, and also when
dashed by the sheer force of the tempest against a rocky
coast. Strange, however, as it may appear, those which
have involved the most serious losses of life have
occurred in smooth water, such as the loss of H.M.S.
"Royal George" at Spithead, when Admiral Kempenfeldt
and " twice four hundred men " went down with her in a
few moments. Second only to this was the destruction
of the river steamer " Princess Alice" on the Thames, a
few years ago; but the disaster which above all others
involved the greatest accumulation of horrors at the same
time, was the burning of the new and magnificent West
India Mail steamer " Amazon," in the Bay of Biscay.

Never can I forget the awful scenes that attended the
last moments of that ill-fated vessel, nor the profound sen-

330 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxi.

sation they caused at the time throughout the country.
Briefly told, the story of her loss is as follows : —

The " Amazon " was a timber-built ship, of 2,250 tons
and 800 nominal horse power, and cost, when completed,
£100,000. Her commander, Captain Symons, who had
been temporarily appointed for the voyage, as his own
steamer the " Orinoco," was not quite ready, had, for
some inexplicable reason, a superstitious feeling towards
her, and objected to have his name associated with the
new vessel. She started on her first trip from South-
ampton at 3.30 p.m. on Friday, January 2nd, 1852, with a
crew of 113 and 50 passengers, also a cargo valued at
£100,000, while crowds of people came to see her off,
and wave, unconsciously, their last adieus to those on
board.

Everything promised well. The splendour of the
ship, the magnificence of the engines, the prestige of the
Company, and the general surroundings, all seemed to
forebode a happy and prosperous voyage to those sunny
climes of the Spanish Main so interestingly described in
Charles Kingsley's book, At Last.

Soon after starting, the engines began to give trouble
on account of the paddle-shaft bearings heating consider-
ably, and this increased so much that, notwithstanding
all that could be done to cool them, the machinery had to
be stopped twice — in the latter case for two and a half
hours. This, as well as the whistling of the steam,
caused some alarm among the passengers, which the
captain quieted by telling them that they were new
engines, and would work easier in time, but the saloon
people were still anxious, and one of them observed, " I
hope there is no danger of fire ? "

" No chance of that," observed a Mr. Neilson, " or it

CHAP. xxi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 331

would be a terrible business in such a night as we are
likely to have."

During the next day, the ship had a strong wind
dead against her, which continued to rise until it became
a perfect gale, but with the engines reduced to three-
quarter speed she made 8£ knots an hour. So far as the
knowledge of the period went, the vessel was well cared
for, and had plenty of boats — nine in all — for saving those
on board in the event of danger arising. She had also
able and experienced officers.

This, then, is a picture of the splendid steamer on her
voyage. But let us pause ere we lift the curtain and shew
in all its hideousness a transformation scene worthy of
Dante or Dore, which has never been exceeded even
by the wildest writers of fiction. On the deck outside,
everyone on duty was navigating the ship as usual, and
the engines were working more easily at the reduced
speed. Up to a little past midnight, this state of things
continued ; the sea was high, the night dark, but all was
well.

The passengers were in bed, dreaming sweetly, per-
haps, of past scenes in England, the home of the happy
and the free, or probably the anticipated events of the
future, but certainly not the event so close at hand. Eliot
Warburton, the talented author of The Crescent and the
Cross, was among them, on his way to the Isthmus of
Darien as a diplomatic agent to the Indian tribes of that
region. Mr. Neilson, one of the passengers referred to,
who had taken great interest in the working of the
machinery, had left the engine-room at 12.30, and gone to
bed — for what proved to be only a five minutes rest —
quite satisfied with the improved state of affairs, and all
was peace and safety to the little floating world thus

332 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxi.

•' rocked in the cradle of the deep." Even those who
were awake heard nothing but the natural creaking of
the ship, and the splash of the waves against her sides as
she sped onwards.

At a quarter to one on Sunday morning, January 4th,
just as the "Amazon" had reached a point about no
miles W.S.W. of Scilly, the awful cry of Fin! FIRE ! !
burst upon the ears of the affrighted sleepers. Hark ! to
the shouts of horror and despair — the clanging of the
alarm bell — the rush of many feet along the deck — the
crackling of timbers, and the belching forth of dense
clouds of smoke that stifle all who approach it. Such,
almost in a few moments, was the dreadful change that
had come like a flash upon the amazed and awe-stricken
crowd.

The fire had burst out apparently in the store room
adjoining one of the forward boilers, and so swiftly did
it spread aft owing to the strong head wind, that the
engines could not be stopped, nor, indeed, were they ever,
until all was over.

Imagine, if you can, the scene inside the theatre at
Nice, or the "Ring" Theatre of Vienna on the night of
their destruction. Change it from dry land to the raging
seas of the Bay of Biscay, and shrouded in pitchy dark-
ness, let it be driven over them by a power no human
agency could control, and then you may have a somewhat
approximate idea of the sight which greeted the eyes, and
paralysed the minds of the half-naked and bewildered
passengers on the quarter-deck, for whom a terrible death
awaited.

Before they had time to think of any chance of escape
by the boats, which were soon afterwards nearly all burnt,
or swamped by the surge of the wheels, the flames were

CHAP. xxi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 333

in upon them, crashing through the glass and woodwork
of the saloon, and then followed scenes no language could
adequately describe or pencil sketch. A gentleman was
observed shielding his wife from the fire until the last
moment. Another couple were seen with their arms
clasped round each other's waists, and walking slowly
along the deck, when all at once it gave way beneath
their feet, and both fell into the raging furnace below;
and amongst other horrible spectacles, was that of a man
utterly destitute of clothes, walking about with one entire
side a mass of burns and enormous blisters, some of
which had burst, and left the flesh hanging in shreds.

Owing to the immense volumes of smoke and flame
that now invaded the quarter-deck, the ship had become
totally unmanageable, Captain Symons therefore cried
out, " For God's sake ! put her before the wind."

This was done as quickly as possible, but another evil
arose, which was, that the speed became so greatly in-
creased as to render it almost impossible to launch a boat
in safety. It was tried, however, with the remaining ones,
two of which, while being lowered full of passengers from
the davits, fell end on into the water — owing to the tackle
not working properly — and their shrieking occupants were
thrown into the sea and left far astern. Onward rushed
the flying Inferno, but ultimately two of the largest boats
were safely launched, one of which was commanded by
Mr. Vincent, a midshipman, and the other by Lieutenant
Grylls, R.N., who was one of the passengers.

Everything that could possibly be done by the officers
and men to save life was attempted, but from the first the
case was seen to be hopeless so far at least as the ship
was concerned, and " faithful unto death " may be said of
many. Lieutenant Brady, the officer in charge of the

334 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxi.

mails, was seen enveloped in flames while trying to save
the mail bags, and the last scene witnessed by those in
the departing boats was the captain and officers standing
by the wheel awaiting their dreadful end, and the last
passenger also observed in the same position was Eliot
Warburton. The annexed plate is a view of the P.S.
" Amazon " making signals at sea, and is a good example
of a style of ship which at that time existed.

Soon after the boats left, the main mast, which had
previously fallen, was succeeded by the fore and mizzen,
then the funnels fell hissing into the water, then the
magazine exploded, and, after a pause, the vessel went
down. Just before this, however, a barque, close reefed,
passed between one of the boats and the ship, and within
400 yards of the former, which hailed her several times
with the energy of despair. She brailed in her spanker
and appeared to answer them, but nevertheless sailed
round the wreck and left them to their fate, because, as it
turned out afterwards, she had not seen the boat, and was
anxious to do what she could in giving assistance.

The cause of the disaster has never been discovered.
One theory was that spontaneous combustion among the
coals had originated it, but it has been much more
generally supposed that the store-room was to blame, as it
was full of combustibles such as oil, turpentine, &c., and
was moreover greatly heated by being too close to one of
the boilers. The woodwork of the ship also was in prime
condition for firing, as the vessel had been very hastily
finished, and it had been saturated with turpentine for
cleaning purposes previous to painting and varnishing.

Subsequent events have shewn that the origin of this,
as well as of many other unaccountable conflagrations,
may have been the spontaneous combustion of oily cotton

CHAP. xxi. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 337

waste, &c., when exposed to certain atmospheric influ-
ences, and, for this reason, I am induced to mention a
circumstance which happened in the works of Messrs.
Neilson & Co., Glasgow, when I was on their staff.

One portion of the old and well known Hyde Park
Foundry consisted of a large turning shop, filled with
machinery, and occupying the first floor of one of the
buildings, in a corner of which lay a quantity of dirty
waste that had been used for cleaning purposes. On the
occasion referred to, the foreman had arrived a little
before six a.m., and, to his surprise, found the pile of
waste in a smouldering state, and on the point of setting
fire to the floor. It is very probable that half-an-hour
later the whole building would have been in a blaze, and
without any apparent cause, as the works were closed at
six on the previous evening.

Long afterwards, I mentioned this circumstance to a
friend, who informed me that the same thing had taken
place in his own house, owing to some oily cloths having
been stuffed into a kitchen drawer, but fortunately dis-
covered in time to prevent mischief. It may also be
added that, so fully do the Lancashire insurance com-
panies recognize the danger of fire from spontaneous
combustion, such as we have mentioned, that they will
not allow refuse cotton waste to remain during the night
in the mills over which they have control.

Out of the 163 people who sailed in the " Amazon,"
104 were lost. The rest were picked up in the remain-
ing boats by passing vessels, and landed in safety, and
amongst them was one lady — a Mrs. McLennan — and
Mr. Neilson, who afterwards wrote a long and interesting
letter to the Times, giving a full account of the destruc-
tion of the ship.

338 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxi.

Thirty-seven years have rolled away since this event,
and so many terrible losses have occurred during the
interval that we ought to be somewhat seasoned to them
by this time, but really, as I hunted through the columns
of the above newspaper, and also the pages of a little
book, The Loss of the Amazon, for facts connected with the
case, I felt the scene rising again before me in such
hideousness, and without a single ray of light, or one
ameliorating circumstance attending it, that all the other
disasters of a life time sank, comparatively speaking, into
the shade. I may further add that, although other cala-
mities at sea have involved a much greater loss of life
than this one did, those who recollect the burning of the
" Amazon " will remember an event which for accumu-
lated and relentless horrors, has never been equalled in
the history of steam navigation.

Even at the worst, I should have been able to modify
this statement considerably if the engines could only have
been stopped, but why they were not I have never been
quite able to understand, as it is difficult to see how the
flames or smoke should have so swiftly overpowered those
in the engine-room as to prevent them from shutting off
the steam at a moment's notice, as we can now do in all
our ships, and under all circumstances.

A friend of mine was one day travelling by rail, when
an animated conversation arose on the subject between
himself and another passenger. They were soon joined
by a third, who proved to be the Rev. William Blood,
one of the survivors, who gave them a graphic description
of the scenes he had passed through during the fire, and
added that what he had witnessed had given him the idea
of a never-to-be-forgotten hell upon earth. The intense
excitement of the scene must have drowned reflection in

CHAP. xxi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 339

many cases. It is quite possible, however, that in that
last dread hour, as in the foundering S.S. " London,"
there may have been some, and perhaps weak ladies too,
who, " after life's fitful fever," — after everything possible
had been accomplished, — could stand serenely under the
influence of a silent, secret, wonderful power, and as the
ship went down, sink with her — to rest.

From the loss of these two vessels engineers have
learnt many valuable practical lessons, and among them
may be mentioned the extreme danger of placing a
storeroom containing combustibles, and also woodwork
of any kind, too close to what may be the exposed parts
of hot boilers, and at the same time, the necessity of
having high and strong engine room skylights, which
prevent the possibility of their being washed away in
stormy weather, and thus causing the ship to be flooded
till she sinks. Such calamities as those we have men-
tioned, — even in a mitigated form — are now almost
unknown. The experience which has produced such
happy results has been gathered from a great variety of
sources, and has developed on the one hand the art of
avoiding such dangers, and on the other the power of
remedying them promptly if they should happen.

After all that has been done, however, it is astonishing
how frequently the most dreadful disasters occur to ships
and steamers by collision with each other. This year
of 1889 supplies numerous examples of vessels thus going
to the bottom as if they were made of tin, instead of being
built of steel, and as if they had not a single protective
bulkhead to save them from foundering. The recent
"Princess Henriette " collision in the English Channel,
certainly eclipses all others in its unique characteristics.
Such an event as one vessel cutting another right through

340 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxi.

paddle box and engine room, from side to side, and at
the same time causing the boilers to explode, has never
happened before, and probably never will again. The
" Amazon " story stands pre-eminent amongst the fiery
disasters at sea, but this Dover and Ostend Packet
calamity must remain unparalleled in the records of
similar catastrophes upon the ocean. Infallibility on
railways can by no means be expected, but if collisions at
sea through careless navigation are to continue, they may,
however, be robbed of their fatally destructive power by
strengthening the bulkheads already referred to.

This chapter, as well as a portion of the last, has been
somewhat down among the dismals, but as lights and
shades are appropriate in a picture, so are they also
necessary and natural in a book, the object of which is to
describe in a simple manner the practice of engineering,
which contains some of the most melancholy records to
be found in the history of the world. And another reason
for raking up so many sad stories of bygone days is to
show to the general reader how engineers — step by step —
have worked the profession up to its present high position
in so short a time.

It is to be regretted that the time honoured, and geo-
graphically distinctive title of the " West India Royal
Mail S.S. Company " should have been changed to that of
" The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company," which is
confusing to some at least owing to the existence of so
many other Royal Mail liners. As there is a West India
and Pacific fleet of steamers owned in Liverpool, and also
the P. S. N. line sailing from the Mersey, two " West
India" telegrams flying about the world, or an equal
number of "Pacifies" flashing over the surface of the
earth would create endless confusion. Our old friends

CHAP. xxi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 341

named above, have therefore adopted their present title,
and this in itself will indicate one of the causes of change
of name in firms when complications arise. " The Royal
Mail '' is certainly a first class designation — as it is quite
in the Head of the Clan style, but for geographical
expressiveness it cannot be compared with the former
name of the Company who possessed the " Amazon," and
many other fine steamships at that period.

How comfortable, how safe, how happy we all are
while travelling on land and sea ! We have good men in
responsible positions, constantly watching over every-
thing that might bring about disaster in any form, and
carefully investigating and analysing all arrangements
which can possibly benefit the public. But let me sketch
another, though certainly imaginary, picture, in the hope
of illustrating how the beneficial science of engineering
might, with great ease, be turned into a blighting and
universal evil.

Let us therefore suppose that instead of able and
experienced men at the head of affairs in all departments,
we had a set of people who had been promoted through
influence instead of merit. Let us also suppose that
Charles Y. Z. Hardinge, to whom we have previously
referred, is one of them.

Since we last saw him, this young gentleman has been
a draughtsman in the establishment he then entered.
For a time he got along pretty fairly, having plenty of
well matured drawings to aid him, and comparatively
simple work to execute, but, owing to a few mistakes of
his passing undetected through the shops, the chief
draughtsman put him on to something he could not well
spoil, and let him run in a groove for an indefinite period.

342 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxi.

His parents are naturally anxious to see him advanced,
and his rich uncle in London is again appealed to, as he
possesses a large number of influential friends, some of
whom are railway directors, Now it so happens that,
just at this very time, a vacancy occurs on one of the
main lines for a locomotive superintendent, and this is
how it came about.

The late superintendent of the works was a highly
accomplished man, socially as well as professionally; one
of those sharp, intelligent, bright-witted people we some-
times meet with. He had, in early days, served a five
years' apprenticeship with a celebrated firm, but had no
greater opportunities than many of his contemporaries.
The difference, however, lay in the use he made of them.
He was one of those individuals who are ever on the out-
look for something to learn, something to increase their
practical experience with the view of future promotion,
and in course of time he gradually rose until he reached
the top of the tree.

As engineer-in-chief at the works, he was a strict
disciplinarian, but nevertheless possessed so much kind
feeling and consideration for others that he was not only
highly esteemed by men immediately around him, but by
all who had the pleasure of his acquaintance. In addi-
tion to the above qualifications, he possessed such a
modest and unassuming character that no one would
have imagined him to be a perfect master of the science
and practice of railway engineering, and the responsible
head of a great line.

It may here be said that men and women who run in
grooves have their views of scientific or other matters
much narrowed. To remedy this, they should read good
general literature and avoid making themselves the slaves

CHAP. xxi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 343

of a profession. Much study is never more wearisome
than when unduly prolonged in one direction, and, as
previously remarked, it is variety in thought that makes
the acquisition of knowledge pleasantly profitable, and
keeps people bright and springy. Besides this, readers of
general literature frequently learn much that indirectly
helps them to comprehend their own dry, technical
treatises more fully, and also to obtain many valuable
ideas which may often be utilised in various ways. Our
locomotive superintendent — Mr. Fordyce — had long since
found this out for himself, and thus became in time, not
only a first rate engineer, but also an essentially " happy
man," with — to all appearance — a bright future before

him. Ah ! poor Mr. Fordyce, he little knew

One day he was outside, giving directions to the
foreman of the " running shed," when the following
announcement was handed to him : —

" Serious collision near Blanque station ; six killed, many injured ; send
help at once."

Not a moment was to be lost; the foreman got his
orders straight off, and, as an engine happened to be
passing slowly at the time, the superintendent was after
it in a twinkling. While trying, however, to get on the
steps of the tender, his foot slipped, the wheels ran over
him, and in a second nothing was left but a few mangled
remains.

There was great sadness throughout the establishment
when this became known. Everyone felt he had lost a
highly valued friend, whose like he would never see again,
and the Company a most able and efficient officer, who
might be rather difficult to replace.

344 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxi.

Well, now, this was the man young Hardinge hoped to
succeed, and his uncle accordingly brought all his influ-
ence to bear upon the proper authorities for that object.
They said " he was young and inexperienced," but the
London merchant courteously explained to them that
" his nephew had a good character, was steady, and
would do everything he could to make himself worthy of
the post." This required consideration by the Board of
Directors, so also did the fact that the gentleman who was
pleading for his relative influenced, in some way or other,
a goods traffic of many thousand tons a year over their
railway. At last they consented, and Mr. Hardinge was
duly installed as Locomotive Superintendent, to the sur-
prise of those who knew him best, but to the delight of
himself and his near relations.

For a time things went on smoothly, because he ran
upon the lines of his predecessor, and had the late chief's
staff of able draughtsmen and foremen to keep him right.
In letters to his friends, he said " he was getting on much
better than he expected," in short, for the reasons given,
everything seemed to go swimmingly. Manufacturing
engineers of all kinds now inundated him with circulars
and catalogues, which shewed in glowing colours how
this " patent piston almost annihilates friction, and will
save twenty per cent, in fuel;" and that "patent non-
conducting composition for boilers will give an obvious
economy of twenty-five per cent." Then came a flood of
"injectors," "slide valves," "fire bars," so on and so
forth, until the poor man could only arrive at the logical
conclusion that if he used a sufficient number of these
"improvements" in his engines he could run them for
nothing, and thus prove to the directors the wisdom of
their choice.

CHAP. xxi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 345

After carefully considering the various merits of these
inventions, he finally decided upon scheming out for him-
self a tyre fastening, which he hoped would supersede all
others, and accordingly introduced to the engineering
world what he was pleased to style " Hardinge's patent
improved tyre fastening for railway wheels."

If there is one thing more than another that causes
those knights of the workshops — the foremen — to snigger
and smile, it is when they discover unpractical ideas in
their employers, and if a master wants to stand well in
the opinion of these gentlemen, the best thing he can do
is to show them that he is quite as good as they are in
practical knowledge, and perhaps a great deal better. It
is therefore needless to observe that Mr. Hardinge did not
come up to this standard of excellence among the men he
was placed over, because, as they remarked, " he was
very conceited, and knew so little." All the staff, how-
ever, had to do as they were told, no matter what the
consequences might be, and although some of them might
have proposed beneficial alterations, he would hardly
listen to them, chiefly because he did not understand
what was said or what was aimed at.

For instance, the foreman of the pattern makers would
say to him, " Don't you think, sir, we might put in a
little more metal here ? " or " make this a wee bit
stronger ? " He of the erectors might propose a simpler
and better arrangement than was shewn on a plan, but
these gentle remonstrances received no encouragement
from the Superintendent, because, as he said,

" You have the drawings to work to, and they explain
everything," and occasionally he would observe, " That
is the way we used to do it in Sharp and Stewart's."

This last remark was a crusher, but not quite applic-

ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxn.

CHAPTER XXII.

STORY OF A DISASTROUS TRIAL TRIP.

Visit from a Shipowner — "Ship for Sale " —Engaged for Trial Trip —
Handsome fee — Off to Gravesend — Locomotives and Railway Tra-
velling past and present — Mr. Coventry, the Agent — First view of
S.S. "Orinoco" — Description of an Engineer's "Report" — Beauty
of Ship — Disappointment — The Captain — A Coffin Ship — Mystery
about the Machinery — Vile Workmanship — Chief Engineer — Pre-
parations for Starting — Something wrong in the Tunnel.

ABOUT eight o'clock one evening in November, 1885, I
was comfortably seated before the fire and occupied with
the perusal of an amusingly interesting narrative of an
event that happened among the passengers of a P. and
O. steamer in the olden time. I had gone about half way
into the story — so charmingly written in the pages of my
life-long friend, Chambevs's Journal — when a feeling of
drowsiness came over me, and I put down the book for a
little. It may be mentioned that during the day I had
been extremely busy at the office, and my head had been
filled with ideas relating to " columns," " lattice girders,"
" bowstring bridges," " diagonal bracing," and so on, for
an iron pile pier into which I was trying to introduce the
greatest strength with the least quantity of material. The
necessary calculations and scheming out of details had
kept me so constantly occupied that I felt somewhat
tired, and had just closed the book so that I might have
about forty winks when a visitor was announced.

" There's a gentleman down stairs wishing to see you

CHAP. xxii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 349

partiklerly, sir," said a domestic, handing me his card, on
which I gazed inquisitively.

" What ! Randolph Bellingham, Prince's Park
Terrace ? " I mentally exclaimed. " I have met that man
hundreds of times on the street and elsewhere, but have
never spoken to him in my life. Dear me, how strange !
and yet he has such a kind, amiable, benevolent expres-
sion. Now, what can he be wanting with me at this
time of the day ? "

" Ask him to come in," I said to my attendant, and
immediately afterwards the stranger was beside me.

" Oh ! " said that gentleman, on entering the room,
41 Your face is quite familiar to me, I have seen you very
often down in town for years past, but have never had
the pleasure of speaking to you till now."

" That is exactly what I was thinking of you, sir,
when I saw your card ; let me give you a chair ; I am
very glad to see you."

" Before saying anything about the object of my visit,"
he continued, "would you kindly read this advertisement,
which only came to my notice to-day, and which I
intended to see you about this afternoon, had I not been
detained at Birkenhead until too late to call at your
office."

With me first impressions are very strong. In this
case, however, not only were my original opinions of Mr.
Bellingham fully confirmed, but I found that he also
possessed a very quiet, easy, and attractive manner.
Judging by his appearance, you would have fancied he
was about fifty years of age, but he might have been a
little older, because happy dispositioned people wear
well, and amidst all their troubles and worries, pre-
serve for a long time their youthful appearance. Let

ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxn.

CHAPTER XXII.

STORY OF A DISASTROUS TRIAL TRIP.

Visit from a Shipowner — "Ship for Sale " —Engaged for Trial Trip-
Handsome fee — Off to Gravesend— Locomotives and Railway Tra-
velling past and present — Mr. Coventry, the Agent — First view of
S.S. "Orinoco" — Description of an Engineer's "Report" — Beauty
of Ship — Disappointment — The Captain — A Coffin Ship — Mystery
about the Machinery — Vile Workmanship — Chief Engineer— Pre-
parations for Starting — Something wrong in the Tunnel.

ABOUT eight o'clock one evening in November, 1885, I
was comfortably seated before the fire and occupied with
the perusal of an amusingly interesting narrative of an
event that happened among the passengers of a P. and
O. steamer in the olden time. I had gone about half way
into the story — so charmingly written in the pages of my
life-long friend, Chambers Journal — when a feeling of
drowsiness came over me, and I put down the book for a
little. It may be mentioned that during the day I had
been extremely busy at the office, and my head had been
filled with ideas relating to " columns," " lattice girders,"
"bowstring bridges," " diagonal bracing," and so on, for
an iron pile pier into which I was trying to introduce the
greatest strength with the least quantity of material. The
necessary calculations and scheming out of details had
kept me so constantly occupied that I felt somewhat
tired, and had just closed the book so that I might have
about forty winks when a visitor was announced.

" There's a gentleman down stairs wishing to see you

CHAP. xxii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 349

partiklerly, sir," said a domestic, handing me his card, on
which I gazed inquisitively.

"What! Randolph Bellingham, Prince's Park
Terrace ? " I mentally exclaimed. " I have met that man
hundreds of times on the street and elsewhere, but have
never spoken to him in my life. Dear me, how strange !
and yet he has such a kind, amiable, benevolent expres-
sion. Now, what can he be wanting with me at this
time of the day ? "

" Ask him to come in," I said to my attendant, and
immediately afterwards the stranger was beside me.

" Oh ! " said that gentleman, on entering the room,
" Your face is quite familiar to me, I have seen you very
often down in town for years past, but have never had
the pleasure of speaking to you till now."

" That is exactly what I was thinking of you, sir,
when I saw your card ; let me give you a chair ; I am
very glad to see you."

" Before saying anything about the object of my visit,"
he continued, " would you kindly read this advertisement,
which only came to my notice to-day, and which I
intended to see you about this afternoon, had I not been
detained at Birkenhead until too late to call at your
office."

350 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxn.

us, however, look at the advertisement, which reads as

follows : —

"FOR SALE,

" Now lying at Gravesend, the very superior passenger and cargo
steamer ' Orinoco,' built and engined in 1884 by a very celebrated firm.
Gross register, about 3,300 tons. Length extreme, 375 ft. ; beam, 40 ft. ;
and depth of hold, 31 ft. Built under Lloyd's special supervision and
classed 100 Ai.

"Engines: Inverted direct acting compound surface condensing, of
400 nominal horse power. Diameter of cylinders, 48 and 84 in. ; length
of stroke, 4 ft. 6 in.

"Three double-ended multitubular boilers; steam pressure, 75 Ibs.
Five steam winches, and steam steering gear. Speed, 14 knots per hour
on a very low consumption of coal. Can be used either as a first class
mail steamer or as a fast cargo ship.

"For price and other information, apply to Quirk, Gammon & Co.,
666, Leadenhall Street, London, E.G."

"And now," observed Mr. Bellingham, after I had
perused the document, " I may as well inform you that I
am at present greatly in want of a ship similar to this,
and had decided to give Denny Brothers an order for one,
but as time is of the utmost consequence to us, I thought
when I saw the advertisement that, if the vessel suited, I
would buy her at once, and get a set of quadruple engines
made for her while she was away on her voyage. She is,
as you see, lying at Gravesend, and what I wish you to
do, — if you will kindly take the matter in hand, — is to go
out in her on a trial trip, minutely inspect everything
about the ship, engines, and boilers, and send me a full
report of your expedition, so that I may be able to judge
what is best to be done in this business. Let me also
request you to accept one hundred guineas, which I think
is a fair remuneration for your services."

"I am extremely obliged to you," I replied, "but
really I could not think of taking so much. In cases of
this kind my usual fee is — "

CHAP. xxii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 351

(( Oh ! never mind what your usual fee is," said Mr.
Bellingham, smilingly; "this is a special undertaking,
which involves a good deal of care and trouble on your
part, and I therefore cannot allow you to take anything
less."

" In that case I shall be very happy to undertake the
work, and give it my best attention. When do you wish
me to go ? "

" To-night ; there must be no time lost ; the mail
leaves at 10-45, and I think you will have plenty of time
to catch it. I have already been in communication with
the brokers in London, and they have agreed to send their
Mr. Coventry to meet you at the Royal Hotel, Gravesend,
to-morrow morning at nine, and this gentleman will do
everything he can to assist you. We intend giving the
ship a run of twenty miles to sea, which will afford a
good opportunity for noting the action of the machinery,
the speed of the vessel, and also her general construction
and arrangement."

" Very well, sir, I shall keep a sharp look-out. Is
there anything else you can think of that might facilitate
matters ? "

" Nothing that I am aware of. I believe I have men-
tioned everything. Mr. Coventry is a very pleasant
man, and you and he will get on nicely. By-the-bye,
while it is in my mind, let me give you ten pounds
for your expenses, and, as soon as the trial is over,
please telegraph to my office in India Buildings,
1 Satisfactory,' or ' Unsatisfactory,' as you may think
proper."

" How strange ! " I observed, " I am in Canton Build-
ings, next door to you ; we therefore represent the two
largest empires in the world."

352 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxii.

Mr. Bellingham smiled, and his last words, as we
parted at the outer door, were, " Now, you will be sure to
go off by the 10.45 train ? "

"Certainly," I said, "unless there is some delay at
the station. Good night, sir."

" Good night, and a pleasant journey to you."

" Upon my word ! " I thought, as the door closed on
my kind and amiable visitor, "these shipowners are the
finest set of people I have ever seen. I have always
received the greatest courtesy from them, but really Mr.
Bellingham outshines them all. What a charming man,
to be sure! So frank — so genial — so bright- witted — so
generous ! If all my clients were like him, I would indeed
be happy."

After putting a few things together, I thought of the
office, and immediately wrote on a postcard, " Off to
Gravesend, on urgent and important business ; will return
to-morrow night."

Giving myself twenty-five minutes to catch the train,
I started on the journey, and arrived in good time at
Lime Street station. One of my favourite occupations
when about to travel any considerable distance is to have
a good look at the iron horse which is to drag us along.
It gives one more confidence in the speed of the train,
and also in its safety, because it is only natural that the
"express" people should be treated with greater respect
down the line, and have their interests more carefully
looked after, than if they were a lot of slow-going excur-
sionists. What a difference it makes, too, when you feel
yourself in tow, not of a dirty, old-fashioned, ramshackle,
crawling, six-coupled goods engine, but a magnificent
racehorse of the newest type !

In obedience to the command, " All take your seats

CHAP. xxii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 353

for London," I entered a carriage where I thought I
would be in good company, and in a few moments we
were off.

To the general public, as well as to the engineer,
everything connected with railways must be most inter-
esting. Their history contains a great deal of romance,
many amusing anecdotes, and very much that is practi-
cally and scientifically instructive.

Those who remember what railway travelling was
thirty years ago will at once recognise the immense
advantages we now possess in this respect. At that
time, third-class carriages were merely cold, cheerless,
uncomfortable boxes on wheels, with flat tops, which
were sometimes crowded with passengers. The fares
were also very high, and the speed of ordinary trains
much less than it is now. The locomotives of the period,
as well as the carriages, were very different indeed from
those we now employ, as the steady march of improve-
ment has gradually worked up the whole railway system
to its present high pitch of excellence and cheapness in
transit, while the early ^550 four-wheeled engine — of rude
construction, and four or five tons weight — has been
superseded by six or eight-wheelers of the highest finish,
costing about ^2,500, and weighing from fifty to sixty
tons, or even more.

The English style of locomotive is, with slight modifi-
cations, almost universal, but in America there is a
marked change in its appearance and construction — the
former consisting of elaborate adornments, and the latter
of a certain amount of elasticity in the framing to enable
the machine to adapt itself in a sinuous manner to the
inequalities of the line. To these we must add the

354 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxii.

" cowcatcher " in front of the engine, and the " spark-
catcher" outside the chimney, which form such dis-
tinctive features.

It would be rather difficult to say when a locomotive
dies, or departs this life, on account of long-continued
renewals. Our own noble selves are completely changed
every seven years by means of a constant process of
disintegration and creation, so is it with railway
engines. They may be blown up, smashed up, and
worn out in parts, but a new boiler here, a new cylin-
der or crank axle there, and other details more or
less repaired, will make them all right again. Indeed,
when parts are interchangeable, a splendid express or
goods engine may be formed out of the remains of
several others that have been almost annihilated when
on duty.

On many lines in America, railway travelling is some-
what slow and tedious, owing to the irregular nature of
the permanent way. It has also peculiarities common to
the New World, where at one place you may travel for
hundreds of miles at a stretch across a level prairie, and
at another be away up in the Rockies, 11,000 feet or
so above the sea, climbing steep inclines, or running
along the edge of precipices, 1,000 feet deep. Artemus
Ward says that on one occasion he suggested to the con-
ductor of a train that the " cowketcher " was at the
wrong end, for, as he observed,

" You will never overtake a cow you know, but if you
put it at the other end it may be useful, and prevent those
animals from walking in and bitin' folks."

Hardy Gillard, of panorama celebrity, tells another
story of the Grand Pacific Line : — A lady and her son
were once travelling from New York to San Francisco,

CHAP. xxn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 355

and when they arrived at Chicago the collector came
round to examine the tickets as usual.

"You'll have to pay for that boy, ma'am," he said,
pointing to the youth.

"What for?"

" He's over ten."

" Wa'al," replied the lady, " I guess he wern't ten
when we started ! "

At three minutes to nine the next morning I entered
the Royal Hotel, Gravesend, and after inquiring for Mr.
Coventry, was at once shewn into the coffee-room, where
I found that gentleman occupied with the newspapers.

" Good morning, sir," he blandly said on recognising
me, " I am very glad to see you, and hope you had a
pleasant journey."

"Very much so indeed, thank you," I replied.

" How fortunate we have been in our arrangements,"
he continued, " I see they had quite a gale here yester-
day, but the wind subsided during the night, and now it
is quite calm. We shall have a splendid trip ; everything
is in readiness, and I have given the chief engineer orders
to have steam well up by ten o'clock. After breakfast, —
which will be here immediately, — we shall go out to the
ship in a boat, and start at once."

This, I need hardly say, was very cheering news,
physically as well as professionally, because the morning
air had given me an excellent appetite, and I was there-
fore in splendid condition for making a hearty breakfast,
to which in a moment or two afterwards we sat down.
My first impressions of Mr. Coventry were most favour-
able ; he evidently was a man of education, and had also
a charming way of " putting things " that quite interested

356 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxn.

me. " Ah," thought I, " these ship people are gentlemen,
every inch of them, and set an excellent example to some
professionals I have met in life."

I had been hungry, but now I was not, having done
ample justice to the good things provided for us, and
upon offering to pay our united costs, kind Mr. C.
exclaimed, " My good sir, I could not allow you to do
such a thing; you are my guest, you know," which of
course settled the matter.

Down we went to the jetty, jumped into the boat
which was waiting for us, and off we started. As we
neared the " Orinoco," I could not help admiring her as
she lay in such beautiful trim in the water. Her model
was exquisite, and a very pretty bow for a ship of her
class, and also a handsome elliptical stern made me take
to her at once. In addition to this, her barque-rigged
masts, well proportioned funnel, clean sides, indeed every-
thing that could be thought of to make the vessel look
well seemed to have been carefully considered, and from
what I could see, I thought Mr. Bellingham would be
fortunate if he purchased her. Under the influence of
these impressions, I was already conning over in my own
mind a few choice opening sentences in the preamble of
my " Report."

A document of this nature, I need hardly inform my
readers, is a very different thing from newspaper
" reports," those at least which are given in the evening
publications and contradicted next day. Whatever other
people may do or say, an engineer's night and morning
statements must agree, but to accomplish this great care
is necessary. In the first place, he must be true and
faithful in what he says, he must also describe fully and

CHAP. xxii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 357

accurately what he sees and thinks, and in a very inde-
pendent manner, too. In other words, as free of bias as
possible, or the inclination to say a thing is good when it
is not, simply to please a client. All honourable men
act in this manner, but human nature is frail, and I am
afraid that in spite of all our good intentions we are
sometimes tempted to use a little rose colour injudici-
ously.

Not only must an engineer describe accurately what
he sees, but be able at the same time to judge correctly,
so that his client will have a fair idea of what he proposes
to purchase, and also whether he ought to do so or not.
It will therefore be seen that there is considerable respon-
sibility incurred by the engineer who undertakes such
work, which in some cases may involve very heavy out-
lay, necessarily or unnecessarily, on the part of the indi-
viduals or Company who employ him. Take, for exam-
ple, the Manchester Canal scheme, and many others of
lesser magnitude.

Besides all this, after the facts of the case have been
carefully collected, they have to be arranged in a simple,
intelligible, and literary style ; indeed, an accomplished
engineer's report ought to be quite a masterpiece of
elegant language, and his opinions must be mildly stated,
just in the same way as one Government treats another
when the ultimatum is being concocted.

No one, for instance, would ever think of writing
in his despatch that " The roof fell in on account of the
stupid blundering of its ignorant designer," when the
proper style should be, "The cause of failure in the roof
I have just described was, in my opinion, the inherent
weakness of the fractured tie-rod," or " Want of unifor-
mity in the strength of the ruptured plate evidently

35« ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxn.

brought about the explosion of the boiler." Even at the
worst, our language is studiously mild, but, underlying an
engineer's euphemisms, there is a great deal that people
should beware of, if they wish to profit by those expres-
sions which refer to unpleasant facts.

The anticipated length of a report is somewhat delu-
sive, and depends entirely upon the nature of the case,
and the completeness with which its details are gone into,
but whether a large number of foolscap pages are
required, or only one sheet of. letter paper, the object of
the writer is to convey as much information as possible
in few words, and to avoid to the utmost those appa-
rently vain repetitions the lawyers so liberally treat us to,
such as " and the said Dashe Blanque doth hereby for
himself, his executors, administrators and assigns, agree,"
&c., every tenth line. After the document is fully written
out — on one side only — it is paged at the bottom, and
securely fastened with two brass clips at the upper left
hand corner. After this is done, the report is carefully
folded, endorsed on the outside, and sent off.

To return to my own proceedings : During the time I
was mentally noting the external appearance of the
" Orinoco," as we approached the ship, I could not help
expressing my opinions somewhat favourably to Mr.
Coventry, which greatly pleased him.

" Yes," he added, " I am sure she will suit your people
exactly. She is truly a splendid vessel."

When we got on board, however, I was considerably
disappointed with what I saw. The deck houses and
other fittings, which looked so well at a distance, now
appeared coarse in quality and sloppily put together.
The rigging was in a very bad condition in many places,

CHAP. xxn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 359

and the decks looked as if they had been made of ill-
seasoned wood, which had shrunk very much under a hot
sun, and then been clumsily caulked. As we walked
slowly along, examining everything closely, I observed a
blunt, burly looking fellow swearing away in awful style
at one of the sailors.

" Let me introduce you," my companion remarked,
" Let me introduce you to Captain Vanderdecken, he is a
Dutchman by birth, but has been a long time in England,
and knows this ship well, having been three voyages in
her to the Cape of Good Hope."

We bowed.

"Ver glad to see you, sare," said the commander,
trying to look amiable, " you come to see my sheep ? "

" Oh yes."

" Veil den, you vill find her von shplendid sheep —
gr-r-and sea botte, ver fine engines, ver high speed, vat
vill you vish for more ? "

I did not answer the question, but under Mr. Coven-
try's guidance extended my survey to the lower regions.
Here, too, as on the upper deck, I was again disap-
pointed, as all the doors, floors, bulkheads, and general
fittings were thrown together in such a sloppy, scamped,
and disreputable manner that I at once became suspicious
of everything.

" Good gracious ! " I thought, " Laird Brothers would
have eaten their very heads off sooner than have sent out
such a floating coffin."

Mr. Coventry gazed at me inquisitively, and I won-
dered what his opinion was, but did not ask him.
Perhaps he had an idea that I did not know much
because I said so little, probably he fancied that I
approved of everything upon the principle that " silence

360 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxn.

gives consent," but his ignorance was bliss. The fact
was that I saw and relentlessly noted in my own mind
everything before me, but refrained from saying anything
that might hurt his feelings, in consideration of the kind-
ness and courtesy I had already received from him.
Another reason was that he only acted as the irrespon-
sible agent for the brokers, and therefore it was no use
saying unpleasant things without some definite object in
view. The conclusion I had come to, however, so far as
I had gone, was that I would give Mr. Bellingham a
sweepingly condemnatory report of the vessel, and thus
stop all further proceedings, but this my telegram
" unsatisfactory " would partially forestall.

" I think we better go down to the engine-room now,"
said Mr. Coventry. I thought so too, so away we went.

On reaching the starting platform I could not help
admiring the machinery, as everything looked so smart,
so trim, so bright. The connecting rods, and all the
other gear I was so familiar with, were highly finished,
and were indeed splendid works of art, so far as I could
see at least, but upon gazing inquisitively round the
engine-room I was unable to discover any name plate
with the maker's name and date of manufacture. Now, if
I could only have found this " missing link," with the
usual Egyptian block letters so arranged upon it as to
indicate that " Caird & Co.," " Maudslay, Sons & Field,"
or any other well known firm, had been the builders, I
should have felt complete confidence in the excellence of
the work before me. I fancied, however, the plate had
been taken down for repairs, or, perhaps, had been for-
gotten by the engineers.

" Who made these engines," I said to Mr. C.

" Oh ! " replied that gentleman, " they are made by a

CHAP. xxn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 361

very eminent Northern firm whom I know intimately,
but — tut, tut — dear me ! I can't for the life of me, remem-
ber their name at present."

" Don't trouble yourself," I said, " you will remember
it by-and-by without any exertion."

I thought this strange, so at once began to investigate
for myself, and very soon discovered that underneath this
fair exterior there was a great deal of vile fitting. In
other words, things were loose when they should have
been tight, and stiff when they ought to have been easy.
It happened, however, that the cover of the crank shaft
after- bearing had been taken off, and was lying on the
floor, so also were the nuts belonging to the main bolts.
Down I went therefore to the lower regions to have a
look at them. The cover was right enough to be sure,
but upon trying the nuts on the holding-down bolts I was
so shocked to find the screws loose and shaky, that I
could not help mentally exclaiming —

" Can it be possible that any decent engineering firm
could send out such atrocious work? If this ship ever
runs close to a lee shore in a gale of wind I would not
give a sixpence for her safety. Napier and Laird would
have closed their establishments sooner than make such
things." This discovery made me still more suspicious
about everything I could not see, so I returned to the
starting platform, where I met the chief engineer, who
had all this time been looking after the boiler-room
arrangements.

" Remarkably fine pair of engines, sir," he said, upon
ascertaining who I was, — " never saw anything work
smoother in my life."

II Who made them ? " I asked.

" They are made by a first-rate firm in the North,.

362 ENGINEERING, POPULARL Y CHAP. xxn.

but" — running his hand through his hair — "drat it all, I
can't remember their name just now ; it will come into
my head in a little I have no doubt."

Upon observing some of the other " hands " going
about, I shouted in a clear, ringing, and somewhat angry
tone — " Do any of you know, can any of you tell, who
made these engines ? " but they were all speechless.

Taking one thing with another, I was fairly puzzled
while trying to find out what all this jugglery meant.
The steam was getting well up, so Mr. Coventry proposed
that we should start at once.

" Just about time," I said. " It is now eleven o'clock,
and we have much to do."

The "chief" now began to warm up his cylinders by
letting steam into them gently, but upon seeing the main
bearing cover still lying on the floor below, I was just on
the point of shouting out — " Haven't you got that cover
screwed up yet ? " when I checked myself, as it was not
etiquette for a visitor, however interested he might be, to
give orders on board a ship. I now had a turn through
the tunnel to see what I could see, and with the intention
of treating the boiler-room in the same way later on.
Here, however, I was agreeably surprised. Everything
looked smart, clean, tidy — the cooling cocks and pipes
were in good order, so also was the lifting gear overhead.

" Very nice indeed, so far as can be seen," I thought.
" As for the bearings, they are the only specimen of
Whitworth fitting I have discovered in the ship— perhaps

just a little — quite a wee bit too ." It was only an

idea that flashed across my mind, hardly worth mention-
ing at the time, but nevertheless a source of unexpected
trouble afterwards.

CHAP. xxin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 363

CHAPTER XXIII.

END OF THE FATAL TRIAL TRIP.

Ship off at Last — Slow speed of Engines — Mr. Coventry's promise —
Increased Velocity — Bad working Engines — Suspicions aroused —
Study of Characters in the play — High speed, and effect on hull —
Heated bearings in Tunnel— The Remedy— Painful discoveries in
Engine room— Terror-stricken " Chief" — Dreadful Smash, and
Boiler Explosion — Loss of the "Orinoco" — Reflections upon the
event — Practical Lessons.

THE engines had now started slowly, and we were fairly
off from Gravesend, but, with the exception of thumping
and bumping and jolting in various places, which I had
already predicted, there was nothing special to comment
upon ; the chief engineer, too, seemed quite pleased with
everything. After we had been going on at this rate for
about an hour, I said to Mr. Coventry —

" Can't we go ahead full speed, now that we are well
out ? "

11 Certainly," said he, " I will tell Mr. Davenport to
put on full steam at once ; I am glad you mentioned it."

Another half hour passed, but there was so little
improvement that I again ventured to approach Mr. C.
on the subject. "Dear me!" he remarked, "what a
stupid man that engineer must be ; I told him distinctly
to go ahead full speed. He must have forgotten it, surely.
I will go and look after things myself now," and away
he went to give orders in the boiler-room, but, curiously
enough, I never saw him again. I am naturally of a
sensitive disposition, and, on the spur of the moment,

364 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. XXIH.

somewhat prone to imagine evils that do not exist, and,
as my companion thus expressed himself, there was some-
thing in his manner that rather surprised me. I tried,
however, to dismiss the idea from my mind, but was it a
fancy ? We shall see.

The engines now went ahead in grand style. They
had been running all the time at about 40 revolutions per
minute, but that had been increased to 60, and if they
had kept to this speed I would have been quite satisfied,
but, somehow or other, it increased rapidly. In a short
time the revolutions had gone up, first to 70, then to 80,
and now they were 100 per minute, and manifested no
intention of stopping there either.

The clattering and thumping of everything had become
so great that for the last time I thought of my report,
which I had decided should be very brief, but crushing in
its arguments against Mr. Bellingham's purchase of the
vessel. One ray of light, however, indicated to me that I
would thus clearly shew him that my hundred guinea fee
had been well earned, and that my professional assistance
would save him from utterly throwing away a good many
thousand pounds.

I next turned over in my own mind all that had
occurred since I left Liverpool, and in the following
manner.

" Mr. Bellingham is an honest, straightforward, and
thoroughly reliable gentleman ; no mistake about that.
Mr. Coventry is — well, I did think he was the same, when
I first saw him, as his kindness and amiability pre-
possessed me entirely in his favour ; but now I think
differently of him. At this very moment I have reason to
believe that he is not only most plausible in his speech,
but, — what is worse, — cunning and deceptive in his acts,

CHAP, xxiii. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 365

and I am sure of this from what I have already seen.
The chief engineer seems to be of the same breed, and
evidently knows very little about his engines or their
management. Captain Vanderdecken is entirely beneath
my notice, and as for the other hands, they are * duffers,'
every one of them." The only conclusion I could come
to after summing up these unpleasant facts was, that all
on board were a pack of artful deceivers, and totally
unworthy of the slightest consideration.

The speed of the engines, — now increased to 180
revolutions per minute, — was extremely disagreeable for
the ship, if for no one else, as the unfortunate vessel was
quivering violently from stem to stern, and seemed as if
she were going to pieces. A man who looked down the
skylight told me, on being questioned, that our speed was
"31 knots an hour, sir," but strange as it may appear, I
did not consider it very remarkable, because at this time
my mind was fixed more upon the machinery than any-
thing else,^ and, even when I came to reason out the
matter, I concluded that such a high velocity was only
the natural result of certainly a most extraordinary cause,
which I investigated in this way : —

" If our steamer can run fourteen knots at sixty revo-
lutions, she ought, theoretically speaking, to go forty-two
knots an hour at one hundred and eighty per minute, but
inasmuch as retarding forces, such as increased resistance
of the water, augmented slip of the propeller, and ' skin
resistance ' of the hull have to be allowed for, we cannot
take off less than about eleven knots, which will bring
down the velocity to thirty-one, as the man has just said."

The suspicions that had been aroused on my visit to
the tunnel were now awakened, so I immediately entered
it just to see how things were working, but the moment I

366 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxm.

did so was received with a blast of steam which quite
took my breath away.

"Good gracious!" I said to the hand nearest me,
*• where is all this steam coming from ? "

" The bearin's is heatin', sir, and we're pourin' water
on 'em to cool 'em."

Not caring one pin what the engineer said, I shouted
"All hands stand by the bearings, open every cooling
cock in the place full bore, and flood the ship rather than
crack those plummer blocks or break the shaft."

They obeyed my orders — the ship was flooded — dense
volumes of steam prevented us from seeing anything,
nevertheless we felt our way cautiously, and all danger
was over, so far as we were concerned. On returning to
the engine room, however, what a spectacle met my aston-
ished gaze ! never in my life will I forget it. The whole
place appeared in semi-darkness, which was only illu-
mined by a lurid glare which enabled me to reach in
safety the foot of the engine room entrance ladder. From
this commanding spot I could see everything. The crank
shaft bearings were luminously hot, the piston rod guides
frightfully grooved and giving off showers of sparks, the
cylinder lagging was in a blaze, and red hot steam blow-
ing off at the stuffing boxes, owing to the packing having
been burnt.

The engines seemed to have reached their very highest
speed, and were tearing away as if " Clootie " himself had
got hold of them and was driving us all to Inferno, amidst
the most unearthly noises and smells I had ever experi-
enced. It seemed as if marvels would never cease on
board the '•' Orinoco," and I wondered if we were going to
have the " Amazon " story over again ?

Just as I was thinking of going on deck, the " chief"

CHAP. xxin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 367

came to me with a terror-stricken countenance, and said,
" I think, sir, we better slow the engines, or we may have
a breakdown. I would have done so long ago, but had to
obey Mr. Coventry's orders."

" Certainly," I replied, " stop them at once, they have
done enough of mischief already, and may do more."

No sooner did he touch the stop valve gear than the
high pressure connecting rod snapped through the middle,
and at the same time the piston and cylinder cover were
smashed to atoms, while the lower half of the rod broke
into the condenser, cracked the bed plate, and finished up
by punching a hole in the bottom of the vessel, through
which the water came in like a flood, and all in a twink-
ling, too !

In spite of the dense volumes of steam by which I was
surrounded, I succeeded in reaching the deck, only, how-
ever, to have another startling experience. The whole of
the waist of the ship was in a blaze, and the vessel, even
at reduced speed, was positively flying through the water,
far out of sight of land. I had just gazed for a moment in
a horror stricken manner at the awful scene, when one of
the boilers exploded and blew out the side of the steamer,
which in a few moments foundered.

Down she went, sucking me after her — down — down —
down ; it seemed like a hundred thousand fathoms, and
yet I could not reach the bottom. With fortunate
presence of mind, I struggled for life, and striking out to
the right and to the left, at last came to the surface ; but
as I did so, received a tremendous blow on the forehead
from a piece of timber which had come up with me.
While feeling about in a stunned manner for something
to keep me afloat, I found what I thought might help me

368 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxm.

in the darkness by which I was enveloped ; indeed, it was
the only thing within reach, and, although soft and flabby,
it was still better than nothing. Returning consciousness
enabled me to make a closer examination of my position,
and I could hardly express my emotion when I found that
what I had in my hand was nothing less than my dear
old friend Chambers 's Journal ! who had come to my rescue
in the ocean, as it had done so often on board ship in
youthful days.

" But stop a moment," I said, upon further considera-
tion, " Am I at sea at all ? Dear me ! is it possible ? Can
I believe my eyes ? for surely I can discern things not
usually to be found on the bosom of the Atlantic. I see a
gasalier, and the walls of a room covered with pictures,
and a fire place right in front of me ! ! "

11 Where am I then ? " I thought, and immediately the
whole truth flashed upon me. The vividly realistic and
active scenes I had been engaged in were, after all, merely
a wild creation of the brain — in short, what is commonly
called a dream ! This discovery gave me intense relief,
and thankfulness that I was still in the land of living.

The hundred guinea fee was, of course, lost, and as
for the remains of the £10 Mr. Bellingham had so kindly
given me for expenses — well, they could not be found, but
under the circumstances I felt no regret. It was also
consoling to find that I would have more time next day
for pushing on with the iron pier and bowstring bridge in
which I was so interested.

Ten o'clock had just struck, and upon thoroughly
rousing myself up, the whole truth flashed upon me.

When I sat down about 7.30 in a chair before the fire
to read the P. and O. story, I felt somewhat drowsy, and

CHAP. xxin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 369

my excellent mother — who, through a long lifetime, has
studied my welfare — said to me, " Don't tax your brain
too much by reading that book, you have had a very busy
day, take rest when you can get it."

I said, " The story I was reading was quite a pleasant
relief after the office cares, and that rest with me lay in
change of employment." However, in a few minutes, I
reluctantly laid down the book on my knee in deference
to her wishes, and was left to sleep undisturbed for two
whole hours. At the end of that time I must have moved
in some way or other, as it now appeared that I had fallen
off the chair and knocked my head against the mantel-
piece, which of course aroused me. I then picked up
Chambers1 s Journal, which was lying on the rug, and this
explained what seemed to have been my last struggles in
the sea. Here, then, was the solution of the mystery, and
this is how I spent my hours of sleep, and — " rest ! "

Let me only add, that with the exception of the
remarks upon an engineer's report, which are quite Cor-
rect, and also those upon railway travelling, which are
equally so, this " Story of a Disastrous Trial Trip " is merely
an imaginary scene, that is to say if collectively taken,
but if looked at from an analytical point of view, it is not.
Though somewhat fanciful in construction, it has never-
theless a great many veins of truth and threads from my
own experience interwoven with it, and may therefore be
considered a fair illustration of the manner in which the
inexplicable machinery of the mind is sometimes actuated
during the hours of sleep.

When office work is not harassing through outside
pressure, an engineer can sleep as well and as soundly
as those gentlemen the great Caesar liked to have about
him. There are occasions, however, when he is called

370 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxm.

upon by a client to design something of a perplexing
nature as rapidly as possible. No time must therefore be
lost, and all the resources of past experience have to be
suddenly utilized to tide him over the difficulty. For this
reason he has sometimes to make the drawings himself
to save time, instead of instructing assistants to do so,
which thus entails very active mental employment. If,
however, it is anxiously continued, not only during the
day, but through the evening, and into the small sized
hours of the morning, the mind becomes somewhat
strained, and upon going to bed in the early dawn the
engineer may take his plans and calculations with him,
and during the watches of the night be busily running
over them all. Such, indeed, has been my own experi-
ence when unduly pressed.

For example, after going to bed with the intention of
sleeping, I have had what you might call a rough night,
or morning of it, having been engaged all through the
state of somnolence in making calculations, designing and
drawing plans, and so on. The worst of it was, that the
cantankerously unmanageable things never would come
right, and no matter what I did, every effort failed.
Calculations would persist in being wrong, colours would
not go on a drawing properly, and nothing I could think
of was either feasible or workable. There was always
something missing that had to be found, something incor-
rect, something unattainable, and I was glad enough to
find on awaking that it had all been a dream.

This unpleasant state of things appears to have been
the lot of Napier's shipbuilding manager for weeks before
the launch of H.M.S. "Black Prince," owing to heavy
responsibility and the local difficulties by which he was
beset. Indeed, undue professional anxiety concerning

CHAP. xxni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 371

new and complicated schemes, may do much mischief to
those engaged upon them, and of this we have only
recently had a tragic example.

Although to superficial thinkers the subject of dreams
may be unworthy of notice, it nevertheless possesses
features which deserve consideration. An ancient writer
has said that — " There is as much temerity in never giving
credit to dreams, as there is superstition in always doing
so. ... Treat them as you would a known liar, who
usually tells falsehoods, but sometimes speaks the truth."
This has been frequently confirmed in modern times, by
people who have been urged to act contrary to their own
judgment in important movements by means of these
premonitions, and the result has been variously beneficial.

One of the titled families of England owes its immense
wealth to the dream of one of its ancestors who, when
captain of a frigate, during the Peninsular War, was thus
compelled to disobey Admiralty instructions.

The most extraordinary event, however, of this kind
happened to a ship that sailed many years ago from
Liverpool to Valparaiso. She had a fine passage as far
as the Falkland Islands, when one night the commander
was powerfully forewarned in his sleep that if he rounded
Cape Horn they would all be lost. The idea clung to
him in spite of every effort to throw it off, and he was
obliged to return to the Mersey. The vessel was sent off
again with another captain, but to this day no one knows
what became of her.

My own experiences have been peculiar. During the
hours of sleep I have sometimes taken part in the most
vividly realistic scenes, a few of which have been dreadful.
Locked up in the cabin of a steamer, I have stood alone
with murderers, and the last moment had come. I have

372 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxm.

clung in despair to the narrow ledge of a lofty precipice
with instant death awaiting me, and I have had the
honour of going down with a foundering ship. Such
events can never be forgotten, neither can the marvel-
lously simple means used in each case for obtaining
help in those moments of extreme peril. To my intense
relief, the murderers were changed, as by the lightning's
flash, into statues — the precipice gradually melted away
to level ground — and when the ship had sunk I was
safe at the mast head.

Although in one thousand instances dreams may have
no significance, the ominous one thousand and first
may bring prosperity or adversity, and may, indeed,
kill or save, according to circumstances. Those men-
tioned above have, however, proved a lasting source of
encouragement to myself, and have also occasionally fore-
shadowed what has actually happened in daily life.

There is nothing, perhaps, more surprising than the
unexpected and unaccountable manner in which people
in difficulties sometimes have their way opened out, and
things in darkness made plain — after many fruitless
efforts — by means of ideas caught, they cannot tell how ;
by people met they did not even think of; and not
unfrequently, through the action of the mind during the
period of rest, when the engineer is sometimes most
intensely occupied — as we have tried to show in this
chapter.

CHAP. xxiv. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED 373

CHAPTER XXIV.

HOW I COMMENCED PRIVATE PRACTICE.

Birkenhead Iron Works in 1867 — Dull times— Idle Engineers in London —
Crisis in 1872 — Retirement from the Works — First movements in a
new direction — Advice of friends— Serious obstacles — The Generous
C.E. — Success at Last — Cause of difficulties in Private Practice —
Hints to those intending to enter upon it — Index Books and
Engineering Literature.

DURING my long stay in the Birkenhead Iron Works, we
had two periods > of great depression, the first of which
was in the year 1867, and the second in 1872. In the
former case, we had been gradually working every order
out of the place, until there was very little indeed to be
done, and, what was worse, nothing coming in.

The report came that, in London alone, a great
number of draughtsmen were unemployed, and, soon
afterwards, one of them was taken into our office after
eighteen months of compulsory idleness. This intelli-
gence made us feel uncomfortable, because everyone
would have felt very sorry to leave such an excellent and
hitherto most steady establishment. Quite apart from
the dulness which pervades active minds when employ-
ment fails, there is always the dread on such occasions of
being idle for a very indefinite period, and with one's
income stopped, and no private means, this is doubly
severe.

Just when things had come to the worst, as we
thought, an order was received for a great ironclad for

374 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxiv.

the English Government, which set us on our feet again,
and soon afterwards other contracts came in, and we
were kept busy for years.

In 1872, we had another very dull period. Vessels
were launched, completed, and sent away, one after the
other, but hardly any new orders sprung up, although we
tried for several. Unfortunately, there were too many
people who either could not or would not pay a reason-
able price for high-class ships or machinery, and thus our
estimates so often failed. Well, in consequence of this,
and also on account of previous overbuilding throughout
the country, our work died away to such an extent that
a climax came from which there was no relief. The
expected reduction of the staff at last took place, about
the end of the year, and I happened to be one of those
selected for retirement from the service of the Firm.

One day the manager sent for me. "Now then,"
thought I, " it's come at last." And so it had. On
entering his room, he said, " You must have observed for
some time past how little there has been to do in the
office."

" Oh, yes," I replied.

" Well, then," he continued, " as we have no orders
coming in, nor even a prospect of any, we shall be obliged
to reduce our staff, I regret to say, and dispense with
your services"; but adding, "There's an advertisement
of Humphrey and Tennant's " — pointing to it in The
Engineer — " you might look after."

" Very sorry, indeed," I answered. «« When do you
wish me to leave ? "

" Oh ! I am in no hurry about it ; say three weeks or
so."

I went upstairs, depressed at the prospect of my com-

CHAP. xxiv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 375

pulsory departure ; but when I began to consider things,
I soon regained my usual brightness. " Now then," I
thought, " here have I been these many years, gaining
valuable experience, certainly, but without a chance or
hope of promotion, and if I remained in this establishment
for some time to come, it would make little difference
to me. I should not be at all surprised if my prospects
are not so dark as they look, and this unwelcome change
may work out something better, though I cannot see
how." This idea gave me a spring at once, and I became
as merry as a lark, because the back door was closed,
and I was obliged to make some unknown but forward
movement.

When the time arrived, I went to the manager for my
certificate. " Oh," said he, in such a kind manner, "you
had better stop another fortnight, and see if something
does not come in."

I did so, but, as no fresh work made its appearance, I
soon found myself " at sea," so far as the future was con-
cerned. My next move was to call upon a number of
shipowners and engineers in Liverpool, with the object of
sounding them as to the possibility of starting on my own
account as a consulting engineer. The former received
me most courteously. Some said one thing and some
another, but all agreed that it would be most difficult to
commence at all unless I had something to " keep the
wolf from the door for the first two or three years." The
engineers held the same opinion, but in a more marked -
degree ; indeed, one or two of them said it was impossible
without help of some kind.

Here, then, was a damper at the outset, because, in
the first place, I had no one to look to for employment,
and, in the next place, I had only the remains of a small

376 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxiv.

legacy to tide me over my difficulties for a time. Amongst
those I visited was the proprietor of one of the brass
foundries, whom I knew well, as he had made some
thousands of pounds worth of work from my plans in
former days. This gentleman often came over to see if
we had anything for him to do, and sometimes went away
hopeful, at least, if not joyous, because our drawings had
not been sufficiently matured.

Upon visiting my old friend, he asked me whom I had
seen, and what they had said. I told him.

11 Have you seen Mr. A ? "

"Oh, yes."

" What encouragement did he hold out to you ? "

The information was given.

" Well, now," said Mr. Marsden, " why don't you
start for yourself? There's Mr. So and- so; he began on
his own account some years ago, and has succeeded.
Then there's Mr. Somebody-else, who did the same thing,

and he has never gone back. Go and speak to Mr. A

again, and say I sent you."

On my way to this gentleman's chambers, I met him
on the street, and was told that whenever I could get
something to do I might have the use of a desk in his
establishment. This was very cheering, because the
main obstacle at the outset was to obtain a decent office,
and, at the same time, work to begin upon which would
help to pay expenses. Up to this period, I thought I had
seen nearly all the engineers who were likely to encourage
me, but, a few minutes after the office difficulty had been
settled, while quietly walking along Dale Street, I saw the
name of a civil engineer I had not known of before, and
immediately called upon him as a sort of forlorn hope.
He received me very kindly, and asked if I would help

CHAP. xxiv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 377

him with some plans he had to prepare, and, upon telling
him I would be very glad to do so, they were at once
handed over to me.

I went home happy that night, because one of the
most fortuitous coincidences imaginable had, in a single
hour, removed from my path two apparently insurmount-
able difficulties, and also opened out my prospects for the
future. That is to say, I had found an office and
remunerative employment, when to all appearance there
was not the slightest chance of either.

That generous C.E., who had also an establishment in
London, has never, I believe, had occasion to regret
having extended a helping hand, and given the first five
guinea fee to one by whom he will always be gratefully
remembered. The temporary desk gave place in a few
weeks to a permanent office, and, in course of time, I
came in for a civil and mechanical engineering practice
of a most varied and interesting character. One part of
my experience, however, consisted in sailing tremendously
close to the wind, and trying to make headway against
the usually small amount of financial success. So hard,
indeed, was this species of navigation, that, had I not
been possessed of private means, there were critical
periods in which all my professional experience would
have proved unavailing, and I would have been unable to
keep to the course I had endeavoured to steer.

This will be easily understood when it is stated that
one of our ultimately most successful engineers could only
make sufficient to pay his office rent for the first five
years. This gentleman I knew well ; he, however, had
the advantage of a private fortune, which many of our
tribe have to do without.

Another friend of mine, who for a considerable period

378 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxiv.

was superintending engineer to a great ocean line of
steamers, had /i,ooo a year for looking after them, but
was obliged to retire on a pension, as his health would
not stand such a severe strain. He, however, began on
his own account, and notwithstanding the prestige
derived from having been associated with so eminent a
firm, absolutely failed to obtain any employment con-
nected with ships for more than two years afterwards.
In this case, his great ability seems to have been unrecog-
nised on account of his too retiring disposition.

It will thus be seen that even when accomplished
engineers commence to practise their worst difficulty con-
sists in getting work to execute, unless they have been
fortunate enough to secure a few good clients beforehand,
and this, in many cases, is almost impossible.

The reason of this is that so many people are retained
in important positions, such as engineers in chief to rail-
ways, docks, and harbours, city and borough engineers to
towns of all sizes, and so on. These men, at the head of
experienced staffs, do an immense quantity of the work
that in early days fell into the hands of private prac-
titioners, who by this system are deprived of an enormous
amount of employment. So much is this the case that,
although there are a few who have made large fortunes, a
great proportion of the remainder make, considering their
capabilities, incomes of — well, I should be ashamed to
say how much, or, more correctly speaking, how little.
This is a sore point, but as I am giving a faithful descrip-
tion of the profession, I shall, while explaining its benefi-
cial qualities, take care to throw some light upon its dark
features, which, it is needless to say, are almost entirely
of a financial character.

To give a little variety, I also hope to sketch in their

CHAP. xxiv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 379

proper places a few of the humorous and peculiar aspects
of engineering life from a private point of view, and
endeavour to show how and where improvements might
possibly be introduced.

Some may ask why I did not commence private
practice sooner. Well, that is easily explained. In the
first place, it is very risky to leave permanent and good
employment for what may be very uncertain, unless you
have reasonable inducement to do so, or have sufficient
means. And secondly, so great has this risk now become
that people are more or less content to run in a groove
until pushed out of it. In other words, we think it safer
to bear the ills we know than fly to those we know not of.
If the history of some of our most successful men could be
analysed, we should find that in many cases they owed
their prosperity to some unforeseen movement which
threw them involuntarily on their own resources and
caused them to look about elsewhere. Indeed, purely
accidental circumstances have often done more to
advance people's interests than the most skilful, and long
sustained planning could possibly have accomplished.

To enable engineers to succeed in private practice, or,
indeed, in any other way at home or abroad, it is often
necessary to have a good general knowledge of the profes-
sion outside of the particular branch — say locomotive or
marine — that they have been educated to. This will be
apparent when the difficulty of obtaining employment is
considered, and therefore it is to one's advantage to be
able to direct the mind to other lines of thought and
study.

For reasons already stated, the locomotive branch can
only give experience of a limited nature, and does not
allow of much expansion. On the other hand, railway

380 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxiv.

engineering has a very extended sweep, and embraces a
great variety of most interesting subjects, such as bridge
building in iron and brick or stone — roofs of all sizes from
that of St. Pancras to those of little roadside stations —
steam and hydraulic machinery of every description —
constructional ironwork, such as girders, columns, etc.,
and a thousand and one other things most necessary for
the safe and economical working of our iron roads.
Marine engineering is also of a similarly varied descrip-
tion, so varied, indeed, that people with fair ability and a
certain amount of adaptability to different pursuits, may
easily take in hand work of a general character.

To those who have time and opportunities, no diffi-
culty need exist on such points, because there are now so
many avenues of information open to all who wish it.
People who venture upon private practice will soon find
out, unless possessed of powerful influence, that, for the
first few years, they will have a great deal more spare
time than is desirable, and may frequently be at a loss to
know how to occupy themselves advantageously. In
small towns this will no doubt be severely felt, but in
large cities it need not be the case, when a valuable
reference library may be within easy reach, from which
an immense amount of professional knowledge may be
obtained, and thus provide much that is interesting, and
perhaps profitable in the future.

The engineering literature of the present day is most
extensive and practical, so extensive, indeed, that a
student may often be unable to know what to do with it.
It may therefore be broadly stated that, if only a small
part of the really useful books and periodicals were care-
fully studied, no time would be left for anything else,
Of this I soon became aware, and therefore employed a

CHAP. xxiv. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 381

simple system of notation, which in various forms is well
known, I should think, in many of the professions.

We all require as much information as possible, but
without slavish and unnecessary labour, and this can
easily be accomplished in the following manner : —

Read most carefully everything that bears directly
upon what may be your own practice in the near future ;
pick out simple formulae which are not given by Moles-
worth, or Hurst, or D. K. Clark. Analyse minutely the
results of experiments on various metals, timber, and
other substances, also any other useful information which
may be gleaned from the great mass of books and period-
icals, and enter your conclusions in private note-books,
morocco bound or otherwise, — generally the latter.

In the next place, glance at, more or less intently,
any number of volumes you please of a kindred nature,
and transfer the titles of their contents very briefly as
aforesaid. If this is done as the years roll by, an
enormous amount of valuable information will be at hand
for immediate reference, which may tide the engineer
over many critical points, and enable him to work rapidly
and confidently. These note-books should be well bound
in soft leather, stepped down at the edges, and red
lettered, with so many pages to each letter, according to
expected requirements, and every entry should be as brief
as possible. Notes from professional and general litera-
ture, however, should — for easy reference — be kept
separate from the invaluable sketches, tables of detail
proportions, and simple formulas obtained from actual
practice.

Since calculations and statements referring to work in
progress are so important as to involve the possibility of
serious accidents unless clearly understood, the engineer

A A

382 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxiv.

would do well if he compared one authority with another,
and endeavoured in every possible way to obtain a
rational interpretation of formulae which so often appear
to be empirical, but are nevertheless based upon scientific
reasoning, as we have endeavoured to show in a previous
chapter. Our opinions — like those of medical gentlemen
and also lawyers — often differ in detail, but vital princi-
ples in design and construction are the same everywhere,
and cannot be too closely followed out.

If from the deck of a ship in mid ocean you were to
throw into the sea a bag of sovereigns, it would be lost ;
but if a cord had been attached to it the money could
easily be recovered. And thus it is that the science of
memory can be similarly made to call up from the depths
of oblivion something that had been forgotten. This
science is based upon three great laws : — the Association
of ideas — the Assimilation of words or phrases — and the
Location of persons or things.

Firstly, you associate the missing link with some
amusing, etc., circumstance, and the link is found.

Secondly, you remember it was the S.S. " Golconda "
that brought your daughter from Calcutta, because the
ship carried a large amount of gold ; and

Thirdly, when upon passing someone on the street,
you become perplexed because you cannot remember a
previous meeting, the whole surroundings of the indi-
vidual are at once revealed as it flashes upon the mind
that you saw her in Sydney or Bombay, or indeed in any
other part of the world.

Now this is rational science, because the scenes are
effectively pictured in the mind, and every connecting
circumstance can therefore be easily and pleasantly

CHAP. xxiv. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 385

recalled. So also is it with figures when you know how
the thing is done, and hence the science of memory is
very useful to the engineer who frequently requires its aid
in many ways. It is not necessary to apply the art in a
general sense, because it would be too cumbersome, but
enough may easily be learnt to enable the practitioner to
remember useful facts and figures at any time, and also to
improve the natural memory in a charming manner by
the pictorial concentration of thought thus created.

Besides the professional information just referred to,
an engineer should have an extensive knowledge of the
various firms who make machinery of all descriptions.
He will thus be enabled to advise his clients in the best
manner regarding the purchase of what they require, and
its suitability for the purpose intended. The plate
opposite has been described on page 286, and contains a
good illustration of a steam hammer much used in marine
works.

The disappointments of private practice are many,
and the vicissitudes one experiences amidst the best sus-
tained efforts too numerous to mention. However, as the
poet says : —

" 'Tis not in mortals to command success,
But we'll do more, Sempronius, we'll deserve it."

And as an encouragement to the members of all profes-
sions whose hopes may be somewhat blighted, we may
appropriately close this chapter with the well-known
words of another writer : —

" Honour and fame from no condition rise,
Act well your part, there all the honour lies."

386 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxv.

CHAPTER XXV.

HOW " COMPETITIONS " ARE CONDUCTED.

Architectural and Engineering Schemes — Eatanswill Bridge Competition —
Town Councillors' Invitation to Engineers — The Opening Day —
Arrival of Plans — Character of the Town Councillors — S. J. Drayne,
the Borough Surveyor — Alfred Sketchly, the Draughtsman — How
he spent his Apprenticeship — Private Note Books — Discussing the
Plans — Mr. Drayne's Advice — The Draughtsman's Logic — Results —
Present System of Competitions — Skill and Labour required in
preparing Designs and Estimates — Improved System — "Iron Pier
Competition."

THERE is no class of work in which engineers, as well as
architects, have been so scandalously abused, as that
known by the term " Competitions," and so important is
this subject that I propose to devote a whole chapter to
its consideration.

With many architects, the preparation of competitive
sets of drawings necessarily occupies a large amount of
their early and unremunerative practice. So also is it
sometimes the case with engineers who are ignorant
enough to enter upon such work, unless the information
or employment it yields is a sufficient inducement. The
true object of a competition is to obtain from as many
able professionals as possible a set of plans, estimates,
etc., expressing their matured ideas in reference to a
bridge, railway station, promenade pier, or, indeed, any-
thing else that has to be built on the most approved
principles, and in the most desirable manner. When
these plans have all been prepared, they are sent on a
certain day to the secretary, or other official, of a Com-
pany or Corporation.

CHAP. xxv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 387

At the next meeting of the Board of Directors, these
plans, specifications, and estimates are carefully looked
into, and their merits balanced. "Alpha's" design is
compared with those of " Beta," " Gamma," and " Delta,"
and all the others come in for a fair share of skilled
and judicious criticism. Plenty of time is taken to
consider the matter, and at last the prizes are awarded
to the successful competitors, and the gentleman first on
the list is requested to carry out the work, but his prize
money is included in the commission he will receive,
generally five per cent, on the total cost of the under-
taking, exclusive of land or other expenses he has nothing
to do with. If, however, he takes out his own " quanti-
ties," two-and-a-half per cent, in addition will be allowed
on the total amount of the accepted tender.

Now this is as it should be ; but is it always, or even
frequently, so ? I am sorry to say it is not. In too many
instances, " this is how it is done," as Dr. Lynn used to
tell his audiences.

Suppose, for example, that a handsome road bridge
has to be erected across the river Muddle, which cuts the
town of Eatanswill in two, and is required to supersede
the old ricketty wooden structure which has been used
for no one knows how many years. The first thing to be
done is to obtain the consent of Lord Portansherry, who
owns the whole of the property, and who will be very
glad to sanction the scheme because he thinks it will do
him good indirectly, as well as the townspeople, who feel
that it is a necessity.

A meeting of the Town Councillors is now held to
decide upon what is the best thing to do in the matter.
One gentleman proposes a stone bridge, as there is an
excellent quarry close at hand, which belongs to him.

388 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxv.

Another, who is a timber merchant, and has been in
America, thinks they ought to have a trestle bridge,
because it will cost so little ; and, lastly, one of the
" committee," who had six months' jobbing in a small
foundry, and fancies himself an " engineer," advises them
to make it of iron, and " he will see that it is well done."

As the latter is considered quite an authority in the
manufacture of iron, his proposal is adopted, and it is
definitely settled that the new structure shall be of that
material, and in every respect suited to the requirements
of the town. And, since their own low salaried borough
engineer is too inexperienced either to design or to carry
out the details of the proposed bridge on his own responsi-
bility, it is also decided to " invite " engineers, through
the columns of the professional journals, to send in
competitive sets of drawings, with specifications and
estimates, by a certain date. The invitation reads as
follows : —

"BOROUGH OF EATANSWILL. — PROPOSED NEW BRIDGE.

" The Town Council of the Borough of Eatanswill, acting as Urban
Sanitary Authority, INVITE COMPETITIVE DESIGNS and ESTIMATES for
the CONSTRUCTION and ERECTION of a WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE over
the River Muddle, with the necessary foundations, piers, abutments, and
approaches.

"The Bridge is to be 200 feet long, by 35 feet wide, and adapted to
carry a moving load of 20 tons.

" A plan and sections of the proposed site and approaches, with other
particulars, can be obtained on application to Mr. Streeter J. Drayne, Sur-
veyor to the Council, Town Hall, Eatanswill, to whom all estimates
and designs, under seal, must be sent on or before the first day of June.

" The Author whose Designs and Estimates, in the opinion of the
Council, shall be considered best suited to their requirements, will be
awarded a premium of ^25, unless he be appointed at the usual commis-
sion to carry out the Works.

" By order,

" E. VERNON QUILLE,

" Clerk to the said Council.
"Eatanswill, nth May, 1889."

CHAP. xxv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 389

Let us suppose that the opening day has arrived.
Fifty or sixty sets of plans having come in, a second meet-
ing of the committee is held for the purpose of examining
the drawings and considering their merits. The members
now assembled are all good and true, and also accom-
plished men ; that is to say, good at selling spirits,
groceries, meat, etc., — true to their own interests, — and
accomplished in the art of painting, or at least colouring
their statements to suit their own ideas. Not one of them
knows anything about bridges but the ironfounder, and
his information is so superficial as to be practically of
little value. With this exception, however, you might
just as well talk to the Horse Marines about " ties " or
** struts," " top and bottom flanges." " buckled plates," or
" cross girders," as to his colleagues. Another feature
they possess is, that actions which each would consider
dishonourable are thought quite excusable when taken
collectively by the Town Councillors.

We shall now imagine them all sitting round a table
in the committee-room, with the plans exposed to view on
the walls, and, with Mr. Drayne, the borough surveyor,
on one side, and Mr. Sketchly, his draughtsman, on the
other side of the chairman, they are ready to begin oper-
ations. Before describing the next scenes in the play,
however, let us say a few words concerning the two
professionals, whose services will be of a very important
character.

Mr. Drayne served his apprenticeship in a builder's
office, in London, and acted as draughtsman for some
years to the borough surveyor of a small town. He was
one of those inquisitive people who are profoundly
impressed with the idea that the surest road to success is
by picking up all the professional knowledge they can,

390 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxv.

and grabbing at every kind of information that comes
within their reach, and may possibly be useful to them at
some time or other. The result of this line of action in
days gone by is, that Streeter J. Drayne, Esquire, is now
installed in his present position, and, although the salary
is not much, the experience gained while thus employed
will prepare him for a more lucrative appointment in
course of time, which, indeed, he is now aiming at.

If you had a peep into his private note-books, you
would find all sorts of memoranda and tables, compiled
from a great variety of sources, and having special refer-
ence to hydraulic calculations of various kinds; useful
particulars concerning gas and water works, and also
sanitary engineering in general ; notes of experiments
upon the strength of brickwork, cement, mortar, timber,
and an immense quantity of general information which he
now finds most useful.

Mr. Sketchly, on the other hand, was a pupil of Fair-
bairn's for five years in the works and drawing office.
He was a lively, happy youth, and liked a joke at times
as much as anyone, but was, nevertheless, one of the
most acquisitive characters that ever entered the famous
Canal Street Establishment. The great engineer no doubt
knew pretty well what to expect from the dashing sons of
Continental counts and barons, and also English gentle-
men, whom he received from time to time. In other
words, he had a good idea that many of them would make
engineering a sort of fashionable amusement, and leave
him with little more practical knowledge of his splendid
water wheels, beam engines, and other machinery, than
when they began their apprenticeship.

With Mr. Sketchly, however, the case was very
different. He, too, was connected with the " upper ten,"

CHAP. xxv. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 391

and had been brought up among London west end
society, but owing to the death of his father, who had
been a colonel of the Bengal Fencibles, it was necessary
that he and his brothers should bend their whole energies
to whatever pursuit in life they entered upon. Reduced
means, therefore, to provide for the wants of a large
family was the mainspring that set them all a-going, and
stimulated Alfred Sketchly to active exertion in the pro-
fession he delighted in.

Nothing escaped his notice, either of an inside or an
outside character, relating to the daily practice in the
works, and, however idle and vapid the other apprentices
might have been, there was one, at least, amongst them
who went in and came out with the intention of using
every effort, and watching every chance of obtaining
information which would enable him, when future oppor-
tunities arose, to climb hand over hand, in sailor fashion,
until he reached the very top of the tree. And thus
Mr. Fairbairn's choicest practice was in a fair way of
being utilized to the utmost — so also was that of other
people in other places.

If Mr. Sketchly had allowed you to look into his
private note books, you would have seen a large number
of very neat sketches of engine, boiler, bridge, and
general engineering details, carefully lettered in reference
to accompanying tables of proportions, taken from the
work as executed. You would also observe a great
quantity of simple formulae and memoranda of all kinds,
derived from the very best sources, and forming an
accumulation of several years' study. Such books, he
would tell you, were absolutely invaluable to him, on
account of the saving of time and the confidence they
inspired when designing similar work, and forming, as

392 ENGINEERING* POPULARLY CHAP. xxv.

they always do, a most efficient check upon the not
generally trustworthy deductions of mere theory.

Now it so happened that Mr. Sketchly was quite a
"dab hand" in every kind of bridge work, and Mr.
Drayne was equally eminent in his own particular sphere.
They also acted in concert most harmoniously, and tried
to learn as much as possible from each other in view of
future changes arising. We may therefore congratulate
the Town Council of Eatanswill upon having obtained
the services of these gentlemen.

Having thus introduced to the reader the company
now assembled in the committee room we shall proceed to
open the ball, or rather let the chairman do so in his own
way.

After gazing quietly for a time at the array of
"trellis," "lattice," "arched," and other bridge designs,
with which the walls are adorned, that individual begins
with a few preliminary remarks, and then, turning to Mr.
Drayne, observes : —

"Now, what do you think of them 'ere drawin's ? "
pointing at them with his thumb.

*' Well, sir," replies the surveyor, — who has been care-
fully instructed by Mr. Sketchly, — " I have just been
looking over them all, and I think that, on the whole,
they are a very nice collection of designs, but, in my own
opinion, I consider ' Gamma's ' piers and abutments have
a very tasteful appearance, but his plan is too expensive.
That lattice bridge by * Alpha ' looks remarkably well,
but the struts seem to be rather weak " — " Ties," whis-
pers the draughtsman. " As I was observing when Mr.
Sketchly interrupted me, the ties seem rather defective in
strength, although no doubt they may possibly do well
enough. The most suitable of all the designs, however,

CHAP. xxv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 393

so far as I can see, is ' Delta's,' and if we could only get
it executed a little more cheaply, I think we ought to
adopt his arrangement."

A lively discussion now takes place amongst the
members of the committee upon the merits of every
design, and the four Greeks, with their companions in
misfortune, are fairly on their trial. One leading feature
after another is pointed out and commented upon. The
spirit dealer greatly admires the colouring and printing of
some of the drawings. The greengrocer is charmed with
a few of the piers and abutments, while the construction
of others, and the cost of all, are fully considered. Some
are in favour of one thing and some of another, but on
those points which are really of the highest importance,
none will agree.

Mr. Sketchly is the only person who knows anything
at all on the subject, and able to give a good opinion, but
as he is " only a draughtsman," his advice is not asked
for. This gentleman takes good care, however, to show
his talent by talking so freely about the technicalities of
bridge construction that not a single member can follow
him, although they are at the same time, astonished at his
" cleverness." And if any of them objected to his style of
reasoning, the " draughtsman " crushed them at once by
observing, " That is the way we used to do it in Fairbairn's."

Owing to the extremely varied and conflicting opinions
of the committee, the ironfounder proposes that a new set
of plans should be made, embodying all their matured
ideas, and, as this proposition is unanimously carried,
the chairman orders Mr. Drayne to " pick out all the best
p'ints of them 'ere drawin's ; arrange our improvements
as you think best, and make the bridge cheap enough.
Do you 'ear ? "

394 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxv.

" Yes, sir."

The plans are now handed over to Mr. Sketchly, who
delightedly does the rest. Estimates are again requested
for work to be done in accordance with his specification
and drawings, and eventually a handsome bridge is
erected, which Lord Portansherry has the pleasure of
opening. The rejected designs, &c., are returned to their
owners, after a few of them, at least, have been traced,
copied, or noted in some way or other, with the object of
facilitating the compilation of the " new and improved
arrangement," and the successful competitor receives his
^"25, which, at the best, is miserable compensation for all
his time and trouble.

The gentleman first on the list, who should have had
the work to carry out, which was, indeed, the real prize
he aimed at, is grievously disappointed, and all the
others, who expected, at least, fair treatment, discover
that their labour has been in vain, because there was no
one on the Board who knew how to appreciate a good
design when he saw it, or treat its owner with proper
consideration. For the paltry sum of £25 the councillors
obtained a large amount of valuable information from a
great variety of sources, and perhaps the only legitimate
advantage derived from the whole transaction was the
knowledge thus conveyed to the numerous competitors
regarding the treatment they might expect in future if
rash enough to engage in similar work.

This subject was fully discussed at a conference of
architects held not long ago in Manchester, on " Profes-
sional Practice," et cetera.

The Chairman remarked that —

" Competitions, as at present conducted, are becoming the very curse
of the profession. The gross acts of injustice which are being constantly

CHAP. xxv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED.

395

brought before us show clearly that some action must ere long be taken to
remedy such a crying evil. Properly managed, they may be of use to
many, and afford numerous opportunities for the display of ability, but
such is seldom the case now. It is not the best design, as a rule, that is
chosen, but one whose author has most friends. Very often he is practi-
cally selected before the competition is invited, and, after his selection he
is allowed to adopt ideas taken from the real competitors' plans. . . .
Fifteen hundred architects have pledged themselves not to enter into open
competition, unless a professional arbitrator is appointed, but this alone is
not a sufficient remedy."

Referring to estimates and contracts, this gentleman
also stated that —

"It is well known to architects that the lowest estimate often means
something less than cost price, and also faith in the chapter of accidents,
such as alterations and additions, or scamping the work so as to obtain a
fair profit."

We may only add that the above statements are appli-
cable nearly as much to the engineering as they are to
the architectural profession.

I hope, however, that none of my readers will imagine
that the sketch of the " Eatanswill Bridge Competition "
refers to similar undertakings in general. Nothing could
be further from my intention. What I have said applies
only to that obscure, but nevertheless well known, little
town, and others of a similar nature. Of course, in
the great cities things are done much more genteelly,
but, in too many instances, the results, from various
causes, have been much about the same.

We may, however, in common justice, try to believe
that the state of things described is sometimes caused
by the ignorance of people regarding the amount of skill,
and time, and labour required for engineering plans, and
this, unhappily, the outer world seems to know nothing
of. A good design for a bridge, great roof, waterworks,

396 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxv.

et cetera, requires most careful, elaborate, and patient
investigation of all the features of the case before the
engineer can fairly realize what has to be done, and how
it is most cheaply to be accomplished. In the next
place, all the proportions, strengths, and arrangements of
the various parts have to be calculated and sketched out
roughly, for transference to the drawings as they proceed.
This portion of the work requires as much exactness as if
it had to be executed, because the specification, quanti-
ties, estimate, and expected success of the scheme, are
entirely dependent upon it.

For the same reason, also, the specification must be
a complete document in every sense of the word. The
quantities are not often written out officially for a com-
petition, but the engineer must nevertheless know, fpr his
own satisfaction, what they amount to, before any correct
estimate of cost can be arrived at. If, however, a merely
approximate tender is required, which is seldom the case,
these conditions can be materially simplified.

We may add that the architects have caused an
improved system to be introduced, which is as follows :—

When competitive designs are required for a building,
and, in accordance with clearly defined conditions, any-
one who pleases may compete, all, however, that is
required to be done, is to send in sufficiently illustrative
sketch plans to a small scale. These preliminary designs
are now examined by competent persons, who select, say
about six of the best, the authors of which are requested
to re-arrange in a larger and more complete form, with
full specifications and estimates, and deliver them, as in
all other cases, on a certain day to the secretary of the
Company for whom the work is intended.

The plans are now carefully scrutinised by leading

CHAP. xxv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 397

professionals, and one feature is 'intelligently compared
with another, until a fair and impartial opinion is formed
concerning their respective merits.

When this is accomplished, the owner of the design
most approved of is advised to proceed with the details,
superintendence, and all other works connected with the
undertaking, until it is completed. For these services he
will receive five per cent, commission on the accepted
estimate of total cost, and two-and-a-half per cent,
additional on the quantities, while the five rejected com-
petitors will each receive perhaps from /ioo to ^150, or,
as in the case of the Liverpool Cathedral competition, at
least ^300 for their trouble. The original sketch plan
people, on the other hand, however, have no remunera-
tion of any kind given them, but this they fully under-
stood from the beginning.

Although this system is far from being perfect, it is
nevertheless the best that has yet been devised, and if
engineers were similarly treated we should have no
reasonable ground for complaint. As the matter stands,
however, regarding ourselves, it has become unworthy of
the slightest consideration, and I am of opinion that
those who engage in such work have either nothing
better to do, or, what is quite as probable, are totally
ignorant of the true state of affairs, which often prevents
the real " talent," which is so much desired, from engag-
ing in similar undertakings. There are indications, how-
ever, that before long this wretched state of things will
have passed away.

It is my usual practice, when obliged to speak or
write on disagreeable subjects, to try and throw in, some-
how or other, a scintilla of light — a ray of sunshine —
and, if possible, a spark of humour. I have therefore

398 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxv.

much pleasure in closing my remarks upon such an
unhappy theme as " Competitions" with a felicitous
experience of my own.

Some time ago a firm of Architects invited me to per-
form my share of the work in connection with an iron
pile pier they were trying for. This pier was in numerous
fifty-feet lengths of lattice girders, supported on cast iron
columns or "piles." The land approaches were in
masonry and concrete, and at the extreme outer end was
a fine bowstring bridge of 140 feet span, leading down to
a landing stage. Well, we sent in very clear and nicely
finished drawings, which the " Commissioners " were
pleased to consider better than any of the others, and
at last they favoured us with the whole of the work to
carry out in accordance with our own ideas. The pier
was therefore erected in course of time, and has been
doing excellent duty ever since.

We had a little pardonable triumph over this busi-
ness, because another plan might really have been
superior to ours, but the drawings we prepared were so
explicit that the judges no doubt understood them easily,
and considered themselves good engineers, without ever
having used a file, or 4rawn a line.

After two years of successful working, the Eatanswill
bridge collapsed while an ordinarily heavy load was pas-
sing over it, and both fell into the river, to the astonish-
ment of the natives, and the confusion of the Town
Council. The cause of this disaster was a weak point in
the structure which no one had been able to discover, and
which had escaped the notice of Mr. Drayne.

Mr. Sketchley was certainly an admirable general
draughtsman and engineer, but his experience in bridge

CHAP. xxv. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 399

building was, in this case, neutralised by the unwise
interference of the responsible chief. The borough sur-
veyor was, as we have shown, quite ignorant on this
subject, and his principals were utterly incapable of
appreciating the value of professional talent when it was
placed within their reach by some of the engineers who
sent in the original plans.

They were also unable to comprehend the true
economy which results from the employment of accom-
plished men in costly undertakings, and also the
disastrous consequences which may arise when a brick-
and-mortar surveyor, or an irresponsible draughtsman,
occupies the post of engineer-in-chief in such cases.

In course of time another bridge was built, upon
improved lines, under different management, and with at
last permanently successful results.

B B

400 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvi.

CHAPTER XXVI.

CLIENTS I AN IRON WORK SPECULATION.

Varieties of Clients in Private Practice — Mr. O'Brien's character — His Law
Case — Wrongful Dismissal from the Works — An enthusiastic
41 Invintor "— Duties of a Scientific Witness — Inspection of the
Works — "New and Improved" Patent Machinery — Collecting
information — The Bones of one of O'Brien's Pets — Three Lines of
Argument in a Report — High Court of Justice, London — Opening
the Case — O'Brien in the Witness-box — An Opposing Q.C. —
Scientific Witnesses, past and present — Professional and non-
Professional Clients— Two more Designers and their Works — Hints
to Inventors.

IN the course of many years' practice, an engineer
experiences an immensely varied amount of work, and,
perhaps, an equally variegated set of clients, which cer-
tainly increases his knowledge of the world, but not
always in the most pleasant manner.

One of my most notable clients was a lively, quick-
witted, impulsive Irishman, from Dublin city ; one of
those people with fertile brains who are always inventing
something or other, out of which they cannot make any
money. Amongst his numerous innovations was a
machine for — well, I suppose there is no harm in letting
out the secret — a machine for producing perpetual motion.
The whole scheme was joyously described to me, and, to
all appearance, its inventor was theoretically correct in
his ideas. Unfortunately, however, Force of Gravity,
Laws of Friction, and Atmospheric Resistance so relent-
lessly opposed him, that he was at last compelled to give
his attention to something more practicable, such, for

CHAP. xxvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 401

instance, as the economical manufacture of iron, to which
we intend to devote a few remarks.

One of my visitor's peculiarities was a great love of
lawsuits, which, curiously enough, somewhat impoverished
him, and his last " case," previous to the event I am now
going to write about, was an action he brought against
the Duke of , which he lost, in the usual way.

Now this Mr. O'Brien — let us call him — was " a fellow
of infinite jest," a rollicky, smiling, brimful-of-merriment
sort of individual, and was vain enough to say that I
never laughed except when he came to see me. Indeed,
his description of the way in which he got his wife would
have given intense enjoyment even to the most cynical
and melancholy people, aye, even to those with hearts of
stone, and the references he made to his " Invintions "
were not far in the rear. In addition to this, he was kind
hearted and liberal, that is to say, when he had money to
be lavish with, which, I may only add, was very seldom.

Having thus introduced my client, let me now pro-
ceed to narrate the story.

One day he came into my office, and handed me a
paper in which I found that I was subpoanaed to attend
the High Court of Justice, in London, and appear as a
scientific witness on his behalf, before Vice-Chancellor
Bacon. He also threw down, in a free, off-hand manner,
the preliminary fee of three guineas, which, small as it
was, necessarily accompanied the document. The cause
of this trial was the ejectment, or, I should rather say, the
dismissal, of Mr. O'Brien from an Iron Work containing
a quantity of his special patent machinery, which was
expected to do wonders, and enrich its proprietors, but,
although a wealthy Greek in London had actually ad-
vanced £20,000 to work the establishment, and placed

402 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvi.

my friend in it as manager, there was, after at least two
years' labour, no profit of any kind. Mr. O'Brien felt
hurt at the treatment he had received, and at once
brought an action against his employer for wrongful
dismissal, upon the ground of his interference with the
management, and not giving him sufficient time for the
development of a system of ironworking which was sure
to bring, in the end, " an imminse fortune."

I should be very sorry indeed to give it as my opinion
that Mr. O'Brien was a hare-brained schemer, but I must
say that no one could have been a more enthusiastic
admirer of his own practical discoveries than he himself
was, and this fact alone must have given very great
pleasure and confidence to those who trusted him, up to
a certain point. Before going any farther, however, let
me briefly describe the duties of a Scientific witness.

As it was in days of yore, so is it now. This gentle-
man occupies an important position, and one which
involves trust, responsibility, and delicacy. Trust, because
the client looks to him as one who is faithful and true,
and quite above being led astray by the apparently supe-
rior arguments and facts the opposing counsel may bring
to bear on the case. He is also expected to favour and
protect, in every possible and legitimate way, the interests
of his client.

It is a position of responsibility, because he is often the.
main point of attack and defence, and whatever evidence
he gives may either make or mar the interests he repre-
sents, involving, it may be, issues of tremendous magni-
tude, as all those who have read the Manchester Canal
investigations will know.

Still more is it a position of delicacy, because, however

CHAP. xxvi. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED 403

great the witness's knowledge of the case may be, he
must be very careful how he uses it, and not put his foot
in the business, as the over-zealous Mr. Phunky did in
the Bardell trial. He will be exposed to a great many
hard questions, which he can answer most confidently, so
long as they are in his client's favour, but, at the same
time, be reserved on points which are not to his advan-
tage ; indeed, when it comes to this, he had better, as a
rule, say as little as possible.

Before this can be done, however, the case, in all its
bearings, has to be carefully studied — minutely investi-
gated— and plans and calculations made when necessary,
to render everything clear to the jury, as well as to the
engineer himself. Above all, nothing must be said or
written that cannot be sustained in court. If you do
anything else, the opposing counsel will be down upon
you like a thunderbolt, and your client's case may be
grievously weakened, if not lost. On the other hand,
with care and skill, you may be able to crush them with
your incontrovertible statements, and defeat them all in
detail by the irresistible logic of facts.

My first movement in the matter was to go to the
Works with the late manager, and make a careful survey
of the premises, upon which to base my report, which
was to be given to our barrister. The machinery was all
stopped ; indeed, the whole place was closed, and I had
therefore to do the best I could under the circumstances.
My position was simply this : —

I had been invited to look at a collection of patent
machines of the newest and " most improved " type,
which I had never seen before, neither, indeed, had any-
one else, and the action of which I was expected to

404 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvi.

form a favourable opinion of, from the appearance of the
inanimate masses before me, instead of having an oppor-
tunity of estimating their merits from the amount and
excellence of the work I saw carried out by them. It
will therefore be easily seen that I had no satisfactory
ground of any kind to stand on.

Mr. O'Brien thought differently, and, as he walked
beside me, explaining the action of one machine, and
telling me what another piece of mechanism ought to
have done, had he not been interfered with, naturally
enough concluded that I would be quite able to under-
stand them at a glance. I had therefore to use my wits,
that is, I had to gaze at everything inquisitively, peer
into every nook and corner about the place, ask any
number of questions, ponder carefully and anxiously over
all I saw or didn't see, and at last endeavour to write so
favourable a statement of what I had observed, and also
what I thought the machinery was capable of doing,
that our law suit would be successfully carried.

My mind had been on the stretch for some time, and
by degrees I had sketched out in imagination the leading
ideas of my report, which I intended to clothe in the
usual finished style when I returned to the office. So far,
all was well, but I little knew what was in store for me.
In the yard outside lay a few disjointed pieces of what
had once been a " valuable invintion," but were now in
a very rusty and disreputable condition ; nevertheless,
their construction and application were very fully
explained to me. Here, however, my mental powers
failed, and I was totally unable to conceive what the
appearance of this machine had been in life, or even
realise satisfactorily what it could have done when in
the flesh.

CHAP. xxvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 405

If kind readers wish to understand my feelings at
this stage, may I request the ladies or gentlemen to
fancy themselves in the British Museum, with a leg, an
arm, and a few ribs of the Megatherium or Mastodon
placed in front of them on the floor. Let them still
further suppose that they were asked, not only to
imagine they saw the living animal before them, but to be
able to describe his physical and other peculiarities. If
the aforesaid ladies or gentlemen can execute this flight
of fancy, then I think they will comprehend my state of
mind whilst meditating among a few of the bones of one
of Mr. O'Brien's pets.

I did everything I could to collect as much of the best
and most trustworthy information previous to delivering
judgment in my report. Before doing this, however, I
had three courses open to me. One was to say confidently
that the machines were quite capable of doing all that
their inventor claimed for them, which he fully expected
I would say. Another was to declare positively that they
were not able to do this ; while the third, and last, con-
sisted in taking the mean, — in striking the average, — in
fact, steering dead between Scylla and Charybdis. The
first and last were utterly impracticable, so I took the
intermediate course, which was the only one I could
reasonably adopt. My legal document was very brief, for
I took good care not to say too much lest I should do
mischief, and I was specially constrained to do this
because going through these works was like walking on
rotten ice, which gave no safe foothold of any kind.

The wording of the report was somewhat in this
style :— " I believed " ; "I considered " ; " So far as I could
see " ; "In the absence of direct proof " ; " The machinery
was, in my opinion " ; so on, and such like, to the end.

406 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvi.

The day of the trial came on, as every day does, for
good or evil, and I was at my post in the High Court of
Justice. An old friend of mine was also engaged as
a scientific witness on our side, while on the other side
were two more "eminents." The defendant, whom we
shall call Mr. Epaminondas, had also engaged two of the
most celebrated Q.C.s in London to look after his
interests, and thus all the actors in the play being on the
stage, the case of the " Darkfield Iron Works Company
Limited " was opened in the presence of Vice-Chancellor
Bacon by placing Mr. O'Brien in the witness-box.

Never in my life — no, never, — have I seen a man in any
position who could look so much the picture of injured
innocence and humility as this son of the Emerald Isle
did on that eventful morning. It seemed as if he had
neither the heart to kill a fly nor crush a beetle, and yet,
when the time came, he could turn upon his persecutors,
and with the most unbounded confidence in the justness
of his cause and his " armour of triple steel," defy every
one of them. In opening his case, he compared the
Greek— who sat close to him — to the " wicked king in the
Bible," meaning I suppose, Ahab, who murdered Naboth,
and then appropriated his vineyard ; and during the
whole of Mr. O'Brien's lengthy examination those in
court had a most amusing entertainment freely provided
for them. Question after question was asked in the usual
"be careful" style, first by one barrister, and then by
another — the Vice-Chancellor assisting — but the replies
were sometimes of a surprising, if not of a damaging
character. One of the interrogations was : —

" How much profit do you think might have been
made out of the works if you had not been interfered with
in the management ? "

CHAP. xxvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 407

" Millions," was the prompt reply.

" As matters stood when you were there, and with the
machinery in good working order, what were the actual
returns ? "

" None, but that wasn't my fault, I did what I could
to make the place a success, and if I had only had a little
more time I would have done so."

In the course of the trial the Greek's perfidy was fully
exposed, and irrelevant things connected with his private
character were introduced from time to time in support
of the plaintiff's arguments.

" Read that letter," said the indignant gentleman in
the box to the very eminent opposing Q.C. and M.P., who
was busily occupied in conning over a large quantity of
correspondence relating to the defendant. " Read that
letter you have just skipped over, and see what his
brother says about him — read it like a man, and you will
see the character he gets."

Now, I suppose that part of a barrister's education
consists in practising the art of reticence — that is to say,
keeping silent on points inimical to a client's interests. I
also fancy that in time he becomes quite accomplished in
the art of hearing what he ought to hear, and in suddenly
becoming deaf to statements it would be unwise to listen
to, and such, I think, was the case in this instance. The
Q.C. went on reading for the benefit of the judge and jury
only what he thought proper, and rejected the rest as
irrelevant — at least in his own opinion — he also took not
the slightest notice of Mr. O'Brien's proposal.

After attending the court for the whole of two and a
half days my turn came at last. I told them plump and
plain what I thought of the machinery, " so far as I could
see," " so far as I could judge," etc., etc., and the result

408 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvi.

was quite satisfactory, to myself at least. Our barrister,
a most accomplished and intelligent man, whom it was
quite a pleasure to meet, did not ask very many ques-
tions— for wise reasons, probably — and I went through
the ordeal more easily than I anticipated. Other wit-
nesses followed, and amongst them was a drawly, slow-
speaking Yorkshireman, who had been a gateman at the
works. Upon being asked —

" What time did the works close at night ? "

" E-eh," he said, " wa-at toi-ime ? "

" Yes," replied our counsel, in a smart, gentlemanly
style, " what time of the day did you leave off at night ? "

" Wa-al it wor abee-out foi-ive o'claw-k."

This was the last scene for me, so after saying " good
bye" to friends in court, I "hooked it," as the common
saying is, and after visiting a few relatives in London, left
by an evening train for Liverpool, happily, however, we
just escaped a collision the previous " Royal mail " came
in for at Rugby, which only detained us two hours on the
road, and thus ended my " scientific witness " expedition
to the great city. Mr. O'Brien lost his case, chiefly on
commercial grounds, which no one perhaps, except him-
self, could possibly have been surprised at.

My client had quite impoverished himself, and I rather
think that none of his witnesses received very much for
their trouble. Had, our trial, however, been successful,
we should have been handsomely treated all round, for
the fertile inventor and lover of legal disputation was an
honourable and liberal-minded man, and would then have
had more than enough to enable him to settle all claims
in a generous manner, as I am sure he would have done.

But if we on the plaintiff's side were scrimpily treated
in the finance part of the business, we certainly had

CHAP. xxvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 409

plenty of amusement, which at times was as good as a
play, and kept the court in a state of extreme hilarity.
And even now, after the lapse of several years, the
remembrance of the scenes enacted in that High Court of
Justice cause the engineers who took part in them to
smile — not always, however, in the most silent manner.

When we take into account the way in which the
scientific witness is now treated by opposing counsel,
when engaged in law cases, it appears to me that there
has been a very great improvement in this respect since
Stephenson's time. Instead of the bullying which then
existed, there is a great deal of respect and a large
amount of courtesy shewn to the witnesses, which is
highly commendable. They seem to understand each
other better, and the engineer has proved, I think, that
although quite a modern creation, in some branches, at
least, he is nevertheless able to appreciate and highly
value gentlemanly treatment and kind consideration.

Another of my clients was a man who came from
Australia with an invention to which he attached so
much importance that he secured the services of the best
people he could find to do the legal and patenting part of
the business for him in connection with every civilised
country. He also favoured me by asking me to prepare
the working plans, and superintend the erection of Works
wherein to test the value of the invention on a practical
scale.

The gentleman referred to was a quiet pleasant man,
who had studied and worked at his subject for several
years, and possessed a most exalted idea of its value. He
was frank, straightforward, and generous, and wished
everything done in the very best manner, and yet, after
the scientific importance of this invention became known

410 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvi.

throughout the world, it proved an utter failure from a
financial point of view, simply because the new process —
admirable as it certainly was — could not be worked
economically enough to enable it to compete successfully
with a long established and similar manufacture upon
different lines.

An engineer's clients may be said to include two great
classes — the professional and the non-professional. The
former refers to those who are engaged on some under-
taking which belongs partly to one branch of science,
and partly to another, such, for example, as railway
stations, public buildings, warehouses, &c., in which the
architect may require the services of an engineer, or vice
versa.

In cases of this kind each individual bears his own
responsibility, that is, the architect has sole charge of the
brick, stone, concrete, and timber portions of the build-
ing, while the engineer designs and superintends the
erection of all the ironwork contained in it, such as
girders, columns, and all other similarly constructive
parts. When this occurs, the chiefs in each department
are termed "joint engineer," or "joint architect," accord-
ing to arrangement, and have undisputed authority in
their separate spheres of usefulness. Under these circum-
stances a large contract may be executed in the most
felicitous manner, because the two principals thoroughly
understand their duties, and act independently of, but at
the same time in concert with, each other.

This state of affairs is entirely changed when a
capricious non-professional engages the services of a
C.E. to assist him with a new and perplexing scheme.
In private practice instances of this kind are by no means

CHAP. xxvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 411

uncommon, as an engineer is sometimes called upon to
work out the hazily conceived and imperfectly described
ideas of a client whose perceptions are visionary, if not
unpractical, and who, therefore, causes a great deal of
trouble and considerable loss of time while endeavouring
to obtain what he desires. One of these clients I well
remember ; let me call him Mr. Smith.

For some time previous to our acquaintance this
gentleman had gradually matured an idea in reference to
the economical management of tramways, a miniature
model of which had been made with the object of illus-
trating the beautiful simplicity and admirable working
qualities of his invention. Unfortunately, however, when
we came to examine its peculiarities critically by the aid
of working drawings, it was found impracticable on
account of the great difference which existed between a
real tramway and a model tramway. We, therefore,
condemned the scheme and tried another system, and in
this we eventually succeeded.

Mr. Smith was a most impetuous and enthusiastic
inventor, and fancied he had discovered something that
would pay much better than the mercantile transactions
he had been accustomed to. Almost every day he came
to my office with his mind filled with "grand ideas" he
had conceived the night before, which completely neutra-
lised all our previous labour. I gave him the best
advice in my power under the circumstances, but he
preferred having his own way, as he had thought of
his invention by night and by day, had cogitated and
ruminated on it, and slept over it and dreamed over it,
and I had not.

The continuous alterations of the drawings was of no
consequence to him, and what he did in this respect was

412 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvi.

accomplished in such a slap dash, bang ! sort of style as
to give one the impression that he was going to make a
fortune by his discovery, and that it would be a good
thing for everyone connected with it. At last we
succeeded in designing a very simple and perfect arrange-
ment, and a tramway Company gave him permission to
lay down his improved apparatus at two or three points
on their line. He did so, to their entire satisfaction, but
beyond this initiatory movement nothing else was ever
accomplished, although a somewhat favourable offer was
made for the purchase of the invention, which, however,
was declined.

Here then, was a failure, which was no doubt created
by prejudice on the one hand, and a want of sufficient
influence on the other, to enable Mr. Smith to push his
scheme successfully in important districts. Perhaps,
also, he was too exacting in his terms, but whatever the
cause of disappointment may have been, a large amount
of money was freely expended while endeavouring to
introduce an engineering improvement which certainly
deserved a better fate.

I have thus given a few of my own experiences of
inventors and inventions, for the benefit of those who
have not been behind the scenes, and to whom such
information may be useful. The rock upon which so
many worthy people of the above class lose themselves,
is the limited sweep of their views regarding the adap-
tability of their invention to some particular purpose for
which there is, or is likely to be, a demand. And also the
system of manufacture employed, which alone can enable
it to become a commercial success.

To make this clear, let us imagine that a clever
inventor had constructed a most admirably designed

CHAP. xxvi. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 413

machine for washing, dressing, and finishing, with the aid
of Sunlight Soap — the cuffs, collars, and pockethand-
kerchiefs of our coloured brethren and sisters in Central
Africa. When at the same time these ladies and gentle-
men had too much 4< sunlight " of their own, and never, or
at least hardly ever, wished to have their linen gear
cleaned in any way. Now this is exactly the principle
that misinformed or ignorant designers occasionally
adopt in some form or other, only to discover, when too
late, that they have wasted their money and their time
while pursuing an unprofitable scheme.

Very many inventors are not engineers, or at least are
unable to comprehend the difficulties that may arise.
Their best plan, therefore, is to consult a good patent
agent, who will gladly give the information required, and
thus save them, perhaps, from grievous loss and numerous
disappointments.

414 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvn.

CHAPTER XXVII.

VOYAGE FROM SYDNEY TO LONDON IN 1845.

Early Days in Australia — Engineering of the period — Arrival of H.M.S.
"Vestal," 1844 — Departure from Sydney — At Sea — Moon Poison-
ing Story from S.S. "Magellan" — Marvellous Transmission of
Sound — Ocean Depths — Soundings, past and present — Two vast
Depressions — Motive Power in Volcanoes — Arrival in London —
" Life " in the " Orient " and " P. and O." liners, 1889.

IN the year 1833, my father left Edinburgh with the
object of practising law at Hobart Town, Tasmania.
The state of his health, however, ultimately compelled
him to try the more suitable climate of Australia, and
also another occupation. After all the necessary arrange-
ments had been completed, he began as an agriculturist
in a district about one hundred miles inland from Sydney.
Our early experiences of the country were somewhat
peculiar. At the very outset we were robbed of our
valuables, while journeying to the interior. After that,
we were plundered by a band of bushrangers, and, in
course of time, came in for long droughts, bush fires,
floods, and other evils incidental to the colony.

At that period, there were very few mechanical
contrivances for performing the most ordinary operations
of any description. Everything was done by manual
labour, assisted by bullock power, and in the transport of
goods the dray drawn by oxen was generally employed,
the speed of which did not exceed three miles an hour.
When people wished to travel, they either rode on horse-

CHAP. xxvn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 415

back, or drove in carts, which were covered or open,
according to circumstances.

House building was in an extremely primitive con-
dition, everything being of timber, and rudely put
together. The climate, however, was magnificent, and
this in no small degree compensated for faults in the
construction of the dwellings.

We had a great many visitors, who were much
pleased to make our acquaintance, and who certainly
made up in quantity for what they lacked in " quality."
Their complexion was of a very dark shade of brown, —
we called them " blacks," but the few now living will no
doubt be designated " coloured people," in accordance
with the usages of advanced civilisation. These visitors,
who came in tribes, had an undesirable partiality for our
splendid potatoes, but we could not well interfere with
them lest they should do something worse; indeed, we
were told that " up the country they had killed some
white people, but down here they were quiet," which
was reassuring. In other respects they were well behaved,
and willing to assist in any way for little gifts of old sugar
bags, and potatoes and beef.

The costume of those " natives " — well, the less we say
on that point the better, I should think. It may only be
stated, however, that when the handsome and generally
useful opossum skin cloak was worn, they were dressed ;
but when, for climatic reasons, it was thrown off, there
was nothing left to describe. The manners and customs
of our dark complexioned friends were so peculiar that
their description might be rather irrelevant in a book on
engineering, although it would certainly be interesting in
some other volume of a less scientific character.

For such a roving class of people temporary " camps "
cc

416 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvu.

were alone suitable, and these consisted of long, slender
saplings, cut and bent in the form of a triangle, steadied
with a back stay, and covered with the thick bark of the
gum trees. These structures were remarkably simple and
worthy of imitation even by white settlers, as they had all
the materials at hand when in the bush, and certainly
nothing could have been so easily or so economically put
together. It is only right to add that our few years'
acquaintance with those dark complexioned "savages,"
proved beyond doubt that they were infinitely superior to
men and women, and even boys, bearing the same title
and living in the slums of England, whose occupations
now include killing and maiming for pleasure, and
murdering for amusement.

One of the curious incidents connected with this class
of people was the famous "Black war" of 1836, in
Tasmania. At that time Sir George Arthur, — from whom
we received much kind hospitality, — was the Governor of
the island, and as the natives had all along given much
trouble, he conceived the happy idea of exterminating the
whole race, not by killing, but by exiling. To accom-
plish this, he attempted to capture them all by drawing a
cordon of 3,500 troops and others across the country.
The blacks, however, evaded their pursuers in every
possible way, and thus the efforts which had been made
on their behalf at an outlay of fully ^30,000, proved
unsuccessful. Diplomacy succeeded where force had
failed, and our coloured brethren were finally induced to
surrender, when the whole of the tribes were shipped to
Flinders Island to spend the rest of their days.

For various reasons farming did not prove a good
speculation, so we gave it up and went back to civilisa-
tion again, at the beautifully situated and pretty little

CHAP, xxvii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 417

seaside town of Wollongong, 60 miles south of Sydney,
where my father practised law once more.

Let me describe our journey of one hundred miles
through the Australian wilderness : —

By means of a covered cart drawn by a horse we
traversed a distance of twenty- five miles the first day, and
spent the night at the " Blackheath Inn." On the follow-
ing day about twenty miles to the " Weatherboard Inn "
was all we could accomplish. On the third day we con-
tinued our journey through a very wild territory, and
passing over in our course a dangerous precipice and also
part of the Emu Plains, reached the river Nepean, which
we crossed in a punt, and arrived soon afterwards at the
village of Penrith in time to catch the mail coach.

At 2 o'clock next morning we were off again, over hill
and dale, and rut, and bog, and ditch. On we went
through Parramatta with its orange trees, letting every-
one know that we of the Royal Mail were approaching.
The horses pranced along in fine style, and in the after-
noon— under the rays of a tropical sun — we entered the
city of Sydney, the capital of New South Wales!

I shall never forget that eventful day in the year 1842,
as it was my first introduction to civilised life — to ships
and steamers, to the beautiful shops and the crowded
streets — indeed, to me, it was quite equal to a scene from
the Arabian Nights. After a short stay, we left by the
steamer " Sophia Jane " for Wollongong, but, as my
father died not long afterwards, we returned to Sydney for
a time, previous to our departure for London.

The vast island of New Holland was, at this period,
utterly destitute of railways and docks, and everything
relating to engineering was of a most primitive character.
The "Tamar," " James Watt," "William the Fourth,"

4i8 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvn.

and a few other vessels fairly represented steam naviga-
tion, but, as there were no tugs, ships sailed in or sailed
out of the harbour, or were helped by the tide. Water-
works were unknown, and the only supply in the towns
was obtained from street pumps, or from water carts.
Gas had not long been introduced, and other manufac-
tures did not exist. The shipping lay alongside of timber
wharves, and when vessels needed repairs they were
hauled up on Morton's patent slip, by manual labour,
assisted by winch gearing. The steam engine, no doubt,
was fully appreciated in a small way, but the windmill, in
many instances, proved very useful, as well as pic-
turesquely ornamental.

Everything, in this respect, is now wondrously
changed, and I believe that there is no part of the world
where engineering, in all its branches, is making more
rapid advances than in New South Wales and Victoria.

On the i8th of November, 1844, H.M.S. "Vestal"
sailed into Sydney Harbour. She was sister ship to
the lost " Eurydice " and «c Atalanta," and originated a
type of very broad-beamed frigates, which were termed
the " Vestal class," whose object was good sailing
power, combined with great stability. Her visit to the
capital was quite an event, but no one, of course, had
any idea that her unfortunate relatives would have
made such a noise in the world as they did in later years.

On the same day, the ship " Sydney," in which we
had taken our passage for England, left the Circular
Quay, and anchored a short distance from " Pinchgut,"
now " Victoria," Island, close to the spot where the S.S.
"Austral" sank. If Mr. Plimsoll had seen that vessel
of ours, I am very sure he would not have "passed"

CHAP. xxvn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 419

her, as she was too deep in the water for safety, and I am
almost certain that, had it not been for good Captain
White, and excellent chief officer Reid, a first rate crew
of real Jack Tars, and the absence of storms on the
voyage, we would all have gone to the bottom. As it
proved, however, a flush deck and very small freeboard
made the ship a very wet one, indeed. Close to us lay
the frigate, and in the near distance we could see
Government House and the Botanic Gardens, and also
the beautiful surroundings of a harbour which is con-
sidered by many the finest in the world.

On November 2Oth, we took our departure for Eng-
land. Although very young at the time, I well remember
that calm, sunny, magnificent day, which was to be our
last in that part of the globe. Again, through the mist
and shadow of years, I see my native land, and the closing
scene is once more before me in all its beauty. The
anchor was weighed in the tedious " See, saw, click, click,
click " style, and in a little time, the tide was sweeping us
out, but, to the captain's great annoyance, it almost
bumped the ship against Pinchgut.

Farewell, Sydney ! joy and peace be with you ; good
bye, "Vestal,"

" The anchor's a-peak and away we go,
Cheer, boys, cheer, for England, O."

The city was receding, the Heads were approaching, and
at last the blue main rose to view. The swell of the
ocean was coming in ; the breezes of the Pacific were
again upon us. The end of the jibboom commenced
dancing upon the horizon, and the sea began to swish
upon the deck. Captain White paced about, giving
orders, and the mates saw them executed.

420 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvu.

" Now then, Mr. Reid, look sharp ! don't you hear
what the commander tells you ? Set the courses, jib, and
fore staysail, shake out the fore and main topsails, hoist
away and sheet home. Let us have the topgallants next,
and then crowd on all sail at the mizzen. Bear a hand,
you jolly Jacks, as quick as you like, and * yeo ho ' as
much as you please. Pull away at the halliards and
braces ; all together, and with a will — that's right."

" Set the royals, sir ? "

'« No, thank you ; very kind of you to mention them."

" Fasten the anchor securely for the present ; stow
away the colours, and make everything trim and snug.
Well done ! "

11 Steersman, here's your course, — East-south-east, —
and keep her steady. We go by Cape Horn this time, as
the trade wind suits."

Our ship has now spread all sail to the gale, and Lon-
don is already a little nearer than it was in the morning.

Adieu — adieu ! my native shore

Fades o'er the waters blue ;
The night winds sigh, — the breakers roar,

And shrieks the wild seamew.

One last look, ere we go below, at the sunny land
which is fading away, and then, farewell Australia !

Our first night at sea was a rough one. It was solid
water — not spray — that came over our bows, and swept
the deck from stem to stern, and came down the skylight,
and flooded the cabin. Captain White said he would
never again permit the owners to load the ship so deeply,
as the lowest plank of the bulwarks had to be removed
for the purpose of enabling her to free herself quickly

CHAP, xxvii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 421

when inundated. This, however, allowed the water to
come in upon us more easily at all times, and for a
long period we had indeed very little dry ground to
stand on.

As far as Cape Horn we did well, that is, we had a
fair breeze, and good daily runs of about 190 miles, but,
in the tropics, had many baffling winds and calms, and
on one occasion three whole days were occupied in sail-
ing over twenty-four miles of our course. The heat was
intense, the surface of the water often like a millpond,
and the morning and evening glories by which we were
surrounded truly magnificent. Such exquisite moonlight
and starlight scenes we had ! and plenty of time to look
at them, too, as the ship frequently made so little
progress.

Many years ago, a brother of the writer commanded
one of Brocklebank's Calcutta liners, and on a certain
occasion breakfasted on some fish which had been caught
the previous day, and carelessly left out in the moonlight.
Those who had eaten them were quickly seized with a
distemper which caused their heads to swell most pain-
fully, and with much inflammation. The danger, however,
passed away. Some said the heat had spoilt the fish.
Had it, though ? Well, there is nothing like practical
science for enabling people to find out a first cause for
most things, so two more were hooked and experimented
upon. One was draped, and the other left uncovered, but
both were hung up all night as before, and in the morning
the former was quite in good condition, whereas the latter
was putrid.

At another time, the same individual was on a voyage
to Valparaiso in the Pacific S.S. " Magellan." One
afternoon, a sheep was killed for the use of the passen-

422 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvu.

gers, and next morning part of the animal was cooked
for breakfast.

" Nice cutlets, these," said the Captain to one who
sat by him.

" Very fine, indeed ; I'll take a little more, please," was
the reply.

In the course of the day, something seemed to have
gone wrong with the ship, or the passengers, or both
together. Was it an epidemic ? — or a plague ? — or what
in the world was it ? A number of ladies and gentlemen
had suddenly and mysteriously become very ill ; the
captain, purser, and doctor dangerously so.

«* Wha-at ha-ad you for breakfast ? " faintingly
inquired the latter of a lady who came to him for advice.

" Mutton cutlets."

" Good gracious ! that is just exactly what I had
myself."

The secret was at last discovered — it was ascertained
that the carcase of the sheep had been carelessly left all
night exposed to the moon's rays, had thus become
poisoned, and produced the results we have mentioned.

Just one more scientific fact out of many connected
with the sea : — The Brocklebank captain just referred to
was one calm day far out upon the ocean, bound for
Calcutta. While below in the cabin he heard a noise as
if some one had been scraping the side of an iron ship,
and yet there was no vessel near them that they could
discover.

" Did you make that scraping noise ? " he said to a
sailor, upon going on deck.

" No sir."

" Did you hear any scraping noise ? " the chief officer
was asked.

CHAP. xxvn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 423

" No sir."

" Well that is strange ! I am positive I heard it, what-
ever the cause may have been, and yet no vessel is in
sight — can it be a delusion ? "

Shortly afterwards they passed an iron ship, which at
this time was hull down on the horizon. " Were you
doing anything to your vessel three hours ago ? " was a
question put to the stranger. '« We were hammering and
scraping our sides," was the reply. Thus it turne^d out
that the noise had been a reality after all ! It appeared,
however, that such a marvellous transmission of sound
through the sea and over a distance of about fourteen
miles was due partly to the state of the air and water at
the time, and also to the fact that the wooden sides of the
Calcutta liner were good conductors of sound.

In certain places the sea bristles with wonders, a few
of which might be appropriately referred to in this
chapter if space permitted. Those, however, who are
curious in such matters will obtain much interesting and
valuable information from all the books relating to
the H.M.S. " Challenger" expedition, in which the latest
discoveries in engineering and other sciences were made
use of in every possible manner.

One of the numerous marvels of the ocean has been
the depths of its waters, concerning which the most
absurd ideas formerly existed. We remember the time
when it was said to be " bottomless" in some places, and
no doubt people had good reason for thinking so. Ships
were sent out on scientific expeditions and returned with
most astonishing reports. One of them said that in the
south Atlantic she had let out 50,000 ft. of line, but could
find no ground. No wonder, then, that false impressions
were made upon the public mind in this respect, or that

424 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvu.

able articles appeared in the scientific magazines of the
period in support or refutation of such ideas.

Now, the " Challenger " expedition exposed this
fallacy, and proved indisputably that the sea was not
nearly so deep as it was supposed to be, because all the
latest and best resources of modern engineering were
utilised by those on board that ship, to enable them to
prosecute their investigations with ease and accuracy in
every ^department of science, and especially so in this
case. The reason why the ocean depths were gauged so
exactly was because the sounding lines used were small
in diameter and immensely strong, and the sinkers of
peculiar shape and of about one hundred weight for every
thousand fathoms. In addition to this, they had a most
efficient and simple checking gear, or " accumulator,"
which enabled the action of the heavy sinker, while
passing through the water, to be carefully ascertained.
On reaching the bottom, however, it was disengaged from
the line, which, along with an attached tube, containing
a specimen of the ocean bed, was run in by means of
little engines on the deck of the ship.

The " unlimited soundings " referred to were caused
by a thick sounding line that was carried away in long
bends by the force of deep sea currents, which the
68-pound shot, generally used at the time, was incapable
of counteracting. Under these circumstances it was
utterly impossible to obtain even a fair idea of ocean
depths.

The " Challenger's " numerous sections of the ocean
bed, extending in a systematic manner between points
many hundreds of miles apart, are very interesting and
explanatory. From them, as well as from her various
charts of general soundings, we learn that, both on the

CHAP. xxvn. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 425

American and British coasts, the depths inside of the
hundred fathom line decrease gradually towards the
mainland, whereas, outside of the same boundary, they fall
away very rapidly to somewhere about 2,000 fathoms.
After that, the Atlantic bed becomes an undulating
plain for hundreds of miles at a stretch within certain
areas.

In the Atlantic, the deepest soundings of 3,875
fathoms, or about 4^ miles, were discovered at a point 80
miles north of St. Thomas, and the greatest known depth
in the world lies in the narrow channel between the
Ladrone and Caroline Islands, in the Pacific. This
depth is 4,575 fathoms, or 5J miles. The Island of Ber-
muda is very flat, and yet from 8 to 10 miles off its coast
line about 2,000 fathom water has been found in some
places. On the north-west coast of Australia, too,
between the mainland and Timor, the greatest depth in
the Indian Ocean, 3,020 fathoms, was discovered. In
short, many of the islands in the Pacific rise immediately
from similar depths, thus indicating extreme irregularities
in the outline of its bottom.

This ocean is quite a hotbed of volcanic energy which
indicates its presence in many ways. Here, however, we
find the small calamities of the natural world preventing
those which are infinitely greater. The floor of the
Pacific is like the shell of a gigantic steam boiler, and
were it not for those beautiful safety valves — the volca-
noes— which stud its area and surroundings, a large
portion of a hemisphere would have been torn up, blown
up, and transformed in a manner unknown since the
Creation. The force capable of doing this is simply the
high pressure steam which is 'made in enormous quan-
tities, by cataclysms of water rushing through fissures in

426 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvn.

the earth upon its incandescent interior, and held in
check by volcanic outbursts, which, comparatively speak-
ing, do little mischief.

Upon reaching the Channel- we engaged a pilot, to
whom Captain White resigned the entire command of the
ship, and shortly afterwards arrived at Deal, where we
found the inward bound " Greenlaw," which had sailed
from Sydney a month before us. We also came in for
two Sundays in one week, because we had gained a day
by sailing round the globe. This, I may remark, is the
point upon which the story of Round the World in Eighty
Days hinges, and which enabled the gentleman who
undertook the journey to win his handsome wager by one
second. We lay in the Downs all night, and next morn-
ing were towed into London, after having been four
months and ten days on the voyage.

Things have changed since then. Steam navigation
has completely altered everything. The old-fashioned
" eight months to India " style of ship has disappeared,
and we have now magnificent, swift, hotel-like steamers
which make a voyage to or from Australia a mere holiday
trip, instead of a long and dreary passage such as I have
described.

An Orient or a P. and O. steamer on the voyage is
quite a little floating world, where all classes of society
and every possible shade of taste and disposition are
thrown together during the trip. A great variety of
employments occupy the minds of the passengers, and
amongst them the following may be mentioned: Cricket
and lawn tennis, of a certain kind ; quoits, bowls, and
curling, for which circles of rope are utilised. " Sling the
monkey," a favourite and exciting game ; also racing,

CHAP, xxvii. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 427

which includes hopping races, walking backwards, races
for girls and boys, etc.

Other sources of amusement for all consist of duly
advertised " Two days' athletic sports," with the making
up and presentation of prizes at the end. Dancing holds
high rank in calm moonlight nights, upon the spacious
upper deck ; but there is nothing, perhaps, which gives
such intense enjoyment as the preparation for a theatrical
performance, or a " fancy dress ball." What with the
painting of high art programmes and flaming posters, in
the very loftiest style, — what with dressmaking, and got-
up costumes not to be seen in any city in the world, —
what with one thing and what with another, from first to
last, the ladies, at least, have a delightful time of it.

Concerts are given, and assizes held. A newspaper
has plenty of contributors to its columns, so long as the
foolscap of the ship lasts. Scientific people, too, have
their special recreations, while the captain takes care that
the regulations of the Company are attended to, and that
no one interferes with the discipline of the vessel, or
abuses in any way his or her privileges.

On Sunday, «' church " is held on board, in which a
good choir, who practice during the week, give able
assistance. These remarks will indicate a few of the
occupations of passengers on board a modern Australian
liner ; and those who remember the state of things in this
respect forty years ago, will now realize the great change
which has taken place in long sea voyages.

428 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP, xxvin.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

ENGINEERING OF THE PAST AND PRESENT.

James Watt and his followers — What Engineering has done in the Past —
Effects produced by simple Improvements — Application of different
kinds of Motive Power— Hydraulic Power on a vast scale — Great
Compressed Air Schemes — Hydro-Pneumatic System of Sewerage
and Drainage —Atmospheric Gas Engines — Electric Motors for
Launches, &c. — Cunard S.S. "Umbria" and "Etruria" — The
" One Man " system — Charles Maclver — Engineering in the New-
castle District — Allusions to Messrs. Denny and Messrs. Laird —
The " Practical Man " in fancy and in reality.

Upon taking a retrospective glance at what engineer-
ing has done during the last eighty years, one cannot but
feel astonished that so many centuries rolled away before
the science assumed a really practical form, and that it
should have been left to James Watt to put into proper
shape a force which the ancients touched upon so closely.
And yet, after Watt had made his great discovery, it is
amazing how rapidly the new and mighty power effected
a complete revolution in our preconceived ideas of travel
and manufacture, and gave rise to new discoveries which
have been successfully developed by many talented engi-
neers who followed in his wake.

To Mr. Patrick Miller, of Dalswinton, we owe the
first important movement regarding steam navigation,
which paved the way for its general introduction some
years afterwards. And, after its introduction, we find
Caird and Napier, in Scotland, and Penn and Maudslay,
in England, amongst the leaders of those who have done

CHAP, xxvni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 429

so much to perfect the marine engine. We also find
Whitworth and Fairbairn, in their respective branches,
also Stephenson and other engineers, all concentrating
their energies in different lines of thought, but, neverthe-
less, individually and unitedly, developing that branch of
modern science termed Mechanical Engineering, which
has brought about so many beneficial changes.

One curious fact connected with some of them is the
extreme simplicity of certain arrangements which have
proved absolutely invaluable. Take, for example, the fast
and loose pulley for driving machines ; the bolt and nut
with standard screws, for fastening their parts together ;
the slide rest, for turning out rapidly and accurately work
that formerly was done in a very slow and imperfect
manner by hand labour ; and, among very many other
important improvements, may be mentioned Fox's corru-
gated furnaces, which enable engineers to use steam
pressures previously impracticable. The simple process
of corrugation — now applied successfully in a great
variety of ways— has enabled these furnaces to possess
about four times the strength of plain flues of the same
thickness and diameter, and this has greatly facilitated
the introduction of the triple and quadruple expansion
engines.

At no period in the history of Engineering have so
many advantages been placed within the reach of em-
ployers of power as at the present time, since manufac-
turers and constructors of every description can, at small
cost, obtain engines exactly suited to their requirements,
whose motive power may be steam, water, electricity,
compressed air, or gas, according to circumstances.

For instance, where coal is cheap and plentiful, and
considerable power is required in driving machinery,

430 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvm.

nothing could be better than the steam engine ; but where
intense and concentrated pressures of an intermittent
character, such as those which are in use for cotton
presses, the management of dock works over a large area,
and the various processes in engineering spread over
towns and cities, hardly anything can be so conveniently
or so economically applied as hydraulic power. Here,
however, the steam engine must be employed to pump
water into "accumulators" until the desired pressure of
many hundreds of pounds, or perhaps from four to five
tons per square inch is obtained. For ordinary purposes,
the institution of Public Hydraulic Power Companies has
been attended with very beneficial results, since by their
agency a large amount of the intermittent and extremely
varied work of great communities can be performed at
little cost.

One of the most novel applications of water power is
to be found in a Parisian Hippodrome, the large circus of
which is supported upon numerous hydraulic rams which
allow the arena to be lowered into a reservoir, thus
forming a lake upon which various aquatic performances
may be produced.

For light work in general the field is greatly enlarged,
and compressed air engines or machines are very exten-
sively used ; but here again, steam machinery is employed
to compress the air sufficiently. In tunnelling or mining
operations under ground this motive power is most
valuable, as the air can be conveyed through pipes for
great distances with very little loss of pressure, and, when
liberated from the machine or engine, it forms an excel-
lent means of ventilation.

Compressed air as a motive power has been for a long
time successfully applied in a great variety of ways, and

CHAP, xxvin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 43!

its sphere of usefulness has lately been very considerably
enlarged, as great schemes are now in contemplation for
supplying it over a large area in several towns by means
of underground pipes. The object of the promoters of
these schemes is to supply the above-mentioned power
to supersede steam in driving ordinary engines, steam
hammers, steam pumps, pile drivers, domestic motors,
and a great variety of other machinery, as well as for
providing air for ventilating or exhausting purposes,
the working of blast .furnaces, and also for discharging
sewage or raising liquids.

Under the superintendence of Mr. John Sturgeon,
C.E., as engineer-in -chief, an extensive undertaking of
this nature has been carried out in Birmingham.

The works are at present laid out for the employment
of 15,000 indicated horse power by means of fifteen
engines of 1,000 horse power each, and the area to be
worked by this system amounts to about five square
miles, but sufficient land has been acquired to allow for
future extension, and also for the employment of an addi-
tional 20,000 horse power. The compressed air to be
thus distributed to consumers will be conveyed through
about twenty-three miles of wrought-iron welded pipes
laid in concrete troughs, and varying from seven inches
to twenty-four inches diameter, and the working pressure
is intended to be forty-five pounds per square inch.

Nowhere, perhaps, has compressed air as a motive
power been found more useful than in the hydro-
pneumatic system of sewerage invented by Mr. Isaac
Shone, C.E., of Westminster, which possesses many
valuable features, and has been very successfully applied
to various towns, including Eastbourne, Southampton,
Warrington, and many other places at home and abroad,

D D

432 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxvm.

including the main drainage of the Houses of Parlia-
ment. In these instances the motive power is produced
by means of the Atkinson gas engine air compressor,
which is extremely simple, economical, and effective,
and affords extraordinary facilities for keeping the air
pressure constant. It also needs no other attention than
that required for lubrication and occasional cleaning.
The advantages possessed by Mr. Shone's system of
sewerage and drainage are numerous and important, and
sufficiently inexpensive to render- it of great value in
localities where self-cleansing sewers cannot be made on
the gravitation principle without incurring enormous
outlay.

There is no engine which is so entirely independent of
steam as the atmospheric gas engine, which has now
attained a high degree of perfection. This beautiful piece
of machinery is one of the most valuable innovations of
modern times, as the steam boiler with its attendant dirt,
smoke, space occupied, working expenses, and risk of
explosion, is entirely dispensed with. The principle upon
which this engine works is the propelling power of com-
mon gas by explosion when sufficiently diluted with
atmospheric air, hence the term " Atmospheric gas engine."

The bursting of a bomb shell inside a gas holder will
do no more mischief than to cause the gas to burn away
quietly in large jets until it is all used up. This was
proved at the siege of Paris in 1870. On the other
hand, a highly explosive compound is produced by
mixing coal-gas with about eight times its volume of
air, and this fact is taken advantage of in the engines
just mentioned. For driving light machinery, or for
hoisting purposes, they are specially adapted, and where
the work is of an intermittent character, the average con-

CHAP, xxvni. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 435

sumption of gas has been as low as lod. per day during
three months, for a 3^-horse power engine running con-
stantly, and with gas at 35. per 1,000 feet.

These engines are made with single or double cylin-
ders, and may be either horizontal or vertical, according
to circumstances, and of sizes ranging from 2 to about 40
indicated horse power.

Amongst the numerous innovations of the present age
may also be mentioned the electric motors of Messrs.
Immisch & Co., which are of the highest efficiency, and
applicable for a variety of purposes, including pumping,
hauling, winding, fan driving, &c., and also for the
propulsion of launches. When used for small vessels the
power is somewhat more expensive than steam, but this
is balanced by compensating advantages, such as the
comfort and convenience of passengers, freedom from
noise and vibration, and from heat and smell. A plate of
one of the above is annexed.

One of the marked features of the present day is the
creation of gigantic establishments, and the vast exten-
sion of others, which, twenty or thirty years ago, were of
very limited dimensions and sometimes greatly over-
worked. The largest establishment in Scotland is that of
the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, on
the Clyde, which occupies an area of about seventy acres ;
but the most extensive in Great Britain is Messrs.
Palmer's, at Jarrow, on the Tyne, covering nearly one
hundred acres of land. In these works, — a view of
which is shewn in the frontispiece, — the raw ironstone
from the Company's mines, near Whitby, is taken in at
one end, smelted in the blast furnaces, passed through
the rolling mills, steel works, and forges, and in a finished
state is formed into engines, boilers, and ships, all the

436 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. XXVIIT.

brass and iron castings for which are made on the
premises.

A view of the first P.S. " Comet " is shown in Chapter
IV ; the early Atlantic steamers have already been men-
tioned ; and the last illustrated description of ships will
refer to the Cunard S.S. " Umbria " and " Etruria." The
annexed Plate is from a photograph of the former, but is
equally applicable to the latter, as she is a sister vessel in
every respect. Their general dimensions are as follows : —

Length over all 520 feet, extreme breadth 57 feet
3 inches, depth to the upper deck 40 feet, and to the
promenade deck 49 feet. The gross tonnage of each
is 8,000 tons. Both ships are built of steel, and by
the division of each into ten water-tight compartments,
the bulkheads of which are carried to the upper deck
and fitted with waterproof doors, the danger in the
event of a collision or the outbreak of fire is minimised,
while at the same time the isolation which, for sanitary
purposes, may be obtained by this arrangement is of no
small importance.

The promenade deck, which is reserved for the use of
first-class passengers only, is 300 feet long and extends
over the full breadth of the vessel. The dining saloon,
also the full breadth of the ship, is 76 feet long, and is
seated for upwards of 300 people, but as most of the state-
rooms are fitted with two berths, accommodation is
provided for 720 first-class passengers.

The engines indicate about 15,000 horse power, and
are of the ordinary three cylinder compound description,
having one high pressure cylinder 71 inches diameter,
and two low pressure of 105 inches diameter, all of which
have a stroke of six feet.

During nine outward voyages of the " Etruria " in

•i

CHAP, xxvin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 439

1886, her average speed between Sandyhook and Queens-
town, including summer and winter passages, was 17-7
knots per hour, and on the same number of homeward
runs this was increased to 17-97 knots. On her trial
trip, however, the speed realized was 21 knots per hour,
and that of the " Umbria " was practically the same. The
cost of each ship was about ^330,000 ; the quantity of
coals burnt per day amounts to 300 tons ; and the crew, in-
cluding officers and men in all departments, numbers 287.

The introduction of railways and successful ocean
steam navigation, as well as of many other great move-
ments that have taken place since the world began, have
been chiefly the result of the "One Man" system. That
is, a single individual, who, impelled by the idea that he
was right and everyone else was wrong, persistently main-
tained his point against all opposition, and triumphed in
the end.

This was especially the case with Stephenson, and
perhaps in a modified degree with Junius Smith, while
trying to introduce his own enlightened ideas regarding
the passage of the Atlantic. And even after his scheme
was fairly established, its development and success
depended upon another " one man " who did what no one
else has been able to accomplish — work a large fleet of
splendid steam vessels across that ocean for forty years
and never lose a life, a tetter, or a ship.

The " single gentleman " in this case was Charles
Maclver, whose character and magnificent capacity for
organisation on a grand scale are too well known to need
further comment. We may add, however, that he origin-
ated a system of management which no one apparently
has been able to improve, and which no doubt many

440 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP, xxvin.

availed themselves of in their own Companies, but without
obtaining similar success. Mr. Maclver's leading charac-
teristics were comprehensiveness, steadiness of purpose,
and a love of his business and associates in it, which was
probably increased by the fact that he was the sole and
responsible chief upon whom devolved the guidance of the
vast undertaking he was placed over, and upon whose
judgment everyone relied.

Not only was this the case from a commercial point of
view, but in all matters regarding the construction of his
steamers, during the long period we have mentioned, he
decided for himself the leading particulars of every vessel.
At last, however, his partners proposed changes he could
not approve of, and the result was his withdrawal from
the firm, which, under a new arrangement, became in
1882 an ordinary limited liability undertaking, with a
capital of /2, 000,000, and open to any investor who
wished to possess a ^20 share.

The shipbuilding districts chiefly mentioned in this
volume are those of the Clyde and Mersey, simply
because a long and intimate acquaintance with both has
enabled me to describe them from personal knowledge.
My only regret, however, is that I have thus been
prevented from extending my remarks to that most impor-
tant shipbuilding, engineering, and iron manufacturing
locality which lies between the Tyne and the Tees,
known as the " North-eastern district." Amongst the
great variety of establishments abounding in that region,
are to be found some of the largest and most famous in
the world, and one interesting feature they possess is the
extreme rapidity of development which in recent years
has characterised many of them, and also the swift exten-
sion of the leading manufactures connected with them.

CHAP, xxvin. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 441

I have referred to many engineers and engineering
firms, and especially to Messrs. Denny and Messrs.
Laird, with whom I had the honour of being so long
associated. The former commenced shipbuilding in the
year 1817, and have now one of the largest establish-
ments on the Clyde. In 1883 the late Mr. William Denny
introduced a system of extension and re-arrangement of
the premises to almost double their previous size, includ-
ing the formation of a new tidal dock with the most
powerful appliances for lifting purposes. A system of
narrow-gauge portable railways throughout the establish-
ment ; the electric lighting of the workshops and offices ;
the substitution of powerful hydraulic gear in lieu of
steam machinery ; and the introduction of telephonic
communication on an extensive scale were among his
latest achievements.

The establishment of Messrs. Laird Brothers was
founded in 1829, and the present firm has had a most
successful career, as previously mentioned.

The " practical man " is commonly supposed to be
a workman who, with soiled face and grimy hands, can
accurately bore a steam cylinder, or turn a shaft, or do
some good erecting, and use with facility the hammer, the
chisel, and the file. The true practical man, however, is
he who in all the ranks of life can combine science
with practice in such a manner as to produce the most
economical and advantageous results. This title is
applicable to all the great engineers, and especially to
the Commanders in Chief of those famous works the
descriptions of which have awakened in my own mind
very many happy remembrances.

442 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxix.

CHAPTER XXIX.

TRIPLE EXPANSION MACHINERY.

Shipowners' idea of Marine Engines — Results of "Tripling" two long
royage Steamers — Cause of Economy in Triple Engines — Table of
mean Pressures at different rates of Expansion — Table of Powers
produced by variously Expanded Steam — Ratios of Expansion in
Compound and Triple Engines — Long Voyage Experiments — Space
required for Engines — Reduction of Weight — Newest style of Triple
Engines — Wear and Tear — Management at Sea — Steamship per-
formances— Trial of S.S. " Meteor "—Indicator Cards and Coal
Consumption — Liquid Fuel in Steamers — Yarrow's Vaporised Spirit
Engines.

THERE can be no doubt that the triple expansion engine
has superseded the compound machinery of former years,
but, as some one observed, " every dog has his day," and
so also has every new fashion. We may, therefore,
conclude that the Triple engines will have their's, until
perhaps the Quadruples are similarly in the ascendant,
or those of another design, which will be described
farther on.

The late Mr. Robert Wyllie, of Hartlepool, and Mr.
J. P. Hall, of Messrs. Palmer's, have contributed a large
amount of valuable information on this subject derived
from trustworthy sources, and to these gentlemen we are
indebted for many facts that have been embodied in
this chapter. Engineers and shipbuilders are generally
influenced by the shipowners, who have the power of
regulating the actions of both, by means of their own
extensive knowledge of the commercial advantages of

CHAP, xxix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 443

different kinds of engines and ships. The ruling idea
in the minds of the shipowners is the relative value of
any new type, of machinery when compared with others,
such as, for example, the Triple and Quadruple engines,
etc., in contrast with the two, three, and four-cylinder
compounds of the old type, and although the professionals
may give their clients the very best advice on the subject,
it is the commercial aspect of the question that truly
forms the governing power.

It is not so much a mere question of high class
mechanical movement, but of economy in the working,
maintenance, coal consumption, and cargo-carrying capa-
city, etc., of ships. The old compound engines enabled
long voyage steamers to do what otherwise would have
been impossible, but the triples and quadruples are now
accomplishing this more effectively, because, through
their agency> the consumption of fuel has been greatly
reduced; thus involving a considerable increase in the
cargo space, with its attendant advantages.

In no branch of engineering have so many extensive
modifications been made as in that relating to steamships,
and the highly beneficial results obtained by the adoption
of the triple expansion type of machinery, forcibly illus-
trate its value, and indicate the direction in which great
improvements may still be attempted. To enable this to
be clearly understood, we will give a few examples from
the ordinary sea-going practice of steamships on long
voyage stations.

Take, for instance, the Union Company's S.S.
** Anglian," whose original compound machinery required
a mean coal consumption of 24 tons per day, over eight
voyages to the Cape of Good Hope, or about 2-1 pounds
per indicated horse-power per hour. These engines had

444 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxix.

a horse-power of 1065, but upon being tripled this was
increased to 1575. On the " Anglian's " run to the Cape
in her altered condition, the average speed was kept
exactly the same as formerly, but the fuel consumed was
only 1 6 tons per day, and, as she was placed on a station
where the cost of coal is about £2. per ton, the great
benefit thus derived will'be at once apparent.

The Orient S.S. " Lusitania" forms another very good
illustration of what may be similarly accomplished in a
larger ship. This vessel had originally a pair of 2,330
horse-power compound engines, and during a voyage from
London to Sydney, the average daily quantity of coal
used was 52 tons. These engines were, therefore, altered
as above, and the power was increased to 3,315. With
the speed of the vessel correspondingly augmented, the
coal consumption was about 50 tons per day, but when
the velocity was reduced to its former state, this went
down to 37 tons only, and for the return voyage of 80
days to Australia the total saving amounted to 1,200 tons.

Many other examples might be given, if necessary,
with the object of proving the efficiency and economy of
triple engines ; the above mentioned results, however,
represent a fair average of those obtained from thirty sets
of machinery which were designed by the late Mr. Wyllie.
In addition to this, Mr. William Parker, Chief Engineer
Surveyor at Lloyds, has stated that very many ships he
knew of had been similarly benefited.

The question has been often asked — " Why is the
triple expansion engine so economical ? " The answer
to this lies chiefly in the fact that high pressure steam is
proportionately less expensive to make than low pressure
steam, and also that the former can be more sparingly
used than the latter, by taking advantage of the principle

CHAP. xxix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 445

of expansion. In other words, it is simply the application
of ruling ideas in general business which enable profits to
be made where serious loss might have been incurred.
This brings to mind the story of one of my engineering
friends who was consulted about an undertaking a client
of his wished to enter upon. My friend gave him the best
advice he could, and wrote to the adventurer soon after-
wards asking how he had succeeded, and received the
following reply : —

*' So kind of you to enquire about my new enterprise, I
have been getting on nicely, everything doing well, but —
Jer. xxxvii, 19" — " Where are now your prophets ? "

It is well known that the higher the pressure at which
a boiler will work, the greater will be the proportionate
degree of economy in coal consumption. That is to say,
when water in a boiler is at 212° Fahrenheit, the steam
pressure is the same as the atmosphere — at 228° it is at
5*3 pounds above the atmosphere — at 240°, 103 pounds —
at 302°, 55-3 pounds— at 324°, 80-3 pounds— at 353°, 125-3
pounds — and at 401°, 235-3 pounds per square inch, and
so on.

From this it will be apparent that by firing a little
harder after reaching the boiling point, the pressures of
steam can be so much increased as to reduce the cost of
production, and this, it may be added, is just what
engineers have long aimed at, and at last accomplished.

The benefit to be derived from the expansion of steam
may be thus described : If the elastic vapour is allowed
to act with its full energy upon a piston from the
beginning to the end of its upward or downward stroke,
a whole cylinder full of steam is used each time. If,
however, the steam is cut off from the boiler at half the
stroke of the piston, there is a direct saving of half the

446

ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxix.

quantity of steam and coal, etc. ; and at the same time,
the steam now expanding in the cylinder is doing useful
work for nothing, although its pressure is gradually
diminishing.

If the vapour be cut off at one-fourth, or one-fifth, &c.,
of the stroke, the economy is correspondingly increased,
as will be seen from the following table : —

TABLE OF STEAM USED EXPANSIVELY.

Initial
pressure
in
pounds
per
square
inch.

AVERAGE PRESSURE IN POUNDS PER SQUARE
INCH FOR WHOLE STROKE.

PORTIONS OF STROKE AT WHICH STEAM is CUT OFF.

100

96-6

91-9

84.6

74*4

59*6

38-5

106-2

lOI'I

93-1

8r8

65-6

42-3

120

115-9

110-3

101-5

89-3

7i-5

46*2

I30

125-6

119-4

IIO'O

96-7

77'5

50-0

140

135*2

128-6

118-5

104-1

83-4

53'9

150

144-9

137-8

126-9

in-6

89-4

577

1 6O

154*6

147-0

J35'4

119-0

95'4

61-6

180

173*9

165-4

J52'3

i33'9

107-3

69-3

200

193-2

183-8

169-2

148-8

119-2

77-0

If the mean results due to any other steam pressures,
say 50, 60, 300, or 400, etc,, pounds per square inch, are
desired, then allow for the half of 100 or 120, or the
double of 150 or 200, etc.

Mr. Henthorn, the late president of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, has thrown additional
light upon this subject by means of the following useful
table.

CHAP. XXIX.

AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED.

447

TABLE SHOWING THE THEORETICAL POWER DUE TO THE

USE OF THE SAME QUANTITY OF STEAM WHEN USED

UNDER DIFFERENT RATIOS OF EXPANSION.

POINT OF CUT-OFF.

Number of
Expansions.

Horse -
Power.

Full Stroke

lOO'O

1/2 „

i6o'3

1/4

238-6

1/6 „

27Q I

1/8 „

I/IO

^,/y.i

307-9
oo<D'2

I/I2 „

I/Id.

14.

OJW *

348'4
o6'2 *O

1/16 „

ouo y

377'2

1/18 „

I/2O

18
20

o/ / •*
389-0

OQQ* f

oyy j

"From the above table it will be seen"— as Mr.
Henthorn observes — " that by working the steam under
twenty expansions, as applicable in engines of the highest
class, an advantage equivalent to 400 per cent, is derived
from the same steam over the result obtained during the
full stroke of a non-expansive engine."

Since the triples allow of a much greater number of
expansions than could be obtained in the old compounds,
owing, on the one hand, to the use of very high pressure
steam, and, on the other hand, to the increased ratios of
the high and low pressure cylinders, the successful appli-
cation of the above system is only a natural consequence.
In the S.S. " Anglian " the ratio of the areas of the two
original cylinders was 3-07, which gave only 5-1 expan-
sions, but, in the engines that superseded them, the

448 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxix.

number was increased to 11*74. Similar results were
obtained from the " Lusitania," which had her 5-26
expansions increased to 11*85 after being tripled. This, we
may add, is just where the superiority in economy of one
class of machinery over another becomes distinctly visible,
by using a high boiler pressure and making it perform a
considerable amount of additional work gratuitously.

In 1887, Messrs. Jones & Son, of Liverpool, tested the
soundness of this principle by means of a series of long
voyage experiments with the S.S. " Bentinck," which
was engined by them. For experimental purposes these
engines were so arranged that they could be used either
as double or triple cylinder as desired, and, in each case,
with the full pressure of steam. This vessel has been
worked on alternate voyages under both systems for many
months at a time, with practically equal results.

Since the above experiments were carried out, Messrs.
Leyland, of Liverpool, have altered their steamship
'* Algerian," of 2,821 tons, and 900 horse-power, for the
purpose of giving the new system a fair trial. The
improved arrangements consisted of one new cylinder of
24", and another of 64" diameter, having a ratio of i to 7 ;
new boilers for 150 pound steam were also added. By
means of these modifications the indicated horse-power,
the revolutions per minute, and the speed of the ship,
remained as formerly, but the coal allowance was reduced
from 2o£ to 15 tons per day, thus producing a gain of
about 27 per cent. Several vessels owned by the same
Company, and also those of others, have been similarly
altered with satisfactory results.

There are other questions connected with steamship
machinery that closely affect its commercial value, and
may be thus stated : —

CHAP. xxix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 449

(i.) Can the three crank triples be made to occupy
the same space in a ship as two cylinder compounds of
the same power ?

(2.) Is it possible to make new engines of the same
power as the old ones, but without increasing their
weight ?

(3.) Will the wear and tear of triple expansions be
excessive ?

(4.) Will boilers using 150 pounds steam last as long
as those which use only about half the pressure ?

(5.) Is the new style of machinery more difficult to
manage than the old ?

So far as question number one is concerned, it may be
broadly stated that the space occupied by triples will not
be more, and in some cases can easily be less than with
the two cylinder compounds, according to the require-
ments of purchasers.

The second question can be still more satisfactorily
answered, as Mr. Hall has shown in his tables of particu-
lars of engines of both kinds, representing the practice of
numerous engineering firms in the Newcastle district.
From these it may be gathered that the total weight in
tons for the whole of the machinery, including boilers,
and the water they contain when in seagoing condition,
and also Lloyd's spare gear, etc., is nearly the same in
each case, and may in general be taken at about 450
pounds per indicated horse-power.

The extensive employment of steel in the very latest
machinery, clearly indicates that there has been great
room for reduction of weight. Mr. Sennet, late Engineer-
in-Chief to the Royal Navy, has expressed the opinion
that marine boilers may be thus improved by thinning the
plates a little, on account of the rigid inspection and

450 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxix.

testing they are now subjected to. Theoretically the late
Admiralty engineer is right, but practically it does not
appear advisable to adopt lighter proportions, since the
corrosive action inside of a boiler is the same for plates of
different thicknesses, and therefore is relatively more
destructive in thin plates than it is with those of heavier
make. In other words, a reduction of one-sixteenth in the
thickness of a one-inch plate, means that its strength is
also diminished one-sixteenth, but in a half-inch plate this
becomes one-eighth, in a quarter-inch plate one-fourth, and
so on. Hence it will be seen that corrosion greatly
influences the strength of steam generators and ought to
be fully allowed for so that they may last as long as
possible.

In the engines themselves, full advantage can be
taken of the superior strength of the steel employed in
various parts, consequently there is great room for reduc-
tion in weight so long as their rigidity is kept up. No
one perhaps has more carefully studied the subject of
economy in this respect than Mr. F. C. Marshall, of
Messrs. Hawthorn, Leslie & Co., of Newcastle. As an
illustration of this, it may be mentioned that the swift
cruiser " Elisabeta," built at the Elswick Works, was
supplied by Mr. Marshall's firm with two sets of triple
expansion engines of 5,000 horse-power, the total weight
of which, with boilers complete, including water, is under
250 tons. We have thus a set of powerful engines, with
cast steel framing, etc., and mild steel working parts,
reduced to 112 pounds per I.H.P., or, in other words,
20 horse-power per ton. This, however, is to some
extent due to the very high piston speed now adopted in
Government engines.

We may add by way of comparison, that the Cunard

TRIPLE ENGINES OF S.S. " MISSOURI."— 1,300 HORSE POWER.

CHAP. xxix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 453

S.S. " Etruria " has machinery of 14,700 horse-power,
and its total weight is 1800 tons — which gives 8-2 horse-
power per ton ; and similarly, H.M.S. " Victoria " is
14,500, 1,100, and 13-1 respectively, as above.

The plate of triple expansion engines shown opposite
illustrates the latest style of machinery designed by Mr.
Thomas Mudd, managing engineer of the Central Marine
Works at Hartlepool. In this instance, the high pressure
cylinder is placed between the other two, instead of being
at the forward end, as is generally the case, thus pro-
ducing very great economy owing to the heat retaining
power of the arrangement.

The above firm are also the makers of an extremely
compact and elegantly designed species of triples, having
the cylinders placed in the usual way, but worked by
piston valves at the back. These engines have done well
in many ships, but the majority of superintending engi-
neers— in a somewhat perverse manner — prefer to have
the old link motion arrangement instead for cargo ships.
It is not very complimentary of them to djD so, and thus
apparently neglect the variously " improved systems " of
talented inventors who have spent so much time, and
labour, and money, in their efforts to develop a better
state of things.

The engines shown in the plate are of 1,300 horse
power, and have cylinders 25", 40", and 65" diameter, by
3 feet 6 inches stroke. The framing is open, light, and
strong, and it may be additionally interesting to know that
the view was taken from a photograph of the machinery
of the famous S.S. " Missouri," which was the means of
saving the lives of nearly 800 people from the foundering
steamship " Danmark," and that it stands on the movable
erecting shop foundation mentioned in a previous chapter.

E E

454 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxix.

If Mr. Watt — " Jeems Watt, the inventor o' steam" as
the London policeman called him — could be with us now,
and see what we had done with his famous engine, he
would very likely gaze around in blank amazement,
wonder, and surprise, but at the same time be delighted
to find that some of his own inventions were still to the
fore, — touched up and improved no doubt, but only in
detail. These details, however, have required the very
highest skill of the modern engineer to bring them to
perfection.

The question of wear and tear in triple engines is
best answered by those who have used them most exten-
sively and for the longest period. Perhaps none are
better able to give this information than Messrs. Thomas
Wilson, Sons & Co., of Hull, who were among the first to
discover their value, and who have since the year 1882
fitted many of their vessels with them. Their superintend-
ing engineer states that, in his opinion, triples are not
more expensive to maintain in good working order than
compounds, and adds that, in this respect, one of the
least expensive of their fleet of sixty-five steamers is a
vessel having three crank engines as above.

With regard to the last question — " Is any more skill
required in the management of triple engines and boilers
at sea ? " — It may be said that this remains almost as it
was as far as the machinery is concerned, but the high
pressures now carried in boilers, necessitate greater care
and judgment on the part of those who work them, and
more attention to the various little details connected with
them. As shipowning ladies and gentlemen, however^
will not care one pin for the best kept machinery or steel-
built ships, unless they can get a dividend from them, we
may add that the engineers on land and sea are in no

CHAP. xxix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 455

way responsible for commercial adversity in any of the
Companies. The fault lies with some of the owners who
recklessly destroy the vitals of fair trade and commerce,
and thus almost annihilate their chances of success.

If anyone tells us that a thing is black when it is
black, or white when it is white, the statement is self-
evident. But when people talk or write about " Steamship
performances," they at once enter upon a subject that is
capable of extensive misinterpretation, and at no time,
perhaps, is this more observable than when the deduc-
tions from official records are placed before us. From
the tables of performances compiled by Mr. Hall from the
log-books of numerous steamers, it appears that the aver-
age coal consumption in long-voyage ships, with triple
engines, is about 1.5 pounds per horse power per hour.
In addition to this, some of the most eminent authorities
have already stated, that these engines save fully twenty-
five per cent, of the coal used in compound engines.

On the other hand, a highly experienced superintend-
ing engineer to an Atlantic mail line has declared that,
after his own careful examination of the records of
numerous ships belonging to different firms, he concludes
that the saving referred to does not, in any case, exceed
15 per cent. And, as if in confirmation of this, the late
trial trip of the S.S. " Meteor " has shewn that triple
machinery may indicate only a small amount of economy,
even when under the most careful management. Now
these are very inconsistent statements, and when accom-
plished engineers authoritatively give them to the world,
what are we to think ? — or say ? — or do ?

The S.S. " Meteor," mentioned above, belongs to the
London and Edinburgh Shipping Company, and her
registered tonnage is 692. The engines were made by

456 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxix.

Messrs. J. and G. Thompson, of Glasgow, and have
cylinders 29!", 44", and 70" diameter, by 4 feet stroke, the
indicated horse power being 1994.

The trial took place on June 24th, 1888, during a
voyage from Leith to London, when everything in the
machinery department was subjected to the strictest
supervision. The coal was weighed — the feed water was
measured —the power was indicated every half hour — the
temperature of the furnace gases escaping up the chim-
ney was observed at intervals during the trial, — the
engine and boiler efficiencies were carefully noted from
time to time, as also was the speed of the ship. In short,
nothing was omitted that skill, prudence, or forethought
could suggest. The special experimental staff was a
powerful one. Professor Kennedy, C.E., of University
College, London, was commander-in-chief of the expe-
dition, and under his directions the work of the ship was
most successfully carried on by two relays of observers,
aided by a few extra hands, and in supreme command of
the engine-room department, was placed the invaluably
co-operative, and ever everywhere chief engineer, Clephane.
It was not usual for this gentleman to have such distin-
guished professionals to assist him in his peculiar duties,
but he was, nevertheless, most cordially equal to the
occasion.

The whole trial required continuous attention from
those in charge. It was, however, eventually discovered
that the quantity of coal consumed during the trip was
at the rate of 2-01, or two and one-hundredth pounds per
indicated horse-power per hour. In other words, these
engines shewed that they were little better than com-
pounds in similar condition. This was a disappointing
result, especially under such extremely favourable circum-

CHAP. xxix. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED 457

stances. It is, therefore, only meet and right that we
should try to throw a little light on the subject in the
hope of being able to say to hypercritical critics, •' We'll
meet yer at every point of the argument, if we can."

The first ameliorating feature in the trial that presents
itself is the fact that the coals were not good, and,
secondly, and most importantly, that the engines were
experimented upon simply in their ordinary condition, no
effort having been made to race them with the object of
obtaining high, though temporary, results. Perhaps the
greatest benefit to be derived from this experimental
voyage is, that it gives a new colouring to steamship per-
formances, and indicates the difference between a forced
trial and one of a purely commercial character.

It is generally believed that, while the old compound
engines burnt fully two pounds of coal per indicated horse
power per hour, the triples only require one and a half,
and the quadruples one and a quarter pounds. We have
thus a saving of twenty-five per cent, in favour of the
triples, as mentioned by some of the highest authorities.
These statements, however — with a Meteoric light around
us — seem to open out a new field of inquiry regarding the
manner in which the horse-powers of engines are some-
times calculated at sea.

So long as human nature is what it is, so long also
will the engineers of ships continue to make their mach-
inery show off on paper. And thus we have reason
to think that many of the log-book records are obtained
from engines scientifically raced to the utmost only for a
very short period. This can easily be accomplished by
enthusiastic engineers, and, although we would not for
one moment say that they actually overdrive their ships
for the sake of obtaining double extra indicator cards, we

458 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxix.

nevertheless fancy that, in slow-going cargo ships, the
temptation to do so may occasionally be too strong for
them, and thus the records at once become too roseate
for ordinary practice.

To make this clear, let us suppose that a set of
engines in ordinary work are indicating 1,000 horse-
power upon two pounds of coal for each of them per
hour. If, however, they are made to give out 2,000 horse
power merely to get a show card, the coal expenditure
will apparently become one pound, and thus an erroneous
impression will be created.

A more correct idea of ships' performances can be
taken from the coal consumption of two long-voyage
steamers exactly alike as regards tonnage, power, dis-
placement, speed, etc., one of them having triples, and
the other compounds, in the same state of efficiency.
The most conclusive method, however, for everyone, is
to compare the financial results of the ships, say, for
instance, the above upon a round voyage, or for a whole
year's working. Take, for example, my old friend the
•' Lusitania " — built in Laird's in 1870 — which, after
being tripled, realised for her owners ^"1,000 in one return
Australian voyage ; and, still later, the Union Company's
S.S. " Spartan," which saved, in one return trip to the
Cape, 500 tons of coal, or, otherwise expressed, ,£3,000 a
year to her happy possessors.

Another source of vitiated results is no doubt the
custom of comparing new triples with old, compounds,
and although the latter may be in perfect order, after the
lapse of many years, the boilers may not possess the
same steam-raising power they once had. Hence we
have another reason for triple machinery, with new and
clean boilers, being apparently so highly economical.

CHAP. xxix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 459

The above facts will therefore account, in some degree at
least, for a few of the discrepancies already referred to,
which have now become so perplexing.

Ever since the E.S. " Volta " crossed the channel in
1886, the electrical propulsion of steamers has excited the
attention of the boating community on the Thames, who
recognised the advantages of the new motive power.
With the object of providing the desired innovation,
Messrs. Immisch & Co., of London, have introduced their
specially designed electric engines or "Motors" — one of
which is shown in the annexed view.

ELECTRIC MOTOR FOR LAUNCHES.

In this case, the screw-propeller shaft is worked direct
by an engine which receives its supply of electricity at
various charging stations, floating in the river at different
points, where launches can at any time be re-charged, or
kept in readiness for use. Similar engines, of a modified
form, for mining purposes, such as pumping, winding, etc.,
have already been referred to at page 435. For pleasure

460 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxix.

boats, however, thus propelled, the absence of a coal-
fired boiler with its attendant heat, and smoke, and dirt,
has no doubt been highly appreciated by many. The
New York Elevated Railway Company employ electric
engines on their various lines, and thus save at least half
the coal expenses. The Overhead Dock Railway in
Liverpool is the first in England to be worked by the
same power, and on other lines, and in many other ways,
the new motor will soon be extensively employed.

We have been induced to give considerable promi-
nence to the subject of coal consumption in steamers,
because it contains the very germs of that commercial
prosperity shipowners and manufacturers are constantly
aiming at, and which may be more fully attained by the
use of the liquid fuel system of firing. This system is
highly appreciated on board many hundreds of naval and
mercantile steamers in Russian waters, and also in loco-
motives and factories, owing to the low price of petro-
leum, and its attendant advantages. The oil-burning
apparatus, which can be easily applied to marine boilers,
immensely reduces the work of firing, cleaning, etc., on
board ships, produces no smoke, and besides this, it can
be instantly lighted or extinguished. In good furnaces,
1,000 tons of refuse oil will go as far as 2,000 tons of coal,
and requires only the usual bunker space for 500 or 600
tons of the latter, thus saving, say, 1,500 tons for freight.

With the object of reducing the cost of petroleum,
large ocean steamers are now being extensively built to
carry the oil in bulk after being loaded through lines of
pipes direct from the wells hundreds of miles away, and
this has already enabled very much to be accomplished
that otherwise would have remained undone.

The latest application of the liquid fuel system, as

CHAP. xxix. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 461

applied to steam navigation, is to be found in Messrs.
Yarrow's "Zephyr" launches and yachts, the motive
power of which is obtained from vaporised spirit instead
of water, and whilst the necessary heat is obtained by
means of petroleum firing, the economy of the system is
derived in various ways from the manner in which its
details have been carried out, after prolonged, elaborate,
and costly experiments. The advantages possessed by
this new arrangement, consist of much less weight in the
machinery — 50 per cent, more space for passengers —
extreme cleanliness — no skill required in working, as the
apparatus is automatic, — no risk of explosion, &c. In
short, as Mr. Yarrow himself declares, there is everything
in these beautiful little vessels to make them a source of
economical pleasure to those who use them.

As a still further example of the practical application
of liquid fuel, it may be stated that Mr. James Holden,
the Locomotive Superintendent of the Great Eastern
Railway, has successfully applied a special system of his
own to the Company's engines, which can now be fired
either with coal, or petroleum, or with both together, if
desired. And this, too, without any alteration in the
furnaces.

Facts like these are of great value, and certainly
deserve the careful attention of people who wish to
economise either on a large or on a small scale. We may
add that this most important branch of engineering will
be treated in another form, and — as the sensational
authors and authoresses put it at the end of an out-
rageous chapter of horrors— "continued in our next," and
last.

462 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxx.

CHAPTER XXX.

QUADRUPLE AND NEW COMPOUND ENGINES.

Important Improvements — Chemistry the Destroyer — Boiler Room diffi-
culties— Tubular and Tubulous Boilers — Strange disaster to a new
Boiler — Simple Apparatus for purifying Water — Water Tube boilers
and their failures — The latest type of Tubulous Boiler — Opinions of
Experts — Table of Horse Powers per ton of Weight — Peculiarities
of the Forced Draught System — Latest types of Quadruple
Engines — Turner's new two cylinder Compound Engines — Their
performances compared with Triples — Extended use of Manganese
bronze Propellers — Willis* " protected " Propellers — Steamships of
the future — Conclusion.

So many real improvements have recently been made in
quadruple machinery, that further advances in this direc-
tion will be somewhat retarded. There is, however, much
to be done, in various ways, with steam generators,
before the highest point of excellence is reached.

It is to this point, therefore, that the highest skill and
talent of my learned brethren must now be directed. And
it is here that we may yet hope to catch the sympathies
of shipowners who wish to run their steamers at the least
possible expense. Hence it may be said that the whole
question of increased economy in steam navigation is
resolved into one of boiler construction, furnace firing,
and boiler management at sea.

It is very extraordinary that one of the otherwise
beneficial sister sciences should be our constant and most
relentless enemy. She has teeth hard enough and sharp
enough for anything. She nibbles our cast steel screw
propellers to death long before their natural strength is

CHAP. xxx. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 463

mechanically abated. She will in a few years cut to
destruction our largest screw shafts if we give her a
chance. And she will pit, and furrow, and destroy the
plates of our boilers, and cover the fire tubes with a hard
scale which greatly injures their steam raising qualities,
and sometimes causes disastrous explosions, long before
the inherent powers of the boilers have been impaired
by legitimate work. Not only would these evils happen,
but they would become of such continual occurrence as
to imperil the very existence of the steam engine in ships
unless we contended with Chemistry tooth and nail, arid
tried to bafHe her at every point.

The direct cause of all these evils, so far as steam
generators are concerned, lies in the chemical impurity of
the water contained in them. If we could only use pure
water — water that would leave no deposit on the parts
exposed to heat — water which would neither pit nor
furrow the internal plating, thus reducing its strength, the
management of boilers at sea would be greatly simplified.
The chemical evils just mentioned influence in the
highest degree the designing of boilers, whose interiors
must be so arranged as to admit of inspection, cleaning,
and repairs when necessary. And the cause of so many
" perfect cures " in this department of science turning out
complete failures has been the want of proper attention
to one or more of these vital points.

As the matter now stands, there is not a single branch
of engineering which presents so many serious difficulties
in the way of future advancement as that now under con-
sideration. The engines are right enough practically and
dynamically, but when it comes to the thermo-dynamic
machinery of the boiler room we find that alter all the
time, and money, and patience, and skill that enterprising

464 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxx.

inventors have so liberally expended upon them, the
marine steam generators are not nearly so perfect as we
should have expected to find them. Much has certainly
been done, but much more remains to be accomplished
before the quadruple, or indeed any other marine engines,
can give out their best results, not only in short runs
under the most favourable conditions, but during long
voyages when exposed to numerous disadvantages.

Various systems have been utilised with the object of
accomplishing this, some of which are too well knowrn to
require further comment. Broadly speaking, these sys-
tems resolve themselves into two classes, the " tubular"
and the " tubulous." The former term is applied to all
boilers whose heated gases pass through a large number
of brass or iron tubes on their way to the chimney, thus
heating the water which surrounds them in a most
efficient manner. Steam generators of this description
are universal in locomotives, and very nearly so in steam-
ships, and their great popularity is due : firstly, to their
excellent steam raising powers ; and, secondly, to the ease
with which they can be kept in order. Hence any marine
boiler which requires to use a certain amount of sea water
in addition to the chemically impure fresh water from the
condenser, is compelled to have its interior thoroughly
inspected and cleaned from time to time.

The necessity for doing so is very fully understood by
all superintending engineers, and by the engine room
staffs of steamship lines. A recent accident, however, of
a very peculiar nature on board a coasting steamer will
practically confirm these remarks. This vessel was per-
fectly new, and her engines, boilers, etc., were under the
careful supervision of Lloyd's surveyors while being con-
structed. The ship, however, had only been under steam

CHAP. xxx. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 465

240 hours, when one of the furnaces collapsed and entirely
disabled her.

It is a well known fact that pure fresh water is the best
for boilers ; but, at sea, the fresh water obtained from the
condenser is mixed with impurities which corrode their
interiors unless anti-corrosives are used, but this is not
all. Theoretically speaking, the steam used in the
engines, and afterwards changed into water by condensa-
tion, would be quite sufficient to supply the boilers, and
continue the process of steam raising, steam using, and
steam condensing for an unlimited period without any
external aid. Inasmuch, however, as there is loss or
leakage to a small extent, this must be made up by taking
a little salt water from the sea, which contains fifty-six
pounds of salt per ton, not to mention several other solid
impurities that would rapidly destroy a boiler unless well
protected from them.

While steam is being made this water is increasing in
saltness, which renders it more difficult to boil and more
destructive to the flues and tubes on account of the
salt deposit upon them, and therefore a salinometer is
employed to indicate the density of the fluid, and to show
when some of it ought to be " blown out," to make room
for a fresh supply. It will, therefore, be seen that if this
instrument is not correct, a solid deposit may rapidly
settle upon the furnace tubes, and so much impair their
heat-conducting powers as to cause the plates to be over-
heated, and thus bring about a disastrous explosion, or —
as in the present instance, a partial collapse.

This is exactly what happened on board the steamer
just referred to, and — as clearly proved at the Board of
Trade inquiry — the inaccuracy of the salinometer misled
those in charge regarding the condition of the water in

466 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxx.

the boiler at the time of the accident and indirectly
caused the failure of the furnace.

All disasters are professionally instructive ; this one
especially so, as it not only shows how rapidly the
chemical impurities of water act upon metal surfaces
exposed to their agency, but indicates the necessity for
constant watchfulness on the part of the engine room
staff. It may further be added, that as the solid deposit
in boilers becomes intensified under very high steam pres-
sures, it has been proposed to use water distilled on board
ship, but even this is unnecessary when we can employ a
very simple feed-water-cleaning apparatus which will —
to a large extent — perform what is desired.

The object of the invention is to purify and heat the
water before it enters the boilers. Zinc plates placed in
their interior, and various anti-corrosive mixtures are
only remedial in their action, whereas the apparatus
referred to attacks the cause of corrosion, and has also
the advantage of costing nothing whatever for mainten-
ance. By removing the air, grease, dirt, etc., from the
fluid before being used, the cost of keeping a boiler clean
is reduced to about one-third, and thus the plating is pro-
tected from injurious deposit as mentioned above.

The sole makers of the apparatus are the Wallsend
Slipway and Engineering Company at Newcastle, who
have fitted it to upwards of 100 large steamers.

Such then in brief is the case for the tubular boilers,
which will most likely — for the reasons given — hold their
ground in long voyage steamers against all others so long
as steam is used. The same, however, cannot be said of
the tububws boiler. In this class of steam generator each
tube is filled with water, and as the heated furnace gases
play around the outside of them, they each become little

CHAP. xxx. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 467

independent boilers, possessing enormous strength. But,
with the usual perversity of engineering, this valuable
quality may be neutralised by the attendant disadvan-
tages of non-accessibility for cleaning, and the great
difficulty of stopping a leaky tube while under steam.

The water tube boiler has been exposed to a very
great amount of high-toned criticism by those best
capable of judging its merits. It has been put into ships
with a varied amount of success, according to circum-
stances, and its object has been to reduce the weight, but
chiefly to obviate the risk of serious damage by explosion.
This steam generator has in times past, however, given
much trouble, and even now it is by no means perfect.
Amongst the " seventies," some of the failures indicated
above occurred on board various ships. The new boilers
were therefore taken out ; and, in addition to other
disasters, may be mentioned the total loss of two
vessels through their explosion. So much valuable
experience, however, has been obtained, that there is at
present a better prospect of success in this direction.

The question may now be narrowed to a point, and
that point Messrs. Thorneycroft's latest type of water tube
boiler for torpedo boats.

The first thing that strikes one in connection with these
new boilers is the large number of curvilinear tubes of
small diameter in which the steam is formed, and which
appear to be difficult to keep in proper order. But what
does it matter, after all, whether there are few tubes or
many tubes, large tubes or small tubes, straight tubes or
curved tubes, so long as the wear and tear, coal consump-
tion, weight of apparatus, and its maintenance and dura-
bility are proved to be satisfactory in actual practice at
sea. Under existing conditions in the merchant service,

468 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxx.

however, we may fairly conclude that this boiler cannot
be used in ocean liners, although it is no doubt very
suitable for the vessels mentioned above using only the
purest water for short runs.

This question is of the utmost value to the world at
large, because the economical working of steamers now
depends entirely upon the way in which it is treated, and
hence the opinions of talented engineers connected with
steamship Companies are most important.

When we find Mr. Manuel of the P. and O. Company
pleasantly saying that he would be very glad if the
Thorneycroft boiler could be used so as to obtain higher
pressures, and also to get over many difficulties now
existing, but that he had doubts regarding its durability,
and capability for continuous steaming upon the ocean.

When we find Mr. Parker authoritatively observing
that he "had had experience at sea with water tube boilers
up to 4,000 indicated horse-power, and that some of them
had failed, and a few had been put into ships, and —
taken out again. That serious accidents had happened
to others ;- but that, in spite of all this, he wished to
see a good water tube boiler introduced. When this
gentleman additionally observes, that a steam generator
which can be easily cleaned internally is the best ; that
the present cylindrical boiler can be made to work for
eight years without having a leaky tube ; and that he had
seen one of them that had been in use for eighteen years,
What are we to think ?

And when we hear of Mr. John Scott of Greenock,
and Mr. MacGregor distantly following on the same lines,
and expressing somewhat similar opinions, What are we
to do? We'll just exactly do nothing but watch the pro-
gress of events.

CHAP. xxx. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 469

Mr. Thorneycroft has himself declared that the horse-
power per ton of weight of different classes of boilers,
including all fittings, spare gear, funnels, etc., is as
follows : —

16-6 I.H.P. per ton in P. and O. Steamers.

43*0 „ „ „ Torpedo catchers of latest type.

48-0 „ „ „ Locomotives of same power.

68-0 „ „ „ Thorneycroft's torpedo boats.

This table shows at a glance the comparative values
of different systems, and indicates what is now being done
in at least one branch of engineering practice. It is only
fair to add that water tube boilers for land purposes
have become very popular in America and on the Conti-
nent. Their use is also rapidly extending owing to the
great increase of steam pressures, for which they are so
suitable.

For a little variety, let us have a chat about " forced
draught." The idea is an old one. James Watt tried it
on his famous kettle with the bellows, and millions since
his time have similarly utilised it in their own houses. In
past years we were taught to believe that the truest
economy in steamers consisted in giving them plenty of
boiler power and easy firing, thereby increasing the
durability of every part exposed to heat. Now, however,
we are asked to try something which is said to be better,
and although a very great deal has been said and written
upon this subject, nothing conclusive has yet appeared.

" Coals is coals now" as the dealer told the little girl
who complained that the last lot he sold to her were
stone — or rather of a rocky formation. So they are also
in many ways to the shipowner, and, therefore, the
advocates of the new system of firing furnaces are doing

F F

470 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxx.

their best to show him that he will save ever so much by
adopting it in his vessels. After what has been said and
done to prove this, however, it appears surprising that all
the ocean Companies have not made a rush at it, but the
experiences of engineering practice are, as we have said,
so extremely peculiar, that we have to make our advances
in red Indian style — very cautiously.

There is an old story floating about the world con-
cerning a Highlander who hoped to make his horse do
without food by reducing the allowance to the extent of
one straw per day. When it came to the last straw, how-
ever, the horse died because he was fed too much on air,
and if the furnaces of steam generators are forcibly sup-
plied with an over-charge of atmosphere, is it not very
apparent that the intensified heat thus produced may in
time so injure the crown plates of a flue as to cause its
collapse. Of course when everything is kept in splendid
order this cannot happen, because the heat is passed
through the metal to the water which surrounds it ; but if
the conducting power of the plating should be checked by
chemical deposit, we may then expect its rapid and pre-
mature destruction.

This is what may be termed a practical view of the
case, although only from one point of observation. Its
commercial aspect has, however, been to some extent
indicated by the recent voyages of Messrs. Smith & Son's
S.S. " City of Venice," and also the sister steamer " B,"
owned by the same Company, the former vessel having
been worked under the forced draught system, and the
latter with natural draught only.

The gross tonnage of the " City of Venice" is 3,372,
and her quadruple engines are about 1,700 horse -power ;
whilst steamer " B " has a tonnage of 3,229, and is driven

CHAP. xxx. AND SOCIALL Y CONSIDERED. 471

by an equally effective set of triple machinery, both ships
being fitted with duplicate propellers. Under these cir-
cumstances, the average daily consumption of coal by the
former during the round voyage to Calcutta was 24 tons,
and by the latter 32^2 tons, thus indicating a total saving
of 430 tons of coal, or 22^ per cent, on the run out and
home at practically the same speed for both vessels.

From this it appears that forced draught is so profit-
able that all the shipowners would be induced to adopt it,
unless restrained by the prejudiced judgment of their
superintending engineers. These gentlemen, however,
have a curiously aggravating way of viewing every innova-
tion that comes before them in an all round fashion, and
of treating the enthusiastic statements of inventors as if
they understood what was said, but did not quite see
what was meant. Some of them, for instance, will pro-
bably enquire " how much of the 22^ per cent, gain in the
* City of Venice ' is due to her quadruple engines ? ^
Others, while acknowledging the value of such a result,
will at once tell you that « if it can be satisfactorily
proved that the present advantage of forced draught is
not neutralised by increased wear and tear, by premature
renewal of the boilers, and by other incidental consider-
ations, then by all means let us have it."

Quadruple engines are now made of various designs,
from three horse-power to 10,000 horse-power or upwards,
to suit the requirements of those who wish them. Messrs.
Denny are extensive makers of machinery of their own
style, a handsome set of which was recently fitted to the
S.S. "Buenos Ayres" of 4,300 horsepower, and having
cylinders 32", 46*", 64*", and 92" diameter by 5' o" stroke.
Her crank shaft is 18" diameter, and the working pressure

472 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxx.

of steam 180 pounds per square inch. If anything can
improve the beauty of this class of engines, it would be the
adoption of sheet steel lagging for the cylinders, instead of
mahogany, as it would give them a true metallic appear-
ance and is easily kept clean, whereas the latter looks
inappropriate, and soon becomes irreclaimably dirty.

The most distinctive type is one specially designed by
Messrs. Fleming & Ferguson of Paisley. Here we have
two cylinders placed on each side of the crank shaft,
which will be clearly understood upon reference to the
annexed plate taken from a photograph of the 1,600 horse-
power engines of the S.S. " Singapore."

The design is entirely out of the beaten track, one
peculiarity being the arrangement of the cylinders as
described, and the other the adoption of a triangular
connecting rod, as shown, which by the alternate motion
of the piston rod at each end, produces an effect with only
two cranks directly opposite each other, similar to that
obtained with four cranks at an angle of forty-five
degrees with each other. By placing the whole of
the cylinders on the same level, all the valves, covers,
and pistons, can be examined, or taken off, or taken out,
with the greatest ease. The machinery is very simple
and compact, especially in a fore and aft direction, and
the performances of engines already supplied to steamers
have given every satisfaction, whilst in the case of the
** Singapore," the coal consumption on trial trip was only
i-i2i pounds per horse-power per hour. It may be added
that the two valve casings for piston valves are between
the cylinders, and fit conveniently into spare spaces in
the design, which would otherwise remain unoccupied.
Port passages to cylinders are very short, and heat
radiated from casings, etc., is confined by and given out

QUADRUPLE ENGINES OF S.S. "SINGAPORE."— 1,600 HORSE POWER.

CHAP. xxx. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED, 475

again to the cylinders. There are also very few vital
working parts — four main bearings, two crank pins, and
two eccentrics for valves being all the revolving parts—
whilst in triples there are six main bearings, three crank
pins, and six eccentrics. These engines can therefore
readily replace old compounds without alteration of bulk-
heads.

The quadruples made by Messrs. Simpson, Strickland
& Co., of Dartmouth, are of a novel type, specially
adapted for launches and yachts of different sizes. A
large number have now been made for various Govern-
ments, and also for many firms and yacht owners in all
parts of the world, and the details have in every respect
been very carefully designed with a view to simplicity
and economy. It may be mentioned by way of example,
that a fifty feet launch, as above, has an approximate
speed of thirteen miles on a consumption of 25 pounds of
coal per hour, thus making the cost of fuel per day, of ten
hours, about two shillings and sixpence.

The very latest improvement in marine machinery is
the Two-cylinder-Compound engine invented by Mr.
Henry Turner, of Liverpool, which — for experimental
purposes — was recently fitted to the yacht " Water-
witch." The cylinders are 6" and 17$" diameter, by io|"
stroke, thus giving a ratio of i to 9, and the boiler has
been judiciously modified. Numerous trials have been
made to test the efficiency of the new engines, and
during one of them we had the pleasure of being an
observer. The following table will show by comparison
the difference between the results then obtained and those
of the S.S. " Meteor" already described :—

476

ENGINEERING, POPULARLY

CHAP. XXX.

TURNER ENGINE.

S.S.
" METEOR."

Totcil indic&tcci horsc~powcr

r/i '2Q

IQQd.

j't *7

1 yy^t

Pounds of water evaporated per hour from 212°

752

29860

of coal consumed per hour . .

4005

„ of water evaporated from 212° per Ib. of coal

ii'4

8-21

„ of coal burnt per I.H.P. per hour. .

1-215

2-01

Square feet of heating surface in boiler per I.H.P.

1-62

3'33

I. H.P. per square foot of grate surface

18-68

9-58

Pounds of coal consumed per sq. ft. of grate surface

22-6

I9-25

The funnel was smokeless during the trial, and the
machinery worked most satisfactorily. With engines on
the three crank principle, having a stroke of three to five
feet, also with a higher ratio of cylinder areas — say, i to
12 — thus giving 24 expansions instead of 19 as above, it
is expected that the coal consumption will not exceed
one pound per horse-power per hour. Indeed, when the
revolutions were increased to 480 per minute during the
preliminary trials, it proved to be even less than
this.

An important feature in the design is the arrangement
of the cylinders and valves, by means of which the former
are used alternately for steam pressure, and for forcing
hot air into the ashpit of the closed furnace of the boiler.
As this air is drawn from the tubes of a heater placed in
the uptake leading to the funnel, it raises the temperature
of the cylinders to such an extent as to prevent any loss
from condensation of steam owing to reduction of heat.
And as the pressure is only upon one side of each piston,
the other two sides are left free for hot blast purposes.

For large ships, two or three sets of tandem engines
may be used, or they may be made similar to those of the

CHAP. xxx. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 477

S.S. "Umbria," etc., that is, with one high pressure
cylinder supplying steam to two of low pressure of equal
diameter. In this case, however, steam is used on
both sides of the high pressure piston, expanded alter-
nately on one side of each of the others as before, and
then changed into water as usual in the condenser, which,
with all its gear, remains unaltered.

The above remarks have been confirmed by a recent
accident to the triple machinery of a New Zealand
steamer. The intermediate engine of this vessel became
disabled at sea, and it was therefore disconnected from
the other two, the high pressure of which was worked as
formerly. During the rest of the voyage it was shown
that under the temporary arrangement the high and low
pressure engines alone produced the same power and
speed as before, with the same coal consumption.

Some of the leading superintending engineers, and
others, have carefully watched the development of the
new system, and efforts are now being made in influential
quarters to utilise it on a large scale.

In previous chapters reference has been made to the
varied effects of breakdowns, and also to the materials of
which screw propellers are formed. The late terrible
disaster to a whole fleet of ships at Samoa will help
to emphasise these remarks. When the storm which
destroyed the squadron was at its height, and H.M.S.
" Calliope " was crawling out to sea at the rate of about
half a knot an hour, with the machinery pressed to its
utmost, the most insignificant accident would have caused
her loss with all on board. But quite apart from this,
the greatest credit must be given to her manganese
bronze propellers. Had they been of steel the ship would
still have been lost, as the very latest facts have proved

478 ENGINEERING, POPULARLY CHAP. xxx.

that about half a knot extra may generally be expected
from steamers having screws of the former metal.

This in itself means considerable economy, which is
shown by the performances of various ships. For instance,
when the P. and O. S.S. " Ballarat " had her speed thus
improved, she saved about 715 tons of coal on the voyage
out and home from Australia. Still more remarkable is
the fact that the S.S. " Australia " and " Zealandia,"
running between Melbourne and San Francisco, had their
speed increased nearly one knot by the use of bronze
screws of the same diameter, pitch, and surface as before.
This enabled them to perform the voyage in two days less
time, and obtain the postal premium, which paid many
times over the cost of the alterations.

It may also be added that some of the great ocean
lines are extensively adopting the same metal, notwith-
standing its high price, on account of the advantages it
confers. Mr. Willis, however, informs me that the Scotch
engineers are highly pleased with his method of protect-
ing steel screw blades from corrosion. It is therefore
quite possible that the shipowners throughout the country
will use it before long, as they can thus obtain the above
results at much less cost.

We began with the eight knot " Sirius," and end with
the twenty-one knot "Teutonic." "Any advance on
this ? " — as the auctioneers say. Well, yes, much every
way — in time.

It is said that during the first visit of a well known
English frigate to Sydney, the officers were so frequently
asked — " Have you seen our harbour ? " or, " What do
you think of it ? " that the next time they came, they
facetiously adorned one of the sails with the inscription in
large letters— " WE'VE SEEN YOUR HARBOUR!"

CHAP. xxx. AND SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. 479

To this lovely spot on the earth's surface, the future
mail liners will run at twenty-one knots an hour, and
very probably the " lightning " racers of the Atlantic will
have a twenty-five knot speed. The aforesaid torpedo
boats exceed this, and so also may passenger steamers
with improved boilers and higher pressures, quick-running
steel-built engines of greater power, and fine lined hulls.

The last two chapters, have been unavoidably heavy,
though I hope useful to many, if not to all. The worst
feature, however, of technical literature is the difficulty
of enlivening it. If we could only adopt a lighter style,
the scientific truths intended to be conveyed would be
more easily read, more clearly understood, and more per-
manently fixed in the mind, on account of the relief thus
given to the student.

The volume now at an end was originated by a
holiday visit to the Clyde after many years' absence,
and by the flood of sunny memories which that visit
awakened. Its preparation has been a source of great
pleasure from first to last, and it would be very ungrateful
if I did not here record that much of the happiness I have
tried to reflect in its pages has been due to the pursuit of
engineering. Her disappointments have been numerous
but variously beneficial, and above all, she has most
handsomely taught me to find the true rest for the
weary — a rest ever present amidst the vacillations and
uncertainties of life, and thus, in one sense, I have
become enriched.

It would be unkind if I did not refer to my good
friends the gentlemen of the legal profession, with which
I have been closely connected all my life, as many of my
own relatives have been in its ranks— on the Bench,
at the Bar, and as solicitors. Legal practitioners are

480 ENGINEERING, ETC. CHAP. xxx.

generally most courteous and humorous, but they never
appear more charmingly interesting than when hilariously
excited by the replies of a witness — by their own extem-
poraneous witticisms — or when we are honoured with
their assistance in solving those knotty points of equity so
frequently to be found in our own practice.

One of their order — the city Coroner of Liverpool — is
a splendid specimen of his class. Some years ago the
designer of a high level bridge scheme tried to explain its
peculiarities to this gentleman, and after a short con-
versation exclaimed, " It's easily seen that you are no
engineer."

" Exactly soji" said the ever genial and witty Coroner,
" exactly so, but to me it is very evident that you are not
a civil one."

I certainly cannot close this treatise without offering
my best wishes for health and prosperity to the ladies and
gentlemen who are shipowners,^ and to shipbuilders and
engineers in every branch of the service, with their wives
and daughters, their sisters, cousins, and aunts, and
also — their intended relations.

I have endeavoured to take the non-professionals of
both sexes behind the scenes, and to explain to them in a
free, open, unrestrained style, what I have learnt for
myself in the delightful study and practice of engineering.
May I therefore hope that this new edition has proved so
attractive as to cause readers of every class to share in
the regret with which we say to all — Farewell !

INDEX.

ACCIDENTS in ship yards, page 69.
Air compressed as a motive power,

430.

great works in Birmingham, 431.
Shone's system of sewerage and

drainage, 431.
"Algerian" S.S. with new 7 to I

compound cylinders, 448.
"Amazon," West India Mail P.S.

on first voyage, 329.
heated bearings, 330.
on fire — awful scenes, 332.
ungovernable engines, 332.
end of, 334.

practical lessons from, 339.
"Anglian" S.S. after being tripled,

443» 447-
Apprentices in Denny's, 40.

Laird's, 59, 62.

in general, 71, 74.
Apprentice, ambitious, in Napier's,

63-

an, starting in the works, 15.
sketch of an idle, 71.
career in works and drawing

office, 72.

certificate on leaving, 73.
how he gets into works, 74, 78.
the premiumed, 75.
the fox hunting, 76.
system on Clyde, 76.
origin of premium system, 79,
James Nasmyth as an, 79, 84.
use of the idle, 81.
in marine works, 81.
in other works, 82.
false steps at the outset, 83.
useful hints to the, 86.

Archimedes and his works, page 97.
Hero and Euclid in a new light,

99.

Atlantic commanders, 305.
"Atlas" S.S. on fire, 321.
Australia, engineering in, 414, 417.
early life in, 415.
journey through the interior to

Sydney, 417.

departure for London, 419.
at sea, 420.

end of the voyage, 426.
life in the present mail liners to,
426.

" BAINES JAMES," sailing ship, 242.
Belgian iron, 31.
"Bengal" P. & O. S.S., 42.
" Bentinck " S.S. experiments with
triple and compound engines
448.

Board of Trade examinations, 215.
Boilers, supervision of, 228.

and their difficulties, 226, 229.

cause of corrosion in, 463.

connections in ship, 280.

dreadful explosion, 232.

economy of heat in, 233.

Fairbairn's experiments, 234.

forced draught in, 469.

hydraulic testing, 232.

increased pressures in, 229.

non-conducting coverings, 232.

processes of manufacture, 235.

proportioning, 205.

rational science rule, 206.

steel, and their failures, 228.

steel, reduced weight of, 449.

482

INDEX.

Boilers, strange accident, 464.

table of horse power per ton, 469.

water tube, and their failures, 466.

water tube, and their critics, 468.
Books, engineer's note, 148.

useful, on calculations, 140, 142,

144.
Breakdowns at sea, 177, 212, 214,

316.

Bridge engineer's and their calcul-
ations, 145.
Bridgewater, Duke of, and his

canals, 5.
Bridges, timber, in America, 107.

various kinds of, 104.

wire rope suspension, 106.
Building yard, the, 237.
Bulkheads, watertight, 238, 284.
Burns and Maclver in 1830, 53.
Burton, Mr., and his visitor, 213.

CALCULATIONS, empirical, 143*

148.

Calculation, graphic method of, 140.
systems of, 136.

systems of, true science, 137, 143.
valuable books, 140, 142, 144.
" Calliope," H.M.S., and her pro-
pellers, 477.

Canal, ancient Suez, 96.
Bridgewater, 6.
engineering, 5.
steamboat first on, 184.
steamboat, "Lord Dundas," 186.
steamboat, dangerous voyage,

188.
steamboat, discovery of compass

deviation, 189.
towage, Houston's experiments

on, 185.
towage, Fairbairn's experiments

on, 186.
Canals, cable towage on, 191.

steam power on, 190.
"Challenger," H.M.S., Scientific
expedition, 424.

Chemistry, destructive power of,

462.

"City of Paris," S.S., 245.
"City of Venice," S.S., forced

draught in, 470.
" Civil " engineering, meaning of

the term, 93.
use of the term, 95.
various branches of, 94, 104.
Clients, peculiarities of, 400.
Mr. O'Brien, 400.
his law case, 401.
survey of iron-work machinery,

403-

a " valuable invintion," 404.
report of the works, 405.
trial begun, 406.
Mr. O'Brien as a witness, 406.
a reticent Q.C., 407.
results of the trial, 408.
various kinds of, 410.
Coal in long voyage steamers, 458.
Collapse, strange, inside a boiler,

464.

Collisions, fatal, 339.
" Columba," river steamer, 46.
"Competitions," how conducted,

386.

Eatanswill bridge, 387.
" invitation " to engineers, 388.
plans received, 389.
the town councillors, 389.
. the borough surveyor, 389.
his draughtsman, 390.
councillors' opinions of plans,

•392.

results of the, 393, 398.
skill and labour required, 395.
improved system of, 397.
iron pier, 398.
".Compound," misleading use of

the term, 233.

Turner's new two cylinder en-
gines, 475.

Turner's trial trip, particulars of,
475-

INDEX.

483

Conflagrations, unaccountable, 334.
Construction, faulty, of early en-
gines, 134.

ruling principles in, 221.
Constructive machinery, 25.
Contract, preliminaries of, for ships

and engines, 118.
Corliss's valves in marine engines,

19, 20.

Coroner's reply to the C.E., 480.
Corrugated furnaces, 429.
Crank shafts, how made, 153, 223.

of iron and steel, 153.

of S.S. " City of.Rome," 154.

formula for triple, 208.
" Crisp word of command," 293.
Cunard steamers in 1850, 50.

company, origin of, 53.

DENNY BROS', engineering works,

1852 to 1857, 28.
new works of, 441.
William among the " fifties," 37.
Design, new and improved, for

compound engines, 19.
Designing machinery, 122, 199.
Designs for ironclads, 131.
Deviation of compass, discovery of,

189.
Dimensions, method of recording

leading, 139.

Displacement of a ship, 271.
Drainage and reclamation of land,

107.
Draughtsman's chief qualifications,

125, 178.

swell from Maudslay's ?, 129.
Draughtsmen at Laird Bros', works,

59-
Drawing office calculations, 134.

instruments, 91.

non-professional advisers, 126.

plans, arrangement and number-
ing of, 130, 203, 210

power for good or evil, 149.

practice in Laird's, 128.

Drawing office, practice in early

days, 128, 135.
the, 121.
Drawings, arrangement of, in office,

130, 203.

detection of errors in, 154.
" picture," 131.

system in preparing working, 127.
working, 65.

working, primitive style of, 68.
Dreams, profitable, 371.
Dumbarton among the " fifties,"

28, 34-

revisited among the " eighties,"
41.

EGYPTIAN MONARCH'S treasure

house, 165.
Electric engines for pumping, &c.,

435-

for ships, railways, &c., 459.
Ellington, Mr., useful hints for, 212.
Engine, compound, invention of, 17.
Elder's improved, 17.
epidemic in 1868, 18.
power, proportion to speed of

ships, 163.

room smashes, 214, 317, 367.
room mystery, an, 361.
Engineer, chief, of H.M.S. " Cap-
tain," 63.

general utility, the, 69.
Japanese chief, 10.
superintending, duties of, 176.
working dress of the,,'92.
Engineering and shipbuilding,

changes in, 247, 250.
" Civil," among the ancients,

1,96.

as it was and is, 101.
meaning of the term, 93.
early development of, 12.
errors, 67, 253.
good and bad, 123.
in Newcastle district, 440.
made easy, 214.

INDEX.

Engineering and Shipbuilding,
master strokes of design, 429.

past and present, 428.

practice of, 1 1 6.
Engineering, professional, and other

advisers, 126.
Engineers of ships, 307.

three classes of, 124.

who should be, 85.
Engines, atmospheric gas, 432.

compressed air, 430.

faulty construction of, 134.

finishing touches of, 255.

modern types of, 251, 290.

" new and improved design," 19.

particulars of, for estimating, 117.

principle of economy in, 292.

quadruple, 462.

sketching in the works, 35.

starting the, 276.

steeple, 43.

Turner's new " two cylinder com-
pound," 475.

Turner's trial trip particulars, 475.

vaporised spirit, 461.

various, in progress, 16, 151.
Erecting shop, activity in, 216, 221.

plate of, 219.

engine, foundations in, 222.
Errors in drawings, detection of,

154-

Estimate, cause of variations in, 197.

the " lowest " 194, 197.
" Etruria," S.S. Cunard, 170, 436.
Euclid and his science, 99.
"Euphrates," H.M.S., 70.

FAIRBAIRN'S works in Manchester

and at Mill wall, 13.
his character, 14.
Favre Louis, the tunnel contractor,

103.

Ferries, railway steamer, 102.
Fitting processes in engine details,

219.
Flag signalling at sea, 303.

Flags of ships, 262, 304.
Floods, gigantic, no.
Forced draught in boilers, 469.
Foremen in Denny's works, 38.

in Laird's works, 64, 67.

in various works, 68, 345.
Forge at a marine work, 385.

Mersey, Liverpool, 286.
Forgings and castings, first for

engine, 152.

Formulae, simple, in the works, 137.
Forth Bridge, 105.

GALLEYS, ANCIENT WAR, 240.

Gas, atmospheric, engines, 432.

Galvanic action in screw shafts,
224.

General arrangement, plan of en-
gines, 157.

Good and bad engineering, 123.
health, secret of, 133.

Goodwin Sands, origin of, 108.

Graphic system of calculation, 140.

Guns, monster, constructive mach-
inery, 249.

HAND LABOUR, past and present,

39-

" Happy man," a, amongst engin-
eers, 44.

Hardinge's, Charles, promotion,

341.

Harland, Sir E. J., career of, 84.
"Hell-fireTom," 10.
Henderson, Captain, 273.
Hero of Alexandria, 97.
Hoang-Ho disaster, no, 112,
Horse power required to drive ships,

205.
Hydraulic power, 430.

INDICATOR CARDS, 298, 301.

"double extra," and coal con-
sumption, 457.
Inventions, highly profitable, 22.

engineer's, patented, 344, 412.

INDEX.

485

Inventors and their difficulties, 23.

hints to, 412.

" Improvements," result of inju-
dicious, 150.
Ironclad and gun competition, 248.

" Sardegna," Italian, 249.
Ironclads, machinery designs for,

I3I-

Iron work speculation, an, 400.

JAPANESE chief engineer, 10.

engineering students, 10.
Judkin's, Captain, passenger, 51.

in the P.S. "Scotia" during a
fog, 306.

KENT flooded by a gap in the

Thames embankment, 108.
Knots and loops, 222.
and miles, 246.

LABOUR, hand and machine, 17.
Lagging sheet steel in engines,

472.
Laird Bros, and H.M.S. " Agin-

court," 54, 58.
draughtsmen and apprentices, 59,

62.

foremen and workmen, 64, 69.
works at Birkenhead, 56.
Land, drainage and reclamation of,

107.

" Larboard " and " starboard," 283.
Lathe, turning the, 259.
Launch failures, 265.
Launch of H.M.S. " Black Prince,"

269.

Launches, electric engines in, 459.
Launching a ship, method of, 267,

270.
Leading proportions of engines and

boilers, 209.

Legal profession and engineers, 479.
Lifting of heavy weights, 221.
Lignumvitse screw shaft bearings,

285.

Liquid fuel in locomotives and fac-
tories, 460.
in steamers, 460.

Little things in engineering, im-
portance of, 200.
Locomotive superintendent, death

of a, 342.
the new, 344.

his patent tyre fastening, 345.
life of a, 354.
Log book records, 457.
Losses, unaccountable, at sea, 324,

327.

" Lusitania," S.S,, after being
tripled, 444, 448, 458.

MACDONALD, Mr. the superintend-
ing engineer, 158, 172.

his ideas of screw propulsion, 172.

important discovery, 173.

" improvements," and his, 200.

style of reasoning, 214.
Machine labour, 17.

"perpetual motion," 400.
Machinery, "cheap," 198.

constructive in various works, 25.

hydraulic, 430.

in general, 198.

of S.S. "Rosalind," 199.

what it did at the North London

Railway Works, 24.
Maclver, Charles, 439.

his wonderful pilot, 49.
Mail steamers, drill in, 323.

when to see, 308, 314.
Manager of works, 178.
" Marco Polo " sailing ship, 243.
Marine engine, design and con-
struction, 204.

different kinds of, 16.

engineering, origin of, 179.

first experiment on Forth, 182.

propulsion, ancient, 181.
Memory, science of, 382.
Mental strains of overworked en-
gineers, 369.

486

INDEX.

Mersey passenger traffic, 314.
"Meteor," S.S., experimental trip,

455-
Mississippi, shortening of, in.

steamers on the, 180.
Mistakes, costly, 253.
Moon-poisoning at sea, 421.

NAPIER'S, ROBERT, famous inter-
view with Mr. Cunard, 52.
Lancefield and Vulcan Works, 53.

Names of ships, 260.

Nasmyth, James, as an apprentice,
79-

Navigation, beginning of, 238.
early Australian, 244.

Neilson & Co., Glasgow, 42.

Note books, engineer's, 148, 390.

Number of parts in marine mach-
inery, 221.

OCEAN STEAMER breakdown, and

valuable discovery, 476.
*' One man," the system in great

movements, 439.
Operations, preliminary, in building

a ship, 152.
Optical delusions, 171.
Ordnance survey of the United

Kingdom, 113.

Origin of Cunard Company, 53.
"Orinoco," S.S., chief engineer of,

363.
shaky engines of, 363.

PADDLE WHEEL, 180.
Painting of machinery, 255.
Pattern shop, 91.
"Persia," P.S., Cunard, 51.

David Kirkaldy's, drawing of,

278.
Petroleum in boilers of land and

marine engines, 460.
Pilots of ships, 49, 311.
Plans, unnecessary alteration of 202.
" Practical man," the, 441.

Practice, private, how I com-
menced, 373.
leave the works, 374.
advice of friends, 375.
new movements, 376.
difficulties overcome, 377.
cause of difficulties in, 378.
useful hints, 379.
compiling note books, 381.
"President," P.S., original adver-
tisement, 323.

departure on last voyage, 323.
old and new captains, 323.
in a storm, 325,
the missing, 326.
theories concerning the lost, 326.
Pressure of wind, 36.
Professional literature, how to use,

38o.

Profitable inventions, 22.
Promotion by influence, 346.
Propeller, screw, peculiarities of,

1 60.
Propellers of H.M.S. "Calliope,"

and other ships, 477.
" Willis' protected," 478.
Proportions, standard drawing

office, 147.
Pumping operations on a vast scale,

107.

Pupils, premiumed, 75.
Pyramid, Great, construction of,
96.

QUADRUPLE ENGINES, 462, 471.

for yachts and launches, 475.

of S.S. " Buenos Ayres," 471.

new style in S.S. " Singapore,"

472.
Quantities in engineering work, 396.

RACING on the Mississippi, 230.
Railway, annihilated " coo " on
the, 10.

electric engines, 460.

engineering, 379.

INDEX.

487

Railway, Liverpool and Manchester,
origin of, 6.

Q.C., early days of the, 8.

serious obstacles, 6.

scientific witness, 7.

speculative mania, 7.

stories, ghastly, n.

travelling, past and present, 353.

travelling, in America, 354.

travelling, safety of, 319, 341.

Woosung, history of, 9.
Report, an engineer's, 356.
Rig of ships, 263.
Rivers, freaks of alluvial, in.
Roberts, Richard, 27.
"Rosalind," S.S., particulars of,
120.

lines on mould loft floor, 152.

working model of, 152.

boiler plans for, 152.

engines begun in works, 152.

shafting plan of, 156.

general arrangement plan, 156.

positions of engines and boilers,
158.

Mr. Macdonald's arrival on the
scene, 158.

Mr. Macdonald, his ideas of screw
propulsion, 160.

leading dimensions of machinery,
206.

engines taken down, 259.

launch of, 264.

starting the engines, 276.

in the Mersey, 279.

description of interior, 280.

engine room of, 282, 286.

pumping machinery, 283.

screw shaft tunnel, 284.

materials of engines, 286.

before trial trip, 289, 298.

control of engines, 290.

appliances on board, 294, 297.

during trial trip, 298.

grand saloon, 299.

" running the mile," 300.

" Rosalind," S.S., off in mail tender

to, 309.
owners of, 310.
final visit before sailing, 311.
passengers of, 312.
sails on first voyage, 313.
Row, midnight from Glasgow to

Greenock, 45.

"Royal Mail Steam Packet Com-
pany," 340.
Rules, simple, for calculations, 138,

I43» 145-
complicated, 142.
empirical, 143.

" Russia," S.S., man overboard,
322.

SAILS, origin of, 239.

self-reefing, 241.
Scientific witness, the, 402, 409.
" Scotia," Cunard P.S., 52.
Screw propeller blades, cost of in

different metals, 169.
propeller, thickness of, 169.
propeller, formation of, 167.
propeller, cause of destructive

corrosion, 168.
compared with paddle-wheel,

171, 180.
experiments, 166.
feathering, Bevis', 168.
" negative slip " mystery, 165.
of various materials, 168.
on canals, 192.
particulars of S,S. " Etruria's,"

170.

peculiarities of the, 160, 166.
" positive slip " of, 164.
"Willis' protected," 169.
Screw propulsion, intricacies of, 163.
Mr. Bouverie?s ideas of, 172.
Mr. Macdonald's ideas of, 160,

172.
Seagoing engineers, duties and

peculiarities of, 307.
two inventive, 19.
GG

INDEX.

Seagoing experiences of Mr. Mac-

donald, 211, 214.
Shafts, crank, and screw, 223.

failures of, 224.

history of, 153.

destructive galvanic action in,
224.

repairs after a smash, 212.
Shafting, plan for " Rosalind," 156.
Ship, a coffin, 358.
Ship-building, ancient, 239.
Ship-owner's commercial troubles,

455-
objections to " new and improved

engines," 21.

Ships, control of, from bridge, 294.
distinguishing marks, 260.
engine-power proportions. 163.
engine-power calculated, com-
pared with actual power at
different speeds, 205.
Froude's experiments upon fluid

resistance of, 170, 204.
mechanical appliances, 241.
modern clipper, 242, 244.
particulars for estimating, 117.
" Shrinking on " process, 223.
Signalling, flag, at sea, 303.
Silting process in rivers, 1 10.
Sketching engines in the works, 35.
Slings, loops, and knots, 222.
Sound, extraordinary transmission

of, 422.
Soundings, deepest ocean, 425.

deep sea, 423.
Specifications, 195, 396.
" Special " machinery, 26.
Steam, expanded, economy of, 445.
expanded, useful tables of, 446.
navigation, early experiments,

182.

navigation on canals, 190.
pipe disaster at sea, 200.
power in volcanoes, 425.
ship's performances, peculiarities
of, 455-

Steam ships, the future of, 478.

winches, 297.

Steamer " Britannia," the pioneer
Cunarder, 4.

" Britannia," cutting a channel
through the ice for, 4.

"British Queen," 3.

first, to India, 2.

first, defective machinery, 2.

first, failure of undertaking, 3.

first Sunday, on Clyde, 45.

" Great Western," 3.

" Inverary Castle," 44.

" Sirius," 3.
Steamers, Cunard, in 1850, 50.

Cunard, first iron, 50.

Cunard and other, 320.

fastest long voyage, 244.

latest mail, 307.

modern, on Clyde, 46.

railway ferry, 102.

swiftest river, 246.
Steel, " burnt," 236.

in engines and boilers, 449.
Steering gear, 294.
Storm, effects of a dreadful, 36.
Strikes among workmen in ship-
yards, 30.

evils of, 31.

the delegate, 33.

Superintending engineer and bad
workmanship, 194.

duties of, 176, 196.

Macdonald, 159.

Superstitions of modern times, 62.
Sydney to London in 1845, 414.

" TABLES " OF PROPORTIONS for

drawing office, 146, 148.
Thames, the, as it was, 108.
Tod and Macgregor, Glasgow, 42,

53-

Tools required in works, 91.
Towage on canals, 190.
Trial-trip, a disastrous, 348.
visit from a ship-owner, 349.

INDEX.

489

Trial-trip, "Ship for sale," 350.
engaged for, 350.
Mr. Coventry, the agent, 355,

359-

bad workmanship, 361.

high speed, 365.

loss of the ship, 367.

the first, 183.

Trial-trips, unsuccessful, 302.
Triple-expansion engines, 442.

ship-owner's ideas of, 443.

economy of, in long voyage ships,

443-

cause of economy in, 444.
useful steam tables, 446.
compared with compound, 447,

457-

space occupied by, 449.
weight of, 449.
steel in construction of, 450.
latest style of, 453.
wear and tear in, 454.
management at sea, 454.
coal, consumption of, 455-
S.S. " Meteor's " experimental

trip, 455-

log-book, records of, 457.
break-down at sea, and strange

discovery, 476.
cycle of operations in working,

252.
description of, in the works, 220,

251.
experiments with, and compounds

in same ship, 448.
proportions of, 207.
Tunnel gear of " Rosalind," 284.
Tunnels, great railway, 102.
Turner's new two-cylinder com-
pound engines, 475-
Turnery, heavy, at marine works,

'256.
Turning gear, uses of, 253.

"UMBRIA" and ''Etruria," S.S.,
436.

VALVES, CORLISS'S, in marine

engines, 20.

Vaporised spirit engines, 461.
"Vestal," H.M.S., arrival of in

Sydney, 1844, 4*8.
Volcanoes, motive power in, 425.
Voyage from Sydney to London,

1845, 414.

departure for England, 419.
at sea, 420.
end of, 426.

WATER, destructive action of, in

rivers, 112.
destructive action of, in boilers,

465-
peculiarities of, for screw pro-

pulsion, 161.
purifying apparatus for boilers,

466.

tube boilers, 466.
tube boilers and their critics,

468.
"Watt, Jeems, the inventor o1

steam," 454.
Weight of floating bodies, how to

calculate, 271.

" We've seen your harbour," 478.
Whitworth's fluid com pressed steel,

153-

machinery, 15.

Windlass and capstan steam, 297.
Wind pressures, 36.
Witness, the scientific, 402.
Working drawings, 65.

system in preparation of, 127.
Workmanship bad, 193.
Workmen, strikes among, 30.
Works of Denny Bros., 28, 441.

Harland and Wolff, 84.

Laird Bros., 55, 373, 441.

Marine and locomotive, differ-
ence between, 55.

repairing, 88.

Sewing Machine Co., on the
Clyde, 49.

490

INDEX.

Works of Sir Charles Palmer, at
Jarrow, 435.

Sir William Fairbairn, 13.
Workshop dress, 92.

practice, past and present, 86.

YARDS, double-topsail, 241.
self- reefing, 241.

" Yorkshireman," P.S., penalty for
delay in building, 38.

loss of, 38.

raising the wreck and reconstruc-
tion, 38.

handsome profit, 38.

ABSTRACTS OF REVIEWS OF FIRST
EDITION.

" It was a decidedly happy thought that prompted Mr. Haldane to
write a treatise on Civil and Mechanical Engineering for general reading,
and in this he has succeeded admirably. He has treated his subject in a
broad and intelligent manner, and has interspersed some capital stories and
reminiscences that give a bright, lively tone to a work of great value, which
is written with conspicuous ability, and rich in instructive and enter-
taining matter." — Morning Post.

"Mr. Haldane's intention has been to try to interest everyone in the
science in which he is a practical proficient, and he has, on the whole,
admirably carried out his conception." — Saturday Review.

" It is but fair to say that most ' popular ' scientific works, as generally
constructed, are designed not to be read, but to be given away as gifts or
prizes. There are a few, however, which have the rare distinction of
being readable. To this few undoubtedly belongs Mr. J. W. C. Haldane's
book on Civil and Mechanical Engineering.'1'' — The Scotsman.

" The interest of a subject depends on the way in which it is handled ;
and Mr. Haldane so deals with Engineering Popularly and Socially Con-
sidered^ that not only those who want to know what to do with their boys,
but readers of all kinds will not lay down his book until they have read it
th rough ." — Graphic.

" The graphic description of the life of a mechanical engineer and of
its achievements — the salient features of the work of a constructing and
consulting marine engineer — stories of the errors of engineering, &c., make
a most interesting volume. — Scientific American.

11 This production of Mr. Haldane's is a welcome novelty in the field of
engineering literature. It contains much useful information, and embodies
the ideas gleaned in a thirty-five years' professional experience. Altogether
the volume commends itself for both pleasant and profitable reading, and
well carries out the intent of the author." — American Engineering News.

" A very interesting and valuable record of the great improvements
already made, and of the life and experience of a practical engineer. It
abounds with a variety of useful information as to the different branches of
the science. In fine, we have much pleasure in recommending Mr.
Haldane's most attractive book to all readers who wish to become intimate
with the operations of so important a science, especially when the details
are set forth with such clearness and in so pleasing a style." — Irish Times.

" The personal experiences of the author fill several very entertaining
chapters, while the whole volume is written in a style that will greatly
interest general readers. Mr. Haldane says, ' The reason why so many
false steps are made in the choice of engineering as a profession is
attributable, on the one hand, to a want of proper knowledge of what is
required of them by those who wish to enter it, and on the other hand,

to unsuitability, or want of application, on the part of those who feel some-
what inclined to study it.' The present work will be useful in enabling
some of these difficulties to be overcome, by making known the exact
requirements of an engineer's workshop." — The Daily Chronicle.

" Those who imagine that books of this character are dry and not worth
their attention, will find themselves undeceived on taking up and perusing
this volume ; in short, the whole work deserves the highest praise, and
reflects much credit upon the author." — Liverpool Mercury.

" Eminently readable and instructive is Mr. J. W. C. Haldane's
Civil and Mechanical Engineering. There is hardly a department of
mechanical engineering he is not practically acquainted with, and hardly a
member of any of those departments but will find in this work something
to interest, to amuse, and to edify." — Western Mail.

"Mr. Haldane's is a book which only a veteran expert could h c
written. It is a series oi reminiscences, personal and professional, and,
while highly entertaining to the general reader, is full of suggestiveness and
stimulus to the young engineer or shipbuilder." — Newcastle Daily Leader.

" The work may at once be pronounced an eminent success. The
author recommends the perusal of four chapters by those who desire a
glimpse of the secrets of private practice, and these will be found full of
suggestion and instruction, but were we to particularise any chapter as
deserving of special attention, we should certainly select that relating to
apprentices. His reminiscences of Messrs. Laird Brothers' Works are
delightful reading."— -Journal of Commerce.

"A most valuable book, and altogether the volume is sure to be of
very great interest to all concerned." — Shipping Telegraph.

" The work is a many-sided and fascinating one." — Liverpool Daily Post.

" There cannot be any doubt that a description of the inner life of the
works and those connected with them ; the system of management in great
establishments ; and the construction of ships and engines ; will prove both
interesting and instructive to readers of all classes, if treated in a free and
unconventional style. This Mr. Haldane has done, and the result is a
book which should be widely read." — The Textile Recorder.

" This book has a purpose which it is more likely to accomplish in its
free and unconventional style than if it had been written as a formal

treatise The chapters relating to private practice should be

carefully read by all who intend setting up on their own account. "-
Industries.

"The book is one to be read at home, and should be in the library

of every engineer and machinery user Shipowners will

find here information which will afford them considerable food for reflec-
tion and business digestion." — Machinery Market.

London: E. and F. N. SPON, 125 Strand.

New York : 12 Cortlandt Street.

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

APii 23 1S37

REC'D LD

OCI 5'65-10AM

APR SO 1942

iv riifi

SFP 7 1940

• 1* WJ

•

JUL 11 1845

.Oe

g&W*

>*»•-»,. ....

JAW 9 &

ttMav'fit' V

* ^CvH'u'

K^C'D LD

i,iflY201362

}59rf*(5Sff

MWWf

LD 21-100?n-8,'34

T.CIUM

it o </

Hi.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Civil and mechanical engineering : popularly and socially considered"

See other formats