The classical manual : an epitome of ancient geography Greek and Roman mythology, antiquities, and chronology

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Presented to the

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
LIBRARY

by the

ONTARIO LEGISLATIVE
LIBRARY

1980

SCHMITZ & ZUMPTJS
OZiilSSICAZ. SSRIES FOR SOHOOXiS.

BLANCHAKD AND LEA,

ISjlilnhlfjitE;

ABE PUBLISHINQ UNDER THE ABOVE TITLE,

A SERIES OF CLASSICAL SCHOOL eOOKS,

EDITED BY THOSE DISTINGUISHED SCHOLARS AND CRITIC*,

LEONHARD SOHMITZ AND 0. G-. ZUMPT.

The object of this publication is to present a series of elementary worki
■uited to the wants of the beginner, as well as accurate texts of the more pro-
minent ancient writers, revised in accordance with the latest investiga-
tions and MSS., and the most approved principles of modern criticism.—
These are accompanied with notes and illustrations introduced sparingly
avoiding on the one hand the error of overburdening the work with commen-
tary, and 01 the other that of leaving the student entirely to his own resources.
The main object has been to awaken the scholar's mind to a sense of the beau-
ties and peculiarities of his author, to assist him where assistance is neces-
sary, and to lead him to think and to investigate for himself For this pur-
pose maps and other engravings are given wherever useful, and each author
is accompanied with a biographical and critical sketch. The form in which
the volumes are printed is neat and convenient, while it admits of their being
sold at prices unprecedentedly low, thus placing them within the reach of many
to whom the cost of classical works has hitherto proved a bar to this depart-
ment of study. It will be seen, therefore, that the series combines the follow-
ing advantages:

1. A gradually ascending series of School Books on a uniform plan, so aa to
constitute within a definite number, a complete Latin Curriculum.

2. Certain arrangements in the rudimentary volumes, which will insure a
*»ir Rmount of knowledge in Roman literature to those who are not designed
fci ptofcBBioDcl lile,and who therefore will not require to extend their studiea
to the advanced portion of the series.

3. The text of each author will be such as has been consliluled by the most
recent collations of manuscripts, and will be prefaced by biographical and cri-
tical sketches in English, that pupils may be made aware of the character and
peculiarities of the work they are about to study.

4. To remove difficulties, and sustain an interest in the text, explanatory
notes in English will be placed at the foot of each page, and such comparisons
drawn as may serve to unite the history of the past with the realities of
modern times.

5. The works, generally, will be embellished with maps and illustrative
engravings, — accompaniments which will greatly assist the student's compre
hension of the nature of the countries and leading circumstances described.

6. The respective volunics will be issued at a price considerably less than
that usually charged : and as the texts are from the most eminent sources, and
the whole series constructed upon a determinate plan, the practice of issuing
new and altered editions, which is complained of alike by teachers and pupilf,
will be altogether avoided.

The series consists of the fallowing volumes, which have recently appeared
•r will Bliortly be ready ;

1

Schmitz and Znnipt's Classical Series— Coutinned^.

tl.) C. JULII CAESARIS COMMENT ARII DE BELLO
GALLICO. — With an Introduction, Notes, and a Geographical
Index in English. Also, a Map of Gaul, and Illustrative Engravings. Ia
one handsome 18mo. volume, of 232 pages, extra cloth, price 50 cts.

ai.) PUBLII VIRGILII MARONIS CARMINA.— With an

Introduction and Notes. In one handsome 18mo. volume, of 438 pagei,
extra cloth, price 75 cts.

(in.) C. CRISPI SALLUSTII CATILIN A ET JUGURTHA.

— With Introduction and Notes in English. Also, a Map of Numidia, an4
other Illustrative Engravings. In one handsome I8mo. volume, of 168
pages, extra cloth, price 50 cts.

aV.) LATIN GRAMMAR.— By Leonhard Schmitz. Ph. D.,
F. R. S. E., Rector of the High School, Edinburgh. In one handsome 18mo.
volume, of 318 pages, neatly half-bound, price 60 cts.

V.) Q. CURTII RUFI DE GESTIS ALEXANDRI MAGNI,

Libri Qui Supersunl VIII. With a Map, Introduction, English Nctea,
&.C In one handsome 18mo. volume, of 326 pages, price (50 cts.

(VI.) M. TULIill CICERONIS ORATIONES SELECT^K.

With Introduction, English Notes, &c. &c. In one handsome 18mo. volume,
of 300 pages, price 60 cts., {just issued.)

(VII.) T. LIVII PATAVInT~HISTORIARUM, Libri I. II.
XXI. XXII. With Two Maps, an Introduction, and English Notes. In
one handsome l8mo. volume, of 350 pages, price 70 cents, (now ready,)

(VIII.) A SCHOOL DICTIONARY OF THE LATIN LAN-
GUAGE.—By Dr. Kaltschmidt. In Two Parts, Latin-English,
and English-Latin. Forming one large and closely-printed voluaie, royal
18mo. of 850 double-column pages, strongly bound: price, $1 25.
Part I., Latin-English, of nearly 500 pages : price, 90 cts.
fart II., English-Latin, of nearly 400 pages : price, 75 cts.

(IX.) p. OVIDII NASONIS CARMINA SELECTA.— With
Introduction, English Notes, &.c. In one handsome 18mo. volume of 259
pages; price 60 cents.

(X.) Q. HORATII FLACCI POEMATA EXCERPTA.-

With Introduction, English Notes, &c. In one handsome 18mo. volume oi
312 pages ; price 60 cents.

(XI.) ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR AND EXER.

CISKS.— In one handsome 18rao. volume, of 235 pages* price 50 cents,

(XII.) LATIN READING AND EXERCISE BOOK.—

In one handsome 18mo. volume, {preparing.)

(XIII.) A COMPLETE SCHOOL CLASSICAL DICTION-
ARY.—In one large and handsome I8mo. volume, {preparing.)

The numerous advantages which this series possesses have secured for U
the unqualified approbation of almost every one to whom it has been sub-
mitted. From among several hundred recommendations, with which they
bav€ been favored, the publishers present a few from the following eminent
wbotars and practical teachers.

2

Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Series — Coutiunejt*

F^om. Trof. J. F. Richardson, Madison University, Oct. 27, 1849.
I gnre the Grammar at once a very careful examination, and have no heaitatioo i^
mying that, for the use of school and college classes, I consider the work superior to any
•iher Latin Grammar in our' language with which 1 am acquainted. I have alro»dy
directei! one of my classes to purchase copies of it. 1 shall also introduce in the coorM
•f the year your edition of Virgil and probably also tnat lA Osesar, both cf which I prefflf
te acy others as text books for our classes.

Frmn Prof. J. J. Owen, Free Jlcademy, JVeto York, Aug. 31, 1849.

I am highly pleased with vour excellent publications of the above series, and as anevi*

fmnci* of the e'stiraation in whicii I hold them, on my recommendation, your Virgil haa

t«*n adopted as a text-book in the Free Academy in this city. I shall be happy to oom-

maiA your series to all viilh. whom I may have any influence.

From Prof. J. B. Hudson, Oberlin College, O., Oct. 12, 1850.
I have examined the series of Elementary Classics published by Lea & Blanchard, and
take great pleasure in saying that I regard them as admirably adapted to secure the object
proposed. The text is a highly approved one and the typography has been rarely excelled
m works of this sort for clearness and beauty. 1 have detected fewer mistakes in th«
printing and pun^'^tuation of these books than in almost any works of a similar character
that I have seen. The maps too are a great help — an inaispen»>ib'e one indeed to the
preat majority of students who have no ancient atlas— in understandii.jj the geographical
allusions contained in the text. The selection of notes is judicious; u.?4 the whole
design and execution of the series commend it to the notice of those who wisti . ."» become
iudependeut and .soLf-relying scholars.

From Prof. J. Packard, Theological Seminary, Fairfax county, Firginia^

March ^, 1850.

The size of the volume, the beauty and correctness of the text, and the jndiciooe

*Dte8, not «o copious to supersede the industry of the pupil, seem to me to leave notliing

>o be desired. I doubt not your enterprise will be rewarded by your editions taking the

Jilace of others now in use. to which there are many objections, and I will do what in me
ies to promote their circulation.

fVom Prof. J. S. Bonsall, Frederick College, Mi., March 18, 1850.
Having used the first three volumes of the scries for more than a year. I am free t«
■ay, that I prefer them to any school editions of the same authors with which 1 am
acquainted.

From Prof. J. Forsyth, College of J^cw Jersey, March 19, 1850.
I am happy in being able to say that every successive volume has confirmed me in the
judgment formed on those first issued, and renews my delight that you have resolved ta
place the whole of this admirable series of classical authors within the reach oi Lvtn.
ean students. The Grammar is already in use in this college; and I 6ha.T co:JL«l7
recommend our students to procure your editions of such authors as we read.

From T. J. Sawyer, Esq., Clinton Liberal Institute, March 28, 1850.
We have paid them the compliment of making them our text-books and introducing
them at once into this institute. In size and price, in design and execution, they seem
to me better fitted for schools of this class than any others that have fallen under ray
observation. A neat and accurate text, and brief, but exolicit notes, constitute the prin-
cipal characteristics of a good classical school book. Tir^se distinguish your series, and
give them a claim to general diffusion.

From the Rev. J. J. Smyth, A. M., Sussex Court House, Va., April 6, 1850.

While at the head of the Petersw-p Classical Institute, I introduced your Caesar, Virgil
r.fl Sallust, as being in my judgmeiit ;l>e best school editions of these works that 1 have
■eeii. Since I have been in my present pastoral charge, I have been the means of having
the Caesar and Sallust introduced into two schools in this county. These works are •
happy medium between the mere text and the overloaded annotations which rendec
■ome editions but the clandestine refuge of idle school-boys.

From President Manly, University of Alabama, March 29, 1850.
So far as 1 may bo consulted, or have influence, I shall seek to recommend the on aC
thk well edited and cheap series, in all the preparatory schools of our regioB.

8

Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Scries— Continued*

Fr(m A. W. Pike, Esq., Kcnnehunk, Me., December 14, 1349,

1 have examined with much care and hi^h satisfaction, the first five volumes of yctl
edition of Drs. Schmitz and Zumpt's clsissical series. The plan and execution o£ the serle«
•re excellent. The notes appended to the several authors evince fully the sound jud^,-
ment and accurate criticism of the learned editors. They are sufficiently copious to me**
the wants of the student, without, at the same time, by their fulness, encouraging habitt
of indolence I have, for more than thirty years, been constantly engaged in teaching
the classi(;s, and 1 have not seen any edition of the Latin authors, usually read in o'Ur
•cademies, wliich 1 could commend so confidently, as the one you are pubUsliing.

From E. Everett, Esq., JJ'ew Orleans, December 14, 1849.
All these publications are valuable acquisitions to our classical and school libraries. I
•m particularly pleased with the Virgil ; the notes are a store of learning; they fumisii
the student with such hints on the manners and customs of the Romans as caimot fail to
■crve as important aids to the study of Roman history, at the same time that they throw
new light on the text of the great poet. They seem to me to be model notes : they &r»
neither so copious ss to enable the student to dispense with the exercise of judgment and
taste, nor so meagre as to leave difficult passages unexplained.

J<Vo^.'A'homas Chase, Esq., Cambridge, Mass., September 28, 1849.
I take gre-al pleasure in recommending the various volumes of Schmitz and Zumpt's
Classical Series, which have appeared in this country, as admirably adapted for the use
of schools. The character of the editors is a guarantee of the accuracy of the text and
the correctness of the annotations. The notes are prepared with careful scholarship and
nice discrimination, and the amount of information given on historical and grammatical
points is sufficient to satisfy the wants of the learner, while it is not so great as to be
prejudicial to his habits of study. We have introduced the editions of Caesar and of Vir
fy, comprised in this series,.into the High School in this city.

From R. B. Tschddi, Esq., JVorfolk Academy, May 31, 1849.
I received the fourth volume of your classical series and take great pleasure in inform-
ing you they have been the text-books recommended in this school since their first ap-
pearance. I have found the text and typographiowl execution equal, and in many respects
superior to any other editions that I have seen. Buttheir cheapness is destined to make
them take the place of all other school editions. Of course it will take time to assume
the place of works already in use, but I believe fully, at no distant day these will be the
sole editions in general use.

From A. Morse, Esq., J^antuckct ITigh School, July 20, 1849.

After a somewhat minute examination of the same, in which I have compared thenv,

line by line, with other edi-tions, edited by different gentlemen, which my classes-are now

reading, 1 have no hesitation in giving to the series, edited by Drs. Schmitz and Zumpt,

& decided preference to any with which I am acquainted.

jFVom R. H. Ball, Esq., JVortkumberland Academy, JiTovember 28, 1849.

This edition of the classics, so far, I greatly prefer to any other I have seen, for the us*

of schools. It combines the advantages of textual correctness, cheapness, and pre-emi-

nent ability in the annotations, three things especially desiralile in school books. 1 hav«

adopted this series, as far as issued, to the exclusion of all others.

From the Rev. E. A. Dalrymple, Episcopal High School of Virginia, JiTovem
her 27, 1849.
I have examined them with some care, and have pleasure in stating that they ai*
judiciously and carefully prepared for the use of schools and colleges. The notes are U
the point, and "what notes to classical authors should be, not so full as to amount to .
translation of the text, or so meagre as to give no satisfiactory information to the studci 4.
As the best evidence of my approval, I would state that it is my purpose to introduce
them, as occasion may arise, into the institution under my direction.

From Z. D. T. Kingsley, Esq., West Point, JV. Y., J^ovember 6, 1843.
I am very much pleased with the Csesar and Virgil, and presume 1 shall be equally m
with the Sallust. 1 shall adopt these Latin books for my school.

From Prof. A. F. Ross, Bethany College, Virginia, December 7, 1848.
^ My opinion of the Caisar you have already had expressed, and I will only add that my
mtetest in the completion of the series has been enhanced by the volumets which TOB
have forwaided me. I shall recommend them for adoption as the standard oourae in tha

BLANCHARD AND

Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Series — Coutiuued«

From J. S. Bonsall, Esq., Frederick College, Md., Feb. 5, 1849. •
A have examined them, and find them on all points what the reputation of the enuiUHrt

■ditors led me to expect Ironi them, and what they design the books to be.
I know not that i can give you a better proof of the estimation in which I ho fl thea^

Uian by simply saying that I am already usmg Caesar and Virgil of the series in mj ^inf^n

■nd expect very soon to introduce Sallust.

From Prof. N. L. Lindsley, Cumberland University, Tenn., Kov. 22, 1848.

I am very favourably impresred with the merits of Schmitz and Zumpt's classical serkw.
%) far as my engagements have permitted me to examine the " Virgil" and "Sallust," I
am induced to believe that they are superior to the other editions in common use.

1 shall take pleasure in recommending tliein to teachers and students in this vicioit/

From Prof. Gessn r Harrison, University of Virginia, JVov. 3, 1848.
I very decidedly approve of the plan of publishing cheap editions of the classics, •witk
brief notes, for the u&e of schools, and shall recommend this edition to my friends, as attit-
able for this object.

From Prof. W. S. Tyler, Amherst College, Mass., Dec. 25, 1848.
The notes are pertinent and pithy, as well as accurate and learned, and contrast to
freat advantage willi some whose chief recommendalion is, that they are designed ta
atone for the indolence of the student by the supererogatory works of the editor.

From John S. Hart, LL.D., Central High School, Philadelphia, Dee. 14, 1848.

I have examined, with much satisfaction, your editions of Virgil and Sallust, being coa-
Unuations of your reprint of Schmitz and Zumpt's classical series, and take pleasure ia
renewing the recommendation which I gave to the plan of the series on the appearance
of Csesar, The notes are admirably adapted to the precise wants of the learner, giving in
small space all the necessary facilities, without superseding the necessity of diligent and
accurate study.

From C. W. Everest, Esq., Rectory School, Hamden, Ct., Dec. 7, 1848.
From the brief examination I have been able to give them, I feel very much pleased
with them, both as regards tiie execution of your own part of the plan, and also that of
jrour able editors. Such text-l)ooks are much needed. Instead of them, we have been
inundated with editions, too often wretchedly printed, and more frequently ruined by a
multiplic^y of notes. Accept my thanks for your kindness in sending me the works, and
ue sure 1 shall be happy to adopt them as text-books lu my school.

From Wm. B. Potts, Orwigsburg, Pa., JVov. 28, 1848.
1 have devoted sufficient time to the examination of your editions of Caesar, Virgil, and
Sallust, to enaljle me to form an estimate of tlieir respective merits. I do not hesitate K»
jay that the uniformity and cheapness of the works, with the notes of the learned editors,
lufficiently illustrative of the style and sentiments of the authors, and yet not so volumi-
nous as to obviate the necessity of careful study on the part of the student, must recom-
mend them to the favourable consideration of those engaged in teaching this interesting
oranch of Uterature. We shall certainly adopt this series in the academy.

From Wm. Garnete, Esq., JVorfolk, Va., JVov. 20, 1848.
I return you my thanks for the copies of Virgil and Sallust sent to me. The professor
of languages in the Norfolk acadeniy has introduced them in this school, and we thiak
thoy will be used in all schaols, as soon as known to them. I shall recommetjl them t«
ail the teachers of my acquaintance.

From Wm. Dennis, Esq., Wilmington, Del., JVov. 11, 1848.

I have received the Ciesar and Virgil of the classical senes now in course of pubUcatioa
kryou and have for some tiine been using the Ciesar with a class. I am satiafied tiuw
Hiest) ire better school editions of ihoi% authors ttian any others that I have ever seen.

fyom G. W. Meeker, Esq., Chicago, III., Jan. 17, 1849.
! shall be happy to recommend tliem as the best and most accurate ediU'cns of ta«
works I hiv'e ever seen.

5

Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Series — Continued.

/V»m PRor. A. S. Packard, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me., March 8, 1849.
I cannot refrain longer from communicating to you the liighly favourable impressiot
which they have made upon me. I see nothing to desire in the general style of theC i

•ditions. I know of no others, which for nesitness and cheapness, and sufficient helps fa
(Ae student, surpass them. I am exceedingly pleased with the good taste, clear and pr» |

eise statements, and sound scliolarship, which distinguish the uotes. As school ciassics, I
resurd them as models. '

From Prof. J. Forsyth, Jr. College qf JV. J., Princeton, Feb. 7, 1849.

' am happy to say that in my judgment the testimonials to the excellence of the MiiM
thft. you have already received are fully deserved. The cheapness and convenif't fbrw
of these volumes, and especially the character of the notes, make them precisely the kifmi
«f text book which I should put into the hand of the young classical student. I shali >•
commend the students of this college to procure your edition of ';uch of the Latin authon
as we a:? accustomed to read'. You have my best wishes for your success in your prsi*»
worthy enterprise.

fVom FaoBrM. L. Stoever, Penn. College, Oettysburg, Pa., Jan. , 1849.
The accura.'y of the text, and the judiciousness of the notes, as well as the cheapneii
of the volumes, render this edition of the classics most deserving of public attention.

fV»m N. Bishop, Esq., Supt. of Public Schools, and Principal qf High School, Prt-
vidence, R. I., JVov. 29, 1848.
I have had the honour of receiving the three first volumes of your " Classical Seri^.
I am much pleased with the size of the books, and their cheapness ; the correctness of th"
text, and the character of the notes. I mean, of couise, the comparative correctness ot
the text, as perfect accuracy is rarely attained among us, even in our own language, much
less in that of others. I shall take pleaswe in recommending your " Classical Series" to
all the schools in the vicinity of this city, and shall introduce them into the Classical De-
partments of our High Scliool at the earliest opportunity for cnaiiges in text-books.

From Prof. John Wheeler, Asbury University, Qreencastle, la., Dec. 8, 1848.

As far as I have examined, I am well plessed with them. The notes appear to be what
they ought, explanations of difficult passagis. and not extended translations, so common
and so detrimental to classical attainment. The modest remarks of the editors on dis
puted passages are worthy of notice and imi ation. in these remarks, I refer principalljf
to the edition of Virgil, which I have examined mora than the others, and which I consi
der far superior to any other edition extant u our country. The cheapness of the serie.
is a valuable consideration; and the pub'isl. »-s deserve and doubtless will receive a har
vest of thanks from many a student who. ii.„ellect and desire of knowledge are superioi

to his purse.

From A. Campbell, President of Bethany College, Va., JVov. 22, 1848.

1 have just glanced, with much pleasure, over your edition of Virgil, being the lecontf
Tolume of Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Series.

This is just the thing I have long desired to see — a neat, handsome, correct, and chMp
•dition of the Latin Classics, relieved from the extraneous and unwieldy lore of prosin*
doctors. The addenda or notes in the margin of this handsome volume are just such at
the student needs. The series will doubtless meet with very general favour from aU
teachers and learners, because of its clear, accurate, and beautiful typography, its general
♦ood taste, its cheapness, and its judicious adaptation to the genius and wants of the age.

From Charles Wheeler, Pres. of Rector College, Taylor C'y., Va., Dec. 1, 1848.
The neatness and beauty, and, as far as I have examined, the correctness of execution,
together with the lucid arrangement of the notes, must, I think, commend your editioM
to public patronage. I am delighted to see Virgil, my favourite poet, so handsomely exo
eated. I have recommended your series to our students, as 1 esteem them worthy of a
de&.ded preference.

Fr«m Christopher Morgan, Esq. Sup. Com. Schools. Mbany, JV. Y., July 27, ]845>. j

The high character of the gentlemen who superintend the publication, fc deep and j
Taried erudition, is a sufficient guarantee for the correctness of the text. The brief note*
are suggestive, rather than translative, and much better than the labored exposition! {
which carry the student along, instead of pointing out the way. The cheapness and con-
venient size of the books, to say nothing of their literary merit, cannot fail to bring the«i '
•ito gieneral use. .

• 1

BLANCHARD AND LEA^S i UuLICATiOHl.

Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical S<3ries — Continaei.

fy»m Prof. John Wilson, Prep. Dep. Dickinson College, Carlislt, Dee. 8, If^fc
I haro examined the three volumes with consitlerable care, and can give them mj rnm-
fualified approbation. Ttie plan is judicious, and the execution wortliy of all praise. !'•'•
Botes comprise all that a student needs, and all that he should have ; and their positi*k
U "Jie foot of the page is just what it should be.

From Prof. E. E. Wiley, Emory and Henry College, Va., JVov. 30, 1848.

From the cursory examination given them, I must say that I have been highly gntifitd.
Such a series as you propose givhig to the public, is certainly a great desideratum. O j»
classical text-books have lieretofure been rendered entirely too expensive, by the costl>
dresses in which they have appeared, and by the extensive display of notes appended;
many of which, though learned, are of little worth to the student in elucidating the text
It will afford me pleasure to introduce into my department such books of your series M
nuy be in our course.

From S. II. Taylor, Esq., Andover, Mass., Oct. 30, 1848.
The notes seem to me very accurate, and are not so numerous as to do for the studenl
wliat he ought to do for himself. I can with safety, therefore, recommend it to my pupil*,

Prom Prof. M. M. Qampbell, Principal of the Grammar School, Indiana Utti

versity, JVov. 6, ]848.
1 like the plan of )'our series. I feel sure it will succeed, and thus displace some of th«
learned lumber of our schools. The notes, short, plain, and apposite, are placed whers
they ought to be, and furnish the learner just about help enough.

Fnnn Philip Lindsley, D. D., Pres. of the University of JVashville, JVor.27, 1848.
The classical series, edited by Drs. Schmitz and Zumpt, has already acquired a high
and well-merited reputation on both sides of the Atlantic. I have carefully examined
your editions of Caesar and Virgil. I think them admirable text-books for schools, and
preferable to all others. I shall avail myself of every suitable occasion to recommend
them.

From B. Sanford, Esq., Bridgewater, Mass, Jan. 17, 1849.
1 have examined, with considerable care, both the Csesar and the Virgil, and am much
pleased with the plan and execution of the series thus far. I am particularly gratified
with the propriety and judgment displayed by the editors in the preparation of the notes:
avoiding, as I think, the prolixity and profuseness of some of our classical works, and, at
the same time, the barrenness and deficiency of others ; giving a fjody of aanotatiom
better suited to aid the teacher in imparling a knowledge of the language, than is to be
found in any edition heretofore in use.

From Prof. Stdrgess, Hanover College. Indiana, Dec. 30, 1848.

The mere name of the editors is a sufficient and most ampie guarantee of tne accuraef
of the text, the judicious choice of various readings, and the conformity of those adopted
to the latest investigations of MSS., and the results of the rnost enlightened criticisnu.
The notes I have not examined very carefully, exceot those of the Virgil. They are eid-
aairable, extremely condensed, and conveying a gi .at deal of most valuable criticism it
the briefest possible way. They are particularly valuable for their aesthetical remark%
and the frequent references to parallel passages in the same author. The preliminaiy
\ife is excellent, and of great value to the student. The Sallust appears to be of the sam#

neral chaiacter, and the notes to furnish just such help as the diligent student really
needs. I think that in bringing out such a course at a cheap rate you are conferring a
creat boon on the country, and additional honour on your press, already so distinguished
wr the value of its issues.

From Rkv. Robt. Allyn, Providence Conference Seminary, R. I., Dee. 25, 1848.

I am much pleased with the general character of these works. The text in its geneiai
tharacter is highly satisfactory, the notes are really illustrative, and admirably calculat«d
to assist the student in acquiring a knowledge of the matter in the text, the niaiiners ao^
CUBtoms of the times, and the liistory and characters of the actors in the scenes. Tha
Wpography and external appearance of the works are such as please the eye and iaipretia
M taste. Yqii certainly deserve encouiagement, and ^o shall do what lies ia our ]
la ccteud the circulation of the works.

7

^chmitz and Zampt's Classical Series — Continued.

KALTSCHMIDT'S LATIN DICTIONARY FOR SCHOOLS.

A SCHOOL DICTIONARY OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE,

IN TWO PARTS, LATIN-ENGLISH AND ENGUSH-LATIN.

BY DR. KALTSCHMIDT.

tmnmcs one large royal 18mo. volume of 850 pajres, closely printed in double columu

and strongly bound.— Price, 5 1 25.

jii^o. Part I. Latin English, in one handsome volume, strongly bound, of

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While several valuable and copious Latin Lexicons have within a few
jrears been published in this country, a want has long been felt and acknow-
ledged of a good School Dictionary, which within reasonable compass and
Bt a moderate price should present to the student all the information requisite
for his purposes, as elucidated by the most recent investigations, and at the
same time unincumbered with erudition useful only to the advanced scholar,
and increasing the size and cost of the work beyond the reach of a large por-
tion of the community. It is with this view especially that the present work
has been prepared, and the names of its distinguished authors are a sufficient
guarantee that this intention has b en skilfully and accurately carried out.

The present volume has been compiled by Dr. Kaltschmidt, the well-known
German Lexicographer, from the best Latin Dictionaries now in use through-
out Europe, and has been carefully revised by Dr. Leonhard Sclimilz. Learned
discussions and disquisitions could not be introduced, as incompatible with
the objects for which the Dictionary is intended, and because they would have
swelled considerably the bulk of the volume. On the other hand, it has been
thought advisable to give, as far as possible, the etymology of each word, not
only tracing it to its Latin or Greek root, but to roots or kindred forms of
words occurring in the cognate languages of the great Indo-Germanic family
This feature, ^vhich distinguishes the present Dictionary from all others, can-
not fail to awaken the learner to the interesting fact of the radical identity of
many apparently heterogeneous languages, and prepare him at an early stage
for the delightful study of comparative philology.

The aim of the publishers has teen to carry out the author's views as far as
possible by the form and arrangement of the volume. The type, though clear
and well printed, is small, and the size of the page such as to present an ini'
mense amount of matter in the compass of a single handsome 18mo. volume,
furnished at a price far below what is usual with such works, and thus placing
within the reach of the poorest student a neat, convenient, and complete
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the age.

UNIFORM WITH SCHMITZ & ZUMPT'S CLASSICAL SERIES.

THE CLASSICAL MANUAL.

AN EPITOME OF AI»CIENT GEOGRAPHY, GREEK AND ROMAN MYTH0L09T,
ANTIQUITIES, AND CHRONOLOGY.

CItiefly intended for tlie Use of Schools*

COMPILED BY JAMES S. S. B A I R D, T. C. D., &c.

In one handsome 18mo. volume, of about 175 pages

riie want has long been felt and acknowledged of an epitome, presenting in a mode*
rate space and at a low price, sucti information as is necessary for the proper ccinpr^
hension and appreciation of the classical authors most commonly read in our s'.hoola.
The object of the present volume is to supply this want, by affording in the mo^t con-
densed form, and in such a manner as to admit of its being thoroughly mastered and
ntained, all the information respecting classical antiquity which is reqiisite for th*
Muriier stage* of study.

s

THE

^^

CLASSICAL MANUAL:

AN EPITOME OF

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY,

GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY,

ANTIQUITIES,

AND CHRONOLOGY.

CHIEFLY INTENDED FOR THE USE OP SCHOOLS.

COMPILED BT

JAMES S. S. BAIRD,

TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIK,
ASSISTANT CLA^SiCXL MASTER, KlIW;^ SCHOOL,

BL

1855.

TO TfflJ

REV. THOMAS EVANS, D.D.

HEAD MASTER OF KINo'S SCHOOL, GLOUCESTER,

THIS LITTLE WORK

U BESPBCTFCLLY DEDICATED,
BT

HIS OBLIGED AND FAITHFUL SERVANT,

JAMES S. S. BAIRD.

(lii)

f?

Many excellent works have recently issued from the
press, which, either separately or in the form of diction-
aries, treat of the subjects of the following pages : and yet
the want of an Epitome has been recognized, which would
contain, in the compass of a single volume, of small size
and moderate price, as much information upon such points
as is calculated to elucidate the Greek and Roman authors
usually read in the junior forms of our schools. It has
been the object of the compiler of the present manual to
supply this deficiency by introducing into it such details
as are most likely to be useful (indeed much of which is
absolutely necessary to the classical student) in so small
a space as to admit of its being thoroughly Jtiastered and
retained. Although at first the requirements of junior
forms were chiefly contemplated, yet in the progress of the
work so much additional matter has been supplied as, it is
hoped, will render it not unacceptable to more advanced
students.

In the compilation, the best and most recent authorities
have been consulted, but particular obligations must be
acknowledged to the following works : Dr. William Smith's
1* (v)

Tl PREFACE.

Dictionaries of "Greek and Roman Mythology and Bio-
graphy," " Greek and Roman Antiquities," and " Classical
Dictionary;" the Rev. T. K. Arnold's editions of the
" Handbook of Ancient Geography and History," by W. .
Piitz, and the "Handbooks of Greek and Roman Anti-
quities," by Dr. Bojesen. The editor's best thanks are
also due to the Rev. H. Haines, M. A., Second Master of
the King's School, Gloucester, for his kind supervision of
these pages while passing through the press, and also for
the valuable assistance he has afforded in several parts of
the work.

J. S. S. B.

Gloucestbr, January, 1852.

CONTENTS

GEOGRAPHY.

EUROPE.

Pag«
CouNTEiES, Seas, Gulfs, Straits, Rivers, Mountains, Lakes,

Islands 13, 14

Hispania, — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Promontories,

Divisions, Tribes 15

Tarraconensis, Lusitania, Bse tica. Islands.... 16

Gallia. Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Lake, Divisions.. 17

Narbonensis ib.

Aquitania, Lugdunensls 18

Gallia Belgica. Tribes, Islands 19

Ger mania. — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Divisions,

Tribes 20

Vindelicia, Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyri-
cum. — Vindelicia. Boundaries, Rivers, Tribes,

Towns 21

Rhsetia. Boundaries, Rivers, Tribes ib.

Noricum. Boundaries ib.

Rivers, Towns 22

Pannonia. Boundaries, Rivers, Lakes, Divisions,

Towns ib.

Illyricum. Boundaries, Mountains, Divisions ib.

Towns, Islands 23

Italia. — Boundaries, Gulfs, Strait, Mountains ib.

Rivers, Lakes 24

Capes, Divisions 26

Liguria, Gallia Cisalpina or Togata ib.

Venetia, Carni, Histria, Etruria 26

Umbria, Picenum, Sabinum 27

L atium, Samnium 28

Campania, Apulia 29

Lucania, Bruttium 30

Islands: Si cilia ib.

Moesia. — Boundaries, Divisions, Tribes, Rivers, Towns.... 31

Dacia. — Boundaries, Rivers, Tribes 32

Sarmatia. — Boundaries, Tribes, Towns ib.

a)

Vm CONTENTS.

Macedonia. — Boundaries 82

Gulfs, Mountains, Rivers, Divisions, Cities 33

Illyris Graeca ib.

Thracia. — Boundaries, Straits, &c., Mountains, Rivers, Cities 34

Grsecia. — Boundaries ib.

Gulfs, Strait, Mountains, Rivers 35, 36

Lakes, Promontories, Divisions 37

Thessalia ib.

Epirus, Acarnania, iEtolia, Doris, Locris 38

Phocis, Bceotia 39

Attica, Megaris (Peloponnesus), Achaia, Elis 40

Messenia, Laconia, Argolis 41

Arcadia, Corinthia, Sicyonia ,.. 42

Greek Islands. — In the Ionian and -^gean Seas 43

Britannia or Albion. — Boundaries, Rivers, Promontories,

Divisions 44

Tribes, Towns, Islands 45

ASIA.

Countries, Mountains, Seas and Gulfs, Rivers, Islands 46, 47

Asia Minor. — Boundaries, Gulfs, Mountains, Rivers 47

Lake, Promontories, Divisions 48

Bithynia ib.

Paphlagonia, Pontus, Mysia, Lydia or Mseonia 49

Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia 50

Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia, the Six Dorian

States, the Twelve Ionian States 51

^tolian League, "Seven Churches of Asia" 52

Island: Cyprus ib.

Syria, Palsestina. — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers ib.

Divisions: Syria, Phoenicia, Palaestina or Judaea.

Tribes 53

Divisions: Galilee, Samaria, Judaea 54

Peraea and Batanaea, the Cities of Refuge, Seven

Heathen Nations 55

Arabia. — Boundaries ib.

Mountains, Divisions, Tribes, &c 56

Countries between Pontus Euxinus and Hyrcanum
Mare. — Sarmatia Asiatica, Colchis or -^ a, Iberia ib.

Albania 57

Armenia Propria vel Major. — Boundaries, Mountains,

Rivers, Lake, Towns ib.

Mesopotamia. ib.

River, Divisions, Towns 58

Babylonia and Chaldsea. — Boundaries ib.

Countries East of the Euphrates and Tigris: —

Assyria, Media, Susiana or Susis 59

Persia or Persis 60

CONTENTS. urn

•Countries South of the Oxus: —

Hyrcania, Parthia, Aria, Bactriana CO

Carmania, Gedrosia 61

Countries North of the Oxus: —

Sogdiana, Scythia ib.

India. —

Boundaries, Rivers, Divisions, Towns, &c., Islands, &c. 62

AFRICA.

Boundaries, Bays, Strait, Rivers, Lakes 63

^gyptus, — Boundaries, Divisions, ^gyptus Inferior or

Delta, Heptanomis 64

-^gyptus Superior vel Thebais 65

Northern Coasts of Africa. — Divisions ib.

Libya, Tripolitana, Africa Propria 66

Numidia, Mauritania, Islands 67

MYTHOLOGY.

TheTwelve Olympian or National Deities of the

Greeks and Romans 68-70

Minor Deities 70-75

Heroes, Mythical Persons, &c 75-84

EARLY GRECIAN LEGENDS, &o.

The Argonautic Expedition 85

Early Legends relating to Thebes 86

Story of (Edipus and War of the Seven against Thebes 86,87

Early Kings of Troy 88

Legend of the Trojan War 89, 91

Grecian Heroes, &c., connected with the Trojan War 91-94
Trojan Heroes, &c 95-97

GREEK ANTIQUITIES.

Divisions of the Inhabitants of Attica and Sparta 98
Magistrates: —

Archons, their number, functions, &c 98, 99

Inferior Magistrates 99

Ephori r ib.

Assemblies. — The General Assembly, The Senate of the
Five Hundred 100

Gerousia, the Senate at Sparta 101

Judges and Courts of Justice. — The Court of Areopagus ib.

The Heliasts. The Diaetetae. The Forty ib.

Court of the Ephetae. Amphictyones 102

Punishments. — Ostracism, Atimia, &c 102, 103

Temples, Priests, and Sacrifices 103, 104

Oracles. — Zeus at Dodona. Apollo at Delphi 104,105

Other Chief Oracles : of Zeus; of Apollo; of Heroes... 105

»ri CONTENTS.

Festivals. — Adonia, Anthesteria, Dionysia, Eleusinia,

&c 106-108

Public Games. — Principal Exercises used in 108,109

The Four National Games. Olympic Games 109

Pythian Games. Nemean Games. Isthmian Games.... 110
Military Affairs. — Divisions of the Army and Classes of

Soldiers Ill

Arms (defensive and oflFensive) ib.

Officers. 'Minor Divisions of the Army 112

Naval Affairs. — Ships of Burden; AVar Galleys; Principal

parts of the vessel, &c. Tackling, &c 113

Naval officers, &c 114

Private Life of the Greeks. — Meals, Dress, Funerals 114-116
The Greek Theatre 116,117

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

Divisions of the Inhabitants of the Roman Empire;

Patricii, Plebei 118

Equites, Nobiles, Ignobiles, Optimates, Populares,

Servi, &c 119

The Senate. — Members, Proceedings, &c 119,120

Assemblies. — Comitia Curiata, Comitia Centuriata 121

Comitia Tributa 122

Magistrates and Chief Public Officers: —

^diles, Apparitores ib.

Censores, Consules, Curatores 123

Dictator, Praefectus, Praetor 124

Pro-Consul, Procurator, Pro-Prsetor, Quaestores, Tri-

buni 125,126

Judicial Proceedings, Punishments 126

Priests. — Pontifices, Augures or Auspices 127

Fetiales, Haruspices, Decemviri, Curiones, Rex Sacrifi-

culus, Flamines, Virgines Vestales 128

Salii, Luperci, Galli, Fratres Arvales 129

Prayers, Sacrifices, Festivals 129, 130

Games. — Ludi Circenses, Gladiatorii 131

Classes of Gladiators, Scenic, or Stage Plays, Theatres 122

Military Affairs. — Conscription and Period of Service,

Pay, &c 133, 134

Divisions of the Army ; Arms 134,135

Officers: Legati, Tribuni, Centuriones ; Encampment... 135

Order of Battle, Standards, Military Engines 136

Military Rewards and Punishments, Triumph, Ova-
tion 136,137

Naval Affairs 137

Private Life of the Romans. —Dress 138,139

Meals, &c 139, 140

CONTENTS. si

Private Houses, Baths, Amusements 140, 141

Funerals 142

Names, and their abbreviations 143

ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS.

Poets. — Epic, Tragic 144

Comic, Lyric 145

Pastoral 146

Prose Writers. — Historians 146, 147

Orators, Medical Writers 147, 148

Mathematicians, Geographers, Fabulist 149

Satiric Writer, Critic, Philosophers 150,151

ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS.

Poets.— Epic 152

Elegiac, Lyrio 153

Tragic, Comic, Didactic. Satirists'* 154

Epigrammatist, Fabulist 155

Prose Writers. — Historians ib.

Orator, &c 156

Epistolary Writers. Writers on Philosophical Subjects,

Natural History 157

Agriculture, Architecture, Medicine, Grammar and

Criticism 158

SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY.

The Ionic School 159

The Italic School ib.

TOPOGRAPHY of ATHENS 160,161

ROME 162-164

GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION of TIME 165-167

MISCELLANEA.

Hills of Rome, Kings of Rome 168

Twelve Caesars, Seven Wonders of the World, Seven Sages

of Greece 169

Twelve Labours of Hercules, Nine Muses, Three Graces 170

Three Horse, Three Fates, Three Furies, Three Judges of

Hell, Five Rivers of Hell 171

The Winds 172

ROMAN CALENDAR 172, 173

GREEK CHRONOLOGY 174-180

ROMAN CHRONOLOGY 181-187

INDEX 189

ABBREVIATIONS.

Cap. = Capital.

Ii, = Lacus, Lake.

Mts. = Mountains.

Prom. = Promontorium.

R. = River.

G. = Gulf.

O. T. = Old Testament.

(U)

GEOGRAPHY.

EUROPE.

COUNTRIES. — Hispania, Spain; Lusitania, Portugal;
Gallia, France and West of Switzerland; Germania,
Germany; Cimbrica Chersonesus, Denmark; Scan-
dinavia, Norway and Sweden; Sarmatia Europsea,
Russia and Poland; R h se 1 1 a, East part of Suoitzerland and
the Tyrol; Vindelicia, Bavaria S. of Danube; Panno-
nia, Hungary ; Illyricum, Illyris, Illyrica, Croatia^
Dalmatia, and part of Turkey; Italia, Italy; Graecia,
Greece, and part of Albania and Boumelia in Turkey;
Macedonia, Western part of Eoumelia ; T h r a c i a, Fast-
em part of Boumelia; Moesia, Servia and Bulgaria;
Dacia, Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia.

SEAS. — N. : Mare Pigrum, vel Cronium, Frozen Ocean;
Oceanus Germanicus, North Sea. W. : Atlanticum Mare,
Atlantic. E.: Palus Maeotis, Sea of Azov; Pontus Euxinus,
Black Sea; Propontis, Sea of Marmora; ^geum Mare,
Archipelago. S. : Mare Internum, Mediterranean ; Mare
Ionium, W. of Greece ; Mare Inf erum, Tyrrhenum, vel
Tuscum, Tuscan Sea, W. of Italy ; Mare Iladriaticum, vel
Superum, Gidf of Venice.

GULFS, STRAITS, &c. — Sinus Codanus, vel Mare Sue-
vicum, Baltic; Fretum Britannicum, vel Gallicum,
Straits of Dover; Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Biscay;
Fretum Gaditanum, Straits of Gibraltar; Gallicua
Sinus, Gulf of Lyons; Sinus Ligusticus, Gidf of
2 ( 13 )

14 GEOGRAPHY.

Genoa; Tergestinus Sinus, Gulf of Trieste; Fossa,
Straits of Bonifacio ; F return Siculum, Straits of Mes-
sina; Hellespontus, Straits of the Dardanelles; Bos-
porus Thracius, vel Thracicus, Straits of Constanti-
nople; Bosporus Cimmerius, Straits of Kaff a.

RIVERS.— Flowing into the Baltic: Vistula, Vistula; ViS-
dus, Oder. Flowing into the North Sea: Albis, Elbe;
Visurgis, Weser; Scaldis, Scheldt; Rhenus, Rhine;
T a m e s i s, Thames. Flowing into the Atlantic : S e q u a n a,
Seine; Liger, Loire; Garumna, Garonne; Durius,
Douro; Tagus, Tago; Anas, Guadiana ; Baetis, Guadal-
quivir. Flowing into the Mediterranean: Iberus, Ebro ;
Rhodanus, Rhone; Arar, Saone; Arnus, Arno; Tibe-
ris, Tiber; Athesis, Adige; Padus, Po. Flowing into
the Black Sea: Ister, Danube; Tyras, Dniester; Borys-
thenes, Dnieper; Tan a is, Don. Falling into the Caspian
Sea: Rha, Volga.

MOUNTAINS. — Sevo Mons, Dofrefield Mts.; Pyrenjei
Montes, Pyrenees; Alpes, The Alps; Apenninua
Mons, Apennines ; Carpates vel Bastarnicse Montes,
Carpathian Mts.; HasmusMons, Hcemus, or the Balkan;
Hyperborei vel Rhipaei Montes, Ural Mts.

LAKES. — Lacus Lemanus, L. of Geneva; L. Brigan-
tinus, Boden See, or L. of Constance; L. Verb an us,
Lago Maggiore; L. Larius, Lago di Como; L. Benacus,
Lago di Gar da; L.'Copais, L. Topolias.

ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic: Britannia vel Albion, Bri-
tain; Hibernia, Ireland; Hebudes vel Ebudes, He-
brides; Orcades, Orkneys; Thule, Iceland (?). In the
Mediterranean: Pityusaelnsulse; among these Ebusus,
Ivica; Baleares Insulae (vel Gymnesiae), Balearis
Major, Majorca; Balearis Minor, Minorca; Sardinia
vel Sardo, Sardinia; Corsica vel Cyrnos, Corsica;
^thalia vel Ilva, Elba; Trinacria vel Sicilia, Sicily;
Me lit a, Malta. In the Ionian Sea: Coroyra, Corfu;

GEOGRAPHY. 15

Leucadia vel Leucas, Santa Maura; Ithaca, Thiaki;
Cephallenia, Cephalonia ; Zacynthus, Zante; Cy-
thera, Cerigo. In the -i33gean Sea: Greta, Candia;
Cyclades, Cyclades ; Euboea, Negropont.

HISPANIA.

Spain and Portugal,

BOUNDARIES.— N.. Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Bis*
cay, and Pyreneei Montes; E. and S.E., Mare Inter-
num, Mediterranean; W., Mare Atlanticum, Atlantic.

MOUNTAINS. — N., Pyrenaei Montes, Pyrenees; Mons
Idubeda, Sierra D^ Oca and Sierra Molina; Mons Her-
minius. Sierra d' Estrella ; Marianus Mons, Sierra Mo-
rena; Orospeda Mons, Sierra Segura.

RIVERS. — Falling into the Atlantic: Minius, MinJio; Du-
rius, Douro ; Tagus, Tagus ; Anas, Guadiana; B set is,
Guadalquivir. Falling into the Mediterranean: Iberus,
Ebro (which receives from the N. Cinga, Cinca, and Sicoris,
Segre, and from the S. Salo, Xalon); Turia, Guadalaviar;
Sucro, Xucar ; Tader, Segura.

PROMONTORIES. — Art abr urn Prom., Cape Finisterre;
Magnum Prom., Cape La Roca; Sacrum Prom., C. St.
Vincent; Junonis Prom., C. Trafalgar; Calpe, Rock
of Gibraltar (which, with Abyla on the African coast,
formed the Pillars of Hercules) ; Scombraria Prom.,
C. de Polos; Dianium Prom., C. La Nao; Prom. Pyre-
nseum, Cape Creux.

DIVISIONS. — Ilispania Citerior or Either, afterwards
called Tarraconensis ; and Ilispania Ulterior or
Further, divided into Lusitania, Portugal, in the "West,
and Boetica, Andalusia, in the South.

TRIBES. — In Tarraconensis: Callaici, Astures, Cantabri,
Vaccaei, Vase ones, Arevaci, Jacetani, Vescitani, Lacetani,

16 GEOaRAPHY.

Ilergetes, Cosetani, Arevaci, Carpetani, Celtiberi, Ede*
tani, Ilercaones, Oretani, Contestani, Bastitani. In Lusi-
tania: Lusitani, Vettones, Celtlci. In Baatica: TurduAi,
Turdetani, Bastuli, Poeni.

TARRACONENSIS.— CiYies. — On the Ebro: Caesar Au-
gusta, Saragossa, On the Salo: Bilbilis (the birth-place
of Martial). On the E. coast: Tarraco, Tarragona, the
Capital; Saguntum, Murviedro (its destruction by Han-
nibal, B.C. 219, gave rise to the second Punic war) ; Va-
lentia, Valencia. Near Scrombraria Prom., Cape Palos :
Carthago Nova, Cartliagena (taken by Scipio Africanus
B.C. 210). On the Tagus: Toletum, Toledo. Near the
source of the Douro: Numantia (destroyed by Scipio the
Younger, B.C. 133). At the mouth of the Douro: Calle,
Oporto.

LUSITANI A. — Cities. — Salamantica, Salamanca, on a
tributary of the Douro; Norba Csesarea, Alcantara, on
the Tagus ; 0 1 i s i p o, Lisbon, near the mouth of the river ;
Emerita Augusta, Merida, on the Anas, Guadiana
(colonized by Augustus with the veterans {Emeriti) of the
fifth and tenth legions).

B^TICA.— (7i7te5.— Illiturgi, on the Baetis (destroyed by
Scipio, B.C. 210) ; below it, Cor dub a, Cordova, surnamed
Patricia (the birth-place of the two Senecas and Lucan) ;
Italic a, Seinlla la Vieja (the birth-place of the Emperors
Trajan and Hadrian); Hispalis, Seville; Tartessus, on
the coast; Gades, Cadiz, on a small island, one of the
chief seats of commerce of the Phoenicians; Munda,
Monda, on the South coast (battle b. c. 45, Csesar defeated
the sons of Pompey).

ISLANDS. — In the Mediterranean : Pityusse Insulae,
comprising E bus us, Iviga, and Ophiusa; Baleares {or
Gyranesise) Insulse, Balearic Isles, comprising Major
Insula or Majorca (Cap. Palma, Palma), and Minor In-
sula, Minorca, Cap. Mago, Port MaTion.

GEOGRAPHY. ^l

GALLIA.

France, Belgium, and West of Switzerland.

BOUNDARIES. — N. : Oceanus Britannicus, English
Channel; Fretum Gallicum, Straits of Dover; and
Oceanus Germanicus, German Ocean. E. : Rhenus,
Rhine, and Alpes, The Alps. S. : Mare Internum,
Mediterranean, and Pyrenasi Monies, Pyrenees. W. :
Atlanticum 'islskVOi, Atlantic.

MOUNTAINS. — Pyrenasi Monies, Pyrenees; Alpes,
Alps.

RIVERS.— Falling into the North Sea and English Channel:
Rhenus, Rhine (with its tributaries, Mosella, Moselle,
and Mosa, Meuse) ; So aid is, Scheldt; Samara, Somme;
Sequana, Seine (with its tributaries, Matron a, Marne,
and Axona, Aisne, Isara, Oise). Falling into the Bay of
Biscay: Liger, Loire (and its tributary, Elaver, ^Z^ier) ;
Garumna, Garonne, with Duranius, Dordogne, and
Aturus, Adour. Falling into the Mediterranean: Rho-
danus, Rhone (with its tributaries, Arar, Saone, Isara,
Isere, and Druentia, Durance).

LAKE. — L. Lemanus, Lahe of Geneva.

DIVISIONS. — Gaul was originally divided among the
BELG^ (between the Rhine and Seine) ; CELTiE (be-
tween the Seine and Garonne) ; and AQUITANI (between
the Garonne and the Pyrenees). About b. c. 120, Gaul
was divided by the Romans into Provincia, or Gallia
Braccata, and Gallia Comata; and again, B.C. 27, into,

I. Provincia, or Gallia Narbonensis, in the S.E.;

II. Aquitania, in the S.W. ; III. Gallia Celtica, or
Lugdunensis, in the N.W. ; IV. Gallia Belgica, in
the N.E.

NARBONENSIS, divided into Narbonensis Prima, Narbo-
nensis Secunda, Viennensis, Alpes Maritimoe, and Alpea
2*

18 GEOGRAPHY.

Graice et Pennince. — Towns. — ^In Narbonensis Secunda ana
Viennensis: Massilia, Marseilles, on the coast (founded
about B.C. 600, famous for its literature and commerce);
Aquae Sextise, Aix (Marius defeated the Teutoni, B.C.
102); Telo Martius, Toulon, on the coast; E. of which
Forum Julii, Frejus (the birth-place of Agricola) ; Ge-
neva, Geneva, on L. Lemanus; Vienna, Vienne, on the
Rhone (the chief town of the Allobroges) ; Cularo, Gre-
noble; Valentia, Valence; Dea, Die; Arausio, Orange
(a Roman colony) ; Avenio, Avignon; Are late, Aries (a
Roman colony, founded by the soldiers of the sixth Legion).
In Narbonensis Prima: Nemausus, Nismes; on the coast,
Agatha, Agde; Narbo Martius, Narhonne, the Capital
of Gallia Narbonensis. On the Garonne : Tolosa, Toulouse
(surnamed Palladia, a large and wealthy city). On the
coast: Ruscino, near Perpt^naw.

AQUITANIA, divided into Nbvempopulana, S. ; Aquitania
Prima, E. ; Aquitania Secunda, AV.

Towns. — In Novempopulana : Climberris, Auch. In
Aquitania Prima: Albiga, Albi; on the Dordogne, Uxel-
lodunum, Puech d'Issola; near the Elaver, Allier, Ger-
g 0 V i a ; "West of this, A u g u s t o r i t u m, Limoges ; in the
N., Avaricum, Bourges. In Aquitania Secunda : on the
Garonne, Burdigala, Bordeaux (the birth-place of Auso-
nius) ; in the N., Limonum, or Pictavi, Poitiers: Medio-
lanum, or Santones, Saintes.

LUGDUNENSIS, divided into Lagdunensis Prima, Secunda^
Tertia, and Quarta.

Towns. — In Lugdunensis Prima: Lugdunum, Lyons^
the capital, at the junction of the Rhodanus and Arar,
Saone (the birth-place of the Emperor Claudius) ; N. of
this, Bibracte, or Augustodunum, Autun, and Alesia,
Alise (destroyed by Caesar, b. c. 52). In Lugdun/insis
Quarta: on the Sequana, Seine, Augustobona, or Tri-
c asses, Troyes ; Agendicum, Sens, the Capital of the
Senones; and Lutetia, or Parisii, Paris; Genabum, Cena-
bum, or Aureliani.. Orleans, on the Liger, the Cap. of tho

GEO OR A PHY. i§

Carnutcs. In Lugdunensis Secunda: Rotomagus, Rouen.
In Lugdunensis Tertia : on the Loire, Caesarodtinum,
Tours, Cap. of the Turones; in the N.W., Brivates Por-
tus, Brest.

GALLIA BELGICA, divided into 1. Belgica Prima; 2. Bel-
gica Secunda; 3. Germania Prima ; 4. Germania Secunda;
5. Maxima Sequanorum.

Towns. — On the Mosella: Tullum, Toul; Divodtirum,
Metz; Augusta Treverorum, Treves. On the Matrona,
Marne: Durocatalaunum, Chalons; N. of this Duro-
cortorum, Pheims, the Cap. of the Bemi. On the Axona,
Aisne: Augusta Suessionum, Soissojis. On the Sa-
mara, >Sbmme: Samarobriva or Ambiani, ^miew5. On
the coast: Gesoriacum or Bononia, Boulogne, and
Itius Povtus (from which Caesar set sail for Britain).
On the Scald is: Turnacum, Tournay. On the Bhine:
Argentoratum, Sirashurg (Julian defeated the Ale-
manni, a.d. 357); Borbetomagus, Worms; and Mogon-
tiacum, Alentz ; at the junction of the Bhenus and Mo-
sella, Confluentes, Cohlentz. On the Bhenus: Co Ionia
Agrippina, Cologne; Noviom^gus, Nimegtien; Lug-
dun um Batavorum, Leyden. On the Dubis, Douhs : Ve-
sontio, Besangon; S.E. of this Aventicum, Avenche.

TRIBES. — In Narbonensis: Salyes or Saluvii, Allo-
broges, Volcae Arecomici, Volcas Tectosages. In Aqui-
tania: Bituriges Cubi, Lemovices, Arverni, Pictones,
Santones, Bituriges Vivisci. In Gallia Lugdunensis: Am-
barri, ^dui, Lingones, Senones, Carnutes, Veneti,
Osismii. In Gallia Belgica: Treveri, Mediomatrici,
Leuci, Re mi, Suessiones, Bellovici, Atrebates, Nervii,
Morini, Helvetii (people of Switzerland), Sequani,
Bauraci, Ubii, Tungri, Menapii, Batavi.

ISLANDS.— On the W. Vindilis, Betteisle; Uxantis, Ushant;
Caesarea, Jersey; Sarnia, Guernsey ; Riduna, Alderney.

B9 GEOGRAPHY.

GERMANIA.

Germany and Prussia.

BOUNDARIES. — K, Codanus Sinus and Mare Suevi.
cum, Baltic, and Oceanus Germanicus; E., Vistula,
R. Vistula, and Carpates Monte s, Carpathian Moun-
tains; S., Danubius, B. Danube; "W., Rhenus, R. Rhine,

MOUNTAINS. — Hercynii Montes, all the mountains in
the south and centre of Germany. In the centre: Her-
cynia Silva, an immense forest which took Caesar nine
days to cross.

RIVERS. — Falling into the Baltic : Vistula, Vistula; and
Viadrus, Oder (with its tributary Varta, Wartha). Fall-
ing into the German Ocean: Albis, Elbe (and its tributary
Sala, Saale); Visurgis, Weser; Amasia, Ems; Rhenus,
Rhine (with its tributaries Nicer, NecTcar ; Moenus, Main;
Lupia or Luppia, Lijppe) ; Ister or Danubius, Danube.

DIVISIONS. — 1. Vindeli or Suevi, N. of the Elbe to the
Baltic; 2. Hermiones, N. of the Danube; 3. Istsevones,
E. of the Rhine.

TRIBES, &c. — Among the Vindeli or Suevi: Lemovii, Lon-
gobardi, Burgundiones, Gothones, Semnones. Among
the Hermiones : Cherusci, Catti, Hermunduri, Boii,
Marcomanni. Among the Istaevones: Frisii, Chauci
(divided into Minores and Majores), Bructeri, Marsii,
Sicambri, Tencteri, Mattiaci, Sedusii, Marcomanni,
Alemanni, in the S. Decumates Agri, whose inhabit-
ants paid a tithe of their produce to the Romans.

N. of Germany: Saxones, Angli and Cimbri, inhabit-
ing Cimbrica Chersonesus, Jutland; Hilleviones, Sui-
ones, and Sitones, inhabiting Scandinavia or Scandia,
Norway and Sweden.

N. B. The Teutones, probably dwelt in the N. of Ger-
many, on the coast of the Baltic.

GEOGRAPHY. 21

VINDELICIA, RHiETIA, NORICUM, PANNONIA,
ILLYRICUM.

Bavaria ; East of Sioitzerland, Tyrol ; Austria, South of the
Danube; Hungary ; Illyria, Croatia, Balmatiu, and part
of Turkey.

YiNDELICIA.
Bavaria.

BOUNDARIES. — N. and ^Y., Danubius, JR. Danube; E.,
R. ^nus, Inn; S., iEnus, Fl. Rhsetia, and Brigan-
tinus Lacus, Lake of Constance.

RIVERS. — I stir us, Iser; Lie us, Lech.

TRIBES. — Brigantii, Genauni, Estiones.

TOWNS. — Augusta Vindelicorum, Augsburg; Brigan-
tia, Bregentz; Reglnum, Raiisbon.

Rh^tia.

East of Switzerland and the Tyrol.

BOUNDARIES. — N., Brigantinus Lacus, R. ^nus,
and Vindelicia; E., Noricum; S., Gallia Cisalpina;
\Y., the Helvetii.

RIVERS. — Rhenus, Rhine; Mnws, Lm; Addua, Adda;
Ticinus, Ticino ; A the sis, Adige (all these rise id
Rhajtia).

TRIBES. — Lepontii, Cap. Oscela; Sarunetes, Cap. Curia,
Coire; Brenni, Vennones, Tridentini.

Noricum.

Austria, South of the Danube.

BOUNDARIES. — N., Danubius; E., Mons Cetius and
Pannonia; S., Illyricum, R. Savus, /S^ai'e. and Alpes
Carnicae; AV., Rhsetia and R. -<Enus.

22 GEOGRAPHY.

RIVERS. — Juvavus, Salza ; Anisus, Enns ; Murus,
Miihr ; Dravus, Drave (all these rise in Noricum).

TOWNS. — Juvavum, Saltzhurg ; B oio durum, near Pa^-
sau, on the Danube, and Lauriacum, the station of a
Roman fleet; Noreia, Neumarht, near the centre (battle
B.C. 113, the Consul Carbo defeated by the Cimbri) ; S.E.
Celeia, Cilly.

Pannonia.

Hungary, Slavonia, and part of Croatia and Turkey.

BOUNDARIES. — N. and E., Danubius Fl.; S., Illyri-
cum; W., Noricum.

RIVERS. — Arab on, Radb ; Dravus, Drave; Savus, Save.

LAKES. — Volcea Palus, Flatten See; Peiso L., Neur

siedler See,

DIVISIONS. — Pannonia Superior and Inferior.

TOWNS. — On the Danube: Vindobona, Vienna; Car-
nuntum (E. of Vienna); Acincum or Aquincum,
Buda ; Contra Acincum, PestTi; Paetovia, near Pe^tew,
on the Drave; Mursa, Essech, near the junction of the
Drave and Danube. On the Save; Siscia, Sissek; and
Sirmium.

Illybicum.

Illyria, Balmatia, Croatia, and part of TkirTcey.

BOUNDARIES. — N., Noricum; E., Pannonia and Mc&.
sia; S.W., Mare Hadriaticum and Histria.

MOUNTAIN. — Albius Mons.

DIVISIONS. — N. 1. Liburnia (inhabited by the Liburni
and Japydes) ; 2. Dalmatia. The Liburni were famed
as bold and skilful sailors, their vessels were remarkable
for their swiftness ; hence, vessels after their models wero
termed Liburnicce Naves.

GEOGRAPHY. 23

TOWNS. — ^mona, LayhacTi; Scardona, Scardona, the
Cap. of Liburnia; Salon a, Spalatro (the birth-place of
Diocletian) ; Narona, on the Naro, Narenta; S. of which
'E-pida,uTU8,^0ld Bagusa; Scodra, Skutari, on Labeatis
Palus, Lake of Skutari; S. of this, Lissus, Alessio.

ISLANDS. — W. of Illyricum: Scardona, Isola Grossa;
Pharus, Lesina; Corcyra Nigra, Curzola; Melita,
Melida.

\

ITALIA.

Hesperia, (Enotria, Ausonia, Saturnia.

Italy.

BOUNDARIES. — N. and N.W., Alpes, The Alps; E., Ha-
driaticum Mare vel Superum, Adriatic Sea, or Gulf
of Venice; S., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; W.,
Mare Tyrrhenum, Tuscum, vel Inferum, Tuscan Sea.

GULFS.— E., Tergestinus Sinus, Gulf of Trieste: S., Ta-
rentlnus Sinus, Gulf of Taranto ; Scylacius Sinus,
Gulf of Squillace: W., Terinaeus Sinus, Gulf of St.
Eufemia ; Laus Sinus, Gulf of Policastro ; Passtanus
Sinus, Gulf of Salerno; Cumanus vel Puteolanus
Sinus, Bay of Naples; Cajetanus Sinus, Gidf of
Gaeta: S. of Liguria, Ligusticus Sinus, Gulf of Genoa.

STRAIT. — Fretum Sictilum, Straits of Messina.

MOUNTAINS. — Alpes, TJie Alps, in the North, divided
into three principal chains.

I. The Westeun: Alpes Maritimae, Maritime Alps; Alpes
Cottiae, 3ft. Cents, and 3ft. Gen^vre ; Alpes Graiae, Alps of Sa-
voy, including Little St. Bernard and 3ft. Blanc. 11. The Central
Alps: Alpes Penninae, Alpa of Valais, including Great St. Ber-
nard, 3ft. Eosa, and St. Gothard ; Alpes Lepontiae, Alps of th«
Grisons ; Alpes Ilhaeticae, Alpa of Tyrol. III. The Eastern
Alps: Alpes Norieae, Alps of Styria ; Alpes Carnicae, Carnie
Atpj ; Alpes J nlisG, Julian Alp$,

2¥ GEOGRAPHY.

AppenninusMons, The Apennines, running the whole
length of Italy. Principal Elevations: Mons Soracte,
S. Oreste, in Etruria; Mons Sacer, in Sabinum; Mons
Albanus, in Latium (on which the Ferise. Latinge were
celebrated); Algldus Mons, in Latium; Mons Masst-
cus, in Campania, near the coast (famous for its wines) ;
Vesuvius, the celebrated volcanic mountain (the first
eruption occurred Aug. 24, a.d. 79, which destroyed Pom-
peii and Herculaneum) ; Garganus, Mte. Gargano, in
Apulia; and Mons Vultur.

RIVERS. — In Gallia Cisalpina: Padus, or E rid anus, Po ;
it rises in Mons Vesulus, Monte Viso, flows east, and falls
into the Adriatic. Chief tributary streams from the N. :
Duria Major, Doj'a Baltea; Ticinus, Ticino (Hannibal
defeated P. C. Scipio, b. c. 218), from L. Verbanus, Lago
Maggiore; Addua, Adda, from L. Larius, Lago di Gar da;
and Mincius, Mincio, from L. Benacus, Lago di Garda.
From the S. : Tanarus, Tanaro ; Trebia, Trebia (Han-
nibal defeated the Romans, b.c. 218). Athesis, Adige,
N. of the Po ; Rubicon, Fiumicino, between Cisalpine
Gaul and Umbria; Metaurus, Metauro, in Umbria (Has-
drubal defeated, b.c. 207); and Aufidus, Ofanto, in
Apulia, all fall into the Adriatic. Running into the Tus-
can Sea: Arnus, Arno, in Etruria; Tiber is, Tivere — it
receives, on the left, CI an is, CJiiano, and Cremera (300
Fabii destroyed, b.c. 477); on the right, Tinia, Tinia,
and its tributary Clitumnus, Clitumno ; Nar, Nera, and
Velinus, Velino, its tributary; A Hi a (Gauls overcome
the Romans, b.c. 390) ; and Anio, Teverone. In the S. of
Latium: Liris, Garigliano. In Campania: Vulturnus,
Volturno; Silarus, Silaro (victory of Crassus, b.c. 71).

LAKES. — In Cisalpine Gaul: L. Verbanus, Lago Mag-
giore; L. Larius, Lago di Como ; L. Benacus, Lago di
Garda. In Etruria: L. Trasimenus, Lago di Penigia
(Hannibal's third victory, b.c. 217) ; L. Vulsiniensis,
X. Bolsena. In Sabini: L. Fucinus, Lago di Celano.

I

GEOGRAPHY, 25

In Latium: L. Ilegillus, Lago di HegUlof (battle B.C.
498); L. Albanus, Lago di Alhano. In Campania: L.
Avernus, Lago Averno, and L. Lucrinus, famed for its
oysters.

CAPES. — In Etruria: Populonium Prom. In Latium:
Circeium Vvom.., Monte Circello. In Campania: Mise-
num Prom., Cape Miseno^ and Minervce Prom., Cape
Campanella. In Lucania: Palinurum Prom., Cape Par
linuro. In Apulia: Garganum Prom., Cape Gargano ;
lapygium vel Salentinum Prom., Cape Leuca. In
Bruttii: Lacinium Prom., Cape Colonne; Herculeum
Prom., Cape Spartivenio; Leucopetra Prom., Cape
Armi.

DIVISIONS. — North: I. Liguria; II. Gallia Cisal-
pina, vel Togata; III. Venetia, Carni, and Ilistria.
Middle: IV. Etruria, vel Tuscia; V. Umbria; VI.
Picenum; VII. Sabinum; VIII. Latium; IX. Sam-
nium; X.Campania. South: XI. Apulia; XII. Lu-
cania; XIII. Bruttii.

LIGURIA. — Nice, Genoa, and part of Piedmont. — Boundaries:
N., R. Padus, Po, and Gallia Cisalpina; E., Gallia Cisal-
pina; S., Sinus Ligusticus, Gulf of Genoa; W., Alpes
Maritimae and Gallia.

Cities. — Genua, Genoa, at the N. of the Gulf of Genoa ;
Pollentia, Polenza, on the Tanarus.

Tribes. — N. of Apennines: Vagienni, Statielli, Fri-
niates, Montani, Ligures. South: Intemelii, In-
gauni, Apuani.

GALLIA CISALPINA, vel TOGATA. — Part of the king-
dom of Sardinia, Lomhardy, Parma, Modena, and part of
States of the Church.

Divisions.— I. GALLIA CISPADANA, inhabited by tho
Boii and Lingones.

Cities: Placentia, Placenza, near the junction of the
Po and Trebia, (founded by Romans, 219 b.c.) ; Mutina,
Modena (M. Antony defeated, b.c. 43); Ravenna, Ha-
venna; Bononia, Bologna.
3

36^" GEOGRAPHY.

II. GALLIA TRANSPADANA, inhabited by the Tau-
rini, Salassi, Insubres, Cenomani.

Cities: Augusta Taurinorum, I^wrin, on the Padua ;
V ere el la, Ferce?Zi, near which Raudi Campi, (where Ma-
riu8 defeated the Cimbri, b.c. 101) ; Ticlnum, Favia, on
the Ticinus; Mediolanum, Milan, the capital of the In-
s&bres; Co mum, Como, on L. Larius; Cremona, Cre-
mona, on the Po, (founded by Romans, b.c. 219) ; Mantua,
Mantua, on the Mincius, (near which Virgil was born,
B.C. 70).

VENETIA, CARNI, et HISTRI A. — Eastern part of Fene-
iian Lomhardy and Istria.

Boundaries. — N. and N.E., Alpes Carnicoe, vel Julia>,
and Rhaetia; E., Liburnia; S., Mare Hadriaticum and R.
Padus ; W., R. Athesis, Adige, and Gallia Transpadana.

Cities. — ^Verona, Verona, on the Athesis ; E. of Verona,
Patavium, Padua, (Livy born, b.c. 59); Aquileia,
AquUeia, near the coast, (destroyed by Attila, king of the
Huns, A.D. 452) ; E. of Aquileia, Tergeste, Trieste.

ETRURIA, TUSCIA, vel TYRRHENIA. — Tuscany, and
part of States of the Church.

Boundaries. — N., R. Macra, Magra, and Apenninus
Mons ; E. and S., R. Tiber ; "W., Tuscum Mare.

Cities. — Pi 8 30, Fisa, and Florentia, Florence, both on
the Arnus. Luc a, Lucca, on the Auser, Serchio. Fae-
stllse, Fiesole; Pistoria, Fistoia, (Catiline defeated, B.C.
62); Portus Herculis, Labronis, vel Liburni, ie^jr-
horn; on the coast. Populonium, or ia, the chief sea-
port of Etruria. Centum Cellae, Civita Vecchia; on the
coast, with a fine harbour.

The following were probably the twelve confederate cities
of Etruria Proper.

Volaterr£e, Volaterra. V c t u 1 o n i i, to the E. of Popu-
lonia. Rusellae, on the Umbro. Tarquinii, Cometo.
Agylla, or Caere, Cerveteri, (where the Vestal Virgins
took refuge on the destruction of Rome by the Gauls, b. c.
390). Veii, Isola, on the Cremera, twelve miles from

GEOGRAPHY. 27

Rome, (the most powerful city of Etruria). FalSrii, or
Turn, (taken by Camillus, B.C. 394), near Mt. Soracte.
Vulsinii, Bolsena, on L. Volsiniensis, (the birth-place of
Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius). Clusium, Chius%
near the Clanie, (the residence of Porsena). Peru si a,
Perugia, E. of Clusium, on the Tiber. Gorton a, Cortona^
N.W. of Trasimene Lake. Arretium, Arezzo, (the birth-
place of Maecenas).

UMBRIA. — States of the Church.

Boundaries. — N., Gallia Cispadana; E., Mare Iladriati-
cum and Picenum ; S., Sabini ; "W., R. Tiber. It was in-
habited in the N. by Galli Senones.

Cities. — Ariminum, Rimini; Sena Gallic a, Seni-
gaglia, on the coast; in the interior, Sentinum, (battle,
B.C. 294, Samnites defeated); Spoletium, or Spoletum,
Spoleto, in the South.

PICENUM. — Part of States of the Church.

Boundaries. — N., R. iEsis, Esino ; E., Mare Hadriati-
cum ; S., Vestini, in Sabinum ; W., Urabria and Sabini.

Cities. — Ancona, Ancona, in the N. ; Asculum Pice-
num, Ascoliy (taken, B.C. 89, in the Marsic or Social
War).

Tribe. — Prsetutii, in the South.

SABINUM. — Part of States of the Church, and part of
Naples.

Boundaries. — N., Umbria and R. Nar; E., Apenninus
Mons and Hadriaticum Mare ; S., Samnium ; W., Latium
and R. Tiber.

Cities. — Re ate, Eieti, in the W. ; Cures, Correse, (the
native city of Numa, and capital of the Sabines); Fidenae,
Castel Giubileo, and Crustumerium, between the Anio
and Tiber; Amiternum, in the E., on the borders of the
Vestini, (Sallust born, B.C. 86); Alba Fucentia, Alba^
N. of L. Fucinus; Marruvium, chief city of the Marsi ;
Sulmo, Sulmona, in the country of the Peligni, (Ovid
born, B.C. 43) ; Corfinium, the chief city of the Peligni.

28 GEOGRAPHY.

Tribes. — iEqui, Marsi, Peligni, Marrucini, Ves-
tini.

LATIUM. — States of the Church.

Boundaries. — N., R. Tiber and Anio; E., Samnium and
Campania ; S. and W., Mare Tuscum.

Cities. — Roma, Rome, on the Tiber, (founded by Ro-
mulus, B.C. 753, on the Palatine Mount); built on seven
hills, Palatinus, Capitolinus, Quirinalis, Vimina*
lis, Esquilinus, Caelius, and Aventinus, to which
were afterwards added Janiculum, Vaticanus, and
Collis Hortulorum (Public Buildings, &c., vide Topo-
graphy). Ostia, Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. Lau-
ren tum, on the coast. Lavinium, built by ^neas.
Ardea, the city of Turnus. Antium, Porto d'Anzo, on
the coast. Tibur, Tivoli, on the Anio, (a favourite resi-
dence of the Roman nobles). S. of this Gabii. Tuscu-
lum, near Frascati, surrounded by numerous villas. Alba
Long a, on the border of L. Albanus, founded by Ascanius
(a legend). Praencste, Palestrina. Velitrse, Velletri,
(the native city of the Octavian family). Corioli, (which
gave to C. Marcius the surname Coriolanus). Aquinum,
Aquino, (birth-place of Juvenal). Anagnia, Anagni, the
capital of the Hernici. Eastward: Arpinum, ArpinOj
(birth-place of Cicero and Marius) ; Anxur, or Tarra-
cina, Terracina; Suessa Pometia, (stormed by Tarq.
Superbus). Cajeta, Gaeta; Formiae, Mola, (famous for
its wine) ; and Minturnae ; on the coast.

Tribes. — Latini, ^Equi, Hernici, Rutiili, Volsci.

SAMNIUM. — Part of Naples.

Boundaries. — N., Sabinum and Mare Hadriaticum ; E.,
Apulia; S., Campania and Lucania; AV., Campania and
Sabinum.

Cities. — Beneventum, Benevento, (Pyrrhus defeated,
B.C. 275). S.W. of Beneventum : Caudium, near which
the pass called Furculao Caudinao, or Caudine Forks
(where the Roman army, overcome by the Samnites,

GEOGRAPHY. 2|P

passed under the yoke, b.c. 321); Bovilnum, Bojano,
(chief city of the Pentri).

Tribes. — N., Frentani; Middle, Pentri; S., Hirpini.

(JAMPANIA. — Part of Naples.

Boundaries. — N., Latium and E. Liris ; E., Samnium ;
S., R. Silarus ; W., Tyrrhenum Mare.

Cities. — On the coast : C u m ae, the most ancient Greek
colony in Italy; Baia3, (famed for its baths) ; Misenum,
the principal station of the Roman fleet in the Tyrrhene
Sea; Puteoli, or Dica3archia, Pozzuoli ; NeapSlis,
Naples, founded on the site of the ancient Parthenope ;
Herculaneum (over which stand Portici and Besina),
Pompeii, and Stabioe, (destroyed, a.d. 79, by an eruption
of Vesuvius) ; Salernum, Salerno. In the Interior: Ve-
nafrum, Venafro, (noted for its olives); Capua, Capua,
(which espoused the cause of Hannibal, and, when taken
by the Romans, b. c. 211, suffered the vengeance of the
conquerors); Nola, Nola, (here Augustus died, a.d. 14).
In the N.: Mons Massicus and Falernus Age r, both
noted for wine (Massic and Falernian).

Tribes. — N., Aurunci; S., Picentini.

APULIA. — Part of Naples.

Boundaries. — N. and E., Mare Hadriaticum ; S., Taren-
tinus Sinus ; W., R. Bradanus, Brandano, and Samnium.

Divisions. — Daunia, Peucetia, Messapia or lapy-
gia, Calabria.

Cities. — Luceria, Lucera, (noted in the Samnite wars);
Argyripa or Arpi, Arpi. On the Aufidus: Canusium,
Canosa, and Cannae, Canne, (battle, B.C. 216, Romans
defeated by Hannibal) ; Asculum Aptilum (Romans
defeated by Pyrrhus, b.c. 279); Ventisia, Venosa, (the
birth-place of Horace, B.C. 65). In Calabria: Brundti-
sium, Brindisi, (the usual port of embarcation for Greece) ;
Hydruntum orllydrus, Otranto; Tarentum orTaras,
Taranto, (a flourishing and opulent city).

Tribes. — Pediculi, Salentini. .•: s,

3*

30 GEOGRAPHY.

UJCANI A. ~ Part of KapUs.

Boundaries. — N., Campania, Samnium and Apulia ; E.,
Tarentinus Sinus ; S., Bruttii and R. Laus ; W., Tyrrhenum
Mare.

Cities. — In the E.: Metapontum; Ileraclea, on the
Aciris; Sybaris (proverbial for the luxury of its inhabit-
ants) ; Tliurii, (founded by the Athenians, B.C. 443, with
whom were Herodotus, and Lysias the orator). In the
W., also on the coast: Pajstum, vel Posidonia, (noted
for its roses) ; Elea, Helia, or Velia, (the birth-place of
Zeno and Parmenides, the founders of the Eleatic School
of Philosophy). In the Interior; to the E., Pandosia;
Potentia, Potenza.

BEUTTIUM. — Part of Naples.

Boundaries. — N., Lucania ; E., Ionium Mare j S., Mare
Siculum ; W., Tyf rhenum Mare.

Cities. — On the East: Croton, Cotrone, (the residence
of Pythagoras, who here founded his school, and of Milo,
the most famous athlete of antiquity) ; Scylacium, Squil-
lace; Locri Epizephyrii, (the city of Zaleucus, the law-
giver). On the West: Consentia, Cosenzayi\iQ Capital;
Temesa or Tempsa. On the coast further South: Rhe-
gium, Reggio, N. of Rhegium, the Rock Scylla, opposite
toCharybdison the Sicilian coast.

Islands.

SICILIA OR TRINACRIA, SicUy, (inhabitants the Sicani).
Mountain. — ^ tn a, Monte Gibello. Rivers. — Symsethus,
Giaretta, in the E. ; Himera, Salso, in the S. Capes. —
Pelorura Prom., Cape Faro ; Pachynum Prom., Cape Pas-
saro; Lilyboeum Prom., Cape Boeo. Cities. — E. Messana,
Messina; Tauromenium, Taormina; Catana, Catania;
Syracusge, Syracuse or Siragossa, consisting of five towns,
1. Ortygia, (or Nasos, the Island), 2. Achradlna, 3.
Tyche, 4. Neapolis, and 5. the superb Epipolae: in
the S. Agrigentum, Gir genii, (famed for its temple of
Zeus Olympius); Sclinus, rwms : in the W. Lilybasum,

GEOGRAPHY. 31

Marsala; Drepanum, Trapani: in the N. Segeste or
iEgcsta, near Alcamo ; Panormus, Palermo. Himera,
(battle, B.C. 480): in the centre Henna or Enna, Castro
Giovanni, (from -which Pluto carried off Proserpine).

North from Sicily, -^olise vel Vulcaniaer Insulae,
Lipari Islands, the largest of which Li para; Strongyle,
Stromboli: W. iEgates Insulae, (battle, b.c. 241, Car-
thaginians defeated): S. Cossyra, Pantelearia; Melita,
Malta; Gaulus, Gozzo. "W. of Etruria: Ilva vel ^thalia,
Elba, (famed for its iron-mines); Corsica, Corsica. Chief
Towns. — Mariana, and Alalia or Aleria, a Roman colony.
S. of Corsica: Sardinia vel Sardo, Sardinia^ Cap. Ca-
rS,lis, Cagliariy in the S.

I

M(ESIA.

Servia and Bulgaria.

BOUNDARIES.— N., R. Danubius or Ister; E., Pontus Eux-
inus. Black Sea ; S., Ilasmus Mons ; W., Illyricum and R.
Drinus, Drino.

DIVISIONS.— W., Moesia Superior, including Dacia
Aureliani; E., Moesia Inferior, including Scythia
Parva.

TRIBES. — Mce si, Scordisci, Dardani, TribalH.

RIVERS. — Drinus, Drino; Margus, Mbrava; OEscus,
Isker; latrus, lantro ; all tributaries of the Danube.

TOWNS. — In Moesia Superior: Singidunum, Belgrade;
Margus, near the Margus; Naissus, Nissa, on the Mar-
gus. In Moesia Inferior: Sardica on the (Escus> S.E. of
which Tauresium, (the birth-place of Justinian). On
the Danube: Nicopolis, Nicopoli, built by Trajan. On
the borders of the Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea: To mi, (to
which Ovid was banished by Augustus), to the South of
this Odessus, Odessa, W. of which Marcianopolis,
founded by Trajan.

32 GEOGRAPHY.

DACIA.

Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia.

BOUNDARIES.— N., Mons CarpStes vel Bastarnicse, and R.
Tyras, Dniester; E., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and Sar-
matia ; S., R. Danubius ; W., R. Tibiscus, Theiss.

RIVERS. — Tibiscus, Theiss; Aluta, Aluta; Ardiscus,
Argisli; Ararus, Sereth; Porata or Hierasus, Pruth;
all falling into the Danube.

TRIBES. — GetsB vel Daci, (chief city Sarmizegethusa
or Ulpia Trajana) ; Jazyges, in the West.

SARMATIA.

Fart of European Russia.

BOUNDARIES.— E., R. Tanais, Don; S., Palus Maeotis, Sea
of Azov, and Pontus Euxinus; W., R. Tyras, Dniester.

TRIBES. — Bastarnae, Jazyges, Roxolani, Hamaxobii, Alani,
Venedi, &c. &c.

TOWNS, &c. — 01b i a, near the junction of the Borysthenes,
Dnieper, and Hypanis. S. of Sarmatia: Chersonesus
T auric a, Crimea; on the W. coast of which, Cherso-
nesus; on Bosporus Cimmerius, Straits of Kaffa,
Panticapaeum, Kertsch, the residence of the Greek kings
of the Bosporus.

MACEDONIA.

Part of the Roumelia in Turkey.

BOUNDARIES.— N., Moesia; E., Thracia; S., Mare iEgeum
and Thessalia ; W., Illyris Graeca, included in Macedonia
under the Romans.

GEOGRAPHY. 83

GULFS.— S. Thermaicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; Toro-
naicus Sinus, Gulf of Cassandra ; Singiticus Sinus,
Gulf of Monte Santo; Strymonicus Sinus, Gulf of
Coniessa.

MOUNTAINS. — N., Mons Orbelus, Scardus Mons,
separating Macedonia from Moesia; S.W. of the Penin
sula Acte, Mons Athos, Monte Santo.

RIVERS. — S t r y m 0 n, Struma or Carassou, flowing into
Strymonic Gulf; Axius, Vardari (with its tributary Eri«
gon), and Ilaliacmon, VistHza, flowing into the Ther-
maic Gulf.

DIVISIONS. — S., Pieria, Elymiotis, ^Emathia, Chal-
cidice, with the Peninsulas Pallene, Sithonia, and
Acte; E., Mygdonia and Sintica. In the centre:
Pelagonia; N., PseSnia; W., Lyncestae and Eordaea.

CITIES. — Pydna, Kitron, near the Ilaliacmon, (battle, B.C.
168 ; iEmilius Paulus routs Perseus, the last king of Mace-
donia); Pella, Alaklisi, the Capital; Thessalonica or
Thermia, Saloniki, on the Thermaic Gulf; Potidaea,
Pinaka, on the Isthmus of Pallene; Olynthus, ruins, ovt
the Toronaic Gulf, (destroyed by Philip II., B.C. 347);
Amphipolis, at the mouth of the Strymon, (taken from
the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War by Brasidas,
B.C. 424) ; Eastward Philip pi, Philippi, (battle, B.C. 42;
Brutus and Cassius defeated and slain by Antony and
Octavianus).

The tract of country called ILLYRIS GR^CA (bounded N.
by Drinus, R. Drino ; E., Macedonia; S., Epirus;
W., Hadriaticum Mare); inhabited by various tribes
of Illyrian origin, was incorporated with the Roman pro*
vince of Macedonia. Chief Towns. — On the coast: Epi-
damnusvel Dyrrachium, Durazzo, (the usual landing-
place for persons who crossed over from Brundusium, in
Italy). Inland: Apollonia, (celebrated as a place of
commerce and learning ; here Augustus for some timo
studied literature and philosophy).

34 GEOGRAPHY.

THRACIA.

Roumelia.

BOUNDARIES.— N., Haemus Mons and Moesia; E., Pontus
Euxinus and Bosporus Thracius ; S., Propontis, Helles-
pontus and ^geum Mare ; "W., Macedonia.

WATERS OF THRACE. — Hell esp on t us, Dardanelles;
Propontis, Sea of Marmora; Pontus Euxinus, Black
Sea; Bosporus Thracius, Straits of CoTistantinople ;
Melas or Melanes Sinus, Gulf of Saros.

MOUNTAINS. — N., Ha3mus, Balkan; W., Pangaeus,
Pangea^ east of which R ho dope, sacred to Bacchus.

RIVERS. — In the W. Nestus, Nesto, rising in the N.W.
and flowing S. into the ^gean Sea; Hebrus, Maritza.

CITIES. — Abdera, at the mouth of the Nestus, (the birth-
place of Democritus) ; Adrianopolis, Adrianople, on the
Hebrus ; Chersonesus, in the S. between the Gulf of Saros
and the Hellespont, (colonized by Athenians under Mil-
tiades) ; Lysimachia, Eksemil, at the Isthmus; S. of
this S e s 1 0 s, (between which and Abydos, Xerxes formed
a bridge of boats) ; ^Egos Potamos, (near which Lysan-
der defeated the Athenian fleet, B.C. 405) ; Byzantium,
Constantinople, on the Thracian Bosporus, (made the
Capital of the Roman empire under Constantine, a.d. 330).

GRiECIA — HELLAS.

Greece.

BOUNDARIES. — N., Macedonia and Illyria; E.,
^geum Mare, Archipelago, and Myrtoum Mare; S.,
Mare Internum, Mediterranean; W., Ionium Mare,
Ionian Sea.

GEOGRAPHY. 35

GULFS. — E., Therm aicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; Pa-
gasaeus Sinus, Gulf of Volo ; Maliacus Sinus, Gulf
of Zeitoun; Saronicus Sinus, Gulf of jEgina ; Argo-
licus Sinus, Gulf of Napoli. S., Laconicus Sinus,
Gulf of Colokyihia ; Messeniacus Sinus, Gulf of Koran.
W., Cyparissius Sinus, Gulf of Arcadia ; N. of Achaia
and Corinthia, Sinus Corinthiacus, Gulf of Lepanto ;
S. of Locris, Crissaeus Sinus, Bay of Salona; S. of
Epirus, Ambracius Sinus, Chdf of Aria.

STRAIT, — Euripus, CJiannel of Negropont, between Boeotia
and Euboea.

MOUNTAINS. — In Thessalia: N., Cambunii Monte s,
Bolutza Mts, ; W., Olympus, Elymho ; Ossa, Kissovo ;
Pelion, Plesiiia; S., Othrys, Othrys; W., Pindus,
Pindu^.

In Epirus: N.W., Acroceraunii vel Ceraunii
Monies, Chimera.

In Phocis: N., (Eta Mons, Katavothra ; "W., Parnas-
sus, Lyakouri.

In B(eotia: S.AV., Helicon, Zagora, (a haunt of the
Muses). On the borders of Attica and Megaris, Cithae-
ron, Cithceron.

In Attica: N., Parnes Montes, Nbzia; N.E., Pen-
telicus, Fentele, (celebrated for its marble); S. E. of
Athens, Ilymettus, Telovuni; at the S. extremity of
Attica, Laurium, (famed for its silver-mines).

On the Borders of Achaia: Cyllene, Zyria, (Mercury
born).

In Laconia : Taygetus, West of the Eurotas.

In Arcadia: in the S.W., Lycoeus Mons; in N.W.,
Erymanthus, (here Hercules slew the wild boar); to-
wards the S., M ae n a 1 u s, Roino ; P a r n o n, Malevo.

RIVERS. — In Thessalia: 1. Pen e us, Salambria, from Mt.
Pindus, flowing through the lovely vale of Tempe, falls into
the Thermaicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; it receives on the

36 GEOGRAPHY.

North the Titaresius, on the South the Euipeus and
Apidanus. 2. Spercheus, JEllada, from the West, falls
into Sinus Maliacus, Bai/ of Zeitoun.

In Epirus: 1. Aracthus, Arta, from the N., falls into
Sinus Ambracius, Gulf of Arta. 2. Acheron, and its
tributary Cocytus, fall into the Glykys Portus or Har-
bour. Northward, Thy am is, Kalamas, falls into the
Ionian Sea, opposite to Corcyra, Corfu.

In Acarnania: Achelous, Aspro Potamo, from Mt.
Pindus, flows southward, divides -<Etolia from Acarnania,
and falls into the Gulf of Patras.

In ^tolia; Evenus, FidhaH, from Mt. (Eta, falls into
the Gulf of Patras.

In Doris: Cephisus Major, Mavronero, flows through
Phocis and Boeotia, and falls into Copais L., Lake Topo-
lias.

In Bgeotia: A sop us, Asopo, falls into the sea opposite
to Euboea, the island Negropont. Ismenus, into which
the brook Dirce flows, falls into L. Hylica. Permessus
and Hippocrene, or "fountain of tlie horse,^' falls into
Copais L.

In Attica: Cephisus Minor, from Mons Pentelicus,
and Ilissus, from Mons Hymettus, flow South into Saro-
nicus Sinus.

In Achaia : Crathis, Grata, (into which the Styx
flows), and Selinus, VosHtza, fall into the Corinthian
Gulf. Pirus, Kamenitza, falls into the Gulf of Patras.

In Elis: Peneus, lliaco, from Mons Erymanthus, falls
into Ionium Mare. Alp he us, Rouphia, rising in Arcadia^
and receiving from the North the La don and Helisson,
falls into the Ionian Sea.

In Messenia: Pa mis us, Pirnatza, from Mt. Ly casus,
and N e d a, Buzi, between Elis and Messenia, fall into the
Ionian Sep,.

In Laconia : Eurotas, Basilipotamo, from the N., falls
into Laconicus Sinus, Gulf of Kolokythia.

In Argolis: Inachus, Baniiza, falls into Argolicus
Sinus, Gulf of NapoU.

GEOGRAPHY. 37

LAKES. — Copais L., Lake Topolias, in Bocotia, (famed for
its eels, and subterranean communication with the Euboean
Sea) ; Acherusia L., in the S.W. of Epirus ; L. Tricho-
nis, in iEtolia; L. Baebeis, in the East of Thessaly; L.
Stymphalis, in the North of Arcadia.

PKOMONTORIES. — S.E. of Thessalia, Magnesice Prom.,
Cape St. George; S.E. of Attica, Sunium Prom., Cape
Colonna; S.E. of Argolis, Scyllaeum Prom., Cape Skillo;
S.E. of Laconia, Malea Prom., Cape Maleo or St. Angela;
S.W. of Laconia, Taenarum Prom., Cape Matapan; S.W.
of Messenia, Acritas Prom., Cape Gallo ; N.W. of Elis,
Chelonatas Prom., Cape Tornese; N.W. of Achaia,
Araxus Prom., Cape Kologria; N. of Achaia, Chium
Prom., Castello di Morea, opposite to this in the S. of
-^iltolia, Anti-Rhium Prom., Castello Rumeli; N.AV. of
Acarnania, at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, Ac-
tium Prom., La Punta, (battle, B.C. 31, Augustus defeats
Antony and Cleopatra.)

DIVISIONS. — Northern Greece.— 1. Thessalia; 2. Epi-
rus. Central Greece. — 1. Acarnania; 2. iEtolia; 3.
Doris; 4. Locris; 5. Phocis; 6. Boeotia; 7. Attica;
8. Me gar is. Southern Greece or Peloponnesus, Morea.
— 1. Achaia; 2. Elis; 3. Messenia; 4. Laconia; 5.
Argolig; G.Arcadia; 7. Sicyonia; 8. Corinthla.

THESSALIA. — Boundaries. — N., Macedonia; E., ^geum
Mare ; S., Phocis, Doris, -^Etolia ; W., Epirus.

Divisions. — N., Pelasgiotis; E., Magnesia; S.E.,
Phthiotis; S., ^nianes; S.W., Dolopia; N.W., Hes-
tiseotis; in the Centre, Thessaliotia.

Cities. — Larissa, Larza, the Capital, on the Peneus.
Pharsalus, Pharsa, (battle, B.C. 48, Caesar defeated Pom-
pey). Cynoc6phalo3, (battle, B.C. 197, Philip defeated
by Cons. Flaminius). Anticyra, at the mouth of the
Spercheus. Pherae, Valestino ; noted for its tyrants.
Lamia, Zeitoun; near the mouth of the Spercheus, (war
between Antipater and the Athenians, B.C. 323). I o loos,
4

38 GEOGRAPHY.

' N. of the Pagasaeus Sinus, (the city of Pelias and Jason,
from which the Argonauts sailed in quest of the Golden
Fleeced.

EPIRUS. — Boundaries. — N., Illyria; E., Macedonia and
Thessalia ; S., Acarnania ; W., Ionium Mare.

Divisions. — N.W., Chaonia; S.E., Molossis; S.W.,
Thesprotia.

Cities. — Ambracia, Aria, (the residence of Pyrrhus),
on the Aracthus. Nicopolis (built by Augustus, in me-
mory of his victory at Actium). Do don a, on the borders
of Molossis and Thesprotia, (famed for its oracle of Zeus,
the most ancient in Greece).

ACARNANIA. — Boundaries. — N., Ambracius Sinus and
Epirus ; E., River Achelous ; W., Ionium Mare.

Cities. — Stratus, on the Achelous, the Capital. Ac-
tium, on a promontory of the same name, (near which
Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval en-
gagement, B.C. 31).

^TOLIA. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia and Epirus; E.,
Doris and Locris ; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., R. Achelous.
Cities. — T her ma vel The r mum, the place of meeting
of the jEtolian league. Calydon, the city of Tydeus and
Diomedes, (in the vicinity of this city the celebrated Caly-
donian hunt took place).

DORIS. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia; E., Phocis; S., Locris;
W., iEtolia.

Cities. — Four small cities which gave the name of Te-
trapolis to the country, Erineus, Boium, Pindus,
Cytinium.

LOCRIS was divided into two districts, inhabited by three
tribes.

DISTRICT l.~Boundaries.—^., Doris; E., Phocis; S.,
Sinus Corinthiacus; W., iEtolia. Inhabited by OZOLIAN
LOCRIANS. Chief Cities. — Amphissa, Scdona; Nau-
p act us, Lepanto.

I

GEOGRAPHY. 39

DISTRICT U.— Boundaries.— N., Thessaly ; E., Euboean
Sea and Malian Gulf; S., Phocis; W., Doris and Phocis.
Inhabited S. by OPUNTIAN LOCRIANS. Citij: Opus,
Talanda. Inhabited N. by EPICNEMIDIAN LOCRIANS
as far as Thermopylae, (a celebrated pass, where Leo-
nidas and 300 Spartans fell, after a gallant defence against
the mighty army of Xerxes, B.C. 480). Cities: Phronium,
Romani, NScaBa, and Scarphia.

PHOCIS. — Boundaries. — N., Locri Epicnemidii and Doris;
E., Boeotia ; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., Locris.

Cities. — Delphi, or Pytho, Castri, on the western de-
clivity of Mt. Parnassus, between its two peaks, (famed
for the "infallible" oracle of Apollo, and celebrated as
the place of meeting of the Amphictyons, and of the cele-
bration of the Pythian games) ; Crissa, or Crisa, S.W.
of Delphi; Elatea, Elephta, N. of the Cephissus; Ant!-
cyra, Asjpra Spitia, in the South, on the coast, (famed for
its hellebore, the cure for madness among the ancients).

BCEOTIA. — Boundaries. — N. and E., Euboicum Mare; S.,
Mountain-chain of Parnes and Cithaeron, separating Boeotia
from Attica ; W., Phocis.

Cities. — Thebae, Thihai (founded by the Phoenicians
under Cadmus, thence called Cadmea ; it was destroyed by
Alexander, B.C. 335). Orchomenus, Scripu, near the
Lake Copais, with a temple of the Graces, (victory of Sulla,
B.C. 86). Plataeae, or Plataea, Kokla, near Mt. Cithaeron,
(battle, B.C. 479, Mardonius defeated). Thespiae, at the
foot of Mt. Helicon, sacred to the Muses. Le uctr a, Lefka,
S.E. of Thespiae, (battle, b.c. 371, Thebans overcame the
Spartans). Tanagra, Grimada, E. of Thebae, (battle,
B.C. 457, Athenians defeated). Delium, Bilessi, on the
E. coast, (battle, b.c. 424). Ilaliartus, Mazi, on Lake
Copais, (battle, b. c. 395 ; destroyed by the Romans, b. c.
171). Co rone a, S.W. of Lake Copais (Boeotians over-
came Athenians, b. c. 447 ; Agesilaus defeated allied
Greeks, b.c. 394). Chaeronea, Capurna, on the Cephissus,

40 GEOGRAPHY

(battles, B.C. 447; Philip conquers the Greeks, B.C. 338;
Sulla's victory, B.C. 86). As era, near Mt. Helicon, the
birth-place of Hesiod.

ATTICA. — Boundaries. — N., Bocotia ; E., ^Egeum Mare,
S., Saromcus Sinus ; W., Megaris.

Cities. — Athenae, Athens, between the rivers Cephissus
and Ilissus, the most celebrated city of antiquity for learn-
ing and the liberal arts ; it consisted of two parts, viz. : —
1. The City; 2. Its three ports, Piraeus, Pirceus, Pha-
lerum, and Munychia, united to the city by two long
walls, called "Longi Muri," sixty feet in height (vide
"Topography" for an account of Public Buildings, &c.).

• E leu sis, Lepsina, N.W. of Athens, famous for its temple
and mysteries of Demeter or Ceres. Marathon, Maror
ihona, N.E. of Athens, (celebrated battle, Athenians and
Plataeans, under Miltiades, routed the Persians, B.C. 490).
Phyle, Fili, N.W. of Athens, (here Thrasybulus assem-
bled the Patriots opposed to the thirty Tyrants, b.c. 404).
Sunium, Colonna, on a prom, of the same name in the
extreme S. of Attica.

MEGARIS. — Bcundaries. — N., Boeotia; E., Attica and Sar
ronicus Sinus ; S., Corinthia ; W., Sinus Corinthiacus.
Cities. — Me gar a, Megara; Nissea, on the coast.

Peloponnesus.

ACHAIA. — Boundaries. — N., Sinus Corinthijlcus ; E., Co-
rinthia ; S., Arcadia and Elis.

Cities. — Helice, on the north coast, the ancient Capital,
(engulphed by an earthquake, b.c. 373); iEgium, Vos^
titza, (here the meetings of the Achaean league were held) ;
Patrae, Patras, a sea-port.

ELIS. — Boundaries. — N., Achaia ; E., Arcadia ; S., Mes«
senia ; W., Ionium Mare.

Divisions. — 1. Elis Proper, N. ; 2. Pisatis with
Olympia, Middle; 3. Triphylia, South.

GEOORAPHY. 41

Cities. — Eli 8, on the Peneus. N.AV., Cyllene, on tlie
coast. Pisa, on the Alpheus, (near this the plain of
OLYMPIA, where the Olympian games were celebrated.
Here was the sacred grove "Altis/' which, with the
neighbourhood, were adorned with temples, statues, &c.
The " Altis" was inclosed by a wall ; it contained the fol-
lowing temples: I. The Olympieum, in which was the
famous statue of Zeus, by Phidias, made of ivory and gold ;
II. The Heraeum, or Temple of Juno; III. The Metroum.
Public buildings : The Thesauri of the states ; The Pry-
taneum, in which the Olympic victors dined; The Bo u-
leuterion, or council-hall, in which all the regulations
were made. The chief buildings without the Altis were
the Stadium, for gymnastic exercises, and the Ilippo-
dromus, for racing). Pylos, in Triphylia.

MESSENIA. — Boundaries. — N., Triphylia and Arcadia;
E., Laconia ; S., Messeniacus Sinus ; "W., Mare Ionium.

Cities. — Pylos, Navarino, in the S.W., (the city of
Nestor); It home, in the centre, on a hill of the same
name ; near which was Messene, ruins, the Capital, built
by Epaminondas ; Ira, in the N., (which Aristomenes
defended against the Spartans for eleven years).

LACONIA. — Boundaries. — N., Arcadia and Argolis; E.,
Myrtoum Mare ; S., Laconicus Sinus ; "W., Messenia.

Cities. — Lacedaemon, or Sparta, Sparta, on the
Eurotas, the Capital of the most powerful state in Greece,
(the city of Lycurgus, the lawgiver) ; S. of Lacedcemon,
AmycloD, with a temple to Apollo; Helos, near the
mouth of the Eurotas, (its inhabitants, the Helots, were
reduced to slavery by the Spartans); Sellasia, (battle,
B. c. 222, Athenians, under Antigonus Doson, defeated
Cleomenes, king of Sparta).

ARGOLIS. — Boundaries. — N., Corinthia and Saronicus Si-
nus; E., Myrtoum Mare; S., Argolious Sinus and Laconia;
W., Arcadia.
4*

42 GEOGRAPHY.

Cities. — Argos, Argos, on the Inachus, one of the most
ancient cities in Greece; S.E. of Argos, Nauplia, Napoli
di Romania, the port of Argos; N. of Argos, MycensB,
ruins, (the city of Agamemnon, noted for its Cyclopean
walls; destroyed by Argives, b.c. 468); Tiryns, ruins,
S.E. of Argos, (Hercules educated here, hence called Ti-
rynthius) ; Nemea, ruins, N.W. of Mycena3, (Hercules
killed the lion, vide first labour; triennial games cele-
brated in consequence); Epidaurus, Epidauro, in the
district of Epidauria, on the Saronic Gulf, (famed for a
temple of -^sculapius) ; Trcezene, Demala, in the district
Trcezenia, in the S.E. of Argolis; Hermione, Kastri,
in the district Hermionis, in the South.

ARCADIA. — Boundaries. — N., Achaia ; E., Corinthia and
Argolis; S., Laconla and Messenla; "W., Tryphylia and
Elis.

Cities. — Mantinea, Paleopoli, in the East, (battle, B.C.
418, Athenians defeated; battle, B.C. 362, Epaminondas
slain); Tegea, Piali, S.E. of Mantinea; Megalopolis,
ruins, on the Helisson, founded, by the advice of Epami-
nondas, B.C. 371, (the birth-place of Polybius).

CORINTHIA. — Boundaries. — N., Megaris and Sinus Corin-
thiacus ; E., Saronicus Sinus ; S., Argolis ; W., Achaia.

Cities. — Corinthus, Corinth, the Capital, built at the
foot of a steep mountain, on which stood the Acro-Corin-
thus, the strongest citadel in Greece, the key of the Pelo-
ponnesus ; (destroyed by Mummius, the Roman Consul,
B.C. 146). At the narrowest part of the Isthmus stood
Fanum Neptuni, a temple of Neptune, near which tha
Isthmian games were celebrated (vide Antiq.). On the
Asopus: Phlius, the Capital of the independent state,
Phliasia.

SICYONIA. — J5ownc?ane5.— N., Sinus Corinthiacus ; E., Co-
rinthia ; S., Arcadia ; W., Achaia.

City. — S icy on, ruins, on the north coast, at the mouth
of the As5pus.

GEOGRAPHY. 43

The Greek Islands.

IN THE IONIAN SEA.— Corey r a, Corfu; Cap., Corcyra.
L e u c a d i a, Santa Maura ; Cap., Leucas. Ithaca, Theaki;
Cap., Ithaca. Cephallenia, Cephalonia. Cities. — Ce-
phallenia and Same. Zacynthus, Zante; Cap., Zacyn-
thus. Teleboides Insulae, between Leucadia and Epi-
rus. Cythera, Cerigo, (sacred to Venus).

IN THE ^GEAN SEA.— I. In the WesUrwparU HydrSa,
Hydra, Calauria, Calauria, (Demosthenes poisoned him-
self, B.C. 322). ^gina, Egina. Sal am is, Colouri, (battle,
B. c. 480, Persian fleet defeated by Athenians, under The-
mistocles). Euboea, Negroponty Artemisium Prom.,
in the N., (battle, b.c. 480); Cities: 1. C hale is, Negro-
pontCj the Capital; 2. Eretria. Scyros, Skyro.

II. In the NoriJiem part. Lemnos, Lemno, (sacred to
Vulcan, who is said to have fallen on this island, when
hurled from heaven by Zeus). Imbros, Imhro. Samo-
thrace, Samothraki. Thasos, Thaso, anciently famous
for its gold-mines. Tenedos, Tenedos, near the coast of
Troas.

III. In the Eastern part. Lesbos, Mytilene, (noted for
its wine) ; Cities : 1. Mitylene (the birth-place of Sappho,
Alcoeus, Pittacus, &c.) ; 2. Methymna. Chios, Skio,
(famed for its wine). Samos, Samo; Cap., Samos;
(sacred to Juno, the native city of Pythagoras). Icaros,
or-ia, Nikaria, which, with the adjoining sea, derived its
name from Icarus, the son of Daedalus (vide Mythol.).
Patmos, Patino or Patmos, (to which St. John was
banished). Leros, Lero. Cos, Kos, (the birth-place of
Hippocrates the physician, and Apelles the painter).
Rhodus, Rhodes; Cap., Rhodes, in the port of which
stood the Colossus. Carpathus, Scarpanto, whence Car-
pathium Mare.

IV. In the SoiUliern part, THE CYCLADES. Delos,
Delo, in the Centre, with Mt. Cynthus, (the birth-place
of Apollo and Diana) ; Naxos, Naxo or Naxia ; (sacred to

44 GEOGRAPHY.

Bacchus); Paros, Faro, (famed for its white marble).
N. : Andros, Andro ; Tenos, Teno ; Ceos, Zea; Cyth-
nos, Thermia; Syros, Syra; Myconos, Myconi; Seri-
phus, Serplio. S. : Melos, Milo; Siphnus, SipTino;
I OS, Nio; Amorgus, Amor go; Thera, Santorin; A sty-
pa lae a, Stampalia. The name SPORADES was applied
to those islands not lying round Delos, but scattered apart.
V. South of the Cyclades. Creta, Candia; Cap., Gnos-
sus, (the residence of Minos) ; N.W., Cydonia, Khaniay
(famed for its archers) ; S.W. of Cnossus, Gortyna. Mons
Ida in the centre of the island ; E., Mons Dicte, in a cave
Df which Jupiter was brought up.

BRITANNIA or ALBION.

' Great Britain.

-{■

BOUNDARIES. — N., Mare Pigrum, North Sea; E., Ger-
manicus Oceanus, German Ocean; S., Fretum Gallicum,
Straits of Dover, and Oceanus Britannicus, English Chan-
nel; W., Oceanus Hibernicus, Irish Sea, and Verginium

A Mare, St. Georges Channel.

RIVERS, &c. — Tames is, Thames; Sabrlna, Severn; An-
tona, Nen; Trivona, Trent; Abus, Eumher ; Tina,
Tyne ; I tun a, Eden; Beva, Dee. In Scotland: Bodo-
tria, Forth; Glotta, Clyde; Tavus, Tay ; Metaris
-<Estuarium, The Wash; Bodotriae ^st.. Firth of
Forth ; G 1 o 1 1 ae iE s t.. Firth of Clyde ; 1 1 u n a) iE s t., &^
tcay FrWh.

PROMONTORIES.— 0 cell urn Prom., Spurn Head; Can-
tium Prom., North Foreland; Ocrlnum Prom., Lizard
Point; Bolerium Prom., Land's End.

DIVISIONS. — S., Britannia Prima; Centre, Flavia
Cajsariensis; W., Britannia Secunda, Wales; N.,

GEOGRAPHY. ^ 45

Maxima Csesariensis; N. of the Wall of Severus, Va-
le nti a, South part of Scotland; N. of the Wall of Anto-
ninus, Caledonia, North part of Scotland,

TRIBES. — S. of the Thames: Cantii, Kent; Regni, Surrey
and Sussex; Belgae, Hants, Wilts, and Somerset; Atre-
batii, Berks; Durotriges, Dorset; Dumnonii, Devon and
Cornwall. N. of the Thames: Trinobantes, Middlesex
and Essex; Simeni, vel Iceni, Suffolk and Norfolk;
Cattieuchlani, Herts, Bucks, &c. ; Dobuni, Oxon and
Gloucester; Si lures, South Wales; Ordovices, North
Wales; Cornavii, Cheshire, Salop, Stafford, Worcester,
Notts, &c. ; Coritani, Lincoln and Leicester ; Brigantes,
York, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmoreland.

TOWNS. — S. of the Thames : Durovemum, Canterbury; Ru-
tupiae, Richhorough; Venta Belgarum, Winchester; Reg-
num, Chichester; Aquao Solis, Bath; Uxela, Exeter. N.
of the Thames: Londinium, London; Verulamium, St.
Alban's; Glevum, Gloucester; Corinium, Cirencester; Isca
Silurum, CaerUon; Lindum, Lincoln; Deva or Deona,
CJiester; Eboracum, York.

Hadrian's Wall, between the mouth of the Tyne and
the Solway Frith; erected a.d. 121. Wall of Severus;
erected a.d. 209. Rampart of Antoninus, between
the Friths of Forth and Solway ; erected a. d. 140.

ISLANDS.— Orcades, Orkneys; 'EihVi^es, Hebrides ; Thule,
Shellaiid Isles [t); Mona (of Caesar), Man; Mona (of
Tacitus), Anglesey; Cassite rides, Scilly Isles, (famous
for their tin) ; V e c t i s, Isle of Wight ; H i b e r n i a, Ireland;
Cap., Eblana, Dublin.

Yn'K)f')OSO

ASIA.

COUNTRIES. — Asia Minor, Anatolia, Bourn, and Karor
mania; Syria, Syria and Palestine; Arabia, Arabia;
Sarmatia Asiatica, >S^.^. part of Russia in Europe;
Colchis, Guriel, Mingrelia, and Imeritia; Iberia, Geor-
gia /Albania, Shirvan and pai't ofDaghistan ; Armenia,
Armenia and part of Georgia ; Mesopotamia, Algesira;
Chaldasa, Irak Ardbi; Assyria, Kurdistan; Media,
N. W. part of Persia; S u s i a n a, Khuzistan /Persia,^. W.
'part of Persia; H y r c a n i a an d P a r t h i a, jpar^ q/* Turkic-
tan; Aria, U. part of Khorassan and N. part of Afghan-
istan; Bactriana, Bokhara; Carmania, Kirman; Ge-
drosia, S. part of Beloochistan ; Sogdiana, part of
Turldstan and Bokhara; India, Hindostan, &c.; Scythia,
Tartary.

MOUNTAINS. — Caucasus, (between Pontus Euxinus and
Caspium Mare) ; Taurus Mons, in Asia Minor; Emodi
Monies, Himalayah Mountains in the N. of India.

SEAS, GULFS, &c. — Mare Hyrcanum vel Caspium,
Caspian Sea and Sea of Aral [1) ; Sinus Arabicus, Red
Sea; Erythraeum Mare, Arabian Sea; Sinus Per-
Bicus, Persian Gulf; Gangeticus, Bay of Bengal; In-
dicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean.

RIVERS. — 1. Rha, Volga (flowing into the Caspian Sea);

2. Euphrates and Tigris, falling into the Persian Gulf;

3. Oxus, Jikon; 4. Jaxartes, Siho7i, falling into the Sea

(46)

GEOGRAPHT. 4T-

of Aral, (but supposed by the ancients to fall into Mare
Caspium) ; 5. Indus, Indus, with its five tributaries;
6. Ganges, Ganged.

ISLANDS. — Cyprus, Cyprus, in the Mediterranean; Ta-
probana, Ceylon, S. of Hindostan.

\

ASIA MINOR.

Anatolia, Roum, and Karamania.

BOUNDARIES. — N., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; E.,
Euphrates and Syria; S., Mare Internum, Mediter-
ranean; W., iEgeum Marc, and Propontis, Sea of
Marmora.

GULFS. — N., Amisenus Sinus. "W., Adramyttenus Sinus,
Gulf of Adrymitti; Smyrnseus Sinus, Gulf of Smyrna;
S., Glaucus Sinus, Gulf of Maori ; Issicus Sinus, Gulf of
Scanderoon.

MOUNTAINS. — Olympus, a chain extending from N.W.
to N.E., passing through Galatia, Bithynia, and Paphla-
gonia; Ida in Troas ; Dindymus in Phrygia, sacred to
Cybele, (hence called Dindymene) ; Tmolus in Lydia
(famed for its saifron and wine) ; S.W. of this My c ale,
(near which the Persian fleet was defeated by the Greek,
B.C. 479); CrSgus in Lycia; Taurus, extending through
Asia Minor, from W. to E., to the countries beyond the
Euphrates; Mons Argaeus, Erdgish DagJi, in Cappa-
docia.

RIVERS. — Flowing into Pontus Euxinus: 1. Thermodon,
Thermeh; 2. Iris, Tesliel IrmaJc ; 3. Halys, Kinllrmak;
4. Parthenius; 5. Sangarius, Sakariyeh. Flowing into
the Propontis: 1. Rhyndacus, Edrenos ; 2. Granicus,
(battle, B.C. 334, Alexander defeated the Persian Satraps).
Flowing into the ^gean Sea: 1. Scamander or Xan-

48 GEOGRAPHY.

thus, Miiiderehy (joined by the Simois) ; 2. Hermus,
Ghiediz-Chaiy (with its tributary Pactolus, famed for its
golden sands); 3. Caystrus, (abounding in swans); 4.
Maeander, Mendereh, (proverbial for its windings). Flow-
ing into the Mediterranean: 1. Xanthus, Echen-Chai;
2. Oestrus, Ak-Su; 3. Eurymedon, Kapri-Su, (battle,
B.C. 469, Cimon defeated the Persians) ; 4. Calycadnus,
Giuk-Sooyoo ; 5, Cydnus, Tersiis-Chai, (famed for the
clearness and coolness of its water); 5. Sarus, Sihan;
6. Pyramus, Jihan.

LAKE. — Tatta Pal us, Tuz Gdl, in Phrygia, a great salt
lake.

PROMONTORIES.— N., Carambis Prom., Cape Karempe.
At the entrance of the Hellespont: Rhoeteum and Si-
geum Prom. W., Trogilium Prom., C. St. Mary, near
which was the PANIONIUM, or place of assembly for the
twelve Ionian states; Triopium Prom., C. ZHo, with
a temple of Apollo, (surnamed Triopius), the place of
meeting for the six Dorian states, or " Hexapolis," after-
wards reduced to five, " Pentapolis." S., Sacrum Prom.,
and Anemurium Prom., C. Anamur.

DIVISIONS. — N., Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus;
W., Mysia, Lydia, Caria; S., Lycia, Pamphylia,
Cilicia; Central, Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia.

BITHYNIA. — Cities. — H eraclea Pontic a, HaraTcli, near
which Acherusia Chersonesus, (with a cave through
which Hercules is said to have descended to the infernal
regions to drag up Cerebus). On the Thracian Bosporus:
1. Chrysopolis, Scutari; 2. Chalcedon, (or the city of
the blind, so called from its founders having overlooked
the more delightful situation of Byzantium). On the Pro-
pontis: 1. Libyssa, Geibuzeh, (where was the tomb of
Hannibal); 2. Nico media, Izmid, the Capital of the
kings of Bithynia, (here Hannibal died, b.c. 183). On
L. Ascanius, i. o/ Jznik: Nicaea, Jznik, (first Christian
oecumenical council held, a.d. 325).

GEOGRAPHY. 49

PAPHLAGUNIA. — CiYi'e^. — On the N. coast: Si nope,
Sinoub or Sinope, (the birth-place of Diogenes, the Cynic
philosopher); Cytorus, Kydros^ famous for its t ox-
wood.

PONTUS.—Ct^ie*.— On the coast: 1. Trapezus, Tiehizond;
2. Cera BUS, Kheresoun, (from which the cherry-tree was
first introduced into Italy, by LucuUus) ; 3. Polermo-
nium, Polemon; 4. Themiscyra, Therme1i{t) (founded
by the Amazons); 5. Amisus, Samsun, (the residence of
Mithridates). Inland: Zela, Zilleh, (battle, B.C. 47, Caesar
conquered Pharnaces ; an account of this battle Caesar sent
to the Senate in three words, viz., Veni, Vidi, Vici) ;
Am as i a, Amasiali, (the birth-place of Mithridates and
Strabo the geographer); Magnopolis, (built by Mithri-
dates and Pompey).

MYSIA, with TROAS and ^OLIS or \X.— Cities. — In the
N. : Cyzicus, Bal Kiz, (on an island of the same name,
unsuccessfully besieged by Mithridates, b.c. 75). On the
Hellespont: 1. Lampsacus, Lapsaki, (celebrated for its
wine, and one of the cities assigned to Themistocles for his
maintenance); 2. Abydos, Nagara; 3. Dardanus, from
which arose the modern name Dardanelles. At the foot
of Mt. Ida, Troja or Ilium, Troy, with its citadel Per-
gama; at the head of a bay of the same name, Adra-
myttium or eum, Adramytti. Inland, on the Caicus:
Pergamus (on or os), Eergama, (celebrated for its
library, where parchment (Pergamenae chartse) was first
used in writing ; the library was afterwards added to that
at Alexandria).

LYDIA or MiEONIA with lO^lK. — Cities. — On the coast:
1. Phocaea, a colony from which was founded Massilia,
Marseilles ; 2. Smyrna, Smyrna, (one of the seven cities
which claimed the honour of being the birth-place of
Homer); 3. Teos, (the birth-place of Anacreon); 4. Colo-
phon, (famed for its cavalry) ; 5. Ephesus, AyasaluJc, at
the mouth of the Caystcr, (famous for its temple to Diana,
5

60 GEOGRAPHY.

one of the seven wonders). Inland: Magnesia, (battle,
B.C. 190, Scipio defeated Antiochus) ; Sardes, Sart, on
the Pactolus, (the Capital of Croesus, king of Lydia, taken
by Cyrus, b.c. 546).

CARIA with VOBIS.— Cities. — On the Maeander: My us.
On the coast: 1. Miletus, (one of the chief cities of Asia
Minor, the birth-place of Thales, Anaximander, and other
great men); 2. Halicarnassus, Budrum, (the birth-place
of Herodotus the historian, and Dionysius the rhetorician,
and celebrated for the tomb of Mausolus. Opposite to
the island Cos: Cnidus), (battle, b.c. 394, Pisander, the
Spartan admiral, defeated by Conon, the Athenian).

LYCIA. — Cities. — On the coast: Telmessus, Mdcri. (in-
habitants famed for augury). On the Xanthus: X an thus,
Crunik. Near the mouth of the river: Pat a r a, Patara,
(with a famous temple and oracle of Apollo). On the
East: Phaselis, (the head-quarters of the pirates before
its destruction by P. Servilius Isauricus).

PAMPHYLIA with PISIDIA and ISAURIA. — CiVies.— On

the S. coast: Attalia. Inland: Perga, (the birth-place
of Apollonius the mathematician) ; Selga, the chief city
in Pisidia; Is aura, chief city in Isauria, (taken, B.C. 75,
by P. Servilius, who thence received the surname Isau-
ricus).

CILICIA. — Divided into Cilicia Trachea or Aspera and
Cilicia Campestris. Cities. — In C. Aspera. — On the
coast: 1. Selinus, Selenti, (where the Emperor Trajan
died, A.D. 117); 2. Seleucia, Selefkeh; 3. Corycus
(famed for its excellent saffron). In C. Campestris: 1.
Soli, also called Pompeiop5lis; 2. Tarsus, Tersus, on
the Cydnus, the Capital of Cilicia, (the birth-place of the
Apostle Paul and many distinguished philosophers, cele-
brated for the study of philosophy and the liberal arts) ;
3. Issus, ruins, on the Issic Gulf, (battle, b.c. 333, Alex-
ander defeated Darius).

GEOGRAPHY. 51^

PHRYGIA with LYC AONIA. — Cities. — In the S.W. — On
the Lycus: 1. Colossae, (to the inhabitants of which St.
Paul addressed an epistle); 2. Laodicea; 3. Apamea
Cibotus. Near the centre: 1. Ipsus (battle, B.C. 301,
Antigonus and Demetrius defeated by Lysimachus and
Seleucus, the two other generals of Alexander) ; 2. Syn-
nada (famed for its marble). In Lycaonia: 1. Iconium;
2. Lystra; 3. Derbe (vide Acts xiv.).

GALATI A. — Cities. — On the Sangarius : 1. G o r d i u m (the
ancient Capital of Phrygia, where Alexander cut the
famous " Gordian knot," on which its destinies were sup-
posed to depend) ; 2. Pessinus (the chief seat of the wor-
ship of Cybele, whose image was removed to Rome to
satisfy an oracle in the Sibylline books). Near the centre:
Ancyra, Angora, (the Capital of the province in the time
of Augustus).

CAPPADOCIA with ARMENIA MINOR. — CtVie*. — Near
the centre, at the foot of Mons Argaeus: Caesarea or
Mazaca, Kesarieh, the chief city; S.W. of this, Tyana,
in the district Tyanitis, (the city of ApoUonius the im-
postor). In Armenia Minor: 1. Nicopolis, Devriki;
2. Cab Ira or Sebaste, Sivas.

THE SIX DORIAN STATES ("Hexapolis"), which met
at the temple of Apollo at Triopium Prom., in Doris
(vide Caria), were, 1. Lyndus; 2. lalyssus; 3. Camirus (in
Rhodes) ; 4. Cos (in the island of Cos) ; 5. Cnidus ; 6. Ha-
licarnassus (in Caria) ; the last city was afterwards ex-
cluded from the number, the remaining five being termed
"Pentapolis.''

THE TWELVE IONIAN STATES, which held their meet-
ings at the Panionium, near Mt. My c ale, in Ionia (vide
Lydia), were, 1. Miletus ; 2. My us ; 3. Priene (in Caria) ;
4. Ephesus; 5. Colophon; 6. Lebedos; 7. Teos; 8. Ery-
thrae; 9. Clazomene; 10. Phocaea (in Lydia); 11. Chios;
and 12. Samos ; Smyrna from the .^olian colony increased
the number to thirteen.

52 GEOGRAPHY.

rilE iEOLIAN LEAGUE ("Panceoli ;m") possessed
twelve cities, which met at Smyrna : 1. Cyme ; 2. Larissas ;
3. Neontichos ; 4. Temnus ; 5. Cilia ; 6. Notium ; 7. ^gi-
russa ; 8. Pitane ; 9. ^gaeae ; 10. Myrina ; 11. Grynea ; 12.
Smyrna (which subsequently became an Ionian colony).

THE "SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA." — 1. Ephesus;
2. Smyrna ; 3. Pergamos ; 4. Thyatira ; 5. Sardis ; 6. Phi-
ladelphia ; 7. Laodicea.

Island.

CYPRUS (sacred to Venus), separated from Asia Minor by
Aulon Cilicius. Towns. — On the W. coast: 1. Paphos,
Baffa; Amathus, Limasol; 2. Citium (the birth-place
of Zeno the Stoic philosopher); E., Salamis, (said to
have been founded by Teucer) ; N., Lapethus and Soli.
Inland: 1. Tamasus (famed for its copper-mines); 2.
Idalium (sacred to Venus). Mountain. — Olympus.

SYRIA— PALiESTINA.

BOUNDARIES. — N., Amanus Mons, and Taurus Mons;
E., R. Euphrates and Arabia; S., Arabia; W., Mare
Internum, Mediterranean.

MOUNTAINS. — Casi us Mons, Jehel Okrah; Lebanon
(famed for its snowy summits and its cedars), di^^ded into
Libanus on the "VV. and Antilibanus on the E., to the
E. Mt. Ilermon. On the sea-coast: Carmel. Inland,
in Galilee: Mt. Tabor, Mt. Hermon, and Mt. Gilboa.
In Samaria: Mt. Ebal and Mt. Gerizim; (on the latter
the Samaritans erected a temple to rival that at Jerusalem.)
In Peraea: Mt. Nebo and Mt. Abarim.

RIVERS. — Falling into the Mediterranean: 1. Orontes, M
Asij, from the S. ; 2. Leontes. Jordanes, Jordan, from
Ilermon, flowing S., through, 1. Semechonitis Lacus,

GEOGRAPHY. 53

Waters of Meron; 2. L. Tiberias vel L. Gennesaret,
Lake Chinnereth or Sea of Galilee, falls into 3. Lacus
Asphaltites vel Mare Mortuum vel Salsum, Dead
Sea or Salt Sea.

DIVISIONS. — I.Syria; 2. Phoenicia; 3. Palaestina.

SYRIA. — Cities. — On the coast: Seleucia Pieria, Capital
of the district; Laodicea, Ladikeyeli. Inland, on the
Orontes: 1. Antiochia, Antioch, ihQ Capital, (where the
disciples were first called Christians); 2. Epiphanea,
(0. T. Hamath), HamaTi; Heliopolis or Balbec, near
the source of the Leontes ; (with a magnificent temple of
the sun); to the S.E., Damascus, one of the most ancient
cities in the world; E. of Antioch, ChalybonorBeroea,
Aleppo. In the Desert: Palmyra or Tadmor, (the city
of Zenobia, with whom Longinus the philosopher resided,
destroyed a.d. 273). On the Euphrates: 1. Samosata,
Someisaty (the birth-place of Lucian) ; 2. Zeugma; 3.
Thapsacus, (famed for its ford, by which Cyrus in his
expedition, Darius in his retreat, and Alexander previous
to the battle of Arbela, crossed the Euphrates).

VRCENICl A. — Cities. —On the coast: 1. Tri polls, Taror
hulus or Tripoli; 2. Byblus, Jebeil; 3. Berytus, Beirout;
4. Si don, Saida, (famed for its commerce and manufac-
tures of glass) ; 5. Sarepta, for some time the residence
of Elijah ; 6. Tyrus, Tyre or Sur, (celebrated for its mari-
time wealth, enterprise, commerce, and colonizing activity :
taken, b.c. 332, after a siege of seven months, by Alex-
ander) ; 7. Ptolemais, Acre, one of the oldest Phoenician
cities.

PAL^STINA vel JUD^A. — In Scripture called Canaan,
The Land of Promise, The Land of Israel, and The Holy
Land.

TRIBES. — W. of the Jordan: 1. Asher; 2. Naphthali;
3. Zebulon; 4. Issachar; 5. a half tribe of Manasseh;
5*

54 GEOGRAPHY.

6. Ephraim; 7. Dan; 8. Simeon; 9. Benjamin; 10.
Judah; E. of the Jordan: a half tribe of Manasseh;
11. Gad; 12. Reuben. After the death of Solomon the
land was divided into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah.

DIVISIONS. — 1. N., Galiljea (divided into Galilfea Su-
perior, Galilee of the Gentiles, and Galilaea Inferior,
Lmcer Galilee). 2. Centre: Samaria. 3. S. : Judaea.

4. Batanaea ; 5. Peraea, both beyond the Jordan.

GALILEE.— CtVi65.— In the N. : Dan ; E. of this, Csesarea
Philippi vel Pane as, Banias. On the borders of the
Sea of Galilee: 1. Capernaum (our Saviour's usual place
of residence) ; 2. Bethsaida (the city of Peter, Andrew,
and Philip); 3. Tiberias (built by Herod Antipas, in
honour of Augustus Caesar). W. of the Lake: Dio Cae-
sarea vel Sepphoris^ Sefurieh; 2. Cana (vrhere our
Lord wrought his first miracle at the marriage-feast).

5. of Cana: 1. Nazareth (the residence of Joseph and
Mary) ; 2. Nain, where the widow's son was restored to
life.

SAMARIA. — Cities. — Near the centre: Samaria, aft.
Sebaste, (founded by Omri, king of Israel; it was the
Capital of the ten tribes until taken by Shalmaneser, king
of Assyria, B.C. 721). S. of this, 1. Shechem or Sychar,
afterwards Neapolis, Nablous; 2. Shiloh, (where Joshua
erected the tabernacle); S.E., Archelais, founded by
Archelaus, son of Herod. On the coast: Caesarea, or
Turris Stratonis, Kaisariyeh, (the residence of the Roman
Procurators).

JUDiEA. — Cities. — On the coast: Joppa, Jaffa, a very
ancient maritime city; in the N., Bethel, S.E. of this
Jericho or Hierlchus, (taken and destroyed by Joshua) ;
S. of Bethel, Emmaus, afterwards Nicopolis. W. of
the northern extremity of the Dead Sea: Jerusalem vel
Hierosolyma (originally Jebus, the city of the Jebu-
sites), the Capital of the Jewish nation from the time of

GEOGRAPHY. 65

David, B.C. 1048; destroyed by Titus, a.d. 70; the city
was situated on four hills, 1. Zion (or the Upper City), on
which a fortress was erected by David; 2. Acra (or the
Lower City) ; 3. Moriah, on which the temple was built;

4. Bezetha ; at the foot of Mt. Moriah was the brook Ke-
dron, which flowed into the Dead Sea ; N.E. of Jerusalem,
Bethany and the Mt. of Olives; S. from Jerusalem,
1. Bethlehem, the birth-place of David and of Our
Blessed Saviour; 2. Hebron, the burial-place of Abra-
ham, Isaac, and Jacob.

Five principal cities of the Philistines: 1. Gath; 2.
Ekron or Accaron; 3. Azotus or As h do d, famed for
its temple to Dagon; 4. Ascalon; 5. Gaza.

PERiEA and BATANiEA. — In Peraea: 1. Heshbon; 2,
Ramoth Gilead; 3. Bethabara, on the Jordan. In
Batanaea and N. of Peraea: DECAPOLIS, comprising,

1. Canatha; 2. Hippus; 3. Gadara; 4. Capitolias; 5. Abila;
6. Scythopolis; 7. Pella; 8. Gerasa; 9. Dium; 10. Phila-
delphia.

THE CITIES OF REFUGE.— W. of the Jordan: l.Kedesh;

2. Shechem; 3. Hebron. E. of the Jordan: 4. Golan;

5. Ramoth Gilead ; 6. Bezer.

SEVEN HEATHEN NATIONS. — 1. The Hittites; 2. Gir-
gashites; 3. Amorites; 4. Canaanites; 5. Peiizzitcs; 6.
Hivites ; 7. Jebusites.

ARABIA

Arabia.

BOUNDARIES. — N., Syria and Chaldsea; E., Sinus
Persicus; S., Erythraeum Mare, Arabian Sea; W,
iEgyptus, Egypt; Sinus Arabious, Red Sea or Aror
bian Gulf; Dirae, Straits of Babel Mandel.

56 GEOGRAPHY.

MOUNTAINS. — In the N., between the two branches of the
Red Sea: Mt. Sinai and Mt. Iloreb; Mt. Hor, near
Petra.

DIVISIONS. — N.W., ARABIA PETR.EA; W. and S.,
ARABIA FELIX ; E. and in the interior, ARABIA DE-
SERTA.

TRIBES, &c. — N., Idumaea; W., Nabathsei; S., Sabsei,
Cap. Saba or Mariaba, 0. T. Sheba. In Arabia Petraea:
Petra. 0. T. Tribes bordering on Palestine : Ammonites,
Moabites, Midianites, Edomites, Amalekites.

COUNTRIES BETWEEN PONTUS EUXINUS, Black
Sea, AND HYRCANUM MARE, Caspian Sea.

I. SARMATIA ASIATICA, Circassia, and S. E. part of
Rtissia in Europe. — Boundaries. — N.E., R. Rha, Volga;
S.E., Caspium Mare, Caspian Sea; S., Caucasus
Mons; W., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and R. Ta-
nais, Don.

II. COLCHIS or ^A, Guriel, Imeritia, and Mingrelia.—
Boundaries. — N., Mons Caucasus; E., Iberia; S.
Armenia; W., Pontus Euxinus.

Chief River. — P ha sis, Faz (which has given its name
to the pheasant, said to have been first brought to Greece
from its banks).

Towns. — On the Phasis: Cyta, (where Medea was said
to have been born). On the N. W. coast: Dioscuri as,
Ishiria, (a considerable trading city).

III. IBERIA, Georgia. — Boundaries. — N., C au c a s u s ; E.,
Albania; S., Armenia; W., Colchis [inhabitants,
Iberes or Iberi).

Chief River. — Cyrus, Kour, (tributaries, Cambyses and
Alason).

Tribe. — W., Moschi.

GEOGRAPHY. ' 57

IV. ALBANIA, Shirvan and part of Daghistan. — Bound-
aries,— N., Sarmatia Asiatica; E., Hyrcanum Mare;
S., K. Cyrus, Kour ; W., Iberia.
Mountain. — Caucasus Mens.

ARMENIA PROPRIA, vel MAJOR.

Armenia and part of Qeorgia.

BOUNDARIES.— N., Colchis, Iberia, and Albania; E.,
a point at the junction of the Araxes and Cyrus; S., Me-
dia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia; W., R. Euphrates.

MOUNTAINS. — Mons Ararat, Imbarus Mons, Niphates
Montes.

RIVERS. — 1. Araxes, Aras (rising in the country of the
Chalybes), with its tributary, Harpasus, falls into the
Caspian; 2. Euphrates, formed by two branches from
the N. and E., and flow S., into Sinus Persicus, The
Persian Gulf; 3. Tigris, with its tributaries, Nymphaeus
and Nicephorius.

LAKE. — Arsissa Pal us, Lake Van.

TOWNS. — On the Araxes: Artaxata. On the Tigris:
Ami da. On the Nicephorius: Tigranocerta (founded
by Tigranes, son-in-law of Mithridates, king of Pontus).

MESOPOTAMIA.

Algesira.

MESOPOTAMIA, so named from its position between the
rivers Euphrates (AY.) and Tigris (E.), was bounded
on the N. by Masius Mons, Armenia, and Taurus
Mons; S., by Babylonia.

k

58 GEOGRAPHY.

RIVER. — Chaboras or Aborrhas, Khabour (a branch of
the Euphrates).

DIVISIONS. — N.W., Osroene; N.E., Mygdonia.

TOWNS. — On the Euphrates: 1. Nicephorium, EaJckah
(built by order of Alexander); 2. Cunaxa (battle, b. c.
401, Cyrus the Younger defeated and slain by Artaxerxes
his brother. The Greek auxiliaries of Cyrus commence
their return to Greece, usually called the retreat of the
Ten Thousand). Between the two rivers: 1. Edessa,
(0. T. Ur), Urfah, the Capital of Osroene; 2. Charrse,
the Haran of the 0. T., (death of Crassus, and defeat by
the Parthians, b. c. 53); 3. Nisibis, Cap. of Mygdonia,
and a very important place as a military post.

BABYLONIA AND CHALDJEA.

Irak Ardbi.

BOUNDARIES. — N., Mesopotamia; E., R. Tigris; S.,
Persicus Sinus; "W., Arabia.

Cities. — Babylon, ruins, on the Euphrates, founded by
Nimrod, about b. c. 2000, and taken by Cyrus, b. c. 538 ; it
was built in the form of a quadrangle, on both sides of the
Euphrates, and was distinguished for its extent and mag-
nificence. Its chief buildings were: 1. The Tower of
Belus; 2.The01dRoyal Palace; 3.The New Palace,
with the hanging gardens [i. e, gardens laid out in the
form of terraces over arches). S. of Babylon: Borsippa
(the chief residence of the Chaldaean astrologers), and
Seleucia, on the Tigris, for a long time the Capital of
W. Asia.

GEOGRAPHY. 69

COUNTRIES East of the EUPHRATES and
TIGRIS.

I. ASSYRIA, Koordistan. — Boundaries. — N., Armenia;
E., Media; S., Susiana; W., R. Tigris.

Rivers. — Flowing into the Tigris: Zabatus vel Lycus,
Zah; Delas or Sill a, DtaZa.

Divisions. — N., Aturia; Centre, Adiabene; S., Sit-
tacene.

Cities. — On the Tigris: 1. Ninus or Nineveh, Tiear
Mosul, (the Capital of the great Assyrian monarchy, de-
stroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, b. c. 606) ; 2.
Ctesiphon (the usual winter residence of the Parthian
monarchs). E. of the Tigris: Gaugamela, (the scene of
the last and decisive battle between Alexander and Darius,
B.C. 331, usually called the battle of Arbela, from its
proximity to that town).

II. MEDIA, North-west part of modern Persia, Irak.-^
Boundaries. — N., Armenia, R. Araxes, and Caspium
Mare; E., Ilyrcania and Aria; S., Persia and Su-
siana; W., Assyria.

Divisions. — N., Atropatene; CJiief Town, Gaza. S.,
Media Magna.

Chief Toxons. — ^Ecbatana, Humadan, (near Mt. Orontes,
the residence of the Median, and latterly of the Persian
kings. The city was built without walls, on the slope
of a hill, on the summit of which stood the royal castle,
surrounded by seven walls, with battlements). N. E. of
Ecbatana : Kdartuu rtvXtu, a mountain-pass ; near this the
Nicaean plains, famed for the breed of white horses.

III. SUSIANA or SUSIS, KJiuzistan. — BoundaHes,^'^.,
Assyria; E., Persia; S., Sinus Persicus; W., R.
Tigris.

Rivers. — Choaspes, Kerah; Coprates, Ahzal; and
P a s i - T i g r i s, Karoon ( ? ) , fall into the Tigris.

60 GEOGRAPHY.

Tribes. — Cossae, Elamitae.

Capital. — Susa (O. T. Shushan), on the Choaspea (the
winter residence of the Persian monarchs).

IV. PERSIA or PERSIS, Persia. — Boundaries. — ^., Me-
dia; E., Carmania; S., Sinus Persicus; W., Su-
siana.

Cities. — Persepolis (the burial-place of the Persian
kings); Pasargada (founded by Cyrus the Great, in
memory of his victory over Astyages, the last king of
Media, b.c. 559).

COUNTRIES South op the R. OXUS, Jihm.

I. HYRCANIA, Astrahad. — Boundaries. — ^, and E., Par-
thia; S., Media; AV., Caspium Mare.

II. PARTHIA, Khorassan (inhabited by a very warlike
people). — Boundaries. — N., Scythia; E., Aria; S. and
S.W., Media; W., Hyrcania.

Capital. — Ilecatompylus (founded by Arsaces).

III. ARIA or ARIANUS, East part of Khorassan and N.
of Afglianistan. — Boundaries. — N., Parthia; E., Bac-
triana and Indo-Scythia; S., Gedrosia; W., Car-
mania and Media.

Divisions. — N., Margiana (famed for its wine) ; Centre,
Drangiana [River: Etymandrus, flowing into Aria
Palus, Lake ZurraTi) ; S., Arachosia.

Tribe. — P a r o p a m i s a d se (at the foot of Paropamisus
Mons vel Caucasus, Hindoo-Koosh.

Capital. — Aria vel Artacoana, Herat,

IV. BACTRIANA or BACTRIA, Bolcliara.— Boundaries.—
N., Oxus, R. Jilion; E. and S., Paropamisus Mons,
Hindoo-Koosh; W., Aria.

GEOGRAPHY. 61

Capital. — Backtra, Balk (the winter-quarters of Alex-
ander, B.C. 329).

V. C ARMANI A, Kirman. — Boundaries. — E., Aria and Ge-
drosia; S., Sinus Persicus; W. and N.W., Persia.

Divisions. — Carmania Propria and Carmania De-
serta.

Capital. — Caramana, Kirman.

VI. GEDROSIA, Beloocliistan. — Boundaries. — N., Aria;
E., Paropamisus Mons, Hala Mis.; S., Erythraeum
Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Carmania.

Mountains. — Parsici Montes, near the centre.
Tribes. — Ichthyophagi, Oritae, and Arabitae, on
the coast.

Capital. — Pura.

I

COUNTRIES North op the OXUS.

I. SOGDIANA, part of Turkestan and Bokhara. — Bound-
aries.— N., R. Jaxartes, Sihon or Sirr ; E., Imaus
Mons; S., R. Oxus, JiJwn or Amou; W., Sea of Aral
(unknown to the ancients.)

Cities. — Maracanda, Samarkand (the Capital) ; Cyro-
polis, on the Jaxartes (founded by Cyrus).

II. SCYTHIA {Independent Tariary and Mongolia), the name
given to the large tract of country N. of the Caspian
Sea, R. Jaxartes, and Emodi Montes, Himalaya Mts.,
and E. of Sogdiana and Bactriana. Scythia was
divided by Imaus Mons, Altai Mts., into Scythia intra
Imaum, on the N.W., and Scythia extra Imaum, on
the S.E.

T'ibes, &c. — Sacae and Mas sage toe; E. of Scythia
extra Imaum, S eric a, N.W. part of China, inhabitants
the Seres, famous for their manufactures of silk (the coun-
try was regarded as the native region of the silk-worm.)
6

62 GEOGEAPHY.

INDIA.

HindostaUf Birmdh, Siam, Cochin China, and Malaya,

BOUNDARIES.— N., Emodi Monies, Himalaya Mis., and
Scythia; S., Gangeticus Sinus, Bay of Bengal, and
Indicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean; W., Erythrseum
Mare, Arabian Sea, and Paropamisus Mons, Hala
and Soliman Mis.

RIVERS. — I. N.AV., Indus, Indus, with its five tributary
streams: 1. Hydaspes, Jelum; 2. Acesines, Chenaub;
3. Hydraotes, Ravee; 4. Hyphasis, Gharra or Beeas;
5. Zaradrus, Sutlej. II. Ganges, Ganges. III. Dyar-
danes or CEdones, Burrampooier,

DIVISIONS. — W. of the Ganges, India intra Gangem;
E. of the Ganges, India extra Gangem.

TOWNS, &c. — On the Indus: T axil a, ^^^ocA; (near which
Alexander crossed the river). On the Hydaspes: Buce-
phala, Jelum (built by Alexander, in memory of his
favourite horse Bucephalus, which died and was buried
here, B.C. 327). Malli, a tribe on each side of the Ace-
sines, Chenaub ; their Capital is supposed to have been on
the site of the fortress of Moultan. On the Ganges:
Palibothra, Patna, the Capital of the Prasii.

ISLANDS, &c. — Taprobane vel Salice, Ceylon; Jabadii
Ins., Sumatra; Aurea Chersonesus Malaya; E. of
which, Magnus Sinus, Gulf of Siam.

AFEICA

BOUNDARIES.— N., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; E.,
Arabia, Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea, and Erythraeum
Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Mare Atlanticum, Atlantic
Ocean.

BAYS. — Syrtis Major, Gulf of Sidra; Syrtis Minor,
Gulf of Cahes.

STRAIT. — Fretum Herculeum vel Gaditanum, Straits
of Gibraltar.

RIVERS. — Nil us, Nile, remarkable for its periodical inun-
dations ; some few miles below Memphis the river divided
into three branches, but now into two, E., Ostium Phatni-
ticum, at Damietta, W., Ostium Bolbitinum, at Eosetta,
which flows through a low land, called from its shape
(resembling the fourth letter of the Greek language)
*' Delta," and fell into the Mediterranean. The seven
ancient mouths, from E. to "VY., were: 1. Pelusiac; 2. Saitic;
3. Mendesian ; 4. Phatnitic, or Bucolic ; 5. Sebennytic ; 6.
Bolbitic ; 7. Canopic. Of these the fourth and sixth were
artificial.

LAKES. — Near the western mouth of the Nile, L. Ma-
reotis; S. of this, L. Moeris. E. of the Nile, L. Sir-
bonis.

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64 GEOGRAPHY.

^GYPTUS.

Egypt.

BOUNDARIES. — N., Mediterranean; E., Arabia and
Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea; S., ^Ethiopia; W., Libya,

DIVISIONS. — 1. N., iEgyptus Inferior or Delta; 2.
Middle: Heptanomis; 3. S., uEgyptus Superior vel
Thebais.

iEGYPTUS INFERIOR vel DELTA.— CiYie^.— Between L.
Mareotis and the Sea, Alexandria, with two harbours
(the Capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, founded by
Alexander, b. c. 332, and famous for its learning and com-
merce ; the library is said to have contained 400,000
volumes). Opposite to Alexandria: the island Pharos,
with a famous light-house, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus,
B.C. 283. E. of Alexandria: Canopus, near Ahoukir (its
inhabitants were proverbial for their luxury). In the
Delta: 1. Naucratis, founded by the Milesians, the only
place in Egypt where Greeks were permitted to settle and
trade) ; 2. Sais (the ancient Capital of Lower Egypt — it
contained the palace and burial-place of the Pharaohs) ;
3. Busiris, with the temple of Isis; 4. Buto (with an
oracle of the Egyptian goddess Buto). E. of the Delta:
1. Pelusium (surrounded by swamps, and called, from
its situation, the Key of Egypt); E. of this, Casius Mons,
with a temple of Jupiter ; here also was the grave of Pom-
pey; 2. He lio polls, or On, O.T. (with a celebrated temple,
the chief seat of the worship of the Sun); 3. Bubastis
(where the great annual festival to the goddess Bubastis,
or the Moon, was held).

HEPTANOMIS.— Ct7ie5. — On the W. side of the Nile: 1.
Memphis or Moph, the Capital (near which were the
celebrated Pyramids) : of its splendid buildings the chief
were, the Palace of the Pharaohs and the temples of
Apis and Serapis; 2. Crocodilopolis or Arsinoe

GEOGRAPHY. 65

(the chief seat of the worship of the Crocodile) : near this,
the famous Labyrinthus, containing 3000 apartments,
in which the kings and sacred crocodiles were buried;
3. Oxyrhyncus, BehneseTi, so called from the fish of that
name there worshipped.

^GYPTUS SUPERIOR vel THEBAIS. — CiWe5. ■- On the
W. side of the Nile: 1. Ptolemais, MensJiieh (an import-
ant city under the Ptolemies) ; 2. Abydos, with a Mem-
nonium, (i. e. a building erected by, or in honour of
Memnon), and a temple of Osiris; 3. Thebae vel Dios-
polis, on both sides of the Nile, Capital of Thebais, and
the most ancient residence of the Egyptian kings: this
city, called the hundred-gated (Ixowo/ttTtuXot), possessed
many magnificent buildings, the ruins of which now
enclose a space two miles in length; 4. Elephantine,
and 5. Philae, on two small islands, with many architec-
tural remains. On the E. side of the Nile: 1. Syene,
Assouan, the S. frontier city of Egypt; 2. Coptos, Koft,
(the central point of commerce between India and Arabia,
by way of Berenice, on the Arabian Gulf).

At the N. of the Red Sea: Cleopatris vel ArsinSe,
Suez.

South of Egypt: Ethiopia, Nubia, Senaar, Kordofany
and Abyssinia.

Rivers. — Astapus and Astaboras, flowing into the
Nile.

City. — Meroe (the Capital of the powerful kingdom of
Meroe), with a famous oracle of Ammon.

I

NORTHERN COASTS OF AFRICA.

DIVISIONS,—!. Libya, Barca, with the provinces; 1. Mar-

marica; 2. Cyrenaica. II. Tripolitana vel Regio

Syrtica, Tripoli. III. Africa Propria, Tunis, with Zeu-

gitana and Byzacium vel Emporia. IV. Numidia,

6*

66 QEOGRAPHY.

Algiers. V. Mauritania, Morocco and Fez, divided into
Mauritania Caesariensis, E., and Mauritania Tin-
gitana, W.

LIBYA, Barca. — Towns. — In Marmarica. — On the coast :
Parsetonium, El-Bareton ; S. of this, Oasis of Amnion,
famous for its temple, visited by Alexander ; W. of Paraeto-
nium, Catabathmos, generally considered the boundary
between Egypt and Cyrenaica. In Cyrenaica: Gyrene,
the chief city (founded by Battus, b.c. 631), the birth-place
of Aristippus, the philosopher, and Callimachus, the poet ;
S.W. of Gyrene, Barce, Barca, chief town of the Barcitae.
On the coast: 1. Ptolemais; 2. Berenice, the fabled
site of the Gardens of the Hesperides.

TRIPOLITANI, nipoli.— Towns.— On the coast: 1. Leptis
Magna vel Neapolis; 2. Oea, Tripoli; 3. Sabrata
(these three cities formed the African Tripolis).

Tribe. — On the coast: Lotophagi or Eaters of the
Lotus, the taste of which was so delicious, that those who
eat of the fruit lost all desire to return to their native
country.

AFRIGA PROPRIA, Tunis, divided into Byzacium and
Zeugitana. — Towns. — In Byzacium. — On the coast : 1.
Tactipe, Cdbes; 2. Thapsus, Demos (battle, b.c. 46,
Gaesar defeated the Pompeian army) ; 3. Leptis Minor,
Lamia; 4. Hadrumetum (the Gapital of Byzacium under
the Romans). Inland: Tritonis Palus, El Sibkah (in
which Minerva is said to have been born, and hence called
"Tritonia"). In Zeugitana. — On the coast: 1. Tunes,
Tunis; 2. Garthago, the Gapital of Africa, situated at
the head of a bay, formed by two promontories, Her-
maeum Prom., C. Bon, and Apollinis Prom., C. Fa-
rina. The Tyrian colony of Garthage was said to have
been founded by Dido, about b.c. 853 — its citadel was
termed Byrsa (Bvpcra, "a hide"), in reference to the manner
in which the portion of land for building the first city was

GEOGRAPHY. 67

obtained by Dido (destroyed, b.c. 146, by Scipio Africanus
the Younger) ; 2. U tic a, near the mouth of the Bagradas,
the second city in Africa, and even more ancient than
Carthage (the birth-place of Cato, whence he received the
surname of Uticensis). Inland: Zama (battle, b.c. 202,
Hannibal defeated by Scipio, and the Second Punic war
ended).

NUMIDIA, E. part of Algiers. — Town.— Cirta,, the Capital,
the city of Syphax and Masinissa.
Tribe. — Massyli.

MAURITANIA, Morocco^ FeZy and part of Algiers. — Towns,
— On the coast: 1. Cartenna, Tennez; 2. Siga; 3. Tin-
gis, Tangier ; 4. Sal a, Sallee. S. of Mauritania: Atlas
Mons, Mi. Atlas. Tribes. — S. of Atlas Mons, Numidia
and Africa Propria, Gaetuli, E. of which Garamantes,
dwelling in the region Phazania, Fezzan^ Cap. Garama,
Mourzouk.

ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic : Insulae Purpurariae, pro-
bably the Madeira, S. of which Insulae Fortunatae,
Canary islands, in which the ancients supposed the Elysian
fields to be situated; Hesperidum Insulae, Cape Verde
Islands, 3r the Bissagos group.

L

MYTHOLOGT.

THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN OR NATIONAL
DEITIES OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.

JUPITER (Zfvj'), son of Saturn and Ops, king of gods and
men, and the most powerful of all the deities. He was
educated in a cave on Mount Ida. When a year old he
made war against the Titans, in the cause of his father
Saturn, and liberated him. He is usually represented as
sitting on an ivory or golden throne, holding in his hand
thunderbolts. He bore a shield or goat-skin called -^gis.

NEPTUNE (no(j«Swv), son of Saturn and Ops, and chief
deity of the sea ; he was on this account entitled to more
power than any other god except Jupiter. He is repre-
sented as carrying the trident, or three-pronged spear,
attended by dolphins. Amphitrlte was his queen.

VULCAN ("H^aKJT'oj), son of Juno ; the god of fire, and
patron of all workers in iron and metals : his palace, which
was in Olympus, contained his workshop, in which he
made many ingenious and marvellous works, both for gods
and men. His abode is said by some to have been in p
volcanic island. The Cyclops were his workmen.

MARS ("Apj^j), the god of war ; son of Jupiter and Juno.
He presided over gladiators, and was the patron of manly
and warlike exercises. He is generally represented as
riding in a chariot, drawn by furious horses, called Flight
and Terror. In the Trojan war he is said to have taken
the part of the Trojans. In Rome he received the most
unbounded honours*

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MYTHOLOGY. 69

MERCURIUS ('Ep^^j), son of Jupiter and Maia ; messenger
of the gods, and deity of eloquence, commerce, and the a ts.
He conducted the souls of the dead into the lower world,
and is usually represented with a winged hat and sandals,
bearing the caduceus in his hand. Hermes was horn on
Mount Cyllene, in Arcadia.

APOLLO, son of Jupiter and Latona ; god of music, medi-
cine, augury, painting, poetry, and all the fine arts. H€
was born, with his sister Diana, near Mount Cynthus, in
Delos, an island in the ^gean Sea. AVhen he grew up he
slew the serpent Python, which infested the country near
Delphi, and established the famous oracle. He received
the surname of Phoebus from his connexion with the Sun
{^^i, the bright).

JUNO ('Hpa or 'Hp»7), the daughter of Saturn and Ops, sister
and wife of Jupiter, and queen of all the gods. She was
born at Argos (some say Samos), and is noted for her
jealousy and severity to the illegitimate children of
Jupiter.

MINERVA or ATHENA {'AO^tj or 'A9tp>d, nawiaj), daughter
of Jupiter, said to have sprung from his forehead com-
pletely armed. She was goddess of wisdom, war, and the
liberal arts, the guardian and aider of heroes, and pre-
siding goddess of Athens. She is always represented with
a helmet, breast-plate (or ^gis), and shield ; on the latter
was the Gorgon's head. Her favourite bird was the owl,
which was sacred to her.

VESTA ('EdT-ta), the goddess of the hearth, and also of fire.
Her worship was introduced into Italy by -(Eneas. The
fire on the altar in her temple was never allowed to go
out ; but, when such was the case, it was kindled again by
the rays of the sun. The priestesses dedicated to her ser-
vice were called Vestals.

.CERES {Arjfiri'tTjfi), daughter of Saturn and Rhea (or Ops) ;
goddess of corn and plenty, the same as Isis of the Egyp-
tians. She was mother of Proserpine, and is represented
holding a sceptre or torch, and a garland of ears of com
round her head.

70 MYTHOLOGY.

VENUS ('A^poStV?/), daughter of Jupiter and Dione and wife
of Vulcan, the goddess of love and beauty, queen of laughter,
and mistress of the graces and pleasures. Venus is sup-
posed to have sprung from the foam of the sea near the
island of Cyprus or Cythera. In the contest for the golden
apple of beauty, Paris awarded it to Venus, in preference
to Pallas and Juno. Her favourite birds were swans and
doves, her sacred flowers the rose and myrtle.

DIANA (•Api'fjWtj), daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and
sister of Apollo ; the goddess of woods and hunting. On
earth she was called Diana, in heaven Luna, in the lower
world Proserpina or Hecate.

Note. — The deities of the Romans were adapted to those of the
Greeks, with which they do not entirely correspond.

MINOR DEITIES.

^OLUS, a king of the JSolian Islands. He is fabled to be
the god of the winds, from his foretelling the changes of
the winds and weather.

iESCULAPIUS ('Acfx^^rttoj), the god of medicine, instructed
in this science by Chiron. He was worshipped throughout
Greece; and his temples, which were built in healthy
places, on hills, or near wells, were not only places of wor-
ship, but frequented by sick persons.

AMMON, a surname of Jupiter, worshipped in Libya, and
afterwards in Egypt.

AMPHITRITE, a NEREID or OCEANID, wife of Neptutio,
and goddess of the sea.

APIS, the bull of Memphis, worshipped by the Egyptians.
He was allowed to live but about twenty-five years, and
was then slain and secretly buried ; but if he died a natural
death, he was buried publicly, with great solemnity.

ASTR-i^A, daughter of Zeus and Themis; goddess of justice.
She lived on earth during the golden age ; but the wicked-
ness of mankind drove her to heaven during the brazen

MYTHOLOGY. 71

and iron ages. She was placed among the constellations,
under the name of Virgo, and is represented holding a pair
of scales in one hand, and a sword in the other.

AURORA {Eos, "Ewj), the goddess of the morning, daughter
of Hyperion, and wife of Tithonus son of Laomedon. She
is represented as setting out before Helios her brother,
drawn in a chariot by four white steeds, and dispelling
darkness and sleep.

BACCHUS {Dionysus, Atowcroj), the god of wine, son of
Jupiter and Semele the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes.
He is usually represented as an effeminate youth, crowned
with ivy and vine leaves.

BELLONA, the Roman goddess of war, and companion of
Mars. She is usually described as his wife, and repre-
sented armed with a scourge, to animate the combatants.

CUPIDO or AMOR ("Epcoj), the god of love ; the son of Venus
and Zeus (some relate of Mars and Mercury). He is
usually represented as carrying a bow and arrows, which
he darts into the bosoms of gods and men.

FAUNI, rural deities, represented as half men and half goats.

FLORA, the goddess of flowers among the Romans.

FORTUNA {Tvx*:), daughter of Oceanus ; the goddess of for-
tune. From her were derived riches and poverty, pleasures
and misfortunes. The Romans paid great attention to this
goddess, and had eight temples dedicated to her at Rome.

FURI^ or DIRiE, called by the Greeks Erinyes ('Epw/ucj) or
Eumemdes {Evfi(vl8Bi), three goddesses sprung from Ge and
the blood of Uranus, namely, TisipJwiie, Alecio, and Megcera,
They haunted the impious with remorse for their crimes.

GE or G^A (r^ or Tata), also called by the Romans TELLUS
and TERRA, was the personification of the earth, and as
such was worshipped by the ancients as a deity.

GENIUS, the guardian or protecting spirit of each man's
life. Such spirits were called by the Greeks ^aJLfxovie, by
the Romans Genii, and were regarded as the ministers of
Zeus, and guardians of men and justice. Hesiod numbers
the Dasmones at 30,000.

72 MYTHOLOGY.

GRATIS, the three goddesses presiding over all elegant arts
and social enjoyments. They are generally represented
dancing. Their names were Aglaia (splendour), Uuphro-
syne (joy), Thalia (pleasure).

HADES o*r PLUTO ('AtSjyj), god of the {unseen or) nether
world. He is also known as Orcus, Tartarus, and Dls.
The word Hades is also frequently used to designate the
infernal regions.

HEBE vel JUVENTAS, daughter of Jupiter and Juno ; the
goddess of youth. She was for some time cup-bearer to
the gods, to which office Ganymede succeeded; she was
also employed by Juno in preparing her chariot, &c. She
was supposed to have the power of making aged persons
young again.

HECATE, a Titan goddess, whose power extended over
heaven, earth, and sea. Also a name for Diana or Pro-
serpina.

HELIOS, called SOL by the Romans, god of the sun ; brother
of Aurora.

HOR^, daughters of Zeus and Themis. Originally the god-
desses of the seasons, but in later times of order and justice.
They were three in number, Eunomia (good order), DikS
(justice), Irene (peace).

HYGIEA or HYGEA, the goddess of health ; daughter of
^sculapius. She is represented as a virgin, draped in a
long robe, and feeding a serpent from a cup.

HYMEN vel HYMEN^US, the god of marriage ; described
by some as the son of Bacchus and Venus, by others as the
son of Apollo and one of the Muses.

IRIS, the goddess of the rainbow, and the messenger of the
deities, particularly of Juno.

ISIS, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians, described as the
wife of Osiris ; goddess of the earth, and deity of the moon ;
inventor of the cultivation of wheat and barley.

JANUS, a Roman deity ; god of the temple of war. He is
represented with two faces, sometimes with four heads.
Numa dedicated a temple to Janus, open in times of war,
and closed in times of peace.

t

MYTHOLOGY. 73

LARES, inferior gods at Rome, who presided over houses and
families, and were divided into Lares puhlici and Lares do-
mestici ; all the latter were headed by the Lar familiarisj
regarded as the founder of the family. Their images stood
on the hearth, and offerings were made to them daily.

LUNA or SELENE, daughter of Hyperion ; the goddess of
the moon, identified afterwards with Diana.

MANES, the general name for the souls of the departed.
They were regarded as gods, and received divine honours.

MOMUS, the god of pleasantry, wit, and satire ; driven from
heaven by the gods for turning all their actions into ridicule.

MORPHEUS, son of the deity Somnus, and god of dreams.

MUSiE, goddesses who presided over poetry, &c. They were
the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne (Memory), and
nine in number: 1. CUOy the muse of History; 2. Euterpe^
of Lyric Poetry; 3. Thalia, of Comedy; 4. Melpomene, of
Tragedy; 5. Terpsicliore, of Choral Dance; G. Erato, of
Amatory Poetry; 7. PoUjhymnia, of Rhetoric and Elo-
quence; 8. Urania, of Astronomy; 9. Calliope, Epic Poetry.
At the Olympian banquets they sang to Apollo's lyre.
Their favourite haunts were the hills Pindus, Helicon, and
Parnassus.

NEMESIS, daughter of Nox, goddess of vengeance, and
always prepared to punish the wicked and reward the good.

NEREUS, a deity of the sea, and father of the fifty Nereides.
He is represented as an old man, and described as the wise
old man of the sea, at the bottom of which he dwelt.

NYMPHiE, a numerous class of female deities, generally
divided into two classes, viz. land and water nymplis. The
chief land nymphs were : 1st, Oreades, of the mountains
and grottoes; 2d, Napoeae, of the forests, glens, and groves;
3d, Dryades and Hamadryades, of the woods and trees.
The chief water nymphs were: 1st, Oceanides, or ocean
nymphs, three thousand in number ; 2d, Nereides, or sea
nymphs, fifty in number (among them we find Amphitrite,
Thetis, and Galatea) ; 3d, Naiades, a general name for
those nymphs presiding over either rivers, lakes, brooks,
or springs ; 4th, Potameides, or river nymphs.

74 MYTHOLOGY.

OCEANUS, the god of water ; son of Uranus and Ge ; repre-
sented as an old man, sitting on the waves of the sea.

OSIRIS, a great Egyptian divinity, husband of Isis, and god
of the Nile. He taught the use of the plough, and is some-
times represented as the deity of the sun.

PALES, the divinity of sheep-folds and pastures among the
Romans.

PAN, the god of shepherds ; son of Hermes. He was usually
represented as a monster with two small horns on his head,
ruddy complexion, flat nose, and with the legs, tail, and
feet of a goat. He resided chiefly in Arcadia, and is said
to have invented the pipe with seven reeds, called Syrinx,
from a nymph of that name whom he loved.

PAX, the Roman goddess of peace ; daughter of Zeus and
Themis.

PENATES, the household gods of the Romans, called Penates
from being placed in the innermost part {in peniiissima
parte) of the house; they were generally made of wax,
ivory, silver, or clay.

PHCEBE, a name given to Diana as goddess of the moon
(Luna) ; Apollo, her brother, being surnamed Phoebus,
god of the sun.

PHCEBUS, expressive of brightness, a surname given to
Apollo as god of the sun.

PLUTO, the son of Saturn and Rhea ; god of the infernal
regions. He is described as gloomy and inexorable ; on
which account, as none of the goddesses would marry him,
he bore off Proserpine by force. He is also known as
Orcus, Hades, Dis, &c.

PLUTUS, son of Ceres and lasion ; the god of wealth. Jupiter
is said to have deprived him of sight, that he might not
bestow his gifts on the righteous alone.

POMONA, the goddess of fruits among the Romans.

PRIAPUS, a deity who presided over gardens, and was wor-
shipped as a protector of flocks, goats, bees, and fishing.

PROSERPINA vel PERSEPHONE, daughter of Jupiter and
Ceres, and wife of Pluto as queen of the lower world. She
presided over the death of mankind.

MYTHOLOGY. 75

PROTEUS, a sea deity (the prophetic old man of the sea),
remarkable for hia custom of assuming different forms
when consulted. He is described as a subject of Neptune,
whose flocks (the seals) he tended.

PARC^E vel MOIlliE, the Fates, powerful goddesses, who
presided over the life and death of mankind. They were
three in number, viz. : ClotJio, or the spinning fate, who
presided at the birth ; Lachesis, who spun out all the events
of each man's life, and assigned his lot or fate ; Atropos,
the inflexible fate that cannot be avoided, who cut the
thread of life.

SATURNUS (Kpdi/oj), a son of Coelus and Uranus, and the
father of Jupiter. As the god of time he is represented as
an old man, holding a scythe in his right hand.

SILENUS, a rural deity ; an attendant on Bacchus. Usually
represented in a state of intoxication, and never seen with-
out his wine-bag.

SILVANUS, a Roman deity, who presided over the woods
and forests.

THEMIS, daughter of Uranus and Ge ; the mother of Astraea,
Irene, the Parcae, &c., «&c. She is the personification of
Law and Equity.

THETIS, one of the sea deities or Nereides (daughters of
Nereus), and the mother of Achilles.

URANUS, CCELUS, or HEAVEN, a Titan; the most ancient
of all the gods ; father of Saturn, Oceanus, &c.

VERTUMNUS, the Roman deity who presided over plants
and flowers.

HEROES, MYTHICAL PERSONS, &c.

ACHERON, a river of the lower world, over which the dead
were first conveyed : the word is sometimes used to desig-
nate the whole of the infernal regions.

ADMETUS, son of Pheres and Periclymene, king of Pherae,
in Thessaly, husband of Alcestis, and one of the Argonauts.

76 MYTHOLOGY.

ADONIS, a beautiful youth, the favourite of Venus ; at hia
death she transformed him into the flower called Ane-
mone.

-<3j]ACUS, son of Zeus and iEgina: he was so famed through-
out Greece for his justice and piety, that he was called
upon to settle the disputes not only of men, but sometimes
of the gods ; on his death he became one of the three
judges in Hades.

^.G^ON (vide Briareus).

ALCESTIS, daughter of Pelias, and wife of Admetus, who,
having on the day of his marriage neglected to sacrifice
to Artemis, Apollo reconciled the offended goddess, and
induced the Fates to deliver Admetus from death, if his
father, mother, or wife, would die for him ; Alcestis died
in his stead, but was brought back from the lower world
by Hercules.

AMAZONES, a nation of female warriors, said to have come
from the Caucasus, and settled near the river Thermodon,
in Pontus ; Hippolyte was their queen.

ARIADNE, daughter of Minos and Creta ; she fell in love
with Theseus, who married her, but afterwards forsook her.

ATLAS, one of the Titans, who is generally represented as
supporting the world on his shoulders ; which task was
allotted him in consequence of his having, with the other
Titans, made war upon Zeus (vide Titanes).

BELLEROPHON, son of Glaucus a Corinthian king. To be
purified from the murder of his brother Bellerus, he fled to
Prcetus, king of Argos, by whom he was sent to lobates,
king of Lycia, his father-in-law, who ordered him to slay
the monster Chimaera, thinking he would perish in the
contest ; but Bellerophon, having obtained the aid of Pe-
gasus, the winged horse, conquered the Chimaera : he was
also sent against the Amazons, and encountered the bravest
of the Lycians, always returning victorious. lobates, see-
ing it was hopeless to kill the hero, made him his successor,
and gave him his daughter in marriage. Some relate that
BeUer5phon attempted to fly to heaven on Pegasus, but
Zeus sent a gad-fly to sting the horse, which threw off the

t

MYTHOLOGY. 77

rider, who became lame or blind, and wandered about the
earth till the day of his death.

BRIAREUS vel ^GEON, a famous giant, who had 100
hands and fifty heads, called by men ^gaeon, and only by
the gods Briareus. He is said to have conquered the
Titans, when they made war on the gods.

CALYPSO, one of the ocean nymphs who dwelt in the
mythical island of Ogygia, on which Ulj'-sses was ship-
wrecked.

CASTOR, son of Jupiter and brother of Pollux, distinguished
for his skill and management of horses. Castor and his
brother enjoyed immortality, and were called the Dioscuri.

CENTAURI, a race inhabiting Mount Pelion, in Thessaly,
represented as half men and half horses ; Chiron was the
most celebrated of the Centaurs (vide Pirithous).

CERBERUS, the dog of Pluto : he guarded the entrance to
Hades, and is said by some to have had fifty heads, by
others only three ; his den was near the spot where Charon
landed the dead.

CHARON, a son of Erebus (darkness) : he conducted the
souls of the departed in a boat over the rivers Acheron
and Styx to the lower regions, for an obolus (about l\d.) ;
as all the dead were obliged to pay, a small coin was
usually placed in the mouth of the deceased.

CHIRON, the most celebrated of the Centaurs : he lived on
Mt. Pelion, and was famed for his knowledge of hunting,
medicine, music, and prophecy ; he instructed the chief
heroes of his age, namely, Hercules, Jason, Achilles, Pe-
leus, &c., and was wounded accidentally in the knee by a
poisoned arrow shot by Hercules in his contest with the
Centaurs. After his death, Chiron was placed among tho
constellations by Zeus.

CIRCE, a mythical sorceress, daughter of Sol and Perseus,
celebrated for her knowledge of magic and venomous
herbs.

COCYTUS, a river in Epirus, and tributary of the Acheron ;
it was supposed to be connected with the lower world, and
hence was described as one of the five rivers of hell. , ,

78 ' MYTHOLOGY.

CYCLOPE'^, a race of men of gigantic stature ; they had but
one circiuar eye in the centre of their forehead, whence
the name KvxXoTt-? ; they were three in number according
to Ilesiod, and called Arges, Brontes, and Stejvpes; but
this number was afterwards increased.

DjEDALUS, the most ingenious artist of his time: he in-
vented sails for ships, and made wings with wax and
feathers for himself and son Icarus ; with these they toolj
flight from Crete : but the heat of the sun melted the waj»
on the wings of Icarus, and he fell into the part of th^
ocean called after him the Icarian Sea.

DAPHNE, daughter of the river-god Peneus in Thessaly, o^
Ladon in Arcadia : she was much beloved by Apollo, snd
fearful of being caught by him, was changed into a laurel
tree, which thence became the favourite tree of Apollo.

DEUCALION, son of Prometheus, and king of Phthia in
Thessaly, saved with his wife Pyrrha, on account of their
piety, when Zeus destroyed by a flood the race of men.
On the waters subsiding, Deucalion and Pyrrha ofiered a
sacrifice, and consulted the oracle of Themis how the
human race might be restored ; the oracle ordered them to
cast behind them the bones of their mother, which they
interpreting to be the Earth, threw stones behind their
backs, when those thrown by Deucalion turned into men,
and those by Pyrrha into women.

ELYSIUM, a place in the lower world, the abode of the vir-
tuous after death : the Elysian regions are placed by some
in the middle region of the air or ocean ; by others in the
moon and sun ; and by others in the centre of the earth,
near Tartarus.

ENDYMION, a youth celebrated for his beauty and per-
petual sleep.

EREBUS (signifying darkness), a deity of hell ; the word is
applied to the gloomy regions, the abode of the wicked as
well as of the good, and is distinguished both from Tar-
tarus and Elysium.

EUROPA, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia: her beauty
captivated Zeus, who, taking the form of a bull, mingled

MYTHOLOGY. 79

with the herd of Agenor ; when Europa, encouraged by
the tameness of the animal, mounted his back, whereupon
Zeus rushed into the sea and swam with her in safety to
Crete, where she became the mother of Minos, Rhadaman-
thus, and Sarpedon.

GIGANTES, the giants, sons of heaven and earth, a savage
race, destroyed on account of their insolence to the gods.

GORGONES, three celebrated sisters, daughters of Phorcys
the sea deity ; their names were Stheno, EurycXle, and Me-
dusa; they were frightful creatures, and instead of hair
their heads were covered with serpents ; they had wings,
brazen claws, and enormous teeth. Perseus slew Medusa,
whose head was placed in the centre of Minerva's shield,
and had the power of turning all that looked at it into stone.

IIARPYIiE, winged monsters, w4th the face of a w^oman and
body of a vulture ; they were three in number, Aello, Ce-
Iceno, and Ocypete.

HERACLYDiE, a name given to the descendants of Her-
cules, who, with the Dorians, conquered the Peloponnesus
(B.C. 1104).

HERCULES, the most celebrated hero of antiquity : he was
the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and born at Thebes.
Juno early plotted his destruction, and her cruelty ren-
dered him subject to the will of Eurystheus, king of My-
cenae, who imposed on him twelve labours (vide infra).
His first exploit previous to entering the service of Eurys-
theus, was killing the enormous lion which destroyed the
flocks of Amphitryon and of Thespius, king of Thespice :
the gods, charmed with the bravery of Hercules, presented
him with a complete suit of armour ; Jupiter gave a shield,
Apollo a bow and arrows. Mercury a sword, Vulcan a
golden cuirass and a club of brass, and Minerva a coat of
mail.

HESPERIDES, the celebrated guardians of the golden apples,
which Ge gave to Juno on the day of her marriage with
Jupiter : they were called the daughters of Atlas and Hes-
peris, whence their name ; they resided near Mount Atlas,
in Africa.

80 MYTHOLOGY.

HIPPOLYTE, daughter of Mars, queen of the Amazones ;
she wore a girdle given her by her father, which was taken
from her by Hercules (vide 9th labour).

HYPERION, a Titan, son of Uranus (heaven) and Ge (earth),
(father of Helios) the sun.

HYADES (i. e. the rainy), a name given to seven nymphs,
who formed, with the Pleiades, the constellation known by
that name.

lAPETUS, one of the Titans; being the father of Prometheus,
he was regarded by the Greeks as the father of all mankind.

10, the daughter of Inachus, king of Argos. Hera being
jealous of her, Zeus changed her into a white heifer : Hera
then sent the hundred-eyed Argus to watch her ; but he
being slain by Hermes, the goddess persecuted her with a
gad-fly ; she swam across the Thracian Bosporus (hence its
name Ox-ford), and, after wandering over the earth, gave
birth to Epaphus, on the banks of the Nile.

IXION, king of the Lapithse, and father of Pirithous. He
treacherously murdered his father-in-law, Deioneus, and
having proved ungrateful to Zeus, who had purified him,
the god condemned him to be tied to a wheel which per-
petually revolved in Hades.

JASON, the celebrated leader of the Argonautae, in the expe-
dition to Colchis ; he was the son of ^son and Alcimede,
and brought up by the Centaur Chiron (vide Argonautic
Expedition).

LAPITH^, a savage race inhabiting the mountains of Thes-
saly; Piritholis was their king (vide Pirithous).

LATONA {ArjtJi), a Titaness, the mother of Apollo and
Diana.

LEDA, daughter of Thestius, and wife of Tyndarus, king
of Sparta; she was the mother of Helena by Zeus, who
visited her in the form of a swan.

LETHE, a river in the lower world, whose waters, if the
souls of the dead drank, had the power of making them
forget all they had done before (derivation >^r;0^, oblivion).
MAIA, daughter of Atlas, and one of the Pleiades, the most
luminous of the seven sisters.

MYTHOLOGY. 81

MEDEA, daughter of ^etes, king of Colchis, celebrated for
her skill in music ; she fell in love with Jason, and assisted
him in obtaining the golden fleece (vide Argonautic Expe-
dition).

MINOS, son of Zeus and Europa, brother of Rhadamantliiis,
and the king and legislator of Crete. On his death, Minos
became one of the judges of the lower world.

NARCISSUS, a beautiful youth, changed into the flower
which bears his name.

NIOBE, daughter of Tantalus, sister of Pelops, and wife of
Amphion : being the mother of seven sons and daughters,
she considered herself superior to Latona, who had borne
only two ; for this conduct, her children were slain by
Apollo and Diana, she herself being turned into stone.

ORION, a celebrated giant, sprung from Jupiter, Neptune,
and Mercury ; after his death, Orion was placed among
the constellations.

ORPHEUS, one of the Argonauts, supposed to be a son of
Apollo, and regarded by the Greeks as the most celebrated
of the early poets. His skill on the lyre was such that ho
charmed even Cerberus and the inhabitants of Hades, when
he went thither to recover his wife E ury dice, whom he lost
by looking back upon before they had regained the earth.

PANDORA (rtoi/ScSptt), a woman so named from having re-
ceived every necessary gift : from Venus, beauty ; from
Mercury, eloquence ; and from Minerva, splendid orna-
ments. Pandora was the first woman on earth, and made
by Vulcan from clay, by order of Jupiter, who might, by
her charms, bring woes upon the earth, because Prome-
theus had stolen fire from heaven. She was married to
Epimetheus, brother of Prometheus : in his house was a
jar or box, which he had been forbidden to open ; but
Pandora's curiosity could not resist the temptation, and as
soon as it was opened all the evils incident to man escaped,
Hope alone being left. Others relate that it was ajar, not
a box, which Pandora brought from heaven.

PEGASUS, a celebrated winged horse (sprung from the blood
of Medusa, yno of the Gorgons, when Perseus cut off her

82 MYTHOLOGY.

Jiead) : he is described as the thunder-bearer of Jupiter ;
but by later writers as the horse of Aurora.

PERSEUS, a famous hero, son of Jupiter and Danae, and
husband of Andromeda ; he is said to have founded My-
cona3 (vide Gorgones).

PIIAETIION (i. e. the shining), a surname of Sol, commonly
known as a son of Sol by one of the Oceanides : he was
killed by Zeus with lightning, for his attempt to drive the
chariot of the sun across the heavens.

PHLEGETIIOjST, a river of hell, in which fire flowed instead
of water.

PIERIDES, a name given to the Muses, derived from Pieria,
in Thessaly, where they were first worshipped.

PmiTHOUS, a hero worshipped at Athens, and king of the
Lapithoe, in Thessaly: at his marriage with Hippodamia
the Centaur Eurytion carried her off; which occasioned
the war between the Lapithse and Centaurs, in which the
latter were defeated.

PLEIADES, a name given to the seven daughters of Atlas —
Elcctra, Maia, Tdygete, Alcyone, Celceno, Sterope, Merope.

POLLUX, son of Jupiter and Leda, and brother of Castor,
famed for his skill in boxing (vide Castor).

POLYPHEMUS, son of Neptune, a celebrated Cyclops, who
fed on human flesh, and kept his flocks on the coast of
Sicily.

PROMETHEUS (the Forethinker), the son of lapetus, one of
the Titans. Jupiter, to punish him and the rest of man-
kind, deprived the earth of fire ; but Prometheus stole it
from heaven, for which Zeus chained him on Mount Cau-
casus, where an eagle preyed on his liver for ages : it was
ultimately slain by Hercules.

PSYCHE (■*"v;i;}j), signifying " the soul," a nymph whom
Cupid married: Venus for a time imposed on her the most
unpleasant labours, which well-nigh killed her: but Ju-
piter, at Cupid's request, conferred on her immortality.

PYTHON, a celebrated serpent, lived in the caves of Mount
Parnassus, and was slain by Apollo, who, in commemora-
tion of his victory, founded the Pythian games.

MYTHOLOGY. 8^

RHADAMANTHUS, son of Zeus and Europa, and brother
of Minos, king of Crete, from whom he fled to Bceotia, and
married Alcmene. From his justice throughout life, ho
became after death one of the judges of hell.

RHEA, OPS or CYBELE, daughter of Coelus and Terra, wife
of Saturn, and mother of Jupiter and the gods.

SATYRI, the name of a class of demigods, attendants on
Bacchus, represented with the legs and feet of a goat,
short horns, bristly hair, and pointed ears ; the elder Satyrs
were called Sileni.

SIRENES, sea nymphs, who had the power of charming by
their songs all who heard them : they are usually stated to
have been three in number, the daughters of Phoroys, a
sea deity. Ulysses, when sailing near their abode, stopped
the ears of his companions with wax, and tied himself to
the mast, to avoid being charmed by their songs, and thus
delayed.

SPHYNX, a monster who had the head and breasts of a
woman, body of a dog, tail of a serpent, wings of a bird,
paws of a. lion, and a human voice.

STYX, one of the rivers of hell, round which it was said to
flow nine times: it was held in such veneration by tho
gods, that they took oaths by it; and Zeus caused those
who swore falsely to drink of it, which had the efiect of
stupefying them for a year.

TARTARUS, one of the regions of Hades or hell, where tho
most impious of men were punished. The principal cri-
minals were, 1. Tityus, slain by Apollo and Diana for
his conduct to their mother, Latona ; in Tartarus his body
covered nine acres of land, and a vulture preyed, without
ceasing, on his liver. 2. Ixion, fixed by Zeus on a revolv-
ing wheel for having aspired to the love of Juno. 3. Tan-
talus, who, for having, at an entertainment given by him
to the gods, served up the flesh of his son Pelops, was
punished with insatiable thirst; he is represented as placed
up to the chin in a pool of water, which flowed away when-
ever he attempted to taste it. 4. Sisyphus, a son of
.^olus, and king of Corinth ; he is said to have greatly

84 MYTHOLOGY.

promoted navigation and commerce ; but his wickedness
was great, and as a punishment for his crimes, he was
condemned in hell to roll to the top of a hill a large
stone, which no sooner reached the summit than it rolled
down again into the plain. 5. The Dan aides, forty-nine
maidens, who, for stabbing their husbands, the sons of
^gyptus, on their wedding-night, were sentenced to fill a
perforated tub with water. Hypermnestra, the fiftieth,
spared the life of her husband, Lynceus.

TITANES, children of Uranus and Ge : they were twelve in
number, six sons and six daughters, viz. Oceanus, Ceus,
Crius, Hyperion, lapetus, Cronus: Thea, Rhea, Themis,
Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys. Zeus and his brothers re-
belled and waged war against Saturn and the Titans : this
contest was carried on for ten years, Saturn's party fighting
from Mount Othrys, Jupiter's from Mount Olympus ; at
length Jupiter released the Hecaton-Cheires (the hundred-
handed), the Titans were defeated and confined in Tar-
tarus. The name Titanes is also given to the descendants
of the Titans.

TRITON, a son of Neptune and Amphitrite : he is repre-
sented riding over the sea on horses or sea-monsters, hold-
ing a trumpet made out of a shell (concha).

TYPHON, a monstrous giant, described as having a hundred
heads, and vomiting flame. He was no sooner born, than
he made war against the gods, who were so terrified that
they assumed difiorent shapes, Jupiter a ram, &c. ; eventu-
ally, Typhon was crushed by a thunderbolt from Jupiter,
and placed under Mount ^tna.

EARLY GRECIAN LEGENDS,

THE ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION.

Athamas, a king of Boeotia, married Nephele, by whom he
had two children, Phrixus and Ilelle. On the death of his
wife, Athamas married Ino, whose jealousy of her step-chil-
dren induced her to destroy them ; they, however, contrived
to escape, and attempted to cross the sea to Colchis, on the
back of a golden-fleeced ram, given by Hermes. Helle, being
unable to keep her seat, was drowned in the strait called
from her the Hellespont. Phrixus, having reached Col-
chis in safety, offered up the ram to Zeus, and presented the
fleece to King ^etes, who had received him kindly; the
fleece was nailed to an oak in the sacred grove of Mars, and
guarded by a dragon.

Jason, son of iEson, king of lolcos, in Thessaly, undertook
to recover this fleece. He gave orders to Argus, a son of
Phrixus (who was assisted by Minerva), to build a vessel of
fifty oars; the ship was named " Argo," from the builder, and
those who went on the expedition "Argonautae" (i.e. "sailors
of the Argo''). Jason was accompanied by the most re-
nowned heroes of the time, to the number of fifty ; among
whom were Hercules, Theseus, Pirithous, Castor and
Pollux, Telamon, Peleus, Admetus, Oileus, Neleus,
Laertes, Menoetius, Orpheus the minstrel, Mopsus the
seer, ^sculapius the physician, Tiphys the pilot. After
various adventures, the Argo entered the river Phasis, in
Colchis, the heroes landed, and Jason immediately informed
the king of his mission ; the monarch consented to his taking
the fleece, provided he performed the necessary conditions,
8 (85)

86 EARLY LEGENDS RELATING TO THEBES.

viz., ploughing a piece of land with the brazen-footed bulla
of Vulcan, sowing it with the teeth of the dragon slain by
Cadmus, and destroying the armed crop which would spring
up. Medea, the king's daughter, fell in love with Jason,
and with her assistance he obtained the golden fleece, and
left the country, accompanied by Medea, ^etes, finding
that Jason had departed, and taken his daughter, got on
shipboard, and pursued ; but, to detain him, Medea murdered
her brother Absyrtus, and cut him in pieces, so that, while
her father was collecting the scattered limbs, the Argo
escaped, and eventually arrived in safety at lolcos.

EARLY LEGENDS RELATING TO THEBES.

Thebes, the Capital of Boeotia, is said to have been founded
(c. B.C. 1500) by CADMUS, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia.
According to the legend, Cadmus, failing to find his sister
Europa, who had been carried ofi'by Zeus, settled in Thrace,
and being ordered by the Delphic Oracle to build a town
where a cow, which he was to follow, should sink down with
fatigue, he founded Cad me a, the citadel of Thebes. He
also there killed a dragon which guarded a well of Ares,
and, by the instruction of Athena, sowed its teeth, from
which armed men, called Sparti (i. e. sown), sprung up and
slew each other, except five, who became the ancestors of the
Thebans.

Cadmus was succeeded by his son Polydurus, who was
in turn succeeded by his son Labdacus. He was the father
of Laius, the next king, who had a son, OEdipus, by J(h
casta, the daughter of Menoeceus and sister of Creon.

STORY OF CEDTPUS, AND OF THE WAR OF
THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES.

An Oracle having foretold that Lai us should be slain by
his son, CEdipus was exposed at his birth on Mt. Cithsercn,

THE SEVEN AGAINST THETES. 87

but was found by a shepherd, who (from his feot being
pierced through) gave him the name of OtSiniouj (i. e. swollen-
footed), and brought him to his master, Poly bus, king of
Corinth, and husband of Merope or Periboea, and by
whom (Edipus was brought up. On attaining manhood, his
birthright being called in question, (Edipus consulted the
Delphic Oracle, which replied that he was destined to slay
his father and marry his mother. Soon afterwards, near
Daulis, he met his father in a chariot, and, refusing to make
way for him, was struck by Laius, whom he killed, together
with the slight escort which attended the chariot. Purposely
avoiding Corinth, he arrived at Thebes, where he foiled the
Sphynx, a monster who used to murder all those who were
unable to solve the riddles which she put to them. CEdipus
having explained the riddle of the being with four, two, and
three feet, to mean man drawling iti infancy, walking in marir
hood, and leaning on a staff in old age, the monster was so
enraged at the solution, that she threw herself down from
the rock on which she was seated. The Thebans, according
to their promise, rewarded CEdipus with the hand of their
queen, Jo cast a, by whom he became the father as well as
brother of Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismene.
In consequence of his marriage a plague was sent, and Creon
brought back word from Delphi that the murderer of Laius
must be banished. Tiresias, the blind seer, forced by
(Edipus, revealed to him his crimes ; whereupon Jocasta
hung herself, and (Edipus put out his own eyes, was expelled
by his sons, and wandered an outcast, under the guidance of
his daughter Antigone, to Colonos, in Attica, where he
died. Eteocles having violated the agreement with Polynices
to reign in turns, the latter fled to Adrastus, kingof Argos,
married his daughter Argia, and persuaded her father to
assist him against Eteocles. Polynices, accompanied by
Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippo-
medon, and Parthenopaeus, advanced against Thebes,
and each assailed one of its seven gates ; but were all slain
except Adrastus ; Eteocles and Polynices falling by each
other's hands. Antigone performed the rites of burial over

88 EARLY KINGS OP TROY.

Polynices, in defiance of the orders of Ore on (who was regent
for Laodamas, son of Eteocles), and was buried alive by her
uncle's command; whereupon Haemon, her lover, son of
Creon, slew himself in despair. Ten years after the war of
the ** Seven against Thebes," the descendants {'Ertiyovoi) of
the heroes stormed Thebes, and razed it to the ground.

^ EARLY KINGS OF TROY.

1. TEUCER (c. B.C. 1400?), hence the Trojans were called
Teucri. His daughter Batea married — 2. DARDANUS, who
came from Arcadia and Samothrace, and built Dardania,
hence the name Dardanelles. 3. ERICTHONIUS, his son,
was the wealthiest of mortals, and was succeeded by his son
— 4. TROS, hence Troja, Tro7j ; he was the father, by Cal-
lirhoe, of — 5. ILUS, after whom Troy was called Ilium.
The brothers of Ilus were Assaracus (grandfather of
^neas) and Ganymede s, who was carried off by Zeus to be
his cup-bearer, in place of Hebe. Tros was compensated for
his loss by a present of horses. Zeus also gave Ilus the
Palladium, or image of Pallas, with the promise that, as
long as it remained in Troy, the city should be safe. 6.
LAOMEDON, son of Ilus, and husband of S try mo. Jupiter
condemned Neptune and Apollo to serve him for a year ; the
former built the walls of his city, the latter became his shep-
herd. Upon his insolently refusing them their wages, Nep-
tune sent a sea-monster to ravage the country. He si one,
the daughter of Laomedon, was chosen by lot as a sacrifice
to appease this scourge ; but Hercules came to her assistance,
and offered to save her if the king would give him the horses
of Zeus. After Hercules had slain the monster, Laomedon
refused to fulfil the conditions he had agreed to; the hero
therefore slew him and all his sons, except Priam, whom
Hesione ransomed with her veil. 7. PRIAM (i. e. ransomed^
HfMkfuu), originally called Podarces, married Hecuba, by
whom he had Hector, Paris, Ilelenus, Deiphobus,

LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. 89

P0I3' dorus, Troilus, also Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena,
Cassandra, and other children. At the taking of Troy, he
was slain by Pyrrhus at the altar of Zeus, before which his
son Polites had just fallen by the same hand.

LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR.

B.C. 1194 — B.C. 1184.

To the marriage of Pel e us, king of the Myrmidons, in
Thessaly, and Thetis, parents of Achilles, all the deities
were invited, except the Goddess of Discord ("Eptj), who, in
revenge, threw among the guests a golden apple, inscribed
*' To the fairest." Juno, Venus, and Minerva each claim-
ing it, Jupiter referred the decision to Paris, also called
Alexander, a son of Priam, and at that time a shepherd on
Mt. Gargarus (a part of Mt. Ida), on which he had been
exposed at his birth, owing to his mother Hecuba having
dreamed that she had brought forth a firebrand, which
should devastate Troy. Paris, at the risk of drawing down
on himself and on his country the resentment of the two
other goddesses, awarded the apple to Venus, who had pro-
mised him the most beautiful woman for his wife. This was
Helen, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and wife of Men e-
laus, king of Sparta, whence Paris carried her off, together
with the treasures of her husband. Upon the commission of
this outrage, the various Grecian chieftains, who had been
suitors of Helen, collected at Aulis, in Boeotia, an army of
about 100,000 men, and a fleet of 1186 ships, and placed
them under the command of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae,
brother to Menelaus, and the most powerful of the Greeks.
Before, however, the expedition started, Menelaus and Ulysses
attempted a fruitless negotiation at Troy. Agamemnon hav-
ing, at Aulis, killed a stag sacred to Diana, a pestilence was
sent on his followers, and a calm detained their vessels.
Calchas (the son of Thestor) the Grecian soothsayer, ordered
him to appease the anger of the goddess by sacrificing his

90 LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR.

daughter Iphigenla. Diana, however, substituted a stag as a
victim, and carried off Iphigenla to be her priestess at Tau-
ris, where she subsequently delivered her brother Orestes,
when he was on the point of being sacrificed to Diana.

The Greeks, on their arrival at Troy, drew their ships on
shore, and surrounded them with a fortification ; but being
unable to take the city, they blockaded it, and ravaged the
neighbouring country. Among the spoils of Chrysa (one of
the captured cities) was Chryseis, who fell to the lot of
Agamemnon. On his refusing to release her, Chryses, her
father, obtained from Apollo, whose priest he was, the inflic-
tion of a pestilence on the Greeks. Calchas having declared
the cause of the plague, Chryseis was released, and Aga-
memnon consoled himself by taking away Briseis from
Achilles, into whose hands she had fallen at the capture of
Lyrnessus. Achilles, being deeply enraged, refused to take
any further part in the war ; at last, finding that the Greeks,
from being deprived of his aid, were worsted, and even their
ships assailed with fire, he permitted his friend Patroclus
to put on his armour, and lead his Myrmidons to the fight.
Patroclus was slain by Hector; and Achilles, in consequence,
roused by grief and resentment, and being furnished by his
mother with fresh armour, forged by Vulcan, rescued hia
friend's dead body, and burnt it. He then pursued Hector
thrice round the walls of Troy, slew him, tied him to hia
chariot, and dragged him to the ships.

The aged Priam ransomed in person his son's corpse, and
buried it: with this event, the subject of the Iliad of Homer
closes. The same poem also relates several single combats
between the various heroes, in which the gods and goddesses
often take part; Juno, Minerva, Neptune, Mercury,
and Vulcan, espousing the side of the Greeks, while Mars,
Phoebus, Diana, Venus, and Latona, aid the Trojans.
Homer also gives an account of the slaughter, by Ulysses
and Diomedes, of Rhesus, king of Thrace, and the carrying
off his snow-white horses before they drank of the Xanthus,
And fed on the Trojan plains ; which had they done, Troy, ac-
cording to a prediction of an oracle, could not have been taken.

GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. 91

Helenus (son of Priam), who had deserted from the
Trojans, having foretold that the presence of Pyrrhus or
Neoptolemus (son of Achilles and Deidamia) and Phi-
loctetes was necessary for the success of the Greeks, the
former was brought by Ulysses from the court of his grand-
father, Lycomedes, king of Scyros ; and afterwards either
he or Diomedes aided Ulysses in bringing Philoctetee,
who had been bitten by a serpent nine years previously, and
left behind at Lemnos by the Greeks, on their way to Troy.
Philoctetes, being cured on his arrival, employed against the
Trojans the arrows Hercules had given him, and mortally
wounded Paris. The carrying off the Palladium from
Troy is ascribed to Diomedes and Ulysses ; and the latter
hero has also the credit of contriving the huge wooden horse
(constructed by Epeus, with the aid of Minerva), which
Sinon, a pretended deserter, persuaded the Trojans had been
left by the Greeks, on their departure for the Peloponnesus,
as an atonement for carrying off the Palladium, and made of
a large size, in order that it might not be drawn into the city.
Notwithstanding the opposition of Laocoon (who, with his
two sons, was killed by serpents sent by Pallas), the in-
fatuated Trojans drag the horse within their walls, and
Sinon by night releases the Greeks who had been concealed
in it. Meanwhile the Grecian army, which had retired only
to Tenedos, arrives, and the ill-fated city is sacked and burnt.
-(Eneas, however, escapes, with his father, son, and house-
hold gods (his wife. Ore us a, being parted from him in the
confusion) ; and, after many adventures, he reaches Italy,
and founds Lavinium.

GRECIAN HEROES, &c., CONNECTED WITH
THE TROJAN WAR.

ACHILLES, son of Peleus and Thetis ; leader of the Myrmi-
dons from Phthiotis, in Thesbaly. His mother gave him
the choice between a long but inglorious life, and one of

92 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC.

renown and short duration ; the latter of which he chose.
Thetis, knowing his fate, concealed him, when a child,
among the daughters of Lycomedes, king of Scyros ; but
Ulysses discovered his place of concealment. He was re-
luctantly led to the Trojan war, of which he was the chief
hero, and, after exhibiting deeds of great prowess, he was
slain in battle, at the Scaean Gate, before the capture of
Troy ; but some say he was shot by Paris in the heel, the
only part of his body which was vulnerable, Thetis having
held him there when she dipped him in the Styx.

AGAMEMNON, son of Atreus and grandson of Pelops, and
commander-in-chief in the Trojan war. On his return to
Mycenae, he was slain by his wife, Clytemnestra, daughter
of Tyndarus, who had married ^gisthus in her husband's
absence. Orestes, aided by his friend Pylades, avenged
his father's death.

AJAX, son of Oileus, king of the Locrians. On his return
from the war, he was drowned by Neptune, for setting at
nought the god's assistance during a shipwreck, in which
his companions perished. Virgil relates that he was dashed
on a rock by Minerva, in whose temple he had insulted
Cassandra, at the capture of Troy.

AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and inferior only to
Achilles in bravery. Ulysses having defeated him in the
contest for the armour of Achilles, he became mad, and
slaughtered a flock of sheep, imagining them to be the
Greeks ; on discovering his mistake, he committed suicide.
By Tecmessa he had a son, Eurysaces, named after
his father's hroad shield.

ANTILOCHUS, son of Nestor ; slain at Troy by Memnon,
after many deeds of bravery.

AUTOMEDON, charioteer and companion of Achilles, and
afterwards of Pyrrhus.

CALCIIAS, the soothsayer who foretold the length of the
Trojan war, and died of grief because Mopsus excelled him
in his art.

DIOMEDES or TYDIDES, son of Tydeus and Deipyle ; king
of Argos. On his return from the war, finding his wife,

GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. 93

^gialea, married to Hippolytus, he went to ^tolia. As
he was returning, a storm cast him on the coast of Daunia,
in Apulia, where he is said to have founded several towns,
Arpi, Beneventum, Brundusium, Venusia, &c

HELENA, daughter of Zeus and Leda. On the death of
Paris, she married his brother, Deiphobus, but afterwards
became reconciled to her former husband, Menelaus.

IDOMENEUS, son of the Cretan Deucalion, king of Crete ;
one of the bravest warriors on the side of the Greeks. It
is said that he sacrificed his son (who first met him on his
return) to Neptune, owing to a rash vow he had made in a
storm.

LAODICE or ELECTRA. After the murder of her father,
Agamemnon, she sent her brother, Orestes, to King Stro-
phius, in Phocis, where he became intimate with Pylades,
whom Electra married, after she had incited Orestes to
avenge his father's death.

MACHAON, son of ^sculapius, and surgeon of the Greeks.

MENELAUS, son of Atreus, and husband of Helen, by whom
he had Hermione, wife of Neoptolemiis.

MERIONES, a brave warrior, who came with Idomeneus
from Crete.

NEOPTOLEMUS or PYRRHUS, son of Achilles ; called
Neoptolemus (w'oj, Tt{t)6K(iMi), because he came late to the
Trojan war, and Pyrrhus (rtvp^dj), from the bright red colour
of his hair. He was slain at Delphi.

NESTOR, son of Neleus, king of Pylos, in Elis, and the most
venerable of the Greeks, by whom he was greatly respected
for his wisdom, oratory, and skill in war.

PATROCLUS, the intimate friend of Achilles. He was son
of Menoetius, the brother of ^acus, who was grandfather
to Achilles.

PHILOCTETES, the best archer in the Trojan war. He was
the friend of Hercules, who gave him his poisoned arrows,
as a reward for setting fire to the pile on Mt. CEta, on
which Hercules burnt himself.

PHCENIX, son of Amyntor. He fled to Peleus, king of

94 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC.

Tnessaly, who made him ruler of the Dolopes, and tutor
of Achilles, whom he accompanied to the Trojan war.

PYRRHUS. See Neoptolemus.

STIIENELUS, son of Capaneus, and friend of Diomedes.

TALTIIYBIUS, herald of Agamemnon.

TEUCER, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, who refused tc
receive him on his return from Troy, because he had not
avenged his half-brother Ajax's death. Teucer sailed to
Cyprus, and there founded a second Salamis.

ULYSSES ('OSufftfEvs), son of Anticlea and Laertes, king of
Ithaca. To avoid going to the Trojan war, he feigned
madness, by yoking an ox and an ass together, and plough-
ing the sea-shore, which he sowed with salt. Palamedes
detected him, by placing his infant son, Telemachus,
before the plough, which the father stopped. After he
left Troy, he underwent a variety of adventures, which are
related in Homer's "Odyssey." He blinded the Cyclops
Polyphemus, who had devoured six of his companions.
After encountering various dangers from the Sirens (vide
Mythol.), from shipwreck, and at the islands of ^olus,
^ea (inhabited by the sorceress Circe, who changed his
associates into swine), Sicily, Ogygia (where he was de-
tained by Calypso, vide Mythol.), and Scheria, he reached
Ithaca. In the meantime, the hand of his wife, Penelope,
had been sought by numerous suitors, whom she had de-
clined answering till she should have finished a web or
robe for Laertes ; this she contrived to delay, by undoing
by night her day's work. At last Ulysses, after an absence
of twenty years, arrived in the disguise of a beggar ; and,
after vanquishing the suitors in drawing the bow of Eury-
tus, he slew them, by the aid of Telemachus and Minerva,
and was recognized by his wife and aged father.

TROJAN HEROES; ETC. Qj

TROJAN HEROES, &c.

ACESTES, son of the Sicilian river-god Crimisus, and the
Trojan Egosta or Segesta. He aided Priam in the Trojan
war, and afterwards, together with Elymus (son of An-
chises), hospitably received iEneas, who built the towns
of ^gesta and Elymo, in Sicily.

iENEAS, son of Anchises and Venus, and one of the bravest
of the Trojans. By his wife, Creusa (who was parted from
him in the confusion at the taking of Troy), he had a son,
Ascanius or lulus. After escaping from Troy, he wan-
dered over the iEgean and Ionian Seas to Sicily, and La-
tium, in Italy, where he married Lavinia, daughter of
th« king Latin us, and built Lavinium. Latin us and
Turnus, king of the Rutuli, having fallen in battle, JEneas
succeeded to their power, but was slain by Mezentius,
king of the Rutuli. Virgil, by an anachronism, represents
JEneas as visiting Dido, queen of Carthage, who fell in
love with him, and burnt herself alive on his leaving her.

ALEXANDER. See Paris, page 89.

ANCHISES, father of jEneas by Venus. Having accom-
panied his son after the fall of Troy, he died in Sicily, and
was buried on Mt. Eryx.

ANDROMACHE, daughter of Eetion (king of Thebes, in
Cilicia), and wife of Hector, by whom she had Scaman-
drius or A sty an ax. At the capture of Troy, her son
was thrown from the walls, and she became the prize of
Pyrrhus, but afterwards married Helenus, king of Chaonia,
in Epirus.

ANTENOR, one of the wisest of the Trojans. He advised
the surrender of Helen before the war began. After it
was over, he is said to have founded Patavium {Padua),
in Italy.

CASSANDRA, daughter of Priam; loved by Apollo, who
gave her the gift of prophecy ; but, on her offending the
god, he caused her prophecies to be discredited. At the
taking of Troy, she was insulted by Ajax, son of Oileus,

96 TROJAN HEROES, ETC.

in the temple of Minerva. She afterwards became the
prize of Agamemnon, and was murdered, at Mycenae, by
Clytemnestra.

COIICEBUS, a Phrygian; son of Mygdon. He fought at
Troy with the hope of marrying Cassandra, but was killed
by Peneleus or by Pyrrhus.

DEIPHOBUS, son of Priam, and, next to Hector, the bravest
among the Trojans. On the death of Paris, he married
Helen, and was slain by Menelaus at the capture of Troy.

GLAUCUS, grandson of Bellerophon, a Lycian ally of the
Trojans, slam by Ajax.

HECTOR, eldest son of Priam, the bravest of the Trojans,
and husband of Andromache. He slew Patroclus, and
he himself fell by the hand of Achilles.

HECUBA, daughter of Dymas, or of Cisseus, king of Thrace,
and wife of Priam. After the fall of Troy, she was taken
by the Greeks to the Thracian Chersonesus, where, accord-
ing to Euripides, her daughter, Polyxena, who had been
beloved by Achilles, was taken from her by Ulysses, and
sacrificed by Pyrrhus. On the same day, Hecuba also be-
held the murdered corpse of her son, Polydorus, cast on
the shore. He had been entrusted to the care of Poly m-
nestor, king of the Chersonese, by whom he was mur-
dered, for the sake of the riches he had brought with him.
Hecuba, in revenge, enticed Polymnestor to come to her,
under pretence of revealing some Trojan treasure, when
she blinded him and slew his sons.

HELENUS, son of Priam, gifted with prophecy ; he fell to
the lot of Pyrrhus, after whose death he married Andro-
mache. When ^neas came to Epirus, Helenus foretold
his destinies.

MEMNON, son of Tithonus and Aurora, an Ethiopian prince,
who came to the assistance of his paternal uncle, Priam,
and was slain by Achilles.

PANDARUS, a Lycian archer; slain by Sthenelus or Dio-
medes.

PARIS or ALEXANDER, son of Priam, vide page 89.

PRIAM, vide page 88.

TROJAN HEROES, ETC.

97

SARPEDON, son of Zeus and Laodamia, a Lycian prince;
renowned for his valour. He was slain by Patroclus.
Apollo, by order of Zeus, cleansed Sarpedon's body from
blood and dust, covered it with ambrosia, and entrusted it
to Death and Sleep to carry into Lycia to be buried.

TROILUS, son of Priam and Hecuba, or of Apollo ; slain by
Achilles.

Note. — After their death, many of the Grecian and Trojan war-
riors were worshipped as he^roes, and had various temples erected to
them.

GEEEK ANTIQUITIES.

THE INHABITANTS OF ATTICA were divided into
three classes: I. no^-rat, or freemen; II. Mstotxoi, or foreigners
settled in the country ; III. AoiPtot, or slaves.

THE INHABITANTS OF SPARTA were divided into two
classes : I. XTtaptiatac and Ilspioixoi, town and provincial free-
men ; II. EtXwt'fj, slaves.

MAGISTRATES.

The form of government at Athens was, as in Kumy states,
frequently changed: it began with Monarchy, and, having
passed through a Dynasty (in which the power was con-
fined to one family) and Aristocracy, ended in Demo-
cracy. Theseus may be called the first king, and Codrus
the last, after whom (b.c. 1045) the Athenians elected the

Archons,

who were the chief magistrates at Athens, nine in number;
their power was originally for life, but was afterwards limited
to ten years, and latterly to one. The names and offices of
these magistrates were distinct: the President was styled
o 'Apx<^ or ircoiwfioi, from the year being called after, and
registered in, his name ; the second was called j^aaosvi ; the
third, jio\£ixapxo?, or commander-in-chief; and the remaining
six, 9safJio9st(u, or legislators.

The functions of the "Apziov were : 1. To provide for the
celebration of the feasts, as the Dionysia, &c. ; 2. To settle
disputes arising between neighbours and citizens, and to
determine all causes between married people; 3. To take

(98)

MAGISTRATES. 99

care of orphans, provide them tutors, and superintend their
estates.

The duties of the BaaiKsv^ were : 1. To superintend the fes-
tivals, and especially the Eleusinia ; 2. To settle all disputes
respecting the priesthood, and judge those accused of impiety.

The duties of the Ho'kifiapzoi were : 1. To celebrate rites in
honour of Mars and Diana ; 2. To have under his care all
foreigners and strangers, and settle actions brought against
them ; 3. To superintend the wars, over which he had tho
,chief command, and thence received his name.

The functions of the (dsdfxoOtifai, were connected with tho
administration of justice, such as, 1. Receiving indictments,
bringing cases to trial, and appointing the day of sitting;
2. Annually revising the code of laws ; 3. Drawing up agree-
ments with foreign states, &c. ; 4. Examining the magistrates,
and taking the votes in the assemblies.

THE ARCHONS were elected by lot, and, before they
were admitted to office, passed *i.n examination as to their
family, age, past conduct, &c., and took oath that they would
observe the laws, administer justice, and accept of no presents.

Inferior Magistrates. — 1. Ol sv8exa, the eleven, elected
one from each of the ten tribes ; and, to complete the number,
there was added a rpajU|ua'r'£vj, or registrar. 2. *vXap;^ot, who
presided over the tribes. ♦ 3. A/jjMap;^ot., the chief magistrates
of the A^ttot, or boroughs in Attica. 4. Atj^iapx'^h six in num-
ber, assisted by thirty inferiors ; they fined those absent from
the Assembly, took the votes of those present, and kept the
public registers. 5. No^woOst'cu, 1000 in number; they inspected
old laws, and, if found useless, caused them to be abolished
by an act of the people.

The Epiiori.

The "E^wpoc, or "overseers," were tho chief magistrates at
Sparta ; they were five in number, and elected annually, from
and by the people, without any qualification of ago or pro-
perty. Though at first only judicial officers, in time their
authority became so great, that even the two hereditary kings
of Sparta, as well as the ma-gistrates, were prosecuted or sue-

100 ASSEMBLIES.

pended at their discretion. They had the superintendence
of the public morals, convened the public assembly, levied
troops, &c., &c., and had great influence in the most import-
ant matters. Every month they exchanged an oath with the
kings, promising to defend the royal authority, provided it
did not violate the laws. The tribunal of the Ephori was the
apxslov or i^pdov, a Council Hall in the Forum.

ASSEMBLIES.

'ExxXiyoio, THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY of the citizens at
Athens, in which they met to discuss matters of public inte-
rest. This assembly had the power of making laws, electing
magistrates, proclaiming war, &c. ; the place of meeting was
either the Agora (dyopa) or Pnyx {rtvvt), in later times, the
theatre of Bacchus. The magistrates who presided in the
Assembly were : 1. Prytanes (^tpvfavf 15), who summoned the
people, and announced the subject for decision ; 2. Proedri
(rtpofSpot), who occupied the front seats ; 3. iTtiatdTfr;^, or Pre-
sident, chosen by lot from the Proedri. The usual manner
of giving votes was by holding up the hand, called ;^ffrpoT'oi'Mi,
and as soon as the voting was ended, the Proedri examined
the suffrages, and pronounced the decree, •\*j^i(si.ia, so called
from the 4^to'> pebbles, which, together with beans (xvo^toe),
were sometimes used in voting.

*H ^ovxij jy f iiif ftsptaxoaiuv, THE SENATE OF THE FIVE
HUNDRED. The institution of this body is attributed to
Solon, in whose time the Council consisted of only 400 mem-
bers; but, on the tribes being remodelled by Cleisthenes,
B.C. 510, the Council was increased to 500, and the members
were divided into ten sections of fifty each, and were called
Prytanes (rtpvfavfij) : they presided in the Council, as well as
the Assembly, during thirty-five or thirty-six days, so as to
complete the lunar year of 354 days. Each tribe presided in
turn, and the period of office was called a Prytany {rtpvtcwsCa).
The members of the Council remained in office for a year, at

JUDGES AND COURTS OP JUSTICE. 101

the end of -which they were obliged to give an account of their
conduct {evOvvrj) ; and previous to entering office, they sub-
mitted to the SoxLfioaia, or scrutiny into their private character,
rtpoufft'tt was the name given to the Council of Elders,
yipwtff, or Senate at Sparta ; it was composed of the two
Kings and twenty-eight citizens, who had reached at
least their sixtieth year. They were elected by the people,
and were irresponsible. The functions of this Council were :
1. To propose measures to be laid before the Popular Assem-
bly ; 2. To discharge the highest offices of government ; 3. To
sit as the supreme criminal tribunal ; and, 4. To watch over
the public morals.

JUDGES AND COURTS OF JUSTICE.

THE COURT OF AREOPAGUS. — This was the most
ancient and venerable seat of justice in Athens; it derived
its name from o "Apstoj rtoyoj (the hill of Mars), because, it is
said. Mars was the first criminal tried. The court was com-
posed of ex-archons who had discharged their office un-
blamably, and of the most distinguished citizens : the num-
ber of judges varied at different times. They were termed
apst^Tiaylfac, and took cognizance of all crimes, vices, and
abuses, such as robbery, murder, poisoning, arson, &c. ; they
overlooked religious matters, and punished severely for im-
piety and contempt of holy mysteries. So great was their
power, that they sometimes even annulled the decrees of the
Popular Assembly.

THE HELIASTS, so named from their court, jy^xota, were
a body of Judges chosen by lot, and varied in number; some-
times the rjXLaatoi were 6000 in number. They took cogni-
zance of affairs of the greatest importance, but were not per-
mitted to pass sentence until they had taken oath to decide
according to the decrees of the people.

THE DI^TETiE. THE FORTY. — The buu^ritai were
inferior judges who settled private disputes, subject to an
appeal before the Heliasts. They were chosen yearly from
9*

102 PUNISHMENTS.

the ^Xcu, or tribes, and were required to be fifty or sixty
years of age. The Forty, ot -tsaaapaxovfa, were also inferior
judges, who annually took a circuit through the Demi, and
decided causes where the matter in dispute did not exceed 10
drachmas.

COURT OF THE EPHET^. — The i^itac were judges,
fifty-one in number, selected from noble families, and re-
quired to be more than fifty years of age. Their jurisdiction
extended to cases of justifiable and unintentional murder ;
when judging of the former, they sat at the Delphinium —
when of the latter, at the Palladium.

AMPHICTYONES were members of the ofi^txtvovia, which
was a confederation formed for mutual security, and for the
protection of a temple at which the members assembled to
transact business and celebrate their festivals. The most
celebrated was the Delphic Amphictyonia, originally com-
posed of twelve tribes, whose deputies met annually at Delphi
in the spring, and at Thermopylae in the autumn. The
Council itself was called Pylaea, TivTjoia..

PUNISHMENTS.

OSTRACISM {oatpaxiciMi) was a political plan for removing
from the country for ten years those who had either power or
popularity enough to attempt any thing against the State.
The word is derived from oa-tpaxov, a tile, as it was on this
each individual wrote the name of the person he wished to
be ostracised. The assembly was held in the Agora, where
each voter deposited his tile ; but no decision was valid unless
the number of votes exceeded 6000. If this number were
obtained, the ostracised was obliged to leave the city within
ten days ; but in his absence no injury was done to the house
or property of the banished, nor was any disgrace attached
to ostracism. As by the votes of the tribes a man was ostra-
cised, so was it in their power to recall him before ten years
had elapsed, if they chose.

TEMPLES, PRIESTS, AND SACRIFICES. 103

*Atifila was a public disgrace, by which the person on
whom it was inflicted was deprived, either partially or
totally, of his political privileges.

AovXsia (servitude), by which a criminal was reduced to the
condition of a slave.

'Ztiyixa'ta, marks impressed with a hot iron on the foreheads
or hands of slaves who had fled from their masters, or of cri-
minals convicted of grievous offences.

'Xtrp^r], a pillar, on which was engraven the crimes of an
offender.

Asujuoj, the punishment of imprisonment or chains. The
instruments used were : 1. xv^v, the collar ; 2. x^^^y the
stocks ; 3. ffaytj, a piece of wood to which criminals were
fastened ; 4. tpo%6iy a wheel to which slaves were bound, and
beaten with stripes.

^iryjj, banishment. Persons condemned to this punishment
lost their estates, and had no hope of returning to their coun-
try, unless recalled by those who banished them.

©dvatoi, capital punishment. This was performed in various
ways : 1. By the sword (It'^oj) ; 2. By a rope {^poxos) ; 3. By
poison {^pfiaxov) ; 4. By stoning {udo^ofjua) ; 5. By fire (rtvp) ;
6. By the cross ((ytaupoj), &c., &c.

TEMPLES, PRIESTS, AND SACRIFICES.

The objects employed in the worship of the gods were
either temples (fooj, fiojttoj), consecrated groves or en-
closures (tfjtwws), or altars (jSwfioj). The temples were
generally built in an oblong or round form, and adorned with
columns. The larger temples were divided into three parts :
1. rtpovaoj or rtpoSojUoj, the vestibule ; 2. luoj, arjxoi, or aBvTfov,
the temple or habitation of the deity whose statue it con-
tained ; 3. ortKj^oSo/Aoj or Br^aavpoi, the chamber in which the
treasures of the temple were kept.

The priests, set apart for the service of certain gods or
temples, were called lepels, op'^T'^pfj, dvooxooi, : divines and

104 ORACLES.

wizards, juwt'wj or dsortponoi. They foretold events from signs
{tspa/ta, arifiata), such as thunder and lightning; from the
song and flight of birds, especially of prey {ouuwoTtoTM,
oiuvtafai, Sfltoj oprtj) ; or from dreams, ovsiporio'kot.

The sacrifices were of tJiree kinds. I. Occasionally
human. II. Animal, called Ispslov, victima, liostia. The
victim was in early times burnt whole, and termed holocaust ;
but in Homer's time the thighs (itwypot, jit^pa) were inclosed in
fat and consumed, from which omens were often taken. As
the gods were supposed to delight in a number of victims, a
hundred bulls (txaro'iitjS*;) were often sacrificed. The word
hecatomb is also used to signify any large sacrifice. The
animals sacrificed were usually oxen, sheep, and goats, with-
out blemish [tiT^ioi). Previous to being slain, the head of
the victim was strewed with barley and salt [ovKoxv-toA,
mola salsa), adorned with garlands, and a tuft of hair was
cut ofi" from the forehead as a beginning {artapx^, primitice)
of the sacrifices ; the animal was then killed by drawing back
the head ((Wp^vw) and cutting the throat. III. Unbloody
sacrifices. These were: 1. Libations {koij^ai, GHovbai, or
xoai) of wine, milk, and honey, &c. ; 2. Cakes (rtixavot),
dishes of fruit (xspm), &c., &c.

ORACLES.

The word oraculum was used by the ancients to describe
the revelations of the deities to men. The responses were
sometimes given in verse, or written on tablets ; and their
meaning was always ambiguous and obscure. The most
celebrated oracles were: I. ORACLE OF ZEUS, at DODONA,
the most ancient in Greece, founded by Pelasgians. The
oracle was given from lofty oaks, which were said to have
human voices and the spirit of divination, and were hence
called the " prophesying or speaking oaks." With regard to
this fable, the fact appears to be, that those who gave the
oracles were men, and when consulted mounted an oak, and

ORACLES. 105

there gave the replies. The decisions of the oracle were
afterwards given by two or three old women (called 7t£%eiai8Ei).
As this word also signifies doves, the fable originated respect-
ing the oracles being delivered by doves. The usual form in
which the oracles were given at Dodona was in hexamx3ter
verse. II. ORACLE OF APOLLO, at DELPHI. This oracle,
the most celebrated of antiquity, was situated on Mt. Par-
nassus, in Phocis, supposed by the ancients to be the centre
of the world. The oracle was at first called Pytho ; the
priestess was named Pythia. In the innermost sanctuary
the statue of Apollo was placed, and on an altar before it
burnt an eternal fire ; in the centre of the temple was a small
opening in the ground, from which the most intoxicating
vapours arose ; over this chasm the Pythia took her seat on a
high tripod when the oracle was to be consulted, and the suf-
focating fumes caused her to utter sounds which were taken
down by the Prophetes, and were believed to contain the
revelations of Apollo. The Pythia was always a native of
Delphi, not allowed to marry ; and bound, after once enter-
ing, never to leave the service of the god. The times for con-
sultation, as well as the number of priestesses, were from
time to time changed, to meet the wants of those who flocked
to the oracle. Valuable presents were required to be made,
and hence this temple exceeded all others in splendour,
riches, and magnificence. It must, however, be borne in
mind, that many of these valuables were only deposited in
the temple for the sake of safety.

The replies were always returned in the Greek tongue, and
usually in hexameter verse, in the Ionic dialect. They had
at all times a leaning in favour of Doric Greeks.

The chief of the remaining oracles were — I. Of Zeus:

1. The oracle at Olympia, in Elis ; 2. Zeus Ammon, in Libya,
N.W. of Egypt. IL Of Apollo: 1. At Abse, in Phocis;

2. At Delos, in the ^gean Sea; 3. Of the Branchidae, at
Didyma, in the territory of Miletus ; 4. At Glares, near Colo-
phon, in Ionia. III. Of Heroes: 1. Oracle of Trophonius,
at Lebadea, in Boeotia ; 2. Of Amphiaraus, near Thebes, and
at Oropus, between Boeotia and Attica.

106 FESTIVALS.

FESTIVALS.

Festivals were instituted — 1. In honour of the gods, fcr
benefits received from them ; 2. In order to procure some
favour; 3. In memory of deceased friends, vrho had done good
service for their country ; 4. As a season of rest to labourers,
that, as a recompense, some days of ease and refreshment
might be obtained. The chief festivals among the Greeks
were : —

'ASuvta, in honour of Venus and Adonis. The solemnity
lasted two days ; the first was given up to mourning and
lamentation, the second to mirth and joy.

'Avdsatripui, the chief of the Dionysian festivals, celebrated,
in honour of Bacchus, for three days ; the first called Ilt^otyttt,
second, Xofj, third, Xu-r'pot.

'Artatoupta, celebrated at Athens, and lasted three days.
The first called Aoprtfta, because each tribe assembled at an
entertainment ; second, 'Avdppvsti, because victims were offered
to Jupiter ; third, Koupswrtj, because the young children born
that year were then taken to have their names enrolled in the
public register.

hau^vri^opia, celebrated every ninth year by the Boeotians,
in honour of Apollo ; when an olive bough, adorned with
garlands, was carried in procession ; on the top of the bough
was a globe, the emblem of the sun or Apollo.

Aiovvffta, four festivals celebrated in honour of Dionysus or
Bacchus, and observed at Athens with great splendour. The
wildest mirth abounded at the various Dionysiac festivals ;
some wore the dress of satyrs, others comic dresses, others,
dancing ridiculously, personated madmen, and shouted Evot
Bdxzs, w 'loixxs, 'Iw Bdx%s. Choruses were sung at these fes-
tivals, called Dithyrambs, and theatrical representations were
also given.

'Ekivslrta, the most celebrated and mysterious solemnity in
Greece (sometimes called, by way of eminence, Mvatrfiia),
was observed every fourth year at Eleusis, in Attica. The
mysteries were divided into fttxpa, in honour of Proserpine,

FESTIVALS. 107

and ixiyaTM, in honour of Ceres; they lasted nine days: on
the first day the worshippers first met together ; second day,
they purified themselves by washing in the sea ; third day,
they sacrificed ; fourth day, they made a solemn procession,
in which the xaxdOwv, or holy basket of Ceres, was carried ;
fifth, the women ran about with torches ; sixth, the statue of
'laxxoi, crowned with myrtle and bearing a torch, was carried
from Ceramicus to Eleusis in procession ; seventh, there were
sports ; eighth, the lesser mysteries were repeated, and those
were initiated who did not enjoy that privilege; on the ninth,
and last day, two earthen vessels filled with wine were thrown
down, and the wine spilt was oifered as a libation.

©fffjito^opitt ("the lawgiver"), in honour of Ceres; celebrated
by the Athenians with great pomp and devotion ; the wor-
shippers were free-born women, assisted by a priest and by
certain virgins, kept at the public charge. The women were
dressed in white for four or five days before the festival, and
on the 11th of the month Pyanepsion, they carried the books
of the law to Eleusis, where the festival commenced, and
lasted three days.

Ilavadrivaia, an Athenian festival in honour of Minerva, the
protectress of Athens ; it was instituted by Erichthonius,
who called it 'A^tjvota; but afterwards revised by Theseus,
who, having united all the Athenians into oiie body, called
the festival ITafa^^twa. There were two solemnities called
UavaSrivaia ; (isyaTM, the greater, celebrated once in five years,
and uixpd, the lesser, celebrated once every year. The chief
difierence between the two festivals was, that at the greater
one, which was attended with more solemnity, the Pe plus, or
garment of Minerva, was carried in procession to her temple
on the Acropolis. The solemnities, games, and amusements
of the Panathenaea were : rich sacrifices, foot, horse, and
chariot-races, gymnastic and musical contests, and the lam-
padephoria, or race with torches ; at these festivals the works
of Homer and other Epic poets were recited, philosophers
disputed, and the people indulged in a variety of amuse-
ments ; the chief solemnity, however, was the procession in
which the greater part of the Attic population took part.

108 PUBLIC GAMES.

These festivals were at first celebrated for one day, but were
afterwards prolonged for several. The prizes awarded were
vases, containing oil from the sacred olive-tree of Athena, on
the Acropolis.

PUBLIC GAMES.

These were instituted in honour of the gods or of deified
heroes, and the victors, especially in the Olympian games,
received the highest honours. On their return home they
rode in a triumphal chariot into the city, a portion of the
wall being thrown down to give them admittance ; they were
honoured with the first places at all shows and games, were
maintained at the public charge, and great honour descended
to their relations.

The games were called 'Aywvf j, and the principal exercises
used in them were: I. Apo/noj, Cursus, running; II. Atcracoj,
throwing the discus ; III. 'AXfia, Saltiis, leaping ; IV. nvyfisj,
Pugilatus, boxing; V. IlaXjy, lAicta, wrestling. These five
exercises were called by the Greeks TtivtaBtJov^ PentatJdon,
by the Romans, Quinquertium. Some, however, instead of
Tivyiiri, place axovtwv, jaculum, throwing the spear.

I. Apd|tto5, running ; this game was performed in a space of
ground called cytoStw vel av?ioj, containing 125 paces. There
were four kinds of races : 1. atdStov ; 2. 6tauXoj, running twice
over the stadium ; 3. 86uxos, running seven times ; 4. oTtU'ttj^^
running armed.

II. Ataxoj, the discus, was a round quoit of stone, brass, or
iron ; sometimes a heavy mass called ooxoj was used instead
of the discus, which was thrown by the help of a thong.

III. 'AXfia, leaping; this exercise was sometimes performed
with empty hands, and sometimes with weights of lead or
stone, called caTfijpsi, which were carried in their hands or
upon the head and shoulders.

IV. IlvyjttiJ, boxing; in this exercise balls of stone or lead
were sometimes held in the hand, and the cestus was used,

PUBLIC GAMES. 109

which was the name given to the bands of leather, sometimes
loaded with iron and lead, and tied round the hands to harden
the blows.

V. nd^fj, wrestling ; this was the most ancient of the exer-
cises, and was performed in the Xj- stus, a covered portico ;
in which two naked men anointed with oil, and sprinkled
■with dust, folded themselves in one another's arms, and en-
deavoured to throw each other to the ground. There were
two kinds of wrestling ; one in which the wrestlers contended
on their feet, and another in which they threw themselves
down, and contended rolling on the ground. [The Pancra-
tium, Ttayacpaz'tov, was an exercise which consisted of wrestling
and boxing.]

The four solemn games in Greece, called oywrf j tjpoi, were :
I. The Olympic; II. Pythian; III. Isthmian; and IV.
Nemean.

THE OLYMPIC GAMES. — These were celebrated in
honour of Zeus Olympius, and were held at Olympia, a town
in Elis, whence they received the name Olympian. Their
institution is assigned to Hercules by some, but it is impos-
sible to say with any accuracy who was the real founder.
They were for some period neglected, until the time of
Iphitus, who re-instituted the solemnity ; but it was not till
B.C. 776, when Coroebus won the foot-race, that the Olympiads
were employed as a chronological era. The games were cele-
brated every fifth year, in the Attic month Hecatombaeon,
and continued five days, from the 11th to the 15th inclusive,
the interval of four years between each celebration of the
festival being called an Olympiad. The Eleans had the
management of the games, and appointed the judges, who
were chosen by lot from their number. Women were not
allowed to be present. Those who intended to contend were
obliged to swear that they were freemen, not guilty of any
sacrilegious act, and had spent the proper period (ten months)
in preparatory exercises. The wrestlers were chosen by lot,
and the exercises, in addition to those mentioned in the last
section, were horse and chario<>races, in which, as in several
of the other exercises, boys contended. There were also con-
10

110 PUBLIC GAMES.

tests in which musicians, poets, and artists, strove for
the victory.

The victors in these games were rewarded with wreaths of
wild olive, and statues in the grove of Altis ; and still more
substantially on their return to their own cities, as mentioned
before.

THE PYTHIAN GAMES were celebrated in honour of
Apollo, at Delphi, anciently called Pytho, whence the name
Pythian. The common tradition is, that the games were in^
stituted by Apollo himself, after he had overcome the serpent
Python. They were at first celebrated every ninth year
[evvcwttjpls) ; but afterwards at the end of every fourth year
[Ttsvtas'tvjpls), and comprehended the space of four years, com-
mencing with the third year of each Olympiad. The games
lasted several days, and the exercises were the same as those
of the Olympic games. Some say that the solemnity was at
first a musical contention, and that a song (to which a dance
was performed) consisting of five parts was sung, in which
Apollo's contest with the dragon was represented. The re-
wards, when there was only a musical performance, are said
to have been gold and silver ; but when gymnastic exercises
were introduced, garlands of laurel, palm, or parsley, were
presented to the victors.

THE NEMEAN GAMES were celebrated in honour of
Zeus, at Nemea, near Cleonae, in Argolis, every third year.
The institution of these games is assigned both to the Seven
against Thebes, as well as to Hercules, after he had slain the
Nemean lion. The various exercises were chariot and horse-
racing, and the pentathlon. The reward of the victors was
at first a chaplet of olive-branches, but afterwards a garland
of parsley was awarded.

THE ISTHMIAN GAMES were so called from the Corin-
thian Isthmus, where they were celebrated. At the narrowest
part of the Isthmus stood a temple (Fanum Neptuni), near
which was a theatre and stadium of white marble, where the
games took place. Some say they were instituted in honour
of Palaemon, or Melicertes, son of Athamas, king of Thebes ;
others, in honour of Neptune. The games took place every

MILITARY AFFAIRS. Ill

third year, and the exercises were the same as those of the
, other sacred festivals ; the rewards were chaplets of pine ; at
one time ivy was used.

The Isthmian games were held in great veneration, on ac-
count of the religion by which they were consecrated, as well
as on account of their antiquity.

MILITARY AFFAIRS.
Divisions of the Army.

The Grecian armies consisted of free bodies of men, whom
the laws of the country obliged, when arrived at a certain
age, to appear in arms : at the age of eighteen, the Athenians
were appointed to guard the city ; at twenty, they were sent
to foreign wars ; at sixty, they were allowed to retire.

The army was composed of three classes of soldiers: 1. In-
fantry, Tts^ot; 2. Charioteers, tjvioxot; 3. Cavalry, irtrtfis.

The foot soldiers were divided into, 1. 'Ortutcu, who
wore heavy armour, and fought with broad shields and long
spears ; 2. "^aoC, light-armed men, who engaged with darts,
arrows, and slings ; 3. JlsMao'tal, who were armed with a
small shield called TtaMrj.

Arms.

These were divided into itco classes : 1. Arms for the pro-
tection of the body ; and, 2. Those used to injure an enemy.

I. The defensive arms, which protected the body: 1.
xpdvo^, xopvj, xvviv], or Tiepixe^afiaia, helmet, made of brass or
of the skins of animals, and surmounted by a crest [xo^oi] ;
2. 0wpct|, cuirass, made of hemp (twisted into cords, and woven
close together), of brass, or of leather covered with brass ; 3.
xvriixiSsi, greaves, for the front of the legs, made of brass or
other metal ; 4. acrtli, a round buckler, made either of osiers
twisted together, or of wood covered with leather, and bound
round the edge with metal; in the centre was a projection
called OjU^caoj or (nao^^duovy a boss, upon which a spike was

112 MILITARY AFTAIRS.

sometimes placed. The Bvpsos was an oblong shield (corre-
sponding to the Latin scutum), and the rtiMt] a small shield
used in the Greek army, by a body of men named from using
it 7t(Maatal.

II, The offensive arms: 1. tyx^i and 86pv, the spear and
lance, usually made of ash ; the point, alxi^r^, was of metal ;
2. |tfo?, the sword, suspended by a belt {tsTM^^v) from the
shoulder ; 3. a^lvrj et jti'Kfxvi, pole-axe ; 4. tofoi', the bow, said
to have been invented by Apollo, who communicated his in-
vention to the Cretans, who became first-rate archers : the
arrows, which were called ^i%rj, oCstoi, and T'olsv^ua-r'a, were
made of light wood and pointed with metal ; 5. axov-tiov, the
javelin, of which there were various kinds ; 6. ai>sv86vrj, the
sling, which was commonly used by the light-armed soldiers.

THE CHIEF OFFICERS OF THE ARMY were, 1. TtoXs-
^lapx^i or general (vide Magistrates) ; 2. Gtpatrjyoi, ten in num-
ber, one elected from each tribe : they conducted all military
affairs at home and abroad; 3. ta^lapxov, ten in number,
elected by the tribes : they had the care of marshalling the
army, directing the marches and encampments, and discharg-
ing the soldiers convicted of misdemeanours ; 4. l7trtap%oi,, two
in number: they commanded the cavalry; 5. ^vTm^xoi,, ten in
number, elected by the tribes, subordinate to the iTtTtapx^'' '•
the inferior officers received their names from the number of
men they commanded. Among the Lacedsemonians, the
supreme command was vested in one man (usually a king of
Sparta), who was attended by a body-guard of horsemen,
iTiriiU, 300 in number.

THE DIVISIONS OF THE ARMY.— The whole body was
called atpattd ; the van, ixttiorcov vel Ttpwtoj ^uyoj ; the wings,
xepata ; the rear, ovpa vel £ff;tar'05 Cuyoj. Minor divisions :
TiiiJirtdi, a party of five soldiers ; %6xoi, a party of twenty-four
or twenty-five, sometimes of only sixteen; ■r'a|6j vel txatov-
tapx^O', a company of 100 or 120 ; $axay|, a body of troops in
close order, whose chief Aveapon was a long spear. The
whole army of the Spartans was divided into ^opac, regiments,
and 7^X01, companies, the number of men each contained is
vincertain.

NAVAL AFFAIRS. 113

NAVAL AFFAIRS.

The vessels of the Greeks may be divided into two classes :

I. Naves Onerarise, o^jcdSe^, ^opttjyoi, (jfpoyyvA,at, rtXoca,
eliips of burden, generally made of a bulky form, and chiefly
propelled by sails.

II. Naves Bellicae, tptripHs, tstpripsii, Ttevtr^psii {triremes,
quadriremeSy quinqueremes), war-galleys, propelled chiefly by
oars, and distinguished from each other by the number of
banks of oars. The most usual number of banks was three,
four, or five, which gradually ascended in the manner of
stairs. The most common ships of war in the earlier times
were long vessels {naves longce) called Ttsvtrixovtopoi,, with
fifty rowers, twenty-five on each side.

The principal parts of the vessel were : 1. 'tpoTtti or a-teiprj
{carina), the keel ; 2. Ttpwpa or [xstioTtov {prora), the prow ; 3.
fi£(s6xoi'ka, or middle part of the ship ; 4. jtpvfivr] {puppis), the
stern; 5. 7t%£vpoi {latera), the sides of the ship; 6. xar'acfT'pwiuaT'a,
the decks or hatches ; 7. iStixta {transtra), the benches on
which the rowers sat: the upper were called Opavot, (the rowers
epavtTf(u), the middle ^vyd (the men ^uytfcu), the lower Qaixxfioi
(the rowers eaTsxultai) ; 8. t^^o^jov {rostrum) or beak : this con-
sisted of a beam pointed with brass, and was used for the
purpose of sinking and disabling the enemy's vessels ; 9.
oA/fKoi {sentina), the hold; 10. tpd^t, the bulwark.

The tackling, &c., used in navigation were: 1. toroj {malus),
the mast; 2. xipata, xfpaiao {antennce), the yards; 3. latiov
{velum), the sail; 4. tonna, the cordage, comprising axoiv'uj.
{/lines), the cables, ndSsi {pedes), the ropes attached to the
lower corners of the square sail, and vrcipac, the ropes fastened
to the two ends of the yards ; 5. 7trj8duov {guhernaculum), the
rudder, usually two large oars, placed on each side of the
stern ; 6. ot'a|, the tiller or handle of the oar ; 7. dyxvpa, the
anchor ; 8. xdrioA or ip^-tixoi {remi), the oars : their blades were
called rtXafat {palmulce), and were fastened in their holes
by leather thongs, 'tpoTtol {strophi) ; 9. xovfoi, {conti), punting
poles.

10*

114 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE GREEKS.

The bi'KpCv was a mass of metal suspended from the yaids,
•which, being thrown into an enemy's ship, by its weight
cither shattered or sank it.

The two principal manoeuvres in commencing an engage-
ment were the SuxTiXov?, or breaking the line, and Ttsptrt^ovj,
or outflanking the enemy.

The chief naval officers were: 1. ctoTaipxoi, mvap;t;oj,
or otpan^rjyoi, the proefedus classis, or admiral ; 2. tTttcrtoTifvj,
the vice-admiral ; 3. i'pt^pap;toj, or captain of a trireme ; the
captains of other vessels receiving their titles from the num-
ber of ranks of rowers their vessels contained.

The common sailors were called vavtat, {iiautce), the rowers
ipBfcu, the soldiers who served at sea aTtt/Satac [dassiarii
milites), marines; xv^ipvYi-trii [guhernator), the helmsman or
pilot.

On landing, the ancients used to haul their vessels on
shore [ovi^xiw, suhducere) by means of [oKxd, pulvini) rollers.
To launch them, was termed xaJdeXxtiv {deducere).

PRIVATE LIFE OF THE GREEKS.

Meaxs.

There were four daily meals taken by the early Greeks :
1. apWT'oi/ or dxpaT'ttf^tt, the morning meal or breakfast; 2.
Ssirtpov, or dinner ; 3. 8hUv6v, or afternoon meal ; 4. Boprtov,
supper. The Greeks of a later age partook -of three meals :
1. axpuTfidixa, 2. aptOTfot; 3. Sslrtvov : corresponding to breakfast,
luncheon, and dinner. It was customary among the ancient
Greeks to sit at meat; but after luxury prevailed they re-
clined on couches, xXtvai, that they might drink at greater
ease. Two guests usually reclined on a couch, but some-
times a greater number, who were then placed according to
rank.

private life of the greeks. 115

Dress.

The Greeks in ancient times used no covering for the head,
but afterwards they wore hats called rtlxoc. The general
name for clothing was so^ijj. The inner garment of men, as
well as of women, was x^'T^^^f ^ tunic ; but women of wealth
wore a robe called ^yxvx'Kov x'''^*^viov. The exterior garments
were : 1. Ifidtiov or ^dpo^, a cloak (Lat. pallium) ; 2. ;tAot»'a, a
thicker garment for cold weather; 3. ^troA?;? (La-t. pcenula),
a round garment without sleeves ; 4. i^satpi^, a great coat ; 5.
tpi^cov, a threadbare coat worn by philosophers and the poor ;
6. croXjJ, a long garment reaching to the heels ; 7. ;i:^i"vj, a
military cloak. On the feet were worn : 1. v7to8r;fxata, or shoes
bound under with thongs ; 2. xpjyrttSf 5, slippers. Kodopvoi were
buskins, or boots worn by tragedians.

Funerals.

The Greeks attached great importance to the burial of the
dead, as they believed the souls could not enter the Elysian
fields unless their bodies were buried ; and it was therefore
looked upon as a grave charge on the character of a man to
have neglected the burial of his relations. The following
customs were connected with the Greek funeral.

As soon as any one had expired : 1. the eyes wore closed
by the nearest relative ; 2. the mouth was shut ; 3. the face
was covered ; 4. all the members of the body were stretched
out ; 5. the body was washed and anointed with oil ; 6.
wrapped in a handsome garment, and decked with chapleta
and flowers; 7. laid out (rtpo0£fftj) on a couch {xXtvvj), with
the feet towards the door ; 8. a small coin (6/3oXoj) was placed
in the mouth, as Charon's fare for carrying the soul over the
infernal river; and, 9. a small cake {fisXitoitta) was also
placed by the side of the corpse, intended to appease the fury
of Cerberus. Before the door a vessel of water (apBdviov) was
placed, that those about the corpse might purify themselves
by washing.

On the day after the itpoOsats, or the third day after death,
the corpse was carried out (« x^pa) for burial, attended by the

116 THE GREEK THEATRE.

friends and neighbours of the deceased. It was either buried
{Odritnv, xafopv-tteiv) or burnt {xaCnv) on piles of wood, called
TtvpoU : when these were burnt down, the remains of the firo
were quenched with wine, and the relatives and friends col-
lected the bones, which were placed, together with the ashes,
in urns, either made of gold, silver, wood, stone, or clay.

The corpses not burnt were buried in coffins, usually out-
side the city. It was usual after a funeral to partake of a
feast at the house of the nearest relation of the departed, and
on the third day to offer a sacrifice to the dead, called -tpka.
Libations {%oaC) were also made for the deceased ; and the
relatives expressed their sorrow in various ways, either by
cutting off a portion of the hair, or shaving the head, sprin-
kling themselves with ashes, beating their breasts, and tear-
ing their flesh, &c., &c.

The monuments erected over the graves were either GtiJTju,
pillars or stone tablets, xiovsi, columns, vtuBia or ^p^a, small
buildings in the shape of temples, and tpd^tf^tu, square stones;
on these were inscribed the name of the deceased, and some
account of his past life.

THE GREEK THEATRE {eia^pov).

The most ancient theatres were at first of wood, but after-
wards built of stone, or cut in the rock. The form was semi-
circular, and the rows of benches for the spectators, rising
one above another, were arranged in front of the stage, which
was divided into the %oyflov [pulpitum) in front, where the
actors spoke, and the Ti^ooxr^iov [proscenium) behind, at the
back of which was a wall, axrini [scena), usually with three
doors, for the entrance of the actors ; in front of the exrjvri the
back-ground scenes were placed, and concealed by a curtain,
aifkaiai [aulcea), till the play commenced, when it was drawn
down. The opxriO'tpa {orchestra) or pit was the circular space
in front of the rows of seats and the stage, and was occupied
))y the chorus; in the centre of this space stood the evftijuy, or

THE GREEK THEATRE. 117

altar of Dionysus [Bacchus], on the top of which the leader
of the chorus, a^opayoj, sometimes stood, and behind it the
prompter, v7toi3o%svs [monitor), and flute-player were usually
placed. The ancient theatres were of vast size, capable of
containing in the xol'Kov [cavea] many thousand spectators,
who sat according to their rank, the senators, priests, &c.,
occupying the front seats. The buildings were open to the
sky [the Romans sometimes used an awning] , and, owing to
their vast size, the actors wore masks, personce (adapted to
their characters), with mouth-pieces to aid the voice ; and
tragic actors wore cothurni, or thick-soled buskins, to elevate
the figure. The ancients used in their theatres various stage
machinery to give effect to the representations.

»

EOMAN ANTIQUITIES.

DIVISIONS OF THE INHABITANTS OF THE
ROMAN EMPIRE.

The Roman people were divided by Romulus into threo
tribes [tribus), Ramnes or Ramnenses, TUienses, and Luceres:
these tribes were again divided into thirty curice, each of
which had its curio, or president, and the whole body had a
curio maximus.

The inhabitants of Rome were at first divided into two
ranks [ordines): I. Patricii, and II. Plebei — these were
connected together as Patroni and Clientes ; afterwards, the
Equites, forming a kind of intermediate order, were added.
The Patricii appear to have been the original citizens, and
were divided into curiae and gentes, or clans, united by reli-
gious ties or family connexion. They were entirely separated
from the Plebei, no connubium or marriage being permitted
between the orders, and were the only parties eligible to the
senate, or the higher of&ces in the religious and political
government of the state.

In time, however, the Plebeians increased in importance
by the admission of conquered tribes into their order, so that,
from the time of Servius Tullius, they took part in the comilia
or legal assemblies, and ultimately obtained the connubium
and equal rights with the Patricians. The Equites were at
first only a military order, 300 in number {celeres), and insti-
tuted by Romulus. This number was increased by the suc-
cessive kings ; the Equites had a horse at the public charge
[cquus publicus) and {ces equestre) a sum for its support.
Latterly, however, the name Equites was extended from those
who had horses at the public charge to all those having

(118)

THE SENATE. 119

horses of their own, and qualified by their property to act as
judices, and thus the military character of the original order
disappeared, and all free-born citizens possessing 400,000
sestertii were Equites, or of the Equestrian order. The in-
signia of these Knights were the annulus aureus, gold ring,
and the angustus clavus, a narrow band of purple wrought in
the cloth, and extending from each shoulder to the bottom of
the tunica. The Equites occupied the first fourteen benches
at the theatres.

When the ancient difference between Patricians and Ple-
beians had disappeared, then arose a new classification,
Nobiles and Ignobiles; the only privilege of the Nobiles
was iheju^ imaginum, an ancient custom of setting up in the
atria or courts of their houses waxen busts or effigies of their
ancestors. These Nobiles were again divided into Optimaies
or Conservatives, and Populares or Radicals.

When the Roman empire enlarged its territories, there
arose another division, Servi, or slavos, who became such
either by being taken in war, by sale, by way of punishment,
or by being born in a state of servitude. They received a
monthly allowance, but could not obtain property without
the consent of their masters. Slaves were sold at Rome by
auction, and became either the property of private indviduOils
or of the state.

The state of slavery was terminated by Manumissio, which
was effected either by entering a slave's name on the Censor's
books [censu], or by certain ceremonies with a rod [vindida)
before the Praetor, or by will {testamento).

THE SENATE {Senatus).

The Senate, according to tradition, was instituted by
Romulus, and consisted at first of only 100 members {sena-
iores or patres), chosen from the Patricians. This number
was increased to 200 when the Sabine Titles became united
to the Latin Ramnes, and another 100 were also added when

120 THE SENATE.

the Luceres, consisting chiefly of Etruscans, were incorpo-
rated in the time of Tarq. Prisons ; these new Senators were
called Patres minorum gentium, in distinction to the old Senar
tors, Patres majorum gentium. The vacancies which occurred
in the Senate after the abolition of the monarchy (b.c. 509)
were filled up by Plebeians of Equestrian rp,nk, who were
designated ConscHpti, and hence the Senate was addressed
as Patres (sc. et) Conscripti. The number of 300 remained
until the time of Sulla, when the Senate consisted of between'
five and six hundred. The Senate possessed the administra-
tive authority, in such matters as religious worship, taxation,
levying of troops, negotiations with foreign states, embassies,
provincial government, &c., &c.

The sittings of the Senate were either regular [senatus
legitimus) or extraordinary {senatus indictus), and were held
between sunrise and sunset. When the members had assem-
bled, the presiding magistrate announced the subject [referre
ad Senatum), and called on each member to state his opinions
[rogare senientias, senientias dicere) ; this he delivered either
by a single word or in a speech ; then followed the voting
[discessio, pedihus ire in sentcntiam alic^ijus). The decree,
when passed {Senates Consultum vel JDecretum), was written
down and placed in the a^rarium or treasury, under the care
of the Praetor.

A certain number of Senators were required to be present
to make a decree valid, and those absenting themselves with-
out just cause were fined. For Intercessio vide Tribuni.

It was required in a candidate that he should be free-born,
and possess a certain amount of property ; latterly, 800,000
sestertii. The Senators were chosen [legehantur) by the
Kings, by the Consuls, and, in later times, by the Censors ;
one of the qualifications necessary was, that the candidate
should have fulfilled the duties of the magistracy, the first
• degree of which was the quaestorship. The insignia of the
Senators were the latus clavus, a broad band of purple, ex-
tending from the neck down the centre of the tunica, and the
ccdceus lunatus, a high shoe adorned with a small crescent.
The Senators had also certain seats at the public shoAvs.

ASSEMBLIES. 121

ASSEMBLIES {Comitia).

The Comitia were the legal meetings of the Roman people,
at which their votes were taken on matters connected with
the government of the State. The Comitia could only be held
on certain days {dies comitiales), never on festivals; and, pre-
vious to meeting, notice was given [promulgari) of the subject
for decision. There were three kinds of Comitia : I. Comitia
Curiata ; II. Comitia Ceniuriata; III. Comitia Trilnita.

I. COMITIA CURIATA were held, in a part of the Forum
called Comitium, first by the Kings, and afterwards by the
Consuls and Praetors. Though at first they were assemblies
of the whole people, and possessed power in enacting laws
and confirming the authority of the Kings, on the decline of
the Patrician power they lost their importance. The Comitia
Calata belonged to these Comitia, which were merely meetr
ings for the purpose of sanctioning certain proceedings, in-
augurating the Flamines, &c.

II. COMITIA CENTURIATA were held, extra Pomoeriumy
in the Campus Martins, either by the Consul or Praetor. In
these Comitia the Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, were elected,
laws were passed, war declared, and capital offences were
tried. The Comitia Centuriata were usually assembled by
an edict, and summoned twenty-seven days before the period
of meeting ; this space of time was called trinundinum. All
those who had the right of Roman citizens might be present,
and voted according to their property. On the day of meet-
ing, the auspices were consulted by the presiding magistrate
and the augurs, and the Comitia were opened with sacrifice
and prayer. After the debate, if no religious obstacle pre-
vented, the people were called on to arrange themselves for
voting. The Equites voted first, and the six classes in suc-
cession. The votes were at first viva voce, but were after-
wards delivered in writing by means of a tahella. The
centuries which were to vote passed over bridges into an
inclosed space [ovlle), where the tahellce were supplied, and
thrown l)y the voters into the dstcB or ballotrboxes, frcm

11

122 MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS.

which they were taken and counted, and the result of the
voting proclaimed with a loud voice.

III. COMITIA TRIBUTA were held both intra and extra
Pomoerium, under the presidency of the Tribunes of the
People. At these Comitia the inferior magistrates were
chosen, as well as the ^diles Curules, and the Tribunes of
the People after B.C. 471 ; and after b.c. 104 the members of
the Colleges of Priests. Laws were passed at these Comitia
called Plebiscita, which at first only bound the Plebeians ;
but after b. c. 306 they concerned the whole people. The
Patricians seldom attended, as the votes of all were of equal
force.

MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS.

N. B. — The dates affixed are those of the institution of the
various offices.

^DILES PLEBIS, b. c. 494, two functionaries elected from
the Plebei, to take charge of the public buildings, to judge
in inferior cases, inspect weights and measure, and prohibit
unlawful games.

iEDILES CURULES, b.c. 365, two in number, elected at
first from the Patricii. They superintended the public games,
took care of the buildings, repaired the temples, theatres,
baths, &c., and were appointed judges in all cases relating to
the buying and selling of estates.

^DILES CEREALES, b.c. 45, two in number, elected
from the Plebei. They inspected the public stores of corn,
all commoditis;S exposed in the markets, and punished delin-
quents in ^11 eases of buying and selling. The office was
instituted by Julius Caesar. The iEdiles had various officers
under them, viz., prcecones or " criers,'^ scrihce or " clerks,"
an.d viaiores or "attendants" and "messengers."

APPARITORES, the general name given to the public
officers who waited on the magistrates, such as the Accen&i,
LictoreSy Scrihce, Prceoones, Viatores, &c.

MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. 123

CENSORES, B.C. 443, two officers of high rank and autho-
rity, elected (at first from among the Patricians) for a lustrum,
or space of five years ; but latterly the period of office was
only for eighteen months. The duties were of three kinds :
I. To take an exact account of the property and estates of
every person {census), and to divide the people into their
proper classes or centuries ; II. To superintend the adminis-
tration of the finances of the State, and meet the expenses
attendant on the erection or repairs of temples, public build-
ings &c. ; III. To punish immorality in any person : the
Senators they might expel from the Curia or Senate-house ;
the Knights they might punish by depriving them of the
horse allowed them at the public charge ; and the Commons
they might remove from a high tribe to one less honourable,
impose on them a fine, or disable them from voting in the
Assemblies.

CONSULES, B.C. 509, the principal annual Roman magis-
trates, two in number. The office was established on the ex-
pulsion of Tarquinius, the last King of Rome. At the first
institution, the Consuls were elected from the Patricians
only; but afterwards, b.c. 366, the Plebeians obtained the
right of electing one. The common age required in a candi-
date was forty-three years ; the time of election was about the
end of July or beginning of August, they were then called
" desiffiiati" until entering on their office, the period of un-
dertaking which varied at different times. At first their
power was as great as that of the Kings, and their badges of
office nearly the same, in public being always pireceded by
twelve lictors, with the fasces. They wore the toga proetexta,
sat on the curule chair, and carried an ivory sceptre. Their
chief duties were presiding in the Senate, administering jus-
tice, levying troops, commanding armies and provinces, con-
ducting the Circensian games, &c., &c. The first Consuls
elected were L. Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius CoUatinus.

CURATORES, public officers of various kinds, viz. : Cura-
tores Annonoe (of corn), Curatores Riparum (of the navigation
of the Tiber), Curatores Kalendarii (of books containing the
names of persons who borrowed public money), Curatores

124 MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS.

Ludorum (of the public games), Curatores Openim Puhlico-
rum (of public works), &c., &c.

DICTATOR, B. c. 501, a magistrate with supreme authority
among the Romans ; he was nominated by the Consuls, the
auspices being taken at midnight. The Dictator was only
elected at times when great danger threatened the State.
His period of office was six months, sometimes even less. So
great was the power of this officer, that he might proclaim
war, levy forces, and lead them to battle, or disband them,
without any consultation with the Senate. He could also
punish as he pleased, and there was no appeal from him, at
least until later times. The insignia of the office were the
sella curulis and toga prcEtexta; the Dictator was also pre-
ceded by twenty-four lictors, and during his tenure of office
all other magistrates resigned except the Tribuni Plebis.
On his election, his first act was to choose a "Magister
Equitum," or Master of the Horse, who always attended him.
T. Lartius Flavus, or Rufus, was the first Dictator, and Sp.
Cassius Viscellinus the first Magister Equitum.

PR^FECTUS URBI (office instituted by Romulus), an
officer who presided in the city during the absence of the
Kings or Consuls. The office was latterly merged in that of
Prcetor Urhdnus.

PR^TOR, B.C. 366, one of the chief magistrates at Rome,
next to the Consuls. In b. c. 246 a Praetor was appointed,
called Peregrinus, whose duty it was to administer justice
in matters of dispute between peregrini (foreigners) or pere-
grini and Roman citizens. The other Praetor was then called
Urban us. Sp. Furius Camillus was the first Prastor: the
number varied at different times. The duty of the Praetor
was, 1. to administer justice (his tribunal was called " Prse-
torium"), and, 2. to act as Consul in the absence of that
officer. He was entitled to the prcetexta, the sella curulis^
tico lictors when at Rome, and six when out. The exercise
of the praetorian authority was signified by the words "do"
(when they granted licence to institute a trial), "dico" (when
they pronounced sentence), and "addico" (when they gave

MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. 125

the goods of a debtor to a creditor). Praetors were also sent
to govern provinces subject to the Romans.

PRO-CONSUL, B. c. 327, a magistrate sent to govern a pro-
vince vrith Consular power. It was usual for Consuls, on the
expiration of their Consulship at Rome, formally to obtain
leave of the people, and get a decree of the Senate for per-
mission to govern a province. The command lasted one year,
at the end of which the Pro-Consul made up his accounts,
left them in writing in the two chief cities of the province,
and returned to Rome. The insignia were the same as the
Consuls, but only six lictors.

PROCURATOR, an officer of the Imperial provinces, who
discharged the same duties as the Quasstors in other pro-
vinces.

PRO-PR^TOR, an officer who had all the authority of a
Prgetor. The name was assumed by those who, as Prsetors,
had continued in power beyond the time fixed.

QU^STORES, magistrates, at first two in number; in-
creased B. c. 421 to four, B. c. 265 to eight, by Sulla, b. c. 82,
to twenty, by Caesar to forty. They had the management of
the public treasury. Two Quaestors accompanied the Consuls
in all their expeditions; they received the name "Peregrini,"
the other two "Urbani." When the number was augmented,
certain Quaestors were sent to collect the taxes in various pro
vinces. No person was eligible to this office under the age
of twenty-two years.

TRIBUNI PLEBIS, b.c. 494, certain Roman magistrates,
elected from among the Commons to defend their liberties ;
they were at first only two in number, afterwards increased
to five, and lastly to ten. Though at first only redressers of
public wrongs, they afterwards assumed great power. They
made decrees, and carried laws, which they executed on ma-
gistrates themselves, ordering even Consuls to prison; they
possessed the right of " intercessio," and their persons were
*^ sacrosanctiJ' Nothing could be concluded without their
consent, which was signified by affixing the letter T to the
decree. They could prevent the passing of any measure by
standing up, and pronouncing the simple word ^'veto" (called

126 JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS, PUNISHMENTS, ETC.

intercessio). They kept open houses, and were never allowed
to leave the city, except at the festival " Feriae Latinae," held
on the Alban Mount.

TRIBUNI MILITUM, b.c. 445, elected with Consular
power. They were three in number, but in b. c. 405 in-
creased to six. For many years the number of these tribunes
was very irregular. The office was abolished b. c. 367.

JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS, PUNISHMENTS, &c.

The judicial proceedings {Judicia) of the Romans were
either public or private. The judicia privata, or civil trials,
had reference to the rights of private persons, &c., in which
at first the Kings, and afterwards the Consuls and Praetors,
decided. The Judicia publica, or criminal trials, were origin-
ally conducted by Qucesitores (subject to the Kings), and
after the expulsion of the kings by the Consuls and Praetors.
Capital offenders were tried before the Comitia Centuriata,
at which it was necessary that the accuser should be a
magistrate.

The chief punishments among the Romans were : 1. midcta
or damnum^ a fine; 2. vincula, bonds, imprisonment; 3. ver-
bera, beating or scourging ; 4. ialio, retaliation, as an eye for
an eye; 5. ignominia or infamia, disgrace inflicted by the
Censors, or by edict of the Praetor ; 6. exUium, banishment ;
7. sei-vitus, slavery ; 8. mors, death, either by decapitation,
hanging, throwing from the Tarpeian Rock, strangling, burn-
ing, crucifying, &c.

PRIESTS.

The ministers of religion among the Romans were divided
into two orders : I. Those appointed to the common service
of all the gods ; and, II. Those devoted to the service of par-
ticular deities. Among the former were —

PRIESTS. 127

THE PONTIFICES, a college of priests, presided over by
the Pontifex Maximus. They were first appointed by Numa.
The Collegium consisted of four members, elected from the
Patricians until b. c. 300, when an equal number of Plebeians
were admitted. They administered the ecclesiastical laws,
prescribed the ceremonial of any new public or private wor-
ship, prepared the forms for public prayers and vows, com-
posed the annals, and regulated the fasti, interpreted pro-
digies, inaugurated magistt-ates, and punished persons guilty
of offences against religion. The insignia of the Pontifices
were the toga prwtexia and a woollen cap, pileus. The Pon-
tifex Maximus chiefly superintended the service of Vesta.

THE AUGURES or AUSPICES were originally three or
four in number. Patricians, presided over by a Magister Cob-
le gii ; but in B.C. 300 five Plebeians were added, and under
Sulla the Augurs were increased to fifteen. The word Augur
or Auspex at first meant adivinerby birds [aves) ; but in
time the name was applied in a much wider sense. The art
was called Augurium or Auspicium. In ancient times no
transaction, either public or private, took place without con-
sulting the auspices, which were divided into five kinds:
1. Those derived from the sky {ex coelo), particularly from
lightning and thunder; 2. From birds {ex avibus), which
were either osclnes, which gave auguries by singing, or
alites, by flying; 3. From the feeding of chickens {ex tri-
pudiis), chiefly war auguries; 4. From four-footed animals
{ex quadrupedibus) ; 5. Ex diris signis, which included every
other kind of augury, as sneezing, stumbling, &c. The
Augurs, when about taking the auspices, stationed them-
selves on some open ground, and, after offering sacrifices,
proceeded, with veiled heads, to mark out with the lifuus, or
curved wand, a particular division, templum, in the heavens,
in which they intended to make their observations. The
spectio, or right of taking the auspices of the State, was con-
ducted by a magistrate, assisted by an Augur, who inter-
preted the signs. The auspices taken by the magistrates
were divided into auspicia majora and minora, the former
being taken by the Consuls and superior magistrates, the

128 PRIESTS.

latter by the Quaestors and Curule iEdiles. The right of self-
election, co-optatio, was possessed by the Augurs until b.c. 103.
The insignia of the order were the trabea and lituus.

THE FETIALES were a college of priests, instituted by
Numa. They were twenty in number, and their president was
styled Pater Fatratus. The Fetiales acted as the guardians
of the public faith, and it was their office, when disputes
arose with foreign states, to demand restitution, conclude
treaties, and perform the rites atfendant on the declaration
of war, &c,

THE HARUSPICES were soothsayers, who interpreted the
will of the gods from the appearance of the entrails [exta),
whence they are sometimes called Extispices. The art was
called Haruspiclna, and much taught in Etruria.

THE DECEMVIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS or SACRO-
RUM were the priests appointed to take charge of the three
Sibylline Books (which Tarquin received from the Sibyl),
and offer the sacrifices prescribed by them. At first they
were two in number, then ten (five Patrician and five Ple-
beian), and afterwards fifteen. The term Decemviri was also
applied to the ten officers who were appointed to draw up
a code of laws, b.c. 451 (vide Chronology).

THE CURIONES were priests for the Curiae, under a Curio
Maximus.

THE REX SACRIFICULUS was a priest appointed after
the expulsion of the Kings to superintend the religious rites
formerly performed by them.

The priests for the services of particular deities.

THE FLAMINES were appointed to the temple-service of
certain gods ; they were fifteen in number, the chief of whom
were Flamen Dialis, the priest of Jupiter; Flamen Martialis,
the priest of Mars; Flamen Quirinalis, the priest of Romulus.
They wore a purple robe, Icena, and conical cap, apex.

THE VIRGINES VESTALES were appointed by Numa
to feed the sacred fire, and guard the relics in the temple of
Vesta; they were at first four in number, two more were sub-
sequently added. They were originally chosen by the Kings,
afterwards by the Pontifex Maximus, and were required not

PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, ETC. 129

to be under six nor above ten years of age, and free from
bodily defects. The period of service lasted thirty years, at
the end of which they were allowed to marry. While in the
service of the goddess, they enjoyed many privileges, such aa
freedom from parental control, a particular seat at shows, the
right of liberating any criminal whom they accidentally met,
the attendance of a lictor, &c. They were subject to the
PontifexMaximus, who severely punished them for letting
out the sacred fire, and for unchastity ordered them to be
buried alive. The Vestals were clad in a white robe, and
their heads were adorned with fillets [infidce).

THE SALII were priests of Mars Gradivus, twelve in
number. Patricians, appointed by Numa to guard the J.wdZe,
or sacred shield, which fell from heaven, and the eleven
others of similar make which were kept in the temple of
Mars, and carried in procession, with dancing and singing,
by the Salii, annually on the first of March.

THE LUPERCI were priests of Pan ; they went in proces-
sion, dressed in goat-skins, on the Lupercalia or festivals of
Pan, to the Palatine, where they sacrificed to the god.

THE GALLI were the eunuch priests of Cybele, whose
worship was introduced at Rome from Phrygia, B.C. 204.

THE FRATRES ARVALES were twelve in number, who
superintended the yearly rural sacrifice of purification.

PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, «&c.

The worship of the gods consisted of prayers, vows, and
sacrifices. Public prayers were ofiered by the chief magis-
trates after a form prepared and recited by the priests ; these
prayers were often accompanied by vows [void). It was usual
for persons who had been in great danger during a voyage,
on landing, to hang up their clothes in the temple of Nep-
tune, with a tablet [votiva tabula), on which was depicted a
representation of the event.

Sacrifices {sacrificia) formed the chief part of the public

130 PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, ETC.

worship of the Eomans, whose customs were in this matter
much the same as those of the Greeks. The victim [hosiia^
victima), without blemish before being sacrificed, was deco-
rated with garlands {mitce, infulce), and sometimes its horns
were gilded ; it was then led to the altar by the popa, or
attendant, where the animal's head was sprinkled with roast
barley meal, mixed with salt [mola salsa), and afterwards
slaughtered, and its entrails {exta) inspected by the harus-
pices, the better parts strewed with meal, wine, and incense,
and burnt on the altar, and a solemn banquet prepared. The
lustratio was a purification in which the victim was lead
round the object intended to be purified. (For libatio, vide
page 104.) The most common sacrifices at Rome were the
suovetaurilia, consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox.

The places dedicated to the worship of the Romans were
either buildings, or sacred spots consecrated by the Augurs :
e. g. templa, cedes sacrce, fana, deluhra, sacella, cediculce; liici.

Days among the Romans were either devoted to religious
observances, dies festi, or to business, dies profesd. The
ferice or festivals, in which the Romans ceased from political
transactions, law-suits, &c., were divided into publicce and
privatce ; the former being again divided into fei'ice staiiva;
or immoveable, ferice conceptivce or moveable, and ferice im-
perativce, fasts held by command of the magistrate : the ferice
privatce were kept by families in commemoration of birth-
days, &c.

The chief ferice stativce were the Lnpercalia to Pan, 15th
of February ; Matronalia, celebrated by matrons for various
causes, 1st of March ; Megalesia, or feast of Cyhele, mother of
the gods, 4th of April ; Parilia or Palilia, in honour of Pales,
deity of orchards, 21st of April ; feast of the Bona Dea,
attended by the vestal virgins and women only, 1st of May ;
feast of Castor and Pollux, with the Transvectio Equitum, an
annual procession of the Equites or Knights, 15th of July ;
Saturnalia, feasts of Saturn, the most celebrated of the fes-
tivals, when all orders devoted themselves to mirth and revel-
ling ; the feast commenced on the 19th, afterwards 17th, of
December, and lasted several days.

GAMES. 131

GAMES.

The games of the Romans were either stated {stafi), and
votive, or extraordinary, which were celebrated in con-
sequence of vows, or at the funerals of private persons. The
games were of three kinds: I. Ludi Circenses; II. Gla-
diator ii, shows of Gladiators ; III. Scenici, dramatic en-
tertainments.

The Ludi Circenses, so called from being celebrated in
the circus {maximus), were of Etruscan origin. They com-
menced with a procession, and consisted of: I. Cursus, chariot
or horse-races ; 2. Ludus Trojce, a sham fight or tournament
on horseback; 3. Pugna equesiri^ et pedestris, a representa-
tion of a battle ; 4. Certamen gymnicum^ consisting of the
TtivtaBljQv of the Greeks (Lat. quinquertmm) ; viz. saltus, leap-
ing; cursus, running; lucta, wrestling; pugilatus, boxing;
discus, throwing the quoit or discus ; and the pancratium ;
5. Venatio, hunting, i. e. the combats of wild beasts, either
with one another or with men hired for the purpose, or with
condemned criminals or captives ; 6. Naumachia, a represen-
tation of a naval engagement ; the Naumachiae were either
exhibited in the amphitheatres (suflGicient water being brought
in to float the ships), or in buildings erected for the purpose.

Gladiatorii. The shows of gladiators were also of Etrus-
can origin, and were first introduced at Rome in the Forum
Boarium, B.C. 2G4, by order of M. and Decimus Brutus,
at the funeral of their father. Though at first only confined
to funerals, the shows of gladiators afterwards took place at
public festivals, and combats were exhibited by the chief
Roman magistrates and emperors till the time of Constantine,
by whom they were abolished. The combatants were at first
either slaves, captives, or condemned criminals, and some-
times free men, who hired themselves out; but during the
empire, even Senators and Equites fought in the arena.

The gladiators were instructed by a lanista in the use of
the various weapons, and previous to the actual combats a
prcelusio or sham battle took place, when the gladiators were
matched by pairs, and used blunt Avooden swords {rudes),
which were also given them on their discharge.

132 GAMES.

The several kinds of gladiators were : 1. Andabatce, who
wore helmets which covered the face, and consequently they
fought blind-folded ; 2. Catervarii, who fought in companies ;
3. Essedarii, who fought from chariots ; 4. Mirmillones (so
named from having the image of a fish (utop/wvpoj) on their
helmets), usually matched with retiarii or Thracians ; 5. Re-
tiarii, who fought with a "fuscina," or three-pointed lance
[tridens), and a net {rete), with which they endeavoured to
entangle their adversaries, and despatch them with the tri-
dent ; 6. Samnites, who used the oblong shield [scutum) and
the usual armour of the Samnites ; 7. Thraces, armed like
the Thracians, with a round shield and short dagger [sica).
When a gladiator was wounded, the people shouted habet,
" he has got it," and the vanquished one lowered his arms in
token of submission ; but his fate depended on the people,
who pressed down their thumbs [poUicem preinere)^ if they
wished his life to be spared, and turned them up [vertere) as
a signal for death. The combats usually took place in the
Amphitheatrum, a large building, in form a complete
oval, the centre space of which was called the arena, from
being sprinkled with sand ; the most celebrated was the
Amph. Flavium or Coliseum, built by Vespasian and
Titus, which had raised seats, capable of containing 87,000
spectators.

The S c e n i c i, or stage plays, were introduced from Etruria,
about B.C. 364. They were performed in theatres [theatra),
large semicircular buildings, fitted up with benches or seats
[cunei), which rose one above another ; the fourteen foremost
rows next the stage being occupied by the Equites ; the whole
of the space for the public was called cavea. The orchestra
was a semicircular space in front of the spectators, assigned
to the Senators, foreign ambassadors, &c. The Scenici
were of three kinds : Comoedia, Comedy ; Tragcedia, Tragedy ;
Mimus, Pantomime. The dramatic pieces were purchased
by the ^diles, and the recitation was accompanied by flutes,
and the actors usually wore masks, personce. Vide Greek
Theatre (page 116), to whjch, on the whole, the Roman cor-
responded.

MILITARY AFFAIRS. 133

MILITARY AFFAIRS.

Conscription and Period of Service, &c.

The Romans were a nation of warriors, and thus fnjm the
earliest period they had an organized military establishment.
In the early times, the army consisted of 3000 infantry and
three centuries of cavalry [Equites). "When Servius TuUius
divided the people, he formed the better class of citizens into
eighteen centuries of Equites. The infantry then consisted
of five classes, and were divided into seniores, for the defence
of the city, and juniores, for service abroad.

Every citizen was compelled to enlist when the public ser-
vice required: the age of enlisting was from seventeen io forty-
six, and the time of service twenty campaigns of one year for
the infantry, and ten for the cavalry; these services were
looked upon as honourable, and ten years of either infantry
cr cavalry service was a qualification for the magistracy.
At first, none of the poorest citizens [proletarii) or freedmen
performed military serVice, except on urgent occasions. Ma-
rius, B.C. 107, first chose soldiers without reference to pro-
perty, in still later times citizens were exempted from com-
pulsory service, and under the Emperors the army consisted
chiefly of foreigners. In the times of the Republic, four
legions of soldiers were raised, two for each Consul; but
this number gradually increased, and was greatly augmented
by allies.

The Consuls, at the yearly conscription, required all
those who had reached the military age to appear on the
Campus Martins, or at the Capitolium, for the purpose of en-
rolling their names. The selection was made by the Military
Tribunes, after which an oath {sacramentum) was adminis-
tered. Persons sufiering from bodily infirmity were exempted
from service ; but soldiers conscribed on a sudden emergency
[tumultuarii or suhitarii) were allowed no exemption. Soldiers
who had served their time were called emeriti, and received a
discharge, missio, but sometimes were again called out or
12

134 MILITARY AFFAIRS.

induced to re-enlist, and were then termed evocaii. The pay
of the common soldiers was J denarius a day ; the centurion
received double this sum ; the Equites were allowed a horse
at the public expense, and an annual sum for its keep (Vide
page 118).

Divisions of the Army.

After the levy was completed, and the oath administered,
the troops were formed into legions ; each legio was divided
into ten coliortes, each cohort into three manipuU, and each
manipulus into two centurice. To each legion belonged a
body of cavalry (300 in number), divided into ten turmce or
troops, each turma containing three decurice. The number
of men in a legion varied at different times, generally from
4000 to 6000 infantry, and from 300 to 400 cavalry. The
soldiers were divided into the hast at i (forming the first line,
so called from bearing the hasta, a long spear, which was
afterwards laid aside, and the pilum used instead), the prin-
cipes (men of middle age in the vigour of life, who formed
the second line, originally the first), the triarii, old soldiers,
who formed the third line; they were also called pilani,
from the pilum or javelin they used. The other kinds of
soldiers were : 1. Velites, swift and light-armed soldiers, em-
ployed in outpost duty when the Komans were encamped;
2. Funditores, slingers ; 3. Sagittarii, archers ; 4. Ferentarii
and Rorarii, light-armed soldiers.

Arms.

The defensive arms were: 1. scutum, an oblong shield,
made of wicker-work or wood, joined together with iron and
covered with hide, and having an iron boss in the centre ;
2. clipeus, a large shield of a circular form ; 3. galea, the
helmet, made of brass or iron, and surmounted by a crista or
crest ; 4. lorica, a coat of mail or cuirass, generally made of
leather, covered with plates of iron or of chain ; 5. thorax, a
breast-plate (more in use than the lorica) ; 6. ocreas, the
greaves for the legs, made of metal lined with leather.

MILITARY AFFAIRS. 135

The offensive arms were: 1. gladius or ensis, a sword, gene-
rally straight, with a two-edged blade; 2. pila, javelins pointed
with iron ; 3. hastcB, long spears.

The light-armed soldiers, velttes, mentioned above, used a
small shield called jparma.

Officers.

The command {imperium) of the army was intrusted to
the chief magistrates ; first to the Kings, and afterwards to
the Consuls, Prastors, and Dictators. The principal officers
under these were : 1. Legati, nominated by the Consul or
Dictator, and approved of by the Senate. 2. Trihuni Miliium,
elected by the Consul or Dictator ; latterly, b. c. 362, partly
by the people ; to each legio there were at first three, but
afterwards six Tribunes, who were relieved every two months.
3. Centuriones, chosen by the Tribunes according to merit
from the common soldiers ; each maniple had two, a prior
and posterior. The Centurions had under them Optiones, or
Succenturiones, and Signiferi, or standard-bearers.

The troops of allies [avxilia) were commanded by Prce-
fecli.

The cavalry was commanded by a Prcefectus alee, and the
turmce had each three Decuriones (or officers often), who had
under them Optiones or deputies.

The military cloak of the General was called paludamentum
or clilamys, and was of a scarlet colour (the latter was also a
travelling-dress). The sagum was the common military cloak
of the soldiers.

The Romans, when on a march, every night constructed
an encampment, which they fortified with a palisade {vallum)^
trench [fossa), and mound [agger). The camp was generally
a parallelogram, and had four gates, prcetoria, decumana,
principalis dextra, and sinistra.

The signals were given by wind-instruments : buccTna (a
trumpet, bent almost round), corrm (a horn similar to the
buccina), tuba (a straight trumpet) in the infantry, and lituus
(the clarion) in the cavalry.

136 MILITARY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS, ETC.

The Order of Battle.

The army was usually drawn up in three lines, Tiastah,
principes, and triarii, placed at certain distances, and divided
into maniples or cohorts, the open spaces being occupied by
{velUes) light troops. The legions were in the centre [media
acies), and the cavalry and allies formed the wings [cornua).
Sometimes a different order of battle was necessary, and the
troops were formed into the cuneus or wedge, the orhis or
globus, a round body, and the testudo, a compact body em-
ployed in sieges, the whole of the men being covered with
their shields, as with a roof.

The standards, signa, gave the signals for the movements
of the army ; each maniple had one, the ancient signal of
which was a handful of hay on a pole. The standard of the
legio was a spear, hasta, with the figure of an animal upon it :
from the consulship of Marius, b. c. 104, a silver eagle with
extended wings became the standard of the legio.

The engines used in storming towns, &c., were : 1. Aries,
a battering ram, consisting of a beam, to one end of which
was fixed a mass of iron, in the form of a ram's head ; 2. Bob-
lista, an engine for projecting stones, &c. ; 3. Catapulta, used
for throwing darts ; 4. Vinea, a shed (pushed forward on
wheels), under which generally hung the aries ; 5. Turris, a
wooden tower, lofty enough to overtop the walls of the city,
against which it was usually wheeled upon an artificial
mound [agger). It was faced with iron or wet hides, to pro-
tect it from fire, and consisted of several stories [tabulata),
on which slingers, catapults, &c., were placed.

MILITARY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.
TRIUMPH. OVATION.

Besides a share in the booty taken from an enemy, the
Roman soldiers received as rewards garlands of leaves or
flowers. The principal were: 1. Corona civica, a crown of

NAVAL AFFAIRS. 137

oak-leaves, presented to one who saved the life of a citizen ;
2. Corona castrensis, given to the soldier who first forced an
entrance into an enemy's camp ; 3. Corona muralis, for him
who first scaled the walls of a besieged city ; 4. Corona obsi-
dionalis or graminea (grass), given to the commander who
had relieved a besieged city, or an army surrounded by an
enemy ; 5. Corona oleagina (olive-leaves), presented by their
commanders to soldiers who had distinguished themselves.
The other rewards were weapons of honour, Tiasta pura;
vexilla, standards ; phalerce, trappings ; aurece torques, gold
chains ; armillcB, bracelets, &c., &c. The military punish-
ments were deprivation of pay, degradation of rank, to be
beaten with rods, to be scourged and sold as a slave, to be
stoned, to be beheaded, &c., &c.

The highest honour a general could obtain was a triumph,
and to be saluted as Imperator by his army. To be honoured
with a triumph, it was necessary that the general should in
a just war have extended the bounds of the empire, and de-
stroyed more than 5000 enemies in one battle. On a triumph
being decreed, the procession proceeded from the Campus
Martins to the Capitolium, and consisted of musicians, oxen
for sacrifice, the spoils taken in war, models of the captured
cities, the captives, the lictors (their fasces being wreathed
with laurel), and the general {dux) dressed in purple embroi-
dered with gold [toga picid et tunica palmaid), crowned with
a laurel wreath, and in an ornamented chariot drawn by four
white horses, followed by the victorious army. There was
also an inferior sort of triumph, ovatio, in which the general
entered the city on foot, crowned with a wreath of myrtle,
and sacrificed a sheep.

NAVAL AFFAIRS.

For the names of the various parts of a ship, tackling, &c.,
the reader is referred to Greek Antiq., "Naval Afiairs," page
12*

138 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS.

113, where the corresponding Latin names are given. The
Roman navy consisted of naves longce, triremes, quadriremes,
quinqueremes ; lighter vessels, actuarioe, liburnce, vide page
113 ; onerariw, ships of burden or transports. The Romans
in their engagements attempted to set fire to the enemy's
ships, or seize and board them by means of corvi, ferreoR mor
nus, and harpagones, grappling irons, &c. Sometimes towers
or castles were built on their vessels, from which arrows
and other missiles were discharged. The vessels were often
manned by slaves, freedmen, and the lowest class of citizens.
The admiral, dux, prcefectus classi, was usually a Consul, and
his ship was called navis prcetoria.

PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS.

Dress.

The dress of the Romans consisted of the tunica, a woollen
garment, which was generally without sleeves, and reached
a little below the knees. A long tunic with sleeves was con-
sidered effeminate. The tunic was fastened round the waist
by a belt, cingidum. The Senators wore a tunica laticlavia,
with a broad purple stripe wrought in the cloth; and the
Equites or Knights a tunic with a narrow stripe, tunica-
angusticlavia. A dress called suhucula was generally worn
under the tunica. The toga, the distinguishing part of the
Roman dress, was an outer gown or mantle, thrown round
the body so as to cover the left arm, and leave the right
partly exposed, and forming a fold, sinus, on the breast;
these folds, when collected in a knot or centre, being called
umbo. The colour of the toga was white {alba, pura). Can-
didates for office wore a toga whitened by the fuller [toga
Candida).

PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 139

Magistrates wore the toga prcetexta, bordered with purple ;
and generals in a triumph an embroidered toga, picta or pal'
mata, having palm-leaves worked on it. The toga praetexta
was worn by young women until they were married, and
young men till they were seventeen years of age, when the
latter assumed the toga virilis ; this ceremony was performed
with great solemnity in the Forum. The pcenula was a gar-
ment used chiefly as a travelling-cloak. In later times, the
lacema, a kind of great-coat, was worn above the toga, with
the cucuUus, a cowl or hood ; similar to the lacei'na Was the
l(^7ia. The stola was a female dress worn over the tunica,
and fastened by a girdle ; over the stola was worn the palla,
corresponding to the toga of the male sex.

The coverings of the feet were calcei, shoes, when abroad,
and solece, sandals, which only covered the sole of the foot.
The shoes of the soldiers were called callgce, of comedians,
socci, and of tragedians, cothurni.

The head was uncovered, except in bad weather or when
on a journey, when the pileus, hat, or gaUrus, cap, was
worn.

Rings [annuli), set with precious stones, were very much
worn by the Romans ; the Senators and Equites used golden
rings, the Plebeians iron ones.

Meals.

The first meal taken was the jentaculum, or breakfast ; ifi
this followed the prandium, or luncheon, taken about noon :
coena, or dinner, was the next and the principal meal of the
Romans ; it was taken in the evening, and consisted of three
courses, the first gustatio, antecoena, or promulsis, the second
or principal course caput coence, and the dessert menscB secundce
or hellarin. The guests reclined, according to their rank, on
couches {lecti), generally three, summus, medius, imus, at
each table, thus : —

140 PRIVATE LIFE OP THE ROMANS,
lectus medius

itfm^m^'

80

S

^uw.

J

1

S

summus

6

5

4

imus

m

V

6

medius

8

2

medius

mensa

rS

imus

9

1

summus

A supper, commissatio, was sometimes taken after the coena.
Wine, though rarely drunk in early times, came afterwards
into general use, but was sometimes mingled with water or
cooled with snow. The best Italian wines were vinum CcecU'
bum, FaZernum, Massicum, Calenum, Albdnum, Surrentinum,
Sellnum., &c. ; the foreign were vinum Chium, Leshium, Leu-
cadium, Coum, Bhodium, Naxium, Mceonium, &c. The wines
were brought to table in jars, amphorae, and mixed with water
in a bowl, crater, whence it was poured into pocula, cups.

Private Houses. Baths.

Though at first mere cottages, the houses of the Romans in
after-times were built in a style of great elegance, and orna-
mented with marble pillars, elegant furniture, pictures, vases,
candelabra, &c.

The principal parts of the Roman houses were : 1. Vesti-
bulum, an open space before the doors, enclosed on three
sides by the building ; 2. Ostium or janua, the door or en-
trance, with the limen, threshold, j)ostes, door-posts, /ores or
valvce, the actual doors ; 3. Atrium, or cavum (edium, the prin-
cipal apartment : in the centre of the roof was an opening,
eomjpluvium, from which the rain-water fell into a cistern

PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 141

( 'mplumum) in the floor ; this impluvium, which also denoted
the aperture in the roof, was ornamented with statues, &c. ;
4. AlcB^ the wings or small apartments on each side of the
atrium; 5. FerisiyUum, adjoining the cedium, a partially open
court-yard surrounded by columns, and ornamented with
shrubs and flowers ; 6. Cuhicula or dormitoria, bed-chambers ;
7. Triclinia, dining-rooms; 8. (Eci and exedrce., saloons; 9.
Pinacotheca, or picture-gallery ; 10. Bihliotheca, library ; 11.
Coenacula, rooms on the second story. The floors, sola, were
frequently laid in mosaic, and the inner walls, parietes, lined
with slabs of marble and pictures. The windows, fenestrce,
were closed with wooden shutters; and in the time of the
Emperors with transparent stone [lapis specidaris, mica) and
glass (vitrum). The ceilings were flat, and divided by the
intersection of the beams and planks into hollows [lacunaria,
laquearia), which were often carved and gilt.

Baths, halnece, thermcB. The Romans at first used baths
but seldom, and only for health and cleanliness ; but after-
wards as a luxury. They were taken after exercise, and pre-
vious to the principal meal, coena, and sometimes after eat-
ing, to promote digestion. The principal parts of the public
iJiermce were: 1. Vestihulum, in which the servants waited,
and the halneator, or keeper, received the quadrans paid by
each visitor ; 2. Apodyterium, or undressing-room ; 3. Frigi-
darium, the cold-bath; 4. Tepidarium, the tepid-bath, or a
chamber heated with air; 5. Ctddarium, the warm-bath,
warmed by hypocausta, heating-apparatus. After bathing,
the Romans made use of instruments called strigiles, or
scrapers, for removing the oil with which they were anointed,
and the impurities of the skin, and lintea, towels.

Amusements.

The Romans before bathing took various kinds of exercise,
one of which was tennis, played with a small ball, pila, or
with the folUs, an inflated ball of leather. During the in-
tervals of drinking, they played at various games of chance,
among which were ale a, dice, played with tali (huckle-bones)

142 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS.

sometimes numbered on four sides (1, 3, 4, 6) and the ends
left blank, or with iesserce, dice made of ivory, bone, or wood,
and numbered on six sides, as with us ; at first three dice
were used, but afterwards two. The dice-box was called
fritillus. The board, alveus, alveolus, or abacus, was divided
by twelve lines, and was frequently used for playing with
two sets of latrunculi or draughtsmen, fifteen on each side ;
this game, Indus duodecim scriptorum, nearly agreed with our
backgammon, and the Indus calcidorum was similar to chess.
At drinking-bouts [commissationes) a president was chosen
by throwing the dice, named magister vel arbiter bibendi, or
rex convivii.

Funerals.

The Romans, like the Greeks, paid great attention to funeral
rites, as they believed the souls of the unburied could not
enter the abodes of the dead. On the death of a friend, the
nearest relative closed the eyes and mouth of the deceased,
and called on him by name [conclamare), exclaiming liave or
vale ; the corpse was then washed and anointed with oil and
perfumes by slaves, who belonged to the undertakers, libiti-
narii, and a small coin was placed in the mouth of the corpse
to pay the ferryman of Hades (Charon) ; the body was then
clothed in its shroud (the best toga the deceased had worn
when alive ; magistrates in the prsetexta), and laid out in
the vestibule, with feet towards the door, and a branch of
cypress was placed in front of the house. The corpse was
usually carried out for burial on the eighth day after death.
The funeral procession was formed of musicians {cornicines,
&c.), mourning women {prceftcce), who sang a dirge {inimi
sometimes attended), slaves; and persons bearing the ima-
gines (representing the ancestors of the deceased) preceded
the corpse, which was carried on a couch [lectlca or feretrum),
followed by the relatives of the deceased. If the deceased
were a noble, the procession stopped at the Forum, where a
laudatio was delivered. The corpse was then carried off and
buried {humare, sepelire), or burned {cremare) on a pile of
wood [pj/ra or rogus), sprinkled, when burning, with in-

PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 143

cense, &c. "When burnt down, the embers were soaked with
wine, and the bones and ashes of the deceased collected and
placed in an urn {urna), which was deposited in a tomb
{sepulclirum). The mourning and solemnities continued for
nine days, at the end of which a sacrifice, Novendiale, took
place, and games and shows of gladiators were sometimes
held in honour of the deceased.

Names.

To mark the different gentes and familise, and to distin-
guish individuals of the same family, the Roman citizens had
three names: the first [prcEnomen], as Quintus, indicated
the individual; the second {nomen), as Horatius, the ^ens
or clan; the third [cognomen), as Flaccus, the siirps or
familia, family. A fourth name [agnomen) was sometimes
added, for some illustrious action or remarkable event, e. g.
Scipio was called Africanus, from the conquest of Carthage
and Africa. The daughters bore the name of the gens, Cor-
nelia, Julia, Livia, TuUia, &c. The following are some of
the contractions used for the praenomina : Ap., Appius ; A.,
Aulus; C, Caius; Cn., Cneius; D., Decimus; K., Kasso; L.,
Lucius ; M., Marcus ; M'., Manius ; N., Numerius ; P., Pub-
lius; Q., Quintus; Ser., Servius; Sex., Sextus; Sp., Spurius;
T., Titus ; Ti., Tiberius.

ANCIENT GEEEK WEITERS.

POETS.
Epic.

IIOMER flourished about b. c. 900. Birth-place uncertain,
seven cities contended for the honour.* "Works : Iliads twentj-
four books ; Odyssey, twenty-four books.

HE8I0D, born at Ascra, in Boeotia. Flourished about
B.C. 800. AVorks extant: ©toyovca, Theogony ; 'Atrnitj 'HpaxXc'ouj,
Shield of Hercules ; and 'Epya xol 'Hftipot, Works and Days.

Tragic*

^SCHYLUS, born at Eleusis, in Attica, b.c. 525 ; died at
Gela, in Sicily, b. c. 456, aged sixty-nine. Works : seventy
tragedies, of which only seven are extant, viz. ; Prometheus
Chained, Seven Chiefs against Thehes, The Persians, The
Suppliantiy Agamemnon, The Choephorce, The Eumenides.

SOPHOCLES, born at Athens, b.c. 495 ; died in his nine-
tieth year, b. c. 406. Works : 130 plays, of which only seven
are extant, viz. : Antigone, Electra, Trachinice, Ajax, Philoc-
tetes, (Edipus Tyranniis, (Edipus in Colonus.

1 " Septom urbes certant de stirpe insignis Homeri,

Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodes, Argos, Atbenac."

2 The DHhyrambs, or choral hymns chanted at the Dionysia (vido
Antiq.), fi'st assumed the form of Tragedy, when Thespis, about B.C.
535, introduced between them the representation Spa/ia i-etaoSiov, of a
story or plot by a single actor {InoKpiT/ji), who was separated from the
chorus, and played many parts in succession, ^schylus added a
second actor, and thus founded the dialogue. Sophocles introduced a
third actor.

(144)

ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 145

EURIPIDES, born at Salamis, b.c. 480; died at Mace-
donia, b.c. 406, in his seventy-fifth year. He is said to have
written ninety-two plays, by some; by others, seventy-five,
nineteen of which have reached us, viz. : Medea, Elecira,
Orestes, Ipliigenla in Aulis, Iphigenia in Tauris, Andromache,
Trojan Captives, Hecuba, Ion, The Suppliants, Children of-
Hercules, Phoenician Damsels, Raging Hercules, Alcesiis, Hip-
pclytus, Rhesus, The Bacchanalians, Helen, The Cyclops.

Comic.

ARISTOPHANES, born at Athens, about b.c. 444; died
about B.C. 380. "Works: fifty-four plays, of which eleven
remain perfect: Acharnians, Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Peace,
Birds, Thesmophoriazusce, or Feasts of Ceres, Li/sistrata,
Frogs, Ecclesiazusce, or Female Orators, Plutus.

The other writers of the "Old Comedy of Greece" were
Epicharmus, born b.c 540; Phormus, about b.c. 480; Crates,
B.C. 450; Cratinus, b.c. 445 ; Eupolis, b.c. 434.

The poets of the "Middle Comedy" were Antiphanes, b.c.
380 ; Eubulus, Alexis, Anaxandrides, and Araros, b. c. 375 ;
Timocles, b.c. 336. Of the "New Comedy" were,

MENANDER, born at Athens, b.c. 342, educated under
Theophrastus ; died b.c. 291. Works: upwards of 100 come-
dies, of which only fragments remain.

PHILEMON, born at Soli or Syracuse, flourished about
B.C. 330. Works: ninety-seven comedies, of which onlyfrag-
mentfl are extant; the other writers were Philippides, Di-
philus, Apollodorus flourished b.c. 336 to 300; Posidippus,
B.C. 289.

Lyric.

ANACREON, born at Teos, in Ionia, about b. c. 563 ; died,
aged eighty-five, about b.c. 478. Works: Of five books, sixty-
eight poems and fragments are extant ; many of the odes are
considered spurious.

SAPPHO, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, flourished about
B.C. 610. Her poems formed nine books, of which only fra^
ments are extant.
13

146 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS.

ALC^US, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, flourished about
B.C. 604. He is said to have been the inventor of the "bar-
biton," or harp. Of his -works, only a few fragments of ■war-
songs remain to us.

PINDAR, born at Thebes, *in Boeotia, B.C. 522; died, pro-
bably in his eightieth year, B.C. 442. Works: Upinicia, or
triumphal odes describing the four national games of the
Greeks ; four books entire, and numerous fragments, remain.

The other lyric poets, fragments of some of whose works
we have, are Alcman, b. c. 670 ; Stesichorus, b. c. 612 ; Simo-
nides, b.c. 540; Bacchylides, B.C. 452.

Pastoral.

THEOCRITUS, born at Syracuse, flourished b.c. 284-280.
Works : Thirty poems known as Idyls, twenty-two epigrams,
and a few fragments, are extant, which may be divided into
pastoral, lyric, epic, mimetic, and epigrammatic.

BION, born near Smyrna, flourished about b.c. 280. Of
his works, fragments are alone extant.

MOSCHUS, born at Syracuse, flourished about b.c. 250.
Of his works, only four of his Idyls, an epigram, and threo
small fragments, are extant.

PROSE WRITERS.

Historians.

HERODOTUS, born at Halicarnassus, in Caria, b.c. 484;
died subsequent to b.c. 408, exact period unknown. His
history, which embraces a period of about 240 years (from
the time of Cyrus), is divided into nine books, called by tho
names of the Muses.

THUCYDIDES, born at Athens, b.c. 471; died in exile,
probably at Scaptesyle, in Thrace, b. c. 391, aged eighty.
Works : History of the Peloponnesian War, in eight books,
which he brought down to the twenty-first year, and Xeno-
phon concluded to the twenty-eighth.

ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 147

XENOPHON, bom about b.c. 445, educated in the school
of Socrates ; died about b. c. 359, beyond ninety years of age,
probably at Corinth. Works: Anabasis, in seven books;
Hellenica (the continuation of the history of Thucydides), in
seven books ; Cyropcedia (memoirs of Cyrus), in eight books ;
Memorabilia, in four books ; Agesilaus ; The Athenian Re-
public; The Lacedcemonian Republic; De re Equestri ; Hip-
parchicus ; Cynegeticus ; Hiero ; Apology of Socrates; Sym-
posium ; (Economicus.

POLYBIUS, born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about b.c.
203 ; died b. c. 121, in his eighty-second year. Work : A
Universal History, in forty books (of which only five remain
entire), commencing b.c. 220.

DIODORUS SICULUS, born at Agyrium, in Sicily, flou-
rished B.C. 60-30. Work : A History of Egypt, Persia, Syria,
Media, Greece, Rome, and Carthage, in forty books, of which
fifteen and some fragments are extant.

DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS flourished b.c. 29-7;
Work : Antiquities of Rome, in twenty-two books (of which
eleven now remain), comprising the History of Rome for 312
years down to b.c. 264.

PLUTARCH, born at Chaeronea, in Bceotia; died about
A.D. 140. He was sent on an embassy to Rome, where he
opened a school. He was honoured by Trajan with the ap-
pointment of governor of lUyricum. Works : Lives of RluS"
trious Men, Moralia.

Orators.

PERICLES, born at Athens, about b.c. 499; died B.C. 429.
The first Greek orator, surnamed, from the grandeur of his
style, the Olympian.

LYSIAS, born at Athens, b.c. 458; died b.c. 378, aged
eighty. Of his orations, thirty-four are extant, remarkable
for their purity of style.

ISOCRATES, born at Athens, b.c. 436; died b.c. 338, in
his ninety-eighth year, being unable to survive the blow the
liberty of his country received at the battle of Chaeronea.

148 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS.

As Isocrates was prevented by timidity from addressing the
national assemblies, he opened a school in Athens, where he
distinguished himself by the number, character, and fame of
his pupils. Only twenty-one of his orations have come down
to us ; he is said to have written sixty.

DEMOSTHENES, born at Athens, b.c. 382; died at Ca-
lauria, by poison, b. c. 322. Of his orations, which have been
always celebrated as the most perfect models of eloquence,
sixty-one are extant, viz. : seventeen political orations, forty-
two judicial, and two show speeches.

IS-iEUS flourished about b.c. 360.» He was the instructor
of Demosthenes. Works : sixty-four orations, of which eleven
are now remaining.

^SCHINES, born b.c. 389; died at Samos or Rhodes,
B.C. 314. Works: nine epistles and three orations, of which
the orations alone are extant.

The other Greek orators are Demades and Hyperides ; they
flourished about b.c. 335.

Medical Writers.

HIPPOCRATES, born in the island of Cos, about b.c. 460;
died at Larissa, in Thessaly, b. c. 357, in his 104th year. Of
his works, more than sixty in number, the majority being
written by his disciples and followers, only a few are genuine :
Pracenotiones, OT Prognosiicon ; Apliorismi; De Morbis Popu-
laribus, or Epidemiorum ; De Ratione Victus in Morhis Acutis,
or De Diceta Aciitorum; Be Acre, A^is, et Locis; De Capitis
Vulneribus.

GALEN, born at Pergamum, a. d. 130 ; died about a. d. 200.
Works, under the name of Galen: eighty-three Treatises
[genuine) ; nineteen, genuineness doubted ; forty-five spunous ;
nineteen Fragments ; fifteen Commentaries on the works of
Hippocrates.

ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 149

MATHEMATICIANS.

EUCLID flourished at Alexandria, in the time of the first
Ptolemy, B.C. 323-283, and was the founder of the Alexan-
drine Mathematical School. Works extant: The Elements,
in thirteen books, the fourteenth and fifteenth being added
by Hypsicles; The Data, containing 100 propositions; The
Division of the Scale; a Treatise on Optics, &c.

ARCHIMEDES, born at Syracuse, b.c. 287; slain at the
taking of Syracuse, b. c. 212. Works extant : On Equipon-
derants and Centres of Gravity ; The Quadrature of the Para-
bola; On the Sphere and Cylinder; The Dimension of the
Circle; Spirals; Conoids and Spheroids; Tlie Arenariu.s; On
Floating Bodies; Lemmata. Archimedes is said to have con-
structed engines used for military and naval purposes, and
many machines, among which was the water-screw ; but his
most famous invention was a kind of orrery, representing
the movements of the heavenly bodies.

GEOGRAPHERS.

STRABO, born at Amasia, in Pontus, about b.c. 54; died
about A. D. 24. Works : a work on Geography, in seventeen
books ; this is entire, with the exception of the seventh book.
Strabo wrote a history, in forty-three books (in continuation
of that of Polybius), which is lost.

PAUSANIAS, born in Lydia(?), flourished about a. d. 170.
Works : Periegesis, or Itinerary of Greece, in ten books.

FABULIST.

iESOP flourished about b.c. 570. He was originally a
slave, but received his freedom from ladmon, his master.
The Fables now extant in prose, attributed to iEsop, are said
to be spurious.
13*

160 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS.

SATIRIC WRITER.

LUCIAN, born at Samosata, in Syria, about a.d. 120; died
about the end of the century. Works : Dialogues, comprising
The Dialogues of the Gods, twenty-six in number; Jupiter
Convicted; Vitarum Audio, or Sale of Philosophers ; The
Fishermen, &c.; The Dialogues oftJie Dead, comprising Icaro-
Menippus, Charon, &c.

CRITIC.

LONGINUS flourished about a. d. 250. He opened a school
at Athens, in -which he taught philosophy, criticism, rhetoric,
and grammar; but afterwards went to the East, where he
became the tutor of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, on whose
capture he was put to death, a. d. 273. Work : On the Sub-
lime, Ilfpt 'T4ovj, a great part of which is extant.

PHILOSOPHERS.

THALES, iJie Ionic Philosopher, born at Miletus, b. c. 636 ;
died about b.c. 546. One of the founders in Greece of the
study of philosophy. He maintained water was the first
principle of all things.

PYTHAGORAS, born at Samos; flourished b.c. 540-510.
He travelled in Egypt and the East, and finally settled at
Crotona, in Italy, whence he is called the Italic Philosopher.
The whole discipline of his sect is represented as tending to
a lofty serenity and self-possession. They believed in the
ti-ansmigration of souls ; and it was one of their maxims, that
" every thing should not be told to every body ;" hence all
that was done and taught by the members was kept a pro-
fi>und secret to all but themselves.

ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 151

SOCRATES, born near Athens, b.c. 469; died B.C. 399.
Socrates was the first who turned his thoughts to the subject
of Ethics ; in discussing which, he employed the dialectic or
interrogative system, termed from him the Socratic. Not-
withstanding his efforts to promote the welfare of mankind,
he was accused of corrupting the Athenian youth, and was
sentenced to drink poison.

PLATO, born at Athens, b.c. 429 or 428; died b.c. 347.
lie was the founder of the Academic School, and in hia
writings are preserved the doctrines of Socrates, whose dis-
ciple he was. The writings of Plato have come down to us
complete ; they are in the form of dialogues, which are closely
connected with one another, and may be divided into three
series.

ARISTOTLE, born at Stagira, in Macedonia, b.c. 384;
died B. c. 322, at Chalcis, in Euboea. He was the founder of
the Peripatetic School, so called, either from his delivering
his lectures in the shady walks (rtsptrtatot) surrounding the
Lyceum, or while walking up and down (rtfptrtaT'wv). His
numerous writings comprise works on, 1. Dialectics and
Logic; 2. Theoretical Philosophy, Mathematics, Natural His-
tort/, &c. ; 3. Practical Philosophy or Politics, Ethics, &c. ;
4. Works on Art.

ZENO, the founder of Stoic Philosophy, born at Citium, in
Cyprus. Birth and death uncertain. Flourished about b. c.
280. After many years' study, and having sufiSciently deve-
loped his peculiar philosophical system, he opened his school
in one of the Porticoes at Athens [Stoa Poecile), and hence
his disciples were called Stoics. The Stoic philosophy recog-
nised real good only in virtue, and enjoined a life in accord-
ance with nature.

EPICURUS, the founder of the Epicurean School, born in
the island of Samos, b.c. 342; died b.c. 270. He is said to
have written 300 volumes, of which the principal was a work
on Nature, in thirty-seven books. The theory of the Epicu-
reans represented pleasure as constituting the greatest hap-
piness, and must therefore be the chief end of man.

ANCIENT EOMAN WEITBRS.

POETS.

N. B. — The chief works of the writers are mentioned, though
all may not come under the same classified heads.

Epic.

ENNIUS (Quintus Ennius), born at Rudise, in Calabria,
B. c. 239. He lived on intimate terms with Scipio Africanus,
and died B.C. 169, aged seventy. The Romans regarded
Ennius as the "father of their poetry." Work: Fragments
only extant, though Ennius wrote Annates (i. e. a history of
Rome, from its foundation to his own times), an epic poem,
in eighteen books.

VIRGIL (Pub. Virgilius Maro), born 15th of Oct., b.c. 70,
at Andes, a small villa^ near Mantua ; educated at Cremona
and Mediolanum [Milan) ; died 22d of Sept., b.c. 19, in his
fifty-first year, at Brundusium [Brindisi). Works : j^neid,
in twelve books ; Bucolics, ten short poems (Pastorals) ;
Georgics, an agricultural poem, in four books.

SILIUS (C. S. Italicus), born about a.d. 25; died about
his seventy-fifth year. Work : Punica, in seventeen books.

LUCAN (M. Annoeus Lucanus), born at Corduba, in Spain,
A. D. 39 ; died a. d. 65, in his twenty-sixth year. Work : The
Pharsalia, in ten books, alone extant.

VALERIUS FLACCUS flourished in the reign of Vespa-
sian; he was a native of Padua, and died a.d. 88. Work:
Argonautica, an unfinished poem, in eight books.

STATIUS (P. Papinius), born at Neapolis, about a.d. 61;
died about a. d. 96. Works : Thebaid, in twelve books ; Silvcef
a collection of occasional poems, in five books.

(152)

ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 153

Elegiac.

OVID (P. Ovidius Naso), born at Sulmo, in the country of
the Peligni, 20th of March, B.C. 43. He was descended from
an ancient family, and enjoyed the favour of Augustus, by
whose edict (a.d. 9) he was suddenly exiled, without even a
trial, to Tomi, a town near the mouths of the Danube, where
he died, in the sixtieth year of his age, a.d. 18. Works:
Amoves, three books ; Epistles, twenty-one in number ; Ars
Amatoria; Remedia Amoris, one book; Metamorplioses, fifteen
books ; Fasti or Roman Calendar, twelve books, six only ex-
tant; Tristia, five books (written at Tomi) ; Epistolce ex Ponto,
four books ; Minor Poems ; Nux, or The Complaint of the
Nut-tree ; Ibis, a satire, &c.

TIBULLUS (Albius Tibullus), born about B.C. 54; died
about B. c. 18 ; was of the Equestrian order : his patron was
Messala. Work : Elegies, four books ; the genuineness of
several poems in the third and fourth books is doubted.

PROPERTIUS (Sex. Aurelius), born about b.c. 51; year
of death unknown. He enjoyed the friendship of Maecenas,
Virgil, and Ovid. Work : Elegies, four books.

Lyric.

HORACE (Q. Horatius Flaccus), born at Venusia, in Apu-
lia, Dec. 8, B.C. 65. His father was a collector of taxes, and
paid the greatest attention to his son's education, who fre-
quented the best schools at Rome, and visited Athens to com-
plete his education. He lived on most intimate terms with
Maecenas, a Roman knight, and obtained the patronage of
Augustus. Horace died Nov. 17, B.C. 8, aged fifty-six.
Works : Odes, five books ; Satires, two books ; Epistles, two
books ; a poem, De Arte Poetica.

CATULLUS (Valerius Catullus), born at Verona, b.c. 87;
died about b.c. 47. Works extant: 116 poems, on various
topics, composed in difilerent styles and metres.

154 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS.

Tragic.

LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, the earliest Roman poet. Frag,
ments of his work are extant.

SENECA (L. Annseus, vide infr.). Ten of his tragedies
are extant ; they are written in iambic senarii, interspersed
with choral parts.

Comic.

PLAUTUS (T. Accius Plautus), born at Sarsina, a village
in Umbria, about B.C. 254; died B.C. 184, aged seventy.
"Works : twenty-one Comedies, of which twenty are extant.

TERENCE (P. Terentius Afer), born at Carthage, B.C.
195 ; died b. c. 159, in his thirty-sixth year. Works : six
Comedies, viz.: l.Andria; 2. Hecyra ; S. Heauton-timoroU'
menos, or "the Self-tormentor;" 4. Eunuchus ; 5. Phormio;
6. Adelphi, i. e. " the Brothers." He is said to have trans-
lated 108 of Menander's Comedies when he went to Greece.

Didactic.

LUCRETIUS (T. Lucretius Carus), born at Rome, b.c. 95;
perished by his own hand, b.c. 51, in his forty-fourth year.
Work : De Eerum Nafurd, in six books, containing upwards
of 7400 lines.

SATIRISTS.

HORACE, vide supra.

PERSIUS (A. Persius Flaccus), born at Volaterrae, in
Etruria, 4th of Dec, a.d. 34; died 24th of Nov., a.d. 62,
aged twenty-seven. Work extant : six Satires.

JUVENAL (Decimus Junius Juvenilis), born at Aquinum,
in the reign of Claudius. "Works extant : fifteen Satires.

ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 155

EPIGRAMMATIST.

MARTIAL (Marcus Valerius Martialis), born at Bilbilis,
in Spain, a. d. 43. He resided for thirty-five years at Rome,
where he obtained the patronage of the Emperors Titus and
Domitian. He died at Bilbilis, about a.d. 104. Work: Epi-
grammata, fourteen books.

FABULIST.

PH^DRUS, originally a slave, brought from Thrace or
Macedonia to Rome, but eventually became a freedman of
Augustus. Work: The Fables of JEsop, translated, with
some alterations, into Latin iambics.

HISTORIANS.

C^SAR (Caius Julius Csesar), born 12th of July, b.c. 100;
murdered 15th of March, b.c. 44, being stabbed, in the Senate-
house, with twenty-three wounds : among the conspirators was
his intimate friend Brutus. Works: Commentarii de Bella
Gallico, in seven books (an eighth is added by another hand) ;
and Commentarii de Bello Civili, in three books. The books
JDe Bello Alexandrino, Africano, and Hispaniensi, are spurious.

CORNELIUS NEPOS flourished in the time of Julius
Caesar. Work extant : Vitce Excellentium Imperatorumy a
short biography of twenty-two Grecian and two Carthaginian
generals.

SALLUST (C. Sallustius Crispus), born B.C. 86, at Amiter-
num, in the Sabini ; died b. c. 34. Works : Catillna, a his-
tory of Catiline's conspiracy ; Jugurtha, a history of the wars
of the King of Numidia ; Historice, fragments alone extant.

LIVY (Titus Livius), born at Patavium, b.c. 59; died
A.D. 17. Work : History of Borne, from its foundation to the

156 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS.

death of Drusus, b.c. 9, in 142 books, of which thirty-five are
extant, viz., books 1-10, and 21-45, besides fragments and
notices of contents [Epitomce).

VALERIUS MAXIMUS flourished during the time of Ti-
berius. Work: Fadorum Dictommque Memorahilium lihri ix.,
a collection of facts and anecdotes, &c.

TACITUS (Caius Cornelius Tacitus), born a.d. 57, at In-
teramna(?). Works: D6 Situ, Moribus, Populisque Genna-
nice ; Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law ; Historic^ ;
Annales, a history of Rome, from the death of Augustus to
that of Nero ; Dialogus de Oratoribus [t ).

CURTIUS (Quintus Curtius Rufus) flourished in the reign
of Vespasian (? ). Work : De Rebus Gestis Alexandri Magni^
m ten books, of which two books are wanting.

SUETONIUS (Caius Suetonius Tranquillus) flourished
during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Works extant :
Vitce xii. Imperatorum ; De lUustribus Grammaticis ; De
Claris RTietoribus.

FLORUS (Lucius Annaeus Florus) flourished in the time
of Trajan (? ). Work : Epitome de Rebus Gestis Ro7na7iorum,
fbur books.

JUSTIN (M. Junianus Justinus) flourished under the An-
tonines. Work : An abridgment of the Historioe Philippicas
of Trogus Pompeius, in forty-four books.

EUTROPIUS flourished under Constantino and Valens.
Work : Breviarium Historice Romance, in ten books.

ORATOR, &c.

CICERO (Marcus TuUius Cicero), born b.c. 106; murdered
B.C. 43, at the instigation of the Triumviri. Works : of Ora-
tions, fifty-six are extant. Rhetorical works : De Inventione,
or Rlietorica ; De Oratore, three books ; Brutus, or De Clans
Oratoribus ; Orator ad Brutum, or De Optimo Genere Dicendi;
Topica, a work on evidence ; De Fartione Orator ia; De Optimo
Genere Oratorum. Philosophical works: De Republica, in six

ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 157

books, of which Somnium Scipionis has been preserved ; De
Legihus, three books ; Academica, divided first into two, and
aftervrards into four books, one of which, and a fragment of
the second, we possess; De Finibus Bonorum et Mdlorum, five
books ; Disputatioius TiisculancE, five books ; De Natura Deo-
rum, three books ; De Divinatione, two books ; De Fato, a
fragment ; Cato Major sive de Senectute ; Lceliiis sive de Ami-
cUia ; Paradoxa Stoicorum ; De Offidis, three books. Epis-
tolary writings : Epistolce ad Diversos, sixteen books ; Epis-
iolce ad T. Pomponium Atticum, sixteen books ; Epistolce ad
Quintum Fratrem, three books.

EPISTOLARY WRITERS.

ATTICUS (Titus Pomponius Atticus), born B.C. 109; died
in his seventy-seventh year, b. c. 32. He corresponded with

CICERO (vide supra).

PLINY (Caius Plinius Csecilius Secundus, surnamed the
Younger), born a.d. 61; died a.d. 114. Work: Epistolce, in
ten books. Of his Orations, the Panegyricus on Trajan is
alone extant.

WRITERS ON PHILOSOPHICAL SUBJECTS, &c.

SENECA (Lucius Annaeus Seneca), born about a.d. 1;
died A.D. 65, in the reign of Nero. Works: 124 Letters on
PhilosopMcal Subjects ; Qucestiones Naturales, seven books.

CICERO (vide supra).

Natural History.

PLINY (Caius Plinius Secundus Major, the Elder), bom
A. D. 23 ; died in the eruption of Vesuvius, a. d. 79, aged fifty-
six. Work : Historia Naturalis, in thirty-seven books, alone
remains of his numerous writings.
14

158 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS.

Agriculture.

CATO (Marcus Porcius Cato Censorius), born B.C. 234;
died B. c. 149, aged eighty-five. Works : A Treatise on Agrir
cullure, the most ancient Latin prose work extant ; OrigineSf
a history of Kome from B.C. 753-151.

VARRO (Marcus Terentius Varro), born B.C. 116; died
B.C. 28. Works: De Lingua Latina, a fragment; De Ee
liustica, a fragment alone extant.

COLUMELLA (Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella), con-
temporary of Seneca. Work : Be Re Eusiica.

Architecture.

VITRUVIUS (Marcus Vitruvius PoUio), born at Verona ;
flourished in the time of Caesar and Augustus. Work: De
Architectura, in ten books.

Medicine.

CELSUS (Aulus Cornelius Celsus) flourished in the reigns
of Augustus and Tiberius. Work: De Medicina, in eight
books.

Grammar and Criticism.

QUINTILIAN (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus), born a.d. 40;
died about a. d. 118. Works : InstHutiones Oratorice, in twelve
books ; a collection of Declamations is by some also ascribed
to Quintilian.

AULUS GELLIUS flourished in the time of the Anto-
nines. Work : Nodes Atticce, in twenty books, of which the
eighth is wanting.

SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY.

I. The ionic SCHOOL, founded by Thales, from

WHICH sprung:

1. THE SOCKATIC SCHOOL, founded by Socrates.
Disciples : Xenophon, ^schines, Phsedo, Euclid, Plato, Alci-
biades, &c.

2. CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus. Flou-
rished about B. c. 370.

3. MEGARIC or ERISTIC SCHOOL, founded by Euclid
of Megara, B.C. 399.

4. ELI AC or ERETRIAC SCHOOL, founded about b.c.
395, by Phaedo of Elis, whose doctrines were similar to those
of Socrates.

5. THE ACADEMIC SECT, founded by Plato.

6. THE PERIPATETIC SECT, founded by Aristotle,
succeeded by Theophrastus, Straton, Lycon, Ariston, &c.

7. THE CYNIC SECT, founded by Antisthenes. Dis-
ciples : Diogenes Crates, and Hipparchia, his wife.

8. THE STOIC SECT, founded by Zeno, succeeded by
Cleanthes, Ariston, Antipater, &c.

II. The ITALIC SCHOOL, founded by Pythagoras,

FROM WHICH sprung:

1. THE ELEATIC SCHOOL, founded by Xenophanes.
Flourished b.c. 540-500. Disciples: Parmenides, Zeno,
both of Elea, in Italy, Democritus, Protagoras, &c.

2. THE HERACLITEAN SECT, founded by Hera-
clitus. Flourished b.c. 513.

3. THE EPICUREAN SECT, founded by Epicurus.

4. THE SCEPTIC SECT, founded by Pyrrh^on.

(159)

TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS.

ATHENE, the Capital of Attica, is said to have been
founded by Cecrops, about b. c. 1556 ; it was called from its
founder Cecropia, and afterwards Athenae (at 'A^jJmm), in
honour of Minerva ('AQjji^), the protectress of the city. It
was divided into two parts, 1. THE ACROPOLIS, or UPPER
CITY {axportoUi, KsxpoTiCa, ij orw rtoXtj), and THE LOWER
CITY (j7 xafw TtoUi). The Acropolis or Citadel was a
steep rock, about 150 feet high, 1150 feet long, and 500 feet
broad, surrounded by a wall, and approached from the W. by
the Propylsea (rtpomvXata), a colonnade of Pentelic marble.
The summit was covered with temples, statues, &c. The
most beautiful of the temples were, 1. the Parthenon,
sacred to Athene, with a statue of the goddess by Phidias,
thirty-seven feet high, and carved in gold and ivory. 2.
Erechtheum, or temple of Neptune, with the temple of
Athene Polias and the Pandroseum. Between the Par-
thenon and Erechtheum stood the colossal bronze statue
of Athene Promachos (seventy feet high, whose helmet and
epear were first visible from the sea), cast by Phidias.

THE LOWER CITY was built in the plain round the
Acropolis, and was surrounded by walls ; the chief gates of
which were: the Thriasian or Dipylon, leading from the
inner to the outer Ceramicus and the Academia; and the
Pirgean gate, leading to the Pirseeus. The chief districts:
Colyttus, on the N. of the Acropolis; Melite, on the E. ;
Limnae, on the S.; Ceramicus (Kfpa|M£cxoj, or the "Potter's
Quarter"), in the W.

Hills; Areiopagus, W., and Pnyx, S.W., of the Acro-
polis. «

(160)

TOPOGRAPHY OP ATHENS. 161

The chief buildings of the Lower City were: 1. The
Temple of Olympian Zeus COkvixtcUiov), founded by
Pisistratus; 2. The Temple of Theseus {©yjanov), erected
by Conon, and was used as a sanctuary for slaves ; S.JldvOsov^
a temple dedicated to all the gods, a magnificent building,
supported by 120 marble pillars; 4. The Temple ofthe
Eight Winds (vide page 172), surmounted by a weather-
cock; 5. The Odeum ('QSftov), built by Pericles, and origin-
ally intended for musical festivals, but afterwards used as a
court of justice ; 6. The Bouleuterion, BcAAsv-tripiov, or
Senate-house; 7. The Prytaneum, UpvTfavslov, or place
of assembly of the Prytanes (vide Gr. Antiq.); 8. The Great
Theatre of Dionysus, S.E. ofthe Acropolis; 9. Por-
ticoes (St'ooc), or covered walks, in which seats (t'lcSpac)
were placed. The Porticoes were sometimes adorned with
paintings by the best masters, as, 10. The Pcccile {atoa
7iowi%ri), N.W. of the Acropolis, adorned with frescoes of the
battle of Marathon; 11. 'Ayopat, corresponding to the Fora
at Kome, places both for public assembly and all matters of
traffic and public business; 12. The Pnyx {Tlvv%), W. of
the Acropolis, the place in which the ancient assemblies
were held.

Without the City: TheAcademia, where Plato taught;
The Cynosarges, where Antisthenes taught; The Ly-
ceum, where Aristotle instructed his disciples, the Peri-
patetics; The Stadium, for public games.

14*

TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME

ROMA, the Capital of Italy, is said to have been a colony
from Alba Longa, and to have been founded by Romulus,
B.C. 753. The original city comprised only the Mons Pala-
tinus ; it was surrounded by walls, which followed the line
of the Pomoerium, a kind of symbolical wall, the course of
which was marked by stone pillars. On the increase of tho
inhabitants of the city, one hill after another was occupied,
to the number of seven (vide pages 28, 168). Servius TuUius
divided the city into four regiones or districts, which re-
mained unchanged till the time of Augustus, who divided
the city into fourteen regiones.

THE FORA AND CAMPI. The Forum was an open
space of ground of an oblong form, in which the people met for
the transaction of business, or used for markets. The prin-
cipal Fora at Rome were: 1. Forum Romanum, or simply
the Forum (the narrow or upper end of which was occupied
by the Comitium) ; it was surrounded by public buildings,
and adorned with statues of celebrated men, &c. 2. Forum
Julii or Caesaris. 3. Forum Augusti. 4. Forum Tra-
jan i. The CAMPI were large open spaces of ground^
covered with grass, planted with trees, and adorned with
works of art. The chief was the Campus Martins, or
" Plain of Mars," where the Roman youth exercised.

There are said to have been 215 streets in Rome; Visa
and Yici were the broad streets, and Angiportus the narrow
streets. The finest street was the Via Sacra, from the
Colosseum to the Forum. The Suburra was a crowded dis-
trict, between the Esquiline, Quirinal, and Viminal.

(162)

TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 163

TEMPLES. Of these, there are said to have been 400 in
Rome, the chief of which were: 1. Templuin Jo vis, or
Capitolium, built on the Capitoline Hill. It was com-
menced by Tarq. Priscus, and dedicated B.C. 507. Three
times was it burnt down, and as often rebuilt, but with far
greater splendour than before, by Domitian, about a.d. 81.
The building was in the form of a square, 200 feet each side ;
it was approached by 100 steps, and contained three temples
(ccZZcb), consecrated to Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva. In the
building were kept the Sibylline Books, and there the Con-
suls, upon entering office, sacrificed, and took their vows.
THE ARX, or Citadel of Rome, was situated near the
Capitol, on the N. summit of the Capitoline Hill. 2. The
Pantheum, in the Campus Martins, built by Agrippa,
B.C. 27; it is still extant, and used as a Christian church
{Santa Maria della Rotonda). It is the largest circular build-
ing of antiquity, and in form resembles the Colosseum, Re-
gent's Park. The numerous temples were dedicated chiefly
to Jupiter, Juno, Mars, Janus, Saturn, Fortuna, &c.

The principal of the CIRCI, or places for chariot and horse-
racing, was the Circus Maximus, between the Palatine
and Aventine Hills; it is said to have contained seats for
385,000 persons.

Among the THEATRES, the chief were: 1. The Thea-
trum Pompeii, the first stone theatre built in Rome
(b.c. 55) ; 2. Th. Marcelli. Of the AMPHITHEATRES,
the Amphiteatrum Flavium, or Colosseum, was the
most magnificent ; it was commenced by Vespasian and com-
pleted by Titus, a. d. 80 ; it furnished seats capable of con-
taining 87,000 persons.

THERMS. These buildings were distinct from the com-
mon Bain eae or baths, as, besides baths, they contained places
for athletic games and sports, public halls, porticoes, libraries,
&c. ; the chief were: 1. Thermae Antonini; 2. Th. Dio-
cletiani; 3. Th. Constantini; 4. Th. Caracallae.

THE BASILICA were numerous at Rome; they were
buildings which served as courts of law, or places of meeting
for merchants and men of business THE PORTICOES

164 TOPOGRAPHY OF EOME.

were covered walks, supported by columns, used as places of
recreation or of public business.

Of THE CUKIiE or Senate-houses, the chief was Curia
Hostilia, in the Forum ; it was used as the place of assem-
bly for the senate until the time of Caesar. The other chief
buildings were the Palaces (e.g. Palaiium, Domus Aurea
Keronis)', the Triumphal Arches {Arcus Fahiamis, Ar.
Till, Ar. Trajani, Ar. Constantini) ', Aqueducts {Aqiia
Appia, Aq. Marcia, Aq. Julia, Aq. Claudia); Monuments
{Mausoleum Augusti, M. Hadriani). Of the Columns were:
Col. Rostrata, in the Forum, in honour of the naval vic-
tory of Duilius, B.C. 260; Col. Trajani, 117 feet high, now
surmounted by a statue of St. Peter.

Of THE ROADS leading out of Rome, the principal were :

1. Via Appia, from the Porta Capena to Brundusium;

2. "Via Flaminia, or Great North Road from the Porta
Flaminia; 3. ViaAurelia, the Great Coast Road through
Etruria and Liguria from the Porta Janiculemis.

GEEEK AND ROMAN DIVISION
OF TIME.

GREEK.

In early times, the Greeks divided their years by the recur-
rence of the seasons, the rising and setting of the constella-
tions Orion, the Pleiades, &c. Afterwards, having adopted
the lunar month of about twenty-nine days and thirteen
hours as a division of time, they endeavoured to adjust this
to the solar year of 365 days five hours and forty-nine
minutes, so that the seasons should regularly occur at the
same periods of the calendar year, and that the end of the
year should not be in the middle of a month. As the twelve
lunar months contain only 354 days, intercalary or additional
months {fjitjvti ifi^oUixot) were inserted to make up the defi-
ciency. The errors of the early calendars of Thales, Solon,
and Cleostratus, were rectified by Meton, who, B.C. 432,
introduced a cycle of nineteen years, at the end of which
period the position of the earth, with reference to the sun
and moon, became the same. Calippus, and after him the
celebrated Hipparchus (c. B.C. 150), corrected the slight
inaccuracies of Meton's system. The cycle of Hipparchus
consisted of 304 years, with 112 intercalary months.

The twelve Attic months contained thirty and twenty-nine
days, alternately ; the former termed full {rtxripdi), the latter
hollow (xocxot), months. Their names, derived from the va-
rious festivals held in them, were, Exa-r'o/MiSatwr, ^li-taytitvtMVy
BcwySpojUtwi', Motftaxfj/ptwv, Hvwi^Mv, ^AvOsstrjpuav, IlocSiiSsuVt
Tafti^Uuiv, 'EkoJ^r^^oXiuv, Mowvxt'i^v, ©apy»;Xiwv, Sxi/j/jo^opwar.'

» The following rough memorial lines will aid the memory in remem-
bering the Attic months : —

'Ex — Msta — FsitvC — Boij — IXm — Mai^axfrjfiv — Iloasiduip
ra» — 'AvBsat — '^Eka^ij [\ MdwiX'^ — ©apy — Xxipo^,

(165)

166 GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME.

The days of the month were divided into three decades qt
sets of ten days, numbered from one to ten : thus the first of
each decade (i. e. our first, eleventh, and twenty-first) was
termed respectively, rtpioi*?; (sc. r^fiipa), latdfisvov or apxoixevou
{fir^vos) — TtpJ^t*] ifii 8ixa or fiiawvtoi — rCpJitr] irt' alxd&c, ^dCvovtoi,
Xjjyovt'oj, &c. But in the last decade the days were often
reckoned backwards ; thus the first was called Ssxatrj ^oCvov-
foj, &c. The first day of the month was also termed 'Novixrjvia.
{new moon), the last Iviq xai via, as belonging both to the old
and the new month.

The three Homeric divisions of the day were : 1. >Jw$
(morning), afterwards divided into rtpui and Tt^fjOovaris tiji
dyopaj ; 2. fiisov i^fiap or ftsarjiu-^pla. (midday) ; 3. Ssi}^ (after-
noon), afterwards divided into rtpwta and o-^^ia.

At Athens the years were called after the chief Archon
(frtwwjuoj), at Sparta after the first Ephor, at Argos after the
priestess of Juno. So at Carthage after the Sujffetes, at Crete
after the Proto-cosmus, and at Kome after the Consuls.

Timseus of Sicily (c. B.C. 260) introduced the calculation
by Olympiads, or periods of four years, commencing from
B.C. 776 (vide Chronology). Thus, b. c. 775 would be the
second year of the first Olympiad, B.C. 772 the second Olym-
piad, &c. But as the Attic year began at the summer solstice,
with the month Hecatombaeon (June and July), the first half
of the first Olympiad would be the latter half of b. c. 776, and
the latter half of the Olympiad the first of b.c. 775.

ROMAN.

The Koman year was prohahly at first divided into ten
months, beginning with March. To this division, which is
ascribed to Romulus, Numa is said to have added the two
months January and February, to have assigned 355 days to
the year, and to have adopted a cycle similar to Meton's
Julius Cassar, b.c. 46, employed Sosigenes, of Alexandria,

GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OP TIME. 167

and Flavius, a scribe, to revise the calendar. The intercalary
months were set aside, the solar year was composed of 365
days, and a leap-year inserted every four years. But, as this
did not provide for the accumulation of the excess of minutes
and seconds. Pope Gregory, a.d. 1582, ordered ten days, be-
tween Oct. 4 and 15, in that year to be omitted. This " new
style" was not recognized in England till a.d. 1752. The
" old," or " Julian style," is still used in Russia.

The names of the Roman months are Januarius, Februa-
rius, Martius, Aprilis, Mains, Julius, Quintilis and Sextilis
(changed to Julius and Augustus, in honour of the two first
Caesars), September, October, November, December. The
number of days in each month was the same as our own ;
but they were divided into Calends, Nones, and Ides. The
Calends were the first of every month. In March, May,
July, and October, the Nones fell on the 7th, in the other
months on the 5th. The Ides were always eigJit dsLja after
the Nones, i. e. on the 13th or 15th. If the day of the month
was not one of these three divisions, it was expressed by its
distance from the following Calends, Nones, or Ides, as the
case might be. Thus, the 31st of December was termed
pridie (the day before) Calendas Januarias. But, as the
Romans reckoned in both the days to and Jrom which they
calculated, Dec. 30 would be the third day before the Calends
of January, usually expressed ante diem tertium (or a. d. iii.)
Kal. Jan. The Romans (as well as the Greeks) used water-
clocks {clepsydrcB) and sun-dials {solaria) to measure the
divisions of the day.

The Consular sera was used in public affairs. In the time
of the Caesars, the aera "ab urbe condita" (A. U. C), from
the founding of Rome, dated by Varro B.C. 753 (by Cato,
B.C. 752), was employed by historians and others.

MISCELLANEA.

HILLS OF EOME.

1. Palatinus, first occupied by the Latins.

2. Capitolinus, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united
to the Latins.

3. Coelius, occupied by the Etruscans.

4. Quirinalis, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united
to the Latins.

5. Aventinus, added by Ancus Martins, who also erected
a fort on Janiculum, on the right bank of the Tiber.

6. Esquilinus, added by Servius TuUius.

7. Viminalis, added by Servius Tullius.

KINGS OF ROME.

1. Romulus,

2. Numa Pompilius,

3. TuUus Hostilius,

4. Ancus Marcius,

5. L. Tarquinius Prisons,

6. Servius Tullius,

7. L. Tarquinius Superbus,

B. c. B. 0.

reigned 753—716, 37
" 715—672, 43
" 672—640, 32
" 640—616, 24
" 616-^78, 38
" 578—534, 44
" 534—510, 25
(168)

years.

MISCELLANEA. 169

TWELVE (

O^SARS.

1. Julius,

B.C.

.45—

B.C. 44.

2. Augustus,

«

30—

A.D. 14.

3. Tiberius,

A.D

.l^U-

" 37.

4. Caligula,

<(

37—

" 41.

5. Claudius,

((

41—

" 54.

6. Nero,

((

54—

" 68.

7. Galba,

<(

68—

" 69.

8. Otho,

Jan.

15

69— Apr.

16,

" 69.

9. Vitellius,

Jan.

2,

((

69— Dec.

22,

" 69.

10. Vespasian,

Dec.

22,

u

69—

" 79.

11. Titus,

((

79—

" 81,

12. Domitian,

((

81—

" 96.

SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD.

1. The Colossus of Rhodes.

2. The Sepulchre of Mausolus, king of Caria.

3. The Palace of Cyrus.

4. The Pyramids of Egypt.

5. The Statue of Jupiter at Olympia.

6. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus.

7. The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

SEVEN SAGES OF GREECE.

1. Thales, of Miletus.

2. Pittacus, of Mitylene.

3. Bias, of Priene.

4. Solon, legislator of Athens.

5. Cleobulus, of Rhodes.

6. Periander of Corinth (some say Myson), of Laconia.

7. Chilon, of Sparta.

15

170 MISCELLANEA.

THE TWELVE LABOURS OF HERCULES.

1. The Fight with the Nemean Lion.

2. The Fight with theHydraofLerna, near Argos.

3. The Capture of the Brazen-footed Stag of Arcadia.

4. The Destruction of the Erymanthian Wild Boar.

5. Cleansing the Stables of Augeas, king of Elis.

6. The Destruction of the Stymphalian Birds.

7. The Capture of the Cretan Bull.

8. The Capture of the Mares of Diomedes, king of
Thrace.

9. The Seizure of the Girdle of Hippolyte, queen of
the Amazons.

10. The Capture of the Oxen of Geryon.

11. Obtaining the Golden Apples of .the Hesperides.

12. Bringing the Three-headed Dog Cerberus from the
lower regions.

THE NINE MUSES.

1. Clio, muse of History.

2. Euterpe, Lyric Poetry.

3. Thalia, Comedy.

4. Melpomene, Tragedy.

5. Terpsichore, Choral Dance.

6. Erato, Erotic, or Amorous Poetry.

7. Polyhymnia, Rhetoric, Eloquence.

8. Urania, Astronomy.

9. Calliope, Epic Poetry.

THE THREE GRACES,

Aglaia (Splendour).
Euphrosyne (Joy).
Thalia (Pleasure).

MISCELLANEA. 171

THE THREE HORJ^, OR GODDESSES OF THE
ORDER OF NATURE, &c. (Hesiod).

Eunomia (Good Order).
Dike (Justice).
Irene (Peace).

THE THREE FATES,

Clotho, ■)

Lachesis, >- for attributes, vide Parcse.

Atropos, 3

THE THREE FURIES,

Alecto.

Megaera.

Tisiphone.

THE THREE JUDGES OF HELL.

Minos, formerly king of Crete.

Rhadamanthus, son of Zeus and brother of Minos.

-^acus, son of Zeus, famed for his Justice and Piety.

THE FIVE RIVERS OF HELL.

Styx.

Acheron.

Cocytus.

Phlegethon.

Lethe.

172 MISCELLANEA.

THE WINDS.

N., 'ArtapxtCai, Sepiemtrio.

N.E., Katxtaj, Bopioi (usually N. wind), Aguilo,

E., ^Artr^'KM'tr^?, Subsolanvs.

S.E., Evpoj, Eurus, Vnlturnus.

S., NoVoj (prop. S.W.), Auster.

S.W., At'^/, Africus.

W., Zi^vpoj (prop. N.W.), Zeplujrus, Favonius.

N.W., 'Apyta-trii, Xxi^v, Corns or Caurus.

^Efrjolai, northerly winds which blew in the summer.

lapyx, W. or N.W. wind, which blew from Apulia.

Atabulus (Hor.) a scorching wind of Apulia.

THE ROMAN CALENDAR.

For the purposes of administering justice and holding the
assemblies, all the days of the year were divided by the
Romans into dies fasti and nefasti. The former [dies fasti)
were the days on which the praetor was allowed to administer
justice ; they were marked in the calendar by the letter F. ;
the latter [dies nefasti) were days on which neither the courts
of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held. Some days,
however, might be partly fasti as well as nefasti, in which
case they were marked in the calendar thus, Fp. (i. e. fasius
primo), or Np. (i. e. nefastus primo).

The Nundince (ninth days) were originally market-days, on
which the country-people came to Rome to sell the produce
of their labour. The nundinaj were ferioi or sacred days
for the populus, while they were real business days for the

MISCELLANEA.

173

plebeians {dies fasti), for many years, until the dies fasti
and nundinas coincided.

Days

Mar

, May, July, 1

Jan.

, Aus-.. Dec. 1

Apr

. June. Sep.. i

Feb. ^ days, in

of the
month.

Oct., 31 days.

31 days.

JNov.,30days.

Leap-year 29.

1

Kalendis

Kalendis

Kalendis

Kalendis

2

61

4 )^ Ante
3 / Nonas

4) Ante
3 /Nonas

4 1 Ante
3 / Nonas

3

5 I Ante

4

4 [Nonas

Pridie Nonas

Pridie Nonas

Pridie Nonas

5

3j

Nonis

Nonis

Nonis

6

Pridie Nonas

8"

81

81

7

Nonis

7

7

7

8

8-]

6

Ante

6

Ante

6

Ante

9

7

5 ■

Idus

5

Idus

5 "

Idus

10

6

Ante

4

4

4

11

5 "

Idus

3j

3j

3

12

4

Pridie Idus

Pridie Idus

Pridie Idus

13

Sj

Idibus

Idibus

Idibus

14

Pridie Idus

19-

18^

16

15

Idibus

18

17

15

16

17~

1

17

16

14

17

16

16

15

1 .

13

18

15

15

M

14

12

CO

19

14

0)

14

«M 'bO

13

11

■73
0. ta

20

13

54-4 "fcO

13

e.2

12

^'%

10

^'%

21

12

o a

12

a o

11

a o

9

WS

22

11

il

11

■ c o

10

8

«^.

23
24
25

10

9
8

10
9
8

5 tS

1"

9
8

7

"3 rd

7
6
5

^

26

27

7
6

|i

7
6

6
5

<1

4

3

28

5

<

5

4

Pridie Kalen

29

4

4

3

das Martias.

30

3

3

Pridie Kalen-

81

Pridie Kalen-

Pridie Kalen-

das (of the

das (of the

das (of the

month follow-

month follow-

month follow-

ing.)

ing

).

ing

5).

1

15

GKEEK CHEONOLOGY.

B.C.

1856. Foundation of Argos: of Athens, 1556.
1194. Trojan War commences.
1124. iEolic migration: Ionic migration, 1044.
1104. Return of the Heraclidae.

1045. Death of Codrus, last king of Athens. Medon, first
Archon.
884. Legislation of Lycurgus.
776.*Coroebus gains the victory in the foot-race at the Olympian

games.
743. First war between the Messenians and Lacedosmonians
commences : ends with the defeat of the Messenians, 723.
734. Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth.
683. Creon, first annual Archon elected at Athens.
668. End of second Messenian War; begun 685.
664. Sea-fight between Corinthians and Corcyrceans, most ancient

recorded.
624. Dracon legislates at Athens.
595. Crcesus, king of Lydia, bom; Cirrhssan or Sacred War

commenced.
594.*Solon legislates at Athens as Archon.
586. Cirrhceans vanquished and Pythian games celebrated.

The Seven sages flourished about this time.
585. Death of Periander.

572. War between Pisa and Elis, ended by subjection of Pisaeans.
560.*PisiSTRATUs usurps the government of Athens.
559. Cyrus begins to reign in Persia, and the Median empire

ends ; it had existed 149 years. Death of Solon.
546. Sardis taken by Cyrus.
548. Temple of Apollo at Delphi burnt.
538. Babylon taken by Cyrus.
535. Thespis first exhibits tragedy.
531. Pythagoras, the philosopher, flourished.
527. Death of Pisistratus.

52L Death of Cambyses, and accession of Darius to the throne
of Persia.

GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 17ft

B.C.

614. HiPPARCHus, tyrant of Athens, slain.

610.*irippiAS flees from Athens. Ten tribes instituted by Cle-

ISTHENES.

499. lonians revolt, and, assisted by the Athenians, burn Sardis.

494. Sixth and last year of the Ionian revolt. lojiians defeated in
a naval engagement near Miletus.

493. Persians take the islands Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos.
MiLTiADES comes from the Chersonesus to Athens.

492. Mardoxius, the Persian general, invades Europe and unites
Macedonia to the Persian empire.

491. Darius sends heralds to Greece.

490.*Datis and Artaphernes, the Persian generals, invade Eu-
rope, take Eretria in Euboea, and land in Attica, but are
defeated at Marathon by the Athenians, under Miltiades.

489. Miltiades endeavours to conquer Paros, but is repulsed.
He is accused, and being unable to pay the fine is thrown
into prison, where he dies.

485. Xerxes, king of Persia, succeeds Darius.

483. Aristides ostracised.

481. Themistocles (the chief man at Athens) persuades the
Athenians to build a fleet of 200 ships to resist the Persians.

480. Xerxes invades Greece. Battles of Thermopylae, and Arte-
misium; Athens taken by Xerxes ; battle of Salamis; Xerxes'
fleet destroyed.

479. Mardoxius, the Persian general, winters in Thessaly, in the
spring occupies Athens, and is defeated by the Greeks under
Pausaxias at the battle of Platcea, in Sept. ; Persian fleet
defeated ofi" Mycale on the same day.

478. Sestos taken by the Greeks. History of Herodotus termi-
nates. Themistocles fortifies Athens.

477.*Commencement of the Athenian ascendency.

471. Themistocles banished by Ostracism for ten years, and goes
to Argos. Pausaxias convicted of treason and put to death.

468. Mycenae destroyed. Aristides dies.

466. CiMOX overcomes the Persians at the river Eurymcdon, in
Pamphylia. Themistocles flies to Persia.

465. Death of Xerxes, who is succeeded by Artaxerxes. Thasos
revolts ; subdued by Cimon, 463.

464. Earthquake at Sparta. Helots and Messenians revolt.

461. Cimon marches to assist the Lacedaemonians ; his offer of
assistance declined; the Athenian troops sent back, and
CiMOX ostracised, but recalled, 456. Pericles chief man
at Athens.

460, First year of Egyptian war, which lasts six years, till 455.

457. Battles between Athenians and Corinthians; Athenians de-
feated by Lacedcemonians at Tanagra. Longi Muri com-

176 GREEK CHRONOLOGY.

B.C.

menced by the Athenians completed, 456, in which year
battle of (Enophyta.

455. Messenians overcome by the Lacedsemonians. Tolmides,
the Athenian general, settles the Messenians at Naupactus,
and sails round the Peloponnesus, inflicting much injury.

450. Five years' truce between Athenians and Peloponnesians.

449. War with Persia renewed. Cimon dies. Athenians victo-
rious at Salamis in Cyprus,

448. Sacred War between the Delphians and Phocians for posses-
sion of the oracle and temple. The Lacedaemonians assist
the Delphians, the Atlienians the Phocians.

447. The Athenians defeated at Goronea by the Boeotians.

445. Megara and Euboea revolt from Athens. Lacedaemonians
invade Attica. Pericles recovers Euboea. Thirty years'
truce between Athens and Sparta.

440. Saraos revolts from Athens, but is subdued by Pericles.

439.*ATHENS AT THE HEIGHT OF ITS GLORY.

435. Corinthians and Corcyrasans carry on war ; Corinthians de-
feated in a sea-fight.

432. Corcyrasans, assisted by the Athenians, repulse the Corin-
thians. Potidsea revolts from Athens.

•iZl.^First year of the Peloponnesian War. The Thebans make an
attempt upon Plataea. — 430. Plague rages at Athens. — 429.
Potidffia surrenders to the Athenians. Plataea besieged.
Pericles dies. — 428. Fourth year of the war — Mitylene
besieged. — 427. Mitylene taken by the Athenians, and Les-
bos recovered, which had revolted the year before. Plataea
surrendered to the Peloponnesians. — 425. Spartans in the
island Sphacteria surrendered to Cleon. Demosthenes takes
Pylos. — 424. NiciAS ravages the coast of Laconia, and cap-
tures Cythera. Brasidas marches into Thrace. Athenians
defeated by the Thebans at Delium, at which Socrates and
Xenophon fought. — 423. Ninth year of the war — Truce for
one year. Thucydides banished in consequence of the
loss of Amphipolis. — 422. Brasidas and Cleon fall in bat-
tle.— 421. Truce for fifty years between the Athenians and
Lacedaemonians. — 419. Alcibiades marches into the Pelo-
ponnesus.— 418. Athenians send an army into the Pelopon-
nesus, which is defeated at the battle of Mantinea. — 415.
The Athenians send an expedition against Syracuse, com-
manded by NiciAS, Alcibi.adks, and Lamaciius. Alcibi-
ades is recalled, but escapes and takes refuge with the
Lacedaemonians. — 414. Second campaign in Sicily ; the
Athenians invest Syracuse, to the assistance of which Gy-
Lippus, the Lacedaemonian, is sent. — 413. Attica invaded
and Decelea fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. Third

GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 177

B.O

campaign in Sicily — Demosthenes, the Athenian general,
sent to the assistance of the Athenians. The Athenian army
and fleet destroyed. Nicias and Demosthenes surrender and
are put to death. — 412. Lesbians and Chians revolt from
Athens. Alcibiades sent to Persia to form a treaty. A
treaty is formed with Tissaphernes. The Athenians use
the 1000 talents deposited in the temple for emergencies. — •
411. Twenty-first year of the war. Democracy abolished
at Athens, and the council of the Four Hundred appointed.
Alcibiades recalled from exile by the army and by the vote
of the Athenian people. Mindarus, the Lacedaemonian
admiral, defeated at Cynossema. — 407. Alcibiades returns
to Athens. Lysander, the Lacedaemonian general, defeats
Antiochus, the lieutenant of Alcibiades, by sea at Notium.
Alcibiades banished. — 406. Callicratidas succeeds Ly-
sander, and is defeated by the Athenian fleet oflf the Ar-
ginussce islands. — 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians off
ji^gospotami, and takes or destroys nearly the whole fleet.

A^.* Twenty-eighth and last year of the Peloponnesian War. Athens
taken by Lysander, and the government intrusted to the
" Thirty Tyrants," who held their power for eight months.
Death of Alcibiades.

403. Thrasybulus and his party obtain the Piraeus, whence they
carry on war against the " Ten," the successors of the
*' Thirty," and obtain possession of Athens in July ; though
the contest was not ended till Boedromion (September).
Thucydides returns to Athens, having been exiled twenty
years.

401. Expedition of Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes IL :
Cyrus is slain in the battle of Cunaxa. The Greek allies
commence their return home, usually called the "Return
OF the Ten Thousand." First year of the war of Lacedce-
mon and Flis, which lasted three years.

399 The Lacedaemonians send Thimbron to assist the Greek
cities in Asia. Thimbron superseded by Dercyllidas in
the autumn.

396. Agesilaus supersedes Dercyllidas. He winters at Ephesus.

895. Second campaign of Agesilaus. He defeats Tissapher-

NES.

394. Agesilaus recalled from Asia, to march against the Greek
States who had declared war against Lacedaemon. He de-
feats the allied forces at Coronea. Conon, the Athenian
admiral, gained a victory over Pisander, the Spartan, off
Cnidus. Xenophon fights against his country at Coronea^
and is banished from Athens.

893. Sedition at Corinth. Pharnabazus and Conon ravage the
coasts of the Peloponnesus.

178 GREEK CHRONOLOGY.

B.C.

392. The Lacedseraonians, under Agesilaus, lay waste the Co-
rinthian territory.

390. The Persians side with the Lacedgemonians. Conon is im-
prisoned, Thuasybulus, the Athenian commander, is de
featedand slain at Aspendus. Long walls at Athens re-
built.

387. The peace of Antalcidas.

386. Plataea restored.

385. Mantinea destroyed by Agesipolis.

382. First year of the Olynthian War : the Lacedaemonians com-
manded by Teleutias. Ppkebidas, the Spartan general,
seizes Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes.

379. Fourth and last year of the Olynthian War. The Cadmea
recovered.

378. The Athenians form an alliance with Thebes against Sparta.
First Expedition of Agesilaus into Bceotia.

376. The Lacedasmonian fleet overcome off Naxos.

374. The Athenians, jealous of the Thebans, conclude a peace
with the Spartans. Timotheus, the Athenian, takes Cor-
cyra. War with Lacedsemon renewed.

373. Lacedaemonians attempt to take Corcyra, but are defeated.

371. Congress at Sparta, and a general peace concluded, from
which the Thebans were excluded. Spartans invade Bceotia,
but are defeated by the Thebans under Epaminondas, at the
battle of Leuctra.

369. First invasion of the Peloponnesus by Thebans. Second
invasion, 368. Third invasion, 366.

365. War between Arcadia and Elis. Battle of Olympia, 364.

362. Fourth invasion of Peloponnesus by Thebans. Battle of
Mantinea. Epaminondas slain.

361. A general peace with all except the Spartans. Agesilaus
goes to Egypt, but dies in the winter while preparing to re-
turn home.

360. War between the Olynthians and Athenians, for the posses-
sion of Amphipolis.

359. Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedonia (aet. twenty-
three).

357. Chios, Rhodes, and Byzantium revolt from Athens. First
year of the Social War. The Phocians seize Delf hi. Com-
mencement of the Sacred War.

356. Birth of Alexander. Potidoea taken by Philip.

355. Third and last year of the Social War.

352. Philip enters Thessaly, expels the tyrants from Pherce, and
makes himself master of Thessaly. Attempts to pass Ther-
mopylce, but is prevented by the Athenians.

348. Olynthian War continued.

347. Olynthus taken, and destroyed by Philip.

GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 179

B.C.

346. Philip brings the Sacred War to a close, after it had lasted

ten years.
343. TiMOLEON completes the conquest of Syracuse, and expels

Dioni/sius, having sailed from Corinth for this purpose in

344.
342. Philip's expedition to Thrace. Demosthenes' Orations.
339. War renewed between Philip and the Athenians.
338. Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans at the baitk of

Chceronea, and becomes master of Greece.
336.*Murder of Philip, and accession of Alexander (set.

twenty).
335. Thebes revolts, and is destroyed by Alexanber.
334. War commenced against Persia. Alexander defeats the

Persian Satraps at the Granicus.
333. Alexander subdues Lycia, collects his forces at Gor-

dium in the spring, and defeats Darius at Issus in the

autumn.
332. Alexander takes Tyre and Gaza, and marches into Egypt,

and orders Alexandria to be founded. — 331. Marches

through Phoenicia and Syria, crosses the Euphrates, and

defeats Darius at Arhela or Gaugamela.
330. Darius slain by Bessus.

329. Alexander crosses the Oxus and Jaxartes, defeats the Scy-
thians, and winters at Bactra.
327. Alexander conquers Sogdiana; marries Roxana, a Bac-

trian princess ; returns to Bactria, and invades India.
326. Alexander returns to Persia, and sends Nearchus with a

fleet to sail from the mouths of the Indus to the Persian

Gulf.
325. Alexander reaches Susa ; and Babylon, 324.
323.*Alexander dies at Babylon in June, after a reign of twelve

years and eight months. The Greek states wage war

against Macedonia {Lamian War).
322. Battle of Cranon, and end of the Lamian War.
316. Antigonus becomes master of Asia.
315. Seleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus wage war

against Antigonus.
312. Fourth year of the war. —311. A general peace. Roxana

murdered. Seleucus recovers Babylon, .^ra of the Se-

leucidae begins.
308. Ptolemy's expedition to Greece.
306. Ptolemy defeated by Demetrius, son of Antigonus, in a

sea-fight, off Salamis in Cyprus.
303. War in Greece carried on by Demetrius against Cas-
sander.
301. Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia: Lysimachus and Seleucus defeat

Antigonus and Demetrius.

180 GREEK CHRONOLOGY.

B.C.

295. Demetrius takes Athens, and, 294, makes an expedition

into Peloponnesus. Becomes king of Macedonia.
294. Civil War in Macedonia, between Antipateb and Alex-
ander.
290. Demetrius takes Thebes, and, 289, carries on war against

Pyrbhus.
287. Demetrius driven from Macedonia, and his kingdom divided.
281. Lysimachus defeated and slain at the battle of Corupedion.
280.*Seleucus murdered. Rise of the Achaean league. Pyr-

RHus crosses into Italy.
279. The Gauls, under Brennus, invade Greece.
273. Pyrrhus invades Macedonia, and expels Antigonus.
272. Pyrrhus dies. Antigonus regains Macedonia.
227. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, wages war against the Achaean

League.
221. Antigonus obtains possession of Sparta.
220. Social War commences. — 217. Third and last year of the

war.
211. Treaty between Rome and the ^tolians. — 208. Philip

marches into the Peloponnesus to assist the Achseans.
200. War between Philip and Rome. Philip defeated at the

battle of GynoscephalcB, 197.
192. Antiochus affords assistance to the ^tolians.
167. One thousand of the principal Achceans sent to Rome. Romans

victorious.
147. Macedonia becomes a Roman province.
\iQ.* Corinth destroyed by MuMMius. Greece becomes a Roman

province.

EOMAN CHEONOLOGY.

B.C.

753.*Foundation of Rome on the Palatine Mount, 21st of April,
according to the era of Varro. Cato gives b. c. 752 ; Poly-
bius, B.C. 750 ; Fabius Pictor, B.C. 747.

753-716. Romulus, the first Roman King, reigned thirty-seven
years. Senate consists of 100 "Senatores." Wars with
FidencR and Veil.

715-672. NuMA PoMPiLius, the second King, reigned forty-three
years. Institution of religious ceremonies, and regulation
of the year.

672-640. TuLLUS Hostilius, third King of Rome, reigned thirty-
two years. Destruction of Alba, and removal of inhabitants
to Rome.

640-616. Ancus Martius, fourth King of Rome, reigned twenty-
four years. Origin of Plebeians, consisting of conquered
Latins settled on the Aventine. Ostia founded.

616-578. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, fifth King, reigned thirty-
eight years. Great public works imdertaken. The Senate
increased to 300.

578-534, Servius Tullius, sixth Roman King, reigned forty-four
years. Rome surrounded by a stone wall. Institution of
thirty Plebeian tribes.

534-510. Tarquinius Superbus, seventh and last Roman King.
Expulsion of the Tarquins, and establishment of a republic.

509.*Consuls elected. Death of Brutus. First treaty with Car-
thage.

608. War with Forsena, limg of Clusium.

601. Institution of Dictatorship and Magister Equitum.

498. Battle of Lake Regillus : Latins defeated.

494. Secession of the Plebs to Mons Sacer.

493. War with the Volscians, and ca;pture of Corioll—^91. Gobi-
OLANus goes into exile.

483. War with Veii.

477. Slaughter of the 300 Fabii at the Crefiiera.

471. Lex Publilia passed.

465. War with the iEquians.

16 (1")

182 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY.

B.C.

458. Dictatorsliip of Cincinnatus, who relieves the Koman array

shut ill by the Volscians and jEquians.
454. Three Commissioners sent to Greece, to prepare a code of

laws.
451.*Decemviri appointed. Laws of ten tables promulgated;

increased by two, 450.
449. Death of Virginia. Decemvirs deposed.
445. Lex Canuleia passed, and connubium between Patricians and

Plebeians permitted.
444. Tribuni Militum with Consular power.
443. Institution of Censorship.

440. Famine at Rome. Prsefectus Annonse appointed.
438. Inhabitants of Fidcmce revolt.
426. War with Veil. Fidence destroyed.
421. Number of Quaestors increased from two to four.
407. Truce with Veil (made 425) expires.
406. Pay decreed to the soldiers by the Senate for the first

time.
405. Siege of Vcii. It lasts ten years; ends 396, Veil being taken

by Camillus.
899. A pestilence at Rome. — 398. An embassy sent to consult the

Oracle at Delphi.
391. Camillus banished. Gauls enter Etruria.
390. Rome taken by the Gauls, llomans defeated at the battle of

Allia. Camillus recalled, and appointed Dictator.
367. Licinian laws passed. One of the Consuls to be chosen from

the Plebeians. Camillus conquers the Gauls.
865. Death of Camillus.
861. Invasion of the Gauls. T. Manlius kills a Gaul in single

combat, and is surnamed Torquatus.
356. Pirst Plebeian Dictator elected. — 351. First Plebeian

Censor.
348. Treaty with Carthage renewed.
343. First Samnite War. Valerius defeats the Samnites.
840. Latin War.
337. First Plebeian Prietor.
326. Second Samnite War.
321. Roman army surrendered to the Samnites at the Caudine

Forks, and sent under the yoke.
300. Lex Ogulnia passed, increasing the number of Pontiffs and

Augurs.
298. Third Samnite War. Samnites defeated at Bovianum and at

Volate?rcB, by the Etruscans.
295. Battle of Sentinum; Samnites, Umbrians, Etruscans, and

Gauls defeated.
290. Conclusion of the Samnite War, which had lasted ftfty-three

years.

ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 183

B.C.

281. Pyrrhus arrives in Italy to assist the Taren tines against the
Romans.

280, Romans defeated by Pyrrhus near Heracleia ; and, 279,
near Asculum.

278. Pyrrhus in Sicily. Romans successful in Southern Italy.

275. Pyrrhus totally defeated near Beneventum.

272. War in Southern Italy concluded,

264.*2%e First Punic War. Cons. Claudius crosses over into Si-
cily and defeats the Carthaginians and Syracusans.

262. Agrigentum taken after a siege of seven months.

260. Fifth year of the First Punic War. Duinus, the Consul,
gains a naval victory over the Carthaginians.

256. The Romans victorious in Africa.

255. Regulus, in Africa, takes Tunis and overcomes the Cartha-
ginians^ but is afterwards defeated and taken prisoner.

250. Fifteenth year of the war. — Great victory of Metellus at
Panormus. Regulus sent to Rome to solicit peace.

247. Hamilcar appointed to the command of the Carthaginians.
Hannibal born.

241. Twenty -fourth and last year of the First Punic War. — Naval
victory of C. Lutatius, off the -Agates. Peace made Avith
the Carthaginians. Sicily becomes a Roman province.

229. Death of Hamilcar in Spain. He is succeeded by Has-

DRUBAL.

225. War with the Gauls. Fourth and last year of the war, 222.
219. Hannibal takes Saguntum, and winters at Carthago Nova.
2\?).*Sccond Punic War. — Hannibal reaches Italy from Spain in

five months. He defeats the Romans at the battles of the

Ticinus and the Trcbia. Scipio carries on the war in

Spain.
217. Hannibal defeats Flaminius at the battle of the Trasymene

Lake, and marches into Apulia.
216. Romans defeated at the battle of Canned.
215. Marcellus overcomes Hannibal near Nola. The Scipios

successful in Spain.
212. Seventh year of the war. — Hannibal takes Tarentum, and

Marcellus takes Syracuse. The two Scipios defeated in

Spain.
208. The two consuls are defeated by Hannibal near Venusia.

Hasdbubal crosses the Pyrenees and winters in Gaul.
207. Hasdrubal marches into Italy, is defeated on the Metaurus^

and slain.
206. Scipio becomes master of Spain. — 204. Hannibal worsted

near Croion. Scipio crosses over into Africa.
203. Carthaginians defeated, Syphax taken prisoner. Hannibal

leaves Italy for Africa.
202 Scipio defeats Hannibal at the decisive battle ofZama.

184 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY.

B C.

201,* Eighteenth and last year of the Second Funic War. Peace
with Carthage.

200. War renewed with Philip of Macedon,

197. Philip defeated by Flaminius at the battle of CynoscephalcCf
and peace concluded.

] 96. Flaminius proclaims the independence of Greece.

191. War with Antiochus, who is defeated at ThermopylcB.

190. L. Scipio, the consul, crosses into Asia and defeats Antio-
CHUS at the battle of Magnesia.

183. Death of Hannibal and of Scipio Africanus (exact date
not settled).

171. War with Perseus.

168. Fourth and last year of the war. Perseus defeated by
^MiLirs Paulus at the battle of Pydna,

149. Third Punic War. — The Consuls land in Africa.

lA&.*FouTth and last year of the Third Punic War. — Varthage de-
stroyed by Scipio.

143. Numantine War commenced. — 140, 138 and 137. Numantinea
successful.

133. Numantia taken and destroyed \>j Scipio.

129. Death of Scipio Africanus (set. 56). Death of C. Grac-
chus, 121.

111. Jugurthine War. — 106. Sixth and last year, Jugurtha cap
tured, Marius commander.

102. Battle of Aquce Seztice. — Marius defeats the Tlewfowea. Ser-
vile War arises in Sicily.

101. Marius and Catulus, Pro-con., defeat the Cimbri at Campi
Raudii.
90. Marsic or Social War. — 89. Romans successful, Asculum

taken.
S8.*End of the Marsic War. Sulla appointed to command the
army against Mithridates, which occasions the civil war
of Marius and Sulla. Sulla marches upon Rome, pro-
scribes Marius and his party.
87. Sulla crosses into Greece to conduct the war. Marius
and CiNNA, the Consul, enter Rome and murder their oppo-
nents.
86. Marius dies (ffit. seventy). War continued against Mith-
ridates. Archelaus defeated in Boeotia.
84. Mithridates and Sulla conclude a peace.
83. Sulla returns to Italy and continues the civil war against

the party of Marius. The Capitol burnt.
82. Sulla, victorious, is appointed Dictator. Prseneste cap-
tured.
78. Death of Sulla (set. sixty).

75. P. Servilius Vatia, the Pro-consul (sent against the Pirates
on the S. coast of Asia Minor, 78), conquers the Isaurians.

ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 185

B.C.

'^4. War with Mithridates renewed. Lucullus appointed general.

73. MiTHRiDATES defeated by Lucullus, near Cyzicus. Com-
mencement of the war in Italy against the Gladiators under
Spartacus.

71. Mithridatic War continued. Mithridates flees into Armenia,
to Tigranes. Spartacus, the leader of the Gladiators, de-
feated.

69. Lucullus invades Armenia, and defeats Tigranes.

6G. Mithridatic War intrusted to Cn. Pompeius.

65. Catiline's first conspiracy.

63. Death of Mithridates. Catiline's second conspiracy disco-
vered and crushed by Cicero the Consul.

62. Catiline defeated and slain.

61. Pompeius, having returned to Italy, triumphs.

60. C. J, C^SAR victorious in Spain. C^sar, Pompeius, and
Crassus establish the first Triumvirate.

58. C^sar undertakes his first campaign in Gaul. Defeats the
Belgse, 57 ; crosses the Rhine, and invades Britain, 55 ; second
expedition into Britain, 54.

54. Crassus marches against the Parthians. — 53. Defeat and
death of Crassus.

51. C^SAR subjugates Gaul, his ninth campaign.

49. Commencement of the Civil War between Pompeius and
Cjesar.

48. CiESAR lands in Greece, and defeats Pompeius at the battle of
Pharsalm. Pompeius murdered before Alexandria (set. 58).
Alexandrine War.

47. C^SAR, Dictator, concludes the Alexandrine War ; marches
into Pontus, and conquers Pharnaces.

46. C^SAR defeats the partisans of Pompeius at the battle of
Thapsus. He reforms the Calendar.

45. Battle of Munda in Spain. CiESAR defeats the sons of Pom-
peius, and is made Consul for ten years, and Dictator for
life.

44. C^SAR assassinated, on the 15th of March (aet. fifty-six).
Civil War of Mutlna against Antony.

43. Second Triumvirate formed by Octavianus, Antonius, and
Lepidus.

42. War in Greece. Battle of Philippi, and death of Cassius.
Second battle of Fhilippi, and death of Brutus.

36. Defeat of Sex. Pompeius. Lepidus ceases to be a Triumvir.

34. Dalmatians defeated.

33, A rupture takes place between Octavianus and Antonius,
and both prepare for war.

81. Antonius defeated at the battle of Actium, 2d of Sept.

30.*Death of Antonius (set. fifty-one) and Cleopatra. Egypt be-
comes a Roman province. Octavianus soltj ruler of thb
16*

186 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY.

B.C.

Roman Empire. He returns to Rome from the East, and
celebrates three triumphs, Dalmatian, Actian, Alexandrine.

27. OcTAViANUs takes the title of Augustus, and accepts the
government for ten years.

25. The Temple of Janus shut a second time.

23. Death of Marcellus.

20. Ambassadors sent to Rome from India.

12. Death of AoRiPPA.

10. Augustus returns to Rome from Gaul, -vrith Drusus and Ti-
berius.
9. Drusus sent against the Germans. Dies.

A.D.

4. Tiberius adopted by Augustus, and sent to carry on war
against the Germans.

12. Tiberius returns to Rome from Germany, and triumphs.

14. Census taken, the citizens are 4,197,000. Augustus dies at
Nola in Campania (set. seventy-six), and is succeeded by Ti-
berius (set. fifty-six).

16. Gebmanicus continues the war in Germany, and triumphs,
17. Returns to Rome.

19. Germanicus visits Egypt, and returns to Syria. Dies (aet.
thirty-four). The Jews are banished from Italy.

23. Death of Drusus, poisoned by Sejanus.

31. Fall and execution of Sejanus.

33. Agrippina and her son Drusus are put to death.

37. Death of Tiberius (set. seventy-eight), having reigned twenty-
three years. Caligula succeeds (aet. twenty-five).

39. Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee, deposed, and succeeded
by Agrippa.

40. Caligula in Gaul. His expedition to the ocean. He returns
to Rome.

41. Caligula slain (get. twenty-nine). Claudius succeeds (set.
fifty). Germans defeated by Galba.

43. Expedition of Claudius into Britain. Returns to Rome, and

triumphs, 44,
49. Claudius (his wife Messalina having been put to death in 48)

marries Agrippina.
54. Claudius poisoned (set. sixty-three) ; reigned fourteen years.

Nero succeeds (set. seventeen).
59. Agrippina, the mother of Nero, is murdered by his order.

61. Insurrection in Britain under Boadicea.

62. Nero divorces Octavia, and marries Popp^a Sabina, tho
wife of Otho.

64. Great fire at Rome. First persecution of the Christians.

65. Piso's conspiracy discovered and suppressed.

66. Nero goes to Greece. The Jewish war begins.

67. Nero in Greece. Vespasian conducts the Jewish War.

ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 187

A.D.

68. Nero kills himself (set. thirty). Galba succeeds.

69. Galea slain, Jan. 15 (set. seventy-three). Otho succeeds,
Jan. 15, and died April 16 (a5t. thirty-six). Vitellius pro-
claimed at Cologne, Jan. 2 ; reigned till his death, Dec. 22
(set. fifty-four). Vespasian (set. sixty) proclaimed at Alex-
andria, July 1. On the death of Galba, the Civil War be-
tween Otho and Vitellius commenced. The troops of Otho
defeated at the battle of Bedriacum ; the generals of Vespa-
sian meanwhile invade Italy, take Cremona, and march upon
Rome. The Capitol burnt. Vitellius slain, 22d of Dec.

70.*Vespasian proceeds to Italy, leaving Titus his son to carry
on the Jewish war. Jerusalem taken, after a siege of five
months.

71. Triumph of Vespasian and Titus. Temple of Janus closed.

78. Agricola in Britain.

79. Death of Vespasian, June 23 (set. sixty-nine). Titus suc-
ceeds (set. thirty-eight). Second campaign of Agricola in
Britain. Eruption of Vesuvius.

80. Great fire at Rome. Colosseum completed. Third cam-
paign of Agricola.

81. Death of Titus, Sept. 13 (set. forty). Domitian succeeds
(set. thirty). Fourth campaign of Agricola in Britain.
Fifth campaign, 82 ; sixth, 83 ; seventh, 84. Agricola re-
called to Rome, 85.

96. Domitian slain, Sept. 18 (set. forty-four). Nerva Emperor

(set. sixty-three) ; died Jan. 25, 98 (set. sixty-five).
98. Trajan (set. forty-one) ; died Aug. 8, 117 (set. sixty), having
reigned nineteen years.

117. Hadrian (set. forty-two; died July 10, 138 (set. sixty-two),
having reigned twenty-one years.

138. Antonius Pius (set. fifty-one); died Mar. 7, 161 (set.
seventy-four), having reigned twenty-three years.

161. M. AuRELius (set. thirty-nine) ; died Mar. 17, 180 (set. fifty-
eight), having reigned nineteen years.

180. CoMMODUS (set. nineteen); slain Dec. 31, 193 (set. thirty-
one), having reigned thirteen years.

193. Pertinax (set. sixty-six); slain Mar. 28, 193, having reigned
three months. Julianus (set. fifty-six) ; reigned from Mar.
28 to June 1. Septimus Severus (set. forty-six); died
Feb. 4, 211, at Eboracum, York, (set. sixty-four), having
reigned eighteen years.

T. 7 'T 7 T

GREEK INDEX

A.

ayKvpa, 113.
ayopa(, 161.
dywvEj, 108.
aSvTov, 103.
a^wrta^ 105.
a^^vato, 107.
'A0^rJ7, 69.
'AW;7f, 72.
aJ;C/«^> 112-

OKdvTlOVf 112.

cLKpaTicrixa, 114.
aKp6uo\is, 160.
aX/ia, 108.
iXr^pff, 108.
afKpiKTvovia, 102.
avdppvaii, 106.
avappvtt), 104.
dvStoT^fna, 106.

*AvOiCTTipi<iv, 165.

avrXoj, 113.
a^/v;;, 112.
"" AirapKTias, 172.
aTzap^rj, 104.
•iTraroupta, 106.
'AiTT^Xtwrf/j, 172.
'ApyEffT^J, 172.
apSdviov, 115.
dpfioirayarai, 101.
'Api??, 68.
apr)Trjpf.s, 103.
upiaroVf 114.
"Aprepii, 70.

ap^uv, 98.
'A(7*cA^n-(off, 70.
dffn/j, 111.
dri^^a, 103.
a{]\aia, 116.
aiA<5f, 108.
^AtppoSirri, 70.

B.

/JaffcXeuf, 98, 99.
j8fX»/, 112.
BorjSpopitiv, 165.
Boptaj, 172.
/JouXEur^ptov, 161.
i3ouX;J, 100.

lipoxos, 103.
/Jw/irff, 103.

r.

ra//>;Xtwv, 165.
yipovTCi, 101.
ytpovaia, 101.,
FttTa, 71.

n, 71.

ypapfiuTcvi, 99.

A.

ia(pvfi(p6pta, 106.
^EtXjvdv, 114.
Jtjrrvov, 114.
^£X0tV, 114.
Scapoi, 103.
S^papxoi, 99.

Avp^fnpt 69.

^5//ot, 99.

StaiTr/Tai, 101.
^lauXoj, 108.
^uV-TrXorj, 114,
^jovuo-ja, 106.
Ai6vv(TOS, 71.
bioKog, 108.
SoKipaaia, 101.
J(5X«;t"f> 108.
^d/ios, 103.
hdp-Rtia, 106.
(^dpffov, 114.
^(Jpu, 112.
^ouXet'a, 103.
^ovXoi, 98.
^pdfiof, 108.

E.
cyx°f> 112.

lyjcuxXov, 115.
iSwXia, 113.
fl'Xwrty, 98.
'E.KaTopPaitav, 165b
{Kardppr}, 104.
tKarovTapxia, 112.
iKK\T]<Tia, 100.
*EXa077;3oXiwv, 165*
fXcvaivia, 106.
IpjSoXov, 113.
2v5£Ka, 99.
i-ifidTai, 114.
(jTiffrdrrig, 100.
iiriaroXcvi, 114.
nru)vvpoif 98.

(189)

190

Iptrat, 114.
il>eTiioi, 113.
'Ep[JtTii, 69.
"Epw?, 71.
laOrji, 115.
'Ecrria, 69.
£i;0i5ri7, 101.
Ef'fitvidcs, 71.
'Er^/irtat, 172.
E^pof, 172.
f<pe.<TTpls, 115.
f^f'rat, 102.
ttpoptiov, 100.
£(popoi, 99,
'Ewj, 71.

Z.

Z£uf, 68.
Zi(pvpos, 172.
^tya, 113.
^uytraj, 113.

H.
{]\ialaf 101.
jl\ia(TTaif 101.
iiviox^oi, 111.
"Hpa, 69.
'Hp;?, 69.
^p(jja, 116.
"H^atoTOf, 68.

e.

OaXaiilraif 113.
Od^afioff 113.
0ttv«rof, 103.
eapyjyXtwv, 165.
Biarpov, 116.
BconpSTToi, 104.
OeaiioOiTai, 98, 99.
Ocffixocpdpia, 107.
dncravpds, 103.
Opavtrat, 113.
Bpavoi, 113.

GREEK INDEX.

Bv/iiXri, 116.
0uocr<c<5o«, 103.
0i;pf<5j, 112.
Gwpaf, 111.

I.
J^ptij, 103.
'leptiov, 104.

'llltXTLOV, 115.
inirap^oi, 112.
JffTTcTj, 111, 112.
IffTJOV, 113.
JffTOf, 113.

K.

Kat>c«'af, 172.
KaXddiov, 107.
KaraffTpwjiaTa, 113.
KcKprnniay 160.
KfpaTat, 113.
KcpafitiKlig, 160.
Kfpora, 112, 113.
Kfpva, 104.
KioveSt 116.
«X(Vat, 114, 115.
KvrifiiSeSf 111.
Kddopvoi, 115.
acojAov, 117.
KOVToi, 113.
#cd/3DJ, 111.
KOVpCWTlS, 106.

Kpdvoi, 111.
KpTjnlScSf 115.
Kp(5vof, 75.
KV0£pv^Tris, 114.
Kvvtrj, 111.
icu^wv, 103.
irurat, 113.

A.

XiOoiSoXla, 103.
A«'^^, 172.

XoyfToi', 116.
Ao«/3ai, 104.
Xd^oj, 111.
A(;;^ot, 112.
X<5;^;oj, 112.

i/iatiiaKTTjptdVf 165.
jxavTUs, 104.
/itXiroiirra, 115.
fisadKotXa, 113.
Mfrayftrvtwv, 165^

lifTOlKOl, 98.
HET(i>TTOV, 113.

/i^/3a, 104.
H6pai, 112.
Mouvu;!^<c5v, 165.
ixvar^pia, 106.

N.
vaiSia, 116.
vadf, 103.
va«5ap;:^of, 114.
vaurai, 114.
vonoOiirat, 99.
Ndrof, 172.
vovjirjvia, 166.

|«>of, 103, 112.

o.

33oXds, 115.
'O^uffffcuff, 94.
o?a^, 113.
o<i/b)i/o7rdXoi, 104.
dtaroi, 112.
oluiviarai, 104.
6X*fa(5£?, 113.
8X(co(, 114.
oixcpaXos, 111.
^rtipoTTdXoj, 104.
imaddio/jLOs, 103.

GREEK INDEX.

191

htrXirai, 111.
hrtXirris, 108.
dp^rjaTpa, 116,
daTpaKia/ios, 102.
ovXo^vraif 104.
ovpd, 112.

n.

nayKpuTioVf 109.
rdXv, 109.
nuAXus, 69.
navaOfivaia, 107.
irt^oi, 111.
TrAavot, 104.
JTEXf/a^ff, 105.

■KtXtKVS, 112.
irfXraffrat, 111, 112.

vi\Tn, 111, 112.
■mfiTtdi, 112.
TtivradXov, 108.
irEVTrjKdvropoi, 113.
trepiKeipaXaiaf 111.
TtcpioiKOi, 98.
•trcpiiiXovs, 114.
T^yJdXiov, 113.
iridoiyia, 106.
jrlXoi, 115.
TrXarai, 113.
:r\tvpai, 113.
rXoTa, 113.
TTVii^, 161.
rd<5«, 113.
voiKiXr], 161.
noXifiapxoSf 98, 112L.
ffoXjrat, 98.
no(Tf£^fc5v, 165.
noo'££^wv, 68.
rpd^o^of, 103.
vpdthpoi, 100.
rf.d0£(rts, 115.
itpdvaoi, 103.
TrpoTTiiXata, 160.
irpoffK^viov, 116.
irpvyivrif 113.

iTpvTaveia, 100.
Trpurartlor, 161.
TrpuraVfif, 100.
Trpiipa, 113.
IIuavEi/'taiv, 165.
TTvynij, 108.
TTuXa/a, 101.
s-?p, 103.

S.
ffai/if, 103.
crjKdSf 103.
arjfiaTa, 104.
UKrjvfl, 116.
'SKippo^opuov, 165.
2/ftpwi', 172.
ffdXoj, 108.
SrapTiaT-ai, 98,
airetpVf 113.
(rn-ov6a«, 104.
ardStov, 108.
(rraupdff, 103.
arJjXai, 116.
CT^Xri, 103.
ariynaTaf 103.
CToai, 161.
oT(5Xap;\;of, 114.
aroXfi, 115.
arparriyoi, 112.
orpar^ydf, 114.
arparid, 112.
OTf)oyyi;Xai, 113.
a(j>ev56vr], 112.
G^oivia, 113.

T.

Ta^lapxoi, 112.
ra^f, 112.
TtlXtVOS, 103.
Tipara, 104.
TtaaapaKovra, 102.
To^evftara, 112.
Td|ov, 112.
TOTreta, 113.

rpdnc^ai, 116.
Tpd<pT]^, 113.
rpipuyv, 115.
rpi^papxos, 114.
Tpira, 116.
rpdniSf 113.
rpoTtoif 113.
Tpo')(6i, 103,
TtJ;^^, 71.

Y.

viripai, 113.
vTToPoXeis, 117.
v-Kol^paTa, 115.

<paiv6Xris, 115.
^aXayl, 112.
^dpnuKtv, 103.
(pdpos, 115.
^opTijyoi, 113,
^uy;?, 103.
^uXai, 102.
^vAap;!^oj, 99, 112.

X.

^eipoTovia, 100.
^^jrwi/, 115.
"^iTmviov, 115.
^^Xaiva, 115.
;;^Xa//uf, 115.
;^oaj, 104, 116.
;^<5£f, 106.
Xotvt^, 103.

Xopo-yos, 117.
Xyrpoi, 106.

ip/l(PiaiJia, 100.
■vl/^^ot, 100.
;//tXo/, 111.

n.

li^EJOV, 161.

I ,< : > :t

INDEX

A.

Abacns, 142.
Absyrtus, 86.
Academia, 161.
Academic Sect, 159.
Acarnania, 38.
Accensi, 122.
Acestes, 95.
Achaia, 40.
Acheron, 75.
Achilles, 91.
Actuariae, 138.
Acropolis, 160.
Admetus, 75.
Adonis, 76.
Adrastus, 87.
^acus, 76.
^dium, 140.
iEdiles, 122.

Curules, 122.

Cereales, 122.

iEetes, 85.
^geon, 77.
^gyptus, 64, 65.
Aello, 79.
^neas, 95.
.aEolia, 49.
JEolus, 70.
-ffiolian league, 52.
^rarium, 120.
Machines, 14S.
^schylus, 144.
-^sculapius, 70.
^soD, 85.

/Esop, 149.
^tolia, 38.
Africa, 63.

Propria, QQ.

Africus, 172.
Agamemnon, 89, 92.
Agenor, 86.
Agger, 135.
Aglaia, 72.
Agora, 144.
Ajax, 92.
Albania, 57.
Alcaeus, 129.
Alcestis, 76.
Alcyone, 82.
Alcman, 130^
Alecto, 71.
Alexander, 89, 95.
Alveolus, 126.
Alveus, 126.
Amazones, 76.
Ammon, 70.
Amor, 71.
Amphiaraus, 87.
Amphitrite, 70.
Amphorae, 140.
Anacreon, 129.
Anaxandrides, 129.
Anchises, 95.
Ancile, 129.
Andabatae, 132.
Andromache, 95.
Andronicus (Livius),
154.

Augustus Clavus, 119.
Annuli, 139.
Antenor, 95.
Antigone, 87.
Antilochus, 92.
Antiphanes, 129.
Apis, 70.

Apodyterium, 141.
Apollo, 69.
Apparitores, 122.
Apulia, 29.
Aqueducts, 164.
Aquilo, 172.
Aquitani, 17.
Aquitania, 18.
Arabia, 55.
Araros, 145.
Arcadia, 42.
Arches, Triumphal,

164.
Archimedes, 149.
Arena, 131.
Argo, 85.
Argolis, 41.
Argonautae, 85.
Argus, 80, 85.
Aria, 60.
Ariadne, 76.
Arianus, 60.
Aries, 136.
Aristophanes, 145.
Aristotle, 151.
Armenia, 67.

Min»r, 61«

(192)

Arx, 163.
Asia, 46.

Minor, 47.

(Seven Churches

of), 52.
Assaracus, 88.
Assyria, 59.
Astraea, 70.
Atabulus, 172.
Athamas, 85.
Athena, 69.
Atlas, 76.
Atrium, 140.
Atropos, 75,
Attica, 40.
Atticus, 157.
Augures, 127.
Augurium, 127.
Aulaea, 116.
Aurora, 71.
Auspices, 127.
Auspicium, 127.
Ausonia, 23.
Auster, 172.
Automedon, 92.
Auxilia, 135.

B.

Babylonia, 58.
Bacchus, 71.
Bacchylides, 146.
Bactria, 60.
Bactriana, 60.
Baetica, 16.
Ballista, 136.
Balneae, 141.
Balneator, 141.
Basilicae, 163.
Batansea, 55.
Belgae, 17.
Bellerophon, 76.
Bellona, 71.

17

INDEX.

Bion, 146.
Bithynia, 48.
Boeotia, 39.
Bona1)ea, 130.
Boreas, 172.
Briareus, 77.
Briseis, 90.
Britannia, 44.
Bruttium, 30.
Buccina, 135.

C.
Cadmea, 86.
Cadmus, 86.
Caesar, 155.
Caesars,the Twelre,169,
Calcei, 139.
Calceus lunatus, 120.
Calchas, 89, 92.
Caldarium, 141.
Calends, 167.
Caliga3, 139.
Calliope, 73.
Calypso, 77.
Campania, 29.
Campi, 162.
Campus Martius, 162.
Cappadocia, 51.
Capitolium, 163.
Capaneus, 87.
Caria, 50.
Carina, 113.
Carmania, 61.
Carni, 26.
Cassandra, 89, 95.
Castor, 77.
Castra, 136.
Catapulta, 136.
Cato, 158.
Catullus, 153.
Catervarii, 132.
Caurus, 172.

193

Cavea, 117, 132.
Celaeno, 79, 82.
Celsus, 158.
Celta9, 17.
Censores, 123.
Centauri, 77.
Centuriae, 134.
Centuriones, 135.
Ceramicus, 160.
Cerberus, 77.
Ceres, 69.
Cestus, 108.
Chaldaea, 58.
Charon, 77.
Chimasra, 76.
Chiron, 77.
Chlamys, 135.
Chryseis, 90.
Chryses, 90.
Cicero, 156, 157.
Cilicia, 50.
Cingulum, 138.
Circe, 77.
Cirei, 163.
Circus, 163.
Cistae, 121.
Clepsydrae, 167.
Clio, 73.
Clipeus, 134.
Clotho, 75.
Cocytus, 77.
Cognomen, 143.
Coelus, 75.
Coena, 139.
Cohortes, 134.
Colchis, 56.
Columella, 158.
Columns, 164.
Colyttus, 160.
Comitia, 121.

— Curiata, 121.

Centuriata, 121.

194

INDEX,

Comitia Tribute, 122.
Comissatio, 140.
Compluvium, 140.
Conscription, 133.
Consules, 123.
Co-optetio, 128.
Cornu, 135.
Coroebus, 96.
Corinthia, 42.
Corona Civica, 136.
Castrensis,

137.

Muralis, 137.

Obsidionalis,

137.

Graminea, 137.

Oleagina, 137.

Corvi, 138.
Cothurni, 117, 139.
Crater, 140.
Crates, 145.
Cratinus, 145.
Creon, 88.
Cueullus, 139.
Cunei, 132.
Cuneus, 136.
Cupido, 71.
Curatores, 123.
Curiae (Senate-houses),

164.
Curiae, 118.
Curio, 118.
Curiones, 128.
Cursus, 131.
Curtius, 156.
Cybgle, 83.
Cyclades, 43.
Cyclopes, 78.
Cynic Sect, 159.
Cynosarges, 161.
Cyprus, 62.
Cyrenaic Sect, 159.

D.

Dacia, 32.
D^dalus, 78.
Damnum, 126.
Danaides, 84.
Daphne, 78.
Dardanus, 88.
Decemviri, 128.
Decretum, 120.
Decuriae, 134.
Deiphobus, 88, 96.
Delta, 64.
Demosthenes, 148.
Deucalion, 78.
Diana, 70.
Dictator, 124.
Dies Fasti, 172.

Festi, 130.

Nefasti, 172.

Profesti, 130.

Dike, 72.

Diodorus (Sieulus),

147.
Diomedes, 92.
Dionysius, 147.
Dionysus, 71.
Theatre of,

161.
Diphilus, 145.
Dirse, 71.
Dis, 72.
Discessio, 120.
Dithyrambs, 144.
Dormitoria, 141.
Dorian (States), 51.
Doris, 38, 50.
Dryades, 73.

E.

Eleatic School, 159.
Electra, 82, 93.

Eliac School, 159.
Elis, 40.
Elysium, 78.
Emeriti, 133.
Endymion, 78.
Ennius, 152.
Ensis, 135.
Epaphus, 80.
Epeus, 91.
Epicharmus, 145.
Epicurean Sect, 159,
Epicurus, 151.
Epirus, 38.
Equites, 118, 133.
Erato, 73.
Erebus, 78.
Erechtheum, 160.
Eretriac School, 159.
Ericthonius, 88.
Eristic School, 159.
Essedarii, 132.
Eteocles, 87.
Etruria, 26.
Eubulus, 145.
Euclid, 149.
Eumenides, 71.
Eunomia, 72.
Euphrosyne, 72.
Eupolis, 145.
Euripides, 145.
Europe, 13.
Europa, 78, 86.
Eurus, 172.
Euryale, 79.
Eurydice, 81.
Eurysaces, 92.
Eurystheus, 79.
Eurytion, 82.
Euterpe, 73.
Eutropius, 156.
Evocati, 134.
Extispices, 128.

INDEX.

195

p.

Familia, 143.
Fates, 171.
Fauni, 71.
Favonias, 172.
Fenestras, 141.
Ferentarii, 134.
Feriae, 130.
Feretrum, 142.
Fetiales, 128.
Flaccus (Valerius), 152.
Flamines, 128.
Flora, 71.
Florus, 156.
Follis, 141.
Fora, 162.
Fores, 140.
Fortuna, 71.
Forum, 162.
Fossa, 135.
Fratres Arvales, 129.
Frigidarium, 141.
Fritillus, 142.
Funditores, 134.
Furise, 71, 171.

G.
Gaea, 71.
Galatia, 51.
Galea, 134.
Galen, 148.
Galerus, 139.
Galilee, 54.
Gain, 129.
Gallia, 17.

Belgica, 19.

Cisalpina, 25.

Togata, 25.

Cispadana, 25.

Transpadana, 26.

Ganymede, 72.
Ge, 71.

Gedrosia, 61.
Gellius (Aulus), 158.
Genius, 71.
Gentes, 143.
Germania, 20.
Gigantes, 79.
Gladiatorii, 131.
Gladius, 135.
Glaucus, 96.
Globus, 136.
Gorgones, 79.
Graecia, 34.
Gratiae, 72, 170.
Gymnicum (Certamen)
131.

H.
Hades, 72.
Haemon, 88.
Hamadryades, 73.
Harpagones, 138.
Harpyiae, 79.
Haruspices, 128.
Hastas, 135.
Hastati, 134, 136.
Heaven, 75.
Hebe, 72.
Hecate, 72.
Hecaton Cheires, 84.
Hector, 96.
Hecuba, 88, 96.
Helena, 89, 93.
Helenus, 91, 96.
Helios, 72.
Hell (rivers of), 171.

(judges of), 171.

Hellas, 34.
Helle, 85.
Heptanomis, 64.
HeraclidaB, 79.
Heraclitean Sect, 159.
Hercules, 79.

Hercules (labours of),

170.
Herodotus, 146.
Hesiod, 144.
Hesione, 88.
Hesperia, 23.
Hesperides, 79.
Hipparchus, 165.
Hippocrates, 148.
Hippodamia, 82.
Hippolyte, 80.
Hippomedon, 87.
Hispania, 15.
,Histria, 26.
Homer, 144.
Horace, 153.
Horse, 72, 171.
Hostia, 130.
Hyades, 80.
Hygea, 72.
Hygiea, 72.
Hymen, 72.
Hymenseus, 72.
Hyperion, 80.
Hypermnestra, 84,
Hypocaustra, 141.
Hyrcania, 60.

I.

lapetus, 80.
lapyx, 172.
Iberia, 56.
Ides, 167.
Idomeneus, 93.
Ignobiles, 119.
Ignominia, 126.
Illyricum, 22.
Illyris Groeca, 33.
Bus, 88.
Imagines, 142.
Imperator, 137.
Impluvium, 141.

196

INDEX

India, 62.
Infamia, 126.
Infulas, 130.
Intercessio, 125.
lo, 80.
Ionia, 49.

Ionian (States), 51.
Iphigenia, 90.
Irene, 72.
Iris, 72.
Isaeus, 148.
Isauria, 50.
Isis, 72.
Ismene, 87.
Isocrates, 147.
Italia, 23.
lulus, 95.
Xxion, 80, 83.

J.

Janua, 140.
Janus, 72.
Jason, 80, 85.
Jentaculum, 139.
Jocasta, 87.
Judaea, 53, 54.
Judicia, 126.
JuBO, 69.
Jupiter, 68.
Jus Imaginum, 119.
Justin, 156.
Juvenal, 154.
Juventas, 72.

L.

Labdacus, 86.
Laoema, 139.
Lachesis, 75.
Laconia, 41.
Lacunaria, 141.
Lsena, 139.
Lalus, 86.

Lanista, 131.
Laocoon, 91.
Laodamas, 88.
Laodamia, 97.
Laodice, 89, 93.
Laomedon, 88.
Lapithae, 80.
Laquearia, 141.
Lares, 73.
Latium, 28.
Latona, 80.
Latrunculi, 142.
Latus clavus, 120.
Laudatio, 142.
Latinus, 95.
Lavinia, 95.
Lecti, 139.
Lectica, 142.
Leda, 80.
Legati, 135.
Legio, 134, 136.
Lethe, 80.
Libatio, 104.
Libitinarii, 142.
Libya, 66.
Lictores, 122.
Liguria, 25.
Limen, 140.
Limnae, 160.
Lituus, 128, 135.
Livy, 155.
Locris, 38.
Longinus, 150.
Lorica, 134.
Lucan, 152.
Lucania, 30.
Luceres, 118.
Lucian, 150.
Lucretius, 154.
Ludi Circenses, 131.
Ludus Trojse, 131.
Lugdunensis, 18.

Luna, 73.
Lupercalia, 130*
Luperci, 129.
Lusitania, 16.
Lustratio, 130.
Lycaonia, 51.
Lyceum, 161.
Lycia, 50.
Lycomedes, 91.
Lydia, 49.
Lysias, 147.

M.

Macedonia, 32.
Machaon, 93.
Maeonia, 49.
Magister Equitum, 124
Maia, 80, 82.
Manes, 73.
Manipuli, 134.
Manumissio, 119.
Manua (Ferreae), 138.
Mars, 68.

Gradivus, 129.

Martial, 155.
Matronalia, 130.
Mauritania, 67.
Maximus (Valerius),

156.
Medea, 81, 86.
Media, 59.
Medusa, 79.
Megaera, 71.
Megalesia, 130.
Megaric School, 169.
Megaris, 40.
Melite, 160.
Melpomene, 73.
Memnon, 96.
Menoetius, 85, 93.
Menander, 145.
MSnglaus. 89. 93.

INDEX.

197

Mensa, 140.
Mercurlus, 69.
Meriones, 93.
Merope, 82, 87.
Mesopotamia, 67.
Messenia, 41.
Meton, 165.
Mezentius, 95.
Minerva, 69.
Minos, 81.
Mirmillones, 132.
Mnemosyne, 84.
Moesia, 31.
Moirae, 75.
Mola salsa, 130.
Momus, 73.
Mopsus, 85.
Morpheus, 73.
Mors, 126.
Moschus, 146.
Mulcta, 126.
Musae, 73, 170.
Mysia, 49.

N.
Naiades, 73.
Napaeae, 73.
Narbonensis, 17.
Narcissus, 81.
Nations (Seven Hea-
then), 55.
Naumachia, 131.
Naves Longae, 138.

Praetoria, 138.

Nemesis, 73.
Neoptolemus, 91, 93.
Nephele, 85.
Nepos (Cornelius), 155,
Neptune, 68.
Nereides, 73.
Nereus, 73.
Nestor, 93.

17*

Niobe, 81.
Nobiles, 119.
Nomen, 143.
Nones, 167.
Noricum, 21.
Novendiale, 143.
Numidia, 67.
Nundinae, 172.
Nymphae, 73.

0.

Oceanldes, 73.
Oceanus, 74.
Ocreae, 134.
Ocypete, 79.
Odeum, 161.
(Edipus, 86.
CEnotria, 23.
Oileus, 85, 92.
Onerariae, 138.
Ops, 83.
Optimates, 119.
Optiones, 135.
Orbis, 136.
Orchestra, 116, 132.
Orcus, 72.
Oreades, 73.
Orestes, 90.
Orion, 81.
Orpheus, 81.
Osiris, 74.
Ostium, 140.
Ovatio, 137.
Ovid, 153.
Ovile, 121.

P.

. Paenula, 139.
Palaestina, 53.
Pales, 74.
Palilia, 130.
Palla, 139.

Palladium, 88, 91.
Paludamentum, 135.
Pamphylia, 50.
Pan, 74.

Pancratium, 109.
Pandarus, 96.
Pandora, 81.
Pandroseum, 160.
Pannonia, 22.
Pantheon, 161.
Pantheum, 163.
Paphlagonia, 49.
Parcae, 75, 171.
Parietes, 141.
Parilia, 130.
Paris, 88, 96.
Parma, 135.
Parthenon, 160.
Parthenopaaus, 87.
Parthia, 60.
Pater Patratus, 128.
Patres, 119.

Minorum Gen-

tium, 120.

Majorum Gen-

tium, 120.
Conscripti, 120.

Patricii, 118.
Patroclus, 90, 93.
Pausanias, 149.
Pax, 74.
Pegasus, 81.
Peleus, 89.
Pelops, 92.
Penates, 74.
Penelope, 94.
Pentathlon, 131.
Peraea, 55.
Periboea, 87.
Pericles, 147.
Peripatetic Sect, 159.
Peristylium, 141.

198

INDEX.

Persephone, 74.
Perseus, 82.
Persia, 60.
Persius, 154.
Personee, 117, 132.
Phaedrus, 155.
Phaethon, 82.
Philemon, 145.
Philoctetes, 91, 93.
Phlegethon, 82.
Phocis, 39.
Phoebe, 74.
Phoebus, 74.
Phoenicia,. 53.
Phoenix, 93.
Phorcys, 83.
Phormus, 145.
Phrixus, 85.
Phrygia, 51.
Picenum, 27.
Pierides, 82.
Pila, 135, 141.
Pilani, 134.
Pileus, 127, 139.
Pindar, 146.
Pirithous, 82, 85.
Pisidia, 50.
Plato, 151.
Plautus, 154.
Plebei, 118.
Pliny, 157.

(Younger), 157.

Plutarch, 147.
Pluto, 72, 74.
Plutus, 74.
Pnyx, 160, 161.
Pocula, 140.
Poecile, 161.
Podarces, 88.
Polites, 89.

Pollicem premere, 132,
vertere, 132

Pollux, 82.
Polybius, 147.
Polybus, 87.
Polydorus, 86, 89, 96.
Polyhymnia, 73.
Polymnestor, 96.
Polynices, 87.
Polyphemus, 82, 94.
Polyxena, 89, 96.
Pomona, 74.
Pontifex Maximus,

127.
Pontifices, 127.
Pontus, 49.
Popa, 130.
Populares, 119.
Porticoes, 161, 163.
Posidippus, 145.
Postes, 140.
Potameides, 73.
Praecones, 122.
Praefectus, 124, 135.

classii, 138.

Praeficas, 142.
Praelusio, 131.
Prsenomen, 143.
Praetor, 124.

Peregrinus, 124. Rhea, 83.

Urbanus, 124. Rhesus, 90.

Proserpina, 74.
Proteus, 75.
Prytaneum, 161.
Psyche, 82.
Pulpitum, 116.
Puppis, 113.
Pyra, 142.
Pyrrhus, 91, 94.
Pythagoras, 150.
Python, 82.

Q.
Quadriremes, 113, 138.
Quaesitores, 126.
Quaestores, 125.
Quintilian, 158.
Quinqueremes, 113, 138.
Quinquertium, 131.

R.

Ramnenses, 118.

Ramnes, 118.

Refuge (Cities of), 55.

Retiarii, 132.

Rex Sacrificulus, 128.

Rhadamanthus, 83.

Rhaetia, 21.

Prandium, 139.
Priam, 88, 96.
Priapus, 74.
Principes, 134, 136.
Pro-Consul, 124.
Procurator, 125.
Proletarii, 133.
Prometheus, 82.
Propertius, 153.
Pro-Praetor, 125.
Propylaea, 160.
. Prora, 113.
Proscenium, 116.

Roads, 164.
Rogus, 142.
Roma, 162.
Rome (Hills of), 168.

(Kings of),

168.
Rorarii, 134.
Rostrum, 113.
Rudes, 131.

Sabinum, 27.
Sacrificia, 129.

INDEX.

199

Sages (Seven), 169.
Sagittarii, 134.
Sagum, 135.
Salii, 129.
Sallust, 155.
Samaria, 54.
Samnites, 132.
Samnium, 28.
Sappho, 145.
Sarmatia, 32.
Asiatica,

56.
Sarpedon, 97.
Saturnalia, 130.
Saturnia, 23.
Saturnus, 75.
Satyri, 83.
Scena, 116.
Scenici, 131, 132.
Sceptic Sect, 159.
Scribae, 122.
Scutum, 134.
Scythia, 61.
Selene, 73.
Sella Curulis, 124.
Senatores, 119.
Senatus, 119, 120.
Consultum,

120.
Seneca, 154, 157.
Septemtrio, 172.
Servi, 119.
Servitus, 126.
Ship (Tackling of,

Ac), 113.
Sibylline Books, 128.
Sica, 132.
Sicilia, 30.
Sicyonia, 42.
Signa, 136.
Signiferi, 135.
Sileni, 83.

Silenus, 75.
Silius, 152.
Silvanus, 75.
Simonides, 146.
Sin on, 91.
Sirenes, 83.
Sisyphus, 83.
Socci, 139.
Socrates, 151.
Socratic School, 159.
Sogdiana, 61.
Sola, 141.
Solaria, 167.
Sol, 72.
Solese, 139.
Sophocles, 144.
Sparti, 86.
Spectio, 127.
Sphynx, 83, 87.
Sporades, 44.
Stadium, 161.
Statins, 152.
Sterope, 82.
Stesichorus, 146.
Stheno, 79.
Sthenelus, 94.
Stoic Sect, 159.
Stola, 139.
Strabo, 149.
Strigiles, 141.
Strymo, 88.
Styx, 83.
Subucula, 138.
Subitarii, 133.
Subsolanus, 172.
Succenturiones, 135.
Suetonius, 156.
Suovetaurilia, 130.
Susiana., 59.
Susis, 59.
Syria, 53.
Syrinx, 74.

T.

Tabella, 121.
Tacitus, 156.
Tali, 141.
Talio, 126.
Talthybius, 94.
Tantalus, 83.
Tarraconensis, Iflu
Tartarus, 72, 83.
Taygete, 82.
Tecmessa, 92.
Telamon, 85, 92.
Tellus, 71.
Templa, 130.
Temples at Rome, 163,
Tepidarium, 141.
Terpsichore, 73.
Terence, 154.
Terra, 71.
Tesserae, 142.
Testudo, 136.
Teucer, 88, 94.
Thales, 150.
Thalia, 72, 73.
Theatres at Rome, 163.
Theatrum, 116, 132.
Thebais, 65.
Themis, 75.
Theocritus, 146.
Thermae, 141, 163.
Theseus (Temple of)

161.
Thessalia, 37.
Thetis, 75.
Thracia, 34.
Thraces, 132.
Thorax, 134.
Thucydides, 146.
Tibullus, 153.
Timocles, 145.
Tiphys, 85.

200

INDEX.

Tiresias, 87.

Tunica, 138.

Vesta, 69.

Tisiphone, 71.

Pilmati l^Y

Vestibulura, 140, 141.

Titanes, 84.

. Vise, 162, 164.

Titienses, 118.

Via Sacra, 162.

Tityus, 83.

138.

Viatores, 122.

Toga, 138.

Turmae, 134.

Victima, 130.

Picta, 137, 139.

Turnus, 95.

Vincula, 126.

Praetexta, 123,

Turris, 136.

Vindelicia, 21.

139.

Tuscia, 26.

Vinea, 136.

Virilis, 139.

Tydeus, 87.

Vinum, 140.

Candida, 138.

Tydides, 92.

Virgil, 152.

Trabea, 128.

Typon, 84.

Virgines Vestales, 128.

Transtra, 113.

Tyrrhenia, 26.

Vitruvius, 158.

Transvectio Equitum,

Vittae, 130.

130.

U.

Vota, 129.

Triarii, 134, 136.

Ulysses, 94.

Votiva Tabula, 129.

Tribuni Plebis, 125.

Umbo, 138.

Vulcan, 68.

Militum, 126,

Umbria, 27.

135.

Urania, 73.

W.

Tribus, 118.

Uranus, 75.

Winds (Temple of), 161.

Trinacria, 30.

Wines, 140.

Trinundinum, 121.

V.

Tripolitana, 66.

Vallum, 135.

X.

Triremes, 113, 138.

Varro, 158.

Xenophon, 147.

Triton, 84.

VeUtes, 134.

Xystus, 109.

Troas, 49.

Venatio, 131.

Troilus, 89, 97.

Venetia, 26.

Z.

Tros, 88.

Venti, 172.

Zeno, 151.

Tuba, 135.

Venus, 70.

Zephyrus, 172.

Tumultuarii, 133.

Vertumnus, 75.

Zeus (Temple of), 16L

THE END.

t. FAOAX, STEREOTTPER.

C. SHERMAN, PRINTER.

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I consider them most admirably suited for the purposes designed by the author
—indeed, as the very best popular works on Physical Science with which I ani
acquainted. The "Third Course," on Astronomy, is especially valuable; its
magnificent engravings, and lucid explanations, make it a most desirable text-
1t)Ook.

From Prof. JR. Z. Mason, McKendree CoUege, III.
In my judgment, it contains the best selection of compact demonstrations and
popular illustrations that we have yet received on the subject. Dr. Lardner has
relieved it somewhat from the dry details of Mathematics, and yet there is such
a close adherence to severe methods of thought as to satisfy the most rigid and
careful analyst.

IVom Rev. J. G. Balston, Norristown, Pa., March 22, 1854.

Lardner's Meteorology and Astronomy is a fit companion for his First and

Second Course. It is wonderfully minute, and yet not prolix. The principles of

Astronomy are probably as clearly defined and judiciously arranged in this book

as they can be. I expect to introduce it in my school.

JVom S. Schooler, Esq., Hanover Academy, Va., At^tW 16, libi.
The three volumes constitute a body of information and detail on nearly the
*rhole range of Physical Science which is not to be found together in any other
publication with which I am acquainted. I hope that these works may be the
means of inducing many of our youth to devote themselves to the development
of the Laws of Nature, and the application of them to industry, and that they
may be the vehicle for conveying sound information and food for thought to every
man who aspires to be well educated.

From. M. Conant, State Normal School, Mass., April 11, 1854.
This is a treatise admirably adapted to its purpose. For the accurate knowledge
it unfolds, and the very popular dress it appears in, I think I have met with
nothing like it. I shall advise the students of the Normal School to add this to
your edition of Lardner's Mechanics, &c.

From Prof. E. Everett, New Orleans, Feb. 25, 1854.
I am already acquainted with the merits of this book, having had occasion to
consult it in teaching the branches of which it treats, and T cannot give you a
stronger assurance of my high opinion of it than the simple fact that I have
selected it as the text-book of Physics in the course of study which I have just
fixed upon for a new college to be established hero.

2

BLANCHARD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS.

A COMPLETE COURSE OF NATURAL SCIENCE-(Just Issued.)

THE BOOK OF NATURE;

AN ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENCES OF

Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, Botany,
Zoology, and Physiology.

BY FREDERICK SCHOEDLER, Ph. D.,
Professor of the Natural Sciences at Worms.

FmST AMERICAN EDITION,

With a Glossary, and other Additions and Improvements.

From the Second English Edition, translated from the Sixth German Edition,

BY HENRY MEDLOCK, F.C.S., &c.

niastrated by six hundred and seventy-nine Engravings on Wood.

In one handsome volume, crown octavo, of about seven hundred large pages,
extra cloth.

To accommodate those who desire to use the separate portions of this work, the
publishers have prepared an edition in parts, as follows, which may be had singly,
by mail or otherwise, neatly done up in flexible cloth.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY 114 pages, with 149 Illustrations.

ASTRONOMY 64 « 51 «

CHEMISTRY 110 " 48 «

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY 104 « 167 «

BOTANY 98 « 176 «

ZOOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY 106 " 84 «

INTRODUCTION, GLOSSARY, INDEX, &c., 96 pages.

The necessity of some acquaintance with the Natural Sciences is now so uni-
versally admitted in all thorough education, while the circle of facts and prin-
ciples embraced in the study has enlarged so rapidly, that a compendious Manual
like the Book op Nature cannot fail to supply a want frequently felt and
expressed by a large and growing class.

The reputation of the present volume in England and Germany, where repeated
editions have been rapidly called for, is sufficient proof of the author's success in
condensing and popularizing the principles of his numerous subjects. The
publishers therefore would merely state that, in reproducing the work, they have
spared no pains to render it even better adapted to the American student. It has
been passed through the press under the care of a competent editor, who has cor-
rected such errors as had escaped the attention of the English translator, and
has made whatever additions appeared necessary to bring it completely on a level
with the existing state of science. These will be found principally in the sections
on Botany and Geology ; especially the latter, in which references have been
made to the numerous and systematic Government surveys of the several States,
and the whole adapted to the nomenclature and systems generally used in this
country. A copious Glossary has been appended, and numerous additional
illustrations have been introduced wherever the elucidation of the text appeared
to render them desirable.

It is therefore confidently presented as an excellent Manual for the private
student, or as a complete and thorough Class-book for collegiate and academical
use.

BLANCHARD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS.

THE BOOK OF NATURE — Cbn^inwoi.

Books which treat of everything too often remind us of patent medicines, that
are advertised to cure all the maladies that human flesh is heir to. But the
volume before us does not belong to that genus. It is not the production of a
quack, but is a truly scientific manual, almost a library on Physical Sciences,
yet perfectly convenient, and valuable to the student as a work of reference.
Though the whole range of sciences is embraced in it, yet it affords a much more
minute and ample fund of instruction in these various departments than do
many treatises which include only a single subject. Teachers will find it a
valuable work for their libraries. — iV". Y. Student.

Composed by the same distinguished author, all the departments have a uni-
formity of style and illustration which harmoniously link the entire circle
together. The utility of such a connected view of the physical sciences, and on
such an approved basis, is beyond price; and places their acquisition within the
reach of a vastly-increased number of inquirers. Not only to such is it valuable,
but to those who wish to have at hand the means of refreshing their memories
and enlarging their views upon their favorite studies. Of such a book we speak
cordially, and would speak more at length, if space permitted. — Southern Me-
thodist Quarterly Review.

From, Prof. Johnston, WesUyan University, Ct., March 14, 1854.
I do not know of another hook in which so much that is important on these
sulyects can be found in the same space.

JVom l\of. Allen, Oberlin Institute, Ohio, April 1, 1854.
As a work for popular instruction in the Natural and Physical Sciences, it cer-
tainly is unrivalled, so far as my knowledge extends. It admirably combines
perspicuity with brevity; while an excellent judgment and a rare discrimination
are manifest in the selection and arrangement of topics, as well as in the
description of objects, the illustration of phenomena and the statement of prin-
ciples. A more careful perusal of those departments of the work to which my
studies have been particularly directed has been abundantly sufficient to satisfy
me of its entire reliableness — that the object of the author was not so much to
amuw as really to instruct.

From Prof. Pearson, Union College, iV. T., Feb. 22, 1864.
It seems to be a book well adapted to imparting an elementary knowledge of
Physics and Natural History to students of our Academies and Colleges.

From Prof. J. A. Spencer, JV. Y.
I am delighted with Dr. Schoedler's " Book of Nature ;" its tone of healthful
piety and reverence for God's word add a charm to the learning and deep research
which the volume everywhere manifests.

From W. J. Clark, Esq., Georgetown Female Seminary, D. C.
As far as I have examined, it has afforded me great pleasure. It is the most
valuable compendium of the subjects of which it treats with which I have ever
met.

From W. H. Allen, President of Girard College, Philadelphia.
Though a very comprehensive book, it contains about as much of the details
of natural science as general students in this country have time to study in a
regular academical course ; and I am so well pleased with it, that I shall recom-
mend its use as a text-book in this institution.

4

BLANCHAllD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS.
NEW AND MUCH IMPROVED EDITION — (Lately Issued.)

PHYSICAL "geography

BY MARY SOMERVILLE.
A New American, from the Third and Revised London Edition.

WITH NOTES AND A GLOSSARY,

BY W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D., U. S. Navy.
In one large royal 12mo. volume, of nearly six hundred pages.

The subject of Physical Geography is one of which the acknowledged importance
is rapidly forcing its introduction into all systems of education which pretend to
keep themselves on a level with the improvements and requirements of the age.
It is no longer considered sufficient to drill the scholar into a mechanical know-
ledge of the names of rivers and mountains, and the territorial divisions of tha
earth's surface. A want is now felt of an acquaintance with the structure of tha
globe, externally and internally, and of the causes and effects of the variations
of land and water, forest and desert, heat and cold, tides, currents, rain, wind,
and all the other physical phenomena occurring around us, which have so direct
and immense an influence upon the human race. This is all summed up in
"Physical Geography," which may be regarded as the resume of all that is known
on the natural history and present state of the earth and its inhabitants — the
practical application of the principles of which are elucidated by the minute inves-
tigations of the scientific observer. This vast and interesting subject has been
successfully grappled by Mrs. Somerville, who in the present volume has set forth,
in a picturesque and vivid style, a popular yet condensed account of the globe, in
its relations with the Solar System; its geological forces; its configuration and
divisions into land and water, mountain, plain, river, and lake; its meteorology,
minex-al productions, vegetation, and animal life; estimating and analyzing tha
causes at work, and their influence on plants, animals, and mankind. A study
such as this, taken in conjunction with ordinary political geography, lends to tha
latter an interest foreign to the mere catalogue of names and boundaries, and, iu
addition to the vast amount of important information imparted, tends to impress
the whole more strongly on the mind of the student.

Eulogy is unnecessary with regard to a work like the present, which has passed
through three editions on each side of the Atlantic within the space of a few
years. The publishers therefore only consider it necessary to state that the last
London edition received a thorough revision at the hands of the author, who
introduced whatever improvements and corrections the advance of science ren-
dered desirable; and that the present issue, in addition, to this, has had a careful
examination on the part of the editor, to adapt it more especially to this country.
Great care has been exercised, in both the text and the Glossary, to obtain the
accuracy so essential to a work of this nature; and in its present improved and
enlarged state, with no corresponding increase of price, it is confidently presented
as in every way worthy a continuation of the striking favor with which it has
been everywhere received.

From Lieutenant Maury, U. S. iV,

National Observatory, Washington.
I thank you for the " Physical Geography ;" it is capital. I have been reading
it, and like it so much that I have made it a school-book for my children, whom
I am teaching. There is, in my opinion, no work upon that interesting subject
on which it treats— Physical Geography— that would make a better text-book in
our schools and colleges. I hope it will be adopted as such generally, for you
have Americanized it, and improved it in other respects.

From Samuel H. Taylor, Esq., Philips' Academy, Andover, Mass., Feb. 15, 1854.
We have introduced your edition of Mrs. Somerville's " Physical Geography"
Into our school, and find it an admirable work.

5

BLANCIIARD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS.

SHAW'S ENGLISH LITERATURE-(Lately pubUshed.)

OUTLINES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.

BY THOMAS B. SHAW,

Professor of English Literature in the Imperial Alexander Lyceum,
St. Petersburg.

SECOND AMERICAN EDITION.

WITH A SKETCH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE.

BY HENRY T. TUCKERMAN, Esq.

In one large and handsome volume, royal 12mo., of about five hundred pages.
Extra cloth, $1 15; half bound in leather, $1 25.

The object of this work is to present to the student, within a moderate compass,
a clear and connected view of the history and productions of English Literature.
To accomplish this, the author has followed its course from the earliest times to
the present age, seizing upon the more prominent " Schools of Writing," tracing
their causes and effects, and selecting the more celebrated authors as subjects for
brief biographical and critical sketches, analyzing their best works, and thus
presenting to the student a definite view of the development of the language and
literature, with succinct descriptions of those books and men of which no edu-
cated person should be ignorant. lie has thus not only supplied the acknow-
ledged want of a manual on this subject, but, by the liveliness and power of his
style, the thorough knowledge he displays of his topic, and the variety of his
subjects, he has succeeded in producing a most agreeable reading-book, which
will captivate the mind of the scholar, and relieve the monotony of drier studies.

From Prof. J. V. Raymond, University of Rochester.
Its merits I had not now for the first time to learn. I have used it for two
years as a text^book, with the greatest satisfaction. It was a happy conception,
admirably executed. It is all that a text-book on such a subject can or need be,
comprising a judicious selection of materials, easily yet effectively wrought. The
author attempts just as much as he ought to, and docs well all that he attempts;
and the best of the book is the genial spirit, the genuine love of genius and its
works which thoroughly pervades it, and makes it just what you want to put in
a pupil's hands.

From Prof. J. C. Pickard, Illinois College.
Of "Shaw's English Literature" I can hardly say too much in praise. I hope
its adoption and use as a text-book will correspond to its great merits.

From A. B. Davenport, Esq., BrooUyn, JV. T.
The work of Shaw and Tuckerman on English and American Literature par-
ticularly interested me. It is truly a multum in parvo. I know not where one
can find so much information condensed upon the topics on which it treats as is
to be found in this work. Either as a text-book, or for higher classes in reading,
it is worthy of general adoption.

From Prof. J. Munroe, Oberlin Coilege.

I have examined it carefully, and value it highly. It fills a place not occupied

by any other book with which I am acijuainted. It will probably be introduced

in this institution as a text-book preparatory to the study of English literature.

BLANCHARD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS.
TEXT-BOOK OF SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY -(Just Issued.)

OUTLINES OF SCRIPTURE~GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY;

niastrating tlie Historical Portions of the Old and New
Testaments.

DESiaXED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE READINQ.

BY EDWARD HUGHES, r.R.A.S., F.G.S.,
Head Master of the Royal Naval Lower School, Greenwich, &c

BASED TJPOX COLEMAN'S HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE BIBLE.

■With twelve handsome colored Maps.

In one very neat royal 12mo. volume, extra cloth.

The intimate connection of Sacred History with the geography and physical
features of the various lands occupied by the Israelites, renders a work like the
present an almost necessary companion to all who desire to read the Scriptures
understandingly. To the young, especially, a clear and connected narrative of
the events recorded in the Bible, is exceedingly desirable, particularly when
illustrated, as in the present volume, with succinct but copious accounts of the
neighboring nations, and of the topography and political divisions of the countries
mentioned, coupled with the results of the latest investigations, by which Messrs.
Layard, Lynch, Clin, Durbin, Wilson, Stephens, and others have succeeded in
throwing light on so many obscure portions of the Scriptures, verifying its
accuracy in minute particulars. Few more interesting class-books could therefore
be found for schools where the Bible forms a part of education, and none, per-
haps, more likely to prove of permanent benefit to the scholar. The influence
which the physical geography, climate, and productions of Palestine had upon
the Jewish people will ha found fully set forth, while the numerous maps present
the various regions connected with the subject at their most prominent periods.

From Prof. Samud H. Turner, iV. Y. Thedagicdl Seminary.

It appears to contain, in a compressed form, a vast deal of important and

accurate geographical and historical information. I hope the book will have the

wide circulation which its merits entitle it to. I shall not fail to recommend it

so far as opportunity offers.

From Eev. Samuel Findley, President of Antrim College, Oliio, Feb. 18,1854.
We have long needed just such a book, and as soon as possible we shall make it
one of the text-books of our college. It should be a textrbook in all our theolo-
gical institutions.

From Rev. Elipludet Nott, President of Unim College, N. T., Feb. 20, 1854.
Few more interesting class-books, where the Bible is used in Schools, can be
found than the "Outlines of Scripture Geography and History;" and it will
prove, in families where the Bible is read, a valuable auxiliary to the under-
standing of that blessed volume. It is therefore to be hoped that it will receive
that patronage which it so richly deserves.

From Prof. E. Everett, New Orleans, Feb. 20, 1854.
I have studied the greater portion of it with care, and find it so useful as a
hook of reference, that I have placed it on the table with my Bible as an aid to
my daily Scripture readings. It is a book which ought to be in the hands of
every biblical student, and I cannot but hope that it will have a wide circulation
To such as desire to borrow, I answer, " I cannot loan it, for I am obliged to refer
to it daily!"

BLANCHARD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS.

HERSCHEL'S ASTRONOMY.

OUTLINES OF ASTRONOMY.

BY SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, Bart., F.R.S., &c.

A KEW AMERICAN, FROM THB FOURTH AND REVISED LONDON EDITION.

In one handsome crown octavo volume, with numerous Plates and Wood-cuts.

The present work is reprinted from the last London edition, which was care-
fully revised by the author, and in which he embodies the latest investigations
and discoveries. It may therefore be regarded as fully on a level with the most
advanced state of the science, and even better adapted than its predecessors, as a
full and reliable text-book for advanced classes.

A few commendatory notices are subjoined, from among a large number with
which the publishers have been favored.

From Prof. D. Olmstead, Yale College.
A rich mine of all that is most valuable in modern Astronomy.

From Ftof. A. Caswell, Brown University, R. I.
As a work of reference and study for the more advanced pupils, who are not
yet prepared to avail themselves of the higher mathematics, I know of no work
to be compared with it.

From Prof. Samuel Jones, Jefferson College, Pa., May 28, 1853.
This treatise is too well known, and too highly appreciated in the scientific
world to need new praise. A distinguishing merit in this, as in the other pro-
ductions of the author, is that the language in which the profound reasonings of
science are conveyed is so perspicuous that the writer's meaning can never be
misunderstood.

Frmn Prof. J. F. Crocker, Madison College, Pa., May 17, 1853.
I know no treatise on Astronomy comparable to " Herschel's Outlines." It is
admirably adapted to the necessities of the student. We have adopted it as a
text-book in our College.

From Prof. James Curley, Georgetown College, May 24, 1853.
As far as I am able to judge, it is the best work of its class in any language.

From Prof. N. TiUinghast, Bridgewater, Mass., May 12, 1853.
It would not become me to speak of the scientific <nerits of such a work by
such an author ; but I may be allowed to say, that I most earnestly wish that it
might supersede every book used as a text-book on Astronomy in all our institu-
tions, except perhaps those where it is studied mathematically.

We now take leave of this remarkable work, which we hold to be, beyond a
doubt, the greatest and most remarkable of the works in which the laws of
astronomy and the appearance of the heavens are described to those who are not
mathematicians nor observers, and recalled to those who are. It is the reward
of men who can descend from the advancement of knowledge to care for its dif-
fusion, that their works are essential to all, that they become the manuals of the
proficient as well as the text-books of the learner. — Athenceum.

DATE DUE

tm B m

'

J

■ "

CAT. NO. 1137

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

D Baird, James Skerrett Shore

80 The classical manual

BI6
1855