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LIBRARY
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PLATE I
I.
PALE YELLOW.
II.
LIGHT YELLOW.
III.
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IV.
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REDDISH BROWN.
1
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Scale of urinary colors, according to \'of;i-l.
Clinical Diagnosis
A MANUAL OF LABORATORY METHODS
BY
JAMES CAMPBELL TODD. Ph. B.. M. D.
PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO
Illustrated
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged
PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY
1912
Copyright, 1908, by W. B. Saunders Company. Revised, reprinted, and
recopyrighted January, 1912
Copyright, 1912, by W. B. Saunders Company
PRINTED IN AMERICA
PRESS OF
W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANV
PHILADELPHIA
TO
MY FATHER
THESE PAGES ARE
AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED
'>
•<\
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
While the original purpose of this book — to present
^ clearly and concisely the various laboratory methods
»^AJ which are of use in clinical medicine — has not been lost
^ sight of, its scope has been somewhat enlarged in the
oX present edition.
^ Each section has been carefully revised and much new
'^^ material has been added to every chapter. Among the
'0 many additions may be mentioned: the use of artificial
>v light and the importance of numerical aperture in micro-
'S^ ^copic work; photomicrography with simple apparatus;
S* the antif ormin method for tubercle bacilli ; detection and
X significance of albumin in the sputum; Tsuchiya's modi-
I fication of Esbach's test; the formalin test for ammonia
and Benedict's methods for sugar in urine; volume index
Ja of red blood-corpuscles; Wright and Kinnicutt's method
i^ of counting blood-platelets; Harlow's blood-stain; a sim-
"'^ pie technic for the diagnosis of typhoid fever by blood-
_J cultures; the Wassermann reaction, and Frothingham's
iaX impression method in the diagnosis of rabies.
Because of the growing importance of animal parasites,
this chapter has been entirely rewritten and more than
doubled in extent. Two new chapters have been added:
.one upon Bacteriologic Methods, which supplements the
methods given in other portions of the book, and one
upon Preparation and Use of Vaccines, including thera-
peutic and diagnostic use of tubercuHn.
22865
lO PREFACE
Some of the illustrations have been replaced with better
ones and many new pictures have been added, including
eight photomicrographs by Dr. W. P. Harlow, and a con-
siderable number by the author. Through courtesy of
Dr. Langdon Frothingham, of Harvard University, a
colored plate showing Negri bodies as seen in his im-
pression method has been included.
The author wishes to express his indebtedness to Fran-
cis Ramaley, Ph.D., Professor of Biology in the Univer-
sity of Colorado, and T. D. A. Cockerell, Professor of
Systematic Zoology, for suggestions as to the nomen-
clature of animal parasites; and to Dr. A. R. Peebles,
Professor of Medicine, for suggestions and aid through-
out the revision.
J. C. T.
Boulder, Colorado.
PREFACE
This book aims to present a clear and concise state-
ment of the more important laboratory methods which
have clinical value, and a brief guide to interpretation
of results. It is designed for the student and practi-
tioner, not for the trained laboratory worker. It had
its origin some years ago in a short set of notes which
the author dictated to his classes, and has gradually
grown by the addition each year of such matter as the
year's teaching suggested. The eagerness and care with
which the students and some practitioners took these
notes and used them convinced the writer of the need
of a volume of this scope.
The methods oflfered are practical; and as far as
possible are those which require the least complicated
apparatus and the least expenditure of time. Simplicity
has been considered to be more essential than absolute
accuracy. Although in many places the reader is given
the choice of several methods to the same end, the
author believes it better to learn one method well than
to learn several only partially.
More can be learned from a good picture than from
any description, hence especial attention has been given
to the illustrations, and it is hoped that they will serve
truly to illustrate. Practically all the microscopic struc-
12 PREFACE
tures mentioned, all apparatus not in general use, and
many of the color reactions are shown in the pictures.
Although no credit is given in the text, the recent
medical periodicals and the various standard works have
been freely consulted. Among authors whose writings
have been especially helpful may be mentioned v. Jaksch,
Boston, Simon, Wood, Emerson, Purdy, Ogden, Ewald,
Ehrlich and Lazarus, Da Costa, Cabot, Osier, Stengel,
and McFarland.
The author wishes hereby to express his indebtedness
to Dr. J. A. \\'ilder. Professor of Pathology in the Den-
ver and Gross College of Medicine, for aid in the final
revision of the manuscript; and to W. D. Engel, Ph.D.,
Professor of Chemistry, for suggestions in regard to de-
tection of drugs in the urine. He desires to acknowl-
edge the care with which Mr. Ira D. Cassidy has made
the original drawings, and also the uniform courtesy of
W. B. Saunders Company during the preparation of
the book.
J. C. T.
Denver, Colorado.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION page
Use of the Microscope 17
CHAPTER I
The Sputum 36
Physical Examination 38
Microscopic Examination 40
Unstained Sputum 40
Stained Sputum 48
Chemic Examination 63
Sputum in Disease 64
CHAPTER II
The Urine 68
Physical Examination 70
Chemic Examination 80
Normal Constituents 80
Abnormal Constituents 99
Microscopic Examination 138
Unorganized Sediments 141
Organized Sediments 151
Extraneous Structures 171
The Urine in Disease 173
CHAPTER III
The Blood 180
Hemoglobin 184
Enumeration of Erythrocytes 192
Color Index 200
Volume Index 200
Enumeration of Leukocytes 202
Decrease in Number of Leukocytes 202
Increase in Number of Leukocytes 203
Leukocytosis 203
Leukemia 208
Method of Counting Leukocytes 209
13
14 CONTENTS
PAGE
Enumeration of Blood-plaques 213
Study of Stained Blood 216
Making and Staining Blood-films 216
Study of Stained Films 225
Blood Parasites 244
Bacteria 244
Animal Parasites 247
Serum Reactions 257
Tests for Recognition of Blood 274
Special Blood Pathology 275
Anemia 275
Leukemia 280
CHAPTER IV
The Stomach 284
Examination of the Gastric Contents 284
Obtaining the Contents 285
Physical Examination 288
Chemic Examination 289
Microscopic Examination 301
The Gastric Contents in Disease 304
Additional Examinations which Give Information as to the
Condition of the Stomach 306
CHAPTER V
The Feces 310
Macroscopic Examination 311
Chemic Examination 314
Microscopic Examination 315
Functional Tests 320
CHAPTER VI
Animal Parasites 323
Protozoa 326
Sarcodina 328
Mastigophora (Flagellata) 330
Sp)orozoa 338
Infusoria 339
Vermidea , 340
Platyhelminthes 341
Nemathelminthes 353
Arthropoda 366
CONTENTS 15
CHAPTER VII
Miscellaneous Examinations 367
Pus 367
Peritoneal, Pleural, and Pericardial Fluids 371
Cerebrospinal Fluid 374
Animal Inoculation 375
The Mouth 377
The Eye 381
The Ear 383
Parasitic Diseases of the Skin 384
Milk 384
Syphilitic Material 388
Semen , 391
Diagnosis of Rabies 393
CHAPTER VIII
Bacteriologic Methods 396
Apparatus 396
Sterilization • 399
Preparation of Culture-tubes 400
Culture-media 401
Staining Methods 407
Methods of Studying Bacteria 412
Characteristics of Special Bacteria 415
CHAPTER IX
Preparation and Use of Vaccines 419
Preparation of Vaccine 419
Method of Use 425
Dosage 425
Therapeutic Indications 426
Tuberculins 428
Tuberculin in Diagnosis 429
APPENDIX
Apparatus, Reagents and Stains 432
Apparatus 432
Reagents and Stains 434
Weights, Measures, etc., with Equivalents 439
Temperature 440
Index 441
CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS
INTRODUCTION
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE
There is probably no
laboratory instrument
whose usefulness de-
pends so much upon
proper manipulation as
the microscope, and
none is so frequently
misused by beginners.
Some suggestions as to
its proper use are, there-
fore, given at this place.
It is presumed that the
reader is already famil-
iar with its general con-
struction (Fig. i).
For those who wish
to understand the prin-
ciples of the microscope
and its manipulation —
and best results are im-
possible without such an
understanding — a care-
ful study of some stan-
2
Fig. I. — Handle-arm microscope: E, Eye-
piece; D, draw-tube; T, body-tube; RN,
revolving nose-piece; O, objective; PH, pinion
head; MH, micrometer head; HA, handle-arm;
SS, substage; S, stage; M. mirror; B, base; R,
rack; P, pillar; I, inclination joint.
17
l8 INTRODUCTION
dard work upon microscopy, such as those of Carpenter,
Spitta, and Sir A. E. Wright, is earnestly recommended.
It is also recommended that the beginner provide him-
self with some slides of diatoms, for example, Pleuro-
sigma angulalum, Surirella gemma, and Amphipleura
pellucida, costing fifty cents each. Faithful practice
upon such test-objects, in the light of the principles of
microscopy, will enable the student to reach, intelli-
gently, an accuracy in manipulation to which the ordi-
nary laboratory worker attains only slowly and by rule
of thumb. He will soon find that the bringing of an
object into accurate focus is by no means all of micros-
copy.
Illumination. — Good work cannot be done without
proper illumination. It is difficult to lay too much
stress upon this point.
The light which is generally recommended as best is
that from a white cloud, the microscope being placed
by preference at a north window, to avoid direct sun-
light. Such light is satisfactory for all ordinary work.
Artificial light is, however, imperative for those who must
work at night, and is a great convenience at all times.
Properly regulated artificial light, moreover, offers
decided advantages over daylight for critical work.
Almost any strong light which is diffused through a
frosted globe will give fair results. The inverted Wels-
bach light with such a globe is excellent. The follow-
ing plan is much used abroad, and gives results equal
to the best daylight: A Welsbach lamp or strong elec-
tric light is used, and a glass globe — a six-inch round-
bottom flask answers admirably — is placed between it
and the microscope, to act as a condenser (Fig. 2).
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE
19
The flask should be at a distance equal to its diameter
from both the Hght and the mirror of the microscope.
In order to filter out the yellow rays the flask is filled
with water to which have been added a few crystals
of copper sulphate and a little ammonia.
For critical work, the method suggested by Sir A. E.
Wright is to be preferred. He has shown that fog is
dispelled and definition is Improved if the size of the
Hght source is so regulated that its image, thrown upon
Fig. 2. — Illumination with water-bottle condenser.
the slide by the condenser, coincides with the real field
of the objective. Upon this principle a very neat and
satisfactory microscope lamp, shown in Fig. 3, has been
designed by B. H. Matthews. It is fitted with iris-
diaphragm, condensing lens, small electric light, and
reflector, and has a slot in which a ray filter or ground-
glass disc may be inserted.
Illimiination may be either central or oblique. Central
illumination is to be used for all routine work. To ob-
20
INTRODUCTION
tain this, the mirror should be so adjusted that the light
from the source selected is reflected directly up the tube
of the microscope. This is easily done by removing the
eye-piece and looking down the tube while adjusting the
mirror. The eye-piece is then replaced, and the light
reduced as much as desired by means of the diaphragm.
With daylight, it is best to use the plane mirror; with
artificial light, the concave mirror.
Fig- 3- — Matthews' microscope lamp with iris-diaphragm.
Obhque illumination is to be used only to bring out
certain structures more clearly after viewing them by
central light: as, for example, to show the edges of a
hyahne cast by throwing one of its sides into shadow.
Oblique illumination is obtained in the more simple
instruments by swinging the mirror to one side, so that
the light enters the microscope obliquely. The more
complicated instruments obtain it by means of a rack
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 21
and pinion, which moves the diaphragm laterally.
Beginners frequently use oblique illumination without
recognizing it, and are thereby much confused. If the
light be oblique, an object in the center of the field will
appear to move from side to side when the fine adjust-
ment is turned back and forth.
The amount of light is even more important than its
direction. It is regulated by the diaphragm. It is
always best to use the least light that will show the object
a b
Fig. 4. — a, Hyaline casts, one containing renal cells; properly subdued illumination;
b, same as a; strong illumination. The casts are lost in the glare, and only the renal
cells are seen. (From Greene's "Medical Diagnosis").
well. Unstained objects require very subdued light.
Beginners constantly use it too strong. Strong light will
often render semitransparent structures, as hyaline casts,
entirely invisible (Fig. 4). Stained objects, especially
bacteria, require much greater light.
Dark Ground Illumination. — This consists in cutting
out the central rays of light and directing the peripheral
rays against the object from the side. Only those rays
which strike the object and are reflected pass into the
objective. The object is bright upon a black back-
22 INTRODUCTION
ground. By means of this form of illumination very
minute structures can be seen, just as particles of dust
in the atmosphere become visible when a ray of sunlight
enters a darkened room.
Dark ground illumination for low-power work can be
obtained by means of the ring stops with central discs
which accompany most microscopes when purchased.
The stop is placed in a special ring beneath the con-
denser. By varying the size of the central disc good
results can be had with the lower power dry lenses.
For oil-immersion work a special condenser is neces-
sary. With some makes it is placed upon the stage of
the microscope; with others it is substituted for the
regular condenser. It requires an intense light, like
direct sunlight or the Liliput arc-light.
The chief use of dark ground illumination in cHnical
work is for demonstration of Treponema pallidum in
fresh material (Fig. 158).
The Condenser. — For the work of the clinical labora-
tory a substage condenser is a necessity. Its purpose
is to condense the light upon the object to be examined.
For critical work the light must be focused on the object
by raising or lowering the condenser by means of the
screw provided for the purpose. The image of the light
source will then appear in the plane of the object. This
is best seen by using a low-power objective and ocular.
Should the image of the window-frame or other nearby
object appear in the field and prove annoying, the con-
denser may be raised or lowered a little. It is often
advised to remove the condenser for certain kinds of
work, but this is not necessary and is seldom desirable.
It is very important that the condenser be accurately
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 23
centered, and most high-grade instruments have center-
ing screws by which it can be adjusted at any time. The
simplest way to recognize whether the condenser is
centered is to close the diaphragm beneath it to as small
an opening as possible, then remove the eye-piece and
look down the tube. If the diaphragm opening does
not appear in the center of the field, the condenser is out
of center.
The use of the condenser is further discussed in the
following section.
Objectives and Eye-pieces. — Unfortunately, different
makers use different systems of designating their lenses.
The best system, and the one chiefly used in this country,
is to designate objectives by their focal lengths in milli-
meters, and eye-pieces by their magnifying power,
indicated by an " X ." Most foreign makers use this
system for their high-grade lenses, but still cling to
arbitrary letters or numbers for their ordinary output.
Objectives are of two classes — achromatic and apo-
chromatic. Those in general use are of the achromatic
type, and they fulfil all requirements for ordinary work.
Apochromatic objectives are more highly corrected for
chromatic and spheric aberration, and represent the
highest type of microscope lenses produced. They are
very desirable for photomicrographic and research work,
but for routine laboratory work do not offer advantages
commensurate with their great cost. They require the
use of special " compensating " eye-pieces.
The " working distance " of an objective should not
be confused with its focal distance. The former term
refers to the distance between the front lens of the ob-
jective, when it is in focus, and the cover-glass. It is
24 INTRODUCTION
always less than the focal distance, since the " focal
point " lies somewhere within the objective; and it
varies considerably with different makes. Long working
distance is a very desirable feature.
Objectives are " corrected " for use under certain
fixed conditions, and they will give the best results only
when used under the conditions for which corrected. The
most important corrections are: (a) For tube-length;
(b) for thickness of cover-glass; and (c) for the medium
between objective and cover-glass.
{a) The tube-length with which an objective is to be
used is usually engraved upon it — in most cases it is
i6o mm. The draw-tube of the microscope should be
pulled out until the proper length is obtained, as indi-
cated by the graduations on its side. When a nose-piece
is used, it adds about 15 mm. to the tube-length, and the
draw-tube must be pushed in for that distance.
(b) The average No. 2 cover-glass is about the thick-
ness for which most objectives are corrected — usually 0.17
or 0.18 mm. Very low powers and oil-immersion objec-
tives do not require any cover-glass. A cover should
always be used with high dry lenses, but its exact thick-
ness is more important in theory than in practice.
Many immersion objectives have such short working
distance that only very thin covers can be used.
(c) The correction for the medium between objective
and cover-glass is very important. This medium may be
either air or sorrie fluid, and the objective is hence either
a " dry " or an " immersion " objective. The immersion
fluid generally used is cedar oil, which gives great optical
advantages because its index of refraction is the same as
that of crown glass. It is obvious that only objectives
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 25
with very short working distance, as the 2 mm., can be
used with an immersion fluid.
To use an oil-immersion objective a drop of the cedar
oil which is prepared for the purpose should be placed
upon the cover, and the objective lowered into it and
then brought to a focus in the usual way.
Bubbles in the oil are a frequent source of trouble,
and should always be looked for when an immersion
objective does poor work. They are readily seen by
removing the eye-piece and looking down the tube.
Immediately after use the oil should be removed with
lens-paper or a soft linen handkerchief.
A useful " pointer " can be made by placing a straight
piece of a hair across the opening of the diaphragm of
the eye-piece, cementing one end with a tiny drop of
balsam, and cutting the hair in two in the middle. When
the eye-piece is in place, the hair appears as a black Une
extending from the periphery to the center of the micro-
scopic field.
Numeric Aperture. — This expression, usually written
N. A., indicates the amount of Ught which enters an ob-
jective from a point in the microscopic field. In optical
language, N. A. is the sine of one-half the angle of aper-
ture multiplied by the index of refraction of the medium
between the cover and the front lens. Numeric aper-
ture is extremely important, because upon it depends
resolving power, which is the most important property
of an objective.'
* Resolving power really depends upon two factors, the N. A. and the
wave length of light, but the latter can be ignored in practice. The
great resolving power of the ultra-microscope depends upon its use of
light of short wave length.
26 INTRODUCTION
Resolving power is the ability to separate minute
details of structure. For example, the dark portions of
a good half-tone picture appear gray or black to the un-
aided eye, but a lens easily resolves this apparently
uniform surface into a series of separate dots. Resolv-
ing power does not depend upon magnification. The
fine lines and dots upon certain diatoms may be brought
out clearly and crisply {i. e., they are resolved) by an
objective of high numeric aperture, whereas with an
objective of lower numeric aperture, but greater magnify-
ing power, the same diatom may appear to have a smooth
surface, W'ith no markings at all, no matter how greatly
it is magnified. Knowing the N. A., it is possible to
calculate how closely lines and dots may lie and still
be resolved by a given objective. To state the numeric
aperture, therefore, is to tell what the objective can
accomplish; provided, of course, that spheric and chro-
matic aberrations are satisfactorily corrected. An ob-
jective's N. A. is usually engraved upon the mounting.
It is an important fact, and one almost universally
overlooked by practical microscopists, that the pro-
portion of the numeric aperture of an objective which is
utilized depends upon the aperture of the cone of light
delivered by the condenser. In practice, the numeric
aperture of an objective is reduced nearly to that of
the condenser (which is indicated by lower-case letters,
n. a.).' The condenser should, therefore, have a
numeric aperture at least equal to that of the objective
with which it is to be used. Lowering the condenser
' The N. A. of the objective is not reduced wholly to that of the con-
denser, because, owing to difraction phenomena, a small part of the un-
illuminated portion of the black lens is utilized.
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 27
below its focal distance and closing the diaphragm be-
neath it have the eflfect of reducing its working aperture.
A condenser, whatever its numeric aperture, cannot
deliver through the air a cone of light of greater n. a.
than I. It follows, therefore, that the proper adjust-
ment of the substage condenser is a matter of great im-
portance when using objectives of high N. A., and that,
to gain the full benefit of the resolving power of such
objectives, the condenser must be focused on the object
under examination, it must be oiled to the under surface
of the slide in the same way as the immersion objective
is oiled to the cover-glass, and the substage diaphragm
must be wide open. The last condition introduces
a difficulty in that colorless structures will appear
"fogged" in a glare of light (Fig. 4). Wright suggests
that the size of the light source be so regulated by a
diaphragm that its image, thrown on the slide by the
condenser, coincides with the real field of the objective,
and maintains that in this way it is possible to reduce
the glare of light and to dispel the fog without closing
the diaphragm of the condenser.
One can easily determine how much of the aperture
of an objective is in use by removing the eye-piece, look-
ing down the tube, and observing what proportion of the
back lens of the objective is illuminated. The relation
of the illuminated central portion to the unilluminated
peripheral zone indicates the proportion of the numeric
aperture in use. The effect of raising and lowering the
condenser and of oiling it to the slide can thus be easily
seen.
Magnification. — The degree of magnification should
always be expressed in diameters, not times, which is a
28 INTRODUCTION
misleading term. The former refers to increase of
diameter; the latter, to increase of area. The compara-
tively low magnification of loo diameters is the same as
the apparently enormous magnification of 10,000 times.
The magnifying power of a lens is obtained by dividing
250 mm., or 10 inches (the distance of normal vision),
by the focal length of the lens. The focal length of an
objective is approximately twice the diameter of the
front lens. Thus, the 2 mm. objective gives a mag-
nification of 125 diameters; the 25 mm. eye-piece gives
a magnification of 10 diameters, and is usually designated
as a 10 X eye-piece. When an objective and eye-piece
are used together, the total magnification is the product
of the two. In the case just cited the total magnifica-
tion would be 1250 diameters. In practice, magnifi-
cation can be increased in one of three ways:
(a) Drawing out the tube. Since the increased tube-
length interferes with spheric correction, it should be
used only with the knowledge that an imperfect image
will result.
(b) Using a higher power objective. As a rule, this is
the best way, because resolving power is also increased;
but it is often undesirable because of the shorter working
distance, and because the higher objective often gives
greater magnification than is desired, or cuts down the
size of the real field to too great an extent.
(c) Using a shorter eye-piece. This is the simplest
method. It has, however, certain limitations. When
too high an eye-piece is used, there results a hazy image
in which no structural detail is seen clearly. This is
called " empty magnification," and depends upon the
fact that the objective has not sufl[icient resolving power
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 29
to support the high magnification. The extent to which
magnification can be satisfactorily increased by eye-
piecing depends wholly upon the resolving power of the
objective, and consequently upon the N. A. The great-
est total or combined magnification which will give an
absolutely crisp picture is found by multiplying the N. A.
of an objective by 400. The greatest magnification
which can be used at all satisfactorily is 1000 times the
N. A. For example: The ordinary 2 mm. objective has
a N. A. of 1.30; the greatest magnification which will
give an absolutely sharp picture is 520 diameters^ which
is obtained approximately by using a 4X eye-piece.
Higher eye-pieces can be used, up to a total magnifica-
tion of 1300 diameters (10 X eye-piece), beyond which
the image becomes wholly unsatisfactory.
Focusing. — It is always best to " focus up," which
saves annoyance and probable damage to slides and ob-
jectives. This is accomplished by bringing the objec-
tive nearer the slide than the proper focus, and then, with
the eye at the eye-piece, turning the tube up tmtil the
object is clearly seen. The fine adjustment should he
used only to get an exact focus with the higher power ob-
jectives after the instrument is in approximate focus.
It should not be turned more than one revolution.
There will be less fatigue to the eyes if both are kept
open while using the microscope, and if no effort is made
to see objects which are out of distinct focus. Fine
focusing should be done with the fine adjustment, not
with the eye. An experienced microscopist keeps his
fingers almost constantly upon one or other of the focus-
ing adjustments. Greater skill in recognizing objects
will be acquired if the same eye be always used. To be
3© INTRODUCTION
seen most clearly, an object should be brought to the
center of the field.
Care of the Microscope. — The microscope is a deH-
cate instrument and should be handled accordingly. It
is so heavy that one is apt to forget that parts of it are
fragile. It seems unnecessary to say that when there
is unusual resistance to any manipulation, force should
never be used to overcome it until its cause has first
been sought; and yet it is no uncommon thing to see
students, and even graduates, push a high-power objec-
tive against a microscopic preparation with such force
as to break not only the cover-glass, but even a heavy
slide.
It is most convenient to carry a microscope with the
fingers grasping the pillar and the arm which holds the
tube; but since this throws a strain upon the fine adjust-
ment, it is safer to carry it by the base. In the more
recent instruments a convenient handle-arm is provided.
To bend the instrument at the joint, the force should
be applied to the pillar and never to the tube or the stage.
Lens surfaces which have been exposed to dust only
should be cleaned with a camel's-hair brush. Those
which are exposed to finger-marks should be cleaned with
lens paper, or a soft linen handkerchief wet with saliva.
Particles of dirt which are seen in the field are upon the
slide, the eye-piece, or the condenser. Their location
can be determined by moving the slide, rotating the eye-
piece, and lowering the condenser. When the image is
hazy, the objective probably needs cleaning; or in case of
an oil-immersion lens, there may be bubbles in the oil.
Oil and balsam which have dried upon the lenses and
resist saliva may be removed with alcohol or xylol; but
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 3!
these solvents must be used sparingly and carefully, as
there is danger of softening the cement. Care must be
taken not to get any alcohol upon the brass parts, as it
will remove the lacquer. Balsam and dried oil are best
removed from the brass parts with xylol.
Choice of a Microscope. — It is poor economy to buy
a cheap instrument.
For the work of a clinical laboratory the microscope
should preferably be of the new handle-arm type, and
should have a large stage. It should be provided with a
substage condenser (preferably of 1.40 n. a.), three or
more objectives, and two or more eye-pieces.
The most generally useful objectives are: 16 mm.,
4 mm., and 2 mm. oil immersion. The 4 mm. objective
may be obtained with N. A. of 0.65 or 0.85. If it is to
be used for blood-counting, the former is preferable, since
its working distance is sufficient to take the thick cover
of the Thoma-Zeiss instrument. For coarse objects a
32 mm. objective is very desirable. The eye-pieces
most frequently used are 4 X and 8 X . A very low power
(2X) and a very high (18 X) will sometimes be found
useful. The micrometer eye-piece is almost a necessity.
A mechanical stage, preferably of the attachable type,
is almost indispensable for blood and certain other work.
A first-class microscope, of either American or foreign
make, equipped as just described, will cost in the neigh-
borhood of a hundred dollars, exclusive of the mechanical
stage.
- Measurement of Microscopic Objects. — Of the several
methods, the most convenient is the use of a micrometer
eye-piece. In its simplest form this is similar to an
ordinary eye-piece, but has within it a glass disc upon
32 INTRODUCTION
which is ruled a graduated scale. When this eye-piece is
placed in the tube of the microscope, the ruled lines ap-
pear in the microscopic field, and the size of an object is
readily determined in terms of the divisions of this scale.
The value of these divisions in inches or millimeters
manifestly varies with different magnifications. Their
value must, therefore, be determined separately for each
objective. This is accomplished through use of a stage
micrometer — a glass slide with carefully ruled scale
divided into hundredths and thousandths of an inch, or
into subdivisions of a millimeter. • The stage micrometer
is placed upon the stage of the microscope and brought
into focus. From the number of divisions of the eye-
piece scale corresponding to each division of the stage
micrometer the value of the former in fractions of an
inch or millimeter is easily calculated. The counting
slide of the Thoma-Zeiss hemocytometer will answer
in place of a stage micrometer, the lines which form the
sides of the small squares being one-twentieth of a milli-
meter apart. Any eye-piece can be converted into a
micrometer eye-piece by placing a micrometer disc —
a small circular glass plate with ruled scale — ruled side
down upon its diaphragm.
The principal microscopic objects which are measured
clinically are animal parasites and their ova and abnor-
mal blood-corpuscles. The metric system is used almost
exclusively. For very small objects o.ooi mm. has been
adopted as the unit of measurement, under the name
micron. It is represented by the Greek letter y.. For
larger objects, where exact measurement is not essential,
the diameter of a red blood-corpuscle (7 to 8 /u) is some-
times taken as a unit.
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 33
Tuttle has suggested that in feces and other examina-
tions a little lycopodium powder be mixed with the
material. The granules are of uniform size — 30 (i in
diameter — and are easily recognized (Fig. 5). They
furnish a useful standard with which the size of other
structures can be compared.
Fig. s- — Egg of Tsenia saginata. Lycopodium granules used as micrometer (X 250)
(photograph by the author).
Photoniicrography. — Very satisfactory pictures of mi-
croscopic structures can be made by any one with simple
apparatus.
Any camera with focusing screen or a Kodak with
plate attachment may be used. It is best, but not neces-
sary, to remove the photographic lens. The camera is
placed with the lens (or lens-opening, if the lens has been
removed) looking into the eye-piece of the microscope,
which may be in either the vertical or the horizontal
position. One can easily rig up a standard to which the
camera can be attached in the proper position by means
of a tripod screw. A light-tight connection can be made
3
34 INTRODUCTION
of a cylinder of paper or a cloth sleeve with draw-strings.
The image will be thrown upon the ground-glass focusing
screen, and is focused by means of the fine adjustment of
the microscope. The degree of magnification is ascer-
tained by placing the ruled plate of the blood-counting
instrument upon the microscope and measuring the
image on the screen. The desired magnification is
obtained by changing objectives or eye-pieces or length-
ening the camera-draw.
Focusing is comparatively easy with low powers, but
when using an oil-immersion objective, it is a difficult
problem unless the source of light be very brilliant. If
one always uses the same length of camera and micro-
scope tube, a good plan is as follows: Ascertain by trial
with a strong light how far the fine adjustment screw
must be turned from the correct eye focus to bring the
image into sharp focus upon the ground-glass screen.
At any future time one has only to focus accurately
with the eye, bring the camera into position, and turn the
fine adjustment the required distance to right or left.
The Hght should be as intense as possible, in order to
shorten exposure, but any light that is satisfactory for
ordinary microscopic work will answer. It is nearly
always necessary to insert a color screen between the
light and the microscope. Pieces of colored window-
glass are useful for this purpose. The screen should have
a color complementary to that which it is desired to bring
out strongly in the photograph: for blue structures, a
yellow screen; for red structures, a green screen. For
the average stained preparation, a picric-acid yellow or a
yellow green will be found satisfactory.
Very fair pictures can be made on Kodak film, but
USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 35
orthochromatic plates (of which Cramer's " Iso " and
Seed's " Ortho " are examples) give much better re-
sults. The length of exposure depends upon so many
factors that it can be determined only by trial. It
will probably vary from a few seconds to fifteen minutes.
Plates are developed in the usual way,— the tank method
yielding most uniform and satisfactory results, — but in
order to secure all the contrast possible, they should be
considerably overdeveloped.
Fig. 6. — ^Leukemic blood (about X 650). Photograph taken with a iiodak, as described
in the text.
The photograph from which Fig. 6 was made was taken
with a Kodak and plate attachment on an " Iso " plate,
the source of light being the electric lamp and condensing
lens illustrated in Fig. 2. It was focused by the method
described above. The screen was a picric-acid stained
photographic plate. Exposure, three and a half min-
utes. The picture loses considerable detail in reproduc-
tion.
CHAPTER I
THE SPUTUM
Preliminary Considerations. — Before beginning the
study of the sputum, the student will do well to familiar-
ize himself with the structures which may be present
in the normal mouth, and which frequently appear in the
sputum as contaminations. Nasal mucus and material
obtained by scraping the tongue and about the teeth
should be studied as described for unstained sputum. A
drop of Lugol's solution should then be placed at the
edge of the cover, and, as it runs under, the effect upon
different structures noted. Another portion should be
spread upon slides or covers and stained by some simple
stain and by Gram's method. The structures likely to
be encountered are epithelial cells of columnar and
squamous types, leukocytes, food-particles, Lepto-
thrix huccalis, and great numbers of saprophytic bac-
teria, frequently including spirochetes. These struc-
tures are described later.
The morning sputum or the whole amount for twenty-
four hours should be collected for examination. In
beginning tuberculosis tubercle bacilli can often be found
in that first coughed up in the morning when they can-
not be detected at any other time of day. Sometimes, in
these early cases, there are only a few mucopurulent flakes
which contain the bacilH, or only a small purulent mass
every few days, and these may easily be overlooked.
36
THE SPUTUM 37
Patients should be instructed to rinse the mouth
well in order to avoid contamination with food-particles
which may prove confusing in the examination, and to
make sure that the sputum comes from the lungs or
bronchi and not from the nose and nasopharynx. Many
persons find it difficult to distinguish between the two.
It is always desirable that the material be raised with a
distinct expulsive cough, but this is not always possible.
Material from the upper air-passages can usually be iden-
tified from the large proportion of mucus and the charac-
ter of the epithelial cells.
As a receptacle for the sputum, a clean, wide-mouthed
bottle with tightly fitting cork may be used. The pa-
tient must be particularly cautioned against smearing
any of it upon the outside of the bottle. This is prob-
ably the chief source of danger to those who examine
sputum. Disinfectants should not be added. They
so alter the character of the sputum as to render it
unfit for satisfactory examination.
"^Tien the examination is begun, the material should
be spread out in a thin layer in a Petri dish, or between
two small plates of glass, Hke photographic plates.
It may then be examined with the naked eye — best
over a black background — or with a low power of the
microscope. The portions most suitable for further
examination may thus be easily selected. This macro-
scopic examination should never he omitted.
After an examination the sputum must be destroyed
by heat or chemicals, and everything which has come in
contact with it must be sterilized . The utmost care must
be taken not to allow any of it to dry and become dis-
seminated through the air. It is a good plan to con-
38 THE SPUTUM
duct the examination upon a large newspaper, which
can then be burned. Contamination of the work table
is thus avoided. If this is not feasible, the table should
be washed off with 10 per cent, lysol solution, and allowed
to dry slowly, as soon as the sputum work is finished.
Examination of the sputum is most conveniently con-
sidered under four heads: I. Physical examination.
II. Microscopic examination. III. Chemic examination.
IV. Characteristics of the sputum in various diseases.
I. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
1. Quantity. — The quantity expectorated in twenty-
four hours varies greatly. It may be so slight as to be
overlooked entirely in beginning tuberculosis. It is
usually small in acute bronchitis and lobar pneumonia.
It may be very large — sometimes as much as 1000 c.c. —
in advanced tuberculosis with large cavities, edema of the
lung, bronchiectasis, and following rupture of an abscess
or empyema. It is desirable to obtain a general idea of
the quantity, but accurate measurement is unnecessary.
2. Color. — Since the sputum ordinarily consists of
varying proportions of mucus and pus, it may vary from
a colorless, translucent mucus to an opaque, whitish or
yellow, purulent mass. A yellowish green is frequently
seen in advanced phthisis and chronic bronchitis. In
jaundice, in caseous pneumonia, and in slowly resolv-
ing lobar pneumonia it may assume a bright green color,
due to bile or altered blood-pigment.
A red color usually indicates the presence of blood.
Bright red blood, most commonly in streaks, is strongly
suggestive of phthisis. It may be noted very early in the
disease. A rusty red sputum is the rule in croupous
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 39
pneumonia, and was at one time considered pathogno-
monic of the disease. " Prune- juice " sputum is said to
be characteristic of '' drunkard's pneumonia." It at
least indicates a dangerous type of the disease. A
brown color, due to altered blood-pigment, follows
hemorrhages from the lungs, and is present, to greater or
less degree, in chronic passive congestion of the lung,
which is most frequently due to a heart lesion.
Gray or black sputum is observed among those who
work much in coal-dust, and is occasionally seen in
smokers who are accustomed to " inhale."
3. Consistence. — According to their consistence, sputa
are usually classified as serous, mucoid, purulent, sero-
purulent, mucopurulent, etc., which names explain them-
selves. As a rule, the more mucus and the less pus and
serum a sputum contains, the more tenacious it is.
The rusty sputum of croupous pneumonia is extremely
tenacious, so that the vessel in which it is contained may
be inverted without spilling it. The same is true of the
almost purely mucoid sputum (" sputum crudum ") of
beginning acute bronchitis, and of that which follows
an attack of asthma. A purely serous sputum, usually
slightly blood tinged, is fairly characteristic of edema of
the lungs.
4. Dittrich's Plugs. — While these bodies sometimes
appear in the sputum, they are more frequently ex-
pectorated alone. They are caseous masses, usually
about the size of a pin-head, but sometimes reaching
that of a bean. The smaller ones are yellow, the larger
ones gray. When crushed, they emit a foul odor.
Microscopically, they consist of granular debris, fat-glob-
ules, fatty acid crystals, and bacteria. They are formed
40 THE SPUTUM
in the bronchi, and are sometimes expectorated by
healthy persons, but are more frequent in putrid bron-
chitis and bronchiectasis. The laity commonly regard
them as evidence of tuberculosis. The similar caseous
masses which are formed in the crj'pts of the tonsils are
sometimes also included under this name.
11. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
The portions most likely to contain structures of
interest should be very carefully selected, as already
described. The few minutes spent in this preliminary
examination will sometimes save hours of work later.
Opaque, white or yellow particles are most frequently
bits of food, but may be cheesy masses from the tonsils;
small cheesy nodules, derived from tuberculous cavities
and containing many tubercle bacilli and elastic fibers;
Curschmann's spirals, or small fibrinous casts, coiled into
little balls; or shreds of mucus with great numbers of
entangled pus-corpuscles. The food-particles most apt
to cause confusion are bits of bread, which can be recog-
nized by the blue color which they assume when touched
with iodin solution.
Some structures are best identified without staining;
others require that the sputum be stained.
A. Unstained Sputum
A careful study of the unstained sputum should be
included in every routine examination. It best reveals
certain structures which are seen imperfectly or not at
all in stained preparations. It gives a general idea of
the other structures which are present, such as pus-
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 41
corpu§cles, eosinophiles, epithelial cells, and blood, and
thus suggests appropriate stains to be used later.
The particle selected for examination should be trans-
ferred to a clean sUde, covered with a clean cover-glass,
and examined with the i6 mm. objective, followed by
the 4 mm. It is convenient to handle the bits of
sputum with a wooden tooth-pick or with a wooden
cotton-applicator, which may be burned when done with.
The platinum wire used in bacteriologic work is less
satisfactory because not usually stiff enough.
The more important structures to be seen in unstained
sputum are: elastic fibers, Curschmann's spirals, Char-
cot-Leyden crystals, fibrinous casts, the ray fungus of
actinomycosis, and molds. Pigmented cells, especially
the so-called " heart-failure cells " (p. 62), are also best
studied without staining (Plate II, Fig. i).
1. Elastic Fibers.— These are the elastic fibers of
the pulmonary substance (Fig. 7). When found in the
sputum, they always indicate destructive disease of the
lung, provided they do not come from the food, which is
a not infrequent source. They are found most com-
monly in phthisis; rarely in other diseases. Advanced
cases of tuberculosis often show great numbers, and,
rarely, they may be found in early tuberculosis when the
bacilli cannot be detected. In gangrene of the lung,
contrary to the older teaching, elastic tissue is probably
always present in the sputum, usually in large fragments.
The fibers should be searched for with a 16 mm.
objective, although a higher power is needed to identify
them with certainty. Under the 4 mm. they appear as
slender, highly refractive fibers with double contour, and
often curled or spHt ends. Frequently they are found
42 THE SPUTUM
in alveolar arrangement, retaining the original outline of
the alveoli of the lung (Fig. 7, 6). This arrangement
is positive proof of their origin in the lung. Leptothrix
buccalis, which is a normal inhabitant of the mouth,
may easily be mistaken for elastic tissue. It can be dis-
tinguished by running a little iodin solution under the
cover-glass (see p. 56).
Fig. 7. — Elastic fibers from the sputum: o, Highly magnified; b, alveolar arrangement,
less highly magnified (after Bizzozero).
Fatty-acid crystals, which are often present in Dit-
trich's plugs and in sputum which has lain in the body
for some time, also simulate elastic tissue when very
long, but they are more like stiff, straight or curved
needles than wavy threads. They show varicosities
when the cover-glass is pressed upon. The structures
which most frequently confuse the student are the cotton
fibrils which are present as a contamination in most
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 43
sputa. These are usually coarser than elastic fibers, and
flat, with one or two twists, and often have longitudinal
striations and frayed-out ends.
To find elastic fibers when not abundant, boil the
sputum with a 10 per cent, solution of caustic soda until
it becomes fluid; add several times its bulk of water, and
centrifugalize, or allow to stand for twenty-four hours in
a conical glass. Examine the sediment microscopically.
The fibers will be pale and swollen and, therefore,
somewhat difficult to recognize. Too long boiling will
destroy them entirely.
The above procedure, although widely recommended,
will rarely or never be necessary if the sputum is care-
fully examined in a thin layer against a black back-
ground macroscopically and with a hand-lens, and if all
suspicious portions are further studied with the micro-
scope.
2. Curschmann's Spirals.— These pecuHar structures
are found most frequently in bronchial asthma, of
which they are fairly characteristic. They may occa-
sionally be met with in chronic bronchitis and other
conditions. Their nature has not been definitely deter-
mined.
Macroscopically, they are whitish or yellow, twisted
threads, frequently coiled into little balls (Fig. 8, I).
Their length is rarely over half an inch, though it some-
times exceeds two inches. Under a 16 mm. objective
they appear as mucous threads having a clear central
fiber, about which are wound many fine fibrils (Fig. 8,
II. and III.). Eosinophiles are usually present within
them, and sometimes Charcot-Leyden crystals. Not
infrequently the spirals are imperfectly formed, con-
44
THE SPUTUM
sisting merely of twisted strands of mucus inclosing
leukocytes. The central fiber is absent from these.
3. Charcot=Leyden Crystals.— Of the crystals which
may be found in the sputum, the most interesting are the
Charcot-Leyden crystals. They may be absent when
the sputum is expectorated, and appear in large numbers
after it has stood for some time. They are rarely found
,M
I. II III.
Fig. 8. — Curschmann's spirals: I., Natural size; II. and HI., enlarged: a, central fiber
(after Curschmann).
except in cases of bronchial asthma, and were at one
time thought to be the cause of the disease. They
frequently adhere to Curschmann spirals. Their exact
nature is unknown. Their formation seems to be in
some way connected with the presence of eosinophilic
cells. Outside of the sputum they are found in the
feces in association with animal parasites, and in the
coagulated blood in leukemia.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
45
They are colorless, pointed, often needle-like, octa-
hedral crystals (Fig. 9). Their size varies greatly, the
average length being about three or four times the
diameter of a red blood-corpuscle.
Fig. 9. — Charcot-Leyden crystals (after Riegel).
Other crystals — hematoidin, cholesterin, and, most
frequently, fatty-acid needles (see Fig. 36)^ — are common
in sputum which has remained in the body for a consider-
able time, as in abscess of the lung and bronchiectasis.
4. Fibrinous Casts.— These are casts of the bronchi,
frequently, but not always, composed of fibrin. In
color they are usually white or grayish, but may be
reddish or brown, from the presence of blood-pigment.
Their size varies with that of the bronchi in which they
are formed. They may, rarely, be fifteen or more
centimeters in length. When large, they can be recog-
46 THE SPUTUM
nized with the naked eye by floating them out in water
over a black surface; when small, a low power of the
microscope must be used. Their branching, tree-like
structure (Fig. 10) is usuall}^ sufficient to identify them.
Fibrinous casts are characteristic of fibrinous bron-
chitis, but may also be found in diphtheria of the smaller
bronchi. Very small casts are often seen in croupous
pneumonia.
Fig. 10. — Fibrinous bronchial cast (Sahli).
5. Actinomyces Bovis (Ray=fungus). — In the sputum
of pulmonary actinomycosis and in the pus from actino-
mycotic lesions elsewhere small, yellowish, " sulphur "
granules can be detected with the unaided eye. With-
out a careful macroscopic examination they are almost
certain to be overlooked. The fungus can be seen by
crushing one of these granules between slide and cover,
and examining with a low power. It consists of a net-
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
47
work of threads having a more or less radial arrangement,
those at the periphery presenting club-shaped extremi-
ties (Fig. ii). It can be brought out more clearly by
running a little solution of eosin in alcohol and glycerin
under the cover. This organism, also called Strepto-
thrix actinomyces, apparently stands midway between
the bacteria and the molds. It stains by Gram's method.
Actinomycosis of the lung is rare. The clinical pic-
ture is that of tuberculosis.
Fig. n. — Sputum from a case of actinomycosis; stained (Jakob).
6. Molds and Yeasts.— The hyphae and spores of
various molds are occasionally met with in the sputum.
They are usually the result of contamination, and have
little significance. The hyphae are rods, usually jointed
or branched (Fig. 62), and often arranged in a mesh work
(myceHum); the spores are highly refractive spheres.
Both stain well with the ordinary stains.
In the extremely rare condition of systemic blasto-
mycosis the specific yeasts have been found in the sputum
48 THE SPUTUM
in large numbers. It is advisable to add a little lo per
cent, caustic soda solution and examine unstained.
7. Animal Parasites.— These are extremely rare in
the sputum in this country. A trichomonad, perhaps
identical with Trichomonas vaginalis, has been seen in
the sputum of putrid bronchitis and gangrene of the
lung, but its causal relationship is doubtful. In Japan,
infection with the lung flukeworm, Paragonimus wes-
termani, is common, and the ova are found in the
sputum. The lung is not an uncommon seat for echino-
coccus cysts, and booklets and scolices may appear, as
may also A moeba histolytica, when a hepatic abscess has
ruptured into the lung. Ciliated body-cells, with cilia
in active motion, are not infrequently seen, and may
easily be mistaken for infusoria. All the above-men-
tioned parasites are described in Chapter VI.
B. Stained Sputum
Structures which are best seen in stained sputum are
bacteria and cells.
A number of smears should be made upon slides or
covers, dried in the air, and fixed in the flame, as de-
scribed on the next page. Fixation will kill the bac-
teria when covers are used, and the smears may be kept
indefinitely; but smears on slides are often not sterile,
and should be handled accordingly. One of the smears
should be stained with some simple stain, like Lofiler's
methylene-blue, which will give a good idea of the
various cells and bacteria present. Special stains may
then be applied, as indicated, but a routine examination
should, in all cases, include a stain by the method for
the tubercle bacillus and by Gram's method.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 49
1 . Bacteria. — Saprophytic bacteria from mouth con-
tamination are frequently present in large numbers and
will prove confusing to the inexperienced. The pres-
ence of squamous cells in their neighborhood will sug-
gest their source. Among the pathogenic organisms
which have clinical importance are: tubercle bacilli;
staphylococci and streptococci; pneumococci; bacilli of
Friedlander; influenza bacilU, and Micrococcus catar-
rhdlis.
(i) Tubercle Bacillus. — The presence of the tubercle
bacillus may be taken as positive evidence of the ex-
istence of tuberculosis somewhere along the respiratory
tract, most likely in the lung. In laryngeal tuberculosis
it is not easily found in the sputum, but can fre-
quently be detected in swabs made directly from the
larynx.
Recognition of the tubercle bacillus depends upon the
fact that it stains with difficulty; but that when once
stained, it retains the stain tenaciously, even when
treated with a mineral acid, which quickly removes the
stain from other bacteria. This " acid-fast " property
is due to the presence of a waxy capsule. The most
convenient method for general purposes is here given
in detail:
Gabbet's Method. — (i) Spread suspicious particles thinly
and evenly upon a slide or a cover-glass held in the grasp of
cover-glass forceps. In general, slides are more satisfactory,
but cover-glasses are easier to handle while staining. Do not
grasp a cover too near the edge or the stain will not stay
on it well. Tenacious sputum will spread better if gently
warmed while spreading.
(2) Dry the film in the air.
4
50 THE SPUTUM
(3) Fix in a flame; i. e., pass the cover-glass rather slowly,
with film side up, three times (a slide about twelve times)
through the flame of a Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp low
down in the flame. Take care not to scorch. Should the
film be washed off during future manipulations, fixation has
been insufficient.
(4) Apply as much carbolfuchsin as will stay on, and hold
over a flame so that it will steam for three minutes or longer,
replacing the stain as it evaporates. If the bacilli are well
stained in this step, there will be little danger of decolorizing
them later. Too great heat will interfere with the staining
of some of the bacilli, probably by destroying the waxy
envelop upon which the acid-fast property depends. It is
better to stain at room temperature for twelve to twenty-
four hours.
(5) Wash the film in water.
(6) Apply Gabbet's stain to the under side of the cover-
glass to remove excess of carbolfuchsin, and then to the film
side. Allow this to act for one-fourth to one-half minute.
(7) Wash in water.
(8) If, now, the thinner portions of the film are blue, pro-
ceed to the next step; if they are still red, repeat steps (6)
and (7) until the red has disappeared. Too long application
of Gabbet's stain will decolorize the tubercle bacilli.
(9) Place the preparation between layers of filter-paper and
dry by rubbing with the fingers, as one would in blotting ink,
(10) Put a drop of Canada balsam upon a clean slide, place
the cover-glass film side down upon it, and examine with an
immersion objective. Cedar oil or water may be used in
place of balsam for temporary preparations. Smears on
slides may be examined directly with an oil-immersion lens,
no cover being necessary.
Carbolfuchsin is prepared by mixing 10 c.c. of a saturated
alcoholic solution of fuchsin with 90 c.c. of 5 per cent, aqueous
solution of phenol.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATLON CI
Gabbet's stain consists of n^^^ylene-bIue/0 2 §nt\,;^25 per
cent, sulphuric acid, loo c.c. '^^^-l/> fir ^ ' ^^^f^fiTrj
Both stains can be purchased ready prepared; -'^ Up f-_^
Other Methods. — The objection is often raised that de- 'v /^
colorization is masked by the blue in Gabbet's stain, but this
will not make trouble if step 8 is carefully carried out. The
Ziehl-Neelsen method is preferred by many: After the stain-
ing with carbolfuchsin the smear is washed in 5 per cent,
nitric acid until decolorized, washed in water, stained lightly
with LofHer's methylene-blue, again washed, and mounted.
Pappenheim's Method. — This is the same as Gabbet's
method, except that Pappenheim's methylene-blue solution
is substituted for Gabbet's solution. This consists of:
Corallin (rosolic acid) i gm.
Absolute alcohol 100 c.c.
Saturate with methylene-blue and add 20 c.c. glycerin.
The method is very satisfactory for routine work. De-
colorization of the tubercle bacillus is practically impos-
sible: it retains its red color, even when soaked overnight
in Pappenheim's solution. The stain was originally recom-
mended as a means of differentiating the smegma bacillus,
which is decolorized by it; but it is not to be absolutely relied
upon for this purpose.
In films stained by these methods tubercle bacilli,
if present, will be seen as slender red rods upon a blue
background of mucus and cells (Plate. II, Fig. 2). They
average 3 to 4 ll in length — about one-half the diameter
of a red blood-corpuscle. Beginners must be warned
against mistaking the edges of cells, or particles which
have retained the red stain, for bacilli. The appear-
ance of the bacilli is almost always typical, and if there
52 THE SPUTUM
seems room for doubt, the structure in question is prob-
ably not a tubercJe bacillus. They may lie singly or in
groujw. They are very frequently bent and often have
a beaded appearance. It is possible that the larger,
beaded bacilli indicate a less active tuberculous process
than do the smaller, uniformly stained ones. Some-
times they are present in great numbers — thousands
in a field of the 2 mm. objective. Sometimes sev-
eral cover-glasses must be examined to find a single
bacillus. At times they are so few that none are found
in stained smears, and special methods are required
to detect them. The number may bear some relation
to the severity of the disease, but this relation is by no
means constant. The mucoid sputum from an incip-
ient case sometimes contains great numbers, while
sputum from large tuberculous cavities at times contains
very few. Failure to find them is not conclusive,
though their absence is much more significant when the
sputum is purulent than when it is mucoid.
When they are not found in suspicious cases, one of
the following methods should be tried:
(i) Antiformin Method. — This has lately come into use,
and has superseded the older methods of concentration.
The chief difficulty with the older methods, such as boiling
with caustic soda, is that the bacilli are so injured in the
process that they do not stain characteristically.
Antiformin is the patented name for a preparation con-
sisting essentially of equal parts of a 15 per cent, solution of
caustic soda and a 20 per cent, solution of sodium hypo-
chlorite. It keeps fairly well. The sputum is thoroughly
shaken in a corked bottle with one-fourth its volume of anti-
formin, and allowed to stand four to six hours in an incubator,
PLATE II
Fig. I. — Heart-failure cells in sputum, containing blood-pigment, from
a case of cardiac congestion of the lungs (Jakob).
Fig. 2. — A, Sputum showing tubercle bacilli stained with car-
bolfuchsin and Gabbet's methylene-blue solution (obj. one-twelfth
oil-immersion); B, sputum of anthracosis, showing particles of coal-dust
stained with methylene-blue (obj. one-twelfth oil-immersion) (Boston).
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 53
or twenty-four hours at room-temperature. The sputum will
be thoroughly liquefied. A centrifuge tubeful is thoroughly
centrifugalized, the supernatant fluid is poured off and
replaced with water, and centrifugalization is repeated.
This washing is repeated several times. Some of the sedi-
ment is then spread upon slides (with a little egg-albumen
or some of the untreated sputum to cause it to adhere),
dried, fixed, and stained. The tubercle bacilli are not killed,
but retain their form and staining properties unchanged.
Other bacteria and cells are destroyed.
Since the bacilli remain alive, the utmost care must be
used in handling, and all tubes and glassware which have
come in contact with the liquefied sputum must be
sterilized.
(2) Animal Inoculation. — Inoculation of guinea-pigs is
the court of last appeal in detection of tubercle bacilli. The
method is described on p. 375--
There are a number of bacilli, called acid-fast bacilli,
which stain in the same way as the tubercle bacillus.
They stain with difficulty, and when once stained, retain
the color even when treated with a mineral acid; but,
unlike the tubercle bacillus, most of them can be decolor-
ized with alcohol. Of these, the smegma bacillus is the
only one likely ever to cause confusion. It, or a similar
bacillus, is sometimes found in the sputum of gangrene
of the lung. It occurs normally about the glans penis
and the clitoris, and is often present in the urine and in
the wax of the ear. The method of distinguishing it
from" the tubercle bacillus is given later (p. 168).
Other bacteria than the acid-fast group are stained
blue by Gabbet's method. Those most commonly found
are staphylococci, streptococci, and pneumococci. Their
54 THE SPUTUM
presence in company with the tubercle bacillus consti-
tutes mixed infection, which is much more serious than
single infection by the tubercle bacillus. It is to be
remembered, however, that a few of these bacteria may
reach the sputum from the upper air-passages. Clini-
cally, mixed infection is evidenced by fever.
(2) Staphylococcus and Streptococcus (p. 368). — One
or both of these organisms is commonly present in com-
pany with the tubercle bacillus in the sputum of ad-
vanced phthisis (Plate II, Fig. 2). They are often
found in bronchitis, catarrhal pneumonia, and many
other conditions.
(3) Pneumococcus (Diplococcus of Frankel). — ^The
pneumococcus is the causative agent in nearly all cases
of croupous pneumonia, and is commonly found in large
numbers in the rusty sputum of this disease. It is some-
times met with in the sputum of catarrhal pneumonia,
bronchitis, and tuberculosis. It is also an important
factor in the causation of pleurisy, meningitis, otitis
media, and other inflammations. It has been found in
the saliva in health. Pneumococci are about the size of
streptococci. They are ovoid in shape, and lie in pairs,
end to end, often forming short chains. Each is sur-
rounded by a gelatinous capsule, which is its distinctive
feature (Fig. 12). Diplococci without capsules are com-
mon in the sputum, but have no special significance.
The pneumococcus is closely related to the strepto-
coccus, and it is sometimes extremely difficult to differ-
entiate them even by culture methods (for which see
p. 368). The morphology of the pneumococcus, the
fact that it is Gram-positive, and the presence of a cap-
sule are, however, generally sufficient for its recognition
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 55
in smears from sputum or pus. The capsule is often
seen as a halo around pairs of cocci in smears stained
by the ordinary methods, particularly Gram's method,
but to show it well special methods are required.
There are numerous special methods of staining cap-
sules which are applicable to other encapsulated bacteria,
as well as to the pneumococcus, but few of them are
satisfactory. Buerger's method can be recommended.
It is especially useful with cultures upon serum media,
Fig. 12. — Diplococcus pneumonix in the blood ( X looo) (Frankel and Pfeiffer).
but is applicable also to the sputum. Smith's new
method is easier of application, and apparently gives
uniformly good results. The India-ink method described
for the organism of syphilis is likewise said to show
capsules satisfactorily. The sputum should be fresh —
not more than three or four hours old.
Buerger's Method for Capsules. — (i) Mix a few drops
each of the sputum and blood-serum or egg-albumen solu-
56 THE SPUTUM
tion (egg-albumen, distilled water, equal parts; shake and
filter through cotton). Blood-serum can be obtained as
described for the Widal test, p. 258. Make thin smears from
the mixture, and just as the edges begin to dry, cover with
Miiller's fluid (potassium dichromate, 2.5 gm.; sodium sul-
phate, i.o gm.; water, 100 c.c.) saturated with mercuric
chlorid (ordinarily about 5 per cent.). Gently warm over
a flame for about three seconds.
(2) Rinse very quickly in water,
(3) Flush once with alcohol.
(4) Apply tincture of iodin for one to two minutes.
(5) Thoroughly wash off the iodin with alcohol and dry in
the air.
(6) Stain about three seconds with weak anilin-gentian-
violet freshly made up as follows: Anilin oil, 10; water, 100;
shake; filter; and add 5 c.c. of a saturated alcoholic solution
of gentian violet.
(7) Rinse off the stain with 2 per cent, solution of sodium
chlorid, mount in this solution, and examine with a one-
twelfth objective.
Buerger suggests a very useful variation as follows: After
the alcohol wash and drying, the specimen is stained by
Gram's method (p. 409), counterstained with aqueous solu-
tion of fuchsin, washed, and mounted in water. The
pneumococcus holds the purple stain, while all capsules
take on the pink counterstain.
Smith's Method. — (i) Make thin smears of the sputum
or other material, which should be as fresh as possible.
(2) Fix in the flame in the usual manner.
(3) Apply a 10 per cent, aqueous solution of phospho-
molybdic acid (Merck) for four to five seconds.
(4) Rinse in water.
(5) Apply anilin-gentian- violet, steaming gently for
fifteen to thirty seconds.
(6) Rinse in water.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 57
(7) Apply Gram's iodin solution, steaming gently for
fifteen to thirty seconds.
(8) Wash in 95 per cent, alcohol until the purple color
ceases to come off.
(9) Rinse in water.
(10) Apply a 6 per cent, aqueous solution of eosin (Grii-
bler, w. g.), and gently warm for one-half to one minute.
(11) Rinse in water.
(12) Wash in absolute alcohol.
(13) Clear in xylol.
(14) Mount in balsam.
This is essentially Gram's method (seep. 409), preceded
by treatment with phosphomolybdic acid and followed by
eosin. Gram-positive bacteria like the pneumococcus are
deep purple; capsules are pink and stand out clearly.
When the method is applied to Gram-negative bacteria,
steps 5 to 9 inclusive are omitted ; between steps 1 1 and 1 2
the preparation is counterstained with Loffler's methylene-
blue, gently warming for fifteen to thirty seconds.
A nilin- gentian-violet. — Ehrlich's formula is the one gener-
ally used, but this keeps only a few weeks. Stirling's solu-
tion, which keeps much better and seems to give equal results,
is as follows: gentian-violet, 5 gm.; alcohol, 10 c.c; anilin
oil, 2 c.c; water, 88 c.c.
Formalin- gentian-violet is a satisfactory substitute for
anilin-gentian-violet and is permanent. It consists of 5 per
cent, solution formalin, 75 parts; saturated alcohohc solution
gentian-violet, 25 parts.
Gram's Iodin Solution. — Iodin, i gm.; potassium iodid,
2 gm.; water, 300 c.c.
Loffler^s alkaline methylene-bliie is a very generally useful
stain for bacteria. It is composed of 30 parts of a saturated
alcoholic solution of methylene-blue and 100 parts of a
I : 10,000 aqueous solution of caustic potash. It keeps
indefinitely.
58 THE SPUTUM
(4) Bacillus of Friedlander (Bacillus Mucosus Cap-
sulatus). — In a small percentage of cases of pneumonia
this organism is found alone or in company with the
pneumococcus. Its pathologic significance is uncer-
tain. It is often present in the respiratory tract under
normal conditions. Friedliinder's bacilli are non-motile,
encapsulated rods, sometimes arranged in short chains
(Fig. 13) . Very short individuals in pairs closely resemble
pneumococci, from which they are distinguished by the
fact that they are Gram-decolorizing.
(5) Bacillus of Influenza. — This
is the etiologic factor in true in-
fluenza, although conditions which
are clinically similar or identical
may be caused by the pneumococ-
cus, streptococcus, or Micrococcus
catarrhalis. It is present, often in
Friediandcr's large uumbcrs, in the nasal and
bacillus in pus from pulmon- , , ,
ary abscess (obj. one-twelfth) brouchial secrctions, and is also
(Boston). found in the local lesions following
influenza. Chronic infection by influenza bacilli may
be mistaken clinically for tuberculosis, and they should
be searched for in all cases of obstinate chronic bron-
chitis.
Their recognition depends upon the facts that they
are extremely small bacilli ; that most of them lie within
the pus-cells; that their ends stain more deeply than their
centers, sometimes giving the appearance of minute
diplococci; and that they are decolorized by Gram's
method of staining (Figs. 14 and 149).
They are stained blue in the methods for tubercle
bacilli, but are more certainly recognized by Gram's
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 59
method, followed by a counterstain. Pappenheim's
pyronin-methyl-green stain is especially satisfactory.
(6) Micrococcus Catarrhalis. — This organism is fre-
quently present in the sputum in inflammatory condi-
tions of the respiratory tract resembling influenza.
It is sometimes present in the nasal secretions in health.
It is a Gram-negative diplococcus, frequently intra-
cellular, and can be distinguished from the meningo-
Fig. 14. — Bacillus of influenza; cover-glass preparation of sputum from a case of influenza,
showing the bacilli in leukocytes; highly magnified (Pfeiffer).
coccus and gonococcus only by means of cultures. It
grows readily on ordinary media.
2. Cells. — These include pus-corpuscles, epithelial
cells, and red blood-corpuscles.
(i) Pus-corpuscles are present in every sputum, and
at times the sputum may consist of little else. They are
the polymorphonuclear leukocytes of the blood, and
appear as rounded cells with several nuclei or one very
irregular nucleus (Fig. 11 and Plate II, Fig. 2). They
6o THE SPUTUM
are frequently filled with granules of coal-dust and are
often much degenerated. Such coal-dust-laden leuko-
cytes are especially abundant in anthracosis, where
angular black particles, both intra- and extra-cellular,
are often so numerous as to color the sputum (Plate II,
Fig. 2, B). Occasionally mononuclear leukocytes are
present.
Eosinophilic cells are quite constantly found in large
numbers in the sputum of bronchial asthma near the
Fig. 15. — Sputum from a case of asthma showing' Ijukocytes, some containiivg eosino-
philic granules; free eosinophilic granules and micrococci; stained with eosin and methy-
lene-blue ( X 350) (Jakob).
time of the paroxysm, and constitute one of the most
distinctive features of the sputum of this disease. They
resemble ordinary pus-corpuscles, except that their
cytoplasm is filled with coarse granules having a marked
affinity for eosin. It is worthy of note that many of
them, sometimes the majority, are mononuclear. Large
numbers of free granules, derived from disintegrated
cells, are also found (Fig. 15).
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 6l
Ordinary pus-cells are easily recognized in sputum
stained by any of the methods already given. For
eosinophilic cells, some method which includes eosin must
be used. A simple method is to stain the dried and
fixed film two or three minutes with saturated solution
of eosin, and then one-half to one minute with Loffler's
methylene-blue ; nuclei and bacteria will be blue, eosino-
phiHc granules bright red.
(2) Epithelial cells may come from any part of the
respiratory tract. A few are always present, since des-
quamation of cells goes on constantly. Their recogni-
tion is important chiefly as an aid in deciding upon the
source of the portion of the sputum in which they are
found. In suspected lung conditions it is manifestly
useless to study material from the nose only, yet this
is not infrequently done. They have little diagnostic
value, although a considerable excess would indicate a
pathologic condition at the site of their origin. Any
of the stains mentioned above will show them, and they
can usually be identified in unstained sputum. In
general, three forms are found:
(a) Squamous Cells. — Large, flat, polygonal cells with
a comparatively small nucleus (Fig. 16, i). They come
from the upper air-passages, and are especially numerous
in laryngitis and pharyngitis. They are frequently
studded with bacteria — most commonly diplococci.
{h) Cylindric Cells from the Nose, Trachea, and Bronchi
(Fig. 16, /, h). — These are not usually abundant, and,
as a rule, they are not identified because much altered
from their original form, being usually round and swollen.
When very fresh, they may retain their cylindric form,
sometimes bearing cilia in active motion.
62
THE SPUTUM
(c) Alveolar Cells. — Rather large, round, or oval cells
with one or two round nuclei (Fig. i6). Their source is
presumably the pulmonary alveoli. Like the leuko-
cytes, they frequently contain particles of carbon (nor-
mal lung pigment). In chronic heart disease, owing to
long-continued passive congestion, they may be filled
Fig. i6. — Different morphologic elements of the sputum (unstained): a, b, c. Pulmo-
nary or alveolar epithelium — a, with normal lung pigment (carbon); 6, with fat-droplets;
c, with myelin globules; d, pus -corpuscles; e. red blood-corpuscles; /, cylindric beaker-
shaped bronchial epithelial cells; g, free myelin globules; h. ciliated epithelium of different
kinds from the nose, altered by coryza; i, squamous cells from the pharynx (after Bizzo-
zero).
with brown granules of altered blood-pigment, and are
then called " heart-failure cells." The presence of
these cells in considerable numbers, by directing one's
attention to the heart, will sometimes clear up the
etiology of a chronic bronchitis. They are best seen in
unstained sputum, appearing as grayish or colorless
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 63
balls filled with rounded granules of brown or yellow
pigment. (Plate II, Fig. i.)
Alveolar cells commonly contain fat-droplets and, less
frequently, myelin globules. The latter are colorless,
rounded bodies, sometimes resembUng fat-droplets, but
often showing concentric or irregularly spiral markings
(Fig. 16, c, g). They are also found free in the sputum.
They are abundant in the scanty morning sputum of
apparently healthy persons, but may be present in any
mucoid sputum.
(3) Red blood-corpuscles may be present in small
numbers in almost any sputum. When fairly constantly
present in considerable numbers, they are suggestive of
phthisis. The corpuscles, when fresh, are shown by any
of the staining methods which include eosin. They are
commonly so much degenerated as to be unrecognizable,
and often only altered blood-pigment is left. Ordinarily,
blood in the sputum is sufficiently recognized with the
naked eye.
III. CHEMIC EXAMINATION
There is little to be learned from a chemic examina-
tion, and it is rarely undertaken. Recently, however,
it has been shown that the presence or absence of albumin
may have clinical significance. Albumin is constantly
present in the sputum in pneumonia, pulmonary edema,
and tuberculosis. It is usually absent in bronchitis.
A test for albumin may, therefore, be of great value in
distinguishing between bronchitis and tuberculosis, a
negative result practically proving the absence of tuber-
culosis. It is carried out as follows: The sputum is
acidified with acetic acid to precipitate mucin and fil-
64 THE SPUTUM
tered. If tenacious, it is first shaken up with water.
The filtrate is then tested for albumin, as described in the
chapter upon the Urine.
IV. THE SPUTUM IN DISEASE
Strictly speaking, any appreciable amount of sputum
is abnormal. A great many healthy persons, however,
raise a small quantity each morning, owing chiefly to
the irritation of inhaled dust and smoke. Although
not normal, this can hardly be spoken of as pathologic.
It is particularly frequent in city dwellers and in those
who smoke cigarettes to excess. In the latter, the
amount is sometimes so great as to arouse suspicion of
tuberculosis. Such '' normal morning sputum " gen-
erally consists of small, rather dense, mucoid masses,
translucent white, or, when due to inhaled smoke, gray
in color. Microscopically, there are a few pus-cor-
puscles, and, usually, many alveolar cells, both of which
may contain carbon particles. The alveolar cells com-
monly show myelin degeneration, and free myeHn glob-
ules may be present in large numbers. Saprophytic
bacteria may be present, but are not abundant.
1. Acute Bronchitis. — There is at first a small amount
of tenacious, almost purely mucoid sputum, frequently
blood streaked. This gradually becomes more abun-
dant, mucopurulent in character, and yellowish or gray
in color. At first the microscope shows a few leuko-
cytes and alveolar and bronchial cells; later, the leuko-
cytes become more numerous. Bacteria are not usually
abundant.
2. Chronic Bronchitis.— The sputum is usually abun-
dant, mucopurulent, and yellowish or yellowish-green in
THE SPUTUM IN DISEASE 65
color. Nummular masses — circular, " coin-like " discs
which sink in water — may be seen. Microscopically,
there are great numbers of leukocytes, often much degen-
erated. Epithelium is not abundant. Bacteria of
various kinds, especially staphylococci, are usually nu-
merous.
In fibrinous bronchitis there are found, in addition,
fibrinous casts, usually of medium size.
In the chronic bronchitis accompanying long-continued
passive congestion of the lungs, as in poorly compensated
heart disease, the sputum may assume a rusty brown
color, owing to presence of large numbers of the " heart-
failure cells " previously mentioned.
3. Bronchiectasis.— When there is a single large
cavity, the sputum is very abundant at intervals, —
sometimes as high as a liter in twenty-four hours, — and
has a very offensive odor. It is thinner than that of
chronic bronchitis, and upon standing separates into
three layers of pus, mucus, and frothy serum. It
contains great numbers of miscellaneous bacteria.
4. Gangrene of the Lung.— The sputum is abun-
dant, fluid, very offensive, and brownish in color. It
separates into three layers upon standing^a brown
deposit, a clear fluid, and a frothy layer. Microscopic-
ally, few cells of any kind are found. Bacteria are ex-
tremely numerous; among them may sometimes be
found an acid-fast bacillus probably identical with the
smegma bacillus. As before stated, elastic fibers are
usually present in large fragments.
5. Pulmonary Edema.— Here there is an abundant,
watery, frothy spfutum, varying from faintly yellow or
pink to dark brown in color; a few leukocytes and
5
66 THE SPUTUM
epithelial cells and varying numbers of red blood-cor-
puscles are found with the microscope.
6. Bronchial Asthma.— The sputum during and fol-
lowing an attack is scanty and very tenacious. Most
characteristic is the presence of Curschmann's spirals,
Charcot-Leyden crystals, and eosinophilic leukocytes.
7. Croupous Pneumonia.— Characteristic of this dis-
ease is a scanty, rusty red, very tenacious sputum, con-
taining red corpuscles or altered blood-pigment, leuko-
cytes, epithelial cells, usually many pneumococci, and
often ver}' small fibrinous casts. This sputum is seen
during the stage of red hepatization. During resolu-
tion the sputum assumes the appearance of that of chronic
bronchitis. When pneumonia occurs during the course
of a chronic bronchitis, the characteristic rusty red
sputum may not appear.
8. Pulmonary Juberculosis.^The sputum is varia-
ble. In the earliest stages it may be scanty and almost
purely mucoid, with an occasional yellow flake, or there
may be only a very small mucopurulent mass. When
the quantity is very small, there may be no cough, the
sputum reaching the larynx by action of the bronchial
cilia. This is not well enough recognized by practi-
tioners. A careful inspection of all the sputum brought
up by the patient on several successive days, and a
microscopic examination of all yellow portions, will not
"infrequently establish a diagnosis of tuberculosis when
physical signs are negative. Tubercle bacilli will some-
times be found in large numbers at this stage. Blood-
streaked sputum is strongly suggestive of tuberculosis,
and is more common in the early stages than later.
The sputum of more advanced cases resembles that of
THE SPUTUM IN DISEASE 67
chronic bronchitis, with the addition of tubercle bacilli
and elastic fibers. Caseous particles containing im-
mense numbers of the bacilli are common. Far-
advanced cases with large cavities often show rather
firm, spheric or ovoid masses of thick pus in a thin fluid
— the so-called " globular sputum." These globular
masses usually contain many tubercle bacilli. Con-
siderable hemorrhages are not infrequent, and for some
time thereafter the sputum may contain clots of blood
or be colored brown.
CHAPTER II
THE URINE
Preliminary Considerations. — The urine is an aqueous
solution of various organic and inorganic substances.
It is probably both a secretion and an excretion. Most
of the substances in solution are either waste-products
from the body metabolism or products derived directly
from the foods eaten. Normally, the total amount of
solid constituents carried off in twenty-four hours is about
60 gm., of which the organic substances make up about
35 gm. and the inorganic about 25 gm.
The most important organic constituents are urea,
uric acid, and ammonia. Urea constitutes about one-
half of all the solids, or about 30 gm. in twenty-four
hours.
The chief inorganic constituents are the chlorids,
phosphates, and sulphates. The chlorids, practically
all in the form of sodium chlorid , make up about one-half
of the inorganic substances, or about 13 gm., in twenty-
four hours.
Certain substances appear in the urine only in patho-
logic conditions. The most important of these are pro-
teins, sugars, acetone, and related substances, bile, hemo-
globin, and the diazo substances.
In addition to the substances in solution all urines
contain various microscopic structures.
While, under ordinary conditions, the composition of
68
THE URINE 69
urine does not vary much from day to day, it varies
greatly at different hours of the same day. It is evident,
therefore, that no quantitative test can be of value unless a
sample of the mixed twenty-four-hour urine be used. The
patient should be instructed to void all the urine during
the twenty-four hours into a clean vessel kept in a cool
place, to mix it well, to measure the whole quantity, and
to bring eight or more ounces for examination, A pint
fruit-jar is a convenient container. When it is desired
to make only qualitative tests, as for albumin or sugar, a
" sample " voided at random will answer. It should be
remembered, however, that urine passed about three
hours after a meal is most likely to contain pathologic
substances. That voided first in the morning is least
likely to contain them. To diagnose cyclic albuminuria
samples obtained at various periods during the twenty-
four hours must be examined.
The urine must be examined while fresh. Decom-
position sets in rapidly, especially in warm weather, and
greatly interferes with all the examinations. Decom-
position may be delayed by adding five grains of boric
acid (as much of the powder as can be heaped upon a
ten-cent piece) for each four ounces of urine. Formalin,
in proportion of one drop to four ounces, is also an effi-
cient preservative, but if larger amounts be used, it may
give reactions for sugar and albumin, and is likely to
cause a precipitate which greatly interferes with the
microscopic examination.
Normal and abnormal pigments, which interfere with
certain of the tests, can be removed by filtering the urine
through animal charcoal, or precipitating with a solu-
tion of acetate of lead and filtering.
70 THE URINE
Certain cloudy urines cannot be clarified by ordinary
filtration through paper, particularly when the cloudi-
ness is due to bacteria. Such urines can usually be
rendered perfectly clear by adding a small amount of
purified talc, shaking well, and filtering.
A suspected fluid can be identified as urine by detect-
ing any considerable quantity of urea in it (p. 93).
Traces of urea may, however, be met with in ovarian cyst
fluid, while urine from very old cases of hydronephrosis
may contain little or none.
The frequency of micturition is often suggestive in
diagnosis. Whether it is unduly frequent can best be
ascertained by asking the patient whether he has to get
up at night to urinate. Increased frequency may be
due to restlessness; to increased quantity of urine; to
irritability of the bladder, usually an evidence of cys-
titis; to obstruction (" retention with overflow"); or to
paralysis of the sphincter.
Clinical examination of the urine may conveniently
be considered under four heads: I. Physical examina-
tion. 11. Chemic examination. III. Microscopic ex-
amination. IV. The urine in disease.
I. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
1. Quantity. — The quantity passed in twenty-four
hours varies greatly with the amount of liquids ingested,
perspiration, etc. The normal may be taken as 1000 to
1500 c.c, or 40 to 50 ounces.
The quantity is increased (polyuria) during absorption
of large serous efTusions and in many nervous conditions.
It is usually much increased in chronic interstitial nephri-
tis, diabetes insipidus, and diabetes melHtus. In these
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 7 1
conditions a permanent increase in amount of urine is
characteristic — a fact of much value in diagnosis. In
diabetes mellitus the urine may, though rarely, reach the
enormous amount of 50 liters.
The quantity is decreased (oliguria) in severe diarrhea ;
in fevers; in all conditions which interfere with circula-
tion in the kidney, as poorly compensated heart disease ;
and in the parenchymatous forms of nephritis. In
uremia the urine is usually very greatly decreased and
may be entirely suppressed (anuria).
2. Color. — This varies considerably in health, and
depends largely upon the quantity of urine voided. The
usual color is yellow or reddish-yellow, due to the pres-
ence of several pigments, chiefly urochrome. Acid urine
is generally darker than alkaline. In recording the
color Vogel's scale (see Frontispiece) is very widely used,
the urine being filtered and examined by transmitted
light in a glass three or four inches in diameter.
The color is sometimes greatly changed by abnormal
pigments. Blood-pigment gives a red or brown, smoky
color. Urine containing bile is yellowish or brown, with
a yellow foam when shaken. It may assume a greenish
hue after standing, owing to oxidation of bilirubin into
biliverdin. Ingestion of small amounts of methylene-
blue gives a pale green; large amounts give a marked
blue. Santonin produces a yellow; rhubarb, senna,
cascara, and some other cathartics, a brown color;
these change to red upon addition of an alkali, and if
the urine be alkaline when voided, may cause suspicion
of hematuria. Thymol gives a yellowish-green. Fol-
lowing poisoning from phenol and related drugs the urine
may have a normal color when voided, but becomes olive-
72 THE URINE
green to brownish-black upon standing. In susceptible
individuals therapeutic doses of creosote, or absorption
from carbolized dressings, may cause this change. Urine
which contains melanin, as sometimes in melanotic
sarcoma, and very rarely in wasting diseases, also be-
comes brown or black upon long standing. A similar
darkening upon exposure to the air occurs in alkapto-
nuria (p. 126).
A pale greenish urine with high specific gravity
strongly suggests diabetes mellitus.
3. Transparency. — Freshly passed normal urine is
clear. Upon standing, a faint cloud of mucus, leuko-
cytes, and epithelial cells settles to the bottom — the so-
called "nubecula." Abnormal cloudiness is usually due
to presence of phosphates, urates, pus, blood, or bacteria.
Amorphous pJiosphates are precipitated in neutral or
alkaline urine. They form a white cloud and sediment,
which disappear upon addition of an acid.
Amorphous urates are precipitated only in acid urine.
They form a white or pink cloud and sediment (" brick-
dust deposit "), which disappear upon heating.
Pus resembles amorphous phosphates to the naked eye.
Its nature is easily recognized wdth the microscope, oi"
by adding a strong solution of caustic soda to the sedi-
ment, which is thereby transformed into a gelatinous
mass (Donne's test).
Blood gives a reddish or brown, smoky color, and may
be recognized with the microscope or by tests for hemo-
globin.
Bacteria, when present in great numbers, give a uni-
form cloud, which cannot be removed by ordinary filtra-
tion. They are detected with the microscope.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 73
The cloudiness of decomposing urine is due mainly to
precipitation of phosphates and multiplication of bac-
teria.
4. Odor. — The characteristic aromatic odor is due to
volatile acids, and is most marked in concentrated urines.
During decomposition, the odor becomes ammoniacal.
A fruity odor is sometimes noted in diabetes, due prob-
ably to acetone. Urine which contains cystin may de-
velop an odor of sulphureted hydrogen during decom-
position.
Various articles of diet and drugs impart peculiar
odors. Notable among these are asparagus, which gives
a characteristic oflfensive odor, and turpentine, which
imparts an odor somewhat suggesting that of violets.
5. Reaction. — Normally, the mixed twenty-four-hour
urine is slightly acid in reaction. The acidity was
formerly held to be due to acid phosphates, but Folin
has shown that the acidity of a clear urine is ordinarily
much greater than the acidity of all the phosphates, the
excess being due to free organic acids. Individual
samples may be slightly alkaline, especially after a full
meal, or amphoteric. The reaction is determined by
means of htmus-paper.
Acidity is increased after administration of certain
drugs, and whenever the urine is concentrated from any
cause, as in fevers. A very acid urine may cause fre-
quent micturition because of its irritation. This is often
an important factor in the troublesome enuresis of
children.
The urine always becomes alkahne upon long standing,
owing to decomposition of urea with formation of am-
monia. If markedly alkaline when voided, it usually
74 THE URINE
indicates such " ammoniacal decomposition " in the
bladder, which is the rule in chronic cystitis, especially
that due to paralysis or obstruction. Alkalinity due to
ammonia (volatile alkalinity) can be distinguished by
the fact that litmus paper turned blue by the urine again
becomes red upon gentle heating. Fixed alkalinity is
due to alkaline salts, and is often observ^ed during fre-
quent vomiting, after the crisis of pneumonia, in various
forms of anemia, after full meals, and after administra-
tion of certain drugs, especially salts of vegetable acids.
Quantitative estimation of the acidity of urine is not
of much clinical value. When, however, it is desired
to make it, the method of Folin will be found satis-
factory. In every case the sample must be from the
mixed twenty-four-hour u^ine and as fresh as possible.
Folin's Method. — Into a small flask measure 25 c.c. of
the urine and add i or 2 drops 0.5 per cent, alcoholic solu-
tion of phenolphthalein and 15 or 20 gm. of neutral potassium
oxalate. Shake for a minute, and immediately titrate with
decinormal sodium hydroxid, shaking meanwhile, until the
first permanent pink appears. Read off from the buret the
amount of decinormal sodium hydroxid solution added, and
calculate the number of cubic centimeters which would be
required for the entire twenty-four hours' urine. Folin
places the normal acidity, obtained in this way, at 617.
6. Specific Gravity— The normal average is about
1. 01 7 to 1.020. Samples of urine taken at random may
go far above or below these figures, hence a sample of the
mixed twenty-four-hour urine should always be used.
Pathologically, it may vary from i.ooi to 1.060. It is
low in chronic interstitial nephritis, diabetes insipidus,
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
75
and many functional nervous disorders. It is high in
fevers and in parenchymatous forms of nephritis. In
any form of nephritis a sudden fall without a corre-
sponding increase in quantity of urine may foretell ap-
proaching uremia. It is highest in diabetes melUtus. A
high specific gravity when the urine is not highly colored
should lead one to suspect this disease. A normal
specific gravity does not, however, exclude it.
l!
I
Fig. 17. — Squibb's urinometer with thermometer and cylinder.
The specific gravity is most conveniently estimated by
means of the urinometer — Squibb's is preferable (Fig.
17). It is standardized for a temperature of 77° F., and
the urine should be at or near that temperature. Care
should be taken that the urinometer does not touch the
side of the tube, and that air-bubbles are removed from
the surface of the urine. With most instruments the
reading is taken from the bottom of the meniscus. A
long scale on the stem is desirable, because of the greater
ease of accurate reading.
76
THE URINE
One frequently wishes to ascertain the specific gravity
of quantities of fluid too small to float an urinometer.
A simple device for this purpose, which requires only
about 3 c.c. and is very satisfactory in clinical work has
been designed by Saxe (Fig. i8). The urine is placed in
the bulb at the bottom, the instrument is floated in dis-
Fig. i8. — Saxe's urinopyknometer and jar for same.
tilled water, and the specific gravity is read off from the
scale upon the stem.
7. Total Solids. — An estimation of the total amount
of solids which pass through the kidneys in twenty-four
hours is, in practice, one of the most useful of urinary
examinations. The normal for a man of 150 pounds is
about 60 gm., or 950 gr. The principal factors which
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 77
influence this amount are body weight (except with
excessive fat), diet, exercise, and age, and these should
be considered in making an estimation. After about
the f orty-fif th year it becomes gradually less ; after
seventy-five years it is about one-half the amount given.
In disease, the amount of solids depends mainly upon
the activity of metabolism and the ability of the kidneys
to excrete. An estimation of the solids, therefore,
furnishes an important clue to the functional efficiency
of the kidneys. The kidneys bear much the same
relation to the organism as does the heart: they cause
no direct harm so long as they are capable of perform-
ing the work required of them. When, however, through
either organic disease or functional inactivity, they fail
to carry off their proportion of the waste-products of the
body, some of these products must either be eliminated
through other organs, where they cause irritation and
disease, or be retained within the body, where they act
as poisons. The great importance of these poisons in
production of distressing symptoms and even organic
disease is not well enough recognized by most practi-
tioners. Disappearance of unpleasant and perplexing
symptoms as the urinary solids rise to the normal under
proper treatment is often most surprising.
When, other factors remaining unchanged, the
amount of solids eliminated is considerably above the
normal, increased destructive metabolism may be
inferred.
The total solids can be estimated roughly, but ac-
curately enough for most clinical purposes, by multi-
plying the last two figures of the specific gravity of the
mixed twenty-four-hour urine by the number of ounces
78 THE URINE
voided and to the product adding one-tenth of itself.
This gives the amount in grains. If, for example, the
twenty-four-hour quantity is 3 pints or 48 ounces, and
the specific gravity is 1.018, the total solids would ap-
proximate 950 gr., as follows:
48 X 18 = 864; 864 + 86.4 - 950.4
This method is especially convenient for the practi-
tioner, because patients nearly always report the amount
of urine in pints and ounces, and it avoids the necessity
of converting into the metric system. Haser's method is
more widely used but is less convenient. The last two
figures of the specific gravity are multiplied by 2.33.
The product is then multiplied by the number of cubic
centimeters voided in twenty-four hours and divided
by 1000. This gives the total solids in grams.
8. Functional Tests.— Within the past few years
much thought has been devoted to methods of more
accurately ascertaining the functional efficiency of the
kidneys, especially of one kidney when removal of the
other is under consideration. The most promising of
the methods which have been devised are cryoscopy,
electric conductivity, the methylene-blue test, and the
phloridzin test. It is doubtful whether, except in
experienced hands, these yield any more information
than can be had from an intelligent consideration of the
specific gravity and the twenty-four-hour quantity, to-
gether wath a microscopic examination. They are most
useful when the urines obtained from separate kidneys
by segregation or ureteral catheterization are compared.
The reader is referred to larger works upon urinalysis
for details.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 79
Cryoscopy, determination of the freezing-point, de-
pends upon the principle that the freezing-point of a
fluid is depressed in proportion to the number of mole-
cules, organic and inorganic, in solution. To have any
value, the freezing-point of the urine must be compared
with that of the blood, since it is not so much the num-
ber of molecules contained in the urine as the number
which the kidney has failed to carry off and has left in
the blood, that indicates its insufficiency.
Electric conductivity refers to the power of the urine
to carry an electric current. It is increased in pro-
portion to the nimiber of inorganic molecules in solution.
In the methylene-blue test of Achard and Castaigne
a solution of methylene-blue is injected intramuscularly,
and the time of its appearance in the urine is noted.
Normally, it appears in about thirty minutes. When
delayed, renal " permeability " is supposed to be inter-
fered with. Since methylene-blue is sometimes ex-
creted as a colorless derivative, indigo-carmin has been
proposed as a substitute. In the absence of renal in-
sufficiency this always gives a blue color, which begins
to appear in about five minutes.
The phloridzin test consists in the hypodermic injec-
tion of a small quantity of phloridzin. This substance
is transformed into glucose by the kidneys of healthy
persons. In disease, this change is more or less inter-
fered with, and the amount of glucose recoverable from
the urine is taken as an index of the secretory power of
the kidneys.
In applying these tests for " permeability," " secre-
tory ability," etc., one must rertiember that the condi-
tions are abnormal, and that there is no e\ddence that
8o THE LTIIXE
the kidneys will behave with the products of metabolism
as they do with the substances selected for the tests, and
also that the tests throw unusual work upon the kidneys,
which in some cases may be harmful.
II. CHEMIC EXAMINATION
A. Normal Constituents
Of the large number of organic and inorganic sub-
stances normally present in the urine, only a few demand
any consideration from the clinician. The following
table, therefore, outlines the average composition from
the clinical, rather than from the chemical, standpoint.
Only the twenty-four-hour quantities are given, since
they alone furnish an accurate basis for comparison.
The student tannot too soon learn that percentages mean
little or nothing, excepting as they furnish a means of
calculating the twenty-four-hour elimination.
COMPOSITION OF NORMAL URINE
Grams in twenty- Approximate
four hours. average.
Total substances in solution 55-70 60
Inorganic substances 20-30 25
Chlorids (chiefly sodium chlorid) 10-15 12.5
Phosphates (estimated as phosphoric acid),
total 2.5-3.5 3
Earthy 3 of total i
Alkaline § of total 2
Sulphates (estimated as sulphuric acid), total 1.5-3.0 2.5
Mineral j% of total 2.25
Conjugate yV of total 0.25
Includes indiran Trace
Ammonia 0.5-1 .0 0.7
Organic substances 30-40 35
Urea 20-35 3°
Uric acid 0.4-1.0 0.7
CHEMIC EXAMINATION
8l
Fig. iQ. — Graphic expression of quantities in the urine. Solid line, normal urine; dotted
line, an example of pathologic urine in a case of cancerous cachexia (Saxe).
82 THE URINE
Although the conjugate sulphates are organic com-
pounds, they are, for the sake of convenience, included
with the inorganic sulphates in the table on p. 80.
Among constituents which are of little clinical im-
portance, or are present only in traces, are:
Inorganic: Iron, carbonates, nitrates, silicates, and
fiuorids.
Organic: Creatinin, hippuric acid, purin bases, oxalic
acid, benzoic acid, volatile fatty acids, pigments, and
acetone.
Variations in body weight, diet, and exercise cause
marked fluctuations in the total solids and in individual
substances.
1. Chlorids. — These are derived from the food, and
are mainly in the form of sodium chlorid. The amount
excreted normally is 10 to 15 gm. in twenty-four hours.
It is much affected by the diet, and is reduced to a
minimum in starvation.
Excretion of chlorids is diminished in nephritis and
in fevers, especially in pneumonia and inflammations
leading to the formation of large exudates. In nephritis
the kidneys are less permeable to the chlorids, and it is
possible that the edema is due largely to an effort of
the body to dilute the chlorids which have been retained.
Certainly an excess of chlorids in the food will increase
both the albuminuria and the edema of nephritis. In
fevers the diminution is due largely to decrease of food,
though probably in some measure to impaired renal
function. In pneumonia chlorids are constantly very
low, and in some cases are absent entirely. Following
the crisis they are increased. In inflammations leading
to formation of large exudates — e. g., pleurisy with
CHEMIC EXAMINATION
83
effusion — chlorids are diminished, because a consider-
able amount becomes " locked up " in the exudate.
During absorption chlorids are liberated and appear
in the urine in excessive amounts.
Diminution of chlorids is also observed in severe
diarrhea, anemic conditions, and carcinoma of the
stomach.
Fig. 20.— The Purdy electric centrifuge with four arras.
Quantitative Estimation. — The best method for clinical
purposes is the centrifugal method.
Purdy's Centrifugal Methods. — As shown by the late
Dr. Purdy, the centrifuge offers an important means
of making quantitative estimations of a number of sub-
stances in the urine. Results are easily and quickly
obtained, and are probably accurate enough for all clini-
cal purposes.
In general, the methods consist in precipitating the
substance to be estimated in a graduated centrifuge tube.
84
THE URINE
and applying a definite amount of centrifugal force for a
definite length of time, after which the percentage of
precipitate is read off upon the side of the tube. Al-
bumin, if present, must be previously removed by boil-
ing and filtering. Results are in terms of bulk of pre-
cipitate, which must not be confused with percentage
by weight. The weight percentage can be found by
referring to Purdy's tables, given later. In this, as in
Fis- 21. — Water-motor centrifuge.
all quantitative urine work, percentages mean little in
themselves; the actual amount eliminated in twenty-
four hours should always be calculated.
The centrifuge should have an arm with radius of 6f
inches when in motion, and should be capable of main-
taining a speed of 1500 revolutions a minute. The
electric centrifuge is to be recommended, although
good work can be done with a water-power centrifuge,
or, after a little practice, with the hand centrifuge. A
CHEMIC EXAMINATION
85
speed indicator is desirable with electric and water-
motor machines, although one can learn to estimate the
speed by the musical note.
c.c\
Fig. 22. — Purdy's tubes for the centrifuge: a, Percentage tube; 6, sediment tube.
Estimation of Chlorids. — Fill the graduated tube to the
10 CO. mark with urine; add 15 drops strong nitric acid and
then silver nitrate solution (dram to the ounce) to the 15 c.c,
mark. Mix by inverting several times. Let stand a few
minutes for a precipitate to form, and then revolve in the
centrifuge for three minutes at 1200 revolutions a minute.
Each one-tenth cubic centimeter of precipitate equals i per
cent, by bulk. The normal is about 10 per cent. This may
be converted into terms of chlorin or sodium chlorid by means
of the table upon page 86. Roughly speaking, the percent-
86
THE URINE
age of chlorin by weight is about one-twelfth the bulk-
percentage.
TABLE FOR THE ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDS AFTER
CENTRIFUGATION
Showing the bulk-percentage of silver chlorid {AgCl) and the correspond-
ing gravimetric percentages and grains per fluidounce of sodium chlorid
{NaCl) and chlorin {CI). — (Ptirdy.)
d
C3
u
a
d
u
0
y
u
0
2
C
"A
N
1-1
V
s
a
SO
.', 0
V
be
s
K
0
g
Ji 0
^
b
0
iZ
0
3
1
c
1^
0
i
0.03
0.15
0.02
0.1 1
8
1.04
4.98
0.63
3.02
i
0.07
0.31
0.04
0.19
82
I.I
5-29
0.67
3.22
1
O.I
0.47
0.06
0.28
9,
1. 17
5-6
0.71
3-4
I
0.13
0.62
0.08
0.38
9^
1.23
5-91
0-75
3-6
i\
0.16
0.78
O.I
0.48
10
1-3
6.22
0.79
3-79
li
0.19
0-93
0.12
0-57
10^
1.36
6.53
0.83
3-97
i|
0.23
1.09
0.14
0.67
II
1-43
6.84
0.87
4.16
2
0.26
1.24
0.16
0.76
iij
1.49
7.2
0.91
4-35
2^
0.29
1.41
0.18
0.85
12
1.56
7.46
0-95
4-54
2j
0.32
1.56
0.2
0.96
12J
1.62
7.78
0.99
4-73
2|
0.36
1.71
0.22
1.04
13,
1.69
8.09
1.02
4.92
3
0-39
1.87
0.24
1-13
13J
1-75
8.4
1.06
5-II
3}
0.42
2.02
0.26
1.23
14
1.82
8.71
I.I
529
4
0.4S
2.18
0.28
1.32
14J
1.88
9.02
1. 14
5-49
3l
0.49
2-35
0-3
1.42
15^
1.94
9-33
1. 18
5-67
4
0.52
2.49
0.32
1-51
15^
2.01
965
1.22
5-86
4}
0-55
2.64
0-34
1.61
16
2.07
9.94
1.26
6.06
4*
0.58
2.8
0-3S
1-7
16J
2.14
10.27
1-3
6.24
4l
0.62
2.96
0-37
1.8
'7,
2.2
10.151
1-34
6.43
5,
0.65
3-II
0-39
1.89
17J
2.27
10.87
1.38
6.62
5h
0.71
3-42
0.43
2.09
18
2-33
II. 2
1.42
6.81
6
0.78
3-73
0.47
2.27
18J
2.4
11.51
1.46
7.0
6J
0.84
4-05
0.51
2.46
19
2.46
11.82
i-S
7.19
7,
0.91
4-35
0-S5
2.62
19^
2-53
12.13
1-54
7-38
7i
0.97
4.67
0-59
2.84
20
2-59
12.44
1.58
7-56
Bulk-percentage to be read on the side of the tube.
2. Phosphates. — Phosphates are derived largely from
the food, only a small proportion resulting from metab-
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 87
olism. The normal daily output of phosphoric acid is
about 2.5 to 3.5 gm.
The urinary phosphates are of two kinds: alkaline,
which make up two-thirds of the whole, and include the
phosphates of sodium and potassium; and earthy, which
constitute one-third, and include the phosphates of cal-
cium and magnesium. Earthy phosphates are fre-
quently thrown out of solution in neutral and alkaline
urines, and as " amorphous phosphates " form a very
common sediment. This sediment seldom indicates an
excessive excretion of phosphoric acid. It is usually
merely an evidence of diminished acidity of the urine, or
of an increase in the proportion of phosphoric acid elimi-
nated as earthy phosphates. This form of " phospha-
turia " is most frequent in neurasthenia and hysteria.
When the urine undergoes ammoniacal decomposition,
some of the ammonia set free combines with magnesium
phosphate to form ammoniomagnesium phosphate
(" triple phosphate "), which is deposited in typical
crystalline form (p. 148).
Excretion of phosphates is increased by a rich diet;
in active metabolism ; in certain nervous and mental dis-
orders; in leukemia; and in phosphatic diabetes, an ob-
scure disturbance of metabolism (not related to diabetes
mellitus) which is associated with an increase in the out-
put of phosphates up to 10 gm. or more in twenty-four
hours. Phosphates are decreased in chronic diseases
with lowered metabolism; in hepatic cirrhosis and acute
yellow atrophy; in pregnancy, owing to developing
fetal bones; and in nephritis, owing to kidney imper-
meability.
Quantitative estimation does not furnish much of
88
THE URINE
definite clinical value. The centrifugal method is the
most convenient.
T.\BLE FOR THE ESTIMATION OF PHOSPHATES AFTER
CEXTRIFUGATION
Showing hulk-percentages of uranyi phosphate {H\UO^PO^ and the cor-
responding gravimetric percentages and grains per ounce oj phosphoric
acid {P.p^).—{Purdy.)
Bulk-per-
rentage of
H(U0„)P04.
Percentage
P.O5.
Or. Per Oz.
P2O5.
Bulk-per-
centage of
H(U0.^)P04.
1 1
Percentage
Gr. Per Oz.
P-iO,.
b
0.02
O.I
0.14
0.67
I
0.04
0.19
12
o.is
0.72
ij
0.045
0.22
13
0.16
0.77
2
0.05
0.24
14
0.17
0.82
2 1
0-055
0.26
IS
0.18
0.86
3,
0.06
0.29
16
0.19
0.91
3i
0.065
0.31
17
0.2
0.96
4
0.07
0.34
18
0.21
I.
4i
0.075
0.36
19
0.22
1.06
5
0.08
0.38
20
0.23
I.I
6
0.09
0.43
21
0.24
115
/
O.I
0.48
22
0.25
1.2
8
O.II
0-53
^3
0.26
1-25
9
0.12
0-58
24
0.27
1-3
lO
0.13
0.62 1
25
0.28
1-35
Bulk-percentage to be read from graduation on the side of the tube.
Purdy's Centrifugal Method. — Take 10 c.c. urine in the
graduated tube, add 2 c.c. of 50 per cent, acetic acid, and 3 c.c.
of 5 per cent, uranium nitrate solution. Mix; let stand a few
minutes, and revolve for three minutes at 1200 revolutions.
The bulk of precipitate is normally about 8 per cent. The
percentage of phosphoric acid by weight is, roughly, one-
eighty-fifth of the bulk-percentage.
3. Sulphates. — The urinary sulphates are derived
partly from the food, especially meats, and partly from
body metabolism. The normal output of sulphuric acid
is about 1.5 to 3 gm. daily. It is increased in condi-
CHEMIC EXAMINATION
89
tions associated with active metabolism, and in general
may be taken as a rough index of protein metabolism.
Quantitative estimation of the total sulphates yields
little of clinical value.
Purdy's Centrifugal Method. — Take 10 c.c. urine in the
graduated tube and add barium chlorid solution to the
15 c.c. mark. This consists of barium chlorid, 4 parts;
strong hydrochloric acid, i part; and distilled water, 16
parts. Mix; let stand a few minutes, and revolve for three
minutes at 1200 revolutions a minute. The normal bulk
of precipitate is about 0.8 per cent. The percentage by
weight of sulphuric acid is about one-fourth of the bulk-
percentage.
TABLE FOR THE ESTIMATION OF SULPHATES AFTER
CENTRIFUGATION
Showing the hulk-percentages of barium sulphate (^BaSO^ and the cor-
responding gravimetric percentages and grains per fiuidounce of sul-
phuric acid (SO3). — (Purdy.)
Bulk-per-
centage of
BaSO*.
Percentage
SO3.
Gr. Per Oz.
SO3.
Bulk-per-
centage of
BaS04.
Percentage
SO3.
Gr. Per Oz.
SO3.
■
0.04
0.19
2i
0-55
2.64
: ■
0.07
0.34
2i
0.61
2-93
■
O.I
0.48
2|
0.67
3.22
: ■
0.13
0.62
3,
0-73
3-5
0.16
0.77
3*
0.79
3-79
0.19
0.91
4
0.85
4.08
0.22
1.06
3l
0.91
4-37
I
0.25
I.I
4
0.97
4.66
li
0.31
1.49
4i
1.03
4.94
^
0-37
1.78
4i
1.09
5-23
l|
0-43
2.06
4l
i-iS
5-52
2
0.49
2-35
5
1. 21
5-8i
Bulk-percentage to be read from graduation on the side of the tube.
About nine-tenths of the sulphuric acid is in com-
bination with various mineral substances, chiefly sodium,
90 THE URINE
potassium, calcium, and magnesium (mineral or pre-
formed sulphates). One-tenth is in combination with
certain aromatic substances, which are mostly products
of albuminous putrefaction in the intestine, but are de-
rived in part from destructive metabolism (conjugate
or ethereal sulphates) . Among these aromatic substances
are indol, phenol, and skatol. By far the most impor-
tant of the conjugate sulphates and representative of the
group is potassium indoxyl sulphate.
Potassium indoxyl sulphate, or indican, is derived
from indol. Indol is absorbed and oxidized into in-
doxyl, which combines with potassium and sulphuric
acid and is thus excreted. Under normal conditions
the amount in the urine is small. It is increased by a
meat diet.
Unlike the other ethereal sulphates, which are de-
rived in part from metabolism, indican originates prac-
tically wholly from putrefactive processes. It alone,
therefore, and not the total ethereal sulphates, can be
taken as an index of such putrefaction. A pathologic
increase is called indicanuria. It is noted in:
(a) Diseases of the Small Intestine. — This is by far
the most common source. Intestinal obstruction gives
the largest amounts of indican. It is also much in-
creased in intestinal indigestion — so-called " bilious-
ness "; in inflammations, especially in cholera and ty-
phoid fever; and in paralysis of peristalsis, such as
occurs in peritonitis. Simple constipation and diseases
of the large intestine alone do not so frequently cause
indicanuria.
(b) Diseases of the stomach associated with deficient
hydrochloric acid, as chronic gastritis and gastric cancer.
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 9 1
Diminished hydrochloric acid favors intestinal putre-
faction.
(c) Diminished Flow of Bile. — Since the bile serves
both as a stimulant to peristalsis and an intestinal anti-
septic, a diminished flow from any cause favors occur-
rence of indicanuria.
{d) Decomposition of exudates anywhere in the body,
as in empyema, bronchiectasis, and large tuberculous
cavities.
Detection of indican depends upon its decomposition
and oxidation of the indoxyl set free into indigo-blue.
This change sometimes takes place spontaneously in
decomposing urine, causing a dirty blue color. Crystals
of indigo (Fig. 36) may be found both in the sediment
and the scum.
Obermayer's Method. — In a test-tube take equal parts of
the urine and Obermayer's reagent and add a small quantity
of chloroform. Mix by inverting a few times; avoid shak-
ing violently. If indican be present in excess, the chloroform,
which sinks to the bottom, will assume an indigo-blue color.
It will take up the indigo more quickly if the urine be warm.
The depth of color indicates the comparative amount of
indican if the same proportions of urine and reagents are
always used, but one should bear in mind the total amount
of urine voided. The indican in normal urine may give
a faint blue by this method. Urine of patients taking iodids
gives a reddish-violet color, which disappears upon addition
of a few drops of strong sodium hyposulphite solution and
shaking. Bile-pigments, which interfere with the test, must
be removed (p. 69),
Obermayer^s reagent consists of strong hydrochloric acid
(sp. gr., 1. 19), 1000 parts, and ferric chlorid, 2 parts. This
makes a yellow, fuming liquid which keeps well.
92 THE URINE
4. Urea. — From the standpoint of physiolog}-^ urea is
the most important constituent of the urine. It is the
principal waste-product of metaboHsm, and constitutes
about one-half of all the solids excreted — about 20 to
35 gm. in twenty-four hours. It represents 85 to 90
per cent, of the total nitrogen of the urine, and its quan-
titative estimation is a simple, though not very accurate,
method of ascertaining the state of nitrogenous excretion.
This is true, however, only in normal individuals
upon average mixed diet. Under pathologic conditions,
the proportion of nitrogen distributed among the various
nitrogen-containing substances undergoes great varia-
tion. The only accurate index of protein metabolism
is, therefore, the total output of nitrogen, which can be
estimated by the Kjeldahl method. The whole subject
of " nitrogen partition " and " nitrogen equilibrium "
(relation of excretion to intake) is an important one, but
is out of the province of this book, since as yet it con-
cerns the physiologic chemist more than the clinician.
It may be helpful to state here, however, that upon a mixed
diet the nitrogen of the urine is distributed about as follows:
urea nitrogen, 86.9 per cent.; ammonia nitrogen, 4.4 per
cent.; creatinin nitrogen, 3.6 per cent.; uric acid nitrogen,
0.75 per cent.; "undetermined nitrogen," chiefly in amino
acids, 4.3 per cent.
Normally, the amount is greatly influenced by ex-
ercise and diet. It is increased by copious drinking
of water and administration of ammonium salts of
organic acids.
Pathologically, urea is increased in fevers, in diabetes,
and especially during resolution of pneumonia and ab-
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 93
sorption of large exudates. As above indicated, when
other factors are equal, the amount of urea indicates
the activity of metabolism. In deciding whether in a
given case an increase of urea is due to increased metab-
ohsm the relation between the amounts of urea and of
the chlorids is a helpful consideration. The amount
of urea is normally about twice that of the chlorids. If
the proportion is much increased above this, increased
tissue destruction may be inferred, since other condi-
tions which increase urea also increase chlorids.
Urea is decreased in diseases of the liver with destruc-
tion of liver substance, such as cirrhosis, carcinoma,
and acute yellow atrophy. It may or may not be
decreased in nephritis. In the early stages of chronic
nephritis, when diagnosis is difficult, it is usually normal.
In the late stages, when diagnosis is comparatively easy,
it is decreased. Hence estimation of urea is of little help
in the diagnosis of this disease, especially when, as is so
frequently the case, a small quantity of urine taken at
random is used. When, however, the diagnosis is
established, estimations made at frequent intervals
under the same conditions of diet and exercise are of
much value, provided a sample of the mixed twenty-four-
hour urine he used. A steady decline is a very bad prog-
nostic sign, and a sudden marked diminution is usually
a forerunner of uremia.
The presence of urea can be shown by allowing a few
drops of the fluid partially to evaporate upon a slide, and
adding a small drop of pure, colorless nitric acid or
saturated solution of oxalic acid. Crystals of urea
nitrate or oxalate (Fig. 23) will soon appear and can be
recognized with the microscope.
94
THE URINE
Quantitative Estimation. — The hypobromite method,
which is generally used, depends upon the fact that
urea is decomposed by sodium hypobromite with libera-
tion of nitrogen. The amount of urea is calculated from
Fig. 23. — Crystals of nitrate of urea (upper half) and
oxalate of urea (lower half) (after Funke).
Fig. 24--
-Doremus-Hinds' ure-
ometer.
the volume of nitrogen set free. The improved Doremus
apparatus (Fig. 24) is the most convenient.
Pour some of the urine into the smaller tube of the appa-
ratus, then open the stopcock and quickly close it so as to fill
its lumen with urine. Rinse out the larger tube with water
and fill it and the bulb with 25 per cent, caustic soda solu-
tion. Add to this i c.c. of bromin by means of a medicine-
dropper and mix well. This prepares a fresh solution of
sodium hypobromite with excess of caustic soda, which serves
to absorb the carbon dioxid set free in the decomposition
of urea. When handling bromin, keep an open vessel of
ammonia near to neutralize the irritant fumes.
Pour the urine into the smaller tube, and then turn the
stopcock so as to let as much urine as desired (usually i c.c.)
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 95
run slowly into the hypobromite solution. When bubbles
have ceased to rise, read off the height of the fluid in the large
tube by the graduations upon its side. This gives the amount
by weight of urea in the urine added, from which the amount
excreted in twenty-four hours can easily be calculated. If
the urine contains much more than the normal amount, it
should be diluted.
To avoid handling pure bromin, which is disagreeable.
Rice's solutions may be employed:
(a) Bromin, 31 gm.
Potassium bromid, 31
Distilled water, 250 c.c.
(b) Caustic soda, 100 gm.
Distilled water, 250 c.c.
One part of each of these solutions and two parts of water
are mixed and used for the test. The bromin solution must
be kept in a tightly stoppered bottle or it will rapidly lose
strength.
5. Uric Acid. — Uric acid is the most important of a
group of substances, called purin bodies, which are de-
rived cliiefiy from the nucleins of the food and from
metabolic destruction of the nuclei of the body. The
daily output of uric acid is about 0.4 to i gm. The
amount of the other purin bodies together is about
one-tenth that of uric acid. Excretion of these sub-
stances is greatly increased by a diet rich in nucleins, as
sweetbreads and liver.
Uric acid exists in the urine in the form of urates,
which in concentrated urines are readily thrown out of
solution and constitute the familiar sediment of " amor-
phous urates." This, together with the fact that uric
96
THE URINE
\.B9
915
2.45
-fffl-s
acid is frequently deposited as crystals,
constitutes its chief interest to the prac-
titioner. It is a very common error to
consider these deposits as evidence of
excessive excretion.
Pathologically, the greatest increase
of uric acid occurs in leukemia, where
there is extensive destruction of leuko-
cytes, and in diseases with active de-
struction of the liver and other organs
rich in nuclei. Uric acid is decreased
before an attack of gout and increased
during it, but its etiologic relation is
still uncertain. An increase is also noted
in acute articular rheumatism during the
febrile stage.
Quantitative Estimation. — The follow-
ing are the best methods for ordinary
clinical purposes, although no great ac-
curacy can be claimed for them.
Cook's Method for Purin Bodies. — In a
centrifuge tube take lo c.c. urine and add
about I gm. (about i c.c.) sodium car-
bonate and I or 2 c.c. strong ammonia.
Shake until the soda is dissolved. The
earthy phosphates will be precipitated.
Centrifugalize thoroughly and pour off all
the clear fluid into a graduated centrifuge
tube. Add 2 c.c. ammonia and 2 c.c. am-
moniated silver nitrate solution. Let stand
a few minutes, and revolve in the centri-
fuge until the bulk of precipitate remains
constant. Each one-tenth cubic centimeter
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 97
of sediment represents 0.001176 gm. purin bodies. This
amount may be regarded as uric acid, since this substance
usually constitutes nine-tenths of the purin bodies and the
clinical significance is the same.
Ammoniated silver nitrate solution is prepared by dissolving
5 gm. of silver nitrate in 100 c.c. distilled water, and adding
ammonia until the solution clouds and again becomes clear.
Ruhemann's Method for Uric Acid. — The urine must
be slightly acid. Fill Ruhemann's tube (Fig. 25) to the
mark S with the indicator, carbon disulphid, and to the mark
J with the reagent. The carbon disulphid will assume a
violet color. Add the urine, a small quantity at a time,
closing the tube with the glass stopper and shaking vigor-
ously after each addition, until the disulphid loses every
trace of its violet color and becomes pure white. This com-
pletes the test. The figure in the right-hand column of
figures corresponding to the top of the fluid gives the amount
of uric acid in parts per thousand. The presence of diacetic
acid interferes with the test, as do also, to some extent, bile
and albumin.
Ruhemann's reagent consists of iodin and potassium iodid
each, 1.5 parts; absolute alcohol, 15 parts; and distilled water,
185 parts.
6, Ammonia. — A small amount of ammonia, com-
bined with hydrochloric, phosphoric, and sulphuric
acids is always present. Estimated as NH3, the normal
average is about 0.7 gm. in twenty-four hours. This
represents 4 to 5 per cent, of the total nitrogen of the
urine, ammonia standing next to urea in this respect.
Under ordinary conditions, most of the ammonia
which results from the metabolic processes is trans-
formed into urea. When, however, acids are present
in excess, either from ingestion of mineral acids or
7
98 THE URINE
from abnormal production of acids within the body
(as in fevers, diabetes, pernicious vomiting of preg-
nancy, etc.), ammonia combines with them and is so
excreted, urea being correspondingly decreased. It is
thus that the body protects itself against acid intoxica-
tion, A marked increase of ammonia is, therefore, im-
portant chiefly as an index of the tendency to acidosis,
particularly that associated with the presence of di-
acetic and oxybutyric acids.
In diabetes mellitus ammonia elimination may reach
4 or 5 gm. daily. It is likewise markedly increased in
pernicious vomiting of pregnancy, but not in nervous
vomiting; and in conditions in which the power to syn-
thesize urea is interfered with, notably cirrhosis and
other destructive diseases of the liver and conditions
associated with deficient oxygenation.
Quantitative Estimation. — The urine must be fresh,
since decomposition increases the amount of ammonia.
The following method is satisfactory for clinical pur-
poses, though subject to some inaccuracies.
Ronchese-Malfatti Formalin Test. — This depends upon
the fact that when formalin is added to the urine, the am-
monia combines with it, forming hexamethylene-tetramin.
The acids with which the ammonia was combined are set
free, and their quantity, ascertained by titration with sodium
hydroxid, indicates the amount of ammonia.
Take 10 c.c. of the urine in a beaker or evaporating dish,
add 50 c.c. water and 10 drops of 0.5 per cent, alcoholic solu-
tion of phenolphthaleln. Neutralize by adding a weak
caustic soda or sodium carbonate solution until a permanent
pink color appears. To 5 c.c. formalin add 15 c.c. water
and neutralize in the same way. Pour the formalin into the
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 99
urine. The pink color at once disappears, owing to libera-
tion of acids. Now add decinormal sodium hydroxid solution
from a buret until the pink color just returns. Each cubic
centimeter of the decinormal solution used in this titration
corresponds to 0.0017 E^- of NH3. This must be multi-
plied by ten to obtain the percentage from which the twenty-
four-hour elimination of ammonia is calculated.
The method is more complicated, but distinctly more
accurate when carried out as suggested by E. W. Brown.
Treat 60 c.c. of urine with 3 gm. of basic lead acetate, stir
well, let stand a few minutes, and filter. Treat the filtrate
with 2 gm. neutral potassium oxalate, stir well, and filter.
Take 10 c.c. of the filtrate, add 50 c.c. water and 15 gm.
neutral potassium oxalate, and proceed with the ammonia
estimation as above outlined.
B. Abnormal Constituents
Those substances which appear in the urine only in
pathologic conditions are of much more interest to the
clinician than are those which have just been discussed.
Among them are: proteins, sugars, the acetone bodies,
bile, hemoglobin, and the diazo substances. The " pan-
creatic reaction " and detection of drugs in the urine will
also be discussed under this head.
I. Proteins. — Of the proteins which may appear
in the urine, serum-albumin and serum-globulin are the
most important. Mucin, proteose, and a few others are
found occasionally, but are of less interest.
(i) Serum-albumin and Serum-globulin. — These two
proteins constitute the so-called " urinary albumin."
They usually occur together, have practically the same
significance, and both respond to all the ordinary tests
for " albumin."
lOO THE URINE
Their presence, or albuminuria, is probably the most
important pathologic condition of the urine. It is
either accidental or renal. The physician can make no
greater mistake than to regard all cases of albuminuria
as indicating kidney disease.
Accidental or Jalse albuminuria is due to admixture
with the urine of albuminous fluids, such as pus, blood,
and vaginal discharge. The microscope will usually
reveal its nature. It occurs most frequently in pyelitis,
cystitis, and chronic vaginitis.
Renal albuminuria refers to albumin which has passed
from the blood into the urine through the walls of the
kidney tubules or the glomeruli.
Albuminuria sufficient to be recognized by clinical
methods probably never occurs as a physiologic condi-
tion, the so-called physiologic albuminuria appearing
only under conditions which must be regarded as
abnormal. Among these may be mentioned excessive
muscular exertion in those unaccustomed to it; exces-
sive ingestion of proteins; prolonged cold baths; and
childbirth. In these conditions the albuminuria is
slight and transient.
There are certain other forms of albuminuria which
have still less claim to be called physiologic, but which
are not always regarded as pathologic. Among these
are cyclic albuminuria, which regularly recurs at a
certain period of the day, and orthostatic or postural
albuminuria, which appears only when the patient is
standing. They are rare and of obscure origin, and
occur for the most part in neurasthenic subjects during
adolescence. It is noteworthy in this connection that
nephritis sometimes begins with a cycUc albuminuria.
CHEMIC EXAMINATION f-fRpApwlOr
""'^^f I rrr- * ^^
In pathologic conditions and in most, at least/ of'liE^ r/I "j
"functional" conditions just enumerated, renal D^f. n f
buminuria may be referred to one or more of the follow-
ing causes. In nearly all cases it is accompanied by
tube-casts.
(a) Changes in the blood which render its albumin
more diffusible, as in severe anemias, purpura, and
scurvy. Here the albumin is small in amount.
(Z>) Changes in circulation in the kidney, either anemia
or congestion, as in excessive exercise, chronic heart
disease, and pressure upon the renal veins. The quan-
tity of albumin is usually, but not always, small. Its
presence is constant or temporary, according to the
cause. Most of the causes, if continued, will produce
organic changes in the kidney.
(c) Organic Changes in the Kidney. — These include
the inflammatory and degenerative changes commonly
grouped together under the name of nephritis, and also
renal tuberculosis, neoplasms, and cloudy swelling due
to irritation of toxins and drugs. The amount of al-
bumin eliminated in these conditions varies from minute
traces to 20 gm., or even more, in the twenty-four hours,
and, except in acute processes, bears little relation to
the severity of the disease. In acute and chronic
parenchymatous nephritis the quantity is usually very
large. In chronic interstitial nephritis it is small —
frequently no more than a trace. It is small in cloudy
swelling from toxins and drugs, and variable in renal
tuberculosis and neoplasms. In amyloid disease of the
kidney the quantity is usually small, and serum-globulin
may be present in especially large proportion, or even
alone. Roughly distinctive of serum-globulin is the
I02 THE URINE
appearance of an opalescent cloud when a few drops of
the urine are dropped into a glass of distilled water.
Detection of albumin depends upon its precipitation
by chemicals or coagulation by heat. There are many
tests, but none is entirely satisfactory, because other
substances as well as albumin are precipitated. The
most common source of error is mucin. The tests given
here are widely used and can be recommended. They
make no distinction between serum-albumin and serum-
globulin. They are given as nearly as possible in order
of their delicacy. Usually the best time to detect
albumin is in the evening or a few hours after a meal.
// is very important that urine to he tested for albumin
he rendered clear hy filtration or centrifugation. This
is too often neglected in routine work. When ordinary
methods do not suffice, it can usually be cleared by
shaking up with a little purified talc or animal charcoal
and filtering.
(i) Trichloracetic Acid Test. — The reagent consists of a
saturated aqueous solution of trichloracetic acid to which
magnesium sulphate is added to saturation. A simple
saturated solution of the acid may be used, but addition of
magnesium sulphate favors precipitation of globulin, and,
by raising the specific gravity, makes the test easier to
apply.
Take a few cubic centimeters of the reagent in a test-tube
or conical test glass, hold the tube or glass in an inclined
position, and run the urine gently in by means of a pipet, so
that it will form a layer on top of the reagent without mix-
ing with it. If albumin be present, a white, cloudy ring will
appear where the two fluids come in contact. The ring can
be seen most clearly if viewed against a black background,
CHEMIC EXAMINATION I03
and one side of the tube or conical glass may be painted black
for this purpose.
This is an extremely sensitive test, but, unfortunately,
both mucin and proteoses respond to it; urates, when abund-
ant, may give a confusing white ring, and the reagent is com-
paratively expensive. It is not much used in routine work
except as a control to the less sensitive tests.
Fig. 26. — Horismascope: adding the reagent.
A most convenient instrument for applying this or any of
the contact tests is sold under the name of " horismascope "
(Fig. 26).
(2) Robert's Test. — ^The reagent consists of pure nitric
acid, I part, and saturated aqueous solution of magnesium
sulphate, 5 parts. It is applied in the same way as the pre-
ceding test.
Albumin gives a white ring, which varies in density with
I04 THE URINE
the amount present. A similar white ring may be produced
by primary proteose and resinous drugs. White rings or
cloudiness in the urine above the zone of contact may result
from excess of urates or mucus. Colored rings near the junc-
tion of the fluids may be produced by urinary pigments,
bile, or indicari.
Robert's test is one of the best for routine work, although
the various rings are apt to be confusing to the inexperienced.
It is more sensitive than Heller's test, of which it is a modifica-
tion, and has the additional advantage that the reagent is
not so corrosive.
(3) Purdy's Heat Test. — Take a test-tube two-thirds full
of urine, add about one-sixth its volume of saturated solution
of sodium chlorid, and 5 to 10 drops of 50 percent, acetic acid.
Mix, and boil the upper inch. A white cloud in the heated
portion shows the presence of albumin.
This is a valuable test for routine work. It is simple,
sufficiently accurate for clinical purposes, and has practically
no fallacies. Addition of the salt solution, by raising the
specific gravity, prevents precipitation of mucin. Proteose
may produce a white cloud, which disappears upon boiling
and reappears upon cooling.
(4) Heat and Nitric Acid Test. — This is one of the oldest
of the albumin tests, and if properly carried out, one of the
best. Boil a small quantity of filtered urine in a test-tube and
add about one-twentieth its volume of concentrated nitric
acid. A white cloud or flocculent precipitate (which usually
appears during the boiling, but if the quantity be very small
only after addition of the acid) denotes the presence of albu-
min. A similar white precipitate, which disappears upon
addition of the acid, is due to earthy phosphates. The acid
should not be added before boiling, and the proper amount
should always be used; otherwise, part of the albumin may
fail to be precipitated or may be redissolved.
CHEMIC EXAMINATION
105
Quantitative Estimation. — The gravimetric, which is
the most reliable method, is too elaborate for clinical
work. Both Esbach's, which is very widely used, and
the centrifugal method give fair results, but Tsuchiya's
recent modification of the Esbach
method is preferable to either.
(i) Esbach's Method. — ^The urine must
be clear, of acid reaction, and not con-
centrated. Always filter before testing,
and, if necessary, add acetic acid and dilute
with water. Esbach's tube (Fig. 27) is es-
sentially a test-tube with a mark U near
the middle, a mark R near the top, and
graduations J, i, 2, 3, etc., near the bot-
tom. Fill the tube to the mark U with
urine and to the mark R with the reagent.
Close with a rubber stopper, invert slowly
several times, and set aside in a cool place.
At the end of twenty-four hours read off
the height of the precipitate. This gives
the amount of albumin in grams per liter,
and must be divided by 10 to obtain the
percentage.
Esbach's reagent consists of picric acid, i
2 gm., and distilled water, to make 100 c.c.
(2) Tsuchiya's Method. — ^This is carried out in the same
manner as the Esbach method, using the following reagent:
Phosphotungstic acid 1.5 gm.
96 per cent, alcohol 95.0 c.c.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid 5-o "
The urine should be diluted to a specific gravity not exceeding
1.008. The method is said to be much more accurate than
Fig. 27. — Esbach's
albuminometer, im-
proved form.
gm., citric acid,
I06 THE URINE
the original Esbach method, particularly with small quanti-
ties of albumin.
(3) Purdy's Centrifugal Method. — This is detailed in
the table on opposite page. The percentage by weight is
approximately one-fiftieth of the bulk percentage.
(2) Mucin. — Traces of the substances (mucin, mu-
coid, etc.) which are loosely classed under this name are
present in normal urine; increased amounts are observed
in irritations and inflammations of the mucous mem-
brane of the urinary tract. They are of interest chiefly
because they may be mistaken for albumin in most of
the tests. If the urine be diluted with water and acidi-
fied with acetic acid, the appearance of a w'hite cloud in-
dicates the presence of mucin.
True mucin is a glyco-protein, and upon boiling with
an acid or alkali, as in Fchling's test, yields a carbohy-
drate substance which reduces copper.
(3) Proteoses. — These are intermediate products in
the digestion of proteins and are frequently, although
incorrectly, called albumoses. Tw'O groups are generally
recognized: primary proteoses, w^hich are precipitated
upon half-saturation of their solutions wdth ammonium
sulphate; and secondary proteoses, which are precipitated
only upon complete saturation.
The secondary proteoses have been observed in the
urine in febrile and malignant diseases and chronic sup-
purations, during resolution of pneumonia, and in many
other conditions, but their clinical significance is in-
definite. In pregnancy, albumosuria may be due to
absorption of amniotic fluid.
Primary proteoses are rarely encountered in the urine.
CHEMIC EXAMINATION
107
PURDY'S QUANTITATIVE METHOD FOR ALBUMIN IN
URINE (CENTRIFUGAL).
Table showing the relation between the volumetric and gravimetric percentage
of albumin obtained by means of the centrifuge with radius of six
and three-quarter inches ; rate of speed, i$oo revolutions
per minute ; time, three minutes.
>
>
>
>* ^
>
>
^mM
>2
d! W S
u" (li
"h2
a/ til 2
H>'
"fc2
« w 2
•J u 2
0 n! u
r>WU
Oh
w 0 s
< H 5
(1, Q
(U Z ;-)
III
III
m
3 H i-
D W h
J U z
p « W
Pi
•^ £ D
D w H
►J UZ
p « W
>WCJ
w 0 s
5 t n
fc K J
^>^
K
0.005
0.025
135^
0.281
1-35
3iJ4
0.656
3-15
Vt
O.OI
0.05
14
0.292
1.4
32
0.667
3-2
K
0.016
0.075
14^
0.302
145
32^
0.677
3-25
I
0.021
0.1
^5 ,
0-313
1-5
33
0.687
3-3
'K
0.026
0.125
15^
0.323
1-55
3354
0.698
3-35
IM
0.031
0.15
16
0-333
1.6
34
0.708
3-4
iK
0.036
0.175
16^
0.344
1.65
3454
0.719
3-45
2
0.042
0.2
17
0.354
1-7
35
0.729
3-5
2^
0.047
0.225
17^
0-365
1-75
3554
0.74
3-55
^%
0.052
0.25
18
0.375
1.8
36
0-75
3-6
iV*
0.057
0.275
18'^
0-385
1-85
3654
0.76
3-65
3
0.063
0-3
19
0.396
1-9
37 ,
0.771
3-7
3K
0.068
0.325
19H
0.406
1-95
3754
0.781
3-75
Z'A
0.073
0.35
20
0.417
2.
38
0.792
3.8
1%
0.078
0-375
rtoV,
0.427
2.05
385^
0.801
3.85
4
0.083
0.4
21
0.438
2.1
39
0.813
3-9
4^
0.089
0.425
2154
0.448
2.15
395^
0.823
3-95
4'/^
0.094
0-45
22
0.458
2.2
40
0-833
4-
4K
0.099
0-475
22^
0.469
2.25
4054
0.844
4-05
5
0.104
0-5
23
0-479
2.3
41 ,
0.854
4-1
55^
O.III
0-55
23J4
0-49
2-35
4154
0.865
4-15
6
0.125
0.6
24
0.5
2-4
42
0.875
4-2
654
0.135
0.65
24 J^
0.51
2-45
4254
0.885
4-25
7
0.146
0.7
25
0.521
2-5
43 ,
0.896
4-3
7H
0.156
0-75
25^
0-531
2.55
4354
0.906
4-35
8
0.167
0.8
26
0-542
2.6
44
0.917
4-4
8}^
0.177
0.85
26J4
0-552
2.65
4454
0.927
4-45
9
0.187
0.9
27
0-563
2.7
45 ,
0.938
4-5
9J4
0.198
0-95
21%
0-573
2.75
4554
0.948
4-55
10
0.208
1.
28
0-583
2.8
46
0.958
4.6
1054
0.219
1.05
28J^
0-594
2.85
4654
0.969
4-65
II
0.229
i.l
29
0.604
2-9
47 ,
0-979
4-7
iiH
0.24
I-I5
29 J^
0.615
2-95
4754
0.99
4-75
12
0.25
1.2
30
0.625
3-
48
I.
4-8
1254
0.26
125
30^
0.635
3-05
13
0.271
1-3
31
0.646
3-1
Test. — Three cubic centimeters of 10 per cent, solution of ferrocyanid of
potassium and 2 cubic centimeters of 50 per cent, acetic acid are added to 10 cubic
centimeters of the urine in the percentage tube and stood aside for ten minutes,
then placed in the centrifuge and revolved at rate of speed and time as stated at
head of the table. If albumin is excessive, dilute the urine with water until
volume of albumin falls below 10 per cent. Multiply result by the number
of dilutions employed before using the table.
Io8 THE URINE
The protein known as the " Bence- Jones body " was
originally classed under this head, but its true nature is
uncertain. It is regarded as practically pathognomonic
of multiple myeloma.
The proteoses are not coagulable by heat, but are precipi-
tated by such substances as trichloracetic acid and phos-
photungstic acid. The primary proteoses, alone, are pre-
cipitated by nitric acid.
Proteoses may be detected by acidifying the urine with
acetic acid, boiling and filtering while hot to remove mucin,
albumin, and globulin, and testing the filtrate by the tri-
chloracetic acid test. As above indicated, the nitric acid
test, and half and complete saturation with ammonium sul-
phate will separate the two groups.
To detect Bence- Jones' body the urine is acidified with
acetic acid and gently heated. If this substance be present,
a precipitate will form at about 60° C. As the boiling-point
is reached, it wholly or partially dissolves. It reappears
upon cooling.
2. Sugars. — Various sugars may at times be found in
the urine. Dextrose is by far the most common, and is
the only one of clinical importance. Levulose, lactose,
and some others are occasionally met with.
(i) Dextrose (Glucose). — It is probable that traces of
glucose, too small to respond to the ordinary tests, are
present in the urine in health. Its presence in appre-
ciable amount constitutes " glycosuria."
Transitory glycosuria is unimportant, and may occur
in many conditions, as after general anesthesia and
administration of certain drugs, in pregnancy, and
following shock and head injuries. It may also occur
CHEMIC EXAMINATION I09
after eating excessive amounts of carbohydrates (ali-
mentary glycosuria).
Persistent glycosuria has been noted in brain injuries
involving the floor of the fourth ventricle. As a rule,
however, persistent glycosuria is diagnostic of diabetes
mellitus, of which disease it is the essential symptom.
The amount of glucose eliminated in diabetes is usually
considerable, and is sometimes very large, reaching 500
gm., or even more, in twenty-four hours, but it does not
bear any uniform relation to the severity of the disease.
Glucose may, on the other hand, be almost or entirely
absent temporarily.
Detection of Dextrose. — If albumin be present in more
than traces, it must be removed by boiling and filtering.
(i) Haines* Test. — Take about i dram of Haines' solution
in a test-tube, boil, and add 6 or 8 drops of urine. A heavy
yellow or red precipitate, which settles readily to the bottom,
shows the presence of sugar. Neither precipitation of phos-
phates as a light, flocculent sediment nor simple decolorization
of the reagent should be mistaken for a positive reaction.
This is one of the best of the copper tests, all of which
depend upon the fact that in strongly alkaline solutions glucose
reduces cupric hydrate to cuprous hydrate (yellow) or cup-
rous oxid (red). They are somewhat inaccurate, because
they make no distinction between glucose and less common
forms of sugar; because certain normal substances, when
present in excess, especially mucin, uric acid, and creatinin,
may reduce copper, and because many drugs — e. g., chloral,
-chloroform, copaiba, acetanilid, benzoic acid, morphin,
sulphonal, salicylates — are eliminated as copper-reducing
substances. To minimize these fallacies dilute the urine, if
it be concentrated; do not add more than the specified amount
of urine, and do not boil after the urine is added.
no
THE URINE
Haines'' solution is prepared as follows: completely dissolve
30 gr. pure copper sulphate in \ oz. distilled water, and add
2 oz. pure glycerin; mix thoroughly, and add 5 oz. liquor
potassae. The solution keeps well.
(2) Fehling's Test. — Two solutions are required — one
containing 34.64 gm. pure crystalline copper sulphate in
500 c.c. distilled water; the other, 173 gm. Rochelle salt and
100 gm. potassium hydroxid in 500' c.c. distilled water. Mix
equal parts of the two solutions in a test-tube, dilute with
Fig. 28. — Crystals of phenylclucosazone from diabetic urine — Kowarsky's test ( X 500).
3 or 4 volumes of water, and boil. Add the urine a little at a
time, heating, but not boiling, between additions. In the
presence of glucose a heavy red or yellow precipitate will
appear. The quantity of urine should not exceed that of the
reagent.
(3) Benedict's Test. — This new test promises to displace
all other reduction tests for glucose. The reagent is said to
be ten times as sensitive as Haines' or Fehling's, and not to
be reduced by uric acid, creatinin, chloroform, or the alde-
hyds. It consists of:
CHEMIC EXAMINATION III
17-3 gm.
173-0 "
200.0 "
lOOO.O c.c.
Copper sulphate (pure crystallized),
Sodium or potassium citrate,
Sodium carbonate (crystallized),
(or IOC gm. of the anhydrous salt).
Distilled water, to make
Dissolve the citrate and carbonate in 700 c.c. of water, with
the aid of heat, and filter. Dissolve the copper in 100 c.c.
of water and pour slowly into the first solution, stirring con-
stantly. Cool, and make up to one liter. The reagent keeps
indefinitely.
Take about 5 c.c. of this reagent in a test-tube, and add
8 or 10 drops {not more) of the urine. Heat to vigorous
boiling, keep at this temperature for one or two minutes,
and allow to cool slowly. In the presence of glucose the
entire body of the solution will be filled with a precipitate,
which may be red, yellow, or green in color. When traces
only of glucose are present, the precipitate may appear only,
upon cooling. In the absence of glucose, the solution re-
mains clear or shows only a faint, bluish precipitate, due to
urates.
(4) Phenylhydrazin Test. — Kowarsky^s Method. — In a wide
test-tube take 5 drops pure phenylhydrazin, 10 drops glacial
acetic acid, and i c.c. saturated solution of sodium chlorid.
A curdy mass results. Add 2 or 3 c.c. urine, boil for at least
two minutes, and set aside to cool. Examine the sediment
with the microscope, using a two-thirds objective. If glucose
be present, characteristic crystals of phenylglucosazone will
be seen. These are yellow, needle-like crystals arranged
mostly in clusters or in sheaves (Fig. 28). When traces only
of glucose are present, the crystals may not appear for one-
half hour or more. Best crystals are obtained when the fluid
is cooled very slowly. It must not be agitated during
cooling.
112 THE URINE
This is an excellent test for clinical work. It requires
slightly more time than Haines' test, but more than compen-
sates for this by increased accuracy. It is fully as sensitive
as Haines', and has practically no fallacies excepting levulose,
which is a fallacy for all tests but the polariscope. Other
carbohydrates which are capable of forming crystals with
phenylhydrazin are extremely imlikely to do so when the test
is appUed directly to the urine by the method just detailed.
Even if not used routinely, this test should always be resorted
to when Haines' test gives a positive reaction in doubtful
cases.
Quantitative Estimation. — In quantitative work Feh-
ling's solution, for so many years the standard, has been
largely displaced by Purdy's, which avoids the heavy
precipitate that so greatly obscures the end-reaction in
Fehling's method. The older method is still preferred
by many, and both are, therefore, given. The new
method of Benedict is likewise included, since it appears
to be more exact than any other titration method
available for sugar work. Should the urine contain
much glucose, it must be diluted before making
any quantitative test, allowance being made for the
dilution in the subsequent calculation. Albumin, if
present, must be removed by acidifying a considerable
quantity of urine with acetic acid, boiling, and filtering.
The precipitate should then be washed with water and
the washings added to the urine to bring it to its original
volume.
(i) Purdy's Method. — Take exactly 35 c.c. of Purdy's
solution in a flask or beaker, add twice its volume of distilled
water, heat to boiling, and, still keeping the solution hot, add
CHEMIC EXAMINATION II3
the urine very slowly from a buret until the blue color entirely
disappears. Read off the amount of urine added; considering
the strength of Purdy's solution, it is readily seen that this
amount of urine contains 0.02 gm. of glucose, from which the
amount in the twenty-four-hour urine, or the percentage, can
easily be calculated. Example: Suppose that 2.5 c.c. of
urine discharged the blue color of 35 c.c. of Purdy's solution.
This amount of urine, therefore, contains exactly 0.02 gm.
glucose, and the percentage is obtained from the equation:
2.5 : 100 : : 0.02 : x, and x equals 0.8 per cent. If, then,
the twenty-four-hour quantity of urine were 3000 c.c, the
twenty-four-hour elimination of glucose would be found as
follows: 100 : 3000 : : 0.8 : x, and x equals 24 gm.
It will be found that after the test is completed the blue
color slowly returns. This is due to reoxidation, and should
not be mistaken for incomplete reduction.
A somewhat simpler application of this method, which is
accurate enough for clinical purposes, is as follows: Take
84 c.c. (roughly, 9 c.c.) of Purdy's solution in a large test-
tube, dilute with an equal volume of water, heat to boiling,
and, while keeping the solution hot but not boUing, add the
urine drop by drop from a medicine-dropper until the blue
color is entirely gone. Toward the end add the drops very
slowly, not more than 4 or 5 a minute. Divide 10 by the
number of drops required to discharge the blue color; the
quotient will be the percentage of glucose. If 20 drops were
required, the percentage would be 10-^-20 = 0.5 P^^ cent.
It is imperative that the drops be of such size that 20 of them
will make i c.c. Test the dropper with urine, not water. If
the drops are too large, draw out the tip of the dropper; if
too small, file off the tip.
Ptirdy's solution consists of pure crystalline copper sulphate,
4.752 gm. ; potassium hydroxid, 23.5 gm.; ammonia (U. S. P.;
sp. gr., 0.9), 350 c.c. ; glycerin, 7,8 c.c. ; distilled water, to make
8
114
THE URINE
looo c.c. Dissolve the copper sulphate and glycerin in 200
c.c. of the water by aid of gentle heat. In another 200 c.c.
pf water dissolve the potassium hydroxid. Mix the two solu-
tions, and when cool, add the ammonia. Lastly, bring the
whole up to 1000 c.c. with distilled water. This solution is
pf such strength that the copper in 35 c.c. will be reduced by
exactly 0.02 gm. of glucose.
(2) Fehling's Method. — Take 10 c.c. Fehling's solution
(made by mixing 5 c.c. each of the copper and alkaline solu-
tions described on page no) in a flask or beaker, add three or
Fig. 29. — Einhorn's saccharimeter.
four volumes of water, boil, and add the urine very slowly from
a buret until the solution is completely decolorized, heating
but not boiling after each addition.
The chief objection to Fehling's method is the difficulty
of determining the end-point. The use of an " outside indi-
cator," however, obviates this. When reduction is thought
to be complete, a few drops of the solution are filtered through
a fine-grained filter-paper on to a porcelain plate, quickly
acidified with acetic acid, and mixed with a drop of 10 per
CHEMIC EXAMINATION II5
cent, potassium ferrocyanid. Immediate appearance of a
red-brown color shows the presence of unreduced copper.
Fehling's solution is of such strength that the copper in
10 c.c. will be reduced by exactly 0.05 gm. of glucose. There-
fore, the amount of urine required to decolorize the test solu-
tion contains just 0.05 gm. glucose, and the percentage is
easily calculated.
(3) Benedict's Method. — The following modification of
his copper solution has recently been offered by Benedict
for quantitative estimations.
The reagent consists of:
Copper sulphate (pure crystallized), 18.0 gm.
Sodium carbonate (crystallized), 200.0 "
(or 100 gm. of the anhydrous salt).
Sodium or potassium citrate, 200.0 "
Potassium sulphocyanate, 125.0 '*
5 per cent, potassium ferrocyanid solution, 5.0 c.c.
Distilled water, to make looo.o "
With the aid of heat dissolve the carbonate, citrate, and
sulphocyanate in about 800 c.c. of the water and filter.
Dissolve the copper in 100 c.c. of water and pour slowly
into the other fluid, stirring constantly. Add the ferro-
cyanid solution, cool, and dilute to 1000 c.c. Only the
copper need be accurately weighed. This solution is of such
strength that 25 c.c. are reduced by 0.05 gram glucose. It
keeps well.
To make a sugar estimation, take 25 c.c. of the reagent in
a porcelain evaporating dish, add 10 to 20 grams sodium
.carbonate crystals (or one-half this weight of the anhydrous
salt) and a small quantity of powdered pumice-stone or tal-
cum. Heat to boiling, and add the urine rather rapidly
from a buret until a chalk-white precipitate forms and
the blue color of the reagent begins to fade. After this
Il6 THE URINE
point is reached, add the urine a few drops at a time until
the last trace of blue just disappears. This end-point is
easily recognized. During the whole of the titration the
mixture must be kept vigorously boiling. Loss by evap-
oration must be made up by adding water. The quantity
of urine required to discharge the blue color contains exactly
0.05 gram glucoSe, and the percentage contained in the
original sample is easily calculated.
(4) Fermentation Method.— This is convenient and satis-
factory, its chief disadvantage begin the time required. It de-
pends upon the fact that glucose is fermented by yeast with
evolution of CO2. The amount of gas evolved is an index of
the amount of glucose. Einhorn's saccharimeter (Fig. 29) is
the simplest apparatus.
The urine must be so diluted as to contain not more than
I per cent, of glucose. A fragment of fresh yeast cake about
the size of a split-pea is mixed with a definite quantity of the
urine measured in the tube which accompanies the appa-
ratus. It should form an emulsion free from lumps or air-
bubbles. The long arm of the apparatus is then filled with
the mixture. At the end of fifteen to twenty-four hours fer-
mentation will be complete, and the percentage of glucose can
be read off upon the side of the tube. The result must then
be multiplied by the degree of dilution. Since yeast itself
sometimes gives ofif gas, a control test must be carried out
with normal urine and the amount of gas evolved must be
subtracted from that of the test. A control should also be
made with a known glucose solution to make sure that the
yeast is active.
(5) Robert's Differential Density Method. — While this
method gives only approximate results, it is convenient, and
requires no special apparatus but an accurate urinometer.
Mix a quarter of a yeast-cake with about 4 oz. of urine.
Take the specific gravity and record it. Set the urine in a
warm place for twenty-four hours or until fermentation is com-
CHEMIC EXAMINATION II 7
plete. Then cool to the temperature at which the specific
gravity was originally taken, and take it again. The differ-
ence between the two readings gives the number of grains
of sugar per ounce, and this, multiplied by 0.234, gives the
percentage of sugar. If the original reading is 1.035, ^^^ that
after fermentation is 1.020, the urine contains 1.035 — 1.020
= 15 grains of sugar per fluidounce; and the percentage equals
15X0.234 = 3.5.
(2) Levulose, or fruit-sugar, is very rarely present in
the urine except in association with glucose, and has
about the same significance. Its name is derived from
the fact that it rotates polarized light to the left. It be-
haves the same as glucose with all the ordinary tests,
and is not readily distinguished except by polarization.
(3) Lactose, or milk-sugar, is sometimes present in
the- urine of nursing women and in that of women who
have recently miscarried. It is of interest chiefly be-
cause it may be mistaken for glucose. // reduces copper,
hut does not ferment with yeast. In strong solution it can
form crystals with phenylhydrazin, but is extremely
unlikely to do so when the test is applied directly to the
urine.
(4) Pentoses. — These sugars are so named because
they contain five atoms of oxygen. Vegetable giuns
form their chief source. They reduce copper strongly
but slowly, and give crystals with phenylhydrazin, but
do not ferment with yeast.
Pentosuria is uncommon. It has been noted after in-
gestion of large quantities of pentose-rich substances,
such as cherries, plums, and fruit-juices, and is said to
be fairly constant in habitual use of morphin. It some-
times accompanies glycosuria in diabetes. An obscure
Il8 THE URINE
chronic form of pentosuria without cHnical symptoms
has been observed.
Bial's Orcin Test. — Dextrose is first removed by fermen-
tation. About 5 c.c. of Bial's reagent are heated in a test-
tube, and after removing from the flame the urine is added
drop by drop, not exceeding twenty drops in all. The ap-
pearance of a green color denotes pentose.
The reagent consists of:
30 i)er cent, hydrochloric acid 500 c.c.
10 ])er cent, ferric chlorid solution 25 drops
Orcin i gram.
3. Acetone Bodies.- -This is a group of closely related
substances — acetone, diacetic acid, and beta-oxy butyric
acid. Acetone is derived from decomposition of diacetic
acid, and this in turn from beta-oxybutyric acid by oxida-
tion. The origin of beta-oxybutyric acid is not definitely
known, but it is probable that its chief, if not its only,
source is in some obscure metabolic disturbance with
abnormal destruction of fats. The three substances
generally appear in the urine in the order mentioned.
When the disturbance is mild, acetone only appears; as it
becomes more marked, diacetic acid is added, and finally
beta-oxybutyric acid appears. The {presence of beta-
oxybutyric acid in the blood is probably the chief cause
of the form of auto-intoxication known as " acid intoxi-
cation."
(i) Acetone. — Minute traces, too small for the ordi-
nary tests, may be present in the urine under normal
conditions. Larger amounts are not uncommon in
fevers, gastro-intestinal disturbances, and certain ner-
vous disorders. A notable degree of acetonuria has
CHEMIC EXAMINATION II 9
Kkewise been observed in pernicious vomiting of preg-
nancy and in eclampsia.
Acetonuria is practically always observed in acid
intoxication, and, together with diaceturia, constitutes
its most significant diagnostic sign. A similar or identi-
cal toxic condition, always accompanied by acetonuria
and often fatal, is now recognized as a not infrequent
late effect of anesthesia, particularly of chloroform anes-
thesia. This postanesthetic toxemia is more Hkely to
appear, and is more severe when the urine contains any
notable amount of acetone before operation, which sug-
gests the importance of routine examination for acetone
in surgical cases.
Acetone is present in considerable amounts in many
cases of diabetes mellitus, and is always present in severe
cases. Its amount is a better indication of the severity
of the disease than is the amount of sugar. A progres-
sive increase is a grave prognostic sign. It can be
diminished temporarily by more liberal allowance of
carbohydrates in the diet.
According to Folin, acetone is present in only small
amounts in these conditions, the substance shown by
the usual tests, particularly after distillation of the
urine, being really diacetic acid. In this connection,
Frommer's test is to be recommended, since it does not
require distillation, and does not react to diacetic acid
unless too great heat is applied.
Detection of Acetone. — The urine may be tested di-
rectly, but it is best to distil it after adding a little phos-
phoric or hydrochloric acid to prevent foaming, and to
test the first few cubic centimeters of distillate. A
simple distilling apparatus is shown in Fig. 30. The
I20
THE URINE
test-tube may be attached to the delivery tube by means
of a two-hole rubber cork as shown, the second hole
serving as air vent, or, what is much less satisfactory,
it may be tied in place with a string. Should the vapor
not condense well, the test-tube may be immersed in a
glass of cold water.
I "
Fig. 30. — A simple distillins apparatus.
When diacetic acid is present, a considerable pro-
portion will be converted into acetone during distilla-
tion.
(i) Giuining's Test. — To a few cubic centimeters of urine
or distillate in a test-tube add a few drops of tincture of iodin
and of ammonia alternately until a heavy black cloud appears.
This cloud will gradually clear up, and if acetone be present,
iodoform, usually crystalline, will separate out. The iodoform
can be recognized by its odor, especially upon heating (there
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 121
is danger of explosion if the mixture be heated before the
black cloud disappears), or by detection of the crystals mi-
croscopically. The latter only is safe, unless one has an
imusually acute sense of smell. Iodoform crystals are yel-
lowish, six-pointed stars or six-sided plates (Fig. 31),
This modification of Lieben's test is less sensitive than the
original, but is sufficient for all clinical work; it has the ad-
vantage that alcohol does not cause confusion, and especially
that the sediment of iodoform is practically always crystalline.
When applied directly to the urine, phosphates are precipi-
. ^^tCs^T — -
L-. .,
Fig. 31. — Iodoform crystals obtained in several tests for acetone by Gunning's method
(X about 600).
tated and may form star-shaped crystals which are very con-
fusing to the inexperienced. Albumin prevents formation
of the crystals, and when it is present, the urine must be dis-
tilled for the test.
(2) Lange's Test. — This is a modification of the well-
known Legal test. It is more sensitive and gives a sharper
end-reaction. To a small quantity of urine add about one-
twentieth its volume (i drop for each i c.c.) of glacial acetic
acid and a few drops of fresh concentrated aqueous solution of
sodium nitroprussid, and gently run a little ammonia upon its
122 THE URINE
surface. If acetone be present, a purple ring will form within
a few minutes at the junction of the two fluids.
(3) Frommer's Test. — This test has proved very satis-
factory in the hands of the writer. The urine need not be
distilled. Alkalinize about 10 c.c. of the urine with 2 or 3 c.c.
of 40 per cent, caustic soda solution, add 10 or 12 drops of
10 per cent, alcoholic solution of salicylous acid (salicyl
aldehyd), heat the upper portion to about 70° C. (it should
not reach the boiling-point), and keep at this temperature
five minutes or longer. In the presence of acetone an orange
color, changing to deep red, appears in the heated portion.
The test can be made more definite by adding the caustic
soda in substance (about i gram), and before it goes into
solution adding the salicyl aldehyd and warming the lower
portion.
(2) Diacetic acid occurs in the same conditions as
acetone, but is less frequent and has more serious signifi-
cance. In diabetes its presence is a grave symptom and
often forewarns of approaching coma. It rarely or never
occurs without acetone.
Detection: — The urine must be fresh.
(i) Gerhardt's Test. — To a few cubic centimeters of the
urine add solution of ferric chlorid (about 10 per cent.) drop
by drop until the phosphates are precipitated; filter and add
more of the ferric chlorid. If diacetic acid be present, the
urine will assume a Bordeaux-red color which disappears
upon boiling. A red or violet color which does not disappear
upon boiling may be produced by other substances, as phenol,
salicylates, and antipyrin.
(2) Lindemann's Test. — To about 10 c.c. of urine add
5 drops 30 per cent, acetic acid, 5 drops Lugol's solution, and
2 or 3 c.c. chloroform, and shake. The chloroform does not
change color if diacetic acid be present, but becomes reddish
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 1 23
violet in its absence. This test is claimed by its advocates to
be more sensitive and more reliable than Gerhardt's.
(3) Oxybutyric acid has much the same significance
as diacetic acid, but is of more serious import. There is
no satisfactory clinical test for it.
4. Bile. — Bile appears in the urine in all diseases which
produce jaundice, often some days before the skin be-
comes yellow; and in many disorders of the liver not
severe enough to cause jaundice. It also occurs in dis-
eases with extensive and rapid destruction of red blood-
corpuscles. Both bile-pigment and bile acids may be
found. They generally occur together, but the pigment
is not infrequently present alone. Bilirubin, only, oc-
curs in freshly voided urine, the other pigments (bili-
verdin, bilifuscin, etc.) being produced from this by
oxidation as the urine stands. The acids are almost
never present without the pigments, and are, therefore,
seldom tested for clinically.
Detection of Bile-pigment. — Bile-pigment gives the
urine a greenish-yellow, yellow, or brown color, which
upon shaking is imparted to the foam. Cells, casts, and
other structures in the sediment may be stained brown or
yellow. This, however, should not be accepted as prov-
ing the presence of bile without further tests.
(i) Smith's Test. — Overlay the urine with tincture of iodin
diluted with nine times its volume of alcohol. An emerald-
green ring at the zone of contact shows the presence of bile-
pigments. It is convenient to use a conical test-glass, one
side of which is painted white.
(2) Gmelin's Test. — This consists in bringing shghtly
yellow nitric acid into contact with the urine. A play of
124 THE URINE
colors, of which green and violet are most distinctive, denotes
the presence of bile-pigment. Colorless nitric acid will be-
come yellow upon standing in the sunlight. The test may be
applied in various ways : by overlaying the acid with the urine;
by bringing a drop of each together upon a porcelain plate;
by filtering the urine through thick filter-paper, and touching
the paper with a drop of the acid; and, probably best of all,
by precipitating with lime-water, filtering, and touching the
precipitate with a drop of the acid. In the last method bili-
rubin is carried down as an insoluble calcium compound.
Detection of Bile Acids. — Hay's test is simple, sensi-
tive, and fairly reliable, and will, therefore, appeal to
the practitioner. It depends upon the fact that bile
acids lower surface tension. Other tests require isola-
tion of the acids for any degree of accuracy.
Hay's Test. — Upon the surface of the urine, which must not
be warm, sprinkle a little finely powdered sulphur. If it
sinks at once, bile acids are present to the amount of o.oi
per cent, or more; if only after gentle shaking, 0.0025 P^r
cent, or more. If it remains floating, even after gentle
shaking, bile acids are absent.
5. Hemoglobin. — The presence in the urine of hemo-
globin or pigments directly derived from it, accompanied
by few, if any, red corpuscles, constitutes hemoglobinuria.
It is a rare condition, and must be distinguished from
hematuria, or Uood in the urine, which is common. In
both conditions chemic tests will show hemoglobin, but
in the latter the microscope will reveal the presence of
red corpuscles. Urines which contain notable amounts
of hemoglobin have a reddish or brown color, and may
deposit a sediment of brown, granular pigment.
CHEMIC EXAMINATION I25
Hemoglobinuria occurs when there is such extensive
destruction of red blood-cells within the body that the
liver cannot transform all the hemoglobin set free into
bile-pigment. The most important examples are seen in
poisoning, as by mushrooms and potassimn chlorate,
in scurvy and purpura, in malignant malaria (black water
.fever), and in the obscure condition known as " paroxys-
mal hemoglobinuria." This last is characterized by the
appearance of large quantities of hemoglobin at inter-
vals, usually following exposure to cold, the urine remain-
ing free from hemoglobin between the attacks.
Detection. — Teichmann's test (p. 274) may be applied
to the precipitate after boiling and filtering, but the
guaiac test is more convenient in routine work.
Guaiac Test. — Mix equal parts of " ozonized " turpentine
and fresh tincture of guaiac which has been diluted with
alcohol to a light sherry- wine color. In a test-tube or conical
glass overlay the urine with this mixture. A bright blue ring
will appear at the zone of contact within a few minutes if
hemoglobin be present. The guaiac should be kept in an
amber-colored bottle. Fresh turpentine can be " ozonized "
by allowing it to stand a few days in an open vessel in the
sunlight.
This test is very sensitive, and a negative result proves the
absence of hemoglobin. Positive. results are not conclusive,
because numerous other substances — few of them likely to be
found in the urine — may produce the blue color. That most
likely to cause confusion is pus, but the blue color produced
by it disappears upon heating. The thin film of copper
often left in a test-tube after testing for sugar may give the
reaction, as may also the fumes from an open bottle of bromin.
126 THE URINE
6. Alkapton Bodies.- -The name, alkaptonuria, has
been given to a condition in which the urine turns
reddish-brown upon standing and strongly reduces
copper (but not bismuth), owing to the presence of
certain substances which result from imperfect protein
metabolism. The change of color takes place quickly
when fresh urine is alkalinized, hence the name, alkapton
bodies.
Alkaptonuria is unaccompanied by other symptoms,
and has little clinical importance. Only about forty-five
cases, mostly congenital, have been reported. The
change in color of the urine and the reduction of copper
with no reduction of bismuth nor fermentation with
yeast would suggest the condition.
7. Melanin. — Urine which contains melanin likewise
darkens upon exposure to the air, assuming a dark
brown or black color. This is due to the fact that the
substance is eliminated as a chromogen — melanogen —
which is later converted into the pigment.
Melanuria occurs in most, but not all, cases of mela-
notic sarcoma. Its diagnostic value is lessened by the
fact that it has been observed in other wasting diseases.
Tests for Melanin. — (i) Addition of ferric chlorid gives a
gray precipitate which blackens on standing.
(2) Bromin water causes a yellow precipitate which
gradually turns black.
8. Diazo Substances. — Certain unknown substances
sonretimes present in the urine give a characteristic
color reaction — the " diazo reaction " of Ehrlich — when
treated with diazo-benzol-sulphonic acid and ammonia.
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 1 27
This reaction has much cUnical value, provided its limi-
tations be recognized. It is at best an empirical test
and must be interpreted in the light of cHnical symptoms.
Although it has been met with in a considerable number
of diseases, its usefulness is practically limited to ty-
phoid fever, tuberculosis, and measles.
(i) Tjrphoid Fever. — Practically all cases give a
positive reaction, which varies in intensity with the
severity of the disease. It is so constantly present that
it is sometimes said to be " negatively pathognomonic ":
if negative upon several successive days at a stage of the
disease when it should be positive, typhoid is almost
certainly absent. Upon the other hand, a reaction
when the urine is highly diluted (i : 50 or more) has
much positive diagnostic value, since this dilution pre-
vents the reaction in most conditions which might be
mistaken for typhoid; but it should be noted that mild
cases of typhoid may not give it at this dilution. Ordi-
narily the diazo appears a little earlier than the Widal
reaction, — about the fourth or fifth day, — but it may be
delayed. In contrast to the Widal, it begins to fade
about the end of the second week, and soon thereafter
entirely disappears. An early disappearance is a favor-
able sign. It reappears during a relapse, and thus helps
to distinguish between a relapse and a complication, in
which it does not reappear.
(2) Tuberculosis. — The diazo reaction has been ob-
tained in many forms of the disease. It has little or
no diagnostic value. Its continued presence in pul-
monary tuberculosis is, however, a grave prognostic
sign, even when the physical signs are slight. After it
once appears it generally persists more or less intermit-
128 THE URINE
tently until death, the average length of life after its
appearance being about six months. The reaction is
often temporarily present in mild cases during febrile
complications, and has then no significance.
(3) Measles. — A positive reaction is usually obtained
in measles, and may help to distinguish this disease
from German measles, in which it does not occur. It
generally appears before the eruption and remains about
five days.
Technic. — Although the test is really a very simple one,
careful attention to technic is imperative. Many of the early
workers were very lax in this regard. Faulty technic and
failure to record the stage of the disease in which the tests
were made have probably been responsible for the bulk of the
conflicting results reported.
Certain drugs often given in tuberculosis and typhoid
interfere with or prevent the reaction. The chief are creosote,
tannic acid and its compounds, opium and its alkaloids, salol,
phenol, and the iodids. The reagents are:
(i) Saturated solution sulphanilic acid in 5 per cent,
hydrochloric acid.
(2) 0.5 per cent, aqueous solution sodium nitrite.
(3) Strong ammonia.
Mix 100 parts of (i) and one part of (2). In a test-tube
take equal parts of this mixture and the urine, and pour i or
2 c.c. of the ammonia upon its surface. If the reaction be
positive, a garnet ring will form at the junction of the two
fluids; and upon shaking, a distinct pink color will be imparted
to the foam. The color of the foam is the essential feature.
If desired, the mixture may be well shaken before the ammonia
is added: the pink color will then instantly appear in that
portion of the foam which the ammonia has reached, and can
be readily seen. The color varies from eosin-pink to deep
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 1 29
crimson, depending upon the intensity of the reaction. It is
a pure pink or red; any trace of yellow or orange denotes a
negative reaction. A doubtful reaction should be considered
negative.
9. Pancreatic Reaction.— Cammidge has shown that
in cases of pancreatitis a substance capable of forming
crystals with phenylhydrazin can be developed by boiling
the urine with a mineral acid, and has offered the follow-
ing test as an aid in diagnosis of this obscure condition.
The nature both of this substance and the antecedent
substance from which it is derived is not known. As
originally proposed, the test was complicated and prob-
ably not trustworthy, but with his improved and sim-
plified technic, Cammidge has had very promising results.
In 200 consecutive examinations in which the diagnosis
was confirmed, postmortem or at operation, 67 cases of
pancreatitis (65 chronic, 2 acute) gave positive reactions;
4 cases of cancer of the pancreas were positive, 1 2 nega-
tive; 4 cases in which no pancreatitis was found were
positive, 113 were negative. Normal urines do not give
the reaction. The difficulty and importance of diag-
nosis in pancreatitis warrant inclusion of the method
here, even though more recent work indicates that its
value is not so great as originally claimed.
While the test is somewhat tedious, all the manipula-
tions are simple and require no apparatus but flasks,
test-tubes, and funnels.
Technic. — Careful attention to detail is imperative. An
ordinary routine examination is first made. Albumin and
sugar, if present, must be removed: the former, by acidifying
with acetic acid, boiling, and filtering; the latter, by fermenta-
9
I30
THE URINE
tion with yeast after the first step of the method proper. An
alkahne urine should be made sUghtly acid with hydrochloric
acid.
(i) Forty cubic centimeters of the urine, which has been
rendered perfectly clear by repeated filtration through the
same filter-paper are placed in a small flask, treated with i
c.c. concentrated hydrochloric acid and gently boiled on a
Fig. 32. — "Pancreatic rcacti^
1" ll,lsk■^ tilti'il with fuiiiu'l conilcnsers on a sand-bath
(Rohson and Cammidge).
sand-bath for ten minutes, a funnel wath long stem being
placed in the neck of the flask to act as a condenser (Fig. 32).
After boiling, the urine is cooled in a stream of cold water and
brought to its original bulk with distilled w^ater; 8 gm. of
lead carbonate are then added to neutralize the acid. The
fluid is allowed to stand a few minutes and then filtered
through well-moistened fine-grain filter-paper until perfectly
clear.
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 131
(2) The filtrate is shaken up with 8 gm. powdered tribasic
lead acetate and filtered. The excess of lead is then removed
by passing hydrogen sulphid gas through the fluid (see page
135) or by shaking well with 4 gm. finely powdered sodium
sulphate, heating to boiling, cooling to as low a temperature
as possible in a stream of water, and filtering as before until
perfectly clear.
Fig. 33. — Improved "pancreatic reaction." Crystals obtained from a case of chronic
pancreatitis with gall-stones in the common duct (X200) (from a photo by P. J. Cam-
midge).
(3) Ten cubic centimeters of the filtrate are then made
up to 17 c.c. with distilled water, and added to a mixture of
0.8 gm. phenylhydrazin hydrochlorate, 2 gm. powdered so-
dium acetate, and i c.c. 50 per cent, acetic acid in a small flask
with funnel condenser. This is boiled on a sand-bath for ten
minutes, and filtered while hot through filter-paper moistened
with hot water into a test-tube with a 15 c.c. mark. Should
132
THE URINE
the filtrate not reach this mark, make up to 15 c.c. with hot
distilled water. Allow to cool slowly.
(4) In well-marked cases of pancreatitis a yellow pre-
cipitate appears within a few hours; in milder cases, it may not
appear for twelve hours. The microscope shows this sediment
to consist of " Ions;;, light yellow, flexible, hair-like crystals
arranged in sheaves, which, when irrigated with 33 per cent.
suljihuric acid, melt away and disappear in ten to fifteen sec-
onds after the acid first touches them " (Fig. 33).
(5) To exclude traces of glucose which might be overlooked
in the preliminary examination a control test should be carried
out in the same manner with omission of step i.
10. Drugs.— The effect of various drugs upon the
color of the urine has been mentioned (p. 71). Most
poisons are eliminated in the urine, but their detection
is more properly discussed in works upon toxicology. A
few drugs which are of interest to the practitioner, and
which can be detected by comparatively simple methods,
are mentioned here.
Acetanilid and Phenacetin. — The urine is evaporated
by gentle heat to about half its volume, boiled for a few
minutes with about one-fifth its volume of strong hydro-
chloric acid, and shaken out with ether. The ether is
evaporated, the residue dissolved in water, and the
following test applied : To about 10 c.c. are added a few
cubic centimeters of 3 per cent, phenol, followed by a
weak solution of chromium trioxid (chromic acid) drop
by drop. The fluid assumes a red color, which changes
to blue when ammonia is added. If the urine is very
pale, extraction with ether may be omitted.
Antipjn-in. — This drug gives a dark-red color when a
few drops of 10 per cent, ferric chlorid are added to the
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 133
urine. The color does not disappear upon boiling, which
excludes diacetic acid.
Arsenic. — Reinsch's Test. — Add to the urine in a test-
tube or small flask about one-seventh its volume of hy-
drochloric acid, introduce a piece of bright copper-foil
about one-eighth inch square, and boil for several min-
utes. If arsenic be present, a dark-gray film is deposited
upon the copper. The test is more delicate if the urine
be concentrated by slow evaporation. This test is well
known and is widely used, but is not so reUable as the
following.
GutzeWs Test. — In a large test-tube place a little
arsenic-free zinc, and add 5 to 10 c.c. pure dilute hydro-
chloric acid and a few drops of iodin solution (Gram's
solution will answer), then add 5 to 10 c.c. of the urine.
At once cover the mouth of the tube with a filter-paper
cap moistened with saturated aqueous solution of silver
nitrate (i: i). If arsenic be present, the paper quickly
becomes lemon-yellow, owing to formation of a com-
pound of silver arsenid and silver nitrate, and turns black
when touched with a drop of water. To make sure that
the reagents are arsenic-free, the paper cap may be ap-
plied for a few minutes before the urine is added.
Atropin will cause dilatation of the pupil when a few
drops of the urine are placed in the eye of a cat or rabbit.
Bromids can be detected by acidifying about 10 c.c. of
the urine with dilute sulphuric acid, adding a few drops
of fuming nitric acid and a few cubic centimeters of
chloroform, and shaking. In the presence of bromin the
chloroform, which settles to the bottom, assumes a yellow
color.
Iodin from ingestion of iodids or absorption from
134 THE URINE
iodoform dressings is tested for in the same way as the
bromids, the chloroform assuming a pink to reddish-
violet color. To detect traces, a large quantity of urine
should be rendered alkaline with sodium carbonate and
great Iv concentrated by evaporation before testing.
Lead. No simple method is sufficiently sensitive to
detect the traces of lead which occur in the urine in
chronic poisoning. Of the more sensitive methods, that
of Arthur Lederer is probably best suited to the prac-
titioner:
It is essential that all apparatus used be lead-free.
Five hundred cubic centimeters of the urine are acidified
with 70 c.c. pure sulphuric acid, and heated in a beaker
or porcelain dish. About 20 to 25 gm. of potassium
persulphate are added a little at a time. This should
decolorize the urine, leaving it only slightly yellow. If
it darkens upon heating, a few more crystals of potassium
persulphate are added, the burner being first removed to
prevent boiling over ; if it becomes cloudy, a small amount
of sulphuric acid is added. It is then boiled until it has
evaporated to 250 c.c. or less. After cooling, an equal
volume of alcohol is added, and the mixture allowed to
stand in a cool place for four or five hours, during which
time all the lead will be precipitated as insoluble sulphate.
The mixture is then filtered through a small, close-
grained filter-paper (preferably an ashless, quantitative
filter-paper), and any sediment remaining in the beaker
or dish is carefully washed out with alcohol and filtered.
A test-tube is placed underneath the funnel; a hole is
punched through the tip of_the filter with a small glass rod,
and all the precipitate (which may be so slight as to be
scarcely visible) washed down into the test-tube with a
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 135
jet of distilled water from a wash-bottle, using as little
water as possible. Ten cubic centimeters will usually
sufl&ce. This fluid is then heated, adding crystals of
sodium acetate until it becomes perfectly clear. It now
contains all the lead of the 5cxd c.c. urine in the form of
lead acetate. It is allowed to cool, and hydrogen sulphid
gas is passed through it for about five minutes. The
slightest yellowish-brown discoloration indicates the pres-
ence of lead. A very slight discoloration can be best seen
Fig. 34. — A simple hydrogen sulphid generator.
when looked at from above. For comparison, the gas
may be passed through a test-tube containing an equal
amount of distilled water. The quantity of lead can be
determined by comparing the discoloration with that
produced by passing the gas through lead acetate (sugar
of lead) solutions of known strength. One gram of lead
acetate crystals contains 0.54 gram of lead. Hydrogen
sulphid is easily prepared in the simple apparatus shown
in Fig. 34. A small quantity of iron sulphid is placed
136 THE URINE
in the test-tube; a little dilute hydrochloric acid is added;
the cork is replaced; and the delivery tube is inserted to
the bottom of the fluid to be tested.
Mercury. — Traces can be detected in the urine for a
considerable time after the use of mercury compounds
by ingestion or inunction.
About a liter of urine is acidified with 10 c.c. hydro-
chloric acid, and a small piece of copper-foil or gauze is
introduced. This is gently heated for an hour, and
allowed to stand for twenty-four hours. The metal is
then removed, and washed successively with very dilute
sodium hydroxid solution, alcohol, and ether. When
dry. it is placed in a long, slender test-tube, and the lower
portion of the tube is heated to redness. If mercury be
present, it will volatilize and condense in the upper por-
tion of the tube as small, shining globules which can be
seen with a hand-magnifier or low power of the micro-
scope. If, now, a crystal of iodin be dropped into the
tube and gently heated, the mercury upon the side of the
tube is changed first to the yellow iodid, and later to the
red iodid, which are recognized by their color.
Morphin. — Add sufficient ammonia to the urine to
render it distinctly ammoniacal, and shake thoroughly
with a considerable quantity of pure acetic ether. Sepa-
rate the ether and evaporate to dryness. To a httle of
the residue in a watch-glass or porcelain dish add a few
drops of formaldehyd-sulphuric acid, which has been
freshly prepared by adding one drop of formalin to i c.c.
pure concentrated sulphuric acid. If morphin be pres-
ent, this will produce a purple-red color, which changes
to violet, blue-violet, and finally nearly pure blue.
Phenol. — As has been stated, the urine following
CHEMIC EXAMINATION 137
phenol poisoning turns olive-green and then brownish-
black upon standing. Tests are of value in recognizing
poisoning from ingestion and in detecting absorption
from carbolized dressings.
The urine is acidulated with hydrochloric acid and
distilled. To the first few cubic centimeters of distillate
is added lo per cent, solution of ferric chlorid drop by
drop. The presence of phenol causes a deep amethyst-
blue color, as in Uffelmann's test for lactic acid.
Phenolphthalein, which is now widely used as a ca-
thartic, gives a bright pink color when the urine is ren-
dered alkaline with caustic soda.
Quinin. — A considerable quantity of the urine is ren-
dered alkaline with ammonia and extracted with ether;
the ether is evaporated, and a portion of the residue dis-
solved in about twenty drops of dilute alcohol. The
alcoholic solution is acidulated with dilute sulphuric
acid, a drop of an alcoholic solution of iodin (tincture
of iodin diluted about ten times) is added, and the mix-
ture, is warmed. Upon cooling, an iodin compound of
quinin (herapathite) will separate out in the form of a
microcrystalline sediment of green plates.
The remainder of the residue may be dissolved in a
little dilute sulphuric acid. This solution will show a
characteristic blue fluorescence when quinin is present.
Resinous drugs cause a white precipitate like that of
albumin when strong nitric acid is added to the urine.
This is dissolved by alcohol.
Salicylates, salol, and similar drugs give a bluish-
violet color, which disappears upon heating, upon addi-
tion of a few drops of 10 per cent, ferric chlorid solution.
When the quantity of salicylates is small, the urine may
138 THE URINE
be acidified with hydrochloric acid and extracted with
ether, the ether evaporated, and the test applied to an
aqueous solution of the residue.
Tannin and its compounds appear in the urine as
gallic acid, and the urine becomes greenish-black (inky,
if much gallic acid be present) when treated with a solu-
tion of ferric chlorid.
III. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
A careful microscopic examination will often reveal
structures of great diagnostic importance in urine which
seems perfectly clear, and from which only very slight
sediment can be obtained with the centrifuge. Upon the
other hand, cloudy urines with abundant sediment are
often shown by the microscope to contain nothing of
clinical significance.
Since the nature of the sediment soon changes, the
urine must be examined while fresh, preferably within six
hours after it is voided. The sediment is best obtained
by means of the centrifuge. If a centrifuge is not
available, the urine may be allowed to stand in a conical
test-glass for six to twenty-four hours after adding some
preservative (p. 69). The " torfuge " (Fig. 35) is said
to be a very satisfactory substitute for the centrifuge,
and is readily portable.
A small amount of the sediment should be transferred
to a slide by means of a pipet. It is very important to do
this properly. The best pipet is a small glass tube which
has been drawn out at one end to a tip with rather small
opening. The tube or glass containing the sediment is
held on a level with the eye. the larger end of the pipet is
closed with the index-finger, which must be dry, and the
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
139
tip is carried down into the sediment. By carefully
loosening the finger, but not entirely removing it, a small
amount of the sediment is then allowed to run slowly into
the pipet. Slightly rotating the pipet will aid in accom-
plishing this, and at the same time will serve to loosen
any structures which cling to the bottom of the tube.
After wiping off the urine which adheres to the outside,
a drop from the pipet is placed upon a clean slide.
A hair is then placed in the drop, and a large cover-glass
Fig. 35. — Wetherill's torfuge.
applied. Many workers use no cover. This offers a
thicker layer and larger area of urine, the chance of find-
ing scanty structures being proportionately increased. It
has the disadvantage that any jarring of the room (as by
persons walking about) sets the microscopic field into
vibratory motion and makes it impossible to see an3^thing
clearly; and since it does not allow of the use of high-
power objectives, one cannot examine details as one often
wishes to do. A large cover-glass with a hair beneath it
avoids these disadvantages, and gives enough urine to
find any structures which are present in sufficient
I40 THE URINE
number to have clinical significance, provided other
points in the technic have been right. It is best, how-
ever, to examine several drops; and, when the sediment
is abundant, drops from the upper and lower portions
should be examined separately.
In examining urinary sediments microscopically no
fault is so common, nor so fatal to good results, as im-
proper illumination (see Fig. 4), and none is so easily
corrected. The light should be central and very sub-
dued for ordinary work, but oblique illumination, ob-
tained by swinging the mirror a little out of the optical
axis, will be found helpful in identifying certain dehcate
structures like hyaline casts. The 16 mm. objective
should be used as a finder, while the 4 mm. is reserved
for examining details. An experienced worker will rely
almost wholly upon the lower power.
It is well to emphasize that the most common errors
which result in failure to find important structures, when
present, are lack of care in transferring the sediment to the
slide, too strong illumination, and too great magnification.
In order to distinguish between similar structures it is
often necessary to watch the effect upon them of certain
reagents. This is especially true of the various unorgan-
ized sediments. They very frequently cannot be identi-
fied from their form alone. With the structures still in
focus, a drop of the reagent may be placed at one edge of
the cover-glass and drawn underneath it by the suction of
a piece of blotting-paper touched to the opposite edge;
or a small drop of the reagent and of the urine may be
placed close together upon a slide and a cover gently
lowered over them. As the two fluids mingle, the effect
upon various structures may be seen.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
141
Urinary sediments may be studied under three heads:
A. Unorganized sediments. B. Organized sediments. C.
Extraneous structures.
A. Unorganized Sediments
In general these have little diagnostic or prognostic
significance. Most of them are substances normally
present in solution, which have been precipitated either
because present in excessive amounts, or, more frequently,
because of some alteration in the urine (as in reaction,
concentration, etc.) which may be purely physiologic,
depending upon changes in diet or habits. Various
substances are always precipitated during decompo-
sition, which may take place either within or without
Fig. 36. — Unusual urinary crystals (drawn from various authors): i, Calcium sul-
phate (colorless); 2, cholesterin (colorless); 3, hippxiric acid (colorless); 4, hematoidin
(brown); 5, fatty acids (colorless); 6, indigo (blue); 7, sodium urate (yellowish).
the body. Unorganized sediments may be classified
according to the reaction of the urine in which they are
most likely to be found :
In acid urine: Uric acid, amorphous urates, sodium
urate, calcium oxalate, leucin and ty rosin, cystin, and
fat-globules. Uric acid, the urates, and calcium oxalate
142
THE URINE
are the common deposits of acid urines; the others are
less frequent, and depend less upon the reaction of the
urine.
In alkaline urine: Phosphates, calcium carbonate, and
ammonium urate.
Other crystalline sediments (Fig. 36) which are rare
and require no further mention are: Calcium sulphate,
cholesterin, hippuric acid, hematoidin, fatty acids, and
indigo.
Fig- 37- — Forms of uric acid: i, Rhombic plates; 2, whetstone forms; 3, 3, quadrate
forms; 4, 5. prolonged into points; 6, 8, rosets; 7. pointed bundles; g, barrel forms pre-
cipitated by adding hydrochloric acid to urine (Ogden).
I. In Acid Urine.— (i) Uric-acid Crystals.— These
crystals are the red grains — " gravel " or " red sand " —
which are often seen adhering to the sides and bottom
of a vessel containing urine. ]VIicroscopIcally, they are
yellow or reddish-brown crystals, which differ greatly in
PLATE III
Uric-acid crystals with amorphous urates (after Payer).
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 143
size and shape. The most characteristic forms (Plate III
and Fig. 37) are "whetstones"; roset-like clusters of
prisms and whetstones; and rhombic plates, which
have usually a paler color than the other forms and are
sometimes colorless. A very rare form is a colorless
hexagonal plate resembling cystin. Recognition of the
crystals depends less upon their shape than upon their
color, the reaction of the urine, and the facts that they
are soluble in caustic soda solution and insoluble in hy-
drochloric or acetic acid. When ammonia is added,
they dissolve and crystals of ammonium urate appear.
A deposit of uric-acid crystals has no significance un-
less it occurs before or very soon after the urine is voided.
Every urine, if kept acid, will in time deposit its uric
acid. Factors which favor an early deposit are high
acidity, diminished urinary pigments, and excessive ex-
cretion of uric acid. The chief clinical interest of the
crystals lies in their tendency to form calculi, owing to
the readiness with which they collect about any solid
object. Their presence in the freshly voided urine in
clusters of crystals suggests stone in the kidney or
bladder, especially if blood is also present. (See Fig. 65.)
(2) Amorphous Urates. — These are chiefly urates of
sodium and potassium which are thrown out of solution
as a yellow or red " brick-dust " deposit. In pale
urines this sediment is almost white. It disappears upon
heating. A deposit of amorphous urates is very common
in concentrated and strongly acid urines, especially in
cold weather, and has no clinical significance. Under
the microscope it appears as fine yellowish granules,
often so abundant as to obscure all other structures
(Plate III). In such cases the urine should be warmed
144 THE URINE
before examining. Amorphous urates are readily sol-
uble in caustic soda solutions. When treated with hy-
drochloric or acetic acid, they slowly dissolve and rhombic
crystals of uric acid appear.
Rarely, sodium urate occurs in crystalline form —
slender prisms, arranged in fan- or sheaf-hke structures
(Fig. 36).
(3) Calcium Oxalate. — Characteristic of calcium oxa-
late are colorless, glistening, octahedral crystals, giving
the appearance of small squares crossed by two intersect-
ffi
^
Fig. 38. — Various forms of calcium oxalate crystals (Ogden).
ing diagonal lines — the so-called " envelop crystals "
(Fig. 51). They vary greatly in size, being sometimes
so small as to seem mere points of light with medium-
power objectives. Unusual forms, which, however,
seldom occur except in conjunction with the octahedra,
are colorless dumb-bells, spheres, and variations of the
octahedra (Fig. 38). The spheres might be mistaken for
globules of fat or red blood-corpuscles. Crystals of
calcium oxalate are insoluble in acetic acid or caustic
soda. They are dissolved by strong hydrochloric acid,
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION I45
and recrystallize as octahedra upon addition of ammonia.
They are sometimes encountered in alkaline urine.
The crystals are commonly found in the urine after
ingestion of vegetables rich in oxaHc acid, as tomatoes,
spinach, asparagus, and rhubarb. They have no de-
finite significance pathologically. They often appear
in digestive disturbances, in neurasthenia, and when the
oxidizing power of the system is diminished. When
abundant, they are generally associated with a little
mucus; and, in men, frequently with a few spermatozoa.
Like uric acid, their chief clinical interest lies in their
tendency to form calculi, and their presence in fresh
urine, together with evidences of renal or cystic irritation,
should be viewed with suspicion, particularly if they are
clumped in small masses.
(4) Leucin and Tyrosin. — Crystals are deposited only
when the substances are present in considerable amount.
When present in smaller amount, they will usually be
deposited if a little of the urine be slowly evaporated upon
a slide. Addition of alcohol favors the deposit. They
generally appear together, and are of comparatively
rare occurrence, usually indicating severe fatty destruc-
tion of the liver, such as occurs in acute yellow atrophy
and phosphorus-poisoning.
The crystals cannot be identified from their morphol-
ogy alone, since other substances, notably calcium phos-
phate (Fig. 42) and ammonium urate, may take similar
or identical forms.
Leucin crystals (Fig. 39) as they appear in the urine
do not represent the pure substance. They are slightly
yellow, oily-looking spheres, many of them with radial
and concentric striations. Some may be merged to-
10
146 THE URINE
gether in clusters. They are not soluble in hydrochloric
acid nor in ether.
Tyrosin crystallizes in very fine colorless needles,
usually arranged in sheaves, with a marked constriction
at the middle (Fig. 39). It is soluble in ammonia and
hydrochloric acid, but not in acetic acid.
(5) Cystin crystals are colorless, highly refractive,
rather thick, hexagonal plates with well-defined edges.
They lie either singly or superimposed to form more or
less irregular clusters (Fig. 40). Uric acid sometimes
Fig. 3Q. — Leucin spheres and tyrosin needles (Stengel).
takes this form and must be excluded. Cystin is soluble
in hydrochloric acid, insoluble in acetic; it is readily
soluble in ammonia and recrystallizes upon addition of
acetic acid.
Cystin is one of the amino-acids formed in decompo-
sition of the protein molecule, and is present in traces in
normal urine. Crystals are deposited only when the sub-
stance is present in excessive amount. Their presence
is known as cystiniiria. It is a rare condition due to an
obscure abnormality of protein metabolism and usually
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
147
continues throughout life. There are rarely any symp-
toms save those referable to renal or cystic calculus, to
which the condition strongly predisposes.
(6) Fat-globules. — Fat appears in the urine as highly
refractive globules of various sizes, frequently very small.
These globules are easily recognized from the fact that
they are stained black by osmic acid and orange or red
by Sudan III. The stain may be applied upon the slide,
Fig. 40. — Cystin crystals from urine of patient with cystin calculus ( X 200) (photograph bj
the author).
as already described (p. 140). Osmic acid should be
used in i per cent, aqueous solution ; Sudan III in satu-
rated solution in 70 per cent, alcohol, to which one-half
volume of 10 per cent, formalin may advantageously
be added.
Fat in the urine is usually a contamination from un-
clean vessels, oiled catheters, etc. A very small amount
may be present after ingestion of large quantities of cod-
148 THE URINE
liver oil or other fats. In fatty degeneration of the
kidney, as in phosphorus-poisoning and chronic paren-
chymatous nephritis, fat-globules are commonly seen,
both free in the urine and embedded in cells and tube-
casts.
In chyluria, or admixture of chyle with the urine as a
result of rupture of a lymph-vessel, minute droplets of
fat are so numerous as to give the urine a milky appear-
ance. The droplets are generally smaller than those of
milk. The fluid is often blood-tinged. Chyluria occurs
most frequently as a symptom of infection by filaria
(p. 357), the embryos of which can usually be found in
the milky urine.
2. In Alkaline Urine.— (i) Phosphates.— While most
common in alkaline urine, phosphates are sometimes
deposited in amphoteric or feebly acid urines. The usual
forms are: {a) Ammoniomagnesium phosphate crystals;
{h) acid calcium phosphate crystals; and (c) amorphous
phosphates. All are readily soluble in acetic acid.
{a) Ammonioynagnesium Phosphate Crystals. — They
are the common " triple phosphate " crystals, which are
generally easily recognized (Figs. 41 and 66. and Plate
IV). They are colorless, except when bile-stained.
Their usual form is some modification of the prism, with
oblique ends. Alost tx-pical are the well-known '* coffin-
Hd " and '' hip-roof " forms. The long axis of the hip-
roof crystal is often so shortened that it resembles the
envelop crystal of calcium oxalate. It does not, how-
ever, have the same luster; this, and its solubility in acetic
acid, will always prevent confusion.
When rapidly deposited, as by artificial precipitation,
triple phosphate often takes feathery, star-, or leaf-like
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
149
forms. These gradually develop into the more common
prisms. X-forms may be produced by partial solution of
prisms.
(b) Acid Calcium Phosphate Crystals.- — In feebly acid,
amphoteric, or feebly alkaline urines acid calcium phos-
phate, wrongly called " neutral calcium phosphate,"
is not infrequently deposited in the form of colorless
prisms arranged in stars and rosets (Fig. 42, i). The
individual prisms are usually slender, with one beveled,
Fig. 41. — Various forms of triple phosphate crystals (Ogden).
wedge-like end, but are sometimes needle-like. They
may sometimes take forms resembling tyrosin (Fig. 42,
2), calcium sulphate, or hippuric acid, but are readily
distinguished by their solubility in acetic acid.
Calcium phosphate often forms large, thin, irregular,
usually granular, colorless plates, which are easily recog-
•nized (Fig. 42, 3).
(c) Amorphous Phosphates. — The earthy phosphates
are thrown out of solution in most alkaline and many
amphoteric urines as a white, amorphous sediment,
150
THE URINE
which may be mistaken for pus macroscopically. Under
the microscope the sediment is seen to consist of numer-
ous colorless granules, distinguished from amorphous
V
Fig. 42. — Crystals of calcium phosphate: i, Common form Ccopied from Rieder's
Atlas); 2, needles resembling tyrosin (drawn from nature); 3, large, irregular plates ({rem
nature).
urates by their color, their solubility in acetic acid, and
the reaction of the urine.
The various phosphatic deposits frequently occur
together. They are sometimes due to excessive excre-
9= ' ff'^%^
•^ .^^^
^'^^
*d?
Fig. 43. — Indistinct crystalline sediment (dumb-bell crystals) of calcium carbonate.
Similar crystals are formed by calcium oxalate and calcium sulphate (after Funke).
tion of phosphoric acid, but usually merely indicate that
the urine has become, or is becoming, alkaline. (See
Phosphates, p. 86.)
(2) Calcium carbonate may sometimes be mingled
with the phosphatic deposits, usually as amorphous
PLATE IV
Sediment of alkaline fermentation (after Hofmann and Ultzmann).
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 151
granules, or, more rarely, as -cfelorl^sg^Sjph^res ^nd dumb-
bells (Fig. 43), which are soXu\:)^(^kh 9x^)Ac acici wi'tli ^^s/*. Tii
formation. ' ' ' ^ ' ^ ' ' ff«
(3) Ammonium Urate Crystals. — This is the only
urate deposited in alkaline urine. It forms opaque
yellow crystals, usually in the form of spheres (Plate IV.
and Fig. 66) , which are often covered with fine or coarse
Fig. 44.— Crystals of ammonium urate (one-half of the forms copied from Rieder's Atlas,
the others from nature).
spicules — " thorn-apple crystals." Sometimes dumb-
bells, compact sheaves of fine needles, and irregular
rhizome forms are seen (Fig. 44). Upon addition of
acetic acid they dissolve, and rhombic plates of uric acid
appear.
These crystals occur only when free ammonia is
present. They are generally found along with the phos-
phates in decomposing urine and have no clinical
significance.
B. Organized Sediments
The principal organized structures in urinary sedi-
ments are: Tube-casts; epithelial cells; pus-corpuscles;
152 THE URINE
red bIood-corpusde>^ ; sj^ennatozoa ; bacteria, and animal
parasites. They are njuck more important than the
unorganized sediments just considered.
1 . Tube=casts. — These interesting structures are albu-
minous casts of the uriniferous tubules. Their pres-
ence in the urine probably always indicates some
pathologic change in the kidney, although this change
may be very slight or transitory. Large numbers may
be present in temporary irritations and congestions.
They do not in themselves, therefore, imply organic dis-
ease of the kidney. They rarely occur in urine which
does not contain, or has not recently contained, al-
bumin.
While it is not possible to draw a sharp dividing-line
between the different varieties, casts may be classified
as follows:
(i) Hyaline casts.
(a) Narrow.
(b) Broad.
(2) Waxy casts.
(3) Fibrinous casts.
(4) Granular casts.
(a) Finely granular.
(h) Coarsely granular.
(5) Fatty casts.
(6) Casts containing organized structures.
((/) Epithelial casts.
(b) Blood-casts.
(c) Pus-casts.
(d) Bacterial casts.
As will be seen later, practically all varieties are
modifications of the hyaline.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 1 53
The significance of the different varieties is more
readily understood if one considers their mode of forma-
tion. Albuminous material, the source, and nature of
which are not definitely known, but which are doubtless
not the same in all cases, probably enters the lumen of a
uriniferous tubule in a fluid or plastic state. The
material has been variously thought to be an exudate
from the blood, a pathologic secretion of the renal cells,
and a product of epithelial degeneration. In the tubule
it hardens into a cast which, when washed out by the
urine, retains the shape of the tubule, and contains within
its substance whatever structures and debris were lying
free within the tubule or were loosley attached to its wall.
If the tubule be small and have its usual lining of epithe-
lium, the cast will be narrow; if it be large or entirely
denuded of epithelium, the cast will be broad. A cast,
therefore, indicates the condition oj the tubule in which
it is formed, but does not necessarily indicate the condition
of the kidney as a whole.
The search for casts must be carefully made. The
urine must be fresh, since hyaline casts soon dissolve
when it becomes alkaline. It should be thoroughly
centrifugalized. When the sediment is abundant, casts,
being light structures, will be found near the top. In
cystitis, where casts may be entirely hidden by the pus,
the bladder should be irrigated to remove as much of
the pus as possible and the next urine examined. In
order to prevent solution of the casts the urine, if al-
kaline, must be rendered acid by previous administra-
tion of boric acid or other drugs. Heavy sediments of
urates, blood, or vaginal cells may likewise obscure
casts and other important structures. The last can be
154
THE URINE
avoided by catheterization. Urates can be dissolved
by gently warming before centrifugalizing, care being
taken not to heat enough to coagulate the albumin.
The albumin shield of .the centrifuge tube may also
be heated. Blood can be destroyed by centrifugalizing,
pouring off the supernatant urine, tilling the tube with
water, adding a few drops of dilute acetic acid, mixing
well, and again centrifugalizing; this process being
repeated until the blood is completely decolorized.
Too much acetic acid will dissolve hyaline casts.
Their cylindric shape can be best seen by slightly
moving the cover-glass w^hile observing them, thus
causing them to roll. This little manipulation should
be practised until it can be done satisfactorily. It will
prove useful in many examinations.
Various methods of staining casts so as to render them
more conspicuous have been proposed. They offer no
special advantage to one who understands how to use
the substage mechanism of his microscope. The " nega-
tive-staining ■' method is as good as any. It consists
simply in adding a little India-ink to the drop of urine on
the slide. Casts, cells, etc., will stand out as colorless
structures on a dark background.
(i) Hyaline Casts. — Typically, these are colorless,
homogeneous, semitransparent, cyhndric structures, with
parallel sides and usually rounded ends. Not infre-
quently they are more opaque or show a few granules or
an occasional oil-globule or cell, either adhering to them
or contained within their substance. Generally they
are straight or curved; less commonly, convoluted.
Their length and breadth vary greatly : they are some-
times so long as to extend across several fields of a
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
155
medium-power objective, but are usually much shorter;
in breadth, they vary from one to seven or eight times
Fig. 45. — Hyaline casts showing fat-droplets and leukocytes (obj. one-sixth) (Boston).
the diameter of a red blood-corpuscle. (See Figs. 4, 45,
46, and 50.)
Fig. 46. — Various kinds of casts: a. Hyaline and finely granular cast; b, finely granular
cast; c, coarsely granular cast; d, brown granular cast; e, granular cast with normal and
abnormal blood adherent; /, granular cast with renal cells adherent; ;;, granular cast with
fat and a fatty renal cell adherent COgden).
Hyaline casts are the least significant of all the casts,
and occur in many slight and transitory conditions.
156 THE URINE
Small numbers are common following ether anesthesia,
in fevers, after excessive exercise, and in congestions and
irritations of the kidney. They are always present, and
are usually stained yellow when the urine contains much
bile. While they are found in all organic diseases of the
kidney, they are most important in chronic interstitial
nephritis. Here they are seldom abundant, but their
constant presence is the most reliable urinary sign of the
disease. Small areas of chronic interstitial change are
probably responsible for the few hyaline casts so fre-
quently found in the urine of elderly persons.
Fig. 47. — Waxy casts (upper part of figure). Fatty and fat-bearing casts (lower part of
figure) (from Greene's "Medical Diagnosis").
Very broad hyaline casts commonly indicate complete
desquamation of the tubular epithelium, such as occurs
in the late stages of nephritis.
(2) Waxy Casts. — Like hyaline casts, these are homo-
geneous when typical, but frequently contain a few
granules or an occasional cell. They are much more
opaque than the hyaline variety, and are usually shorter
and broader, with irregular, broken ends, and some-
times appear to be segmented. They are grayish or
colorless, and have a dull, waxy look, as if cut from par-
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
157
aflSn (Figs. 47 and 64). They are sometimes composed
of material which gives the amyloid reactions. Waxy
casts are found in most advanced cases of nephritis,
where they are an unfavorable sign. They are perhaps
most frequently found in amyloid disease of the kidney,
but are not distinctive of the disease, as is sometimes
stated.
(3) Fibrinous Casts. — Casts which resemble waxy
casts, but have a distinctly yellow color, as if cut from
beeswax, are often seen in acute nephritis. They are
Fig. 48. — Granular and fatty casts and two compound granular cells (Stengel).
called fibrinous casts, but the name is inappropriate, as
they are not composed of fibrin. They are often classed
with waxy casts, but should be distinguished, as their
significance is much less serious.
(4) Granular Casts. — These are merely hyaline casts
in which numerous granules are embedded (Figs. 46, 48,
and 50).
Finely granular casts contain many fine granules, are
usually shorter, broader, and more opaque than the
hyaline variety, and are more conspicuous. Their color
is grayish or pale yellow.
158 THE URINE
Coarsely granular casts contain larger granules and are
darker in color than the finely granular, being often dark
brown owing to presence of altered blood-pigment. They
are usually shorter and more irregular in outline, and
more frequently have irregularly broken ends.
(5) Fatty Casts. — Small droplets of fat may at times
be seen in any variety of cast. Those in which the drop-
lets are numerous are called fatty casts (Figs. 47 and 48) .
The fat-globules are not difficult to recognize. Staining
with osmic acid or Sudan (p. 147) will remove any doubt
as to their nature.
The granules and fat-droplets seen in casts are prod-
ucts of epithelial degeneration. Granular and fatty
casts, therefore, always indicate partial or complete dis-
integration of the renal epithelium. The finely granular
variety is the least significant, and is found when
the epithelium is only moderately affected. Coarsely
granular, and especially fatty casts, if present in con-
siderable numbers, indicate a serious parenchymatous
nephritis.
(6) Casts Containing Organized Structures. — Cells
and other structures are frequently seen adherent to a
cast or embedded within it. (See Figs. 45 and 46).
When numerous, they give name to the cast.
(a) Epithelial casts contain epithelial cells from the
renal tubules. They always imply desquamation of
epithelium, which rarely occurs except in parenchy-
matous inflammations (Figs. 63 and 64). When the
cells are well preserved they point to acute nephritis.
ib) Blood-casts contain red blood-corpuscles, usually
much degenerated (Figs. 49 and 63). They always
indicate hemorrhage into the tubules, which is most
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
159
common in acute nephritis or an acute exacerbation of
a chronic nephritis.
(c) Pus-casts (see Fig. 65), composed almost wholly of
pus-corpuscles, are uncommon, and point to a chronic
suppurative process in the kidney.
(d) True bacterial casts are rare. They indicate a
septic condition in the kidney. Bacteria may permeate
a cast after the urine is voided.
Fig. 49. — Red blood-corpuscles and blood-casts (courtesy of Dr. A. Scott) (obj. one-
sixth) (Boston)
Structures Likely to be Mistaken for Casts. — (i)
Mucous Threads. — Mucus frequently appears in the
form of long strands which slightly resemble hyaline
casts (Fig. 50). They are, however, more ribbon-like,
have less well-defined edges, and usually show faint
longitudinal striations. Their ends taper to a point or
are split or curled upon themselves, and are never evenly
rounded, as is commonly the case with hyaline casts.
Such threads form a part of the nubecula of normal
urine, and are especially abundant when calcium oxalate
i6o
THE URINE
crystals are present. When there is an excess of mucus,
as in irritations of the urinary tract, every field may be
filled with an interlacing meshwork.
Mucous threads are microscopic and should not be
confused with urethral shreds, which are macroscopic,
and consist of a matrix of mucus in which many epi-
thelial and pus-cells are embedded.
(2) Cylindroids. — This name is sometimes given to the
mucous threads just described, but is more properly
Fig. so. — Hyaline and granular casts, mucous threads, and cylindroids. There are also
a few epithelial cells from the bladder (Wood).
applied to certain peculiar structures more nearly allied
to casts. They resemble hyaline casts in structure, but
differ in being broader at one end and tapering to a
slender tail, which is often twisted or curled upon itself
(Fig. 50). They frequently occur in the urine along
with hyaline casts, especially in irritations of the kidney,
and have no definite pathologic significance.
(3) Masses of amorphous urates, or phosphates, or
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION l6l
very small crystals (Fig. 51), which accidentally take a
cylindric form, or shreds of mucus covered with granules,
closely resemble granular casts. Application of gentle
heat or appropriate chemicals will serve to differentiate
them. When urine contains both mucus and granules,
large numbers of these " pseudocasts," all lying in the
same direction, can be produced by slightly moving the
cover-glass from side to side. It is possible — as in urate
infarcts of infants — for urates to be molded into cylin-
dric bodies within the renal tubules.
Fig. SI. — Calcium oxalate crystals, showing a pseudocast of small crystals (Jakob).
(4) Hairs and fibers of wool, cotton, etc. These
could be mistaken for casts only by beginners. One
can easily become familiar with their appearance by
suspending them in water and examining with the micro-
scope (Fig. 61).
(5) Hyphae of molds are not infrequently mistaken
for hyaline casts. Their higher degree of refraction,
their jointed or branching structure, and the accom-
panying spores will differentiate them (Fig. 62).
11
1 62
THE URINE
2. Epithelial Cells.— A few cells from various parts
of the urinary tract occur in every urine. A marked
increase indicates some pathologic condition at the site of
their origin. It is sometimes, but by no means always,
possible to locate their source from their form. Most
cells are much altered from their original shape. Any
epithelial cell may be so granular from degenerative
changes that the nucleus is obscured. They are usually
divided into three groups:
(i) Small, round or polyhedral
^mW^£f cells are about the size of pus-
^k^m corpuscles, or a little larger, with a
v^tfft «... single round nucleus. Such cells
may come from the deeper layers
of any part of the urinary tract.
They are uncommon in normal
urine. When they are dark in
color, very granular, and contain
a comparatively large nucleus, they
probably come from the renal tub-
ules, but their origin in the kid-
ney is not proved unless they are
found embedded in casts. Renal
cells are abundant in parenchyma-
tous nephritis, especially the acute form. They are
nearly always fatty — most markedly so in chronic paren-
chymatous nephritis, where their substance is sometimes
wholly replaced by fat-droplets (" compound granule
cells ") (see Figs. 48, 52, and 63).
(2) Irregular cells are considerably larger than the
preceding. They are round, pear shaped, or spindle
shaped, or may have tail-like processes, and are hence
Fig. S2- — Renal epithelium
from nephritic urine: a, Poly-
hedral epithelium in nephritis
of scarlet fever; b and c, differ-
ent grades of fatty degenera-
tion in renal epithelium in
chronic nephritis ( X 400) (after
Bizzozero).
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
163
named large round, pyriform, spindle, or caudate cells
respectively. Each contains a round or oval distinct
nucleus. Their usual source is the deeper layers of the
urinary tract, especially of the bladder. Caudate forms
come most commonly from the pelvis of the kidney (see
Figs. 53, h, 54, 65, and 66).
(3) Squamous or pavement cells are large flat cells,
each with a small, distinct, round or oval nucleus (Fig.
53, a). They are derived from the superficial layers of
Fig- 53- — Epithelial cells from urethra and bladder: a. Squamous cells from superficia'
layers; b, irregular cells from deeper layers (Jakob).
the ureters, bladder, urethra, or vagina, and when
desquamation is active, appear in stratified masses.
Squamous cells from the bladder are generally rounded,
while those from the vagina are larger, thinner, and
more angular. Great numbers of these vaginal cells,
"together with pus-corpuscles, may be present when
leukorrhea exists.
3. Pus=corpuscles.— A very few leukocytes are pres-
ent in normal urine. They are more abundant when
i64
THE URINE
mucus is present. An excess of leukocytes, mainly of
the polymorphonuclear variety, with albumin, consti-
tutes pyuria — pus in the urine.
Fig. 54. — Caudate epithelial cells from pelvis of kidney (Jakob).
When at all abundant, pus forms a w^iite sediment
resembling amorphous phosphates macroscopically. Un-
® ® ®
®
® ® ®
Fig- 55- — Pus<orpuscles: a, .\s ordinarily seen; h, ameboid corpuscles; c, showing the
action of acetic acid (Ogden).
der the microscope the corpuscles appear as very granu-
lar cells, about twice the diameter of a red blood-cor-
puscle (Figs. 55 and 66). In freshly voided urine many
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 1 65
exhibit ameboid motion, assuming irregular outlines.
Each contains one irregular nucleus or several small,
rounded nuclei. The nuclei are obscured or entirely
hidden by the granules, but may be brought clearly
into view by running a httle acetic acid under the cover-
glass. This enables one to easily distinguish pus-cor-
puscles from small round epithelial cells, which resemble
them in size, but have a single, rather large, round
nucleus. In decomposing urine pus is converted into a
gelatinous mass which gives the urine a ropy consistence.
Pyuria indicates suppuration in some part of the
urinary tract — urethritis, cystitis, pyelitis, etc. — or may
be due to contamination from the vagina, in which case
many vaginal epithelial cells will also be present. In
general, the source of the pus can be determined only by
the accompanying structures (epithelia, casts) or by the
clinical signs.
A fairly accurate idea of the quantity of pus from day
to day may be had by shaking the urine thoroughly and
counting the number of corpuscles per cubic millimeter
upon the Thoma-Zeiss blood-counting slide.
4. Red Blood=corpuscles.— Urine which containsblood
is always albuminous. Very small amounts do not alter
its macroscopic appearance. Larger amounts alter it
considerably. Blood from the kidneys is generally
intimately mixed with the urine and gives it a hazy
reddish or brown color. When from the lower urinary
tract, it is not so intimately mixed and settles more
quickly to the bottom, the color is brighter, and small
clots are often present.
Red blood-corpuscles are not usually difficult to recog-
nize with the microscope. When very fresh, they have a
1 66 THE URINE
normal appearance, being yellowish discs of uniform size
(normal blood). When they have been in the urine any
considerable time, their hemoglobin may be dissolved out,
and they then appear as faint colorless circles or " shadow
cells " (abnormal blood), and are more difficult to see
(Fig. 56; see also Figs. 49 and 63). They are apt to be
swollen in dilute and crenated in concentrated urines.
The microscopic findings may be corroborated by chemic
tests for hemoglobin, although the microscope may show
a few red corpuscles when the chemic tests are negative.
When not due to contamination from menstrual dis-
charge, blood in the urine, or hematuria, is always patho-
O ^ O o o -
Fig. 56. — Blood-corpuscles: a, Normal; h, abnormal (Ogden).
logic. Blood comes from the kidney tubules in severe
h^^peremia, in acute nephritis and acute exacerbations of
chronic nephritis, and in renal tuberculosis and malig-
nant disease. An " idiopathic hematuria," probably of
nervous origin, has been observed. The finding of blood-
casts is the only certain means of diagnosing the kidney
as its source. Blood comes from the pelvis of the kidney
in renal calculus (Fig. 65), and is then usually intermit-
tent, small in amount, and accompanied by a Httle pus
and perhaps crystals of the substance forming the stone.
Considerable hemorrhages from the bladder may occur
in vesical calculus, tuberculosis, and new growths.
Small amounts of blood generally accompany acute
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
167
cystitis. In Africa the presence of Schistosomum hema-
tobium in the veins of the bladder is a common cause of
hemorrhage (Egyptian hematuria) .
5. Spermatozoa are generally present in the urine of
men after nocturnal emissions, after epileptic convul-
sions, and in spermatorrhea. They may be found in the
urine of both sexes following coitus. They are easily
recognized from their characteristic structure (Fig. 57).
r "^
y
0
©
^
r.
0
(,
J
i
?i
C
c
0
9
p
1
^^
Fig. S7- — Sjjermatozoa in urine (Ogden).
The 4 mm. objective should be used, with subdued light
and careful focusing.
6. Bacteria. — Normal urine is free from bacteria in
the bladder, but becomes contaminated in passing
through the urethra. Various non-pathogenic bacteria,
notably Micrococcus urece (Fig. 58), are always present
in decomposing urine. In suppurations of the urinary
tract pus-producing organisms may be found. In many
1 68 THE URINE
infectious diseases the specific bacteria may be eliminated
in the urine without producing any local lesion. Ty-
phoid bacilli have been known to persist for months
and even years after the attack.
Bacteria produce a cloudiness which will not clear
upon filtration. They are easily seen with the 4 mm.
objective in the routine microscopic examination.
Ordinarily, no attempt is made to identify any but the
tubercle bacillus and the gonococcus.
Fig. 58. — Micrococcus urese (after von Jaksch).
Tubercle bacilli are nearly always present in the urine
when tuberculosis exists in any part of the urinary tract,
but are often difficult to find, especially when the urine
contains little or no pus.
Detection of Tubercle Bacilli in Urine. — The urine should
be obtained by catheter after careful cleansing of the parts.
(i) Centrifugalize thoroughly, after dissolving any sediment
of urates or phosphates by gentle heat or acetic add. Pour
off the supernatant fluid, add water, and centrifugalize again.
Addition of one or two volumes of alcohol will favor cen-
trifugalization by lowering the specific gravity.
(2) Make thin smears of the sediment, adding a little egg-
albumen if necessary to make the smear adhere to the glass;
dry. and fix in the usual way.
(3) Stain with carbol-fuchsin, steaming for at least three
minutes, or at room temperature for six to twelve Hours.
■^
PLATE V
%
%
/) It
Tubercle bacilli in urinary sediment; X 800 (Ogden).
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 1 69
(4) Wash in water, and then in 20 per cent, nitric acid
until only a faint pink color remains.
(5) Wash in water.
(6) Soak in alcohol fifteen minutes or longer. This decolor-
izes the smegma bacillus (p. 53), which is often present in
the urinCj^ and might easily be mistaken for the tubercle bacil-
lus. It is unlikely, however, to be present in catheterized
specimens. It is always safest to soak the smear in alcohol
for several hours or over night, since some strains of the smeg-
ma bacillus are very resistant.
(7) Wash in water.
(8) Apply Loffler's methylene-blue solution one-half minute.
(9) Rinse in water, dry between filter-papers, and examine
with the one-twelfth objective.
When the bacilli are scarce, the following method may be
tried. It is applicable also to other fluids. If the fluid is not
albuminous, add a little egg-albumen. Coagulate the albu-
men by gentle heat and centrifugalize. The bacilli will be
carried down with the albumen. The sediment is then treated
by the antiformin method (p. 52).
A careful search of many smears may be necessary to find
the bacilli. They usually lie in clusters (see Plate V). Fail-
ure to find them in suspicious cases should be followed by
inoculation of guinea-pigs; this is the court of last appeal,
and must also be sometimes resorted to in order to exclude
the smegma bacillus.
In gonorrhea gonococci are sometimes found in
the sediment, but more commonly in the " gonorrheal
threads," or " floaters." In themselves, these threads
are by no means diagnostic of gonorrhea. Detection of
the gonococcus is described later (p. 369).
7. Animal parasites are rare in the urine. Booklets
and scolices of Tcenia echinococcus (Fig. 59) and em-
170
THE URINE
bryos pf filariae have been met. In Africa the ova, and
even adults, of Schistosomum hcemalobium are common,
Fig. 5g. — I, Scolcx of ta-nia cchinococcus. showin;; crown of booklets; 2, scolex and
detached booklets (obj. one-sixth) (Boston).
accompanying " Egyptian hematuria." Trichomonas
vaginalis is a not uncommon contamination. This and
Fig. 60. — Embryo of "vinegar eel" in urine, from contamination; length. 340 Mi
width, IS ix. .\n epithelial cell from bladder and three leukocytes are also shown (studied
with Dr. J. .\ Wilder).
other protozoa may be mistaken for spermatozoa by the
inexperienced.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 171
A worm which is especially interesting is Anguillula
aceti, the "vinegar eel." This is generally present in
the sediment of table vinegar, and may reach the urine
through use of vinegar in vaginal douches, or through
contamination of the bottle in which the urine is con-
tained. It has been mistaken for Sirongyloides intes-
tinalis and for the filaria embryo. It closley resembles
the former in both adult and embryo stages. The young
embryos have about the same length as filaria embryos,
but are nearly twice as broad and the intestinal canal is
easily seen (compare Figs. 60 and 134). For fuller de-
scriptions of these parasites the reader is referred to
Chapter VI.
C. Extraneous Structures
The laboratory worker must familiarize himself with
the microscopic appearance of the more common of the
numerous structures which may be present from acci-
dental contamination (Fig. 61).
Yeast-cells are smooth, colorless, highly refractive,
spheric or ovoid cells. They sometimes reach the size of
a leukocyte, but are generally smaller (see Fig. 106, I).
They might be mistaken by the inexperienced for red
blood-corpuscles, fat-droplets, or the spheric crystals of
calcium oxalate, but are distinguished by the facts that
they are not of uniform size; that they tend to adhere in
short chains; that small buds may often be seen ad-
hering to the larger cells; and that they do not give the
hemoglobin test, are not stained by osmic acid or Sudan,
but are colored brown by Lugol's solution, and are in-
soluble in acids and alkalis. Yeast-cells multiply rapidly
172
THE URINE
in diabetic urine, and may reach the bladder and multi-
ply there.
Mold fungi (Fig. 62) are characterized by refractive,
jointed, or branched rods (hyphae), often arranged in a
network, and by highly refractive, spheric or ovoid spores.
Fig. 61. — Extraneous matters found in urine: a. Flax-fibers; b, cotton-fibers; c. feathers;
d, hairs; e, potato-starch; /, rice-starch granules; g, wheat-starch; h, air-bubbles; »,
muscular tissue; k, vegetable tissue; /, oil-globules.
They are common in urine which has stood exposed to
the air.
Fibers of wool, cotton, linen, or silk, derived from
towels, the clothing of the patient, or the dust in the air,
are present in almost every urine. Fat-droplets are most
frequently derived from unclean bottles or oiled cathe-
THE URINE IN DISEASE 1 73
ters. Starch-granules may reach the urine from towels,
the clothing, or dusting-powders. They are recognized
by their concentric striations and their blue color with
iodin solution. Lycopodium granules (Fig. 5) may also
reach the urine from dusting-powders. They might be
mistaken for the ova of parasites. Bubbles of air are
often confusing to beginners, but are easily recognized
Fig. 62. — Aspergill»is from urine (Boston).
after once being seen. Scratches and flaws in the glass
of slide or cover are likewise a common source of con-
fusion to beginners.
IV. THE XJRINE IN DISEASE
In this section the characteristics of the urine in those
diseases which produce distinctive urinary changes will
be briefly reviewed.
I. Renal Hyperemia. — Active hyperemia is usually an
early stage of acute nephritis, but may occur independ-
ently as a result of temporary irritation. The urine is
generally decreased in quantity, highly colored, and
strongly acid. Albumin is always present — usually in
traces only, but sometimes in considerable amount for a
174
THE URINE
day or two. The sediment contains a few hyaline and
finely granular casts and an occasional red blood-cell.
Fig. 63. — Sediment from acute hemorrhagic nephritis: Red hloo.l-corpuscles; leukocytes;
renal cells not fattily degenerated; epithelial and blood-casts (Jakob).
Fig. 64. — Sediment from chronic parenchymatous nephritis: Hyaline (with cells
attached), waxy, brown granular, fatty, and epithelial casts; fattily degenerated renal cells,
and a few white and red blood-corpuscles (Jakob).
In very severe hyperemia the urine approaches that of
acute nephritis.
Passive hyperemia occurs most commonly in diseases of
THE URINE IN DISEASE 175
the heart and liver and in pregnancy. The quantity of
urine is somewhat low and the color high, except in
pregnancy. Albumin is present in small amount only.
The sediment contains a very few hyaHne or finely
granular casts. In pregnancy the amount of albumin
should be carefully watched, as any considerable quan-
tity, and especially a rapid increase, strongly suggests
approaching eclampsia.
2. Nephritis. — The various degenerative and inflam-
matory conditions grouped under the name of nephritis
have certain features in common. The urine in all
cases contains albumin and tube-casts, and in all well-
marked cases shows a decrease of normal solids, especially
of urea and the chlorids. In chronic nephritis, especially
of the interstitial type, there may be remissions during
which the urine is practically normal. The character-
istics of the different forms are well shown in the table
on page 176, modified from Hill.
3. Renal Tuberculosis. — The urine is pale, usually
cloudy. The quantity may not be affected, but is apt to
be increased. In early cases the reaction is faintly acid
and there are traces of albumin and a few renal cells.
In advanced cases the urine is alkaline, has an offensive
odor, and is irritating to the bladder. Albumin in vary-
ing amounts is always present. Pus is nearly always
present, though frequently not abundant. It is generally
intimately mixed with the urine, and does not settle so
quickly as the pus of cystitis. Casts, though present, are
rarely abundant, and are obscured by the pus. Small
amounts of blood are common. Tubercle bacilli are
nearly always present, although animal inoculation may
be necessary to detect them.
176
THE URINE
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THE URINE IN DISEASE
177
4. Renal Calculus. — The urine is usually somewhat
concentrated, with high color and strongly acid reaction.
Small amounts of albumin and a few casts may be pres-
ent as a result of kidney irritation. Blood is frequently
present, especially in the daytime and after severe ex-
ercise. Crystals of the substance composing the cal-
culus— uric acid, calcium oxalate, cystin — may often
be found. The presence of a calculus generally produces
Fig. 65. — Sediment from calculous pyelitis: Numerous pus-corpuscles, red blood-cor-
puscles, and caudate and irregular epithelial cells; a combination of hyaline and pus-
casts, and a few uric-acid crystals (Jakob).
pyelitis, and variable amounts of pus then appear, the
urine remaining acid in reaction.
5. Pyelitis. — In pyelitis the urine is slightly acid, and
contains a small or moderate amount of pus, together
with many spindle and caudate epithelial cells. Pus-
" casts may appear if the process extends up into the kid-
ney tubules (see Fig. 65). Albumin is always present,
and its amount, in proportion to the amount of pus, is
decidedly greater than is found in cystitis. This fact is
12
178
THE URINE
of much value in differential diagnosis. Even when pus
is scanty, albumin is rarely under 0.15 per cent., which
is the maximum amount found in cystitis with abundant
pus.
6. Cystitis.— In acute and subacute cases the urine is
acid and contains a variable amount of pus, with many
epithelial cells from the bladder — chiefly large round,
pyriform, and rounded squamous cells. Red blood-
corpuscles are often numerous.
Fig. 66. — Sediment from cystitis (chronic): Numerous pus-corpuscles, epithelial celb
from the bladder, and bacteria; a few red blood-corpuscles and triple phosphate and
ammonium urate crystals (Jakob).
In chronic cases the urine is generally alkaline. It is
pale and cloudy from the presence of pus, which is abun-
dant and settles readily into a viscid sediment. The
sediment usually contains abundant amorphous phos-
phates and crystals of triple phosphate and ammonium
urate. Vesical epithelium is common. Numerous bac-
teria are always present (see Fig. 66).
7. Vesical Calculus, Tumors, and Tuberculosis. —
These conditions produce a chronic cystitis, with its
THE URINE IN DISEASE 1 79
characteristic urine. Blood, however, is more frequently
present and more abundant than in ordinary cystitis.
With neoplasms, especially, considerable hemorrhages
are apt to occur. Particles of the tumor are sometimes
passed with the urine. No diagnosis can be made from
the presence of isolated tumor cells. In tuberculosis
tubercle bacilli can generally be detected.
8. Diabetes Insipidus. — Characteristic of this disease
is the continued excretion of very large quantities of pale,
watery urine, containing neither albumin nor sugar.
The specific gravity varies between i.ooi and 1.005.
The daily output of solids, especially urea, is increased.
9. Diabetes Mellitus. — The quantity of urine is very
large. The color is generally pale, while the specific
gravity is nearly always high — 1.030 to 1.050, very rarely
below 1.020. The presence of glucose is the essential
feature of the disease. The amount of glucose is often
very great, sometimes exceeding 8 per cent., while the
total elimination may exceed 500 gm. in twenty-four
hours. It may be absent temporarily. Acetone is gen-
erally present in advanced cases. Diacetic and oxy-
butyric acids may be present, and usually warrant an
unfavorable prognosis. Accompanying the acidosis there
is a corresponding increase in amount of ammonia.
CHAPTER III
THE BLOOD
Preliminary Considerations. — The blood consists of
a fluid of complicated and variable composition, the
plasma, in which are suspended great numbers of micro-
scopic structures: viz., red corpuscles, white corpuscles,
blood-platelets, and blood-dust.
Red corpuscles, or erythrocytes, appear as biconcave
discs, red when viewed by reflected light or in thick layer,
and straw colored when viewed by transmitted light or
in thin layer. They give the blood its red color. They
are cells which have been highly differentiated for the
purpose of carrying oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
This is accomplished by means of an iron-bearing pro-
tein, hemoglobin, which they contain. In the lungs
hemoglobin forms a loose combination with oxgyen,
which it readily gives up when it reaches the tissues.
Normal erythrocytes do not contain nuclei. They are
formed from preexisting nucleated cells in the bone-
marrow.
White corpuscles, or leukocytes, are less highly differ-
entiated cells. There are several varieties. They all
contain nuclei, and most of them contain granules which
vary in size and staining properties. They are formed
chiefly in the bone-marrow and lymphoid tissues.
Blood- platelets, or blood- plaques , are colorless or slightly
bluish, spheric or ovoid bodies, about one- third or one-
180
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS l8l
half the diameter of an erythrocyte. Their structure,
nature, and origin have not been definitely determined.
The blood-dust of Miiller consists of fine granules which
have vibratory motion. Little is known of them. It has
been suggested that they are granules from disintegrated
leukocytes.
The total amount of blood is usually given as one-
thirteenth of the body weight, but more recent investi-
gations indicate that it averages about one-twentieth.
The reaction is alkaline to litmus.
The color is due to the presence of hemoglobin in the
red corpuscles, the difference between the bright red of
arterial blood and the purplish red of venous blood de-
pending upon the relative proportions of oxygen and
carbon dioxid. The depth of color depends upon the
amount of hemoglobin. In very severe anemias the
blood may be so pale as to be designated as " watery."
The formation of carbon-monoxid-hemoglobin in coal-
gas poisoning gives the blood a bright cherry-red color;
while formation of methemoglobin in poisoning with
potassium chlorate and certain other substances gives
a chocolate color.
Coagulation consists essentially in the transformation
of fibrinogen, one of the proteins of the blood, into fibrin
by means of a ferment derived from disintegration of the
leukocytes. The presence of calcium salts is necessary
to the process. The resulting coagulum is made up of a
meshwork of fibrin fibrils with entangled corpuscles and
plaques. The clear, straw-colored fluid which is left
after separation of the coagulum is called blood-serum.
Normally, coagulation takes place in two to eight min- .
utes after the blood leaves the Vessels. It is frequently
l82
THE BLOOD
desirable to determine the coagulation time. The
simplest method is to place a drop of blood upon a per-
fectly clean slide, and to draw a needle through it at half-
minute intervals. When the clot is dragged along by the
needle, coagulation has taken place. This method is
probably sufficient for ordinary clinical work. For very
accurate results the method of Russell and Brodie, as
modified by Boggs, is recommended. The instrument
is shown in Fig. 67. A drop of blood is placed upon the
cone, which is then quickly inverted in the moist chamber.
Fig. 67. — Boggs' coagulation instrument: A, moist chamber; R, glass cone; C, tube through
which air is blown.
By means of a rubber bulb puffs of air are blown against
the blood at intervals, while the motion of the corpuscles
is watched with a low-power objective. Coagulation is
complete when the red cells move only en masse and
spring back to their original position when the current
ceases. Coagulation is notably delayed in hemophilia
and icterus and after administration of citric acid. It
is hastened by administration of calcium salts.
For certain purposes, especially in bacteriologic and
opsonic work, it is desirable to prevent coagulation
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 1 83
of the blood that is withdrawn. This may be accom-
plished by receiving it directly into a solution of i per
cent, sodium citrate (or ammonium oxalate) and 0.85
per cent, sodium chlorid. This precipitates the calcium
salts which are necessary to coagulation.
For most clinical examinations only one drop of blood
is required. This may be obtained from the lobe of the
ear, the palmar surface of the tip of the finger, or, in the
case of infants, the plantar surface of the great toe.
In general, the finger will be found most convenient.
With nervous children the lobe of the ear is preferable,
as it prevents their seeing what is being done. An ede-
matous or congested part should be avoided. The site
l-'ig. 68. — Daland's blood-lancet.
should be well rubbed with alcohol to remove dirt and
epithelial debris and to increase the amount of blood
in the part. After allowing sufficient time for the circu-
lation to equalize, the skin is punctured with a blood
lancet (of which there are several patterns upon the
market) or some substitute, as a Hagedorn needle,
aspirating needle, trocar, or a pen with one of its nibs
broken off. Nothing is more unsatisfactory than an
ordinary sewing-needle. The lancet should be cleaned
with alcohol before and after using, but need not be
sterilized. It must be very sharp. If the puncture be
made with a. firm, quick, rebounding stroke, it is practically
painless. The first drop of blood which appears should
184 THE BLOOD
be wiped away, and the second used for examination.
The blood should not be pressed out, since this dilutes
it with serum from the tissues; but moderate pressure
some distance above the puncture is allowable.
When a larger amount of blood is required, it may be
obtained with a sterile hypodermic S}Tinge from one of
the veins at the elbow, as described on p. 245.
CHnical study of the blood may be discussed under the
following heads: I. Hemoglobin. II. Enumeration of
erythrocytes. III. Color index. IV. Volume index.
V. Enumeration of leukocytes. VI. Enumeration of
plaques. VII. Study of stained blood. VIII. Blood
parasites. IX. Serum reactions. X. Tests for recog-
nition of blood. XL Special blood pathology.
I. HEMOGLOBIN
Hemoglobin is an iron-bearing protein. It is found
only within the red corpuscles, and constitutes about
90 per cent, of their weight. The actual amount of
hemoglobin is never estimated clinically: it is the rela-
tion which the amount present bears to the normal which
is determined. Thus the expression, " 50 per cent, hemo-
globin," when used clinically, means that the blood con-
tains 50 per cent, of the normal. Theoretically, the
normal would be 100 per cent., but with the methods of
estimation in general use the blood of healthy persons
ranges from 85 to 105 per cent.; these figures may, there-
fore, be taken as normal.
Increase of hemoglohin, or hyperchromemia, is un-
common, and is probably more apparent than real. It
accompanies an increase in number of erythrocytes, and
may be noted in change of residence from a lower to a
HEMOGLOBIN 1 85
higher altitude ; in poorly compensated heart disease with
cyanosis; in concentration of the blood from any cause, as
the severe diarrhea of cholera, and in " idiopathic
polycythemia."
Decrease of hemoglobin, or oligochromemia, is very
common and important. It is the most striking feature
of the secondary anemias (p. 277). Here the hemo-
globin loss may be slight or very great. In mild cases a
slight decrease of hemoglobin is the only blood change
noted. In very severe cases, especially in repeated
hemorrhages, malignant disease, and infection by the
hookworm and Dibothriocephalus latus, hemoglobin
may fall to 15 per cent. Hemoglobin is always dimin-
ished, and usually very greatly, in chlorosis, pernicious
anemia, and leukemia.
Estimation of hemoglobin is less tedious and usually
more helpful than a red corpuscle count. It offers
the simplest and most certain means of detecting the
existence and degree of anemia, and of judging the effect
of treatment in anemic conditions. Pallor, observed
clinically, does not always denote anemia.
There are many methods, but none is entirely satis-
factory. Those which are most widely used are here
described.
(i) Von Fleischl Method. — ^The apparatus consists of a
stand somewhat like the base and stage of a microscope
(Fig. 69) . Under the stage is a movable bar of colored glass,
shading from pale pink at one end to deep red at the other.
The frame in which this bar is held is marked with a scale of
hemoglobin percentages corresponding to the different shades
of red. By means of a rack and pinion, the color-bar can be
moved from end to end beneath a round opening in the center
i86
THE BLOOD
of the stage. A small metal cylinder, which has a glass bot-
tom and which is divided vertically into two equal compart-
ments, can be placed over the opening in the stage so that one
of its compartments lies directly over the color-bar. Accom-
})anying the instrument are a number of short capillary tubes
in metal handles.
Having punctured the finger-tip or lobe of the ear, as al-
ready described, wipe oflF the first drop of blood, and from the
Fig. 69. — Von Fleischl's hcmoglobinomcter: a, Stand; h. narrow wedge-shaped piece
of colored glass fitted into a frame ic), which passes under the chamber; d, hollow metal
cylinder, divided into two compartments, which holds the blood and water; e. plaster-of-
Paris plate from which the light is reflected through the chamber; /, screw by which the
frame containing the graduated colored glass is moved; g, capillary tube to collect the
blood; h, pipet for adding the water; «, opening through which may be seen the scale
(ixlicating jiercentage of hemoglobin.
second fill one of the capillary tubes. Hold the tube hori-
zontally, and touch its tip to the drop of blood, which will
readily flow into it if it be clean and dry. Avoid getting any
blood upon its outer surface. With a medicine-dropper, rinse
the blood from the tube into one of the compartments of the
cylinder, using distilled water, and mix well. Fill both com-
HEMOGLOBIN 1 87
partments level full with distilled water, and place the cylin-
der over the opening in the stage, so that the compartment
which contains only water lies directly over the bar of colored
glass. If there are any clots in the hemoglobin compart-
ment, clean the instrument and begin again.
In a dark room, with the light from a candle reflected up
through the cylinder, move the color-bar along with a jerking
motion until both compartments have the same depth of color.
The number upon the scale corresponding to the portion of the
color-bar which is now under the cylinder gives the percentage
of hemoglobin. While comparing the two colors, place the
instrument so that they will fall upon the right and left halves
of the retina, rather than upon the upper and lower halves;
and protect the eye from the light with a cylinder of paper or
pasteboard. After use, clean the metal cylinder with water,
and wash the capillary tube with water, alcohol, and ether,
successively. Results with this instrument are accurate to
within about 5 per cent.
A recent modification of the von Fleischl apparatus by
Miescher gives an error which need not exceed i per cent.
It is, however, better adapted to laboratory use than to the
needs of the practitioner.
(2) The Sahli hemoglobinometer (Fig. 70) is an improved
form of the well-known Gowers instrument. It consists of a
hermetically sealed comparison tube containing a i per cent,
solution of acid hematin, a graduated test-tube of the same
diameter, and a pipet of 20-c.mm. capacity. The two tubes
are held in a black frame with a white ground-glass back.
Place a few drops of decinormal hydrochloric acid solution
in the graduated tube. Obtain a drop of blood and draw it
"into the pipet to the 20 c.mm. mark. Wipe off the tip of the
pipet, blow its contents into the hydrochloric acid solution in
the tube, and rinse well. In a few minutes the hemoglobin is
changed to acid hematin. Place the two tubes in the com-
partments of the frame, and dilute the fluid with water drop
i88
THE BLOOD
by drop, mixing after each addition, until it has exactly the
same color as the comparison tube. The graduation corre-
sponding to the surface of the fluid then indicates the per-
centage of hemoglobin. Decinormal hydrochloric acid solu-
tion may be prepared with suflficient accuracy for this purpose
Fig. 70. — Sahli's hemoglobinometer.
by adding 15 c.c. of the concentrated acid to 985 c.c. distilled
water. A little chloroform should be added as a preservative.
This method is very satisfactory in practice, and is accurate
to within 5 per cent. The comparison tube is said to keep its
color indefinitely, but, unfortunately, not all the instruments
upon the market are well standardized.
HEMOGLOBIN 1 89
(3) Dare's hemoglobinometer (Fig. 71) differs from the
others in using undiluted blood. The blood is allowed to flow
by capillarity into the slit between two small plates of glass.
It is then placed in the instrument and compared with differ-
ent portions of a circular disc of colored glass. The reading
must be made quickly, before clotting takes place. This
instrument is easy to use, and is one of the most accurate.
Fig. 71. — Dare's hemoglobinometer.
(4) Hammerschlag Method. — This is an indirect method
which depends upon the fact that the percentage of hemo-
globin varies directly with the specific gravity of the blood.
It yields fairly accurate results except in leukemia, where the
large number of leukocytes disturbs the relation, and in
dropsical conditions.
Mix chloroform and benzol in a urinometer tube, so that
the specific gravity of the mixture is near the probable specific
gravity of the blood. Add a drop of blood by means of a
pipet of small caliber. A pipet hke that shown in Fig. 161, A
will be found satisfactory. If the drop floats near the surface,
add a little benzol ; if it sinks to the bottom, add a little chloro-
form. When it remains stationary near the middle, the mix-
IQO
THE BLOOD
ture has the same specific gravity as the blood. Take the
specific gravity with a urinometer, and obtain the correspond-
ing percentage of hemoglobin from the following table:
Gravity.
Hemoglobin
Per Cent.
Specific
Gravity.
Hemoglobin
Per Cent-
1.033-1.035 25-30 1.048-1.050 s5-^5
1.035-1.038 30-35
1.038-1.040 35-40
1.040-1.045 40-45
1.045-1.048 45-55
1. 050-1.053 65-70
1.053-1.055 70-75
1.055-1.057 75-85
1.057-1.060 85-95
For accurate results with this method, care and patience
are demanded. The following precautions must be observed:
Fig. 72. — Tallquist's bemoglobin scale.
(a) The two fluids must be well mixed after each addition
of chloroform or benzol. Close the tube with the thumb and
invert several times. Should this cause the drop of blood to
HEMOGLOBIN I9I
break up into very small ones, adjust the specific gravity as
accurately as possible with these, and test it with a fresh drop.
(b) The drop of blood must not be too large; it must not
contain an air-bubble, it must not adhere to the side of the
tube, and it must not remain long in the fluid.
(c) The urinometer must be standardized for the chloro-
form-benzol mixture. Most urinometers give a reading two
or three degrees too high, owing to the low surface tension.
Make a mbcture such that a drop of distilled water will re-
main suspended in it {i. e., with a specific gravity of i.ooo)
and correct the urinometer by this.
(5) Tallquist Method. — The popular Tallquist hemo-
globinometer consists simply of a book of small sheets of ab-
sorbent paper and a carefully printed scale of colors (Fig. 72).
Take up a large drop of blood with the absorbent paper,
and when the humid gloss is leaving, before the air has dark-
ened the hemoglobin, compare the stain with the color
scale. The color which it matches gives the percentage
of hemoglobin. Except in practised hands, this method is
accurate only to within 10 or 20 per cent.
Of the methods given, the physician should select the
one which best meets his needs. With any method,
practice is essential to accuracy. The von Fleischl has
long been the standard instrument, but has lately fallen
into some disfavor. For accurate work the best instru-
ments are the von Fleischl-Miescher and the Dare. They
are, however, expensive, and it is doubtful whether they
are enough more accurate than the Sahli instrument to
justify the difference in cost. The latter is probably the
most satisfactory for the practitioner, provided a well-
standardized color- tube is obtained. The specific gravity
method is very useful when special instruments are not
at hand. The Tallquist scale is so inexpensive and so
192 THE BLOOD
convenient that it should be used by every physician at
the bedside and in hurried office work ; but it should not
supersede the more accurate methods.
II. ENUMERATION OF ERYTHROCYTES
In health there are about 5,000,000 red corpuscles per
cubic millimeter of blood. Normal variations are shght.
The number is generally a little less — about 4,500,000 — in
women.
Increase of red corpuscles, or polycythemia, is unimpor-
tant. There is a decided increase following change of
residence from a lower to a higher altitude, averaging
about 50,000 corpuscles for each 1000 feet, but frequently
much greater. The increase, however, is not permanent.
In a few months the erythrocytes return to nearly their
original number. Three views are ofTered in explanation :
(a) Concentration of the blood, owing to increased evap-
oration from the skin; (b) stagnation of corpuscles in the
peripheral vessels because of lowered blood-pressure;
(c) new formation of corpuscles, this giving a compensa-
tory increase of aeration surface.
Pathologically, polycythemia is uncommon. It may
occur in: (a) Concentration of the blood from severe
watery diarrhea; (b) chronic heart disease, especially the
congenital variety, with poor compensation and .cyanosis;
and (c) idiopathic polycythemia, which is considered to be
an independent disease, and is characterized by cyanosis,
blood counts of 7,000.000 to 10,000,000, hemoglobin 120
to 150 per cent., and a normal number of leukocytes.
Decrease of red corpuscles, or oligocythemia. Red
corpuscles and hemoglobin are commonly decreased
together, although usually not to the same extent.
ENUMERATION OF ERYTHROCYTES
195
Oligocythemia occurs in all but the mildest symp-
tomatic anemias. The blood-count varies from near the
normal in moderate cases down to 1,500,000 in very
severe cases. There is always a decrease of red cells in
chlorosis, but it is often slight, and is relatively less than
the decrease of hemoglobin. Leukemia gives a decided
oligocythemia, the average count being about 3,000,000.
The greatest loss of red cells occurs in pernicious anemia,
where counts below 1,000,000 are not uncommon.
OlOOmm
H
73. — Thoma-Zeiss heraocytometer: a. Slide used in counting; h, sectional view;
d, red pipet; e, white pipet.
The most widely used and most satisfactory instru-
ment for counting the corpuscles is that of Thoma-Zeiss,
The hematocrit is not to be recommended for accuracy,
since in anemia, where blood-counts are most important,
the red cells vary greatly in size and probably also in
elasticity. The hematocrit is, however, useful in de-
termining the relative volume of corpuscles and plasma
(Volume Index, p. 200), and seems to be gaining in favor.
13
194
THE BLOOD
The Thoma-Zeiss instrument consists of two pipets
for diluting the blood and a counting chamber (Fig. 73).
The counting chamber is a glass slide with a square platform
in the middle. In the center of the platform is a circular
opening, in which is set a small circular disc in such a manner
that it is surrounded by a " ditch," and that its surface is
Fig. 74. — Ordinary ruling of counting chamber, showing red corpuscles in left
upper
exactly one-tenth of a millimeter below the surface of the
square platform. Upon this disc is ruled a square millimeter,
subdivided into 400 small squares. Each fifth row of small
squares has double rulings for convenience in counting (Fig.
74). A thick cover-glass, ground perfectly plane, accompa-
nies the counting chamber. Ordinary cover-glasses are of
uneven surface, and should not be used with this instrument.
ENUMERATION OF ERYTHROCYTES 1 95
It is evident that, when the cover-glass is in place upon
the platform, there is a space exactly one-tenth of a millimeter
thick between it and the disc; and that, therefore, the square
millimeter ruled upon the disc forms the base of a space
holding exactly one-tenth of a cubic millimeter.
Technic. — To count the red corpuscles, use the pipet with
loi engraved above the bulb. It must be clean and dry.
Obtain a drop of blood as already described. Suck blood
Fig. 75. — Method of drawing blood into the pipet (Boston),
into the pipet to the mark 0.5 or i. Should the blood go
beyond the mark, draw it back by touching the tip of the pipet
to a moistened handkerchief. Quickly wipe off the blood
adhering to the tip, plunge it into the diluting fluid, and suck
the fluid up to the mark loi, slightly rotating the pipet
meanwhile. This dilutes the blood i : 200 or i : 100, accord-
ing to the amount of blood taken. Except in cases of severe
anemia, a dilution of i : 200 is preferable. Close the ends
196 THE BLOOD
of the pipet with the fingers, and shake vigorously until the
blood and diluting fluid are well mixed.
When it is not convenient to count the corpuscles at once,
place a heavy rubber band around the pipet so as to close
the ends, inserting a small piece of rubber-cloth or other
tough, non-absorbent material, if necessary, to prevent the tip
from punching through the rubber. It may be kept thus for
twenty-four hours or longer.
When ready to make the count, clean the counting
chamber and cover-glass, and place a sheet of paper over
them to keep off dust. IVIix the fluid thoroughly by shak-
ing; blow two or three drops from the pipet, wipe of! its
tip, and then place a small drop (the proper size can be
learned only by experience) upon the disc of the counting
chamber. Adjust the cover immediately. Hold it by diag-
onal corners above the drop of fluid so that a third corner
touches the slide and rests upon the edge of the platform.
Place a finger upon this corner, and, by raising the finger,
allow the cover to fall quickly into place. If the cover be
properly adjusted, faint concentric lines of the prismatic
colors — Newton's rings — can be seen between it and the plat-
form when the slide is viewed obliquely. They indicate that
the two surfaces are in close apposition. If they do not ap-
pear at once, slight pressure upon the cover may bring them
out. Failure to obtain them is usually due to dirty slide or
cover — both must be perfectly clean and free from dust.
The drop placed upon the disc must be of such size that, when
the cover is adjusted, it nearly or quite covers the disc, and
that none of it runs over into the " ditch." There should
be no bubbles upon the ruled area.
Allow the corpuscles to settle for a few minutes, and then
examine with a low power to see that they are evenly dis-
tributed. If they are not evenly distributed over the whole disc.
the counting chamber must be cleaned and a new drop placed
in it.
ENUMERATION OF ERYTHROCYTES
197
Probably the most satisfactory objective for counting is the
special 4 mm. with long working distance. To understand
the principle of counting, it is necessary to remember that
the large square (400 small squares) represents a capacity
of one-tenth of a cubic millimeter. Find the number of
corpuscles in the large square, multiply by 10 to find the
Fig. 76. — Appearance of microscopic field in counting red corpuscles. The arrow indicates
the squares to be counted.
number in i c.mm. of the diluted blood, and finally, by the
dilution, to find the number in i c.mm. of undiluted blood.
. Instead of actually counting all the corpuscles, it is customary
to count those in only a limited number of small squares,
and from this to calculate the number in the large square.
Nearly every worker has his own method of doing this.
The essential thing is to adopt a method and adhere to it.
198 THE BLOOD
In practice a convenient procedure is as follows: With a
dilution of i : 200, count the cells in 80 small squares, and to
the sum add 4 ciphers; with dilution of i : 100, count 40 small
squares and add 4 ciphers. Thus, if with i : 200 dilution, 450
corpuscles were counted in 80 squares, the total count would
be 4,500,000 per c.mm. This method is sufficiently accurate
for all clinical purposes, provided the corpuscles are evenly
distributed and three drops from the pipet be counted. It is
convenient to count a block of 20 small squares, as indicated
in Fig. 76, in each corner of the large square. Four columns
of 5 squares each are counted. The double rulings show when
the bottom of a column has been reached and also indicate
the fourth column. In the writer's opinion it is easier to
count in vertical than horizontal rows. If distribution be
even, the difference between the number of cells in any two
such blocks should not exceed twenty. In order to avoid
confusion in counting cells which lie upon the border-lines,
the following rule is generally adopted: Corpuscles which
touch the upper and left sides should be counted as if within the
squares, those touching the lower and right sides, as outside; and
vice versd..
Diluting Fluids. — The most widely used are Hayem's and
Toisson's. Both of these have high specific gravities, so that,
when well mixed, the corpuscles do not separate quickly.
Toisson's fluid is probably the better for beginners, because it
is colored and can easily be seen as it is drawn into the pipet.
It stains the nuclei of leukocytes blue, but this is no real ad-
vantage. It must be filtered frequently.
Hayem's Fluid. Toisson's Fturo.
Mercuric chlorid 0.5 Methyl-violet, 5 B 0.025
Sodium sulphate 5.0 Sodium chlorid i.ooo
Sodium chlorid i.o Sodium sulphate 8.000
Distilled water 200.0 Glycerin 30.000
Distilled water 160.000
ENUMERATION OF ERYTHROCYTES 1 99
Sources of Error. — The most common sources of error in
making a blood count are:
(a) Inaccurate dilution, either from faulty technic or
inaccurately graduated pipets. The instruments made by
Zeiss can be relied upon.
(b) Too slow manipulation, allowing a little of the blood to
coagulate and remain in the capillary portion of the pipet,
(c) Inaccuracy in depth of counting chamber, which some-
times results from softening of the cement by alcohol or heat.
The slide should not be cleaned with alcohol nor left to lie
in the warm sunshine.
(d) Uneven distribution of the corpuscles. This results
when the blood is not thoroughly mixed with the diluting
fluid, or when the cover-glass is not applied soon enough after
the drop is placed upon the disc.
Cleaning the Instrument. — The instrument should be
cleaned immediately after using, and the counting chamber
and cover must be cleaned again just before use.
Draw through the pipet, successively, water, alcohol, ether,
and air. This can be done with the mouth, but it is much
better to use a rubber bulb or suction filter pump. When the
mouth is used, the moisture of the breath will condense upon
the interior of the pipet unless the fluids be shaken and not
blown out. If blood has coagulated in the pipet — which hap-
pens when the work is done too slowly — dislodge the clot with
a horsehair, and clean with strong sulphuric acid, or let the
pipet stand over night in a test-tube of the acid. Even if the
pipet does not become clogged, it should be occasionally
cleaned in this way. When the etched graduations on the
pipets become dim, they can be renewed by rubbing with a
grease pencil.
Wash the counting-chamber and the cover with water and
dry them with clean soft linen. Alcohol may be used to clean
the latter, but never the former.
200 THE BLOOD
III. COLOR INDEX
This is an expression which indicates the amount of
hemoglobin in each red corpuscle compared with the
normal amount. For example, a color index of i.o
indicates that each corpuscle contains the normal amount
of hemoglobin; of 0.5, that each contains one-half the
normal.
The color index is most significant in chlorosis and
pernicious anemia. In the former it is usually much
decreased; in the latter, generally much increased. In
symptomatic anemia it is generally moderately dimin-
ished.
To obtain the color index, divide the percentage of hemo-
globin by the percentage of corpuscles. The percentage of
corpuscles is found by multiplying the first two figures of the
red corpuscle count by two. This simple method holds good
for all counts of 1,000,000 or more. Thus, a count of 2,500,000
is 50 per cent, of the normal. If, then, the hemoglobin has
been estimated at 40 per cent., divide 40 (the percentage of
hemoglobin) by 50 (the percentage of corpuscles). This
gives i, or 0.8, as the color index.
IV. VOLUME INDEX
The term " volume index " was introduced by Capps
to express the average size of the red cells of an individual
compared with their normal size. It is the quotient
obtained by dividing the volume of red corpuscles (ex-
pressed in percentage of the normal) by the number of
red corpuscles, also expressed in percentage of the nor-
mal.
The volume index more or less closely parallels the
color index, and variations have much the same sig-
^m^ rr-r rr- ^^^
VOLUME
r. u ■, r r^ ' J '^1 /^ I
mficance. The following are avetages- 6^ ttr^ examma-
tions reported by Larrabee in the Journal of Medical ^
Research:
Red corpuscles Hemoglobin per _ , , , ,
, . ^ u c Li- Color Volume
per cubic cent by Sahli . .
..... . . . mdez. mdex.
millimeter. instrument.
Normal males 5,267,250 103.0 0.98 1.007
Normal females 4,968,667 106.0 1.06 i.ooi
Primary pernicious anemia . 1,712,166 50.0 1.47 1.270
Secondary anemia 3, 737, 160 61.0 0.81 0.790
Chlorosis 3,205,000 34.5 0.55 0.695
Method. — The red cells are counted and the percentage of
red cells calculated as for the color index.
The volume percentage is obtained with the hematocrit
as follows: Fill the hematocrit tubes (Fig. 77) with blood, and
before coagulation takes place insert them in the frame and
centrifugalize for three minutes at about 8000 to 10,000
revolutions a minute. The red cells collect at the bottom
and, normally, make up one-half of the total column of blood.
{ "10' •■£;^''j^Q-;;j^';rj^<'^^''^' q'q' g^
Fig. 77. — Daland hematocrit for use with the centrifuge.
Multiply the height of the layer of red cells (as indicated by
the graduations upon the side of the tube) by 2 to obtain the
volume percentage. When the examination cannot be made
immediately after the blood is obtained, the method of
Larrabee is available. This consists in mixing a trace of so-
dium oxalate with a few drops of blood to prevent coagulation,
drawing this mixture into a tube of about 2-mm. caliber and
waiting until sedimentation is complete — usually about three
days. The height of the column is then measured with a
202 XMK BLOOD
miUimetpr saiJe and tlie percentage relation to the normal
calculated.
After the volume of the red cells and the red corpuscle
count are thus expressed in percentages, divide the former
by the latter to find the volume index. Example: Suppose
the volume percentage is 80 (the reds reaching to mark 40 on
hematocrit tube) and that the red count is 50 per cent, of
the normal (2,500,000 per c.mm.), then |^ or 1.6 is the vol-
ume index.
V. ENUMERATION OF LEUKOCYTES
The normal number of leukocytes varies from 5000 to
10,000 per cubic millimeter of blood. The number is
larger in robust individuals than in poorly nourished
ones, and if disease be excluded, may be taken as a
rough index of the individual's nutrition. Since it is
well to have a definite standard, 7500 is generally adopted
as the normal for the adult. With children the number
is somewhat greater, counts of 12,000 and 15,000 being
common in healthy children under twelve years of age.
Decrease in Number of Leukocytes
Decrease in number of leukocytes, or leukopenia, is not
important. It is common in persons who are poorly
nourished, although not actually sick. The infectious
diseases in which leukocytosis is absent (p. 206) often
cause a slight decrease of leukocytes. Chlorosis may
produce leukopenia, as also pernicious anemia, which
usually gives it in contrast to the secondary anemias,
which are frequently accompanied by leukocytosis.
Leukocyte counts are, therefore, of some aid in the dififer-
ential diagnosis of these conditions.
enumeration of leukocytes 203
Increase in Number of Leukocytes
Increase in number of leukocytes is common and of
great importance. It may be considered under two
heads:
A. Increase of leukocytes due to chemotaxis and
stimulation of the blood-making organs, or leukocytosis.
The increase affects one or more of the normal varieties.
B. Increase of leukocytes due to leukemia. Normal
varieties are increased, but the characteristic feature is
the appearance of great numbers of abnormal cells.
The former may be classed as a transient, the latter, as
a permanent, increase.
A. Leukocytosis
This term is variously used. By some it is applied to
any increase in number of leukocytes; by others it is
restricted to increase of the polymorphonuclear neutro-
philic variety. As has been indicated, it is here taken
to mean a transient increase in number of leukocytes,
that is, one caused by chemotaxis and stimulation of the
blood-producing structures, in contrast to the permanent
increase caused by leukemia.
By chemotaxis is meant that property of certain agents
by which they attract or repel living cells — positive
chemotaxis and negative chemotaxis respectively. An
excellent illustration is the accumulation of leukocytes
at the site of inflammation, owing to the positively
chemotactic influence of bacteria and their products. A
great many agents possess the power of attracting leuko-
cytes into the general circulation. Among these are
many bacteria and certain organic and inorganic poisons.
Chemotaxis alone will not explain the continuance of
204 THE BLOOD
leukocytosis for more than a short time. It is probable
that substances which are positively chemotactic also
stimulate the blood-producing organs to increased forma-
tion of leukocytes; and in at least one form of leukocytosis
such stimulation apparently plays the chief part.
As will be seen later, there are several varieties of leu-
kocytes in normal blood, and most chemotactic agents
attract only one variety, and either repel or do not in-
fluence the others. It practically never happens that
all are increased in the same proportion. The most
satisfactory classification of leukocytoses is, therefore,
based upon the type of leukocyte chiefly affected.
Theoretically, there should be a subdivision for each
variety of leukocyte, e. g., polymorphonuclear leuko-
cytosis, lymphocyte leukocytosis, eosinophilic leuko-
cytosis, large mononuclear leukocytosis, etc. Practi-
cally, however, only two of these, polymorphonuclear
leukocytosis and lymphocyte leukocytosis, need be con-
sidered under the head of Leukocytosis. Increase in
number of the other leukocytes will be considered
when the individual cells are described (pp. 230-243).
They are present in the blood in such small numbers
normally that even a marked increase scarcely afi^ects
the total leukocyte count; and, besides, substances
which attract them into the circulation frequently repel
the pol>'morphonuclears, so that the total number of
leukocytes may actually be decreased.
The polymorphonuclear neutrophils are capable of
active ameboid motion, and are by far the most numerous
of the leukocytes. Ljonphocytes are about one-third
as numerous and have little independent motion. As
one would, therefore, expect, marked differences exist
ENUMERATION OF LEUKOCYTES 205
between the two types of leukocytosis: polynuclear
leukocytosis is more or less acute, coming on quickly and
often reaching high degree; whereas lymphocyte leuko-
cytosis is more chronic, comes on more slowly, and is
never so marked.
I. Polymorphonuclear Neutrophilic Leukocytosis. —
Polymorphonuclear leukocytosis may be either physi-
ologic or pathologic. A count of 20,000 would be con-
sidered a marked leukocytosis; of 30,000, high; above
50,000, extremely high.
(i) Physiologic Polymorphonuclear Leukocytosis. —
This is never very marked, the count rarely exceeding
15,000 per cubic millimeter. It occurs: (a) In the new-
born; (b) in pregnancy; (c) during digestion, and (d)
after cold baths. There is moderate leukocytosis in the
moribund state: this is commonly classed as physiologic,
but is probably due mainly to temiinal infection.
The increase in these conditions is not limited to the
polymorphonuclears. Lymphocytes are likewise in-
creased in varying degrees, most markedly in the new-
bom.
In view of the leukocytosis of digestion, the hour
at which a leukocyte count is made should always be
recorded. Digestive leukocytosis is most marked three
to five hours after a hearty meal rich in protein. It is
absent in pregnancy and when leukocytosis from any
other cause exists. It is usually absent in cancer of the
stomach, a fact which may be of some help in the diag-
nosis of this condition, but repeated examinations are
essential.
(2) Pathologic Polymorphonuclear Leukocytosis. —
In general, the response of the leukocytes to chemotaxis
2o6 THE BLOOD
is a conservative process. It has been compared to the
gathering of soldiers to destroy an invader. This is
accomplished partly by means of phagocytosis — actual
ingestion of the enemy — and partly by means of chemic
substances which the leukocytes produce.
In those diseases in which leukocytosis is the rule the
degree of leukocytosis depends upon two factors: the
severity of the infection and the resistance of the individual.
A well-marked leukocytosis usually indicates good resist-
ance. A mild degree means that the body is not react-
ing well, or else that the infection is too slight to call
forth much resistance. Leukocytosis may be absent
altogether when the infection is extremely mild, or when
it is so severe as to overwhelm the organism before it can
react. When leukocytosis is marked, a sudden fall in
the count may be the first warning of a fatal issue.
These facts are especially true of pneumonia, diphtheria,
and abdominal inflammations, in which conditions the
degree of leukocytosis is of considerable prognostic value.
The classification here given follows Cabot:
{a) Infections and Inflammatory. — The majority of
infectious diseases produce leukocytosis. The most not-
able exceptions are influenza, malaria, measles, tuber-
culosis, except when invading the serous cavities or
when complicated by mixed infection, and typhoid fever,
in which leukocytosis indicates an inflammatory com-
plication.
All inflammatory and suppurative diseases cause leu-
kocytosis, except when slight or well walled off'. Appen-
dicitis has been studied with especial care in this connec-
tion, and the conclusions now generally accepted prob-
ably hold good for most acute intra-abdominal inflam-
ENUMERATION OF LEUKOCYTES 207
mations. A marked leukocytosis (20,000 or more)
nearly always indicates abscess, peritonitis, or gan-
grene, even though the clinical signs be slight. Absence
of or mild leukocytosis indicates a mild process, or else
an overwhelmingly severe one ; and operation may safely
be postponed unless the abdominal signs are very marked.
On the other hand, no matter how low the count, an in-
creasing leukocytosis — counts being made hourly — indi-
cates a spreading process and demands operation, regard-
less of other symptoms.
Leukocyte counts alone are often disappointing, but are
of much more value when considered in connection with
a diferential count of polymorphonuclears. (See p. 236.)
{b) Malignant Disease. — Leukocytosis occurs in about
one-half of the cases of malignant disease. In many
instances it is probably independent of any secondary
infection, since it occurs in both ulcerative and non-
ulcerative cases. It seems to be more common in
sarcoma than in carcinoma. Very large counts are rarely
noted.
{c) Posthemorrhagic. — Moderate leukocytosis follows
hemorrhage and disappears in a few days.
{d) Toxic. — This is a rather obscure class, which in-
cludes gout, chronic nephritis, acute yellow atrophy
of the liver, ptomain-poisoning, prolonged chloroform
narcosis, and quinin-poisoning. Leukocytosis may or
may not occur in these conditions, and is not important.
(e) Drugs. — This also is an unimportant class. Most
tonics and stomachics and many other drugs produce a
slight leukoc3^tosis.
2. Lymphocyte Leukocytosis.— This is characterized
by an increase in the total leukocyte count, accom-
2o8 THE BLOOD
panied by an increase in the percentage of lymphocytes.
The word " lymphocytosis " is often used in the same
sense. It is better, however, to use the latter as refer-
ring to any increase in the absolute number of lympho-
cytes, without regard to the total count, since an ab-
solute increase in number of lymphocytes is frequently
accompanied by a normal or subnormal leukocyte count,
owing to loss of polymorphonuclears.
Non-phagocytic leukocytosis is probably due more to
stimulation of blood-making organs than to chemotaxis.
It is less common, and is rarely so marked as a poly-
morphonuclear leukocytosis. When marked, the blood
cannot be distinguished from that of lymphatic leukemia.
A marked lymphocyte leukocytosis occurs in pertussis,
and is of value in diagnosis. It appears early in the
catarrhal stage, and persists until after convalescence.
The average leukocyte count is about 17,000, lympho-
cytes predominating. There is moderate lymphocyte
leukocytosis in other diseases of childhood, as rickets,
scurvy, and especially hereditary syphilis, where the
blood-picture may approach that of pertussis. It
must be borne in mind in this connection that lympho-
cytes are normally more abundant in the blood of children
than in that of adults.
Slight lymphocyte leukocytosis occurs in many other
pathologic conditions, but is of little significance.
B. Leukemia
This is an idiopathic disease of the blood-making
organs, which is accompanied by an enormous increase
in number of leukocytes. The leukocyte count some-
times reaches 1,000,000 per cubic millimeter, and leu-
ENUMERATION OF LEUKOCYTES 209
kemia is always to be suspected when it exceeds 50,000.
Lower counts do not, however, exclude it. The subject
is more fully discussed later (p. 280).
Method of Counting Leukocytes
The leukocytes are counted with the Thoma-Zeiss
instrument, already described. Recently, several new
rulings of the disc have been introduced, notably the
Zappert and the Tiirck (Fig. 79), which give a ruled
area of nine square millimeters. They were devised for
counting the leukocytes in the same specimen with the
red corpuscles. The red ceUs are counted in the usual
manner, after which all the leukocytes in the whole area
of nine square millimeters are counted; and the number
in a cubic millimeter of undiluted blood is then easily
calculated. Leukocytes are easily distinguished from
red cells, especially when Toisson's diluting fluid is used.
This method may be used with the ordinary ruling by
adjusting the microscopic field to a definite size, and
counting a sufficient number of fields, as described later.
Although less convenient, it is more accurate to count the
leukocytes separately, with less dilution of the blood, as
follows :
Technic. — A larger drop of blood is required than for
counting the erythrocytes, and more care in filling the pipet.
Boggs has suggested a device (Fig. 78) which enables one to
draw in the blood more slowly and hence more accurately.
He cuts the rubber tube and inserts a Wright " throttle."
This consists of a section of glass tubing in which a capillary
tube drawn out to a fine thread is cemented with sealing wax.
After sealing in place the tip is broken off with forceps, so
that upon gentle suction it will just allow air to pass.
14
2IO
THE BLOOD
Use the pipet with 1 1 engraved above the bulb. Suck the
blood to the mark 0.5 or i.o, and the diluting fluid to the
mark 11. This gives a dilution of i : 20 or 1:10, respectively.
The dilution of i : 20 is easier to make. Mix well by shaking
in all directions except in the long axis of the pipet; blow out
two or three drops, place a drop in the counting chamber,
and adjust the cover as already described (p. 196).
Fig. 78. — Boggs' " throttle control " for blood-counting pip>et, and enlarged diagram show-
ing construction of the throttle.
Examine with a low power to see that the cells are evenly
distributed. Count with the 16 mm. objective and a high
eye-piece, or with the long-focus 4 mm. and a low eye-piece.
An 8 mm. objective will be found very satisfactory for this
purpose. As one gains experience one will rely more upon
the lower powers.
With the ordinary ruling of the disc, count all the leuko-
cytes in the large square, multiply by 10 to find the number in
ENUMERATION OF LEUKOCYTES
211
I c.mm. of diluted blood, and by the dilution to find the
number per c.mm. of undiluted blood. In every case at least
200 leukocytes must be counted as a basis for calculation, and
it is much better to coimt 500. This will necessitate exam-
ination of several drops from the pipet. With the Zappert
Fig. 79. — Turck nxling of counting chamber.
and Tiirck rulings a sufficient number can usually be counted
in one drop, but the opportunity for error is very much greater
when only one drop is examined.
In routine work the author's modification of the "circle "
method is very satisfactory. It requires a 4 mm. objective,
212
THE BLOOD
and is, therefore, especially desirable for beginners, who are
usually unable accurately to identify leukocytes with a lower
power. The student is frequently confused by particles of
dirt, remains of red cells, and yeast cells which sometimes
grow in the diluting fluid. Draw out the sliding tube of the
1 1
1 >
--r r
. 4. 1
,___
r -
1
r
1 ■ 1 r
ill 1
r r- ""--T r--
L 1 1 1
1 1
--T -t-
1 1
1
1 t- -
1
1
r -+
1
r —
1 1 ! ' '
r---T---T--,--;---;--
1 r , 1
1
- - -t -
r -t- -
hs
i . 1 ;
I. - 4^ 1- L I
\
s^ 1
\ 1
/
\ 1
■ /
1 / L
\ \ ;
1
1 \
(
'y.iV-'X:.
1 1 \
- 1 1 \
-: 1 1--
1 1 \
1 1
--4- ^---1
1 1
1 1
__4- 1--..1
1 1
1 1
1 1
Fig. 8o. — Size o
^,
y
V
field re
- -1
■ -
quii
ed i
, 1
. ^
n count
\- ■
ng leuk
ocytes a
^---l-r-^---|-
1 : . !
s described in the text.
microscope until the field of vision is such as shown in Fig.
8o. One side of the field is tangent to one of the ruled lines,
A, while the opposite side just cuts the comers, B and C, of
the seventh squares in the rows above and below the diameter
line. When once adjusted, a scratch is made upon the draw-
ENUMERATION OF BLOOD-PLAQUES 213
tube, SO that for future counts the tube has only to be drawn
out to the mark. The area of this microscopic field is one-
tenth of a square millimeter. With a dilution of i : 20, count
the leukocytes in 20 such fields upon different parts of the disc
without regard to the ruled lines, and to their sum add two
ciphers. With dilution of i : 10, count 10 such fields, and
add two ciphers. Thus, with i : 10 dilution, if 150 leukocytes
were counted in 10 fields, the leukocyte count would be 15,000
per c.mm. To compensate for possible unevenness of dis-
tribution, it is best to count a row of fields horizontally and a
row vertically across the disc. This method is applicable
to any degree of dilution of the blood, and is simple to re-
member : one always counts a number of fields equal to the
number of times the blood has been diluted, and adds two ciphers.
It is sometimes impossible to obtain the proper size of
field with the objectives and eye-pieces at hand. In such case
place a cardboard disc with a circular opening upon the dia-
phragm of the eye-piece, and adjust the size of the field by
drawing out the tube. The circular opening can be cut with
a cork-borer.
Diluting Fluids. — The diluting fluid should dissolve the
red corpuscles so that they will not obscure the leukocytes.
The simplest fluid is a 0.5 per cent, solution of acetic acid.
More satisfactory is the following: glacial acetic acid, i c.c;
I per cent, aqueous solution of gentian-violet, i c.c. ; distilled
water, 100 c.c. These solutions must be filtered frequently.
VI. ENUMERATION OF BLOOD-PLAQUES
The av^erage normal number of plaques is variously
given as 200,000 to 700,000 per cubic millimeter of
blood. Many of the counts were obtained by workers
who used unreliable methods. Using their new method,
Wright and Kinnicutt find the normal average to range
from 263,000 to 336,000. Physiologic variations are
214 THE BLOOD
marked; thus, the number increases as one ascends to a
higher altitude, and is higher in winter than in summer.
There are unexplained variations from day to day;
hence a single abnormal count should not be taken to
indicate a pathologic condition.
Pathologic variations are often very great. Owing to
lack of knowledge as to the origin of the platelets and to
the earlier imperfect methods of counting, the clinical
significance of these variations is uncertain. The fol-
lowing facts seem, however, to be established:
(a) In acute infectious diseases the number is sub-
normal or normal. If the fever ends by crisis, the crisis
is accompanied by a rapid and striking increase.
(b) In secondary anemia plaques are generally in-
creased, although sometimes decreased In pernicious
anemia they are always greatly diminished, and an
increase should exclude the diagnosis of this disease.
(c) They are decreased in chronic lymphatic leukemia,
and greatly increased in the myelogenous form.
(d) In purpura haemorrhagica the number is enor-
mously diminished.
Blood-plaques are difficult to count, owing to the
rapidity with which they disintegrate and to their great
tendency to adhere to any foreign body and to each
other.
Method of Kemp, Calhoun, and Harris. — Wash the
finger well and allow a few minutes to elapse for the circu-
lation to become normal. Prick the finger lightly with a
blood-lancet, regulating the depth of the puncture so that
the blood will not flow without gentle pressure. Quickly
dip a clean glass rod into a vessel containing diluting and
fixing fluid, and place two or three good-sized drops upon the
ENUMERATION OF BLOOD-PLAQUES 215
finger over the puncture. Then exert gentle pressure above
the puncture so that a small drop of blood will exude into the
fluid. Mix the two by passing the rod lightly several times
over the surface of the blended drop. (Some workers first
place a drop of the fluid upon the finger and then make the
puncture through it, this necessitating less care as to depth of
the puncture.) Now transfer a drop of the diluted blood from
the finger to a watch-glass which contains two or three drops
of the fluid, and mix well. From this, transfer a drop to the
counting slide of the Thoma-Zeiss hemocytometer, and cover.
An ordinary thin cover will answer for this purpose, and is
preferable because it allows the use of a higher power object-
ive. Allow the slide to stand for at least five minutes, and
then with a 4 mm. or higher objective count the plaques
and the red corpuscles in a definite number of squares. At
least 100 plaques must be counted. The number of red cor-
puscles per cubic millimeter of blood having been previously
ascertained in the usual manner (p. 195), the number of
plaques can easily be calculated by the following equation:
r -.p -.-.R-.P ; andP = ^Jl_?.
r represents the number of red corpuscles in any given
number of squares; p, the number of plaques in the same
squares; R, the total number of red corpuscles per c.mm. of
blood; and P, the number of plaques per c.mm.
Beginners are apt to take too much blood and not to dilute
it enough. Best results are attained when there are only one
or two plaques in a small square. With insufladent dilution,
the platelets are more or less obscured by the red cells.
The following diluting and fixing fluid is recommended:
Formalin 10 c.c.
I per cent, aqueous solution sodium chlorid 150 c.c.
(Color with methyl-violet if desired.)
2l6 THE BLOOD
This fluid is cheap and easily prepared, and keeps indefi-
nitely. It fixes the plaques quickly without clumping, and
does not clump nor decolorize the reds. It has a low specific
gravity, and hence allows the j^laques to settle upon the ruled
area along with the reds. Fluids of high specific gravity
cause the plaques to float so that they do not appear in the
same plane with the reds and the ruled lines.
Method of Wright and Kinnicutt. — This new method is
simple, appears to be accurate, and certainly yields uniform
results.
The plaques are counted with the Thoma-Zeiss hemocy-
tometer already described, using a dilution of i : loo. The
diluting fluid consists of two parts of an aqueous solution of
" brilliant cresyl blue " (i : 300) and three parts of an aqueous
solution of potassium cyanid (i : 1400). These two solutions
must be kept in separate bottles and mixed and filtered im-
mediately before using. After the blood is placed in the
counting-chamber it is allowed to stand for ten minutes or
longer in order that the plaques may settle. The plaques
appear as rounded, lilac-colored bodies; the reds are decolor-
ized, appearing only as shadows.
The leukocytes are stained and may be counted at the
same time.
VII. STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD
A. Making and Staining Blood-films
1 . Spreading the Film.— Thin, even films are essential
to accurate and pleasant work. They more than com-
pensate for the time spent in learning to make them.
There are certain requisites for success with any method :
(a) The slides and covers must be perfectly clean:
thorough washing with soap and water and rubbing
with alcohol will usually suffice; (b) the drop of blood
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 217
must not be too large ; (c) the work must be done quickly,
before coagulation begins.
The blood is obtained from the finger-tip or the lobe
of the ear, as for a blood count; only a very small drop is
required.
Ehrlich's Two Cover-glass Method. — This method is very
widely used, but considerable practice is required to get good
results. Touch a cover-glass to the top of a small drop of
blood, and place it, blood side down, upon another cover-
Fig. 81. — Spreading the film: two cover-glass method.
glass. If the drop be not too large, and the covers be per-
fectly clean, the blood will spread out in a very thin layer.
Just as it stops spreading, before it begins to coagulate,
pull the covers quickly but firmly apart on a line parallel to
their plane (Fig. 81). It is best to handle the covers with
forceps, since the moisture of the fingers may produce arti-
facts.
Two-slide Method. — Take a small drop of blood upon a
clean slide about 5 inch from the end. Place the end of a
second slide against the surface of the first at an angle of
45°, and push it up against the drop of blood, which will
immediately run across the end, filling the angle between the
2l8
THE BLOOD
two slides. Now draw the " spreader slide " back along the
other. The blood will follow. The thickness of the smear
can be regulated by changing the angle.
Fig. 82. — Spreading the film: two-slide method.
Cigarette-paper Method. — This gives better results in the
hands of the inexperienced than any of the methods in general
Fig. 83. — Spreading the film. Cigarette-paper method applied to cover-glasses.
use, and may be used with either slides or covers. A very thin
paper, such as the " Zig-zag " brand, is best. Ordinary
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 219
cigarette paper and thin tissue-paper will answer, but do not
give nearly so good results.
Cut the paper into strips about f inch wide, across the ribs.
Pick up one of the strips by the gummed edge, and touch its
opposite end to the drop of blood. Quickly place the end
which has the blood against a slide or a large cover-glass held
in a forceps. The blood will spread along the edge of the
paper. Now draw the paper evenly across the slide or cover.
A thin film of blood will be left behind (Fig. 83).
The films may be allowed to dry in the air, or may be
dried by gently heating high above a flame (where one
can comfortably hold the hand). Such films will keep
for years, but for some stains they must not be more
than a few weeks old. They must be kept away from
flies — a fly can work havoc with a film in a few minutes.
2. Fixing the Film.— In general, films must be "fixed"
before they are stained. Fixation may be accomplished
by chemicals or by heat. Those stains which are dis-
solved in methyl-alcohol combine fixation with the staining
process.
Chemic Fixation. — Soak the film five to fifteen minutes
in pure methyl-alcohol, or one-half hour or longer in equal
parts of absolute alcohol and ether. One minute in i per cent,
formalin in alcohol is preferred by some. Chemic fixation may
precede eosin-methylene-blue and other simple stains.
Heat Fixation. — This may precede any of the methods
which do not combine fixation with the staining process; it
must be used with Ehrlich's triple stain. The best method is
to place the film in an oven, raise the temperature to 150° C,
and allow to cool slowly. Without an oven, the proper
degree of fixation is difficult to attain. Kowarsky has de-
vised a small plate of two layers of copper (Fig. 84), upon
220 THE BLOOD
which the films are placed together with a crystal of urea.
The plate is heated over a flame until the urea melts, and is
then set aside to cool. This is said to give the proper degree
of fixation, but in the writer's experience the films have always
been underheated. He obtains better results by use of tar-
taric acid crystals (melting-point, i68°-i7o° C). The pla.te,
upon which have been placed the cover-glasses, film side
down, and a crystal of the acid, is heated over a low flame until
the crystal has completely melted. It should be held suffi-
ciently high above the flame that the heating will require five
to se\en minutes. The covers are then removed. Freshly
made films of normal blood should be allowed to remain upon
Fig. 84. — Kowarsky's plate for fixing blood (Klopstock and Kowarsky).
the plate for a minute or two after heating has ceased.
Fresh films require more heat than old ones, and normal blood
more than the blood of pernicious anemia and leukemia.
Fixation by passing the film quickly through a flame about
twenty times, as is often done in routine work, is not recom-
mended for beginners.
3. Staining the Film. — The anilin dyes, which are
extensively used in blood work, are of two general classes:
basic dyes, of which methylene-blue is the t^pe; and acid
dyes, of which eosin is the type. Nuclei and certain
other structures in the blood are stained by the basic
dyes, and are hence called basophilic. Certain struc-
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 221
tures take up only add dyes, and are called acidophilic,
oxyphilic, or eosinophilic. Certain other structures are
stained only by combinations of the two, and are called
neutrophilic. Recognition of these staining properties
marked the beginning of modern hematology.
(i) Eosin and Methylene-blue. — In many instances
this stain will give all the information desired. It is
especially useful in studying the red corpuscles. Nuclei,
basophilic granules, and all blood parasites are blue;
erythrocytes are red or pink; eosinophilic granules, bright
red. Neutrophihc granules and blood-plaques are not
stained.
(i) Fix the film by heat or chemicals.
(2) Stain about five minutes with 0.5 per cent, alcoholic
solution of eosin, diluted one-half with water.
(3) Rinse in water, and dry between filter-papers.
(4) Stain one-half to one minute with saturated aqueous
solution of methylene-blue.
(5) Rinse well, dry, and mount. Films upon slides may
be examined with an oil-immersion objective without a cover-
glass.
(2) Ehrlich's Triple Stain. — This has been the stand-
ard blood-stain for many years, but is now little used.
It is probably the best for neutrophihc granules. It is
difficult to make, and should be purchased ready pre-
pared from a reHable dealer. Nuclei are stained blue
or greenish blue; erythrocytes, orange; neutrophilic
granules, violet; and eosinophilic granules, copper red.
Basophilic granules and blood-plaques are not stained.
Success in staining depends largely upon proper fixa-
tion. The film must be carefully fixed by heat: under-
222 THE BLOOD
heating causes the erythrocytes to stain red; overheat-
ing, pale yellow. The staining fluid is applied for five
to fifteen minutes, and the preparation is rinsed quickly
in water, dried, and mounted. Subsequent application
of Lofiler's methylene-blue for one-half to one second will
bring out the basophilic granules and improve the
nuclear staining, but there is considerable danger of
overstaining.
(3) Polychrome Methylene-blue Eosin Stains. — These
stains, outgrowths of the original Romanowsky method,
have largely displaced other blood-stains for clinical
purposes. They stain differentially every normal and
abnormal structure in the blood. Most of them are
dissolved in methyl alcohol and combine the fbdng with
the staining process. Numerous methods of preparing
and applying these stains have been devised. Two
only need be given here: Wright's stain and Harlow's
stain :
Wright's Stain. — This is one of the best and is the
most widely used in this country. The practitioner
will find it best to purchase the stain ready prepared.
Most microscopic supply-houses carry it in stock.
Wright's most recent directions for its preparation and
use are as follows:'
Preparation. — To a 0.5 per cent, aqueous solution of
sodium bicarbonate add methylene-blue (B. X. or " medicin-
ally pure ") in the proportion of i gm. of the dye to each 100
c.c. of the solution. Heat the mixture in a steam sterilizer
at 100° C. for one full hour, counting the time after the ster-
ilizer has become thoroughly heated. The mixture is to be
contained in a flask, or flasks, of such size and shape that it
^Journal of the American Medical Association, Dec. 3, 1910.
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 223
forms a layer not more than 6 cm. deep. After heating,
allow the mixture to cool, placing the flask in cold water,
if desired, and then filter it to remove the precipitate which
has formed in it. It should, when cold, have a deep purple-
red color when viewed in a thin layer by transmitted yellowish
artificial light. It does not show this color while it is warm.
To each 100 c.c. of the filtered mixture add 500 c.c. of a
0.1 per cent, aqueous solution of " yellowish water-soluble "
eosin and mix thoroughly. Collect the abundant precipitate
which immediately appears on a filter. When the precipitate
is dry, dissolve it in methylic alcohol (Merck's " reagent ")
in the proportion of o.i gm. to 60 c.c. of the alcohol. In
order to facilitate solution, the precipitate is to be rubbed up
with the alcohol in a porcelain dish or mortar with a spatula
or pestle. This alcoholic solution of the precipitate is the
staining fluid.
Application. — i. Cover the film with a noted quantity of
the staining fluid by means of a medicine-dropper.
2. After one minute add to the staining fluid on the film
the same quantity of distilled water by means of a medicine-
dropper and allow the mixture to remain for two or three
minutes, according to the intensity of the staining desired.
A longer period of staining may produce a precipitate.
Eosinophilic granules are best brought out by a short period
of staining.
The quantity of the diluted fluid on the preparation should
not be so large that some of it runs off.
3. Wash the preparation in water for thirty seconds or
until the thinner portions of the film become yellow or pink
in color.
4. Dry and mount in balsam.
The stain is more conveniently applied upon cover-
glasses than upon slides. Films much more than a month
old do not stain well. In some localities ordinary tap-
224 iHE BLOOD
water will answer both for diluting the stain and for
washing the film; in others, distilled water must be used.
Different lots of Wright's fluid vary, and a few prelimin-
ary stains should be made with each lot to learn its
peculiarities.
When properly applied, Wright's stain gives the fol-
lowing picture (Plate VI): erythrocytes, yellow or pink;
nuclei, various shades of bluish purple; neutrophilic
granules, reddish Hlac; eosinophilic granules, bright red;
basophilic granules of leukocytes and degenerated red
corpuscles, very dark bluish purple; blood-plaques,
dark lilac; bacteria, blue. The cytoplasm of lymphocytes
is generally robin's-egg blue; that of the large mononu-
clears may have a faint bluish tinge. Malarial parasites
stain characteristically: the cytoplasm, sky-blue; the
chromatin, reddish purple.
Harlow's Stain. — Probably the simplest modification of
the Romanowsky stain, both in preparation and method
of use, is that devised by W. P. Harlow of the University
of Colorado. It differentiates granules particularly
well, but is not so satisfactory for demonstrating slight
grades of polychromatophilia, because it usually gives all
the red cells a faint bluish tinge.
Preparation. — The stain consists of two solutions used
separately:
No. I. Eosin, yellowish, water soluble (Griibler) . i gram
Methyl alcohol (Merck's reagent) loo c.c.
No. 2. Methylene-blue (" B. X." or Ehrlich's
rectified) (Griibler) i gram
Methyl alcohol (Merck's reagent) loo c.c.
Application. — (i) Stain the film without previous fixation
for one minute with the eosin solution.
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 22$
(2) Shake off the excess, allowing a very little to remain,
and at once cover with the methylene-blue solution for one
or two minutes.
(3) Rinse quickly in distilled water, dry, and mount.
It is well known that pathologic bloods will sometimes
not stain well with fluids which are satisfactory for
normal bloods. Doctors Peebles and Harlow have shown
that the various polychrome methylene-blue-eosin stains
can be modified to suit any blood by adding a little
alkali or acid. The alkali used is a weak solution of
" potassium hydrate by alcohol " in methyl alcohol; the
acid, glacial acetic in methyl alcohol. In the case of the
Harlow stain it is added to the methylene-blue solution
only. The alkali solution also serves to " correct " old
fluids which, by reason of development of formic acid
in the methyl alcohol, do not stain sufficiently with the
blue. In general a stain is satisfactory when both nuclei
and neutrophilic granules are clearly defined.
B. Study of Stained Films
Much can be learned from stained blood-films. They
furnish the best means of studying the morphology of the
blood and blood parasites, and, to the experienced, they
give a fair idea of the amount of hemoglobin and the
number of red and white corpuscles. An oil-immersion
objective is required.
1. Erythrocytes.— Normally, the red corpuscles are
acidophilic. The colors which they take with different
stains have been described. When not crowded to-
gether, they appear as circular, homogeneous discs, of
nearly uniform size, averaging 7.5 fi in diameter (Fig.
104). The center of each is somewhat paler than the
15
226 THE BLOOD
periphery. The degree of pallor furnishes a rough index
to the amount of hemoglobin in the corpuscle. As
hemoglobin is diminished, the central pale area becomes
larger and paler, producing the so-called " pessary
forms " in which only the periphery of the cell is apparent.
These forms indicate a low color index and are most
abundant in chlorosis. Red cells are apt to be crenated
when the film has dried too slowly.
Pathologically, red corpuscles vary in size and shape,
staining properties, and structure.
(i) Variations in Size and Shape (See Plate IX and
Fig. 104). — The cells may be abnormally small (called
microcytes, 5 ;(/ or less in diameter); abnormally large
{macrocytes, 10 to 12 u); or extremely large (megalocytes,
12 to 20 ^).
Variation in shape is often very marked. Oval, pyri-
form, caudate, saddle-shaped, and club-shaped corpus-
cles are common (Fig. 85). They are called poikilocytes,
and their presence is spoken of as poikilocytosis.
Red corpuscles which vary from the normal in size and
shape are present in most symptomatic anemias, and in
the severer grades are often very numerous. Irregular-
ities are particularly conspicuous in leukemia and pernic-
ious anemia, where, in some instances, a normal erythro-
cyte is the exception. In pernicious anemia there is a
decided tendency to large size and oval forms, and mega-
locytes are rarely found in any other condition.
(2) Variations in Staining Properties (See Plate
IX). — These include polychromatophilia, basophiHc
degeneration, and malarial stippling. With exception
of polychromatophilia they are probably degenerative
changes.
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD
227
(a) Polychromatophilia. — Some of the corpuscles par-
tially lose their normal affinity for acid stains, and take
the basic stain to greater or less degree. Wright's stain
gives such cells a faint bluish tinge when the condition is
mild, and a rather deep blue when severe. Sometimes
only part of a cell is affected. A few polychromatophilic
corpuscles can be found in marked symptomatic anemias.
Fig. 85. — Abnormal red corpuscles: A, Poikilocytosis; B, basophilic granular degenera-
tion; C, malarial stippling, the cell also containinij a tertian parasite ( X 1000) (courtesy of
Dr. W. P. Harlow).
They occur most abundantly in malaria, leukemia, and
pernicious anemia.
Polychromatophilia has been variously interpreted.
It is thought by many to be evidence of youth in a cell,
and hence to indicate an attempt at blood regeneration.
There are probably several forms referable to different
causes.
{h) Basophilic Granular Degeneration {Degeneration oj
Grawitz). — This is characterized by the presence, within
228 THE BLOOD
the corpuscle, of basophilic granules which vary in size
from scarcely visible points to granules as large as those
of basophilic leukocytes (Fig. 85). The number present
in a red cell commonly varies in inverse ratio to their
size. They stain deep blue with Wright's stain; not at
all with Ehrlich's triple stain. The cell containing them
may stain normally in other respects, or it may exhibit
polychromatophilia.
Numerous cells showing this degeneration are com-
monly found in chronic lead-poisoning, of which they
Fig. 86. — Normoblasts from cases of secondary anemia and leukemia (X looo) (photo-
graphs by the author).
were at one time thought to be pathognomonic. Except
in this disease, the degeneration indicates a serious blood
condition. It occurs in well-marked cases of pernicious
anemia and leukemia, and, much less commonly, in very
severe symptomatic anemias.
(c) Malarial Stippling. — This term has been applied
to the finely granular appearance often seen in red cor-
puscles, which harbor malarial parasites (Plates VI and
VII and Fig. 85). It is commonly classed with the degen-
eration just described, but is probably distinct. Not
all stains will show it. With Wright's stain it can be
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 229
brought out by staining longer and washing less than
for the ordinary blood-stain. The minute granules stain
reddish purple.
(3) Variations in Structure. — The most important is
the presence of a nucleus (Plates VI and IX and Fig.
86). Nucleated red corpuscles, or erytkroblasts , are
classed according to their size: microblasts, 5 |M or less in
diameter; normoblasts, 5 to 10 a; and megaloblasts, above
10 u. Microblasts and normoblasts contain one, rarely
two, small round, sharply defined, deeply staining nuclei,
Fig. 87. — Megaloblasts from a case of pernicious anemia ( X 1000) (courtesy of Dr.
W. P. Harlow).
often located eccentrically. Occasionally the nucleus is
irregular in shape, " clover-leaf " forms being not infre-
quent. The megaloblast (Fig. 87) is probably a distinct
cell, not merely a larger size of the normoblast. Its
nucleus is large, stains rather palely, has a delicate
chromatin network, and often shows evidences of degen-
eration (karyorrhexis, etc.). In ordinary work, however,
it is safer to base the distinction upon size than upon
structure. Any nucleated red cell, but especially the
megaloblast, may exhibit polychromatophilia.
Normally, erythroblasts are present only in the blood
230 THE BLOOD
of the fetus and of very young infants. In the adult,
their presence in the circulating blood denotes an excess-
ive demand upon the blood-forming organs to regenerate
lost or destroyed red corpuscles. In response to this
demand, immature and imperfectly formed cells are
thrown into the circulation. Their number, therefore,
is an indication of the extent to which the bone-marrow
reacts rather than of the severity of the disease. Nor-
moblasts occur in severe symptomatic anemia, leukemia,
and pernicious anemia. They are most abundant in
myelogenous leukemia. While always present in per-
nicious anemia, they are often difficult to find. Megalo-
blasts are found in pernicious anemia, and with extreme
rarity in any other condition. They here almost inva-
riably exceed the normoblasts in number, which is one of
the distinctive features of the disease. Microblasts have
much the same significance as normoblasts, but are
less common.
Cabot's ring bodies are ring- or figure-of-8 shaped
structures which have been observed in certain of the
red cells in pernicious anemia, lead-poisoning, and lym-
phatic leukemia. They stain red with Wright's stain.
Their nature is unknown.
2. The Leukocytes.~An estimation of the number or
percentage of each variety of leukocyte in the blood is
called a dijjerential count. It probably yields more
helpful information than any other single procedure in
blood examinations.
The differential count is best made upon a film stained
with Wright's, Harlow's, or Ehrlich's stain. Go care-
fully over the film with an oil-immersion lens, using a
mechanical stage if available. Classify each leukocyte
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 23 1
seen, and calculate what percentage each variety is of
the whole number classified. For accuracy, 50x3 to 1000
leukocytes must be classified; for approximate results,
300 are sufficient. Track of the count may be kept by
placing a mark for each leukocyte in its appropriate
column, ruled upon paper. Some workers divide a slide-
box into compartments with slides, one for each variety of
leukocyte, and drop a coffee-bean into the appropriate
compartment when a cell is classified. When a conve-
nient number of coffee-beans is used (any multiple of
100), the percentage calculation is extremely easy.
The actual number of each variety in a cubic milU-
meter of blood is easily calculated from these percentages,
and the total leukocyte count. An increase in actual
number is an absolute increase; an increase in percentage
only, a relative increase. It is evident that an absolute
increase of any variety may be accompanied by a relative
decrease.
A record is generally kept of the number of nucleated
red cells seen during a differential count of leukocytes.
The usual classification of leukocytes is based upon
their size, their nuclei, and the staining properties of the
granules which many of them contain. It is not alto-
gether satisfactory, but is probably the best which our
present knowledge permits.
The writer has foimd the table (Fig. 88, p. 232)
very helpful in impressing this classification upon the
student. It makes no attempt to indicate histogenetic
Telationships. The leukocytes of normal blood fall into
two groups, each including three types. The cells in
Group I contain single, round, oval or horseshoe-shaped
nuclei, and have few or no granules in their cytoplasm.
232
THE BLOOD
The stippling of the cytoplasm shown in the diagram
represents the finely granular appearance of protoplasiri,
not true granulation. The cells in Group II are polymor-
phonuclear and contain granules which are distinguished
by their size and staining reactions. In its structure the
chief abnormal leukocyte, the myelocyte, combines the
LEUKOCYTES
NORMAL /^DNORM^L
MONONUCLE/7R ~
NON - GR/^NUL/Jr?
1-LYMPHOCVTE 20-30°/„
2-L/5RGE MONONUCLE^RI
3 Tr?/1N5ITI0N^L J
POLYMORPHONUCLEAR
GR/7NUL/7R
MyELOOTE
1-NEUTROPHIUCf
2- EOSINOPHILIC iM
3-B-^SOPHILIC
1- ISIEUTPOPHILIC 60-75% §
2 - EOSINOPHILIC
2-4yo5i
.'.-is-A
3- BASOPHILIC 0.3% BfflJ
Fig. 88. — Outline of the classification of leukocytes.
two groups, being mononuclear like Group I, and gran-
ular like Group II.
(i) Normal Varieties. — {a) Lymphocjrtes. — These are
small mononuclear cells without granules (Plates VI and
X). They are about the size of a red corpuscle or
slightly larger (6-io (u), and consist of a single, sharply
10 HOITAMAJ^XH
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Ifitne bnfi ^gisl . vl ,j ;9l'>eoqio^ b^ a a< .no
'^ 3no ,b3ii;lfjui ^m
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inaiHSnoi ^t{ioiu^i ^B^hunpaom ^3^^Bl ,0j ; jhun'to
i) ni e3g£t2 luol ,^i ;BnBlcrti nEJnal !o •«i. ■ -"AunBTg
h 313W rfJnuol bnB bnonv. ■srf) :3ji?.Biiiq iBhslum ndJTJJ adJ lo abya
■ no* bsi ,8i ;nBiJi3) ^Mitoh Ho ^bt b moil n9>!«t gbil? ^mfw ^Ht moil
I .gnikjqiJa l/ihi.' ' nn-j
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'nicture the
"inbines the
Explanation of Plate VI
Stained with Wright's stain. Ail drawn to same scale.
I, Norma! red corpuscle for comparison; 2, normoblasts, one with
lohulatcd nucleus; 3, megaioblast and microblast. The megaloblast
shows a considerable degree of polychromatophilia; 4, blood-plaques,
one lying uy.on a red corpuscle; 5, lymphocytes, large and small; 6,
large mononuclear leukocyte; 7, transitional leukocyte;- 8, polymor-
phonuclear neutrophilic leukocytes; 9, eosinophilic leukocytes, one
ruptured; 10, basophilic leukocyte; 11, neutrophilic myelocyte. The
granules are sometimes less numerous and less distinct than here shown;
12, eosinophilic mvelocvtes; 13, basophilic myelocyte; 14, ''irritation"
or "stimulation" form, with small vacuoles; 15, degenerated leukocytes:
two polymorphonuclear neutrophiles, one ruptured, one swojlen and
vacuolated; and a "basket cell" composed of an irregular meshwork
of nuclear material; 16, large mononuclear leukocyte containing f)igment-
granules; from a case of tertian malaria; 17, four stages in the asexuial
cycle of the tertian malarial parasite: the second and fourth were drawn
from the same slide taken from a case of double tertian; 18, red corpuscle
containing tertian parasite and showing malarial stippling; 19, estivo-
autumnal malarial parasites: two small ring forms within the same
red cell, and a crescent with remains of the red corpuscle in its concavity.
and gran-
"Dicse are
\ I and
PLATE VI
-•^'■-' 3
4
• 4 a
"3»r
10
12
13
14
16
15
17
r*^
18
G-
19
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD
233
defined, deeply staining nucleus, surrounded by a narrow
rim of protoplasm. The nucleus is generally round, but
is sometimes indented at one side. Wright's stain gives
the nucleus a deep purple color and the cytoplasm a pale
robin's-egg blue in typical cells. Larger forms of lymph-
ocytes are frequently found, especially in the blood of
children, and are difficult to distinguish from the large
mononuclear leukocytes. It is possible that the larger
Fig. 89. — Lymphocytt).sis, c.ise of pertussis ( X 1000) (courtesy of Dr. W. P. Harlow).
forms are young lymphocytes, which become smaller
as they grow older.
Lymphocytes are formed in the lymphoid tissues,
including that of the bone-marrow. They constitute,
normally, 20 to 30 per cent, of all leukocytes, or about
1000 to 3000 per c.mm. of blood. They are more abun-
dant in the blood of children.
The percentage of lymphocytes is usually moderately
increased in those conditions which give leukopenia,
234 'i'llE BLOOD
especially typhoid fe\'er, chlorosis, pernicious anemia,
and many debilitated conditions. A marked increase,
accompanied by an increase in the total leukocyte count,
is seen in pertussis (Fig. 89) and lymphatic leukemia. In
the latter the lymphocytes sometimes exceed 98 per cent.
E.xophthalmic goiter commonly gives a marked relative
lymphoc}tosis, while simple goiter does not affect the
l}mphocytes.
(h) Large Mononuclear Leukocjrtes (Plate VI). —
These cells are two or three times the diameter of the
normal red corpuscle. Each contains a single round or
oval nucleus, often located eccentrically. The zone of
protoplasm surrounding the nucleus is relatively wide.
With Wright's stain the nucleus is less deeply colored
than that of the lymphocyte, while the cytoplasm is very
pale blue or colorless, and sometimes contains a few red-
dish granules. The size of the cell, the width of the zone
of cytoplasm, and the depth of color of the nucleus are
the points to be considered in distinguishing between
large mononuclears and lymphocytes. When large
forms of the lymphocyte are present, the distinction is
often difficult or impossible. It is then advisable to
count the two cells together as lymphocytes. Indeed,
they are regarded by some hematologists as identical.
Large mononuclear leukocytes probably originate in
the bone-marrow or spleen. Some hold that they are
developed from the endothelial cells of the blood-vessels.
They constitute 2 to 4 per cent, of the total number of
leukocytes: 100 to 400 per c.mm. of blood. An increase
is unusual except in malaria, where it is quite constantly
observed, and where many of the cells contain engulfed
pigment.
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD
235
{c) Transitional Leukocytes (Plate VI). — These are
essentially large mononuclears with deeply indented or
horseshoe-shaped nuclei. A few fine neutrophilic gran-
ules are sometimes present in their cytoplasm.
They are probably formed from the large mononuclears,
and occur in the blood in about the same numbers. The
two cells are usually counted together, constituting 4 to
8 per cent, of the leukocytes.
Fig. 90.— Marked polymorphonuclear neutrophilic leukocytosis ; ,s loooj (courtesy of
Dr. W. P. Harlow).
{d) Polymorphonuclear Neutrophilic Leukocytes (Plate
VI). — There is usually no difficulty in recognizing
"these cells. Their average size is somewhat less than
that of the large mononuclears. The nucleus stains
rather deeply, and is extremely irregular, often assuming
shapes comparable to letters of the alphabet, E, Z, S, etc.
236 THE BLOOD
(Fig. 90). Frequently there appear to be several separ-
ate nuclei, hence the widely used name, "polynuclear leu-
kocyte." Upon careful inspection, however, delicate
nuclear bands connecting the parts can usually be seen.
The cytoplasm is relatively abundant, and contains
great numbers of very fine neutrophilic granules (Fig.
93). With Wright's stain the nucleus is bluish purple,
and the granules reddish lilac.
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes are formed in the bone-
marrow from neutrophilic myelocytes. They constitute
60 to 75 per cent, of all the leukocytes: 3000 to 7500 per
c.mm. of blood. Increase in their number practically
always produces an increase in the total leukocyte count,
and has already been discussed under Polymorphonu-
clear Leukocytosis. The leukocytes of pus, pus-corpuscles,
belong almost wholly to this variety.
A comparison of the percentage of polymorphonuclear
cells with the total leukocyte count yields more informa-
tion than a consideration of either alone. In a general
way the percentage represents the severity of the infec-
tion, or, more correctly, the degree of toxic absorption;
while the total count indicates the patient's power of
resistance. With moderate infection and good resisting
powers the leukocyte count and the percentage of poly-
morphonuclears are increased proportionately. When
the polymorphonuclear percentage is increased to a nota-
bly greater extent than is the total number of leuko-
cytes, no matter how low the count, either very poor
resistance or a very severe infection may be inferred.
Gibson has suggested the use of a chart to express
this relationship graphically (Fig. 91). Its arrangement
is purely arbitrary, but it may be found helpful in inter-
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD
237
preting counts. An ascending line from left to right
indicates an unfavorable prognosis in proportion as the
."^o non
/
<=)-'^
P-.'i 000
/
on
7>.o,ono
/
RA
1.*; 000
_ /
flO
10, 000
/
—
■7-5
,
/
z
.•^ 000
—
7T>
—
Total leuko-
cyte count.
Percentage of
polymorpho-
nuclears.
Fig. 91. — Gibson chart with blood-count in two cases of appendicitis: Dotted line rep-
resenting a mild case with prompt recovery; the continuous line, a very virulent strepto-
coccic case with poor resistance, fKjritonitis, and early death.
line approaches the vertical. All fatal cases show a ris-
ing line. A descending or horizontal line suggests a very
favorable prognosis.
238 THE BLOOD
It is a matter of observation that in the absence of
acute infectious disease or of inflammation directly in
the blood-stream {e. g., phlebitis, sigmoid sinusitis, septic
endocarditis), a polymorphonuclear percentage of 85 or
over points very strongly to gangrene or pus-formation
somewhere in the body. On the other hand, excepting
in children, where the percentage is normally low, pus
is uncommon with less than 80 per cent, of polymorpho-
nuclears.
Normally, the cytoplasm of leukocytes stains pale
yellow with iodin. Under certain pathologic conditions
the cytoplasm of many of the polymorphonuclears stains
diffusely brown, or contains granules which stain reddish
brown with iodin. This is called iodophilia. Extracellu-
lar iodin-staining granules, which are present normally,
are more numerous in iodophilia.
This iodin reaction occurs in all purulent conditions
except abscesses which are thoroughly walled off and
purely tuberculous abscesses. It is of some value in
diagnosis between serous effusions and purulent exudates,
between catarrhal and suppurative processes in the ap-
pendix and Fallopian tube, etc. Its importance, how-
ever, as a diagnostic sign of suppuration has been much
exaggerated, since it may occur in any general toxemia,
such as pneumonia, influenza, malignant disease, and
puerperal sepsis.
To demonstrate iodophilia, place the air-dried films in
a stoppered bottle containing a few crystals of iodin until
they become yellow. Mount in syrup of levulose and
examine with an immersion objective.
Arneth classifies pohonorphonuclear leukocytes into
five groups, according to the number of lobes which the
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 239
nucleus shows. The percentage of cells in each group
is fairly constant in health, but shows considerable varia-
tion in disease.
(e) Eosinophilic Leukocjrtes, or " Eosinophiles "
(Plate VI). — The structure of these cells is similar to that
of the polymorphonuclear neutrophiles, with the striking
difference that, instead of fine neutrophilic granules, their
cytoplasm contains coarse, round or oval granules having
a strong affinity for acid stains. They are easily recog-
nized by the size and color of the granules, which stain
bright red with Wright's stain (Fig. 93). Their cyto-
plasm has generally a faint sky-blue tinge, and the nu-
cleus stains somewhat less deeply than that of the
polymorphonuclear neutrophile.
Eosinophiles are formed in the bone-marrow from
eosinophilic myelocytes. Their normal number varies
from 50 to 400 per c.mm. of blood, or i to 4 per cent, of
the leukocytes. An increase is called eosinophilia, and is
better determined by the actual number than by the
percentage.
Slight eosinophilia is physiologic during menstruation.
Marked eosinophilia is always pathologic. It occurs in
a variety of conditions, the most important of which are :
infection by animal parasites; bronchial asthma; myeloge-
nous leukemia; scarlet fever, and many skin diseases.
{a) Eosinophilia may be a symptom of infection by any
of the worms. It is fairly constant in trichinosis, uncinaria-
sis, filariasis, and echinococcus disease. In this country
an unexplained marked eosinophilia warrants examina-
tion of a portion of muscle for Trichinella spiralis (p. 363).
{h) True bronchial asthma commonly gives a marked
eosinophilia during and following the paroxysms. This
240 THE BLOOD
is helpful in excluding asthma of other origin. Eosino-
philes also appear in the sputum in large numbers.
(c) In myelogenous leukemia there is almost invariably
an absolute increase of eosinophiles, although, owing to
the great increase of other leukocytes, the percentage is
usually diminished. Dwarf and giant forms are often
numerous.
id) Scarlet fever is frequently accompanied by eosino-
philia, which may help to distinguish it from measles.
i^:: ^ m_^^>^ \-\ ^^ --i
Fig. 92. — Basophilic leukocytes. .\\. the right is also a normoblast undergoing mitosis
( X 1000) (photographs by the author).
(e) Eosinophilia has been observed in a large number
of skin diseases, notably pemphigus, prurigo, psoriasis,
and urticaria. It probably depends less upon the vari-
ety of the disease than upon its extent.
(/) Basophilic Leukocytes or *' Mast-cells " (Plate
VI). — In general, these resemble polymorphonuclear neu-
trophiles except that the nucleus is less irregular and that
the granules are larger and have a strong affinity for
basic stains. They are easily recognized (Figs. 92 and 93).
With Wright's stain the granules are deep purple, while
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 24 1
the nucleus is pale blue and is often nearly or quite hid-
den by the granules, so that its form is difficult to make
out. These granules are not colored by Ehrlich's stain.
The nature of mast-cells is undetermined. They
probably originate in the bone-marrow. They are least
numerous of the leukocytes in normal blood, rarely ex-
ceeding 0.5 per cent., or 25 to 50 per c.mm. A notable
increase is Umited almost exclusively to myelogenous
leukemia, where they are sometimes very numerous.
B . .
Fig. 93. — Ruptured leukocytes, showing relative size of granules: A, neutrophilic; B,
eosinophilic; C, basophilic (X looo) (photographs by the author).
(2) Abnormal Varieties. — (a) Myelocytes (Plate VI and
Fig. 94). — These are large mononuclear cells whose cyto-
plasm is filled with granules. Typically, the nucleus occu-
pies about one-half of the cell, and is round or oval. It is
sometimes indented, with its convex side in contact with
the periphery of the cell. It stains rather feebly. The
average diameter of this cell (about 15.75 !^) is greater
than that of any other leukocyte, but there is much varia-
tion in size among individual cells. Myelocytes are
named according to the character of their granules —
neutrophilic, eosinophilic, and basophilic myelocytes.
These granules are identical with the corresponding
16
242 THE BLOOD
granules in the leukocytes just described. The occur-
rence of two kinds of granules in the same cell is rare.
Myelocytes are the bone-marrow cells from which the
corresponding granular leukocytes are developed. Their
presence in the blood in considerable numbers is diagnos-
tic of myelogenous leukemia. The neutrophilic form is
the least significant. A few of these may be present in
very marked leukocytosis or any severe blood condition,
as pernicious anemia. Eosinophilic myelocytes are found
A B
Fig. 94. — Myelocytes from blood of myelogenous leukemia: A, Neutrophilic; B, eosino-
philic (X 1000) (photographs by the author).
only in myelogenous leukemia, where they are often very
numerous. The basophilic variety is less common, and
is confined to long-standing, severe myelogenous leu-
kemia.
(b) Atypic Forms. — Leukocytes which do not fit in
with the above classification are not infrequently met,
especially in high-grade leukocytosis, pernicious anemia,
and leukemia. The nature of most of them is not clear,
and their number is usually so small that they may be
STUDY OF STAINED BLOOD 243
disregarded in making a differential count. Among them
are:
(a) Border-line forms between polymorphonuclear
neutrophils and neutrophilic myelocytes.
(b) Small neutrophilic cells with a single round,
deeply staining nucleus; they probably result from di-
vision of polymorphonuclear neutrophiles.
(c) " Irritation forms " — large non-granular mono-
nuclear cells, whose cytoplasm stains fairly deep purple
with Wright's stain, and intense brown with Ehrlich's:
Fig. 9S- — A clu^U;r of blood-plaques and two plaques lying upon a red cell and simu-
lating malarial parasites ( X 1000) (photograph by the author).
they appear in the blood under the same conditions as
myelocytes.
(d) Degenerated forms: vacuolated leukocytes, or
merely palely or deeply staining homogeneous or retic-
ulated masses of chromatin (the so-called " basket-cells,"
Plate VI).
■ 3. Blood=plaques.— These are not colored by Ehrlich's
stain nor by eosin and methylene-blue. With Wright's
stain they appear as spheric or ovoid, reddish to violet,
granular bodies, 2 to 4 ^ in diameter. When well stained
244 THE BLOOD
a delicate hyaline peripheral zone can be distinguished.
In ordinary blood-smears they are usually clumped in
masses. A single platelet lying upon a red corpuscle may
easily be mistaken for a malarial parasite (Plate VI and
Fig. 95)-
Blood-platelets are being much studied at present, but,
aside from the facts mentioned under their enumeration
(p. 213), little of clinical value has been learned. They
have been variously regarded as very young red corpus-
cles (the " hematoblasts" of Hayem), as disintegration
products of leukocytes, as remnants of extruded nuclei
of erythrocytes, and as independent nucleated bodies.
The most probable explanation of their origin seems to
be that of J. H. Wright, who, from his recent studies,
regards them as detached portions of the cytoplasm of
certain giant-cells of the bone-marrow and spleen.
VIII. BLOOD PARASITES
A. Bacteria
Bacteriologic study of the blood is useful in many
conditions, but in general, the elaborate technic involved
takes it out of the reach of the clinician. As applied to
the diagnosis of t\T3hoid fever, however, the technic of
blood-cultures has been so simplified that it can be car-
ried through by any one who is competent to do the
simplest cultural work.
Typhoid bacilli can be detected in the blood in prac-
tically every case of typhoid fever in the first week of the
disease; in about 80 to 85 per cent, of cases in the second
week; and in decreasing percentages in the later weeks.
The blood-culture, therefore, offers the most certain means
BLOOD PARASITES 245
of early diagnosis. It is in a sense complementary to the
Widal reaction, the former decreasing and the latter
increasing in reliability as the disease progresses. The
blood-culture gives best results before the Widal appears,
as one Would expect from the fact that the Widal test
depends upon the presence of antibodies which destroy,
or, at least injure, the bacilli. The two methods to-
gether will establish the diagnosis in practically every
case at any stage. Bacilli disappear from the blood in
convalescence and reappear in a relapse.
Technic of Blood-Cultures in Typhoid Fever. — The blood
may be obtained in one of two ways:
(a) With a spring-lancet make a deep puncture in the
edge (not the side) of the lobe of the ear, as for a blood-count.
Allow the blood to drop directly into a short culture-tube
containing the bile medium. By gentle milking, 20 to 40
drops can usually be obtained. This simple method of ob-
taining blood is especially applicable during the first week of
the disease when bacilli are abundant. Contamination with
skin cocci is possible, but does not usually interfere when the
bile medium is used.
(b) In the later weeks of the disease a larger quantity of
blood is needed. Prepare the skin on the front of the elbow,
as for a minor operation, or simply rub well with alcohol.
Tie a bandage tightly aroimd the upper arm, have the patient
open and close the fist a few times, and when the veins are
sufiiciently distended insert a hypodermic needle attached
to a syringe into any vein that is prominent. The needle
should go through the skin about J inch from the vein with
the bevel at its tip uppermost, and should enter the vein
from the side in a direction opposite to the blood-current (Fig.
96). Unless too small a needle is used, blood will begin to
rise in the syringe as soon as the needle has entered the vein.
246
THE BLOOD
Suction is not necessary. When sufficient blood is obtained,
the bandage is first removed, the needle is withdrawn, and
the blood is allowed to run into a tube of culture-medium.
It is usually easy to secure 5 to 10 c.c. of blood. The proced-
ure causes the patient surprisingly little inconvenience, sel-
dom more than does an ordinary hyj^odermic injection.
There is rarely any difficulty in entering the vein except in
children, and in adults when the arm is fat and the veins are
small. If desired, one of the veins about the ankle can be
used. Instead of a syringe one can use a large glass tube
Fig. q6. — Method of obtaining blood for a blood-culture.
which has been drawn out at the ends and one end ground to
fit a " slip-on " needle. Either a large hypodermic needle or
a small antitoxin needle may be used. These little instru-
ments (Fig. 96) can be made by any glass-blower at a
cost of about fifty cents, and several of them can be kept
on hand in test-tubes sterilized ready for use.
As special culture-medium, ox-bile is generally used. It
favors the growth of the typhoid bacillus and retards the
growth of other organisms. A good formula is given on p. 405.
As soon as convenient after the blood is added, place the
tubes in the incubator. After about twelve hours examine
BLOOD PARASITES 247
for motile bacilli. If none are found, transfer a few drops
to tubes of bouillon or solidified blood-serum and incubate for
twelve hours longer. If motile, Gram-negative bacilli are
foimd; they are almost certainly typhoid bacilli. Further
study is not necessary in practice, although desirable from
a scientific point of view. The only bacilli which might cause
confusion are the paratyphoid and colon bacilli, which can
be distinguished by gas production in glucose media, indol
production, and their effect upon litmus milk. The agglutin-
ation test for the identity of the bacillus is not available
clinically, since freshly isolated bacilli do not agglutinate
well.
B. Animal Parasites
Of the animal parasites which have been found in the
blood, five are interesting clinically: the spirochaeta of
relapsing fever; trypanosomes; malarial parasites; filarial
embryos; and the embryos of Trichinella spiralis.
1. Spirochaeta recurrentis is described on p. 330.
2. Trypanosoma Qambiense. — Various trypanosomes
are common in the blood of fishes, amphibians, birds, and
mammals (Fig. 113). They live in the blood-plasma and
do not attack the corpuscles. In some animals they are
apparently harmless; in others they are an important
cause of disease. They are discussed more fully on p. 333.
The trypanosome of human blood, Trypanosoma gam-
biense (Plate VII), is an actively motile, spindle-shaped
organism, two or three times the diameter of a red cor-
puscle in length, with an undulating membrane which
terminates at the anterior end in a long ilagellum. It can
be seen with medium power objectives in fresh blood, but
is best studied with an oil-immersion lens in preparations
stained as for the malarial parasite. Human trypano-
248 THE BLOOD
somiasis is common in Africa. As a rule, it is a very
chronic disease. " Sleeping sickness " is a late stage when
the organisms have invaded the cerebrospinal fluid.
Infection is carried by the tsetse fly, Glossina palpalis.
3. The Malarial Parasites.— These protozoa belong to
the Sporozoa (p. 338), order Hemosporidia, the mem-
bers of which are parasites in the blood of a great
variety of vertebrates. Three species, constituting the
genus Plasmodium, are associated with malarial fever in
man : Plasmodium vivax, P. malarice, and P. falciparum,
the parasites respectively of the tertian, quartan, and
estivo-autumnal types of malaria. The life histories of
the three are so similar that they may well be described
together.
(i) Life Histories. — There are two cycles of develop-
ment: one, the asexual, in the blood of man; and the
other, the sexual, in the intestinal tract of a particular
genus of mosquito, AnopJieles.
(a) Asexual Cycle. — The young organism enters the
blood through the bite of the mosquito. It makes its way
into a red corpuscle, where it appears as a small, pale
" hyaline " body. This body exhibits ameboid movement
and increases in size. Soon, dark-brown granules derived
from the hemoglobin of the corpuscle make their appear-
ance within it. When it has reached its full size — filling
and distending the corpuscle in the case of the tertian
parasite, smaller in the others — the pigment granules
gather at the center or at one side; the organism divides
into a number of small hyaline bodies, the spores or
merozoites; and the red corpuscle bursts, setting spores
and pigment free in the blood-plasma. This is called
segmentation. It coincides with, and by liberation of
PLATE VII
Trypanosoma gambiense (slide presented by Professor F. G. Novy).
E
1
V
Tertian malarial parasites, one red Estivo-autumnal malarial para-
cell showing malarial stippling. sites, small ring forms and
crescents.
Spinu h.cta novyi.
Animal parasites of the blood; X looo (photographs by the author).
BLOOD PARASITES 249
toxins causes, the paroxysm of the disease. A consider-
able number of the spores are destroyed by leukocytes or
other agencies; the remainder enter other corpuscles
and repeat the cycle. Many of the pigment granules
are taken up by leukocytes' In estivo-autumnal fever
segmentation occurs in the internal organs and the seg-
menting and larger pigmented forms are not seen in the
peripheral blood.
The asexual cycle of the tertian organism occupies
forty-eight hours;. of the quartan, seventy- two hours; of
the estivo-autumnal, an indefinite time — usually twenty-
four to forty-eight hours.
The parasites are thus present in the blood in great
groups, all the individuals of which reach maturity and
segment at approximately the same time. This explains
the regular recurrence of the paroxysms at intervals cor-
responding to the time occupied by the asexual cycle of
the parasite. Not infrequently there is multiple infection,
one group reaching maturity while the others are still
young; but the presence of two groups which segment
upon the same day is extremely rare. Fevers of longer
intervals — six, eight, ten days — are probably due to the
ability of the body, sometimes of itself, sometimes by aid
of quinin, to resist the parasites, so that numbers suffi-
cient to cause a paroxysm do not accumulate in the blood
until after several repetitions of the asexual cycle. In
estivo-autumnal fever the regular grouping, while usually
present at first, is soon lost, thus causing "irregular
malaria."
(b) Sexual Cycle. — Besides the ameboid individuals
which pass through the asexual cycle, there are present
with them in the blood many individuals with sexual
250 THE BLOOD
properties. These are called gametes. They do not
undergo segmentation, but grow to adult size and remain
inactive in the blood until taken up by a mosquito.
Many of them are apparently extracellular, but stained
preparations usually show them to be surrounded by the
remains of a corpuscle. In tertian and quartan malaria
they cannot easily be distinguished from the asex-
ual individuals until a variable time after the blood
leaves the body, when the male gamete sends out
one or more flagella. In estivo-autumnal malaria the
gametes take distinctive ovoid and crescentic forms, and
are not difficult to recognize. They are very resistant to
quinin and often persist in the blood long after the
ameboid forms have been destroyed, but are probably
incapable of continuing the disease until they have passed
through the cycle in the mosquito.
When a malarious person is bitten by a mosquito, the
gametes are taken with the blood into its stomach. Here
a flagellum from the male unites with the female, which
soon thereafter becomes encysted in the wall of the intes-
tine. After a time it ruptures, liberating many minute
rods, or sporozoites, which have formed within it. These
migrate to the salivary glands, and are carried into the
blood of the person whom the mosquito bites. Here they
enter red corpuscles as young malarial parasites, and the
majority pass through the asexual cycle just described.
The sexual cycle can take place only within the body
of one genus of mosquito. Anopheles. Absence of this
mosquito from certain districts explains the absence of
malaria. It is distinguished from our common house-
mosquito, Culex, by the relative lengths of proboscis and
palpi (Fig. 97), which can be seen \\ith a hand-lens, by
BLOOD PARASITES '-^^flAf-.y ^SJ
r
its attitude when resting, and by its dappled wing (Pi^.f /: j
98). Anopheles is strictly nocturnal in its habits; it
usually flies low, and rarely travels more than a few
hundred yards from its breeding-place, although it may
be carried by winds. These facts explain certain peculi-
arities in malarial infection; thus, infection occurs prac-
tically only at night; it is most common near stagnant
water, especially upon the side toward which the pre-
vailing winds blow; and the danger is greater when per-
Fig. 97. — Mosquitoes — Culex (i) and Anopheles (2) (Bergey).
sons sleep upon or near the ground than in upper stories
of buildings. The insects frequently hibernate in warmed
houses, and may bite during the winter. A mosquito
becomes dangerous in eight to fourteen days after it
bites a malarious person, and remains so throughout
its Hfe.
(2) Detection. — Search for the malarial parasite may
be made in either fresh blood or stained films. If possible,
the blood should be obtained a few hours before the chiU
— never during it nor within a few hours afterward, since
252
r<\
THE BLOOD
at that time (in single infections) only the very young,
unpigmented forms are present, and these are the most
difficult to find and recognize. Sometimes many para-
sites are found in a microscopic field; sometimes, especi-
Fig. 98. — Showing, on the left. Anopheles in resting position, its dappled wing, and
the position of its larvae in water; on the right, Culex in resting position, its plain wing,
and the position of its larvae in water. The arrows indicate the directions taken by the
larvae when the water is disturbed (Abbott).
ally in estivo-autumnal infection, owing to accumulation
in internal organs, careful search is required to find any,
despite very severe symptoms. Quinin causes them
rapidly to disappear from the peripheral blood, and few
or none may be found after its administration. In the
BLOOD PARASITES, ~ '"'^/^/^/ ^
absence of organisms, the presence of pigment granul6&f A f
within leukocytes — polymorphonuclears and large mono- ^. .
nuclears — may be taken as presumptive evidence of
malaria. Pigmented leukocytes (Plate VI) are most
numerous after a paroxysm.
(a) In Fresh Unstained Blood (Plate VIII) . — Obtain a
small drop of blood from the finger or lobe of the ear.
Touch the center of a cover-glass to the top of the drop
and quickly place it, blood side down, upon a slide. If
the slide and cover be perfectly clean and the drop not
too large, the blood will spread out so as to present only
one layer of corpuscles. Search with an oil-immersion
objective, using very subdued light.
The young organisms appear as small, round, ring-like
or irregular, colorless bodies within red corpuscles. . The
light spots caused by crenation and other changes in the
corpuscles are frequently mistaken for them, but are
generally more refractive or have more sharply defined
edges. The older forms are larger colorless bodies con-
taining granules of brown pigment. In the case of the
tertian parasite, these granules have active vibratory
motion, which renders them conspicuous; and as the
parasite itself is very pale, one may see only a large pale
corpuscle in which fine pigment granules are dancing.
Segmenting organisms, when typic, appear as rosets,
often compared to daisies, the petals of which represent
the segments, while the central brown portion represents
the pigment. Tertian segmenting forms are less fre-
quently typic than quartan. Flagellated forms are not
seen until ten to twenty minutes after the blood has left
the vessels. As Cabot suggests, one should, while search-
ing, keep a sharp lookout for unusually large or pale cor-
254 THE BLOOD
pu.sdes, and for anything which is brown or black or in
motion.
(b) In Stained Films (Plates VI and VII). — Recogni-
tion of the parasite, especially the young forms, is much
easier in films stained by Wright's or some similar stain
than in fresh blood. When very scarce, they may some-
times be found, although their structure is not well shown
b\- the method of Ruge. This consists in spreading a very
thick layer of blood, drying, placing for a few minutes in
a fluid containing 5 per cent, formalin and i per cent,
acetic acid, which removes the hemoglobin and fixes the
smear, rinsing, drying, and finally staining. Carbol-
thionin is very useful for this purpose. If Wright's
stain be used in this method, it is recommended that the
preparation be subsequently stained for a half-minute
with borax-methylene-blue (borax, 5 ; methylene-blue, 2 ;
water, 100).
In films which are properly stained with W^right's fluid
the young organisms are small, round, ring-like or irreg-
ular, sky-blue bodies, each with a very small, sharply de-
fined, reddish-purple chromatin mass. Many structures
— deposits of stain, dirt, blood-plaques lying upon red
cells (Fig. 95), etc.- -may simulate them, but should not de-
ceive one who looks carefully for both the blue cytoplasm
and the reddish-purple chromatin. A plaque upon a red
corpuscle is surrounded by a colorless zone rather than by
a distinct blue body. Young estivo-autumnal parasites
commonly take a " ring " form (the chromatin mass rep-
resenting the jewel), which is infrequently assumed by
the other varieties. The older tertian and quartan or-
ganisms show larger sky-blue bodies with more reticular
chromatin, and contain brown granules of pigment, which,
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Explanation of Plate VIII
Various forms of malarial parasites (unstained) (Thayer and Hewetson).
I to lo, inclusive, Tertian organisms; ii to 17, inclusive, quartan
organisms; 18 to 27, inclusive, estivo-autumnal organisms; i, young
hyaline form; 2, hyaline form with beginning pigmentation; 3, pig-
mented form; 4, full-grown pigmented form; 5, 6, 7, 8, segmenting
forms; g, extracellular pigmented form; 10, flagellate form; 11, young
hyaline form; 12, 13, pigmented forms; 14, fully developed pigmented
form; 15, 16, segmenting forms; 17, flagellate form; 18, 19, 20, ring-like
and cross-like hyaline forms; 21, 22, pigmented forms; 23, 24, segmenting
forms; 25, 26, 27, crescents.
PLATE VIII
3 4 5 6
// /? /? M
r
15 J6 17
^i::^
^J<
JS 19 20 2 J 22
^i 24 25 26 27
BLOOD PARASITES 255
however, is less evident than in the living parasite. The
chromatin is often scattered through the cytoplasm or
apparently outside of it, and is sometimes difficult to see
clearly. Typical '' segmenters " present a ring of rounded
segments or spores, each with a small, dot-like chromatin
mass. With the tertian parasite, the segments more fre-
quently form an irregular cluster. The pigment is col-
lected near the center or scattered among the segments.
In estivo-autumnal fever usually only the small " ring
bodies " and the crescentic and ovoid gametes are seen
^
Fig. gg. — Filarial embryos in blood. Stained. Red corpuscles decolorized; a few leuko-
cytes remain (X 200) (photographs by the author).
in the blood. The gametes are easily recognized. Their
length is somewhat greater than the diameter of a red
corpuscle. Their chromatin is usually centrally placed,
and they contain more or less coarse pigment. The re-
mains of the red cell often form a narrow rim around them
or fill the concavity of the crescent.
- While the parasites are more easily found in stained
preparations, the varieties are more easily differentiated
in fresh blood. The chief distinguishing points are
included in the table on page 256.
256 THE BLOOD
VARIETIES OF THE MALARIAL ORGANISM
Tertian.
Quartan.
EsTivo-AtrnniNAL,
Asexual cycle, forty-eight
hours.
Seventy-two hours.
Usually twenty-four to
forty-eight hours.
Substance pale, trans-
parent, comparable to
hyaline tube-cast.
Outline indistinct.
Ameboid motion ac-
tive.
Mature asexual form
large; fills and often dis-
tends corpuscle.
Pigment -granu'^s
fine, brown, scattered
throughout. Very ac-
tive dancing motion.
Segmenting body
rarely assumes typical
"daisy" form. 15 to
20 segments.
Gametes resemble
asexual forms.
Red corpuscles pale
and swollen.
Highly refractive,
comparable to waxy
tube-cast.
Distinct.
Sluggish.
Smaller,
Much coarser, darker
in color, peripherally ar-
ranged. Motion slight.
Usually typical
"daisy." 6 to 12 seg-
ments.
Same as tertian.
Generally darker than
normal.
Highly refractive.
Distinct.
Active.
Young forms, only,
in peripheral blood.
Very few, minute,
inactive. Distinctly
pigmented forms sel-
dom seen.
Not seen in peri-
pheral blood.
Appear in blood as
distinctive ovoids and
crescents.
Dark, often bronzed.
4. Filarial Embryos.— A description of the filariae
whose embryos appear in the blood will be found on
P- 356.
The embryos can be seen in stained preparations, (Fig.
99), but are best found in fresh unstained blood. A
rather large drop is taken upon a slide, covered, and ex-
amined with a low power. The embryo can be located
by the commotion which its active motion produces
SERUM REACTIONS 257
among the corpuscles. This motion consists almost
wholly in apparently purposeless lashing and coiling
movements, and continues for many hours.
5. Embryos of Trichinella Spiralis.— The worm and
its life-history are described on page 363. It has re-
cently been shown that diagnosis of trichiniasis can fre-
quently be made by detection of the embryos in the
blood during their migration to the muscles. Of eleven
such examinations which have been reported within the
past two and a half years, six were positive. The earliest
time at which the embryos were found was the sixth day
after the onset of symptoms; the latest, the twenty-
second day.
The method is very simple. One to 10 c.c. of blood
are obtained from the ear or a vein, as described on page
245, and mixed with ten times its volume of 3 per cent,
acetic acid. The mixture is centrifugalized, and large
drops of the sediment are placed on sUdes, covered, and
searched with a low-power objective. The embryos are
not difficult to recognize. They are about 1 25 |tz long and
6/z broad.
IX. SERUM REACTIONS
*I. Agglutination.— In the blood-serum of persons
suffering from certain infectious diseases there exist sol-
uble bodies, called agglutinins, which have the property of
rendering non-motile and clumping the specific micro-
organism of the disease, and have little or no influence
upon other bacteria. This " agglutination " takes place
even when the blood is greatly diluted. Undiluted nor-
mal blood can agglutinate most bacteria, but loses this
power when diluted to any considerable degree. These
17
258
THE BLOOD
facts are taken advantage of in the diagnosis of several
diseases.
When appKed to the diagnosis of typhoid fever, the
phenomenon is known as the Widal reaction. As yet, it
is the only agglutination reaction which has any practical
value for the practitioner.
Either blood-serum or the whole blood may be used.
Serum is the better. To obtain it, it is convenient to use
little vials, such as can be made by breaking off the lower
Fig. loo. — Method of obtaining blood in a Wright capsule: A, Filling the capsule; B,
the bulb has been warmed and the capillary end sealed in a flame; C, cot)ling of the capsule
has drawn the blood to the sealed end; D, the serum has separated, and the top of the cap-
sule has been broken off.
half -inch of the tubes which have contained pepton-
izing powder. They must, of course, be well cleaned.
One of these is filled to a depth of about \ inch from
a puncture in the finger or the ear. and is set aside for a
few hours. When the clot has separated, it is picked out
with a needle, leaving the serum. It is, however, more
satisfactory to obtain the blood in a Wright capsule
(Fig. loo). This capsule is easily made from a piece of
glass- tubing as indicated in Fig. i6i.
SERUM REACTIONS 259
One drop of the serum is then added to nine drops
of normal salt solution, making a dilution of i : 10.
Distilled water may be used for dilution, but is more
liable to cause error. The dilution can be more accu-
rately made in the leukocyte pipet of the Thoma-
Zeiss instrument. When the whole blood is used, it
can be secured in this pipet and at once diluted with
the salt solution. When it must be transported a con-
siderable distance, dried blood is most convenient. A
large drop is allowed to dry upon a clean slide or unglazed
paper. It will keep for months without losing its ag-
glutinating power. When ready to make the test, the
dried stain is dissolved in ten drops of normal salt solu-
tion, care being taken that the drops are about the same
size as the original drop of blood.
The reaction can be detected either microscopically or
macroscopically :
Microscopic Method. — (i) The blood or serum having
been obtained and diluted i : 10 as just described, mix it with
a bouillon culture of the typhoid bacillus to any desired
dilution. One drop of each makes a blood-dilution of i : 20,
etc. The culture should be between eighteen and twenty-
four hours old, and the bacilli must be actively motile. A
stock agar culture should be kept at room temperature, and
bouillon tubes inoculated the day before the examination is to
be made. Agar cultures can be purchased from dealers in
biologic products. They must be renewed monthly.
Instead of the bouillon culture, McFarland recommends
the use of a suspension made by removing some of the growth
from the surface of a fresh agar culture and mixing it well
with a little sterile water. It is then necessary to examine the
suspension microscopically to make sure that there are no
natural clumps.
26o THE BLOOD
(2) Place a few drops of the mixture of blood and culture
upon a perfectly clean slide and apply a cover-glass. The
cover may be ringed with vaselin to prevent evaporation, but
this is not usually necessary.
(3) Examine at intervals with a high dry lens — a 4 mm.
will answer very well. The light must be very subdued.
At first the bacilli should be actively moving about. If the
blood be from a case of typhoid, they will gradually lose their
motion and gather together in clumps (Fig. loi). The clumps
should be large, and the few bacilli remaining isolated should
Fig. 101. — Showing clumping of typhoid bacilli in the Widal reaction. At one point a
crenated red blood-corpuscle is seen (Wright and Brown).
be motionless. Pseudoreactions, in which there are a few
small clumps of bacilli whose motion is not entirely lost,
together with many freely moving bacilli scattered through-
out the field, should not mislead. As a control, a drop
of the culture should always be examined before making
the test.
Normal blood may produce clumping if time enough be
allowed. The diagnostic value of a positive reaction is, there-
fore, impaired unless clumping takes place within a limited
time. With dilution of i : 40 the time limit should not exceed
SERUM REACTIONS 26 1
forty-five minutes; with i : 80, one and one-half hours.
Tests based upon lower dilution than i : 40 are probably not
reliable.
Macroscopic Method. — The principle is the same as that
of the microscopic method. Clumping of the bacilli causes
a flocculent precipitate, which can be seen with the naked
eye. A dead culture gives the same results as a living one.
This method is as reliable as the microscopic and is more
convenient for the practitioner, although it requires more
time.
Dead cultures, together with apparatus for diluting the
blood, are put up at slight cost by various firms, under the
names of typhoid diagnosticum, typhoid agglutometer, etc.
Full directions accompany these outfits and need not be
repeated here.
Recently, Bass and Watkins have described a modification
of the macroscopic method (using very concentrated sus-
pensions of the bacilli) by which the test can be applied at
the bedside. Clumping occurs within two minutes, ' The
apparatus has been put upon the market by Parke,
Davis & Co.
The Widal reaction is positive in over 95 per cent, of all
cases of typhoid fever. It may, rarely, be positive in
other conditions, owing, sometimes at least, to faulty
technic. It seldom appears before the fifth or sixth day;
usually during the second week, but sometimes not until
convalescence. It is, therefore, of less value in early
diagnosis than is the blood-culture (p. 244). When it
once appears it remains during the whole course of the
disease, and frequently persists for years.
2. Opsonins. — That phagocytosis plays an important
part in the body's resistance to bacterial invasion has
long been recognized. According to Metchnikoff, this
262 THE BLOOD
property of leukocytes resides entirely within themselves,
depending upon their own vital activity. The studies
of Wright and Douglas, upon the contrary, indicate
that the leukocytes are impotent in themselves, and can
ingest bacteria only in the presence of certain substances
which exist in the blood-plasma. These substances have
been named opsonins. Their nature is undetermined.
They probably act by uniting with the bacteria, thus
preparing them for ingestion by the leukocytes ; but they
do not cause death of the bacteria, nor produce any
appreciable morphologic change. They appear to be
more or less specific, a separate opsonin being necessary
for phagocytosis of each species of bacteria. There are,
moreover, opsonins for other formed elements — red
blood-corpuscles, for example. It has been shown that
the quantity of opsonins in the blood can be greatly
increased by inoculation with dead bacteria.
To measure the amount of any particular opsonin in the
blood Wright has devised a method which involves many
ingenious and delicate technical procedures. Much skill,
such as is attained only after considerable training in lab-
oratory technic, is requisite, and there are many sources
of error. It is, therefore, beyond the province of this
work to recount the method in detail. In a general way
it consists in: {a) Preparing a mixture of equal parts of
the patient's blood-serum, an emulsion of the specific
micro-organism, and a suspension of washed leukocytes;
{h) preparing a similar mixture, using serum of a normal
person; {c) incubating both mixtures for a definite length
of time; and id) making smears from each, staining, and
examining with an oil-immersion objective. The num-
ber of bacteria which have been taken up by a definite
SERUM REACTIONS 263
number of leukocytes is counted, and the average number
of bacteria per leukocyte is calculated; this gives the
"phagocytic index." The phagocytic index of the blood
under investigation, divided by that of the normal
blood, gives the opsonic index of the former, the opsonic
index of the normal blood being taken as i. Simon re-
gards the percentage of leukocytes which have ingested
bacteria as a more accurate measurement of the amount
of opsonins than the number of bacteria ingested, be-
cause the bacteria are apt to adhere and be taken in in
clumps.
Because of its simplicity the clinical laboratory
worker will prefer some modification of the Leishman
method, which uses the patient's own leukocytes. It
is, perhaps, as accurate as the original method of Wright,
although variations in the leukocyte count have been
shown to affect the result. Two pipets like those
shown in Fig. 164 are used.
(i) Make a suspension of the specific organism by mixing
a loopful of a young agar culture with i c.c. of a solution con-
taining I per cent, sodium citrate and 0.85 per cent, sodium
chlorid. Thoroughly break up all clumps by sucking the
fluid in and forcing it out of one of the capillary pipets held
vertically against the bottom of the watch-glass.
(2) Puncture the patient's ear, wipe off the first drop of
blood, and from the second draw blood into the other pipet
to the grease pencil mark, let in a bubble of air, and draw in
-the same amount of bacterial suspension.
(3) Mix upon a slide by drawing in and forcing out of the
pipet.
(4) Draw the mixture high up in the pipet, seal the tip
in the flame, and place in the incubator for fifteen minutes.
264 THE BLOOD
(5) Repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 with the blood of a normal
person.
(6) After incubation, break off the tip of the pipet, mix the
blood-bacteria mixture, and spread films on slides.
(7) Stain with Wright's or Harlow's blood-stain.
(8) With an oil-immersion lens count the bacteria which
have been taken in by 100 leukocytes, and calculate the aver-
age number per leukocyte. Divide the average for the
patient by the average for the normal person. This gives
the opsonic index. If in the patient's blood there was an
average of 4 bacteria per leukocyte, and in the normal blood
5 bacteria per leukocyte, the opsonic index would be | or 0.8.
Wright and his followers regarded the opsonic index
as an index of the power of the body to combat bacterial
invasion. They claimed very great practical importance
for it as an aid to diagnosis and as a guide to treatment
by the vaccine method. This method of treatment con-
sists in increasing the amount of protective substances
in the blood by injections of normal salt suspensions of
dead bacteria of the same species as that which has
caused and is maintaining the morbid process, these
bacterial suspensions being called 'Vaccines." Vaccine
Therapy (Chapter IX) has taken a permanent place
among our methods of treatment of bacterial infections,
particularly of those which are strictly local, but the
opsonic index is now little used either as a measure of
resisting power or as an aid to diagnosis and guide to
treatment.
3. Wassermann Reaction.'— The Wassermann test
for syphilis, like the Widal test for typhoid fever, de-
* By Clough T. Burnett, Professor of Bacteriology, University of Col-
oradg.
SERUM REACTIONS 265
pends upon the detection in the patient's blood-serum of
specific antibodies, agglutinins in the case of typhoid,
immune bodies or amboceptors in the case of syphilis.
These antibodies have been produced by the tissues in
response to the entrance of the invading organism. If
they are present, it is assumed that the patient has or
has had syphiHs. The Wassermann test is, however,
much more complicated than the Widal test, and can be
properly performed only by a trained laboratory worker.
It is the aim here to explain only the general principles
of the method, together with its clinical significance.
For a proper understanding of the test the principles
of bacteriolysis and hemolysis must first be presented.
Bacteriolysis and Hemolysis. — In 1894 Pfeiffer, work-
ing with guinea-pigs immunized to cholera, found that
when living cholera germs were introduced into the
peritoneal cavity of an immune animal they lost their
motility within a few minutes, and very shortly were
seen to disintegrate and go into complete solution.
This has been known as Pfeiffer's phenomenon, or
bacteriolysis. It was later demonstrated that this reac-
tion could take place outside the animal body if the
bacteria were mixed in the test-tube with the blood-
serum or peritoneal fluid of a cholera immune animal.
Subsequent researches showed that while an old or
heated immune serum failed to cause this solution of
the bacteria, upon the addition of a normal fresh serum
this property returned. This addition of a normal
serum to a serum which has lost its solvent action is
called reactivation of the serum. These changes may
best be demonstrated by the following chart;
266
3
THE BLOOD
Bacteriolysis.
Immune serum,
fresh
+ bacteria = solution.
Normal "
"
+ " = no solution.
Immune "
heated
+ " = no solution.
Immune "
"
+ normal serum + bacteria = solution.
From the chart it is clear that there are two sub-
stances concerned in bacteriolysis, one of which is found
in any fresh serum, but is easily destroyed, and is called
the complement. The other substance is found only in
the immune serum, is relatively stable, and is known as
the immune body or amboceptor.
In hemolysis we find an analogy to bacteriolysis.
Let a rabbit be immunized to sheep's blood-corpuscles.
Now, if washed sheep's blood-corpuscles be subjected to
the action of fresh serum from this rabbit, a speedy so-
lution of the red cells ensues. If this serum is allowed
to stand for several days, or is heated one-half hour to
56° C, it will completely lose its solvent power. Now,
the addition of a fresh normal serum, even of another
species, will reactivate the heated or old serum. The
following chart will indicate these reactions:
Hemolysis.
Rabbit serum, immune -f- corpuscles (sheep's) = solution.
Rabbit " " heated + " " = no solution.
Normal " + " '' = no solution.
Rabbit " " heated + normal serum + corpuscles (sheep's)
= solution.
In hemolysis, as in bacteriolysis, besides the antigen
(substance giving rise to amboceptors or antibodies) there
are two substances. One of these is specific, /. e., only
found in immune serum, and reacting only with the sub-
stance used in producing the immune serum. This sub-
SERUM REACTIONS 267
stance is relatively stable, and is known as the amboceptor.
The other substance is found in any serum, is absolutely
non-specific, is easily destroyed, and is called the com-
plement. In neither case will the amboceptor nor the
complement acting alone cause a solution of the antigen.
There are three substances necessary to bacteriolysis
and hemolysis. To produce bacteriolysis there must be
the specific antigen (as cholera vibrio in Pfeififer's phe-
nomenon), the immune serum containing the amboceptor,
and a complement. These three substances comprise
the bacteriolytic system. Likewise, in hemolysis there
is the red blood-cell, the amboceptor, and a complement,
which comprise the hemolytic system.
It will be noted that there is one factor common to
both systems, viz., the complement. It will be evident
that if we place in a test-tube a complete bacteriolytic
system, with just enough complement to cause solution
of the bacteria, and place this for a sufficient time in
the optimum temperature for bacteriolysis, and then add
two elements of the hemolytic system (amboceptor and
blood-cells), no hemolysis will ensue, because all of the
complement was used by the bacteriolytic system.
Bordet and Gengou in 1901 showed that it was pos-
sible to utilize this fact in the diagnosis of certain bac-
terial infections. For instance, the heated serum of a
suspected typhoid case plus typhoid bacilli is added
to a serum containing complement (fresh guinea-pig
serum) and incubated one hour. If this suspected serum
contains typhoid amboceptors, there will have been
a combination effected between the three elements of
the bacteriolytic system, so that there will be no free
complement left. If no amboceptor is present, all of
268
THE BLOOD
the complement will remain unattached. Now, in
order to show whether this complement has been fixed
or deviated, two elements of a hemolytic system are
added — namely, amboceptor and red corpuscles, and if
the complement is fixed, no hemolysis can ensue.
This is easily understood from a study of the swinging
pendulum diagram, in which the complement is repre-
sented in the pendulum.
DACTERIOLYTIC
SYSTEM
HEMOL>/TI.C
SYSTEM
Fig. I02. — Pendulum diagram illustrating hemolysis.'
This principle of "complement deviation" having been
utilized in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, it occurred
to Wassermann in 1906 to apply it to the diagnosis of
syphilis. The antigen first used was the extract of a fetal
syphilitic liver, but subsequent work has shown that the
same reaction may be obtained with normal liver or
spleen tissue, or with certain lipoid substances, and in
this sense is not a true antigen-antibody reaction. The
antibodies in the syphilitic blood, however, are specific.
These are analogous to the bacteriolytic amboceptor of
the pendulum diagram.
* Not original, but unable to place credit where due.
SERUM REACTIONS 269
Technic of the Wassennann Test. — ^The following reagents
are necessary:
Antigen. — Extract of fetal syphilitic or normal liver,
diluted I : 10.
Antibodies (Analogous to Bacteriolytic Antibodies). — The
serum or spinal fluid of the suspected patient. As controls,
the serum of a syphilitic known to contain antibodies and the
serum of a normal person known not to contain antibodies.
Complement. — Fresh guinea-pig serum. Other fresh nor-
mal sera may be used. This is diluted i : 10.
Hemolytic Amboceptor. — The serum of a rabbit which has
been immunized to sheep's red blood-corpuscles. This serum
is inactivated before use by heating to 56° C. one-half hour,
and diluted i : 1000 before using.
Corpuscle Suspension. — Sheep's blood is defibrinated,
washed three times with normal salt solution, and then
diluted with normal salt solution to make a 5 per cent, sus-
pension.
In using these various reagents it is necessary to know that
they are potent and of the proper strength, that is, to establish
the titre of the reagent. This being determined, we are now
ready for the Wassermann test, as carried out in the table
on page 270.
In the luetic control tube there will occur a combination
between the antibodies in the serum and the antigen, which
together will cause a fixation of the complement, so that
when later the two elements of the hemolytic system are
added, no hemolysis will occur. This inhibition of hemolysis
indicates a positive syphilitic reaction.
Control tube No. 3 is used to show that there is nothing
in a normal serum which can effect this combination and
deviation. Tube No. 4 shows that the patient's serum alone
is not anticomplementary. Tube No. 5 shows that the
hemolytic system is effective. Tube No. 6 shows that the
270
THE BLOOD
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SERUM REACTIONS 27 1
antigen alone is not anticomplementary. Tube No, 7 is
introduced to show that hemolysis will not occur in the ab-
sence of the complement.
Modifications. — Certain modifications of this test
have been suggested, chief of which is the Noguchi test.
This differs from the Wassermann mainly in that an anti-
human hemolytic system is used instead of an anti-
sheep, because, according to the author, there is an
appreciable error in the Wassermann in that there is
present " in human serum a variable amount of natural
antisheep amboceptor " capable of so changing the
results that with sera containing only a small amount
of syphilitic antibody the result will be negative.
The following reagents are used :
1. Antihuman hemolytic amboceptor prepared by re-
peated injections of a rabbit with washed human blood-
corpuscles.
2. Complement. Fresh guinea-pig serum.
3. Antigen. Organ extracts or a solution of lecithin.
4. I per cent, suspension of human blood-corpuscles.
5. The suspected serum.
6. A known syphilitic serum.
7. A serum known not to contain syphilitic antibodies.
With these reagents the procedure is very little different
from that outlined for the Wassermann test.
Noguchi has further simplified it for the small laboratory
by drying the amboceptor serum on slips of filter-paper,
which can be kept a considerable time. The same procedure
can be carried out with the antigen. While at first similar
complement slips were prepared, it is now known that fresh
complement is indispensable.
272
THE BLOOD
Value of Wassermann Test. — The reaction is positive
in 95 to 98 per cent, of all cases with syphilitic manifes-
tations. In the late cases only a very slight inhibition
of hemolysis may be noted. This has given rise to
considerable difficulty in the interpretation of results.
Kaplan states that the report should read "negative"
or " positive," with no report of the degree of inhibition.
Butler obtains the following results:
No. of Per cent.
cases. positive.
Controls, non-syphilitic 53 o
Primary syphilitic 10 100
Secondary syphilitic 36 95
Tertiary syphiltic 31 94
Latent cases 16 56
Parasyphilis and visceral syphilis 55 76
Total cases 201
Kaplan, in a study of diseases of the nervous system,
obtained the following results: In 249 cases of quiescent
tabes the Wassermann reaction was positive in 44 per
cent.; in 57 cases of active tabes, 88 per cent., and in 64
cases of general paresis, 88 per cent.
By the Noguchi method about 7 per cent, of non-
syphilitic sera will cause inhibition of hemolysis, while
with the Wassermann, in about 9 per cent, of known
syphilitic sera, hemolysis will occur. For this reason in
doubtful cases it is well to apply both methods.
It is probable that a positive reaction almost always
means active syphilis even without manifestations, but
it is not absolutely specific for syphilis, for the reaction
has been obtained in leprosy. Kaplan states that " old
leprosy cases present a much more definitely positive
reaction than cases of old syphiHs." Many workers
believe that a positive reaction in a late case may only
SERUM REACTIONS 273
indicate that the patient has once had syphilis. Against
this view stands the fact that in other infectious diseases
antibodies diminish or entirely disappear a few months
after the active infection, and that in latent cases the
reaction may disappear under treatment. On the other
hand, there are certain cases which are considered clinic-
ally as cured, and have remained so for years, that will
continue to give the positive reaction in spite of any
treatment.
In the application of the test to the diagnosis of dis-
eases of the nervous system and viscera one should al-
ways bear in mind the possibility of a dual pathologic
process, and a positive test should not be allowed to
entirely overshadow the clinical findings.
Effect of Treatment. — The positive reaction fre-
quently disappears after a short course of treatment
with mercury. This may be permanent, or, after a
variable length of time, the reaction may return. Some
cases thoroughly treated persist in giving a positive
reaction. In hereditary syphilis it is often impossible
to get rid of the reaction. Because the reaction may
return, it is always safer to make several tests before
deciding that further treatment is not indicated. This
suggests that while a positive reaction may be accepted
as an indication of syphilis, a negative reaction obtained
after treatment may not exclude syphilis.
Following treatment with salvarsan {" 606 "), Noguchi,
in a total of 102 cases, finds that the positive reaction
becomes negative in 33.7 per cent.
18
274 THE BLOOD
X. TESTS FOR RECOGNITION OF BLOOD
1. Quaiac Test.— The technic of this test has been
given (p. 125). It may be appHed directly to a suspected
fluid or, better, to the ethereal extract. Add a few
cubic centimeters of glacial acetic acid to about 10 c.c.
of the fluid; shake thoroughly with an equal volume of
ether; decant, and apply the test to the ether. In case
of dried stains upon cloth, wood, etc., dissolve the stain
in distilled water and test the water, or press a piece of
moist blotting-paper against the stain, and touch the
paper with drops of the guaiac and the turpentine suc-
cessively.
2. Teichmann's Test.— This depends upon the pro-
duction of characteristic crystals of hemin. It is a sensi-
Fig. 103. — Teichmann's hemin crystals (Jakob).
tive test and, when positive, is absolute proof of the
presence of blood. A number of substances — lime, fine
sand, iron rust — interfere with production of the crys-
tals; hence negative results are not always conclusive.
Dissolve the suspected stain in a few drops of normal
SPECIAL BLOOD PATHOLOGY 275
salt solution upon a slide. If a liquid is to be tested,
evaporate some of it upon a slide and dissolve the residue
in a few drops of the salt solution. Let_dry, apply a
cover-glass, and run glacial acetic acid underneath it.
Heat mry gently until "bubbles begin to form, replacing
the acid as it evaporates. Allow to cool slowly. When
cool, replace the acid with water, and examine for
hemin crystals with 16 mm. and 4 mm. objectives. The
crystals are dark-brown rhombic plates, lying singly
or in crosses, and easily recognized (Fig. 103). Failure
to obtain them may be due to too great heat or too rapid
cooling. If not obtained at first let the slide stand in a
warm place, as upon a hot-water radiator, for an hour.
XI. SPECIAL BLOOD PATHOLOGY
The more conspicuous characteristics of the blood in
various diseases have been mentioned in previous sec-
tions. Although the great majority of blood changes are
secondary, there are a few blood conditions in which the
changes are so prominent, or the etiology so obscure, that
they are commonly regarded as blood diseases. These
will receive brief consideration here.
A. Anemia
This is a deficiency of hemoglobin, or red corpuscles,
or both. It is either primary or secondary. The dis-
tinction is based chiefly upon etiology, although each
'type presents a more or less distinctive blood-picture.
Secondary anemia is that which is symptomatic of some
other pathologic condition. Primary anemia is that
which progresses without apparent cause.
276 THE BLOOD
1. Secondary Anemia.— The more important condi-
tions which produce secondary or symptomatic anemia
are:
(a) Poor nutrition, which usually accompanies unsani-
tary conditions, poor and insufficient food, etc.
{b) Acute infectious diseases, especially rheumatism
and typhoid fever. The anemia is more conspicuous
during convalescence.
(c) Chronic Infectious Diseases. — Tuberculosis, mala-
ria, syphilis, leprosy.
{d) Chronic exhausting diseases, as heart disease,
chronic nephritis, cirrhosis of the liver, and gastro-
intestinal diseases, especially when associated with
atrophy of gastric and duodenal glands. The last may
give an extreme anemia, indistinguishable from perni-
cious anemia.
{e) Chronic poisoning, as from lead, arsenic, and
phosphorus.
(/) Hemorrhage. — Either repeated small hemorrhages,
as from gastric cancer and ulcer, uterine fibroids, etc.,
or a single large one.
{g) Malignant Tumors. — These affect the blood partly
through repeated small hemorrhages, partly through
toxic products, and partly through interference with
nutrition.
{h) Animal Parasites. — Some cause no appreciable
change in the blood; others, like the hookworm and
Dihothriocephalus latus, may produce a very severe
anemia, almost identical with pernicious anemia. Ane-
mia in these cases is probably due both to toxins and to
abstraction of blood.
The blood-picture varies with the grade of anemia.
SPECIAL BLOOD PATHOLOGY 277
Diminution of hemoglobin is the most characteristic
feature. In mild cases it is slight, and is the only blood
change to be noted. In very severe cases hemoglobin
may fall to 15 per cent. Red corpuscles are diminished
in all but very mild cases, while in the severest cases
the red corpuscle count is sometimes below 2,000,000.
The color-index is usually decreased.
Although the number of leukocytes bears no relation
to the anemia, leukocytosis is common, being due to the
same cause.
Stained films show no changes in very mild cases. In
moderate cases variations in size and shape of the red
cells and polychromatophilia occur. Very severe cases
show the same changes to greater degree, with addition
of basophilic degeneration and the presence of normo-
blasts in small or moderate numbers. Megaloblasts
in very small numbers have been encountered in ex-
tremely severe cases. They are especially abundant
and may even predominate over the normoblasts in
dibothriocephalus infection. Blood-plaques are usually
increased.
2. Primary Anemia. — The commonly described vari-
eties of primary anemia are pernicious anemia and chlo-
rosis, but splenic anemia may also be mentioned under
this head.
(i) Progressive Pernicious Anemia. — It is frequently
impossible to diagnose this disease from the blood ex-
amination alone. Severe secondary anemia sometimes
gives an identical picture. Remissions, in which the
blood approaches the normal, are common. All the
clinical data must, therefore, be considered.
Hemoglobin and red corpuscles are always greatly
278
THE BLOOD
diminished. In none of Cabot's 139 cases did the count
exceed 2,500,000, the average being about 1,200,000.
In more than two-thirds of the cases hemoglobin was
reduced to less extent than the red corpuscles; the color-
index was, therefore, high. A low color-index probably
indicates a mild type of the disease.
Fig. 104. — A, Normal blood; B, chlorosis; C, pernicious anemia. The plate shows
the sharp contrast between cells rich in hemoglobin and the pale cells of chlorosis, and also
the poikilocytes and marked variations in size noted in pernicious anemia. A normo-
blast and megaloblast also appear. Stained smears (from Greene's "Medical Diagnosis").
The leukocyte count may be normal, but is commonly
diminished to about 3000. The decrease affects chiefly
the polymorphonuclear cells, so that the lymphocytes are
relatively increased. In some cases a decided absolute
increase of lymphocytes occurs. Polymorphonuclear
leukocytosis, when present, is due to some complication.
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Explanation of Plate IX
Fig. I. — Preparation from an advanced case of progressive perni-
cious anemia from unknown cause: a, Megaloblasts or gigantoblasts; the
protoplasm shows marked polychromasia; b, stained granules in erjlhro-
cytes with normally stained protoplasm; c and d, polychromatophilic
degeneration; e, megalocytes; /, normocytes.
Fig. 2. — Preparation from the same case taken somje time later
whUe the patient was subjectively and objectively in perfect health:
ii, Punctate erythrocytes with normal and anemic degenerated proto-
plasm; b, polynuclear leukocj'te; c, normal red blood-corpuscles; d,
somewhat enlarged erythrocytes.
Fig. 3. — Series of cells from a case of severe progressive per-
nicious anemia of unknown etiology; preparation made two days ante-
mortem: a. Nucleated red blood-corpuscles characterized as normo-
blasts by the intense staining of the nuclei; a' and a", karyokinetic
figures in erythrocytes; the protoplasm finely punctate; b, beginning
karyolysis in a megaloblast; c, erythroblasts with coarse granulation of
the protoplasm; d, nuclear remains (?) and line granulation of the
protoplasm; e and /, finely punctate red blood-corpuscles; g, megalocyte
with two blue nuclei; nuclear remains (?) in the polychrome protoplasm.
(Nothnagel-Lazarus. )
PLATE IX
Fig. 1.
0 r •
Fig. 2.
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SPECIAL BLOOD PATHOLOGY 279
The red corpuscles show marked variation in size and
shape (Plate IX and Fig. 104). There is a decided
tendency to large oval forms, and despite the abundance
of microcytes, the average size of the corpuscles is gen-
erally strikingly increased. Polychromatophilia and
basophilic degeneration are common. Nucleated red
cells are always present, although in many instances care-
ful search is required to find them. In the great majority
of cases megaloblasts exceed normoblasts in number.
This ratio constitutes one of the most important points
in diagnosis, since it is practically unknown in other
diseases. Blood-plaques are diminished.
The rare and rapidly fatal anemia which has been
described under the name of aplastic anemia is probably
a variety of pernicious anemia. Absence of any attempt
at blood regeneration explains the marked difference in
the blood-picture. Red corpuscles and hemoglobin are
rapidly diminished to an extreme degree. The color-
index is normal or low. The leukocyte count is normal
or low, with relative increase of lymphocytes. Stained
smears show only slight variations in size, shape, and
staining properties of the red cells. There are no megalo-
blasts and few or no normoblasts.
(2) Chlorosis. — The clinical symptoms furnish the
most important data for diagnosis. The blood resembles
that of secondary anemia in many respects.
The most conspicuous feature is a decided decrease of
hemoglobin (down to 30 or 40 per cent, in marked cases),
accompanied by a slight decrease in number of red cor-
puscles. The color-index is thus almost invariably low,
the average being about 0.5.
As in pernicious anemia, the leukocytes are normal or
28o THE BLOOD
decreased in number, with a relative increase of lympho-
cytes.
In contrast to pernicious anemia (and in some degree
also to secondary anemia) the red cells are of nearly
uniform size, are uniformly pale (Fig, 104), and their
average diameter is somewhat less than normal. Changes
in size, shape, and staining reactions occur only in severe
cases. Erythroblasts are rarely present. The number
of plaques is generally decreased.
(3) Splenic Anemia. — This is an obscure form of
anemia associated with great enlargement of the spleen.
It is probably a distinct entity. There is decided decrease
of hemoglobin and red corpuscles, with moderate leu-
kopenia and relative lymphocytosis. Osier's 15 cases
averaged 47 per cent, hemoglobin and 3,336,357 red cells.
Stained films show notable irregularities in size, shape,
and staining properties only in advanced cases. Erythro-
blasts are uncommon.
B. Leukemia
Except in rare instances, diagnosis is easily made
from the blood alone. Two types of the disease are
commonly distinguished: the myelogenous and the lym-
phatic. Atypical and intermediate forms are not un-
common. Pseudoleukemia, because of its clinical sim-
ilarity to lymphatic leukemia, is generally described
along with leukemia.
1. Myelogenous Leukemia (Plate X).— This is usu-
ally a chronic disease, although acute cases have been
described.
Hemoglobin and red corpuscles show decided decrease.
The color-index is moderately low.
PLATE X
Fig. I. — Blood in lymphatic leukemia; X 700. On the left, chronic form
of the disease; on the right, acute form (courtesy of Dr. W. P. Harlow).
Fig. 2. — Blood in splenomyelogenous leukemia. Wright's stain. X 700
(photographs by the author).
SPEaAL BLOOD PATHOLOGY 28 1
Most striking is the immense increase in number of
leukocytes. The count in ordinary cases varies between
100,000 and 300,000. Counts over 1,000,000 have been
met. During remissions, the leukocyte count may fall
to normal.
While these enormous leukocyte counts are equaled in
no other disease, and approached only in lymphatic
leukemia and extremely high-grade leukocytosis, the
diagnosis, particularly during remissions, depends more
upon qualitative than quantitative changes. Although
all varieties are increased, the characteristic and con-
spicuous cell is the myelocyte. This cell never appears
in normal blood; extremely rarely in leukocytosis; and
never abundantly in lymphatic leukemia. In myelog-
enous leukemia myelocytes usually constitute more than
20 per cent, of all leukocytes. Da Costa's lowest case
gave 7 per cent. The neutrophihc form is generally
much more abundant than the eosinophiUc. Both show
considerable variations in size. Very constant also is a
marked absolute, and often a relative, increase of eosin-
ophiles and basophiles. Polymorphonuclear neutro-
philes and lymphocytes are relatively decreased.
The red cells show the changes characteristic of a
severe secondary anemia, except that nucleated reds are
commonly abundant; in fact, no other disease gives so
many. They are chiefly of the normoblastic type.
Megaloblasts are uncommon. Blood-plaques are gen-
erally increased.
2. Lymphatic Leukemia (Plate X).— This form may
be either acute or chronic. There is marked loss of
hemoglobin and red corpuscles. The color-index is
usually moderately low.
282 THE BLOOD
The leukocyte count is high, but lower than in the
myelogenous type. Counts of 100,000 are about the
average, but in many cases are much lower. This high
count is referable almost wholly to increase of lympho-
cytes. They generally exceed 90 per cent, of the total
number. In chronic cases they are chiefly of the small
variety; in acute cases, of the large form. Myelocytes
are rare.
The red corpuscles show the changes usual in severe
secondary anemia. Erythroblasts are seldom abundant.
Blood-plaques are decreased.
3. Pseudoleukemia (Hodgkin's disease) resembles
lymphatic leukemia in that there is marked and pro-
gressive enlargement of the lymph-nodes. There is,
however, no distinctive blood-picture. The changes in
hemoglobin and red cells resemble those of a moderate
symptomatic anemia, with rather low color-index. The
leukocytes are commonly normal in number and relative
proportions.
4. Anaemia Infantum PseudoJeukaemica. — Under
this name von Jaksch described a rare disease of infancy,
the proper classification of which is uncertain. There is
enlargement of liver and spleen, and sometimes of lymph-
nodes, together with the following blood changes: grave
anemia with deformed and degenerated red cells and
many erythroblasts of both normoblastic and megalo-
blastic types; great increase in number of leukocytes
(20,000 to 100,000) and great variations in size, shape,
and staining of leukocytes, with many atypic forms, and
a few myelocytes.
The table on the following page contrasts the distinct-
ive blood-changes in the more common conditions.
SPECIAI. BLOOD PATHOLOGY 283
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CHAPTER IV
THE STOMACH
Laboratory methods may be applied to the diagnosis
of stomach disorders in : I. Examination of the gastric con-
tents removed with the stomach-tube. II. Certain other
examinations which give information as to the condition
of the stomach.
I. EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS
Stomach digestion consists mainly in the action of pep-
sin upon proteins in the presence of hydrochloric acid
and in the curdling of milk by rennin. The fat-splitting
ferment, lipase, of the gastric juice has very little activity
under normal conditions of acidity.
Pepsin and rennin are secreted by the gastric glands
as zymogens — pepsinogen and renninogen respectively
— which are converted into pepsin and rennin by hydro-
chloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is secreted by certain
cells of the fundus glands. It at once combines loosely
with the proteins of the food, forming acid-metaprotein,
the first step in protein digestion. Hydrochloric acid,
which is thus loosely combined with proteins, is called
"combined" hydrochloric acid. The acid which is se-
creted after the proteins present have all been converted
into acid-metaprotein remains as "free" hydrochloric
acid, and, together with pepsin, continues the process of
digestion.
284
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS 285
At the height of digestion the stomach-contents consist
essentially of: (i) Water; (2) free hydrochloric acid;
(3) combined hydrochloric acid; (4) pepsin; (5) rennin;
(6) mineral salts, chiefly acid phosphates, of no clinical
importance; (7) particles of undigested and partly di-
gested food; (8) various products of digestion in solution.
In pathologic conditions there may be present, in addi-
tion, various microscopic structures and certain organic
acids, of which lactic acid is most important.
A routine examination is conveniently carried out in the
following order:
(i) Give the patient a test-meal upon an empty stomach,
washing the stomach previously if necessary.
(2) At the height of digestion, usually in one hour, remove
the contents of the stomach with a stomach-tube.
(3) Measure and examine macroscopicaliy.
(4) Filter. A suction filter is desirable, and may be neces-
sary when much mucus is present.
(5) During filtration, examine microscopically and make
qualitative tests for — (a) free acids; (b) free hydrochloric
acid; (c) lactic acid.
(6) When sufficient filtrate is obtained, make quantitative
estimations of — (a) total acidity; (b) free hydrochloric acid;
(c) combined hydrochloric acid (if ne'cessary).
(7) Make whatever additional tests seem desirable, as for
blood, pepsin, or rennin.
A. Obtaining the Contents
■ Gastric juice is secreted continuously, but quantities
suflSciently large for examination are not usually obtain-
able from the fasting stomach. In clinical work, there-
fore, it is desirable to stimulate secretion with food —
286 THE STOMACH
which is the natural and most efficient stimulus — before
attempting to collect the gastric fluid. Different foods
stimulate secretion to different degrees, hence for the
sake of uniform results certain standard "test-meals"
have been adopted. Those mentioned here give prac-
tically the same results.
1 . Test=meals. — It is customary to give the test-meal
in the morning, since the stomach is most apt to be
empty at that time. If it be suspected that the stomach
will not be empty, it should be washed out with water
the evening before.
(i) Ewald's test-breakfast consists of a roll (or two
slices of bread), without butter, and two small cups (300
to 400 c.c.) of water, or weak tea, without cream or sugar.
It should be well masticated. The contents of the
stomach are to be removed one hour afterward, counting
from the beginning, not the end of the meal. This
test-meal has long been used for routine examinations.
Its disadvantage is that it introduces, with the bread, a
variable amount of lactic acid and numerous yeast-cells.
This source of error may be eliminated by substituting
a shredded whole-wheat biscuit for the roll. The
shredded wheat test-meal is now widely used and is
probably the most satisfactory for general purposes.
(2) Boas' test-breakfast consists of a tablespoonful
of rolled oats in a quart of water, boiled to one pint, with
a pinch of salt added. It should be withdrawn in forty-
five minutes to one hour. This meal does not contain
lactic acid, and is usually given when the detection of
lactic acid is important, as in suspected gastric cancer.
The stomach should always be washed with water the
evening previous.
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS 287
2. Withdrawal of the Contents. — The Boas stomach-
tube, with bulb, is probably the most satisfactory form.
It should be of rather large caHber, and have an opening in
the tip and one or two in the side near the tip. When not
in use it should be kept in a vessel of borax solution, and
should be well washed in hot water both before and after
using.
It is important confidently to assure the patient that
introduction of the tube cannot possibly harm him; and
that, if he can control the spasm of his throat, he will
experience very little choking sensation. When patients
are very nervous it is well to spray the throat with cocain
solution.
The tube should be dipped in warm water just before
using: the use of glycerin or other lubricant is undesir-
able. With the patient seated upon a chair, his cloth-
ing protected by towels or a large apron, and his head
tilted forward, the tip of the tube, held as one would a
pen, is introduced far back into the pharynx. He is then
urged to swallow, and the tube is pushed boldly into the
esophagus until the ring upon it reaches the incisor teeth,
thus indicating that the tip is in the stomach. If, now,
the patient cough or strain as if at stool, the contents of
the stomach will usually be forced out through the tube.
Should it fail, the fluid can generally be pumped out by
alternate compression of the tube and the bulb. If
unsuccessful at first, the attempts should be repeated
with the tube pushed a little further in, or withdrawn a
few inches, since the distance to the stomach is not the
same in all cases. The tube may become clogged with
pieces of food, in which case it must be withdrawn,
cleaned, and reintroduced. If, after all efforts, no fluid
288 THE STOMACH
is obtained, another test-meal should be given and with-
drawn in forty-five minutes.
As the tube is removed, it should be pinched between
the fingers so as to save any fluid that may be in it.
The stomach-tube must be used with great care, or not
at all, in cases of gastric ulcer, aneurysm, uncompensated
heart disease, and marked arteriosclerosis. Except in
gastric ulcer, the danger lies in the retching produced, and
the tube can safely be used if the patient takes it easily.
B. Physical Examination
Under normal conditions 30 to 50 c.c. of fluid can be
obtained one hour after administering Ewald's breakfast.
More than 60 c.c. points to motor insufficiency; less
than 20 c.c, to too rapid emptying of the stomach, or
else to incomplete removal. Upon standing, it separates
into two layers, the lower consisting of particles of food,
the upper of an almost clear, faintly yellow fluid. The
extent to which digestion has taken place can be roughly
judged from the appearance of the food-particles.
The reaction is frankly acid in health and in nearly all
pathologic conditions. It may be neutral or slightly
alkaline in some cases of gastric cancer and marked
chronic gastritis, or when contaminated by a consider-
able amount of saliva.
A small amount of mucus is present normally. Large
amounts, when the gastric contents are obtained with
the tube and not vomited, point to chronic gastritis.
Mucus is recognized from its characteristic slimy appear-
ance when the fluid is poured from one vessel into another.
It is more frequently seen in stomach washings than in
the fluid removed after a test-meal.
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS 289
A trace of bile may be present as a result of excessive
straining while the tube is in the stomach. Large
amounts are very farely found, and generally point to
obstruction in the duodenum. Bile produces a yellowish
or greenish discoloration of the fluid.
Blood is often recognized by simple inspection, but
more frequently requires a chemic test. It is bright red
when very fresh, and dark, resembling coffee-grounds,
when older. Vomiting of blood, or hematemesis, may be
mistaken for pulmonary hemorrhage, or hemoptysis. In
the former the fluid is acid in reaction and usually dark
red or brown in color and clotted, while in hemoptysis
it is brighter red, frothy, alkaline, and usually mixed
with a variable amount of mucus.
Particles of food eaten hours or even days previously
may be found, and indicate deficient motor power.
Search should always be made for bits of tissue from
the gastric mucous membrane or new growths. These,
when examined by a pathologist, will sometimes render
the diagnosis clear.
C. Chemic Examination
A routine chemic examination of the gastric contents
involves qualitative tests for free acids, free hydrochloric
acid, and organic acids, and quantitative estimations of
total acidity, free hydrochloric acid, and sometimes
combined hydrochloric acid. Other tests are applied
when indicated.
* I. Qualitative Tests.— (i) Free Acids.— The pres-
ence or absence of free acids, without reference to the
kind, is easily determined by means of Congo-red,
although the test is not much used in practice.
19
290 THE STOMACH
Congo-red Test. — Take a few drops of a strong alcoholic
solution of Congo-red in a test-tube, dilute with water to a
strong red color, and add a few cubic centimeters of filtered
gastric juice. The appearance of a blue color shows the
presence of some free acid (Plate XI, B, B'). Since the test
is more sensitive to mineral than to organic acids, a marked
reaction points to the presence of free hydrochloric acid.
Thick filter-paper soaked in Congo-red solution, dried, and
cut into strips may be used, but the test is much less delicate
when thus applied.
(2) Free Hydrochloric Acid. — In addition to its diges-
tive function, free hydrochloric acid is an efficient anti-
septic. It prevents or retards fermentation and lactic-
acid formation, and is an important means of protection
against the entrance of pathogenic organisms into the
body. It is never absent in health.
Amidobenzol Test. — To a little of the filtered gastric juice
in a test-tube, or to several drops in a porcelain dish, add a
drop of 0.5 per cent, alcoholic solution of dimethylamido-
azobenzol. In the presence of free hydrochloric acid there
will at once appear a cherry-red color, varying in intensity
with the amount of acid (Plate XII, C). This test is very
delicate; but, unfortunately, organic acids, when present in
large amounts (above 0.5 per cent.), give a similar reaction.
Boas' Test. — This test is less delicate than the preceding,
but is more reliable, since it reacts only to free hydrochloric
acid.
In a porcelain dish mix a few drops of the gastric juice and
the reagent, and slowly evaporate to dryness over a flame,
taking care not to scorch. The appearance of a rose-red color,
which fades upon cooling, shows the presence of free hydro-
chloric acid (Plate XI, i).
PLATE XI
A, Uffelmann's reagent; A', A after the addition of gastric fluid
containing lactic acid; B, water to which three drops of Congo-red
solution have been added; B', change induced in B when gastric fluid
containing free hydrochloric acid is added (Boston).
I, Resorcin-test for free hydrochloric acid; 2, Glinzburg's test for hydro-
chloric acid (Boston).
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS 29 1
Boas' reagent consists of 5 gm. resublimed resorcinol, and
3 gm. cane-sugar, in 100 c.c. alcohol. The solution keeps
well, which, from the practitioner's view-point, makes it
preferable to Giinzburg's phloroglucin-vanillin reagent (phlo-
roglucin, 2 gm.; vanillin, i gm.; absolute alcohol, 30 c.c).
The latter is just as delicate, is applied in the same way, and
gives a sharper reaction (Plate XI, 2), but is unstable.
(3) Organic Acids. — Lactic acid is the most common,
and is taken as the type of the organic acids which appear
in the stomach-contents. It is a product of bacterial
activity. Acetic and butyric acids are sometimes
present. Their formation is closely connected with that
of lactic acid, and they are rarely tested for. When
abundant, they may be recognized by their odor upon
heating.
Lactic acid is never present at the height of digestion
in health. Although usually present early in digestion,
it disappears when free hydrochloric acid begins to
appear. Small amounts may be introduced with the
food. Pathologically, small amounts may be present
whenever there is stagnation of the gastric contents with
deficient hydrochloric acid, as in many cases of dilatation
of the stomach and chronic gastritis. The presence of
notable amounts of lactic acid (more than o.i per cent,
by Strauss' test) is strongly suggestive of gastric can-
cer, and is probably the most valuable single symp-
tom of the disease.
As already stated, the Ewald test-breakfast introduces
a small amount of lactic acid, but rarely enough to re-
spond to the tests given here. In every case, however,
in which its detection is important, the shredded- wheat
biscuit or Boas' test-breakfast should be given, the
292 THE STOMACH
stomach having been thoroughly washed the evening
before.
Ufifelmann's Test for Lactic Acid. — Thoroughly shake
up 5 c.c. of filtered stomach fluid with 50 c.c. of ether for at
least ten minutes. Collect the ether and evaporate over a
water-bath. Dissolve the residue in 5 c.c. water and test
with Ufifelmann's reagent as follows:
In a test-tube mix 3 drops concentrated solution of
phenol and 3 drops saturated aqueous solution of ferric
chlorid. Add water until the mixture assumes an amethyst-
blue color. To this add the solution to be tested. The
appearance of a canary-yellow color indicates the presence of
lactic acid (Plate XI, A, A').
Uffelmann's test may be applied directly to the stomach-
contents without extracting with ether, but is then neither
sensitive nor reliable, because of the phosphates, sugars, and
other interfering substances which may be present.
Kelling's Test {Simofis Modification). — This is much more
satisfactory than Ufifelmann's. To a test-tube of distilled
water add sufficient ferric chlorid solution to give a faint
yellowish tinge. Pour half of this into a second test-tube to
serve as a control. To the other add a small amount of the
gastric juice. Lactic acid gives a distinct yellow color which
is readily recognized by comparison with the control.
Strauss' Test for Lactic Acid. — This is a good test for
clinical work, since it gives a rough idea of the quantity
present and is not sufficiently sensitive to respond to the
traces of lactic acid which some test-meals introduce. Strauss'
instrument (Fig. 105) is essentially a separating funnel with
a mark at 5 c.c. and one at 25 c.c. Fill to the 5 c.c. mark
with filtered stomach fluid, and to the 25 c.c. mark with ether.
Shake thoroughly for ten or fifteen minutes, let stand until the
ether separates, and then, by opening the stop-cock, allow the
liquid to run out to the 5 c.c. mark. Fill to the 25 c.c. mark
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS
293
with water, and add two drops of tincture of ferric chlorid
diluted I : ID. Shake gently. If o.i per cent, or more lactic
acid be present, the water will assume a
strong greenish-yellow color. A slight
tinge will appear with 0.05 per cent.
(4) Pepsin and Pepsinogen. — Pep-
sinogen itself has no digestive power.
It is secreted by the gastric glands, and
is transformed into pepsin by the ac-
tion of a free acid. Although pepsin
digests proteins best in the presence
of free hydrochloric acid, it has a slight
digestive activity in the presence of
organic or combined hydrochloric acids.
The amount is not influenced by
neuroses or circulatory disturbances.
Absence or marked diminution, there-
fore, indicates organic disease of the
stomach. It is an important point in
diagnosis between functional and or-
ganic conditions. Pepsin is rarely or never absent in
the presence of free hydrochloric acid.
Fig. 105. — Separatory
funnel for Strauss' lac-
tic acid test (Sahli).
Test for Pepsin and Pepsinogen. — With a cork-borer cut
small cylinders from the coagulated white of an egg, and cut
these into discs of uniform size. The egg should be cooked
very slowly, preferably over a water-bath, so that the white
may be readily digestible. The discs may be preserved in
glycerin, but must be washed in water before using.
Place a disc in each of three test-tubes.
Into tube No. i put 10 c.c. distilled water, 5 grains pepsin,
U. S. P., and 3 drops of the official dilute hydrochloric acid.
294 THE STOMACH
Into tube No. 2 put 10 c.c. filtered gastric juice.
Into tube No. 3 put 10 c.c. filtered gastric jUice and 3 drops
dilute hydrochloric acid.
Place the tubes in an incubator or warm water for three
hours or longer. At intervals, observe the extent to which
the egg-albumen has been digested. This is recognized by
the depth to which the disc has become translucent.
Tube No. I is used for comparison, and should show the
effect of normal gastric juice.
Digestion of the egg in tube No. 2 indicates the presence of
both pepsin and free hydrochloric acid.
When digestion fails in tube No. 2 and occurs in No. 3,
pepsinogen is present, having been transformed into pepsin by
the hydrochloric acid added. Should digestion fail in, this
tube, both pepsin and pepsinogen are absent.
(5) Rennin and Renninogen. — Rennin is the milk-
curdling ferment of the gastric juice. It is derived from
reiminogen through the action of hydrochloric acid.
Lime salts also possess the power of transforming rennin-
ogen into the active ferment.
Deficiency of rennin has the same significance as
deficiency of pepsin, and is more easily recognized.
Since the two enzj-mes are almost invariably present or
absent together, the test for rennin serves also as a test
for pepsin.
Test for Rennin. — Neutralize 5 c.c. filtered gastric juice
with very dilute sodium hydroxid solution; add 5 c.c. fresh
milk, and place in an incubator or in a vessel of water at
about 104° F. Coagulation of the milk in ten to fifteen
minutes shows a normal amount of rennin. Delayed coagu-
lation denotes a less amount.
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS 295
Test for Renninogen. — To 5 c.c. neutralized gastric Juice
add 2 c.c. of I per cent, calcium chlorid solution and 5 c.c.
fresh milk, and place in an incubator. If coagulation occurs,
renninogen is present.
(6) Blood. — Blood is present in the vomitus in a
great variety of conditions. When found in the fluid
removed after a test-meal, it commonly points toward
ulcer or carcinoma. Blood can be detected in nearly
one-half of the cases of gastric cancer. The presence of
swallowed blood must be excluded.
Test for Blood in Stomach-contents. — To 10 c.c. of the
fluid add a few cubic centimeters of glacial acetic acid and
shake the mixture thoroughly with an equal volume of ether.
Separate the ether and apply to it the guaiac test (p. 125) ; or
evaporate and apply the hemin test (p. 274) to the residue.
When brown particles are present in the fluid, the hemin test
should be applied directly to them.
2. Quantitative Tests.— (i) Total Acidity.— The acid-
reacting substances which contribute to the total acidity
are free hydrochloric acid, combined hydrochloric acid,
acid salts, mostly phosphates, and, in some pathologic
conditions, the organic acids. The total acidity is
normally about 50 to 75 degrees (see method below) or,
when estimated as hydrochloric acid, about 0.2 to 0.3
per cent.
Tbpfer's Method for Total Acidity. — In an evaporating
dish or small beaker (an " after-dinner " coffee-cup is a very
convenient substitute) take 10 c.c. filtered stomach-contents
and add three or four drops of the indicator, a i per cent,
alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein. When the quantity of
296 THE STOMACH
stomach fluid is small, 5 c.c. may be used, but results are less
accurate than with a larger amount. Add decinormal solution
of sodium hydroxid drop by drop from a buret, until the fluid
assumes a rose-red color which does not become deeper upon
addition of another drop (Plate XII, A, A'). When this point
is reached, all the acid has been neutralized. The end reaction
will be sharper if the fluid be saturated with sodium chlorid.
A sheet of white paper beneath the beaker facilitates recog-
nition of the color change.
In clinical work the amount of acidity is expressed by the
number of cubic centimeters of the decinormal sodium hy-
droxid solution which would be required to neutralize 100 c.c.
of the gastric juice, each cubic centimeter representing one
deforce of acidity. Hence multi]:)ly the number of cubic centi-
meters of decinormal solution required to neutralize the 10 c.c.
of stomach fluid by ten. This gives the number of degrees of
acidity. The amount may be expressed in terms of hydro-
chloric acid, if one remember that each degree is equivalent to
0.00365 per cent, hydrochloric acid. Some one suggests that
this is the number of days in the year, the last figure, 5, in-
dicating the number of decimal places.
Example. — Suppose that 7 c.c. of decinormal solution were
required to bring about the end reaction in 10 c.c. gastric
juice; then 7 X 10 = 70 deforces of acidity; and, expressed in
terms of hydrochloric acid, 70 X 0.00365 = 0.255 P^'' c^^'-
Preparation of decinormal solution is described in text-
books on chemistry. The practitioner will find it best to
have them made by a chemist, or to purchase from a chemic
supply house. Preparation of an approximately decinormal
solution is described on page 436.
(2) Hydrochloric Acid. — After the Ewald and Boas
test-breakfasts the amount of free hydrochloric acid
varies normally between 25 and 50 degrees, or about o.i
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS 297
to 0.2 per cent. In disease it may go considerably
higher or may be absent altogether.
When the amount of free hydrochloric acid is normal,
organic disease of the stomach probably does not exist.
Increase of free hydrochloric acid above 50 degrees
(hyperchlorhydria) generally indicates a neurosis, but also
occurs in most cases of gastric ulcer and beginning
chronic gastritis.
Decrease of free hydrochloric acid below 25 degrees
{hy pochlorhydria) occurs in some neuroses, chronic gas-
tritis, early carcinoma, and most conditions associated
with general systemic depression. Marked variation in
the amount at successive examinations strongly suggests
a neurosis. Too low values are often obtained at the
first examination, the patient's dread of the introduction
of the tube probably inhibiting secretion.
Absence of free hydrochloric acid (achlorhydria) occurs
in most cases of gastric cancer and far-advanced chronic
gastritis, in many cases of pernicious anemia, and some-
times in hysteria and pulmonary tuberculosis.
The presence of free hydrochloric acid presupposes a
normal amount of combined hydrochloric acid, hence the
combined need not be estimated when the free acid has
been found. When, however, free hydrochloric acid is
absent, it is important to know whether any acid is
secreted, and an estimation of the combined acid then
becomes of great value. The normal average after an
Ewald breakfast is about 10 to 15 degrees, the quantity
depending upon the amount of protein in the test-meal.
Topfer's Method for Free Hydrochloric Acid. — In a
beaker take 10 c.c. filtered stomach fluid and add 4 drops
298 THE STOMACH
of the indicator, a 0.5 per cent, alcoholic solution of dimethyl-
amido-azobenzol. A red color instantly appears if free hydro-
chloric acid be present. Add decinormal sodium hydroxid
solution, drop by drop from a buret, until the last trace of red
just disappears, and a canary-yellow color takes its place (Plate
XII, C, C')- Read off the number of cubic centimeters of
decinormal solution added, and calculate the degrees, or
percentage of free hydrochloric acid, as in Topfer's method
for total acidity.
When it is impossible to obtain sufficient fluid for all the
tests, it will be found convenient to estimate the free hydro-
chloric acid and total acidity in the same portion. After
finding the free hydrochloric acid as just described, add 4
drops phenolphthalein solution, and continue the titration.
The amount of decinormal solution used in both titrations
indicates the total acidity.
Topfer's Method for Combined Hydrochloric Acid. —
In a beaker take 10 c.c. filtered gastric juice and add 4
drops of the indicator, a i per cent, aqueous solution of sodium
alizarin sulphonate. Titrate with decinormal sodium hy-
droxid until the appearance of a bluish-violet color which does
not become deeper upon addition of another drop (Plate XII,
B, B'). It is difficult, without practice, to determine when
the right color has been reached. A reddish- violet appears
first. The shade which denotes the end reaction can be
produced by adding 2 or 3 drops of the indicator to 5 c.c.
of I per cent, sodium carbonate solution.
Calculate the number of cubic centimeters of decinormal
solution which would be required for 100 c.c. of stomach fluid.
This gives, in degrees, all the acidity except the combined hydro-
chloric acid. The combined hydrochloric acid is then found
by deducting this amount from the total acidity, which has
been previously determined.
Example. — Suppose that 5 c.c. of decinormal solution were
required to produce the purple color in 10 c.c. gastric juice;
PLATE XII
fv_
r
^
ffl
v
K-
<
A, Gastric fluid to which a i per cent, solution of phenolphthalein
has been added; B, gastric fluid to which a i per cent, solution of alizarin
has been added; C, gastric fluid to which a 0.5 per cent, solution of
dimethylamido-azobenzol has been added; A', .'\ after titration with a
decinormal solution of sodium hydroxid; B', B after titration with a
decinormal solution of sodium hydroxid; C, C after titration with a
decinormal solution of sodium hydroxid (Boston).
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS 299
then 5 X 10 = 50 = all the acidity except combined hydrochloric
acid. Suppose, now, that the total acidity has already been
found to be 70 degrees; then 70— 50= 20 degrees of combined
hydrochloric acid; and 20X0.00365 = 0.073 per cent.
When free hydrochloric acid is absent, it is probably
more helpful to estimate the acid deficit than the com-
bined hydrochloric acid. The acid deficit shows how
far the acid secreted by the stomach falls short of satu-
rating the protein (and bases) of the meal. It repre-
sents the amount of hydrochloric acid which must be
added to the fluid before a test for free hydrochloric
acid can be obtained. It is determined by titrating
with hydrochloric acid, using dimethyl-amido-azo-
benzol as indicator, until the fluid assumes a red color.
The amount of deficit is expressed by the number of
cubic centimeters of the decinormal solution required
for 100 c.c. of the stomach fluid.
(3) Organic Acids. — There is no simple direct quan-
titative method. After the total acidity has been deter-
mined, organic acids may be removed from another
portion of the gastric filtrate by shaking thoroughly
with an equal volume of neutral ether, allowing the
fluids to separate, and repeating this process until the
gastric fluid has been extracted with eight or ten times
its volume of ether. The total acidity is then deter-
mined, and the difference between the two determinations
indicates the amount of organic acids.
(4) Pepsin. — No direct method is avaliable. The
following is sufficient for clinical purposes:
Hammerschlag's Method. — To the white of an egg add
twelve times its volume of 0.4 per cent, hydrochloric acid
300 THE STOMACH
(dilute hydrochloric acid, U. S. P., 4 c.c; water, 96 c.c),
mix well, and filter. This gives a i per cent, egg-albumen
solution. Take 10 c.c. of this solution in each of three tubes
or beakers. To .1 add 5 c.c. gastric juice; to B^ 5 c.c. water
with 0.5 gm. pepsin; to C, 5 c.c. water only. Place in an
incubator for an hour and then determine the amount of
albumin in each mixture by Esbach's method. Tube C shows
the amount of albumin in the test-solution. The difference
betwetnC and B indicates the amountof albumin which would
be digested by normal gastric juice. The difference between
C and .1 gives the albumin which is digested by the fluid
under examination. Schiitz has shown that the amounts of
pepsin in two fluids are proportionate to the squares of the
products of digestion. Thus, if the amounts of albumin di-
gested in tubes A and B are to each other as 2 is to 4, the
amounts of pepsin are to each other as 4 is to 16.
Certain sources of error can be eliminated by diluting the
gastric juice several times before testing. The most import-
ant of these are that the law of Schiitz holds good only for
comparatively dilute solutions, and that the products of
peptic activity inhibit digestion.
Mett's method is generally preferred to the preceding.
Put three or four Mett's tubes about 2 cm. long into a small
beaker with diluted gastric juice (i c.c. of the filtrate plus 15
c.c. twentieth-normal hydrochloric acid). Place in an incu-
bator for twenty-four hours, and then measure as accurately
as possible the column which has been digested, using a milli-
meter scale and a hand lens or, better, a low power of the
microscope and an eye-piece micrometer. Square the aver-
age length of this column (law of Schiitz) and multiply by
the degree of dilution, 16. The maximum figure obtained in
this way is 256, representing a digested column of 4 mm.
Prepare Mett's tubes as follows:
Beat up slightly the whites of one or two eggs and filter.
Pour into a wide test-tube and stand in this a number of
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS
301
^'r>/./
capillary glass tubes, i to £; mm. 'kT ^ia^neter. 'IVJj^n the
tubes are filled, plug their ends -vti^JV )>r/e^4 crumbs, /a,pd coag-
ulate the albumin by heating in water jtistsKort of b6lli/igf,//r.
Dip the ends of the tube in melted paraffin and preserv^^n^tjl , ^
needed. Bubbles, if present, will probably disappear in a "
few days. When wanted for use, cut the tubes into lengths
of about 2 cm. Discard any in which the albumin has sep-
arated from the wall.
D. Microscopic Examination
A drop of unfiltered stomach-contents is placed upon
a slide, covered with a cover-glass, and examined with
the 16 mm. and 4 mm. objectives. A drop of Lugol's
Fig. io6.^GeneraI view of the gastric contents: a. Squamous epithelial cells from
esophagus knd mouth; b, leukocytes; c, cylindric epithelial cells; d, muscle-fibers; e, fat-
droplets and fat-crystals; /, starch-granules; g, chlorophyl-containing vegetable mat-
ters; k, vegetable spirals; i, bacteria; k, sarcinae; I, budding (yeast) fungi (Jakob).
solution allowed to run under the cover will aid in dis-
tinguishing the various structures.
Under normal conditions little is to be seen except
■ great numbers of starch-granules, with an occasional
302 THE STOMACH
epithelial cell, yeast-cell, or bacterium. Starch-granules
are recogni^d by their concentric striations and the fact
that they stain blue with iodin solutions when undi-
gested, and reddish, due to erythrodextrin, when partially
digested.
Pathologically, remnants of food from previous meals,
red blood-corpuscles, pus-cells, sarcinae, and excessive
numbers of yeast-cells and bacteria may be encountered
(Fig. io6).
Remnants of food from previous meals indicate
deficient gastric motility.
Red Blood-corpuscles. — Blood is best recognized by
the chemic tests already given. The corpuscles some-
times retain a fairly normal appearance, but are generally
so degenerated that only granular pigment is left. When
only a few fresh looking corpuscles are present, they
usually come from irritation of the mucous membrane
by the tube.
Pus-cells. — Pus is rarely encountered in the fluid
removed after a test-meal. Considerable numbers of
pus-corpuscles have been found in some cases of gastric
cancer. Swallowed sputum must always be considered.
Sarcinae. — These are small spheres arranged in cuboid
groups, often compared to bales of cotton. They fre-
quently form large clumps and are easily recognized.
They stain brown with iodin solution. They signify fer-
mentation. Their presence is strong evidence against
the existence of gastric cancer, in which disease they
rarely occur.
Yeast-cells. — As already stated, a few yeast-cells
may be found under normal conditions. The presence
of considerable numbers is e\adence of fermentation.
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS 303
Their appearance has been described (p. 171). They
stain brown with iodin solution.
Bacteria. — Numerous bacteria may be encountered,
especially in the absence of free hydrochloric acid. The
Boas-Oppler bacillus is the only one of special significance.
It occurs in the majority of cases of cancer, and is rarely
found in other conditions. Carcinoma probably fur-
nishes a favorable medium for its growth.
Fig. 107. — Boas-Oppler bacillus from case of gastric cancer (Boston).
These bacilli (Fig. 107) are large (5 to 10 [i long),
non-motile, and usually arranged in clumps or end to
end in zig-zag chains. They stain brown with iodin
solution, which distinguishes them from Leptothrix buc-
calis (p. 377), which is not infrequently found in stomach
fluid. They also stain by Gram's method. They are
easily seen with the 4 mm. objective in unstained prepa^
rations, but are best recognized with the oil lens, after
drying some of the fluid upon a cover-glass, fixing, and
staining with a simple bacterial stain or by Gram's
method.
304 THE STOMACH
A few large non-motile bacilli are frequently seen ; they
cannot be called Boas-Oppler bacilli unless they are
numerous and show something of the typical arrange-
ment.
E. The Gastric Contents in Disease
In the diagnosis of stomach disorders the practitioner
must be cautioned against relying too much upon exam-
inations of the stomach-contents. A first examination
is especially unreliable. Even when repeated examina-
tions are made, the laboratory findings must never be
considered apart from the clinical signs.
The more characteristic findings in certain disorders
are suggested here.
1 . Dilatation of the Stomach. — Evidences of retention
and fermentation are the chief characteristics of this
condition. Hydrochloric acid is commonly diminished.
Pepsin may be normal or sfightly diminished. Lactic
acid may be detected in small amounts, but is usually
absent when the stomach has been washed before giving
the test-meal. Both motility and absorptive power are
deficient. The microscope commonly shows sarcinae,
bacteria, and great numbers of yeast-cells. Remnants
of food from previous meals can be detected with the
naked eye or microscopically.
2. Gastric Neuroses. — The findings are variable.
Successive examinations may show normal, increased,
or diminished hydrochloric acid, or even entire absence
of the free acid. Pepsin is usually normal.
In the neurosis characterized by continuous hyperse-
cretion (gastrosuccorrhea) , 40 c.c. or more of gastric juice
can be obtained from the fasting stomach. Should
EXAMINATION OF THE GASTRIC CONTENTS 305
the fluid contain food-particles, it is probably the result
of retention, not hypersecretion.
3. Chronic Gastritis. — Free hydrochloric acid may be
increased in early cases. It is generally diminished in
well-marked cases, and is often absent in advanced
cases. Lactic acid is often present in traces, rarely
in notable amount. Secretion of pepsin and rennin is
always diminished in marked cases. Mucus is frequently
present, and is very significant of the disease. Motility
and absorption are generally deficient. Small fragments
of mucous membrane may be found, and when examined
by a pathologist, may occasionally establish the diagnosis.
4. Achylia Qastrica (Atrophic Gastritis). — This con-
dition may be a terminal stage of chronic gastritis. It is
sometimes associated with the blood-picture of pernicious
anemia. It gives a great decrease, and sometimes entire
absence of hydrochloric acid and ferments. The total
acidity may be as low as i or 2 degrees. Small amounts
of lactic acid may be present. Absorption and motihty
are usually not affected greatly.
5. Gastric Carcinoma. — As far as the laboratory
examination goes, the cardinal signs of this disease are
absence of free hydrochloric acid and presence of lactic
acid and of the Boas-Oppler bacillus. These findings
are, however, by no means constant.
It is probable that some substance is produced by the
cancer which neutralizes the free hydrochloric acid, and
thus causes it to disappear earlier than in other organic
diseases of the stomach.
The presence of lactic acid is the most suggestive single
symptom of gastric cancer. In the great majority of
cases its presence in notable amount (o.i per cent, by
20
3o6 THE STOMACH
Strauss' method) after Boas' breakfast, the stomach
having been washed the evening before, warrants a
tentative diagnosis of mahgnancy.
Carcinoma seems to furnish an especially favorable
medium for the growth of the Boas-Oppler bacillus, hence
this micro-organism is frequently present.
Blood can be detected in the stomach fluid by the
chemic tests in nearly one-half of the cases, and is more
common when the new growth is situated at the pylorus.
Blood is present in the stool in nearly every case.
Evidences of retention and fermentation are the rule in
pyloric cancer. Tumor particles are sometimes found
late in the disease.
6. Gastric Ulcer.— There is excess of free hydrochloric
acid in about one-half of the cases. In other cases the
acid is normal or diminished. Blood is often present.
The diagnosis must be based largely upon the clinical
symptoms, and where ulcer is strongly suspected, it is
probably unwise to use the stomach-tube.
IL ADDITIONAL EXAMINATIONS WHICH GIVE INFOR-
MATION AS TO THE CONDITION OF THE STOMACH
1 . Absorptive Power of the Stomach. — This is a very
unimportant function, only a few substances being ab-
sorbed in the stomach. It is delayed in most organic dis-
eases of the stomach, especially in dilatation and carci-
noma, but not in neuroses. The test has Uttle practical
value.
Give the patient, upon an empty stomach, a 3-grain cap-
sule of potassium iodid with a glass of water, taking care
that none of the drug adheres to the outside of the capsule.
EXAinNATION AS TO THE CONDITION OF STOMACH 307
At intervals test the saliva for iodids by moistening starch-
paper with it and touching with yellow nitric acid. A blue
color shows the presence of an iodid, and appears normally
in ten to fifteen minutes after ingestion of the capsule. A
longer time denotes delayed absorption.
Starch paper is prepared by soaking filter-paper in boiled
starch and drying.
2. Motor Power of the Stomach. — This refers to the
rapidity with which the stomach passes its contents on
into the intestine^. It is very important : intestinal diges-
tion can compensate for insufficient or absent stomach
digestion only so long as the motor power is good.
Motility is impaired to some extent in chronic gastritis.
It is especially deficient in dilatation of the stomach due
to atony of the gastric wall or to pyloric obstruction,
either benign or maUgnant. It is increased in most con-
ditions with h^perchlorhydria.
The best evidence of deficient motor power is the
detection of food in the stomach at a time when it should
be empty, e. g., before breakfast in the morning. WTien
more than 60 c.c. of fluid are obtained with the tube one
hour after a Ewald breakfast, deficient motility may be
inferred.
Ewald's salol test is scarcely so reliable as the above. It
depends upon the fact that salol is not absorbed until it
reaches the intestines and is decomposed by the alkaline
intestinal juices.
The patient is given 15 grains of salol with a test-breakfast,
and the urine, passed at intervals thereafter, is tested for
salicyluric acid. A few drops of 10 per cent, ferric chlorid
solution are added to a small quantity of the urine. A violet
3o8 THE STOMACH
color denotes the presence of salicyluric acid. It appears
normally in sixty to seventy- live minutes after ingestion of the
salol. A longer time indicates impaired motor power.
3. To Determine Size and Position of Stomach. —
After removing the test-meal, while the tube is still in
place, force quick puffs of air into the stomach by com-
pression of the bulb. The puflfs can be clearly heard with
a stethoscope over the region of the stomach, and no-
where else.
If desired, the patient may be given a dram of sodium
bicarbonate in solution, followed immediately by the
same amount of tartaric acid, also in solution; or he may
take the two parts of a seidlitz powder separately. The
carbon dioxid evolved distends the stomach, and its
outline can easily be determined by percussion.
4. Sahli's Desmoid Test of Gastric Digestion. — Two
pills, one containing o.i gram iodoform, the other 0.05
gram methylene-blue, are wrapped in little bags made of
thin sheets of rubber and tied with a string of catgut.
The bags must be carefully folded and tied. For detailed
directions the reader is referred to Sahli's book, Diag-
nostic Methods.
The patient swallows the two bags with the aid of a
little water during the noon meal, and the urine is tested
at intervals thereafter. According to Sahli, the catgut
is digested by gastric juice and not by pancreatic or
intestinal juices. If gastric digestion is normal, iodin
and methylene-blue can be detected in the urine in the
afternoon or evening of the same day. The reaction
may occur when digestion is very poor, provided gastric
motility is diminished, but it is then delayed. If the
EXAMINATION AS TO THE CONDITION OP STOMACH 309
reaction does not. appear, gastric digestion has not
occurred.
Methylene-blue is recognized in the urine by the green or
blue color which it imparts. It is sometimes eliminated as
a chromogen; and a little of the urine must be acidified with
acetic acid and boiled to bring out the color.
To detect the iodin, some of the urine is decolorized by
gently heating and filtering through animal charcoal. To
10 c.c. are then added i c.c. dilute sulphuric acid, and 0.5
c.c. of a I per cent, solution of sodium nitrite and 2 c.c. of
chloroform. Upon shaking, a rose color will be imparted to
the chloroform if iodin be present.
CHAPTER V
THE FECES
As commonly practised, an examination of the feces is
limited to a search for intestinal parasites or their ova.
Much of value can, however, be learned from other simple
examinations, particularly a careful inspection. Anything
approaching a complete analysis is, on the'other hand, a
waste of time for the clinician.
The normal stool is a mixture of — (a) water; (b)
undigested and indigestible remnants of food, as starch-
granules, particles of meat, plant-cells and fibers, etc.;
(c) digested foods, carried out before absorption could
take place; (d) products of the digestive tract, as altered
bile-pigments, mucus, etc. ; (e) products of decomposition,
as indol, skatol, fatty acids, and various gases; (/) epi-
thelial cells shed from the wall of the intestinal canal;
(g) harmless bacteria, which are always present in
enormous numbers.
Pathologically, we may find abnormal amounts of
normal constituents, blood, pathogenic bacteria, animal
parasites and their ova, and biliary and intestinal con-
cretions.
The stool to be examined should be passed into a clean
vessel, without admixture of urine. The offensive odor
can be partially overcome with turpentine or 5 per cent,
phenol. When search for amebae is to be made, the
vessel must be warm, and the stool kept warm until
examined; naturally, no disinfectant can be used.
310
MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 3 II
I. MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
1. Quantity. — The amount varies greatly with diet
and other factors. The average is about loo to 150 gm.
in twenty-four hours.
2. Frequency. — One or two stools in twenty-four hours
may be considered normal, yet one in three or four days
is not uncommon with healthy persons. The individual
habit should be considered in every case.
3. Form and Consistence. — Soft, mushy, or liquid
stools follow cathartics and accompany diarrhea. Co-
pious, purely serous discharges without fecal matter
are significant of Asiatic cholera, although sometimes
observed in other conditions. Hard stools accompany
constipation. Rounded scybalous masses are common in
habitual constipation, and indicate atony of the muscular
coat of the intestines Flattened, ribbon-like stools re-
sult from some obstruction in the rectum, generally a
tumor or stricture from a healed ulcer, most commonly
syphilitic. When bleeding piles are absent, blood-
streaks upon such a stool point to carcinoma.
4. Color. — The normal light or dark-brown color is due
chiefly to hydrobilirubin, which is formed from biHrubin
by reducing processes in the intestines, largely the result
of bacterial activity. The stools of infants are yellow,
owing partly to their milk diet and partly to the presence
of unchanged bihrubin.
Diet and drugs cause marked changes: milk, a light
yellow color; cocoa and chocolate, dark gray; various
fruits, reddish or black ; iron and bismuth, dark brown or
black; hematoxylin, red, etc.
Pathologically, the color is important. A golden yellow
312 THE FECES
is generally due to unchanged bilirubin. Green stools
are not uncommon, especially in diarrheas of childhood.
The color is due to biliverdin or, sometimes, to chromo-
genic bacteria. Putty-colored or " acholic " stools occur
when bile is deficient, either from obstruction to outflow
or from deficient secretion. The color is due less to
absence of bile-pigments than to presence of fat. Similar
stools are common in conditions Hke tuberculous peri-
tonitis, which interfere with absorption of fats, and in
pancreatic disease.
Notable amounts of blood produce tarry black stools
when the source of the hemorrhage is the stomach or
upper intestine, and a dark brown or bright red as the
source is nearer the rectum. When diarrhea exists the
color may be red, even if the source of the blood is high
up. Red streaks of blood upon the outside of the stool
are due to lesions of rectum or anus.
5. Odor. — Products of decomposition, chiefly indol
and skatol, are responsible for the normal ofifensive odor.
A sour odor is normal for nursing infants, and is noted in
mild diarrheas of older children. In the severe diarrheas
of childhood a putrid odor is common. In adults, stools
emitting a very foul stench are suggestive of malignant
or s}T3hiUtic ulceration of the rectum or gangrenous
dysentery.
6. Mucus. — Excessive quantities of mucus are easily
detected with the naked eye, and signify irritation or
inflammation. When the mucus is small in amount and
intimately mixed with the stool, the trouble is probably
in the small intestine. Larger amounts, not well mixed
with fecal matter, indicate inflammation of the large
intestine. Stools composed almost wholly of mucus and
MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 313
streaked with blood are the rule in dysentery, ileocolitis,
and intussusception.
In the so-called mucous colic or membranous enteritis
shreds and ribbons of altered mucus, sometimes represent-
ing complete casts of portions of the bowel, are passed.
The mucus sometimes takes the form of frog-spawn-like
masses. In some cases it is passed at variable intervals,
with cohc; in others, with every stool, with only vague
pains and discomfort. It is distinguished from inflam-
matory mucus by absence of pus-corpuscles. The con-
dition is not uncommon and should be more frequently
recognized. It is probably a secretory neurosis, hence
the name "membranous enteritis" is inappropriate.
7. Concretions. — Gall-stones are probably more com-
mon than is generally supposed, and should be searched
for in every case of obscure colicky abdominal pain.
Intestinal concretions (enteroliths) are rare. Intestinal
sand, consisting of sand-like grains, is especially common
in neurotic conditions, such as mucous colitis.
Concretions can be found by breaking up the fecal
matter in a sieve (which may be improvised from gauze)
while pouring water over it. It must be remembered that
gall-stones, if soft, may go to pieces in the bowel.
8. Animal Parasites. — Segments of tapeworms and
the adults and larvae of other parasites are often found in
the stool. They are best searched for in the manner
described for concretions. The search should be pre-
ceded by a vermicide and a brisk purge. Patients fre-
quently mistake vegetable tissue (long fibers from poorly
masticated celery or " greens," cells from oranges, etc.)
for intestinal parasites, and the writer has known
physicians to make similar mistakes. Even slight famil-
314 THE FECES
iarity with the microscopic structure of vegetable tissue
will prevent the chagrin of such errors.
9. Curds. — The stools of nursing infants frequently
contain whitish curd-like masses, due either to imperfect
digestion of fat or casein or to excess of these in the diet.
When composed of fat, the masses are soluble in ether,
and give the Sudan III test. If composed of casein,
they will become tough and fibrous-like when placed in
formalin (10 per cent.) for twenty-four hours.
11. CHEMIC EXAMINATION
Complicated chemic examinations are of little value to
the clinician. Certain tests are, however, important.
1. Blood. — When present in large amount blood pro-
duces such changes in the appearance of the stool that it
is not likely to be overlooked. Traces of blood (occult
hemorrhage) can be detected only by special tests.
Recognition of occult hemorrhage has its greatest value
in diagnosis of gastric cancer and ulcer. It is constantly
present in practically every case of gastric cancer, and is
always present, although usually intermittently, in ulcer.
Traces of blood also accompany malignant disease of the
bowel, the presence of certain intestinal parasites, and
other conditions.
Detection of Occult Hemorrhage. — Soften a portion of the
stool with water, shake with an equal volume of ether to
remove fat, and discard the ether. Treat the remaining
material with about one-third its volume of glacial acetic
acid and extract with ether. Should the ether not separate
well, add a little alcohol. Apply the guaiac test to the ether
as already described (p. 125).
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 315
In every case iron-containing medicines must be stopped,
and blood-pigment must be excluded from the food by giving
an appropriate diet, e. g., bread, milk, eggs, and fruit. At the
beginning of the restricted diet give a dram of powdered
charcoal, or 7 grains of carmin, so as to mark the correspond-
ing stool.
2. Bile. — Normally, unaltered bile-pigment is never
present in the feces of adults. In catarrhal conditions
of the small intestine bilirubin may be carried through un-
changed. It may be demonstrated by filtering (after
mixing with water if the stool be solid) and testing the
filtrate by Gmelin's method, as described under The
Urine.
Hydrobilirubin will give a red color if a little of the
stool be rubbed up with saturated mercuric chlorid
solution and allowed to stand twenty-four hours. The
red color is likewise imparted to microscopic structures
which are stained with hydrobilirubin. A green color
in this test shows the presence of unchanged bilirubin.
III. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Care must be exercised in selection of portions for
examination. A random search will often reveal nothing
of interest. A small bit of the stool, or any suspicious-
looking particle, is placed upon a slide, softened with
water if necessary, and pressed out into a thin layer with
a cover-glass. A large slide — about 2 by 3 inches —
with a correspondingly large cover will be found conve-
nient. Most of the structures which it is desired to see
can be found with a 16 mm. objective. Details of struc-
ture must be studied with a higher power.
3i6
THE FECES
The bulk of the stool consists of granular debris.
Among the recognizable structures met in normal and
pathologic conditions are: Remnants of food, epithelial
cells, pus-corpuscles, red blood-corpuscles, crystals, bac-
teria, and ova of animal parasites (Fig. io8).
I . Remnants of Food. — These include a great variety
of structures which are very confusing to the student.
Considerable study of normal feces is necessary for their
recognition.
mm
Fig. io8. — Microscopic elements of normal feces: a. Muscle-fibers; b, connective
tissue; c, epithelial cells; d, white blood -corpuscles; e. spiral vessels of plants; f-h, vege-
table cells; J, plant hairs; k, triple phosphate crystals; /, stone cells. Scattered among
these elements are micro-organisms and debris (after v. Jaksch).
Vegetable fibers are generalh' recognized from their
spiral structure or their pits, dots, or reticulate mark-
ings; vegetable cells, from their double contour and the
chlorophyl bodies which many of them contain. These
cells are apt to be mistaken for the ova of parasites.
Starch-granules sometimes retain their original form, but
are ordinarily not to be recognized except by their stain-
ing reaction. They strike a blue color with Lugol's solu-
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
317
tion when undigested; a red color, when slightly digested.
Muscle-fibers are yellow, and when poorly digested appear
as short, transversely striated cylinders with rather
squarely broken ends (Fig. 109). Generally, the ends
are rounded and the striations faint, or only irregularly
round or oval yellow masses are found. Curds of milk
are especially important in the stools of children. They
must be distinguished from small masses of Jat (p. 314).
Fig. log.-
-Poorly digested muscle-fiber in feces showing striations (X 200) (photograph
by the author).
Excess of any of these structures may result from
excessive ingestion or deficient intestinal digestion.
2. Epithelial Cells. — A few cells derived from the
wall of the alimentary canal are a constant finding. They
show all stages of degeneration, and are often unrecog-
nizable. A marked excess has its origin in a catarrhal
condition of some part of the bowel. Squamous cells
come from the anal orifice; otherwise the form of the
cells gives no clue to the location of the lesion.
3l8 THE FECES
3. Pus. — Amounts of pus sufficient to be recognized
with the eye alone indicate rupture of an abscess into
the bowel. If well mixed with the stool, the source is
high up, but in such cases the pus is apt to be more or
less completely digested, and hence unrecognizable.
Small amounts, detected only by the microscope, are
present in catarrhal and ulcerative conditions of the in-
testine, the number of pus-cells corresponding to the
severity and extent of the process.
4. Blood=corpuscles. — Unaltered red corpuscles are
rarely found unless their source is near the anus. Ordi-
narily, only masses of blood-pigment can be seen. Blood
is best recognized by the chemic tests fp. 274).
5. Bacteria. — In health, bacteria constitute about one-
third of the weight of the dried stool. They are beneficial
to the organism, although not actually necessary to its
existence. It is both difficult and unprofitable to iden-
tify them. The great majority belong to the colon
bacillus group, and are negative to Gram's method of
staining.
In some pathologic conditions the character of the
intestinal flora changes, so that Gram-staining bacteria
very greatly predominate. As shown by R. Schmidt,
of Neusser's clinic in Vienna, this change is most constant
and most striking in cancer of the stomach, owing to
large numbers of Boas-Oppler bacilli, and is of consider-
able value in diagnosis. He believes that a diagnosis
of gastric carcinoma should be very unwillingly made
with an exclusively "Gram-negative" stool, while a
"Gram-positive" stool, due to bacilli (which should also
stain brown with Lugol's solution), may be taken as very
strong evidence of cancer. A Gram-positive stool due
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 319
to cocci is suggestive of intestinal ulceration. The
technic is the same as when Gram's method is applied
to other material (p. 409), except that the smear is fixed
by immersion in methyl-alcohol for five minutes instead
of by heat. Fuchsin is the best counterstain. The deep
purple Gram-staining bacteria stand out much more
prominently than the pale-red Gram-negative organisms,
and one may be misled into thinking them more numer-
ous even in cases in which they are much in the minority.
The number of Boas-Oppler bacilli can be increased by
administering a few ounces of sugar of milk the day
before the examination. The bacteria can be obtained
comparatively free from food remnants by mixing a
little of the feces with water, allowing to settle for a
short time, and making smears from the supernatant
fluid.
Owing to the difl&culty of excluding swallowed sputum,
the presence of the tubercle bacillus is less significant in
the feces than in other material. It may, however, be
taken as evidence of intestinal tuberculosis when clinical
signs indicate an intestinal lesion and reasonable care is
exercised in regard to the sputum. Success in the
search will depend largely upon careful selection of the
portion examined. A random search will almost surely
fail. Whitish or grayish flakes of mucus or blood-
stained or purulent particles should be spread upon
slides or covers and stained by the method given upon p.
168. In the case of rectal ulcers, swabs can be made
directly from the ulcerated surface.
6. Crystals. — Various crystals may be found, but few
have any significance. Slender, needle-like crystals of
fatty acids and soaps (Fig. 36) and triple phosphate
320 THE FECES
crystals (Fig. io8) are common. Characteristic octahe-
dral crystals of calcium oxalate (Fig. 51) appear after in-
gestion of certain vegetables. Charcot-Leyden crystals
(Fig. 9) are not infrequently encountered, and strongly
suggest the presence of intestinal parasites. Yellowish
or brown, needle-like or rhombic crystals of hematoidin
(Fig. 36) may be seen after hemorrhage into the bowel.
7. Parasites and Ova. — The stool should be well mixed
with water and allowed to settle. The ova will be found
in the upper or middle portions of the sediment. The
flagellates are best found in the liquid stool after a dose
of salts. Descriptions will be found in the following
chapter.
IV. FUNCTIONAL TESTS
1. Schmidt's Test Diet. — Much can be learned of the
various digestive functions from a microscopic study of
the feces, especially when the patient is upon a known
diet. For this purpose the standard diet of Schmidt is
generally adopted. This consists of:
Morning 0.5 liter milk and 50 gm. toast.
Forenoon 0.5 liter porridge, made as follows: 40 gm.
oatmeal, 10 gm. butter, 200 c.c. milk,
300 c.c. water, and one egg.
Midday 125 gm. hashed meat, with 20 gm. butter,
fried so that the interior is quite rare;
250 gm. potato, made by cooking 190
gm. potato with 100 c.c. milk and 10 gm.
butter, the whole boiled down to 250 c.c.
Afternoon Same as morning.
Evening Same as forenoon.
At the beginning of the diet, the stool should be
marked off with carmin or charcoal. One should famil-
FUNCTIONAL TESTS 32 1
iarize himself with the microscopic appearance of the
feces of normal persons upon this diet.
Deficiency of starch digestion is recognized by the
number of starch-granules which strike a blue color with
iodin. With exception of those inclosed in plant cells
none are present normally.
The degree of protein digestion is ascertained by the
appearance of the muscle-fibers. Striations are clearly
visible only when digestion is imperfect (Fig. 109). Ac-
cording to Schmidt, the presence of nuclei in muscle-fibers
denotes complete absence of pancreatic function. The
presence of connective-tissue shreds indicates deficient
gastric digestion, since raw connective tissue is digested
only in the stomach. These shreds can be recognized
macroscopically by examining in a thin layer against a
black background, and microscopically by their fibrous
structure and the fact that they clear up when treated
with acetic acid.
Digestion of fats is checked up by the amount of
neutral fat.
2. Sahli's Qlutoid Test, — The Schmidt test diet in-
volves some inconvenience for the patient, and inter-
pretation of results requires much experience upon the
part of the physician. A number of other methods of
testing the digestive functions have been proposed. The
glutoid test of SahH is one of the most satisfactory.
This is similar to his desmoid test of gastric digestion
described on page 308. A glutoid capsule containing
0.15 gram iodoform is taken with an Ewald breakfast.
The capsule is not digested by the stomach fluid, but
is readily digested by pancreatic juice. Appearance of
iodin in the saUva and urine within four to six hours
21
322 THE FECES
indicates normal gastric motility, normal intestinal di-
gestion, and normal absorption. Instead of iodoform,
0.5 gram salol may be used, salicyluric acid appearing
in the urine in about the same time. For tests for iodin
and salicyluric acid, see pages 307 and 309.
The glutoid capsules are prepared by soaking gelatin
capsules in formalin. Sahli states that filled capsules
can be purchased of A. G. Haussmann, in St. Gall,
Switzerland.
3. Miiller's Test for Trypsin. — A calomel purge is
given two hours after a meal. Particles of the feces are
placed upon solidified blood-serum. This is incubated
at a temperature of 55° to 60° C. to prevent action of
bacteria. Digestion of the serum — indicated by a
translucent, roughened, depressed surface — presumably
shows the presence of trypsin, and indicates pancreatic
sufficiency. Trypsin can seldom be detected without
the preceding purge.
CHAPTER VI
ANIMAL PARASITES
Animal parasites are common in all countries, but are
especially abundant in the tropics, where, in some places,
almost every native is host for one or more species.
Because of our growing intercourse with these regions
the subject is assuming increasing importance in this
country. Many parasites, hitherto comparatively un-
known here, will probably become more common.
Some parasites produce no symptoms, even when
present in large numbers. Others cause very serious
symptoms. It is, however, impossible to make a sharp
distinction between pathogenic and non-pathogenic
varieties. Parasites which cause no apparent ill effects
in one individual may, under certain conditions, produce
marked disturbances in another. The disturbances are
so varied, and frequently so indefinite, that diagnosis can
rarely be made from the clinical symptoms. It must rest
upon detection, by the naked eye or the microscope, of
(a) the parasites themselves, (b) their ova or young
progeny, or (c) some of their products.
Unlike bacteria, the great majority of animal parasites
-multiply by means of alternating and differently formed
generations, which require widely different conditions
for their development. The few exceptions are chiefly
among the protozoa. Multiplication of parasites within
323
324 ANIMAL PARASITES
the same host is thus prevented. In the case of the
hook-worm, for example, there is no increase in the num-
ber of worms in the host's intestine, except through re-
infection from the outside. The young are carried out
of the intestine and must pass a certain period of devel-
opment in warm, moist earth before they can again
enter the human body and grow to maturity. In general,
this alternation of periods of development takes place in
one of three ways:
(i) The young remain within the original host, but
travel to other organs, where they do not reach maturity,
but lie quiescent until taken in by a new host. A good
example is Trichinella spiralis.
(2) The young or the ova which subsequently hatch
pass out of the host, and either {a) go through a simple
process of growth and development before entering
another host, as is the case with the hook-worm, or {b)
pass through one or more free-living generations, the
progeny of which infect new hosts, as is the case with
Strongyloides intestinalis.
(3) The young or ova or certain specialized forms
either directly {e. g., malarial parasites) or indirectly
(e. g., tapeworms) reach a second host of different
species, where a widely different process of development
occurs. The host in which the adult or sexual existence
is passed is called the 'definitive or final host; that in
which the intermediate or larval stage occurs, the
intermediate host. Man, for example, is the definitive
host for TcEuia saginata, and the intermediate host for
the malarial parasites and Tcenia echinococcus.
A few words concerning the classification and nomen-
clature of living organisms in general will be helpful
ANIMAL PARASITES 325
at this place. Individuals which are alike in all essential
respects are classed together as a species. Closely related
species are grouped together to form a genus; genera
which have certain characteristics in common make up
a family; families are grouped into orders; orders into
classes; and classes, finally, into the branches or phyla,
which make up the kingdom. In some cases these groups
are subdivided into intermediate groups — subphyla,
subfamilies, etc., and occasionally, slight differences
warrant subdivision of the species into varieties. The
animal kingdom comprises nine branches: Protozoa,
Porifera, Ccelenterata, Echinodermata, Vermidea, Arth-
ropoda, Mollusca, Prochordata, and Chordata.
The scientific name of an animal or plant consists of
two parts, both Latin or Latinized words, and is printed
in italics. The first part is the name of the genus and
begins with a capital letter; the second is the name of the
species and begins with a lower case letter, even when it
was originally a proper name. When there are varieties
of a species, a third part, the designation of the variety,
is appended. The author of the name is sometimes in-
dicated in Roman type immediately after the name
of the species. Examples: Spirochceta vincenti, often
abbreviated to Sp. vincenti when the genus name has
been used just previously; Staphylococcus pyogenes
albus; Necator americanus, Stiles.
At the present time there is great confusion in the
.naming and classification of parasites. Some have been
given a very large number of names by different observers,
and in many cases different parasites have been described
under the same name. The alternation of generations
and the marked differences in some cases between male
326 ANIMAL PARASITES
and female have contributed to the confusion, different
forms of the same parasite being described as totally
unrelated species.
The number of parasites which have been described
as occurring in man and the animals is extremely large.
Only those which are of medical interest are mentioned
here. They belong to three phyla — Protozoa, Vermidea,
and Arthropoda.
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
These are unicellular organisms, the simplest types
of animal life. There is very little differentiation of
structure. Each contains at least one, and some several
nuclei. Some contain contractile vacuoles; some have
cilia or flagella as special organs of locomotion. They
reproduce by division, by budding, or by sporulation.
Sometimes there is an alternation of generations, in one
of which sexual processes appear, as is the case with the
malarial parasites. The protozoa are very numerous,
the subphylum Sarcodina alone including no less than
5000 species. Most of the protozoa are microscopic in
size ; a few are barely visible to the naked eye. One can
gain a general idea of their appearance by examining
water (together with a little of the sediment) from the
bottom of any pond. Such water usually contains amebae
and a considerable variety of ciliated and flagellated
forms.
The following is an outline of those protozoa which
are of medical interest, together vvith the subphyla and
classes to which they belong.
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
327
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
SuBPHYLUM I. SARCODINA. — Locomotion by means of pseudo-
podia.
Class Rhizopoda. — Pseudopodia form lobose or reticulose processes.
Genus.
Entamoeba.
Species.
E. histolytica.
E. tetragena.
E. coli.
E. buccalis.
StJBPHYLUM II. MASTIGOPHORA (FLAGELLATA).— Locomotion
by means of flagella.
Class Zoomastigophora. — Forms in which animal characteristics pre-
dominate.
Genus.
species.
Spirochaeta.
Sp. obermeieri.
Sp. vincenti.
Sp. buccalis.
Sp. dentium.
Sp. refringens.
Treponema.
T. pallidum.
T. pertenue.
Trypanosoma.
T. gambiense.
T. cruzi.
T. lewisi.
T. evansi.
T. brucei.
T. equiperdum.
Leishmania.
L. donovani.
L. tropica.
L. infantum.
Cercomonas.
C. hominis.
Bodo.
B. urinarius.
Trichomonas.
T. vaginalis.
T. intestinalis.
T. pulmonalis.
Lamblia.
L. intestinalis.
328 ANIMAL PARASITES
SuBPHYLUM III. SPOROZOA.— All members parasitic. Propaga-
tion by means of spores. No special organs of locomotion.
Class Telosporidia.— Sporulation ends the life of the individual.
Genus. Species.
Coccidium. C. cuniculi.
Plasmodium. P. vivax.
P. malariae.
P. falciparum.
Babesia. B. bigeminum.
SuBPHYLUM IV^ INFUSORIA.— Locomotion by means of cflia.
Class Ciliata. — Cilia present throughout life.
Getius. Species.
Balantidium. B. coli.
SUBPHYLUM SARCODINA
Class Rhizopoda
These are protozoa the body substance of which
forms changeable protoplasmic processes, or pseudo-
podia, for the taking in of food and for locomotion.
They possess one or several nuclei.
I. Genus Entamoeba. — (i) Entamoeba Histolytica. —
This organism is found, often in large numbers, in the
stools of tropical dysentery and in the pus and walls
of hepatic abscesses associated with dysentery, and
is generally regarded as the cause of the disease. It
is a colorless, granular cell, 20 to 40 ^i in diameter
(Fig. no). It contains one or more distinct vacuoles,
a round nucleus, which ordinarily is obscured by the
granules, and frequently red blood-corpuscles and bac-
teria. When at rest its shape is spheric, but upon a
warm slide it exhibits the characteristic ameboid motion,
constantly changing its shape or moving slowly about.
This motion is its most distinctive feature. If neutral
red in 0.5 per cent, solution be run under the cover-glass,
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
329
it will be taken up by the amebae and other protozoa
and render them conspicuous without killing them
("vital staining").
When the presence of amebae is suspected, the stool
should be passed into a warm vessel and kept warm
until and during the examination. A warm stage can
be improvised from a plate of copper with a hole cut in
the center. This is placed upon the stage of the mi-
croscope, and one of the projecting ends is heated with
i
Fig. no. — Amoeba coli in intestinal mucus, with blood-corpuscles and bacteria (Losch).
a small flame. Amebae are most likely to be found in
grayish or blood-streaked particles of mucus. Favor-
able material for examination can be obtained at one's
convenience by inserting into the rectum a large catheter
with roughly cut lateral openings. A sufficient amount
of mucus or fecal matter will usually be brought away
by it.
(2) Other Entamebae. — Entamceba coli, a similar but
somewhat smaller organism (10 to 20 fi), with less dis-
33© ANIM.'VL PARASITES
tinct pseudopodia and more distinct nucleus, has fre-
quently been found in the stools of healthy persons.
E. tetragena has recently been described. It apparently
produces a chronic diarrhea and is not confined to the
tropics. Another, E. buccalis, has been found in decay-
ing teeth A number of similar organisms have been
described as occurring in pus and in ascitic and other
body fluids, but it is probable that in many cases, at
least, the structures seen were ameboid body cells.
SUBPHYLUM MASTIGOPHORA (FLAGELLATA)
Qass Zodmastigophora
The protozoa of this subphylum are provided with one
or several whip-like appendages with lashing motion,
termed flagella, which serve for locomotion and, in
some cases, for feeding. They generally arise from the
anterior part of the organism. Some members of the
group also possess an undulating membrane — a delicate
membranous fold which extends the length of the body,
and somewhat suggests a fin. When in active motion
this gives the impression of a row of cilia. The flagellata
do not exhibit ameboid motion, and, in general, maintain
an unchanging oval or spindle shape, and contain a single
nucleus. The cytoplasm contains numerous granules
and usually several vacuoles, one or more of which may
be contractile. Encystment as a means of resisting
unfavorable conditions is common.
I. Genus Spirochaeta. — The spirochaetae appear to
occupy a position midway between the bacteria and
protozoa, but are more frequently described with the
latter.
(i) Spirochaeta Recurrentis. — This spirochaite was
PHYLUM PROTOZOA 33 1
described by Obermeier as the cause of relapsing fever.
It appears in the circulating blood during the febrile
attack, and, unlike the malarial parasite, lives in the
plasma without attacking the red corpuscles. The
organism is an actively motile spiral, 16 to 40 ;m long,
with three to twelve wide, fairly regular turns. It can
be seen in fresh unstained blood with a high dry lens,
being located by the commotion which it creates among
Fig. III. — Spirochaete of relapsing fever ( X looo) (Karg and Schmorl).
the red cells. For diagnosis, thin films, stained with
Wright's or some similar blood-stain, are used (Fig. iii).
Besides Spirochceta recurrentis, a number of distinct
strains have been described in connection with different
types of relapsing fever: Sp. novyi (Plate VII), Sp. kochi,
Sp. duUoni, and Sp. carteri.
(2) Spirochaeta Vincenti. — In stained smears from the
ulcers of Vincent's angina (p. 380) are found what
appear to be two organisms. One, the " fusiform bacil-
332 ANIMAL PARASITES
lus/' is a slender rod, 6 to 12 /t/ long, pointed at both
ends and sometimes curved. The other is a slender
spiral organism, 30 to 40 fi long, with three to eleven
comparatively shallow turns (Fig. 153). These were
formerly thought to be bacteria, a spirillum and bacillus
living in symbiosis. The present tendency is to regard
them as stages or forms of the same organism, and to
class them among the spirochaeta^. The same organisms
are quite constantly present in large numbers in ulcera-
tive stomatitis and in noma They are not infrequently
found in small numbers in normal mouths.
O
Fig. 112. — Spiral organisms: A, Treponema pallidum; B, Spirochaeta refringens; C,
Spirochaeta dentium. Two red corpuscles are also shown ( X 1200).
(3) Other Spirochaetae. — A number of harmless forms
are of interest because of the possibility of confusing
them with the more important pathogenic varieties.
Of these, Sp. buccalis and Sp. dentium are inhabitants
of the normal mouth. The former is similar in morphol-
ogy to Sp. vincenti. Sp. dentium (Fig. 112) is smaller,
more delicate, has deep curves, and may be easily mis-
taken for Treponema pallidum. It, also, stains reddish
with Giemsa's stain. In suspected syphilitic sores of
the mouth it is, therefore, important to make smears
PHYLUM PROTOZOA 333
from the tissue juices rather than from the surface
(see p. 389). Sp. refringens is frequently present upon
the surface of ulcers, especially about the genitals, and
has doubtless many times been mistaken for Treponema
pallidum. It can be avoided by properly securing the
material for examination; but its morphology should
be sufficient to prevent confusion. It is thicker than
the organism of syphilis, stains more deeply, and has
fewer and shallower curves (Fig. 112). Giemsa's stain
gives it a bluish color.
2. Genus Treponema.— (i) Treponema Pallidum. —
This is the organism of syphilis. Its description and
methods of diagnosis will be found on p. 388.
(2) Treponema pertenue, morphologically very similar
to Treponema pallidum, was found by Castellani in
yaws, a skin disease of the tropics.
3. Genus Trypanosoma. — Trypanosomes have been
found in the blood-plasma of a great variety of verte-
brates. Many of them appear to produce no symptoms,
but a few are of great pathologic importance. As seen
in the blood, they are elongated, spindle-shaped bodies,
the average length of different species varying from 10
to 70 f£. Along one side there runs a delicate undulating
membrane, the free edge of which appears to be somewhat
longer than the attached edge, thus throwing it into
folds. Somewhere in the body, usually near the middle,
is a comparatively pale-staining nucleus; and near the
posterior end is a smaller, more deeply staining chromatin
mass, the micronucleus or blepharoplast. A number of
coarse, deeply staining granules, chromatophores, may
be scattered through the cytoplasm. A flagellum arises
in the blepharoplast, passes along the free edge of the
334 ANIMAL PARASITES
undulating membrane, and is continued anteriorly as a
free flagellum. These details of structure are well
shown in Plate VII.
The life history of the trypanosomes is not well known.
In most cases there is an alternation of hosts, various
insects playing the part of definitive host.
Trypanosomes have been much studied of late, and
many species have been described. Of these, only a few
> t
/
Fig. 113. — Trypanosoma lewisi in blood of rat. The red corpuscles were decolorized
with acetic acid (X 1000) (photograph by the author from a slide presented by Prof.
Novy).
have medical interest. At least two have been found
in man.
Trypanosoma gamhiense is the parasite of African
" sleeping sickness." Its detection in the blood is
described on p. 247.
Trypanosoma cruzi is a small form which has been
found in the blood of man in Brazil.
Trypanosoma lewisi, a very common and apparently
harmless parasite of gray rats, especially sewer rats, is
PHYLUM PROTOZOA 335
interesting because it closely resembles the pathogenic
forms, and is easily obtained for study. Its posterior
end is more pointed than that of T. gambiense.
Trypanosoma evansi, T. brucei, and T. equiperdum
produce respectively surra, nagana, and dourine, which
are common and important diseases of horses, mules,
and cattle in the Philippines, East India, and Africa.
4. Genus Leishmania. — The several species which
compose this genus are apparently closely related to the
trypanosomes, but their exact classification is undeter-
mined. They have been grown outside the body and
their transformation into flagellated trypanosome-like
structures has been demonstrated. Calkins places them
in the genus Herpetomonas.
(i) Leishmania donovani is the cause of kala-azar, an
important and common disease of India. The " Leish-
man-Donovan bodies " are round or oval structures,
2 to 3 w in diameter, with two distinct chromatin masses,
one large and pale, the other small and deeply staining.
The parasites are especially abundant in the spleen,
splenic puncture being resorted to for diagnosis. They
are readily found in smears stained by any of the Roman-
owsky methods. They lie chiefly within endothelial
cells and leukocytes They are also present within
leukocytes in the peripheral blood, but are difficult to
find in blood-smears.
(2) Leishmania tropica resembles the preceding. It
is found, lying intracellularly, in the granulation tissue
of Delhi boil or Oriental sore.
(3) Leishmania infantum has been found in an obscure
form of infantile splenomegaly in Algiers.
5. Genus Cercomonas. — (i) Cerccmonas hominis has
33^
ANIMAL PARASITES
been found in the feces in a variety of diarrheal condi-
tions, and in from lo to 25 per cent, of healthy persons in
tropical regions. It is probably harmless. The body is
10 to 12 ^ long, is pointed posteriorly, and has a flagel-
lum at the anterior end (Fig. 114). The nucleus is
difficult to make out.
"^^^g^Vr^
Fig. 114. — Cercoraonas hominis (about X 500): A, Larger variety; B, smaller variety •
(Davaine).
6. Genus Bodo. — (i) Bodo urinarius is sometimes seen
in the urine, darting about in various directions. It is
probably an accidental contamination, or at most a
harmless invader. It has a lancet-shaped body, about
10 u long, and 4s somewhat twisted upon itself, with
two flagella at the end.
Fig. 115. — Trichomonas vaginalis (about X looo) (after Kolliker and Scanzoni).
7. Genus Trichomonas.— (i) Trichomonas Vaginalis.
— The acid discharge of catarrhal vaginitis sometimes
contains this parasite in abundance. It is oval or pear-
shaped, one to three times the diameter of a red blood-
corpuscle in length, and has a cluster of flagella at one
end (Fig. 115). As seen in fresh material it is not unlike
PHYLUM PROTOZOA 337
a pus-corpuscle in size and general appearance, but is
actively motile. When in motion the flagella are not
easily seen. No pathogenic significance is ascribed to
it in the vagina, but a few cases have been reported in
which it was apparently the cause of a urethritis in the
male. This and similar organisms, such as cercomonas
Fig. ii6. — Lamblia intestinalis from the intestines of a mouse (about X 2000) (Grass!
and Schweiakofi).
and bodo, might be mistaken for spermatozoa by the
totally inexperienced worker.
(2) Other Trichomonads. — Various forms have been
described, regarded by some as identical with T. vagi-
nalis, by others as distinct species. Among these are
T. intestinalis, sometimes found in the feces in diarrheal
conditions, and T. pulmonalis, which has been encoun-
tered in the sputum of persons suffering from pulmonary
gangrene and putrid bronchitis.
22
338 ANIMAL PARASITES
8. Genus Lamblia. — (i) Lamblia intestinalis is a very
common parasite in the tropics, but is generally consid-
ered of little pathogenic importance. It is pear shaped,
measures about 10 to 15 fJ., and has a depression on one
side of the blunt end, by which it attaches itself to the
tops of the epithelial cells of the intestinal wall. Three
pairs of flagella are arranged about the depression and
one pair at the pointed end (Fig. 116).
SUBPHYLUM SPOROZOA
Qass Telosporidia
All the members of this class are parasitic, but only
a few have been observed in man, and only one genus,
Plasmodium, is of much importance in human pathology.
Propagation is by means of spores, and sporulation ends
the life of the individual. In some species there is an
alternation of generations, in one of which sexual proc-
esses appear. In such cases the male individual may
be provided with flagella. Otherwise, there are no
special organs of locomotion.
I. Genus Coccidium. — (i) Coccidium cuniculi. — This
is a very common parasite of the rabbit and has been
much studied; but extremely few authentic cases of
infection in man have been reported. The parasite,
which when fully developed is ovoid in shape and
measures about 30 to 50 u in length and has a shell-
like integument, develops within the epithelial cells of
the bile-passages. Upon reaching adult size it divides
into a number of spores or merozoites which enter other
epithelial cells and repeat the cycle. A sexual cycle
outside the body, which suggests that of the malarial
parasite, but does not require an insect host, also occurs.
PHYLUM PROTOZOA 339
Infection takes place from ingestion of the resulting
sporozoites.
2. Genus Plasmodium. — This genus includes the ma-
larial parasites which have already been described (p. 248).
3. Genus Babesia. — The proper position of this genus
is uncertain. It is placed among the flagellates by some.
The chief member is Babesia bigeminum, the cause of
Texas fever in cattle. It is a minute, pear-shaped or-
ganism, lying in pairs within the red blood-corpuscles.
An organism, B. (or Piroplasma) hominis, described as
occurring in the red cells in " tick-fever " of Montana, is
also placed in this genus, but its pathogenicity and even
its existence are questionable.
SUBPHYLUM INFUSORU
Qass Qliata
The conspicuous feature of this class is the presence
of cilia. These are hair-like appendages which have a
regular to-and-fro motion, instead of the irregular lash-
ing motion of flagella. They are also shorter and more
numerous than flagella. Most infusoria are of fixed
shape and contain two nuclei. Contractile and food-
vacuoles are also present. Encystment is common.
Only one species is of medical interest. Certain ciliated
structures, which have been described as infusoria,
notably in sputum and nasal mucus, were probably
ciliated body cells.
1. Genus Balantidium. — (i) Balantidium Coli. — This
parasite, formerly called Paramcecium coli, is an occa-
sional inhabitant of the colon of man, and sometimes
produces diarrhea. It is an oval organism, about o.i mm.
long, is covered with cilia, and contains a bean-shaped
34° ANIMAL PAHASITES
macronucleus, a globular micronucleus, two contractile
vacuoles, and variously sized granules (Fig. 117).
Fig. 117.— Balantidiumcoli (about X 300) (after Eichhorst).
Its ordinary habitat is the rectum of the domestic
pig, where it apparently causes no disturbance. It
probably reaches man in the encysted condition.
PHYLUM VERMIDEA
Of the worms, many species are parasitic in man and
the higher animals. In some cases man is the regular
host; in others, the usual habitat is some one of the ani-
mals, and the occurrence of the worm in man is more or
less accidental. Such are called incidental parasites.
Only those worms that are found in man with sufficient
frequency to be of medical interest are mentioned here.
PHAT.UM \^RMIDEA
SUBPHYLUM I. PLATYHELMINTHES.— Flat-worms.
Class Trematoda. — Flukes. Unsegmented, leaf shaped.
Genus. Species.
Fasciola. F. hepatica.
Dicrocoelium. D. lanceatum.
Opisthorchis. Op. felineus.
Op. sinensis.
Paragonimus. P. westermani.
Schistosomum. S. haematobium.
S. japonicum.
PHYLUM VERMIDEA
Class Cestoda. — Tapeworms. Segmented, ribbon shaped.
341
Genus.
Species.
Taenia.
T. saginata.
T. solium.
T. echinococcus.
Hymenolepis.
H. nana.
Dipylidium.
D. caninum.
Dibothriocephalus. D. latus.
SuBPHYLUM II. NEMATHELMINTHES.— Round-worms.
Class Nematoda. — Unsegmented, cylindric or fusiform.
Genus.
Species.
Anguillula.
A. aceti.
Ascaris.
A. lumbricoides.
Oxyuris.
0. vermicularis.
Filaria.
F. bancrofti.
F. philippinensis.
F. perstans.
F. diuma.
F. medinensis.
Uncinaria.
U. duodenalis.
Necator.
N. americanus.
Strongyloides.
S. intestinalis.
Trichinella.
T. spiralis.
Trichocephalus.
T. trichiuris.
SUBPHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
Class Trematoda
The trematode worms, commonly known as " flukes,"
are flat, unsegmented, generally tongue- or leaf-shaped
worms. They are comparatively small, most species
averaging between 5 and 15 mm. in length. They pos-
sess an incomplete digestive tract, without anus, and are
provided with one or more sucking disks by means of
which they can attach themselves to the host. Some
are also provided with booklets. Nearly all species are
hermaphroditic, and the eggs of nearly all are operculated
(provided with a lid), the only important exception
342 ANIMAL PARASITES
being Schistosomum hematobium, the egg of which has a
characteristic spine. Development takes place by al-
ternation of generations, the intermediate generation
occurring in some water animal: mollusks, amphibians,
fishes, etc.
1. Genus Fasciola. — (i) Fasciola Hepatica. — The
" liver fluke " inhabits the bile-ducts of numerous herbiv-
orous animals, especially sheep, where it is an important
cause of disease. It brings about obstruction of the bile-
passages, with enlargement and degeneration of the liver
Fig. ii8. — Fasciola he[)atica, about two-thirds natural size (Mosler and Peiper).
— " liver rot." A species of snail serves as intermediate
host. The worm is leaf shaped, the average size being
about 2.8 by 1.2 cm. The anterior end projects like a
beak (head-cone 3 to 4 mm. long) (Fig. 118). Ova ap-
pear in the feces. They are yellowish brown, oval,
operculated, and measure about 0.13 by 0.07 mm.
2. Genus Dicrocoelium. — (i)Dicrocoeliumlanceatum
is often associated with the liver fluke in the bile-passages
of animals, but is neither so common nor so widely
distributed geographically. It has rarely been observed
in man. It is smaller (length about i cm.) and more
PHYLUM VERMIDEA 343
elongated. The long diameter of the eggs is about 0.04
mm.
3. Genus Opisthorchis. — (i) Opisthorchis felineus
inhabits the gall-bladder and bile-ducts of the domestic
cat and a few other animals. Infection in man has
been repeatedly observed in Europe, and especially in
Siberia. The body is flat, yellowish-red in color, and
almost transparent. It measures 8 to 11 mm. by 1.5 to
2 mm. The eggs are oval, with a well-defined operculum
at the narrower end, and contain a ciliated embryo when
deposited. They measure about 30 by 11 fi.
(2) Opisthorchis sinensis, Uke the preceding fluke,
inhabits the gall-bladder and bile-ducts of domestic
cats and dogs. It is, however, much more frequent in
man, being a common and important parasite in certain
parts of Japan and China. The number present may
be very great; over 40CK) were counted in one case.
The parasite resembles Op. felineus in shape and color.
It is 10 to 14 mm. long and 2.5 to 4 mm. broad. The
eggs have a sharply defined lid and measure 27 to 30 by
15 to 17 /[/. When they appear in the feces they contain
a ciliated embryo. The intermediate host is unknown.
4. Genus Paragonimus. — (i) Paragonimus wester-
mani, called the " lung fluke," is also a common parasite
of man in Japan, China, and Korea. It is likewise found
in dogs, cats, and pigs in these countries, and, according
to Ward and Stiles, in North America also. It inhabits
the lung, causing the formation of small cavities. Mod-
erate hemoptysis is the principal symptom. Ova are
readily found in the sputum; the worms themselves are
seldom seen, except postmortem. The worms are faint
reddish-brown in color, egg shaped with the ventral
344 ANIMAL PARASITES
surface flattened, and measure 8 to lo mm. by 4 to 6 mm.
The ova, which are found in the sputum, are thin shelled,
brownish yellow, and average about 0.093 by 0.057 n^™-
Little is known of the development outside the body.
5. Genus Schistosomum. — (i) Schistosomum Haema-
tobium.— This trematode, frequently called Bilharzia
hcematobia, is an extremely common cause of disease
(bilharziasis or Egyptian hematuria) in northern Africa,
particularly in Egypt.
Unlike the other flukes, the sexes are separate. The
male is 12 to 14 mm. long and i mm. broad. The body
is flattened and the lateral edges curl ventrally, forming a
longitudinal groove, in which the female lies (Fig. 119).
Fig. iig. — Schistosomum hccmatobium, male and female (about X 4) with eggs (about
X 70) (von Jaksch).
The latter is cylindric in shape, about 20 mm. long and
0.25 mm. in diameter. The eggs are an elongated oval,
about 0.15 mm. long, yellowish in color, and slightly
transparent. They possess no lid, such as characterize
the eggs of most of the trematodes, but are provided
with a thorn-like spine which is placed at one end or
laterally near the end.
In man the worm lives in the veins, particularly the
portal vein and the veins of the bladder and rectum, lead-
ing to obstruction and inflammation. The eggs penetrate
into the tissues and are present in abundance in the
mucosa of the bladder and rectum. They also appear in
the urine and feces. The mode of infection is unknown.
PHYLUM VERMIDEA 345
(2) Schistosomum japonicum resembles the preceding
morphologically, but both the male and female are
smaller. The ova present no spines and somewhat re-
semble those of Uncinaria duodenalis. It was discov-
ered in Japan in 1904 and is apparently common in that
country. It probably inhabits the arteries.
Qass Cestoda
The cestodes, or tapeworms, are very common para-
sites of both man and the animals. In the adult stage
they consist of a linear series of flat, rectangular segments
(proglottides), at one end of which is a smaller segment,
the scolex or head, especially adapted by means of suck-
ing discs and booklets for attachment to the host.
The series represents a colony, of which the scolex is
ancestor. The proglottides are sexually complete in-
dividuals (in most cases hermaphroditic), which are
derived from the scolex by budding. With the excep-
tion of the immature segments near the scolex, each
contains a uterus filled with ova.
The large tapeworms, Tcenia saginata, T. solium, and
Dihothriocephalus latus, are distinguished from one an-
other mainly by the structure of the scolex and the
uterus. The scolex should be studied with a low-
power objective or a hand lens. The uterus is best
seen by pressing the segment out between two plates
of glass.
All the tapeworms pass a larval stage in the tissues of
an intermediate host, which is rarely of the same species
as that which harbors the adult worm. From the ova
which have developed in the proglottides of the adult
worm, and which pass out with the feces of the host,
346
ANIMAL PARASITES
there develop embryos, or oncospheres, each provided
with three pairs of horny hooklets. When the oncosphere
is taken into the intestines of a suitable animal, it pene-
trates to the muscles or viscera and there forms a cyst
in which develop usually one, but sometimes many,
scoHces, which are identical with the head of the adult
worm. When the flesh containing this cystic stage is
eaten without sufficient cooking to destroy the scolices,
the latter attach themselves to the intestinal wall and
produce adult tapeworms by budding.
iglllllil"""^' iii"-iTr||iiiiiimin
Fig. I20. — Taenia saginata (Eichhorst).
Ordinarily, only the adult stage occurs in man. In the
case of TcEfiia echinococcus only the larval stage is found.
T. saginata and T. solium may infect man in either stage,
although the cystic stage is very rare.
Since the head, or scolex, is the ancestor from which
the worm is formed in the intestine, it is important,
after giving a vermifuge, to make certain that the head
has been passed with the worm. Should it remain, a
new worm will develop.
The principal tapeworms found in man belong to
the genera Taenia, H>Tnenolepis, and Dibothriocephalus.
PHYLUM VERMIDEA 347
1. Genus Taenia. — (i) Taenia Saginata or T. Medio-
canellata (Fig. 120). — This, the beef tapeworm, is the
common tapeworm of the United States. Its length
sometimes exceeds twenty-five feet. The middle seg-
ments measure about 6 by 15 mm. The scolex is
about the size of a pin-head, and is surrounded by four
sucking discs, but has no booklets (Fig. 122). The uterus
extends along the midline of the segment and gives
off about twenty branches upon each side (Fig. 129).
Fig. 121. — Eggs of Taenia saginata, magnifications loo, 250, and 500 diameters (photo-
graphs by the author).
The larval stage is passed in the muscles of various
animals, especially cattle.
The scolex is ingested with the meat, its capsule is
dissolved by the digestive juices, and it attaches itself to
the intestinal wall by means of its suckers. It then
develops into the mature worm.
The ova are present in the stools of infected persons,
often in great numbers They are spheric or ovoid,
yellow in color, and have a thick, radially striated shell
(Fig. 121). Their greatest diameter is 30 to 40 (J^ (about
four or five times the diameter of a red blood-corpuscle) .
348 ANIMAL PARASITES
Vegetable cells, which are generally present in the feces,
are often mistaken for them.
(2) Taenia solium, the pork tapeworm, is very rare
in this country. It is usually much shorter than Tania
saginata. The scolex is surrounded by four sucking
discs, and has a projection, or rostellum, with a double
row of horny booklets (Fig. 123). The uterus has only
seven to ten branches (Fig. 129).
Fig. 122. — Head of Taenia saginata (Mos- Fig. 123. — Head of Tsenia solium (Mosler
ler and Peiper). and Pe-per).
The cysticercus stage occurs ordinarily in the muscles
of the pig, but is occasionally seen in man, most fre-
quently affecting the brain and eye {Cysticercus celluloses).
The ova closely resemble those of Tcenia saginata, but
are a little smaller (Fig. 130).
(3) Taenia Echinococcus. — The mature form of this
tapeworm inhabits the intestines of the dog and wolf.
The larvae develop in cattle and sheep ordinarily, but are
sometimes found in man, where they give rise to echino-
coccus or " hvdatid" disease. The condition is unusual
PHYLTJM VEkMIDEA
349
in America, but is not infrequent in Central Europe and
is common in Iceland and Australia.
The adult parasite is 2.5 to 5 mm. long and consists
of only four segments (Fig. 124). It contains many ova.
When the ova reach the digestive tract of man the em-
bryos are set free and find their way
to the liver, lung, or other organ,
where they develop into cysts, thus
losing their identity. The cysts may
attain the size of a child's head.
Other cysts, called " daughter-cysts,"
are formed within these. The cyst-
wall is made up of two layers, from
the inner of which develop larvae
which are identical with the head, or
scolex, of the mature parasite. These
are ovoid structures 0.2 to 0.3 mm.
long. Each has four lateral suckers
and a rostellum surmounted by a double circular row
of horny booklets. The rostellum with its booklets is
frequently invaginated into the body.
Diagnosis of echinococcus disease depends upon de-
tection of scolices, free booklets which have fallen off
from degenerated scolices, or particles of cyst- wall, which
is characteristically laminated and usually has curled
edges. The lamination is best seen at the torn edge of
the membrane. These can be found in fluid withdrawn
from the cysts or, less frequently, in the sputum or the
urine, when the disease involves the lung or kidney (Figs.
•59 and 125). The cysts are sometimes "barren," grow-
ing to a considerable size without producing scolices.
The cyst fluid is clear, between 1.009 ^^^ i-oi5 in
Fig. 124. — Taenia echi-
nococcus; enlarged (Mos-
ler and Peiper).
350 ANIMAL PARASITES
specific gravity, and contains a notable amount of sodium
chlorid, but no albumin.
2. Genus Hymenolepis.— (i) Hymenolepis nana, the
dwarf tapeworm (Fig. 126), is i to 1.5 cm. in length
and 0.5 to 0.7 mm. in breadth at the widest part. The
head is globular and has a rostellum with a crown of 24
Fig. 125. — Scoles and booklets of Taenia echinococcus in fluid from hepatic cyst (X300)
(photographs by the author).
to 30 hooklets. There are about 150 segments The eggs
are round or oval, 30 to 40 u in diameter, and resemble
those of TcEuia saginata. The worm is common in Europe
and America. It is most frequent in children and is gen-
erally present in large numbers, producing considerable
digestive and ner\-ous disturbances. The mode of in-
fection is unknown.
PHYLUM VERMIDEA r , r- r- ^"^I
3. Genus Dipylidium.— t^y Dipylidrum r^cT^ipfn^p^,/;
sometimes called Tania g//i^i?Jci,ill$,fVp;:3f cpiiqan(ion,l^ap^-v-
worm of dogs and cats. It is about 20 cm. long and 2 to
3 mm. broad. The intermediate host is the flea or
louse. Infection of human beings is not common, and
is mostly confined to children, who are
probably infected from the dog licking
their mouths or from getting lice or fleas
into their mouths.
4. Genus Dibothriocephalus. — (i)
Dibothriocephalus latus, the fish tape-
worm, sometimes reaches fifty feet in
length, although it is generally not more
than half so long. When several worms
are present, they are much smaller. It
is common in some countries of Europe, especially Ire-
land, and in Japan, but is very rare in this country,
nu
Fig. 126. — Hymen-
olepis nana, about
natural size (Mosler
and Peiper).
Fig. 127. — Head of Dibothriocephalus latus (about Xg): a, a, Head grooves; 6, neck
(Blanchard).
The head is about i mm. broad and is not unlike the
bowl of a spoon in shape. It is unprovided with either
suckers or booklets, but has two longitudinal grooves
which serve the same purpose (Fig. 127) The length of
the segments is generally less than their breadth, mature
segments measuring about 3 by 10 or 12 mm. The
uterus, which is situated in the center of the segment,
is roset shaped (Fig. 129) and brown or black in color.
The larval stage is found in fish, especially the pike.
352
ANIMAL PARASITES
•
Fig. 128. — Ova of Dibothriocephalus latus (X 250 and scx>). The lids were forced open
by pressure upon the cover-glass (photographs by the author).
Fig. 129. — Segments of — ft) Tsnia saginata; (2) Dibothriocephalus latus; (3) Taenia
solium, showing arrangement of uterus.
The ova are characteristic. They measure about 45
by 70 ^, are brown in color, and are filled with small
PHYLUM VERMIDEA
353
spherules. The shell is thin and has a small hinged lid
at one end. As the eggs appear in the feces the Ud is
not easily seen, but it may be demonstrated by sufl&cient
pressure upon the cover-glass to force it open (Fig. 1 28) .
The only other operculated eggs met with in man are
those of the fluke- worms.
a b c d e
Fig. 130. — Comparative size of eggs of intestinal parasites (about X400): a. Taenia
solium; b. Taenia saginata; c, Ascaris lumbricoides; d, Trichocephalus trichiurus; e,
Oxyuris vermicularis (after Striimpell).
Dihothriocephalus latus is interesting clinically because
it often causes a very severe grade of anemia, which may
be indistinguishable from pernicious anemia.
SUBPHYLUM NEMATHELMINTHES
Qass Nematoda
The nematodes, or round- worms, are cyhndric or fusi-
form worms, varying in length, according to species,
from I mm,' to 40 or 80 cm. As a rule, the sexes are
separate. The male is smaller and more slender than
the female. In a few cases the female is viviparous; in
most cases she deposits ova which are characteristic,
'so that the finding of a single egg may establish the
diagnosis. Except in a few instances the young are
different from the adult, and must pass a certain larval
stage of development before again reaching a host.
23
354
ANIMAL PARASITES
An intermediate host is, however, necessary with only
a few species.
1. Genus Anguillula. — (i) Anguillula Aceti. — This
worm, commonly called the "vinegar eel," is usually
present in vinegar. A drop of the vinegar, particularly
of the sediment, will frequently show great numbers, all
in active motion: males, about i or 1.5 mm. long; females,
somewhat larger and fre-
quently containing several
coiled embryos; and young,
of all sizes up to the adult
(Fig. 60).
The vinegar eel is never
parasitic, but is occasion-
ally met with as a contami-
nation in the urine (see p.
171), and has there been
mistaken for the larva of
filaria or strongyloides.
2. Genus Ascaris. — (i)
Ascaris Lumbricoides. —
The female is 20 to 40 cm.
long and about 6 mm. thick
(Fig. 131); the male, a little
more than half as large
Their color is reddish or
brown. They are the com-
mon " round- worms " so
frequently found in children. Their habitat is the
small intestine. Large numbers are sometimes present.
The diagnosis is made by detection of the worms or ova
in the feces. The latter are generally numerous. They
Fig. 131.
-Ascaris lumbricoides (female)
(Mosler and Peiper).
PHYLUM VERMIDEA
355
are elliptic, measuring about 50 by 70 |U, and have an un-
segmented protoplasm (Fig. 132). The shell is thick
and is surrounded by an uneven gelatinous envelop which
is often stained with bile.
The eggs do not hatch in the intestine of the original
host. They pass out in the feces and, after a variable
period, usually about five weeks, come to contain an
embryo which remains within the shell until ingested
by a new host. The embryo is very resistant and may
Fig. 132. — Ova of Ascaris lumbricoides (X2S0 and 500) (photographs by the author).
remain alive within the shell for years. Upon reaching
the intestine of the new host it hatches out and develops
into the adult worm.
3. Genus Oxyuris. — (i) Oxyuris Vermicularis. — This
is the "thread- worm" or "pin-worm" which inhabits
'the colon and rectum, especially of young children. Its
presence should be suspected in all unexplained cases of
pruritus ani. The female is about i cm. long; the male,
about 0.6 cm. (Fig. 133).
356 ANIMAL PARASITES
The worms are not infrequently found in the feces; the
ova, rarely. The latter are best found by scraping the
skin at the margin of the anus, where they are deposited
by the female, who wanders out from the rectum for this
purpose, this producing the troublesome itching. They
are asymmetrically oval with one flattened side, are about
50 u in length, and often contain a partially developed
embryo. The diagnosis is best made by giving a pur-
gative and searching the stool for the adult worms.
Infection takes place through swallowing the ova.
Auto-infection is likely to occur in children; the ova
cling to the fingers after scratching and are thus carried
to the mouth.
Fig. 133. — Oxyuris vermicularis and egg: a. Male and female, natural size; b, egg (about
X 250) (after Heller).
4. Genus Filaria.— (i) Filaria Bancrofti.— The adults
are thread-like worms, the male about 4 cm., the female
about 8 cm., long. They live in pairs in the l>Tnphatic
channels and glands, especially those of the pelvis and
groin, and often occur in such numbers as to obstruct
the flow of lymph. This is the most common cause of
elephantiasis. Infection is very common in tropical
countries, especially in Samoa, the West Indies, Central
America, and the Isthmus of Panama. It is said that in
Samoa 50 per cent, of the natives are infected.
The female is viviparous, and produces vast numbers
PHYLUM VERMIDEA 357
of embryos, which appear in the circulating blood. The
name Filaria sanguinis hominis, which is commonly
applied to them, is incorrect, since they do not consti-
tute a species. These embryos are about as wide
as a red corpuscle and 0.2 to 0.4 mm. long (Fig. 99),
and are very actively motile. They are found in
the peripheral blood only at night, appearing about 8
P. M., and reaching their maximum number — which is
Fig. 134. — Embryo of Filaria bancrofti in chylous hydrocele flmd; length, zoo /n;
width, 8 >i. A number of red blood-corpuscles also appear (studied through courtesy
of Dr. S. D. Van Meter).
sometimes enormous — about midnight. If the patient
change his time of sleeping, they will appear during the
day. Infection is carried by a variety of mosquito,
which acts as intermediate host. Diagnosis rests upon
detection of embryos in the blood, as described on p. 256.
The embryos are sometimes found in urine and
chylous fluids from the serous cavities. Their motion is
then usually less active than when in blood. That shown
in Fig. 134 was ahve sixty hours after removal of the
35^ ANIMAL P.\RASITES
fluid. Embryos were present in the blood of the same
patient.
A number of other filariae whose larvse appear in the
blood are known, some of them only in the larval stage.
Among these are Filaria philippinensis and F. perstans,
which exhibit no periodicity, and F. diiirna and F. loa,
whose embryos appear in the blood during the day.
The adult of the last named is especially frequent in the
orbit and beneath the conjunctiva.
(2) Filaria medinensis, the "guinea-worm," is a very
interesting and important worm of Africa and southern
Asia. It is thought to be the " fiery serpent " which
molested the Children of Israel in the Wilderness.
The larva probably enters the body through the skin
or gastro-intestinal tract. It wanders about in the sub-
cutaneous tissues until maturity, producing slight, if any,
symptoms. The male has only recently been discovered.
It is only 4 cm. long. It dies soon after the female is
impregnated. The adult female is a very slender,
yellowish worm, about 50 to 80 cm. long, its appearance
somewhat suggesting a catgut suture. When gestation
is complete the greater part of the female's body consists
of a uterus filled with embryos. The female then travels
to the feet or ankles of the host and there produces a red
nodule and, finally, an ulcer, from the center of which
her head protrudes. Through this great numbers of
embryos are discharged whenever it comes in contact
with water. Little damage is done unless the worm is
pulled out, when the embryos are set free in the tissues
and cause serious disturbances.
WTien discharged the embryos seek out a small crus-
tacean, Cyclops, which serves as intermediate host.
PHYLUM VERMIDEA
359
5. Uncinaria Duodenalis and Necator Americanus.
— These, the Old and the New World hook-worm res-
pectively, are among the more harmful of the animal
parasites. They inhabit the small intestine, often in
great numbers, and commonly produce a severe and often
fatal anemia. The presence of a few, however, may
cause slight, if any, disturbance.
Fig. I3S- — Uncinaria duodenalis: a, Male (natural size); b, female (natural size); c, male
(enlarged); d, female (enlarged); e, head; /, /, /, eggs (after v. Jaksch).
Uncinaria duodenalis is common in southern Europe
and in Egypt. The body is cylindric, reddish in color,
and the head is bent sharply. The oral cavity has
six hook-like teeth. The female is 12 to 18 mm. long
and the tail is pointed. The male is 8 to 10 mm. long and
the posterior end is expanded into an umbrella-like pouch,
the caudal bursa. The eggs are oval and have a thin,
smooth, transparent shell. As they appear in the feces
the protoplasm is divided into 2, 4, 8, or more rounded
360
ANIMAL PARASITES
segments (Fig. 135). They measure 32 to 40 |t^ by 55 to
Necator americanus is very common in subtropical
America, including the southern part of the United
States and the West Indies. In Porto Rico 90 per cent,
of the rural population is infected. Isolated cases, prob-
ably imported, have been seen in most of the Northern
Fig. 136. — Four eggs of the New World hook-woriu ^iSccator americanus), in the
one-, two-, and four-cell stages. The egg showing three cells is a lateral view of a four-
cell stage (about X3S0) (after Stiles).
States. The American hook-worm is smaller than the
Old World variety, the male being 7 to 9 mm. long, the
female 9 to 1 1 mm. The four ventral hook-Hke teeth are
replaced by chitinous plates. There are also differences
in the caudal bursa of the male, and in the situation of
the vulva in the female. The ova (Fig. 136) resemble
those of Uficinaria duodenalis, but are larger, 36 to 4.0^
by 67 to 75 y..
The life-history of the two worms is probably the same.
PHYLUM VERMIDEA 36 1
The ova pass out with the feces, and, under favorable con-
ditions of warmth and moisture, develop an embryo
which hatches within a few days. The resulting larvae
pass through a stage of development in warm moist
earth, growing to a length of 0.5 to 0.6 mm., and moulting
twice. They are then ready to infect a new host. In
some cases they probably reach the host's intestine by
way of the mouth, with food or water; but the usual
route is probably that established by Loos. When moist
earth containing the larvae comes in contact with the
skin, they penetrate into the subcutaneous tissues.
This is favored by retention of mud between the toes of
those who go barefooted. When the larvae are abundant
a dermatitis is induced {" ground itch"). From the sub-
cutaneous tissue they pass by way of lymph- and blood-
streams to the lungs. Here they make their way into
the smaller bronchi, are carried by the bronchial mucus
to the pharynx, and are swallowed. They thus ulti-
mately reach the small intestine, where they develop
into mature worms.
The diagnosis of hook-worm infection, which is assum-
ing increasing importance in this country, must rest upon
detection of ova in the ^eces. The worms themselves
seldom appear except after thymol and a cathartic. A
small portion of the feces, diluted with water if necessary,
is placed upon a slide, covered, and searched with a 16
mm. objective. A higher power may rarely be neces-
.sary to positively identify an egg, but should not be
used as a finder. The eggs are nearly always typic,
showing a thin but very distinct shell, a clear zone, and
a segmented protoplasm, and after having once been seen
are not easily mistaken. In severe infections eggs may
362 ANIMAL PARASITES
be found in every microscopic field; in most cases, even
though comparatively mild, they can be found on the first
slide examined. It is seldom necessary to search more
than half a dozen slides. When they are scarce, some
method of sedimenting the feces may be tried, but this
is rarely necessary.
6. Genus Strongyloides.— (i) Strongyloides Intes-
tinalis. — Infection with this worm is by no means so rare
in this country as the few clinical reports would indicate.
It is very common in subtropical countries, notably in
Italy and in southern China. It seems probable that
the parasite is the cause of " Cochin China diarrhea,"
although some authorities regard it as harmless.
The adult worm, which reproduces by parthenogenesis,
is about 2 mm. long. It inhabits the upper portion of
the small intestine, but neither it nor the ova appear in
the stool unless an active diarrhea exists. Ordinarily
the eggs hatch in the intestines, and when infection is
severe embryos can be found in the feces in large num-
bers. These are the '' rhabditiform embryos," which
measure about 0.40 by 0.02 mm. They are actively
motile, and are best found by making a small depression
in the fecal mass, filling it with water, and keeping in a
warm place (preferably an incubator) for twelve to
twenty-four hours. The embryos will collect in the
water, and can be easily found by transferring a drop
to a slide and examining with a 16 mm. objective. The
inexperienced worker should make sure that the worms
move, or he may be misled by the vegetable spines
which are generally present in the feces. ' Certain of
these spines (notably those from the skin of a peach)
closely resemble small worms.
PHYLUM VERMIDEA 363
Outside the body the rhabditiform embryos develop
into a free-Hving, sexually differentiated generation. The
young of this generation are the more slender "filari-
form embryos" (Fig. 137). Infection can occur either
through these embryos of the free-living generation or by
direct transformation of rhabditiform into filariform em-
bryos, and these into the parthenogenic parasitic adult.
Fig. 137. — Strongyloides intestinalis: A, Mature female; B, rhabditiform larva; C, filari-
form larva (after Braun).
7. Genus Trichinella. — (i) Trichinella Spiralis. —
This is a very small worm, not exceeding 3 mm. in
length when fully developed. Infection in man occurs
from ingestion of insufficiently cooked pork, which
contains encysted embryos. Ordinary "curing" of
pork does not kill them. These reach maturity in
the small intestine. Soon after copulation the males
die, and the females penetrate into the mucous mem-
brane. They live in this situation about six weeks,
giving birth to great numbers of young, averaging as
high as 1500 from a single female. The larvae migrate
to the striated muscles, chiefly near the tendinous inser-
tions, where they grow to a length of about 0.8 mm., and
finally become encysted. In this condition they may
remain alive and capable of developing for as long as
twenty-five years.
364 ANIMAL PARASITES
Trichiniasis is generally accompanied by a marked
eosinophilia. The diagnosis is made by teasing out upon
a slide a bit of muscle, obtained preferably from the outer
head of the gastrocnemius, the insertion of the deltoid,
Fit;. 138. — Trichinella spiralis (larvae) from head of right gastrocnemius muscle; seventh
week of disease (two-thirds objective; eye-piece 4) (Boston).
or the lower portion of the biceps. The coiled embryos
can easily be seen with a i6 mm. objective (Fig. 138).
The embryos can be found in the blood (p. 257) before
they have reached their final resting-place in the muscles.
Fis. 13Q. — Trichocephalus trichiurus: a. Female; b, male (natural size) (Heller).
8. Genus Trichocephalus.— (i) Trichocephalus Tri-
chiurus.— This, the "whip-worm," is 4 or 5 cm. long.
Its anterior portion is slender and thread-like, while
the posterior portion is thicker (Fig. 139). It is
PHYLUM VERMIDE 365
widely distributed geographically, and is one of the most
common of intestinal parasites in this country. It lives
in the large intestine, especially the cecum, with its
slender extremity embedded in the mucous membrane.
Whip- worms do not, as a rule, produce any symptoms,
although gastro-intestinal disturbances, nervous symp-
toms, and anemia have been ascribed to them. They,
as well as many other intestinal parasites, are probably
Fig. 140. — Ova of Trichocephalus trichiurus ( X 250 and 500) (photographs by the author).
an important factor in the etiology of appendicitis,
typhoid fever, and other intestinal infections. The
damage which they do to the mucous membrane favors
bacterial invasion.
The number present is usually small. The worms
themselves are rarely found in the feces. The ova, which
are not often abundant, are easily recognized. They
are brown, ovoid in shape, about 50 fi long, and have a
button-like projection at each end (Fig. 140)-
366 ANIMAL PARASITES
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
The arthropoda which are parasitic to man belong to
the classes Arachnoidea and Insecta. They are nearly
all external parasites, and the reader is referred to the
standard works upon diseases of the skin for descriptions.
The several species of the louse {Pediculus capitis, P.
vcslimenti, P. pubis), the itch mite {Sarcoptes scahiei), and
the small organism {Demodex folliculorum) which lives
in the sebaceous glands, especially about the face, are
the most common members of this group.
A number of flies may deposit their ova in wounds or in
such of the body cavities as they can reach, and the re-
sulting maggots may cause intense irritation. Ova may
be swallowed with the food and the maggots appear in the
feces. Probably most important is the "screw worm,"
the larva of Chrysomyia macellaria, infection with which
is not rare in some parts of the United States. The ova
are most commonly deposited in the nasal passages, and
the larvae, which may be present in great numbers,
burrow through the soft parts, cartilage, and even bone,
always with serious and often with fatal results.
CHAPTER VII
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
PUS
Pus contains much granular debris and numerous more
or less degenerated cells, the great majority being poly-
morphonuclear leukocytes — so-called "pus-corpuscles."
EosinophiHc leukocytes are common in gonorrheal pus
and in asthmatic sputum. Examination of pus is di-
rected chiefly to detection of bacteria.
When very few bacteria are present, culture methods,
which are outlined in Chapter VIII, must be resorted to.
When considerable numbers are present, they can be
detected and often identified in cover-glass smears.
Several smears should be made, dried, and fixed, as
described on p. 407.
One of these should be stained with a bacterial stain,
Loffler's methylene-blue and Pappenheim's pyronin-
methyl-green are especially satisfactory for this pur-
pose. These stains are applied for one-half minute
to two minutes or longer, without heating; the prep-
aration is rinsed in water, dried, mounted, and examined
with an oil-immersion lens. Another smear should be
stained by Gram's method. These will give information
concerning all bacteria which may be present, and fre-
quently no other procedure will be necessary for their
identification.
367
368 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
The most common pus-producing organisms are
staphylococci and streptococci. They are both cocci, or
spheres, their average diameter being about i ^. Staphy-
lococci are commonly grouped in clusters, often compared
to bunches of grapes (Fig. 141). There are several
varieties which can be distinguished only in cultures.
Streptococci are arranged side by side, forming chains
of variable length (Fig. 142). Sometimes there are only
three or four individuals in a chain; sometimes a chain
Fig. 141. — Staphylococcus pyogenes albus from an abscess of the parotid gland (Jakob).
is so long as to extend across several microscopic fields.
Streptococci are more virulent than staphylococci, and
are less commonly met. Both are Gram-positive.
Their cultural characteristics are given on p. 415.
Should bacteria resembling pneumococci be found,
Buerger's or Smith's method for capsules (p. 55) should
be tried. When these are not available, capsules can
usually be shown by the method of Hiss. The dried
and fixed smear is covered with a stain composed of 5 c.c.
saturated alcoholic solution gentian-violet and 95 c.c.
PUS 369
distilled water, and heated until steam rises. The prep-
aration is then washed with 20 per cent, solution of
copper sulphate, dried, and mounted in Canada balsam.
Pneumococci may give rise to inflammation in many
locations (see p. 54). When they form short chains,
demonstration of the capsule is necessary to distinguish
them from streptococci.
If tuberculosis be suspected, the smears should be
stained by one of the methods for the tubercle bacillus
Fig. 142. — Streptococcus pyogenes from a case of empyema (Jakob).
(pp. 49 and 51), or guinea-pigs may be inoculated.
The bacilli are generally diflicult to find in pus, and
bacteria-free pus would suggest tuberculosis.
Gonococci, when typic, can usually be identified with
sufficient certainty for clinical purposes in the smear
stained with Loffler's methylene-blue or, much better,
Pappenheim's pyronin -methyl-green. They are coffee-
bean-shaped cocci which lie in pairs with their flat sur-
faces together (Fig. 144). They lie for the most part
within pus-cells, an occasional cell being filled with them,
24
370
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
while the surrounding cells contain few or none. A few
are found outside of the cells. It is not usual to find
gonococci when many other bacteria are present, even
Fig. 143. — Diplococcus pneumoniae from ulcer of cornea (obj. one-twelfth oil immersion)
(study throuKh courtesy of Dr. C. A. Oliver) (Boston).
though the pus is primarily of gonorrheal origin. When-
ever the identity of the organism is at all questionable,
Gram's method should be tried. In rare instances it
Fig. 144. — Gonococci in urethral pus (McFarland).
may be necessary to resort to cultures. The gonococcus
is distinguished by its failure to grow upon ordinary
media (see p. 416).
PERITONEAL, PLEURAL, AND PERICARDIAL FLUIDS 37 1
Gonococci are generally easily found in pus from un-
treated acute and subacute gonorrheal inflammations —
conjunctivitis, urethritis, etc. — but are found with diffi-
culty in pus from chronic inflammations and abscesses,
and in urinary sediments.
PERITONEAL, PLEURAL, AND PERICARDLA.L FLUIDS
The serous cavities contain very little fluid normally,
but considerable quantities are frequently present as a
result of pathologic conditions. The pathologic fluids are
classed as transudates and exudates.
Transudates are non-inflammatory in origin. They
contain only a few cells, and less than 2.5 per cent, of
albumin, and do not coagulate spontaneously. The
specific gravity is below 1.018. Micro-organisms are
seldom present.
Exudates are of inflammatory origin. They are richer
in cells and albumin, and tend to coagulate upon stand-
ing. The specific gravity is above 1.018. Bacteria are
generally present, and often numerous. The amount of
albumin is estimated by Esbach's method, after diluting
the fluid. Bacteria are recognized by cultures, animal
inoculation, or stained smears.
Exudates are usually classed as serous, serofibrinous,
seropurulent, purulent, putrid, and hemorrhagic, which
terms require no explanation. In addition, chylous and
chyloid exudates are occasionally met, particularly in the
peritoneal cavity. In the chylous form the milkiness is
due mainly to the presence of minute fat-droplets, and is
the result of rupture of a lymph-vessel usually from
obstruction of the thoracic duct. Chyloid exudates
are milky chiefly from proteins in suspension, or fine
372 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
debris from broken-down cells. These exudates are most
frequently seen in carcinoma and tuberculosis of the
peritoneum.
Cytodiagnosis. — This is diagnosis from a differential
count of the cells in a transudate or exudate, particularly
one of pleural or peritoneal origin.
The fresh fluid, obtained by aspiration, is centrifugal-
ized for at least five minutes; the supernatant liquid is
Fig. 145. — Cytodiagnosis. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes and swollen endothelial
cells from acute infectious non-tuberculous pleuritis (Percy Musgrave; photo by L. S.
Brown).
poured off; and cover-glass smears are made and dried in
the air. The smears are then stained with Wright's
blood-stain, to which one-third its volume of pure methyl-
alcohol has been added. Cover the smear with this fluid
for one-half minute, then dilute with 8 or 10 drops of
water, and let stand about two minutes. Wash gently
in water, and dry by holding the cover-glass between the
fingers over a flame. Mount in balsam and examine
with an oil-immersion objective.
PERITONEAL, PLEURAL, AND PERICARDIAL FLUIDS 373
Fig. 146. — Cytodiagnosis. Lymphoid cells from pleural fluid; case of tuberculous pleuritis
(Percy Musgrave; photo by L. S. Brown).
Fig. 147. — Cytodiagnosis. Endothelial cells from transudate or mechanical effusion
(Percy Musgrave; photo by L. S. Brown).
Predominance of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (pus-
corpuscles) points to an acute infectious process (Fig.
145)-
374 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
Predominance of lymphocytes (Fig. 146) generally sig-
nifies tuberculosis. Tuberculous pleurisy due to direct
extension from the lung may give excess of polymorpho-
nuclears owing to mixed infection.
Predominance of endothelial cells, few cells of any kind
being present, indicates a transudate (Fig. 147). Endo-
thelial cells generally predominate in carcinoma, but are
accompanied by considerable numbers of lymphocytes
and red blood-corpuscles.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Examination of the fluid obtained by lumbar puncture
is of value in diagnosis of certain forms of meningitis.
Tubercle bacilli can be found in the majority of cases
of tuberculous meningitis. The sediment, obtained by
thorough centrifugahzation or by coagulation and treat-
ment with antiformin, is spread upon slides and stained
by one of the methods already given. A consider-
able number of smears should be examined. In
doubtful cases inoculation of guinea-pigs must be re-
sorted to.
The Diplococcus intracellularis meningitidis is recog-
nized as the cause of epidemic cerebrospinal fever, and
can be detected in the cerebrospinal fluid of most cases,
especially those which run an acute course. Cover-glass
smears from the sediment should be stained by the
method for the gonococcus (p. 369). The meningo-
coccus is an intracellular diplococcus which often cannot
be distinguished from the gonococcus in stained smears
(Fig. 148). It, also, decolorizes by Gram's method. The
presence of such a diplococcus in meningeal exudates is,
however, sufficient for its identification.
ANIMAL INOCULATION 375
Various organisms have been found in other forms of
meningitis — the pneumococcus most frequently. In
Fig. 148. — Diplococcus intracellularis meningitidis in leukocytes (X2000) (Wright and
Brown).
some cases no micro-organisms can be detected even by
culture methods.
ANIMAL INOCULATION
Inoculation of animals is one of the most reliable means
of verifying the presence of certain micro-organisms in
fluids and other pathologic material, and is helpful in
determining the species of bacteria which have been
isolated in pure culture.
Clinically, it is applied almost exclusively to demon-
stration of the tubercle bacillus when other means have
failed or are uncertain. The guinea-pig is the most
376
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
suitable animal for this purpose. When the suspected
material is fluid and contains pus, it should be well cen-
trifugalized, and one or two cubic centimeters of the
sediment injected by means of a large hypodermic needle
into the peritoneal cavity or underneath the loose skin of
the groin. Fluids from which no sediment can be ob-
tained must be injected directly into the peritoneal cavity,
since at least lo c.c. are required, which is too great an
Fig. i4g. — Influenza bacilli in spinal fluid. Case of meningitis (X looo) (photograph by
the author).
amount to inject hypodermically. Sohd material should
be placed in a pocket made by snipping the skin of the
groin with scissors, and freeing it from the underlying
tissues for a short distance around the opening. When
the intraperitoneal method is selected, several animals
must be inoculated, since some are likely to die from
peritonitis caused by other organisms before the tubercle
bacillus has had time to produce its characteristic lesions.
The animals should be killed- at the end of six or eight
THE MOUTH 377
weeks, if they do not die before that time, and a careful
postmortem examination should be made for the char-
acteristic pearl-gray or yellow tubercles scattered over
the peritoneum and through the abdominal organs, par-
ticularly the spleen, and for caseous inguinal and retro-
peritoneal lymph-glands. The tubercles and portions of
the caseous glands should be crushed between two slides,
dried, and stained for tubercle bacilli. The bacilli are
difficult to find in the caseous material.
THE MOUTH
Micro-organisms are always present in large numbers.
Among these is Leptothrix huccalis (Fig. 150), which is
Fig. 150. — Gingival deposit (iinstained): a. Squamous epithelial cells; b, leujiocs^tes; c,
bacteria; d, Leptothrix buccalis Qakob).
especially abundant in the crypts of the tonsils and the
tartar of the teeth. The whitish patches of Pharyn-
gomycosis leptothrica are largely composed of these fungi.
They are slender, segmented threads, which generally,
but not always, stain violet with Lugol's solution, and are
378 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
readily seen with a 4 mm. objective. At times they
are observed in the sputum and stomach fluid. In the
former they might be mistaken for elastic fibers; in the
latter, for Boas-Oppler bacilli. In either case, the re-
action with iodin will distinguish them.
Thrush is a disease of the mouth seen most often in
children, and characterized by the presence of white
patches upon the mucous membrane. It is caused by the
thrush fungus, Oidium albicans. When a bit from one
Fig. 151. — Thrush fungus (Oidium albicans) (Jakob).
of the patches is pressed out between a slide and cover and
examined with a 4 mm. objective, the fungus is seen to
consist of a network of branching segmented hyphae
with numerous spores, both within the hyphae and in the
meshes between them (Fig. 151). The meshes also con-
tain leukocytes, epithelial cells, and granular debris.
Acute pseudomembranous inflammations, which occur
chiefly upon the tonsils and nasopharynx, are generally
caused by the diphtheria bacillus, but may result from
THE MOUTH 379
streptococcic infection. In many cases diphtheria
bacilli can be demonstrated in smears made from the
membrane and stained with Loffler's methylene-blue or
2 per cent, aqueous solution of methyl-green. They are
straight or curved rods, which vary markedly in size
and outline, and stain very irregularly. A characteristic
form is a palely tinted rod with several deeply stained
granules (metachromatic bodies), or with one such
.. •;■ -^^^ 7^^^-.' j^.
Fig. 152. — Bacillus diphtheriae stained with methyl-green; culture from throat ( X 1000)
(photograph by the author).
granule at each end (Fig. 152). They stain by Gram's
method. It is generally necessary, and always safer, to
make a culture upon blood-serum, incubate for twelve
hours, and examine smears from the growth.
Vincent's angina is a pseudomembranous and ulcer-
ative inflammation of mouth and pharynx, which when
acute may be mistaken for diphtheria, and when chronic
is very apt to be mistaken for syphilis. Stained smears
38o
MISCELLANEOUS EX.\MINATIONS
from the ulcers or membrane show large numbers of
spirochaetae and " fusiform bacilli," giving a striking and
characteristic picture (Fig. 153). The "bacillus" is
spindle shaped, more or less pointed at the ends, and
about 6 to 12 a long. The spirillum is a very slender,
wavy thread, about 30 to 40 u long. Diluted analin-
gentian-violet makes a satisfactory stain. Further de-
scription is given on p. 331.
0
^. V,
m ^
Fig. 153. — Spirochaeta vincenti from case of ulcerative stomatitis { X 1200)
Tuberculous ulcerations of mouth and pharynx can
generally be diagnosed from curetings made after careful
cleansing of the surface. The curetings are well rubbed
between slide and cover, and the smears thus made are
dried, fixed, and stained for tubercle bacilU. Since there
is much danger of contamination from tuberculous spu-
tum, the presence of tubercle bacilli is significant only in
proportion to the thoroughness with which the ulcer was
THE EYE 381
cleansed. The diagnosis is certain when the bacilli are
found within groups of cells which have not been dis-
associated in making the smears.
THE EYE
Staphylococci, pneumococci, and streptococci are prob-
ably the most common of the bacteria to be found in non-
specific conjunctivitis and keratitis. Serpiginous ulcer
of the cornea is generally associated with the pneumococ-
cus (Fig. 143).
Fig. 154. — Conjunctival secretion from acute contagious conjunctivitis; polynuclear
leukocytes with the bacillus of Weeks; P, phagocyte containing bacillus of Weeks (one-
twelfth oil-immersion, ocular iii) (Morax).
The usual cause of acute infectious conjunctivitis
("pink-eye"), especially in cities, seems to be the Koch-
Weeks bacillus. This is a minute, slender rod, which
lies within and between the pus-corpuscles (Fig. 154),
and is negative to Gram's stain. In smears it cannot be
distinguished from the influenza bacillus, although its
length is somewhat greater.
The diplohacillus of Morax and Axenfeld gives rise
to an acute or chronic blepharoconjunctivitis without
follicles or membrane, for which zinc sulphate seems to be
a specific. It is widely distributed geographically and
382 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
is common in many regions. The organism is a short,
thick diplobacillus, is frequently intracellular, and is
Gram-negative (Fig. 155). A delicate capsule can some-
times be made out.
Early diagnosis of gonorrheal ophthalmia is extremely
important, and can be made with certainty only by detec-
tion of gonococci in the discharge. They are easily found
in smears from untreated cases. After treatment is
Fig. 155. — The diplobacillus of Morax and Axenfeld (from a preparation by Dr. Harold
Gifford).
begun they soon disappear, even though the discharge
continues.
Pseudomembranous conjunctivitis generally shows
either streptococci or diphtheria bacilli. In diagnosing
diphtheritic conjunctivitis, one must be on his guard
against the Bacillus xerosis, which is a frequent inhabit-
ant of the conjunctival sac in healthy persons, and which
is identical morphologically with the diphtheria bacillus.
THE EAR 383
The clinical picture is hence more significant than the
microscopic findings.
Various micro-organisms — bacteria, molds, protozoa — •
have been described in connection with trachoma, but the
specific organism of the disease is not definitely known.
Herbert has called attention to the abundance of
eosinophilic leukocytes in the discharge of vernal catarrh.
He regards their presence in considerable numbers as
very helpful in the diagnosis of this disease.
THE EAR
By far the most frequent exciting causes of acute otitis
media are the pneumococcus and the streptococcus. The
finding of other bacteria in the discharge generally indi-
cates a secondary infection, except in cases complicating
infectious diseases, such as typhoid fever, diphtheria, and
influenza. Discharges which have continued for some
time are practically always contaminated with the
staphylococcus. The presence of the streptococcus
should be a cause of uneasiness, since it much more
frequently leads to mastoid disease and meningitis than
does the pneumococcus. The staphylococcus, bacillus
of Friedlander, colon bacillus, and Bacillus pyocyaneus
may be met in chronic middle-ear disease.
In tuberculous disease the tubercle bacillus is present in
the discharge, but its detection offers some difficulties. It
is rarely easy to find, and precautions must always be
taken to exclude the smegma and other acid-fast bacilli
(P- 53)) which are especially liable to be present in the
ear. Rather striking is the tendency of old squamous
cells to retain the red stain, and fragments of such cells
may mislead the unwary.
384 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN
Favus, tinea versicolor, and the various forms of ring-
worm are caused by members of the fungus group. To
demonstrate them, a crust or a hair from the affected area
is softened with a few drops of 20 per cent, caustic soda
solution, pressed out between a shde and cover, and
examined with a one-sixth objective. They consist of a
more or less dense network of hyphae and numerous
round or oval refractive spores. The cuts in standard
works upon diseases of the skin will aid in differentiating
the members of the group.
MILK
A large number of analyses of human and cows' milk
are averaged by Holt as follows, Jersey milk being ek-
cluded because of its excessive fat:
Human Milk. Cows' Milk.
Normal variations. Average, per Average, per
per cent. cent. cent.
Fat 3.00 to 5.CX3 4.00 3.50
Sugar 6.00 to 7.00 7.CX3 4.30
Proteins i.cxj to 2.25 1.50 4.00
Salts 0.18 to 0.25 0.20 0.70
Water 8Q.82 to 85.50 87.30 87.50
100.00 loo.oo 100.00 100.00
The reaction of human milk is slightly alkaline; of
cows', neutral or slightly acid. The specific gravity of
each is about 1.028 to 1.032. Human milk is sterile when
secreted, but derives a few bacteria from the lacteal
ducts. Cows' milk, as usually sold, contains large num-
bers of bacteria, the best milk rarely containing fewer
than 10,000 per cubic centimeter. Microscopically,
MILK
385
human milk is a fairly homogeneous emulsion of fat,
and is practically destitute of cellular elements.
Chemic examination of milk is of great value in solving
the problems of infant feeding. The sample examined
r
\
en
c.c.
0 lOl
2_|
3_|_ 1
4_|-6
6_|-4
7-|_3
dJLz
9_i_ I
10_=_0
Fig. 156. — Holt's milk-testing apparatus.
should be the middle milk, or the entire quantity from
one breast. The fat and protein can be estimated
roughly, but accurately enough for many clinical purposes
by means of Holt's apparatus, which consists of a 10 c.c.
cream gage and a small hydrometer (Fig. 156). The
25
386
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
cream gage is filled to the o mark with milk, allowed to
stand for twenty-four hours at room temperature, and the
percentage of cream then read off. The percentage of
fat is three-fifths that of the cream. The protein is then
approximated from a consideration of the specific gravity
and the percentage of fat. The salts and sugar very sel-
dom vary sufficiently to affect the specific gravity, hence
a high specific gravity must be due to either an increase
of protein or decrease of fat, or both, and vice versa.
With normal specific gravity the protein is high when
the fat is high, and vice versa. The
method is not accurate with cows' milk.
For more accurate work the following
methods, applicable to either human or
cows' milk, are simple and satisfactory.
Fat. — Leffmann-Beam Method.- — This
is essentially the widely used Babcock
method, modified for the small quanti-
ties of milk obtainable from the human
mammary gland. The apparatus con-
sists of a special tube which fits the
aluminum shield of the medical centri-
fuge (Fig. 157) and a 5 c.c. pipet. Owing
to its narrow stem, the tube is difficult
to fill and to clean. Exactly 5 c.c. of
the milk are introduced into the tube by means of the
pipet, and i c.c. of a mixture of equal parts of concen-
trated hydrochloric acid and amyl-alcohol is added and
well mixed. The tube is filled to the o mark with con-
centrated sulphuric acid, adding a few drops at a time
and agitating constantly. This is revolved in the centri-
fuge at 1000 revolutions a minute for three minutes, or
Fig. iS7.^Tube for
milk analysis.
MILK 387
until the fat has separated. The percentage is then read
off upon the stem, each small division representing 0.2
per cent, of fat.
Proteins. — T. R. Boggs' Modification of the Esbach
Method. — This is applied as for urinary albumin (p. 105),
substituting Boggs' reagent for Esbach's. The reagent
is prepared as follows:
(i) Phosphotungstic acid 25 gm.
Distilled water 125 c.c.
(2) Concentrated hydrochloric acid 25 c.c.
Distilled water 100 c.c.
When the phosphotungstic acid is completely dissolved,
mix the two solutions. This reagent is quite stable if
kept in a dark glass bottle.
Before examination, the milk should be diluted accord-
ing to the probable amount of protein, and allowance
made in the subsequent reading. For human milk the
optimum dilution is i : 10; for cows' milk, i : 20. Dilu-
tion must be accurate.
Lactose. — The protein should first be removed by
acidifying with acetic acid, boiling, and filtering. Purdy's
method may then be used as for glucose in the urine
(p. 112); but it must be borne in mind that lactose re-
duces copper more slowly than glucose, and longer heat-
ing is, therefore, required; and that 35 c.c. of Purdy's
solution is equivalent to 0.0268 gm. lactose (as com-
pared with 0.02 gm. glucose).
It is frequently desirable to detect formalin, which
is the most common preservative added to cows' milk.
Add a few drops of dilute ferric chlorid solution to a few
3^^
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
cubic centimeters of the milk, and run the mixture
gently upon the surface of some strong sulphuric acid
in a test-tube. If formaldehyd be present, a bright red
ring will appear at the line of contact of the fluids. This
is not a specific test for formaldehyd, but nothing else
likely to be added to the milk will give it.
SYPHILITIC MATERIAL
In 1905 Schaudinn and Hoffmann described the
occurrence of a very slender, spiral micro-organism in
the lesions of syphilis. This they named Spirochata
^ ^^■;^
Fig. 158. — Treponema pallidum (X 1000) (Leitz j'j oil-immersion objective and Lcitz
dark-ground condenser).
pallida, because of its low refractive power and the
difficulty with which it takes up staining reagents. The
name was later changed to Treponema pallidum. Its
etiologic relation to syphilis is now universally admitted.
It is found in primary, secondary, and tertiary lesions,
but is not present in the latter in sufficient numbers to
be of value in diagnosis.
SYPHILITIC MATERIAL 389
Treponema pallidum is an extremely slender, spiral,
motile thread, with pointed ends. There is a flagellum
at each end, but it is not seen in ordinary preparations.
The organism varies considerably in length, the average
being about 7 /M, or the diameter of a red blood-corpuscle;
and it exhibits three to twelve, sometimes more, spiral
curves, which are sharp and regular and resemble the
curves of a corkscrew (Figs. 112, 158, 159). It is so
delicate that it is difficult to see even in well-stained
Fig. 159. — Tr^Mnema pallidum and Spiroch.'eta refringens (X 1200) (Leitz oil-immersion
objective).
preparations; a high magnification and careful focusing
are, therefore, required. Upon ulcerated surfaces it is
often mingled with other spiral micro-organisms, which
adds to the difficulty of its detection. The most notable
of these is Spirochceta refringens, described on p. 333.
Treponema pallidum is most easily demonstrated in
chancres and mucous patches, although the skin lesions
— papules, pustules, roseolous areas— often contain large
numbers. Tissue-juice from the deeper portions of the
lesions is the most favorable material for examination,
390 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
because the organisms are commonly more abundant
than upon ulcerated surfaces and are rarely accompanied
by other micro-organisms. After cleansing, the surface
is gently scraped with a curet or rubbed briskly with a
swab of cotton or gauze. In a few moments serum will
exude. The rubbing should not be so vigorous as to
bring the blood, because the corpuscles may hide the
treponema. Very thin cover-glass smears are then made
from the serum.
Staining Methods.— Giemsa's stain is probably the most
widely used. It is best purchased ready prepared. Smears
are fixed in absolute alcohol for fifteen minutes. Ten drops
of the stain are added to lo c.c. of faintly alkaline distilled
water (i drop of a i per cent, solution of potassium carbonate
to lo c.c. of the water), and the fixed smear is immersed in
this diluted stain for one to three hours or longer. It is then
rinsed in distilled water, dried, and mounted. In well-stained
specimens Treponema pallidum is reddish, most other micro-
organisms, bluish. More intense staining may be obtained
by gently warming the stain.
Wright's blood-stain, used in the manner already described
(p. 222) except that the diluted stain is allowed to act upon
the film for fifteen minutes, gives good results.
Silver Method.— The silver impregnation method has
long been used for tissues. Stein has applied it to smears as
follows:
1. Dry the films in the incubator at 37° C. for three or
four hours.
2. Immerse in 10 per cent, silver nitrate solution, in diffuse
daylight for some hours, until the preparation takes on a
metallic luster.
3. Wash in water, dry, and mount.
The organisms are black against a brownish background.
SEMEN 391
India-ink Method. — A drop of India-ink of good grade
(Gunther and Wagner's recommended) is diluted with i
to 5 drops of water. A loopful of this is mixed on a slide
with a similar quantity of serum from the suspected lesion.
The mixture is then spread over the slide and allowed to dry.
After drying, it is examined with an oil-immersion lens.
Micro-organisms, including Treponema pallidum, appear
clear white on a brown or black background, much as they do
with the dark ground condenser (Fig. 158). Because of its
extreme simplicity this method has been favorably received.
It cannot, however, be absolutely relied upon, since, as has
been pointed out, many India-inks contain wavy vegetable
fibrils which might easily mislead a beginner, and sometimes,
indeed, even an experienced worker.
Dark groixnd illumination (see p. 21) may be used to
study the living organisms in fresh tissue juices. This offers
a satisfactory means of diagnosis, but since the instrument is
expensive the practitioner will rely upon one or more of the
staining methods just enumerated.
SEMEN
Absence of spermatozoa is a more common cause of
sterility than is generally recognized. In some cases
they are present, but lose their motility immediately
after ejaculation.
Semen must be kept warm until examined. When it
must be transported any considerable distance, the
method suggested by Boston is convenient. The fresh
semen is placed in a small bottle, to the neck of which a
string is attached. This is then suspended from a button
on the trousers, so that the bottle rests against the skin of
the inguinal region. It may be carried in this way for
hours. When ready to examine, place a small quantity
392
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
upon a warmed slide and apply a cover. The sperma-
tozoa are readily seen with a 4 mm. objective (Fig. 57).
Normally, they are abundant and in active motion.
Detection of semen in stains upon clothing, etc., is
often important. The finding of spermatozoa, after
soaking the stain for an hour in normal salt solution or
Fig. 160. — Seminal crystals (medium size) (X750) from a stain on clothing. A sin-
gle thread i inch long was used in the test, the stain being three years and four
months old (Peterson and Haines).
dilute alcohol, and teasing in the same fluid, is absolute
proof that the stain in question is semen, although it is
not possible to distinguish human semen from that of the
lower animals in this way. A little eosin added to the
fluid will bring the spermatozoa out more clearly.
Florence's Reaction. — The suspected material is soft-
ened with water, placed upon a slide with a few drops
DIAGNOSIS OF RABIES 393
of the reagent, and examined at once with a medium
power of the microscope. If the material be semen,
there will be found dark-brown crystals (Fig. i6o) in the
form of rhombic platelets resembling hemin crystals, or
of needles, often grouped in clusters. These crystals can
also be obtained from crushed insects, watery extracts of
various internal organs, and certain other substances,
so that they are not absolute proof of the presen'ce of
semen. Negative results, upon the other hand, are con-
clusive, even when the semen is many years old.
The reagent consists of iodin, 2.54 gm.; potassium
iodid, 1.65 gm.; and distilled water, 30 c.c.
DIAGNOSIS OF RABIES
In view of the brilliant results attending prophylactic
treatment by the Pasteur method, early diagnosis of
rabies (hydrophobia) in animals which have bitten per-
sons is extremely important.
The most reliable means of diagnosis is the production
of the disease in a rabbit by subdural or intracerebral
injection of a Httle of the filtrate from an emulsion of
the brain and medulla of the suspected animal. The
diagnosis can, however, usually be quickly and easily
made by microscopic demonstration of Negri bodies.
Whether these bodies be protozoan in nature and the
cause of the disease, as is held by many, or whether they
be products of the disease, it is certain that their presence
is pathognomonic.
Negri bodies are sharply outlined, round, oval, or
somewhat irregular structures which vary in size, the
extremes being 0.5 and 18 |t/. They consist of a hyalin-
like cytoplasm, in which when properly stained one or
394 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
more chromatin bodies can usually be seen. They are
situated chiefly within the cytoplasm of the large cells
of the central nervous system, the favorite locations
being the multipolar cells of the hippocampus major
(Ammon's horn). In many cases they suggest red blood-
corpuscles lying within nerve-cells.
Probably the best method of demonstrating Negri
bodies is the impression method of Langdon Frothingham,
which is carried out as follows:
(i) Place the dog's brain^ upon a board about lo inches
square, and divide into two halves by cutting along the me-
dian line with scissors.
(2) From one of the halves cut away the cerebellum and
open the lateral ventricle, exposing the Ammon's horn.
(3) Dissect out the Ammon's horn as cleanly as possible.
(4) Cut out a small disc at right angles to the long axis of
the Ammon's horn, so that it represents a cross-section of the
organ.
(5) Place this disc upon the board near the edge, with one
of the cut surfaces upward.
(6) Press the surface of a thoroughly clean slide upon the
disc and lift it suddenly. The disc (if its exposed surface has
not been allowed to become too dry) will cling to the board,
leaving only an impression upon the slide. Make several
similar impressions upon different portions of the slide, using
somewhat greater pressure each time. Impressions are also
to be made from the cut surface of the cerebellum, since Negri
bodies are sometimes present in the Purkinje cells when not
found in the Ammon's horn.
(7) Before the impressions dry, immerse in methyl-alcohol
for one-half to two minutes.
' For Dr. Frothingham's method of removing a dog's brain .see Ameri-
can Journal of Public Hygiene for February, 1908.
PLATE XIII
V " fi ^J;sr\■^»l-^
A ,
.--^'
%
Nerve-cells containing Negri bodies.
Hippocampus impression preparation, dog. Van Gieson stain:
X looo. I, Negri bodies; 2, capillary; 3, free red blood-corpuscles
(courtesy of Langdon Frothingham).
DIAGNOSIS OF RABIES 395
(8) Cover with Van Gieson's methylene-blue-fuchsin stain,
warming gently for one-half to two minutes. This stain, as
modified by Frothingham, is as follows. It must be freshly
mixed each day:
Tap-water 20 c.c.
Saturated alcoholic solution basic fuchsin 3 drops.
Saturated aqueous solution methylene-blue i drop.
(9) Wash in water and dry with filter-paper. Examine
with a low power to locate the large cells in which the
bodies are apt to be found, and study these with an oil-
immersion lens.
The Negri bodies are stained a pale pink to purplish red,
and frequently contain small blue dots (Plate XIII). The
nerve-cells are blue, and red blood-corpuscles are colorless
or yellowish-copper colored.
When the work is finished, the board with the dissected
brain is sterilized in the steam sterilizer.
Demonstration of Negri bodies by this method is quicker
and, probably, more certain than by the study of sections.
It has the decided advantage over the smear method that the
histologic structure is retained. One or more of the impres-
sions generally shows the entire cell arrangement almost as
well as in sections, and it is very easy to locate favorable
fields with a 16 mm. objective.
CHAPTER VIII
BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
Bacteriology has become so important a part of medi-
cine that some knowledge of bacteriologic methods is
imperative for the present-day practitioner. It has been
the plan of this book to describe the various bacteria
and bacteriologic methods with the subjects to which
they seemed to be particularly related. The tubercle
bacillus and its detection, for example, are described in
the chapters upon Sputum and Urine; blood-cultures
are discussed in the chapter upon Blood. There are,
however, certain methods, notably the preparation of
media and the study of bacteria by cultures, which do
not come within the scope of any previous section, and
an outline of these is given in the present chapter,
L APPARATUS
Much of the apparatus of the clinical laboratory is
called into use. Only the following need special mention :
I. Sterilizers. — Two are required.
The dry, or hot-air sterilizer, is a double-walled oven
similar to the detached ovens used with gas and gasolene
stoves. It has a hole in the top for a perforated cork
with thermometer.
The steam sterilizer is preferably of the Arnold type,
opening either at the top or the side. An autoclave, which
39(3
APPARATUS 397
sterilizes with steam under pressure, is very desirable,
but not necessary.
2. Incubator. — This is the most expensive piece of
apparatus which will be needed. It is made of copper,
and has usually both a water- and an air-jacket surround-
ing the incubating chamber. It is provided with ther-
mometer, thermo-regulator, and some source of heat,
usually a Koch safety Bunsen burner. With a little
ingenuity one can rig up a drawer or a small box, in
which a fairly constant temperature can be maintained
by means of an electric light. The degree of heat can
be regulated by moving the drawer in or out, or holes
can be made in which corks may be inserted and removed
as needed. A Thermos bottle has been suggested as a
temporary make-shift.
3. Culture-tubes and Flasks. — For most work ordinary
test-tubes, 5 by | inches, are satisfactory. For special
purposes a few 3 by | inch and 6 by f inch tubes may
be needed. Heavy tubes, which do not easily break, can
be obtained, and are especially desirable when tubes are
cleaned by an untrained assistant.
Flasks of various sizes are needed. The Ehrlen-
meyer type is best. Quart and pint milk bottles and
2-ounce wide-mouthed bottles will answer for most pur-
poses.
4. Platinum Wires. — At least two of these are needed.
Each consists of a piece of platinum wire about 8 cm. long,
fixed in the end of a glass or metal rod. One is made of
about 22 gage wire and its end is curled into a loop i to
2 mm. in diameter. A loop i mm. in diameter is some-
times called a " normal." The other wire is somewhat
heavier and its tip is hammered flat.
398 BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
5. Pipets, etc. — In addition to the graduated pipets
with which every laboratory is suppHed, there are a
number of forms which are generally made from glass
tubing as needed. One of the simplest of these is made
as follows: A section of glass tubing, about 12 cm. long
and 8 mm. in diameter, is grasped at the ends, and its
center is heated in a concentrated flame. A blast-lamp
is best, but a Bunsen burner will usually answer, par-
GPOUP> A
Gr?OUP> B
Fig. 161. — Process of making pipets (group A) and Wright's capsule (group B). The
dotted lines indicate where the glass is to be broken.
ticularly if fitted with a "wing" attachment. When the
glass is thoroughly softened it is removed from the flame,
and, with a steady, but not rapid pull, is drawn out as
shown in Fig. 161. The slender portion is scratched
near the middle with a file and is broken to make two
pipets, which are then fitted with rubber nipples. Two
conditions are essential to success: the glass must be
thoroughly softened and it must be removed from the
flame before beginning to pull.
STERILIZATION 399
A nipple can be made of a short piece of rubber
tubing, one end of which is plugged with a glass bead.
This pipet has many uses about the laboratory.
When first made it is sterile and may be used to transfer
cultures. With a grease-pencil mark about 2 cm. from
its tip (Fig. 163), it is useful for measuring very small
quantities of fluid, as in making dilutions for the Widal
test and in counting bacteria in vaccines. Mett's tubes
for pepsin estimation may be made from the capillary
portion. The capillary portion also makes a very satis-
factory blood-lancet if heated in a low flame and drawn
out quickly.
Another useful device is the Wright capsule, which
is made as shown in Fig. 161. Its use is illustrated in
Fig. ICO. After the straight end is sealed the curved
portion may be hooked over the aluminum tube of the
centrifuge, and the contained blood or other fluid sedi-
mented ; but the speed should not be so great as to break
the capsule.
II. STERILIZATION
All apparatus and materials used in bacteriologic
work must be sterilized before use.
Glassware, metal, etc., are heated in the hot-air steril-
izer at 150° to 180° C. for half an hour. Flasks, bottles,
and tubes are plugged with cotton before heating.
Petri dishes may be wrapped in paper in sets of three.
Pipets and glass and metal h)^odermic syringes are
placed in cotton-stoppered test-tubes.
Culture-media and other fluids must be sterilized by
steam. Exposure in an autoclave to a temperature of
110° C. (6 pounds pressure) for one-half hour is sufficient.
With the Arnold sterilizer, which is more commonly
4CX) BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
used, the intermittent plan must be adopted, since
steam at ordinary pressure will not kill spores. This con-
sists in steaming for thirty to forty-five minutes on three
or four successive days. Spores which are not destroyed
upon the first day develop into the vegetative form and
are destroyed at the next heating. Gelatin media must
not be exposed to steam for more than twenty minutes
at a time, and must then be removed from the sterilizer
and cooled in cold water, otherwise the gelatin may lose
its power to solidify.
Cotton and gauze are sterilized by either hot air or
steam, preferably the latter.
III. PREPARATION OF CULTURE-TUBES
New tubes should be washed in a very dilute solution
of nitric acid, rinsed in clear water, and allowed to drain
dry.
Tubes which contain dried culture-media are cleaned
with a test-tube brush after boiling in a strong solution of
washing-soda. They are then rinsed successively in
clear water, acidulated water, and clear water, and al-
lowed to drain.
The tubes are now ready to be plugged with raw cotton
— the "cotton batting" of the dry goods stores. This is
done by pushing a wad of cotton into each tube to a
depth of about 3 cm. with a glass rod. The plugs should
fit snugly, but not too tightly, and should project from
the tube sufficiently to be readily grasped by the fingers.
The tubes are next placed in wire baskets and heated in
an oven for about one-half hour at 150° C. in order to
mold the stoppers to the shape of the tubes. The heat-
ing should not char the cotton, although a sHght brown-
CULTURE-MEDIA r n r~ 40I
ing does no harm. The tub^s are noW^sta-i^Y ^f^9 filled
with culture-media. '' '^-((^(Al,(r r, '^^, ^^- ' // fC
IV. CULTURE-MEDIA
For a careful study of bacteria a great variety of culture-
media is required, but only a few — bouillon, agar or solid-
ified blood-serum, and gelatin — are much used in routine
work.
Preparation of Culture-media. —
Beef Infusion
Hamburger steak, lean 500 grams.
Tap-water icxdo c.c.
Mix well; let soak about twenty-four hours in an ice-
chest, and squeeze through cheese-cloth. This infusion
is not used by itself, but forms the basis for various
media. *' Double strength " infusion, used in making
agar-agar, requires equal parts of the meat and water.
Infusion Bouillon
Beef infusion 1000 c.c.
Peptone (Witte) 10 grams.
Salt 5 "
Boil until dissolved; bring to original bulk with
water; adjust reaction; and filter.
Beef Extract Bouillon
Liebig's extract of beef 3 grams.
Peptone 10 "
Salt 5 "
Tap-water 1000 c.c.
When all ingredients are dissolved, cool, and beat
in the whites of two eggs; boil briskly for five minutes
and filter. It is not usually necessary to adjust the re-
action.
26
402 ^CTERIOLOGIC METHODS
■ , ■ o A*-'' " ' Agak-agar
Preparation of this medium usually gives the student
much trouble. There should be no difficulty if the direc-
tions are carefully carried out.
Agar-agar, powdered or in shreds 15 grams.
Tap- water • 500 c.c.
Boil until thoroughly dissolved and add —
Peptone 10 grams
Salt S "
When these have dissolved, replace the water lost in
boiling, cool to about 60° C, and add 500 c.c. double-
strength beef infusion. Bring slowly to the boil, adjust-
ing the reaction meanwhile, and boil for at least five
minutes. Filter while hot through a moderately thick
layer of absorbent cotton wet with hot water in a hot
funnel. A piece of coarse wire gauze should be placed
in the funnel underneath the cotton to give a larger filter-
ing surface. This medium will be clear enough for or-
dinary work. If an especially clear agar is desired, it
can be filtered through paper in an Arnold sterilizer.
Agar can also be made by boiling 15 grams of powdered
agar in 1000 c.c. of bouillon until dissolved, replacing
the water lost in boiling, and filtering through paper
in a sterilizer. It can be cleared with egg if desired.
Glycerin Agar-agar
To 1000 c.c. melted agar add 60 to 70 c.c. glycerin.
Gelatin
Dissolve 100 to 120 grams "golden seal" gelatin in
1000 c.c. nutrient bouillon with as little heat as possible,
CULTURE-MEDIA 403
adjust the reaction, cool, beat in the whites of two eggs,
boil, and filter hot through filter-paper wet with hot
water. Sterilize in an Arnold sterilizer for twenty min-
utes upon three successive days and cool in cold water
after each heating.
Sugar Media
Any desired sugar may be added to bouillon, agar, or
gelatin in proportion of 10 grams to the liter. Dextrose
is most frequently required. When other sugars are
added, media made from beef-extract should be used,
since those made from beef-infusion contain enough dex-
trose to cause confusion.
Loffler's Blood-serum
I per cent, dextrose-bouillon i part.
Blood-serum 3 parts.
Mix and tube. Place in an inspissator at the proper
slant for three to six hours at 80° to 90° C. When firmly
coagulated, steriUze in the usual way, A large "double-
cooker" makes a satisfactory inspissator. The tubes
are placed in the inner compartment at the proper slant,
a lid with perforation for a thermometer is apphed, and
the whole is weighted down in the water of the outer
compartment.
Blood-serum is obtained as follows: Beef or pig blood
is collected in a bucket at the slaughter-house and
placed in an ice-chest until coagulated. The clot is then
gently loosened from the wall of the vessel. After about
twenty-four hours the serum will have separated nicely
and can be siphoned off. It is then stored in bottles
with a little chloroform until needed. Red cells, if
abundant, darken the medium, but do no harm.
404 BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
Solidified blood-serum is probably the most satisfac-
tory medium for general purposes. Nearly all patho-
genic organisms grow well upon it.
Hemoglobin Medium
The simplest way to prepare this is to smear a drop
of blood, obtained by puncture of the finger, over the
surface of an agar-slant, and to incubate over night to
make sure of sterility. It is used for growing the influ-
enza bacillus.
Litmus Milk
Fresh milk is steamed in an Arnold sterilizer for half
an hour, and placed in the ice-chest over night. The
milk is siphoned off from beneath the cream, and sufl&-
cient aqueous solution of litmus or, preferably, azolitmin
• is added to give a blue- violet color. It is then tubed
and sterilized.
Potato
Cylinders about one-half inch thick are cut from
potato and spHt obHquely. These are soaked over
night in running water and placed in large tubes, in the
bottom of which is placed a little cotton saturated with
water. They are sterilized for somewhat longer periods
than ordinary media.
Dunham's Peptone Solution
Peptone lo grams.
Salt 5 "
Water looo c.c.
Dissolve by boiling; filter, "tube, and sterilize.
This medium is used to determine indol production.
To a twenty-four- to forty-eight-hour-old culture is
CULTURE-MEDIA 405
added 5 to 10 drops of concentrated c. p. sulphuric acid
and I c.c. of i : 10,000 solution of sodium nitrite. Ap-
pearance of a pink color shows the presence of indol.
A pink color before the nitrite is added shows the presence
of both indol and nitrites.
Hiss' Serum Media
Blood-serum i part.
Water 3 parts.
Warm and adjust reaction to + 0.2 to + 0.8. Add
Utmus or azolitmin solution to give a blue-violet color.
Finally, add i per cent, of inulin or any desired sugar.
The inulin medium is very useful in distinguishing be-
tween the pneumococcus and streptococcus.
Bile Medium
Ox- or pig-bile is obtained at the slaughter-house,
tubed, and sterilized. This is used especially for grow-
ing typhoid bacilli from the blood during Ufe. The fol-
lowing is probably as satisfactory as fresh bile and is
more convenient:
Inspissated ox-bile (Merck) 30.0 grams.
Peptone 2.5
Water 250.0 c.c.
Dissolve, place in tubes, and sterilize.
Reaction of Media. — The chemic reaction of the
medium exerts a marked influence upon the growth of
bacteria. It is adjusted after all ingredients are dis-
solved by adding sufficient caustic soda solution to
overcome the acidity of the meat and other substances
used. In general, the most favorable reaction lies
between the neutral points of Utmus and phenolphtha-
4o6 BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
lein, representing a very faint alkalinity to litmus.
In routine work it is usually sufficient to test with
litmus-paper. When greater accuracy is demanded,
the following method should be used: After all ingre-
dients are dissolved and the loss during boiling has
been replaced with water, lo c.c. of the medium are
transferred to an evaporating dish, diluted with 40 c.c.
of water, and boiled for three minutes to drive off carbon
dioxid. One c.c. of 0.5 per cent. alcohoUc solution of
phenolphthalein is then added, and decinormal sodium
hydroxid solution is run in from a buret until the neutral
point is reached, indicated by the appearance of a per-
manent pink color. The number of cubic centimeters of
decinormal solution required to bring this color indicates
the number of cubic centimeters of normal sodium hy-
droxid solution which will be required to neutralize 100
c.c. of the medium . The standard reaction is -I- 1 .5, which
means that the medium must be of such degree of acidity
that 1.5 c.c. of normal solution would be required to
neutralize 100 c.c. This corresponds to faint alkalinity
to litmus. Most pathogenic bacteria grow better with a
reaction of +1.0 or -I- 0.8. Example: If the 10 c.c. which
were titrated required 2 c.c. of decinormal solution to
bring the pink color, the reaction is +2; and 0.5 c.c. of
normal sodium hydroxid must be added to each 100 c.c.
of the medium to reduce it to the standard, +1.5.
Tubing Culture-media. — The finished product is
stored in flasks or distributed into test-tubes. This is
done by means of a funnel fitted with a section of rubber
tubing with a glass tip and a pinch-cock. Great care
must be exercised, particularly with media which solid-
ify, not to smear any of it upon the inside of the mouth of
STAINING METHODS 407
the tube, otherwise the cotton stopper will stick. Tubes
are generally filled to a depth of 3 or 4 cm. For stab-
cultures a greater depth is desired.
After tubing, all culture-media must be sterilized as
already described. Agar-tubes are cooled in a slanting
position to secure the proper surface for inoculation.
Media should be stored in a cool place, preferably an
ice-chest. Evaporation may be prevented by covering
the tops of the tubes with tin-foil or the rubber caps
which are sold for the purpose; or the cotton stopper
may be pushed in a short distance and a cork inserted.
V. STAINING METHODS
In general, bacteria are stained to determine their
morphology, their reaction with special methods (e. g.,
Gram's method), and the presence or absence of certain
structures, as spores, flagella, and capsules. Staining
methods for various purposes and the formulae of the
staining fluids have been given in previous chapters and
can be found by consulting the index. The following
will probably be most frequently used:
Methods for tubercle bacilli, pp. 49, 51, and 168.
Methods for capsules of bacteria, pp. 55 and 368.
Methods for Treponema pallidum, p. 390.
Loffler's alkaline methylene-blue, p. 57.
Blood-stains, pp. 221-224.
- The method of staining bacteria for morphology is as
follows, using any simple bacterial stain:
(i) Make a thin smear upon a slide or cover-glass.
(2) Dry in the air, or by warming high above the flame.
4o8 BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
(3) " Fix " bypassing the preparation, film side up, rather
slowly through the flame of a Bunsen burner: a cover-glass
three times, a slide about twelve times. Take care not to
scorch.
(4) Apply the stain for the necessary length of time, gen-
erally one-quarter to one minute.
(5) Wash in water.
(6) Dry by waving high above a flame or by blotting with
filter-paper.
(7) Mount by pressing the cover, film side down, upon a
drop of Canada balsam on a slide. Slides may be examined
with the oil-immersion lens without a cover-glass.
Simple Bacterial Stains. — A simple solution of any
basic anilin dye (methylene-blue, basic fuchsin, gentian
violet, etc.) will stain nearly all bacteria. These
simple solutions are not much used in the clinical
laboratory, because other stains, such as Loffler's
methylene-blue and Pappenheim's pyronin-methyl-
green stain, which serve the purpose even better, are
at hand.
Pappenheim's Pyronin-methyl-green Stain. — This so-
lution colors bacteria red and nuclei of cells blue. It
is, therefore, especially useful for intracellular bacteria
like the gonococcus and the influenza bacillus. It is a
good stain for routine purposes, and is a most excellent
contrast stain for Gram's method. It colors the cyto-
plasm of lymphocytes bright red, and has been used as a
differential stain for these cells. The solution is applied
cold for one-half to five minutes. It consists of saturated
aqueous solution methyl-green, 3 to 4 parts, and saturated
aqueous solution pyronin, i to i| parts.
Carbol Thionin. — Saturated solution thionin in 50 per
STAINING METHODS 409
cent, alcohol, 20 c.c; 2 per cent, aqueous solution phenol,
icx) c.c.
This is especially useful in counting bacteria for a
vaccine (p. 422). It can be used as a general stain. In
blood work it is used for the malarial parasite and
for demonstration of basophilic degeneration of the
red cells. It should be preceded by fixation for about
a minute in saturated aqueous solution of mercuric
chlorid.
Gram's Method. — This is a very useful aid in differen-
tiating certain bacteria and should be frequently resorted
to. It depends upon the fact that when treated succes-
sively with gentian-violet and iodin, certain bacteria
(owing to formation of insoluble compounds) retain the
stain when treated with alcohol, whereas others quickly
lose it. The former are called Gram-positive, the latter,
Gram-negative. In order to render Gram-negative or-
ganisms visible, some contrasting counter stain is com-
monly applied, but this is not a part of Gram's method
proper.
(i) Make smears, dry, and fix by heat.
(2) Apply anilin-gentian-violet or formalin-gentian-violet
(p. 57) two to five minutes.
(3) Wash with water.
(4) Apply Gram's iodin solution one-half to two minutes.
(5) Wash in alcohol until the purple color ceases to come
off. This is conveniently done in a watch-glass. The prep-
aration is placed in the alcohol, face downward, and one
edge is raised and lowered with a needle. As long as any
color is coming off, purple streaks will be seen diffusing into
the alcohol where the surface of the fluid meets the smear.
If forceps be used, beware of stain which may have dried
4IO BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
upon them. The thinner portions of smears from pus should
be practically colorless at this stage.
(6) Apply a contrast stain for one-half to one minute.
The stains commonly used for this purpose are an aqueous
or alcoholic solution of Bismarck brown and a weak solution
of fuchsin. In the writer's experience, Pappenheim's pyro-
nin-methyl-green mixture is much more satisfactory; it
brings out Gram-negative bacteria more sharply, and is
especially desirable for intracellular Gram-negative organ-
isms like the gonococcus and influenza bacillus, since the
bacteria are bright red and nuclei of cells blue.
(7) Wash in water, dry, and mount in balsam.
The more important bacteria react to this staining
method as follows:
Gram Staining Gram Decolorizing
(Deep purple). (Colorless unless a counterstain is used).
Staphylococcus. Gonococcus.
Streptococcus. Meningococcus.
Pneumococcus. Micrococcus catarrhalis.
Bacillus diphtheriae. Bacillus of influenza.
Bacillus tuberculosis. Typhoid bacillus.
Bacillus of anthrax. Bacillus coli communis.
Bacillus of tetanus. Spirillum of Asiatic cholera.
Bacillus aerogenes capsulatus. Bacillus pyocyaneus.
Bacillus of Friedlander.
Koch-Weeks bacillus.
Bacillus of Morax-Axenfeld.
Moeller's Method for Spores. — Bodies of bacteria are
blue, spores are red.
(i) Make thin smears, dry, and fix.
(2) Wash in chloroform for two minutes.
(3) Wash in water.
(4) Apply 5 per cent, solution of chromic acid one-half to
two minutes.
STAINING METHODS 4II
(5) Wash in water.
(6) Apply carbol-fuchsin and heat to boiling.
(7) Decolorize in 5 per cent, solution of sulphuric acid.
(8) Wash in water.
(9) Apply I per cent, aqueous solution of methylene-blue
one-half minute.
(10) Wash in water, dry, and mount.
Loffler's Method for Flagella. — The methods for
flagella are applicable only to cultures. Enough of the
growth from an agar-culture (which should not be more
than eighteen to twenty-four hours old) to produce faint
cloudiness is added to distilled water. A small drop of
this is placed on a cover-glass, spread by tilting, and dried
quickly. The covers must be absolutely free from grease.
To insure this, they may be warmed in concentrated
sulphuric acid, washed in water, and kept in a mixture
of alcohol and strong ammonia. When used they are
dried upon a fat-free cloth.
(i) Fix by heating the cover over a flame while holding
in the fingers.
(2) Cover with freshly filtered mordant and gently warm
for about a minute.
The mordant consists of:
20 per cent, aqueous solution of tannic acid 10 c.c.
Saturated solution ferrous sulphate, cold 5 c.c.
Saturated aqueous or alcoholic solution gentian violet . . i c.c.
(3) Wash in water.
(4) Apply freshly filtered anilin-gentian-violet, warming
gently for one-half to one minute.
(5) Wash in water, dry, and mount in balsam.
412 BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
VI. METHODS OF STUDYING BACTERIA
The purpose of bacteriologic examinations is to de-
termine whether bacteria are present or not, and, if
present, their species and comparative numbers. In
general, this is accomplished by: i, Direct microscopic
examination; 2, Cultural methods; 3, Animal inocu-
lation.
1. Microscopic Examination. — Every bacteriologic
examination should begin with a microscopic study of
smears from the pathologic material, stained with a gen-
eral stain, by Gram's method, and often by the method
for the tubercle bacillus. This yields a great deal of
information to the experienced w^orker, and in many cases
is all that is necessar}- for the purpose in view. It will
at least give a general idea of what is to be expected, and
may determine future procedure.
2. Cultural Methods.— (i) Collection of Material. —
Material for examination must be collected under abso-
lutely aseptic conditions. It may be obtained with a
platinum wire — which has been heated to redness just
previously and allowed to cool — or with a swab of sterile
cotton on a stifif wire or wooden applicator. Such swabs
may be placed in cotton-stoppered test-bubes, sterilized,
and kept on hand ready for use. Fluids which contain
very few bacteria, and hence require that a consider-
able quantity be used, may be collected in a sterile
hypodermic syringe or one of the pipets described on
p. 398. The method of obtaining blood for cultures
is given on p. 245.
(2) Inoculating Media. — The material is thoroughly
distributed over the surface of some solid medium, solid-
METHODS or STUDYING BACTERIA 413
ified blood-serum being probably the best for routine work.
When previous examination of smears has shown that
many bacteria are to be expected, a second tube should
be inoculated from the first, and a third from the second,
so as to obtain isolated colonies in at least one of the tubes.
The platinum wire must be heated to redness before and
after each inoculation. When only a few organisms of
a single species are expected, as is the case in blood-cul-
tures, a considerable quantity of the material is mixed
with a fluid medium.
(3) Incubation. — Cultures are placed in an incubator
which maintains a uniform temperature, usually of 37.5°
C, for eighteen to twenty-four hours, and the growth, if
any, is studied as described later. Gelatin will melt with
this degree of heat, and must be incubated at about
room-temperature.
(4) Study of Cultures. — ^When the original culture
contains more than one species, they must be separated,
or obtained in "pure culture," before they can be studied
satisfactorily. To accompHsh this it is necessary to so
distribute them on solid media that they form separate
colonies, and to inoculate fresh tubes from the individual
colonies. In routine work the organisms can be suffi-
ciently distributed by drawing the infected wire over the
surface of the medium in a series of streaks. If a suffi-
cient number of streaks be made, some of them are
sure to show isolated colonies. Another method of
obtaining isolated colonies is to inoculate the water
of condensation of a series of tubes, the first from
the second, the second from the third, etc., and, by
tilting, to flow the water once over the surface of the
medium.
414 BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
In order to determine the species to which an organism
belongs it is necessary to consider some or all of the fol-
lowing points:
(i) Naked-eye and microscopic appearance of the col-
onies on various media.
(2) Comparative luxuriance of growth upon various
media. The influenza bacillus, for example, can be
grown upon media containing hemoglobin, but not on
the ordinary media.
(3) Morphology, special staining reactions, and the
presence or absence of spores, flagella, and capsules.
Staining methods for these purposes have been given.
(4) Motility. This is determined by observing the
living organism with an oil-immersion lens in a hanging-
drop preparation, made as follows: A small drop of a
bouillon culture or of water of condensation from an
agar or blood-serum tube is placed upon the center of
a cover-glass; this is inverted over the concavity of a
" hollow slide," and ringed with vaselin. In focusing,
the edge of the drop should be brought into the field.
Great care must be exercised not to break the cover by
pushing the objective against it. A method which in
some respects is preferable to the hanging drop is to
make a ring of vaselin on a slide, place a drop of the
culture in this, and apply a cover.
It is not always easy to determine whether an organism
is or is not motile, since the motion of currents and the
Brownian motion which affects all particles in suspen-
sion are sometimes very deceptive.
(5) Production of chemic changes in the media.
Among these are coagulation of milk; production of acid
in milk and various sugar media to which litmus has been
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIAL BACTERIA 415
added to detect the change; production of gas in sugar
media, the bacteria being grown in fermentation tubes
similar to those used for sugar tests in urine; and pro-
duction of indol.
(6) Ability to grow without oxygen. For anaerobic
methods, the reader is referred to larger works.
(7) Effects produced when inoculated into animals.
3. Animal Inoculation. — In clinical work this is
resorted to chiefly to detect the tubercle bacillus. The
method is described on p. 375.
For the study of bacteria in cultures, a small amount
of a pure culture is injected subcutaneously or into the
peritoneal cavity. The animals most used are guinea-
pigs, rabbits, and mice. For intravenous injection the
rabbit is used because of the easily accessible marginal
vein of the ear.
VII. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIAL BACTERIA
Owing to the great number of bacterial species, most
of which have not been adequately studied, positive
identification of an unknown organism is often a very
difficult problem. Fortunately, however, only a few
are commonly encountered in routine work, and identi-
fication of these with comparative certainty presents no
great difficulty. Their more distinctive characteristics
are outlined in this section.
I . Staphylococcus Pyogenes Aureus.— The morphology
and staining reactions (described on p. 368) and the ap-
pearance of the colonies are sufficient for diagnosis.
Colonies on solidified blood-serum and agar are rounded,
slightly elevated, smooth and shining, and vary in color
4l6 BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
from light yellow to deep orange. Young colonies are
sometimes white.
2. Staphylococcus Pyogenes Albus. — This is similar
to the above, but colonies are white. It is generally
less virulent.
3. Staphylococcus Pyogenes Citreus. — The colonies
are lemon yellow; otherwise it resembles the white
staphylococcus.
4. Streptococcus F*yogenes. — The morphology and
staining reactions have been described (p. 368). The
chains are best seen in the water of condensation and in
bouillon cultures. The cocci are not motile. Colonies
on blood-serum are minute, round, grayish, and trans-
lucent. Litmus milk is usually acidified and coagulated,
although slowly. The streptococcus rarely produces
acid in Hiss' serum-water-litmus-inulin medium (see
p. 405).
5. Pneumococcus. — The only organism with which this
is likely to be confused is the streptococcus. The dis-
tinction is often extremely difficult.
Detection of the pneumococcus in fresh material has
been described (p. 54). In cultures it frequently forms
long chains. Capsules are not present in cultures ex-
cept upon special media. They show best upon a
serum medium like that described for the gonococcus,
but can frequently be seen in milk. Colonies on blood-
serum resemble those of the streptococcus. The pneumo-
coccus usually promptly acidifies and coagulates milk,
and acidifies and coagulates Hiss' serum-water with
inulin. The latter property is very helpful in diag-
nosis.
6. Gonococcus. — Its morphology and staining pecu-
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIAL BACTERIA 417
liarities are given on p. 369. These usually suffice for
its identification, cultural methods being rarely under-
taken. In cultures the chief diagnostic point is its failure
to grow on ordinary media. To grow it the most con-
venient mediimi is made by adding ascitic or hydrocele
fluid (which has been obtained under aseptic conditions)
to melted agar in proportion of i part of serum to
3 parts of agar. The agar in tubes is melted and
cooled to about 45° C; the serum is added with a pipet
and mixed by shaking; and the tubes are again cooled in
a slanting position. Colonies upon this medium are
minute, grayish, and translucent.
7. Diplococcus Intracellularis Meningitidis. — It grows
poorly or not at all on plain agar. On Loffler's blood-
serum, upon which it grows fairly well, colonies are round,
colorless or hazy, flat, shining, and viscid looking. It
quickly dies out.
8. Diphtheria Bacillus. — The diagnosis is usually
made from a study of stained smears from cultures
upon blood-serum. Its morphology and staining pecu-
liarities are characteristic when grown on this medium
(see p. 379). The bacilli are non-motile and Gram-
positive. The colonies are round, elievated, smooth,
and grayish.
9. Typhoid and Colon Bacilli. — These are medium-sized,
motile, Gram-negative, non-spore-bearing bacilh. Upon
blood-serum they form rounded, grayish, slightly ele-
vated, viscid looking colonies, those of the colon bacillus
being somewhat the larger. They do not liquefy gela-
tin. They represent the extremes of a large group
with many intermediate types. They are distinguished
as follows:
27
4l8 BACTERIOLOGIC METHODS
Typhoid Bacillus. Colon Bacillus.
Actively motile. Much less active.
Growth on potato usually invisible. Growth distinctly visible as dirty
gray or brownish slimy layer.
No gas produced in glucose media. Produces gas.
Growth in litmus milk produces no Litmus milk pink and coagulated.
change.
Produces no indol in Dunham's Produces indol. (For test, see
peptone medium. p. 404.)
Agglutinates with serum from ty- Does not agglutinate with typhoid
phoid-fever patient. (Recently serum.
isolated bacilli do not agglutinate
well.)
10. Bacillus of Influenza. — Diagnosis will usually rest
upon the morphology and staining peculiarities, described
on p. 58, and upon the fact that the bacillus will not grow
on ordinary media, but does grow upon hemoglobin-con-
taining media. It can be grown upon agar-slants which
have been smeared with a drop of blood from a puncture
in the finger. Before inoculation these slants should be
incubated to make sure of sterility. The colonies are
difficult to see without a hand lens. They are very
minute, discrete, and transparent, resembling small
drops of dew.
11. Bacillus of Tuberculosis. — The methods of iden-
tifying this important organism have been given (pp.
49 and 168). Cultivation is not resorted to in clinical
work. It grows very slowly and only on certain media.
It is Gram-positive and non-motile.
CHAPTER DC
PREPARATION AND USE OF VACCINES
Bacterial vaccines, sometimes called " bacterins,"
which within the past few years have come to play an
important role in therapeutics, are suspensions of defi-
nite numbers of dead bacteria in normal salt solution.
While in many cases, notably in gonorrhea and tuber-
culosis, ready prepared or " stock " vaccines are satis-
factory, it is usually desirable and often imperative for
best results to use vaccines which are especially prepared
for each patient from bacteria which have been freshly
isolated from his own lesion. These latter are called
" autogenous vaccines." Only through them can one
be certain of getting the exact strain of bacterium which
is producing the disease.
I. PREPARATION OF VACCINE
The method of preparing autogenous vaccines which
is used in the author's laboratory is here described.
I. Preparation of Materials. — A number of 2-ounce
wide-mouthed bottles are cleaned and sterilized. Each is
charged with 50 c.c. freshly filtered normal salt solution
(0.85 per cent, sodium chlorid in distilled water), and is
capped with a new rubber nursing-nipple, without holes,
inverted as shown in Fig. 162. A small section of hollow
wire or a hypodermic needle is thrust through the cap
near the edge to serve as an air vent, and the bottle and
419
420
PREPARATION AND USE OP VACCINES
contents are sterilized in an autoclave. If an autoclave
is not at hand, successive steamings in an Arnold steril-
izer will answer, provided it is not opened between steam-
ings. After sterilization, the pieces of wire are pulled
out and the holes scaled with collodion.
^CTERIALVA^
Fig. 162. — \'accine bottles: A, Cap ready to be applied; B, ready for sterilization;
C, finished vaccine.
A number of test-tubes, each charged with 10 c.c. of
normal salt solution and plugged with cotton, are also
prepared and sterilized.
2. Obtaining the Bacteria.— A culture on some solid
medium is made from the patient's lesion, and a pure
culture is obtained in the usual way. This preliminary
work should be carried through as quickly as possible.
If for any reason there is much delay, it is best to begin
over again, the experience gained in the first trial en-
PREPARATION OF VACCINE
421
abling one to carry the second through more rapidly.
When a pure culture is obtained, a number of tubes of
blood-serum or agar — 10 or 1 2 in the case of streptococ-
cus or pneumococcus, 4 or 5 in the case of most other
organisms — are planted and incubated over night or
until a good growth is obtained.
3. Making the Suspension. — The salt solution from
one of the 10 c.c. salt-tubes is transferred by means of a
Fig. 163. — Process of making hermetically sealed capsules.
sterile pipet to the culture-tubes, and the growth thor-
oughly rubbed up with a stiff platinum wire or a glass
rod whose tip is bent at right angles, The suspension
from the different tubes, usually amounting to about 10
c.c, is then collected in one large tube (size about 6 by
I inch) ; and the upper part of the tube is drawn out in
the flame of a blast lamp or Bunsen burner, as indicated
in Fig. 163, a short section of glass tubing being fused to
422
PREPARATION AND USE OF VACCINES
the rim of the tube to serve as a
handle. It is then stood aside, and
when cool the end is sealed off.
The resulting hermetically sealed
capsule is next thoroughly shaken for
ten to twenty minutes to break up all
clumps of bacteria. Some small pieces
of glass or a little clean sterile sand
may be introduced to assist in this,
but with many organisms it is not
necessary.
4. Sterilization. — The capsule is
placed in a water-bath at 60° C. for
forty-five minutes. This can be done
in an ordinary rice-cooker, with double
lid through which a thermometer is
inserted. When both compartments
are filled with water it is an easy
matter to maintain a uniform tem-
perature by occasional application of
a small flame. The time and tem-
perature are important : too little heat
will fail to kill the bacteria, and too
much will destroy the efficiency of
the vaccine.
When sterilization is complete the
capsule is opened, a few drops are
planted on agar or blood-serum, and
the capsule is again sealed.
5. Counting. — When incubation of
the plant has shown the suspension to
be sterile it is ready for counting.
PREPARATION OF VACCINE 423
There must be ready a number of clean slides; a few
drops of normal salt solution on a slide or in a watch-
glass; a blood-lancet, ' which can be improvised from a
spicule of glass or a pen; and two slender pipets with
squarely broken off tips and grease-pencil marks about
2 cm. from the tip (Fig. 164). These are easily made by
drawing out a piece of glass tubing, as described on page
398- _
It is necessary to work quickly. After thorough shak-
ing, the capsule is opened and a few drops forced out
upon a slide. Any remaining clumps of bacteria are
broken up with one of the pipets by holding it against
and at right angles to the slide, and alternately sucking
the fluid in and forcing it out. The pipet is most easily
controlled if held in the whole hand with the rubber bulb
between the thumb and the side of the index-finger.
A finger is then pricked until a drop of blood appears;
and into the second pipet are quickly drawn successively :
I or 2 volumes normal salt solution (or better, a i percent,
solution of sodium citrate which prevents coagulation);
a small bubble of air; i volume of blood; a small bubble of
air; and, finally, i volume of bacterial suspension. (A
''volume" is measured by the distance from the tip of
the pipet to the grease-pencil mark.) The contents of
the pipet are then forced out upon a slide and thoroughly
mixed by sucking in and out, care being taken to avoid
bubbles; after which the fluid is distributed to a number
of slides and spread as in making blood-smears.
The films are stained with Wright's blood-stain or,
better, by a few minutes' application of carbol-thionin,
after fixing for a minute in saturated mercuric chlorid
solution. With an oil-immersion lens both the red cells
424 PREPARATION AND USE OF VACCINES
and the bacteria in a number of microscopic fields are
counted. The exact number .is not important; for
convenience 500 red cells may be counted. P'rom the ra-
tio between the number of bacteria and of red cells, it
is easy to calculate the number of bacteria in i c.c. of
the suspension, it being known that there are 5000 million
red corpuscles in a cubic centimeter of normal human
blood. If there were twice as many bacteria as red cor-
puscles in the fields counted, the suspension would con-
tain 10,000 million bacteria, per cubic centimeter.
The count can also be made with the hemocytometer,
using a weak carbol-fuchsin or gentian violet, freshly
filtered, as diluting fluid. A very thin cover-glass must
be used; and, after filling, the counting-chamber must
be set aside for an hour or more to allow the bacteria to
settle. Mallory and Wright advise the use of the shallow
chamber manufactured by Zeiss for counting blood-
plates, but many 2 mm. oil-immersion objectives have
sufficient working distance to allow the use of the
regular Thoma counting-chamber, provided a very thin
cover is used.
6. Diluting. — The amount of the suspension, which,
when diluted to 50 c.c, will give the strength desired for
the finished vaccine having been determined, this amount
of salt solution is withdrawn with a hypodermic syringe
from one of the bottles already prepared, and is replaced
with an equal amount of suspension. One-tenth c.c. of
trikresol or lysol is finally added and the vaccine is
ready for use. To prevent possible leakage about the
cap, the neck of the bottle is dipped in melted paraffin.
The usual strengths are : staphylococcus. 1000 million in
I c.c; most other bacteria, 100 million in i c.c.
DOSAGE 425
II. METHOD OF USE
Vaccines are administered subcutaneously, usually in
the arm or abdominal wall or between the shoulder-blades.
The rubber cap is sterilized by filling the concavity with
alcohol for some minutes, usually while the syringe is
being sterilized. The bottle is then inverted and well
shaken, when the needle is plunged through the rubber
and the desired quantity withdrawn. The hole seals
itself and no collodion is necessary, which is one of the
advantages of this form of cap. The most satisfactory
syringe is the comparatively inexpensive " Sub-Q Tuber-
culin" syringe graduated in hundredths of a cubic centi-
meter.
A rapid and efficient technic for giving the injections
is suggested by Major F. T. Woodbury of the Army
Medical Corps. The needle is dipped into tincture of
iodin and some is drawn into the syringe and expelled;
a small quantity of the vaccine or of sterile water is like-
wise drawn in and expelled, after which the dose to be
given is drawn in. The patient's arm is touched with a
swab of cotton saturated with tincture of iodin and the
injection is made through the resulting brown spot.
The syringe is cleaned by drawing into it and expeUing,
successively, tincture of iodin, alcohol, and air.
III. DOSAGE
-Owing to variations, both in virulence of organisms and
susceptibility of patients, no definite dosage can be
assigned. Each case is a separate problem. Wright's
original proposal was to regulate the size and frequency
of dose by its effect upon the opsonic index, but this is
426 PREPARATION AND USE OF VACCINES
beyond the reach of the practitioner. The more widely
used "clinical method" consists in beginning with a
very small dose and cautiously increasing until the
patient shows either improvement or some sign of a
"reaction," indicated by headache, malaise, fever, ex-
acerbation of local disease, or inflammatory reaction at
the site of injection. The reaction indicates that the
dose has been too large. The beginning dose of staphy-
lococcus is about 50 million; the maximum, 1000 million
or more. Of most other organisms the beginning dose
is 5 million to 10 million; maximum, about 100 million,
Ordinarily, injections are given once or twice a week;
very small doses may be given every other day.
IV. THERAPEUTIC INDICATIONS
The therapeutic effect of vaccines depends upon their
power to stimulate the production of opsonins and other
antibacterial substances which enable the body to com-
bat the infecting bacteria. Their especial field is the
treatment of subacute and chronic localized infections,
in some of which they offer the most effective means of
treatment at our command. In most chronic infections
the circulation of blood and lymph through the diseased
area is very sluggish, so that the antibodies, when formed,
cannot readily reach the seat of disease. Ordinary
measures which favor circulation in the diseased part
should, therefore, accompany the vaccine treatment.
Among these may be mentioned incisions and drainage
of abscesses, dry cupping, application of heat. Bier's
hyperemia, etc., but such measures should not be applied
during the twenty-four hours succeeding an injection,
since the first effect of the vaccine may be a temporary
THERAPEUTIC INDICATIONS 427
lowering of resistance. Vaccines are of little value, and,
in general, are contraindicated in very acute infections,
particularly in those which are accompanied by much
systemic intoxication, for in such cases the power of the
tissues to produce antibodies is already taxed to the limit.
It is true, nevertheless, that remarkably beneficial results
have occasionally followed their use in such acute condi-
tions as malignant endocarditis, but here they should
be tried with extreme caution.
Probably best results are obtained in staphylococcus
infections, although pneumococcus, streptococcus, and
colon bacillus infections usually respond nicely. Among
clinical conditions which have been treated successfully
with vaccines are furunculosis, acne vulgaris, infected
operation- wounds, pyelitis, cystitis, subacute otitis
media, osteomyelitis, infections of nasal accessory si-
nuses, etc. Vaccine treatment of the mixed infection is
doubtless an important aid in tuberculosis therapy,
and in some cases the result is brilliant. When, as is
common, several organisms are present in the sputum,
a vaccine is made from each, excepting the tubercle
bacillus, 'of which autogeneous vaccines are not used in
practice. To avoid the delay and consequent loss of
virulence entailed by study and isolation of the several
varieties, many workers make the bacterial suspension
directly from the primary cultures. The resulting vac-
cines contain all strains which are present in the sputum
in approximately the same relative numbers. Although
open to criticism from a scientific standpoint, this
method offers decided practical advantages in many
cases.
It has been shown that vaccines are useful in prevent-
428 PREPARATION AND USE OF VACCINES
ing as well as curing infections. Their value has been
especially demonstrated in typhoid fever. Three or four
doses of about 50,000,000 typhoid bacilli are given about
seven days apart. Results in the army, where the plan
has been tried on a large scale, show that such vaccina-
tion is effective.
V. TUBERCULINS
Tuberculins contain the products of tubercle bacilli
or their ground-up bodies, the latter class being prac-
tically vaccines. They are undoubtedly of great value
in the treatment of localized tuberculosis, particularly
of bones, joints, and glands; and are of rather indefmite
though certainly real value in chronic pulmonary tuber-
culosis, especially when quiescent. The best known are
Koch's old tuberculin (T. O.), bouillon filtrate (B. F.),
triturate residue (T. R.), and bacillary emulsion (B. E.).
There seems to be little difference in the actions of these,
although theoretically T. R. should immunize against
the bacillus and B. F. against its toxic products. The
choice of tuberculin is much less important than the
method of administration. The making of autogenous
tuberculins is impracticable, hence stock preparations
are used in practice.
Since the dose is exceedingly minute, the tuberculin
as purchased must be greatly diluted before it is avail-
able for use. A convenient plan is to use the rubber-
capped 50 c.c. bottles of sterile salt solution described
for vaccines (p. 419), adding sufficient tuberculin to give
the desired strength, together with o.i c.c. trikresol to
insure sterility. The practitioner should bear in mind
that while tuberculin is capable of good, it is also capable
TUBERCULIN IN DIAGNOSIS 429
of great harm. Everything depends upon the dosage
and plan of treatment. Probably a safe beginning dose
for a pulmonary case is 0.0000 1 milligram of B. E., B. F.,
or T. R. ; for gland and bone cases, about o.oooi milligram.
O. T. is now used chiefly in diagnosis. The intervals are
about one week or, rarely, three days, when very small
doses are given. The dose is increased steadily, but with
extreme caution; and should be diminished or temporarily
omitted at the first indication of a "reaction," of which,
in general, there are three forms :
(a) Getter al: Elevation of temperature (often slight),
headache, malaise.
(6) Local: Increase of local symptoms, amount of
sputum, etc.
(c) Stick: Inflammatory reaction at site of injection.
Treatment is usually continued until a maximum dose
of I mm. is reached, the course extending over a year or
more.
VI. TUBERCULIN IN DIAGNOSIS
The tissues of a tuberculous person are sensitized
toward tuberculin, and a reaction (see preceding section)
occurs when any but the most minute quantity of tuber-
cuUn is introduced into the body. Non-tuberculous
persons exhibit no such reaction. This is utilized in
the diagnosis of obscure forms of tuberculosis, the
test being applied in a number of ways:
I. Hypodermic Injection. — Koch's old tuberculin is
used in successive doses, several days apart, of o.ooi , o.oi,
and 0.1 mg. A negative result with the largest amount
is considered final. The reaction is manifested by
fever within eight to twenty hours after the injection.
The method involves some danger of lighting up a
430 PREPARATION AND USE OF VACCINES
latent process, and has been largely displaced by safer
methods.
2. Calmette's Ophthalmo-reaction. — One or two drops
of 0.5 per cent, purified old tuberculin are instilled into
one eye. Tuberculin ready prepared for this purpose is
on the market. If tuberculosis exists anywhere in the
body, a conjunctivitis is induced within twelve to twenty-
four hours. This generally subsides within a few days.
The method is not without some, though sUght, risk of
injury to the eye; and the test is absolutely contraindi-
cated in the presence of any form of ocular disease,
A second instillation should not be tried in the same
eye.
3. More Reaction. — A 50 per cent, ointment of old tu-
berculin in lanolin is rubbed into the skin of the abdomen,
a piece about the size of a pea being required. Dermati-
tis, which appears in twenty-four to forty-eight hours,
indicates a positive reaction. The ointment can be
purchased ready for use.
4. Von Pirquet's Method. — This is the most satis-
factory of the tuberculin tests. Two small drops of
old tuberculin are placed on the skin of the front of the
forearm, about 2 inches apart, and the skin is slightly
scarified, first at a point midway between them, and then
through each of the drops. A convenient scarifier is a
piece of heavy platinum wire, the end of which is ham-
mered to a chisel edge. This is held at right angles to
the skin, and rotated six to twelve times with just suffi-
cient pressure to remove the epidermis without drawing
blood. In about ten minutes the excess of tuberculin
is gently wiped away with cotton. No bandage is neces-
sary. A positive reaction is shown by the appearance in
TUBERCULIN IN DIAGNOSIS 43 1
twenty-four to forty-eight hours of a papule with red
areola, which contrasts markedly with the small red spot
left by the control scarification.
These tests have very great diagnostic value in chil-
dren, especially those under three years of age, but are
often misleading in adults, positive reactions occurring
in many apparently healthy individuals. Negative tests
are very helpful in deciding against the existence of
tuberculosis.
APPENDIX
L APPARATUS, REAGENTS, AND STAINS
The apparatus and reagents listed here are sufficient
for all but the rarer tests described in the text. Those in
smaller type are less frequently required. For ordinary
routine work a much smaller list will suffice.
A, APPARATUS
Beakers and flasks, several sizes, preferably of Jena
glass.
Blood lancet, or some substitute (Fig. 68).
Bunsen-burner or alcohol lamp.
Buret, 25 c.c. capacity, preferably with Schellbach
stripe.
Buret and filter-stand combined.
Centrifuge — hand, electric, or water-power (Figs. 20
and 21). With the last two a speed indicator is desirable.
Radius of arm when in motion should be 6f inches.
Plain and graduated tubes accompany the instrument ;
milk- tubes (Fig. 157) must be purchased separately. The
hematocrit attachment (Fig. 77) is not much used.
Cigaret-paper, "Zig-zag" brand or some similar thin
paper, for making blood-films.
Corks, preferably of rubber, with one and two holes.
Cover-glasses, No. 2 thickness — |-inch squares are
most convenient.
Cover-glass forceps.
432
APPARATUS 433
Esbach's tube (Fig. 27).
Evaporating dish.
Filter-paper: ordinary cheap paper for urine filtration;
"ashless" quantitative filter-paper for chemic analyses.
Glass funnels.
Glass rods and tubing of sodium glass : for stirring rods,
urinary pipets, etc.
Glass slides: the standard i- by 3-inch size will answer
for all work, although a few larger slides will be found
convenient; those of medium thickness are preferable.
Graduates, cylindric form, several sizes.
Graniteware basin.
Hemoglobinometer : see pp. 185 to 191 for descriptions
of the different instruments.
Hemocy tometer : either Tiirck or Zappert ruling is
desirable (Figs. 73, 74, and 79).
Hypodermic syringe: the "Aseptic Sub-Q, Tubercu-
lin," is probably the most useful type.
Incubator (p. 397).
Labels for slides and bottles.
Litmus-paper, red and blue, Squibb's preferred.
Mett's tubes (pp. 300 and 399).
Microscope (Fig. i). Equipment described on p. 31.
Petri dishes.
Platinum wires (p. 397).
Sterilizers: the Arnold type for steaming; oven for dry
sterilization (p. 396).
Stomach-tube.
Test-glass, conic jOne side painted half white, half black .
Test-tubes, rack, and cleaning brush.
Ureometer, Doremus-Hinds' pattern (Fig. 24).
Urinometer, preferably Squibb's (Fig. 17).
28
434 APPENDIX
Blood-fixing oven, or Kowarsky's plate (Fig. 84).
Copper-foil and gauze.
Cotton, absorbent, for filtering, etc.
" Cotton-batting " for plugging tubes.
Culture-media. The selection depends upon the work
to be done (p. 401).
Holt's cream gage and hydrometer (Fig. 156).
Horismascope (Fig. 26).
Pipets, graduated, 5 to 50 c.c. capacity.
Ruhemann's tube for uric-acid estimation (Fig. 25).
Saccharimeter (Fig. 29).
Strauss' separatory funnel for lactic-acid test (Fig. 105).
Suction filter.
Urinopyknometer of Sa.xe (Fig. 18).
Widal reaction outfit: either living agar cultures of the
t>-phoid bacillus, or the dead cultures with diluting apparatus,
which are sold under various trade names.
Water-bath.
B. REAGENTS AND STAINS
All stains and many reagents are best kept in small
dropping bottles. Formulae are given in the text. Dry
stains (Griibler's should be specified) and most staining
solutions and chemical reagents can be purchased of
Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, New York, or
Eimer & Amend, New York. For the physician who
does only a small amount of work, the " Soloid " tablets
manufactured by Burroughs. Wellcome & Co. are con-
venient and satisfactory. These tablets have only to
be dissolved in a specified amount of fluid to produce
the finished stain. IMost of the stains mentioned here
come in this form.
Acid, glacial acetic. Other strengths can be made
from this as desired.
REAGENTS AND STAINS 435
Acid, hydrochloric, concentrated (contains about 32
per cent, by weight of absolute hydrochloric acid).
Other strengths can be made as desired.
Acid, nitric, strong, colorless.
Acid, nitric, yellow. Can be made from colorless acid
by adding a splinter of pine, or allowing to stand in
sunlight.
Acid, sulphuric, concentrated.
Alcohol, ethyl (grain-alcohol) . This is ordinarily about
93 to 95 per cent., and other strengths can be made as
desired.
Aqua ammoniae fortior (sp. gr. 0.9).
Bromin, or Rice's solutions (p. 95), for urea estimation.
Chloroform.
Diluting fluid for erythrocyte count (p. 198).
Diluting fluid for leukocyte count (p. 213).
Dimethyl-amido-azobenzol, 0.5 per cent, alcoholic
solution.
Distilled water.
Esbach's or Tsuchiya's reagent (p. 105).
Ether, sulphuric.
Ferric chlorid: saturated aqueous solution and 10 per
cent, aqueous solution.
Haines' (or FehHng's or Benedict's) solution (pp. 109,
no).
Lugol's solution {Liquor lodi Compositus, U. S. P.).
Gram's iodin solution (p. 57) can be made from this by
adding fourteen times its volume of water.
Obermayer's reagent (p. 91).
Phenylhydrazin, pure.
Phenol.
Phenolphthalein, i or 0.5 per cent, alcoholic solution.
436 APPENDIX
Purdy's (or Fehling's or Benedict's) solution (pp. 112-
115).
Robert's reagent (p. 103).
Sodium chlorid (table salt), saturated aqueous solu-
tion.
Sodium hydroxid (caustic soda) , 40 per cent, solution ;
other strengths can be made from this as desired.
Sodium hydroxid, decinormal solution. The prac-
titioner will find it best to purchase this solution ready
prepared. Eimer and Amend, New York, and many
other chemical supply houses carry it in stock. For
ordinary cUnical work 41 grams of Merck's " sodium
hydrate by alcohol " from a freshly opened bottle may
be dissolved in icxx) c.c. water. This makes a normal
solution and must be diluted with 9 volumes of water to
make the decinormal solution.
Sodium nitrite, 0.5 per cent, solution for diazo-reaction.
Must be freshly prepared.
Sulphanilic acid solution for diazo-reaction (p. 128).
Stains:
Carbol fuchsin (p. 50).
Eosin, saturated aqueous solution.
Formalin - gentian - violet, or anihn - gentian - violet
(P- 57)-
Gabbet's stain or Pappenheim's methylene-blue
stain (p. 51).
Loffler's alkaline methylene-blue solution (p. 57).
Pappenheim's pyronin-methyl-green stain (p. 408).
Stain for fat: Sudan III. saturated solution in
70 per cent, alcohol; or i per cent, aqueous
solution osmic acid.
Wright's or Harlow's stain for blood.
REAGENTS AND STAINS 437
Tincture of guaiac, diluted to a light sherry-wine color
(keep in a dark glass bottle).
Turpentine, "ozonized" (p. 125).
Acid, boric, for preserving urine (p. 69).
Acid, oxalic.
Acid, salicylous (salicyl aldehyd), 10 per cent, alcoholic
solution.
Alcohol, amylic.
Alcohol, ethyl, absolute.
Alcohol, methyl (pure).
Antiformin (p. 52).
Barium chlorid mixture (p. 89).
Benzol.
Boas' reagent or Gunzburg's (p. 290).
Boggs' reagent (p. 387).
Calcium chlorid, i per cent, solution.
Canada-balsam in xylol: necessary only when permanent
microscopic preparations are made.
Carbon disulphid.
Charcoal, animal.
Chromium trioxid.
Congo-red, strong alcoholic solution.
Copper sulphate.
Diluting fluid for blood-platelet count (pp. 215, 216).
Egg-albumen discs in glycerin (p. 293).
Ether, acetic, pure,
Florence's reagent (p. 393).
Formalin (40 per cent, solution of formaldehyd gas).
• India-ink (Gunther and Wagner) (p. 391).
lodin crystals.
Iron sulphid.
Lead acetate (sugar of lead) ; used in 10 per cent, solution
to clarify urine.
438 APPENDIX
Lead acetate, tribasic.
Lime-water.
Miiller's fluid saturated with mercuric chlorid (p. 56).
Orcin.
Pepsin, U. S. P.
Phenylhydrazin hydrochlorid.
Potassium ferrocyanid, 10 per cent, solution.
Potassium oxalate (neutral).
Potassium persulphate.
Ruhemann's reagent (p. 97).
Silver nitrate crystals; also dram to the ounce aqueous
solution, and " ammoniated " solution (p. 97).
Sodium alizarin sulphonate, i per cent, aqueous solution.
Sodium carbonate.
Sodium chlorid, 2 per cent, solution ; from this normal salt
solution (0.8 per cent.) can be made as desired.
Sodium hyposulphite.
Sodium nitroprussid.
Sodium sulphate.
Stains:
Bismarck-brown, saturated aqueous or alcoholic solution.
Carbol-thionin.
Ehrlich's triple stain for blood.
Eosin, 0.5 per cent, alcoholic solution for blood.
Fuchsin, weak solution; can be made when desired by
adding a little carbol-fuchsin to a test-tube of water.
Gentian- violet, saturated alcoholic solution.
Giemsa's stain (p. 390).
Methylene-blue and borax solution (p. 254).
Methylene-blue, saturated aqueous solution for blood.
Van Gieson's stain for Negri bodies (p. 395).
Sulphur, powdered.
Talc, purified (Talcum Purificatum, U. S. P.).
Trichloracetic acid solution (p. 102).
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
439
Uranium nitrate, 5 per cent, aqueous solution.
Xylol.
Zinc, arsenic free.
IL WEIGHTS, MEASURES, ETC, WITH
EQUIVALENTS
Meter (unit of length) :
Gram (unit of weiglit) :
Liter (unit of capacity) :
METRIC
Millimeter (mm.) = j^bb meter.
Centimeter (cm.) = yjg meter.
Kilometer = looo meters.
Micron (/x)
= xiAiff millimeter.
Milligram (mg.) = ^o^jj gram.
Kilogram (kilo.) = looo meters.
Cubic Centimeter = jo'jj liter. Same measure as milli-
liter (ml.).
I Millimeter =
I Centimeter ^
I Meter =
0-03937 (5's approx.) in.
1000 microns.
0.3937 (S approx.) in.
0.0328 feet.
39-37 in-
3.28 feet.
!b4d
X Micron (M)={^^7^"aU^,t„,
I Sq. Millimeter = 0.00155"!
1 Sq. Centimeter = 0.1550 >sq. in.
1 Sq. Meter = 1550 j
1 Sq. Meter = 10.76 sq. feet.
1 Inch = 25.399 millimeters.
I Sq. Inch = 6.451 sq. centimeters.
1 Cu. Inch = 16.387 cu. centimeters.
I Gram
I Kilogram =
X Liter
15-43 grams.
0.563 dram "j
0.035 ounce > Avoir.
0.0022 pound)
0.257 dram l
0.032 ounce >Apoth.
0.0027 pound 1
35.27 ounce (Avoir.).
2.2 pound (Avoir.),
f 1.056 (i approx.) quart.
^■< 61.02 cu. inches.
(1000 cu. centimeters.
I Cu. Millimeter = 0.00006 ) .
1 Cu. Centimeter = 0.0610 J "
1 Cu. Centimeter = o.ooi liter.
,.32 cu. feet.
1025.4 cu. iu.
I Cu. Meter
135-3
\6io:
I Foot = 30.48 centimeters.
I Sq, Foot = 0.093 sq. meter.
I Cu. Foot = 0.028 cu. meter.
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
' Ounce = {437.5^^f-
1 Pound = 16 oimces.
I Grain = 0.065 (^ approx.) "I
I Dram = 1.77 (ij approx.) 1 _._s
I Ounce = 28.35 (30 approx.) f°
I Pound = 453-59 (500 approx.) J
I Pound = 27.7 cu. inches.
1 Pound = 1.2151b. Troy.
APOTHECARIES' MEASURE
I Dram = 60 minims.
1 Ounce = 8 drams.
'I Pint = 16 ounces.
I Gallon = 8 pints.
I Dram = 3.70
I Ounce = 29.57
1 Pint = 473.1
X Gallon = 3785.4
I Gallon = 231 cu. inches
cu. centimeters.
440
APPENDIX .
APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT
I Scrup
e =
= 20 gra
ns.
I Grair
=
- 0.065 1
I Dram = 3 scruples = 60
grains
I Uram = 3 887 1 „„„,
I Ounce =3110 [^a""*-
I Pound =^ 373.2 J
I. Ounce = 8 drams -= 480 grains.
I Pound -— 12 ounces.
To convert minims
into cubic centimeters multiply by 0.061
" cubic centimeters " 29.57
" jluidounces
" " grains
"
grams " " 0.0648
" " drams
"
grams " " 3.887
" " cubic centimeters
minims " " 16.23
" " cubic centimeters
jluidounces " " 0.0338
" " grams
grains " " 15.432
" " grams
drams " " 0.257
TEMPERATURE
Centigrade. Fahrenheit.
Centigrade. Fahrenheit.
110° 230°
37° 98.6°
100
212
36.5
• • 97-7
95
203
36
. , 96.8
90
194
35-5 •
• • 959
85
185
35
• • 95
80
176
34
• 93-2
75
167
33
• • 914
70
•158
32
89.6
65
149
31
. . 87.8
60
140
3"
. . 86
55
131
25
• • 77
50
122
20
. . 68
45
"3
15
• ■ 59
44
I I 1.2
10
• ■ 50
43
109.4
+5
. . 41
42
107.6
0
• 32
41
105.8
—5
. . . 23
40.5
104.9
— 10
. . 14
40
104
— 15
• ■ 45
39-5
103. 1
102.2
— 20 — 4
39
38.5
IOI.3
0.54° =- 1°
■ 38
100.4
I = 1.8
37-5
99-5
2 = 3.6
25
= 4-5
To convert Fahrenheit into Centigrade, subtract 32 and
multiply by 0.555.
To convert Centigrade into Fahrenheit, multiply by
1.8 and add 32.
INDEX
Absorption, toxic, degree of, 236
Absorptive power of stomach, 306
Accidental albuminuria, 100
Acetanilid in urine, 132
Acetic acid in gastric contents, 291
Acetone in urine, 118. See also
Acetomiria.
Acetonuria, 118
after anesthesia, 119
detection, 119
Frommer's test in, 122
Gunning's test in, 120
Lange's test in, 121
Legal's test for, Lange's modifi-
cation, 121
Lieben's test in. Gunning's modi-
fication, 121
tests, 1 19-122
Achard and Castaigne's methylene-
blue test for urine, 79
Achlorhydria, 297
Acholic stools, 312
Achromatic objectives, 23
Achylia gastrica, gastric contents
in, 304
Acid deficit of gastric contents, 299
intoxication, cause, 118
Acid-fast bacilli, 53
Acidity of urine, quantitative esti-
mation, 74
Folin's method, 74
Acidophilic structures of blood, 221
Actinomyces bovis in sputum, 46
Agar-agar, glycerin, preparation of,
402
preparation of, 402
Agglutination, 257
Agglutinins, 257
Air-bubbles in urine, 173
Albumin in sputum, 63
Albumin in urine, 99. See also
Albuminuria.
AJbuminometer, Esbach's, 105
Albuminuria, 99, 100
accidental, 100
centrifugal estimation of albu-
min, 106
cyclic, 100
detection, 102
Esbach's estimation of albumin,
estimation of albumin in, quan-
titative, 105
false, 100
from blood changes, loi
from kidney changes, loi
heat and nitric acid test in, 104
test in, Purdy's, 104
nitric acid test in, 104
orthostatic, 100
physiologic, 100
postural, 100
Purdy's centrifugal method, 106
heat test in, 104
table after. centrifugation, 107
renal, 100
Robert's test in, 103
tests, 102-106
trichloracetic acid test in, 102
Tsuchiya's estimation of albu-
min, 105
Alkaline methylene-blue, LoflSer's,
57
phosphates in urine, 87
urine, unorganized sediments in,
148
Alkapton bodies in urine, 1 26
Alkaptonuria, 126
Alveolar cells in sputum, 62
Amboceptor, 265, 266, 267
441
442
INDEX
Amboceptor, hemolytic, 269
Ameba?, 328. See also Entamceba.
Ameboid movements of malarial
parasites, 248
Amidobenzol test for free hydro-
chloric acid, 290
Ammonia in urine, 97
Brown's test. 99
decreased, 98
estimation, quantitative, 98
increased, 98
Ronchese-Malfatti formalin
test, 98
Amnioniated silver nitrate solution,
97
Ammoniomagnesium phosphate
crystals in urine, 148
Ammonium urate crystals in urine,
151
Ammon's horn, 394
Amoeba histolytica in sputum, 48
Amorphous phosphates in urine, 72,
87, 149
in mass, 160
urates in urine, 72, 143
in mass, 160
Anaemia infantum pseudoleukaem-
ica, 282
Anemias, 275
aplastic, 279
blood-picture in, 276
blood-plaques in, 214
color index in, 200
degeneration of Grawitz in, 228
erythroblasts in blood in, 230
erythrocytes in, 226
leukopenia in, 202
lymphocytes in, 234
myelocj'tes in, 242
oligocythemia in, 193
pernicious, 277
p)olychromatophilia in, 227
primary', 277
secondary-, 276
splenic, 280
Anesthesia, acetonuria after, 119
Angina, \'incent's, 379
spirochaete of, 331
Anguillula, 354
aceti, 354
in urine, 171
Anilin dyes for blood-films, 220
Anilin-gentian- violet stain, 57
Animal inoculation, 375
method for tubercle bacillus in
sputum, 53
of bacteria, 415
parasites, 323. See also Para-
sites, animal.
Anopheles, 248, 250
Antibodies, 265, 269
Antiformin method for bacillus
tuberculosis in sputum, 52
Antigen, 269
Antipyrin in urine, 132
Anuria, 71
Aplastic anemia, 279
Apochromatic objectives, 23
Apothecaries' measure, 439
weight, 440
Apparatus, 396, 432
Appendicitis, leukocytosis in, 206
Arsenic in urine, 133
Gutzeit's test for, 133
Reinsch's test for, 133
poisoning, anemia from, 276
Arthropoda, 366
Ascaris. 354
lumbricoides, 354
ova of, 355
Asparagus, odor of urine from, 73
Asthma, bronchial, eosinophilia in,
239
sputum in, 66
Atrophic gastritis, gastric contents
in, 305
Atropin in urine, 133
Autoclave, 396
Autogenous vaccines, 419
Avoirdupois weight, 439
Babcock estimation for fat in milk,
386^
Babesia, 339
bigeminum, 339
hominis, 339
Bacillus, acid-fast, 53
Boas-Oppler, in feces, 318
in gastric contents, 303
colon, 417
in otitis, 383
diphtheria, 417
in eye affections, 382
INDEX
443
Bacillus, diphtheria, in mouth, 378
Koch-Weeks, in conjunctivitis,
381
mucosus capsulatus in sputum,
of Friedlander in otitis, 383
in sputum, 58
of influenza, 418
in spinal fluid, 376
in sputum, 58
of Vincent's angina, 380
pyocyaneus in otitis, 383
smegma, 53, 169
tuberculosis, 418
in cerebrospinal fluid, 374
in feces, 319
in otitis, 383
in pus, 369
in sputum, 36, 49
animal inoculation method,
53
antiformin method, 52
examination, 36
Gabbet's method, 49
methods for, 49-53
Pappenheim's method, 51
Ziehl-Neelsen method, 51
in urine, 168
typhosus, 417
in blood, 244
technic, 245
in urine, 168
xerosis in eye, 382
Bacteria, animal inoculation, 415
characteristics of, 415
collection of material for cultural
examination, 412
cultural methods of examining,
412
cultures of, study, 413
Gram-negative, 409
Gram-positive, 409
in blood, 244
in feces, 318
stains for, 318, 319
- in gastric contents, 303
in milk, 384
in pus, 367
in sputum, 49
in urine, 72, 167
incubation of, 413
inoculating media for, 412
Bacteria, methods of studying, 412
microscopic examination, 412
obtaining of, in preparation of
vaccines, 420
stains for, 407
for morphology, 407
Bacterial casts in urine, 159
vaccines, 419. See also Vaccines.
Bacterins, 419. See also Vaccines.
Bacteriologic methods, 396
study of blood, 244
Bacteriolysis, 265
Balantidium, 339
coli, 339
Basket-cells, 243
Basophilic granular degeneration,
227
leukocytes, 240
structures of blood, 220
Bass and Watkins' method for
Widal reaction, 261
B. E. tuberculin, 428
Beef extract bouillon, preparation
of, 401
infusion, preparation of, 401
tapeworm, 347
Bence-Jones' body, 108
detection, 108
Benedict's estimation of glucose in
urine, 115
test for glucose, no
B. F. tuberculin, 428
Bial's orcin test for pentoses, 118
Bile acids in urine, 124
Hay's test, 124
tests, 124
diminished flow, indican in urine
from, 91
in feces, 315
in gastric contents, 289
in urine, 123
Gmelin's test for, 123
Smith's test for, 123
tests, 123
medium, preparation of, 405
Bile-pigment in urine, 123
Bilharzia haematobia, 344
Bilharziasis, 344
Bilifuscin in urine, 123
Biliousness, indican in urine in, 90
Bilirubin in feces, 315
in urine, 123
444
INDEX
Biliverdin in urine, 123
Black sputum, 39
Bladder, hemorrhage from, 166
schistosomum haematobium as
cause, 167
Blepharoconjunctivitis, 381
Blepharoplast of tr>panosome, 53:^
Blood, 180
acidophilic structures of, 221
amount of, total, 181
animal parasites in, 247
bacillus typhosus in, 244
technic, 245
bacteria in, 244
bactcriologic study of, 244
basophilic structures of, 220
changes, albuminuria from, loi
in blood diseases, table, 283
coagulation of, 181
prevention, 182
time, 181, 182
Bogg's method of estimating,
182
color index, 200
color of, 181
constituents, 180
count, Gibson's chart for, 236,
.237
diseases, blood changes in, table,
283
Ehrlich's triple stain for, 221
embryos of trichinella spiralis in,
257
eosin and methylene-blue for, 221
eosinophilic structures of, 221
erythrocj'tes in, number, 192
filarial embryos in, 256
guaiac test for. 274
Harlow's stain for, 224
hemin test for, 274
in anaemia infantum pseudoleu-
kaemica, 282
in anemia, 276
aplastic, 279
pernicious, 277
secondar>-, 276
in aplastic anemia, 279
in chlorosis. 279
in feces, 312, 314, 318
in gastric contents, 289, 295, 302
test for, 295
in Hodgkin's disease, 282
Blood in leukemia, 280
in l>Tnphatic leukemia, 281
in myelogenous leukemia, 280
in pernicious anemia, 277
in pseudoleukemia, 282
in splenic anemia, 280
in urine, 72, 166
increase of, 184
leukocytes in, number, 202
malarial parasites in, 248. See
also Malarial parasites.
neutrophilic structures of, 221
obtaining of, for coagulation test,
183
oxiphilic structures of, 221
parasites, 244
pathology, special, 275
polychrome methylene-blue eosin
stains for, 222
reaction of, 181
recognition of, test for, 274
spirochseta recurrentis in, 247
stained, study of, 216
stains, 216
for films, 216, 219
Teichmann's test for, 274
triple stain for, Ehrlich's, 221
trj'panosoma gambiense in, 247
typhoid bacilli in, 244
technic. 245
unstained, malarial parasites in,
253
volume index, 200
Larrabee's method, 201
method, 201
watery, 181
Wright's stain for, 222
Blood-casts in urine, 158
Blood-corpuscles in feces, 318
red, 180
decrease of, 192. See also
Oligocythemia.
in gastric contents, 302
in sputum, 63
in urine, 165
increase of, 192. See also
Polycythemia.
white, 180
Blood-dust of Miiller, i8i
Blood-films, 216
anilin dyes for, 220
chemic fixation of, 219
INDEX
445
Blood-films, cigarette-paper meth-
od for, 218
drying, 219
Ehrlich's two cover-glass method,
217
fixing, 219
heat fixation for, 219
Kowarsky's plate for fixing, 219
making, 216
malarial parasites in, 254
spreading, 216
stained, study of, 225
staining, 216, 220
stains for, 216, 220
two-slide method, 217
Blood-lancet, Daland's, 183
Blood-plaques, 180
enumeration, 213
in anemia, 214
in infections, 214
in leukemia, 214
in purpura haemorrhagica, 214
Kemp-Calhoun-Harris estima-
tion, 214
stained, study of, 243
variations in numbers, 213
Wright and Kinnicutt's estima-
tion, 216
Blood-platelets, 180. See also
Blood- plaques.
Blood-serum, 181
LofHer's preparation of, 403
reactions, 257
Boas' reagent, 291
test for free hydrochloric acid, 290
test-breakfast, 286
Boas-Oppler bacillus in feces, 318
in gastric contents, 303
Bodies, Cabot's ring, 230
Leishman-Donovan, 335
Bodo, 336
urinarius, 336
Body, Bence-Jones', 108
detection, 108
Boggs' coagulation instrument, 182
method of estimating coagulation
time of blood, 182
modification of Esbach method
for proteins in milk, 387
reagent, 387
throttle control for blood-count-
ing pipet, 209, 210
Boil, Delhi, Leishmania tropica of,
335
Bordet and Gengou test in ty-
phoid fever, 267
Boston's method for keeping semen
for examination, 391
Bottles, vaccine, 420
Bouillon, beef extract, preparation
of, 401
infusion, preparation of, 401
Brick-dust deposit in urine, 72, 143
Bromids in urine, 133
Bronchi, cylindric cells from, in
sputum, 61
Bronchial asthma, eosinophilia in,
239
sputum in, 66
Bronchiectasis, sputum in, 65
Bronchitis, sputum in, 64
Brown's test for ammonia in urine,
99
Bubbles of air in urine, 173
Buerger's method for pneumo-
coccus capsules, 55
in pus, 368
Butyric acid in gastric contents, 291
Cabot's classification of pathologic
polymorphonuclear leukocy-
tosis, 206
ring bodies, 230
Calcium carbonate in iirine, 150
oxalate in urine, 144
phosphate crystals in urine, 149
Calculus in feces, 313
renal, urine in, 177
vesical, urine in, 178
Calmette's ophthalmo-tubercuHn
reaction, 430
Cammidge's pancreatic reaction,
129
technic, 129
Capsules of pneumococcus, Buer-
ger's method for, 54
Carbol fuchsin, 50
thionin stain for bacteria, 408
Carcinoma, gastric, bacteria in
feces in, 318
gastric contents in, 305
Casts, fibrinous, in sputum, 45
in urine, 152
446
INDEX
Casts in urine, negative-staining,
154
Catarrh, vernal, eosinophilic leuko-
cytes in, 383 , ,
Cedar oil for oil-immersion objec-
tive, 24
Cells, alveolar, in sputum, 62
basket-, 243
body-, ciliated, in sputum, 48
cylindric, in sputum, 61
eosinophilic, in sputum, 60
epithelial, in sputum, 61
in urine, 162, 163
heart-failure, in sputum, 41, 62,
. 65
in sputum, 59
stains for, 59
mast-, 240
polyhedral, in urine, 162
shadow, in urine, 166
squamous, in sputum, 61
vegetable, in feces, 316
yeast-, in urine, 171
Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales,
440
Central illumination of microscope,
19 .
Centrifuge for albumin in urine, 106
for chlorids in urine, 83
Purdy's table, 86
for sulphates in urine, Purdy's, 89
Purdy's, 83
tubes, Purdy's, 85
water-motor, 84
Cercomonas, 335
hominis, 336
Cerebrospinal fever, epidemic, cere-
brospinal fluid in, 374
fluid, bacillus tuberculosis in, 374
examination, 374
Cestoda, 341, 345
Cestodes, 341. 345
Charcot-Leyden crystals in feces,
320
in sputum, 44, 45
Chart, Gibson's, 236, 237
Chemic examination of sputum, 63
fixation of blood-films, 219
Chemotaxis, 203
Chlorids in urine, 82
estimation, Purdy's centrifugal
methods, 83
Chlorids in urine, estimation,
Purdy's table, 86
quantitative, 83, 85
in nephritis, 82
Chlorosis, 279
color index in, 200
leukopenia in, 202
lymphocytes in, 234
oligocythemia in, 193
Cholesterin crystals in sputum, 45
Chrysomyia macellaria, 366
Chyluria from filaria infection, 148
Cigarette-paper method for blood-
films, 218
Cilia, 328, 339
Ciliated body-cells in sputum, 48
Cirrhosis of liver, anemia from, 276
Coagulation, 181
instrument, Boggs', 182
prev'ention of, 182
time, 181, 182
Boggs' method of estimating,
182
Coccidium, 338
cuniculi, 338
Cochin China diarrhea, 362
Coffin-lid crystals in urine, 148
Colon bacillus, 417
in otitis, 383
Color index of blood, 200
in chlorosis, 200
in pernicious anemia, 200
of blood, 181
Combined hydrochloric acid, 284
Complement, 266, 267, 269
deviation, 268
Concretions in feces, 313
Condenser for microscope, 22
Congo-red test for free acids in gas-
tric contents, 290
Conjugate sulphates, 90
Conjunctivitis, acute infectious, 381
bacteria of, 381
blepharo-, 381
diphtheritic, 382
gonorrheal, 382
pseudomembranous, 382
Cook's method for purin bodies, 96
Corpuscles, blood-, in feces, 318
red, 180
decrease of, 192. See also
Oligocythemia.
INDEX
447
Corpuscles, blood-, red, in gastric
contents, 302
in sputum, 63
in urine, 165
increase of, 192. See also
Polycythemia.
white, 180
pus-, 236, 367
in feces, 318
in gastric contents, 302
in sputum, 59
in urine, 163
suspension in Wassermann reac-
tion, 269
Corrections for objectives, 24
Cotton fibers in urine, 161, 172
fibrils in sputum, 42
sterilization of, 400
Cows' milk, 384
Croupous pneumonia, sputum in,
66
Cryoscopy of urine, 79
Crystals, Charcot-Leyden, in spu-
tum, 44, 45
in feces, 319
in sputum, 45
Culex, 250
Cultural methods of examining
bacteria, 412
Culture-media, 401
preparation of, 401
reaction of, 405
sterilization of, 399
tubing, 406
Cultures of bacteria, study, 413
Culture-tubes, 397
preparation of, 400
Curds in feces, 314
of milk in feces, 317
Curschmann's spirals in sputum, 43
Cyclic albuminuria, 100
Cylindric cells in sputum, 61
Cylindroids in urine, 160
Cysticercus cellulosse, 348
Cystin crystals in urine, 146
Cystinuria, 146
Cystitis, urine in, 178
Cysts, daughter-, 349
Cytodiagnosis, 372
Daland's blood-lancet, 183
hematocrit, 201
Dare's estimation of hemoglobin,
189
hemoglobinometer, 189
Dark ground illumination of mi-
croscope, 21
Daughter-cysts, 349
Definitive host of animal parasites,
324
Degeneration of Grawitz, 227
Delhi boil, Leishmania tropica of,
335
Demodex folliculorum, 366
Desmoid test, Sahli's, of gastric di-
gestion, 308
Dextrose in urine, 108. See also
Glycosuria.
Diabetes insipidus, urine in, 179
mellitus, urine in, 1 79
Diacetic acid in urine, 122
Gerhardt's test for, 122
Lindemann's test for, 122
tests, 122
Diarrhea, Cochin China, 362
polycythemia in, 192
Diazo reaction, 126
in measles, 128
in tuberculosis, 127
in typhoid fever, 127
technic, 128
substances in urine, 126
Dibothriocephalus, 351
latus, 345, 351
anemia from, 276
infection with, decrease of he-
moglobin from, 185
ova of, 352
Dicroccelium, 342
lanceatum, 342
Diet, Schmidt's, for examination of
feces, 320
Digestion, gastric, Sahli's test for,
308
Digestive leukocytosis, 205
Dilatation of stomach, gastric con-
tents in, 304
Diluting fluids for blood count, 198
in leukemia, 213
for blood-plaque count, 215
Dilution in preparation of vaccines,
424
Diphtheria bacillus, 417
of nasopharynx, 378
448
INDEX
Diphtheria of tonsils, 378
Diphtheritic conjunctivitis, 382
Di()lobacillus of Morax and Axen-
fcld, 381
Diplococcus intracellularis menin-
gitidis, 374, 417
of Friinkcl in sputum, 54
DipyHdium, 351
caninum, 351
Distilling apparatus, 120
Dittrich's plugs in sputum, 3Q
Donne's test for pus in urine, 72
Doremus-IIinds' ureometer, 94
Dosage of tuberculin, 428
of vaccines, 425
clinical method, 426
Dourine, trypanosoma equiperdum
oi, 335
Drugs, effect of, on urine, 71, 132
leukocytosis from, 207
resinous, in urine, 137
Drunkard's pneumonia, sputum in,
39
Dry objective, 24
Dumb-bell crystals in urine, 150,
151
Dunham's peptone solution, prep-
aration of, 404
Dwarf tapeworm, 350
Dysentery, tropical, entamoeba his-
tolytica in, 328
Ear, 383
Earthy phosphates in urine, 87, 149
Echinococcus disease, 348
diagnosis, 349
eosinophilia in, 239
Edema, pulmonary, sputum in, 65
Eel, vinegar, 354
Egyptian hematuria, 167, 170, 344
Ehrlich's diazo reaction, 126
technic, 128
triple stain for blood, 221
two-cover method for blood-
films, 217
Einhorn's saccharimeter, 114
Elastic fibers in sputum, 41
Electric conductivity of urine, 79
Elephantiasis, 356
Embryos, filarial, in blood, 256
filariform, 363
Embryos of trichinella spiralis in
blood, 257
rhabditiform, 362
Empty magnification, 28
Endocarditis, malignant, vaccines
in, 427
Entamoeba, 328
buccalis, 330
coli, 329
histolytica, 328
in feces, 310
tetragena, 330
Enteritis, membranous, 313
Enteroliths in feces, 313
Envelope crystals in urine, 144
Eosin and methylene-blue for blood,
221
Eosinophils, 239
in sputum, 60
in vernal catarrh, 383
Eosinophilia, 239
in bronchial asthma, 239
in echinococcus disease, 239
in filariasis, 239
in menstruation, 239
in myelogenous leukemia, 239,
240
in parasitic infections, 183
in scarlet fever, 239, 240
in skin diseases, 239, 240
in trichinosis, 239
in uncinariasis, 239
in worm infection, 239
Eosinophilic cells in sputum, 60
leukocytes, 239
in vernal catarrh, 383
structures of blood, 221
Epidemic cerebrospinal fever, cere-
brospinal fluid in, 374
Epithelial casts in urine, 158
cells in feces, 317
in sputum, 61
in urine, 162, 163
Erythroblasts, 229
Erythrocytes, 180
counting of, 193, 194
enumeration of, 192
in anemias, 226
in gastric contents, 302
in pernicious anemia, 226
increase of, 192
nucleated, 229
INDEX
449
Erythrocytes, pessary forms, 226
shape of, 226 ,
size of, 226
stained, study of, 225
staining properties of, variations
in, 226
structure, variations in, 229
Thoma-Zeiss instrument for
covmting, 193
Esbach's albuminometer, 105
estimation of proteins in milk,
Boggs' modification, 387
method for albumin in urine, 105
reagent for albuminuria, 105
Estivo-autiunnal parasite, 249, 250,
256
Ethereal sulphates, 90
Ewald's salol test for gastric motor
power, 307
test-breakfast, 286
Exophthalmic goiter, lymphocytes
in, 234
Exudates, 371
decomposition of, indican in
urine from, 91
Eye, 381
Eye-pieces, microscopic, 23
Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales,
440
False albuminuria, 100
Fasciola, 342
hepatica, 342
Fat in feces, 317
in milk, estimation, 386
Fat-droplets in sputum, 63
in urine, 172
Fat-globules in urine, 147
Fatty casts in urine, 158
Fatty-acid crystals in sputum, 42
needles in sputum, 45
Favus, 384
Feces, 310
acholic, 312
-amebae in, 310
animal parasites in, 313
bacillus tuberculosis in, 319
bacteria in, 318
stains for, 318, 319
bile in, 315
bilirubin in, 315
29
Feces, blood in, 312, 314, 318
blood-corpuscles in, 318
Boas-Oppler bacillus in, 318
calculi in, 313
Charcot-Leyden's crystals in,
320
chemic examination, 314
color, 311
concretions in, 313
consistence, 311
crystals in, 319
curds in, 314
of milk in, 317
enteroliths in, 313
epithelial cells in, 317
erj'throcytes in, 318
examination of, chemic, 314
macroscopic, 311
microscopic, 315
specimen for, 310
fat in, 317
flagellates in, 320
food particles in, 316
form, 311
frequency of passage, 311
functional tests, 320
Sahli's glutoid, 321
Schmidt's diet, 320
gall-stones in, 313
hydrobilirubin in, 315
macroscopic examination, 311
maggots in, 366
microscopic examination, 315
milk curds in, 317
mucus in, 312
muscle-fibers in, 317
normal, 310
occult hemorrhage in, detection,
314
odor, 312
ova in, 320
parasites in, 320
pus in, 318
quantity, 311
starch granules in, 316
tapeworms in, 313
trypsin in, Miiller's test for, 322
vegetable cells in, 316
fibers in, 316
Fehling's estimation of glucose in
urine, 114
test for glucose, no
450
INDEX
Fermentation method of estimating
glucose in urine, ii6
Fibers, elastic, in sputum, 41
in urine, extraneous, 161, 172
muscle-, in feces, 317
of cotton in urine, 161, 172
of linen in urine, 161, 172
of silk in urine, 161, 172
of wool in urine, 161, 172
vegetable, in feces, 316
Fibrils, cotton, in sputum, 42
Fibrinous casts in sputum, 45
in urine, 157
F"ilaria, 356
bancrofti, 356
diurna, 358
infection, chyluria from, 148
loa, 358
medinensis, 358
perstans, 358
philippinensis, 358
sanguinis hominis, 357
Filariae in urine, 170
Filarial embryos in blood, 256
Filariasis, eosinophilia in, 239
parasite of, 357
Filariform embryos, 363
Fish tapeworm, 351
Fixation, chemic, for blood-films,
219
heat, for blood-films, 219
of blood-films, 219
Kowarsky's plate for, 219
Flagellata, 327, 330
Flagellates in feces, 320
Flasks, 397
Flat-worms, 340
Flaws in slides as source of error,
173
Fleischl's estimation of hemoglobin,
hemoglobinometer, 186
Flies, 366
Floaters in urine, 169
Florence's reaction for detection of
semen, 392
reagent, 393
Flukes, 340, 341
liver, 342
lung, 343
Focal distance of objective, 23, 24
Focusing microscope, 29
Folin's method of quantitative
estimation of urine, 74
Food particles in feces, 316
in gastric contents, 289, 302
Formaldehyd in milk, test for, 388
Formalin in milk, test for, 387
Formalin-gentian- violet stain, 57
Friinkel's diplococcus in sputum, 54
Free acids in gastric contents,
Congo-red test for, 290
tests for, 289
hydrochloric acid, 284. See also
Hydrochloric acid, free.
Freezing-point of urine, 79
Friedlander's bacillus in otitis, 383
in sputum, 58
Frommer's test for acetone, 122
Frothingham's method of demon-
strating Negri bodies, 394
modification of van Gieson's
stain for Negri bodies, 395
Fruit-sugar in urine, 117
Functional tests for feces, 320
Sahli's glutoid, 321
Schmidt's diet, 320
Fungi, mold, in urine, 172
Funnel, separatory, for Strauss'
lactic acid test, 293
Gabbet's method for bacillus tuber-
culosis in sputum, 49
stain, 51
Gall-stones in feces, 313
Gametes in malaria, 250
Gangrene of lung, sputum in, 65
Gastric carcinoma, gastric contents
in, 30s
contents, acetic acid in, 291
acid deficit, 299
bacteria in, 303
bile in, 289
blood in, 289, 295, 302
test for, 295
Boas-Oppler bacillus in, 303
butyric acid in, 291
chemic examination, 289
constituents, 285
erythrocytes in, 302
examination, 284
chemic, 289
microscopic, 301
See
Gastric contents, examination,
physical, 288
routine, 285
food particles in, 289, 302
free acids in, Congo-red test
for, 290
tests for, 289
hydrochloric acid in, 284
also Hydrochloric acid.
in achylia gastrica, 305
in atrophic gastritis, 305
in carcinoma, 305
in dilatation, 304
in disease, 304
in gastritis, 305
in gastrosuccorrhea, 304
in neuroses, 304
in ulcer, 306
lactic acid in, 291. See also
Lactic acid.
leptothrix buccalis in, 303
microscopic examination, 301
mucus in, 288
obtaining, 285
organic acids in, 291
quantitative tests
pepsin in, 293
Hammerschlag's test
Mett's test, 300
quantitative test, 299
Schiitz's, 300
test for, 293
pepsinogen in, 293
test for, 293
physical examination, 288
pus-cells in, 302
reaction, 288
red blood-corpuscles in, 302
rennin in, 294
test for, 294
renninogen in, 294
test for, 295
sarcinae in, 302
tests, qualitative, 289
quantitative, 295
tissue bits in, 289
total acidity, 295
tests, 295
Topfer's test, 295
withdrawal, 287
yeast-cells in, 302
digestion, Sahli's test for, 308
INDEX 451
- . . . ^ ^^TV;. V
-GfA^trfc ^uice, stimulattonj ioffifSid-
8s'
299
299
' / ; ,testrn>eals to stinlubte/ 2/^^ ^ _
neuroses, stomach contents m;^ / H
ulcer, gastnc contents m, 306 ' l\ ,
Gastritis, atrophic, gastric con-
tents in, 305
chronic, gastric contents in, 305
Gastro-intestinal diseases, anemia
from, 276
Gastrosuccorrhea, gastric contents
in, 304
Gauze, sterilization of, 400
Gelatin media, sterilization of, 400
preparation of, 402
Gerhardt's test for diacetic acid,
122
Gibson's chart, 236, 237
Giemsa's stain for syphilis, 390
Glassware, sterilization of, 399
Globular sputum, 67
Glossina palpalis, 248
Glucose in urine, 108. See also
Glycosuria.
Glutoid test, Sahli's, for digestive
functions, 321
Glycerin agar-agar, preparation of,
402
Glycosuria, 108
Benedict's quantitative estima-
tion, 115
test in, no
estimation of glucose, 112
Fehling's quantitative estima-
tion, 114
test in, no
fermentation method of estimat-
ing, 116
Haines' test in, 109
Kowarsky's test in, in
persistent, 109
phenylhydrazin test in, in
Purdy's estimation of glucose,
112
Robert's differential density
method of estimating, 116
tests, 1 09-11 6
transitory, 108
Gmelin's test for bile, 1 23
Goiter, exophthalmic, lymphocytes
in, 234
452
INDEX
Goiter, lymphocytes in, 234
Gonococcus, 41ft
in ci>bthalmia, 382 • ■ \ ■ ■,
, , >in pus, 36g '
in \irine, 169
^ ^ v Gonorrheal ophthalmia, 382
threads in urine, 169
CJram-negative bacteria, 409
Gram-positive bacteria, 409
Gram's iodin solution, 57
method for bacillus influenza in
sputum, 58
for bacteria in feces, 319
for pus, 367
stain for bacteria, 409
Granular casts in urine, 157, 158
degeneration, basophilic, 227
Granule epithelial cells in urine,
compound, 162
Granules, lycopodium, in urine, 173
starch, in feces, 316
in urine, 173
Gravel in urine, 142
Grawitz's degeneration, 227
Gray sputum, 39
Ground itch, 361
Guaiac test for blood, 274
for hemoglobin, 125
Guinea-worm, 358
Gunning's test for acetone, 1 20
Gutzeit's test for arsenic in urine,
^33
Haines' solution, no
test for glucose, 109
Hairs in urine, 161
Hammerschlag's estimation of he-
moglobin, 189
test for pepsin, 299
Harlow's blood stain, 224
Hiiser's method for total solids in
urine, 78
Hayem, hematoblasts of, 244
Hayem's fluid for blood count, 198
Hay's test for bile acids, 1 24
Heart disease, anemia from, 276
polycythemia in, 192
Heart-failure cells in sputum, 41.
62, 65
Heat and nitric acid test for al-
bumin, 104
I Heat fixation for blood-films, 219
, test for albumin, Purdy's, 104
Hematemcsis and hemoptysis, dif-
j ferentiation, 289
Hematoblasts of Hayem, 244
Hematocrit, 193
Daland's, 201
Hematoidin crystals in sputum,
45
Hematuria, 166
Egyptian, 167, 170, 344
from kidney tubules, 166
from pelvis of kidney, 166
hemoglobinuria and, differentia-
tion, 124
idiopathic, 166
Hemin test for blood, 274
Hemocytometer, diluting 6uids for,
198
Thoma-Zeiss, 193, 194
cleaning instrument, 199
sources of error, 199
technic, 195
Hemoglobin, 184
Dare's estimation, 189
decrease of, 185
estimation of, 185-191
Hammerschlag's estimation, 189
in urine, 124. See also Ilemo-
globiniiria.
medium, preparation of, 404
Sahli's estimation, 187
Talquist's estimation, 191
von Fleischl's estimation, 185
Hemoglobinometer, Dare's, 189
Sahli's, 187, 188
Tallquist's, 190, 191
von Fleischl's, 186
Hemoglobinuria, 124
detection, 125
guaiac test in, 125
hematuria and, differentiation,
124
paroxysmal, 125
Teichmann's test in, 125
tests, 125
Hemolysis, 265
Hemolytic amboceptor, 269
Hemoptysis and hematemesis, dif-
ferentiation, 288
Hemorrhage, anemia from, 276
from bladder, 166
INDEX
453
Hemorrhage from bladder, Schisto-
somum haematobium as cause,
167
leukocytosis after, 207
occult, in feces, detection, 314
ELemosporidia, 248
Herapathite, 137
Herpetomonas, 335
Hip-roof crystals in urine, 148
Hiss' method for pneumococci in
pus, 368
serum media, preparation of, 405
Hqdgkin's disease, 282
Holt's milk-testing apparatus, 385
Hookworm, anemia from, 276
infection, decrease of hemoglobin
from, 185
diagnosis, 361
New World, 359, 360
Old World, 359
Horismascope, 103
Host, definitive, of animal para-
sites, 324
intermediate, of animal parasites,
324
Hot-air sterilizer, 396
Human milk, 384
Hyaline casts in urine, 154, 155
Hydatid disease, 348
parasite of, 349
Hydrobilirubin in feces, 315
Hydrochloric acid, combined, 284
Topfer's test for, 298
free, 284
absence, 297
amidobenzol test for, 290
amount, 297
decrease, 297
Boas' test for, 290
increase, 297
tests for, 290
quantitative, 296
Topfer's test for, 297
Hydrogen sulphid generator, 135
Hydrophobia, 393. See also
- Rabies.
HjTTienolepis, 350
nana, 350
HjTDerchlorhydria, 297
H^-perchromemia, 184
Hyperemia, active, urine in, 173
passive, urine in, 174
Hyperemia, renal, urine in, 173
Hyphae of molds in urine, 161
Hypobromite method for urea in
urine, 94
Hypochlorhydria, 297
Hypodermic injection of tubercu-
Im for diagnosis, 429
Idiopathic hematuria, 166
polycythemia, 185, 192
Illumination, dark ground, of mi-
croscope, 21
for microscope, 18
with water-bottle condenser, 19
Immersion objective, 24
Immune bodies, 265, 266
Incidental parasites, 340
Incubation of bacteria, 413
Incubator, 397
Index, color, of blood, 200
opsonic, 263
phagocytic, 263
volume, of blood, 200
Larrabee's method, 201
method, 201
India-ink method for syphilis, 391
Indican in urine, 91
detection, 91
from decomposition of exu-
dates, 91
from diminished flow of bile, 91
in biliousness, 90
in diseases of small intestine, 90
of stomach, 90
Obermayer's test for, 91
tests for, 91
Indicanuria, 90. See also Indican
in urine.
Infection, blood-plaques in, 214
leukocytosis in, 206
mixed, 54
phagocytosis and, 261
vaccines in, 426, 427
Infecrious diseases, secondary ane-
mia from, 276
Inflammations, leukocytosis in, 206
pseudomembranous, of mouth,
378
Influenza bacillus, 418
in spinal fluid, 376
in sputum, 58
454
INDEX
Infusion, beef, preparation of, 401
bouillon, preparation of, 401
Infusoria, 328, 339
Inoculating media for bacteria, 412
Inoculation, animal, 375
of bacteria, 415
Intermediate host of animal para-
sites, 324
Intestine, small, diseases of, indican
in urine in, 90
Intoxication, acid, cause, 118
lodin in urine, 133
reaction of leukocytes, 238
solution. Gram's, 57
Iodoform crystals from Gunning's
test, 121
lodophilia, 238
Irregular malaria, 249
Itch, ground, 361
mite, 366
Kala-azar, Leishmania donovani
of, 335
Kelling's test for lactic acid, 292
Kemp-Calhoun-Harris estimation
of blood-plaques, 214
Kidney, changes in, albuminuria
from, loi
permeability of, tests for, 78, 79
Koch-Weeks bacillus in conjuncti-
vitis, 381
Kowarsky's plate for fixation of
blood-films, 219
test for glucose, 11 1
Lactic acid in gastric contents, 291
Kelling's test for, 292
Simon's test for, 292
Strauss' test for, 292
Uffelmann's test for, 292
Lactose in milk, estimation, 387
in urine, 117
Lamblia, 338
intestinalis, 338
Lamp, Matthews' microscope, 19,
20
Lancet, blood-, 183
Lange's test for acetone, 121
Larrabee's estimation of volume
index of blood, 201
Lead in urine, 134
Lederer's test, 134
Lead-poisoning, anemia from, 276
chronic, degeneration of Grawitz
in, 228
Lederer's test for lead in urine, 134
Lefifmann-Beam estimation of fat
in milk, 386
Legal 's test for acetone, Lange's
modification, 121
Leishman-Donovan bodies, 335
Leishmania, 335
donovani, 335
infantum, 335
tropica, 335
Leishman's method for measuring
opsonins, 263
Lenses, 23
for microscope, care of, 30
Leprosy, secondary anemia from,
276
Leptothrix buccalis, 377
in gastric contents, 303
in sputum, 42
Leucin in urine, 145
Leukemia, 203, 208, 280
blood-plaques in, 214
Boggs' estimation of leukocytes
in, 209
degeneration of Grawitz in, 228
diluting fluids for count, 213
Leukemia, eosinophilia in, 239, 240
erythroblasts in, 230
leukocyte count in, 209
lymphatic, 281
lymphocytes in, 234
mast-cells in, 241
myelocytes in, 242
myelogenous, 280
oligocythemia in, 193
polychromatophilia in, 227
Todd's estimation of leukocytes
in, 211
Turck's ruling for blood count in,
209, 211
Zappert ruling for blood count
in, 209
Leukocytes, 180
abnormal varieties, 241
atypic forms, 242
basophilic, 240
border-line forms, 243
INDEX
455
Leukocytes, classification of, 231
counting, in leukemia, 209
decrease in, 201
degenerated forms, 243
differential count of, 230
enumeration, 202
eosinophilic, 239. See also
Eosinopkiles.
increase in, 203
absolute, 231
relative, 231
iodin reaction of, 238
irritation forms, 243
mononuclear, large, 234
normal, 232
polymorphonuclear, neutrophilic,
235
polynuclear, 236
stained, study of, 230
transitional, 235
vacuolated, 243
Leukocytosis, 203
absolute, 231
digestive, 205
lymphocyte, 204, 207
in hereditary syphilis, 208
in pertussis, 208
myelocytes in, 242
non-phagocytic, 208
permanent, 203
polymorphonuclear, 204
from drugs, 207
from infections, 206
from inflammations, 206
in malignant disease, 207
pathologic, 205
physiologic, 205
toxic, 207
relative, 231
transient, 203
Leukopenia, 202
in chlorosis, 202
in pernicious anemia, 202
lymphocytes in, 233
Levulose in urine, 117
Lieben's test for acetone. Gunning's
modification, 121
Linen fibers in urine, 161, 172
Litmus milk, preparation of, 404
Liver, cirrhosis of, anemia from, 276
fluke, 342
rot, 342
Loffler's alkaline methylene-blue,
57
blood-senmi, preparation of, 403
methylene-blue for gonococci in
pus, 369
for pus, 367
stain for flagella, 411
Louse, 366
Lung, edema of, sputum in, 65
fluke, 343
gangrene of, sputum in, 65
tuberculosis of, sputiun in, 66
Lycopodium granules in urine, 173
used as micrometer, 33
LjTnphatic leukemia, 281
Ijrmphocytes in, 234
Lymphocyte leukocytosis, 204, 207
in hereditary syphilis, 208
in pertussis, 208
Lymphocytes, 232
Lymphocytosis, 208
Macrocytes, 226
Macroscopic examination of spu-
tum, 37
Maggots in feces, 366
Magnification, empty, 28
microscopic, 27
methods of increasing, 28
Malaria, irregular, 249
large mononuclear leukocytes in,
234
parasites of, 248. See also
Malarial parasites.
secondary anemia from, 276
transmission of, by mosquitos,
250
Malarial parasites, 248
ameboid movements of, 248
cycles of, 248
asexual cycle, 248
detection, 251, 253, 254
estivo-autumnal, 249, 250, 256
gametes in blood with, 250
hyaline stage of, 248
life histories, 248
merozoites of, 248
mosquitos as host, 250
quartan, 250, 256
Ruge's stain for, 254
segmentation of, 248
456
INDEX
Malarial parasites, sexual cycle,
248, 249
spores of, 248
stains for, 254
tertian, 249, 250, 256
Wright's stain for, 254
stippling, 228
Malignant disease, leukocytosis in,
207
endocarditis, vaccines in, 427
tumors, anemia from, 276
Mast-cells, 240
Mastigophora, 327, 330
Matthews' microscope lamp, 19. 20
McFarland's method for Widal
reaction, 259
Measles, diazo reaction in, 128
Measures, 439
Media, culture-, 401. See also
Culture-media.
gelatin, sterilization of, 400
Megaloblasts, 229
Megalocytes, 226
Melanin in urine, 126
tests for, 126
Melanogen in urine, 126
^lelanuria, 126
Membranous enteritis, 313
Meningitis, tuberculous, cerebro-
spinal fluid in, 374
Menstruation, eosinophilia during,
239
Mercury in urine, 136
treatment of syphilis, effect of,
on Wassermann reaction, 273
Merozoites of malarial parasites.
248
Metal, sterilization of, 399
Methylene-blue eosin stains, poly-
chrome, for blood, 222
test for urine, 79
Metric system, 439
Mett's test for pepsin, 300
tubes, 399
Microblasts, 229
Micrococcus catarrhalis in sputum,
58. 59
urae in urine, 167
Microcytes, 226
Micrometer eye-piece for micro-
scope, 31, 32
stage, 32
Micron, 32
Microscope, 17
care of, 30
choice of, 31
cleaning, 30
condenser for, 22
eye-pieces for, 23
focusing, 28
illumination for, 18
dark ground, 21
lamp, Aiatthews, 19, 20
lenses for, 23
care of, 30
magnification by, 27
methods of increasing, 28
method of carrying, 30
micrometer eye-piece for, 31, 32
objectives for, 23
corrections, 2*4
use, 17
^licroscopic objects, measurement,
31
Micturition, frequency of, 70
Milk, 384
analysis of, 384
tube for, 386
bacteria in, 384
chemic examination, 385
curds of, in feces, 317
fat in, estimation, 386
formalin in, test for, 387
lactose in, estimation, 387
litmus, preparation of, 404
proteins in, estimation, 387
reaction, 384
Milk-sugar in urine, 117
Milk-testing apparatus. Holt's, 385
Mineral sulphates, 90
Mite, itch, 366
Mixed infection, 54
Moeller's stain for spores, 410
Mold fungi in urine, 172
Molds, hj-pha; of, in urine, 161
in sputum, 47
Mononuclear leukoc>'tes, large, 234
Morax and Axenfeld's diplobacil-
lus, 381
Moro's tuberculin reaction in diag-
nosis of tuberculosis, 430
Morphin in urine, 136
Mosquitos in transmission of mala-
ria, 250
INDEX
457
Motor power of stomach, 307
Mouth, diseases of, 377
organism of, 377
Mucin in urine, 106
Mucous threads in urine, 159
Mucus in feces, 312
in gastric contents, 288
in urine, 159
Miiller's blood-dust, 181
fluid, 56
test for trypsin in feces, 322
Muscle-fibers in feces, 317
Myelin globules in sputum, 63
Myelocytes, 241
Myelogenous leukemia, 280
eosinophilia in, 239, 240
erythroblasts in, 230
mast-cells in, 241
myelocytes in, 242
Nagana, trypanosoma brucei of,
335
Nasopharynx, diphtheria of, 378
Necator americanus, 359, 360
life-history, 360
Needles, fatty-acid, in sputum, 45
Negative-staining of urinary casts,
154
Negri bodies, 393
Frothingham's method of de-
monstrating, 394
Van Gieson's stain for, Froth-
ingham's modification, 395
Nemathelminthes, 341, 353
Nematoda, 353
Nematodes, 353
Nephritis, anemia from, 276
chlorids in urine in, 82
urine in, 173, 175, 176
Neuroses, gastric, stomach contents
in, 304
Neutrophilic leukocytes, polymor-
phonuclear, 235
structures of blood, 221
Newton's rings, 196
Nitric acid test for albumin, 104
Nitrogen equilibrium, 92
partition, 92
Noguchi test for syphilis, 271
Normoblasts, 229
Nose, cylindric cells from, in spu-
timi, 6i
Nubecula of urine, 72
Numeric aperture, 25
Nutrition, poor, secondary anemia
from, 276
Obermayer's reagent, 91
test for indican in urine, 91
Objectives, achromatic, 23
apochromatic, 23
dry, 24
focal distance of, 23, 24
immersion, 24
microscopic, 23
niuneric apertures, 25
oil-immersion, 24, 25
resolving power of, 25
working distance of, 23
Oblique illumination of microscope,
20
Occult hemorrhage in feces, detec-
tion, 314
O'idlum albicans, 378
Oil-immersion objective, 24, 25
Oligochromemia, 185
Oligocythemia, 192
in anemias, 193
in chlorosis, 193
in leukemia, 193
Oliguria, 71
Oncospheres, 346
Ophthalmia, gonorrheal, 382
Ophthalmo-tuberculin reaction,
Calmette's, 430
Opisthorchis, 343
felineus, 343
sinensis, 343
Opsonic index, 263
Opsonins, 261
Leishman's method for measur-
ing, 263
measuring amount of, 262
Wright's method for measuring,
262
Orcin test, Bial's, for pentoses, 118
Organic acids in gastric contents,
291
quantitative tests, 299
Oriental sore, Leishmania tropica
of, 235
Orthostatic albuminuria, 100
Otitis, 383
458
INDEX
Otitis, bacteria of, 383
tuberculous, 383
Ova in feces, 320
Oxybutyric acid in urine, 123
Oxj^ihilic structures of blood, 221
Oxyuris, 355
vermicularis, 355
ova of, 356
Pancreatic reaction, 129
flasks for, 130
in pancreatitis, 129
technic, 129
Pancreatitis, pancreatic reaction in,
129
Pappenheim's method for bacillus
tuberculosis in sputum, 51
pyronin-methyl-green for bac-
teria, 408
for gonococci in pus, 369
for pus, 367
Paragonimus, 343
westermani, 343
in sputum, 48
Paramoecium coli, 339
Parasites, animal, 323
anemia from, 276
arthroiX)da, 366
classification, 324, 325
definitive host, 324
in blood, 247
in feces, 313
in sputum, 48
in urine, 169
infection with, eosinophilia in,
239
intermediate host, 324
nomenclature, 324, 325
protozoa, 326, 327
blood, 244
causing skin diseases, 384
in feces, 320
incidental, 340
malarial, 248. See also Malarial
parasites.
Paroxysmal hemoglobinuria, 125
Pavement epithelial cells in urine,
163
Pediculus capitis, 366
pubis, 366
vestimenti, 366
Pemphigus, eosinophilia in, 240
Pentoses in urine, 117
Bial's orcin test, 118
Pepsin in gastric contents, 293
Hammerschlag's test, 299
Mett's test, 300
quantitative test, 299
Schutz's law, 300
test for, 293
Pepsinogen in gastric contents, 293
test for, 293
Peptone solution, Dunham's, prep-
aration of, 404
Pericardial fluid, examination, 371
Peritoneal fluid, examination, 371
Permeability of kidneys, test, 78, 79
Pernicious anemia, 277
blood-plaques in, 214
color index in, 200
degeneration of Grawitz in, 228
erythroblasts in blood in, 230
erythrocytes in, 226
leukopenia in, 202
lymphocytes in, 234
myelocytes in, 242
polychromatophilia in, 227
Pertussis, lymphocyte leukocytosis
in, 208
lymphocytes in, 234
Pessary forms of erythrocytes, 226
Pfeiffer's phenomenon, 265
Phagocytic index, 263
Phagocytosis, 206
and infection, 261
Pharyngomycosis leptothrica, 377
Pharynx, tuberculosis of, 380
ulceration of, 380
Phenacetin in urine, 132
Phenol in urine, 136
Phenolphthalein in urine, 137.
Phenylglucosazone crystals, no
Phenylhydrazin test for glucose,
III
Phloridzin test for urine, 79 .
Phosphate crystals in urine, am-
moniomagnesium, 148
calcium, 149
triple, 148
Phosphates in urine, 86, 148
alkaline, 87
amorphous, 72, 87, 149
in mass, 160
INDEX
459
Phosphates in urine, decreased, 87
earthy, 87, 149
estimation, 87, 88
Purdy's centrifuge method,
88
quantitative, 87
increased, 87
Purdy's table for, after cen-
trifugation, 88
triple, 87
Phosphaturia, 87
Phosphorus-poisoning, anemia
from, 276
Photomicrography, S3
Physiologic albuminuria, 100
Pink-eye, 381
Pin- worm, 355
Pipets, 398
for counting vaccines by Wright's
method, 422
Piroplasma hominis, 339
Pirquet's reaction in tuberculosis,
430
Plasmodium, 338, 339
falciparum, 248
malariae, 248. See also Malarial
parasites.
vivax, 248
Platinum wires, 397
Platyhelminthes, 340, 341
Pleural fluid, examination, 371
Plugs, Dittrich's, in sputum, 39
Pneumococcus, 416
capsules, Buerger's method for,
55
in eye affections, 381
otitis, 383
in pus, 368
sputum, 54
Smith's method, 56
Pneumonia, croupous, sputum in,
66
drunkard's, sputum in, 39
Poikilocytes, 226
Poikilocytosis, 226
Poisoning, arsenic, anemia from,
276
lead-, anemia from, 276
phosphorus-, anemia from, 276
Polychromatophilia , 227
Polychrome methylene-blue eosin
stains for blood, 222
Polycythemia, 192
idiopathic, 185, 192
in diarrhea, 192
in heart disease, 192
Polyhedral cells in urine, 162
Polymorphonuclear leukocytosis,
204, 205. See also Leukocytosis,
polymorphonuclear.
neutrophilic leukocytes, 235
Polynuclear leukocytes, 236
Polyuria, 70
Pork tapeworm, 348
Posthemorrhagic leukocytosis, 207
Postural albuminuria, 100
Potassium indoxyl sulphate in
urine, 90. See also Indican in
urine.
Potato medium, preparation of, 404
Power of resistance, 236
Preformed sulphates, 90
Pregnancy, urine in, 175
Primary proteoses in urine, 106
Proglottides, 345
Progressive pernicious anemia, 277
Proteins in milk, estimation, 387
in urine, 99
Proteoses in urine, 106
detection, 108
primary, 106
secondary, 106
Protozoa, 326, 327
Prune-juice sputum, 39
Prurigo, eosinophilia in, 240
Pseudocasts in urine, 161
Pseudoleukemia, 282
Pseudomembranous conjunctivits,
382
inflammations of mouth, 378
Psoriasis, eosinophilia in, 240
Pulmonary edema, sputum in, 65
gangrene, sputum in, 65
tuberculosis, sputum in, 66
tuberculin in, 428, 249
Purdy's centrifugal estimation of
albumin, 106
of chlorids, 83
of phosphates, 88
of sulphates, 89
centrifuge tubes, 85
electric centrifuge, 83
estimation of glucose in urine, 112
heat test for albumin, 104
460
INDEX
Purdy's solution for glucose test,
table for estimation of albumin,
107
of chlorids, 86
of phosphates, 88
of sulphates, 89
Purin bodies in urine, 95
Cook's method, 96
Purpura haemorrhagica, blood-
plaques in, 214
Pus, bacillus tuberculosis in, 369
bacteria in, 367
examination of. 367
gonococci in, 369
Gram's method for, 367
in feces, 318
in urine, 72, 164
Donne's test, 72
Lofller's methylene-blue for, 367
Pappenheim's pyronin-methyl-
green for, 367
pneumococci in, 368
staphylococci in, 368
streptococci in, 368
Pus-casts in urine, 159
Pus-corpuscles, 236, 367
in feces, 318
in gastric contents, 302
in sputum, 59
in urine, 163
Pyelitis, urine in, 177
Pyuria, 164
Quartan parasite, 250, 256
Quinin in urine, 137
Rabies, diagnosis of, 393
Frothingham's method of de-
monstrating Negri bodies in,
3Q4
Ray-fungus in sputum, 46
Reaction, Noguchi's, for syphilis,
271
Wassermann, 274. See also
Wasserniann reaction.
Reagents. 434
Red blocxi-corpuscles, 180
decrease of, 192. See also
Oligocythemia.
Red blood-corpuscles in gastric
contents, 302
in sputum, 63
in urine, 165
increase of, 192. See also
Polycytticmia.
sand in urine, 142
Reinsch's test for arsenic in urine,
133
Relapsing fever, spirochaeta of, 247,
331
Renal albuminuria, 100
calculus, urine in, 177
circulation, changes in, albu-
minuria from, loi
hyperemia, urine in, 173
tuberculosis, urine in, 175
Rennin in gastric contents, 294
test for, 294
Renninogcn in gastric contents, 294
test for, 295
Resinous drugs in urine, 137
Resistance, power of, 236
Resolving jx)\ver of objective, 25
Rhabditiform embryos, 362
Rheumatism, secondary anemia
from, 276
Rhizojxxla, 327, 328
Rice's solutions, 95
Ring bodies, Cabot's, 230
Rings, Xewton's, 196
Ringworm. 384
Robert's differential density meth-
od of estimating glucose in
urine, 116
test for albumin, 103
Ronchese-Malfatti formalin test for
ammonia in urine, 98
Round- worms, 354
in children, 354
Ruge's stain for malarial parasites,
254
Ruhemann's method for uric add,
97
reagent, 97
uricometer, 96
Rusty sputum, 38, 39
Saccharimeter, Einhom's, 1 14
Sahli's desmoid test of gastric di-
gestion, 308
INDEX
461
Sahli's estimation of hemoglobin,
187
glutoid test for digestive func-
tions, 321
hemoglobinometer, 187, 188
Salicylates in urine, 137
Salol in urine, 137
test, Ewald's, for gastric motor
power, 307
Salvarsan treatment of syphilis,
effect of, on Wassermann reac-
tion, 273
Sand, red, in urine, 142
Sarcinae in gastric contents, 302
Sarcodina, 327, 328
Sarcoptes scabiei, 366
Saxe's urinopyknometer, 76
Scarlet fever, eosinophilia in, 239,
240
Schistosomum, 344
hematobium, 342, 344
in urine, 170
in veins of bladder as cause of
hemorrhage, 167
japonicum, 345
Schmidt's diet for examination of
feces, 320
Schiitz's law in quantitative test for
pepsin, 300
Scolex, 345
Scratches on slide as source of
error, 173
Screw worm, 366
Secondary anemia, 276
proteoses in urine, 106
Secretory ability of kidneys, tests,
78, 79
Sediments, urinary, 138. See also
Urinary sediment.
Segmentation of malarial parasites,
248
Semen, examination of, 391
on clothes, detection, 392
Florence's reaction for, 392
Separatory funnel for Strauss'
lactic acid test, 293
Scrum, blood-, Loffler's, prepara-
tion of, 403
media, Hiss', preparation of, 405
reactions, 257
Serum-albumin in urine, 99
Serum-globulin in urine, 99
Shadow cells in urine, 166
Silk fibers in urine, 161, 172
Silver impregnation method for
syphilis, 390
nitrate solution, ammoniated, 97
Simon's test for lactic acid, 292
Skin diseases, eosinophilia in, 239,
240
parasitic diseases of, 384
Sleeping sickness, 248
trypanosoma gambiense of, 334
Small intestine, diseases of, indican
in urine in, 90
Smegma bacillus, 53, 169
Smith's method for pneumococcus
in sputum, 56
test for bile, 123
Sodium urate in urine, 144
Specific gravity of urine, 74
Spermatozoa, absence of, 391
in urine, 167
Spinal fluid, influenza bacilli in, 376
Spirals, Curschmann's, in sputum,
43
Spirochaeta, 330
buccalis, 332
carter i, 331
dentium, 332
duttoni, 331
kochi, 331
novyi, 331
obermeieri, 331
pallida, 388
recurrentis, 330
in blood, 247
refringens, 2>3,3
in syphilis, 389
vincenti, 331, 380
Splenic anemia, 280
Splenomegaly, infantile, Leish-
mania infantum of, 335
Spores of malarial parasites, 248
Sporozoa, 328, 338
Sputum, 36
actinomyces bovis in, 46
albumin in, 63
alveolar cells in, 62
Amceba histolytica in, 48
animal parasites in, 48
bacillus mucosus capsulatus in,
58
of Friedlander in, 58
462
INDEX
Sputum, bacillus of influenza in, 58
tuberculosis in, 36, 49
bacteria in, 49
black, 39
cells in, 59
stains for, 59
Charcot-Leyden crystals in, 44,
45
chemic examination, 63
cholesterin crystals in, 45
ciliated body-cells in, 48
collection of, 36, 37
color of, 38
consistence, 39
cotton fibrils in, 42
crudum, 39
crystals in, 44, 45
Curschmann's spirals in, 43
cylindric cells in, 61
diplococcus of Frankel in, 54
Dittrich's plugs in, 39
elastic fibers in, 41
eosinophilic cells in, 60
epithelial cells in, 61
examination, 36
chemic, 63
macroscopic, 37
microscopic, 40
physical, 38
fat-droplets in, 63
fatty-acid crystals in, 42
needles in, 45
fibrinous casts in, 45
Frankel's diplococcus in, 54
globular, 67
gray, 39
heart-failure cells in, 41, 62, 65
hematoidin crystals in, 45
in bronchial asthma, 66
in bronchiectasis, 65
in bronchitis, 64
in croupous pneumonia, 66
in disease, 64
in drunkard's pneumonia. 39
in gangrene of lung, 65
in pneumonia, croupous, 66
in pulmonary edema, 65
gangrene, 65
tuberculosis, 66
leptothrix buccalis in, 42
macroscopic examination, 37
micrococcus catarrhalis in, 58, 59
Sputum, molds in, 47
myelin globules in, 63
Paragonimus westermani in, 48
pneumococcus in, 54
Smith's method, 56
prune-juice, 39
pus-corpuscles in, 59
quantity, 38
ray-fungus in, 46
receptacle for, 37
rusty, 38, 39
squamous cells in, 61
stained, 48
staphylococci in, 54
streptococci in, 54
streptothrix actinomyces in, 47
tubercle bacillus in, 36, 49
unstained, 40
yeasts in, 47
Squamous cells in sputum, 61
epithelial cells in urine, 163
Squibb's urinometer, 75
Stage micrometer, 32
Stained blood, 216
sputum, 48
Staining methods, 407
Stains, 434
anilin, for blood- films, 220
anilin-gentian violet, 57
carbol fuchsin, 50
thionin, for bacteria, 408
Ehrlich's triple, for blood, 221
eosin and methylene-blue, for
blood, 221
for bacillus influenza in sputum,
tuberculosis in sputum, 49
for bacteria, 407
in feces, 318
in sputum, 49
for morphology, 407
for blood, 216
Wright's, in cytodiagnosis, 372
for blood-films, 216, 220
for cells in sputum, 59
for malarial parasites, 254
for pneumococcus capsules, 55
for pus, 367
for syphilis, 390
formalin-gentian-violet, 57
Gabbet's, 51
Giemsa's, for syphilis, 390
INDEX
463
Stains, Gram's, for bacteria, 409
for pus, 367
iodin solution, 57
Harlow's, for blood, 224
India-ink, for syphilis, 391
iodin, for leukocytes, 238
iodin solution. Gram's, 57
LoflBer's alkaline methylene-blue,
57
for flagella, 411
methylene-blue, for gonococci
in pus, 369
for pus, 367
Moeller's, for spores, 410
negative-, for urinary casts, 154
Pappenheim's pyronin-methyl-
green, 367
for bacteria, 408
for gonococci in pus, 369
polychrome methylene-blue eosin ,
for blood, 222
Ruge's, for malarial parasites, 254
silver, for syphilis, 390
Stirling's anilin-gentian-violet,
57
triple, for blood, 221
Van Gieson's, for Negri bodies,
Frothingham's modification,
395
Wright's, for blood, 222
in cytodiagnosis, 372
for malarial parasites, 254
for syphilis, 390
Staphylococci, 368
in eye affections, 381
in otitis, 383
in sputum, 54
Staphylococcus pyogenes albus, 416
aureus, 415
citreus, 416
Starch paper, 307
Starch-granules in feces, 316
in urine, 173
Steam sterilizer, 396
Sterility, 391
Sterilization, 399
in preparation of vaccines, 422
of cotton, 400
of culture-media, 399
of gauze, 400
of gelatin media, 400
of glassware, 399
Sterilization of metal, 399
Sterilizers, 396
dry, 396
hot-air, 396
steam, 396
Stippling, malarial, 228
Stirling's anilin-gentian-violet stain,
57
Stock vaccines, 419
Stomach, 284
absorptive power of, 306
contents of, 284. See also Gastric
contents.
digestion, 284
dilatation of, gastric contents in,
.304
diseases of, indican in urine in, 90
motor power of, 307
position of, determination, 308
size of, determination, 308
Stomach- tube, 287, 288
Stools, 310. See also Feces.
Strauss' test for lactic acid, 292
Streptococci, 368
in eye affections, 381, 382
in otitis, 383
in sputum, 54
Streptococcus pyogenes, 416
Streptothrix actinomyces in spu-
tum, 47
Strongyloides, 362
intestinalis, 324, 362, 363
Sugar media, preparation of, 403
Sugars in urine, 108
Sulphates, conjugate, 90
ethereal, 90
in urine, 88
estimation, Purdy's centrifugal
method, 89
quantitative, 89
Purdy's table after centrifuga-
tion, 89
mineral, 90
preformed, 90
Sulphuric acid in urine, 88
Surra, trypanosoma evansi of, 335
Syphilis, dark ground illumination
in, 391
examination of material, 388
Giemsa's stain for, 390
hereditary, lymphocyte leuko-
cytosis in, 208
464
INDEX
Syphilis, India-ink method for, 391
micro-organism of, 388, 389
Noguchi reaction for, 271
secondary anemia from, 276
silver impreganation method for,
390
spirochajta pallida in, 388
refringens in, 389
treponema pallidum in, ^i^^, 388,
389
stains for, 390
Wassermann reaction for, 264.
See also Wassrrniann reaction.
Wright's stain for, 390
T.KNiA, 347
echinococcus, 346, 348, 349
in urine, 169
elliptica, 351
mediocanellata, 347
saginata, 345, 346, 347
solium, 345, 346, 346
Tallquist's estimation of hemo-
globin, 191
hemoglobinometer, 190, 191
Tannin in urine, 138
Tapeworm, 341, 345
beef, 347
dwarf, 350
fish, 351
in feces, 313
pork, 348
Teichmann's test for blood, 274
for hemoglobinuria, 125
Telosporidia, 328, 338
Temperature, 440
Tertian parasite, 249, 250, 256
Test-breakfast, Boas', 286
Ewald's, 286
Test-meals, 286
Boas', 286
Ewald's, 286
Texas fever, Babesia bigeminum of,
339
Thoma-Zeiss hemocytometer, 193,
194
cleaning iru^trument, 199
sources of error, 199
technic, 195
Thorn-apple crystals in urine, 151
Thread- worm, 355
Thrush, 378
Tick fever, Babesia hominis of, 339
Tinea versicolor, 384
Tissue bits in gastric contents, 289
Todd's estimation of leukocytes in
leukemia, 211
Toisson's fluid for blood count,
198
Tonsils, diphtheria of, 378
Tdpfcr's test for combined hydro-
chloric acid, 298
for free hydrochloric acid, 297
for total acidity, 295
Torfuge, Wethcrill's, 139
T. O. tuberculin, 428
Toxic absorption, degree of, 236
leukocytosis, 207
T. R. tuberculin, 428
Trachea, cylindric cells from, in
sputum, 61
Trachoma, 383
Transitional leukocytes, 235
Transitory glycosuria, 108
Transudates, 371
Trematoda, 340, 341
Trematodes, 340, 341
Treponema, ;i$^
pallidum, 333, 388, 389
Giemsa's stain for, 390
India-ink method, 391
silver impregnation method,
390
Wright's stain for, 390
pertenue, 333
Trichinella, 363
spiralis, 324, 363, 364
embryos of, in blood, 257
Trichiniasis, diagnosis, 364
parasite of, 363
Trichinosis, eosinophilia in, 239
Trichloracetic acid test for albumin,
102
Trichocephalus, 364
trichiurus, 364
Trichomonas, 336
intestinalis, 337
pulmonalis, 337
vaginalis, 336
in urine, 170
Triple phosphate crystals in urine,
148
phosphates in urine, 87
INDEX
465
Triple stain, Ehrlich's, for blood,
221
Tropical dysentery, entamoeba his-
tolytica in, 328
Trypanosoma, SSS
brucei, 335
cruzi, 334
equiperdum, 335
evansi, 335
gambiensi, 334
in blood, 247
lewisi, 334
Trypanosomes, 333
blepharoplast of, ^3$
Trypsin in feces, Miiller's test for,
322
Tsuchiya's method for albumin in
urine, 105
Tube-casts in urine, 152
Tubercle bacillus. See also Bacil-
lus tuberculosis.
Tuberculin, 428
B. E., 428
B. F., 428
dosage of, 428
in diagnosis, 429
Calmette's oph thai mo- tuber-
culin reaction, 430
hypodermic injection, 429
Moro's reaction, 430
Von Pirquet's reaction, 430
in tuberculosis, 428
reaction of, 429
T. O., 428
T. R., 428
Tuberculosis, animal inoculation
in, 375
Calmette's reaction in, 430
diazo reaction in, 127
Moro's reaction in, 430
of mouth, 380
of pharynx, 380
pulmonary, sputum in, 66
renal, urine in, 175
secondary anemia from, 276
tuberculin in diagnosis of, 429
in treatment of, 428
vesical, urine in, 178
Von Pirquet's reaction in, 430
Tubing culture-media, 406
Tumors, malignant, anemia from,
276
30
Tumors, vesical, urine in, 178
Tiirck's ruling for blood count in
leukemia, 209, 211
Turpentine, odor of urine from, 73
Two-slide method for blood-films,
217
Typhoid bacilllus, 417
in blood, 244
technic, 245
fever, diazo reaction in, 127
lymphocytes in, 234
secondary anemia from, 276
vaccines in, 428
Widal reaction in, 127, 258
Tyrosin in urine, 145, 146
Uffelmann's test for lactic acid,
292
Ulcer, gastric, stomach contents in,
306
Ulcerations of mouth, 380
of pharynx, 380
Uncinaria duodenalis, 359
life-history, 360
Uncinariasis, anemia from, 276
diagnosis of, 361
eosinophilia in, 239
Unstained sputum, 40
Urates, amorphous, in urine, 72, 95,
143
in mass, 160
Urea in urine, 92
decreased, 93
estimation, quantitative, 94
increased, 92
tests, 94
Ureometer, Doremus-Hinds', 94
Uric acid crj'stals in urine, 142
in urine, 95
Cook's method, 96
decreased, 96
estimation, quantitative, 96
increased, 96
Ruhemann's method, 97
Uricometer, Ruhemann's, 96
Urinary albumin, 99
crystals, 141, 142
sediment, examination, 138
organized, 151
transference to slide, 138
imorganized, 141
466
INDEX
Urinary sediment, unorganized,
in acid urine, 141, 142
in alkaline urine, 142, 148
Urine, 68
acctanilid in, 132
acetone in, 118. See also
Acelonuria.
acid, 73
unorganized sediments in, 141,
.142
acidity, quantitative estimation,
74
P'olin's method, 74
air bubbles in, 173
albumin in, 99. See also Albu-
minuria.
alkaline, unorganized sediments
in, 142, 148
alkalinity of, 73
fixed, 74
volatile, 74
alkapton bodies in, 126
ammonia in, 97. See also Am-
monia in urine.
ammoniacal decomposition, 74
ammoniomagncsium phosphate
crystals in, 148
ammonium urate crystals in, 151
amorphous phosphates in, 149
anguillula aceti in, 171
animal parasites in, 169
antipyrin in, 132
arsenic in, 133
Gutzeit's test for, 133
Reinsch's test for, 133
atropin in, 133
bacillus tuberculosis in, 168
typhosus in, 168
bacteria in, 72, 167
bacterial casts in, 159
Bence- Jones' body in, 108
detection, 108
bile acids in, 124
Hay's test, 124
tests, 124
bile in, 123
Gmelin's test for, 123
Smith's test for, 123
bile-pigment in, 123
bilifuscin in, 123
bilirubin in, 123
biliverdin in, 123
Urine, blood in, 72, 166
blood-casts in, 158
blood-corpuscles in, 165
brick-dust deposit in, 72, 143
bromids in, 133
bubbles of air in, 173
calcium carbonate in, 150
oxalate in, 144
phosphate crystals in, 149
casts in, 152
negative-staining, 154
chemic examination, 80
chlorids in, 82. See also Chlorias
in urine.
coffin-lid crystals in, 148
color, 71
composition of, 68, 80
constituents, 68
abnormal, 99
inorganic, 82
normal, 80
organic, 82
cryoscopy of, 79
cylindroids in, 160
cystin crystals in, 146
decreased, 71
dextrose in, 108. See also Glyco-
suria.
diacetic acid in, 122. See also
Diacetic acid in urine.
diazo substances in, 126
dumb-bell crystals in, 150, 151
earthy phosphates in, 149
effect of drugs on, 71, 132
electric conductivity, 79
envelop crystals in, 144
epithelial casts in, 158
cells in, 162, 163
examination, 70
chemic, 80
microscopic, 138
physical, 70
extraneous structures in, 171
fat-droplets in, 172
fat-globules in, 147
fatty casts in, 158
fibers in, extraneous, 161, 172
of cotton, 161, 172
of linen, 161, 172
of silk, 161, 172
of wool, 161, 172
fibrinous casts in, 157
INDEX
467
Urine, filariae in, 170
floaters in, 169
freezing-point, 79
fruit-sugar in, 117
functional tests for, 78
glucose in, 108. See also Glyco-
suria.
gonococci in, 169
gonorrheal threads in, 169
granular casts in, 157, 158
granule cells in, compound, 162
gravel in, 142
hairs in, 161
hip-roof crystals in, 148
hyaline casts in, 154, 155
hyphae of molds in, 161
in calculus, renal, 177
vesical, 178
in chyluria, 148
in cystitis, 178
in diabetes insipidus, 179
mellitus, 179
in disease, 173
in hyperemia, 173, 174
in nephritis, 173, 175, 176
in pregnancy, 175
in pyelitis, 177
in renal calculus, 177
hyperemia, 173
tuberculosis, 175
in vesical calculus, 178
tuberculosis, 178
tumors, 178
increased, 70
indican in, 90. See also Indican
in urine.
inorganic constituents, 82
iodin in, 133
irregular epithelial cells in, 162
lactose in, 117
lead in, 134
Lederer's test, 134
leucin in, 145
levulose in, 117
lycopodium granules in, 173
- melanin in, 126
tests for, 126
melanogen in, 126
mercury in, 136
methylene-lalue test for, 79
micrococcus ureae in, 167
microscopic examination, 138
Urine, milk-sugar in, 117
mold fungi in, 172
morphin in, 136
mucin in, 106
mucous threads in, 159
normal constituents, &3
nubecula of, 72
odor, 73
organic constituents, 82
oxybutyric acid in, 123
pavement epithelial cells in, 163
pentoses in, 117
Bial's orcin test, 118
phenacetin in, 132
phenol in, 136
phenolphthalein in, 137
phloridzin test for, 79
phosphates in, 86, 148. See also
Phosphates in urine.
physical examination, 70
pigments in, 71
removal, 69
polyhedral cells in, 162
potassium indoxyl sulphate in,
90. See also Indican in urine.
proteins in, 99
proteoses in, 106
detection, 108
primary, 106
secondary, 106
pseudocasts in, 161
purin bodies in, 95
Cook's method, 96
pus in, 72, 164
Donne's test, 72
pus-casts in, 159
pus-corpuscles in, 163
quantity, 70
quinin in, 137
reaction, 73
red blood-corpuscles in, 165
sand in, 142
resinous drugs in, 137
retention with overflow, 70
salicylates in, 137
salol in, 137
schistosomum haetaatobium in,
170
serum-albumin in, 99
serum-globulin in, 99
shadow cells in, 166
sodium urate in, 144
468
INDEX
Urine, solids in, total, 76
Hiiser's method, 78
specific gravity, 74
spermatozoa in, 167
squamous epithelial cells in, 163
starch-granules in, 173
sugars in, 108
suljihates in, 88. See also 5m/-
p/idtcs in urine.
sul])huric acid in, 88
sup])ression, 71
ta.'nia echinococcus in, 169
tannin in, 138
thorn-apple crystals in, 151
total solids in, 76
Hiiser's method, 78
transparency, 72
trichomonas vaginalis in, 170
triple phosphate crystals in, 148
tube-casts in, 152
tubercle bacilli in, 168
tyrosin in, 145, 146
urates in, amorphous, 72, 95, 143
in mass, 160
urea in, 92. See also Urea in
urine.
uric-acid crystals in, 142
uric acid in, 95. See also Uric
acid in urine.
vinegar eel in, 171
volatile alkalinity of, 74
waxy casts in, 156
yeast-cells in, 171
Urinometer, Squibb's, 75
Urinopyknomcter, Saxe's, 76
Vaccine treatment, 264
Vaccines, 419
autogenous, 419
bacterial, Wright's, 264
bottles, 420
counting of, 422
dosage of, 425
clinical method, 426
in infections, 426, 427
in malignant endocarditis, 427
in typhoid fever, 428
injection of, 425
technic, 425
method of use, 425
preparation of, 419
Vaccines, preparation of, diluting,
424
making the suspension, 421
materials, 419
obtaining the bacteria, 420
sterilization, 422
stock, 419
therapeutic indications, 426
Vacuolated leukocytes, 243
Van Gieson's stain for Negri bodies,
Frothingham's modification, 395
Vegetable cells in feces, 316
fibers in feces, 316
Vermidea, 340
Vernal catarrh, eosinophilic leuko-
cytes in, 383
Vesical calculus, urine in, 178
tuberculosis, urine in, 178
tumors, urine in, 178
Vincent's angina, 379
spirochaete of, 331
Vinegar eel, 354
in urine, 171
Vogel's scale. See Frontispiece.
Volume index of blood, 200
Larrabee's method, 201
method, 201
Von Fleischl's estimation of hemo-
globin, 185
hemoglobinometer, 186
Von Pirquet's reaction in tubercu-
losis, 430
Wassermann reaction, 264
bacteriolysis in, 265
effect of mercury treatment on,
273
of salvarsan treatment on,
273
of treatment on, 273
hemolysis in, 265
modifications, 271
Noguchi's modification, 271
reagents in, 269
I technic, 269
value of, 272
Water-motor centrifuge, 84
Watery blood, 181
Waxy casts in urine, 156
Weights, 439
I Wetherill's torfuge, 139
I Whip-worm, 364
INDEX
469
White blood-corpuscles, 180
Widal reaction, 258
in typhoid fever, 127
macroscopic, 261
microscopic, 259
Wires, platinum, 397
Wool fibers in urine, 161, 172
Working distance of objective, 23
Worms, 341, 345
eosinophilia as symptom, 239
pin-, 355
round-, 353
screw-, 366
tape-, 345
thread-, 355
whip-, 364
Wright and Kinnicutt's estimation
of blood-plaques, 216
Wright's bacterial vaccines, 264
blood-stain, 222
for syphilis, 390
in cytodiagnosis, 372
Wright's capsule, 399
method of obtaining blood in,
258
method foi measuring opsonins,
262
stain for malarial parasites, 254
Xerosis bacillus in eye, 382
Yaws, treponema pertenue of, 333
Yeast-cells in gastric contents, 302
in urine, 171
Yeasts in sputum, 47
Zappert ruling for count in leu-
kemia, 209
Ziehl-Neelsen method for bacillus
tuberculosis in sputum, 51
Zoomastigophora, 327, 330
Zymogens, 284
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it tells the specialist how the most eminent electiotherai)eutists are securing
results, the latest authorities in every country having been consulted for de-
tails of practical value. The work gives explicit directions for the care and
regulation of static machines, x-ray tubes, and all apparatus. The author
tells how to make x-ray pictures by a practical technic easily followed, even
though the operator be inexperienced in this field. Being an 'authority on
dental radiography, the chapters on this side of the subject are particularly
imp>ortant to those interested in dental work.
The Therapeutic Gazette
" Dr. Tousey's book may be said to contain practically everything in regard to medical
electricity, and by ' everything ' we mean not only a discussion of elementary facts, largely
physical in nature, but a description of all the forms which can be employed."
McKenzie on Exercise in
Education and Medicine
Exercise in Education and Medicine. By R. Tait
McKenzie, B. A., M. D., Professor of Physical Education, and
Director of the Department, University of Pennsylvania. Oc-
tavo of 406 pages, with 346 illustrations. Cloth, $3.50 net.
ILLUSTRATED
This work is a full and detailed treatise on the application of systematized
exercise in the development of the normal body and in th# correction of cer-
tain diseased conditions in which gymnastics have proved of value.
D. A. Sar^eantt M. D., Director of Hemenivay Gymnasium, Har^iard University.
" It cannot fail to be helpful to practitioners in medicine. The classification of athletic
games and exercises in tabular form for different ages, sexes, and occupations is the work of
an expert. It should be in the hands of every physical educator and medical practitioner."
THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE
Anders*
Practice of Medicine
A Text-Book of the Practice of Medicine. By James
M. Anders, M. D., Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of the Practice
of Medicine and of Clinical Medicine, Medico-Chirurgical Col-
lege, Philadelphia. Handsome octavo, 1326 pages, fully illus-
trated. Cloth, $5.50 net; Half Morocco, $7.00 net.
THE NEW (9th) EDITION
The success of this work is no doubt due to the extensive consideration
given to Diagnosis and Treatment, under Differential Diagnosis the jxiints of
distinction of simulating diseases being presented in tabular form. In this
new edition Dr. Anders has included all the most important advances in
medicine, keeping the book within bounds by a judicious elimination of
ol'solete matter. A great many articles have also been rewritten.
Wm. E. Quine, M. D., College of Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago.
" I consider Anders' Practice one of the best single-volume works before the profession
at this time, and one of the best text-books for medical students."
DaCosta's Physical Diagnosis
Physical Diagnosis. By John C. DaCosta, Jr., Asso-
ciate in Clinical Medicine, Jefferson Medical College. Octavo
of 557 pages, with original illustrations. Cloth, $3.50 net.
ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS
In Dr. DaCosta's work every method given has been carefully tested and
proved of value by the author himself. Normal physic.il signs are explained
in detail in order to aid the diagnostician in determining the abnormal. Both
direct and differential diagnoses are emphasized. The 212 original illustra-
tions are artistic as well as practical.
Henry L. Eisner, M. D., Professor of Medicine, Syracuse University.
" I have reviewed this book and am thoroughly convinced that it is one of the best
ever written on the subject. In every way I find'it a superior production."
SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON
Sahli's Diag(nostic Methods
Edited by Nath'l Bowditch Potter. M.D.
A Treatise on Diagnostic Methods of Examination.
By Prof. Dr. H. Sahli, of Bern. Edited, with additions, by
Nath'l Bowditch Potter, M.D., Assistant Professor of Clinical
Medicine, Columbia University. Octavo of 1225 pages, pro-
fusely illustrated. Cloth, $6.50 net.
THE NEW (2d) EDITION, RESET
Lewellys F. Barker. M. D.
Professor of Medicine, Johns Hopkins UniTersHy
" 1 am delighted with it, and it will be a pleasure to recommend it to our students in
the Johns Hopkins Medical School."
Friedenwald and Ruhrah
on Diet
Diet in Health and Disease. By Julius Friedenwald,
M. D., Professor of Diseases of the Stomach, and John Ruhrah,
M. D., Professor of Diseases of Children, College of Physicians
and Surgeons, Baltimore. Octavo of 764 pages. Cloth,
$4.00 net.
NEW (3d) EDITION
This work contains a complete account of foodstuffs, their uses, and
chemical composition. Dietetic management in all diseases in which diet
plays a part in treatment is carefully considered, the articles on diet in diseases
of the digestive organs containing numerous diet-lists and explicit instructions
for administration. The feeding of infants and children, of patients before
and after anesthesia and surgical opention.s, are all taken up in detail.
George Dock. M. D.,
Professor of Theory and Practice of Medicine and Clinical Medicine, Tulane Uni-
versity of Louisiana.
" It seems to me that you have prepared the most valuable work of the kind now avail-
able. I am especially glad to see the long list of analyses of different kinds of food "
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
Oertel on Brig'ht's Disease
The Anatomical and Histological Processes of Bright 's
Disease. By Horst Oertel, M. D., Director of the Riissell
Sage Institute of Pathology, New York. Octavo of 227 pages,
with 44 text-illustrations and 6 colored plates. Cloth, $5.00 net.
ILLUSTRATED
These lectures deal with the anatomic and histologic processes of Bright' s
disease, and in a somewhat different way from the usual manner. Everywhere
relations are emphasized and an endeavor made to reconstruct the whole as a
unit of interwoven processes. In the preparation of his lectures the author
had in mind a twofold aim : To present the visual picture of nephritis, and
to prepare the proper way for the understanding of the genesis of the disease.
Fenwick on Dyspepsia
Dyspepsia. By William Soltau Fenwick, M. D., of Lon-
don. Octavo of 485 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $3.00 net.
Southern Medical Journal
*' The suggestions on treatment are logical and practical, being particularly helpful in
many of those perplexing types so often encountered."
Smith's What to Eat 6 Why
What to Eat and Why. By G. Carroll Smith, M.D.,
Boston. i2mo of 312 pages. Cloth, $2.50 net.
RECENTLY ISSUED
With tliis book you no longer need send your patients to a specialist to
be dieted — you will be able to prescribe the suitable diet yourself, just as you
do other forms of therapy. Dr. Smith gives "the why" of each statement
he makes. It is this knowing wliy which gives you contidence in the book,
which makes you feel that Dr. Smith knows.
Slade's Physical Examination O Diagnostic Anatomy
Physical Ex.'vmination Axn Dia(;N(«tic Anatomy. — By Charm. s
B. Sladk, M.D., Chief of Clinic in General Medicine, University and
Bellevue Hospital Medical College. i2mo of 146 pages, illustrated.
Cloth, $1.25 net.
lo SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON
AMERICAN EDITION
NOTHNAGEL'S PRACTICE
UNDER THIi EDITORIAL SUI'EUVISION OK
ALFRED STENGEL. M.D.
Professor of Medicine in the University of Pennsylvania
Typhoid and Typhus Fevers
\^y I)K. II. CURSCHMANN, of Leipsic. Edited, with additions, by
William Oslkr, M. D., F. R. C. P., Oxford University, Oxford,
England. Octavo of 646 pages, illustrated.
Sm&llpox (including Vaccination) , Varicella, Cholera
Asiatica, Cholera Nostras, Erysipelas, Erysip-
eloid, Pertussis, and Hay Fever
By Dr. H. Immermann, of Uasle ; I)k. Th. von JCkcensen, of
Tubingen ; Dr. C. Lieiskkmeistkr, of Tubingen ; Dr. II. Lenhartz,
of Hamburg; and Dr. G. Sticker, of Giessen. The entire volume
edited, with additions, by Sir J. \\. Moore, M. D., F. R. C. P. I.,
Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland. Octavo of 682 pages, illustrated.
Diphtheria, Measles, Scarlet Fever, and Rotheln
By William P. Northrup, M. D., of New York, and Dr. Th.
von JOrgensen, of Tubingen. The entire volume edited, with additions,
by William P. Northrup, M. D., University and Bellevue Hospital
Medical College. Octavo of 672 pages, illustrated.
Diseases of the Bronchi, Diseases of the Pleura, and
Inflanmations of the Lunges
By Dr. F. A. Hoffmann, of Leipsic; Dr. O. Rosenbach, of
Berlin; and Dr. F. Ai'FRECHT, of Magdeburg; The entire volume
edited, with additions, by John H. Musser, M. D., University of Penn-
sylvania. Octavo of 1029 pages, illustrated.
Diseases of the Pancreas, Suprarenals, and Liver
By Dr. T. Oser, of Vienna; Dr. E Nitsskr. of Vienna; and Drs.
IT. Quincke and G. Hoppe-Sevi.er, of Kiel. The entire volume
edited, with additions, by Recinald H. Fit/., A. M., M. D., Harvard
University; and Frederick A. Packard, M. D., Pennsylvania and
Children's Hospitals, Philadelphia. Octavo of 918 pages, illustrated.
PER VOLUME: CLOTH, $5.00 NET; HALF MOROCCO. $6.00 NET
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE ll
AMERICAN EDITION
NOTHNAGEL'S PRACTICE
Diseases of the Stomach
By Dr. F. Riegil, of Giessen. Edited, with additions, by Charles
G. Stockton, M. D., University of Buffalo. Octavo of 835 pages.
Second
Diseases of the Intestines and Peritoneum Edition
By Dr. Hermann Nothnagel, of Vienna. Edited, with additions,
by H. D. R0LI.ESTON, M. D., F. R. C. P., St. Georges Hospital,
London. Octavo of 1 100 pages, illustrated.
Tuberculosis and Acute General Miliary Tuberculosis
By Dr. G. Cornet, of Berlin. Edited, with additions, by Wai.ier
B. J.AMES, M. D., Columbia University, New York. Octavo of 806 pages.
Diseases of Blood {Anemia, Chlorosis, Leukemia, Pseudoleukemia)
By Dr. P. Ehrlich, of Frankfort-on-the-Main ; Dr. A. Lazarus, of
Charloitenburg ; Dr. K. von Noorden, of Frankfort-on-the-Main; and
Dr. Felix Pinki;s, of Berlin. The entire volume edited, with addi-
tions, by Alfred Stengel, M. D., University of Pennsylvania. Octavo
of 714 pages, illustrated.
Malaria, Influenza, and Dengue
By Dr. J. Mannaberg, of Vienna, and Dr. O. Leichtenstern, of
Cologne. The entire volume edited, with additions, by Ro.nald Ro.ss,
F. R. C. S., University of Liverpool ; J. W. \V. Stephens, M. D.,
D. P. H., University of Liverpool ; and Albert S. Grunbaum, F.
R. C. P., University of Liverjxjol. Octavo of 769 pages, illustrated.
Kidneys, Spleen, and Hemorrhagic Diatheses
By Dr. H. Senator, of Berlin, and Dr. ^L Litten, of Berlin. The
entire volume edited, with additions, by James B. Herkick, M. D.,
Rush Medical College. Octavo of 815 pages, illustrated.
Diseases of the Heart
By Prof. Dr. Th. von JCrgensen, of Tubingen ; Prof. Dr. L.
Krehl, of Griefswald; and Prof. Dr. L. von Schrotter, of
Vienna. The entire volume edited, with additions, by George Dock,
M. D., Tulane University of Louisiana. Octavo of 848 pages.
- PER VOLUME: CLOTH. $5.00 NET; HALF MOROCCO, $6.00 NET
Goepp's State Board Questions
State Bo.-vrd Questions and Answers. By R. Max Goepp,
M. D., Professor of Clinical Medicine, Philadelphia Polyclinic. Octavo
of 715 pages. Second Edition. Cloth, ^(4.00 net.
" Nothing has been printed which is so admirably adapted as a guide and self-quiz
for those intending to take State Board Examinations." — Pennsylvania Medical
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Stevens* Therapeutics New (5th) Edition
A Text-Book ok Modern Materia Medica and Therapeutics.
Hy A. A. Stevens, A.M., M.D., Lecturer on Physical Diagnosis in the
University of Pennsylvania. Octavo of 675 pages. Cloth, ^3.50 net.
Dr. Stevens' Therapeutics is one of the most successful works on the subject ever
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and now represents the very latest advances.
The Medical Record, New York
'* Among the numerous treatises on this most important branch of medical practice,
this by Dr. Stevens has ranked with the best."
Butler's Materia Medico New (6th) Edition
A Text-Book of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, and Pharma-
cology. By George Y. Buti.er, Ph.G., M.I)., Professor and Head
of the Department of Therapeutics and Professor of Preventive and
Clinical Medicine, Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, Medical
Department V^alpariso University. Octavo of 702 pages, illustrated.
Cloth, ;g4.oo net ; Half .Morocco, ;$5. 50 net.
For this sixth edition Dr. Butler has entirely remodeled his work, a great part hav-
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Medical Record, New York
" Nothing has been omitted by the author which, in his judgment, would add to
the completeness of the text."
SoUmann's Pharmacology New (2d) Edition
A Text-Book of Pharmacology. By Torald Sollmann, M.D.,
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versity. Octavo of 1070 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $4.00 net.
The author bases the study of therapeutics on systematic knowledge of the nature
and properties of drugs, and thus brings out forcibly the intimate relation between
pharmacology and practical medicine.
J. F. Fotherin^ham, M.D., Trinity Medical College, Toronto.
" The work certainly occupies ground not covered in so concise, useful, and scien-
tific a manner by any other text 1 have read on the subjects embraced."
Arny*s Pharmacy
Principles of Pharmacy. By Henry V. Arny, Ph. G., Ph. D.,
Professor of Pharmacy at the Cleveland School of Pharmacy. Octavo of
"75 P^g^s, with 246 illustrations. Cloth, $5.00 net.
George Reimann, Ph. G., Secretary of the Ne7v York state Board 0/ Pharmacy.
" I would say that the book is certainly a great help to the student, and I think it
ought to be in thehands of every person who is contemplating the study of pharmacy."
THERAPEUTICS AND MATERIA MEDICA 13
Hinsdale's Hydrotherapy
Hydrotherapy : A Treatise on Hydrotherapy in General ;
Its Application to Special Affections; the Technic or Processes
Employed, and a Brief Chapter on the Use of Waters Internally.
By Guy Hinsdale, M.D., Fellow of the Royal Society of Great
Britain. Octavo of 466 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $3.50 net.
The treatment of disease by hydrotheiapeutic measures has assumed such
an important place in medical practice that a good, practical work on the
subject is an essential in every practitioner's armamentarium. This new
work supplies all needs. It describes fully the various kinds of baths, douches,
sprays ; the application of heat and cold ; the internal use of mineral waters
and all other procedures included under hydrotherapeutic measures. Then
the use of hydrotherapy in the various diseases is detailed concisely.
Kelly's Cyclopedia of American
Medical Biography
Cyclopedia of American Medical Biography. By How-
ard A. Kelly, M. D., Professor of Gynecologic Surgery at Johns
Hopkins University. Two octavos of 750 pages each, with por-
traits.
JUST READY
Dr. Kelly, in these two handsome volumes, presents concise, yet com-
plete biographies of tliose men and women who have contributed notewor-
thily to the advancement of medicine in America. Dr. Kelly's reputation for
painstaking care assures accuracy of statement. There are about one thousand
biographies included.
Swan's Prescription-writing and Formulary
Prescription WRiriNG and Formul.ary. By John M. Swan,
M.D., Director Glen Springs .S*iitarium, Watkins, N. Y. l2mo of 185
pages. Flexible cloth, $1.25 net.
Stewart's Pocket Therapeutics and Dose-
book New (4th) Edition
Pocket Therapei:tics and Dose-book. By Morse Siewart, Jr.,
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14 SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON
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Just Ready — The New (6th) Edition, Reset
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54.50 net; with thumb index, $5.00 net.
A NEW WORK— WITH ADDED FEATURES
Howard A. Kellyt M. D.^ Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
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Thornton's Dose-Book Fourth EdMon
Dose-Book and Mamai. of PRKSCRiprioN-WRiTiNG. By E. Q.
Thornton, M. D., .Assistant Professor of Materia Medica, Jefferson
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Flexible leather, S2.00 net.
" It will afford me much pleasure to recommend the book to my classes, who often
fail to find such information in their other lexu-books." — C. H. Miller, M.D.,
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Lusk on Nutrition New (2d) Edition
Elements of the Science of Nutrition. By Graham Lusk,
Ph.D., Profes.-or of Physiology. in Cornell University Medical School.
Octavo of 402 pages. Cloth, J3.00 net.
"I shall recommend it highly. It is a comfort to have such a discussion of the
subject."— Lewkllvs K. Hakkek, M. D., Pro/etsor 0/ the PrincipUt and Practice
0/ Meclicine, Johns Hopkins University.
Hatcher and Sollmann's Materia Medica
A 1 E.KT-BooK OF M.VFERIA Medica : including Laboratory Exer-
cises in the Hi.stologic and Chemic E.xamination cf Drugs. By Robert
A. n.ATCHER, Ph. (j., M. D. ; and ToRALD Soi.lmann, M. D. i2mo
of 4 1 1 pages. Flexible leather, $2 00 net.
Bridi^e on Tuberculosis
Tuber( ui.osis. By Norman Bridge, A. M., M. D, i2mo of 302
pages, illustrated. Cloth, ^l .50 net.
MATERIA MEDICA AMD THERAPEUTICS. 15
American Pocket Dictionary ^,^ JS;)^^Z
The American Pocket Medical Dictionary. Edited by W.
A. Newman Borland, M.D. Flexible leather, with gold edges, $1 00
net ; with thumb index, $1.25 net.
Eichhorst's Practice of Medicine
A Text-Book of the Practice of Medicine. By Dr. H. Eich-
HORST, University of Zurich. Edited by A. A. Eshnkr, M. D. Two
octavos of 6oo pages each, illustrated. Per set : Cloth, ;$6.oo net.
Pusey and Caldwell on X-Rays Second Edition
The Practical Application of the Rontgen Rays in Thera-
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and Eugene W. Caldwell, B. S. Octavo of 625 pages, with 200
illustrations. Cloth, $5.00 net.
Cohen and Eshner's Diagnosis. Second Revised Edition
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EsHNER, M. D. Post-octavo, 382 pages ; 55 illustrations. Cloth, $1.00
net. In Saunders^ Question- Compend Series.
Seventh
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Essentials of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, and Prescrip-
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iVilliams' Practice of Medicine
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Sarton and Wells* Thesaurus
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Flexible leather, $2.50 net ; with thumb index, gj.oo net.
Mathews' How to Succeed in Practice
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Boston's Clinical Diagnosis Second Edition
Clinical Diagnosis. By Laboratory Methods. By L. Napoleon
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trations, many in colors. Cloth, 54-00 net.
Arnold's Medical Diet Charts
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charts, $30.00 net.
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Jakob and Eshner's Internal Medicine and Diagnosis
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259 pages of text. Cloth, ^jSj-OO net. In Saiindeii Hand-Atlas Series.
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Stevens* Practice of Medicine New (8th) Edition
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RoUeston on the Liver
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