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„Gooi^lc
I
Arkansas Geological
Supray
lyGoo'^lc
7- A
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
The Geological Survey
ARKANSAS
Goal Mining in Arkansas
PART I
BY Alt STEEL. B. S. in C. E.. E. M.
Pnifawr oF Mming. Univeiiitx oC ArkuuM;
Enginmr in CWge ol C««l-
MiDiof invmisitiona
A. H. PURDUE
StalB GeoloitiM
lyGoo'^lc"
„Gooi^lc
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
To the Chairman, Governor George W. Donagkey, and Members
of the Geological Commission of Arkansas:
Gentlemen ; I have the honor to submit to you herewith,
Part I of the report on Coal Mining in Arkansas.
Respectfully yours,
A. H. PURDOB.
STATE GEOLOGIST.
University of Aricansas,
Fayetteville, Arkansas.
December 22, 191a
lyGoo'^lc
THE GEOLOGICAL COMMISSION
HIS SXCELLLENCY, GEORGE W. DONAGHEY,
GOVERNOR OF ARKANSAS.
JOHN N. TILLMAN,
PRESIDENT UNIVERSITY OF ARKANSAS.
HON. F. H. PHILLIPS.
COMMISSIONER OF MINES, MANUFACTURES, AND
AGRICULTURE.
„Gooi^lc
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAW.
PBEFACE nv
LIST OP PLATES xix
LIST OP FIQUKE8 xii
CHAPTER L
GENBBAI- CONDITIONS EBLATING TO THB COAL AND
COAL MINES X
Qeologieal Historj of ArkajiMS Com! 1
Origin of the coal 1
YaristioD in the beds S
Age ot the coal 2
Folding 8
Fanlta in the coal S
EroBion of the rocks and co&I 3
Character and extent of the coal beds 3
Extent of the coal depOBiti 3
Portion of the coal worked 7
Character of the eoal 8
Roof and floor of the coal beds 9
liigbt of working pla«M 9
Firedamp 9
Strip-pits 10
Slope Mines 11
Slopes 11
Entriea and rooms 14
Hauling eoal 14
VeDtilatSon 16
Ventilation 16
Ventilation by splitting 17
Ventilation by coursing IB
Advantages of the coursing systeni of ventilation SO
Disadvantages of the coaning system of ventilation... 20
Drainage .' El
Shaft mines 22
Shaft mines on seoniB with considerable dip 22
Shaft mines on seams with little dip 23
Drift Mines 24
Mines in flat coal 25
Method of opening mines in Sat coal 25
Drainage of mines in flat coal 25
Minor features ot the mines 20
Cut-off entries in Sat mines 26
Cut-off entries in dripping coal 26
Diagonal rooms 27
Small mines 37
Mine No. 17 Jenny Lind 32
Longwall mines 34
lyGoo'^lc
vi Geological Survey op Arkansas
CHAPTER II.
DETAILS OP MINING 38
Details of diiving entries 38
Cutting , 3S
Drilling holea 38
Charging holea 38
Minen ' tOoU 30
The cutting shot 41
Baek ihotB 41
Qnide of entries 42
Sights for entries 4fi
Dntriea in dnuble-benoh eoal 43
Gob entrioi , . , . , 44
Bock augers 47
Brnshed ontriei 49
Entries at Spadni and Buswilville 60
Bottom brasliiug 60
Details of working rooms 52
Terms used to describe shots 62
Blown-out and windy shote 62
Joints in the coal 53
Placing of shots when slips are present 66
Mining of shots 6B
Cutting in rooms 5S
Deficient coal SS
Oood-ehooting coal 60
Woody coal 81
Working compound eoal seams 63
Working double-bench coal seams 63
Shooting bench and bench 64
Shooting the botton benc4i flrst 64
Top bench frozen to the roof 04
Loose top coal 65
Wedging up bottom 66
Use of sprags in blasting at Coaldale 66
General methods of blasting 68
Nnmber of shots per day in saeh room 68
Shot-firers 68
Precautions in firing shots 69
Carelessness in firing shots 71
Decreasing number of shots 7B
Longwall mining at Baldwin 72
Details of pick mining at Baldwin 71
Width of rooms at Baldwin 73
Building pack walls at Baldwin -. 73
Machines '. 74
Pnnefaiug machines at Paris , 74
Post punehers 7S
Chain machines 75
Supply of ears to the miner 79
The turn 79
Overloaded cars 79
lyGoo'^lc
Taio,!; of Contents vii
CIIAl'Tlitt n-CoHlinucd.
i'sUa of roof .
Proppine
Water slipi
Water e
Potty roof .
Blocky roof 8S
Basis of payment to the miosTB 83
Squeezes 81
Wide rooms and small pillan 84
How squeezes start 85
Checking squeezes 86
Effect of tlie streogtb of the roof upon a squaeze 88
EfTcct of squeetes 80
Mining the pillars 89
Hauling the coal '. 91
Pit maleB 01
Spike teams 92
Heehanieal hanlaice 02
Surface arMUigements 93
Tipples St the soft coal mines 93
Semi-HnthTaeit« breaker* 100
Washing slack 101
CHAPTEH m.
The courtesy of the miners 103
Soorcee of information about the minera 103
Homes of the miners 104
Houses owned by the miners 104
Genera] requiremaots of a coal esmp , 105
Company houses 105
Vandalism ItiT
General appearance of the company camps 109
Water npply Ill
I>e^ wells Ill
Soft water supply 112
Drinking unwnclesome water 112
Unusual water-supply condttiosB 113
Sanitation 114
General nohealthfnl conditions 114
Dysentery 115
The prevention of typhoid fever 115
Reduction of the malaria 116
Company doctors 116
Union hospital at Clarksville 117
Home life of the miners 117
Pnmittfre 117
Income of the miners 118
Porebase of supplies 119
The miners' children 119
Drinking 120
Abolition of saloons 120
Amount of drunkenness 121
lyGoo'^lc
«ii Geoixgical Survey of Arkansas
CHAPTER m—Coittin«cd.
PACE.
NBtion»lities of the miners 122
White Americans 122
NegToea 123
Italians 124
Scotch 124
AuBtrians 124
OermanH 125
Irish 125
Other good foreign-born miners 126
Blavonians 126
Other illiterate foTeign-born miners 126
Usxieans 126
Day-men 137
Irregular- norking 127
Short time at the times 127
Irregular miners 138
Extra work 128
(General sentiment among the miners .' 138
Socialism 128
The square turn 129
Favoritism 130
Limitation of the output of the miners 130
Unnecessary employees 131
Annoyances to the operators 133
Oflicials 134
The Union 135
Organization of the miners 135
Effect of the Union : 135
DilEculties ift maintaining the Union 136
The constilution of the United Mine Workers of America.. 143
CHAPTEE IV.
THE WORK AND WAGES OF THE MINERS 153
Conditions and nature of the miners' work '. 153
Darkness 153
Smoke 153
Water 154
Dirt 155
Cramped working places 155
Labor and skill 156
Bad air 157
Temperature 158
Top men 158
Accidents 159
Earnings of tbe miners 161
Disagreement as to amount 161
Method of obtaining the average earnings of the miners 162
Number of mines included 164
Pit expenses 164
Tbe original adjustment of the seale 165
Advantages of the entry-men 165
The earnings of the different groups of miners 166
Effect of change of scale 168
Monthly earnings 169
lyGoo'^lc
Table of Contents ix
CHAPTER V.
PACE.
BE^iATIONS BETWEEN THE MINERS AND THE OPER-
ATORS 172
Intarstate agreement and contract 172
The Operators' Association 178
The conatitntioii of the Soutbweatem IuteTHtat« Coal
Operators' AasoeJatioa (Foot Not«) 173
Unioii difltricts 174
Joint conventions ITS
The interstate agreement and contract 175
Joint interstate agreement of operators and miners 176
Oeneral conditions 176
Arbitration f 176
Eight-hour day 176
Penalties for loading impurities 178
Hiring, discharging and time to be paid for 170
Suspensian of mining 170
Local demands ISO
Payment of wages ISl
Check-off 182
Drivers 183
Equal turn 184
Measurements 184
Condition of the mine 184
Doctor 185
Provision for injured 180
Deaths and fnnenal 185
Powder 186
Railroad cars at mines 186
New mines I8T
Classes of work 187
Duties of pit committee 188
Obligations 180
Discussion of the agreement 100
Contract for District No. 31 193
Prices for mining in Arkansas 103
The MeCurtain punching- machine scale 104
Entry yardage, etc 104
Inside day wage scale 195
Ontside day wage scale 106
Scale for engineers 106
Scale price for blaoksmithing miners ' tools 106
General conditions 196
Mining 100
Entries, air'CouTses, and crosscuts 200
Bresk-fibronghs or room crosscuts S02
B<KHn tarainga 202
SlopM 203
BroBhing 203
Draw slate 204
Oob walls .- 206
Dirt Bands
n> 000^^10
X Geological Survey of Arkans.\s
CHAPTER V—Conlinued.
PAGE.
Deficiencies 206
Wet places 206
Sulphnr 206
Frozen coal, etc 206
Discnasion of the general conditions of the contract 207
Dieeutwion of the scale 20S
General fairness of the scale 20S
High wages at Spadra 208
Scale of yardage 209
Deficiency work 209
Influence of the Miners ' Union 211
The necessitj of the Union 211
The general advantages oi the Union 211
Concessions obtained from the operators 212
General diaadvantsgee of the Union 212
Arbitrariness of the Union 213
Violations of the agreement by the miners 215
Proposed conceasions 817
Non-union mines 218
Incorporation of the Union 218
Control of the erew 218
Protection of Union officials 219
The right to hire and discbarge employees 220
Small coucessiona by the operators 220
The tnrn 221
CHAPTBB VI.
MINING LAWS OP ABKANSAS 227
Abstract of present laws relating to coal mines 227
Mine maps 227
Ventilation 227
General safety provisions 228
Mine inspection 229
Weighing coal 230
MiBCellanecHiB 230
Disenssion of mining laws of Arkansas 231
Better ventilation 231
Pnro oil 235
Minor matters 235
Mine props 235
First aid aappliea 237
Firing shots 237
Mine inspection 238
CHAPTER VII.
THE MINE-aUN LAW 243
Statement of the law 243
Introduction 243
Statement of the law 243
The nature of the law 244
The passage of the law an accident 245
The need of a mine-run scale of prices 845
lyGoo'^lc
Tablr of Contents xi
CHAPTER \-ll—Co«liiiued.
Argiunenta in favoi of the law 246
P&jment for the slack 246
Maintenanea ot the sereeii 247
Coal not uniform 248
The Blaek left ia the minea 248
Uine-Ton laws in other states 249
Beductjon of the labor ot the mjnera 249
Increase of wsgOB 250
The injustice of the law 250
The State, an iiutrament for breaking contracte 260
Class legislation 351
The increased production of slack 252
Proportion of slack increased 252
Amonut of slack formerly left in the mines 252
Progressive increase in the proportion of stack 252
Method of producing the slack 254
Efforts ot the operators to get lump coal 25S
Decrease in the sale value due to slack 256
Loss of slack 257
The decrease in the quality of the coal 257
Shattering the Inmp eoal 258
Increase of slate in the coal 258
Beduetion in value caused by slate :J61
Loss of market 261
Increase in mining costs 264
Cost of handling slack 264
Cost of mining slate 263
Cost of removing slate 266
Coat of explosions 266
Cost ot draw slate 267
Increase in general expenses 268
Injan* to the misers 2^
uicrease in the use of powder 268
Effeet of heavy shots 271
Accidents fu the mines 274
Decrease in the daily earnings of many miners 276
Loss of earnings to all the miners 278
Loss of skill 279
lajnry to the consumer 279
Cost of slate 279
Increase of smoke 2S0
Injury to the fireman 281
Injury to the State as a whnle 282
The special disadvantages in Arkansas 282
Loss of business caused by the law 282
Waste of resources 283
Loss doe to shattering of the coal 288
TJnmined areas of coal 284
Additional mining waste 285
Cost ot the waste S85
jyGooc^le
xii Geologicai, Survey of Arkansas
CHAPTER Vll—Continued.
PAttB.
Sunmarjr 289
Explanation of the law 289
WeaknesH of the argameotB in favor of the law 289
Injustice of the law 260
Inferior qnalitjr of the coal 290
Increased accidents to the miners due to changes in
mining methods 291
Other disadvantagOH to the miners 293
Financial coat to the prodneere and conaumers of the
coal 293
Injury to the State at large 295
CHAPTEE Till.
QBNEEAL CONDITION OF THE MINING INDU8TBT 287
Harksts for coal 297
Lump coal 297
Slack 297
Mine-run coal t 297
The unity of the Arkansu and Oklahoma coalfields 29S
Cooperative selling 298
Loss of market 300
Methods of developing the market 301
Briquetting 301
Improvement in quality 303
Uining maehtnes 303
The high cost of mining SOS
Dipping coal seams 306
High cost of labor 808
Buspensions of mining 309
Cost of mining eo&I 310
Cost of mining coal In Sebastian County 310
Cost of narrow work in Sebastian County 310
Coat of deficient coal 312
■ Cost of bottom labor in Sebastian County 312
Cost of top labor in Sebastian County 313
General eipensee of mining in Sebastian County 314
Cost of boiler coal in Sebastian County 314
Cost of supplies in Sebastian County 315
Filed eipenses in Sebastian County 315
Summary of costs of mining coal in Sebastian County. . 31S
Advantages of thicker seams of coal 316
CoBt of mining coal at Spadra 318
Comparative conditions at Spadra and in Sebastian
County 319
Mining costs at Bussellville 380
Methods of decreasing the cost of mining 320
Lower labor costs 320
Storage of coal 322
Previous erperimcnts in storing coal 322
Possible methods in storing coal 323
Incidental advantages of storing coal 324
Future labor supply 324
Other reductions in cost 325
lyGoo'^lc
Table of Convents xiii
CHAPTER yill—Conli«ued.
PAOE.
The ordinary waste of coal 326
Pillars 326
Loss of entries 326
LoBB of coal in abandoned parts of mines 327
Waste due to interlaced onnerahip of land 327
TInuBual waBteB of coal 32S
Iioases due to irregular entries 328
Irr^uterities in the coal 339
Losaes due to the dip of th« coal seaniB 330
Loss in unmined benches of coal 331
Loss due t« need of protecting the surface 331
BemedioB for waste of coal 332
Change in the ownerBhip 332
More careful mining 332
Increase in value of the coal 332
Wider pillars 333
Narrow entries 333
Lougwall mining 334
Longwall retreating 834
Mining machines fa compound seams 334
Longwall advancing and retreating 33S
Hodilied leases 335
State control of mining methods 330
Technical discusaioD 338
GLOSSARY OF COAL MINING TERMS 339
COAL MININQ IN ARKANSAS, PART II.
INTRODUCTION 389
CHAPTER DC.
CONSERVATION OF THE HEALTH AND SAFETY OF THE
MINERS 391
Mining laws 391
EJnda of accidents 391
Hazard of the indngtry 391
Carelessness of the operators 391
Carelessness of tihe miners 392
Sickness among the miners 392
Changes im the laws 392
Blight improvements in health conditions 392
Smoky lights 392
Dust 392
Dry roads 393
Sanitation 393
Drinking water 394
Tiresome walking 394
Good eiplosives 395
Strong drafts 395
Increased volume of air 395
The present condition of mine yentilatioiQ< 395
Avoiding stoppings in dipping coal 396
Advantages of special air-course rooms 397
Additional linrs of overcasts 397
Avoiding stoppings in flat coal seams 399
lyGoo'^lc
xlv Geolocicai, Sl'rvevof Arkansas
CHAPTER IX.—CoHlinued.
Cbang« bouses 399
Require ments of change houaea ^ 399
3uggBBted arrangement of a change house 400
Famigation of change hoaaea 401
Water supply for change bouses 402
Better Discipline 403
Gias boms 403
Catelesa handling of powder 4Uo
Handling powder with open lights 40.1
Amount of powder in tbe mine ^. . 405
Missed shots 406
Hang-flres 406
Tbe excessive use of powder 407
The effect of lowered cost of powder 407
Relief fund from a lax on powder 407 '
Windy shots 409
Coal dust eiplosioiu • 410
Means of controlUmg dust explosions 410
Humidity of the air 411
Steam jets 411
Mist 412
Oppressive atmosphere -41a
Falls of roof caused by sprays 415
Requirement of steam jets by law 418
Water sprays 416
Vmouut of water ajid steam needed 41T
Hecovery of mines after exploBions 421
Rescue apparatus 421
Restoring ventilation 422
Overcasts with explosion walls 42:t
Accidents from falls of roof 427
Mine props 427
< Narrow entries 428
Better light 429
Acetylene lamps 429
The use of more than one light 429
Suggested modification of the cap-light 430
Electric lights 430
Mine fires 432
Prevention of fires 432
Small mine-flres 432
Fireproof stnu-tiires 433
Falling of men 434
Accidents from machinery 433
Guards 435
Rope carriages for ak>pe tipples 436
Spiral for raising the rope at slope tipples 438
Safety switches for atopes 441
Accidents from ears 441
Better light 441
Accidents from hills in roadways 441
Bumpers 443
lyGoo'^lc
CHAPTER IK.—CoHlinued.
Accidents from cars. — Continued.
PAGE.
ObBtruetions on tb« track 443
AceidentB with rope faanlage 444
Aceidenta with eteetrie htroUse 446
Accidents to men wiaJking in hsulage-wajs 446
Accidents from missiles in shafts 447
Snmmaiy 447
CHAPTEE X.
C0N3EBVATI0N OF COAL 451
ConUitions of compnteitioiis 451
Necessity of aaviag the coal 452
Loss of coal in piilars in shallow mines 453
Loss of pillars in shaJlow mines 453
Narrow entries in shallow mines 453
Cost of coal with wiae entries 453
Theoretieal eost with narrow entries 456
Advantages of narrow entries 456
Actual fudage costs 457
Pillars in coal mines ; . . 457
Strength of eoal pillars 45T
Breaking the roof 459
Avoiding long break-thronghs 45»
The size of pillars reqnired 460
Protecting the entries 461
Mining pillars in deep mines 462
Comparative costs of careful and cveless mining of coal
of medium thickness and medium depth 4S2
Comparative ':oets of careful and careless mining of coal
of medium thickuew and eonsiderahls dip 467
Comparative costs with bottom brushing 469
Comparative costs with twin haulage eotries and long
Comparative costs with twin entries and short rooms.. 472
Comparative costs with wide pillars and twin gob
entries 474
Comparative costs with weak roof 476
Etfeet of change in eonditiona 479
Actual yardage costs 480
Pillars in very deep mines 480
Prevention of squeesee 462
Squeezes caused by small pillars - - - - 4S2
Mining of pilWs in panels 4SZ
Mining of additional benches of compound seams 484
MioinK machines 185
Different types of machines 485
Layout of the mine for continuous coal entten 486
Blasting of machine-cut coal 487
A good tupft for the loaders 489
Oatpnt of loaders and machines 4S9
Number of machines in each entry 489
Proper length of rooms 490
Scale of wages (or machines 492
n> 000^^10
xvi Geological Survey of Arkans.\s
CHAPTER X.— Continued.
Mining machines, — Continued.
Profit from maehinee in Sebaatian Count; 494
Profit from machinSB at Spadra 495
Mining machines for uivusual conditions 496
Double-bench high coal .' 496
Steeply dipping coal 497
Gritty partings 497
Partings near the top of the eo^ 49S
Thin coal 499
Combined use of chain machines and punebers 500
* General advantages of mining machines 500
Longwall mining 501
General advantages 601
Lonswall mining under weak roof GOl
Cost of such a system at Spadra 503
Longnall in thin coal seams 504
Longwall for coal of considerafcle dip 504
Longwall for high dip 907
Faulty patdbes and longwall mining 507
Longwall mining under good roof 507
Longwall with portable track along the face 911
Longwall mining with conveyors G12
Working compound seams by lomrgwall 514
General method of working 514
Mining the lower bench 515
Mining the upper bench 516 /
Coste 616
Longwall to save « thin lower bench 519
Longwall retreating 519
General plan of the mine 519
Time required to develop the mine 620
Extra cost of development 623
Cost of extra yardage 624
Comparative results 525
Deep coal under poor roof 626
More careful handling of coal 52B
Avoiding wear on soft coal 526
nnneceaaary production of slack In aeml-authraclte
tipples 527
Summary 528
CHAPTER XI.
CONSERVATION OF EXPENSE 531
The mine plant 531
The desif^ of the mechanical plant 531
Slope ropoB and rollers 532
Larger ^eavee 832
Mine care - 533
Larger cara ......,- ^ .--....-. ^ . . 535
General design of mine tipples 53T
Labor-saving devices 638
Dumping arrangements 538
Handling dirt 539
n> 000^^10
Table op Contents xvii
CHAPTER XL— Continued.
Labor-saving devices.— Com /mued.
PAGS.
faster weighing 541
Snmp gnuda 541
Snmp cleaning S42
Load limit 542
Better grades and temuDaia 542
Entry grodee 542
Shaft bottoms 545
HanOj partingB for slopes S4S
Motor partingB 547
Better tracka ' 548
Fista-plateB 548
Leveling track 549
Switches 54&
Track baltoat 550
Better syBtem vt handling care SSO
Qathering locomotives 651
Crab locomotiveB for dip rooms 953
Gaaoliae locomotivee 553
Electric pomps and fans 554
Special electric plant 555
Loading machines 555
Large capacity 536
Capacity desired 556
Development of large capacity 356
Maintaining full capacity to tbe end 6-'>a
Changes in tbe mine workings 559
Longer rooms 559
Cost of long rooms in coal 2 ft. 10 in. tigh 561
Cost of long rooms in coal 3 ft. 3 in. bigh with gob
entries 562
Cost of long roome in coal 3 ft. 6 iin. high with wide
. pillars 562
Handling loaded cars by the company in high coal... 563
Cost of handling cars in long rooms in low coal 56S
Long double rooms 566
Desirable length of rooms 567
Advantages of long rooms 567
Tho caving of loing rooms 567
Suggested length of rooms 568
Best length of entriea 569
Beducing the cost of maintenance '. . . . 570
The general plan of the mines 571
Hauling in break-tbrougfas 571
Mines in steep basins 572
Htiies in flat or'irregolar basioe 573
lyGoo'^lc
xviii Geological Survev of Arkansas ■
CHAPTER Kl.—Conlinued.
PAGE.
Hlnea In steep-dlpplng coal 576
GeaeraJ plan of th« mine 57-1
MiniDR the piUare S7e
Method of development 376
H»ndling CUTE on the planes 579
Bett length and niimb» of pl&nec SSI
Comparison with present methods 581
Steep seams at greater depth 582
Prospecting 582
Storage of co&l 584
Mine accounts StS
„Gooi^lc
LIST OF PLATES
Facing page
Plate I. Ontlioe map of the Arkansas coalfield 4
PlAte n. Composite flketcb of a small Arkaosas slope mine 16
P]ate m. CompOBite sketch of beginniiig of Arkansas shaft mine
with slope and emgine plane 22
Plate IV. Composite Eketch of Arkansas shaft mine with double
haulage- en tries 24
Plate T. Plat of a small mine ventilated by the single-entry
system '. 28
Plate VL Uap of Mine No. 17, Western Coal & Mining Co.,
Jenny Lind, Ark 32
Plate Vn. Ideal section of a room worked 'beneh-and-beoeh,'
showing different kinds of roof 64
Plate VIII. Suggested plan of ventilation for mines in dipping coal 400
I^te IX. Longwall mining with gentle dip and poor roof 4B6
Plate X. Longwall method for coal dippimg between 3 degrees
and 12 degrees 504
Plate XI. Longwall advancing in the bottom bench and retreating
in the top bench, steep dip 616
Plate Xn. Longwall retreating 520
Plate Xin. Uethod of mining steep-dipping coal 576
Plate XrV. Suggested arrangemeut of ponds for storing coal S86
lyGoo'^lc
„Gooi^lc
LIST OF FIGURES
Pig. 1. Strfp-pit of J. L. Cross, near Huntington 10
Pig. 2. Month of a sbpe, Miue No. 2. Branner Coal Co., Midland. . 12
Kg. 3. The beginning of an entry in low coal 13
Pig. 4. Pit-car load of coal. Dallas Coal Co., Burma H
Fig. 5. Bide of a room-neck and props la a room. Mine No. 2,
Denning 15
Pig. 9. Cartain across a dip switch. Paris Coal Co., Paris, Ark... 16
Pig. 7, Mine door. Mine No. 5, Denning 19
Pig. 8, 'Pigeon-holes' at Huntington 28
Fig. 9. Home-made horse-whims 31
Fig. 10. Small thrust fault at Jenny Lind 33
Pig. n. Plan of longwall mines, Leith. Washington County 35
Pig. 12. Method of digging coal at Baldwin mines, Leith 36
Fig. IS and 14. Plan of entry in single-bench coal before amd after
blasting 40
Fig. 16. A group of miners' tools 3JI
Pig. 16. Plan of an entry in triple-bench coal, Huntington 4.^
Pig. 17. CroBS-sectioD of a gob entry at Huntington 4fi
Fig. IS. Batchet drill putting in a brushing shot in an entry. Mine
No. 5, Denning 43
Pig. 19. Ideal view looking toward the head of a gob entry in
low coal, aa at Denning 49
Fig. 20. Plan and sectioti of a brushed entry with gob walls, at
Spadra 51
Pig. 21. Blown-out shot at Mine No. 2, Chant, Oklahoma 52
Pig. 22. Plan of the face of ai room showing failures of shots
caused by strong siips 54
"Fig. 23. Plan of the face of a room, showing methqd of placing
shots across slips which are parallel to the room 55
Fig. 24. Plan of the face of a room, showing careless method of
placing shots parallel to the slips to throw coal towards
the track in the center of the room 56
lyGoo'^lc
xxii Geological Survey of Arkansas
PACE.
Fig. 25. Plan of an entrj'- heading at Coaidale, showing the effept
of a strong slip iDcliaing backward from the eail of a
cutting 5T
Fig. 26. Plan of &a entry- heading at Coaidale, abowing the effect of
strong Blip inclining forward from the end of a cutting 57
Fig. 27. Plan and section of a room in which the cosi has been
'mined' before blasting 59
Fig. 28. Plan of a room in which strong coal has been cut before
blasting. This shows also the second shot of a crosscut
or brMtk-through 60
Fig. 29. The result of a shot in good-shooting eoal at Mine No. 5,
I>enniQg 61
Pig. 30. The result of a heavy shot in co&l free from slips. Slop«
No. 2, Buesellville «2
Fig. 31. Ideal view of the method of working rooms at Huntington,
so as to produce the cleanest coal 63
Pig. 32. Top-coal in a room at Mine No. 2, Denning 64
Fig. 33 Cross-section of a room at Coaidale, showing seams in Che
coaj and the method of setting spragg and cross-bars ... 67
Fig. 34, IngersoU-Rand puncher, as used at Paris 74
Fig. 30. Two views of the Ingersoll-Band post-puncher 76
Fig. 36. "Sullivan 'Class CE-6' Low Vein Continuous Coal Cutter,
on Self-propelling Truck " 77
Pig. 37. "Sullivan 'Clags CB' Continuous Cutting Electric Coal
Mining Machine, crossing a room face in a single opera-
tion, without withdrawing the machine from the coal or
moving jacks" 77
Fig. 38. The beginning of a squeeze on an entry, Miite No. 3, Hunt-
ington S5
Fig. 39. The effect of a squeeze upon a pillar of hard, nell-jointed
coal. Also the unmined clay left beneath tbe pillar.
Paris Coal Co., Paris 86
Fig. 40. Timbering used to check a squeeze and th« raising of the
track caused by a squeeze. Bolen-Darnall Mine,
Hartford 97
Fig. 40-A. Slabbing a room pillar. Mine No. 1, Branner Coal Co.,
Midland 90
Fig. 41. A small part of an entry stomp left in drawing pillars.
Branner Coal Co., Midland 90
lyGoo'^lc
List of Figures
PACS.
fHg. 4E. An eUetric motor waiting for another motor and ft trip of
empt^ care to pe«e, Mine No. 17, Jennjr Un<t 92
Flf. 43. Northwest lide of tipple. at drift mine of Dallas Oo«l Co.,
Barma 94
Fig. 41. Southeast Bide of tipple at drift mine of Dallas Coal Co.,
Barma 04
Fig. 4S. Tipple and boiler pond. Coronada Mine, near Huntington 9S
Kg. 46. Tipple at Mine No. 17, Jenny Lind 96
Fig. 47. Tipple and surface buUdings at Minie No. IS, Jenny Iiind. . 97
Pig. 48, Tipple at Mine No. 2, Greenwood 97
Tig. 49. Tipple at Mine No. 135, Bonanza BS
Fig. SO. BreaJcer of the Sonthern Anthracite Coal Co., BnnellTille. , 99
Fig. 51. Screen nsed In preparing semi-anthracite coal for market.
Dncksnest tipple, Spadra 100
f^g. 52. Slack washer. Central Coal £ Coke Co., Doubleday 101
Fig. 53. Port of a oompsoiy camp. No. 4 Mine, Hartford 105
Fig. 54. Part of a company camp. No. 3 Mine, Huntington 106
Fig. 55. Superintendent's house at Montana. Miners in 'idle day'
clothes 108
Vig. 56. No. 2 Camp, Denning 109
Fig. 57. Furt of the company camp at Jenmy Lind 110
f^g. 58. Flower garden around a company house in Fidelity Gunp,
near Qreenwood 110
Tig. 59. A well-cared -for company house at Fidelity Camp, near
Greenwood Ill
Fig. 60. Drilled well near Burma 113
Fig. 61. Shallow wells at No. 3 Camp, Huntington. This also shows
the common type of a four.room bouse built for the
minera 113
Fig. 62. Masonry overcast destroyed by a dust explosion. No. 2
Mine, Chant, Oklahoma 234
Fig. 63. Pile of slate washed from slack coal at Doubleday.. Sep-
tember, 1909. 265
Fig. 64. The effect of wide and narrow shots upon the roof of a
coal mine 272
Fig. M. A portion of the pile of alack dumped upon the ground at
Doubleday during 1909 287
lyGoo'^lc
xxiv Geological Sl'rvey of Arkansas
Fig. 66. Portion of a single pile of surplus s^ck accumulated b«-
tween th« rMnmption of mining in September, 1910, ami
December, 1910 288
Pig. 67. Suggested change house 400
Fig. 98. ArTangement of screens for pt(>«ipitating mi«t 414
Fig. 69. Protected overcast with light walls 424
Fig. TO. Details of overcast with light walls 426
Hg. 71. Saggested design for a csrbide cap-lamp 431
Pig. 72. Qhalt gat« 435
Fig. 73. Bope carriage at the Hiaiwatha Mine 436
Pig. 74. Track for rope carriage 437
Pig. 75. Spiral for raising rope to knuckle sheave 438
Fog. 7S. Details of spiral for rairing rope 439
Fig. 77. Trip dog used at Bates, Ark 445
Fig. 78. Arrangement of shots in machine-cut rooms and entries. . 488
Pig. 79. Jeffrey -0 'Toole mining machine 499
Fig. 60. Longwall mining with good roof 508
Fig. 81. Longwall mining with good roof and steep dip 510
Fig. 82. Longwall mioiDg with portable face track 511
Fig. 83. Longwall face conveyors with steep dip S15
Fig. 84. Bracing for front of pit car 534
Fig. 8S. Improved ear-hitchings used by the Fidelitj Fael Co. at
Greenwood 535
Fig. 86. The kind of waste track to avoid 539
Fig. S7. Arrangement for dumping waste 540
Fig. 86. Suggested plan and profile of an entry parting 547
Fig. 69. Entries prep&red for starting several rooms at once 563
Fig. 90. Station for <loable-dec1c slope- carriage oSO
lyGoo'^lc
The following report upon Coal Mining was prepared by
A. A. Steel, Professor of Mining in the University of Arkansas.
Professor Steel is a man of thorough technical training as a. rain-
ing engineer, and has had wi<le practical experience in mines.
Hii unselfish interest in the work will be understood when it is
stated that Part II was prepared without compensation, as there
were no funds at the disposal of the Geological Survey. Several
things as originally planned for the report had to be omitted, from
lack of expenses money for the necessary investigations.
A scientific report should provide information for all persons
interested in the subject considered, and this report, therefore,
describes many things already familiar to persons engaged in coal
mining in Arkansas. Aside from the interest in the mere recov-
ery of the coal from the ground, most persons connected with the
coal industry of the world are even more interested in the question
of labor supply and the welfare of the miners. For this reason,
some information is given about the miners and their homes.
The progress of the coal industry and of the State at large
requires the production ol the best quality of fuel at the least
cost. With this object in view, suggestions have been given for
improving the condition of the coal mined and for avoiding use-
less expense in mining it. The best results can be obtained only
by the cooperation of the mine woriters and the mine owners.
The report includes a full discussion of the relations between
these two parties to the mining industry, and gives suggestions
for securing greater harmony.
The State shows its interest in the mines by enacting laws
regulating their operation. A discussion of this subject is, there-
fore, necessary jn a state report upon coal mining. This report
gives an outline of the existing laws, and points out the chaqges
L_nOOQ
XXVI Geological Survey of Arkansas
which are beli'eved to be most desirable for the better protection
of the miners and for the greater welfare of the industry.
Within the bounds of Arkansas, the supply of coal is much
less than is popularly supposed. A roug^h estimate indicates that
about half of the easily accestble coal is already mined. By far
the largest part of our coal reserve lies beneath Sugarloaf and
Poteau mountains and can be mined only with difficulty, and at
great post. At the present modest rate of production, our entire
coal supply can last less than 350 years. Five times the present
rate would be a conservative estimate for the State's annual out-
put a quarter of a century hence. So that it is reasonable to
pr(q)hesy that our coal supply will not last longer than 100 years.
Inasmuch as some of our essential natural products are lim-
ited, the State should stand guardian over them for posterity.
While the people of the present should not be deprived of their
use, it is but a duty of the public to prevent waste of these pre-
cious heritages. To justify ourselves in the wasteful use of
Nature's gifts upon the belief that the ingenuity of man will al-
ways supply the demands of the future without hardship, is race
egotism that begets vandalism. It would seem that the organiza-
tion tqxm which the duty of conservation naturally falls is the
State Geological Survey. Full details are given for the applica-
tion to the Arkansas mines of all those practicable methods for
reducing the maste of coal that can be applied under existing
Kmditions.
Those of our citizens who work in the coal mines are of even
greater concern to the State than is the coal they produce. With
this in view the following report includes a full discussion of the
best means of safeguarding our miners from accidents and
disease.
It is thought advisable to present the results of the work in
two parts. Part I deals with all phases of the coal-mining indus-
try in Arkansas. It is untechnical and should be intelligible to
students, professional men, and all others who may be interested
Goc^lc
Preface xxvii
in coal mining, but who have had no actual experience in it, and
it will give coal-mining men, who are not familiar with the indus-
try in Arkansas, what general information concerning it they
would care for. Part II is more technical. It deals with the
conservation of the expense of mining coal, of the coal itself, and
of the lives and limbs of the miners.
Part I contains information that it was thought should be
given to the Thirty-eighth General Assembly of Arkansas, and
for that reason a limited number of copies were distributed in
191a The remaining copies printed at that time are bound
together with Part II.
The Survey is indebted to so many persons for courtesies
and assistance extended to Professor Steel in the preparation of
this report, that it is impossible to name them here. Practically
all the operators gave him access to all their records. Without
exception, the foremen and superintendents freely gave the time
needed to show him about the mines and always gave him the
greatest freedom to go about as he wished. The majority of the
miners interviewed were very kind in explaining the details of
their work. Assistance in the calculations and drafting was fur-
nished by R. E. Shipley, Ben F. Allen. J. H. Collins, J. R. Stal-
Hi^, and Arthur King, students in the department of Geology
and Mining, University of Arkansas; Miss Juanita Moore,
secretary of the Survey, assisted in the calculations and did the
stenographic work,
A. H, Purdue,
State Geologist.
lyGoO'^lc
Page
1. Fifteen lines from top, for "Anthur" read "Arthur".
3. Five lines from top, for "B^eline" read " BTiieliiie ".
14. Four lines fr«m bottom, for "eoall" re&d "coat".
41, IVHir limeB from bottom, for "mines" read "miner".
72. Seven lines from top, for "settled" read "settle",
83. Nine lines from top, for "it" read "is".
108. Figore, for "Company" read "Superintendent's".
116. Ten lines from top, for "aconnt" read "accoant".
117. Eight linea from top, for "yeilding" rend "yielding".
110. Seven lines from top, insert a comma between "order" and
120. Thirteen lines from'bottom, for "in" read "is".
1S2, Sixteen lines from top, for "masnring" read "meaauring".
123. Nine lines from top. Cor "generally" read "greatly".
184. Five lines from bottom, for " oceaisionally " read "occasionally",
140, Five lines from top, for "prohibitinng" read "prohibiting".
140, £igbt lioes from bottom, for "Exeutive" read "Executive''.
143. Honrteen lines from top, for "earnings" read "earnings",
146, Nineteen lines from bottom, for "ecard" read "card'*.
14B, Ten lines from bottom, for "conapiciobs" read " conapicnoas ".
151, Nineteen lines from bottom, for "paoed" read' "passed".
159. Twelve lines from bottom, for "13" re^ "133".
160. Six lines from top, after "explosions" add "or".
172. In chapter heading, for "operatBrs" read "operators-",
176, Eighteen lines from bottom, tor "intirety" read "entirety",
30*1 Seventeen lines from top, for "drilld" read "drilled".
238. Three lioies from bottom, for "pattering" read "scattering".
341. Five lines from bottom, for "substane" read "substance",
247, Nine lines from bottom, for "ralize" read "raalizo",
274. In the table, for "ACCIEENT8" read "ACCIDENTS".
274. In the table, last column, for "Bod" read "Boof".
274. In the table, for "1.000,00" read "1,000,000".
284. Eleven lines from bottom, for "dicipline" read "discipline",
297, Thirteen lines from bottom, iioeert "in" before "all",
301, Fifteen lines from top, insert "be" after "may".
301. Eleven- lines from bottom, for " manaQfaeture " read "mauufae-
335. Fourteen lines from bottom, for "eitration" read "extraction".
339. Eleven lines from top, for "parraHel" road "parallel."
345. Twenty.lines from top, for "pilllar" read "pillar".
347. Seven lines from bottom, for "parrallel" read "parallel".
347. Last line, for "still" read "sill".
349. Eighteen lines from bottom, for "spspended" read "suspended".
350. Five lines from top, for "aonother" read "another".
350. Nineteen lines from top, for "parrallel" read "parallel".
351. Ten lines from top, for "heap or ore" read "heap of ore".
352. First line, for "parrallel" read "paMllel".
353. Twenty-two lines from top, for "imediately" read "immediately".
3.71. Seventeen lines from bottom, for "flreclamp" read "firedamp".
372. Six lines from top, for "circumferaoce" read "drcumfeienoe".
37-1i. Twenty-one lines from top, for "wronght" read "wrought".
379, Nine lines from top, for "shnte" read "chute".
381, Thirteen lines fnom top, for "revoles" read "revolves".
381. Fifteen lines from top, for "asmospheric" read "atmospheric".
381. Nineteen lines from top, for "vesssel" read "vessel".
383. Three lines from top, for "inculding" read "including".
lyGoo'^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
BY A. A. STEEL.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL CONDITIONS RELATING TO THE ARKANSAS
COAL AND COAL MINES.
This chapter is intended to give persons unfamiliar with
ojal mining, some idea of the way the coal is obtained from the
ground in Arkansas. Parts of it may, therefore, seem elementary
to coal-mining men. An effort has been made to indicate the more
technical words by single quotation marks, the first lime they ap-
pear, whether they are used in standard technical writings or are
merely local miners' terms. All such words and most of the
other technical words used in coal mining are defined in the
glossary at the end of Part I. In Chapter II will be iound an un-
technical description of the details of mining. Some of the methods
used are the result of recent changes, but are, of course, familiar
to the coal men of this State, although differing from the details
of mining in other districts. The geology of the Arkansas coal-
field, and the present condition and location of the beds, are fully
described by Authur Collier in Bulletin 326 of the United States
Geological Survey, which bulletin can be obtained by application
to the Director of the Survey at Washington.
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF ARKANSAS COAL.
Origin of the coal. So far as now understood, the com-
bustible matter of the coal was originally formed by plants of
aiKient kinds, growing in swamps, such as those of southern
Louisiana or eastern Virginia. By falling into water, the vege-
table matter was preserved from ordinary decay and soon changed
into a condition resembling peat. After a certain time this peaty
material was covered, generally by mud, as sometimes now
lyGoO'^lc
2 Coal Mining in Arkansas
happens to similar deposits in the delta of the Mississippi. Ad-
ditional sediment was washed in as the country was more or
less gradually submerged, until the original vegetable matter
of the Arkansas coal was covered by some thousands of feet of
mud and sand. This mud and sand in the course of time changed
respectively to shale, which the miner calls 'slate,' and to sand-
stone. While covered in this way, the peat also changed to coal.
Variation in the beds. Since the original swamp was not
everywhere equally deep, and since the vegetation grew more
rapidly or decayed less in some parts than in others, the thickness
of the coal is far from uniform over the entire field. The swamp
also shifted its position at diflferent times, and the growth of
vegetation ceased occasionally, while thin layers of mud were
washed in. Therefore, no one bed of coal is continuous over the
whole coal-bearing area, and there are often one or more part-
ings of dirt or rock known as 'middle band' or 'band rock'
beti\veen the parts or 'benches' of the thicker seams. At least a
thin bed of coal was formed over most of the Aricansas coal-
area just after the sand which now forms the Hartshome sand-
stone was put down, at which time the sea became shallow and
fitle<l with mud and vegetable matter. This Hartshome sand-
stone is a thick, easily recognized stratum of rock, and indicates
the most favorable place for prospecting, because the greater
part of the coal in the State is just above it. This bed is known
as the Hartshome coal. Smaller swamps were formed at two
or three levels or 'horizons' above this, with as much as i,ooo
to 1. 200 ft, of shale and sandstone between the reeulting coal
seams. In outlying parts of the main coalfield, and as far away
as the northwest part of the State, thin beds of coal, mined for
local use, were deposited considerably before the Hartshome coal. ■
and as much as 2,000 feet beneath its horizon.
Age of the coal. All of the Arkansas true coal was de-
posited during the great coal-forming period called by geologists,
the Pennsylvanian period. Much later, in Tertiary time, there
were extensive peat swamps over much of that part of the State
which is now low and flat. This material, however, has not
been completely changed to coal, but has only reached the stage
of lignite, which contains so much water that it is not now com-
mercially valuable for direct burning, although the beds are
very thick, and used to a slight extent for making gas.
lyGoo'^lc
The iCoal and The Mines 3
Folding. Since the coal was buried, the region has been
raised and lowered at different times. During this process, the
rock layers including the coal seams, which were originally
practically flat, have been gently folded up into anticlines and
down into syclines. As a result they are now seldom level, but
have a dip or 'pitch' occasionally as much as 18 degrees from the
horizontal, but generally less than 6 or 7 degrees or 10 ft. in 100 ft.
Faults in the coat. During the folding, a good many crushed
places and small rolls or wrinkles were formed in the coal bed.
These are very troublesome and are all called 'faults' by the
miners. There are also a few true faults which the miners some-
times call 'throws.' These throws are long fissures in the rock
along which there has been movement, so that the coal upon
opposite sides is not now at the same level. In one case, it has
been dropped as much as 300 ft. These large faults are few and
far apart, and, at the worst, they would simply separate the in-
dividual mines, if the position of the coal be determined by
proper tests before the mines are opened. In places, failure to
locate them before sinking shafts, has caused great loss of
money.
Erosion of the rocks and coal. While the region has been
above the sea, the original rocks of the coal-bearing formation
have been attacked by weather and streams, until much of the
country has been reduced to about the level of the Arkansas River
by the wearing away of some thousands of feet of rocks. The
present surface is below the higher part of the old anticlines of
the coal bed. Consequently, much of the coal has been carried
away by erosion. Since the land surface is hilly, the broad line,
along which the main coal seam cuts the surface, or the 'outcrop'
is very irregular, although most of the coal is now in the synclines
or 'basins' as they are called by the miners. Some of the highest
mountains in the field, such as Sugarloaf, Poteau, and Magazine,
arc immediately over these basins ; so that one could incorrectly
imagine that the weight of the mountain had caused the coal seam
under it to sink.
CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF THE COAL BEDS.
Extent of the coal deposits. The Arkansas coalfield lies in
the valley of the Arkansas River between the western border of
the State and Russellville. It has roughly the shape of a Roman
.Goc^lc
4 Coal Mining in Arkansas
capital L, with its base along the Oklahoma line. It is about 33
miles wide and 60 miles long, but it is only in the eastern and
western parts of this area that the Hartshorne coal is probably
thick enough or sufficiently free from partings to be of economic
importance. Still, some 300 to 320 square miles will probably
contain coal which may be mined. In places, the coal is over
8 ft. thick, and when clean and of good quality, it has been
mined where no thicker than 18 in. The Hartshorne seam
will probably average about 3 ft. thick, and assuming this thick-
ness over 310 square miles, that part of this bed which lies in
Arkansas once contained something like a billion and a quarter
tons of coal. The small amount of coal above and below the
Hartshorne horizon may be nearly equivalent to that already
mined, which was about 26,800,000 tons up to the end of 1909.
At an average 'recovery' of 80 per cent in mining, the State will '
therefore yield only about 850,000,000 tons, but at the present rate
of mining, this will last for 350 years. The rate of mining will
probably increase,
Plate I is an outline map of the Arkansas coalfield, redrawn
from the geological map in Mr. Collier's report.* It shows
the counties, railroads, larger towns, and the coal-mining camps.
On this map is indicated the area underlain by the Hartshorne
sandstone. This is tfie area ftrdinarily spoken of as the coal-
bearing area. The exact limits of the Hartshorne sandstone under
Magazine Mountain and the eastern part of Poteau Mountains
were not worked out by Mr. Collier, because the coal bed in
these places is supposed to be of no value. A little coal has been
mined from beds that are below the horizon of the Hartshorne
sandstone. These are of importance cheifly south of Dardanelle.
Unfortunately, the locations of these beds were not worked out
sufficiently to be shown on the map. They are relatively unim-
portant.
Upon this map is indicated the area in which the Hartshorne
coal is of known importance. Coal can not be mined from
every acre of this area because there are many small tracts in it
that contain only faulty or thin coal. They are often too small
to map, and the exact location of many of them will not be known
until all of the good coal has been mined. This faulty coal
occupies a considerable proportion of the areas of the mines
•Bull., U. S., Geol. Survey. 326.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
„Googlc ^ ^
„Gooi^lc
The Coal and The Mines 7
already opened. Since the best part of the coal seam is opened
first, there will be a larger proportion of faulty coal in the re-
maining parts of the Hartshorne seam. The amount of this
faulty coal has been guessed at in placing the ultimate recovery
of the coal at the low figure of 80 per cent.
The map also indicates the more important areas of the coal
beds lying at a considerable distance above the Hartshorne
horizon. These beds are of considerable importance, only at
Paris, near the center of the coalfield.
Attention should be called to the fact that the largest part of
the unmined area of thick Hartshorne coal lies beneath Sngar-
loaf and Poteau mountains. These tracts constitute by far the
largest portion of the Arkansas coal reserves, estimated above.
Unfortunately, most of this coal is under from 1,000 to 3,000 ft. of
rock and can not be profitably mined until the price of coal is
largely increased. It will, therefore, not be long until the scarcity
of .Arkansas coal becomes severe. It is hoped that there will
be an opportunity to estimate as closely as possible the time that .
the relative cheap supply of coal will last. The newer woiltings
of the mines, which are approaching the base of Sugarloaf
Mountain, indicate that there is danger that the coal under it
will be badly mixed with state. This will reduce the reserve of
good coal. The deeper coal is, however, harder than the more
shallow coal.
Portion of the coal worked. In Arkansas, if the parting of
a coal seam is hard and over 16 in. thick, and also if the top
or bottom bench of coal is thin or impure, only the thicker or
better part of the seam is mined, and one or more of the benches
are left. It will be nearly impossible to mine this abandoned
coal after the mines have fallen in, and it may be considered as
permanently lost.
As yet, it is unprofitable to extensively mine both benches
of a seam containing a parting, unless there are 3J^ ft, of bitu-
minous coal or 2^2 ft. of semi-anthracite coal. In this case, the
parting must generally be not more than 2 or 3 in. thidc. At
RussellvtUe, however, one seam is mined that aggregates only
24 to 30 in. of coal, and is divided by r6 in. of waste ; but this coal
is very valuable, the parting is extremely soft, and most of the
other conditions are favorable.
lyGoO'^lc
8 Coal Mining in Arkan'Sas
Clean beds of coal are mined rather extensively, even where
only 20 or 24 in, thick, provided other conditions are favor-
able; but usually the limit of prohtable mining is 28 to 32 in.
The thinner beds, which have not been disturbed, constitute a
reserve which will be mined in the future, when the thicker seams
promise to be exhausted. As yet no coal is mined at a clepth of
more than 480 ft, below the surface of the ground.
Character of the coal. The coals in the eastern part of the
field have about seven to nine times as much fixed carbon as
volatile combustible matter, and are rated as semi-anthracite.
These are sold for domestic use at but little below the price of
the Pennsylvania anthracite. Those in the western part of the
field contain but three to six, generally five, times as much
fixed carbon as volatile combustible, and the coals are bituminous.
They are less smoky than most bituminous or soft coals.
The heating value of the coal, which lies between 13.700 and
14,700 British thermal imits, and its specific gravity (average
1,35) place it among the best coals in the United States. Its
moisture and ash are also low, but it contains a little more sulphur
than other high grade coals. This sulphur, combined with iron
as pyrite or 'fool's gold' often occurs as large nodules or layers,
which the miners call 'sulphur balls' or 'sulphur bands.' These
are noticeably heavier than the coal, and can be easily picked
out by the careful miners.
The chief objection to the Arkansas coals is their softness,
for the coals from the Hartshorne horizon in Aricansas are very
much softer than those of corresponding composition in other
fields. This increases the amount of small coal or 'slack' pro-
duced in mining, and alSo makes it more dirty and disagreeable
for domestic use. The coals at the other horizons are harder,
but do not contribute much to the total output. Some of the
coal would make good coke, but as there is no demand for coke,
none is made in this Stale, The slack of all the Arkansas coal
which has been tested can be made into briquets, or artificial
lumps, with an- unusually small percentage of binding material,
but good lump coal is still so cheap that the briquets can not. as
yet, be manufactured at a profit. In quite a number of the seams
there are layers, generally near the top or bottom of the benches,
which contain a good deal of rock or dirt in thin sheets mixed
lyGoo'^lc
The Coal and The Mines 9
with the coal. This makes 'bony coal' which does not burn
well and must be picked out by the miner, although it is often
hard to distinguish underground except by its position in the
bench.
Roof and floor of the coal beds. The roof and floor of the
coal seams now being mined are generally good, and in some
places, very strong indeed. In places, however, a few inches of
rock just above the coal is so loose that it falls down as soon
as the coal is mined. This is called 'draw slate," and may be
either hard shale or soft earthy material called 'black jack' or
'rashing.' The soft material contains much combustible matter,
and may once have been soil or vegetable mold.
Might of working places. The combined thkkness of the
coal, its partings, and the draw slate over it, determine the hight
of the place in which most of the miners have to work. Where
only one bench of a coal seam is worked, or the seam is clean, this
hight ranges from z ft. 10 in., to 4 ft. 6 in., except in rather
extreme cases. The least hight in the double-bench seams is
about 3 ft. in some of the semi-anthracite mines near Clarks-
ville, where the parting is only 3 in, thick. The hight is
seldom more than 8 ft., which is rather common in some of the
soft coal districts where the parting may be as much as 12
or 14 in.
In a few places, where the partings are soft and easily
handled and near the middle of the seam, three benches of a coal
seam are worked together. Such seams have generally from 6
to 7 ft. of coal and 12 to 14 in. of waste. But usuallv,
when the seam is much divided, it contains so much bony coal
that not more than one bench can be mined.
Firedamp. Unless they are very near the surface, most coal
seams give off more or less marsh-gas or 'firedamp' (methane).
This is colorless and odorless and was formed as the woody
substance of the plants changed to coal. It is lighter than air
and collects in the upper parts of the mine workings when it is
not driven away by an air current, and often burns the miners
who carry a light into it. When mixed in proper amounts with
the air, it explodes violently if ignited.
Because of this firedamp, practically all the mines employ one
or more 'fire-bosses' who go through all the working places in
lyGoO'^lc
10 Coal Mining in Arkansas
the mine in the early morning and test them for gas with a
'safety lamp.' The gas, if present, bums inside the wire gauze
of the lamp without setting fire to the gas outside. If any fire-
damp is found, a 'dead-line' of marked powder kegs is put across
the place, and the miners are expected to stay out until the gas
has been removed by the proper officials, who turn an air current
into the place. As compared with mines in other states, the
Arkansas mines are not as yet deep enough to have much of
this gas.
When the fine dust of certain kinds of coal is mixed with
air, as by blasting, it burns so rapidly that it may explode when
heated very highly, which may be done by the flame of blasting
powder. These dust explosions are especially common in Okla-
homa, but are quite rare in Arkansas, because of a difference in
the coal.
Owing, therefore, to the good roof and few explosions, the
death rate from accidents in the Arkansas coal mines is much
lower than the average of the United States, and but for the
carelessness bred by this security, it would be even less.
Since the coal will soon decay when exposed to the weather,
it is not found at the surface of the ground, but along its outcrop
it practically always stains the subsoil deep black and the coal
Strip-pit of J. L, Cross, near Huntington
lyGooc^le
The Coal and The Mines I!
itself can be located by auger holes or shallow pits. If there is
a soft shale cover, and the coal is fairly flat, so that it docs not
. soon get too deep, considerable coal can be mined in 'strip-pits' by
removing the covering with plows and scrapers, and loading
the coal into wagons. Figure I is a photograph of such a strip-
pitl Generally the deeper shale, which is harder, is first shaken
up by blasting before it is plowed. Drills are made by forging
a chisel-shaped edge, about 2 in. long, on the end of a long
octagonal bar of tool steel. With these 'chum driUs' a row
of holes about 6 ft. deep and 12 ft. apart is drilled in the
shale about 8 ft. back of a vertical face. The shale is
thoroughly loosened or 'shaken up' by firing about 25 pounds
of common black blasting powder in each hole. In order to get
this much powder into the hole and especially to concentrate it
at the bottom where it is most effective, each hole is first 'sprung'
by discharging a single stick of dynamite in the bottom of it.
This pulverizes the shale near the bottom of the hole and throws
the dust out through the top, which is left entirely open. After
the powder is poured into the chamber thus formed, and the
fuse inserted, the hole is thoroughly 'tamped' by ramming earth
into all of the remaining space. Under ordinary conditions, it
will pay to strip until the hard shale is about four times as
thick as the coal.
The thickness and cleanness of the coal, and the direction
of its dip, can be determined from the outcrop. Before opening
the mine deeper, a few prospect holes are drilled with a well-
drilling machine, to determine the average dip and thickness of
the bed and the presence of any important throws.
SLOPE MINES.
Slopes. If the railroad tracks can not be conveniently
brought to the outcrop, or if the seam is nearly flat, the mine
is usually opened by a 'shaft' or vertical pit from the surface of
the ground to the coal. Otherwise, an opening 8 to 14 ft.
wide, called a 'glope' is driven into the coal from the outcrop,
directly down the dip of the seam. The entrance to such a slope
is shown in Fig. 2. This figure also shows the ventilating fan
in the rear. If the coal is 'low' (by which the miner means
that the seam is thin), some of the slate over the coal is shot
down or 'brushed' to make more room; but even then the
lyGoO'^lc
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
14 Coal Minint, in Arkansas
hight is seldom more than 5 ft., and the miners must
generally stoop while walking in the slope. Figure 3 shows the
brushing in an entry. A track of 16- or 20-pound steel rails
^and of three-foot gage is laid in the slope, and trains or 'trips'
or three to 20 small mine cars, each holding three-fourths to
two tons of coal, are pulled up the hill by a steel wire rope
wound upon the drum of a hoisting engine. The dip of the coal
and grade of the slope must be enough for the empty cars,
which weigh from 6op to 1,200 pounds each, to pul! the rope
back after them.
Entries and rooms. At intervals of about 300 ft., other
passageways in the coal are drivfen to the right and left from the
slope in such a direction along the seam that they are nearly
level. They are called 'entries,' and a light steel track is laid
in them. If the coal is low, they are brushed to a hight which
is usually 4 ft. 6 in. above the rail so that a mule 14 hands or
4 ft. 8 in. high can just walk between the ties of the track and not
strike the roof. Figure 3 shows this brushing and the general ap-
pearance of an entry. Figure 19, on page 49 shows another view
of an entry with very wide brushing. After the entries have gone
a short distance from the slope, 'rooms' are 'turned' into the coall
every 36 ft. along the upper side of the entry. These rooms, from
which most of the coal is obtained, are only about 8 ft. wide at
the beginning or 'neck.' but at a distance of 10 or 12 ft. from
r load coal. Dallas Coal Co., Burma.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
The Coal and The Mines 15
the entry, they are gradually widened out to 24 or 30 ft. This
leaves from 6 to 12 ft. of solid coal between the rooms as
a pillar to support the roof. In Arkansas, the rooms are seldom
more than 250 ft. from the entry to the extreme end or face.
Hauling coal. The coal from ai! these workings is taken
out to the slope in pit cars such as that shown in Fig. 4. There
is a switch in the entry track at the neck of each room which
is not completely worked out. Figure 5 shows the side of a room
Fig. 5. Side of a room nwk and props in a room. Mine No. 2, Denning.
neck, but the switch is not very distinct. In the room, the miner
himself lays a track of steel or wood as he digs out the coal,
so that the car can be brought right to the face from which the
coal is blasted. In the entries, the cars from the rooms are maae
up into trips generally of three large cars or five small ones.
A single mule hauls these trips down the gentle grade to the
beginning of the entry, where there is a wide place with a short
length of double track. This is called the 'parting.' Here the
driver leaves the loaded cars on the main track and takes the
same number of empty cars from the side track, below the
'loads,' back through the entry to the rooms. If the coal is
'high' enough, he takes the cars, one at a time, to the face of
the rooms with the mule. If the coal is low, the miner helps
the driver push the smaller empty cars up the room while the
mule waits, as the roadway in the room is seldom brushed to a
hight sufficient to admit a mule.
lyGoO'^lc
i6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
At the entry p'artings, the loaded cars are'coupled into 'rope
trips' by the driver. When there are enough cars for a trip,
the mule driver waves his light to signal to the 'rope-rider'
who rides up and down the slope with a train of cars. He lets
a train of empty cars down into the parting, fastens the rope to
the loaded trip, and signals by electric tell to the hoisting
engineer, who winds up the rope and so pulls the loaded cars
out into the entry and up the slope.
VENTILATION,
Ventilalioit. To get rid of the little gas that is always
present, and to furnish pure air for the men and mules, a strong
current of air must be forced through the mine. For this pur-
pose, 'slope air-courses' are driven usually on both sides of
the main slope. They are just like the main slope except that
they are sometimes wider and are rarely brushed. At the mouth
of these air-courses, is placed a large steam-driven suction fan.
A small fan is shown in Fig. 2. The fan draws a strong current
of air up the air-courses and down the slope. The current from
the air-course opposite the fan is carried over the slope in a
passage blasted out of the rock above, and separated from the
I dip switch. Paris Coal Co., Paris, Ark.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
... -5
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
The Coal and The Mines 17
slope by a tight wooden tunnel through which the cars pass.
This construction is called an 'overcast.'
From the face of each entry, the gases and impure air are
drawn out to the slope air-course by another passage jast like
the entry, except that it is seldom brushed. This is along the
lower side of the entry opposite the rooms, and a 'chain pillar'
usually 12 ft. wide is left between them. In Arkansas, this
passage is generally called the 'back entry,' but sometimes
the 'smoke room' or simply 'air-course.' As the entries are
driven forward, they are connected at intervals of 30 or 40
ft. by 'crosscuts,' 'break-throughs,' or 'dog-holes.' All but
the last of these are carefully closed, generally by tight board
'stoppings.'
As soon as a room is widened out, it is connected to the ad-
joining room by a crosscut through the pillar, and the air
current is made to pass through this break-through by hanging
a 'curtain' of two overlapping strips of canvas across the entry.
The mule can pull the cars through this without delay and even
though a little air may blow through it, enough will go to the
room face to keqj tfie gas from collecting there. Figure 6 shows
an elaborate curtain across the 'dip-switch' through which cars
are taken to the back entry, This also shows the extent of the
brushing in low coal.
Ve7itiIalioH by splitting. The general arrangement of a slope
mine is, therefore, like that shown in Plate II, which represents
the appearance of a slope mine soon after it is opened, if the
roof were lifted off, omitting timbering, etc. The direction of
the air- current is shown by the arrows. The east side of the
mine is ventilated by the system called 'splitting.' It will be
noted that at each entry the air current is divided or split. Most
of the air goes on down the slope, but part of it goes into the
entr>- and on through the rooms as shown by the arrows in the
Second East Entry of Plate II. Curtains are stretched across
each entry at intervals to keep the air current in the rooms until
the last one in reached. From this room the air passes along the
entry to the last entry crosscut and then out through the back
entry to the slope air-course. Here it unites with the main
return current and goes to the fan. At all but the longest entry,
a 'regulator' is built in the back entry. It is a rough wooden
stopping from which a few boards have been removed to allow
lyGoO'^lc
i8 Coal Mining in Arkansas
enough air to blow through to ventilate this entry, but not enough
to rob the longer entries of their share.
It will be noticed that if fresh air is to pass into each entry,
it must cross the return air current passing up the slope air-
course. Therefore, when a mine is ventilated by splitting, an
overcast must be built at each entry, except the last one, to
carry the return air over the 'split' of fresh air going into
that entry.
Ventilation by coursing. The other side of the plate shows
the 'coursing' sjstein of ventilation. While the slope air-course
is being extended as shown on the map, the air current passes
down the main slope to the last crosscut, through this to the
slope air-course, and up to the air-course of the lowest entry,
as shown by the arrows. Ordinarily, however, if a mine Is
ventilated by coursing, the entire current required for one side
of the mine passes down the main slope to the last entry air-
course, which it follows to the last entry crosscut as shown in
the Second West Entry. It returns by the entry to the inside
curtain which throws the air into the rooms. The current then
goes from crosscut to crosscut through the rooms, back to the
slope air-course, which takes it to the air-course of the entry
above. Through this entry, the same air is circulated as In
the first entry. It then passes out to the air-course again and
so on through all the entries in succession. As soon as pos-
sible the rooms are 'holed through' into the air-courses above
(see room 3, Second East Entry), so the ventilating current does
not have to go all the way out to the slope air-course to reach
the air-course of the next entry.
By coursing, no overcasts are required except the one over
the main slope, but there must be a tight door at each entry at
the places marked in Plate II. Figure 7 is a photograph of a mine
door. The white patches are due to a fungus which rapidly
destroys mine timbers. After the first room is holed through the
door is usually placed at the inner end of the parting, and to
save delay in hauling, a boy is hired to open and close it for
the driver. Fortunately, the law requires that these 'trappers'
be over 14 years old, and of course the work is very light. The
trappers all want to be drivers when they are 16 so they often
help the driver.
lyGoO'^lc
The CbAL AND The Mines
Fig. 7. Mine door. Mine No. 5, Denning.
As soon as the first room beyond the parting is holed
through, the slope air-course is no longer needed for coursing
ventilation, and the stoppings at the entry chain pillars can be
removed to give an unobstructed passage up to the first entry.
It is, therefore, used as a traveling way or 'manway' by the
miners who thus avoid injury from the rapidly moving trips of
cars in the slope. It can also be used as an 'escape way' when
the main slope is blocked, provided the stopping at the first
entry and the fan house are fitted with small doors through
which the miners can pass to the surface.
Whenever the face of a room or entry gets so far beyond
the last crosscut that a 'pocket of gas' collects in it, the air
current is carried in by a temporary partition reaching from
beyond the last crosscut as far in as necessary. These parti-
tions are called 'brattices' or 'brattishes' and are generally
made by stretching strips of canvas, 'brattice cloth," along a
row of wooden posts wedged against the roof. They are ar-
ranged according to the two plans shown in rooms 13 and 15 of
the First West Entry. Plate II. The cloth is seldom very tight
against the roof, so that a good deal of the air leaks through and
goes straight across the room. The brattices are also generally
disarranged by blasting, so it is considered better to make
lyGoo'^lc
TO Coal Mining in Arkansas
break-throiighs closer together and not use brattices except in
cases like room 13, where another crosscut can not be made be-
cause the miner in room 12 has not yet driven his room far enough
ahead. The brattices are put in by the fire-bosses and their
helpers, who are the only persons allowed to go into a gassy
room. The helpers are called 'brattice-men.*
When the entries are just starting, and before the partings
are complete, they are always ventilated by coursing with curtain?;
in place of doors, Plate II shows this arrangement' for ventilating
two new entries and the slope.
Advantages of the coursing system of ventilation. Venti-
lation by coursing has the advantage that when the rooms are
holed through from one entry to the air-course above, the fire-
boss and the mine foreman, or 'pit boss' can pass from entry to
entry without each time going out to the slope air-course, which
is often far from the nearest of the rooms in which the miners
are working. As it does no harm to continue the rooms until
they cut the air-courses above, no surveying is needed to prevent
this, and at small mines, a surveyor will not be necessary. A
manway is more easily provided. No expensive overcasts are
required and there are no regulators to be adjusted. All of
the current not lost by leakage passes each working place,
instead of the weaker current of a single split. It is, therefore,
easier to keep the places clear of gas by brattices when this is
necessary, and the lamp smoke is more promptly blown out of
a room. For this reason, many of the miners think ventilation
by coursing is better than by splitting.
When ventilating by splitting, however, passageways with
locked doors and as close together as required can be provided
for the fire-boss, although at some additional cost. The heavy
pillar between the back entry and the room faces below it, has
sufficient advantage to pay for the cost of surveying needed to
regulate the length of the rooms.
Disadvantage of the coursing system of ventilation. The
coursing system has the disadvantage of requiring many doors,
with trappers to see that they are kept closed, and the wages
of a trapper for three of four months will equal the cost of an
overcast. By coursing, all of the air current has to go through
the entire mine and therefore travels much farther than if divided
lyGoO'^lc
The Coai. and The Mines 21
into splits, each passing through only one entry. Also if the
same amount of. fresh air is forced through a single passage
instead of several combined, its velocity must be several times
greater. Therefore, the resistance of the air is much greater,
so more power is needed to drive it ; and the pressure is
greater, which increases the Joss by leakage through the stop-
pings. With straight overcast ventilation, there are no un-
locked doors to be left open.- With coursing on the other hand,
ttiere is danger that all the air will be cut off from the entries
oeiow, II any aoor is left open, unless pairs of doors are used,
which is not done in Arkansas.
The great disadvantage of coursing lies in the fact that
the air supplied to the last entry has previously passed through
all other parts of the mine, so the miners working there get the
lamp smoke and impurities from all the other miners ; and if
the amount of gas in the mine suddenly increases, there may
be enough to cause an explosion by the time the air current
reaches the light of the last miner. In case such- an explosion
does occur, it may travel through the entire mine and not merely
through the gassy split. It is for this reason that the Arkansas
law requires that there be a separate split of air for each 40
miners.
Plate II shows a number of different ways the partings and
the rooms are arranged in the -Arkansas coal mines, though
of course not all of these are found in any one mine.
Drainage. More or less water enters the mines either slowly
from small seams in the roof and coal, or more rapidly from
a few distinct cracks in the roof. At some of the mines, a good
deal of water soaks in from old strip-pits, or from caved rooms
that have been driven too near the surface. While the slope is
not being extended, all the water collects in that part of it which
is below the last entry. From this it is thrown to the surface
by a steam, electric, or compressed-air pump. If the slope is long
and has a gentle dip, two drill holes from the surface are put
down near the pump and the water is discharged directly through
one of them. The other hole is used for the steam pipe or
electric wires. In some cases, the water is discharged through
a pipe along the main slope and the power brought down through
the air-course. While the slope is being extended, most of the
water is collected in a special 'sump' excavated in the coal
lyGoO'^lc
22 Coal Mining im Arkansas
below the last entrj-. Some water enters the slope below this
sump and collects at the face where the men are working. In a
few cases there is so little that it is bailed out by hand, but usually
a small portable pump is used to raise it to the sump, from
which the large pump sends it to the surface. In this way the
water in the largest pool at the face is never moie than 3
or 4 in. deep.
SHAFT MI*N£5.
H the coal outcrops beyond the limits of the property >r
can not be reached by a railroad switch, the mine must be opened
bj' a shaft. 'The cars are hoisted up this shaft upon elevators or
'cages' which run in two compartments, so that all the dead
weight is balanced and power is needed only to hoist the coal
and get up speed. From the bottom of the shaft, main level
entries are driven to the right and left.
Shaft mines on seams ivitk considerable dip. If the seam
has a considerable dip, the coal below the main entries is brought
up to one of them by a slope. The rope by which the cars are
pulled up the slope generally passes through a drill hole to an
engine on the surface. From this slope, entries are turned both
ways as in a slope mine. From the other main entrj', a set of
passages is driven in the coal straight up the dip toward the
outcrop. In one of these, a track is laid to form an 'engine
plane' or more simply a 'plane.' Entries are turned off on
both sides of the plane and its air-courses, as from a slope ; but
in this case, the empty cars are pulled up the plane bj' a
rope and switched back into the partings, and the loads are
pulled out of the partings and let down the plane, dragging
the rope after them. Until at least two entries are turned, the
cars are handled on the plane by mules, so when an engine
is brought into use, the rope passes to the surface through a
drill hole between the second and third entries. As the plane
is extended, a sheave or 'bull wheel' is placed behind the la;!
entry and the rope carried up and around it and back to the
original drill hole. Plate III is a composite sketch of such a
shaft mine on a steep pitching seam, before the development has
proceeded far.
There are many ways of arranging the shaft bottom, but
unfortunately only one can be shown. This is called a 'double
lyGoO'^lc
Gooi^lc
i.Gooi^lc
The Coal and The Mines 23
diamond bottom,' and if the coal comes equally from the two
sides, the empty car is pushed oS the cage to the empty track
on one side, while a fuU one is pushed on exactly opposite, so
there is the least possible delay. The cross-overs allow the full
car to come on from the same side, if necessary.
The air is drawn out to a- fan through a separate 'air-shaft'
and the current distributed as shown by the arrows. The split-
ting system is shown on the east side and the coursing system
on the west. A good stairway is maintained in the air-shaft so
that the miners can climb to a door near the, fan in case the
hoisting machinery breaks down.
Shaft mines in seams with little dip. If the coal seam
has such a low dip that the empty cars can not pull a long rope
down after them, the mine is opened as shown in Plate IV. If
possible the shaft is sunk so as to reach the deepest coal on the
property. This is sometimes in the middle of the basin.
From this shaft, main level entries are driven as before.
At intervals of 400 to 600 ft., pairs of entries are driven up
the dip or 'to the rise,' and rooms turned off in both directions
so as to be nearly level. This has the great advantage of re-
ducing the number of costly entries by nearly one-half, since
two sets of rooms can be driven for each pair of entries. In
this case, however, track and switches must be laid in both
entries, and if the coal is low, both entries must be brushed to
let the mules through. In Arkansas, this method of laying out
the mine is often called the 'double-entry system,' although
double-entry is more properly the general name of the system of
laying out a mine so that the ventilating current travels in and
out by separate passages, as by the main entry and air-course.
The better name of 'twin-entries' is also used. This system on
a dipping seam has the disadvantage of steep grade, so the mules
can pull fewer cars up to the room ; and in coming down, some
of the wheels must be blocked by sticking short pieces of wood,
called 'sprags' into them. The economical limit of the grade
is some 3J^ to 4 degrees or 6 to 7 per cent. If steeper, an
engine and level entries are cheaper than twin-entries. Where
the seam dips a little more than this, the entries may be driven up
diagonally.
The coal along the lower property line must be pulled up
'dip entries/ which are driven down hill. The water does not
lyGoO'^lc
24 Coal Mining in Arkansas
drain away from these and the miner who drives them is paid
extra 'water yardage' on account of the discomfort of working
in a pool of water.
The mine shown in Plate IV is laid out for motor haulage on
the main level and tip the First West Entry to the 'cut-off
entries' driven to intersect the others as soon as they are too
long for economical mule haulage. It shows the twin-entry
plan of mining coal.
The arrangement of the shaft bottom shown is adapted
from that of one of the best laid out mines in the State. At the
end of the main entry, the motor is uncoupled from its train of
loaded cars and runs rapidly ahead to get a trip of empties for
the return. As soon as the motor has passed, the switch is thrown
to turn the loaded cars running on behind down toward the
shaft out of the way of the empty trip. After the 'flying switch"
is made, the loads run by gravity to the shaft, and are released
one at a time to run on to the cage and bump the empties off on
the other side, These empties are hoisted up the steep hill
(shown in the section) by lugs or pushers on an endless chain,
called a 'car haul.' From the top of this, they run down
'empty tracks' to be oiled and made up into empty trips ready
for the motor. This arrangement saves all the hard work at the
shaft 'bottom, but pays only at a large mine.
A number of different styles of partings are also shown and
some expedients for saving entries and especially crosscuts be-
tween the entries.
DRIFT MINES.
When the coal seam is nearly flat and in a hill above the
level of the valleys, it is usually opened by 'drifts.' These
resemble slopes except that they are level. Mine No. 5 at Hunt-
ington is the only large drift-mine in this State. At this mine,
a large oval patch of coal rises gently into a low ridge
crossing the general line of outcrop. The main opening of the
mine is a drift, which passes through the old workings of an
abandoned small mine, and will eventually cut this tongue of
coal off from the main body in the basin. This drift is parallel
to the property line, and therefore runs very slightly down hill.
From it, several sets of twin-entries are driven up hill, not
directly, but so arranged that the main drift and all the entries
lyGoO'^lc
„Gooi^lc
ivGooi^lc
The Coal and The Mines 25
will reach the irregular line of the outcrop around the hili at
about the same time, so that a big output may be maintained until
just before all the coal is mined.
The coal in the hills is more easily obtained than any other
coal and most of it has been mined by this time. It was usually
obtained by driving several pairs of drifts into the coal at
intervals of 300 to 500 ft. along the outcrop and turning off
rooms in both directions, if possible. These different drifts were
connected by a light track upon the surface along which the coal
was all taken to one point for loading into railroad cars,
MINES IN FLAT CO.VL.
Method of opening mines in Hat coal. The coal is nearly
flat in the center of some of the gentler basins which are reached
by shafts, but the mining is complicated by a number of gentle
hiHs or hollows, the positions of which are unknown until dis-
covered in mining. The Arkansas practice under such conditions
is to assume that the coal is perfectly flat and lay out the main
haulage ways in straight lines radiating from the shaft. At
proper intervals, the entries are turned square off from these
and driven straight according to the surveyor's lines. If the
hills are short, they may be graded. The long gentle hills have
little effect upon the mechanical haulage and simply reduce the
number of cars that can be pulled at one time by a mule.
Drainage of mines in flat coal. The great inconvenience
of the hills arises from the fact that the water collects in all the
low places, called 'sags' or 'swags.' If the bottom under the
coal is soft, and the general slope of the mine favorable, the
water can be drained away by ditches. These are generally in
the air-courses, where less coal and debris fall into them than
in the entries. In this way, the water is usually collected in a
few especially low places or 'swamps.' At each of these is
then placed a separate small pump, usually electric, which throws
the water to the top of a hill from which it can flow to the sump
of the main pump, discharging to the surface.
Where the bottom is too hard or irregular to ditch, a small
inflow of water is handled by men who bail it from small sumps
alongside the slightly raised track into tank-cars or 'water-
boxes' which are pulled up the hills by mules. To save the
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
26 Coal Mining in Arkansas
expense of these "bailers,' to handle larger quantities of water,
and to avoid interference with the hauling of coal, several of
these sumps at Mine No. 2, Denning, are connected by branching
pipes with the suction of the main swamp pump. There are
convenient valves so that water is never drawn from more than
two sags at once. The pump-man soon learns about how long
each one can be opened without drawing in air. Such a system
is a little troublesome to design, but works very well.
MINOR Ft^TURES OF THE MINES.
Cut-off entries m Hat coal. After the hills and hollows of
these basin mines are located by the working of the mine, it
sometimes happens that an entry from one haulage road can be
turned so as to cut off several entries from another main road,
and still continue at a favorable grade. The shortened entries
are continued as before, but the coal is now taken out through
the 'cut-off' entry and need not be hauled over the hills in the
unfavorable entries. Also, the water can he allowed to stand in
the low places in the abandoned parts of the entries until it
flows over the hills. In an extreme case the mechanical haulage
is extended into such a cut-off entry and it may, after a while,
be possible to allow the entire low district on the other haulage-
way to fill with water.
Cut-off entries in dipping coal. In the steeper mines,
entries are sometimes lost by the crushing of the pillars. In this
case, it is customary to drive a cut-off up through a room of a
lower entry and so continue the first entry beyond the cave.
This is very hard on the mule working in the cut-off, but is
generally the cheapest way of mining the coal ahead of a lost
entry.
When a number of lower entries are lost, a cut-off slope is
sometimes used to reopen them. When this slope can start from
a level entry leading to the shaft, it is very satisfactory, since
it costs no more to operate than the original inside slope, and
saves a long run by the 'gathering mules.' The main cost is that
of sinking the slope.
lyGoO'^lc
The CdAL AND The Mikes 27
Diagonal rooms. At a few mines, the seam dips more than
7 or 8 degrees, at which angle it is difficult to get the cars into
the rooms, and the loaded cars run out too rapidly for safety
even when all the wheels are blocked atid slide upon wooden
tracks sprinkled with dirt. At such mines, the level entries are
turned off the slope closer together and the rooms are driven
diagonally upward. At one mine with a dip of about 12K
degrees, the rooms make an angle of only 35 d^rees with the
entry, which gives them a grade of some 7 degrees or 12 per
cent. In such rooms, one rail of the track is higher than the
other, and the car is kept from slipping off by a guard-rail inside
the upper rail. Such rooms are not quite as convenient for the
miners and the cost of the entries is greater since 'they are closer
tt^ether for the same length of room.
SMALL MINfiS.
At many places, there are small patches of coal separated
from the larger mines by creeks or the accident of prc^erty lines.
These are often leased to practical miners who generally employ
less than 10 men, so their mines are not subject to the more
severe mine laws. When a large company works the adjoining
land, these leases are given to the best miners in that company's
, employ. They are generality furnished with cars, rails, and other
equipment, and sell the coal to the company at less than the
market price. Such a working is often jokingly called "The
Chosen-Friend Mine,"
Where the coal seam is rather flat, these small mines are
generally opened by driving rooms straight down the dip from
the e<lge of the strip-pit, which has been worked as far as strip-
ping is profitable. Each of the rooms is a 'pigeon-hole' but
the term pigeon-hole is also used for any sort of small mine.
Figure 8 is reproduced from a photograph of a row of such
pigeon-holes, and shows also the 'spike-team' for hauling up
the large cars.
lyGoO'^lc
28 Coal Mining in Arkansas
When these rooms become too long, pairs of them are
brushed if necessary, and changed into drifts. If the dip is
greater, the pigeon-holes are necessarily short and a slope is sunk
instead. Rooms are turned off from this to the right and left,
and there are no regular entries. When the rooms become too
long, and another slope is inconvenient, a pair of rooms some
Fig. 8. 'Pigeon-holes' at Huntington.
distance down the slope is continued to the right and left as the
first entry in the usual way. In this case, an air-course is seldom
driven below the entry, and the rooms are ventilated by passing
the air current into the face of the entry and out through the
break-throughs between the rooms. A tight curtain is, therefore,
maintained at the neck of each working room except the last, and
as soon as the room is worked out, a tight stopping is built at the
neck. This 'single-entry' system of ventilation is not very ef-
fective, and is prohibited by law at the larger mines. Plate V
is a sketch of the arrangement of such a little mine.
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„Goo'^lc
(?^
„Gooi^lc
The CbAL AND Thi; Minks " 31
The coal is pulled up the gentle slopes by the mules, and
hoisted with a horse 'whim' at the steeper ones. Figure 9 shows
Uie standard Arkansas style of home-made whim. When ready
to Jet the tr^) down the slope, the top man sets the brakes and
withdraws the pin (generally the axle of an old pit-car) which
attaches the rope drum to the shaft of the hoist. The drum,
controlled by the brake, is then free to run backwards while the
horse stands still.
Fig. g. Home-made horse whims.
These small mines are so near the surface that they contain
no gas, and many of them rely upon natural ventilation only.
This is most effective in winter when the mine is warmer than
the outside air. At this time, also, there is the greatest demand
for the coal. To lessen the smoke which fogs the poorly venti-
lated rooms, many of the miners work with small acetylene cap-
lights or burn the soft paraffin wax — called 'miner's sunshine' —
instead of the ordinary smoky mixture of lard-oil and rosin-oil.
When the natural ventilation is not sufficient, many of these
small mines are ventilated with a furnace. This is nothing but
a home-made set of grate bars beneath a short air-shaft. A
coal fire upon this grate warms the air in the shaft and causes
a strong air-current to pass up with the smoke of the fire. The
air current enters at the main opening and is circulated around
n> 000^^10
32 Co.AL Mixing in Arkansas
the mine as needed. Its strength can be varied by the size of
the fire, There are none of the so-called improved ventilating
furnaces in the State, since wherever such a furnace would be
useful, the mechanical fan is used and is much better,
MIME NO. 17, JENNY UND.
The irregularity of the actual coal mines is illustrated by
Plate VI, which is a map of Mine \o. 17 of the Western Coal &
Mining Co. at Jenny Lind. This mine was opened upon the
general plan shown in Plate III, with a slope and engine plane
leading to the main shaft. Because the coal to the east of the
shaft proved unfit to mine, the workins^s are now badly one-sided.
As the entries were extended to the west, it was found that just
south of the line of throw the coal seam became nearly flat.
This made it necessary to turn off several intermediate entries
from the main haulage entries, which are named 'Xew jV and
'Little A'.' At the extreme western limit of the mine, the coal
becomes irregular, and the entries are sharply turned. Just
north of the line of throw, the coal again dips. The dip is
rather steep at first but gradually diminishes until entry 'V is
reached. At this point, the coal becomes practically flat and is
in the center of a basin, beyond which it will again rise.
The throw shown on the map has dropped the coal down
to the noith some 30 ft. where the main slope crosses it ; to the
Fig. 10. Small thnist fault at Jenny Lind.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
Thk Coal and The Mines 33
west, the displacement becomes less. This is the typica! form
of throw encountered south of the Arkansas River. Geologically,
they are called thrust faults, and are caused by the horizontal
pressure which folded the rocks. The effect upon the coal is
best shown by the photograph — Fig. 10 — of a similar fault
which has displaced the thin coal seam about 8 ft. This fault
is very clearly exposed on the bank of the creek just west
of the Jenny Lind camp.
The rooms turned off froin 'R' entry were driven clear to
the throw and the weakened coal in the pillars crushed under the
weight of the 250 ft. of rock above them. This crushing has
already spread to the 'R' and 'V entries and is threatening to
close the 'X' entry. For this reason, the 'North Slope,' sc«ne
3.000 ft. east of the main slope is being opened from the 'Little
N' entry and the 'X' entry, working both up and down. After
this slope is completed, entries at regular distances along it will
be turned off to the west, and the coal raised by an electric hoist
to the motor line in 'Little .V entry. The main slope will then
be abandoned as an outlet for the coal.
The caving of the 'R' anri 'I" entries and rooms opened a
number of cracks in the creek bed and admitted more water than
the pumps could handle. The slope and all the workings driven
from it were slowly flooded by this water. M the time of the
writer's visit, most of it had been pimiped out, and because it was
found impracticable to close all the cracks in the creek bottom,
an 8-in. drill-hole had been put down from the surface, and a
large electric pump was being erected in the slope to handle this
increased inflow of water.
The map also shows the larger patches of faulty coal, and
will give some idea of the irregularity of their occurrence and
the consequent annoyance and expense they cause. Some of
the entries have been stopped because the miners working in
them would not keep the dirt from an unusually soft middle
band out of the coal they loaded.
This is the largest mine in the State and the underground
workings extend for over 9,000 ft. east and west. At practically
all of the other mines, the entries are numbered as in Plates II,
III, and IV. At Mine Xo. 17, the alphabet has already been ex-
hausted in naming entries.
lyGoo'^lc
Coal Mining in ARKAh'SAS
LONGWALI. MINES.
In the Spadra district, the 'longwall' method has been
experimented with and modified from time to time, 'but up to
the present time, the final method to be used has not been decided
upon. Many of the thin seams of coal in the outlying districts,
which are mined only for local use, are worked by a primitive
longTvall method. The method is best developed at the Baldwin
mines near Fayetteville, Washington County. Here the coat,
which is 10 to 14 in. thick and of high grade, lies perfectly
flat very near the top of Robinson Mountain and some 500 ft.
above the valley. At this place, a little more than 100 acres of
coal have been protected from erosion by a bed of hard sandstone
some 15 ft. thick. Immediately below the coal is a bed of
shale or fire clay which is rather soft, where the coal is mined.
The coal is mined in lo-acre tracts. Each of these is opened
by a single drift, but adjoining mines are connected as soon as
possible so that there is a little natural ventilation in the winter,
at which time the mines are worked by the farmers living in the
valley. The general plan is shown in Fig. ii. The main drift is
driven straight into the mountain. After this has advanced scwne
40 ft. into good salable coal, 3 so-called room, 40 ft. wide is
started both ways from the drift. When this has advanced too
far to shovel the coal to the main drift, a roadway is opened
along the middle, by shooting down the softer shale and sand-
stone between the coal and the hard 'cap rock.' This brushing
usually gives a passageway only 3 ft. high. AH of the coal
is pushed out 'bv the miners. The rock from the brushing
is piled into strong walls on each side of the roadway, to assist
the props in supporting the roof. The coal is secured by digging
out the clay from beneath it and wedging the coal down -is
shown in Fig. 12. which is redrawn from photographs. Even
after the dirt is dug out, the miners have only some 15 in. of
hight in which to work, and in this space the coal is shoveled
and pushed to the roadway. After the room is sufficiently ad-
vanced, this 'underclay' is shoveled back and left behind the
miner.
As soon as the main entry can be extended far enough after
the first pair of rooms is turned off, a second pair is turned off,
and so on. At some of the mines, when the first rooms reach
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„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
The Coal and The Mines 37
20 ft. in length, the main drift is continued as a room 40 it,
wide, with a brushed roadway through the middle. Care is
taken to put no clay into a wide passageway along the poor coal
next the outcrop and around the entire face of the mine, to a
small air-shaft above the drift. The air goes along this passage-
way from one of the drifts. On account of the space taken by
this passage and by the roadways and walls of roof rock next
them, the clay nearly fills the remaining space, and the roof can
sag only a short distance before it is perfectly supported, even
though the mine becomes large. On account of the thinness of
the cover, the sagging roof helps but little in breaking down the
coal, but the bottom does not squeeze up and the roadways are
not affected. The props are used to keep up the loose rock next
the coal. This longwall method will be used more extensively in
the future in other parts of the State.
At Paris, two of the mines are equipped with machines
to dig out the hard clay under a low-coal seam to give hight
enough for working; but the general plan of the mining is
like that shown in Plate IV. The details will he di-scussed in
Chapter II.
lyGoo^^lc
CHAPTER iL
DETAILS OF HimNG.
DETAILS OF DRIVING ENTRIES.
Cutting. Except in the small semi-anthracite coal mines,
al] the entries and slopes are driven by a single method, which
is called 'cutting,'
Figure 13 shows in plan the normal condition of a narrow
entry in single bench coal, after all the loose coal has been loaded
out. The drill-holes are charged ready for blasting in the night
or the 'shots are prepared,' as the miners say. The narrow
part, which is generally 4 ft. wide, is called the 'heading.'
The V-shaped notch alongside of this is the 'cutting,' and is
dug out by the miner, who kneels on the bottom and uses a
light short pick. The cutting is from 4 to 6 ft. long and only
sufficiently wide to crawl into far enough to reach the end. It
is made in 2 to 4 hours, depending upon the skill of the miner,
and the hardness of the coal.
Drilling holes. In the soft coal of Arkansas, all holes for
blasting are drilled with a 'breast auger.' This is made of a
flat bar of steel twisted into a spiral, like a carpenter's auger.
The cutting end of this. is split and spread by the blacksmith at
intervals, and bent to make a pair of cutting edges. The hole
drilled by them is consequently larger than the spiral and is
generally about two and one-fourth inches in diameter. The
outer end of the spiral is welded to a round rod of steel, bent 10
form a pair of cranks for turning it. The rounded end of this
stem fits into an iron plate supported against the miner's body
As the miners sharpen the drills with a file every day, the widened
part is soon worn off and the bit must be sent out to the black-
smith again. After the hole is put in, the small amount of fine
coal, which remains in it is removed by a scraper, which is a light
iron rod with a small lip at the end of it.
Charging holes. A case to contain the powder to be put
into the completed hole is made by rolling a 15-inch strip of
cheap brown paper sidewise around a smooth wooden stick
ij4 and 2 in. in diameter, called a 'firing-pin.' The free side
lyGoo'^lc
Details of Mining 39
of this paper is pasted down by first rubbing the paper with
cheap soap. It is then pulled off the pin and filled with coarse
blade powder from a 25-pound sheet-iron keg,* One end of a piece
of blasting-fuse is stuck into the powder and the pf^er tied around
it. This 'cartridge' is gently pushed to the bottom of the
hole by a 'tamping bar,' which is a ^-inch rod of steel 8 ft.
long, with a head large enough to almost fill the hole. To
keep the powder from blowing out, the hole is tamped full of
clay, fine slate, or even coal dust. For convenience, this material
is first made up into 'dummies' by putting it into paper cases
like that made for the powder, but only S in. long. The first of
these is pressed in gently, to avoid accidently lighting the
powder; but all the others are packed as hard as possible by
striking them with the bar, while the fuse is held tight with the
other hand so that it will not be kinked or cut. There is a
notch in the head of the tamping bar to fit around the fuse.
Fig. 15. A group of miners' tools.
Miners' tools. Figure 15 represents a group of miners' tools.
There are three augers, the large coal shovel, and the smaller
rock shovel, which is next the window. The firing-pin is leaning
against the window casing, and the tamping bar with the notch
on the bottom is beside the long auger, and the scraper beside the
'At Hartford the miners use laj^-pound powder jacks.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
„Gooi^lc
Details of Mining 41
short one. The miner holds the cartridge ready for the fuse
and wears the typical pit cap and lamp. There are also a corru-
gated iron powder keg, picks and a sledge. Xo breast plate for the
auger is shown, but some idea of it can be had from Fig. 31,
p. 63, which shows the end of an auger sticking out of a
hole just over the miner's head.
The cutting shot. One charge of powder, the 'cutting
shot.' — A, Fig. 13— is placed about half-way between the roof
and floor on the side of the heading opposite the cutting. The
hole is drilled 8 to 10 ft. deep, and 2 to 4 ft. 'on the solid,'
which means that it goes this far beyond the end of the cutting.
When the powder explodes, all the coal between it and the
cut is blown into the cut and heading. The coal which is too
tight to be blown out is shattered and cracked, sometimes even
beyond the end of the drill-hole, as shown in Fig, 14.
The shattering of the coal greatly reduces the labor of
making the next cutting, which is on the other side of the heading
in the position shown fey the dotted lines, and follows the hole
just blasted. For the purpose of so shattering the coal, more
powder than necessary to loosen it is always used. The amount
or powder is reckoned by the number of inches in the length
of the cartridge. A i J^-inch cartridge has about one pound of
powder for each 17 in., and a 2-inch cartridge, which is more com-
monly used, one pound for each 10 in. The ordinary 9-foot shot
with 5^ ft, of cutting, is generally charged with from 36 to 42
in. or 3>i to 4 pounds of powder. Except in the low coal,
two men work- in each entry and are known as 'buddies.' One
of the pair is usually a skilled pickman who does the cutting or
'head work,' while his partner do^ most of the shoveling or
'back work.' Most of the miners get in a cutting every day,
so two men should drive an entry 5 or 6 ft. per day. The rate
per month of 20 working days is seklom more than 75 ft.
Back shots. After the cutting is far enough ahead, the
miner puts in the 'back shot.' — B — which is usually 9 or 10
ft. long, and throws out a strip of coal 4 to 5 ft. wide
with 30 in. or 3 pounds of powder. The less skillful mines gen-
erally blows this back coal down so as to nearly fill the head-
ing, and since he must be able to get at the cutting early
to finish it before the end of the day, he must keep the head-
lyGoO'^lc
42 Coal Mining in Arkansas
ing well in advance of the back shot or there is no room into
which to shovel the coal from the cutting shot. As the car
can not be brought nearer than the back shot, these miners have
much extra labor in shoveling the heading coal back to the car,
or 'turning out' the coat. Under these conditions, there is very
little air current in the headir^, and gas is liable to accumulate
and bum the miner when he takes in his light. For this reason,
some foremen require that the back coal be first cleaned up
before ajiy one goes into the heading.
On the other hand, the skillful miner can so gage his powder
that the coal is merely well-loosened for easy picking down, as
shown in Fig. 14. But he runs the risk of leaving the coal too
tight to get, so light shooting can only be done when the coal
seam is rather uniform. When the light shot is successful, the
miner need shovel the coal but once before he can kad it into the
car, but occasionally he can not get at the heading till after the
badt coal is cleaned up. In this case, he loses time unless there
are plenty of cars. Figure ig, p. 49, shows the appearance of
the heading and cutting in an entry in low coal, after all the coal
has been cleaned up.
Grade of entries. The entries in the dipping seams are
supposed to be driven at a 'water grade* or to go up about
6 in. in 100 ft., at which grade the mules can haul in as
many empty cars as they can haul out loaded ones. At this
grade the water flows out fairly well, and if the bottom is hard
and smooth, the miner keeps the lower side of the entry at a
slight angle to the edge of the pool of water which. stands behind
little piles of coal in the entry, as shown in Fig, 13 and 14.
Unfortunately, many miners are used to driving entries perfectly
straight and pay no atention to gentle rolls in the floor, but turn
rather sharply only when the grade is badly off. For this reason,
the Aricansas entries are often very hilly and sometimes more
crooked than necessary. The back entr>- is driven to keep the
length of the crosscuts uniform if possible, and is often zigzag.
Sights for entries. When the coal is in general flat, the
entries of the better managed mines are driven 'on sights' put
in by the superintendent or a special surveyor. For sights, two
very small holes are drilled into a solid spot of a shale roof, in
the line desired for the center of the track, and about 4 ft.
lyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining 43
apart. Horseshoe nails with holes punched through the heads
are driven soHdly into the holes in the roof, and strings with
stones tied to them are fastened to the nails. The nails are then
bent slightly to one side or the other until the strings are exactly
in line with the surveyor's instrument. Every day or two, one
of the cntrymen is supposed to stand behind the outside string
and light up the other by holding his lamp at arm's length in
front of him. H^ can then sight across the two strings to a light
in the breast of the entry, which his partner moves to the right
and left until it marks the desired position of the center of the
entry. The next cutting is then varied a little if necessary to
keep the entry in the right place.
If the roof is bad and liable to fall, the nails may be driven
into timbers. If the roof is sandstone, the nails are driven into
wooden plugs set in slightly larger holes. There is some little
expense of 'lining up the mine' or setting new sights at intervals,
but the chief difficulty is to compel the miners to pay attention
to the sights. For this reason, attempts to drive the rooms also
on sights have been generally abandoned, and only a few of the
entries are driven on sights.
Entries in double-bench coat. When there are two
benches in the coal seam, they are sometimes so tightly stuck
to eiich other that they can be shot out as though one. Usually,
however, the middle band is so soft or loose that the holes will
not always 'break top and bottom.' In this case, the heading is
driven in the easier bench, and generally the back shot of that
bench is fired next. If the top bench is left, it is then shot
down by two light shots on each side of the entry, fired just after
the back shot has loosened the coal below, or sometimes not
until the coal from the back shot has been shoveled out. Since
the solid coal along the side of an entry or room is always called
the 'rib,' such shots along it are known as 'rib shots,' In
rare cases, one 'center shot' brings down all the top coal. If the
bottom bench is left, two rib shots are always used. These rib
shots are fired alternately first on one side of the entry and then
on the other, and each shot is about half its length ahead of the
last. This makes a kind of cutting for the next shot, and the
entire block of coal is pushed partly into this space, and so shaken
loose from the bottom or from any hard middle band above it. In
a few cases, the benches are not so easily separated. Then the
lyGoO'^lc
44 Coal Mining in Arkansas
cutting is made in only one bench, as usual; but the other bench
is shot out of the heading before it is widened, so that a single
back shot will widen both benches.
Gob entries. In case there is a considerable quantity of
waste between the benches of coal, there would be a little delay
and expense in hauling it out. To avoid this, the entries in
Arkansas are often driven 12 to 14 ft. wide by putting in
another row of back shots 'behind the first row, or on the other
side of the heading. This widening of an entry is called 'slab-
bing it.' The track is then laid next the upper side of the entry,
and the waste piled along the lower rib.
Since heaps of waste material left in coal mines are called
'gobs,' an entry with waste left in it is a 'gob entry.' Figure 16
is the plan of such an entr>'. It shows also a room neck and a
crosscut from the air-course, and the way the bottom. bench is
usually taken up. If the middle band is so soft as to be easily
shoveled off the lower bench without blasting, it is usually
cleaned out of the heading before the back shots are fired. Where
quite hard, it is always left until the bottom shots are fired.
These, if properly charged, -shake the rock loose from the bottom
bench, and break it up for easy picking without mixing coal
and rock. Figure 17 is a cross section of a gob entry showing the
ordinary heap of waste, and, by the dotted line, its occasional
excessive amount.
As gob entries are necessarily wide, the roof is weak, and
generally at least one row of props is set alongside the track.
These props look like pieces of ordinary split oak cordwood
with the ends sawed off square. The bottom of the prop is
first set upon the floor and a 'cap piece' about 4 in. wide, 15
in. long, and I or 2 in. thick, is held against the roof
while the prop is set under it at a small angle from the
vertical. The prop is then securely wedged into place by
driving it plumb, with an ax or sledge. The props are shown best
in Fig. 5, p. 15. and Fig. 19, p. 49. If the roof is
unusually weak, as where the coal is near the surface, it is sup-
ported over the roadway by 'cross-bars.' These are logs 6 or
8 in. in diameter, reaching from side to side of the road,
and placed as close together as is necessary. The ends of the
cross-bars may be held up by resting them on a little shelf of
coal, if it is hard. The notches that are cut into the coal to sup-
lyGoO'^lc
„Gooi^lc
ft S a.'
C\T)
S a? 5- 5. »
3-S.S t ="
„Gooi^lc
Details of Mining 47
port the cross-bars are called 'hkches.' Very often the coal is
too soft or the entrj' too wide for hitches, and an upright post
or 'leg' is set under one or 'both ends of the cross-bar. Figure 17
shows such a cross-bar with a hitch at one end and a leg at the
other.
Rock augers. When the coal seam is too thin to give the
hight required for a mule, the entries are usually made higher
by brushing them or blasting down the rock over the roadway.
The roof at all of the mines in Aricansas where bru^ing is done
is so hard that the holes must be put in with some kind of a
'post-drill.' The commonly used style is that shown in Fig. 19.
These are called 'machines' or at times 'Hardsocg drills,'
since that firm supplies most of the drills used in this coalfield.
The strong auger is fed forward as it is turned by screw threads
upon its stem, from which it can be detached for sharpening.
The nut or 'boxing' for this feed-screw is supported at any
desired hight by any pair of the notches in the post. The
general length of the post can be changed to fit the usual hight
of the place"in which it is to be set, by slipping the 'boot' or
pointed pipe at the bottom up and down on the stem. The final
fitting for each place is made by the jack-screw ai the top, which
clamps the entire post into position. If the rock is a little harder
than that worked as shown in the Fig. 19, and the drill difficult
to turn, a threaded ibox with beveled cog-wheels in front of it
is substituted for the plain nut ; and the crank, which has greater
leverage on account of the gears, is close to one side of the post,
so that the bending strain upon the long feed-screw is reduced.
Upon one side of the feed-screw is a channel or keyway engaging
a projection or feather on the lai^r of the beveled cog-
wheels so that the bar must rotate with the wheel, but is free
to be fed forward by the action of the screw thread.
In still harder rock, a ratchet drill most frequently of the
Nixon make is used. The rather indistinct photograph repro-
duced in Fig. 18 shows this drill in position for putting in a
brushing shot near the end of an entry. An iron post with a
jack-screw at the end is supplied with the drill to hold it against
the rock, but in this case, the miner has, as usual, set up a
temporary prop as a substitute for the regular post. The drill
operates in the same way as a machinist's ratchet used for drill-
ing holes in metal. When the drill is rotated by the ratchet
lyGoO'^lc
„Gooi^lc
Details of Mining 49
handle, the thread bar in the pipe opposite the auger is screwed
forward at a rate depending upon the hardness of the rock.
Brushed entries. The holes for blasting down the roof are
drilled upward at a slight angle to reach a little more than the
required hight above the rail. A single row of shots over the
center of the track is enough to break the entire width, and each
shot breaks the rock to a sufficient hight for some distance
beyond the end of the hole. The rock is usually blasted with
black powder, which causes the hole to 'run ahead' farther.
Sometimes a stick of dynamite is added to break the rock into
smaller pieces if it is hard.
Brushed entries are nearly always wide to provide room in
which to pile the waste rock, and that part of the roof which is
not to be shot down must be securely propped. A line of 'break-
ing-props' only 12 to 16 in. apart is set along the edge of the
brushed part of the entry to break off the slabs of slate loosened
by the shot. These are shown in Fig, ly. If the rock is very
hard, a row of triple props, as shown in Fig. 20, p. 51, is .some-
times used.
Figure 3, p, 13. is a photograph of a brushed entry in
unusually low coal. At the left are shown the heavy breaking-
props and the carefully pilenil waste rock. Figure 19 is an ideal
Fig. 19. Ideal view looking toward the head of a gob entry in low
coal, as at Denning.
nyGoo'^lc
so Coal Mining im Arkansas
view of a brushed entry in higher coal. This shows also the
heading and the cutting. The block of coal to be removed by
a back shot is shown upon the left side of the picture, but is
somewhat obscured by the drill. A machine used for drilling
the hole for the brushing shot is shown in position, and the end
of the last brushing shot can be seen in the roof in front of the
machine. (For the sake of clearness, the width of the brushing
has been shown wider than usual and the gob space behind the
breaking props is correspondingly narrow.) The rock removed
from the roof is carefully stacked up as in Fig. 3, only when
there is but little room in which to put it. Quite frequently the
roof slate is piled along the roadway in the middle of the entry
only, so the air, coming from a crosscut behind it, is carried on
to the face of the entry before returning. This greatly helps the
ventilation.
Entries at Spadra and Russellville. If, as at some of the
semi-anthracite mines, there is enough waste to fill all the space,
a 'gob wall' of the larger flat stones is built along the outer
edge of this waste, to maintain the passage for the air current
Figure 20 shows the plan and section of such an entry, and also
the method of driving it in the hard unexplosive coal. This is the
method used in the rooms at these mines. The slanting shot is
more heavily loaded than the others, and is fired first, generally
breaking the coal as shown. The next day the shots A, B, C,
and D, will all be fired. The hole, D, is in the t>ottom bench
and reaches only a foot or so 'into the solid' under the top bench,
and is not heavily charged. On the following day after this
coal has been loaded into cars, the shot E. a rib shot in the
bottom bench under shot B, and possibly another 'opening
shot' will be fired. If the middle band is hard rock, that bench
which most easily separates from the band-rock is shot first.
If both benches are loose, the thicker one is shot first
Bottom brushing. Instead of shooting down the roof, or
'top brushing,' room for the mules in the entries in low coal can
be made by digging into the floor, or 'taking up bottom' as it
is usually called. This is also known as bottom brushing. In
Arkansas, this is done only when the roof is hard sandstone
which can not be drilled by any kind of auger drill.
lyGoo'^lc
Y <i
iect/on on y-y
„Gooi^lc
DETAILS OF WORKIXG ROOMS.
Terms used to describe shots. In the soft coal districts,
the method of shooting the coal in the rooms varies greatly
with differences in the coal seams, and iii the skill of the miners.
If the hole for blasting is so drilled into the coal that it is parallel
to the free face of the coal like the back shots in entries, the shot
is said to be 'balanced.' The outer end of the hole is called the
'heel' and the inner end is the 'point' or, less often, the 'toe.'
The perpendicnlar distance from the face of the coal to the hole
is called the 'width' of the shot, and the distance along the hole
is the "length." Some shots are wider at the toe than at the
heel and are called 'gripping shots.' A 'splitting shot' is one
pnt into the center of a large solid lump of coal, which has been
previously thrown out of its original position by a shot not strong
enough to loosen it thoroughly.
Bhivn-out and windy shots. If there is no free face along-
side the hole, or if the shot is so wide the powder can not break
the coal, the tamping and more or less of the coal around the
heel are blown out like shot from a gun. Such T)lo(wn-out shots'
are dangerous to any one in the mine at the time, since they
stir up a great deal of dust and then set fire to it by the long
hot tianie of the burning powder. If the dust is very inflammable,
it burns so rapidly that it has the effect of a larger explosion ;
lyGoo'^lc
Details of Mining • 53
and if the mine is dry, this stirs up more dust, so the explosion
may spread through the entite mine with constantly increasing
violence. Figure 21 is a photograph of a blown-out shot which
started a disastrous dust explosion at Chant, Oklahoma.
Usually the blown-out shots in Aricansas cause only a slight
concussion, and are one of many kinds of 'windy shots ;' but
the rush of air is often sufficient to blow out a few stoppings,
etc. The force of the concussion is greater and a general ex-
plosion is more probaible if the blown-out shot has been tamped
with coal dust instead of clay or other incombustible material.
Windy shots also occur whenever more than enough powder
to do the work is exploded, and much force and flame strike
the dusty air after the coal is all blown out of the way. Splitting
shots are especially dangerous, and when shots are strongly
gripping and heavily loaded, there is also danger that only the
heel will be broken and a windy shot produced. Such a shot
was fired between shots D and A in the face of the room
shown in Fig. 27, p. 59.
Joints in the coal. At many of the mines of this State, there
arc joints in the coal. These are always in two sets not equally
marked and dipping in opposite directions. The dip of the joints
varies greatly in different parts of each small mining district, but
all of the slips have a direction or strike between north and north-
west which is quite uniform tliroughout the coal-bearing region,
and is quite independent of the amount and direction of the
dip of the coal seams. They do not extend from one bench
of coal into another, nor into the roof or floor, and often dip
at diflferent angles in the two benches of a double seam. They
are at irregular distances apart and can seldom be seen before
they are opened by blasting. The miners call them 'slips' or
'faces,' and they represent the vertical 'cleat' in the coal of
some other regions, Figure 17. p. 46, shows the general cross-
section of such a lot of joints. Figure 39. p. 86. shows how
they open under pressure, and Fig. 31, p. 63, shows how they
open after shooting.
When the shot-holes are drilled into the coal parallel to these
slips, the shots must be narrow, or the powder may only loosen
the slip and cause a blown-out shot, A shot like C in Fig. 24
would probably blow out. When the shots are placed across
lyGoO'^lc
54 " Coal Mining in Arkansas
the slips, there may be a strong slip near the inner end of the
tamping in the hole. Then, if the shot is balanced, only the
toe breaks. This produces a windy shot like that shown at B,
Fig. 22, to avoid which these holes are rather strongly gripped
as in Fig, 23. The powder sometimes kicks back along these
joints and leaves a portion of the hole unaffected as shown at
A, Fig. 22,
Ordinarily, however, the presence of slips is an advantage,
because they lessen the amount of powder required to loosen the
coal. The coal is not so badly shattered, and has less tendency
to fly across the room and break out the props, when slips are
present than when there are none. When the joints are even
slightly opened, the coal is easily mined by picking loose the
narrow end of the wedge-shaped pieces of coal between them
until the entire wedge falls out. When the seam is thick, these
masses may, however, fall and catch the miner. A few acci-
dents each year are caused in this way.
lyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining 55
Placing of shots when slips are present. In advancing a
room face, the miner tries to arrange his shots so that each one
will leave the face in good shape for another one, or 'make a
good chance ^or it.' This generally requires a number of
gripping shots, and is fairly easy when the joints have a con-
venient direction. Figures 23 and 24 show two general systems
of placing shots, when the joints are nearly parallel to the direc-
tion of advance. In Fig. 23, the holes cut across the slips. This
Fig. 23. Plan of the face of a room showing method of placing shots
across slips which are parallel to the room.
plan was formerly much used when the miners tried to get
lump coal only, but now since the companies have been compelled
by law to pay the miners as much for slack as for lump coal,
the tendency is to shoot the coal entirely out, so no picking will
be needed. Much coal will then fly some distance from the
face, and with holes like those in Fig. 23, this coal -will fly down
the room next the rib. This leaves the coal far from the car
lyGoO'^lc
56 Coal Mining in Arkansas
and also breaks out many props. Therefore, the arrangement
shown in Fig. 24 is the more common. This throws all the
Fig, 24. Plan of the focc of a room, showing careless method of placing
shots parallel to the slips to throw coal towards the
irack in the civiter of the room.
coal toward the track, into a space in which props are seldom
rieeded. It does not produce as good coal, but that affects only
the profits of the company. The 'blasting is more dangerous to
the man who fires the shots, but as fewer props are knocked
out, it is less dangerous to the miner who puts in the holes
and does not have to blast them. The first opening in front of the
track is made by a series of gripping shots as shown in Fig.
22, in which shot A is the second of such a series.
When the slips run across the room, there is commonly little
trouble in arranging the shots ; but when an unusually open
slip is in just the right place, it spoils an opening shot, as shown
in Fig. 22.
lyGoO'^lc
Drtails of Mining 57
At Coaldale, the slips dipping to the west are unusuaHy
well marked and do not cut square across the entries. The shots
may then break beyond the cutting, or not as far, depending upon
which side of the heading the cutting is made. This is shown
in Fig. 25 and 26 which show the effect of these slips upon
two successive cutting- shots. The miners, therefore, put in the
Fig. 25. Plan of ail entry-heading at Coaldale, showing the effect of ;
strong slip inclining bacl<ward from the end of a cutting.
Fig. 26. Plan of an entry-heading al Coaldale, showing the effect of I
strong slip inclining forward from the end of a cutting.
lyGoo'^lc
58 Coal Mining in Arkansas
cuttnng shots farther into the solid on one side of the heading
than on the other. In the rooms at Coaldalc, the slips arc
generally handled as shown in Fig. 23.
Mining of shots. If there are no noticeable slips and a
gripping shot will only break the coal at the heel or outer end,
some of the soft middle band or dirt beneath the coal is picked
out before blasting, so that the solid part of the shot will be
narrower at the toe tfian at the heel. Such shots are said to
be 'mined.' Both the opening and the soft band in which it
is made are called 'minings.' It so happens that neaHy all
the coal of Arkansas except that at Spadra, contains either a
soft mining or an abundance of slips. When this mining is
thin, the miner first" cuts out 2 or 3 in. of the dirt as far
as he can easily reach with his pick, and when the mining must
be more than 10 or 12 in. deep, he widens it by 'snubbing,'
which means picking down the lower layers of coal. On ac-
count of the labor needed, this mining is rarely done. Figure
27 shows an extreme case.
Cutting in rooms. Occasionally very tight gripping shots
are helped by a cutting or 'shearing" as shown in Fig. 28. Usu-
ally, however, the miners put in a gripping shot to crack the
coal and then another short shot next day to throw it out and
open up the face. If the minings shown in Fig. 27 were omitted,
it would represent such a room. If the second hole. A, Fig.
27, is too deep, a windy shot is caused by the powder blowing
out through the crack. Cuttings in the side of the entry should
nearly always be made in turning a room neck, to avoid danger
to the shot-firer. Crosscuts when required to be made should
first be shot through the heel of what could be made a rib
shot, as .shown on successive days at D, Fig. 16. p. 45, and A,
Fig. 28.
Deficient coal. The coal is sometimes stuck tight to hard top
or bottom rock, and is difficult to shoot loose. This is called 'frozen
coal,' or 'stuck top' or 'stuck bottom.' At a few mines, the coal in
places is in distinct layers or 'seamj.' When the powder is
in one of these seamy places, it sometimes blows out through
a seam, so the coal is hard to get without two more shots. The
miners call this 'squeally coal' from the noise the shots make.
Large masses of pyrite or 'sulphur balls' prevent the shots from
lyGoO'^lc
•Section on X-Y
Fig. 27, Plan and section of a room in which the coal has been 'mined'
before blasting. -^ ,
Diqn'.anyGOOC^Ie
I I
Fig. 38, Plan of a room in which strong coal ha^ been cut before
blasting. This shows also the second shot of a crosscut or
break-through.
breaking the coal, but are especially objectionable 'because they
can not be drilled by the breast auger, and a miner must some-
times try several places before he gets a hole in deep enough..
These conditions, as well as low coal, generally make 'deficient
coal,' for the digging of which the miners get extra pay.
Good-shooting coal. In parts of the Denning field, espe-
cially, the coal is hard and more elastic than the average of this
State. If, in addition to this, the slips are close together, less
than the usual amount of powder then shakes the coal loose,
and it is very easily picked down, in case the lumps can not be
pulled loose by hand. Little slack is produced. Such coal is
known as 'good-shooting coal," and the practice of 'shooting it
off the solid' in the ways described, without any pick work to
prepare the shots is less objectionable. Fig. 29 shows the result
of a fairly successful shot in such coal. The hole was drilled
just to the left of the shovel handle and the explosion of the
lyGoO'^lc
Fig. 29. The result of a shot in good -shooting coa! at Mine
No. 5, Denning.
powder opened up the slips, as shown. In this case a little more
powder would have given a better result. The figure also shows
the gray streak of band rock, some of the miner's tools, and the
typical cap and lamp. Some of the Denning coal is too seamy
for good shooting, and the variation is often abrupt.
Woody coal. Unfortunately, much of the Hartshorne coal
in Arkansas is inclined to be what the miner calls 'woody' because
in extreme case.';, its texture is much like that of somewhat rotten
pine wood. The point of a sharp pick sinks into it quite readily;
but when an effort is made to pry off a chip by raising the
pick handle, the coal merely crumbles enough to release the
pick and very little progress is made. In such coal, the shock
of a blast sets up little vibration and does not open the
seams and slips. Instead, a large mass of coal is often
pushed several inches from its position and remains wedged
between the roof and floor almost as firmly as ever. Fig. 30
shows such a displaced mass of coal and also the two benches
in the coal. All such coal should be undermined as shown in
Fig. 27 before it is blasted, especially where a slight decrease
lyGoo'^lc
CuAL Mining in Ahka:
Fig. 30. The result of ;
No. :
in the distance between the roof and floor will cause the coal
to wedge tight after shooting.
Where there is a soft mining band in the coal, as in Fig.
30, or under it, some miners do mine the coal more or less when
the shots are wide. Where there is no extremely soft mining,
this pick work is almost never done. Some miners claim that
it is harder to mine this inelastic coal than the 'lively' coal of
other regions. Most of those who have ever undermined ordi-
nary hard coal admit, however, that the softness of the Arkansas
coal makes it unusually easy to pick, and the reason for not doing
it, is simply the greater ease of putting in enough powder to
lyGoo'^lc
Details of Minikg 63
blow out the coal without pick work. The softness of the coal
makes the drilling of shot holes remarkably easy when com-
pared with the labor of drilling the lively coal. This tempts the
diggers to put in more shots instead of mining their coal. As
a compromise, many pit bosses request the miners to use only
narrow shots. The soft Arkansas coal is especially suitable for
undermining by the chain type of machine, as will be discussed
later.
WORKING COMl-OL'ND C0.\L SEAMS.
Working double-bench coal seams. When the coal is in
two benches of nearly the same size, separated by a loose middle
band, the operators generally require, as far as possible, that
the upper bench be- mined by some one of the methods shown
in Fig. 22 to 28. The bottom bench is then loosened by three
light shots, first in the center and then next each rib. After the
top coal is loaded out, the dirt is cleaned off the lower bench,
immediately if it is soft, or after it is broken up by blasting the
bottom coal, if it is harder. If the roof is good, this plan of
shooting the top coal first is the safest as well as the cleanest
way, for there is less danger from falls of coal.
Figure 31 is an ideal view of a room worked in this way, when
there are three benches in the coal seam as at Huntington.
■ of the melliod of working room
as lo produce ilic cleanest coal.
lyGoo'^lc
64 Coal Mining in Arkansas
The little heaps of loose coal and slack always found in the
rooms have been omitted for the sake of clearness. This gives
the room too neat an appearance. In this room the main dirt
band is soft and easily handled, but the bottom band is hard
slate and has been broken up by blasting the bottom bench of
the coal. The effect of a good shot in opening up the joints
in the coal has been exaggerated to show the joints more dis-
tinctly, but the way the hard band rock is knocked loose is the
ordinary result of proper blasting. The figure shows how the
opening shots are arranged in the upper bench and the result of
wedging up the 6-in. coal. The miner's auger just behind his
head shows the position of the next shot in the top bench.
Shooting bench-and-bench. If there is little difference in
the thickness of the two benches of the coal, the more skillful
miners prefer to shoot the coal so that each bench is alternately
half the depth of the holes, or 3 or 4 ft., in advance and behind
the other. This has the advantage that nearly any sort of hole
breaks the coal; also, it is the safest if the roof is poor, because
the final props can be kept nearer the face. The miners do not
like to set temporary props between the roof and bottom bench,
which may be necessary if the top bench is shot tar in advance
of the bottom one. It has the disadvantage that much of the
middle band must be picked out piece by piece as the coal is
loaded, and the fine pieces of the dirt are sure to be mixed
with the coal. This method is called 'shooting bench-and-bench.'.
Plate VII shows a longitudinal section of a room worked by
this method.
Shooting the bottom bench first. Some few miners prefer
to shoot the bottom bench out first if it is thick enough. This
system gets the top coal out in* large sound pieces and generally
requires the least powder ; but it produces the dirtiest coal and
is on the whole the most dangerous, unless the top bench is
too thin to shoot well alone.
Top bench froscn to the roof. At some mines, the top bench
coal is only 6 to 10 in. thick, and the bottom must be shot out
first. When the thin top bench is stuck to the roof, the parting
is easily picked down and thrown back. When the upper bench
it not more than a foot thick and stuck tiglit to the roof, it is
customary to shoot it with only enough powder to jar it loose.
lyGoo'^lc
Details of Mining
65
so that it can be readily wedged down. If enough powder is
used to throw the coal down, only a little patch near the shot
is broken, and all the rest of the top bench is left as firmly
attached to the roof as ever. In one of the mines at Russellville,
the top bench of hard semi-anthracite coal is only 7 in. thick and
tightly fastened to the solid roof. At this place, two shots, each
containing only 2)^ in. or yi pound of powder, are suflfioient to
loosen a strip of the top coal 8 ft. wide across an 18-foot room.
Figure 30 shows a little of such a thin top bench which has be«i
left^ by the firing of only one shot in the lower bench coal since
all the over-hanging coal was taken down.
Loose top-coal. Sometimes there is a smooth seam or part-
ing in a single bench of coal near the top. If the coal above
this slip is strong, it will hold up clear across the room, even
though it is not stuck to the roof. It is customary to get such
top-coal by cutting it loose next to the pillars and allowing the
coal in the middle of the room to fall by itself. It is more certain
to fall easily, if it stands long enough to swing loose like the
slate shown in Plate VII and Fig. 27. The miners, therefore,
wait as long as they think it safe before they 'shear' the roof
coal loose and, unfortunately, many are hurt while working
under it, although seldom fatally. Any draw slate in the room
will fall with the roof coal. Such a band of top coal is shown
Fig. 32- Top-coal in
t Mine No. 2. DeimitiK.
lyGoo'^lc
fi6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
in Fig, 32, which also shows a little brushing in the entry at
the mouth of the room.
Wedging up bottom. At Mine No. 17, Jenny Lind, there is
a smooth seam in the bottom bench 20 in. above the floor. The
shots are generally put in the dirt parting between the two main
benches, and break the top and 'top bottom' together. The
'small bottom' below the lowest seam is sometimes cracked by
the shot but is usually undisturbed. It is quite full of slips
and contains no hard bands. The miners, therefore, And it
cheaper to wedge up this bott(»n than to shoot it, and of ccAirse
the coal is better, if it is only wedged.
Use of sprags in blasting at Coaldale. At Coaldale, the same
method would seem advisable. Here only the upper 5 ft. of coal
seam is mined. In this, are two narrow soft dirt streaks, but no
distinct shale parting; and at 2, 4. and 24 in. from the bottom
are perfectly smooth and free seams along which the coal
separates. Below the upper 5-foot bench of coal which is mined,
is a layer of very soft dirt or 'rashing' 3 or 4 in. thick; below
this is a few incbes of sulphury coal, or the '6-inch seam,' and
then the main parting of several inches of shale, clay, and bony
coal. The bottom bench varies much but is said to average
about 18 in. thick.
The roof is very soft and must be kept securely propped.
For this reason, the rooms are only 18 ft. wide, and because the
coal dips between 12 and 14 degrees, they are driven up diagon-
ally with a track along the lower rib. Over the roadway, at
intervals of 2 or 3 ft., are set light cross-bars from a hitch in
the coal at one end to a 'leg* at the other.
In the entries, the bottom coal is always mined separately,
but in the rooms, the miners load the holes heavily in an effort
to break the coal clear to the bottom. Since the coal shoots
very easily, this overloading causes it to fly badly. The steep
dip of the rooms gives added force to blows against the props.
The bottom dirt must, therefore, be removed, and the props
set in a hole dug 3 or 4 in. into the bottom coal. They are set
in these nearly vertically ; so, as long as the bottom is secure, the
blows of the flying coal will wedge the top over and make the
props more nearly perpendicular between the roof and floor.
This sets them tighter and prevents the loosening of the roof.
lyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining 67
The props must, however, be set so close to the face of tiie
room that the blasting of the coal often knocks them out. There-
fore, to prevent all possibility of the props being knocked out
and the roof falling, the miners are required to set one to three
'spr^s' against each shot. As used here, a sprag is a long and
heavy prop, the lower end of which is set well into the floor
coal in front of the drill-hole, and 12 to 15 in. from the coal
face, while the top is wedged against the roof next the coal
face. As many wedges as possible are driven between the roof
and the sprag to make it more secure. Figure 33 shows the
any- Coal
Fig- 33- Cross-section of a room at Coaldalc, showing seams in the coal
and the method of setting sprags and cross-bars.
different parts of the coal seam at Coaldale and the method of
setting props, cross-bars, and sprags. The shot always either
breaks the sprags or knocks out the bottom, but this pretty well
stops the larger masses of coal, which then roll gently down
against the nearest props without disturbing them. The shot-
firers are not allowed to load and fire any holes which are
not properly spragged.
The heavy blasting also loosens some of the dirt below the
bottom coal. During the time the coal was shoveled up from
this dirt, so much of the dirt was mixed with the coal that it
became unsalable and the mine was once compelled to shut down.
To avoid this, at the last short 'run,' each digger was required to
have all of the exposed bottom dirt shoveled back out of the
way before the shot-firer would light his shots. Although there
was no great objection to this severe discipline, it would seem-
ingly be better to accomplish the same result by using only light
charges of powder and shoveling the loosened coal of the upper
Goc^lc
68 Coal Mining in Arkansas
part of the seam off the clean bottom. The bottom would then
have to be wedged up, but it is so loose and full of slips that
this labor would be little if any greater than that required for
the setting of sprags.
If the bottom were left for some distance from the face of
the upper coal, too much roof would be left without support
For this reason it would be necessary to see that the bottom is
taken up and props set, after each shot. In this case, the sup-
port for the roof would be as good as that afforded by the
present rtiethod, and the roof would not be so greatly weakened
by the shattering effect of the heavy blasting.
GENERAL METHODS OF BLASTING.
Number of shots per day in each room. Each shot gives off
some combustible gas and stirs up dust, and in order to lessen the
danger of starting dust explosions, the miners in the soft coal
mines very seldom put in more than two heavy shots at once.
These are generally some distance apart, so that the coal will
be distributed along the face. In all the plans shown in the
figures, shots A and B may be fired one day, shots C and D the
next, and so on.
Two large shots, if successful, give the miner all the coal
he can load in one day, for besides turning out the coal and
shovelling it into the car, he must pick the coal down, set props,
help the driver with the cars, prepare shots for the next day,
pull down draw slate, throw this and any other waste back upon
the piles of gob, and occasionally lay track.
Shot-Hrers. Because of the great loss of life if an explosion
should occur while all the miners are in the mine, nearly all the
soft-coal mines have two or more 'shot-firers.' who light the shots
at their own risk, after all the other men are out of the mine.
As the work is easy, requiring only 2 to 4 hours, and the pay
is good, there is seldom difficulty in getting shot-firers. Unfortu-
nately, a few of the miners are not as careful to avoid putting
in dangerous shots as they would be if they had to do the
firing themselves ; but the shot-firers are allowed to skq) any
shot they think dangerous.
When the dust of the mine is exptosive, many shot-firers load
the cutting shots themselves so that they can tell just what effect
1: , i .Goo'^lc
Details of Mining 69
the shot will have, and avoid dangerous shots. In this case, -the
miner merely prepares his cartridge and dummies, and leaves
these with the tamping bar next to the hole he has drilled. This
extra work is seldom thought necessary by the shot-firers who
woric in Arkansas. At some of the Oklahoma mines all shots
are loaded 5y the shot-firers, who go around the mine in pairs
to assist each other.
In Arkansas, the shot-firers are required to charge the few
holes in which there is much water. If the hole is wet, the digger
smears his powder cartridge well with soap. If the shot-firer
then works rapidly, the hole will be charged and tamped, and
the powder exploded before it is injured foy the water. If the
coal gives off gas, some miners plug the end of each wet
hole so that the pressure of the gas will keep out the water until
the shot-firer charges the hole. Whenever possible the diggers
prefer to charge their own holes, and often complain that the
shot-firer does not tamp them properly. Another reason why
they object to leaving this work to the shot-firer is that careful
shot-firers will often fill up the end of holes that are dangerously
deep or will not use all of the powder the miner puts in the
cartridge if they think the amount excessive. This changing of
the shot does not give the digger as much easily shoveled coal
as he wants, or else requires a little extra pidc work.
To save time, the shot-firers require the miners to flag their
shots or to fasten a piece of paper upon the fuse of each shot,
so they can be readily found. Each miner also puts up at the
room-neck or crosscut, through which the shot-firer enters his
room, a piece of blasting paper on which is marked with greasy
coal dust a large figure indicating the number of shots in the
room. The shot-firer pulls this down and if another one is not
put up in its place next day, he does not then go into the room.
Precautions in firing shots. The fine coal dust and ex-
plosive gases, produced by blasting, follow the ventilating cur-
rent from room to room in the mine. To prevent the ignition
of this mixture by the flame of a succeeding shot, which may
blow out, the shot-firers begin blasting at the 'last of the air' of
each split, which means the working place nearest the return
airway. They then work toward the intake, or 'fire against the
air.' This permdts those shot-firers who charge the shots to .
/Coogic
TO Coal Mining in Arkansas
work in pure air. It also causes the sbot-firers to be most quickly
reached by the current of fresh air or by a rescue party, in case
of a small dust explosion which is chiefly limited to the rooms
full of dust and sm<^e. A severe dust explosion will spread
both ways through all the dry parts of a mine, and consume
most of the oxygen in it, and the shot-firers run a great risk of
suffocation, regardless of the way the shots are fired.
In case experienced shot-firers are caught by such an ex-
plosion and not immediately dis^ltid, they grope their way to
the nearest pool of water and lie down dose to it until reached
by rescuers. The water dissolves some of the poisonous powder
gases and much of the carbon dioxide of the afterdamp. These
are removed from the air and the proportion of oxygen is there-
fore increased next to the water. Since they are lying srill,
the shot-firers can live for hours under these conditi<Mt8. If
the explosion attracts attention at the surface of the mine, the
officials can tell about where the shot-firers are by knowing the
time at which they usually finish each entry. The current of
fresh air is therefore first directed to that part of the mine by
means of temporary canvas stoppings put up as rapidly as the
fresh air they direct into the mine permits the rescue party to
enter.
The danger to the shot-firers is further reduced by light-
ing the shots in but one room at a time and waiting until these
explode before lighting any others. In this case, the sfcot-firers
put in the time charging the holes. To avoid the risk of injury
from a shot. which may break through the pillar separating ad-
joining rocHns, and also to escape the concussion of the slightly
windy shots, the careful shot-firers leave one room between
that in which the fuses are burning and the one in which they
are working. This is commonly done by not lignting the shots
in the first room until the holes in the second room also are
charged. Then the fuses in the first room are Ut and the
shot-firers charge the holes in the third room. After this is
fini^ed and the shots in the first room have gone off, the luses
in the second room are lit and the shot-firers charge the holes
in the fourth room, and so on. This {dan is a little easier than
that of going directly from the first room to the third and charg-
ing the holes in the second room after those in the first one have
exploded.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining 71
In case the fire of a windy shot in the first room spreads
through to the second, it may light the exposed heavy charges of
powder the miner has prepared. This will add to its violence and
increase the chances of a general dust-explosion. Therefore,
the common method of charging shots in two rooms before any
are lit is safer because there is no exposed powder in the rooms
on either side of that in which the shots explode. The supply
of powder belonging to the miner is kept in iron kegs of not
more than 25 pounds capacity or occasionally in small iron
'powder jacks/ or special buckets. In addition these are en-
closed in a strong wooden box and the whole is kept in the neck
of the room or an old entry crosscut far from the actual worit-
ing face. This powder is therefore ignited only in cases of severe
general explosions.
Carelessness in firing shots. In contrast with the careful
methods outlined above, most of the Arkansas shot-firers use
little care. In order to reduce the time required to get to all
of the shots, each of the reckless shot-firers goes through certain
entries aJone white his partner is firing shots in others. With
the ordinary coursing system of ventilation common in the Ark-
ansas mines, the 'last of the air' is near the entrance to each
entry. If then the shots are fired 'against the air,' the shot-
firer has to walk out from the last working place through an
entry full of smoke. Each shot-firer, therefore, goes to the end
of the entry through the rooms in which the miners have already
charged the holes. He finds all the shots and cuts the ends of
the fuses so that they can be lit with a minimum of delay. Those
in the entry air-course are lit as soon as reached. All the others
are then fired 'with the air.' as rapidly as possible while the shot-
firer runs through the rooms in an effort to 'beat the smoke
out.' In the less dangerous mines, he will even light shots
which he knows will blow out a stopping or two because he ex-
pects to reach a place of safety before the fire in the fuse reaches
the powder. The entries nearest the 'last of th air' are fired
first, 90 there is less danger of an explosion spreading through
the mine. There is in cases some danger to the other shot-
firers but the routes of the men are laid out to reduce this.
Where such methods are possible, there is little necessity for
the employment of shot-firers.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
72 Coal Mixing in Arkansas
ft*---
In order to have more time in which to beat the smoke
out when Bring shots in this careless wey, these shot-firers re-
quest that the speed of the ventilating fan be reduced to de-
crease the velocity of the air current and its cloud of smoke.
Some careful shot-iirers make the same request because a re-
duction in the velocity of the air is supposed to cause the dust
su^ended in the air current to settled out and so reduce the danger
of a dust explosion. The velocity of the air current is very
low in most of the Arkansas mines at all times and the writer
is of the opinion that the little dust which might settle out is
a negligible factor in compariscm with that stirred up by blast-
ing and the concussion of a windy shot. Slowing down the fan
increases the proportion of firedamp in the air and the practice
should be prohibited when shots are fired against the air as they
should be.
Decreasing number of shots. The average amount of coal
dislodged by each shot is increasing from year to year, and the
number of shots fired per day is decreasing, until, at present,
many miners put in only one heavy shot in the afternoon, instead
of the former two or three light ones. The heavy shots are both
wider and longer than those formerly used, and in order to put
them in, the miners buy augers averaging 2 ft. longer than tlwse
used in the same district eight or ten years ago. The amount of
powder in each shot is increasing even more rapidly than the
amount of coal brought down by it, so that in 1909, 13 per cent
more powder per ton of coal was used than in 1905. This change
reduces the miner's labor and is largely the result of the law
which compels the company to pay as much for crushed coal
and slate as for good lump coal. The heavy shots greatly in-
crease the danger of explosions due to windy shots.
LONGWALl MINING At BALDWIN.
Details of pick mitting ai Baldwin. The details of getting
the coal at the longwall mines of Baldwin are pretty well shown
in Fig. 12, p. 36. The miner can not even crawl into the work-
ings, but must drag himself at full length. He lies upon his
side and picks out the hard clay or soft shale from under the
coal, by horizontal blows of a pick weighing about 2 pounds.
From time to time the cuttings are raked out with the pick and
shoveled upon the piles of the gob shown , in the rear. When
lyGoO'^lc
Detaii^ of Mining 73
the cutting is 18 jti, or 2 ft. deep, the coal is wedged down by
driving above it two or three long steel wedges like that shown
sticking above the coal. This brings out the coal in large, nearly
cubical blocks, with less than 5 per cent of slack, since the coal
is naturally blocky. Before powder became so cheap, alt coal
was undermined in this way. The miner lay upon his side no
matter how much hight there was. His shoulders and elbows
were soon calloused, and old miners do not complain of the
position. Except where the coal was thin and blocky, it was
customary to bring it down by very light shots, but this only
required from one-fourth to one-eighth the amount of powder
which is now used, and made but little slack.*
Width of rooms at Baldwin. The low space at Baldwin is a
great annoyance in shoveling the coal out to the entry so the
large lumps are pushed rather than shoveled. At one room
visited, the extreme distance from the side of the room to the
trade in the center was 30 ft., but the miners usually prefer to
have the sides of the rooms only 20 ft. from the track. If the
room is narrower than this, the labor of extending the roadway
is too great for the amount of coal obtained.
Building pack-walls at Baldwin. The track and brushing
are kept as near the face as possible, so the car will be nearer
and more easily loaded. Enough room must be left between
the face and the first breaking-prop next the roadway to get
out the coal, and the pack-walls can be carried up as far as the
brushing. After the rock is shot down, the miner throws it back
from the roadway as far as necessary, and does not begin to
build the wall until the edge of the dirt pile gets too close to
the track. Then as fast as the wall is raised, dirt and as much
fine material as possible is packed in behind. Practically the
entire space for 5 or 6 ft. on each side of the road is packed
full by the time the last stones of the wall are we(^d in under
the roof. The shots over the road generally break out the rock
in flat slabs, which are very easily piled up. Unfortunately,
'Information has been received that a mine has been recently
opened at ExcelsiOr where the coal is 30 in. thick, but the rashing
under it is so soft and the coal so blocky that the regular miners
consent to get it out without the use of powder, by mining and wedging.
They do this for the low price of 8oc a ton, loaded upon the pit car.
The writer has as yet been unable to visit this mine.
lyGoo'^lc
74 Coal Mining in Arkansas
the appearance of these rock walls is not very well shown by the
illustration.
MACHINES.
Punching machines at Paris. At Paris, some of the coal
is only 20 or 21 in. thick, and it is difficult to get a sufficient
number of miners to work in it. Since the shale under the coal
is too hard to be dug out by hand, as at Baldwin, Ingersoll-Rand
'punchers' like that shown in Fig. 34 are used to dig out shale
(By courtesy of
enough to give sufficient hight for the miner. The double-pointed
pick is driven forward with great force by compressed air and
returned, some 280 times per minute. The block under the
wheel takes the recoil of the machine. With these machines
10 in. of the shale bottom is taken up and the coal is undermined
to a depth of 4 ft. Figure 39, p. 86, shows rather clearly how
lyGoO'^lc
DeTAits OF Mining 75
much clay is removed. Some of the coal has been taken from
the pillars by the pit boss after the machines were stopped during
the suspension of mining. The shale is supposed to be dug out
in such a way that the floor under it will be smooth. Since the
mining is not as high at the inner end as at the beginning, this
leaves 3 to 6 in. of shale hanging to the coal. This is easily
removed when the coal is loaded out after it has been dropped
by light shots. As the clay is picked loose by the machine runner,
his helper scrapes it out of the cut with a long handled shovel and
throws it back out of the way of the 'loader' who loads the coal,
sets props, and has general charge of the room. The machine
runner goes from room to room and is paid by the .number of
feet of cutting made. Since it was obvious that machines were
required for the successful operation of this mine, the miners
did not especially oppose their introduction.
Post punchers. A modification of the punching machine
was used to make a mining in the soft dirt band at Russellville.
It is called a post puncher and two views of it are shown
in Fig. 35. The upper view shows the machine at work cutting
out a dirt parting in the coal as was done at Russellville. The
lower view gives a better idea of the machine and shows it at
work undermining the coal. It also shows the improved style
of post. These machines worked well enough but were abandoned
on account of the stror^ opposition of the miners, and the conse-
quent difficulty of getting men to operate the machines properly
or to consent to blast and load the coal prepared by digging out
the middle 'band. There was complaint that the mactiines jarred
the roof too much, but this was probably not well founded.
Chain machines. In addition to the compressed-air punch-
ing machines, there are 'electric machines' or 'chain machines.'
A type of these very similar to that shown in Fig. 36 is now in
use at Spadra, for longwall mining. These machines contain an
electric motor, geared to a sprocket chain or 'cutting chain.'
The idle sprocket of the chain is held by a flat 'cutter bar,'
which reaches into the cut beneath the coal. This is shown at
the right of the motor in Fig. 36, Every second link of the
chain is a block of steel carrying a sharp projecting pick point
which is detachable for sharpening. These points scrape and
chip out the coal against which the rapidly moving chain is
lyGoO'^lc
Fig. 35- Two views of the IngersoU-Rand post-puncher,
of the Ingersoil-Rand Drill Co.)
lyGoo'^lc
Dktails of Mixi:
pressed. After the cutter bar has dug its full length into the
coal, the machine drags itself along the face of the coal and the
Fig. 37. "Sullivan 'Class CE' Continuous Culling Electric Coal Mining
Machine, crossing a room face in a single operation, without witli-
drawing the machine from the coal or moving jacks,"
lyGoo'^lc
78 Coal Mining in Arkansas
picks rapidly undermine the coal across the entire face of the
room. This process is shown in Fig. 37.
The dragging^ of the machine is accomplished by pulling in
the feed chain shown in front of the machine, near the floor, in
Fig- 37- This feed chain can be pulled iby the machine either
backward or forward and fast or slow as the machine runner
wishes. The chain can be readily fastened in any part of the
room by properly placing the 'jack,' This is a pipe with a 'pig
foot' upon the lower end and a point on the upper end. A link
of the chain is caught in thp pig foot and the point of the jack
is fastened in any little nick in t'he roof, so that the jack resembles
a light prop leaning toward the machine. By this chain a skillful
runner can rapidly move his machine to any part of the room
and load it upon the truck or unload it. In this way the heavy
machines can be handled with very little exertion. The truck
for the machine runs on the regular mine track and can be driven
by the motor of the mining machine. It is, therefore, easy to
take the machine from one room to another. In the longwall
mines, the machines move continuously from one end of a long
face to another and the truck is seldom needed. The power is
supplied from the flexible cable wound on a reel shown on the
rear of the truck. Fig. 36.
The cut made by the machine is shown at the rig^t of Fig.
37. It is not as high as that made by a puncher and resembles
a horizontal saw cut 4 or 5 in. wide and 5 or 6 ft. deep. The
electric drive of these machines makes the problem of distributing
the power to them much simpler than suj^lying compressed air
to the puncher. If conditions are satisfactory they are more
rapid. They are not satisfactory where the bottom of the coal
contains many large sulphur balls, or where the floor is very
uneven, but such conditions are rare in Arkansas. They can
not cut out a soft seam of dirt under the coal if it contains much
sand or grit, which would wear the cutter chain too rapidly,
For this work punchers are better. The post-punchers are better
for mining out a thick parting.
At Spadra, they were very succesful in mining the coal, re-
ducing the proportion of slack produced, and preventing the
mixing of coal and slate and the shattering of the himp coal by
heavy blasting. There was, however, constant trouble with the
miners' local union, which was not favorable to the use of mining
lyGoO'^lc
Details of Minixg 79
machines. At the present writing, the machines are being
operated by non-union labor with reported success.
In 1908 and 1909, another of the Spadra mines was equipped
with continuous electric coal cutters of the JeflFrey type, but
the tipple at this mine was burned before the machines- were
well tested. The Jeffrey machines differ from the Sullivan type
chiefly in the replacement of the front and back parts of the
feed chain by steel cables wound upon separate small drums.
Chain machines that were moved along the face of the
room by hand were in successful use at Denning for many years
until removed on account of the opposition of the Union. Ma-
chines have been experimented with in several other places.
SUPPLY OF CARS TO THE MINER.
The turn. If the miner is given all the cars he wants, he
sometimes loads all the loose coal he has, or 'gets a clean up.'
When several miners in an entry are cleaned up each day, they
say 'the turn is good.' The 'turn' means the number of cars
each miner receives each day. Ordinarily, the empty cars must
be given to all the miners in turn, which explains the origin of
this use of the word. Since there must be enough 'diggers' to
keep the drivers and other 'company men' busy all day, the
diggers seldom get as many cars as they want, and only a few
rooms are cleaned up.
Overloaded cars. It follows that the miners, who are paid
by the ton mined, put as much coal as possible on each car.
After the car is about level full, the miners set a row of large
lumps of coal all around the top and shovel in more coal. Such
a car is shown in Fig. 2 and is said to be 'chunked up.' When
the turn is poor and there is plenty of coal in the rooms, the
miners tend to overload the cars by excessive chunking up, so
there is usually a weight limit upon the cars. If any miner
exceeds the limit, he is not paid for the excess weight. The
price of mining this excess coal is paid to the local union.
FALLS OF ROOF.
Propping. By the common law, the miner is responsible for
tiie safety of his own working place, and the operator of the
mine is required merely to furnish each miner with all the props
lyGoO'^lc
8o Coal Mixing in Arkansas
he needs. Nearly all rock loosebs gradually, or piece by piece,
and the single pieces are seldom large enough to break a prop
immediately after they loosen. Thus, if the props are set close
enough together, there is very little danger from falls of roof.
As soon as the rock begins to settle, the effect upon the props
can be noticed. When a prop first begins to 'take weight,' it
becomes tightly fastened between the roof and floor and 'sounds
high;' that is, when struck by a pick, it gives out a more musical
sound than a loose prop. As the weight increases, the prop begins
to crush through the cap board, but is still strong and so'id. The
most highly strained corners of the prop then splinter o£f, and
finally the entire prop slowly bows until it begins to crack, as
shown in Fig. 38. p. 85. The strength of the prop is then
gone, and if there are no other props to carry the load, the roof
will come in more or less rapidly. Small pieces and slabs of
rock fail from time to time, and the roof as a whole gradually
settles, although it may take some months before it reaches the
floor.
When the props begin to take weight, the miner generally
sets more props to hold the roof up until the face of the room
had advanced so far that a fall of the roof does not interfere
with the mining of the coal. The rock over the coal seams is
usually 'shelly,' and loosens in wide slabs, from the thickness of
roofing slate up to 6 or 8 in. Such a roof is shown at the left
of Plate VII. When a loose slab of the roof is struck by a pick
handle, it sounds hollow or 'drummy.' If it is thin, the miner
pulls it down; otherwise, he sets a prop under it. As a result,
the props are irregularly placed and some rock falls nearly every
time a prop or two is knocked out. When not immediately propped
up, the weight of the hanging rock will tend to open the seam
above it over a large area, until it sags or 'swings' clear across
the room. Some tough slabs of the right thickness may bend
down 4 or 5 in. in the middle of a ten-foot span without breaking,
as shown in Fig. 27, p. 59. This action often concentrates
the weight of a large amount of rock upon a single prop, which
may break with fatal results to the miner. If there are loose
slabs over the roadway, it is protected by cross-bars, as shown
in Fig. 33.
Even when the roof is dangerous, very few miners will
set up props unless the roof sounds drummy or shows bad cracks.
lyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining 8i
During several weeks spent in the Arkansas mines, the writer saw
only two rooms which were properly and systematically timbered.
During the intervals of waiting for cars, the miners working in
these rooms set props at equal distances in straight rows as shown
in Fig. 27 and 28, even though the rock above is perfectly solid
at the time. The roof, therefore, has no chance to get loose and
dangerous. Since so many props are set and the roof remains
tight, there are no rock falls, even if a few props are knocked
out by flying coal from heavy shots. These careful miners,
therefore, seldom have to clear up a big 'fall of rock' before
they can get at their coal after blasting. They are also safe from
concealed weaknesses in the roof.
Water slips. In most of the mines, there are occasional
slanting cracks reaching up into the roof as shown at A and
B, Plate VII. Because water generally drips out of these and
because the rock strata have often slipped or moved along them,
they are called 'water slips.' When a steep joint in the rock
mtersects one of these, as at A, Plate VII, the wedge-shaped
mass of rock next to the water slip is very dangerous. These
blocks are generally heavy enough to cause a severe or fatal
accident if they fall upon a miner, and although they may be
very loose, they are usually too hard and heavy to sound drummy
except at the extreme edge. They come at irregular intervals,
and if the water slip is beyond the block, as at A, Plate VII,
and concealed by a little coal, the miner does not know that the
loose block is there. While he is working at the face, the little
coal at the comer of the block, which is all that supports it,
may give way and the block fall without warning. This danger
can be certainly avoided only by keeping the props very near
the face. Props ckise to the face are objectionable because they
do not leave the miner sufficient space in which to shovel his
coal, and because the props are knocked out by blasting. If
the top bench of the coal seam must be mined first, these water
slips are especially dangerous, because permanent props can not
be set close to the face. In other coalfields, cross-bars are set
between the face of the coal and the nearest props to give the
miner sufficient room in which to work. This is not done in Ark-
ansas because the dangerous roof is not common, and because the
coal is often too weak to properly sivpport the inner end of the
cross-bar.
lyGoO'^lc
82 Coal Mining in Arkansas
It is fortunate that the water slips all cross a room in
the same general direction. As soon as one water slip has been
fouTid, an intelligent miner takes pains to see That the face of
his room is never parallel to the direction of the slips, and that
the props are so placed that there are no unsupported strips of
roof having the direction of a possible loose wedge of rock.
Since the watpr slips extend from room to room, many of the
miners look for them in the adjoining room which is more ad-
vanced than their own, and so can tell where to expect them and
what their direction will be. On account of the danger caused
by these water slips, many miners will not work in mines in
which they are common.
Potty roof. In some places, the soft mud that covered the
beds of carbonaceous material now forming the coal seams, was
dried by the sun and cut up by many intersecting shrinkage
cracks, such as may be seen in the bottom of any dried-up mud-
puddle. The size of the blocks depends upon the thickness of
the layer of mud. Where the blocks were large and the mud-
cracks became filled with a less sticky material, the blocks which
now form the roof of the coal tend to fall out, with little warning.
Because these blocks resemble large inverted iron pots or tubs,
the miners call a roof containing them 'potty' or 'tubby.' Since
the loose pots are seldom drummy, they are dangerous, and
props must be set very close together wherever they occur.
Fortunately, they can generally be easily seen because the roof
flakes off until the bottoms of the mud-cracks are exposed, as
at the right of Plate VII. Fortunately, also, potty roof is rare
in Arkansas and seldom extends over more than one or two
rooms in a mine.
Blocky roof. At several mines, the hard rock above the
coal is cut up by the rock joints common everywhere. If the
lower layer of the roof is thick and hard, these blocks do not
sound drummy and are dangerous. Some of the miners call
such a jointed roof potty, but most of them use the better term,
tlocky.' The center of Plate VII shows one type of blocky
roof. Fortunately the blocks are in most places large enough to
be supported by at least one prt^, as they are ordinarily set,
and the splintering and bending of. the prop gives the miner
ample warning of danger. The blocks seldom loosen until some
lyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining 83
weeks after the coal has been mined, so the face of the room
where the miner usually works is safe, except when water sHps
are cut. The falls in the roadway in the older parts of a room
occur mostly just after the shots go off, when there is no one in
the room. There is, however, some expense in clearing this rock
up and many foremen pay the miners for setting cross-bars over
the roadway wherever the roof is blocky.
If only the layer of the roof next the coal is Wocky, no at-
tempt it made to keep it up, and it is all wedged down as 'draw
slate.' Draw slate is properly all the rock above the coal, which
will fall when the coal is blasted, and should not include any of
the rock under which props are set, or any rock under which a
miner would dare to work. When the roof is blocky, however,
the miners must secure the rock until the inner joint is reached,
since a wide block is sometimes loosely held up by a little coal
at the face of the room, even though it has not sagged noticeably.
This support is usually a temporary prop so placed that it will
be blown down together with the coal which holds the block of
rock fast. Most of the draw slate is soft dirt or weak slate
which is readily pulled down, if it does not fall as soon as the
coal is removed, and is not dangerous.
BASIS OF PAYMENT TO THE MINERS.
The miners are generally paid 62c. a ton for all the coal
they load. When a car is loaded, the miner hangs upon it a
little tin 'check' with his 'check number' on it. The coal in each
car is carefully weighed by the company's 'weigh-boss' and the
'check-weighman' hired by the miners. The weight is credited
to the check number on the car. The men are paid extra for
mining any kind of 'deficient' coal.
Besides this, they are usuatly paid $2.25 per yard for driving
entries and $i.i2j^ per yard for room-necks, and break-throughs
that are cut before blasting. They get from 5c. to cjc. per yard for
each inch of rock brushed from a yard of roadway's ^^- wide,
and generally 28c. for setting each cross-bar, when such are
necessary.
Twice a month, the pit-boss and a helper, who is generally
the fire-l>oss, must go through and measure the yardage of each
miner. In the rooms, the marie from which progress is measured
is only a chalk mark or cuts on a prop next the road, because the
lyGoO'^lc
84 Coal Mining ix Arkansas
pay for a foot is generally small. In the entries, a cluster of five
small holes is drilled into the coal on one side, and measure-
ments taken from the center hole. These measuring marks are
universally called 'stamps' and are moved up by the pit-boss
from time to time, as the face gets beyond the reach of the tape
line. There seems to be no tendency to dishonesty on the part
of the miners in the way of attempts to move the stamp back-
wards and so apparently increase their )-ardage.
At many mines, nothing is paid for handling the middle
band. At a few mines, especially where the middle band is hard,
the price paid for mining the coal varies with the thickness of
the band rock, and at others, the miners are paid so much for
each inch of rock for every 15 sq. ft. removed. They are aWays
paid for handling all but the first few inches of draw slate which
falls from the roof. This is generally 2j^c. an inch for each
yard 5 ft. wide. This is not enough to pay the miner for the
labor of cleaning it up, and he prefers to keep it from falling by
sufficient props. It is quite an expense to the companies, how-
ever, and makes them more anxious to supply the miner with
plenty of props.
All the company men are paid by the 8-hour day or fraction
thereof. This is generally $2.56 per day for men underground
and $2.02j^ for laborers on top.
SQUEEZES.
Smail rooms and smaJl pillars. In many Arkansas mines,
the rooms are turned square off the entry and driven straight up
hill, regardless of the curves. When the pillar is too thin, as
determined by the distinctness with which pick blows can be
heard through it, the room is turned away from the one beyond,
or stopped ; or if the crosscuts through the pillars are too long,
the rooms are turned the other way, or widened. This practice
makes the width of the pillars very uncertain and the rooms ir-
regular, as shown on the left side of Plate II.
To save the cost of cutting crosscuts between rooms, many
pit bosses ask the miners to widen the room and shoot through
the pillar as shown in Plate II. When in addition, the rooms are
made too wide, very little of the pillar is left. This weakening
is locally called 'robbing' the pillars.
lyGoO'^lc
Details of Mimnt. 85
Hotv squeezes start. When robbing is carried too far. the
pillars crush and let the roof slowly down. When the roof is
very strong, it does not break but carries the weight over to the
next pillar, which, in turn, crushes, until this 'squeeze' may ex-
tend through a large part of the mine, even 'riding over' a pillar
40 ft. wide. When the pillars are very strong, they are some-
times squeezed down into the shale beneath. This shale acts
like clay, and squeezes up in the roadways. Figure 38 is re-
1 entry, Mine No. 3,
drawn from a photograph of the beginning of such a squeeze
and shows how the coal' scales ofif the pillars, and how the trjck
is pushed up and the props are broken. Some of the clay which
lyGoO'^lc
86 Coal Mining in Arkansas
was squeezed up between the ries has been removed. The roof
settles very slowly and there is no very great danger in passing
such places, since a little crackling noise precedes the fall of a
chunk of coal or a small piece of roof. When the roof is ver>-
strong, the crushed pillars can be very easily loaded out and the
coal is merely broken into pieces and not shattered as by blasting.
Figure 39 shows such a pillar ; but unfortunately, the most
Fig. 39. The effect of a squeeze upon a pillar of hard well-jointed coal.
Also the unmined clay left beneath the pillar. Paris Coal Co., Paris.
thoroughly loosened coal has been removed, because it was the
easiest of all for the pit boss to get during the suspension.
Checking squeezes. When the room pillars first begin to
work under a squeeze, the entries sometimes can 4>e saved by
building cribs of short props and setting heavy logs called 'trees'
in the rooni-necks, as shown in Fig. 40. In many entries, such
trees are set every two or three feet along the track.
lyGoo'^lc
Details of Mining
Fig. 40. Timbering used to check a squeeze and the raising of the track
caused by the squeeze. Bolen-Darnall Mine, Hartford.
The photograph, from which the figure is redrawn, was
taken in the Bolen-Darnall Mines, where the squeeze, beginning
in 1905, had spread to the main slope in June, 1909, and pre-
vented mining for two weeks in July of the latter year, while
three shifts of men were working to check it. The squeeze ex-
tended over some 12 or 15 acres at the end of a thick lens of
very strong sandstone just above the coal. The figure shows the
opening of an entry which had to be stopped up with timbers for
some distance, to save the pump room as well as to check the
squeeze. The abandoned entries higher up were also heavily
timbered with cribs, and the slope lined with 'trees.' For quite
a distance in the main slope, the bottom heaved up as much as
3 ft. This heaving of the bottom, which is called 'creep,' caused
additional annoyance by carrying in the bottoms of trees that
had been set in the slope before the squeeze became serious.
lyGoO'^lc
88 Coal Mining in Arkansas
After the timbering was put in, the squeeze apparently stopped.
The track was taken up, the clay loaded out, and the track
relaid.
At a nearby mine, a squeeze was checked at an entry by
building a wall of solid masonry 3 ft. thick along the entry rib.
This served also to prevent the loss of the ventilating current
through the crushed pillars.
Effect of the strength of the roof upon a squeeze. At
Central No. 4 Mine, almost adjoining the Bolen-Darnall, a small
squeeze spread over only two rooms, when a pillar varying from
12 to 18 ft. in width caitsed the roof 300 ft. thidc to break. A
large crack was noticed on the surface three days later. In this
case, however, the roof was all a fairly soft shale. Such squeezes
do little damage in the mine but are bad if they come to the
surface in a creek bed or other places from which water can enter.
The rooms are generally driven at intervals of at least 36 ft. from
center to center, regardless of the character of the roof. If the
roof is poor, the miners make the rooms narrower than usual.
The pillars are then left wide and strong, and squeezes are un-
likely. If a squeeze does start, a weak roof will easily snap off
at the first strong pillar the squeeze reaches. This stops the
spread of the squeeze. If, however, the roof is so strong as to
need little or no propping, the miners, who often have the full
consent of the pit bosses, will make the rooms 35 or 40 ft. wide,
so as to blast the coal more easily. The pillars are then fewer
and often smaller than those left under a weak top. As soon^
therefore, as so large an area is opened up that the hard roof
can not carry the load across the entire mine, a squeeze is almost
certain to begin, unless tlie mine is so shallow that the weight
of the overlying rock is small. There is less trouble if the
distance between the rooms is made so great that wide pillars
will be left even though the rooms are as wide as the miners find
convenient. Such squeezes will be hard to stop when once
started, and larger pillars rather than smaller ones should be left
beneath a strong roof. At Denning, the roof is nearly ideal, in
that there is a strong but thin sandstone just above a little shale.
The rooms are therefore safe, but the sandstone is so thin that
it readily breaks under a squeeze because all tlie rest of the
roof is soft shale. This prevents the spreading of squeezes.
lyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining 89
This sandstone 'cap rock' also indicates when to expect coal in
drilling prospect holes.
Effect of squeezes. When the squeezes are unchecked, the
entries and rooms under the ordinary shale roof are filled with
toose slabs of slate. After the rooms are completely filled, there
is very little weight on any one place, and the entries may be re-
opened by setting light timbers, generally a cross-bar and two
legs, under the slabs of slate a foot or so beyond the last un-
crushed pillars, and removing the rock beneath as far in advance
as is safe. Another cross-bar is then set to support another set
of roof slabs, which carry the load a little in advance. In rare
cases, light poles are driven forward over the cross-bar to sup-
port very loose rock in front, until room is made for another
set of timbers. The better pieces of rock are set to one side and
used to build walls along each side of the entry, to help support
the roof and keep rocks from falling upon the track. This is
expensive at best, generally costing at least $6.00 to $10.00 a
yard. The ventilating current goes through the loose rock into
the surrounding rooms, or directly to the return air-course.
Therefore, unless the seam has quite a steep dip, it is better to
reopen a squeezed entry by driving a cut-off from another entry.
The squeeze seldom extends through the short rooms at the head
of an entrj", so the driving of an entry is easily continued after
the cut-off reaches it. Some superintendents prevent the squeeze
from spreading as the entry is continued by omitting one room,
which leaves a strong pillar to stop the squeeze. In most cases,
there is time to save the rails in the rooms and entries after a
squeeze starts.
MINING THE PILLARS.
In most districts, robbing the pillars means mining them,
but in Arkansas, this is called 'pulling the pillars.' It is not
often done, since they are left too narrow in the first place to
make it easy. The method most used is shown in the First West
Entry, Plate II, When the room is full of waste rock, a 4-ft.
'slab' is taken off one side of a wide pillar and a track laid in this
space up to the end of the room if possible. Figure 40-A shows
the process of thus slabbing a pillar at Mine No. i, of the Branner
Coal Co., at Midland. At this mine a thin bottom bench of coal
lyGoO'^lc
90 Coal Mining in Arkansas
was left in the rooms but this is mined beneath the pillars. The re-
maining part of the pillar is then mined retreating toward the en-
try. The roof is secured by many props and th.; weight makes the
coal easy to loosen. That portion of the room pillars which lies
between two room-necks and between the entry and the first
room break-through is called the 'entry stump.' The pillar be-
tween the entry and its air-course is the 'chain-pillar.' The
pulling of pillars is generally begun at the far end of a finished
entry. The narrow part of a room pillar is mined first. Then
Fig. 40-A. Slabbing a room pillar. Mine No. i. Branner Coal Co., Midland.
n drawing pillars. Bnumcr
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining 91
the 'entry stump' and that part of the chain pillar of^site it
are mined together, retreating toward the slope. Next to cross-
cuts, or where the weight becomes too great, small pillars of coal
are abandoned to give temporary support to the roof. Fi^re 41
shows one of these with the roof over the old entry fallen in
around it.
In a few mines, the rooms are laid out for pulling the pillars
from a track along the side of the room, by the standard method.
This is shown in the Second East Entry, Plate II. It is rather
common to pull the larger entry stump and the most of the
chain pillar, provided that there is a demand for coal and the
roof is good. The chain pillars are rarely mined in gob entries
because the waste has to be shoveled to one side before the coal
can be reached. The entry stumps are the most accessible of all
the pillars. When mining them, the diggers are less apt to
mix slate with the coal than if they had to shovel the slate out
of the way. This slate trouble is aggravated by the mine-run
law which practically compels the operators to pay the miners as
much for fine slate as for good coal.
HAULING The coal.
Pit mutes. The hauling of the coal presents little novelty.
The mules are trained to 'gee' and 'haw' and turn around without
lines, and also to 'get up a step' and stop, so that the cars may
be coupled and switched. The driver rides on the last car of the
trip, and the mules have to get along in almost absolute darkness.
Indeed, if left alone anywhere on the entry, most of them
will go through the dark to the parting, where they are in the
habit of standing while the driver is waiting for cars.
The mules are always taken out of the slope mines at
night, but are not always hoisted out of the shaft mines. If left in,
they have a dry stable with a special split of pure air for ventila-
tion. They generally are well cared for. At no mine in- the
State is any driver allowed to abuse his mule. This is in pleasing
contrast to some other districts. If a mule is kicky, it is usually
sold to avoid injury to the driver.
Some mules have worked underground for many years, and
they are said never to die, but eventually are disabled or killed
hy accidents. They are very skillful at keeping out of the way
Goc^lc
y2 CoAi. Mining is Arkansas
of cars, but many are killed by collisions when several haul to
the same parting, and the drivers are careless. At some of the
mines, there are steep hills in the entries and the drivers neglect
to block the car wheels. The mules must then run very fast to
keep out of the way of the loaded cars. This they do in safety
except at the curves where they are often injured.
Spike teams. When the entry is too long for one mule to
handle all the cars, it is customary to have two mules and drivers
following each other in and out. When the entry becomes too
long for this, an 'inside parting* is made as far in as possible.
Single mules then haul the cars to this parting, from which trips
of twice as many cars as before are hauled out by two mules
going tandem as a 'spike team.' Figure 8, p. 28, shows a
number of spike teams used to pull single cars up the steep hills.
The inside parting is also called a 'swing parting,' and if a single
mule hauls the coal to the entry parting, it is called a 'swing
mule' as distinguished from the otiiers, or 'gathering mules,'
Mechanical haulage. When the coal has to be hauled in
considerable amounts for any great distance underground, some
mechanical haulage system is installed. When this main haulage
road is nearly level, an electric locomotive with overhead trolley
carrying 250 volts is used. There are four of the larger mines in
the State equipped with one or more 7 to 13-ton electric loco-
Fig. 42. An electric motor waiting for another motor and a trip of
empty cars to pass. Mine No. 17, Jenny Lind.
Details of Minixg 93
motives, which haul the coal from about J^ to nearly 2 miles.
Figure 42 shows one of these motors at the beginning of a
side track, waiting for the other motor to pass it with the empty
cars. This figure also shows the timbering used to protect an
entry where the roof is loose.
When the seam dips, it Is rarely possible to haul the coal
from more than one entry over a level road; but most of the
mines are then equipped with slopes or engine planes upon which
the coal is hauled 'by a rc^e, and the cars returned by gravitj'.
If there are hills in both directions, or some level places along
the road, the cars must be hauled both wa>'s. For this purpose,
two of the larger mines use the 'tail-rope' system of mechanical
haulage. With this arrangement, a wire rope leading to a hoist-
ing engine upon the surface, pulls the long trip of loaded cars
up or down the hills from any one of the 'rope partings' inside
the mine. To the last car of this trip is fastened the tail-rope,
which is thus pulled out with the trip. The tail-rope passes
around a bull-wheel just inside of the parting and out to a second
drum on the main engine, and is used to pull an empty trip back
to the inside parting, when the engine is reversed. As couplings
are provided in the tail-rope, the empty trips, with the main r(q>e
following, may be taken to any one of the partings. Mine tele-
phones are used to notify the coupler when the loaded trips are
ready, so that he will know where to send the empty trip. The
tail-rope system is more expensive to maintain and operate than
an electric system of the same capacity, but is independent of
grades, and the haulage roads can run in any direction from the
shaft bottom.
SURFACE ARRANGEMENTS,
Tipples at the soft coal mines. At the surface of each mine
is a more or less complicated 'tipple' or building, containing ar-
rangements for weighing the coal and sorting it into various
sizes, if that is required, and for loading it into railroad cars.
The coal may he weighed in the pit cars which are then merely
run over a platform scale, as at some of the slope mines, but
more commonly it is dumped into a 'weigh pan' or 'weigh basket'
of any one of a number of different kinds. At a few of the soft
coal mines, the coal is dumped into railroad cars immediately
after weighing, and sold as mine-run. Only one side-track i
. Goc^lc
Coal Mixing in Arkans.
Pig- 43- Northwest side of tipple at drift mine of Dallas Coal Co., Btuina.
then needed for the railroad cars and the tipple is called a 'one-
track tipple,' Figures 43 and 44 show two views of a well
designed one-track tipple at a drift mine. Figure 43 shows the
coal falling from the pit car into the railroad car, and also shows
a car which has been dumped into the little bin at the left, from
which the coal is reloaded into wagons to be sold locally. Further
to the left is shown the beginning of the waste dump. Figure 44
shows clearly how the tracks for loaded and empty cars slope to
facilitate the handling of the cars. Unfortunately, at the time this
Fig. 44- Southeast side of tipple at drift mine of Dallas Coal Ca, Burma.
Diqn^.anyGoO'^lc
Drtails of Mini.ng 95
picture was taken, the mine was idle and both tracks were full
of empty cars.
At most of the soft coal mines, the coal, after being weighed,
is dumped upon an inclined bar-screen with spaces of Ij^ in.
between the bars. The lump coal slides on over the bars into
one railroad car, while most of the fine coal or slack falls between
them into another car. This forms the standard arrangement of
a two-track tipple. When orders for mine-run coal are filled,
the screen is covered with flat iron plates and all the coal passes
over it just as it comes from the mine. If less of the fine coal is
to be removed, only a part of the screen is covered. When the
miners were paid upon a lump coal basis, the weigh basket was
placed at the lower end of the bar-screen which was of a specified
size, and only the coal which passed over the screen was credited
to the miner. A correspondingly higher price was paid for
mining this coal, however. Tipples with screens require a greater
hight from the dumping place to the track level. The bar-
screens do not take out all of the slack and when a fancy grade of
lump coal is prepared, the coal is passed over a shaking screen
of some sort.
Fig. 45. Tipple and boiler pond. Coronado Mine, near Huntington.
Figure 45 shows one of the best designs of the high two-
trade tipples with a fixed screen as used at shaft mines equipped
with self-dumping cages. These cages automatically dump the
coal from the pit car into the weigh-pan. This tipple is so ar-
n> 000^^10
96 Co.u. Mining in Arkansas
ranged that when a car load of waste is hoisted, the iron sheet
upon which coal would be dumped is raised like a trap door, and
the rock falls through into a bin beneath. At any convenient
time during the day, the rock is drawn from this bin into a
special rock car and dumped on the waste pile on the left. Most
of the tipples have no waste bin, and rock from the mine is
dumped from the pit car directly into the rock car, which takes
it to the waste pile. The hoisting is, therefore, frequently delayed
while the rock car is being emptied and returned. At nearly ill .
of the tipples, there are arrangements by which some of the slack
coal can be easily taken to the boiler house.
Some of the soft coal mines supplying the household trade
make 'fancy-lump' coal, clean nut coal, and slack. At some of
these, the coal is first dumped upon a coarse screen which re-
moves everything less than 2 in. in diameter. That which passes
through this screen is then further separated into nut coal and
slack. This slack is smaller than the standard size. At other
mines that make three sizes of coal, the coal is first passed over
3 standard screen to take out most of the slack, and then over a
coarse screen which takes out the rest of the slack and the mil
coal. The screens are given a shaking motion, and are of various
kinds. Some are in the form of revolving drums or trommels.
A three-track tripple is required for the production of nut-coal,
in addition to the lump and slack. Figure 46 shows the old
17, Jenny Lind.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining 97
three-track tipple at Mine No. 17, Jenny Lind, With slack eoal
falling into the car nearest the shaft. After it had passed over
the slack screen, the nut coal was formerly taken out of the lump
coal by a shaking screen over the track which was in the center.
Before the photograph was taken, this intermediate screen had
Fig. 47. Tipple and surface buildings at Mine No. 18, Jenny Lind.
Fig. 48. Tipple at Mine No. 2, Greenwood.
been replaced by a shaking iron trough, and the center track
removed. Most of the newer tipples are completely boarded up.
Such a tipple with the round-topped fan house in the rear, and
lyGoO'^lc
98 Coal Mining in Arkansas
the other surface buildings is shown in Fig. 47. The nearesi
building is the blacksmith shop and machine shop and is exag-
gerated in size because it was so near the camara.
Figure 48 is a view of a very complete tipple of a slope mine
on low dip coal. The lower track for the empty pit cars can be
seen at the end of the shed. This is a two-track tipple, but no
good photograph could be obtained of the screening arrange-
ments. Figure 49 shows a very cheap but effective two-track
Fig. 49. Tipple at Mine No. 135, Bonanza.
slope tipple, large enough to handle a four-car trip. The trestle
is built of logs cut from the leased land, and the tipple is equipped .
with second hand machinery furnished by the owner of the coal
land. The actual cash investment by the lessees was, therefore,
almost nothing.
Where necessary at the soft coal mines, slate is picked out
of.the lump coal while it is stopped upon the screen. This delays
the hoisting, and reduces the capacity of those large mines
whose output is determined by the dumping arrangements.
There are also a number of slate pickers in the railroad cars.
These men also act as car trimmers, and properly arrange the
pile of coal in the center of a well filled car. At a few of the
mines, there are no slate pickers except those in the cars. No
attempt is made anywhere to pick slate out of the slack.
lyGoO'^lc
„Gooi^lc
lOO Coal Mining in Arkansas
Semi-anthracite breakers. The semi-anthracite coal must
be broken into smaller lumps and carefully sized before it can
be sold, and a good deal of slate must be picked out. This re-
quires a large surface plant which is called a 'breaker.' Figure 50
shows one of the best of these. Generally the coal from the mine
cars is dumped over a wide bar-screen from which the lumps pas^j
to a crusher. These lumps then join the fine material from the
mine, and pass over a series of nearly flat shaking screens of boiler
plate, punched with round holes. These screens are shown in
Fig. 51, The largest size of coal commonly shipped is called 'grate
coal.' This includes all lumps which pass between the bars 6 eft
7 in. apart and can not pass through round holes 2)4 to
3 in. across. 'Egg coal' is the next smaller size, and includes
all which goes through the first screen and over the second one,
in which the holes are about 2 in. across. The next size is
'No. 4,' which is used in heating stoves and brings the highest
price. At most of the mines, enough 'pea coal' is removed fror.i
all finer than Xo. 4 to supply the boiler, and at some a still smaller
size, 'buckwheat coal,' is riiade and the pea coal is sold. There is
no uniformity in the sizes of screen openings. Since the slata
in Arkansas is just as smooth as the coal, the ordinary mechanical
slate pickers, which depend upon the lagging of the slate as the
mixture passes down a chute, can not be used. The only
lyGoO'^lc
Details of Mining iqi
mechanical device available is a set of square bars with their
edges set upwards, and so placed that the coal passes over them,
while pieces of flat slate turn up on edge and fall through. This
has the disadvantage of losing flat pieces of clean coal. The
great bulk of the slate must be picked out by hand. Boys can
generally do this more rapidly than men, but it is difHcult to get
them to attend to their tasks so men are employed to pick slate.
The smallest size cleaned is No. 4 and this requires the most
labor. As so many cars would be needed to receive the different
sizes of coal, all of the smaller sizes are temporarily stored
in bins, from which the cars are readily loaded as required by
orders. This saves the delay and cost of the frequent shifting
of cars which would otherwise be necessary.
To reduce the aimount of slack produced in crushing the coal,
J. F. Sauerman of Russellville designed a crusher with a jaw
set with long steel picks, which splits the coal rather than cru5h'.;s
it. These machines have quite generally replaced the ordinary
toothed rolls for breaking coal throughout this State, and are
bang rapidly introduced in other states.
WASHING SLACK.
Since the fine slate can not be picked out of the slack by
hand at a profit, the Central Coal and Coke Co. has built
Fig. 52. Slack washer. Central Coal and Coke Co., Doubleday.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
102 Coal Mining in Arkansas
a slack washer at Doubleday, near Hackett. This is shown in
Fig. 52. The slack is automatically unloaded from the cars ami
elevated to a storage bin at the top of the building. From the
bin it is fed at a uniform rate to a number of 'Jigs' of the Stewart
pattern. These are strong frames with a flat wire screen bottom,
upon which the mixture of coal and slate rests, while the whole
is rapidly agitated up and down in a tank of water. Since the
slate is a good deal heavier than the coal, it sinks more rapidly
in water. When a mixture of slate and coal is kept mobile by
the currents of water, the slate soon settles to the bottom. The
fine slate then woiks through the screen into the tank, and the
larger pieces of slate form a layer next to the screen and keep
the fine coal out of the tank. At intervals, a little of the coarse
slate is emptied through the screen to prevent the layer from
getting too thick. In the meantime, the dean coal passes over
the edge of the shaking frame at the side opposite the inlet; then
it goes successively to a settling tank, elevator, and storage bin
over the loading track. The washer removes all the impurities in
the coal, and also some of the very fine coal dust which does not
settle out of the waste water. The product is therefore a very
desirable boiler fuel and brings a good price, but as there is
much loss of coal in washing and the process is expensive, only
the slack that can riot otherwise be sold is washed.
lyGoO'^lc
CHAPTER m.
THE nmERS.
THE COURTESY OP THE MIN&KS.
A visitor to the Arkansas mines is quickly impressed with
the genera] intelligence and ability of the miners. Nearly all of
them speak English. The great majority were most courteous to
the writer, cheerfully answered what must have seemed to them
'fool's questions' concerning their work, and gave all the in-
formation desired about the details of mining. Many even took
the time to guide him to some other working place that he might
see a reported peculiarity of the coal or meet a miner of more
local experience, or one who was looked upon as an authority
upon the points of mining. At noon-time they all offered to
share their dinners with the stranger. A few miners were met
who feared that the 'Survey man' was hired by the operator or
some imaginary enemy of the Union to spy upon them.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION. ABOUT THE MINERS.
The high class of the Arkansas miners and the importance of
the labor supply in coal mining led to the making of systematic
inquiries regarding the miners and labor problems in general.
From the miners' point of view, the best information regarding
their grievances and desires was obtained from the older miners
and especially the secretaries of the local unions, most of whom
are well posted and intelligent. A few members of the miners'
'pit committees' proved to be well informed and conservative.
Generally, however, they are the most troublesome and unreason-
able men in the crew, since they are elected upon the supposition
that the chief duty of the pit committee is to quarrel with the
pit boss and superintendent. In one or two instances, their
answers did not correspond with facts observed in the mine, and
as far as possible these men were avoided.
Views of the employers were obtained from the foremen,
superintendents, and operators. Many unusual conditions were
confirmed by both parties. One or two instances of unreason-
ableness upon the part of the operators were noted.
lyGoO'^lc
I04 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Information regarding the home life of the miners, the
character of the camps, sanitary conditions, and general matters
was obtained chiefly from the resident physicians and by personal
observation. Data as to the nationalities were obtained from
the foremen, office force, and when possible from the secretaries
of the local unions. The earnings of the men were obtained from
personal examination of the pay-rolls 'and other records. This
gave also some idea of their regularity of working. Questions
regarding their financial habits were asked of the office force.
The homes of the miners.
Houses owned by the miners. There are great variations in
the different camps, but leaving out exceptional cases, from 60
to 65 per cent of the mine workers are married and 20 or 25
per cent of the whole force own their homes. The majority of
the companies try to attract the miners that save their money
and build homes, for they are the more skillful and steady work-
men and so increase the output of the mine. In general, tracts
of an acre or two of the unused surface land over the coal are
leased to certain steady men for one dollar a year. These men
build their own cottages, which are most frequently of the cheap
type of the company camps, and raise vegetables and a little corn
upon the land they have fenced. This gives them work for the
idle days, which are most frequent in the spring, when the market
for coal is poor. These men generally keep a cow and some pigs.
Unfortunately, there are some companies which do not grant
leases on small lots. In such cases, the miners can farm only the
big yards at the company camps. They may he ejected from
these at any time and lose their gardens. Near most nf such
camps, there is good farm land belonging to other parties. Many
of the miners buy or rent 5 to 20-acre tracts of this and farm
more extensively.
In the well organized and more permanent towns at some of
the mines, the miners own town lots, upon which they build
houses. Such houses range from the $150 shacks to the modem
bungalow cottages, and two-ston,- houses costing $2,000 or more.
Probably one-half of the houses owned by miners are upon town
lots and one-third upon leased land. The others are on farms
owned by the miners. Because there is no fire protection, the
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners 105
miners seldom build houses costing more than $500. In Spadra
where th«re is always a long spring shut-down, nearly one-fifth
of the miners farm rather extensively and many others work at
some other trade during the idle season. Over the entire coal-
field, about ten per cent of the married men cultivate two or
more acres.
General requirements of a coat camp. Generally a coal miner
is married or lives with his parents. The companies openmg new
mines are therefore supposed to provide houses for the miners.
At camps away from the towns, there is also a boarding-house
built by the company and rented to some woman, who boards
visitors, new miners, and a few unmarried miners. A few
miners' wives also take in boarders. By agreement with the
miners, the companies usually collect the board-bills for all the
landlords. In the semi-anthracite districts, a change-house with
shower baths is provided at most of the mines by the company.
Nowhere are there the free bunk-houses wfliich are always pro-
vided at the metal mines, where so few miners are married.
The company houses. The almost universal custom requires
the miners to pay $2.00 a month for each room, regardless of the
character of the house. The miner wants from 2 to 6 rooms,
generally 3 or 4. The company houses are of shed construction ;
that is, the outside walls are built of i-in. boards set vertically
and nailed together by heavy battens outside the cracks. The
Fig' S3- Pun of a company camp, No. 4 Mine, Hartford.
.Goc^lc
io6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
common 'good' house is lined with building paper, and neatly
ceiled and painted inside. The three room T-shaped house with
porch is probatily the most common. The second house in Fig.
53 is of this style. The type shown in Fig. 54 is said to be a
little cheaper. The four-room houses are less frequent and are
Fig. 54. Part of a company camp, No. 3 Mine, Huntington.
commonly square with a hipped roof and porch, like the third
house in Fig, 53. The cheapest style of four-room house has
a high gable roof over two rooms, and a lean-to, withoul
separate ceihng, over the other two. On account of the greater
cost per room of the two-room houses, they are often of rough
unpainted boards outside and are rarely ceiled, but are lined with
wall paper upon cheese cloth. These are occuped by an inferior
class of miners and are rare. At one camp not owned by the
company, two-room houses of the cheapest construction, and in
ver\- bad state of repair are now rented for $3.00 per month,
instead of $4.00.
Since the weather is seldom very cold and then only for
brief spells, the houses are open underneath to keep them dry
in summer and to lessen decay. Because of the warm climate,
there is little demand for plastered houses. Several rather ex-
pensive plastered houses, with more windows than usual, were
built at Midland, A few were rented to town people at higher
lyGoO'^lc
Thb Miners 107
prices, but the nwners would pay no more than $2.00 a room and
demanded the houses at that price.
The- ordinary houses, if built in small numbers, cost from
$50.00 to $90.00 per room, the price varying with the number
of rooms and kind of construction. If they could be rented
steadily at $2.00 per month for each room, they would yield from
25 to nearly 50 per cent gross income per annum. This is
possibly the reason that the miners are not always encouraged to
build their own houses. The insurance rate and depreciation are
very high, however.
Vandalism. At most of the camps, as soon as a house has
been vacant more than one night, every pane of glass is broken.
The windows have very small panes to reduce the cost of re-
placing them. In a week or two the sash goes out as well as
the glass and the doors sometimes follow. This is supposed to
be done by the inevitable bad boy, but in most cases he has
at least the tacit consent of his parents, if not their active en-
couragement. There is no apparent reason for this attitude
except possibly a desire to provide work at the company's
expense for the man who replaces the windows. Of course,
only a few of the parents are of this objectionable sort. It is
recommended that the windows be so designed that the entire
sash can be removed for safe keeping, as soon as the house is
vacant. When the plastered houses at Midland became empty,
the boys not only broke the windows, but knocked off the plaster
as high as they could reach and as thoroughly as possible without
too much work. It is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that if a
miner wants a plastered house in tlie future, he must build it
himself.
Besides causing ill feeling, this vandalism prevents the com-
panies from putting more than one window in a room, except
the kitchen. It also results in their building few houses, with
the hope that none will be vacant. .\5 is usual with mankind,
the miners as a whole suffer for the faults of a few.
It is a pleasure to be able to record one exception to this
general spirit of malicious destruction. At Montana, near
Spadra, the Scranton Anthracite Coal Co- built a number of at-
tractive four-room cottages as shown in Fig. 55. These had as
many as four windows in some of the rooms and rented for
lyGoO'^lc
„Gooi^lc
The Miners 109
$10.00 a month. After the mine was closed on account of the
mine-run law, all these houses stood vacant. Though no special
precautions were taken to guard these houses, two years later
very few, if any, of the windows had been brcAen. Figure 55 also
shows a representative miner's family as they appear on 'idle
days' or week days upon which the mine is not working.
General appearance of the company camps. As there is «o
fire protection, all the company houses are quite a distance
apart. This has also a sanitary advantage. The camps are
located upon high, well drained land, if any such place is within
half a mile or so of the mine opening. Some are very cheerless
and uninviting. Figure 54 is a view of the least attractive part
of the most unpleasant large camp seen. Besides the discomfort
of the 'dusty main road just in front of the houses, the water
supply at this place is very deiicient. This camp is, however, at
Huntington where the majority of the miners own their own at-
tractive homes or soon find a better place to rent. The houses
shown are, therefore, occupied chiefly by Mexicans.
None of the camps shaded by some of the original fine oak
trees could well be photographed. Figure 53, No. 4 camp at
Hartford, is one of the more attractive open camps. The photo-
graph, which was taken after the extreme heat and drouth of 1909,
does not give a good idea of it. Figure 56 represents about an
average camp. It was taken after some 10 weeks suspension of
Fig. 56. No. 3 Camp, Denning.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Coal Mimng in Arkansas
Fig. 57. Part of the company camp at Jenny Lind.
mining, and shows the extent of the gardens. Figure 57 shows
the less attractive side of a row of T-shaped, three-room houses.
Besides raising vegetables, many of the miners or their
families take great pains to plant flowers and improve the ap-
pearance of their homes. This is true of the majority of those
who own their own houses, but some of the company houses are
Fig. s8. Flower garden around a company house
near Greenwood.
lyGoo'^lc
Fig. 59- A well cared for company house at Fidelity Camp near
Greenwood.
made very attractive at those camps where the miners have no
opportunity to build. Fig:ureB 58 and 59 show two such places,
and give a better idea than words, of the high class of citizens
some of our miners make. The figure gives no idea of the bril-
liant colors surrounding, what in one case would otherwise have
been only a company shack. The dilapidated appearance of the
bouse is due to an attempt to wall in the porch with brattice
cloth.
WATER SUPPLY,
Deep wills. In most of the coal camps, the ground-water is
very near the surface and is unwholesome. For this reason,
nearly all of the companies drill deep wells into some stratum of
sandstone to supply drinking water. Generally, this water con-
tains enough iron to give it a taste disagreeable to a stranger,
and it is slightly hard. It is, however, very healthful, and the
people soon get used to the taste. The wells are commonly
equipped with a bucket and chain as shown in Fig. 60. A form
of vandalism is to fill these wells up with stones, valuable articles
Kke fire brick belonging to the company, or even rubbish. To
prevent this, some wells have pumps which afford protection but
are expensive to maintain.
lyGoO'^lc
Fig. 60. Drilled well near Burma.
Soft-water supply. The miners bathe every day after re-
turning from work, and in addition to the drinking water, most
of the camps are supplied with soft water for laundry and bathing
purposes. This is called 'scrub water' and is piped from the tank
which also supplies the boilers. It is drawn from ordinary yard
hydrants placed at intervals along the streets. This scrub water
is obtained from the mine or from the surface pond, which is
built to catch rain water. The miners all prefer to have the soft
water piped to their homes, because it is easier to carry drinking
water, which is needed in less quantity.
Drinking unwholesome water. A few of the more ignorant
and careless families drink this filthy water, provided it
is clear. Some of the miners think the iron water from the
deep wells is unwholesome. They dig shallow wells or try to
get a 'spring' by blasting a hole in the rock of a creek bed, where'
they often get a stream of water from the creek. This is strained
lyGoo'^lc
The Miners 113
through a little sand between the rock layers and contains most
of the micrdbes of the creek. There is such a well carefully
curbed up within a few feet of the good well shown in Fig. 60,
As often as it is filled up by the operator, it is cleaned out by a
new-comer. This bad water is a cause of typhoid fever.
Unusual water-supply conditions. The deep wells are some-
times drained by the mine workings, as at No, 3 camp shown ',n
Fig. 54. Here the people are required to depend upon two
dug- wells in the shale. The water is apparently good
enough, but there is an insufficient quantity and it is soon all
dipped up. Figure 61 shows a number of women waiting for
Fig. 61. Shallow wells at No. 3 Camp, Huntington. Tliis also shows the
common type of four-room house built for the miners.
water to trickle into the well. There is another well where the
man is standing, but at the time the photograph was taken, the
creek water in it was manifestly unfit to drink.
At Spadra, there is no shallow water and the deep water
tastes so strongly of iron and sulphur that it can hardly be used.
A few houses have cisterns or rain water barrels, but many of
the miners must buy water at 50c. a barrel. This is about the
cost of hauling it from some open wells 3 or 3 miles away. The
inadequate water supply no doubt does give some grounds for
the complaint that Spavira is very unhealthful, and the resulting
scarcity of men may have helped a little to increase wages there.
[:.,qn..anyGoO'^lc
114 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Where there is a company store or large office building not
near a dusty tipple, wholesome water is collected in cisterns, but
this is seldom more than enough for die office and store em-
■ ployees living near, and the water is often under lock and key,
during the dry season.
Under normal conditions, the Fidelity camp near Greenwood
has probably the best water supply. In the mine, there is a
strong spring of pure soft water which is pumped to camp, and
serves as both drinking and scrub water. However, as soon as
the pumps are stopped by a suspension of mining or accident,
the town is without water. A combined deep well and prospect
hole was being drilled at the time of the writer's visit.
SANITATION.
General utihealthful conditions. The general sanitation of the,
coal camps is a difficult problem. The climate is warm and
the valleys wide and poorly drained, so the malaria mosquito
flourishes. On account of the rather poor soil, the growth of
weeds is not especially luxuriant; but, except in very dry years,
there are plenty of weeds immediately surrounding the houses
to afford lurking places for the mosquitos in the day-time. The
ground beneath the weeds has the musty smell of fallen leaves
■and weeds that have died from want of sunlight. These weeds
attract the mosquitos from their breeding places. Such condi-
tions are new to most of the miners from other states; and, un-
fortunately, they do not fear the mosquitos which are less an-
noying than ticks and chiggers. The houses are very seldom
screened.
All dish-water and other slops which are not fed to the
pigs are thrown upon the ground near the houses, and afford
breeding places for flies. At some places, the pigs are allowed
to roam at large, and are then a possible sanitary advantage by
consuming garbage. But they cause so much annoyance that
the owners of the pigs are generally required to keep them
penned. The pens are ideal breeding places for flies.
Each house has the ordinary outdoor water-closet. Except
in the organized towns, these closets are rarely if ever cleaned
and never disinfected. They are entirely open, as if for the
especial convenience of the flies. According to statements of
physicians, there is always some typhoid at every camp. All the
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners 115
mine water is sure to be more or less infected, and the out-
houses can furnish plenty of germs for the flies to distribute,
While the closets are far enough from the houses to avoid
o£Eense. they, are sufficiently near for the flies to easily visit the
miner's table at every meal and infect his food.
The prevailing ailments are malaria and typhoid. There is
also some dysentery. When working in poorly ventilated mines,
the men suffer from headaches. Pneumonia, rbeumatism, and
consumption are less prevalent than in the northern camps. The
physicians say that the conditions of life among some of the
foreign miners are such that one wonders how any of them can
live, and that their remarkable power of resistance is all that
saves them. The fact that they will not stay in bed even with a
temperature of 103 degrees from typhoid, helps to spread the
contagion.
Dysentery. The dysentery in the mining camps is partly
due to the heat, but is caused chiefly by improper food. For this
reason, only the most robust children grow up and the infant
mortality is great. But on account of the abundance of fresh
air, it is much less than among the working people of the
crowded cities. These troubles can be helped only by educating
the house-wives. This is the more difficult on account of a
prejudice against educated people, which is strongest among the
most ignorant of the miners. The great majority of the miners
can afford good food, and most of the English-speaking miners
are free from dysentery.
The prevention of typhoid fever. To check the typhoid, it
is recommended that shallow surface wells near possible sources
of polution be prohibited. In the few places where it has not
already been done and is feasible, deep wells should be drilled.
When necessary, a complete engineering study should be made
of the problem of water supply. It will be very difficult to
educate all the people against drinking impure scrub water, from
the boiler pond. A double set of hydrants to supply both drink-
ing water and scrub water is ineffective, and the miners object
to hard sanitary water alone.
On account of the tight nature of the soil and the moist
climate, deep privy vaults fill with water and in spite of dis-
infection become breeding places for millions of mosquitos, even
lyGoO'^lc
ii6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
in the higher and better drained locations. The closets should,
therefore, be arranged to be easily cleaned and thoroughly
sprinkled with lime at least twice a month at dwellings, and once
a week at boarding-houses. They should be provided with tight
receptacles and should most certainly be closed with a door
strong enough to prevent the pigs from getting at the filth and
scattering it broadcast over the camp. These doors should be
kept in repair and might be made tight enough to keep out most
of [the flies. Formaldehyde is the best disinfectant, but is
hopelessly expensive, on acount of the large quantity needed.
Bichloride of mercury decomposes too rapidly. Copperas is quite
cheap, but not much more effective than air-slacked lime, which
can be used in large quantity on account of its cheapness. To
encourage its use, all closets should be kept provided with a
supply. If lime is freely used, the closets need not be so fre-
quently cleaned, but it is feared that the main reliance for sani-
tation must be placed upon the scavenger. Special disinfection
should be practiced in case of known sickness from typhoid.
The hog-pens should be removed to places beyond the camp.
Reduction of the malaria. The malaria mosquito does not
fly far from its ibreeding place except when carried by the wind.
As the prevailing winds are from the south, all new camps
should be to the south of the sluggish streams and ponds, and as
far from them as convenient. The number of mosquitos can be
greatly reduced by keeping the weeds well mowed over the entire
camp. To keep out the mosquitos as well as the flies, the miners
should be encouraged to cover the windows with cheap mosquito
netting, and they should be furnished with strong wire-screen
doors. The return of these in good condition should be insured
by a cash deposit. When the miner calls for this deposit, the
windows can be taken away as already suggested.
The mowing of the weeds and the scavenger work should
be paid for by the companies as a charge against the rent-roll.
The money spent for this would give a handsome return in im-
proved healthfulness. This would bring an increased number of
miners and a lower wage scale.
Company doctors. It was formerly the custom to charge
all the employees of the company a doctor fee which secured all
necessary medical attention ; but by arrangement with the Union,
ivGoO^^lc
The Miners 117
the payment of the doctor's fee is now optional. This fee is
only $1.00 and is paid by the less healthy miners and those with
large families, provided the doctor has a good reputation. The
stronger miners do not need a doctor except when they are hurt,
in which case they call in any one they wish. At the larger
camps, the doctor fees and outside practice are sufficient to
attract able physicians ; but at some of the smaller mines, the
doctors are inefficient, and the companies are guilty of yeilding to
a demand for an 'older doctor' by engaging men with no medical
education whatever.
Union hospital at Clarksvillc. With a general payment by
the miners, good medical treatment can be obtained at small
cost Dr. W. F. Smith of Clarksville has organized a Union
hospital for the Spadra district. The three local miners' unions
voted to pay 50c. a month for each member and about 400 miners
contribute. AH the mmers and their families get medical treat-
ment, which includes 'board, nursing, and surgery at the hospital
when necessary. In addition, there is a free dispensary for treat-
ment of minor wounds and sickness. Ttie hospital has 12 beds and
there is an average of five patients in it all the time. There
were 128 patients during the two years 1908 and 1909, and
about 150 visits per month to the dispensary. Injuries, and all
sickness except obstetrical cases and contagious and venereil
diseases are treated. The fee would be about sufficient if 500
miners contributed. The hospital at Clarksville is available for
outside patients who pay. This is in the less healthful Spadra
district.
HOME LIFE OF THE MINERS.
Furniture. Nearly all of the houses owned by the miners
and three-fourths of those in the company camps are comfortably
furnished. Many of the rented houses are very well furnished.
Certain of the miners do not wish to invest their savings in a
house which ties them down to a single camp, and instead buy
good furniture and portable conveniences for their families.
Upon this, the miner can borrow money when necessary. As
an extreme case, the writer saw a fine piano and other expensive
furniture going into one of the houses shown in Fig. 54, p. 106.
To tiiose miners who wish to improve the looks of the houses,
the companies furnish paint for the ceiled houses, or cheap wall
lyGoO'^lc
ii8 Coal Mining in Arkansas
paper for those that are papered. The miner can select his own
colors. Attractive lace curtains, carpets, and the cheaper musical
instruments are quite common; but mosquito bars and screen
doors are seldom seen. A few of the married miners, who are
habitual drunkards, or poor and irregular workmen, have only
large boxes for tables, smaller ones for chairs, and very di-
lapidated kitchen outfits. Some sleep upon dirty bedding on the
floor and live most wretchedly.
Mining is dirty work and the miners must bathe every day.
So far as known, they never use portable bath-tubs but almost
always use a common small laundry tub half full of hot water.
The resulting puddle on the floor is cleaned up by the women
folks. The women also wash the miner's pit-clothes before they
become unsanitary.
Income of the miners. As will be explained later, the net
monthly ihcome of the diggers, or men who mine the coal in
rooms or entries at so much per ton, is about $69 a month on
an average. The more skilled and industrious men earn more,
say $100 to $150 per month. The top men probably average
$47 and the company men under-ground, $53 a month.
By agreement, the nriners are paid every two weeks. If
money is due them, they may at any time get orders on some
store. If a miner who is not settling up to quit, draws cash at
other times than pay-day, he is charged 10 per cent for the ac-
commodation. There is rarely any reason why the miner can not
save a little cash from pay-day to pay-day, to procure such
articles as can not be bought on store orders. Still, at one
mine where no objection is made to discounting money for the
miners, 11 per cent of the pay-roll is discounted. Few of the
miners discount everything they earn, so the number who dis-
count some of the earnings each two weeks may be estimated
at 15 per cent of those working at this mine. This means that
this proportion of the miners are habitually short of funds and
ordinarily live from hand to mouth. At this mine, nearly 10
per cent of the men discount everything they earn. These are
the poorest miners or irregular workers and do not earn as
much as the good miners who discount nothing. Toward the
close of a wage contract, even the most shiftless miners try to
save a little money in anticipation of a long suspension of mining
arter the contract expires.
lyGoO'^lc
Tii^ Miners ■ 119
I'urckase of supplies. The miners are not now obliged to
trade at the store of the company by which they are employed,
and the company store must meet the general competition of the
independent dealers. The companies having stores of their own
do not issue store orders between pay-days except upon their
own stores. If the company is small and has no store, the miner
can get an order good at whichever one of a large number of
stores he specifies. The value of the order is deducted from his
pay and given to the store, w4iich pays the mining company 10
per cent for collecting the account and protecting it from loss.
The 10 per cent which the operators charge the miners for cash
between pay-days, induces them to take store orders which are
accepted at full value by the stores. Some coal companies with
stores refuse to give the miners cash except in case of sickness
or other emergency. It is then done by the cashier as a personal
favor and without charge. The improvident miners working
for these companies get cash with which to buy whiskey between
pay-days, by selling their store orders to others. Store orders
can always be bought at the large camps at 85c. or 90c. on the
dollar. They are sometimes as cheap as 75c. on the dollar. At
all the camps except Jenny Lind, there are competing stores
which are close at hand. Some of the larger companies having
stores in several states, can buy goods in large quantities. Such
stores are well managed and get the general, outside trade.
For lack of training in household management, the living
of the miners is often unnecessarily expensive. This is common
with many of the poorer people everywhere. The majority of
the miners buy at a single store in very small lots, and any
comparison between stores is based upon prices only. The more
intelligent of them are better managers. Many of them club
together to do shopping in rather a wholesale way at Fort Smith,
or send to the catalog houses for supplies. As yet. there are no
cooperative stores in this State managed by the Union. This
ought to be a good opportunity for the miners to save a pos-
sible 5 per cent on their purchases but there have been two
many failures and swindles.
The miners' children. While many of the children are
neatly dressed, the general surroundings of a mining camp are
not clean enough to justify spending much time on clothes.
. Goc^lc
I20 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Some sort of school facilities are provided by the public.
In some instances, school houses have been built by the com-
panies. As a rule, the schools are too far away, too crowded,
and the terms too short for the best results. Nearly all of the
teachers are well paid for the short time they are employed, and
seem to a visitor to be quite efficient, but they need more facilities
and have too many pupils each, for effective teaching.
The foreign-bom miners, even those who are themselves
illiterate, seem much more anxious that their children get some
schooling than are the American-born miners. The recent com-
pulsory education law may help this condition.
Abolition of saloons. By local option, there are no saloons
in any of the mining camps. In many cases, this was brought
about by skillful political work in locating the first smaller
districts, from which the saloons were removed by majority
petitions signed by the farmers as well as their wives. Subse-
quently, these were combined and voted the remaining towns dry.
The last of the camps to be made dry was Bonzana, where the
saloons were voted out in 1909. The miners at Russellville
constitute such a small percentage of the people that they have
very little influence, and that county has been dry for over 20
years. At nearly all the camps, a considerable majority of the
miners are now in favor of keeping out the saloons, although
they themselves drink. The miners .can get all the liquor they
wish by express from Fort Smith, and the great extent of this
mail-order liquor business in good evidence that 'blind tigers'
and other illegal methods of selling whiskey are scarce. At some
places, a few of the miners make a colorless drink called "Choctaw
beer,' or 'choc' It is made of malt, hops, and sugar. Little of
this is sold, however. The express business has led to the drink-
ing of relatively more whiskey and less beer, but the miners club
together and order kegs of beer. A few get cases of bottled
beer. They rarely deliberately order enough to make themselves
drunk, and the supply soon rims out. All persons agree that
the amount of drunkenness and disorder has greatly decreased
since the public saloons disappeared. There is said to be illegal
selling of intoxicants at Spadra, but elsewhere by general consent
of the miners, the law is well enforced.
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners 121
With the saloon, went also the houses of prostitution, and
there is now no obvious immorality at the mining camps. The
general morality of the miners is above the average.
Amount of dntnkenness. Most of the foremen were asked
about the drunkenness of the crews. The general average of the
estimates thus collected ^ows that, outside of Spadra, an average
of 5 or 6 per cent of the crew is out every day because of drunken-
ness. At Spadra, nearly 25 per cent of the places are vacant
each day ; but this is partly on account of irregtilar working of
the mines, and the employment of the miners at other work.
Probably 30 or 25 per cent of the miners throughout the coalfield
get drunk on pay-days, and possibly 50 or 60 per cent upon
Labor Day, New Year's, and other holidays.
The amount of drinking varies greatly with the personal
influence of the superintendents and their pit bosses. At one
large camp, the general drunkenness of pay-days has been re-
duced from 25 per cent ten years ago, to something like i per
cent at present. This is chiefly due to the personal influence of
the officials. Prohibition, the weeding out of dnmkards from the
crew, and other causes have also aided.
A still more striking instance of the effect of the personality
of the officials was noted at one small camp where after New
Year's Day, 1910, only one miner in a crew of a little over loo
men, was unable to go to work. At an adjoining mine the pit
boss, who was very able in a technical way, complained that
nearly 25 per cent of his crew was out every day on account of
drunkenness.
At one camp, the general opinion of the doctor, bosses, mer-
chants, and some of the drinki-ng miners themselves, is that
more than half of the men at all the mines get helplessly drunk
every pay-day. Here the earnings of the miners are less than
the average of the State, but the general surroundings are more
pleasant than at many camps. There has always been a scarcity
of labor at this place, and many of the men who have been
shipped in are merely waiting to save enough money for a 'road
stake' upon which to leave. Whiskey interferes with this saving,
so the drunkards stay and the temperate men leave. An un-
usually large proportion of these men are Italians. The Italians
at other camps have a good reputation.
lyGoO'^lc
122 Coal Mixing in Arkansas
nationalities of the miners.
At the smaller mines, the pit boss and ofScials of the Union
know every individual man ; but at the larger ones only estimates
of the number of men of each nationality could be obtained.
Many pit bosses do not distinguish illiterate Lithuanians irom
Slavonians and Hungarians, although the first come from. Russia
and the others from Austria-Hungary, They go under the
general slang name of 'Hunks' or 'Bohunks.' Special inquiry
was occasionally needed to distinquish between Americans, and
Scotch, Welsh, and English ; and at one or two places, Germans
and Germ an- speaking Austrians were combined.
All the day-men, or direct employees of the company, such
as drivers, trackmen, and general roustabouts, must speak English
to readily understand orders. In a room, however, the miner
is practically supreme, and the only need for English is to ask
for props, and powder, and to talk to the pit boss while he is
masuring yardage, draw slate, etc.
Of some 4,700 coal mine employees in the State, the different
nationalities make up the percentage given in the following
table :
Nationalities of the coal miners in Arkansas.
per r per
Nationalities cent ' Nationalities cent
Americans ii English 1.0
White 66.6 ']. Belgians 0.9
Negro 2.0 j, French — 0,8
Italians 5.
Scotch 5.0
German-.\ustrians 4.2
Germans 3,0
Irish 2.8
Slavonians 2.2
Welsh 2.0
Poles 1.3
Bohemians and similar peo-
ples 0.5
Hungarians o-5
Mexicans 04
Lithuanians 0.3
Swedes 0.3
Russians - 0.1
White Americans. American-born whites make up abo-Jt
two-thirds of the crews. Of these 20 or 25 per cent are natives
of Arkansas. The other Americans are generally experienced
lyGoc^lc
The Miners 123
coal diggers from other states, chiefly Alabama, Pennsylvania,
Indiana, Tennessee, and Kentucky. The natives of Arkansas are
not used to mines and those underground are generally young;
tut of the top laborers, three-fourths or more are Arkansas men.
A considerable number of the English-speaking miners have
studied more or less with the correspondence schools, and the
majority of the fire-bosses and pit bosses have iinished such
courses. Through these men, the technical knowledge of all the
miners is increased. Many of the men are generally interested
in geology, ventilation, and general mining problems, and ask
intelligent questions whenever the opportunity offers. No figures
as to number of correspondence students could be obtained from
the schools.
Negroes. From all the camps except those about Hunting-
ton and Russellville, the negroes have been driven out by the
white men, who feared their competition. At the Southern
Anthracite Company's mine at Russellville, all the negro dig-
gers are in two 'nigger entries' separate from the white miners.
These entries have negro drivers. There is one other negro driver
hauling coal from the white miners, and upon the surface there
are three negro workmen. At all the other mines, the few negro
di^^rs are given places according to the order of their names on
the list of waiting miners, and are, therefore, scattered throi^h-
out the mine. There is some opposition from the whites to the
n^roes who dig, coal by the ton; but for heavy day-work, such as
handling the cars, there seems to be no objection to the employ-
ment of negroes. The negroes who dig coal are generally quite
satisfactory to the management, for they are anxious for work and
do little complaining about shortage of cars, deficient coal, or
the measurements of the pit poss. In the same way. the
negro drivers try to get as many cars to the white diggers as
possible, and, provided there are only a few of them, are ac-
commodating about helping the miners with their cars. When
they are numerous, negro day-men are inclined to loaf unless
some one else sets the pace, as when they must cage all the cars
that are sent to the shaft. The few negroes who are willing 10
work in the mines are quite steady workers. The negro diggers
are accustomed to consider the company a friend as against the
white miners and are therefore a source of weakness to the Union.
lyGoO'^lc
124 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Italians. The Italians are the most numerous of the foreign
miners and make up 5.8 per cent of the men; but they are so
generally scattered throughout the district that they are the pre-
dominating foreign element at only two camps. At one of these
places, their drinking is troublesome; and at both, they are in-
clined to be unruly and to strike over little details, even though
this is in violation of their agreement with the operators. At the
other places, they are satisfactory workmen. They are chiefly
from the north of Italy and are pretty fair citizens. Although
nominally Catholic, they pay little attention to church festivals.
They desert the Union readily, and are dirty around their homes.
Scotch. The Scotch are the next in number among the
foreign miners and make up s per cent or more of all the number.
They are collected at Huntington, although there are a few ;n
nearly every camp. As a rule, they are more skilled than even
the Americans, and are less reckless and more inclined to save
their money. They are not unreasonably quarrelsome, but insist
upon their rights, and together with the northem-lbom Americans
are the main strength of the Union. They stick to their side of
an agreement, are the last to give in during strikes, and do not
threaten. Of course they are welcome at all the mines.
Austrians. There are now 4-2 per cent of German-speaking
Austrians among the Arkansas miners, but the number is rapidly
increasing. Many are coming across the ocean direct to Ark-
ansas instead of working from camp to camp as do the orher
foreigners. They are all Catholics, and where in large propor-
tion as at Jenny Lind, they tie up the mine by staying out at
church festivals. Especially is this true during Lent and on St.
Barbara's Day (December 4th),
These Austrians are fond of beer, but rarely get drunk and
never disturb any one else. At Jenny Lind, they have organized
drinking clubs which are supplied with beer in kegs. This comes
by wagon from Fort Smith. They sometimes slay at these dubs
till 2 a. m,, l>ut are able to work upon the following day. They
occassionally invite their American friends to these meetings,
but never accept invitations from the Americans. When an
Austrian; who has recently come from Europe, builds his own
home, he plans to keep boarders. A small room at one end of .
the house is the private bed-room of the family. At the other end
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners 125
is a kitchen and in the middle is the largest room. At night,
eight or twelve unmarried miners sleep in this room on cots
along the wall. In the day time, it is the dining-room, and on
idle days the general loafing place for smoking and drinking.
When they first come to this country, their habit is to boil
together everything they eat. This is served in a single large
bowl from which they all eat. Very soon, however, they learn
the more dainty habit of individual plates, and the more appetiz-
ing, if less healthful frying of the food.
Since the Austrians are clever, industrious, and peaceable,
they are much desired in spite of the occasional celebrations. At
first they do not understand shooting out the coal without first
undermining it, and may put in some very dangerous shots. It
is recommended, therefore, that they be not employed in mines
with explosive dust, or in gassy parts of mines, until they have
had some American experience. They are now considered a
source of weakness to the Union because, as yet, they seem dis-
posed to accept, without complaint, any reasonable settlement
offered by the pit boss on measuring day; and do not demand
increases in the scale of pay. It is feared that when they once
begin to quarrel with the companies, they will lose all restraint
and resort to violence, as they have done in other states.
Germans. About 3.0 per cent of the men are supposed to
be Germans although some of these may be Austrian. There are
more Germans at Bonzana than elsewhere, but they are found
at most of the camps. As is well known, they are fond of beer.
They have no striking peculiarities as miners. There are a number
of German pit bosses in the State. Many American-born
miners of German descent work at Paris.
Irish. The figures show that the Irish with 2.8 per cent are
next in number, but many of them are undoubtedly American-
bora, There are only 15 or 20 regularly working at all mines
outside of Spadra, and of these, a number are pit bosses and
superintendents. At Spadra, however, they make up about 25
per cent of the crew, and are chiefly from the anthracite region
of Pennsylvania. They are said to be responsible for nearly all
of the labor troubles that originate with the miners in the unruly
Spadra district. They drink much whiskey, which brings dis-
order among themselves as well as trouble with the companies.
lyGoO'^lc
126 Coal Mining in Arkansas
When sober, they are splendid workers, but are inclined to be
reckless.
Other good foreign-bom miners. The Welsh and English
are good miners and splendid citizens, but so far as distinguished,
make up only 2 per cent and i per cent respectively of the crews.
The other foreign miners of the better class are the few Belgians.
French, and Swedes. The only criticism against them is the dif-
ficulty of talking to the few, mostly Belgians, who have not
learned English.
Slavonians. Of the illiterate foreigners, the Slavonians make
up 2.2 per cent of the entire mine force. They are most
numerous at Denning. Besides getting drunk at the church
■festivals, they are all drunk for three or four days whenever
there is a wedding among them, but are otherwise steady work-
men. They can not read their statements; and their ignorance
of English annoys the pit bosses. They are not very intelligent
and are unsanitary in their way of living. At all places except
Denning the nationalities together arc organized into local labor
unions on the basis of the mines at which they work ; but at
Denning the Slavonians and a few Poles have a so-called 'Polish
local' of their own, which is distinct from the two English-speak-
ing locals of the district.
Other illiterate foreign-born miners. Altogether there are
1.3 per cent of Poles. Those at Hartford discount their wages and
get drunk as often as they have a few days earnings to their
credit. They work very irregularly, and are undesirable to both
the company and the Union. At Denning, the Poles are said to
be more temperate than the Slavonians. In the mines of Ark-
ansas, there are small numbers of Hungarians, Bohemians, and
others from Austria-Hungary, and, at the time the statistics were
collected, only three Russians. The miners of these nationalities
are less satisfactory than the Germans, but are too few to have
much influence upon labor problems. Altogether they constitute
only 1.3 per cent of the mine workers.
Mexicans. There are 0.4 per cent of Mexicans, nearly ;ill
of whom are in a single colony at Huntington. They are more
intelligent and have a better knowledge of machinery than the
average Mexican who has not left Mexico, but very few speak
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners 127
English. They are physically weaker than the other races, so
are not greatly desired. They are a weak element in the Union,
have no idea of sanitation, and are friendly to those wtio speak
Spanish, but keep much to themselves.
Day-men. Since most of the day-men are Americans, the
percentage of foreigners among the contract diggers is greater
than the figures given, by a little less than one-half. For example,
about 8.5 per cent of the diggers are Italians, although only 5.8
per cent of the whole crew are Italians. Only 50 per cent of
the diggers are Americans. Including the Scotch, English,
Welsh, etc., there are some 65 per cent of the contract miners
from English-speaking countries.
IRREGULAR WORKING.
Short time at the mines. Owing to the fact that there are
more coal mines in the United States than are necessary to
supply the demands for coal, the diggers do not expect to work
.much more than 20 days per month on an average, although
the work is quite steady in the winter time. Occasionally the
mine is in operation only a part of the day making what are
called 'short runs.' The idle days and short runs cause a loss
of time and wages to the miners and of output and profit to the
operators. The short runs are expensive to the operators be-
cause the fire-bosses, shot-firers, and a few other employees get
pay for a full day, so if the output is less the cost per ton for the
labor is greater than usual. The short runs are most frequently
caused by a shortage of empty railroad cars. At times the operator
begins hoisting coal in the hope that the cars asked for will oe
delivered 'before all of the 'empties' already at the mine will he
loaded. When the cars do not come the short run results.
Others are caused by accidents to the hoisting plant or other
equipment. In prosperous times the railroads can not obtain all
the cars they need and the mines do not receive enough for
full day runs.
When the mine is to work, the whistle is blown the evening
before, so the miners know they are to come out. At times,
they do not go down the mine unless assured that more empty
coal cars will be supplied before the few on hand are loaded.
The car shortage is especially trying at the mines upon the small
lyGoO'^lc
128 Coal Mining in Arkansas
independent roads. Nearly all of their own cars must be sent
upon foreigfn roads to reach the markets, and when cars are in
gfreat demand these roads do not return them, but pay the per
diem charge instead. In time of severe shortage, the mine can
operate only a few days a week.
Irregular miners. By agreement, a digger can not be dis-
charged if he lays off less than three full days in succession.
Therefore, if the miner has been dissipating, does not feel well
or thinks the weather too bad, he stays at home. .\ few are so
shiftless that they scarcely work more than the required one day
in each three. Many who go down more frequently will soon
quit if any little thing in the room goes wrong and so work hut
a part of the day. Some superintendents claim that the miners
will stay at home tor slight excuse, if they have plenty of money
or provisions ahead. On the other hand, the miners say that
they are more likely to stay at home if the conditions of the
mine are such that they can not earn much money by going out.
Which of these is the true condition probably depends upon the
individual miner. There is no doubt, however, that a chance to
earn good wages will attract a better class of miners and so
reduce the amount of laying off, provided the trouble makers
can be kept out.
Extra work. The week days upon which no coal is hoisted
are called 'idle days' and are used by the company in repairing _
the main roadways. The extra work is given in turn to the
competent day-men who are asked to work by the pit boss on
the day before they are needed. Because of the idle days, there is
almost never any work done on Sunday. During the busy season,
the repair work is done at night. In a few cases, work like
sinking a new slope is done on both a day and night shift. For
this double-shift work, the contract miners receive 2Sc. a yard
extra, because the man working on the opposite shift does not
always leave the place in good condition. In other cases, the
sinking of a slope, etc., which interferes with regular work, is
done only upon night shift for which the miners receive no
extra pay.
GENERAL sentiment AMONG THE MINERS.
Socialism. The miners are well posted upon current events.
They spend many of the idle days talking with their fellows
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners 129
or reading the labor journals and newspapers. Most of the
labor papers, to which the miners subscribe as a duty, are
socialistic in policy, and a considerable number of the miners
think they are socialists. Generally a 'socialist' digger expects
more money than the driver or the boy who tends the door. His
idea of socialism is, therefore, merely an arrangement by which
the workmen shall receive also the share of the proceeds of the
industry which now goes to the operator and the landowner.
Many of the apparent socialists are foreign-bom miners who
have not been in this country long enough to understand fully
the conditions, and who have been misled fcy false statements
and appeals to class hatred indulged in by a few of the agitators.
Some of these so-called leaders are the lazy, unskilled, or dis-
sipated miners who merely serve to bring socialism into dis-
repute. Many of the real socialists are splendid miners who
own their own homes and have saved considerable money. It i:i
clear that these men are actuated by the highest motives. There
are also a great many miners who are perfectly willing that their
employer shall make as much proBt as possible as long as he pays
the miner full wages for his labor.
A few cooperative mines have been started. One of these,
having seven members, is still doing well ; but it is on a strict
business basis and the efficient superintendent owns more of the
stock than any of the others. In the same way, several little
mines have been run by companies of two to four of the better
miners. Where these have prospered, the owners soon lose
interest in the miners and become members of the Operators' As-
sociation formed to resist the demands of the Union.
The real cooperative mines opened up in Arkansas have
always failed, because every member wished to be superintendent
or pit boss, or else was continually trying to elect a different set
of officers. Occasionally, some of the members accused the
others of doing less than their share of the work. In no case has
such a mine lasted long enough to suffer from the difficulty of
selling coal under the present strong competition.
The square turn. In those mines where the diggers are
poorly supplied with cars, they demand that in general fairness,
the same number of cars be given to each man. This is called a
'square turn.' In some cases, they demand a square turn even
lyGoo^^lc
130 Coal Mining in Arkansas
when they know that many of them will have all their coal
loaded before the day is over. After these men have quit, the
driver has little to do, and if the condition is general, the hoisting
of coal is stopped before the good miners are much more than
half through. The much better plan is to allow the good miners
to get an extra car at intervals so that the miners who can get
a clean-up during the day are through about the same time.
Only the stronger pit bosses can do this, however, since so many
miners object to a plan which enables a very good miner to earn
more money than the average.
Favoritism. Some clever superintendents have a trick of
putting all the agitators together in one or two entries where
the coal is easy to mine and giving these men more than their
share of the cars. This favoritism allays the energy with which
the favorites demand an equal turn for all and generally make
it easier to get along with them ; but it is unfair to the quiet and
often efficient miners that are left in poorer places. It was at
one time the custom to put the undesirable miners in an entry
where conditions were so unfavorable that they would quit.
Such places were known as 'strangers' homes' and have been
aibolished by the requirement of the Union that places be as-
signed to the men in the order of application and as the places
become available. At present, the undesirable men must be
gotten rid of by tricks, or by shutting down the mine for so long
a time that they leave the camp along with the good miners.
Before the days of the Union, a few of the best day-men
were given all of the idle-day work. In cases, there was really
unwarranted favoritism, so by agreement the companies are now
required to divide this work equally among all the day-men who
are competent. When, for example, one or two drivers are
needed on a number of idle days, it is a fair rule that requires
the work to be given to all the drivers in turn ; but when it
comes to cleaning up roads, building doors and such work,
some drivers are nearly worthless. The rule as enforced ignores
the question of competency. As an extreme case, the Union tried
to compel the superintendent of one mine to give an equal share
of this repair work at $2.56 a day to door boys who regularly
earned only $1.13 a day.
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners 131
Limitation of the output of the miners. There is an un-
fortunate attitude among the miners which causes them to at-
tempt to limit in various ways the earnings of their fellow
miners. In order to enforce the 8-hour day, the Union has made
a very proper rule which allows none of the miners to work
more than eight hours in any one day; but the other rules are
less reasonable. For exan^le, all of the diggers are required
to be out of a mine within two hours after the hoisting of coal
is stopped, even though the run stops only two or three hours
after work has started and die miner has much work he can
do in his room. No diggers are allowed in their places in idle
days. At Jenny Lind, it is the custom for the entry-men to
dean up the rock from the brushing shots at night. They are,
therefore, required to stay out one day to make up for this,
although the mine may be running only two or three days a week.
At times, the limitation of the earnings of the men is an
inconvenience to the company, as when it prevents men who are
driving a much needed slope or entry from working upon idle
days. Such a rule is sometimes excusable and prevents undue
favoritism in giving this extra work to friends of the pit boss.
The miners will, however, limit the earnings of each other, even
when it causes a loss to some of the men not earning extra
money. Such a condition occurs each time an inner parting Is
made or an old parting extended in a narrow entry. In shooting
down some coal from the side of the entry and widening it
where the parting is to be made, some diggers are employed
from the list of those waiting for places. This work obstructs
the haulage-way and all the men regularly working in the entry
are forced to lay off until the change is complete. Since the pit
boss is anxious to reopen the entry, he will give the diggers
working on the parting all the cars they want from the number
that regularly would go to all the working places on the entry.
Since full price is paid for the parting coal and it is very easily
mined, these diggers can earn $15.00 to $20.00 a day. But should
fhey do so, they would be heavily fined for accepting more cars
than the other miners. The time the other men have to remain
without work is, therefore, increased. In one instance, the men
who loaded too much coal at the parting were compelled to
remain idle for two days, although the labor agreement pre-
vented the pit boss from putting new men in their places. The
lyGoO'^lc
132 Coal Mining in Arkansas
result was that all of the regular crew of the entry had to be idle
two days longer just to discipline three men who had earned
too much money.
Unnecessary employees. An equally unfortunate spirit ap-
pears in the desire to compel the operators to employ as many
men as possible. This is often given as the reason why the
miners demand the employment of shot-firers; but they also
want shot-firers to reduce danger to themselves, and to fire their
shots in case they wish to go home before the regular quitting
time. This spirit does, however, lead them to demand employ-
ment of a trapper at each door, even though the driver who
hauls coal through it may have so few cars to handle that he has
ample time to open and close the door himself. For the same
reason, the miners have prevented the companies from having
work done in the mine upon idle days, by those men who are
employed by the month. The miners demand instead that some
of their number be employed to do this work, and this demand
has been granted by the Arbitration Board selected to settle dis-
putes between the operators and the miners. This spirit some-
times works a hardship upon the miners themselves, as at Mine
No. 17, Jenny Lind, where the men refused to use steel track
in their rooms unless company men were hired to lay it. This
demand was refused by the company, and the miners have con-
tinued to use wooden track, although steel track is used at the
new adjoining mine owned by the same company. It is cheer-
fully laid in the rooms by the miners, because it so greatly re-
duces the number of wrecks of heavily loaded cars with which
the miners have to contend.
There is also a growing tendency to permit each man :o
do but one kind of work. This rule requires the employment of
both a rock-man and a timberman, instead of one genera! man.
When an entry reaches the property line or bad coal, and most
of the rooms are finished, there is not enough coal coming from
the remaining rooms to keep a driver busy. When possible a
driver then works part of the time in another entry, but this
is not alwajs convenient and would give the miners irregular
service any way. It used to be the custom to furnish two or
three miners with a mute and give them a contract to mine the
coal remaining in these few rooms and haul it to the parting.
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners 133
Such contracts are not now pemritted by the Union because
diggers are not allowed to work also as drivers. The result is
' that the entry is stopped as soon as the cost of hauling becomes
too great, and the operator loses the remaining coal upon which
be has already paid loc. to 30c. a ton for driving the entry, air-
course, etc., and laying track. These little patches of coal can
seldom be mined after the first mine is abandoned, and are thus
permanently lost to the world.
Annoyances to the operator. These acts are interpreted by
most of the operators as merely a desire to increase the ex-
pense of the company and reduce profits. A more typical instance
of this lack of cooperation is the habit the miners have of laying
off in a body at every possible excuse, such as the death of a
child. Generally, so few men come to work on such occasions
that the mine can not be iterated profitably and the pit boss
can not give these few men work. The next time sttll fewer
oome. At times 25 per cent of those who wished to lay off, go
to the funeral, but more frequently only a few intimate friends
of the family do and the others merely loaf. During a season of
slack orders, the miners know that if they can tie up the mine
on one certain day, it will ^ve them work on what would other-
wise be an idle day, so they inconvenience the company without
injuring themselves. But in cases, they carry the plan of laying
off whenever there is an excuse to an extreme. In one instance
during a busy season following a shut-down, 300 miners ladd off
one day, on account of the death of a man that had fcelonged to
the Union three years previously. Only 5 of the 300 attended
the funeral. The intelligent mmers were as much disgusted
as the operator.
After the passage of the mine-run law, there was a great
tendency to mix fine slate with the coal, as the diggers were
paid as much per ton for this as for the dean lump coal. During
the season of great demand, this caused complaint against the
operators and made it more difficult to meet the competition in
some markets, but it was chiefly the consumer who suffered. As
the demand for cqal decreased, the smaller companies having
dirty coal were forced into bankruptcy and the miners were
thrown out of work. This taught many of the miners a valuable
lesson. The more clever superintendents and pit bosses explained
. Goo'^lc
134 Coal Mining in Arkansas
to the miners that as far as clean coal was concerned the interests
of the miners and operators were the same. The result was
a considerable improvement during 1909; but there are always
some men who will not play fair and they load out as much dirt
as possible, relying upon their fellows to keep the average pro-
duct clean enough to sell. The good miner then feels as thou^
he was doing useless labor if he tries to clean his coal. The
same feeling and the fear of ridicule from their careless fellows,
have forced practically all of the good miners to be quite indif-
ferent to the amount of slack they make in shooting their coal.
One very unfortunate attitude of most of the miners is their
opposition to mining machines. It seems that in cases, the com-
panies can remain in business under present competitive ccmdi-
tions and continue to pay present wages only by using machines.
These do not save labor especially, but greatly improve the quality
of the coal. The problem of machine mining will be discussed
at length in Part II.
OiRcials. Many of the sensible miners do not now want the
position of pit boss on account of the quarrelsomeness of the
men ; and, because of the increasing lack of cooperation between
the miners and the operators, there is trouble in finding ex-
perienced foremen, who will be entirely loyal to the companies'
interests. The pit bosses are commonly selected from among
the sons of the older bosses, or from the more able fire-bosses.
The fire-bosses are selected from the ranks of the miners. They
have a good deal of responsibility, and must be steady men who
have had much experience as miners. The work is generally light
and thri hours are such that the fire-boss has a good opportunity to
study in the afternoons. He is tiie only employee subject to dis-
charge at any time without interference from the Union. This
tends to develop a desire to do careful work and a resulting loyalty
to the company. The work of inspecting the mine for firedamp
makes the fire-boss familiar with the entire mine. He also
regularly assists the pit boss on measuring day, and so learns the
administrative side, also. He is often an informal assistant to
the pit boss before he is given full charge of a mine.
The superintendents have generally been pit boses of better
education and more ability than the average. They are often
taken from the mine of another company. A few superintendents
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners 135
have first served in the office, then in charge of surface wortc, etc
If their tastes run to the actual problems of mining, they are
very successful. So far as known, all the superintendents with
a collie technical training are financially interested in the com-
panies operating the mines of which they have charge. Several
of the smaller companies are owned by former miners, and of
course these men act as superintendents of their own properties.
In general, it seems necessary to have as a member of these
small companies a clever coal salesman as well as a good mine
superintendent. A few men are quite successful in both ways.
Many of the surveyors are young technical graduates, but
such men as a rule remain only a short time, on account of the low
salaries. At many mines, either the pit boss or the superin-
tendent does the surveying.
THE UNION.
Organization of the miners. Until April i, 1910, all of
the mine employees except the office men and bosses belonged to
District 21 of the United Mine Workers of America and all of
the mines were strictly 'closed shop.' The constitutaon of District
21 is printed in full at the end of this chapter. It is admirably
designed to further the objects of the Union, and to prevent dis-
cord as far as possible. Special interest attaches to the preamble
and to the following portions : Article III, Section 10 ; Article
IV, Section 1 1 ; Article VI, Section i ; Article VIII, Section 3 ;
Article XII, sections 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 20, and 25; and
Article XIV, Section I, The local unions make their own
by-laws.
Unless the mines are very small, there is a local union for
each mine or each small group of mines belonging to the same
ccmipany. At one local in Russellville and possibly others, it is a
part of the regular program to discuss the details of the trade
and the safe ways of handling gas and reducing danger. At most
places, however, the locals are concerned only with administra-
tive problems, wages, and the ways of obtaining concessions from
the operators. The relations between the Union as a body and
the operators are discussed in Chapter V.
Effect of the Union. To a certain extent, the tendency of
the Union is toward the dead level of equality. At first it merely
specifies the minimum wages to be paid, but this tends to make
n> 000^^10
136 Coal Mining in Arkansas
it more difficult for the especially good men to get extra pay;
and after a time the man who receives extra pay is annoyed. If
any man receives more than the usual pay the miners generally
demand that all men doing that class of work receive this in-
creased pay. For this reason it is almost never granted directly,
but must be in the form of fictitious overtime.
At many locals, it is the custom to levy after each accident
special assessments upon all the members in order to assist any
miner who is injured and needs money, or to pay funeral ex-
penses of those who die. In a very few places, such contributions
are voluntary. So far as known, this help, the aid to study at Rus-
sellville, and the maintenance of the hospital at Clarkevitle are the
only unselfish activities of the Union.
DUficulties in maintaining the Union. The Union has been
in control of the labor market for about seven years. It was
organized and is maintained in the face of great difficulties,
Swne of the foreign races are very hard to hold together, and
there is a strong tendency on the part of the southern white
laborer to accept without question the opinions of the mine
operators. Natural conditions also tended to make these people
improvident, so they seldom have the accumulated savings needed
to carry them through a long strike. In the other southern
states, the presence of negro labor is a further source of weak-
ness. It is probably only because of the scarcity of negroes in
the Arkansas mining districts that the Union has succeeded at
all, for Arkansas is the only genuinely southern state in which
the United Mine Worfcers are well established. Among its other
advantages, the Union has aroused the interest of these men in
economic problems, and the consequent desire for more informa-
tion will be a source of education.
There is a great deal of trouble with the officers of the
Union. Although the constitution is very skillfully formed to
prevent this, quite a percentage of the treasurers of the locals
■run off with the funds. Their bondsmen are miners and even if
they have not prevreusly left, and are able to make the shortage
good, they usually beg off. The accounts are not audited by
skilled outside men, and many of the minor officials misap-
propriate a percentage of the money by connivance of the other
officers, or by deceiving them. Quite a few of the petty officers
IV Google
The Miners 137
are professional labor agitators, and merely want an easy way
of earning a living. Many of the miners never attend meetings
of the locals and an inner circle is often formed to run things as
they wish, and to get favors from the superintendents. The
superintendents naturally do not put themselves out in the interest
of harmony in the Union, It is generally assumed that strike
benefits are never as large as the sums contributed to the so-called
'defense fund' and this causes criticism of the officers. The
legitimate expense of the Union in salaries and expense of national
and district officers, the cost of conventions, and such things, are
heavy, so the miners complain.
During 1909, the companies belonging to the Operators'
Association collected from the miners of Arkansas and paid to
the treasurers of the local unions nearly $93,000, or 4.560. per
ton of coal mined during that year. The average labor cost
per ton of coal may be taken as $i,io. So upon the average,
the miner paid a littlC more than 4, per cent of his earnings in
cash to the Union.
In addition, the crew of diggers at all but the smaller mines
pay about $3.30 a day to the check-weighman. Assuming that
the soft coal mines run only 200 days during the year, and the
Spadra mines only 175 days, the cost of the check-weighmen to
the miners reaches a total of about $20,000 per year more, or
0.8 per cent of the earnings of the miners. The companies are
all quite willing that the miners should employ a check-weigh-
man and realize the necessity of having one. They therefore
grant the request of the Union, and cover up this expense by
deducting coal from the miner and crediting it to the check-
weighman who is paid like any miner. A.t the big mines, this
expense per miner is very little and the check-weighman is em-
ployed only where there are 30 or more miners. At the small
mines, however, the cost is considerable. The companies insist
that all other assessments to the Union be in cash. In sojne
extreme cases, these amount to nearly 20 per cent of the miners'
earnings, and there is complaint.
There are of course the expected clashes of opinion between
the conservative and radical elements over questions of policy
toward the operators and general Union problems. An extreme
case of this sort occurred at Spadra at the first meeting of the
joint local, after machines were introduced. Some of the miners
lyGoO'^lc
138 Coal Mining in Arkansas
directly concerned said they would stick to their agreement, and
give the machines a fair trial at the tentative scale of wages.
The radicals, chiefly from the other mines, wished to fight the
machines in every way, regardless of promises. The detette
soon changed to a free-for-all fight with the result that those
who wished to properly run the machines were pretty well dis-
abled.
As an outcome of all these irritations, nearly all of die
miners are more or less opposed to the way the Union is now
conducted ; but they support it because they realize the need of
its protection, and hope for better management in the future.
A surprising nimiber of the men are, however, disgusted with
the whole idea of the Union, The miners were never oppressed
in this State as in some others because there was nearly always
need for attracting skilled miners to Aritansas. Many of the
better miners hate the idea of limiting wages, the unfair treat-
ment given some of the operators, the stopping of work for
trivial causes, the resulting idleness of the mines and loss of
work, etc. Some of. the miners have a personal enmity towards
some of the leaders, who are often quarrelsome and unreasonable
to those who oppose them. This soon changes to enmity against
the Union. Others begrudge the cost of the Union. If, there-
fore, the local peace officers would really maintain order, several
of the mines could be run non-union in spite of the hated name
of scab. *
In some places, the locals are accused of not initiating all
men who apply for membership and offer the initiation fee.
This prevents their working at the mines and drives out miners
that, from the point of view of the Union, are undesirable.
This is supposed to be in violation of Article VII, Section I, of
the district constitution. To the credit of the Union, .it must
be said that it is done in surprisingly few cases.
At Spadra the locals do raise the initiation fee to prevent
the joining of a sufficient number of miners to supply the de-
mand. When therefore a trivial strike Is declared against one
*As this report goes to press, information is received that two of
the companies at ^adra are operating Aeir mines with non-union labor.
At one of these, where the men and property are well guarded, the
effort seems quite successful. At the other the expensive tipple was
burned down. It is claimed that this was purposely done by sympathizers
of the Union, and the tipple is being rebuilt.
lyGoo'^lc
Constitution U. M. W. of A. :39
operator, all the miners in the district can get work at other
mines, if the operator does not quickly yield.
On account o£ the surplus of miners during the last two
years of 'hard times,' it is generally believed that the Union was
maintained only by the 'check off' agreement by which the
companies deduct from the pay of the miners all Union dues,
fines, and assessments, whether the miner is willing or not.
MSTWCT 21. MARCH, IpCK).
PREAMBLE.
"There is no fact more generally known or more widely believed
than without coal there would not have been any such grand achieve-
ments, privileges and blessings as those which characterize the twentieth
century civilization, and believing as we do, that those whose lot it is
to daily toil in the recesses of the earth, mining and putting out this
coal which makes these blessings possible are entitled to a fair and
equitable share of the same therefore, we have formed 'The United Mine
Workers of America,' for the purpose of more readily securing the object
sought by educating all mine workers in America to realize the necessity
of unity of action and purpose, in demanding and securing by lawful
means the just fruits of our toil. And we hereby declare to the world
that oiv objects are :
■'FIRST. To secure an earning fully compatible with the danger of
our calling and the labor performed.
"SECOND. To establish as speedily as possible and forever, our
right to receive pay, for labor performed, in lawful money, and to rid
ourselves of the iniquitous system of spending out money wherever our
employers see fit to designate.
"THIRD. To secure the introduction of any and all well defined
and established appliances 'for the preservation of life, health and limbs
of all mine employees.
"FOURTH. To reduce to the lowest possible minimum the awful
catastrophes which have been sweeping our fellow craftsmen to untimely
graves by the thousartds; by securing legislation looking to most perfect
of ventilation, drainage, etc.
"FIFTH. To enforce existing laws; and where none exist, to enact
and enforce them, calling for plentiful supply of suitable timbers for
supporting the roof, pillars, ttc, and to have all working places rendered
as free from water and impure air and poisonous gases as possible.
"SIXTH. To uncompromisingly demand that eight hours shall con-
stitute a day's work, and that not more than eight hours shall be worked
in any one day by any mine worker. The very nature of our employ-
ment, shut out from the sunlight and pure air, working by the aid of
lyGoo'^lc
140 Coal Mining in Arkansas
artificial light (in no instance to exceed one candle power), would, in
itself, strongly indicate that, of, all men, a coal miner has the most
righteous claim to an eight hotir day.
"SEVENTH. To provide for an education of our children by
lawfully prohibitinng their employment until they hare attained a rea-
lonablc satisfactory educaticMi, and in every case until they have attained
fourteen years of age.
"EIGHTH. To abrogate all laws which enable the operators to cheat
miners, and to substitute laws which enable the miner, under the pro-
tection and majesty of the State, to have his coal properly weighed or
measured, as the case may be,
"NINTH. To secure by legislati<»i, wedcly payments in lawful
"TENTH, To render it impossible, by legislative enactment in
every state, for coal operators or corporations to employ Pinkerton
detectives or guards or other forces (except the ordinary forces of the
State) to take armed possession of the mines in case of strikes or lockouts.
"ELEVENTH, To use all honorable means to maintain peace
between ourselves and employers; adjusting all differences so far as
possible! 1>7 arbitration and conciliation that strikes may become un-
necessary.
CONSTITUTION.
ARTICLE I.
Name, Object, and Juritdiclion.
"Section l. This organizatimi shall be known as the Twenty-flrst
District of the United Mine Workers of America,
"Sec. 3. The objects of this union are to unite all mine employes
who produce or handle coal or coke, in or around the mines and to
ameliorate their conditions by methods of conciliation, arbitration or
strike.
"Sec. 3. This district shall have its jurisdiction over the Local
Unioni tn Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas, which shall be governed in
all trade matters by tins Constitution,
ARTICLE II.
OUktTs.
"Section 1. The oflScers of this District shall be one President, one
Vice President, one Secretary-Treasurer, and three Excutive Board
Members, who shall constitute the Executive Board; also a Board of
Auditors consisting of three members.
"Sec. 3. The salaries of all officers shall be fixed at each annual
convention.
"Sec 3. The President's salary shall be for this year Jioo per
month and all legitimate expenses; the SeeretaryTreasurer's salary shall
be $95 per month and all legitimate expenses; the Vice President's
lyGoo'^lc
Constitution U. M. W. op A. 141
salary shall be $3.50 p«r day and all legitimate expenses while in actiial
cerrice. Members of the Executive Board and Auditing Committee shall
receive $3.50 per day and all legitimate expenses, when employed by the
President to work for the United Mine Workers of Arkansas, Oklahoma
and Texas.
"Sec. 4- Any member in good standing in the organization shall be
eligible to hold office, providing he has been a member of a Local Union
in the District for one year, and does not hold stock in any coal ctHnpany
or mines, or any political office, except legislative office.
ARTICLE in.
"Secloo I. The President shall preside at all conventions of the
District; he shall sign all official documents when satisfied of their correct-
ness, and with the consent of the Executive Board, he shall fill by
appcnntment all vacancies occurring in the offices where there is less
than six months to serve.
*■ 'Any vacancy occurring in any of the ofRces of the Executive Board
other than President or Vice President, elective offices, in excess of
six mmths whether caused from death or otherwise, he shall immediately
call an election to fill such vacancy;' and in like manner he is empowered
to suspend or remove any District officer for insubordination, for just
and sufficient cause, and with the consent of the Executive Board, ap-
point, from time to time, such organizers and workers, as in his opinion
may be required to serve to the best interests of the organization. All
organizers appointed must be U. M. W. of A., bona tide members. He
shall send oat in circular form to all Locals, six weeks previous to the
District Convention, such recommendation as he may deem wise to be
acted oh at District Convention so delegates to same Convention may
have the advice of their representative Locals on such recommendations.
He may attend in person or send a District officer to visit Local Unions and
any other place connected with the United Mine Workers of America,
when convinced that such services are required.
"Sec. 2. Duties of the Vice President: The Vice President shall
act as General Organizer and shall be under the direction of the Presi-
dent, and in the absence of the President shall assume all the duties
and responsibiUties of that office and shall succeed to that office in
case of the death or removal of the President.
"Sec. 3, Duties of the Secretary-Treasurer : The Secretary-Treas-
urer shall have charge of and preserve all books, documents and effects
of the District office. He shall record the proceedings of all con-
ventions and of the meetings of the Executive Board and shall keep
copies of all important letters sent out by him. He shall receive and
receipt for all moneys, pay all bills and current expenses, when attested
by the President. He shall prepare and submit to all Locals a quarterly
statement showing salary and expense of each officer and employe in
separate items, and report all moneys received and disbursed, and per-
form such other duties as may be assigned to him. He shall give a
bond in the sum of thirty thousand dollars ($30^00) secured by a
lyGoo'^lc
142 Coal Mining in Arkansas
reliable security company, for the safe keeping of all moneys entrasted
to him, which must be approved by die District Executive Board, and
deposited with the President. But shall not have more than two thou-
sand dollars ($z,ooo) subject to his order at any one time.' All other
funds must be deposited by him subject to the order of the Executive
Board. He shall, quarterly, send to all Locals in good standing the
password. It shall be the duty of all parties receiving said password in
writing to destroy it at once and no one shall transmit it without the
proper authority. He shall employ such assistance as tnay be necessary
to conduct the affairs of his office and have all district printing done
subject to the approval of the President and Executive Board members.
"Sec, 4- Duties of the Executive Board: The Executive Board
shall constitute the District Board of Conciliation and Arbitration, exe-
cute the orders of the District Convention, and between Conventions
shall have the power to direct the workings of the Union and shall
have the power to suspend or remove the District President for insub-
ordination or other just and sufficient cause. The Board shall be con-
vened by the President, or by request of three members of the Board
and they shall have power to draw upon and use the defense fund of
the District only in case of strike or lockout ; also to levy or collect
assessment when necessary, tt shall hold in trust for the United Mine
Workers of America all money deposited subject to the order of the
Executive Board, but under no circumstances shall said money be drawn
except upon a written order of a majority of the Board members.
''Sec. 5. The District officers in settling disputes shall make a
synopsis report of the evidence in said disputes and their decisions on
the same which shall be filed with the District Secretary, whose duty
it shall be to compile the same and send out a monthly report to all
Local Unions, to be kept on file as a guidance for their officers.
"Sec. 6. The District officers and District Executive Board shall
send in a written report of all violations of the Ihstrict law and agree-
ments, by either operators or miners, to the Secretary-Treasurer who
shall compile the same for future reference.
"Sec 7. No District officer or representative shall enter into an
agreement with operators whereby a Local is affected other than what is
agreed upon at Joint Conference without first obtaining consent of the
Local affected. The District officers shall have power to meet such new
conditions as may arise with the consent of the Local Union affected.
"Sec. 8. Duties of the Auditing Committee: The Auditing Com-
mittee shall meet quarterly, they shall carefully in^iect and audit the
books, accounts pertaining to the Secretary -Treasurer's office, and shall
make a report of their findings to the Locals of the District. And the
books of the Sec retarj--Trea surer shall be closed the last day of the
month previous to the month the annual Convention is held. They shall
meet one week prior to the annual Convention and make their report
prior to the ratification of the election of officers. They shall also serve
as Tellers and Credential Committee, and shall report at the District
lyGoo'^lc
Constitution U, M, W. of A. 143
office one day pnor to opening of District Convention to examine list
of delegates' credentials to Convention.
"Sec. 9. The term of all elective officers shall be one year, beginning
April I, 190S.
"Sec. la There shall be selected by each Local Union a person
for the purpose of collecting the statements of the employes each pay
day and tabulate them and make a report to the Local Union at the
end of each month.
ARTICLE IV.
"Section I, The revenues of this District shall be derived from the
Local Union, viz. : Twenty cents per capita per month, fractional mem'
bers pro rata. The funds shall be used to pay the District oflicers,
Organizers, Office expenses and cost of securing better legislation for
the benefit of the miners. The Strike or Defense Fund shall hereby be
created by an assessment of one per cent of the gross earnings after
powder and blacksmithing has been deducted. Said fund shall be used
for no purpose other than strikes, lockouts or suspension.
"(Note). The word lockout or suspension shall not apply to
members who are thrown idle on account of mines being abandoned or
shut down. Said funds shall after a period of six weeks be distributed
to all members out of employment at the rate of $3.00 per week per
member.
"Sec. 3. No Local or Locals shall be exempt from paying per
capita tax, or assessment unless they have been idle for one month.
In all cases where Local Unions desire exoneration from dues, such
request shall be signed by the President, Secretary and Mine Com-
mittee and approved by the President and Secretary of the District and
a report shall be made each week, giving the number and names of
idle men, in the place of t^e regular monthly financial reports, as long
as members remain idle.
"See. 3. The Local Secretary shall fill out and forward to the
District Secretary-Treasurer on or before the asth of each nxmth, a
report of all members in good standing in the Local Union on the ist
day of that month, together with all taxes and assessments due to the
Dinrict office for the same.
"Sec 4- Should satisfactory evidence be produced that any Local
Union Secretary has failed to report monthly the full membership of
his Union to the National and District Secretaries, together with the
payment of dues and assessments on the same number of members that
have paid to the Local Union, said Local Union shall be suspended
from the privileges of benefits until such deficiency is made good.
"Sec. 5- In the filling of the monthly report the Local Secretary
shall report to the District office on blanks furnished for that purpose,
the amount of money paid in and the number of members reported to
flte National Secretary, the amount of money and number of members
reported to the District Secretary-Treasurer and shall sign a certificate
showing that the report is for the full number of members in good
lUnding in the Local.
lyGoo'^lc
144 CoAi. Mining in Arkansas
"Sec. 6. Any member defrauding the organization of dues or
asessments, by failing to receive a check number will be fined five
dollars ($5.00).
"Sec. 7. The revenues of this District shall not be used for the
payment of expenses incurred by any Committee or menibers appearing
before the legislative bodies of Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas, unless
officially authorized by the District President.
"It shall be the duty of the District President to appoint a com-
mittee of not more than three lo appear before the Legislative bodies of
the above named states to represent the miner's interests in encouraging
the passage of mining legislation. Said committee shall act in conjunc-
tion with the legislative committee of the State Federation of Labor.
ARTICLE V.
"Section I. The District Secretary-Treasurer shall issue a call
for the Annual Convention six weeks prior to the date set for the
Convention, and shall furnish printed credentials with duplicates to
each Local and all Locals shall place the names of all delegates from
said Local on the same credentials, properly signed and sealed, and the
duplicate shall be sent to the District office six days prior to the date
of the Convention.
"Sec. 2. The District Convention shall be held annually at such
place as may be determined upon by the preceding Convention. Special
Convention may be called by the District President acting under the
advice of the Executive Board, but one-fourth of the membership to
be determined at regular meetings and only members present and voting
in favor of said call shall be counted, to call a Special Convention.
"Sec. 3. Representatives to District Conventions shall be elected
directly from Local Unions and shall haVe one vote for fifty members
or less, and an additional vote for each fifty members or majority frac-
ton thereof, but no representative shall have more than five votes and no
person shall be eligible as a representative who is not a miner or mine
laborer, or employed by the organization, and is a bone fide member of
a Local Union in the District.
"Sec. 4. Representation shall be based upon the average member-
ship of the Local Union for the last three months upon which payment
of per capita tax has been made previous to the month in which the
District Convention is held,
"Sec S- That no District officer other than the President and
Secretary-Treasurer shall be allowed to attend any Convention other
than the regular District Convention unless said Local Union employing
said officer shall pay said officer for said work.
ARTICLE VI.
"Section I. When trouble of a local character arises between the
members of Local Unions and their employer, the Mine Committee and
officers shall endeavor to effect an amicable adjustment, and, failing, they
lyGoo'^lc
CONSTITL'TIOX U. M. \V. OF A. 145
shall immediately notify the officers of the District and said District
officers shall immediately investigate the cause of complaint and failing
to effect a peaceful settlement upon a basis that would be equitable and
jtist to the aggrieved members finding that a strike would best subserve
the interests of the locality effected, they may with the consent and
approval of the District officers order a strike.
"Any Local Union striking in violation of the above provisions will
oot be recognized or sustained by the District officers. Before final
action is taken by any District upon questions that directly or indirectly
affects the interests of the mine workers of another District, or may
require a strike to determine, the President and Secretary of aggrieved
District shall jointly prepare, sign and forward to the National Presi-
dent a statement setting forth the grievance complained of, the action
contemplated by the District, together with the reasons therefor, and await
the decision of the National President and be governed thereby; and in
all cases the Mine Committee and employes and all parties involved
must continue to work pending an investigation and adjustment until
a final decision is reached in the manner above set forth.
"Sec 3. Any Local Union, Committee or member acting in viola-
tion of Section I of this Article shall be liable to expulsion or fine,
subject to the discretion of the District Executive Board.
ARTICLE VIL
Membfrihip.
"Section i. The membership of this Union shall consist of all
miners and mine laborers, and other workmen, skilled and unskilled,
working in and around the mines, who perform labor for which a scale
of w;^es is made. (Except mine foreman and top bosses who have
the right to hire and discharge), who shall sign a collective and con-
tinuous order authorizing Local Unions to check-oS all dues, fines and
assessments; and shall pay the following initiation fee:
"The initiation fee for the practical miners shall be $10.00. For
non-practical miners, $50.00. For top laborers, Sio.oo, Any Cop laborer
desiring to go into the mine shall pay an additional fee of $40.00.
"Sec. 2. Miners' and widows' sons and orphans under the age of
sixteen shall pay the sum of $2.50 and receive half turn of the mine.
Miners' sons from 16 to 21 years of age shall pay $10.00 initiation fee
and shall receive full run [turn] of the mine; (provided), that where
the State law prrfiihits the employment of boys under sixteen they may be
admitted over sixteen and under eighteen on the initiation fee of $2.50.
This shall only apply to miners' and widows' sons and orphans.
"Sec 3. Boys, other than miners' or widows' sons under six-
teen years of age shall pay the sura of $10.00 initiation fee, AH appli-
cations, other than miners' sons, over sixteen years, shall comply with
Section I of this Article, and in no case shall any Local Union donate
any part of the initiation fee back to the members.
lyGoo'^lc
146 Coal Mining in Arkansas
"Any Local Union violating this section shall be fined $50.00, same
to be collected by District Executive Board and placed in the District
defense fund.
"Sec, 4. Any member or members of the organization misrepre-
senting the age, relation, occupation or experience of any person making
application for membership in any Local, shall be considered guilty of
a misdemeanor and shall be fined in the sum of ten dollars (|io.oo) for
such offense. Any member so fined and refusing to pay the same shall
be expelled and his name published in the United Mine Workers' Journal.
The membership so received shall be null and void and the fee returned.
"Sec. s. No member shall accept compensation from any one he
takes into the mines to work with him. Anyone found guilty of such
olTense shall be fined for the first offense the sum of $5aoo, for the
second offense he shall be expelled.
ARTICLE VIIL
Cards.
"Section I. No person, a member of the organiialion, who holds
a due or transfer card showing him to be a member in good standing,
shall be debarred or hindered from obtaining work on account of race,
color, creed or nationality. Any Local Union violating this action shall
be fined twenty-five dollars ($25.00), and said fine so collected shall
be deposited in the defense fund.
"Sec 2. Any member leaving one mine and security employment
in another, shall deposit a Transfer Card, bearing his name and occu-
pation, with the Check- Weighman or Pit Committee of the Local Union
governing the mine in which he received employment, and he shall be
a member of the Local Union issuing the ecard until the said card is
deposited with another Local Union.
"Sec. 3. All Local Unions shall set aside one meeting in each
month at which agreement and Constitution shall be read and discussed.
"Sec. 4. No Transfer Card shall be issued to any member when
the Local is three months in arrears to the National or District for
"Sec 5. The Secretary-Treasurer shall perpare and send out a
monthly statement of all Locals three months or more in arrears lor
dues or assessments, and no Local Union shall refuse to accept a
Transfer Card from any Local Union unless it appears on said list as
being in bad standing or falsified as to the occupation of the holder.
All dues, assessments and fines shall be collected by the check-off
system or its equivalent
"Sec 6. Any member leaving one locality and securing employment
in another who has not a Transfer Card, must agree to the initiation
fee being retained until Transfer Card has been produced, before being
permitted to work. Should he fail to produce a Transfer Card within
fifteen days, he shall forfeit the initiation.
lyGoo'^lc
Constitution U. M, W, of A. 147
'Sec 7. Any boy receiving employment at which a man's wages
is paid, shall pay full dues and assessments.
ARTICLE IX.
Application and Rtinstatements.
"Section i. Any member of the United Mine Workers of America
leaving the mine for other vocations in life must pay all dues and assess-
ments created by the Local District and National organization in order
to retain membership, but shall not visit or be eligible to hold any office
or have a voice or vote in the Local, and shall be a silent member.
But in case he should at any time desire to work in or around the
mines, and having secured employment, he shall be restored to full
membership.
"Sec. 2. Any member becoming three months in arrears shall be
suspended and must make application as a new member.
ARTICLE X.
PasswoTd.
"Section 1, Any member charged with having abused the use of
our password or in any way divulged the action of his or any other
Local contrary to this Constitution, if proven guilty, shall be expelled.
ARTICLE XI.
Election of OMcers.
"Section I. All nominations for the District officers shall be in the
hands of the District Secretary not later than ninety days prior to the
expiration of the term of office. Local Secretaries shall be required to
post notice at least one week before the nomination, and the Secretary
shall ascertain the acceptance of the nominees, and inform said nominees
by what Locals was nominated and shall furnish them with a prepared
ballot for each actual paid-up member in the Local not later than sixty
days prior to the expiration of said term of office.
"Sec. 3. The address of all candidates shall be on ballots and no
name shall appear more than once on any ballot.
"Sec 3- AH members of Local Unions shall cast their votes for
the candidates of their choice, said ballots shall be cast, counted, sealed
and recorded in the presence of the Local officers and forwarded to the
District Secretary not later than thirty days prior to the expiration of
the term of office, and they shall record the vote on returning sheet
opposite the names of candidates for which said vote or votes have been
ca«. No member shall be allowed more than one vote for one candi-
date, nor shall the Secretary record the vote of any member that is
not present at the time the election is held. The correctness of the
lyGoo'^lc
148 CoAi. Mining in Arkansas
returning sheet must be attested to by the President and Secretary of
the Local Union and forwarded to the District Secretary in envelopes
marked election returns at the same time the ballots are sent
"The Recording Secretary of Local Union shall send under separate
cover returning sheet and ballots in all elections, by express or registered
"The envelopes are to be opened and the votes counted by the
Tellers only, and in no case shall votes be counted that the envelopes
have been opened previous to reaching the Tellers. In the event of no
election, the two candidates receiving the highest number of votes shall
be referred back to the Local Unions who shall hold a second election
and forward the result to the District office in the same manner as
above stated.
"Sec 4. The National Board Member, President, Vice President,
Secretary-Treasurer, District Executive Board Members and Auditor*
shall be elected by a majority of all votes cast; the election to be
governed by this Constitution ; election to be not later than ninety dajs
prior to the expiration of office.
"Sec. 5. Any member guilty of electioneering or influencing in
any manner the election or rejection of any candidate for National or
District office, shall upon proper testimony be convicted and deposed.
This, however, shall not ' prevent any member from makmg charges
against unworthy candidates. Such charges, however, must be sustained
by proper evi'dence, signed and sworn to before a notary public
"Sec- 6. Secretaries of Local Unions shall, under penalty of sus-
pension from office, notify their members one week prior to the date
set for the election of District officers, and should it be proven there
has been more votes reported on returning sheets than were actually
cast by the members present at the meeting where the vote was taken,
or that the votes have been counted for candidates other than those that
have been constitutionally nominated, the whole vote of the Local shaU
be thrown ont The returning sheets, after the election, before being
destroyed by the District Secretary, shall be kept six months.
"Sec 7. There shall be one day set aside for the election of Dis-
trict officers, same to be designated by the District President and the
Secretary-Treasnirer,
"Sec. 8. It shall be the duty of the Recording Secretary to send
oflicial notice at once by registered mail to District Secretary-Treasurer
that election returns have been sent If from any cause any Local Union
has not voted, it shall also become the duty of the Recording Secretary
to serve notice on District Secretary-Treasurer of same, setting forth
their reasons for not casting vote, and it shall he the duty of the Dis-
trict Secretary to notify the Auditors and Tellers of same before final
vote has been counted. The Tellers, upon receiving official notice that
election returns have been sent in shall refrain from announcing final
count until ballott have been found and counted, or Local Union
furnished with ballots and returning sheets 10 cast the vote again.
lyGoo'^lc
Constitution U. M. W. qf A.
ARTICLE XII.
MiicellaHeous.
"Section I. No miner shall be permitted to enter the mine on
idle days for the purpose of working except by permission of the Mine
Committee and Executive Board, same to be [given] in urgent case in
slopes and slope airways. Any miner doing so shall be fined ten dollars
($iaaD) for each and every offense and the amount of the fine sent to
the District office and deposited in the Defense Fund. Day hands may
do work on idle days, provided he shall not produce coal, but all
day work to be equally divided among the day hands. A day laborer
accepting work on idle days shall only receive the scale of wages adopted
for said class of work. The company soliciting a day man for any
class of work other than the regular work for which he was emp\oyed
shall pay him the scale of wages governing his regular employment.
"Sec. 2. Local Unions, individual members and all other persons
are hereby prohibited from using the name of our organization for the
purpose of furthering their interests.
"Sec. 3. Local Unions, when electing officers or changing officers
of the Local shall notify the National and District officers within five days
after sucb changes are made.
"Sec. 4. No Loca! shall in any way deprive a member on account
of his absence from being eligible as a delegate to any convention when
he is on duty serving the organiiation.
"Sec. 5. Any member or members of the organization creating a
conditk>n which prevents the carrying out of the Joint Agreement in any
locality or mine, shall be fined ten dollars ($10.00) each for such offense,
and refusing to pay same, shall be expelled, said fines to be paid over to
District Treasurer. Any District officer knowing of such violation and
not doing his duty and not enforcing this Section shall upon proper
testimony, be fined ten dollars ($10.00) for each and every offense.
"Sec 6. All check-weighmen employed by the members of the
United Mine Workers shall be members of the United Mine Workers
six months prior to their election, except newly organized I/jcals, and
voted for and elected at a regular or special or joint meeting of the
Locals or Local effected, by those who maintain them and shall be
accepted by the compat^ whether an employe of said company at the
time of the election or not. Notice of election of check-weighman shall
be posted in some congpicious place at the mine where check- weighman
is to be employed, at least three days before the time set for such
ejection. It shall be the duty of such check- weighman to keep a record
of all men employed in and around the mine, report monthly on blanks
famished by the Secretary-Treasurer for the purpose, the amount of
coal hoisted, amount of powder used, gross earnings, per capita earnings,
and such information as he shall collect. Under no consideration shall
a cfaeck-weighman be considered an officer of the Local Union. The
term of which a check-weighman shall serve shall be left to the discre-
tion of those who employ him, but [he] shall be removed for cause, at
lyGoo'^lc
150 Coal Mining in Arkansas
any time, after a fair and impartial trial by th« Local Union employing
him. The above will not prevent any Local officer from acting as
chedt- weigh man.
"Sec. 7. No member shall be fined or expelled without first being
given a fair and impartial trial, and shall have the right to an appeal.
All accusations against members, officers of Local Unions or officers of
the District shall be made in writing with accuser's or accusers' names
attached thereto and placed in the hands of the President of Local Union
of which the accused is a member, and the accused shall be fitfnished
with a true copy of all charges and specifications made against him at
least one week prior to the trial.
"Provided, however, that in case a man working under the juris-
diction of a Local Union, who has not deposited a transfer card and is
charged with an offense, the Financial Secretary shall have withheld
from his wages an amount sufficient to pay his fine until the party or
parties under charges shall be tried.
"Sec. 8. Any member found guilty of contracting or accepting as
compensation for his labor less than the scale of price shall be (inad
twenty-five dollars ($25.00).
"Sec. 9. Any member of any Local Union found guilty of hiring
laborers in the mine shall be fined fifty dollars ($50.00).
"Sec. 10. Any member abusing a committeeman, check-wcighman
or any oflker of the organization when discharging their duties, ac-
cording to the agreement and constitution, shall be fined ten dollars
($10,00) for such offense.. Also any officer, check- weighman, or com-
mitteeman abusing any member of the organization when uncalled for
shall be subject to the same fine.
"Sec. II. Any member of the United Mine Workers of America
who shall enter any regular or special meeting in a state of intoxication
shall be fined not less than one dollar ($1.00) nor more than ten dollars
($10.00) and said moneys turned in to the Defense Fund.
"Sec. iz. Any mine worker belonging to any Local Union in Dis-
trict 21, who is now or may be in the future a member of any detective
association shall be barred a seat in any Local Union, but shall not
be relieved of dues and assessments.
"Sec. 13. Each Local Union shall elect three Financial Trustees
whose duty it shall be to accompany the Local Treasurer and draw
check-off and other moneys belonging to the Local Union ; see that all
dues, per capita taxes and assessments due the National and District
are promptly forwarded to the National and District offices and the
balance shall be deposited in some bank in the name of the Local Union.
The Treasurer shall be required to give bond for all moneys in his
possession; provided that any Local Union whose Treasurer can give
a sufficient bond this section shall not apply.
"Sec. 14. All fines shall be considered as dues and shall be col-
lected in the form that they accrue and be paid into the £ocal Union
where the members so fined belong, unless otherwise provided for.
lyGoo'^lc
Constitution U. M. W. of A. 151
"Sec. 15. No member of Ihe United Mine Workers in District
No. 21 shall be allowed to collect financial assistance on a Transfer
Card or letter of recommendation, unless right to collect such asMstance
is endorsed by the District President.
"Ssc. 16. Any member of the organization withholding any official
documents from the Locals or persons whom it was intended for, shall
be removed from office or fined ten dollars ($10.00). The same shall
apply in not answering documents when required.
"Sec. 17. Any member proven guilty of pawning his Transfer Card
for money shall be expelled from the organization and his name pub-
lished in the U. M. W. of A. Journal.
"Sec. 18. Any Local Union calling any Board member to settle
any grievance before representing any grievance to proper parties specified
by agreement will pay all expenses incurred by said Board Members.
"See. 19. Any member, or Local in this District, violating any part
of the Constitution where there is no special penalty attached shall be
fined ten dollars ($10.00).
, "Sec. 20. No Local Union members or Local officials shall send
letters around the District publishing any officer, officers, member or
members without making specific charges in the Local Union the officer
or members belongs [to] and then no letter can be sent through the
District only by or through the District Secretary-Treasurer. Any Local
Union or member violating this Section shall be fined $25.00.
"Sec. 21. In case of any question of a Local nature arising, or
formulation of a price on any Local condition that the contract doesn't
make spedfic provision for, and such question has been passed upon by
Ihe Local Union or their representatives, and failing to adjust such
questions in conformity with their positions, the District official shall
be permitted to reverse the position taken by the Local Union until the
entire matter has been pased upon by the Executive Board. Should the
Local Union or its representatives enter such protest to said District
<^5cials, in order that their position may be defned, and when a decision
has been rendered by the Board, the District President shall defend the
decision of the Executive Board to the highest tribunal of our organi-
zation. The President or Vice President failing or refusing to comply
with this Section shall be suspended from office, not less than thirty days.
"Sec. 22. All Local Unions must affiliate with State Federation of
Labor. All per capita tax to State Federation shall be collected and
paid through the District Secretary-Treasurer, who shall forward the
same to the Secretary of Federation in the various states. The District
Secretary-Treasurer shall receipt all Local Unions for all per capita tax
collected for such State Federation.
"Sec. 33. No District officer shall recognize any grievance that has
been brought to his notice by an individual member or render any de-
cision until he has consulted with Local Union affected.
"Sec. 24. No District officer or District organizer shall organize
a new Local Union in any locality where a Local is located without first
consulting the old Local in regard to the same.
lyGoo'^lc
152 Coal Mining in Arkansas
"Sec. 25. No sub-lease shall be recognised by any Local Coniraittee
or Local officer or District officer that makes doubtful the paying of the
Kale rates of prices or conditions of the present state or interstate wage
contract. Any members of our organization leasing a mine and throwing
other members out of employment shall forfeit their right to membership
in our organization.
"Sec 26. Any member carrying news to any person or persons out-
side of tbe hall shall be fined not less than $5.00. 'This shall not include
mine committees.
"Sec 27. Where evidence can be conclusively established that
a Board Member has made application for another position, and it is
proven, he shall be immediately deposed for the District Board,
"Sec. 28. Any officer or member of District 21 appearing before
any Legislator directly or indirectly or by petition protesting in any way
against the passage of any Mining Legislation which has been adopted by
a majority vote of the miners organization or in Convention of by the
State Federation, or in caucus called by the District President shall be
fined ¥50.00 and his action reported to all Locals by the District Sec-
retary, said fine to be paid into the District Defense Fund.
ARTICLE Xin.
Rulings.
"Section I, Where any part of the Constitution shall in any way
conflict with either the National or District Agreements, the Agreements
shall have precedence in all cases.
"See, a. No Local Union shall impose a fine on its members for
not attending picnics or parades.
"Sec 3, No man shall be elected check-weighman who is not a
practical miner.
"Sec, 4- No member shall be eligible to hold a District or National
office in this District until he shall have worked in or around the mines
in the District at least twelve months prior to his nomination.
"Sec. 5. This Constitution can be amended or abrogated by a
majority vote of the members, of the Local Unions by referendum vote.
A majority of the Executive Board or one-fourth of the membership of
this District may at any time demand that any part of the Constitution
be submitted to the Locals to be voted on."
lyGoo'^lc
CHAPTER IV.
THE TORK AND TAGES OF THE HINERS.
The exact earnings of the men working in the coal mines .
of Arkansas has been a subject of some dispute. A knowledge
of the earnings of the employees is necessary for a proper under-
standing of the frequent labor quarrels afflicting the coal^nining
industry. Since the public, as the innocent third party, always
suffers from such quarrels, it is believed that the determination
of the average earnings of the miners is worth the expense
incurred by collecting the figures at the different mines. Before
giving the wages of the men, it seems proper to give an outline
of the conditions under which they perform their labor.
CONDITIONS AND NATURE OP THE MINERS' WORK.
Darkness. The first impression given to some persons by
the word mine is its darkness. The coal and slate are so very
black that the coal miners must be provided with a stronger
light than other miners and even then the coal mines are daricer.
The ordinary open light used by the miner varies from ij4
to 3 candle-power, instead of being less than i candle-power,
as stated in the preamble of the constitution of the Union,
Nevertheless, the light is not good and is a contributing factor
in causing accidents from moving cars, and possibly also from
falls of roof. It does not seem in any way to affect the si^t
of the miners which, if anything, averages above that of men
in other occupations in spite of the irritation of the dust, It
is fortunate that all of the Arkansas mines are sufficiently free
from gas to permit the use of open lights. These throw a '
strong light upon the roof instead of the shadow cast by a
safety lamp. This light reduces the loss of life from falls of
rock, the great danger to which the miners are exposed.
Smoke. The mining laws and the agreement between the
companies and the men require that, with the exception of the
rope-riders, no mnner shall bum anything in open lamps but
pure lard-oil, wfiich does not smcJce very m,uch. This will not
bum in a draft or strong ventilating current and is expensive,
so is not known to be used anywhere except in some 'country-
lyGoO'^lc
154 Coal Mining in Arkansas
banks' remote from the main field, where the miners use home-
made lard-oif. Instead, the miners use various mixtures of
lard-oil, or cotton-seed oil, and a cheaper oil, such as that ob-
tained from the distillation of rosin. These are cheaper, bum
more readily, and are not explosive, but they produce objec-
tionable amounts of smoke.
The result is that the rooms are quite full of ordinary
floating lamp-black, such as comes from a smoky kerosene-lamp.
In places where the cheap oil is burned and the ventilation is
poor, the smoke is so thick that from a distance of 25 ft., a pit-
lamp shows as a mere blur of light and nothing near it can
be distinguished. In most of the mines it is difficult to take
photographs except on idle days or in the main intake of the
air current.
Even the 'sunshine' wax and the best of oil give a little
smoke, which the miner must inhale. It is the writer's opinion
that this smcAe is the main cause of the blackening of the lung
tissue observed in the autopsies of all men who have mined coal
for ID years or more in America, It also affects the nose and
throat slightly. The acetylene lamps give the best and cheapest
light, and produce no smoke at all, but on account of the annoy-
ance of changing the carbide chamber about once every two
hours, they are used only at a few of the mines having no
artificial ventilation. As a general rule, therefore, all the under-
ground men, except those near the bottom of the main downcast
shaft, must work in the smoke.
Water. Mines are supposed to be wet and disagreeable,
but on account of the usual tight shale roof in coal mines,
there is but little trouble from dripping water. No miners were
seen wearing rubber coats, as is so common in the metal mines.
By agreement with the men, the entries and traveling- ways are
to be as dry as possible. Some mines still have a few wet and
sloppy entries, but the condition of the roadways is constantly
improving, and very few men need now work all day with wet
feet as was formerly nearly always the case. Some miners
work in shallow pools of water in dip rooms and dip entries,
but they are paid extra for this, and no men afflicted with
rheumatism or weak lungs need work in a wet place. Where
enough water to wet the miner's clothes drips from the roof,
lyGoO'^lc
The Work axd Wacks of The Miners 155
as in rooms near the surface of the ground, the man is generally
paid extra. It should be remembered that on account -of the
warm climate of the Arkansas coalfield, the mine water is at
60 to 65 degrees F. which is not cold, and has little effect upon
the miners' health. Wetness is therefore not a serious incon-
venience to the miners of Arkansas.
Dirt. Coal is also supposed to be dirty and dusty. Some
entry-men are annoyed by dust while making their cuttings, but
the coal is generally damp and there is little discomfort in
loading it. This is noticed when the coal is dumped into the
railroad cars. Moreover, to any one used to it, the coal dust
is no more disagreeable than any other dust. But owing to its
blackness, it is very noticeable, and one of the miners' sayings
to a new man is, "You will never be a good miner until you can
eat your bread without seeing the finger marks on it7' This
applies to the underground lunch, for the miners always bathe
as soon as they get home. This bathing has a sanitary ad-
vantage which somewhat offsets the disadvantage of the jnhaled
dust. Another saying is to the effect that a negro wearing
black clothes, and using black towels, would be less dirty than
the white man working at a slightly dusty job. The greasy
black lamps, however, do certainly make a 'dirt' when mixed
with coal dust and much rubbing is required to clean one's hands.
Cramped working places. The low hight of the working
places is somewhat injurious, although the experienced miners
do not object to it unless required to push cars up into rooms
where the hight is less than 3 ft. 6 in. In the room, the miner
rests on his knees or sits down while at work, and stretches
out to rest by lying at full length. By agreement, no more
is paid for mining low coal than for high coal unless it is lower
than 2 ft, 10 in. Many men actually prefer to work in
low coal if it is loose and shoots better than the high coal;
and the conr^anies working low coal have as abundant a sup-
ply of labor as the others. There are, however, some miners,
especially the older ones, who do not like to stoop over, and it
is certainly tiresome to visitors who go from place to place in
the low-coal mines. The miners all object to coal over 8 ft.
hig^ on account of the difficulty of setting props and examining
the roof.
lyGoO'^lc
156 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Nearly all of the company men work most of the time
in places 4 ft. 6 in. high or over, but of the diggers, a considep-
a'ble number are in cramped places. The illustrations in Chapter
II show the problems of mining low coal and may give a wrong
impression of the general hight of the coal. Figures of the
numfcer of diggers at each mine were tabulated according to the
h^ht ot the coal. Ttie results show that 32 per cent of the
diggers in this State work in places over 6 ft. high. Here they
need never bend over. Such a place is shown in Fig. 31, p. 63.
Forty per cent of the miners work in places of medium hight
or from 4 to 6 ft. These happen to be mostly between 4 and
5 ft., as shown in Fig. 29, p. 61, and Fig. 32, p. 65. The miners
soon learn to walk readily and rapidly in places 4 ft. 6 in high.
Their knees are bent and the body thrown forward and they
take long swinging steps. The hands are generally clasped over
the small of the back to balance the body. A small burden, like
a dinner bucket, is carried at the side in one hand, which is
supported at the wrist by the other hand, which is Crossed over
the back.
The other 28 per cent of the diggers work in low places
which range from 16 in., at Baldwin, Washingt<m County, to
4 ft. high. Of these all but 50 or 60 miners are in places
from 2 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft., as shown in Fig. 30, p. 62, and Fig.
39. p. 86.
Labor and skill. The actual labor of di^ng the coal is
not light. It has about the variety and is a little harder than that
of carpenters who work on ordinary small dwellings. The mod-
ern system of shooting off the solid requires intelligence and
skill to place the holes to the best advantage and properly judge
the amount of powder necessary. Better shooting and greater
energy distinguish the good miners, who earn much money, from
the general average. Those that earn very little are either lazy
or are recovering from sprees which also reduce the number of
days woriced.
Since shot-firers have become so universal, the tendency of
the less experienced miners is to pay little attention to the plac-
ing of the holes and to use increasing amounts of powder. This
is to be sure of getting plenty of coal regardless of the danger'
or the proportion of slack, and is fast putting the work upon
the level of unskilled labor. Many men now use 30 or 36 in, of
lyGoO'^lc
The Work and Wages of The Miners 157
powder in all holes which are of the same depth regardless of
the width of the shot. In the older days of pick mining, con-
siderable manual skill and practice were necessary to undermine
the coal rapidly with a hand pick. A little of this skill is still
required for making a cutting in an entry, but skilled pickmen
are rare, and coal mining can hardly be called a trade any
]ongtr.
Bad air. A few of the mines have good ventilation, but bad
air is so common that it must be more or less injurious to the
health of the miners. So far as known, none of the mines in
this State give off either of the poisonous mine gases, deadly
white-damp (carbon monoxide), or less injurious stink-damp
(hydrogen sulphide). Black-damp (either carbon dioxide or
nitrogen) and firedamp (methane), which are given off by the
coal and rock, have no direct effect upon the men, but simply
deprive them of the full proportion of the necessary oxygen of
the air. The amount of oxygen in the mine air is further re-
duced by its tendency to unite with coal dust, decaying mine
timbers, etc. The firing of shots sets free poisonous gases,
both carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. There is further
contamination from the smoky lamps, from the decay of timbers
and animal waste, and from the breath of the men and mules.
The Arkansas law upon the subject of ventilation is fairly
adequate, but has never been universally enforced, and the in-
difference of the miners to this matter is remarkable. When
the ventilating current is strong, the miners generally bum a
cheaper grade of oil, which increases the amount of smoke. At
other mines free from firedamp, the air current can not be
noticed and the air is sometimes so bad that lights will not bum.
The miners must then wait until the next day before they can
work. In othfcr places where the lights bum dimly, those miners
who will work suffer from headaches. Men suffer no immediate
injury or inconvenience. from lack of oxygen, until the amount
is very much less than that needed for the lights ordinarily used.
The headaches must, therfore, be due to gases remaining from
the shots fired the evening before.
At those mines having poor air and where shots are fired
at noon, the miners quite generally suffer from headaches. It
is an advantage to the miner, especially in low coal, to blast
twice a day; and if the mine is ventilated by a complete system
lyGoO'^lc
158 Coal Mining in Arkansas
of overcasts with a separate and adequate split of air for each
entr>'. the miners can entirely avoid the powder smoke by their
usual custom of collecting in the entry to eat their lunches. To
change the air entirely, in 30 minutes, with double rooms 40 ft.
wide and of an average length of 75 ft. and half full of gob
as is common in coal 4 ft. high, will require a split of only
100 cu. ft. of air per minute for each man which is now required
by the law. The advantage to the companies as well as to the
men is so great that it is earnestly recommended that these con-
ditions be brought about. In some places, the Union has refused
to allow any of the miners to blast at noon. In some cases, this
works an injury to the miners as well as to the companies, since
the rule is enforced at some mines that have ventilation en-
tirely adequate for double shooting. If bad air be prevented by
proper ventilation, and by prohibiting the sale of inferior oil,
the work of the miner would not necessarily be unhealthful.
Temperature. The temperature of the mines is remarkably
uniform summer and winter, and nearly ail the diggers in this
State work in places where the temperature varies little from
60 degrees. This is a great comfort as compared with the lot
of other workmen who generally suffer from either extreme '
heat or cold. At^he bottom of the shafts, a few men arc exposed
to 3 strong draft of cold air during the occasional very cold
days of winter. For this there is no remedy except a reversal
of the fan, which would give them warm, but impure and possibly
explosive, air. When these bottom men are not busy enough to
keep warm, they sometimes warm themselves at the steam pump,
which is usually in a place sheltered from the draft. In other
places, they improvise stoves from old powder kegs, but the
gases and smoke from these pollute the main air current going
to all the other men in the mine. It is recommended that a
sheltered room be provided for the bottom men, and that at nil
those mines having steam pumps, it be heated by steam in winter.
Top men. Not ail the comforts and discomforts so far "dis-
cussed apply to the top men. They get more coal dust than the
other men, but otherwise the woik is not unusual, Unless they
are skilled, they get but little more than common laiborers'
wages.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
The Work axd Wages of The Miners 159
Accidents. The top men run little more risk than ordi-
nary street laborers, but the underground work is precarious.
This greater accident rate is possibly the chief drawback to the
occupation of mining. From 1905 to 1908, inclusive, there were
within the State 4S fatal accidents at the mines which during this
time employed about 5.000 men. Seven of these men were shot-
firers who all understand that they take a great risk. This
makes the fatal accidents among the other workmen at the rate
of 2.06 per annum for each 1,000 men employed. During this
time, 150 men were injured suffiicently to lose time. This is
at the rate of 7.53 men per annum for each 1,000 employed.
Both of these rates are increasing rapidly as a result of the
carelessness encouraged by the mine-run law passed in 1905.
All the statistics available may be found on p. 274.
A death rate of 2.06 per annum for each 1,000 men em-
ployed means that the average miner would not 'be killed by an
accident in the mines of Arkansas until he had worked in them
for 480 years, assuming of course that he did not previously die
from other causes. Taking 30 years as the average time a miner
works in a mine, about one in 16 is killed by an accident at the
mines. This is somewhat greater than the proportion of other
workmen killed by accidents. It must be remembered that the
miner is also subject to all the usual accidents on idle days and
after working hours, so it is safe to say that he runs about 50
per cent greater risk of fatal injury than men in other trades.
Since so few miners insure their lives, the insurance companies
have no special mortality tables.
If 7.53 men in each 1,000 are hurt each year, the average
miner gets hurt only once in 13 years. It is not surprising
therefore that a miner gets careless after working for 6 or 8 years
without injury, and so neglects to prop his roof, which is the
great source of danger.
So far as can be learned, from i to 4 shot-firers are killed
each year. Since there are now only 40 regular shot-firers in the
State, this makes the rate at least 25 to 100 per 1,000 per annum,
which is probably below the truth. This means that a man can
6re shots for only 16 years on an average before getting killed.
Shot firing is generally done by reckless, unmarried men, who
are tempted to run the known risk for a year or two by the
high wages and light work. Other shot-firers are experienced.
lyGoO'^lc
l6o Coal Mining i.v Arkansas
careful men, who know all the best ways of getting through ex-
plosions and thoroughly understand the shooting of the coal.
Such men are practically never killed if the miners permit them
to leave the dangerous shots unlighted. The common windy
shots seldom do more than knock the shot-firers down, and if
they are hurt at all, they are killed outright by severe explosions
suffocated in the choke-damp following a dust explosion.
After they are rescued when nearly suffocated, life must be re-
stored by artificial resoiration.
A study of the relative frequency of the different causes of
accidents is instructive. Of the 34 miners exclusive of shot-firers
killed during 1906, 1907, and 1908, 21 or nearly 62 per cent were
killed by falls of rock or top coid ; 4 or 11.5 per cent were crushed
by cars ; 3 or 8.8 per cent were killed by burning firedamp or
gas explosions; 2 or 6 per cent by shaft accidents; i or 3 per
cent by a powder explosion ; and 3 or 8.8 per cent by other
accidents. The 6 shot-firers, who were killed, constituted 15
per cent of the total number killed at the mines. Of the non-
fatal accidents, 44 per cent were due to falls of roof ; 30 per cent
to miscellaneous causes ; 17 per cent to bums by gas and powder.
■Hiis indicates that a larger proportion of the accidents from roof
falls are fatal than from other causes. The little pockets of
gas are apt to cause serious but non-fatal bums ; and many men
are injured by cars, though only a few are killed by them.
The general death rate in all the coal mines of the United
States during the last few years has been between 3.31 and 4.86
per annum per i,oco men employed. This is much greater than
the Arkansas rate of 2.36 including the shot-firers. The greater
safety of the Arkansas mines is due to a generally better roof
and the freedom from explosive dust and large quantities of
gas. At some of the mines with solid sandstone roof, accidents
except from machinery, are practically unknown. At one or
two places, the roof is bad.
So few coal miners carry old-line life insurance that no
special class is made for them. They are grouped with miners of
all sorts and must pay a large extra amount for protection. This
extra cost is made necessary by the excessive risk from pneumonia
in the metal mines, as well as the accident risk.
Some means of reducing the number of accidents will be
mentioned in connection with proposed changes in the wage con-
lyGoo^^lc
The Work and Wages of The Miners i6i
tract and the mine laws. Others will be deferred to the teclinical
discussion, in Part II.
EARNIN(;S OP THS MINERS.
Disagreement as to amount. By the agreement between die
Union and tiie Operators' Association, the daily wages of all
the company men are fixed at the prices given later. In a f?w
cases, skilled trackmen receive more than the scale price of
$2.56 per day, but in general there is no difference of opinion
as to the amount the day men receive. There is, however, always
a great difference in opinion as to the daily earnings of the
di^r^rs, who are paid by piece work. The Central Coal and
Coke Co. keeps track of this by counting the number of men
to whom coal has been credited each day, and at the semi-monthly
pay-day adding these numbers to give the total man-days of
work. This, divided into the total sum paid to the diggers for
that period, gives the average earnings per man per day. These
are adjusted to allow for short days, and the result is strictly
correct as to gross earnings. No other company keeps any
record of the average earnings of the men. •
All of the detailed pay-roll statements issued to the miners
are handed to one of the local Union officials, who makes out
a list of the deductions to be made by the company and paid to
the Union. He also copies the totals for statistical purposes.
From these, the daily earnings are supposed to be figured, but
the totals are sometimes divided by the number of working days
during the period, without allowance for the idle days of the
mine. Only rarely is any allowance ever made for short days or
for the days the miners stayed at home or went on a drunk.
If the miners never changed from one mine to another except
on pay-day and the work was accurately done, this method would
give the average gross annual income, from coal mining, of all
the men in the Union. No distinction ts made between the day-
men and the diggers who earn much more money. The results
occasionally published as the average earnings per day worked
are much too low and no record of the pit expense can be ob-
tained from tfie miners' statements. On the other hand, quite
a number of the operators will give onh- the earnings of a few
skilled men, some of whom may average over $12.00 per day.-- .
. 000^^ Ic
i62 Coal Mining in Arkansas
For these reasons, the Survey was requested by both operators
and miners to get impartial figures as nearly exact as possible.
Method of obtaining the aiverage earnings of the miners.
To explain just how the figures were obtained, it will be necessary
to state that all the companies keep a pay-roll ledger from which
the miners' statements are copied and which shows just how
much each miner receives for each kind of work, and the amount
of powder, Union fees, rent, groceries, etc., charged against him.
They also keep a daily 'coal bulletin' which is a large card with
all of the miners' check numbers printed upon it, and having
several blank spaces under each number. In one of these spaces
the weighman enters the weight of each car load of coal as the
'check-puller' calls off the proper check number. The check
number is entered upon the pay-roll ledger with the miner's name,
and the bulletin, therefore, shows exactly how many cars each
miner sent out each day.
At a few mines, the weight of each miner's ooal from the
bulletins is entered each day opposite the miner's name upon
the pay-roll ledger, or upon the coal book. At these places, it
was an easy matter to count the number of days upon which the
miner worked. At the other mines, it was necessary to go
through all the coal bulletins and count the number of days each
miner was credited with coal.
It frequently happens that when the miner leaves at night,
he has a loaded car at the neck of his room, at the shaft bottom,
or upon one of the partings. The next day, this car is hoisted
and its weight is entered upon the bulletin under the loader's
check number, although he may not go near the mine that day.
When therefore the miner has only one car on a day following
others upon which he has several cars, it is assumed that he did
not work that day. In many cases, this conclusion was confirmed
ty a blank space on the day following. Where the cars are
large and the miner is working in deficient coal or a narrow entry,
a single car with another left on the parting would represent a
single day's work and this rule would be unfair. In such cases,
there are generally many such days and special inquiry was made
of the pit-boss regarding the miner concerned. In all cases, the
best judgment was used. In case the miner spent much time
cleaning up a fall of rock on a single day, this would show upon
The Work and Wages of The Miners 163
the pay-roll as a special credit. In some cases, no help for an
occasional injustice was apparent. Those miners who work ir-
regularly are generally out several days, and the steady men with
a single one-car day were assumed to have lost no time.
Records which show the number of hours in each day's
run of the mine were always available, and the time of the miners
was adjusted to represent full eight-hour days instead of counting
■ the few six- and seven-hour runs as full days. This will be
objected to on the ground that the Union allows the diggers to
work for two hours after the drivers are called off, if the
eight hours are not sooner completed. Very few miners do
this, however. On the other hand, probably between 10 and 20
p?r cent of the miners work only 4 or 6 hours of the 8, even
when the mine runs all day. This is especially true at slope
mines, where the miners can go up at any time and at those
shaft mines where the turn is good and miners get cleaned up
and do not have to wait long for an empty cage.
Because the pit bosses and driver bosses so universally com-
plain about the miners leaving before quitting time, it is believed
that the time lost in this way will offset any error due to not
counting days on which the miners are credited with only one
car load of coal, or any time they may work after the hoisting
of coal ceases. To reduce the last error, the attempt was made
to select those semi-monthly periods during which there was the
least proportion of short days, and in many instances, no short
runs were included and all the days were nominally 8 hours long.
Where a choice was possible, those semi-monthly periods cover-
ing many days of work- were selected to get better averages. At
a few mines, those men who worked only two or three days
were omitted. Only the records for a short time previous to the
visit were examined, but care was taken to avoid the rush
months <before the suspension of 1910. At three mines the Janu-
ary, 1910, pay-rolls were used. All the others were during the
last half of 1909. It is assumed that by taking one pay at each
mine at random, the average will be fair. It is known that at
one mine by a change of administration shortly after the period
for which the pay-roll was studied, the earnings of the miners
were increased nearly 20 per cent. This is the only error of
this kind noted.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
i64 Cu-vi, Miking in ASkaksas
Pit expenses. By contract, the miner's powder is delivered
to his room' by the company, and he is required to buy it from
the company at the agreed price of $2.00 a keg. At all of the
mines, therefore, the amount of powder sold to each miner is
fthown upon the pay-roll ledger together with his gross earnings.
At many mines the company has no general store and sells
nothing else to the miner but his other pit supplies, which in-
clude oil for light, fuse, cartridge paper, and soap. At other ,
mines, these items are kept separate from groceries, etc. The
miner does not have to buy all these supplies from his employer,
but since they are furnished right at the mine at a standard price
he usually does so. By various ways, it was determined that
they bought about 90 per cent of their miscellaneous pit sup-
plies from the companies. This ratio was therefore used in
figuring the total cost of the mine or pit supplies. In practically
all cases where no record of the fuse, etc., could be obtained,
the ratio between the cost of powder and other supplies could be
obtained , at a neighboring mine where the physical conditions
were the same. The small supplies cost generally from one-fourth
to one-half as much as the powder. The charge for sharpening
tools or blacksmithing is uniformly three-fourths of r per cent of
the gross earnings. The cost of the tools is estimated at from
Soc to 75c a month by the miners. The cost of pit supplies is
not as exact as the gross earnings of the miners but the error
is thought to be less than 2C a day either way from the average
figures given.
In figuring the net earnings of the miners, only those ex-
penses which are peculiar to the occupatiop were deducted. This
includes the expense for tools, light, and blasting material, but
does not include overalls or any money paid to the Union.
Number of mines included. At all the mines but two, every
aid and courtesy in finding records was shown by the office force
and in no case was any attempt made to influence the results.
At the various offices of the Central Cc4ce & Coal Co. full access
was given to the books, but after checking the results upon the
monthly statement at one of the mines, no personal inspection
of the books was made except to get the pit expense and the
earnings of the entry-men separately. The average gross earn-
ings and expenses were accepted without question. At one of
Goc^lc
The Work and Wagbs oP The Minem 165
*
these mines, the separate record of entry-men was not obt^ed
for lack of time. At the mine of the Patterson Coal Co., the
bulletins corresponding to the last average month's run had been
destroyed, and it was necessary to assume that the miners woriced
on an average of 14$^ days out of the 15 days, run during the
month. This mine was not included in figuring the average, but
the result was found to be only 6c per day greater than the
general average.
Aside from the exceptions mentioned, the writer personally
copied the figures from the pay-rolls and counted the days from
the bulletins. The data were obtained at all of the mines so far
as known, which worked to any extent between July and Decem-
ber, 1909, with the exception of a few very small country-banks
and the mines of flie Franklin Coal Co., tbe Dodson & Melton
Coal & Lumber Co., and the Little Rock Fuel Co., all near Den-
ning; the Harper Coal Co. at Bates; the Star and the Standard
Coal companies at Paris; and Clarke & Mc Williams at Spadra.
Inquiry from the miners and others indicate that at these mines
which employ all together less than 250 diggers, the earnings
are greater than the average of the others, since at only one
mine were the estimates less. The men generally do better at
the small mines especially at the pigeon holes than at the large
ones, on account of the better turn.
The figures are averaged upon the basis of the number of
individual men at each mine, regardless of the number of days
each man worked. The total number of diggers on the list
is 2836.
The original adjustment of the scale. It soon became ap-
parent that the original scale was quite fairly adjusted among
the different mines except at Spadra, and that the men could
do about as well in low coal as in high coal, provided they all
received about as many cars as they wished. Except in the
matter of turn, the other inequalities have been caused by the
change from the screened-coal to the run-of-mine basis of pay-
ment This change has been of advantage to the miners working
in the higher and softer coals and against some of those in the
harder and generally lower coals. The former uniformity was
natural at the time prices were regulated simply by the necessity
of maintaining a full crew of men, for under this rule those
i66 Coal Mining in Arkansas
mines, at which the men earn more money than the average,
would get a surplus of digg:ers and could reduce wages slightly,
while the other mines would have to increase them to ke^ their
crews. The only artificial condition was due to occasional un-
reasonable store requirements, or to the differences in the camps
and towns. Since the coal mines have been controlled by the
Union, the increases in wages have been on the percentage basis
and have not greatly disturbed the relation between the dif-
ferent mines. ,
Advantages of the entry-men. The change from the
screened-coal to the mine-run basis has entirely unbalanced the
relation between the earnings of the entry-men and the room-
men. Formerly, the yardage price was adjusted so that the
entry-men, by working harder, could earn a little more money
than the room-men, but not as much as at present. The dif-
ference was due to a desire to have the entries pushed when
necessary so as to quickly develop the mine. A part of the
yardage is required to pay for the extra labor and discomfort
of making the cutting. Under the present rate of earnings, this
labor would be fully covered by about 75c. per yard in average
coal, but it commonly costs $i.i2'/i per yard. The difference
between this and the $2.00 or $2.25 commonly paid, was sup-
posedly due to the less proportion of lump coal which it was
possible to get in the narrow entries. When, however, the
companies were-forced by law to pay as much for slack as for
lump coal, this disadvantage of narrow work ceased.
At each concession obtained by the Union, a uniform per-
centage increase was made in the scale for coal and for yardage.
This increases the net earnings of the entry-men in greater pro-
portion than it increases those of the room-men, and from a
study of the pay-rolls, the difference in the earnings of the two
groups of miners is now very apparent. For these reasons, the
earnings of the room-men and entry-men were kept separate at
all the mines but two.
The earnings of the different groups of miners. The 2,836
diggers of all classes, whose records were studied, received on
an average $4.54 for each 8 hours in the pit, and their net
earnings after deducting the cost of pit supplies, blacksmithing-,
etc., averaged $3.90 per day with a possible error of 2C, per day
The Work and Wages op The Miners 167
either way. The average earnings of 648 entry-men were $5.95
gross and $5.31 net per day with a possible error of 3c in the net
daily earnings. The average daily earnings of 1,961 other dig-
gers working in the same mines were only $4.12 gross and $3-53
net per day. These figures are possibly 5c. too high, since at
one of the mines where the earnings of the room-^nen and the
entry-men were not separated, the men make less than the average
of the State which is increased 5c. per day when this mine is
omitted from the calculation. Fifty miners were engaged in
pulling pillars in the State and earned on an average $5.23 gross
per day and $4.58 net. At Paris, the four machine runners
cutting out the clay at the scale price per foot made $3.83 per
day and their helpers $3.41 and they were not very skilled. The
17 loaders who handle the coal after it was undermined by
machines earned $4.02 gross and $3.77 net.
Owing to the unusual conditions at Spadra, the few entry-
men there earn per day an average of $7.45 gross or $6.54 net
and the room-men $4.99 ^ross or $4.32 net. Omitting Spadra
only, the net earnings of the other entry-men and room-men in
the State are i8c. and 7c. per day respectively less than the
average figures given above.
To indicate the difference caused by a poor turn, we can omit
from the cakn:ilation two large adjoining mines where the scale
and physical condition of the coal are very favorable to the
miners, but where the turn is poor. This increases the gross
earnings of the room-men 14c. and the net earnings 12c. pei*
day but affects the entry-men only 8c. and 5c, This ^ows how
much less the turn affects the entry-men than it does the room-
men. When the turn is poor the entry-men make the entries
narrower and get more yardage than when the turn is good.
if we omit those four mines at which the turn is poor and the
miners eam little, and also all the mines of the ^adra district
where the earnings are high, the results of the pay-roll study
show that the entry-men earn on an average $6.13 gross and $5.50
net per day. The room-men earn $4.68 gross and $4.08 net
per day. These figures may be taken to represent what the
miners should eam under the 1908 scale.
At quite a number of the mines, the amount of money the
entry-men eam from the coal they produce was taken separately.
Goo'^Ic
i68 Coal Mining in Arkansas
The results show that 505 entry-men earn on an average $3.39
per day from the coal and $2.53 from yardage, both gross. The
total earnings of these men were $5.92 gross and $5.27 net per
day, which is very near the average of all the entrj-mcn in the
State. At these same mines, the 1,400 room-men earn $4.21
gross and $3.84 net per day.
Effect of changes in the scale. If the scale should be in-
creased 16 per cent as first demanded by the miners in the spring
of 1910, these 505 entry-men would get $6.87 per day gross or
$6.22 net. This would be an increase of 18.02 per cent in the net
earnings, since they would not need to use any more powder,
etc., than before. The corresponding room-men would then earn
$4.89 gross and $4.51 net, or get an increase of 17.78 per cent in
their net earnings. The difference in the net earnings in favor
of the entry-men would then increase from $1.43 per day or 37.24
per cent, to $1.71 or 37.91 per cent. This shows how a uniform
increase in the scale such as has been granted in the past, gives
an increasing proportionate advantage to the entry-men.
If, on the other hand, the scale on coal and day woric only
should be increased 16 per cent, the entry-men would get $646
per day gross, or an increase of only 8.86 per cent. Their net
earnings would be increased to $5.81 per day or 10.02 per cent.
This would reduce their advantage over the room-men to only
$1.30 per day or 28.82 per cent which is more reasonable. The
actual reduction in the advantage of the entry-men would, how-
ever, not be quite as great as these computations indicate, because
at many jnines the entry-men could widen the entries to get
more coal per yard, and so earn relatively more from the high
priced coal, and less from the yardage.
It might be well to remark that each increase of I per cent
in the entire scale would increase the average net earnings of all
the diggers in the State by 1.15 per cent, because the pit ex-
penses would remain the same, while the gross earnings are
increased i per cent.
If it is assumed that the net earnings of the entry-men ought
to be 125 per cent of the present net earnings of the rocHn-men
(or $4.80 per day, for the 505 entry-men whose yardage earnings
were figured separately), the gross earnings of these men should
be reduced about 47c. per day. If the scale upon c<»l re-
Goo'^lc
The WoitK AND Wages of The Miners 169
mained the same, as assumed, this would mean a reduction of
18.5 per cent in the yardage scale. In order diat the average
earnings of the men remain unchanged, an increase of 2.7 per
cent in the entire scale should follow, or the entry yardage should
be redttced 15.8 per cent and the coal price alone increased 2.7
per cent. This would make the net earnings of the room-men
?3-9S per day, and of the entry-men $4.95. To bring about the
same proportion without changing the yardage scale, would
require an increase in the coal scale of over 80 per cent. To give
the entry-men 133 per cent of earnings of the room-meo without
changing the average of the earnings of all the men, would
require a reduction in the entry scale of 5 per cent and an in-
crease in the coal rate of 0.9 per cent, making the net earnings
of the entry-men $5.17 per day, and of the room-men $3.88
per day.
Which of these ratios is more fair should be settled by the
miners and operators.
The ratio of the normal net earnings of entry-men and room-
men throughout the State is so nearly the same as that at the
mines where the yardage earnings were obtained separately, that
the same ratio of reduction in yardage and increase in coal would
apply everywhere.
The results of these pay-roll calculations are summarized in
the table on the following page.
MoT^thly earnings. A coal digger expects to work only 20
days per month and this is counted full time. During the last
two years, the mines outside of Spadra have run only about 18
days a month on an average, not counting the months when the
mines were closed by the suspension, or those mines which were
lyGoO'^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
Daily Earnings of Coal-Diggers of Arkmsas in 1909.
GRODP8 or DIOOBRB
"^
Gro«
Net
Au. EhGCEBS—
2S99
1633
559
399
1961
148
1813
1234
5D
505
S05
505
1400
$4.54
441
5.10
5-95
7-45
5-72
6.13
4.12
4.07
4-99
4-OS
4-68
523
3-39
2-S3
5-92
4-21
6.87
4-89
545
5.60
4.32
5.82
4-25
$3.9o±.02
3&
443
6!54±.oi
S.I3±.03
5.50±X)3
3.52±.a2
348±.oa
4.33±.oi
3-45
4X>8±.02
4-58±.02
s-F
3.84
6.33
4-51
Norma] average omitting SpadJa and four mines
Entky-men —
Normal average omitting Spadra and four mines
RooM-uEN AND Pillar-men—
General average corrected for one mine omitted. .
Room -MEN—
Normal average omitting Spadra and four mines
PlLLAR-MEN—
Earnings from Coal and Yardage^
Separate earnings of entry-men from coal
Separate earnings of entry-men from yardage...
Total earnings of room-men in same mines
Effect of Change in Scale—
Earnings of 505 entry-men, 16% increase in scale
Earnings of 1400 room-men, 16% increase in scale
Earnings of 505 entry-men with 16% increase on
Earnings of 505 entry-men if yardage is reduced
Earnings of 50S entry-men if yardage is reduced
4-95
3-95
{This makes net earnings ■ of entry-men 25%
more than room-men, without changing the
average net earnings of all the men.)
Earnings of 503 entry-men if yardage is reduced
Earnings of 1400 room-men, same conditions
(This makes net earnings of entry-men 33%
average net earnings of all the men.)
188
„Gooi^lc
The Work and Wages of The Miners 171
closed for several months on account of bankruptcy or lack of
market. The steady diggers could therefore earn about $6S.OO
net per month as an average. The net monthly earnings of the
room-men were. $61.00 and of the entry-men $91.00 after de-
ducting 75c. a month for tools. The day-men underground
work on idle days, or woik overtime, and their average month
may be taken at 21 days. The firemen, engineers, and pump-men
often work 30 days a month, so the same 21 days average tim«
will apply to the top men. This makes the monthly earnings ol
the bottom men at $2.56 a day equal $5300, and of the top men
at $2.02j^ or more, equal $42.00 for laborers, or $65.00 to $79.00
for engineers ; an average of, say, $47.00,
These monthly wages should be compared with the $60.00 to
$75.00 a month earned by skilled Arkansas carpenters, $140.00
per month earned by railroad engineers of all classes, and $8S.oo
per month earned by railroad firemen. The work of the well
paid carpenter demands more skill than that of the miners, but
is not so dangerous. The other building trades work less steadily.
The work of train-men is considerably more dangerous. The
miners should get more than the $30 to $40 a month earned by
the common surface laborers, who receive $1.25 to $i-75 per
day of to hours.
At Spadra, the work is fairly steady, except during the long
spring shut down, when the miners have a chance to do other
work. The day-men have no advantage over those in other
districts, and the supply seems adequate, but during the busy
season, the entry-men get $97.00 per month net, working only
15 days of less than 8 hours each. The room-men get $64.00
or $65.00.
The general average net income of the diggers over the entire
State is about $69.00 per month. The average income in-
cluding day-men as well as diggers of all the members of the
Union, is about $63.00 with proper allowance for the number of
day-men and room-men in each district. At Baldwin, the farmers
dig coal 3 or 4 days a week in the fall and winter, when they
can not farm. They make about $1.75 a day or, say $30.00 a
month, which is a striking contrast to the earnings in other
districts of the State.
lyGoO'^lc
KELATIONS BETTEEN THE KIINERSIAriD THE OPERATERS
Introduction. The two great problems in profitable coal
mining are the finding of a market for the coal and the securing
of an adequate supply of efficient labor at feasible rates. For
this reason a full statement of the scale of wages paid under
Arkansas conditions is given in this chapter, mainly for the in-
formation of operators in distant coal-mining regions. The Rub-
ject is somewhat technical but is given here in connection with
the income of miners which is a matter of interest to the people
of Arkansas. The earnings of the miners are of course deter-
mined by the contract with the coir^ianies.
The operators and miners have generally been able to agree
upon the general, scale of wages, but there has been a great deal
of quarreling over the little details of the agreement and a con-
stant effort to exact concessions without yielding anything in
return. Much of this strife arises from a failure upon the part
of both the operators and the miners to see both sides of each
question. There are also many slight concessions which one
party or the other can readily make and whidi will greatly
t)enefit the other. In the interest of harmony between the opera-
tors and their employees, the writer has undertaken as a disin-
terested third party to point out some of the desirable conces-
sions and the unreasonableness of some of the demands The
general prosperity of the coal-mining industry will certainly be
increased by anything which tends simply to lessen the quarrel-
ing between men who must work tc^ether to produce the <oai.
INTERSTATE AGREEUENT AND CONTRACT.
The Operators' As3ociation. At the request of the miners,
^e operators of most of the large mines of Missouri, Kansas,
Oklahoma, and Arkansas have formed the Southwestern Inter-
state Coal Operators' Association for the purpose of arranging
laibor agreements with the officials of the Miners' Union. The
Operators' Association receives a small sum of money from each
member for each ton of coal mined by him, which money is used
to pay administrative expenses and the salaries of the labor
lyGoO'^lc
ThK MlNEHS AND Oi'llHATORS I73
commissioners and their assistants. Just before the suspension
of 1910, the members of the Operators' Association paid an as-
sessment of 5 mills for each ton of coal mined. The ordinary
assessment is only 2 mills and the average is about 2J/2 mills.
This may be compared with the cost of maintaining the Union
for which the miners pay 45.7 mills per ton of coal mined in
Arkansas not including the necessary expense of the check-
wetE^iman. The constitution of the Operators' Association is
printed in full below.* Articles II and III are of the most in-
terest.
The supposed advantage to the miners in having an organi-
zation of the operators is the greater convenience of arranging
a general agreement and the fact that this agreement will expire
at all the mines at the same time. Otherwise, if a strike were
declared against one operator only, he could turn over his con-
tracts to another operator whose mines were running and re-
ceive a slight commission for the sale of the coal, which would
enable him to continue the strilce much longer. When alt the
mines are tied up at once, the public is deprived of coal as soon
as the stocks of coal are exhausted. The miners hope that under
these conditions pressure will be brought to bear upon the oper-
ators to force them to grant the miners' demands, generally by
successive compromises which eventually yield to the miners
their full demands. The operators are in such active competi-
tkin with each other during most of the time that as soon as the
price of coal goes up as rt will after a general suspension, some
of the operators wish to sign up with the Union and begin to
•CONSTITUTION OF THE SOUTHWESTERN INTERSTATE^
COAL OPERATORS' ASSOCIATION. Revised Nov. 15, 191a
ARTICLE I.
"The name of the Association shall be 'Southwestern Interstate Coal
Operators' Asociation.'
ARTICLE a.
"The ohjects of diis Association are to negotiate, enter into and
make effective agreements which shall fix the wages of employees and
conditions of employment in and about the coal mines in the 14th, 21st
and asth mining districts, as established by the United Mine Workers of
America; and to conqiile and publish, for the use of such members,
statistics of coal industries in said districts.
ARTICLE 3.
"Section i. Any person, firm or corporation, operating a coal mine
in the territory described in article 2, shall be eligible to membership in
lyGoo'^lc
174 Coal Mining in Arkansas
sell coal. One operator after another deserts the Association
for this reason and finally they all vote to yield and none of
them have ever held out long enough to win any important dis-
pute except a temporarj- reduction in wages from 1904 to 1906.
During the hard times of the spring of 1908, the Union failed
to win any increase in the scale of prices, but the operators very
quickly renewed the previous agreement for two years, even
though they had determined to obtain some concessions from
their men. There seems to be some danger that when the oper-
ators are forced to eflfectively unite to settle lahor disputes, they
may also be able to unite to regulate the price of coal, and the
public will pay a still greater price for labor disputes.
Most of the operators of the small mines sign up with the
Union under the same agreement as the menrbers of the Asso-
ciation, but are often forced to grant special concessions in
wages. Since their output is not enough to prevent a general
rise in the price of coal, it is very seldom that the Union does
not allow them to operate after signing up, Tlie profits they
make during the suspension are an inducement to the operators
of the larger mines to grant the miners' demands.
Union districts. The srtates covered by the Southwestern
Interstate Coal Operators' Association together make up dis-
tricts 14, 21, and 25 of the United Mine Workers of America.
All of the local unions of Arkansas and all of those of Okla-
homa except those in a little area in the northeastern part, be-
long to District 21. This district is also supposed to include all
of Texas, but as yet there are very few local unions in Texas.
this Association and entiiled lo a voice and one vote at its meetings;
but every member shall be entitled to an additional vote for each one
hundred thousand (loo.ooo) tons of coal, or majority fraction thereof,
produced annually by such person, firm or corporation.
"Sec. 2. For the purpose of determining the number of votes to
which each member is entitled, the annual tonnage of mine-run coal
produced by each member between June 1st of each year and May 31st
of the following year, shall be ascertained from reports, verified by af-
fidavit, to be made to the Association on or before June lolh of each year.
"At all meetings of the Association, any member shall have the right,
by accredited agent or written proxy, to cast the number of votes that
said member is entitled to, ascertained as aforesaid, provided that the
votes to which each member is entitled (whether such vote is cast in
lyGoo'^lc
The Miners and Operators 175
Districts 14 and 25 each include several sub-t^stricts covering
tfie separate fields in Missouri and Kansas. The state line is
not generally recognized in grouping the locals but District 14
is mostly in Kansas and District 25 in Missouri.
Joint conventions. The leaders of these three districts of
the Union and the scale committee of the Operators' Associa-
tion meet in joint convention to arrange the general conditions
governing the relations between the miners and the operators.
The result is known as the 'interstate agreement' and is the same
in all of the districts. Besides this, they arrange a local scale
of wages and special conditions of employment for each of the
dbtricts or sob^districts. This is called the 'contract,' After
tibe agreement and contracts are formulated, they are ratified
1^ a convention of representatives of all the local unions and
t^ the members of the Operators' Association, and signed by
the respective leaders.
The interstate agreement and contract. The last general
agreement was adopted May 25, 1908, and terminated March 31,
1910, since which time the mining has heen suspended at prac-
tically all of the mines in the State.* The agreement is here
printed in full and that part of the contract which has general
*A new agreement was signed September 19, 1910, for a period ending
March 31, 1912. The general basis of this was an increase of yardage,
dead work [jrices, and day wages of 55.5 per cent of the 1908 price, and
an increase in the price of mining from 62c. per ton o( mine-run coal to
6sc. per ton and the equivalent increase for higher priced coal. The miners
also gained some advantages in the conditions and granted tiie operators
the right to use old rooms for air-courses without payment of yardage.
person or by proxy) shall be ascertained from his own production of coal
ARTICLE 4.
"Application for membership must be made to the Secretary in
in writing, stating the location of mine or mines then iterated 1^ the
applicant, and must be accompanied by the membership fee for the first
year, and the applicant's proper proportion of the last previous or pending
ARTICLE S-
"No individual who is an official or representative of more than one
coal mining interest shall be entitled to the privileges of the Association
tmless each separate interest shall hold membership in good standing in
the Association.
ARTICLE 6.
"The member^ip fee shall be $10.00 per annum, to be paid after the
first year, on June ist of each year.
lyGoo'^lc
176 Coal Mining in Arkansas
application to Arkansas, omitting the local conditions embodied
in it and the portions whjoh refer to Oklahoma only. This is
followed 'by a general summary of the different scales of wages
which were obtained from the various ofiicials of each mine.
These are the scales under which the miners earned the wages
given in the last chapter.
JOINT INTERSTATE AGREESIENT OF OPERATORS AND MINERS.
Adopted at Kansas City, Mo., May 25. 1908, for the period closing
March 31, 1910.
GENERAL CONDITIONS.
AXBITRATIOV.
secnoN I.
"i. Whereas, the benefits to be derived from an industrial contract
depend ahogether upon the fidelity with which it is carried into effect, and,
"2. Whereas, it is our earnest and sincere desire that any agree-
ment made and executed by and between the representatives of the miners
in Districts 14, 21 and 25 and the representatives of the Southwestern
Interstate Coal Operators' Association be observed and carried out in its
intirety, and that all controversies ariMng under the contraa shall be
definitely settled;
"3. It is Therefore Mutually Agreed. That in case of any local
trouble arising at any time through a failure to agree between the fore-
' man and any employee, the pit committee and the foreman are empowered
to adjust it, and in case of their disagreement or failure to act within
two days, it shall be immediately referred to the superintendent of the
company and the District President of the U, M. W. of A. in whose
ARTICLE 7.
"To provide any further funds necessary to pay the expenses of the
Association, a ratable assessment shall be made based on the monthly pro-
duction of mine-run coal of the members. On or before the lotfa day of
each month, each member shall make a verified return to the Secretary
of the amount, in tons, of imne-run coal produced by such modber in tiie
next month preceding the date of the return; and the Secretary from
said returns shall calculate the amount due friMn each member according
to the assessment made by the Association. The Secretary shall forth-
with give notice to each member of the amount due from him or it, and
each member shall promptly pay the amount shown to be due.
lyGoo'^lc
Tau Mixers axd Operators 177
diilrkt the controversy arose, or such person lis either may designate to
represent htm, and should they fail to agree it shall then be referred by
either party to the Commissioner of the Southwestern Interstate Coal
Operators' Association and the District President of the U, M. W. of A.
in whose district the question arises, or such persons as they may
designate for its adjustment.
"4. In case there should be a disagreement between a District '
President and the Commissioner of the Southwestem Interstate Coal
Operators' Association, the case shall be referred to the President of the
Southwestern Interstate Coal Operators' Association and the International
President of the United Mine Workers of America for a final decision
or adjustment. In the event that the President of the Operators' As-
sociation and the International president of the United Mine Workers of
America fail to agree, they shall have authority to select a person to
decide the question in dispute, the mines to continue in operation.
"All settlements and decisions rendered hereunder shall he final and
binding on all parties concerned, except where local decisions set aside
the written terms of the joint agreement.
SiaBX HOtTB DAT.
SECTION IL
"I. For all classes of labor eight hours shall constitute a day's work.
The going to and coming from the respective working places is to be done
on the employee's own time. All company men shall perform whatever
labor the foreman may direct. An eighb-hour day means eight hours
work at die usual working places, exclusive of noon time, which shall be
one-half hour for all classes of day labor. This shall be exclusive of the
time required in reaching such working places in the morning and de-
-- -^ artioTeI ~~ ^
"Any member who shall fail to pay his annual membership fee, or
any assessment made as provided for in Article ?, for thirty days after
such membership fee or assessment is payable, shall thereby forfeit his
membership, and the Secretary, on being advised by the Treasurer of
such default, shall strike the name of such delinquent member from the roll
of membership, and thereupon notify each member of his action; and shall
also report to the Association, at its next meeting, the name of every
member so in default, and that the name of every such member has
been stricken from the roll of membership.
ARTICLE 9.
"Every member, by joining the Association, obligates and pledges •
himself to maintain and observe all contracts entered into with mine-
lyGoo'^lc
178 Coal Mining in Arkansas
parting from the same at night The operator may refuse to allow any
day man to work on any day at which he fails to be at 'his working place
at the starting time.
pEMALTiEfl TOB LOAsnia DCPinuTixs.
"i. In order to insure the production of clean and marketable
coal, it is herein provided that if any miner or loader shall load witii his
coal sulphur, bone, slate, black-jack or other impurities, he shall for the
first offense be notified by weighman and check- weigh man on the miners'
bulletin; for the second offense he may be suspended for one day or be
fined 50 cents ; for the third and each subsequent offense occuring in any
consecutive 30 days, he may be suspended for three days or fined $1M>;
provided, if in any case it is shown that a miner or loader maliciously
or knowingly loads impurities, he shall be subject to discharge.
"a. It is further agreed that if any miner or loader has been fined,
suspended or discharged and claims that an injustice has been done him,
the matter shall be taken up for investigation and adjusted in the
manner provided for in Sectidn I of this agreement.
"3. It is further agreed that all moneys collected from fines, as
provided for in the foregoing paragraphs of this Section, shall be de-
posited to the joint account of the Secretary-Treasurer of Districts 14,
21 and 25 of the U. M. W. of A. and the Secretary-Treasurer of the
Southwestern Interstate Coal Operators' Association, and disposition of
said fund shall be made on the joint account of said Secretary-Treasurers.
"4. It shall be the duty of the pit committee and mine foreman at
the end of each day's work to inspect the dirt loaded in coal during said -
day and render decisions hereunder.
workers. Any violation by a member of any such contract shall be cause
for bis expulsion from the Association; but' no member shall be expelled
for this cause until charges have been made and proven against him;
but if such charges are made and proven, the guilty member may be ex-
pelled by a majority vote at any meeting of the Association, or by a
majority vote at any meeting of the Executive Committee hereinafter
provided for.
ARTICLE 10.
"The annual meeting of the Association shall be held on the second
Tuesday of June in each year at a place to be designated by the Executive
Committee. Special meetings may be held on the call of the President,
lyGoo'^lc
The Miners akd Operators 179
^[Bnro, DiBCHABoiva akd tihe to be pais Ton,
SECTION IV.
"i. The management of the mine, the direction of the working
force, and the right to hire and discharge are vested exclusively in the
operator, and the U. M. W. of A. shall not abridge these rights. It is
not the intention of this provision to encourage the discharge of em-
ployees or the refusal 'of employment to applicants because of personal
prejudice or activity in matters affecting the U. M. W. of A. If any
employee shall be discharged or suspended by the management and it
is claimed that an injustice has been done him, an investigation, to be
conducted by the parties and in the manner set forth in Section i, shall
be taken up promptly and if it is proven that an injustice has been done,
the management shall reinstate said employee and pay him full com-
pensation for the time he has been suspended and out of employment
"2. In order that no disputes will arise, it is hereby agreed that the
foregoing paragraph of this section shall be construed that day men shall
receive die scale w^:e for the work at which they were employed when
suspended, and miners $2.81 per day.
"3. When ihe foreman, as provided for in paragraph i of this
section, directs an employee to do labor, the scale of wages being lower
than his regular scale, he shall be paid the wage scale as paid for labor
from which he was transferred, during time employed.
■irapxirBioir or motiko.
sEcnoN V.
"i. In case of either local or general suspension of mining, either
at the expiration of this contract or otherwi^, the engineers shall not
or on the call of two of the Vice-Presidents and Secretary, or on a written
requett signed by any ten members of the Association,'
ARTICLE II.
"At any meeting of the Association a quorum shall consist of the
majority of t^e voting strength of the Association as fixed in Article 3.
The Secretary shall give notice of all meetings by mailing to each member
at his usual postolBce address a letter in which the date and place of
the oontemplated meeting shall be distinctly stated, and such notice shall
be mailed not less than ten days prior to the date of the meeting; pro-
vided, in case of emergency of which he shall be the judge, the President
may call a meeting by three days' telegraphic notice to each member.
ARTICLE 12.
"The officers of the Association shall consist of a President, one Vice-
President at I.arge, one Vice-President from each of the States of Kansas,
lyGoo'^lc
i8o Coal Mining in Arkansas
suspend work, but ^all, when mining is suspended, fully protect all die
conqiany's property under thrir care, and operate fans and pumps and
lower and hoist such men or supplies as may be required to protect the
company's property, and any and all coal required to keep tqt steam at
the company's coal plants. But it is understood and agreed that the
operator will not ask them to hoist any coal prodi|ced by non-union labor
for gale on the market Should the interest of the engineers be directly
involved in any issue at the expiration of this contract, and any engineers
cease from work, the United Mine Workers of America will provide com-
petent men to perform the emergency work above recited at the scale
price in effect at the time of the suspension, subject to any subsequent
settlement. The operator, at his option, to retain only such engineers
as are required, but with the understanding that all of the engineers
employed at the time of the suspension shall be entitled to an equal
division of die work.
LOCAL SXMAMIM.
SECTION VL
"t. There shall be no demands made locally by either operators or
employees which are in conflict with this agreement, or any District
agreement, and there shall be no provisions imposed violating the same.
"2 If any mine or any stdistantial part of a mine is laid idle or
shut down in violation of this contract by any operator or any agent of
any operator, such operator shall pay to the mine workers em^oyed in
■aid mine, who are thereby laid idle, the sum of one dollar per day for
eadi of such mine workers for each day or part of a day whidi said mine
is so laid idle, which sum shall be added to the regular pay acconitt of
Oklahoma, Missouri and Arkansas, and a Secretary and Treasurer; but
the last two offices may be held by one person. The President and Vice-
Presidents shall serve without compensation.
ARTICI^E 13.
"The officers of the Association named in Article 13 shall be elected
at die annual meeting, and shall hold office until their successors are
elected and qualify. If the Association at any annual meeting fails to
elect said officers, they may be elected at any subsequent special meeting.
ARTICLE 14.
"The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association ; shall
approve all expenditures of the funds of the Association; and,, except as
odierwise provided, shall call all meetings of the Associati<»].
ARTICLE 15.
"In case of the illness, absence, disqualification or disability of the
i.sanyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Operators i8i
each of said mine workers and be paid him with such r^ular account.
"3. If any mine or any substanlial part of a mine is shut down or
laid idle in violation of this contract by any local union, member or mem-
bers of any local union, pit committee, check-wei^man, or other or
different officer or officers or committee of the U. M. W. of A., said
Iterator may withhold for his or its own use from any fimd checked
off by him or it from the wages of the employees at said mine and other-
wise payable by said operator to the officers of the local union having
jurisdiction over the workmen at said mine, a sum equal to fifty cents per
day per man for all the United Mine Workers who are so idle at said
mine for each day or part of a day such nune or substantial part thereof
is so shut down or laid idle.
"4. Any question or disagreement as to any such shut-down or
the laying idle of any mine being in violation of this contract and the
rights of the injured party to the indemnity or penalties herAy pre-
scribed shall be determined and finally settled as other disagreements
are provided to be settled, by Section 1 of this agreement But no
indemnity or penalty above provided shall be withheld or paid to the party
entitled thereto until any disagreement concerning the same has been so
finally determined.
VAYMXMT or VAOE8.
EEcnoN vn,
"i. The operators agree to pay twice a month, the dates of payment
to be left as at present; and these payments are to be made at the office
nearest to the mine wherein or at which the empl<qrees are employed;
provided, however, that this ofiice shall be located not more than two
miles from and) mine.
President, a Vice-President shall perform his duties. For this purpose,
the Vice-President at Large shall be first, the Vice-President of Kansa*
shall he second, the Vice-President of Oklahoma shall be third, the Vice-
President of Missouri shall be fourth, and the Vice-President of Arkansas
■hall be fifth.
ARTICLE 16.
"The Secretary shall keep a record of the proceedings of all meetings
of the Assodatioa and the Executive Committee hereinafter provided for,
and shall countersign all notices of meetings, and send the same as here-
inbefore provided to the members of the Association.
"The Treasurer shall receive and be the custodian of all the moneys
of the Association and shall pay out the same only on voucher approved
by the President. He shall give a bond in an amount to be fixed by
n> 000^^10
i82 Coal Mining in Arkansas
"2. Any employee wishing to leave the service of an operator shall
upon giving the mine foreman three days' notice of his intention to do
90, receive all money due him within twenty-four hours after he has left
the service of an operator ; provided, that not more than 10 per cent of
the employees shall avail themselves of said right in any one week.
"i. The operator will recc^nize the pit committee in the discharge
of their duties as provided for in this agreement, and agree to check
off all dues, assessments, tines and initiations from all miners and mine
laborers when desired. In order to protect the companies, the U. M. W.
of A. agree, when the companies so demand, to furnish a collective and
continuous order authorizing the company to make such deductions. The
companies agree to furnish the miners' local representatives a monthly
statement, showing separately the amount of dues, assessments, fines and
initiations collected. In case any fine is imposed, the propriety of which
is questioned, the amount of such fine shall be held by the operator until
the case is taken up and a decision reached.
"2. All deductions for dues, assessments, initiations and fines shall
be made through the company office upon statement made by the check-
weighman or a duly authorized representative of the Local Union. It is
understood that powder, oil and smithing shall have prior claim, and not
to exceed one-half of the regular initiation fee shall be collected in any
"3. It is agreed that the miners may employ a check- weighman to
see that coal is properly weighed and a correct record made thereof, and
the Association or ihe Executive Committee, conditioned as the Association
or Executive Committee may provide. The premiums on such bond
shall be paid by the Association.
ARTICLE I?.
"There shall be an Executive Committee of eighteen members. The
President and Vice-PreMdent at Large, and the Vice-Presidents of each
State shall be ex-officio members of the Executive Committee, and the
President shall be the chairman thereof.
"The Secretary of the Assocoation shall serve as Secretary of the
Executive Committee.
"Three of the other twelve members shall be elected by the mem-
bers of the Association operating mines in each of the States of
Kansas, Oklahoma, Missouri and Arkansas-
lyGoo'^lc
The Miners and Operators 183
when such check-weighmsn is employed the companies shall furnish him
a check number, and he shall credit to his number such portion of each
miner's coal as he may be authorized to do by the Local Union.
BBITXEB.
SEcnOK IX.
"i. Driveis shall take their mules to and from the stables, and the
time required in so doing shall not include any part of the day's labor;
their time beginning when they reach the change at which they receiTe
empty cars — that is, the parting drivers at the shaft bottom and the
inside drivers at the parting — and ending at the same place; but in no
case shall a driver's time be docked while he is waiting for such cars at
the pmnts named. The inside drivers, at their option, may either walk
to and from their parting or take with them, without any compensaticHi,
either loaded or empty cars to enable them to ride. This provision, how*
ever, shall not prevent the inside drivers from bringing to and taking
from the bottom regular trips, if so directed by the mine foreman, provided
such work is done within the eight hours.
"z. When the stables are located outside the mine the companies
agree to deliver the mules at the bottom of the shaft in the morning and
relieve the drivers of die mules at the bottom of the shaft at ni^^t
"3. When the day men go into the mine in the morning they shall
be entitled to two hours' pay whether or not the mine works full two
hours; but after the first two hours the men shall be paid for every
hour thereafter, by the hour, for each hour's work or fractional part
thereof. If, for any reason, the regular work can not be furnished flie
"Seven or more members of the Executive Committee sitting at the
chief office of the Association at Kansas City, Missouri, shall constitute a
quorum, and any question before said committee shall be decided by a
vote of the majority of a quorum thereof.
ARTICLE 18.
"The meetings of the Executive Committee shall bf held on the call
of flie President, or on the call of any five members. Five days* notice,
stating the time and place of the meeting, shall be given in writing to
every member of said Committee; provided that the President, in any
instance where he may determine an emergency exists, shall have the
power to call a meeting of the Executive Committee by telegraph on two
days' notice.
ARTICLE 19.
"The Executive Committee shall have and possess all power and
. Goc^lc
184 Coal Mining in Arkansas
inside day laborers for a portion of the first two hours, the operators
shall furnish other than the regular labor for the unexiured time.
nVAL TUBll.
SBCmON X.
"l. The operator shall see that an equal turn is offered each miner
and that he be given a fair chance to obuin the same. The check-weigh-
man shall keep a turn-bulletin for the turn-keeper's guidance. The drivers
shall be subject to wbbmever the mine manager shall designate as turn-
keeper in pursuance hereof.
secnoN XI.
"i. It is agreed that measurements of entries, brushing, room turning
and deadwork shall be made semi-monthly, and payment in full shall be
made for such work in the same manner as other work is paid for.
COMDITIOX OF THE MINZ.
SKTION XI 1.
"I. The company shall keep the mine in as dry condition as practi-
cable, by keeping the water off the road and out of the working places.
When a miner has to leave his working place on account of water, through
the neglect of the company, they shall employ said miner doing company
work when practicable and provided that said miner is competent to do
such work, or he will be given another working place until such water is
taken out of his place.
authority that the Association possesses, except to elect officers or amend
the Constitution and By-Laws. The Executive Committee shall keep a
record of its proceedings, and make a report thereof to the Association.
Said Executive Committee shall not, however, have any power to repeal
or abrogate any action taken by the Association.
ARTICLE 19-A.
"There shall be a General Scale Committee of the Associaition, com-
posed of the members of the Executive Committee, ex-officto, and twelve
other members, three of whom shall be elected by the members of the
Association operating mines in each of the respective States of Kansas,
Oklahoma, Missouri and Arkansas, and said respective States shall also
elect an alternate for each elective member of said Committee. Said
alternate shall have the right to meet with the Committee, and also the
right to participate in the deliberations of said Committee, and each
lyGoo'^lc
The Miners and Operators
SECTION xin.
"i. No deduction shall be made for doctors unless snch dednction
is authorized by the individual employee.
PKOviKom TOB nrmxED.
SECTION xnr.
"i. The operator shall keep sufficient blankets, oil, bandages, etc.,
at each mine, and provide such suitable conveyance 'as is available to
properly convey the injured persons to their homes after an acddent
DEATHS AKS rmTERALH.
secnoH XV.
"i. In the event of an instantaneous death by accident in the mine,
employees shall have the privilege of discontinuing work for the remainder
of that day only. Work, at the option of the operator, shall be resumed
the day following and continued thereafter. In case the operator elects
to operate the mine on the day of the funeral of the deceased, as above
or where death has resulted from an accident in the mine, individual em-
ployees may, at their i^tion, absent themselves from work for the purpose
of attending such funeral, but not otherwise. And whether attendii^ such
funeral, or not, each member of the U. M. W, of A. employed at the mine
at which the deceased was employed, shall contribute fifty (50) cents and
the operator twenty-five dollars ($35) for the benefit of the family of the
deceased or his legal representatives, to be collected through the office of
alternate, in tihe absence of the principal, shall have the right to vote for
and in place of his principal ; but on all questions coming before the
General Scale Committee the vote must be unanimous of all members
present at the Committee.
"Said General Scale Committee shall have power to represent the
Association and fix the term and conditions governing the employment
of labor and all interstate conferences with the mine workers, and shall
meet on the call of the President of the Association.
"The General Scale Committee shall keep a record of its proceedings
and make a report thereof to the Associaation. Said General Scale Com-
mittee shall not, however, have power to repeal or abrogate any action
taken by the Association.
ARTICLE 20.
"The members of each of the States of Kansas, Oklahoma, Missouri,
and Arkansas, shall annually elect a Local Scale Committee of seven
Goc^lc
i86 Coal Mining in Arkansas
the company. In the event that the mines are thrown idle on account of
the employees' failure to report for work in the time intervening between
At time of the accident and the funeral or on the day of the funeral,
then the con^>any shall not be called upon for the payment of the twenty-
five ($25) dollars above referred to.
"3. Except in cases of fatal accdients, as above, the mine shall in
no case be thrown idle because of any death or funeral, but in the case
of the death of any employee of the company or member of his family,
any individual miner may, at his option, absent himself from work for
the purpose of attending such funeral, but not odierwise:
POVSES.
secnoN XVI.
"i. The price of powder during the life of this contract shall be
$2.00 per 25-lb. keg.
"3. There shall be no other explosive than black powder used for
shoolinit coal in the mines except upon the mutual consent of the pit
boss and the mine committee who may allow the use of other explosive*
in entries and slopes or places regarded as deficient and faulty.
KAOBOAD UXH AT TtHTEB.
SBCTION XVII.
"i. When an adequate number of empty railroad cars are at the
nunes at the starting time in the morning to work one-quarter day, and
the operator has assurance from the railroad company that more cars
wilt be placed at the mine before the empty cars already at the mine are
loaded, then all employees shall go to work.
members. Each Local Scale Committee shall have power to deal with all
local questions and conditions affecting the employment of labor arising
within its State, and shall have power to fill vacancies in its own mem-
bership. Four members of each Local Scale Committee shall con-
stitute a quorum for the transaction of business; but on all questions
coming before such Committee the vote must be unanimous of all members
ARTICLE 21.
"The Executive Committee, in its discretion, may employ a com-
missioner or commissioners, and define the duties of said commissioner or
commissioners. Said Committee shall also make provision for the col-
lection of statistks which shall show the production of coal in the
territory embraced in this Association, and shall report such statistics to
the annual meetings of the Association, together with any other infonaa-
i.sanyGoO'^lc
The Mixers and Operators 187
"2. Whenever any operator may desire to mine and stock bis coal,
either in bins or on the ground, the employees shall go to work whether
tdere are any empty railroad cars at the mine or not.
"i. Where the development of a new mine is begun during the period
covered by this agreement, scale of wages coverii^ the labor at such
new mine will be the same as in other mines in the neighborhood.
"2. Where a mine is being developed in a new part of the field
where new conditions are encountered, a scale of wages and rates will be
made by the Commissioner for the operators and the District President for
the miners.
OLASSBI OF VORX.
SECTION XIX.
"i. The erection of head frames, buildings, scales, machinery, rail-
road switches, etc., necessary for the completion of a plant to hoist coal,
all being in the nature of construction work, are to be excluded from the
jttrisdiction of the U. M. W. of A. E^ensive repairs to and rclmilding
of the same class of work, shall also be included in the same, provided
that any or all members of the U. M. W. of A. who may be employed
at such work shall not be asked to work in conflkt with the terms of this
agreement
tion concerning coal industries that will, in the judgment of the Com-
mittee, be of interest to the members,
"These articles may be amended by two-thirds vote of the Associa-
tion at any regular or called meeting; provided the text of every pro-
posed amendment shall be presented to the members at least ten (10) days
prior to the meeting at which it is voted upon.
ARTICLE 23.
"At meetings of the Association and Executive Committee) the fol-
lowing order of business shall be observed, unless odierwise voted:
ORDER OF BUSINESS.
I. RoU ctIL
a. Reading of Minutes of previous meeting and their approvaL
3. Report of Standing Committees.
4. Report of Special Committees.
5. R^ort of the Secretary and Treasurer.
6. Unfinished Busineis."
lyGoo'^lc
i88 Coal Mining in Arkansas
"2. It ii further agreed that the reloading of coal that has been
mined and unloaded on the ground shall be exempt from the jurisdiction
of the U. M. W. of A.
DDTm or FIT ooioaTTss.
SKTroN XX.
"I, The duties of the pit committee shall bt confined to the ad-
jiwtment of disputes between the pit boss and any member of the U. M.
W. of A., working in and around the miijes, arising out of this agree-
ment or any District agreement made in connection therewith, when the
pit boss and said miner or mine laborer have failed U agree.
"a. In case of any local trouble arising in any mine through such
failure to agree between the pit boss and any miner or mine laborer, the
pit committee and the pit boss are empowered to adjust it, and in the
case of their disagreement, it shall be referred to the sufwrintendent of
the company and the District President of the U. M. W. of A., or such
perstM) as he may designate to represent him; and should they fail to
agree, it shall be referred to the Commissioner of the Southwestern
Interstate Coal Operators' Association and the District President of the
U. M. W. of A. for adjustment; and in all cases the mines, miners, mine
l&borers and parties involved must continue at work pending an investiga-
tion and adjustment, as provided for in Section i.
"3. If any day man refuse to continue at work because of a grievance
which has or has not been taken up for adjustment in the maimer pro-
vided herein, and such action shall seem likely to impede the operation
of the mine, the pit committee shall immediately furnish a man or men
to take such vacant place or places at the scale rate, in order that the
mine may continue at work, and it shall be the duty of any member or
members of the United Mine Workers who may be called up<Mi by ti>e
pit boss or pit committee to immediately take the place or placet assigned
to him or them in pursuance thereof. Provided that this paragraph shall
not prevent the enforcement of the other penalties herein provided for.
"4. The pit committee, in the discharge of its duties, shall under
no circumstances go around the mine for any cause whatever, unless
called upon by the pit boss or by a miner or company man who mxr
have a grievance that he can not settle with the boss. Any pit committee-
man who shall attempt to execute any local rule or proceeding in con-
flict wiUi any provision of this contract, or any other made in pursuonoe
hereof shall be forthwith d^iosed as committeeman. The foregoing
shall not be construed to prohibit the pit committee from looking after
.Goc^lc
The Miners and Operators 189
the matter of membership dues and initiations in any primer manner.
The pit committeemen shall be elected to serve for one year unless deposed
for cause.
"5. Members of the pit conimittee employed as day men shall not
leave their places of duty during working hours except by permission
of the operator, or in cases involving the stoppage of the mine.
SECTION XXI,
"r. This contract shall continue in full force until the expiration
of two years from March 31, 1908.
OBUOATIOin.
SECTION XXII.
"i. All the provisions and terms of this contract are hereby mutually
agreed to by and between all the operators, members of the Southwestern
Interstate Coal Operators' Association and all the miners of Districts 14,
ai, and 25, and are signed by the representatives of the parties hereto
who have been duly authorized to execute the same on behalf of the
Southwestern Coal Operators' AssociaUon and on behalf of Districts 14,
ai, and 25 of the U. M. W. of A, respectively.
"a. That the next Interstate Joint Conference meet in Kansas City,
Mo., not later than March I, 1910, and earlier if meeting can be arranged
by Presidents of Districts 14, 21 and 25, U. M. W. of A., and President,
SecreUry and Commissioner of the Southwestern Interstate Coal Oper-
ators Association.
"In behalf of the Southwestern Interstate Coal Operators' Association.
Jauss Eluott,
President
Cbas. S. Kuth,
Vice- Pre 5 , -at -Large.
J. H. HiBBEN,
Secretary.
"In behalf of the miners.
P. R. SrEWABT,
President District No. 21.
Geo. Coi.vn.LE,
President District No. 35.
Alex. Howat,
President District No. 14."
Goo'^lc
I90 Coal Miming ix Arkan-sas
DISCUSSION OF THE AGREEMENT,
Section i provides for a board of reference for the settle-
ment of disputes atkl has generally worked satisfactorily, except
when the miners strike before referring their grievances to it.
Section II of the agreement, which de6nes the time of day
work of all classes, seems to be satisfactory, and chaises need
only be made in the event of a general change of scale.
Section III, which gives penalty for loading impurities,
might well be m^de more stringent. As this penalty now is,
some of the younger miners load out slate on purpose so as to
get a three-day lay-off, which, with the two more days regularly
allowed and idle days, wall give them a week or more for a hunt-
ing trip without allowing the pit boss to put some one else in
their places. Only a few men do this but the majority of the
miners do not object to a lay-off now and then and do not fear
the penalty for loading out slate.
An effective slate clause should specify that if required by
tiie company, a single piece of easily separated impurity shall
be enough for a penahy, and that the pit committee shall have
no jurisdiction over the amount of impurity which can be loaded
out without a penalty; and further that any miner loading out
50 pounds of impurity to the ton in any car shall be subject to
immediate discharge at the option of the pit boss, but only after
the impurities have been weighed in the presence of the check-
weighman. If a fair sample of the slack of any car of coal shall
have 5 per cent more slate than the average slack of the
mine, the miner may be subject to immediate discharge. This
proportion of waste to be determined by floating the coal in a
solution of zinc chloride or other heavy solution which has a
specific gravity o.io greater than that of the clean lump coal.
A test to be made whenever required by the pit boss.
If it were not prohibited by law, it would seem fair to
arrange cash penalties in proportion to the weight of the im-
purities, and on the basis of the actual agreed total cost of
picking it out of the worst car, multiplied by the number of
cars loaded by the miner during the day.
Section IV actually gives all of the men who are dis-
charged the right to appeal for re-instatement. This is neces-
sary to protect the leaders of the Union but is often greatly
The Miners and Operators 19*
abused. In some cases, the foreman does not have control over
the day-men even. At other mines, new diggers can not be
employed except with the approval of the Union. Paragraph
2 provides for the wa^es to be paid for the time lost by dis-
charged men who are reinstated and paragraph 3 provides that
men who are transferred to other worit shall not gel less than
their regular pay. The district contract gives them an increase
of 28c. a day. There is no objection to these parts of the
section.
Section V requires tfie engineers to remain at worit dur-
ii^ suspensions and has generally been observed for at least
the first four months of a suspension.
Section VI prohibiting local strikes or sbirtHdown is very
good but is not enforced.
Section VII specifies two pay-days per nnonth, and is gen-
erally satisfactory. More frequent pay-days with the neces-
sary measurement in the mine will take too much time of the
mine foreman and of the office force.
Section VIII requires the companies to 'check-off' Union
dues, etc, from the wages of the miners, and is necessary to
maintain the Union, although it seems unfair to the companies
and some of the men. The Union should be required to initiate
any man paying the fee and taking the Union obligations.
Section IX merely provides for the measurement of the
time the drivers shall work. It need only be modified in case
of a change of scale and is inserted to prevent disputes.
Section X, requiring an equal turn, should be modified
in favor of the miners as suggested on p. 224.
Section XI simply requires a measurement of yardage for
each pay day.
Section XII, requiring the company to keep the roadways
dry, and Section XIV, requiring provision for first aid to the
injured, are often neglected by the operators.
Section XIII makes the payment of a doctor's fee optional.
It would seem better to require a general and smaller fee which
might he greater for the men with families, and in return to
alkiw the miners to select the doctor. It is feared, however,
that tiie miners would object to this, and it is not a favor to the
companies.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
192 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Section XV, regarding deaths and funerals, requires con-
tributions from the miners and operator to the family of any
miner who is killed if the mine continues in operation. The
second part, requiring that the miners remain at woric unless
they attend the funeral of any member of the family of any
miner, is entirely proper, but in this State at least, it is nearly
always, violated.
Section XVI, paragraph i, fixes the price of powder ut
$2.00 per 25-lb. keg. This provides a margin to pay the op-^r-
ator for handling it and delivering it to the miners' rooms.
The price is a little high in the hope of reducing the excessive
use of powder in order to lessen the danger to sliot-firers. the
bad effect upon the roof, and the production of slack. To be
effective in this way the price should be much greater. The
advance in the price could be used to provide a fund for relief
of injured miners or returned to the miners in the form of a
higher price for mining the coal. It should be noted that this
last plan was put into effect in the Pennsylvania anthracite mines
many years ago. It was very satisfactory at the time but after a
number of years led to the accusation that the operators were
unfairly extorting money from their men and was used to in-
fluence public opinion against the operators. Paragraph 2 allows
the operator to prevent the destructive shattering of the coal by
injurious explosives. In otljer States, it is violated by the room-
miners who buy dynamite from the entry-men who need it for
blasting rock. Fortunately this practice is almost unknown in
Arkansas.
Section XVII is a necessary agreement to enable the oper-
ator to begin mining coal before the supply of empty railroad
cars for a full day's run has been delivered. It saves a delay
in the use of cars and so reduces the car shortage, but occa-
sionally requires the miners to go into the mine for only two
hours work.
Section XVIII is a necessary agreement regarding the
opening of new mines. It has led to some dispute as to which
was the nearest similar mine when the scale at various nearby
mines has been different. It should therefore be more
specific.
Section XIX, paragrajrfi i, exempts other mechanics erect-
ing new tipples and the equipment, from the control of the Mine
.Goc^lc
The Miners and Operators 193
Workers' Union. Paragraph 2 allows the companies to gather
up slack from the ground during general strikes. It is all that
prevents an enormous waste of the surplus slack.
Section XX, paragraphs i and 4 define the duties of the
pit committee. Paragraph 4 should be more strictly enforced
than it is because in many cases the members of the pit com-
mittee interfere in the settlements already made between the
miners and the pit boss. Paragraf^ 5 prevents members of the
pit coitHnittee who are employed as day-men from leaving their
places without permission for purposes of committee meetings.
This is necessary to prevent the tying up of the work of parts
of the mine, but has in many cases the effect of limiting the
membership of the pit committee to the contract diggers. Para-
graph 2 of this section again provides for the settlement of dis-
putes by the reference board. Paragraph 3 requires the pit
committee to provide men to take the places of day-men who
strike in violation of the agreement. In many cases the pit
committee does this, but there is a necessary delay while men
are being found, so the requirement is chiefly useful to per-
suade the drivers and others not to go out upon so many useless
strikes. The diggers as well as the company are inconvenienced
by these strikes.
Section XXI defines the period of the agreement.
Section XXII pledges its observance.
CONTRACT FOR DISTRICT NUHBER 2J*, U. HL T. OF A.
Adopted at Kansas City, Mo., May 25, rgoS. For period ending
March 31, 1910.
PBIOES Tos mimra m abkanbas. at goal ehx, alix. sexndto,
BOHAXZA. jmT ujnt. DKXExwooD, ExoixBios, kaceei arrz, xomtbeal,
BUKKA, xmiAvv ciTT, inniTiNaToir, aABTjoaD axo bates.
"i. All coal in Arkansas, at the option of the operator, to be mined
and paid for on a sliding scale in proportion to the percentage, or weight,
of lump coal contained in the whole, based on the present prices and
size of screens where such are established.
'Portions applying to Oklahoma only have been omitted.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
194 Coal Mining is Arkansas
"2. The price for mine-run coal per ton shall be 63 cents.
"3. For screened coal, per ton, 90 cents,
"4. The operators are to have the option of paying on a screened-
coal or mine-run basis. When the coal is mined on sc reened -coal ^ sis,
the screens used shall not be more than six feet wide, have bars not more
than sixteen feet long, and i.^i-inch space between the bars." (Thb is
known as a standard screen.]
"5. This rate applies to all coal more than 2 feet 10 inches high,
•xcept where there is a special agreement or local condition.
"6. Where miners at Coal Hill, No. 18 Jenny Lind. and Denning,
Arkansas, have been pushing cars both ways, the company shall assist
the miner one way when necessary.
THZ KoOuaTAiK tniadHiaii iuokivx SOALB.
"7. Cutting in rooms (including room break-throughs) shall be
I2j^ cents per ton mine-run, to be divided three-fifths to cutter and two-
fifths to helper.
"8. Cutting in entries and all other narrow work except room
break-throughs shall be sixteen and one-half cents divided three-fifths
and two-fifths as above. No yardage.
"9. Loaders in rooms (including room break-throughs) shall re-
ceive forty cents per ton mine-run; loaders to furnish powder and do all
work ordinarily done by pkk miners in room, except cutting.
"10. Loaders in entries and all other narrow work (except room
break-throughs) shall receive forty-five cents per ton. No yardage.
Loaders to furnish powder and do all work ordinarily done by pick miners
in entry work except cutting.
"11, The loading rate of the McCurtain machine scale shall be
extended over those mines in Arkansas which now carry 63 cents per
ton mine-run tonnage rate. Where punching machines are installed in
Arkansas, the McCurtain cutting rate to be adopted.
"12. Where chain machines are installed, in .\rkansas, the rate for
runners and helpers shall be established by the Commissioner of the
Operators and the District President of the Union, and in case of their
failure to agree, the matter will be taken up in the manner provided for
other controversies.
XMTKT rASDABX, ETC.
"13. Entry yardage and deficient work will be the 1903 rate.
[This is an advance of I3j4 per cent over the non-union rate.] The
lyGoo'^lc
The Miners and Operators ■ 195
same rules and customs defining deficient work in District 31 shall be in
force during the life of this agreement. [This probably includes brushing,
etc., where there is no special agreement.]
"14. All break-throughs in Arkansas when required to be cut
tiirou^, to be paid at the 1903 rate.
"15. Price for moving all draw slate and rock exceeding two inches
in -thickness, 2}^ cents per inch per running yard for each five feet in
width, and all over and above to be paid accordingly. This applies to all
mines except where there is ,a special contract.
UtRDE DAY WAOZ SCALE.
Per day
Timbermcn $ 2.56
Track layers 3.56
Track layers' helpers flj6
Trappers 1.13
Bottom cagers 3,56
Drivers '. 3.56
Trip riders 2.56
Pushers 2.56
Water haulers and machine haulers 3.56
All other insiBe day labor 2.35
Spragging, coupling and greasing, when done by boys 1.7s
Shot-firers, under normal conditions _ 3.00
' "The fire-boas shali receive $3.04 per day and shall be subject to dis-
charge by the management of the mine without appeal; if competent,
sbal] be given other work.
"The fire-runner shall receive not less than $2'.s6 where such is em-
ployed.
"Electric hoist operators:
Per day
For boys $ 2.00
" 'Boys' means those of maximum age of 19 years.
Electric slope engineers 256
Motormen 256
Pump men (inside) 2.56
Head machinist - 3-it>
Machinists - 2.75
Day wages for digging coal 2-8i
Machine runners 3-00
Machine helpers a.7S
Shaft sinkers 3-04
lyGoo'^lc
196 Coal Mining in Arkansas
ovtsise dat waax 80ai£,
First blacksmiths $ 3-a>
Second blacksmiths 2-75
Blacksmiths' helpers 2.36
Carpenters X43
"Provided that all carpenters now receiving more than ^.30 shall be
advanced j.g per cent.
All other outside day labor $ 3.03J4
"Provided that any class of outside day tabor now receiving $1.91
or more per day shall be advanced 5.g per cent. These provisions only
apply to outside labor not otherwise enumerated.
SCALE FOK XMGIMEESI.
Engineers, lirst-class, 500 tons and over, per mcHith $79.00
Second-class, 300 to 500 ti^is per month 73-00
Third-class, 300 tons or less, per month 6S-00
"The minimum rate for tail rope and slope engineers shall be $3.38
per day, or $62.00 per month ; provided, further that the maximum rate
for tail rope and slope engineers shall be $2.70 per day or $70.00 per
month. Twenty-six days to constitute a month's work and nine hours
to constitute a day's work. Alt over-time in excess of nine hours to be
paid for at a proportionate rale per hour.
"The mining prices, inside and outside day wage scale (except
engineers) provided tor in this contract is based upon an eight-hour
work day.
HALE 7U0E FOB BLAOXBMTTEniO ICKEXS' TOOLS AND XACHINE ICSE TOOLS.
"i. Three-fourths of one per cent on gross earnings for blacksmith-
ing of miners' tools, and three-eighths of one per cent on gross earnings for
machine coal loaders' tools,
"2. All sharpening and repairs of tools to be done as promptly ai
AEXEEAI. OOKSinoIII.
"i. It is agreed to renew the contract expiring March 31, 1908,
for District 21, except where local and district provisions and conditioni
already agreed to by miners and operators conflict with the general inter-
state provisions that may be agreed to by miners and operators at this
conference. All joint decisions made in connection with the aforesaid
agreement are confirmed.
lyGoo'^lc
The Miners and Operators 197
"5. No person employed underground shall use an inferior grade of
lard oil. and the use of any other except lard oil is prohibited. Rope
riders in mine slopes are excepted.
"7- Where coal is screened before being weighed it shall be dumped
on flat sheets and passed over the screen specified in the Pittsburg Agree*
ment, and there shall be no obstruction on said screen.
"8. All company men shall receive an equal share of all work when
competent to do such work.
"9. The gas men shall place marks at last inside break-throughs,
showing clearly whether there is any standing gas in working place. Should
there be standing gas, he shall place gas mark at room neck in addition
to mark at inside break-through; but should working place be clear, he
shall place marks so indicating this at coal face. No miner shall be
permitted to brush out gas.
"10. Miners shall have the right to send out their dull tools on
lop of loaded cars and tie company shall deliver the same to the black-
smith shop for sharpening, and no man be allowed to carry tools up or
down shaft In slopes the company shall deliver the same to parting
or bottom. The company shall not be responsible for tools,
"II. Any underground employee not on hand to go down to work
at the hour for commencing work, shall not be entitled to go below except
at the convenience of the company.
"12. When an employee is sick or injured he shall be given a cage
at once. When a cage load of men come to the bottom of the shaft, who
have been prevented from working by reason of falls or other things
over which they have no control, they shall be given a cage at once. For
the accommodation of individual employees less than a cage load who
have been prevented from working as above, cage will be run mid-fore-
noon, noon and mid-afternoon of each working day. Provided, however,
that the foregoing shall not be permitted to enable men to leave their
work for other than the reasons stated above.
"13- The sinking of slopes and driving narrow work through faults
shall be left to Local Union and mine management for adjustment
"14. All double shift places to be paid twenty-eight cents per yard
"is All wet entries, rooms, slopes, slope air-courses and ail other
work connected with the slopes shall be left to the I-ocal Union and super-
intendent or manner for agreement of price.
"16. Frozen or seamy coal, stuck top or bottom, shall be deficient
- work, and shall be paid for extra, the same to be determined by mine
. Goc^lc
198 Coal Mining in Arkansas
committee and pit boss. If they fail to agree the miner shall be given
an average place in the mine.
"17. There shall be no deduction for school purposes except au-
thorized by the individuals.
"18. For the health and safety of the miners' lives, air-courses shall
be kept up with the entries as near as possible, and cross-cuts shall be
driven every forty feet; where gas exists, they shall be driven every thirty
feet. No room shall be turned inside the last cross-cut.
19. "The present conditions in regard to double and single work
shall prevail.
20. "Any employe absenting himself from work two days, and not
reporting for work on the morning of the third day, shall forfeit his
right to his working place, unless excuse*] by mine foreman, but shall
be given another place on turn ; provided, however, this shall not apply
in case of sickness.
21. "Where a fall occurs in any working place the company shall
make preparations to clean up same within four hours from time
of notice; failing to do so the miner or miners affected shall clean up
same, company paying at the rate of $2,56 per shift.
22. "Price for moving all draw slate and rock exceeding two inches
in thickness, 2^4 cents per inch per running yard for each five feet in
width, and all over and above to be paid accordingly. This applies to alt
mines except where there is a special contract.
23. "Where rooms are driven up narrow on account of bad top,
the yardage shall be same as that in air-courses, measurements to be made
from the entry; and when room Is widened out one-half room turnii^
shall be paid. Where bottom is taken up entry yardage shall be paid.
This does not apply in rooms that have been widened out, then narrowed
up and re-necked, but in these cases the prices shall be 1906 rates.
24. "When a car leaves working place it is in charge of the com-
pany, and average weight shall be paid for broken cars. Such cars shall
be reported by the man that dumps the coal. The company shall keep all
cars in good repair.
25. "All coal four feet and over where it comes down to under
3 thickness of three feet four inches, shall be declared deficient woric
This applies (o Arkansas and Oklahoma.
26. "Where ears are delivered at working face, all timber and
rails shall be delivered there.
27. "Where powder is taken into the mine in kegs, it shall be de-
livered to the working place; otherwise it shall be handled according to
the methods in vogue at the various mines.
lyGoo'^lc
The Miners and Operators 199
SS. "When any employe shall be requested to fill the place of
another employe, as specified herein, he shall receive the wages of the
employe whose place he takes, plus 28 cents; provided, further, that it is
not compulsory on any man who may not wish to take such place.
29. "The District President of the U. M. W. of A., the Commis-
Moner of the Southwestern Interstate Coal Operators* Association, aitd
the State Mine Inspector shall be a committee of three to determine at
what places shot-firers shall be employed in Arkansas.
30. "In behalf of the Southwestern Interstate Coal Operators' As-
Jaues-Eluoit,
President.
Chas. S. Keith,
Vice-Prest. at Large.
J. H. HlBBEN,
Secretary.
"In behalf of the miners.
Fred W. HotT,
Secretary District No. 21."
The more important local prices based on an advance upon
fte 1902 prices, and special agreements, most of which are not
printed in the 'contract,' are given below.
Spadra. At Spadra, the agreed price for screened coal
per ton is $1.02 from Sep. i to Feb. 28, and 92c from Mar. l to
Aug. 31; for mine-run coal, per ton, Sj'/ic. For all coal under
3 ft, in higbt, the miner is paid sc, per ton additional to the above
prices for each 3 in. less of coal. He receives loc, per ton extra
for all coal from rooms over 150 ft. long.
Riissellville. At Russellville, the price for hand-fwcked
coal free from slack, slate, sulphur, bony coal, and black jack,
is $i.i2j^ per ton from Sep. i to Feb. 28; 97c. per ton from
Mar. I to .A.ug. 31 ; or $1,04^ per ton for the entire year. For
bottom coal only, when it is more than 15 in. high, $i.30>4
is paid. This is the average price at 5c. a ton extra for each 3
lyGoO'^lc
200 Coal Mining in Arkansas
in. less than 3 ft. high. If bottom coal is less than 15 in., it is
deficient and loc. per ton extra is paid when both benches are
mined. The miners receive loc. per ton extra for coal coming
from rooms more than 150 ft. long,
Paris, At Paris, for mining 'hand-picked or forked coal
free from impurities,' $1.05 per ton is paid. This coal as mined
now contains over 25 per cent of slack and this is practically
a mine-run price. The coal is usually 28 to 30 inches high and
is declared deficient if not over 24 in, high. The companies
pay IOC. per ton for coaJ from rcwms over 150 ft. long.
Excelsior. At Excelsior, where the coal is low, the price
for the first 100 ft. of room driven horizontally, is 75c. per ton ;
for the second 100 ft., 80c. per ton.
Hackett. At Hackett, on account of a deficiency of 2 to
4 in. in haght, the miners get 70c. per ton.
Machine scales. At Spadra, $3.00 per day was paid for
running chain machines, and 70c. per ton, for loading the coal
after it was cut, and for taking care of the room. At Paris,
14c. per linear foot of face in rooms, and i6c. in entries was
paid for cutting out with a punching machine 10 in, of hard
clay under the coal to a depth of 4 ft. Eight or 9c. of this was
paid to the machine runner, and 6 or 7c. to his helper. After
the coal which is only 22 in. high was cut, the loaders received
75c. per ton for shooting it down, loading it into pit cars, and
taking care of the room.
ENTRIES, AIR-COtniSES, AND CROSSCUTS.
Prices paid for 'cutting" and handling coal only, in entries
and other narrow places are in addition to the regular ton-
nage rate as follows:
At Spadra
20-foot gob entries or air-courses, per yard. .. .$1.12
16-foot " " " " " " " 1.25
12-foot " " " " " " " 1.50
lo-foot " " " " " " " 1.75
8-foot entries or air-courses, per yard 2.00
AH crosscuts between entries and air-courses, per
vard 2,00
lyGoo'^lc
The Miners and Operators 201
At Jamestown
so-foot gob entries or air-courses, per yard 1.12
12-foot " " " " " " " 1.25
6-foot entries or air-courses, per yard ■. . . . 1.75
All crosscuts in entries 2.00
At Russethnlle
18-foot gob entries worked by 2 men, per yard. . . . i.i2j/j
8-foot entries worked by l man, per yard 1,68
This includes brushing to 4 ft and building gob-wall for air-
course next rib.
A special air-course which becomes the first .
room crosscut, costs, per yard i.iaj^
At Paris
All entries regardless of width, per yard 1.79
After coal is undermined by machines, per yard. . , 1,00
At Denning
Entries, air-courses and entry crosscuts 1.68^
At Jenny Lind and Bonanza
The main entry, per yard 2,08
The back entry, per yard r.97
The crosscuts, if driven from the main entry,
per yard - . 2.08
If driven frbm the air-course, per yard 1.97
These differences are supposed to be due to the delay caused
to the main entry-men by the starting of rooms and alterations
in the track.
At Hackett, Excelsior, Bates, Burma, Montreal, Huntington,
Greenwood, and smaller Camps
The entries and air-courses, per yard 2.25
Crosscuts between entries, per yard 1,68
At Hartford
For main entries 12 to 15 ft. wide, per yard 2.25
For entry crosscuts 1 .68
For back entries 20 ft. wide driven as a 'smoke room,' no
yardage paid, except the regular price for brushing.
lyGoO'^lc
202 Coal Mining in Arkansas
At Coaldole
Entries and air-courses, per yard 2.50
Entry crosscuts, per yard 1.68
In general, the Union requires the same yard^e for driving
a cut-off entry through old room pillars as for an entry in solid
coal, but this includes cleaning up gob in the rooms and setting
large props or trees in them. By decision of the arbitrators, full
yardage is demanded for old rooms which are continued as en-
tries or for all rooms from which more than one room has been
turned as in flat coal seams. Attempts have been made to collect
yardage on any room parallel to an entry or which may be after-
wards used to carry the ventilating current.
At Hartford only, no yardage except brushing is charged
upon entry air-courses which are driven full width as 'smdce
rooms.'
BSBAK-THROUGHS OR ROOM CROSSCUTS.
At Spadra, the companies are required to pay $2.25 for all
break-throughs however they are made. This is supposed to be
at the rate of $i.i2j^ per yard.
At all other districts, break-throughs are supposed to be paid
for only when cut, but at Denning especially, yardage is claimed
whenever the first shot does not blow through the pillars. Where
the entry yardage is $2.25 or $2.50, cut break-throughs cost, per
yard, $i.68y2; at practically all other places, $1.12;'^; the first
crosscut is always paid for. At Huntington, break-throughs in
the upper bench only cost, per yard, $1.59.
ROOM TURNINGS.
At Paris, a special double room turning with the first cross-
cut and the connection between the room-necks cost commonly
$9.00, or when first cut by machine $2.80. At all other places as
far as known, the room turning is, per yard, at the rate of
$i.i2>2. At Denning, it is called 2 yards, or costs $2.25. At
all other places, it is called 3 yards, or costs $3.37^,
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Opsbl\tors
The price for sinking slopes at Spadra, per yard $6.CX)
At other places, the price is left to local agreement. Gen-
erally it is the standard price of entry yardage and brushing,
plus the cost of the extra hight and width of brushing required,
plus the water yardage of 50c. or $1.00. A final 25c or 50c. a
yard. is added for the extra labor of shoveling the coal uphill and
for the danger from runaway cars. The cost is thus fixed at
$3.50 per yard at Russellville, $4.50 at Greenwood and Denning,
and $6.00' at many other places. At Jenny Lind mine. No, 18,
the $1.00 a yard more than entry yardage and brushing is still
paid although the slope has passed the center of the basin and
is now going gently upwards in perfectly dry coal.
The slope air-courses are sometimes sunk, in which case the
price is that of the main slope less the cost of some of the
brushing not needed. They are usually, however, driven uphill
from each crosscut from the main slope. The crosscuts are 40
ft. apart and the coal is either turned out with a shovel or run
out on a temporary track. The yardage by this method is the
sajne as for air-courses and the crosscuts between them, and is
$1.25 to $2.00 less than that paid for the slope. At Russell-
ville, the full slope price of $3.00 per yard is paid.
Yardage of generally $1.69 to $2.25 is paid for rooms which
must be narrowed to 9 ft, on account of a patch of bad top.
BRUSHING.
There seems to be little basis in reason for the prices paid
for brushing. There is often a fixed price per entry with a
price for extra brushing per inch. In several places, there is a
straight price per inch. In other places, the brushing price per
yard varies by steps and is not uniform per inch. These prices
rctluced to the basis of one inch for each yard of roadway
brushed from 5 to nearly 7 ft. wide are as follows:
Denning, Hackett, Jenny Lind, and Bonanza, per inch,
per yard Sc.
Fidelity '. .' 4c. to 8c.
Spadra yc.
Top brushing at Burma 7c.
lyGoO'^lc
204 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Bottom brushing at Burma, 5 ft, wide 5?4c.
Bottom brushing at Burma, 3 ft wide 2c.
Russellville SJ^c to 8c
Paris 5«-
Bottom brushing at Bolen-Damall Mine at Hartford. 40c.
per yard for 18 in. or per inch ac
Extra brushing when required 4,^c.
When the coal below the dirt band is good, the cost of the
first 18 in. is only 20c. per yard of entry.
There is no brushing scale at the mines having high coal,
and in general the brushing price is highest at those mines hav-
ing a low price on entry yardage which makes the combined
result more fair. At some places, however, it takes some hours
to drill a hole for a brushing shot and then the rock may have
to be sledged before it can be handled, while at another and pos-
sibly nearby mine where the prices are identical, the hole is
drilld in a few minutes and the soft slate comes down for a
long distance ahead and in slabs easily handled. The greatest
cost per yard is $2.38 at Hackett where the price is high and the
coal low. *
DRAW SLATE,
When less than 2 in. thick, draw slate is generally not paid
for. When thicker, the general scale is 2j^c. per in. for each
15 sq. ft.
At Montreal and Burma, draw slate over 4 in. thick is paid
for across the width of the room at the rate of 56c. per yard of
room for draw slate 4 to 8 in. thick, and 84c. per yard for draw
slate 8 to 12 in. thick. Over 12 in. is settled locally. This is
from I, '4c. to 3c. per in, 15 sq. ft. as the rooms are commonly
driven.
At Denning, the standard price is paid for draw slate in
rooms, but in air-courses, it is paid for at the rate of
25c. per yard of air-course for draw slate 3 to 6 in. thick.
50c. per yard of air-course for draw slate 6 to 9 in. thick.
75c, per yard of air-course for draw slate 9 to 12 m. thidc.
$1.00 per yard of air-course for draw slate over 12 in. thidc.
Over 12 in. should generally be held up by props.
lyGoo^^lc
The Miners and Operators 205
At Paris, the miner is paid for draw slate by increasing the
price per ton of coal mined.
For draw slate i to 5 in, thick, 5c. per ton of coal.
For draw slate 5 to 10 in. thick, loc. per ton of coal.
For draw slate 10 to 15 in. thick, 15c. per ton of coal.
This is equivalent to ij^c. to 7c. an in. of draw slate covering
15 sq. ft. of top. The thickness of the slate handled is such that
i^c per in. per 15 sq. ft. is the most common result of
this scale.
At Russellville the miners are paid 2j^c. extra for handling
each inch of bottom rock for each 15 sq. ft., when it is over 2 in.
^idc and shoots out with the coal.
At a few mines with high coal easily mined, there is an
agreement that draw slate must be handled free, but when very
thidc the pit boss usually pays the miner a dollar or so extra
for cleaning it up at intervals. At many mines where the thick-
ness of draw slate is uniform, rt is customary to pay those miners
who have the draw slate for an hour or more of time each day
for cleaning it up.
COB WALLS
At Spadra, the miners demand $i.i2j^ per yard for build-
ing gob walls to maintain a passage for air through the entry
gob at each crosscut.
DIRT BANDS.
Dirt bands are not paid for at most of the mines with dirt
bands because the coal is high and easily mined. At Spadra
and Russellville, the middle band is paid for by increasing the
price of coal from all places with band rock over 4 in. thick.
Between a. and 8 in., per in,, per ton of coal 2c.
Between 8 and 16 in,, per in., per ton of coal. . . : 2j^c
Between i6 and 20 in., per in,, per ton of coal 3/^^-
Between 20 and 24 in,, per in,, per ton of coal 4j4c.
Between 24 and 30 in., per in., per ton of coal 50.
This makes the price of coal when the band rock is 24 In.
the maximum now handled equal to $1.78 per ton. The band
rock is measured between the loose seams. This scale is equiva-
lent to 4c. to lie, per in, per 15 sq, ft., in 39 in. coal, the common
lyCoO'^lc
2o6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
hig^t; and to 3j4c. to 6c. per in. per 15 sq. ft in 28 in. coal, Uie
lowest mined.
If there is not enough room to gob all of the dirt band as
in entries, room necks, etc., it is loaded out at a quite unifonn
rate of 28c per car load, level full regardless of the size of
the car.
Bony coal is supposed to be picked out at a few mines at
from yic. to %c, per in. per ton of coal mined. This amounts
to 2C. or 3c. per in. per 15 sq. ft. at those mines.
DEFICIENCIES.
IVet places. Water yardage of 50c. to $1.00 is paid for
practically all wet places driven to the dip. Fifty cents per yard
is demanded of all wet places at Spadra even when going to
the rise. When there is much 'rain' in a room at Paris, about
IOC. a ton of coal is paid extra which is about 50c. per yard of
room for each digger in the double rooms.
Sulphur, Sulphur (pyrite), when in sufficient amount to
interfere with breaking the coal in blasting or with drilling holes,
is paid for generally as agreed to between the pit boss and miner.
At Spadra, the miner gets 10c. per ton extra for all the coal
mined each day that a sulphur band 2 in. thick shows in the
face. This is reasonable if the band is long, but the same price
is demanded for a sulphur ball only 4 in. loi^, and 2 in. thick,
which amounts to about 50c. for picking out each ball of sulphur.
Frozen coal, etc. When the coal is stuck tight to hard top or
bottom, the miner gets about 25c. or 28c, per yard of entry extra
and the equivalent in the rooms, but there is seldom any fixed
scale of payment. Where it is frozen to both top and bottom,
the price may be as high as $1.00 a yard extra.
Seamy coal where very hard is paid for at as high as $1.12^
a yard of room or entry at the few places where it occurs.
Faulty coal, where rock crumpling or rolls in the roof cut
the coal to ^ of its height, is paid for extra at some mines
at the rate of $i.i2j^ per yard of entry or narrowed room, and
at the rate of $6.00 a yard at Spadra, This last price is absurd.
Where there is no coal at all, the Spadra scale for a faulty entry-
is only $7,00 a yard and the cost of loading out the rock. At
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Operators 207
other places, this work is let by the fairer method of a special
contract which varies with the hardness of the rock, or else
the entry is driven by day work.
DISCUSSION OF THE GENERAL PROVISIONS OF THE CONTRACT,
Most of the general conditions in the contract need no
comment. Owing to the form in whkh this was printed, the
order of the paragraphs has. been changed slightly and the para-
graph numbering has been extended beyond paragraph 18.
Paragraph 5 requiring the miners to burn nothing but pure
lard-oil is universally violated, and should be amended t(^ether
with the law so as to allow the miners to use any light that
does not give more smoke than pure lard-oil.
Paragraph 19, requiring the working conditions at the
mine to remain unchanged, should be amended by the addition
of the words:
"Unless agreed to by the pit committee and pit boss or board of
reference. It is further provided that if for any reason the operator shall
change any part of the mine to a condition more favorable to the miners,
he shall be allowed to restore the former conditions at any time without
Paragraph 21 allows the miners to clean up rock falls
at the i^te of $2.56 per day. To this should be added:
"The miner is required to work steadily at this and may be furnished
as many cars as are necessary regardless of the turn."
Paragraph 22, requires payment for draw slate at 2j4c. for
each inch of thickness for each 15 sq. ft. removed, for all draw
slate over 2 in. thick except where there is a local agreement to
the contrary. At all mines, payment should be made for -draw
slate over 2 in. thick as a matter of safety, but the price named
in the agreement is excessive, since it amounts to 54c. pec cubic
yard. This is too much for easily handled dirt and makes the
miner very careless about allowing rock to come down with the
coal. There is also a tendency for the miner to include as draw
slate falls of rock from some distance back from the face. It
is also suggested that for convenience of measuring and to avoid
disputes, the price per in. should be on the basis of the run-
ing yard of narrow entry, gob entry, or of room as in the other
districts covered by the Southwestern Interstate Coal Operators'
Association, where the price is also less. The scale in force at
Burma, Arkansas, is recommended for general application.
lyGoO'^lc
2o8 Coal Mining in Arkansas
For the sake of greater clearness, it would be a little better
to substitute the expression 'shooting coal' for 'mining coal'
in all cases as is done in one of the other district contracts.
DISCUSSION OF THE SCALE-
General fairness of the scale of wages. It is the general
opinion even among most of the operators that skilled track
layers can seldom be had for the price named in the scale and
that the day men are not overpaid. Except at Si>adra, the
same opinion applies to the price paid to the room-men and to
those few entry men working under hard conditions, stKh as
two men in a narrow entry. As indicated by tiie surplus of
m«n at all of the mines, the pay of nearly all classes of diggers
has heen excessave during the last two years. Under ordinary
conditions, this would have meant that the miners would have
had to share the depression in the coal trade by a reduction of
wages as well as by the present short time and the difficulty of
getting new work after losing their places. More of the mines
would then have .been able to run in competition with fuel-oil
and coal from other fiekls. Normally, however, there has been
but little surplus of men and this is the best argument for the
fairness of the price under the climatic and other conditions of
Arkansas. The surplus entry-men have found work in the rooms
while waiting for places in entries.
High wages at Spadra. The details of the yardage, etc.,
were once adjusted so as to equalize the earnings of the men
in all parts of the coalfield, and in this way were as fair at one
mine as another. At present there is some tendency to declare
a strike just while the coal is high and so frighten the smaller
companies into granting any concessions demanded. This works
best at Spadra where after one company has given in, an at-
tempt is made to compel the other companies, one after an-
other, to grant the same price. The present high- wages at
Spadra are therefore entirely artificial, A few companies have
resisted and run at a loss on account of a short crew, or have
shut down. Some that have granted all the demands have gone
into bankruptcy as a result.
Among the unreasonable demands at Spadra may be men-
tioned the price of $1,125^ for building a yard of gob-wall. This
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Operators 209
is only a rough pile of flat slate to keep the debris of a gob entry
from obstructing the air current coming from a crosscut, and
can be built in 15 or 20 minutes. It is really less trouble than
stacking up the brushing in many of the high gob entries, which
work is not paid for except as a part of tlie entry and brush-
ing yardage. The price of $6.00 a yard for going through
slightly faulty coal is also out of all reason and the demand of
IOC. a ton extra on the coal for sulphur is now carried to the
greatest absurdity. Even the 87c. a ton for mining is too high.
Scale of yardage. Some men can not do well in an entry
and prefer rooms. It is generally thought, however, that the
entry-men receive more than is fair and that the yardage should
be reduced by ten to twenty per cent. The common saying is
that the Union is run by the entry-men for their own advantage,
but that they pay some regard to the wishes of the room-men
in order to get their support, while the interests of the day-men
are not considered.
As conditions now stand, it is recommended that the price
for entries vary with the width. Whenever entries or other
narrow work must be cut on account of explosive dust, the
necessity for speed of advance, or to preserve strong pillars,
the present price of $I.I2J4 a yard for the cutting alone seems
reasonable. The averages of the figures given by the miners
over the entire soft coal region show that a yard of cutting can
be made in 1.85 hours. At $i.i2j^ a yard, this gives the miner
61C, per hour which is net, because he saves enough powder
by cutting to more than pay for his light and tool sharpening
expense. The price is even a Httle greater than 61c. an hour since
many shots break a little beyond the cutting, but against this is
the labor of turning out the coal.
If then the entry is so wide that the digger can get all the
coal he can load, he should get no extra yardage for the coal,
and in places where the entries are driven room width of r8 or
20 ft. and not cut, no yardage should be paid except as a
premium for rapid progress. So far as known, this is allowed
only at Hartford. This rule will also allow rooms to be driven
parallel to the entries, and rooms to be changed into entries
without the present absurd claim for yardage.*
*Tne new agreement grants the operator this right.
lyGoo'^lc
210 Coal Mining in Arkansas
In general, where the roof is strong, it would seem fair
to give the entry-man $i.i2j4 a yard for making the cutting and
to let him drive the entry as wide as he wishes. For two men
in high coal this is generally 14 ft. When the entry is nar-
rowed to 8 ft. for the sake of rapid pr<^ress and is driven by
two men, the present maximum price of $2,25 per yard is not too
high, but for a single man in an entry, the i8j4 per cent reduc-
tion in the average yardage as discussed on p. 168, or $1.75
per yard would be fair, as compared with the room miners'
earnings.
The extra labor of making the first 6 ft, of a crosscut is
only that of the cutting, since the main supply of coal comes
from the entry and the miner losses nothing on account of lack
of coal. Since, however, the crosscut is long, there is some labor
in turning out the coal and a reasonable price would be about
an average of the $i.i2j4 a yard for cutting and the price of
the entry. This approximates the original price of $1.50 a yard
since increased 1254 per cent.
Where break-throughs between rooms are not cut, no pay
should be given. It is recommended, however, that except when
the cover is less than 100 ft., the pillars be of some thickness
to prevent squeezes, and this would require longer break-
throughs. The price of cutting would he $i,i2j4 per yard with
nothing extra for lack of coal. For break-throughs over 12 ft.
long, the miner should be allowed about 20c. per ton each time
the coal is turned. For a 5-ft. crosscut in coal 5 ft. high,
this would be 60c. a yard in addition to the cutting for each
yard beyond the first four. Even then, however, the average
will be less than the $i.6S now paid at a few mines.
Slope yardage is to be left to local agreement. Some su-
perintendents report that this means that the company has to
pay whatever the "Local" agrees to demand, and that this figure
depends simply on how necessary the slope is to the company.
The rule given in the statement of the contract prices seems
to be the fairest way of figuring the slope yardage. In no case
should the extra price over entry work be paid when the slope
is level and nearly dry.
Deficient work. No nile can be laid down as to deficient
work. The more forceful superintendents will not consent to a
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Operators 211
scale for. this but settle each case fairly with the man involved.
This plan is to be much commended. Mr, F. J. McGuire at
Fidelity uses an admirable method which is to allow a miner
working in deficient coal as much money per day as he made
during the last pay period, provided of course that he does
good honest work, which is checked up by the pit boss. If
the miner shirks, another man is put in his place, and the lazy
miner awaits his turn for a vacancy elsewhere. This method
generally requires a personal acquaintance with every digger.
The pit committee is not allowed to interfere. It should be more
generally remembered that the companies can collect fines to
the limit of the money due to the Union at so much a day for
all unwarranted strikes. The companies have a further right
to require the miners to elect an entirely diflferent pit com-
mittee, whenever the pit committee interferes with a settlement
between the pit boss and any miner unless the miner especially
calls in the pit committee. These things are not done, how-
ever, as often as they should be.
INFLUENCE OF THB UINEHS' UNION.
The necessity for the Union. It is generally admitted that
the Union is needed, and as yet the operators as a whole have
not seriously opposed the check-off system, without which the
closed shop could not be maintained. Before there was a union,
the chief hardship to the men was due to the favoritism of
some of the pit bosses or supe>rintendents. It is also regretted
that at some mines a direct advantage to the company was ob-
tained by giving all of the better paying places to men that
ran up big store bills, and discharging men that patronized mail-
order houses. In a few places, the miners were definitely re-
quired to trade at the company store, and some miners were
even discharged for publicly reading labor papers to their illiter-
ate fellows. If any miner received an unfair measurement at
that time, he had no alternative but to quit work. Owing to
the scarcity of good men, however, this cheating was prob-
ably seldom intentionally done.
The general advantages of the Union. All of these former
hardships have been removed by the Union. The Union or at
least the Union idea is ahvays present to afford protection to
lyGoO'^lc
212 Coal Mining in Arkansas
the men m Hie event of i possible oppression by an association
of the operators. It has also secured the passaf^ of the mining
law of 1905 which, among other things, provides for the ac-
curate weighing of the coal and should improve the ventilation
of the mines. To a very slight extent the Union assists the
mine inspector in his effort to enforce the ventilation law.
The Union has probably increased the general intelligence
of the foreign element among the miners by inducing them to
take more interest in general affairs, and has entirely stopped
the custom of bribing the drivers with oil or money to give
some miners more cars than others. The Mine Worker/ Jour-
nal makes a practice of publishing the names of miners who
leave a camp with unpaid board bills, and such men are not
l^ven a transfer card. Tliey are generally, therefore, obliged to
change their names, when applying for another initiation. In this
way, the Union as a body stands for greater honesty.
Concessions obtained from the operators. By strikes or
threats of strikes, the Union has secured for the miners two
pay-days a month at the cost of a little increase in the admin-
istrative expenses of the companies. They have also required
the companies to keep the mine more nearly dry, and have
made the compensation a little more fair in some cases, by pro-
viding for extra payment for mining the more difficult coal.
They have obtained compensation for the handling of draw slate
which has made the work more safe, because it gives the com-
panies a great pecuniary interest in providing every miner with
all the pr(^s he can be induced to set.
The Organization is also looked up to by the men for hav-
ing been partly instrumental in securing an increase in wages.
As a general economic question, this may be of doubtful ad-
vantage to the miner, since it has certainly assisted in causing
the closing of several mines which were unable to meet the com-
petition of natural gas and fuel oil.
General disadvantages of the Union. Among the general
disadvantages to the coal-mining industry attributed to the
Union is the tendency to increase class hatred, which may lead
to anarchy and has certainly done much to destroy the spirit
of cooperation between the men and the companies. It also
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Opebiators 213
provides many opportunities for graft and is an expense to the
men, costing them nearly 5 per cent o£ their wages.
The Union often requires that a company nian loading out
a fall of rock or doing any such work shall get no more cars
than the room-men. The room-men have so much other work
that they do not need many cars, and without more cars a rock
man can often not work fast enough to keep warm in the
strong cool breeze of an entry. It naturally greatly increases
tfie cost to the company, and is often a hardship to many men
who are prevented from working in their rooms by the fall
of rock. In this way the conditions of company car loading
and car loading by the diggers are often so unlike that this rule
has no justice at all even from the point of view that considers
. the company as of no more importance than a single miner. In
any case, the mine belongs to the company and the company
should have a right to favor itself.
As a general theory, the Union is supposed to be of great
advantage to the operators also, in that it secures a stable
labor supply so as to put competition between the operators on
the basis of the physical conditions in the mine and the ability
of the management, and to enable the companies to make long
time contracts without the fear of strikes and increased labor
costs. This was the result in Iowa at least, but in Arkansas it
is certain that the long biennial suspensions have alone more
than offset any advantage to the operators on this score. They
have cost one of the largest companies during the last seven
years over $1,000,000 in 'stand by' expense; that is, office and
administrative costs, taxes, pumping, etc., which go on during
suspensions when no coal is sold. In the matter of avoiding
unexpected strikes, the particular set of local unions in Ark-
ansas has failed miserably in spite of the' efforts of the higher
ofBcials. Indeed, the men are becoming more inclined to strike
over trivial causes from year to year.
Arbitrariness of the Union. In relation to the operators, the
great mistake of the Union is its arbitrariness. The fact that
no member of the Union except the fire-boss can be discharged
without appeal has led to absurd abuses. At present, the miners
think they have a perfect right to use the most offensive lan-
guage toward any operator or his representative. If the
lyGoO'^lc
214 CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
pit boss succeed; in soundly thrashing an insulting miner,
no action is taken except possibly a sirit in the crinrinal court.
'Hiere are, however, some excellent pit-bosses who are not ex-
pert at rough and tumble fighting and many of the <^rators
are very slight men physically. Nevertheless, if the operator
of a mine should discharig:e an employee for physical violence
or for insults not fit to print, there is either an immediate strike
or an appeal to the arbitration board. If any justification for
the quarrel on the part of the miner can be found, this board
will order him reinstated in his position with full payment for
the time lost. The result is that some of the actual operators
of the mines hesitate to go near their own properties for the
purpose of adjusting a dispute. The arbitrators did recently
decide that a company operating a mine in Oklahoma could not
discharge a miner who was legally convicted of selling whiskey
in a company house in defiance of the State law.
In the same way, the miners drive their rooms any size they
wish and regardless of the orders of the pit boss. Sometimes,
therefore, the pillars are insufficiently thick and the company
is put to great expense on account of a squeeze. At other times,
the pillars are so large that an unnecessary amount of coal is
wasted in them. The miners pay no attention to sights or grades
given by the engineer unless they are compelled to do so by
the personality of the superintendent or pit boss. There is no
punishment whatever for shooting the coal to slack and practi-
cally no punishment for loading out dirt and slate.
The men will allow the 'operator no supervision over their
blasting and there is no way to prevent the miners from blow-
ing up the mine by improper shots. The only protecticm the
shot-firer has is his nominal authority to refuse to light dan-
gerous shots. If, however, he does this, the men sometimes
complain at once to the superintendent and demand his dis-
charge or they fine the shot-firer.
The effects of such an attitude were illustrated at Mine No.
4, Hartford, on Jan. 8, 1910. The officials of the Local Union
had been annoying the shol-firers and threatening to fine them
for skipping so many shots. That evening, Shot-firer J. W.
Mitchell became angry and declared that he would fire every
shot upon his side of the mine even though he blew up the
whole mine by doing so. Sure enough he lit two dangerous
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Operators 215
shots in a single room and caused a severe local dust explosion.
The conditions of the mine were such that this explosion did
not blow up the whole mine as the poor fellow feared. In fact
his partner fired a few shots in a distant entry after he felt
the concussion of the explosion, and even after he decided that
he, himself, had better get out of the nane, he neglected to notify
the superintendent at once. This increased the delay of the
rescue so, when found by the superintendent, Mr. Mitchell had
been dead for some time. He was standing with his head in his
hands against a pile of waste. His body was not marked but
he had been overcome by the gases from the explosion before
he could get oirt. This, man was only one of many who have
lost their lives on account of the unreasonableness of the
Miners' Union,
VIOLATIONS OF THE AGREEMENT BY THE MINERS.
The greatest objection to the Union is the constant viola-
tion of its agreements. The Union has no corporate existence
and can not be sued for damages. All the better officers and
leaders do attempt to live up to their contract, but are unable
to hold in line the rank and file of the Union, who can not
resist the temptation to annoy the companies. Tying the mine
up on account of funerals has been discussed.
To prevent injury to the cars and annoyanace at the se^-
dumping cage.s, most of the companies have imposed a weight
limit on the cars. Any coal in excess of this amount is not
credited to the loader, but since the company does not expect
to get it for nothing, it pays to the Union the price for mining it.
Ordinarily, therefore, the miner does not overload his car unless
he has plenty of coal and puts on a hundred pound or so 'for the
Union.' At one of the Huntington mines, however, the
I.ocaI Union has voted in direct violation of their agreement
to require the check-weighman to keep track of the amount of
excess coal each miner sends out and to pay this back to the
miner from the money given to the Union, .^s a result the
miners load out from three to six times the normal amount of
the excess weight of the coal. This causes some expense to
the company for repairs to pit cars and for cleaning out the
sump below the shaft. The large lumps of coal falling down the
lyGoO'^lc
2i6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
shaft annoy the cagers by splashing water upon them and fre-
quently cause serious injury. The proportion of overweight at
this mine is three times the normal amount and shows how
much more the miner is interested in himself than in the Union.
Probably there is more difficulty from the drivers than from
any other group of employees. They have frequently ail
quit worfc and violated their agreement to simply appeal to
the arbitration board, because they accused the pit boss of vio-
lating his agreement by not giving them all an equal turn at
idle day work, regardless of their ability to do this work. The
drivers who are supposed to be favored are compelled to strike
with the others.
Another trivial cause of strikes is an unfairness of the
turn. Thisi unfairness is sometimes accidentally caused -by>
wrecks or failure of the drivers to carry out the orders of the
pit boss. Sbmetimes it is due to a bad distribution of the crew
of dii^ers and drivers. In any case, the diggers should appeal
and not strike. At one mine, the diggers are not well united
and only those in one or two entries quit at a time. Their cars
are then distributed among the remaining diggers, and the next
day the pit boss laughs at them.
At other times, one or two men get up a sudden strike on
account of a supposed unsafe condition of the mine, and refuse
to work until the mine inspector comes. Technically this is not
a violation of the agreement, but generally the condition is an
old one and at the worst affects only one or two working places,
in which case work at all other places should go on as before.
In many instances, the mine inspector finds nothing wrong and
is as angry as the operator.
One of the worst forms of these strikes is that caused by
the wandering trouble makers or 'hobo miners,' who get elected
to offices in the Local and in the busy season agree to get an
increase in the scale if the men stand by them. After the strike
is well started, the hobo gets work at another camp and allows
the town boys and the company to suffer. If the strike is won,
he and his friends profit by it next year.
When the superintendent accuses the men of violating the
contract by striking, they retort that they are not striking but
are all sick. They add, however, that they will not get well
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Operators 217
until a certain man gets his place back or the company grants
their demand.
To illustrate the number of one class of violations of the
agreement, it may be stated that there were during the last
contract period of 1908 to 1910, twenty-one different strikes
which tied up the mines in violation of the agreement for pe-
riods of from one-half day to one hundred and twenty days.
This does not include the delays caused by funerals, etc., but
were all the result of quarrels with the mine officials. These
strikes resulted in a loss of 705 days to the operators, and in
121,895 days* work lost to the miners. Eleven of these strikes
lasted over one week and therefore resulted in permanent loss
of business to the companies, besides the annoyance and ex-
pense of the little delays. The chief coal contracts are for so
many tons per week. If the coal is not supplied by the com-
pany concerned, it is then bought elsewhere. These longer
strikes cost the miners about 120,000 days' work ; and taking
the average net earnings of all classes of men at $3.40 per day,
these long strikes cost the miners some $400,000. When the
figures are corrected in detail for each strike to allow for the
increased work after the strike, the net loss to the men was at
least $350,000. The total earnings of the miners of the State
during the 22 months, figured on the above basis, was some-
thing over $5,000,000; so the loss was about 8 per cent of the
earnings of the miners. Some miners therefore think that the
Union is indeed an expensive luxury.
If the actual miners are chiefly responsible for the vkila-
tiotis of thp Union a^eement, the leaders alone are responsible
fw the passage of the disgraceful mine-run law which has been
such a handicap to the coal-mining industry of this State
especially.
PROPOSED CONCESSIONS.
For all these reasons, there is a constantly growing opinion
that the Union is the curse of the industry and many of the
operators, even some of the more libera] ones, are coming to
the conclusion tliat the Union must be destroyed in order that
they may escape from its oppression. Other persons, however,
are of the opinion that by slight concessions on each side, the
Union and the operators could work together in a very satis-
lyGoO'^lc
, 2i8 Coal Mining in Arkansas
factory way. It is in the hope that this- may be accomplished
that the following suggestions are offered.
Non-union mines. Each small district or camp must be
either wholly non-union or entirely union, as desired by the
men. The so-called 'open shop' with voluntary membership in
a union, leads to constant friction in the mine and among the
miners'' families. Those companies having several mines can
possibly arrange which of their mines are to be non-union so
as to suit all classes of the miners. At other places, it is a
matter that might be left to the superintendent and the men.
No attempt should then be made to destroy the Union or to
use compulsion against the non-union men. A few of the
non-union rricn will be the best class of miners, but the bulk
of them will be poorer than the average and mining costs will
be equalized.
Incorporation of the Union. Since this idea is impracti-
cable, it is thought that it is best to have a 'closed shop' if the
Union will incorporate itself as is done in Bngland, so that
a real contract with some legal strength can be entered into.
The present so-called contract is not worth the cost of print-
ing so far as its legal value to the operators is concerned. The
value of the company's property and good will in the market
enables the Union to enforce its reasonable demands by a strike.
Control of the crew. To permit the owners to profitably
operate their properties, the pit boss should have complete con-
trol of the crew, and for the sake of harmony should have the
unquestioned right to discharge any man he wishes, even for no
other reason than personal dislike, if he thinks he can' get a bet-
ter man in his place. This privilege will not be abused, since the
pit boss must maintain a full crew, but when the worst offenders
are dismissed^ the remaining men will be more careful to do
things according to orders. An efficient superintendent will
see that the pit boss shows no man undue favors.
Protection of Union oMcials. The objection to tlie un-
controlled discharging of men is that some of the less scrupu-
lous officials will discharge those men that are active in the
Union, even if they do nothing at all improper. It is for this
reason that the agreement. Sec. IV, Paragraph i, provides that
the men shall not be discharged without the right of appeal.
lyGoO'^lc
The AIixERs and Operators 219
The best feasible solution of this question of how to give
the companies full authority to hire and discharge men with-
out injury to the Union, would seem to be that of separating
the employees into two classes, ordinary mortals and officials
of the Union ; the first class to be subject to discharge when in
the judgment of the pit boss it is necessary, and to have no
appeal except to the law of supply and demand in the labor
market The ofllkials are to be discharged only for cause, but
these causes should include failure to report for work for three
consecutive days except for good reason, and persistent loading
out of slate as at present, but more rigidly enforced. In ad-
dition they should be subject to discharge for making too large
a proportion of slack, persistent failure to properly timber
wotking places, or to drive rooms or entries properly on sight
or to grade as required, for refusal to keep room or entries the
proper width, for neglect in closing doors, for laying off one-
fourth of the time without excuse, or for making slow progress
(say less than three-quarters of the average rate), for abusive
language to the officials, disobedience to orders, or for anrthing
definitely detrimental to the interests of the employers and not
required by the Union. The oflficials should have the right of
appeal in case they think they have been unjustly treated.
This favored class would include all local and district offi-
cials as the Union is now organized, but no new man should
be recognized as an official until he has continuously worked
for the company, sid)ject to immediate discharge, for at least
a month, if married, or for two months, if single. The Union
is not to be restricted in the selection of its chedc-weighman.
If any man has served as check-weighman continuously at any
mine for six months, he shall be given any place applied for
ahead of all new men waiting for work, but not ahead of the
regular crew temporarily out of places. He can then be at'
once elected to any other office. Those men, who have served
as officers of the Union at other mines at the time these were
shut down, should be entitled to protection for six months at
other mines if the local so requests, and shall get places ahead
of other strangers.
This will require alt the officers of the Union to be skilled
efficient miners or day-men and will eliminate the professional
trotMe maker who is generally worthless as a miner. Any
lyGoO'^lc
220 Coal Mining in Arkansas
man particularly valuable to the Union can be retained as
check-weighman which position requires considerable intelli-
gence. The officials of the Union will not have much advan-
tage over the men, and the pit bosses should show no prejudice
against the Union. Many pit bosses and. superintendents are
strongly in favor of a sensible Union and would certainly do
the best they can.
The right to hire and discharge employees. In case of ob-
jection to the plan of favoring the Union officials, it is urged
that the long list of causes for discharge, given above, be added
to Sec. IV of the agreement. Good miners will not be dis-
charged for trivial offenses on account of their scarcity.
No restrictions except as outlined above should ever be
placed upon the hiring of men by the companies. It should
be understood that new places will be assigned to the members
of the regular crew in order as they finish their old places.
When, for any reason, the output of the mine is reduced by
stopping work in one or two entries, the superintendent should
be free to choose, from among these men, those whom he wishes
to remain and take places in turn in other parts of the mine.
Under the present rule of giving places to new men in the order
in which their names occur upon the dheck-weighman's list,
the pit boss is often obliged to hold some places back until the
undesirable man at the head of the list is drunk or out of town.
Such tricks are not pleasant.
Small concessions by the operators. The greatest com-
plaint against the companies, charging failure to carry out their
agreement, is in the matter of supplying good air and in keep-
ing the roads dry. This is only in certain cases and the miners
generally say that conditions are improving, from year to year,
but all companies should at once make the drainage and ventil-
ation of their mines as perfect as possible. There has been
a little complaint about unfair measurements of draw slate and
yardage, and undoubtedly some injustice is occasionally done
to some of the more ignorant miners in this way, but the pit
boss occasionally also makes mistakes in favor of the men.
There are of course many entirely groundless complaints in
addition to these.
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Operators 221
The selection of proper bandages and supplies for first aid
treatment to the injured according to Sec. 12 of the agree-
ment is generally left to a pit boss rather than to a surgeon,
and many absurd remedies are furnished, but generally accord-
ing to the requests of the miners themselves. In many cases,
this agreement is ignored entirely. The miners consent to this,
and when asked about it, they maintain that the company should
prevent all accidents regardless of the carelessness of the men.
The training of first aid corps as is done in the Pennsylvania
anthracite region is suggested.
The turn. At many mines, the most valuable concessions
to the men would be to give them a good turn. Many superin-
tendents do make an effort to give the diggers a good turn or
plenty of cars.
The first reason that it is not universal is on account of
the demand from the men that a digger be put in every pos-
sible place, especially during slack times. This results in over-
crowding the entire mine so there are not cars enough to go
around and the same total pay is divided among more men.
The second reason is that a good turn increases the earn-
ings of the room-men more rapidly than those of the entry-
men, and there is some fear that the entry-men may demand
an increase in the yardage scale, a more favorable width of
entry, or some other concession in order that they may main-
tain their advantage. This is very unlikely, however, and a
strong superintendent can easily resist this demand. In the
interests of the company as well as of the miners, he should
also resist the demand to croivd the mine with diggers.
A third reason for a poor turn is that it often happens that
the crew of diggers is so short or incapacitated as a result of
drinking that they can not supply enough coal to keep the drivers
busy or to maintain the output of the mine. As a consequence
the superintendent opens up so many entries that he is reason-
ably sure of his output every day, and on normal days the men
get very few cars apiece. This reason is important only where
the crew of diggers contains a large proportion of irregular and
drinking men. It can be corrected by discharging the worst
offenders among the diggers, and this authority should he
granted by the Union at once. If the Union refuses this, it
lyGoO'^lc
222 Coal Mining in Arkansas
would probably be better to give the men a. good turn at the
expense occasional half-day runs or of shutting the mine
down entirely after the big holidays. Short-day runs increase
the expense of the shot-firers and fire-bosses chiefly.
A fourth reason for the poor turn is that a clause in the
agreement requires all 'working conditions' to remain as at
present. Since it is often a great advantage to the company
to have two men in a room in certain parts of the mine, the
superintendent is obliged to keep two men in every room at all
times to avoid establishing an injurious precedent, and as a
result, some of the entries are so crowded that it is impossible
to put enou^ drivers in them to take away all of the coal that
the miners could load. The other entries must then be held
back to keep a square turn among the miners. It is believed
that each operator should have full power over the working con-
ditions in his own mine as was the case before the organization
of the Union. Since he must maintain his crew, the working
conditions can not be made too unfavorable or all of the miners
will seek work elsewhere. It is, however, very unlikely that
the Union will ever grant the operators this authority, because
in June, 1910, the operators offered to increase the entire scale
of wages 5.55 per cent in return for the privilege of determin-
ing their own working conditions. This offer was refused by
the miners who continued their strike for three months longer.
Nevertheless, at many mines where two men work in each
room, the entries are so laid out that the turn is very good,
and an effort should be made to make it so in other mines.
A fifth and often very important reason for a poor turn
prises from the fact that if the miner has all the cars he wants
and is ambitious to earn much money, he hurries with the load-
ing. Under these conditions, he naturally picks out the slate
less carefully and since the mine-run law compels the company
to pay for this slate just as if it were coal, the companies have
little protection except in giving the miners a poor turn. At one
mine, the output and consequently the turn which the miners
receive is reduced about ten per cent by delays on the surface,
while the slate is being picked out of one pit-car load of coal
before another can be hoisted. The loading of slate with the
coal should be prevented by better discipline under all con-
ditions, but until the miners submit to this, they have no right
lyGoO'^lc
The Miners and Operators , 223
to object if the operator makes the turn just as poor as he can
without loss to himself, because this is the only punishment for
loading slate that can not be resisted by the Union. It is so unfair
to the miners who load only clean coal that they should be will-
ing to cooperate with the company in penalizing the careless
miners in return for receiving a good turn.
The sixth objection to a good turn is that when the miners
get many cars, they spend less time setting props, and the num-
ber of accidents increases. The miners can, however, be re-
quired to set sufficient props by changing the agreement and
especially the State law as suggested in Chapter VI.
When the miners all get exactly the same number of cars
per day and none of the miners get all their loose coal cleaned
up, the daily rate of advance of the rooms is uniform, whereas
if all the naners got as many cars as they wanted, the good
miners would load much more coal than the poor ones and
therefore advance their rooms more rapidly with attendant dis-
advantages. This seventh objection is not at all important,
however, because with even a square poor turn, many of the
rooms fall behind because of the irregular attendance of the
miners. As previously stated, the operators should be allowed
to discharge the slow men or to put them all in a single entry
by themselves.
The eighth and most universal abjection to a good turn is
that it enables many miners to get a clean up, before the end
of the day. and the coal comes slowly near quitting time, so that
the drivers and other day-men who handle the cars can not
do as much work as they should. For a similar reason, there
is little or no work for the day-men next morning, until the
room-men have replaced knocked out props, cleaned up falls
of rock, and have loaded their iirst car. When the cars are
large, this is more important, and if most of the men had been
cleaned up the evening before, the minimum delay in the morn-
ing would be about 30 minutes. This alone would cost the com-
pany one-sixteenth of the pay-roll of a large part of the day
crew or with the delay in the evening, it would cost the com-
panies from 3c. to 6c. per ton of coal mined. This objection
makes it entirely impossible to clean up all the diggers and
mine the coal advantageously. The more experienced superin-
tendents, who have given thought to this problem, estimate.
lyGoO'^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
however, that about one-third of the miners can be cleaned up
and the others given nearly as many cars as they want at an
increased expense to the company of less than ic. to 2c. per ton
of coal mined, as compared with the very poor turn. This may
increase the net earnings of the room-men as shown by the
actual figures obtained from the mine pay-rolls from only $2.58
per day net which is an average at the four mines with a poor
turn to $4.08 per day which is an average of the other mines,
omitting Spadra where the earnings are so excessive. This is
an increase of 58 per cent in the net earnings of the miners,
and is equivalent to an increase in the scale price of 50 per cent,
and might cost the companies ic. per ton of coal.
Besides the great advantage to the miners, a good turn
has many incidental advantages to the companies. For ex-
ample, fewer entries need to be worked or maint^ned to give the
same output of coal. This facilitates the supervision of the
drivers and so reduces loafing and there is a direct saving in
the cost of timbermen and rock-men and in the interest and
depreciation upon the track and interest upon the cost of the
entries not yet needed. If the turn is increased from three cars
to five cars, this may amount to 3.8c. per ton at some mines
for which data are at hand. This argument will not apply
when a good turn can be obtained only by changing from two
men in a room to one all over the mine, but such a change
is seldom necessary.
When all of the men get many cars, there is no com-
plaint about giving some of them more cars than the average,
provided of course that each of them gets all the cars he wants
occasionally. This is a great advantage when some work is
needed in a hurry. At some mines at least there will be less
trouble with the men if they are given a good turn.
A good turn may be maintained by deciding upon what the
output of the mine shall be as determined by the amount of
capital available for investment, by the amount of coal re-
quired for profitable contracts and the general market demands,
and by the amount of unmined coal to be obtained from a
single opening, etc. After the mine has been opened to this
capacity and the plant and day crew adjusted accordingly, the
number of working places can be kept uniform, by opening-
up new entries only a little faster than needed and not putting
lyGoO'^lc
The Min^s and Operators 225
in men at every possible place. This will require a pretty good
knowledge of the character of the coal bed in different parts
of the property and some advance development to allow for
variations and faults in the coal.
The cost of a good turn may be reduced by putting the
slow miners, who should be subject to discharge anyway, in
one or two special entries by themselves in which entries only
the same proportion of the diggers should be cleaned up. If
the room-men are slow and the entry is advanced at the aver-
age rate, the number of woricipg rooms in the entry is greater
and a large number of slow miners can provide the same total
amount of coal from an entry as a smaller number of fast
miners. When a mine is nearly worked out, there will be an
advantage of driving some entries slowly so as to bring all
of the entries in the last group to the boundary of the prop-
erty at the same time.
It is recommended, therefore, that the companies make
as much effort as possible to get the coal away from the mmers
as fast as they can load it so that they can earn good wages.
For this purpose, the first sentence of Sec. X of the agreement
should be modified to read:
"The operators shall as far as possible endeavor to furnish the miners
nearly as many cars as they desire. If less than one-quarter of the men
in the -mines are' cleaned up on an average, the miners shall receive an
equal turn. If the company is able to furnish as many cars as wanted
to one-third of the men or more in each entry, there shall be no require-
ment of equal turn among the entries, and the company shall be allowed to
change diggers from one entry to another if desired, provided that there
be no difTerenee in the two places except in the matter of the turn. An
effort shall be made to furnish each miner as many cars as he may need
for the same number of days in each month. In no case will the miners
require an equal turn with the company men,"
The folk)W!ng provisions should also be added to this
section :
"If any miner quits before the regular quitting time, and before hij
room is cleaned up, he shall loose his rigfit to his equal turn for one
week and shall receive cars only at the convenience of the company, pro-
vided that an empty car shall have been offered to him at least one-half
hour before quitting time, on the day he quits early.
"The pit boss or his representative shall be required to stop the miner's
turn if his room is not timbered as agreed upon between the pit boss
and the pit committee, whenever such a room is reported to him."
(The fire-boss can easily report these bad rooms.)
n> 000^^10
236 Coal Mining in Arkansas
If the companies give the miners a good turn, as sug-
gested, and do not discriminate against the reasonable Union
leaders, and if the Union strictly adheres to the spirit of its
agreement, it is believed that the present ill feeling between
the operators and the Union will subside.
lyGoO'^lc
CHAPTER VI,
SUNINGi LATS OF ARKANSAS.
ABSTRACT OF PRESENT LAWS SHLATING TO COAL MINES.
Most of the provisions of the mining laws of the State are
adequate and require no comment. The subjects covered by
the laws relating to coal mining are given in the outline below.
Mine maps. Sections 5337 and 5338 of Kirby's Digest
of the Laws of Arkansas, as amended by Act 225, 1905, re-
quire the operator* of each coal mine to file with the mine
inspector and the clerk of the county an accurate map of his
mine workings and property, each year or whenever a mine is
abandoned, or if he fails to do so the mine inspector is author-
ized to have the map prepared at his expense.
VenliltUion. Section 5340 of Kirby's Digest, and sections
7, 8, ID, and 17 of Act 225, 1905, provide that all openings to
the surface used for the removal of coal shall be the intake of
the air current which shall be not less than 100 cubic feet per
minute per man measured at the foot of the intake, that the
air current shall be so split that there shall be not more than
50 employees woiking on each split of air, that there shall
be not less than 200 cubic feet of air passing each working
face per minute, and that the mine inspector be required to
measure the air at all working faces in making his inspection.
Where gas has 'been found in the mine, a fire-boss must
examine each working place and all abandoned places adjacent
thereto, if accessible, each morning before miners are allowed
to enter, and he is required to keep a record of the condition
of all places and mark out all dangerous places upon a blade-
board. Any appliance can be used to produce the air current,
but furnaces must be arranged to prevent fires. In room and
pillar mines, two entries must be driven parallel to each other
for ingress and egress of air with crosscuts between, at inter-
vals of 40 ft. along the entries, or of 30 ft, if gas is present.
The inspector was required to send written notice of the last
lyGoO'^lc
228 Coal Mining in Arkansas
change in the law to all operators. Needed modification of
the law will be suggested.
Section II of Act 225, 1905, provides that no oil except
pure lard-oil shall be used for lights by any underground em-
[doyees except rope-riders. Because of the impossibiltty of en-
forcing this, the law is a dead letter.
General Safety Provisions. Section 5339, provides for an
adequate escape-way distinct from the ordinary entrance and
exit of the mine.
Section 5341 provides that bore holes be kept 20 ft. in ad-
vance of all woilcings approaching abandoned workings con-
taining water or gas.
Section 5342 requires all shaft mines to be provided with
proper signals, a proper hood over the cage, proper guides for
che cage, proper brakes for the hoisting engine, and proper
safety catches on the cage. It also provides that no props or
rails shall be lowered in a cage while men are ascending or
descending in the shaft, and that when men are uptMi one
cage, the opposite cage shall be empty. (Means for testing
the safety catches will be suggested.)
Section 5343 prevents the employment of boys under four-
teen years of age or under sixteen years unless they can read
and write, or females of any age, underground ; and requires
the employment of competent persons over eighteen years of
age to operate the engine by which men are hoisted or lowered
in either shafts or slopes ; and allows only the persons employed
for the purpose to ride upon any loaded cage or slope trip ; and
allows only eight persons and only one of each family to ride
upon any single cage or car, which must not be lowered or
hoisted more rapidly than 500 ft. per minute while men are
riding on it.
Section 5344 provides for proper gates and fences around
mine openings, proper safety devices for steam boilers, and
provides that when underground engine planes, etc., are used
for traveling ways they shall be provided with refuges at inter-
vals of not more than 30 ft.
Section 5345 provides for the investigation of all fatal
explosions or other accidents by the mine inspector, and for
notifications to the coroner or some justice of the peace of the
lyGoO'^lc
Mining Laws op Arkansas 229
county, of anj' loss of life or any serious personal injury caused
by any accident at any mine.
Section 5351 forbids the injury of. any apparatus at the
mine which is necessary for its security, and provides the
penalty.
Section 5352 requires the operator to deliver a sufficient num-
ber of props to the miner's room, (Modification of this and a
requirement to compel the miner to set the props is suggested
on p. 235.)
Section 12, Act 225, 1905, requires the mine operator to
keep at the mine sufficient <bandages, stretchers, medicines, etc.,
to care for injured persons-
Section 18, Act 225, 1905, requires the companies to call
out the miners in thne of high water, at all mines which may
be in danger of flooding, and provides a severe penalty.
Section 5350 as amended by Section 4, Act 225, 1905, pro-
vides for the recovery of damages by a miner or his heirs when
the nuner is injured by willful violation of the mine laws.
Mine Inspection. Section 5346 provides for the appointment
of an Inspector of Mines by the Governor and specifies that he
shall be a practical miner of 7 years' experience and shall receive
a salary of $2,000 a year.
Section 5347 outlines the duties of the inspector and speci-
fies the very brief report he is to make and requires that he
shall not restrict the working of the mines unnecessarily.
Section 5348 requires that the operator give the inspector
all facilities for inspecting the mine and provides the penalty
for failure.
Section 5349 provides that the mine inspector shall have
the operator of any mine which is worked contrary to the pro-
visions of the laws or which is unsafe for the workmen, en-
joined by the judge of the circuit court, from further operation
of the mine until the defects are remedied.
Section 16, Act 225, 1905, requires the prosecuting attorn^
of the district to take charge of all complaints of violations of
the law upon notice frtrni the mine inspector.
Section 5354 provides for penalty to the mine inspector
for neglect of duty and for all others who violate any provision
of the mining laws.
lyGoO'^lc
230 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Section 15, Act 225, 1905, provides the mine inspector with
blanks and stationery.
Section 5358 specifics the general penalty against both the
mine operator and his agent for violations of the law.
Weighing Coal. Section 5353 provides for the employment
of a sworn weighman, for recording the amount of coal mined,
and requires the mine operator to allow the miners to employ
a sworn check-weighman.
Section 5356 as amended by Stction 6, Act 225, 1905, re-
quires the mine owners to provide proper scales for weighing
the coal, requires the mine inspector to test them once a year,
and as much oftener as may be required by the written request
of the mine operator or any two or more of the miners.
Section 9, Act 225, 1905, requires every mine operator to
keep on hand 500 pounds of United States standard testing
weights for use of the mine inspector for testing the scales.
Section 5357 required the owner to pay for the coal with-
out screening except under a specific agreement, or contract
outlining the method of screening. It also gave the operator
the right to deduct the weight of impurities loaded out by the
miner.
Act 219, 1905, is the so-called mine-run law which denies
the rights which were granted to the operator by the above
sections.
Miscellaneous. Section 5359 gives the workmen a lien apoa
the output and equipment of the mine to secure the payment of
their wages.
Section 5355 requires that the operators of mines and other
industrial establishments shall be required to give the names of
their agents and employees to assessors, sheriffs, and tax col-
lectors, acting in their official capacity.
Section 13, Act 225, 1905, provides that the operator of
each mine of whatever size' shall make a sworn annual report to
the mine inspector of the amount of coal mined each month of
the year ending July ist.
Section 12, Act 225, 1905, provides a penalty.
Mining Laws of Arkansas 231
discussion op uining laws of akkaksas.
Better vetttUation. The sections of the law governingf the
ventilation of the mines are defective in specifying both the
results required and the method of accomplishing them. The
clause governing the distribution of the air current through
all parts of the mine is also entirely inadequate. The follow-
ing su^estions are, therefore, offered as an amendment to the
sections of the law governing the ventilation of the mines:
When the temperature of the outside air is more than aS degrees F. all
outlets for coal should carry an intake current of air. In colder weather
the direction of the ventilating current may be left to the option of the
operator. The air current shall be so divided that in general not more
than forty men shall work in one split of the air current except in opening
up a new portion of the mine, in which case one only of the splits may
supply as many as sixty men until it is convenient to provide an additional
split Each split of the air current shall have not less than 100 cu. ft. of
air per minute for each man working in it and 600 cu. ft. per minute for
each mule, measured in the main airway within 200 ft. of the, working
place most distant from the main intake. The mine inspector shall be
required to measure the air current in each split within 200 feet of the
most distant working place at each inspection and record the results in a
well-4)ound book. An air current at least equal to 1,000 cu. ft per minute
shall be conducted to within forty feet of the face of each working place at
all times or to within thirty feet if the mine gives off considerable
quantities of gas. Sufficient air must reach the actual working place to
keep it free from all standing gas of any sort Except where several
splits are combined, all airways must be of sufficient size to reduce the
linear velocity of the air to 150 ft, per minute, or less. At all mine*
where any firedamp has been detected, a competent person or persons
shall be employed as fire-boss, to inspect the mine each day, immediately
before the miners go to work. If any dangerous accumulation of gas can
be detected by the ordinary safety lamp, no miner or driver shall be per-
mitted*to work in that split of the air current until the gas shall have
been removed by the proper officials. The fire-boss shall properly mark
out aU dangerous workings and also the' entrance to the entry containing
the gas and shall post these places on a suitable blackboard at the pit
month, and record them in a well-bound book. He shall leave a mark
showing his visit each day in each working place. All bodies of standing
gas shall be removed by directing a current of air into the working place,
in such a way that the gas shall not again collect during the day. Any
adequate means of acoimplishing these results may be used by the
operator.
All permanent stoppings required to maintain the ventilation shall be
substantially built of masonry, preferably reinforced concrete, from floor
to root when they are more than 1,500 ft. from the last c
i.^anyGoOC^Ie
232 Coal Mining in Arkansas
other stoppings shall be at least as pennanent as those made of two thick-
nesses of boards and a complete layer of tarred canvas. Explosion doors
may be left in the stoppings where desired, but must be self-closing.
All overcasts and undercastg shall be provided with thin wood and
tarred canvas partitions so arranged that they nuy be immediately blown
out by a severe explosion. The other parts of the overcast shall be sub-
stantially built and so arranged that the exfdosion partitions can be at
once replaced by sheets of canvas, in order to restore the ventilation with
the least delay.
These provisions will be sufficient, since in order to accom-
plish the ventilation so required, it will be necessary at all but
the stnallest mines to have efficient fans and the double-entry
system of ventilation. Under the old law it is necessary to re-
verse the fan during nights to prevent the accumulation of ice
in the shaft. This has a bad effect upon the roof of the mine,
in proportion to the number of reversals. In most cases it
is also probable that the cold draft has a worse effect upon
the cagers and all other persons working in the main intake
current, than the increased safety from explosions justifies.
When standing gas is present, the fan should not be reversed
except on idle days on account of the danger of blowing gas
out upon the lights of the bottom men, and the fire-boss must
use care in sweeping out bodies of gas standing in the rooms.
The present law has been interpreted to prohibit all intakes of
air except the main slope or hoisting shaft. This often im-
pairs the ventilation with no advantage whatever.
The quantity of air stated is the generally accepted mini-
mum amount and the wording used will require adequate dis-
tribution of the air. This is often ladcing under the present
law which in the absence of gas really required only 200 cu. ft
of air per minute for fifty men, since most of the air current
may leak through neglected stoppings between ihe main intake
and the working places.
The provision as to splits is intended to place each regular
entry upon a separate split of air and so do away with doors
and trappers. The provision for one larger split is for conven-
ience in opening up new entries, or turning new entries off
and old one continued through faulty coal, etc To pass 1,000
cu. ft. of air per minute wrthin forty feet of each working place
will require a sufficient number of crosscuts, but when it is ad-
visable to reduce the number of crosscuts to save leakage along
jyGooc^le
Mining Laws of Arkansas 233
a main air-course, any other means such as sufficient brattices,
or gob-walls can be used. Such a current will of course pro-
vide a sufficient amount of pure air for the men. This word-
ing of the law will also allow some leakage in the temporary
stoppings near the end of an entry or the division of the air
current among a number of crosscuts to reduce the friction.
The provision requiring that no men work upon any split
in any part of which gas is present might have been modified
so as to allow men to work on the intake side of the gas where
there is no chance of being burned. This is not advisable be-
cause the fire-boss may be careless about marking out all of the
places beyond the gas, and men frequently go beyond the safe
zone to get tools, etc., and may therefore be bmTied when the
gas is swept out. The provision for separate splits protects
the miners in all the other entries.
The requirement that fte gas be blown out by regular brat-
tice men will prevent the miners from getting burned in trying
to 'brush out' the gas, and will avoid the danger of another ac-
cumulation occurring before the next examination by the fire
boss. These stringent rules for handling gas will make it ad-
visable to maintain a sufficient air current to keep the working
places (ree from gas except when stoppings are blown out by
windy shots. In this case the miners have to stay out of the
entry until the stoppings are replaced.
The details as to the stoppings and overcasts in addition
to the requirements of separate splits are to facilitate the rescue
of shot-firers in case of an explosion. Concrete stoppings will
cost $4 to $8 apiece, and are not justifie<l except where re-
quired to resist a considerable air pressure, which is only at a
long distance from the last crosscut. The distances are selected
so as to require the replacement of wooden stoppings more
than four or five years old. In practice it will mean that in
all cases where the entries are expected to be more than 1,500 ft.
fong, the temporary canvas stoppings will be replaced in groups
by concrete as fast as the entry is extended, until it is within
1,500 ft. of its intended final length. The present practice of
relying upon mere piles of waste rock for stoppings is very
objectionable. The necessity for concrete stoppings under this
arrangement can be entirely avoided with great resulting ad-
vantage to the ventilation by establishing new lines of overcasts
lyGoO'^lc
234 Coal Mining in Arkansas
along an air-course through the rooms at intervals of l,ooo feet,
along the entries. This will replace the timber overcasts by
the time they begin to rot and will be necessary only in the
large mines.
It is entirely impracticable to make masonry overcasts
strong enough to resist a severe explosion. Fig. 62 is a view
of the effect of a dust explosion upon a heavy masonry over-
Fig. 62. Masonry overcast destroyed by a dust explosion.
No. 2 Mine, Chant, Oklahoma.
cast. This overcast was supposed to be explosion proof. It
merely delayed the restoration of the ventilation. The plan of
explosion doors will make it possible to restore the ventilation
with the least possible delay. The plan of a separate split for
each entry will make it possible to reestablish the ventilation in
the entries in any order and with much greater safety and
rapidity. This will greatly increase the chances of getting
to the shot-firers before they suffocate from the after-damp of
a slight dust explosion. In Part II of this report will be given
an outline of a means of improving the ventilation at the least
cost, and of avoiding the necessity for maintaining stoppings
along main planes and slopes, and also a design for an overcast
with exploskin doors.
lyGoO'^lc
Mining Laws of Arkansas 235
Pvire oil. To insure the burning of nothing but good oil,
the law should be equivalent to this ;
The sale of any oil producing more smoke than pure lard-oil or pure
cotton-seed oil, for burning in the open lights of any miners eitcept rope-
riders is prohibited. Upon written complaint of any person, th? mine in-
spector shall test the oil submitted to him by burning it in a pitlight with
a -new wick under such conditions that the amount of smoke dqtosited
upon glass can be compared with that deposfted by a standard sample of
oil burned under the same conditions. If the oil is noticeably inferior,
the mine inspector himself shall secure another sample and repeat the test,
and if the oil proves inferior on second test, the prosecuting attorney shall
take the necessary steps to collect the fine of $ for each such barrel
of oil in the stock of the seller. No miners except the rope-riders will
be allowed to add any substance to the standard oil used for burning in
open lights.
Minor matters. Upon a complete revision of the law,
many unimportant changes in the provisions for minor safety
matters might be suggested. For instance, it might be well to
require that all safety catches upon cages used for hoisting
men, shall be tested once a year by attaching a cage carrying a
loaded car of coal to the hoisting rope in such a way, as by a
hemp rope, that the cage can be readily dropped to the bottom
of the shaft unless the catches work. This is not a perfect test
for safety ca.tches but is readily applied, and under such a law,
the operators will save money by maintaining the safety catches
in good condition and so protecting their cages from destruc-
tion. It will, however, be unnecessary to make this test if the
inspector is thoroughly competent, since he can judge the con-
dition of the catches almost as well by a mere examination.
Mine props. Section 5352 providing that miners be fur-
nished with sufficient props could well be modified to read :
The operators shall be required to furnish the miners with all neces-
sary mine timbers and to deliver them at the point at which the miner
receives his empty car. All timbers shall be of the customary good qttality.
At each parting or siding from which cars are distributed to the miners by
gatherii^ drivers or pushers, there shall be at all times a sufficient supply
of 'cap pieces' and of props of all the lengths in common use in that part
of the mine and varying by 2-inch intervals from the shortest to the longest.
These props shall be kept in distinct piles or bins, which shall be clearly
marked with the length of ihe prop in them. The person delivering the
cars to the miner shall bring to him what props he requests with the
next car delivered after his request. Timbers of unusual sorts shall be
lyGoo'^lc
236 Coal Mining in Arkansas
delivered to the miner as promptly as practicable. Nothing in this section
shall be construed to prevent the operators from requiring the miners to
account for all props delivered to them or from in any way reducing the
waste of props which are not set in position. A record in a bound
book shall be kept of all props sent to each gathering parting and of those
delivered to each working place.
A committee of the miners and the pit-boss and superintendent of
the mine shall determine what shall be considered a safe interval be-
tween the rows <A props and between the face of the coal and the nearest
prop, for each kind of working place, end a copy of this agreement shall
be sent to the Chief Mine Inspector. Each contract miner shall then be
required to set props regularly at least this close together and as much
closer as he may think necessary for safety under unusual conditions. The
pit-boss shall prevent the miner from loading coal as soon as practicable
after he leanis that the place is not so timbered. Disagreements as to the
standard distances shall be referred to the mine inspector or to an arbi-
tration committee selected by the pit-boss and miners. The pit-boss and
his representatives without interference from the miner shall alone be the
judge of the manner in which the timbering conforms lo the requirement,
and at each inspection of the mine the mine inspector shall examine
die timbering in at least five of the newer rooms selected as he sees fit,
and if the timbering does not conform to the agreement the operator shall
be fined at least $ at each inspection not to exceed coice a month.
In case a fine has been assessed, subsequent inspections shall cover only
those props set since the date of inspection which led to the fine.
The provision that there be a supply of timbers at each
gathering parting is believed to be without precedent, but will
greatly reduce the delay in providing the miners with timbers
and lessen the confusion among the drivers, and the drivers will
then have no excuse for not bringing props to the miners.
It will also reduce the expense to the companies after it is once
started, since the props can be taken to all the partings upon
an idle day and there will be no delay caused by looking for
props at the shaft bottom where the delay is more expensive.
Each miner should be required by the pit boss to move un-
used props up to the face of his room as it advances, and the
company should be allowed to prevent the miners from biuying
the props of the wrong length in the gob rather than moving
them ahead, or to require that they be stored in piles for takii^
out. The record will be worth its cost in saving waste and will
show the facts as to props in case of any accident.
The provfeion that the pit iwss shall stop the working of
any place that is not properly timbered is carried out with
good results in Indiana. In practice the fire-boss can also act
lyGoO'^lc
Mining Laws of Arkansas 237
as a timber inspector, and can direct the boss driver to stop the
miner's turn until the props are set. The clause defining the
proper timbering is planned to encourage the miner to set props
regularly without waiting for the roof to become dangerously
loose. Many miners say that they would do this if everyone
else did, but they do not wish to seem unnecessarily careful. As
worded it does not relieve the miner of his responsibility, and
there can be no logical interference from the Union in case the
more careless miners need to be disciplined. This will be un-
likely since the first suggestion in regard to systematic timber-
ing here outlined was received from a miner.
Systematic timbering is required by law in most of the
European countries, where the accident rate is low as com-
pared with the United States, More than half of our acci-
dents are caused by falls of roof, and if the rooms are system-
atically timbered, there will be very few such accidents except
as the props are knocked out by excessive blasting. In Great
Britain, an act of Parliament prohibits all shooting oS the
solid, so that the props when once set are not knocked out. As
a discreditable contrast, Arkansas has passed the mine-run law
' which has virtually eliminated all other methods of mining and
even all ordinary care in shooting off the solid. The effects of
this practice upon the props and the roof are di^scussed in
Chapter VII.
First aid supplies. Section 12, Act 225, 1905, requiring
the operators to keep on hand a sufficient stock of supplies for
first aid to the injured could well include in addition the words :
The selection of these supplies shall be left to any graduate doctor
of medicine agreed upon by the miners and the pit-boss.
Firing shots. Next to the falls of roof, careless blasting
of coal is the greatest source of danger, and many states have
passed laws forbidding the firing of certain kinds of shots.
Since the mine inspector can not inspect the shots of all the
miners every day, these laws are ignored. Since it is also to
the financial interest of the companies to reduce the frequency
of explosions caused by blown-out shots, and the injury to the
roof resulting from shots that are too heavy, the most feasible
law for reducing these dangers seems to be a section reading:
Where the shot-fircrs are employed, they shall not be under the juris-
iiction of any organization of the miners and shall be subject to dis-
IV 000^^10
238 , CoAl Mining in Arkansas
charge without appeal, and any person other than an official of the com-
pany who in any way annoys the shot-firer on account of his refusal to
fire any shot whatsoever, or who interferes in any way with the hiring or
discharging of any shot-iirer, shall he guilty of a misdemeanor, The
officials of each mine shall formulate general rules governing the char-
acter of shots permitted, which rules must be approved by ttie mine in-
spector at each visit, but the operators shall be permitted to make any addi-
tional restrictions for the safe blasting of coal.
Since it is necessary to maintain a full crew, rales made
for the firing of shots will not be unreasonable, and the com-
mittees of the miners can at all times protest to the pit boss
and appeal to the regular arbitration committee that adjusts
disputes between the miners and operators. When the shot-
firer is not under the jurisdiction of the Union, he will be free
from all threats of fines on account of his caution and will
be treated with the respect shown to the bosses who do not be-
long to the Union. There should be some agreement by which
discharged shot-firers should be reinstated into the Union upon
payment of bade dues in an amount not to exceed the regular
initiation fee, but this is only necessary as long as the present
closed shop condition continues, and should not be included
in the law.
Mine inspectors. The present mine law requires the single
mine inspector to measure the air at every working face in
every large mine in the State at least once in three months and
in general to do an amount of woric beyond the capacity of eight
or ten men. The inspector is therefore required to depend upon
the assistance of the miners and other friends. There have been
many methods by which the appointee of the Governor has been
selected, and some of these have proved imsatisfactory. Very
few if any of the operators object to the additional expense
needed to increase the safety of their mines, but they do not
wish to spend more money than their competitors. For these
reasons more mine inspectors are needed. A comprehensive
report from the mine inspector is also desirable, especially one
relating to the detailed causes of all fatal and disabling acci-
dents. The following suggestions arc offered as a beginning:
There shall be employed one Chief Mine Inspector and at least two
deputies one of whom shall reside in the vicinity of Clarksville or main-
tain an office there and inspect only those mines north of the Arkansas
River. The other two shall reside at different convenient points in Se-
lyGoo'^lc
Mining Laws of Arkansas 239
bastian County, as at Fort Smith, Greenwood, Huntinffton, or Hartford,
and divide the work as directed by the Chief Mine Inspector. The Chief
Mine Inspector shall receive a salary of $2,000 per annum and all necessary
expenses, for which he must submit subvouchers. The assistant mine in-
spectors shall receive salaries of $1,500 per annum and all necessary ex-
penses approved by the Chief Mine Inspector, and sworn to by the assistant
mine inspector.
The Chief Mine Inspector shall be appointed by the Governor to serve
for two years or until his successor is appointed, and the assistants shall
be appointed by the Chief Mine Inspector to serve until their successors
are appointed.
To aid in the selection of competent mine inspectors there shall be
an Examining Board, consisting of the State Geologist as chairman
and five other members selected by him. One of these members shall be
an expert mining engineer, one of them a mine superintendent, one a hotst-
in(c engineer or a master mechanic of a mine, and two of them prac-
tical miners or mine foremen. Each member of the board shall be allowed
$. . . . per day and expenses for each day he is occupied by the examina-
tion which shall not average more than s days for each examination.
The Board shall be furnished with all necessary blanks and stationery.
All examinations shall be held in the city of Fort Smith, Arkansas.
There shall be an examination during January or February of each
even numbered year, and as often in addition as an appointment of an in-
spector is necessary and there are no eligible candidates. The time and
place of each examination shall be published in newspapers and journals
selected by the State Geologist so as to give at least one month's notice
to the mining public. The examinations shall be prepared and conducted
as determined by the Board, so as to secure the selection of competent men
only. Four members of the Board shall constitute a quorum, and part
of the work may be done by correspondence if this is more convenient.
All candidates shall present to the Examining Board satisfactory evi-
dence of good moral character, temperate habits, and good health, and shall
upon the application blanks state fully their experience in coal mining and
th«r education. In deciding which men shall be eligible to appointment,
education and experience shall be considered in a manner to be decided by
the Board.
The examination for Assistant Mine Inspector shall cover the sub-
jects of mine maps, mine ventilation, and the measurement of the air cur-
rent, character and effects of mine gases, mining machinery and appli-
ances, the blasting of coal and rock, the causes of mine accidents, and ques-
tions of practical mining, and the mining laws of the State. The exami-
nation for Chief Mine Inspector shall test in addition the candidate's
knowledge of the English language and his ability to write a report upon
some technical matter relating to mine inspection.
All persons who take the examination shall be notified of the result
by mail and a list of all who have passed shall be sent to the Governor
shortly after his election and whenever else he may so desire, and all ap-
pointments and re-appointments shall be made from this list. All per-
lyGoo'^lc
240 Coal Mixing in Arkansas
sons who have passed the examination for Chief Mine Inspector shall
also be eligible for [he position of assistant mine inspector and any person
who has passed two successive examinations shall be eligible without fur-
ther examination as long as he meets the other requirements. A list of
eligible persons shall also he given to the Chief Mine Inspector upon his
appointment and he shall select his assistants from this list. All mine
inspectors shall devote their entire time lo that work and shall have no
financial interest whatever in any coal mine during their term of office.
Every coal mine in the State employing ten men underground at any
one time shall be thoroughly examined by one of the mine inspectors at
least once every ninety days and as much oftener as may be necessary in
the judgment of the Inspector. This inspection shall include the determi-
nation of the number of men and mules working upon each split of air;
the tracing out of the course of the air current upon the mine map and a
verification of the location of each overcast required ; a measurement of
the air current m each split at some convenient point near the most dis-
tant working place ; a general study of the mechanical appliances of the
mine and of the system of propping the roof and blasting the coal; and
any other examination which the Inspector may deem necessary to secure
compliance with the laws and the proper safety of the men. All fatal acci-
dents shall be personally investigated by a mine inspector as soon there-
after as practicable and complete statistics shall be collected each three
months giving the average number of men employed at each time for
each class of labor when running; the number of days upon which the
mine was ooerated; the total tonnage of coal mined; and the total amount
of the pay-roll, including superintendent and office force in Arkansas, tor
each calendar month. Where possible, the Mine Inspector shall endeavor
to collect data as to the age and cause of death of all former mine workers
who die from other cause than accidents in the mine.
The Mine Inspector shall have authority to deputize any person to
see that the speed of the tan is not lessened after his visit or *atany
changes that he may require are carried ou( within the time specified. He
shall interfere as little as possible with the operation of the mine and
shall make no unreasonable requirements or order changes not necessary
to the health and safety of the employees, but he shall not be restricted to
the letter of the mining laws.
All operators shall be required to furnish all reasonable aid to the In-
spector, and all information needed for the preparation of the Mine In-
spector's report. The statistics of each individual mine shall be held con-
fidential by the Mine Inspector. All injuries to employees sufficiently seri-
ous to prevent their working shall be promptly reported to the Mine In-
spector with full details as to the cause and circumstances of the accident,
and as nearly as possible the age, experience, and nationality of die injured
person.
The Chief Mine Inspector shall be responsible for the enforcement of
the law and shall prepare a report tor each calendar year giving the
number of mines of each type in operation ; the average number of days
operated; the average number of men of each class employed; the total
lyGoo'^lc
MI^■I^X Laws of Arkansas 241
production and the total pay-roll of each county; a complete report upon
all accidents: whatever data is available as to the causes of other deaths;
an account of all mine explosions : and any other information of general
interest. There shali be also an administrative report showing the date of
each inspection of each mine ; the number of mines visited ; the results of
the measurement of the air; the warnings of violations of the law given;
and the prosecutions conducted, etc. Five hundred copies of this report
shall b'e Dublished by the State, and for its preparation the Chief Iiline In-
spector shall be allowed the aid of a draftsman and of a steitographer at
a cost not to exceed $200 per annum.
Each mine inspector shall take the oath of office required of other
officers of the State and may be removed for cause at any time by the
person appointing him. If any financially responsible person shall send
to the person making said appointment an affidavit charging the Inspector
with neglect of duty, drunkenness, dishonesty, or other gross misconduct,
the Inspector shall be removed from office. This shall he done by the ner-
son making the appointment as soon as the charges have been investigated
and substantiated, or immediately if the charges are accompanied by a
bond of $4/xx> to be forfeited to the Inspector in case the charges are dis-
proved, provided that the bond has been approved by the Judge of the
county in which the Inspector resides. In case of injustice, the Inspector
may by suit at court collect from the maker of the charges or his bonds-
men, damages to the extent of the Inspector's salary for the remainder
of a two years' term and a sum sufficient to cover necessary court ex-
penses and attorney fees, as ordered by the court in which the case is tried.
In case the charges are sustained after trial, the State shall pay for ihe
court expenses and attorney fees and loss of time undei^one by the maker
of the charges.
It is believed that such a law will secure the selection of
the most efficient inspectors available and will give the inspec-
tors all necessary authority. These two are the essentials of
good mine inspection. The expense to the State will be con-
siderably increased but it is believed it is the least amount con-
sistent with thorough enforcement of the law and the prepara-
tion of a creditable report. Good inspection is necessary to
protect the lives and the health of the miners and to safeguard
the i)etter operators from their unscrupulous competitors.
In general, administrative details will have to be added to
the suggestions here offered, and in cases the mere substanc
and not the wording of the clauses has been given. The above
mentioned few changes in the laws and the repeal of the mine-
run law are especially urged as the beginning of the improve-
ment of the mining conditions. It is thought well to omit for
lyGoO'^lc
242 Coal Mining in Arkansas
the present drastic provisions for mine refuge stations, rescue
apparatus, and such matters, since disastrous explosions are
practically unknown except when firing shots. The Mine In-
spector will have authorrty to establish regulations regardii^f
fire proof stables and such matters. As socm as the National
Bureau of Mines has finished its draft of a uniform and ade-
quate law for all of the states, it should be adopted by the State
of Arkansas, with what changes may be needed to suit local
conditions.
Since so few of the miners carry any life insurance whatso-
ever, their families are left destitute in case of their death by
accident, and they themselves suffer from want in case of dis-
abling accidents. Most of these accidents are due to the care-
lessness of the miners themselves and it seems unfair to assess
either the State or the operators to provide them with accident
indemnities. If such a measure is ever deemed advisable, it is
earnestly recommended that the fund needed be raised as a
tax upon the powder used, to be paid by the miners using the
powder in the form of an increased cost per keg. Part of this
may be made up by the operators giving the miner an increase
in wages or by the State contributing some of the money in
proportion to the amount of powder saved by the careful miner.
This would decrease the present excessive use of powder, which
is perhaps the greatest single cause of mine accidents. A less
sum of money, therefore, would be adequate for the indemnity.
It is quite apparent, however, that the administration of such
a fund would be very difficult and expensive, and it is believed
that no action shouki be undertaken by the State until the num-
ber of men employed in the mines become much greater, as it
doubtless will in the future.
lyGoO'^lc
CHAPTER VU.
THB MtNEJtUN LAW
STATEMENT OF I^W.
Introduction. In addition to the laws which were dis-
cussed in the last chapter and which were passed in the interest
of the health and safety of the miners, we have the so-called
mine-run law whkh was passed in 1905, The real nature of
the law is not very generally understood and its importance
merits a full discussion.
It should be understood that what the writer has to say
about this law is the result of his own unbiased study of all
the conditions affecting the coal-mining industrj' in the State,
and of a desire to benefit it as much as possible. In the course
of the work necessary for this report, he received many favors
from both the miners and the operators, and has formed many
personal friendships among both. It is felt that the writer ts
as nearly unprejudiced in his opinions as is possible for any one to
be. No figures have been intentionally exa^erated and no
conditions have been overdrawn.
Statement of the law. The mine-run law in full is' as
follows :
ACT 219.
"AN ACT to provide for the weigding of coal mined in the State of
Arkansas, as it comes from the mine, and before it is passed over a
screen of any kind.
"Be It Enacted by General Assembly of the State of Arkansas.
"Section i. It shall be unlawful for any mine owner, lessee, or
Operator of coal mines in this State, where ten or more men are employed
underground, employing miners at bushel or ton rates, or other quantity,
to pass the output of coal mined by said miners over any screen or any
other device which shall take any part from the value thereof before the
same shall have been weighed and duly credited to the employee sending
the same to the surface and accounted for at the legal rate of weights as
fixed by the laws of Arkansas, and no employee within the meaning of this
Act shall be deemed to have waived any right accruing to him under this
section by any contract he may make contrary to the provisions thereof,
and any provisions, contract, or agreement between mine owners, lessees,
or operators thereof, and the miners employed therein, whereby the pro-
lyGoo'^lc
244 Coal Mining in Arkansas
visions of this Act are waived, modiAed or annulled, shall be void and o£ no
effect, and the coal sent to the surface shall be accepted or rejected; and
if accepted, shall b« weighed in accordance with the provisions of this Act,
and all right of action shall not be invalidated by reason of any contract
or agreement; and any owner, agent, lessee, or operator of any coal mine
in this State, where ten or more men are employed underground, who shall
knowingly violate any of the provisions of this section, shall be deemed
guil^ of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be punished by a fine
not less than $200 nor more than $500 for each offense, or by imprisonment
in the county jail for a period of not less than sixty days nor more than
six months, or both such fine and imprisonment; and each day any mine or
mines are operated thereafter, shall be a separate and distinct offense, pro-
ceedings lo be instituted in any court having competent jurisdiction.
"Sec. 2. This Act shall be in force and effect on and after the first
day of April, 1906, and all laws and parts of laws in conflict with this Act
are hereby repealed."
The nature of the law. Before this law was passed, the
contract with the miners, which has not been changed,* gave
the companies the ri^, if they wished, to pass the coal over
a standard specified screen. All of the lumps over lyi in. each
way, and quite a little of the finer coal went over this screen
into a weigh basket at the end, and its weight credited to the
miner, and the miner was paid on a lump-coal basis. The con-
tract also allowed the company to pick out the lumps of slate
or other impurity in the coal at any time before it was weighed.
Both of these privileges are specifically denied by the mine-run
law, which requires the weighing of the coal just as it comes
from the mine. Such coal is called mine-run coal.
It should also be noted that the law breaks all previous con-
tracts providing for this screening and sorting of the coal, even
though they were signed in good faith previous to its passage.
Most laws fortid future contracts only.
Nominally the law seems fair, in that it allows the com-
panies the right to reject any inferior car load of coal after it
has reached the surface, but the ccral can not then be rejected
except at a prohibitive expense to the companies. By the time
the coal has reached the surface, it has cost the companies the
full proportion of all the underground expenses, such as driving
the entries, and hauling and hoisting the coal, even though tK>th-
ing is paid to the miner for it. This expense is often nearly
•The contract of September 19, 191D, merely specifies a scale for pay-
ment upon the lump-coal basis as well as the mine-run basis.
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 245
half the total cost of mining, never less than one-fourth. At all
those mines which are equipped with self-dumping cages, which
includes practically all of the shaft mines, an attempt to iospect
the coal before it is dumped would cause prohibitive delay. In
no case before the coal is dumped can any idea be formed of
the amount of slate or slack in the coal except that which shows
on the top. The expense of rejecting the coal after it
is dumped would be very great on account of the delay caused
by getting it out to the waste pile without any of it getting on
the screens or into the railroad cars in the usual way.
This explanation in itself makes clear the unfairness of
the law. In this chapter, the further injustice of this law will
be pointed out. An effort will also be made to show how weak
are the arguments used to secure its passage, and how far-
reaching has been its detrimental effect upon the coal-mining
industry of Arkansas and upon the State at large.
The passage of the law an accident. It is believed that on
account of its technical nature, many of the legislators who
voted for the mine-run law did not fully understand its nature,
and that others who favored it had promised the leaders of the
Miners' Union that they would support this measure before they
appreciated its evils. The passage of the law was therefore
an unfortunate accident. Experience has shown that it is in
many ways detrimental to the mining industry and of IHtle or
no advantage to the miners. It is hoped that every member
of the I^egislature will carefully study its actual effects; and it
is believed that such a study can not fail to result in its repeal.
The need of a mme-run scale of prices. Mine-run coal is
cheaper because the companies are not worried about finding
a separate market for the slack in it, and at times many con-
sumers wish to buy it. At a few tipples, after the slack and
lump coal have once been separated for weighing, it is incon-
venient to load them both into the same railroad car to sell as
mine run. For this reason the operators desire to have a mme-
run scale upon which they can pay the miners for coal of this
sort. They can load occasional cars of mine-run coal by simply
placing iron plates over the screen so that all the coal goes on
into the weigh basket and then into a car which would ordi-
narily receive only the lump coal. If, however, much nune-
lyGoO'^lc
246 Coal Mining in Arkansas
run coal is to be loaded and the miijers get so careless that the
customer complains about the large amount of slack in the coal,
the operator should have the privilege of changing his tipple
so that he can pay his miners in proportion to the amount of
lump coal they mine.
arguments in favor of the law.
Payment for the slock. The great argument used by the
advocates of this law was that the miners gave to the com-
panies a valuable product, the slack coal, for which they were
not paid. That this argument is not valid will appear from the
following :
At the time the law was passed, the coal for which the
miners of this State. were paid was supposed to average 30 per
cent slack. From the government reports, the proportion was
probably less than 30 per cent but this was the figure accepted
as an average by the Union. In each loo tons of coal sent out,
there were then 70 tons of lump coal. Under the scale of prices
then in effect, riie men were paid 90c for each ton of lump coal ;
, that is, they received $63.00 for the lOO tons, even though they
got nothir^ for the slack. Under the alternative mine-run scale,
they would get 62c for each of the 100 tons, whether lump or
slack. This is only $62.00 for the 100 tons or $1.00 less than they
would receive on the lump-coal basis of payment. This simple
arithmetic shows that the screened-coal basis of payment gives
the miner full value for his coal, provided that it is up to the
standard of quality and there is no foundation for any other claim.
The same method of figuring would show that if the coal con-
tained more than 70 per cent of good lump coal, the miner would
be paid a premium for his extra care in mining it.
That the screened-coal basis of payment recompensed the
miner in full, is shown by the results at Mine No. 2, Denning.
Here the coal is of such unusually high quality that it can be
shot from the solid with a less proportion of slack than .in most
mines ; but in order to encourage the miner to use care in plac-
ing his shots, the company has gone to the expense of first
weighing the coal as required by the mine-run law and crediting
the miner with it. The coal is then screened and the lump coal
reweighed and credited to the miner at the old price of 90c per •
lyGoO'^lc
Thz Mine-Run Law 247
ton. If at the end of the two weeks, the price for this lump
coal at 90c per ton is greater than that of the mjne-run coal at
62c per ton, the miner is paid the difference as a premium.
Otherwise, he gets the full mine-run price. Under this ar-
rangement, however, the men have much less incentive to do
good work than if they did not have the mine-run basds of pay-
ment to fall back upon. The result is that the lazy men shoot
the coal to bits and the incompetent ones make no effort to im-
prove so as properly to mine the coal. Still, out of 203 diggers
on the pay-roll for January, 1910, 134 or 66 per cent, earned
the premium; that is, they received more than 62c. a ton
for all the coal including the slack in it. It is instructive to
note that the careful miners who received the premium aver-
aged $4.20 per day net, while the others averaged only $3.83,
a difference of about 10 per cent. The careful entry-men earned
from the coal alone 15.3 per cent more than the lazy ones, and
the good room-men 11. 18 per cent more than the poor ones. As
this is the only mine in the State using such an arrangement,
no other figures are available.
Maintenance of the screen. The second argument in favor
of the passage of the law was, "The screen is a robber," By
this is meant that the bars of the screen would become bent and
permit large slabs of coal to pass through. It is regretted that
Mie or two of the companies were very careless about the con-
diticHi of their screens many years ago, but this injustice was
very promptly corrected by the Miners' Union upon its organ-
ization in 1903. For years the screens have never been se-
riously defective and when slightly out of order they have been
promptly repaired. In fact the miners' committee inspected the
screens each time the scales were tested, and whenever any bar
became bent the committee required that it be straightened be-
fore any more coal was weighed. The <^erator3 now generally
ralize that it is actually to their own interest to maintain the
screen in good condition since screened coal for domestic use
has always been worth more than 90c. a ton above the price
of slack coal,* The companies would, therefore, lose money
•Various attempts have been made to save a high priced nut or pea
coal from the miners' coal which went through the screen, hut the expense
of doing this and the resultant poorer quality of the stack made this im-
practicable. The idea was therefore given up voluntarily by the operator}
in the early n' — '■"
lyGoo'^lc
248 Coal Mining in Arkansas
by getting good lump coal mixed with the slack. The removal
of the smaller lumps of coal which should pass over a. standard
screen is of no advantage to the consumer and does not raise
the price of lump coal. When the operators make a special grade
of lump coal from which all of the slack is not removed, the
difference in price is less than 90c per ton; but in this case,
the rttners are paid on a mine-run basis and the area of the
screen is reduced. There is, therefore, little likelihood of
poor screens in the future.
Coai not uniform. At a very few mines, there is trouble
because the coal in some places is seamy or faulty, and under
the best of treatment yields a less proportion of lump coal than
the average. At some such mines, it is still customary to pay
the miner working in this poor coal extra for it, and on the
screened-coal basis, he could be credited with the lump weight
of the average pit car of coal from the mine, for each well filled
car he sent out Where applied, this rule was entirely satis-
factory to the men, as is the present plan of allowing the aver-
age weight for each car load of coal which has been wrecked
while in the care of the operator. This (djjection to paying for
the coal in proportion to the amount of lump coal it contains,
is thus seen to have little weight. In fact, it is now seldom
urged by the friends of the mine-run law,*
The slack left in the mines. A more just argument against
paying for mining coal in proportion to the amount of lump
coal it contains is that, when they were so paid, the miners did
not load out all of the coal, but left some slack in the mine as a
permanent loss of a natural resource. Where the miners were
paki for hand-picked or forked coal, as at Paris, this was true ;
but in the State as a whole, only a very little slack was ever
left, for the reason that the coal is loaded with a shovel and
shoveled up from the smooth floor. It is as easy for the miner
to shovel into the car the little slack that is left after the lumps
are loaded, as to put it back out of his way. Whenever the
•This condition is now fully provided for by the 'contract' between
the' miners and operators, Paragra[rfi 16 of the General Conditions reads
as follows :
■'Frozen or seamy coal, stuck top or bottom, shall be deficient work,
and shall be paid for extra. The same 10 be determined by mine commit-
tee and pit-boss. If they fail to agree the miner shall be given an average
place in the mine."
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 249
screen was covered with iron plates at intervals to fill orders
for mine-run coal, some of the top men would make a chalk
mark in each car as it was emptied so that the miners would
know that they were being paid on a mine-run basis. They
then loaded out any convenient slack left in their rooms. This
reduced the waste on the screened-coal 'basis. A study of the
mining methods shows that only one or two per cent of clean
coal was ever left in the mines as slack.
Even if we grant that a good deal of coal was wasted, this
could have been corrected by requiring payment for all classes
of coal at any scale of prices to be agreed upon, say 35c a ton
for the slack and 75c. a ton for the lump coal. The prices are
equivalent to 90c. a ton for lump coal only, or 63c. a ton for
mine-run coal, on the original basis of 30 per cent of slack.
Mine-run laws in other states. As an excuse for the mine-
run law, we are toW that it exists in other states. It is true
that some states have just as bad a law as Arkansas, but many
of the older laws simply provide for the payment of all classes
of coal as suggested, at any price agreed upon* or require
a written agreement for payment on a lump-coal basis. f Few
of them prevent Ihe removal of slate, although some provide
for a method of determining the percentage of impurities in
the coal.:^
As will be shown later, the injury in Ailcansas by such a
law as the one we have is much greater than in any other
place, except at some of the mines in Oklahoma, where the con-
ditions are similar. - The fact that the other states have similar
laws is no reason why it should remain on the statutes of Ark-
ansas after its evil results have been so clearly demonstrated by
the experience of the last four years.
Reduction of the labor of the miners. The mine^run law re-
quires that the miner be paid for his coal regardless of its qual-
ity. It takes less labor and less skill to shoot the coal out
carelessly than to mine it in such a way as to get a large pro-
portion of good lump. The mine-run law therefore gives the
nuner the same pay for less vmrk and this is the real reason
•See Laws of Illinois, Act approved June 3, 1897.
tSee Laws of lows.
iBituminous mining laws of Pennsylvania, Act approved June T3>
lyGbo'^lc
250 Coal Mining in Arkansas
why some of the miners favor it. If it is claimed that the pro-
duction of good coal requires too much work, why not for thg
same reason prohibit the contracting masons from allowing
those of their men that are paid by the thousand brick laid, to
point or otherwise finish the joints? Or, why not prohibit the
plasterers from troweling his work smooth, or compel the cabi-
net-maker to leave his furniture unplaned? 'la each case, labor
would be saved and people could get along. Such examples
show the folly of attempting to change methods of work by
law. Besides determining the maimer of weeing the coal, the
mine-run law has changed the method of mining it. This
change has caused the injury to the qilality of the coal, which
in turn causes a hardship to the public.
Increase of wages. Many of the miners had been led to
believe that the passage of the mine-run law would increase
the amount of money they could earn each day, as well as their
pay per unit of real work performed, but in general this has
not been the case. This will be explained in detail when point-
ing out the injury the law has had upon the welfare of the
THE INJUSTICE OF THE LAW.
The State, an instrument for breaking contracts. The
mine-run law is unjust and morally wrong. It definitely breaks
all contracts entered into by the miners to mine coal in a proper
manner, and for a fair price. This effect is shown best at
Paris, where miners were paid the high price of $1.05 a ton tor
undermining the coal, breaking it down, loading the large lumps
by hand, loading the smaller lumps by the use of a fork, and
doing the incidental work of taking care of the room. This
plan should make but a little slack and most of that should be
left in the mine. It yields the maximum amount of valuable
hand-picked coal.
At all the Paris mines, the men are now paid upon the
mine-run basis as required by law. Where there are no ma-
chines, they are still getting $1.05 a ton for the coal as agreed
in the contract. While they all claim that their coal is still
hand-picked as called for by their contract, the kind sent out
by some of the miners yields 35 to 40 per cent of slack when it
lyGoO'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 251
is passed over a standard screen, instead of practically no slack
as it should. For this slack, the miner gets the same $1.05 a
fbn as .for the lump, although it sells for as little as 65c. a ton,
or has to be thrown away for lack of market.
The miners' contract still specifies that at all the mines, the
operators shall have the right to pay his miners for their coal
"at the agreed price, upon either a mine-run or a screened-coal
basis as he wishes. It was signed in good faith by the oper-
ators and also signed by the miners, who on signing it did not
protest against the screening of the coal. The right to screen
the coal before paying for it is so just and so necessary for
the profitable production of good coal that the dissatisfied ele-
ment among the miners could not hope to deprive the operators
of it by striking. This class therefore secured the passage of
this law to relieve themselves of their contract.
Class legislation. The law is also wrong because it is
class legislation in that it directly attacks only those employers
of labor who operate coal nunes. The coal-mining companies,
while not faultless, have treated their employees as well 'li
any other group of industrial companies, and. in weighing the
coal, they have for years treated the miners with entire fair-
ness. At most mines, the men have sufficient confidence in the
company weigh-hoss to remain at work even when their repre-
sentaitive can not be present. At many small mines a check-
weighman is rarely present. Therefore, why the injustice of
punishing the coal companies more than any other class of
corptfrations who pay their men by piece work?
Besides injuring one class of employers more than others,
the law is further unfair in that it definitely injures the skilled
and experienced miner while it benefits the indifferent and lazy
one. It also lessens the work of a few unscrupulous miners at
a dreadful risk to the shot-firers. The only miners whose work
is much lessened are those woHcing in the soft and generally
hig^ coai, and to benefit them, the miners working in the hard
coal should not he injured.
Instead of a fruitless attempt to raise wages by legisla-
tion in defiance of the law of supply and demand, it would seem
more fair to forbid the companies to deduct the Union dues, as-
sessmetits and fines from the wages of theh* men, many of whom
lyGoO'^lc
25a Coal Mining in Arkansas
consent to this reduction only because the Union will not
allow them to work upon any other condition,
THE INCREASED PRODUCTION OP SLACK.
Proportion of slack increased. The law has made the
companies powerless to regfulate the amount of their coal whidi
is shot into slack, with the result that the proportion of slack is
constently increasing. Affidavits of the companies, an exam-
ination of their shipping books, and the results of test runs
made by the superintendents, show that those few mines which
made as little as 21 per cent of slack on the old screened-coal
basis now make 31 per cent; those which then made about
25 per cent now make from 35 to 40 per cent ; those which then
made about 30 per cent now make over 40 per cent ; and those
that made about 34 per cent in the old days now make 50 per
cent. This shows an increase in the proportion of sladc of about
50 per cent of its original amount. It will be shown later that
this excessive production of slack causes a waste, of one
of our natural resources; and besides, it causes a big loss to the
operators and a hardship to all of the consumers of coal.
Amount of slack formerly left in the mints. After it was
clearly shown that this increase in the production of slack has
really occurred, the friends of the mine-run law claimed that
this extra slack is simply that which was formerly left in the
mines. But abundant figures show that within one month of
the passage of the mine-run law, the increase in the slack was
as little of 2^ or 3 per cent at several of the mines now showing
large increases. It reached the maximum amount of 7 per
cent at the Bolen-Darnall mine at Hartford. Here much fine
dirt formerly dug out from under the coal had accumulated in
the rooms and some of it was loaded out as soon as the Taw
required the company to pay for it. Of the general increase
or 3 or 4 per cent in the slack foltowing the passage of the law,
possfoly three-fourths was slack formerly left in the mine, but
of this slack, a large part was worthless dirt as at the Bolen-
Damall. The estimate that the former waste was mily about
1 or 2 per cent of the weight of the coal is therefore just.
Progressive increase in the proportion of slack. Most of
the miners had not actually urged the mine-run law. and for
some time after its passage, they continued to mine the coal in
lyGoO'^lc
The Mine-Run Lav
253
the old way, so the immediate increase in the production of
slack was slight From the force of evil example, however,
more and more of these good miners adopted the careless
methods and the carelessness will continue to increase as long
as the law is in effect As a result of the change in the method
of mining, the excessive production of slack has steadily in-
creased until this excess is now four times as much as it was
in the first few months of the application of the mine-run law.
The best proof of the fact that the shattering of the coal wil!
continue to increase is the experience of Kansas, where a mine-
run law was enacted as long ago as May 8, 1897.
Complete shipment records were obtained from one of
the Kansas companies which has maintained a quite uniform
production of over 500,000 tons per annum from 1894 to 1909,
By 1905, the proportion of lump coal had been so reduced that
its high price compelled the railroads to buy railroad lump.
This mine-run coal from which only 25 per cent of its weight
of slack has been removed. After this date, the slack shipments
do not show how much slack was produced, but the shattering
of the coal has continued to increase. The actual results from
1894 to 1904 are given in the following table:
Proportion of Different Sises of Coal in Kansas.
1894
189s
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
c^
9IMk
•25.96
•27.60
LOO
•26.54
27.06
1.05
29.92
1. 12
27.91
I-.05
28-37
1.06
32.10
r.20
34.32
1.28
35.67
1-33
38.15
1-43
•Average 36,70.
lyGoO'^lc
254 Coal Mining in Arkansas
It will be noted that the amount oi lump coal produced has
shown a decrease from year to year, while the amount of sladq
increased from an average of 26.70 per cent previous to the mine-'
run law, until it had become 38.15 per cent as long ago as 1904.
During the interval covered by this table, there was no
change in the manner of screening the coal, or in the character
of the unmined coal, or in any of the conditions except for the
organization of the Union in 1903. This shows conclusively
how rapidly a mine-run law and the loss of control over the men
due to the strength of the Union, leads to the development or
carelessness in mining.
By 1907, the slack problem in Arkansas had become so
serious that the railroads dependent upon the Arkansas mines
were forced to buy coal containing a good deal of slack. After
this time, the shipping records did not show exactly the relative
amounts of slack and lump coal produced. After about a year,
however, one company kept a separate record of the amount of
slack obtained from the railroad lump and from the true lump
coal. These records are not so satisfactory as they sbould be
since but little straight lump coal was produced at the mines
making much slack. There was also an uncertainty due to the
fact that some cars contained slack from both kinds of coal.
The results are as shown in the table below.
Percentage of Slack at Arkansas Mines.
For year ending Apr. i 1906
1907
1908
1909 igro
Average of per cent of slack at
28.00
26.10
-"-
36.04 42-32
Per cent of slack produced at one ■
of these mines 2642
39.32 41.87
This table makes it clear that the proportion of slack made
has increased steadily from the passage of the mine-run law
until the present ; but the Kansas mines have a longer and more
exact record.
Method of producing the slack. A study of the mines shows
why the production of slack will increase. At Bonanza and
Hartford especially, there is a band of soft dirt under the coal,
and at many other places, there is a band of the same soft dirt
lyGoO'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 255
in the coal. This can be picked or scraped out sufficiently to
prepare a shot properly in from onchalf to three-quarters of an
hour. This removal of the dirt makes it possible to shoot
out the coal with the minimutn proportion of slack. It also saves
powder and reduces the danger, for which reasons it is still
done by some of the experienced miners; but the work is un-
pleasant and at least one-half of the miners make no pre-
tense of doing h at all, because they know that any block of
coal can be loosened by blasting, provided enough powder is put
behind it. To be certain of enough, they generally add a little
more than enough powder, because, even though the coal is
thereby reduced to a heap of slack, the mine-run law requires
that they get full price for it. Also the slack is easier to shovel
and does not require loosening with a pick, before it can be
loaded.
The heavy blasting tends to throw the pieces of coal some
distance and it is further crushed into slack by striking the roof
or floor and the props. The careless miners place their shots so
as to throw the coal toward the track and so reduce the labor
of loading it. To do this, they ignore, if necessary, the natural
cleavage planes of the coal which makes still more slack in blast-
ing it loose.
Many of the miners are flne men and do not wish to be
known as 'sladc makers' but they find it hard to withstand the
gibes of their fellows, and are therefore becoming more and
more careless. From year to year, the common length of the
augers sold to the miners is increasing. This shows the ten-
dency to put in fewer and heavier shots than formerly. It means
heavier blasting and more stack each year. As the younger men
who are now entering the trade do not understand the old careful
way of mining, the proportion of miners skilled in the best
methods is bound to decrease ; and the proportion of slack pro-
duced in mining the coal will correspondingly increase, unless
the men have some incentive to do better work.
Efforts of the operators to get lump coal. At present some
of the superintendents are arranging to get lower side-boards
upon what new cars they need, and to give the miner fewer cars
per day. Then in order that the miner may make good wages,
he must mine enough lumps to chunk up his car so as to in-
lyGoO'^lc
256 Coal Mining in Arkansas
crease its capacity. Some sDperintendents are even thinking of
removing the doors from the cars so that the miners will have
to mine lumps to hold the coal in the car. Both of these plans
will work a hardship upon the good miners as well as upon the
careless ones, and the second one is only a desperate last resort,
for it may increase the accidents upon slopes.
Figure 4, p. 14, is the side view of a car of coal which
shows the lumps used to chunk it up- It does not, however, show
the slack in the middle of the car. A much better idea of the
way the coal looks when mined can be obtained from Fig. 8,
p. 28, which shows the cars coming out of the 'pigeon hole,'
operated during the suspension of 1910. This gives a fair view
of the entire car and shows how many lumps will be needed
to stop up the end.
Decrease in the sale value due to slack. Since we have suf-
ficiently shown that a constantly increasing proportion of good
lump coal is shot into slack as a result of the passage of the
mine-run law in 1905, it may be interesting to see how this af-
fects the operators.
Since slack coal is worth so much less than lump coal, the
natural result of an increase in its proportion is to decrease the
average value of the coal. The average prices of the different
sizes of coal have not been published, but from information
given by companies, wholesale dealers, and others, it is known
that the price of the slack coal is from 95c to $1.50 per ton less
than that of the lump coal from which the full amount of fine
coal has been removed. The average difference is at least $1.15
a ton. Now the mine-run law has increased the slack on an
average from the normal 30 per cent to at least 45 per cent.
It has therefore reduced the value of 15 per cent of the output
of the State by $1.15 a ton. On the normal output of 2,500/300
tons,* this loss amounts to $430,000 per annum in round
numbers.
This figure is correct even though much of the coal is sold
as modified lump, since modified lump is cheaper than ordinary
•This 6gure is intermediate between the output of 2^377,000 tons
in 1909 and the maximum of 2,670,000 tons in 1907. It about equals the
capacity of the mines now working, and is used throughout this chapter
as a basis of figuring losses due to the mine-run law.
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 257
screened lump by an amount sufficient to make it uneconomical
to mix screened coal and slacJc bought separately.
This heavy loss to the operators has not benefited the con-
sumer in general. The average price of slack has not been re-
duced, because a reduction beyond the present price does not
increase the amount of .sales and is of no value to the operators.
' The price of slack is fixed by the competition of fuel oil, and by
its relative value as compared with lump coal. The greater part
of the slack has been forced upon the railroads by the high price
of lump coal. Another portion has been made salable in com-
petition with lump coal, by the expensive process of washing.
In general, the output of lump coal is restricted after the slack
market has been supplied, until the price of lump coal has so
increased as to make it advisable to mine the lump coal and
throw away the slack. Some of the loss has been made up by
an increased cost of lump coal, but this only transfers the cost
to the consumer.
Loss of slack. The large production of slack has not only
lowered the price of coal but has also made it necessary to load
some slack out on the surface of the ground. When the slack
is loaded out upon the prairie, thete is a loss of at least 5 per
cent* even if it is gathered up again. No general figures
as to the amount of coal dumped upon the ground at all the
mines are available, but during 1909 a single company accumu-
lated 24,222 tons. The 5 per cent loss amounted to 131 1 tons.
Some of the slack dumped on the ground is not gathered up
unril the biennial suspension of mining, and after two years'
exposure to rain and wind, the loss h very graat. Much of
it is never gathered up and is permanently lost, not only to the
operators but to mankinds The annual loss to the State must
even with our present limited output, be several thousand dollars
a year. This is in addition to the cost of storing the slack.
Unless restricted, this loss will increase as the mining infUistry
is extended.
THE DECREASE IN THE QUAtlTY OF Tlie COAL.
Shattering the lump coal. The mine-run law injures the
companies by also reducing the quality of the output and hence
•The only exact figures available show a loss of ir.3 per cent
from one pile of 9,978 tons. The superintendents do not Eenca'ly weigh
the slack before it is wasted and guess that the minimum loss is 5 per c ^
. Goc^lc
258 Coal Mining in Arkansas
its cash value. The heavy careless shooting not only reduces the
proportion ot lump coal but also greatly weakens those lumps
which are not entirely broken up. As a result, they readily slack
off on standing and are easily broken by handling. It will there-
fore not endure railroad shipment as well as it should. When
domestic lump coal is loaded out by a careful retail dealer, the
lumps are forked out and the coal remaining is sold at slack
prices. In this. way, it is possible to tell accurately how much
slack is found in the coal. An affMavit of Mr. Geo. McLean
of the Merchants' Transfer Company of Little Rock, states that
several years ago, the Arkansas coal which he sold left from 3
to 5 per cent of slack, whereas in 1908, it left from 10 to 16,
generally about 15 per cent. This is coal which left the mines
as clean, fancy lump and was screened in the same way as before
the mine-law went into effect. The experience of Mr. McLean
is that of all dealers and consumers, and shows how much the
coal is shattered by the excessive shooting.
This shattering so affects the coal that it produces an un-
necessary amount of slack when an attempt is made by the
consumer to break up the larger lumps. If a lump of properly
mined coal is struck with a pick, it will break cleanly into a few
pieces, but if Arkansas coal as now mined is treated the same
way, it either crumbles where struck or if hit hard enough falls
into small pieces with a targe amount of slack. This fact was
tested at Spadra by the writer who compared the breaking of
the shattered lumps and of lumps from coal that had been un-
dermined by mining machines, and shot only sufficiently to 'drop
it down.' Arrangements were made to have a weighed amount
of each kind of coal crushed and the percentage of slack pro-
duced from each determined, but this- could not be done before
the end of the mining season.
Increase of slate in the coal. There is a further injury to
the operators, because the mine-run law compels the companies
to pay the miners as much for slate as for coal. Some little" pro-
tection is afforded by the agreement with the Union which allows
a feiv of the worst offenders to be laid off for from one to three
days, but they can only be penalized for loading out slate that
is in large enough pieces to be picked out by hand from the
lump coal. The companies are not allowed to put another man
in the place made vacant, so the laying off of the men is an ■
i.^anyGoOC^Ie
The Mine-Run Law
259
expense to the company because it reduces the output of the
mine. Since it is generally impracticable to inspect the stack
coal for slate, the miner gets a premium for shooting all of the
dirt band and slate into small pieces and of course the coal goes
also. Nevertheless, much slate in large sizes gets into the lump
coal, although the companies have from two to six extra pickers
at each large mine in their efforts to produce salable coal.
No exact figures of the increase in the slate in the larger
sizes of coal can be obtained, because no tests are made, but
the superintendents frequently receive complaints from con-
sumers, and some of them have been obliged to stop those entries
in which the middle band is the thickest. This increases mining
costs by reducing the output, and causes increased waste of coal,
but hss become necessary on account of the mine-run law.
With regard to the slack coal there are abundant figures
showing the increase in the proportion of slate which is mixed
with the coal as a result of the increasing carelessness of mining.
The fact that this slate evil will increase is best proved by the
results obtained at the slack washer. As soon as the mine-run
law was passed, it became necessary for the Central Coal and
Coke Co. to build a slack washer at Doubleday, Aricansas,
to remove the waste slate from that proportion of the slack
coal which could not otherwise be sold. This company has
kindly furnished the writer with the number of tons of coal
washed and the amount of material removed from it each month
since washing started in July, 1906, until the suspension of
mining of 1910. This is summarized in the following table.
Results of Washing Slack Coat at Doubleday.
PERIOD
Wmhing
of SUM D)
Slack*
Riitie
July.
Apr.
Apr.
Apr.
'o6-Mar. 31, '07
I, '07-Mar. 31, 'oS.. .
I, '08-Mar. 31, '09. ..
I, '09-Mar. 31, '10...
24.74
26.40
3125
II
16
18
23
1. 00
■-45
1.64
209
•The normal ash in this coal is onlv 5 to 9 per cent and is no'
removed in washing. Of the loss in washing, 8 per cent is clean coal
which floats off as a fine powder in the wash water or is attached to pieces
of state or sulphur. The rest of the loss is chiefly slate unneceasanly
mixed with the coal. The slack from some of the mines ha? less slate in
it than this, but that from others has probably more, so this experience
is not greatly different from the average
Goo^^lc
26o Coal Mining in Arkansas
To show the increase in the proportion of slate, the percent-
age of the first season is taken as normal. This shows the pro-
gressive increase in the amount of fine slate mixed with the coal
and that it is now twice as great as it was during the first year
after the passage of the mine-run law. The amount can be ex-
pected to increase as long as this law is in effect.
An effort to calculate what the amount of dirt in the slack
coal would be if the miners shot to pieces all of the dirt band
in the mines supplying this washer, indicates that they are al-
ready putting in nearly the equivalent of 75 per cent of the
entire dirt band. Some of the dirt, however, comes from the
soft bottom or from the draw slate. The writer has been In mine
rooms where the middle band is 6 to 8 in. thick and very soft,
but where there was noSliing but a few large pieces of draw
slate in the piles of waste. The dirt from the middle band had
been loaded out with the coal and sold to the company, instead
of being left in the room, according to contract. Fortunately,
other miners are still quite careful to load only good coal.
The slack from the Spadra mines is used by the zinc smelt-
ing companies who find it necessary to analyze it for computing
the retort charges. The results of their analyses for several
years show a rapid and steady increase in the percentage of ash
left by the slack. Since the middle band at Spadra is hard state
and not soft dirt, this indicates a very rapid increase in the
carelessness of blasting.
The slack from other mines is occasionally analyzed by the
large consumers or by the operators who have to specify the
quality. These analyses all show large and increasing percent-
ages of slate in the slack. An estimate based upon all of the
figures available and the output of the mines represented indicate
that the enactment of the mine-nm law has caused an average
•increase of slate in the slack equal to about 10 per cent the
weight of slack. Only the larger pieces of slate can be picked
out of lump coal and much of the slate in it is nearly small
enough to go through the screen. If it is assumed that the
amount of slate left in the lump coal is only 2 per cent of its
weight more than formerly, the average increase in slate in the
coal of all sizes is 5.6 per cent. For convenience in calculation
the figure of 5 per cent will be used since it is certainly not too
great.
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run L,aw 261
Reduction in value caused by slate. The government coal
contracts based upon the heating value of the fuel and the
amount of ash in it, reduce its purchase price in proportion to the
loss in heating value caused by the addition of impurities. If the
ash in the coal exceeds the amount specified in the accepted bid by
more than 2 per cent of the weight of the coal, a deduction is
made in the price because the extra ash reduces the efficiency of
the furnaces, interferes with the draft, increases the lator of firing,
and causes other annoyances. An excess of ash in the coal equal
to 23 per cent of its weight as shown by the results at the washer
is so great there is no way of estimating the penalty from the
tables in the government contract specifications.
Even if we assume that the mine-run law had no imme-
diate effect, the increase in the proportion of slate removed at
the washer subsequent to the full operation of the law is 12 per
cent of the weight of the slack.
Such an increase would cause its entire rejection under a
government contract hut the ash penalty would be at least 75c.
a ton if the table of these penalties were extended far enough
to include an increase in the ash equal to 12 per cent of the
weight of the coal. If we take the average value of the slack
at the mines at 85c. a ton, the- loss in heat value would cause a
further reduction of loc. a ton, so the slack would very properly
be rejected in favor of other coal.
In 1908, the average mine value of the Arkansas coal of all
sizes was $1.68 a ton. The 5 per cent extra slate in the coal re-
duced its value by 35c. per ton at the mine, figured under the
government specifications.*
Fortimately, for the operators, but not for the consumers,
the coal of Arkansas is not bought subject to analysis. Prices
of coal are regulated according to competition among the
companies, and the price the year before. Hence the average
prices do not change quite as rapidly as the cost of produc-
•If the coal contained 10 per cent of ash in 1908, 5 per cent ad-
ditional reduces its heating value 5/90 or 5.55 per cent or gc a ton. The
average of the penally for a high .increase of ash in slack and a low in-
crease in the lump coal is much greater than the penally for an average
increase in ash contents. The average ash penalty for a 10 per cent in-
crease in the ash of the slack (or 45 per cent of the coal) and for a 2 per
cent increase in the ash in the rest is at least 26c. a ton for all the coal as
nearly as can be estimated by the incomplete tables of the government
specificaticn. If it all increased in ash only 5 per cent, the ncnalty would
be but 12c. a ton.
lyGoo'^lc
262 CoAi. Miking in Arkansas
tion does. The price received at the mine is nearly always the
same no matter where the coal is sent, except in the case of big
special contracts. For this reason, an increase in mining costs
is largely taken up ty the loss of profit to those companies having
an established market. When the price of production increases,
the coal is sold below cost at many places where there is a fixed
price regulated by the cost of oil and coal from competing dis-
tricts. At other places, the market is simply surrendered to the
competing fuel. Since the price can not be raised in distant mar-
kets, it follows that the Aricansas consumer is about the only
consumer who feels the increase in cost of mining. As the
mining cost increases without sufficient increase in the selling
price, those companies whose coal is more difficult to mine go
out of business. Still, however prices are fixed, either the oper-
ator or the consumer suffers by this decrease in value of the
coal, which is at least 35c. a ton on the average. Consumers
gladly pay 60C. to 70c. a ton more for washed slack than for
unwashed slack, but this is not all due to the mine-run law, since
there was some slate in the slack before. The lump coal is re-
duced in value by the shattering as well as by the slate. A
loss of 35c. a ton in the value of the .Arkansas coal is $875,000 a
year at the normal output. This sum might as well be paid
to the operators for better coal as thrown away in decreased effi-
ciency of steam boilers and the extra expense of handling clink-
ers and dirt.
Loss of market. In competitive districts the quality of the
coal is of great importance, and the changes in the price of one
coal as compared with the price of another indicate the money
value of a decrease in quality. In the eastern part of the State,
Aritansas coal is in strong competition with Illinois coal. Tests
of Arkansas and Illinois coal made by the government experts
at St. Louis in 1904 show that the Arkansas coals had at that
time about 20 per cent more heating value than Illinois coal.
They also had considerably less ash and sulphur, which are the
injurious ingredients. In 1904, it was therefore possible to sell
Arkansas coal at a higher price than was received for Illinois
coal at places where both kinds of coal were available. The
Arkansas coal is now so shattered and mixed with slate that con-
sumers at competitive markets pay from 35c. to 50c. a ton more
iVCoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 263
for Illinois lump or mine-run coal than for the same sizes of
Arkansas coal. The value of Arkansas coal is thus shown, by
the judgment of the consumers, to have decreased more than the
35c. a ton determined by the tables in the government specifica-
tions- The difference is due to freight paid on slate and the
shattering of the lumps.
If the comparative value of a coal decreases, the consumers
in competitive regions buy a competing coal instead. The de-
teriorated coal can then be sold only at points so much nearer
the mines that the difference in freight rates will enable the
producer of this coal to lower tiie price sufficiently to make up
for the difference in quality. Thus as the comparative value of
a coal decreases.' its market area contracts.
Thirty-five cents a ton is a conservative estimate of the de-
crease in value of the Arkansas coal as a result of the influence
of the mine-run law. This 35c. a ton will pay the additional
freight rate on coal from Little Rock to Memphis. Allowing
IOC, a ton for transferring part of the coal Trom one railroad
to another, the remaining 25c. a ton will extend the distance the
ccwl can be hauled by 60 miles. Directly toward the competing
coal fields the distance is less, because as the Arkansas coal pays
more freight the competing coal pays less; but where the coal
from both fields goes along parallel lines the extension of the
market area would be much greater.
An addition of a 60-mile strip around the area, supplied
with coal chiefly by the Arkansas-Oklahoma coalfield, would
more than treble this area. The increase in the coal sales would
be chiefly in the. territory now supplied by Illinois and Alabama
coal and would benefit Arkansas more than Oklahoma. An exact
computation of the effect of an increase in the quality of Ark-
ansas coal would require a complete knowledge of freight rates
and market demands at all competitive points.
A rough estimate shows that it would increase the output
nearly 100 per cent. Such an increase in the output of Arkansas
coal wonld result in an improvement in the quality of competing
coals or a little decrease in their price. The profit of mining the
Arkansas coal would also have to increase a little before a suffi-
cient number of new mines would be opened to supply such an
increase<l demand. The reduction of costs of mining which would
follow the repeal of the mine-run law would, however, bring
lyGoo^^lc
264 Coal Mining in Arkansas
this about without an increase in the present sale price of the
coal. These price factors, however, disturb any calculation as
to the increase in the output ^vbich would follow the restoration
of the former good quality of the coal. It would certainly be at
least 50 per cent of the present output.
If the mine-run law had not been passed, the coal-mining
industry of Arkansas would have promptly recovered from the
set-back caused by the over-prochiction of fuel oil in 1904. In
1905, the production was again increasing rapidly. Now most
of the Texas fuel oil has been replaced by Alabama coal instead of
coal from the Arkansas-Oklahoma field which formerly supplied
that territory. The loss of market \yhich followed this law can
be again seen by noticing how much more rapidly the produc-
tion of coal has increased in the com|>eting states of Illinois. Ala-
bama, and Kansas as compared with Arkansas and Oklahoma.
Unfortunately no complete statistics later than 1908 are avail-
able. This problem is complicated by the production of fuel oil
in Oklahoma, but the phenomenal industrial development
of Texas and Oklahoma has more than offset this. The
Arkansas coalfield supplies a much smaller proportion of the coal
used in Arkansas, Louisiana. Oklahoma, and Texas than it did
in 1905 and 1907. The loss of this business will continue to in-
crease until the industry is relieved of the burden of the mine-
run law.
The good effect which an increase of 50 per cent in the out-
put of the coal, would have upon the general prosperity of the
coal-mining region of the State is obvious.
INCRIt\SE IN MINING COSTS.
Cost of handling slack. The mine-run law not only causes
a tremendous decrease in the revenue of the coal companies, but
increases the expense of mining marketable coal. When the
operators can not sell the slack, it must be shoveled out of the
railroad cars at a cost of 10c. a ton. When it is gathered iip
again, there is a further cost of 14c. a ton. The total of 24c. a
ton is a direct expense and in addition is the loss of the wasted
slack and the lessened value of the slack which has been exposed
to the weather. The total amount of slack stored on the ground
each year is not known, but the Central Coal & Coke Co. alone
lyGoo^^lc
The Mine-Run Law 265
had, on March 12, 1910, 24,222 tons of slack stored at Hunt-
ington and Doubleday. At 24c. a ton, the handling of this slack
cost $5,813. The Bache-Denman Coal Co. had 9,978 tons of slack
stored, and the annual expense to all the companies may be esti-
mated at $10,000.
Cost of mining slate. Since the mine-run law went into
effect, the Central Coal & Coke Co. has washed practically
144,000 tons of dirt out of a small part of its slack. The ap-
pearance of the pile of dirt near Hackett as it was in September,
1909, is shown in Kg. 63.
During 1909, 28,800 tons were added to this unsightly moun-
tain. This useless dirt cost the company 62c. a ton, paid to
the miners who sold it as coal, and as much more for hauling,
hoisting, and loading it at the mine, and in freight. This was.
therefore, an expense of at least $35,000 per year, of which half
or more was due to the increase in the amount of slate made
possible by the mine-nm law.
This is a good illustration of the increased cost in an isolated
case. A better idea of the entire cost to the State can be obtained
on the basis that the mine-run law has increased the amount of
slate in the coal upon an average of 5 per cent of its weight.
This is certainly a conservative estimate. On an output of
lyGoO'^lc
j66 Coai, Mining ix Arkansas
2,500,000 tons, this cost is at least $137,500 for mining and
handling, not allowing anything for those expenses which are
not affected by the number of tons produced from each mine.
There is the cost of mining the additional slate which is picked
out of the coal by slate pickers. No idea of the amount of this
can be formed.
When the slate is removed from the coal by washing or
hand-picking, the cost of mining it is a direct loss to the oper-
ator. The slate remaining in the coal causes a loss in the form
of a reduced selling price in competitive markets for the coal
containing it. The nearby consumer who must buy his coal in
Arkansas anyway pays at least a portion of the cost -of mining
the slate by paying full coal prices for a mixture of coal and slate.
Cost of removing slate. The washing of the slack at
Doubleday costs one company several thousarid dollars a year.
In addition to this, there is the cost of the 'slate pickers,' or hands
required to pick the large pieces of slate out of the coat; for the
law not only compels the companies to pay the full mining price
for this slate but also prevents them from dodting the miners,
or even the Union as a whole, to meet the expense of picking out
some of it so that more coal can be sold. The larger part must
of course remadn in the coal. A study of the crews and outputs
of each mine shows that the actual expense of trying to remove
the slate, averages three-quarters of a cent per ton at the mines
outside of Spadra. This does not include the expense of hand-
ling cars and the other work of car trimmers. Of this, the largest
part or about one-half a cent a ton is due to the mine-nm law for
there was much less trouble before its passage. This makes
a cost of $12,500 a year to the operators. At Sparira
the cost of fMcking slate is Sc. a ton or about $16,000 a year,
but only a possible $5,000 of this is due to the mine-run law,
for it has always been necessary to clean this coal from sulphur
and bony coal. Both of these expenses will increase from year
to year unless the attempt to maintain the quality of the output is
given up or the mine-run law is repealed.
Cost of explosions. A further slight increase in the costs is
due to the increasing frequency of destructive 'windy shots,' or
dust explosions, resulting from the excessive use of powder.
Doors and stoppings blown down by them must be replaced, and
lyGooc^le
The Mine-Run Law
267
the cost of a single general explosion is often great. At many
mines, it is already necessary to pay the shot-firers extra on ac-
count of the extra risk they run. The actual total cost can not be
estimated, hut it is probably offset by the profit upon the additional
powder sold to the miners. This profit is nominally 75c, per
keg, but the company has to pay for a powder clerk, the delivery
of the powder to the miners' rooms, and various general ex-
penses, so the net profit is small.
The increased danger of explosions disturbs the peace of
mind of the mine owners and all the officials. There is much
worry attending the loss of life and efforts at rescue. It is gen-
erally the superintendent or pit-boss who is injured or killed by
going down into the deadly gasses or under a shattered roof to
rescue the shot-firers before they suffocate. This has been the
experience elsewhere and the prospect is not pleasant.
Cost of draw slate. The excessive use of powder and the
blowing out of props greatly increases the expense of draw slate
and falls of rock. At most of the mines, no separate records of
the costs of draw slate are kept; but at such mines as keep the
records, the costs are shown to have increased steadily except for
the little drop during the last year, which resulted from a cor-
responding drop in the consumption of powder. The costs at
three mining camps including seven different mines, averaged on
the basis of a uniform output, are given in the following table.
At all of these mines the cost has increased almost exactly in the
same proportion. The figures are representative.
Cost of Draw Slate.
PERIOD ENDING MARCH 31
1904
1905
1906
1907 '
1908 . :
1909
March to December, 1909
•Average $.0113.
Id Roof
InCKM*
0108*
0Ii6»
1. 00
0114*
0227
2.00
0398
3-52
0447
3-95
04II
303
„Gooi^lc
268 CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
The cost of draw slate, at all mines keeping a separate
record of it, lay between ic. and 7c. per ton of coal mined in
IQ09. It will average between 2^^ and 3c. a ton over the entire
State. The proportion of this due to the mine-run law is at least
2c. a ton as an average, and with a normal output would cost the
companies $50,000 a year.
Increase in general e.rpenses. It can be conservatively esti-
mated that the loss of market resuUing from the mine-run law
has reduced the running time of the mines by at least 10 per
cent of the former time, or 11 per cent of the present time. If
the output of the mines now in operation should be increased hy
II per cent, the fixed expense, such as interest, taxes, administra-
tion, pumping, etc., would not be increased at all. The decrease
of 10 per cent in the output has therefore resulted in an increased
fixed expense of 1 1 per cent for each ton now mined. The fixed
expense is from 25c. to 40c. per ton, omitting exceptional mines,
although the sale price of coal at many mines is not sufficiently
above operating costs to pay them. A much greater increase in
the market demand would follow the restoration of the old
conditions, but this would lead to the opening of new mines.
It seems just therefore to estimate the loss as at least 10 per
cent of 25c. on each ton or $62,500 on the normal output of
the State.
At least one mine, that of the splendidly managed Scranton
Anthracite Coal Co., is definitely shut down pending the
repeal of the mine-run law, on account of the great increase in
unsalable slack. Nine other large mines have been closed on
account of bankruptcy or lack of market. Some one has to pay
for watchmen at these mines and for keeping down the water or
removing it at some future time. The lost interest that the
money spent in opening these mines should be earning must also
be paid. This makes another charge against the mine-run law
of between $40,000 and $60,000 annually. Both of these costs
are absolute dead-losses without any benefit to anyone,
INJURY TO THE MINERS
Increase in the use of powder. The miners themselves are
beginning to suffer as a result of the mine-run law. The most
pernicious injury to the miners is the increase in the number of
lyGoO'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 269
accidents. As this results mainly from the excessive use of
powder, a few exact figures as to the increase in the consumption
of powder may 'be interesting. When the coal is properly under-
mined, it can be dropped down and broken up sufficiently by
very light charges of powder for easy handling with a pick.
The Enterprise Coal Co. at Spadra operated two mines.
From June i to November 20, 1908, the coal at one of these
was undermined by a machine and then shot down, while at the
adjoining mine, the coal was shot off the solid in the present
careless way. From figtires taken from the pay-roll by the
writer, it was found that during the entire period of the operation
of the machines, 151 kegs of powder were used to shoot down
13.316 tons of coal, or 88.17 tons per keg. From February,
1908, to January, 1909, in the adjoining mine where the condi-
tions were identical except for the difference in the mining
method, 16,987.28 tons were shot off the solid by 1,115 ^^S^ "^^
powder.' This is only 15.23 tons of coal to a keg of powder.
This means that 5.8 times as much powder is now used as would
be needed if the coal were first undermined as was once the
universal custom.
At Paris, where the coal is undermined by machines but is
thinner, one keg of powder was used for 48.4 tons of coal during
the season ending April i, 1910. Tkere is no exactly similar
adjoining mine, hut the other mines in the district use four times
as much powder for shooting the coal off the solid, even though
the coal is thicker and should require less powder.
Even before the mine-run law was passed, the miners gener-
ally mined the shots only slightly, if at all. Nevertheless, the
consumption of powder has greatly increased. Because of lack
of records, it was impossible to get exact figures from all of the
mines which have been in operation from before the passage of
the law to the present. Exact figures were, however, obtained
from ten such mines and others which were in operation for only
a part of the period. Approximate figures showing the same
results were obtained from three others, so there are only three
large soft coal mines omitted. In these mines, the conditio.as
are such that the increase will be more than the a\'eragc. The
increase has been much greater at Spadra, but unfortunately no
figures could be obtained because of lack of records.
lyGoO'^lc
270
Coal Minixg is Arkansas
One of the mines for which figures were available is the
Denning No. 2 at which two-thirds of the miners receive a
premium for being careful. The consumption of powder here
has as a consequence increased only 3 or 4 per cent. This mine
is omitted from the calculation. One mine, where for several
reasons there was but little increase in the waste of powder, is
included, even though it brings down the average rate of increase.
Owing to the form of the figures, it was necessary to averse
them on the basis of an equal output of coal at each mine. The
results are given in the following table.
Consumplion of Powder
m Ten
Large Mines.
PERIOD
Too. of
^
Ratio or Inonw
Oct. I, '05 to Mar. 31, '06
Apr. I, '06 to Sep. 30, '06
Oct. I, '06 to Mar. 31. '07
Apr. I, '07 to Sep. 30, '07
Oct. I, *07 to Mar. 31. '08
Apr. I, '08 to Sep. 30, '08
Oct. I, '08 to Mar. 31, '09
Apr. I, '09 to Sep. 30. '0^
Oct. I, '09 to Mar. 31, '10
30.31
2841
29.54
28.49
29.18
26.34
26.96
25.03
27.12
.03299
.03519
■0338s
.03510
■03427
.03796
•03709
.03995
.03687
1.000
1.067 I -030
1.026
1.064 ^.ozS
1.039
I.I5I I. Ill
I.I24
1.200 1.156
1,118
The decreased consumption of powder during the winter is
general. This may 'be due to greater caution on the part of the
shot-firers who are more likely to skip heavy shots in the winte7,
when there is greater risk of a dust explosion. The increased
output may also account for this and for the slight improvement
in the summer of 1907. It is much regretted that the figures
were not obtained for the summer preceding the mine-run law,
but estimating it at .03416 kegs per ton of coal, the ratios
in the last column are obtained. The larger part of the decrease
just before the last suspension is due to the change at the
Central No. 2 Mine at Huntington, where much of the coal was
obtained from the drawing of pillars. At several mines, how-
ever, Hie miners were more careful owing to their efforts to
keep the slate out of the coal and prevent the mine from shutting
down for lack of a market.
lyGoO'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 271
The table shows that the consumptioo of powder has in-
creased progressively since the passage of the mine-run law
until it was 13 per cent greater in 1908 than in 1905. This ex-
cessive consumption of powder will of course continue to increase
in normal years until the mine-run law is repealed. If only the
mines at places where the coal is easily undermined, as at
Bonanza and Hartford, are considered, the consumption in 1909*
was 20 per cent greater than in 1905.
A study of the results at Denning show how much of the in-
oreased use of powder is directly due to the nune-run law. Here
at No. 2 Mine, the consumption of powder has increased about
4 per cent even though only one-third of the men are care-
less. If all the men had been careless, the increase would have
been the 12 per cent to be expected.
Further, at Mine No. 2, the pay-roll data were obtained
separately for the good miners who made less than 30 per cent .
slack, and for the poor miners who made more than 30 per
cent. This shows that the good men used on an average one
keg of powder for 28.2 tons of coal of all sizes, and the others
one keg for 24 tons. This shows an excessive use of powder
by the careless men of 12 per cent. In the case of the entry-men,
the difference was a6 per cent. As previously statefl, the good
miners also earned 10 per cent more than the poor ones which
means that they mined more coal, but the poor miners actually
used 3.2 per cent more powder each day in the rooms, and 6.9
per cent more in the entries. Reduced to the basis of the same
number of tons per day on an average, this would mean that the
poor entry-men actually used 1.5 pounds of powder each day
more than the gpod men. This is the effect of the mine-run law
everj' where.
Effect of hean'y shots. To illustrate one of the effects of
heavy shooting on the roof, the discussion of the mining .it
Coaldale may be repeated. Here there is a smooth seam in the
coal, ID in. atmve the bottom. When ordinary narrow shots
properly loaded are fired in the upper part of the bed, that bench
is only nicely loosened and the coal below the seam is not af-
fected. This requires that the bottom be wedged up, and the
miners therefore put wide shots in the top bench and overload
them so that special timbers have to be used to keep the flying
lyGoO'^lc
2/2 Coal Mining in Arkansas
coal from knocking • out the props. In this way, the bottom
bench is not only cracked loose along the line of the drill hole,
but also is thrown out from the face.
Overloaded holes strike a severe blow upon the roof in the
same way, and weaken it if they do not actually crack it. Every
succeeding shot still further jars the roof and even the solid
rock, for quite a distance away. The result is that, when the roof
once begins to sag, it loosens over a wide area, and falls, some-
times while the miner is setting a prop under it.
A little reflection will show how much more a heavy wide
shot wili affect the roof, than the same amount of powder in two
light shots. Fig. 64 is added to illustrate this. At present many
Liahi A/arro^ Shot
He-c3vy W/£^(^ Shot
;. 64. The effect of wide and narrow sliots upon the roof of a
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 273
of the miners put in only about half as many shots as formerly,
to get out the same amount of coal. All of them are using fewer
shots. This change in the blasting does not show in the figures
for the consumption of powder, and it is safe to say that at
present the blasting of the coal is at least three times as severe
as it *as in 1905.
The heavy shooting also sends the coal fiying against the
props. At a mine at Spadra, the writer saw some large pieces
of coal which had been thrown by the blast of the afternoon
before a distance of 40 ft. They had knocked out the props so
as to leave an open lajie down one side of the room. Besides
knocking out props, such shooting cracks or otherwise weakens
some of them in a way which the miner does not notice until
the roof falls. The worst trouble is the increasing tendency of
the miner to set his props as far from the face as possible, so
,as to save the labor of replacing them. He therefore works in
an unprotected space. This wide space also gives the roof a
chance to loosen and get drummy, which throws an added strain
upon the places where the tough slabs have been weakened by
the direct blows of the powder. The roof gets an additional jar
each time a heavy mass of flying coal hits a strong prop.
The heavy and wide shots now used are dangerous to the
shot-firers, and many miners have begun to ignore all ordinary
precautions for safety in blasting. At a mine near Hartford, the
writer saw a large mass of coal similar to that shown in Fig.
30, p. 62, which had been .shot out of its position, but was
still tightly wedged between the roof and a roll in the floor.
The miner was very frank and when a?ked how he would go
about picking this coal down, he laughingly set his auger in
position for drilling a splitting shot through the center of this
chunk of coal and said, "With two feet of powder." Then he
added. "I always find an auger when I start to look for a pick."
He knew that in most of the states such splitting shots are for-
bidden by law on account of the danger of a general dust ex-
plosion. He also knew how easy it would be to shovel up the slack
such a shot would make and was one of the few that admitted
that he did not care what became of the company's property or
of a shot-firer who would be foolish enough to light such a shot.
Such an attitude is fortunately exceptional as yet. but the dis-
tressing feature of the situation is that such carelessness is bound
lyGoo'^lc
274
Coal Mining in Arkansas
to become the prevailing custom unless the shameful law by
which it is encouraged, is repealed.
Accidents in the mines. So far as they are available, the
records of the accidents in the Arkansas mines show the in-
creases in the number due to falls of roof and the firing of
shots, which might be expected from the increased severity of
the blasting. No record seems to have been kept of the accidents
in Arkansas mines previous to 1905, and the records for 1909
are not yet available. There is some uncertainty about those for
1907, for the exact figures 4re available only for half the year,
during which ten men were killed. A complete record of the ac-
cidents in the mines of the Operators' Association during 1907
was available. If 13 men were killed in all of the mines of
the State, the ratio of the number of accidents in the associated
mines and the others would be the same in 1907 as in other
years. This figure is therefore used in the table although it is,
obviously too low. All of the data available are given in the
following table.
Accidents in the Mines of Arkansas.
1905
1906
•1907
ACCIEENTS
1.934.673 I
1,864.268 I
2,670,438 I
2,078.357 I
2.377,257 I
5085
5337
4700
YEIAR
1905
1906
•1907
1908
Iccidwta per 1.000 Men
3.6o
5.»
.23
9.1
«.6
3. 31
S.oS
4.8
19.8
4.85
6.95
6.9
jS.9
3.110
5. 99
.74
6.3
31.1
....
•.Arkansas accident figures for 1907 are incomplete and too low.
tAccident figures for 1910 were compiled from the operators' reports
to T, A. Freeze, Stale Mine Inspector, after the first part of this report
was in press. During lliis year the mines were closed sVi months by a
strike, and operated irregularly and with short crews during the fall
Note that all fatal accidents were due lo blasting or falls of roof.
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 275
The mines were much less steadily operated in some years
than in others so the figures as to the number of deaths reported
per 1,000 men employed are misleading. The fairest figure for
coniparative years is that per 1,000,000 tons of coal mined. This
shows how low the figure for 1907 is. Assuming that ten men
were killed during the fir£t half of the year as well as the second,
the rate becomes 7.5 which is too high since the first half of the
year had a much less output than the second.
The high fatality rate in 1906 is due to the fact that four
men were killed by windy shots instead of the usual one or two.
During the years of 1906, 1907, and 1908, for which figures
are available,* 52.5 per cent of the fatal accident; were due to
falls of roof, 17.5 per cent to firing shots, lo per cent to crushing
between cars (chiefly drivers), 7.5 per cent to firedamp, 5 per
cent to accidents in shafts, and 7.5 per cent to other causes. The
figures for the non-fatal injuries are not so detailed, but show
that 44 per cent were caused by falls of roof and 17 per cent by
gas explosions. Of the causes listed, burning by gas and ac-
cidents with cars are quite generally much less fatal than the
others.
Imperfect as these figures are, they well illustrate the effect
of the mine-run law. The heavy shooting following the pastage
of the law has progressively increased the amount of rock falling
in the rooms to triple that of 1905 ; this is shown in the table on
p. 267. It is therefore directly responsible for at least half the
deaths due to this cause in 1908. Charging the law with only
one-sixth of the deaths from this cause in 1906 and with half of
them in 1908, makes a total of 7 deaths on this account, not
including those of 1909. If the shots were properly prepared,
there would be much less danger in firing them than in handling
the powder while they are being prepared. All the fatal accidents
due to firing shots in 1907 and 1908 and probably at least half
of those in 1906. happened to regular shot-firers. Nearly all of
these deaths are due to the heavy and careless loading of the shots
encouraged by the mine-run law, and at least four of the seven
may be charged against it.
•Figures for Ihe t'A months of igio. during which the mines were
operated show that 55% of the fatal accidents were due to falls of roof,
and that 45% of them happened to regular shot-firers as a result of
dangerous shots. No men were killed in other ways.
lyGoo'^lc
376 CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
As conditions now exist, this killing of shot-firers is often
little short of murder on the part of the unscrupulous miners who
knowingly overcharge the holes with powder. The laws of ihe
State should not encourage murder.
One of the results of the passage of this unnecessary law in
1905 has therefore been the death of 1 1 of our miners in 3 years.
At present, it is responsible for over half the number of deaths due
to falls of roof and three-fourths of those due to the firing of shots
or at least 40 per cent of all the deaths from accidents in and
around the mines.
This estimate of the proportion of deaths due to the mine-run
law is shown to be conservative by the fact that the number of
deaths per 1,000,000 tons of coal mined has increased more than
40 per cent since 1905. During this time there has been no
change in conditions of mining except the carelessness permitted
by the mine-run law and a decline in the output of the mines.
Such a diminished output causes the less experienced coal miners
to seek work in other occupations and should therefore cause a
decline in the death rate. The death rate has failed to fall as it
should, and it never can fall much until this law is repealed.
Decrease in the daily earnings of many miners. A carload
of mixed slack and lump coal now brings the digger only 62c. :i
ton. Those skilled diggers that work in hard or good-shooting
coal could witlwut great difficulty so mine the coal that it would
contain such a large proportion of lumps that the average value
would be 70c. to 8oc. per ton on the old screened-coal basi,-. If
then the condition of the mines is such that the miners can not
all get more cars every day than they needed for loadinr ail tlieir
carefully mined coal, they can not earn so much m.'nt;y now as
they could before the mine-run law went into effect, Xow t!;e
miner often sits down and waits for cars, when formerly he spent
the time preparing the coal for the next shot.
The Denning pay-roll figures show that if the good miners
at No. 2 had been paid on a straight mine-run basis, as was doue
at all other mines, they would have lost $1,441.85 during the
month of January, 1910. This is I2j-^ per cent of their gross
earnings, or an average of over 50c. per day each. If the mine-run
law had not been enforced, the earnings of the careless or un-
skilled miners in Mine Xo. 2, Denning, would have been reduced
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 277
tiy only 3J^ per cent or i5?4c. per day each or $211.02 for all of
them. This loss to the poor miners is only 14.6 per cent of the gain
to the good miners. Except in a few places at Mine No, 5, the con-
dition of the coal is the same in all of the Denning mines. The
conditions are much worse at those mines where the coal is easily
undermined or where the turn is poor. At Bonanza, the miners
say they earn in the rooms from 25c. to 75c. a day less than
formerly. At Jenny Lind, it is from 50c to $1.00; and at many
other mines, it is considerable.
The men working in these mines frankly object to the mine-
run law and many other men not directly injured by it admit that
it is wrong; but even those that do not blindly follow their leaders
are forbidden to sign a petition for its repeal or to appear before
a legislative committee by Section 28 of Article XII of the Con-
stitution of the United Mine Workers of America, District 2r,
which reads:
"Sec. 28, Any officer or inember ot District 21 appearing before any
Legislator directly or indircclly or by petition protesting in any way
against the passage of any Mining Legislation which has been adopted by
a majority vote of the miners' organization or in Convention of the
State Federation of Labor, or in cauciii called by the Dislricl Prcsidenl*
shall be fined $50.00 and his action reported to all Locals by the District
Secretary, said fine to be paid into the District Defense Fund."
The $50,00 fine and the publication of the miner's name at
all the locals practically expels him from the Union, and under
the present closed shop rule, expulsion from the Union means the
impossibility of earning a livelihood by working in the mines.
This clever little trick of the Union leaders in preparing the con-
stitution is therefore the only reason for the impressive unity of
the miners in favor of this absurd law.
It is conservative to estimate that the wages of about half of
our diggers are reduced by an average of about 25c, for each day
they work. This is a total of about $75,000 per annum, which
is very much greater than the total gain to the carele.'is men. The
figures of the U. S. Geological Survey show no consilient in-
crease in the amount of coal produced in Arkansas per day by
each man employed at the mines, up to igo8. Since many of
the mines where the coal is low and other mining conditions are
difficult have gone out of business and because many difficult
•Italic
lyGoo'^lc
278 Coal Mining in Arkansas
entries in other mines have been stopped on account of lade jf
demand for coal, the production per man should have increased
if there had been no loss of wages. The loss in wages is partly
offset by the decrease in the labor required to shoot the coal as
compared with that required to mine it, but it is a direct loss In
the form of lack of opportunity to work for the extra money.
Loss of eartiings to all the miners. The miners as a body
are injured financially more than they realize by this law. The
reduced profit to the operators has made it so .difficult for them
to grant the increase in wages demanded by the miners in March,
1910, that the strike continued for over 5 months. The miners
say, "Raise the price of coal to the consumer." But that would
simply mean the loss of market to fuel oil and competitivecoal.
The passage of this law further hurts the miners as a body by
causing ill feeling on the part of the operators, who are there-
fore less likely to grant favors voluntarily. Instead of giving the
miners a better turn, they must give them a poorer turn or fewer
cars because the good turn encourages the loading out of slack.
A less obvious but direct injury to the miners results from
the great decrease in the production of the coal which is caused
by this law. In the entire United States, the coal miners are
only injured in as far as the coal is replaced by fuel oil; but the
Arkansas miners in whom the Legislature should be especially
interested suffer directly as the coal business of eastern Arkansas
is transfered to Illinois and Alabama. If it were not for this
loss of business, the mines now operated and consequently the
present crew, would work a possible 20 days per month instead of
17 ; and the annual earnings of the miners now in the State would
be increased at least 11 per cent, or an average of $7.00 apiece
per month. Assuming that the mine should work 12 months a
year with no loss of time by strikes, this would amount to about
$300/xx) net per annum to the men now in the State. The repeal
of the law would therefore benefit them more than the winning of
a most bitterly contested strike, even though they would have 10
work a little harder. Any increase in the output beyond this 11
per cent would result in the coming in of new miners, following
the reopening of the mines now closed and the opening of new
mines. The work thus supplied to the new miners would be .m
advantage to them, but is best classed as a benefit to the State at
lyGoO'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 279
large rather than as a benefit to the miners now working in the
Arkansas mines.
Loss of skill. The miners are further injured by the mine-
run law because under its operation they are losing their old-
time skill, which will make it impossiUe for them to get em-
ployment in fields whercit is necessary to do pick work. This
lowering of the standard of skill also throws the occupation open
to any man with a strong body. As soon, therefore, as the arti-
ficial conditions due to the the Union break down, the wages of
the coal miners can not be maintained as much above the pay of
common laborers as at present. The bringing in of such a lot of
inferior workmen is sure also to be the end of the Union,
since unskilled labor has never been successfully held In line
during a long strike.
There is now no incentive for the new men to learn how
properly to shoot the coal and as a result the mine-run law means
stagnation in the progress of our miners toward increased ef-
ficiency.
INJURY TO THE CONSUMER.
■ Cost of slate. As usual, the consumer suffers from industrial
troubles. Those consumers near the mines are compelled to pay
an increased price for coal of inferior quality. This extra cost
serves to reduce the loss to the operators by the same amount,
and on account of the low value of the great amount of slack,
the average selling price of all the ooal is decreased.
Most consumers including the railroads themselves
have to pay freight upon the useless slate. The average cost of
the freight on Arkansas coal is probably $1.50 a ton. We have
seen that the mine-run law has added at least 5 per cent of ^late
■1 the coal. In the 2,500,000 tons normal annua' outout, ihi.s
slate will weight 125,000 tons and the consumer pays $187,500
annually to get this from the mine to his unloadin<i switch.*
There is in addition, the labor of handling 5 per cent more of
fuel an<l 5ot per cent of ash. When dra>-agc is paid on the coal,
this is a big expense, but no figures are available for calculating
•The benefit to the railroads is much less than this siun since they
make but a small profit in handling coal.
fThis is figured on the basis of 10 per cent ash in the original coal,
before the taw was in effect.
„Gooi^lc
28o Coal Mining in Arkansas
the total amount. The labor of handling the extra slate and ashes
often costs nothing and merely causes more work to the tireman
as in the case of the private dwellings, railroad locomotives, or
small power plants ; but the capacity and efficiency of all boilers
is reduced. This reduction increases costs, as 'by a reduced ton-
mileage of every locomotive or increased actual coal consumption
per pound of steam produced. Since the slate has no heating
value, more tons of so-called coal have to be bought to get as
much heat as formerly.
By comparison with the price paid for other coals and figured
on the basis of the government contracts, the loss in the quality
of the coal is at least 3Sc. a ton as was previously explained.
This costs the consumers of Arkansas coal $875,000 a year at the
normal output.
It may be well to call attention to the fact that the State
itself is a large consumer of Arkansas coal. During the
mild season uf 1909, the different State institutions use<i 10.362
tons of coal, which cost $35,000 delivered. Upon this, they lost
$3,625 clue to its bad quality, $650 more for freight on the 5 per
cent unnecessary slate it contained, and about $200 for drayage
on slate. This bit of class legislation, therefore, cost the State
treasury directly aV.oiit $4,500.*
In the inierest of economy in State expenditures, the mine-
run law should be repealed at once.
Increase of smoke. There was a time when the Arkansas coal
commanded quite a premium on account of its high heating
value, its low ash and sulphur, and the small amount of smoke it
produced. It was, therefore, used throughout the State and in
in most of Louisiana and Texas as well, especially by the rail-
roads. Since the railroads have been compelled to take with the
lump coal all of the screenings but 25 per cent of the weight of the
coal, the amount of smoke has been constantly increasing. The
future discomfort to the railroad passengers which will result
from the continued deterioration of our coal was well illustrated
during the summer of 19TO, when all the locomotives on branch
♦.\ctiiallv the loss to the State is much greater since it buys mostly
slack. In tliis the siale has increased more than 10 per cent as a result
of the change in mining methods catised by the mine-run law. Much of
the coal bought bv the State was washed slack for which the 6oc, to 70c
a ton extra was paid for the removal of the slate. In this calculation the
Slate is figured as a consumer of average coal.
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 281
lines burned smoky coal from other states while the supply of
Arkansas coal was cut off by the suspension of mining. The
smoke and the increasing difficulty of keqjing up steam caused by
the slack and slate have reduced the advantages of the Arkansas
coal, and have already greatly restricted the field in which it is
used by the railroads. The complaints are so great tliat as our
coal gets dirtier, the railroads are putting an increasing number
of oil-burning locomotives into service for passenger trains in
spite of the great expense for maintenances of boilers. The
Rock Island railroad company is considering abandoning Arkan-
' sas coal in favor of Alabama coal, even upon the division which
crosses the Arkansas coalfield.*
The increased dirt and discomfort of handling the coal has
lessened its use in dwellings in favor of other coal, and the general
poor quality of the slack has lead to a great increase in the con-
sumption of formerly inferior smoky coals. As a result, our
cities become dingy with smoke and our State imattractive to
strangers.
Injury to the firemen. Since the law was passed at the re-
quest of the mine workers, its effect upon other workmen should
be considered. It injures all firemen handling Arkansas coal by
increasing the labor of shoveling coal by 5 per cent, and of hand-
ling the ashes by 50 per cent. The trouble with clinkers is greatly
increased by the addition of the slate, and this most disagreeable
work is now at least twice as great as it was before the mine-
run law was put into effect. In addition, the railroad crews have
a great deal of trouble to maintain their schedules and are in con-
stant difficulty with their superiors. Since this and the increased
cost of the equivalent coal increases the cost to the railroads, they
hardly feel like raising the pay of the firemen. What justice is
there in a law which decreases the labor of one group of workmen
and increases that of another? Why should the general coal
consuming public be made to suffer by the operation of a law
which really benefits no one?
•Since the above was written it is reported that all of the Rock
Island passenger locomotives burn Alabama coal, even when passing the
Arkansas mines at Hartford.
lyGoo'^lc
CoAi, MiKixr, IN Arkansas
INJURY TO THE STATE AS A WHOtE.
The special disadvantage m Arkansas. The coal of Ark-
ansas is of such a quality and occurs in such a way that a mine-
run law is especially objectionable to this State as compared with
most of the others. The Arkansas coal has quite generally a band
of dirt separating the two benches of coa! or else a layer of soft
dirt either above or below the coal. Unless the companies have a
right to prevent it, many of the miners will load this out as coal
with the disastrous result shown. Except in the nearly exhausted
Denning field, most of the Aikansas coal which is now being
mined is rather soft or 'woody' and does not readily shoot off the
solid. It should therefore receive great care in mining.
Moreover, much of the Arkansas coal is non-coking in char-
acter, and the slack has relatively much less value even for
steam purposes than the lump coal. On the other hand, the free
burning lump coal is especially satisfactory for domestic use. In
Alabama and southern Colorado, the slack coal is used for making
coke and except for the slate in it has just as much value as the
lump coal. Indeed some lump coal has to be crushed to supply
the market for coke. This allows the competitors of the Arkansas
operators to send clean lump coal to drive the Arkansas coal out
of Louisiana, southern Texas, and even the eastern half of Ark-
ansas. The same is true of West Virginia, whose competition by
cheap water transportation is severe in some places.
On account of the soft dirt band in or beneath the coal, it is
unusually easy to prepare the shots in the proper way, and many
of the miners would do so, if given an incentive by an opportunity
to cam more money by this extra work.
In no other states, do these conditions exist to any great
extent except at a few places in the Oklahoma iicld. The only
advantage that Arkansas has over Oklahoma is the less ex-
plosive nature of the coal dust, but recent experience has amply
proved that even the Arkansas coal dust can be made to explode
and kill the shot-firers, as already shown.
Loss of business caused by the law. The unfair treatment
of the men who have spent their money developing the Arkansas
coai mines, the impairment of the value of the fuel supply of the
State and its increase in price, will tend to discourage -the invest-
ment of more money in industrial enterprises in Arkansas. The
lyGoO'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 283
removal of the mine-run law will therefore be an effective aid in
the efforts being made by the energetic commercial clubs to build
up the manufacturing interests of the State.
If this mine-run law had not been passed, the Arkansas coal-
field would have been able to supply the greater part of Ark-
ansas with superior coal and the production would now have been
50 to 75 per cent greater than it is. Even at the lowest figure,
this would mean that $2,ooo,oc» more would be spent per year in
Arkansas, instead of going to Illinois and Alabama. The larger
part of this $2,000,000 would be paid for mine labor. This would
increase by an equal amount the business of the Arkansas mer-
chants, mechanics, and others who furnish the miners with sup-
plies. They therefore suffer from the mine-run law to the extent
of -the loss of profits upon this business. The loss of business to
the merchants to a certain extent reduces the volume of business
handled by the railroads and the injury thus spreads as an end-
less chain throughout the State. We have previously pointed
out that the operators and miners already in thL' State lose $362,-
500 of the $2,000,000 because of the increased number of days
the mines are idle through loss of market. The loss to the mer-
chants certainly equals $362,500 ; so the $2,000,000 can be added
to the losses of the operators, miners, and consumers as an actual
loss to the State without danger of counting the same loss twice.
The direct loss to the coal industry will be tabulated as only
$1 ,600,000,
Among the general injuries to the State is the annoyance
and loss to those users of coal who have had to substitute other
coal for the once superior Arkansas coal. They would bum the
$2,000,000 worth of coal which is the measure of the loss of
market caused by the mine-run law. The discomfort to the public
at large due to the increased amount of smoke has already been
noted. In addotion, there would" have been an advantage to the
consumer due to a superior fuel and to the community on account
of less smoky cities.
WASTE OF RESOURCES,
Loss due to shattering of the coal. The full value to the
State would of course be received for this extra coal, which would
be ptit to a good use, but the mine-run law causes a great per-
lyGoO'^lc
284 Coal MiNi.vG in Arkansas
manent loss of our valuable coal. The heavy shooting causes
an unknown but large percentage of the coal to fly all over the
room. Much of this lands in inconvenient places, or upon the
piles of draw slate found in the rooms and is never picked up
by the miner because this is not so easy as to shoot more coal
from the face of the room. The weight of coal thus lost is cer-
tainly equal to the i or 2 per cent in the slack which was for-
merly lost in being discarded by the miners. It is largely good
lump coal of greater value than the slack. This loss can not
be prevented by the management of the mine as long as the
mine-rim law gives the miner full authority to shoot the coal as
he pleases.
Unmined areas of coal. There is another very great loss
due to the necessity of abandoning many isolated patches of coal
which can not be profitably mined because of the mine-run law.
These patches include (i) those parts of the operating mines
where the dirt band is of such a nature that the miner will now
mix so much of it with the coal that the product can not be
sold ; (2) those places where the coal contains an unusual amount
of bone or sulphur which the miner will not now sort out; (3)
those parts where the coal is seamy or otherwise so faulty that
greater care would be needed to get a profitable proportion of
lump coal; {4) those parts where the roof will not stand the
heavy shooting now customary; (5) those parts that are too thin
to work with profit under present mine-law conditions. After
the rest of the coal in the mine is worked out and the mine allowed
to fill with water and cave in, it will be practically impossible
ever to mine these patches, even when coal beccanes scarce
and expensive everywhere. An immediate repeal of the law and
the resulting better dicipline would make it possible to save the
greater part of this coal.
In the older days, it was customary to continue s<Mne entries
through the most of Jhese places looking for good coal beyond,
but the operators can not now afford to do this and even some
good coal is lost.
There are also places in the coal seams in which there is no
considerable amount of coal but these are generally avoided :n
opening the mines. In portions of nearly ail the mines, there are
patches in which the coal is destroyed by movements of the rock,
but these are generally quite small. All of the areas of unmined
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 285
coal show upon the maps of the mines and make up about 15
per cent of the area of the coal developed in the mines now
working. Many were seen in the mines by the writer, and the
cause for the stopping of the entries was generally asked of
the pit boss. As a result of this study, the writer estimates that
the mine-run law causes a loss in the way of abandoned patches
of coal of between 8 and 12 per cent of the entire output. What
proportion of this loss is due to carelessness caused by the mine-
run law. and what to the reduced profit on deficient coal, can be
estimated only by an examination of every patch abandoned
since 1905.
Additional mining waste. The mine-run law has reduced
mining profits until the net value of the unmined coal is now so
small that the operators can not afford to go to any extra expense
to reduce the waste of coal due to cheap mining methods. The
coal now wasted in mining is chiefly in the unmined parts of
compound seams, in unmined pillars, and in the working places
lost by squeezes or caves caused by cheap mining. A careful
study of mining costs shows that, at an additional expense if
IOC a ton, enough coal can be mined from these places to increase,
by 15 per cent, the proportion of coal recovered from the areas
which are now mined.
Such a resulting reduction in waste would be made possible
by repealing the mine-run law, for this would increase the mining
profits more than loc a ton. The entire reduction of waste might
not immediately follow, but a saving equal to at least ro per cent
of the coal now mined would follow the pulling of the more con-
venient pillars in the mines. This merely requires an increase
in the recovery of the coal from the present 60 per cent to 66 per
cent. This mining of the pillars would be started at once to
supply any largely increased demand for Arkansas coal. Such an
increase in the demand would follow the improvement in quality
made possible by a repeal of the law. It would also lead to the
opening of new mines so laid out that the waste of coal in them
would be much less than it is in the older mines.
Cost of the waste. It is conservative to estimate, therefore,
that the mine-run law causes at present a waste of coal in the
areas which are mined equal to 10 per cent of the output of the
coal. We have seen that it also prevents the mining of a large
lyGoO'^lc
286 Coal Mining in Arkansas
area of less perfect coal, and causes an additional loss equal
to about 10 per cent of the output on this account. The total
underground waste of the coal caused by this law is therefore
equal to 20 per cent of the present output. In 1908, Aricansas
produced 2,078,357 tons of coal with a mine value of $3499470
or practically $3,500,000. The loss in that year was therefore
equivalent to 415,000 tons which should bring to the State
$700,000. On the basis of a normal output of 21500,000 tons
annually, the loss would be 500,000 tons or about ^40,000.
We have seen that the mine-run law is the cause of an ex-
cessive production of slack. In order to make some of this slack
salable, 6,000 to 8,000 tons of it are lost every year at the slack
washer. In spite of this washing, more slack is produced thin
can be sold and the mine-run law is directly responsible for the
resulting waste of surplus slack. Much of the slack is unloaded
in the most convenient places as upon the sides of railroad em-
bankments or into the crctks from which places it can never be
recovered. Even when the slack is stored on the prairie and
gathered up during a long strike, there is a large loss in weight
and in heating value as a result of its exposure to the weather.
No exact figures as to these losses can be obtained but by the
spring of 1910 some 39,000 tons of slack had been dumped upon
the ground and the permanent loss must have been equivalent to
another 6,000 tons of coal. Fig, 65 shows a small portion of a
single one of these piles of surplus slack. The entire pile below
the heavy line in the back ground is slack dragged away from
the track by slip scrapers. There is a similar pile on the other
' side of the track. Other piles were formed at nearly all of the
mining camps.
These obtrusive piles of slack constitute the most direct and
obvk)us loss of coal caused by the mine-run law. Fig. 66 is a
view of one of them taken in December, 1910, only three months
after a coal famine caused by the long suspension of mining.
It shows clearly how rapidly the mine-run law causes the ac-
cumulation of unsalable slack. The total wasie of slack not
gathered up is about 12,000 tons per annum. This hgure is
chiefly interesting as showing how negligible this waste is when
compared to the great waste the mine-run law causes in the mines.
The loss of slack is rapidly inc-easing. It now costs the operatcws
$7,500 a year.
lyGoo^^lc
„Gooi^lc
sS
„Gooi^lc
The Mine-Run Law 289
But besides the present money loss due to this wasted coal
is the more serious matter of the future scarcity of coal. Ark-
ansas has much less coal than has commonly been assumed, and
there is probably not even a billion tc«is of true coal left in the
State so far as we can now estimate it. It would seeth better
therefore if the laws were framed so as to reduce this waste of
coal rather than to compel so great a waste as over 20 per cent
of the annual on^ut
Explanation of the law. It was explained that the law re-
quires the operators to pay just as much for slack coal as for
lump coal, and that it definitely broke the contract between the
miners and the operators. It really requires the operators to
pay the miners full value for ail slate and other impurities in the "
coal because it is wholly impracticable to reject bad car-loads.
It was also explained that the law was passed throug:h a misunder-
standing of its real nature and importance.
Weakness of Ike arguments in favor of the law. It has been
shown that there was no good reason for the passage of the
mine-nm law. The miner received full value for his labor under
the screened-coal basis of payment, and was paid so much extra
for the lump coal that he received the full equivalent of the
price now paid including the slack.
We have also seen that the screen did not cheat the miners
except in rare instances, and that the miners could easily require
that it be maintained in good condition.
It was pointed out that there need he no difficulty in com-
pensating the miners who work in places where lump coal could
not be readily obtained.
Figures were presented to show that on the average not more
than I or 2 per cent of coal was lost on account of the slack
that was left in the mine, and this loss is not so great as the
present loss, due to scattering the more valuable lump coal all
over the room by the heavy shooting now practiced. Both of
these losses can be avoided by paying the miner a less sum for
the slack than for the lump coal, but this can only be done by
screening the coal ; and that is not permitted by the mine-run law.
n> 000^^10
290 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Attention was called to the fact that most of the screen laws
in other states are fair and it is contended that the existence
of bad laws in Kansas and a few other states is no valid reason
why Arkansas should be burdened with a similar law, which is
especially injurious under the conditions existing in this State.
As was shown, the hope held out to the miners that the law
would increase their earnings has in general proved a snare and
delusion; and that, aside from the entry-men, who were already
receiving the best pay, only a few of the miners have been able
to earn more per day, while many have earned much less than
formerly.
It is admitted that the law does reduce the labor of bhe
miner. It is easier now to shoot out a dollar's worth of slack
than it used to be to mine a dollar's worth of good coal ; but it
is emphatically claimed that this is no just reason for the passage
of such an injurious law. We have seen that there is no other
valid reason.
Injustice of the law. The law is unjust and wrong. The
State was made the innocent agent in breaking a fair and just
contract made in good faith.
The law directly attacks no other class of employers of labor
tlian the coal operators and is therefore class legislation.
It benefits a small number of miners and injures many other
miners. While it decreases the labor of some of the careless
coal shooters, it greatly increases that of the firemen of the
State, especially the locomotive crews. These are injustices to
the men affected by this law.
Further, the law was intended to benefit the miners at the
expense of the employers and is therefore unjust, especially since
the operators have for years treated the miners fairly in the
matter of weighing the coal.
Inferior quality of the coal. The passage of the law has
caused a decrease in the quality of the coal and consequently a
decrease in its value and a resultant loss of market. It has been
shown that the amount of slack made by the miners has pro-
gressively increased from less than 30 per cent as an average in
1905 to 45 per cent or more in 1909 and that this increase is
due almost entirely to more careless methods employed by the
lyGoo'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 291
miners. These changes in the work of mining were describefl
at length to show what might be expected in the future.
It has further been shown that careless shooting has so
shattered the lump coal that it can not be broken up for firing
without making a great deal of slack; and that over three times
as much slack as formerly is now made in shipping and handling
clean lump coal.
Many figures were submitted showing the great increase in
the amount of slate mixed with the coal, due to the heavy
shooting encouraged by this law ; also to the fact that the com-
panies are compelled to pay the miners for slate, witliout an
effective way of penalizing them for mixing slate with the coal.
The increase already amounts to 5 per cent of the weight of
the coal shipped, and the proportion of slate will continue to get
lai^er. The government tables and the relative selling prices
in competitve markets show that uhis addition of slate has
already caused a decrease in the value of the coal of at least 35c.
per ton.
It was shown that the great deterioration in the value of the
Arkansas coal is in itself responsible for a loss of market in
Louisiana, Texas, and eastern Arkansas, of between 50 per cent
and 100 per cent of the present output ; and that the repeal of
the law would increase the running time of the mines now in
operation by at least 11 per cent, and also lead to the opening
of new mines.
Increased accidents to the miners due to changes in mining
methods. We have seen that under the mine-run law, the work
of the miners is made easier than formerly. This advantage is,
however, more than offset by the large increase in the number
that are killed or injured each year as a result of the law.
As early as 1908,* the mine-run law was directly responsible
for 40 per cent of the fatal accidents to coal miners. Incomplete
statistics for 1909 show that the law was responsible for the
death of seven of our miners during that year alone. This
great increase in mortality has been the direct result of a change
in coal mining methods induced by the operation of the law.
responsible for 5s% of the
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
292 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Exact figures prove that the miaers are now using 12 to
15 per cent more powder per ton of coal mined than they did in
1905 and that this is a progressive change. Data from Mine
No. 2 at Denning proved that this change is wholly due to the
mine-run law.
It was explained that the miners are now putting in fewcf
and wider shots and using longer augers than formerly. As a
result, the severity of the blasting has increased even more
rapidly than the consumption of powder per ton of coal produced.
The severe effect that this has upon the roof beneath which
the miners work was proved by exact figures from cost records.
These show that nearly four times as much rock now falls from
the roof as formerly. Statistics of the fata! accidents to miners
show that up to 1908 52.5 per cent of them were caused by
falls of roof. The increased amount of rock which falls from
the roof is certainly responsible for half of the lives lost in tfiis
manner. In other words, 26,25 P*^*" <^^i*t of the fatal accidents
in 1908 were the result of the increased danger from the roof
which was caused by the careless blasts. This in turn was the
result of the mine-run law.
The extra danger the heavy blasting causes to the shot-
firers is obvious, and the extra danger caused by the mine-run
law is responsible for the deaths of three-fourths of the shot-
firers now killed in the mines. Of the fatal accidents to miners,
17.5 per cent were accidents to shot-firers. Three-fourths of
these accidents were 13.12 per cent of the total number, so by
1908 the mine-run law caused 13. 12 per cent of the fatal ac-
cidents in the mines by deaths to shot-firers.
It was seen that a total of nearly 39.37 per cent of the fatal
accidents were due to the mine-run law even as soon after its
enactment as 1908. The total number of accidents per 100,000
tons of coal produced has shown an increase of even more than
40 per cent of the number in 1905. This again shows the effect
of the law. In 1910 four miners were killed in firing shots and
five were killed by falling roof. The mine-run law therefore
caused the death of six of our miners in the six and one-half
months' run of 1910. Increasing numbers of them will be killed
e^i succeeding year until the law is repealed.
lyGoO'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 293
Other disadvantages to the miners. IVw law decreases the
earnings of the miners. The loss in earnings to some of tfie
miners as a result of the lower v^lue of the coat they mine,
amounts to $75,000 per annum. The men can not petition tor
the repeal of the law because the constitution of their Union
prohibits this. This loss to the miners is but partly offset by the
increased daily earnings of other miners who are able to load
out a greater quantity of the poor coal than they did of the
good coal.
The reduced running time of the mines has caused the miners
now in the State a loss of about $300,000. Many of them are
already beginning to think the permission to load out slack and
slate is not worth this much to them as a foody.
Several mines are already definitely shut down as a result
of the mine-run law. This makes it more difficult for the miners
to secure places in which to work. The law has also made tt
more difficult for the miners to obtain favors from the operators.
A result of the law is a large loss of skill on the part of
the miners. In the long run, the miners will suffer still more
as the law reduces the work to the level of mere rough labor,
■when the Union will fall to pieces and the relative wages of the
miners are sure to decrease.
Financial cost to the producers and the consumers of coal.
To a certain extent, the increased costs of mining are made up
by increased cost of coal to the consumers, so no attempt is made
to separate the losses of the operators and the consumers. If
fliey are studied together, duplication of losses due to the mine-
run law is avoided. The operators have had to carry most of
the increased cost of mining and the loss due to the increased
production of slack. Some of them have already become bank-
rupt while others have had to close their mines. On the other
hand, the consumers bear the chief burden of a decrease in the
quality of the coal which has followed the passage of the mine-
run kw. As the operators successively shut down their mines,
the cost of coal to the nearby consumers will increase. This
can only be prevented by a repeal of the mine-run law. The
k>sses are computed upon the basis of a normal output of 2,500,000
tons of coal per annum, which is much less than the full capacity
of the mines now opened, and but little more than the output of
1909. For convenience all known losses are here tabulated.
lyGoO'^lc
294 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Annual Cost of Mine-Run Law to Operators and Consumers.
Increased cost of mining coal.
Increase in fixed expenses due to shorter running
time $62,500
Increased cost of draw slate SO-^oo
Cost of picking out some of the slate 18,000
Maintenance of idle mines 50,000
Decreased value of the output.
Decrease in value due to the extra 15 per cent of the
coal which is shot into slack 430,ocx)
Decrease in value of the coal on account of shattering
of the lumps and increase in slate (at 35c. a ton) 875,000
Cost of fre^ht upon the extra amount of slate in the
coal 185,000
Sum $1,670,500
There is in addition the cost of washing slack to prevent the
loss due to wasted slack Irom becoming much greater than it is ;
also the annoyance and worry which the careless method of
mining coal and the extra accidents cause the operators.
Besides tihe direct financial loss to the consumers of the coal,
the increased amount of clinkers it produces in burning causes a
hardship to all the firemen of the State, and the extra smoke is a
discomfort to the general public.
The State itself must be counted as a considerable consumer
of coal and already loses $4,500 annually because of the poor
quality resulting from the effect of the mine-run law.
Of tfie losses caused to the operators and consumers, the
miners get only about $205,000 a year, which is paid to them
for handling draw slate and for mining slate or picking it out of
the coal alter the companies have paid for it. We have seen
elsewhere that their loss on account of idle time alone is much
greater than this, so the great loss to the operators causes no
permanent gain whatever to the miners as a whole.
The total annual cost of the mine-run law to the operators
and consumers is in round numbers $1,500,000 which means that
if the law were repealed, it would be possible to supply coal of
[Jiqn.eanyGoO'^lc
The Mine-Run Law 295
such a quality and price to the consumers that they would save
the equivalent of 60c. a ton without additional cost to the pro-
ducers. If the consumers paid the same price as at present,
there would be a saving of 7J^c. a ton in freight and the
operators would get SzJ^c, a ton more. The most probable
distribution of the advantage of a return to the old methods of
mining would be to give the miner an increase in pay amounting
to 5c, per ton ; to increase the profit of the operator by 7J-3C. per
ton; to save the consumer 7Hc. in freight and 5c. in price for
coal ; and to furnish him with coal worth in heating value 35c.
a ton more than that he now buys.
It should be noted that the younger miners do not know
how to mine coal in the old way, while the older ones have lost
some of their skill. These factors will delay the benefit which
we have outlined above as a result of the repeal of the mine-
run law. Still the longer the law remains in force, the longer it
will take to recover from its effects.
Injury to the State at large. The final objection to the law
is its injury to the general welfare of the State.
It has been shown that Arkansas is injured above all the
other states by such a law on account of the restricted demand
for slack coal, and because of the exceptional physical character
of our coal-beds.
It has been pointed out that the law retards the develop-
ment of our great resources, because it shows a spirit of un-
fairness toward the investors and lessens the advantage which
should result from a superior fuel supply.
Through loss of market for the coal, it lessens the direct
money income to the State by at least $2,000,000 per year. There
is no need to enlarge upon the effect which this would have
upon all lines of business in the coal region.
It has been shown that the mine-run law is the cause of a
dead waste of over $848,000 worth of coal annually, and coal
is one of our most vital natural resources.
lyGoO'^lc
x/b Coal Mining in Arkansas
In conclusion, we repeat the list of direct money losses caused
to the State each year by this absurd law.
The loss to the present producers and consumers
of coal $1,670,000
The net* loss to the mine workers now in the State. 100,000
Additional loss to the coal industry alone due to loss
of market r,6oo,ooo
Absolute waste of our resources 850,000
Total $4,220,000
The astounding simi of money includes no duplication and
does not consider the great loss to the railroadB, merchants, and
other interests incident to the decline of the coal-mining industry.
In addition to the money loss, this law already costs the
lives of seven of our miners every year, sacrificed to the greater
ease of shooting out the coal, instead of mining it.
This is surely sufHcient to make it clear that the repeal of the
law prohibiting the screening of the miners' coal before weighing
it, is the most important service to the State that the Legislature
now has an opportunity to perform.
The increased receipts of the miners due to the mine-mn Uw include
^0,000 per year for handling draw slate, $18,000 for picking out the extra
■late, and $137,000 for mining the slate which the law compels the operators
to pay for. Some of the miners earn more money per day whidi may
amount to %2Sjaao per year. The total gain is about $38o,ooa The miners
as a body lose %3O0fKa on account of increased idleness and $75,000 on ac-
count of the decreased daily earnings of many of them. The net loss is,
therefore, $95,000 besides the hardship of waiting for places and of secur-
ing work.
lyGoo'^lc
CHAPTER VIII.
GBNBRAL CONDinON OF THE HINING INDUSTRY
MABKETS FOR COAL.
Lump coal. Except in the well developed industrial centers
of the United States, the railroads are the chief consumers of
coal. This is especially true in Arkansas, because the market
area is so well supplied witfa cheap fire-wood and has such a mild
climate that the household trade in coal is light. Also, there is
little industrial development. On the other hand, several main
line railroads with heavy through traffic are dependent upon the
Arkansas and Oklahoma coal for fuel, and this coal when prop-
erly mined is unusually valuable as an efficient and nearly smoke-
less locomotive fuel. The railroads, therefore, use almost all nf
the lump coal produced in the State, although quite a percentage
of some of the harder coal from the thin seams is sold at good
prices for domestic use, in the larger cities of Arkansas and
neighboring states. Under special conditions, some coal has
been shipped as far as Canada, and one lot was sent to San
Francisco for use in testing a western-built battleship.
The Arkansas semi-anthracite coal of the larger sizes is
used entirely for domestic heating purposes under the name of
'Arkansas anthracite' and is in but little demand during the
summer. It is shipped regularly as far as Lincoln and Omaha,
Nebraska, and all the nearer northern cities it competes with
Pennsylvania anthracite with an advantage in freight.
Slack. The ordinary slack coal is used in industrial plants,
and much of it must be shipped a long distance to find a market.
Almost all of the slack of the semi-anthracite coal of Arkansas
is used as a reducing material in the retorts of the zinc smelters.
A Httle of the very small sizes of coal is used for steam at the
mines and elsewJiere. A very close separation of the different
sizes in thefiner slack will be needed before it can be burned
under boilers, and as yet no boiler furnaces have been constructed
ior its use, except at a single one of the mines.
Mine-run coal. Many mdustrial plants, and the heating
plants of the lai^r buildings use the higher priced mine-run
lyGoO'^lc
2g& CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
coal instead of slack for raising steam. This is largely on ac-
count of its greater freedom from slate and the less annoyance
from clinkers: It also bums more freely with poor draft and so
raises the capacity of the furnaces. During the last few years
there has been an increasing use of mine-nin coal instead of
lump ooal in domestic heating plants. This is due to the increase
in price of lump coal, which has followed the passage of the
mine-run law, and to the fact that the lump coal has been fo
shattered that a large part of it breaks into slack before it reaches
the consumers' bins. Much of the rest of it falls to pieces soon
afterwards. While more expensive it has therefore but little
advantage over mine-run coal.
The unity of the Arkansas and Oklahoma coalfields. Many
companies own mines in both Aricansas and Oklahoma, since
the coals are either generally similar or have special advantages
that determine which of the two coals is best for any particular
use. The two states, therefore, constitute a single competitive
district as far as markets are concerned. The competition be-
tween the different operators is, however, very severe. This
has led to the bankruptcy of many of the weaker companies, and
prevents their cooperation toward improving the mining methods
and the quality of the product.
Cooperative selling. Competition used to be especially de-
structive at Spadra, and was one of the causes which led to the
granting of even some of the unreascmable demands of the
Spadra miners. The conditions have recently been greatly im-
proved by the organization of the so-called 'selling agency.'
This is incorporated under the name of the Clarksville and Spadra
Coal Co. Some of the stock in this company is owned
by the Clarksville bankers and merchants, but most of it is owned
by the ooal operators. The majority of the operators in the
district, whether interested in the company or not, have con-
tracted to sell their entire output to it. The agency sells as much
coal as possible in competition with the independent companies,
and other coal fields. It buys this coal at a little below the
selling price from all of the contracting operators, in proportion
to the actual capacity of their mines. This proportion is de-
termined by buying the coal from them in such an amount that
n> 000^^10
Gbneral Conditiok op the Indust.ky 299
each mine can operate at full capacity the same number of days
per month, as nearly as may be.
Besides securing to all the companies a uniform price for
the coal, this agency has been a great advantage in securing a
market for all sizes of coal. Formerly one company would have
on hand an excess of large size grate coal while unable to (ill
orders for nut coal. At the same time another company might
have a big demand for grate coal and no market for nut coal.
The selling agency has adjusted the prices of the different sizes
of coal in such a way that the average demand is in proportion
to the output of each size. This has increased the total sale.
The agency also solves the question of a fair distribution of rail-
road cars in time of shortage, and in this way is a great help to
the railroad, the officials of which merely ask the agency where
to send the cars. By 'having a large supply of coal, the agency
can take larger contracts than individuals, and since the coal
comes from several mines, the supply is less liable to be xut
off by petty strikes, not authorized by the leaders of the Union.
Cooperative selling is of course cheaper than individual sell-
ing, and the small fee charged the operators , leaves a saving,
although it enables the selling company to distribute a small
profit to its stockholders. The agency has been very afbdy
managed. The individual operators do not interfere in the man-
agement, although they give it what aid they can in developing
new markets, and what advice it asks for. Since some of the
stronger operators have not contracted their output to the agency,
it is in no sense a monoply and the consumer does not suffer.
A similar organization would be quite advantageous to the
smaller operators in the soft coal district of this State. The
slack from the thinner single bench coal seams often commands
a few cents per ton more than the average price of slack, on
account of its greater freedom from slate. The small operators,
however, have difficulty in securing large contracts, because of
the difficulty of guaranteeing a sufficient supply in case of a
sudden increase in the demand. Cooperative selling of the slack
would, therefore, benefit the consumers as well as the small oper-
ators. The small operators have little difficulty in selling their
lump coal and the larger operators need less aid in disposing of
their slack.
lyGoO'^lc
Coal Mining ik Arkansas
LOSS OF MARKfiT.
During the hst two or three years, the coal industry has
been depressed by a loss of market in addition to the hi^ cost
of mining. Part of the loss of market is temporary and due to
the industrial depression of the whole country; but in addition
to this result of hard times, the once great domestic demand for
the high grade Arkansas coal in Kansas City has recently been
destroyed by the introduction of natural gas. Natural gas has
also practicaly destroyed the entire market at Fort StiMth, Tex-
arkana, and a few other smaller places.
The great over-production in petroleum in Texas entirely
prevented the sale of steam coal in Texas during 1904 and 1905,
but this competition is not now so troublesome. The fuel oil
productioa in Otdahmna keeps down the price of steam coal in
that region where the Oklahoma and Arkansas ooal is not in
competition with coal from otiier districts.
The maritet for Arkansas coal is still further restricted by
unfair freight rates. The State of Oklahoma has set the freight
rate upon coal at a very low figure. Since Ais does not apply
to interstate business, the Arkansas coal is severely handicapped
in the western Oklahoma markets, where most of the coal ttsed
in that state is sold. Some years ago the Arkansas freigtit rates
upon coal were fixed by the Railroad Commission at about three-
fourths of the present fates. These rates did not apply to
lUiotMS or Alabaina coal and gave the Aricansas bpcrators a big
advantage in the eastern and southern parts of Ae State. The
courts declared this rate confiscatory. Such special freight rales
do not seem fair to the other commonwealths and are not to be
recommended even if feasible. A low rate, independent of state
lines, is preferable. As the rates are now adjusted, however, tlie
Illinois ooal is unjustly favored, since the price per ton-mile for
hauling Illionis coal seems to be less than that charged against
Arkansas coal, by an amount in excess of that jnstified by the
l<Miger haul.
Along with the loss of market for slack cool, due to fuel
oil competition, came the increasing production of sladt as a
result of the mine-run law. This raised the price of screened
lump to such a figure that the railroads were forced to take coal
containing all of the slack in excess of 25 per cent of its weight
>/Goo'^lc
General Condition op the Industry 301
as mined. This, together wHh the increased amount of slate,
and the shattering of the lump coal, has largely destroyed the-
superiority of the Arkansas coal as a locomotive fuel. Therefore
much of this main maricet has now been lost to competing coal
and fuel oil.
The more careless mining of the coal, together with the
greater expense of mining, has also caused a loss of a great deal
of the domestic business in competitive coal markets. The
market for the' lump coal of the semi-anthracite mines is still
good, but the output of these mines is limited by the amount of
slack required by the zinc smekers.
METHODS OF DEVELOPING THE MARKET.
The cc»npetition of both oil and gas, especially the latter,
will rapidly decrease, owing to the increasing cost of these fuels
and the development of new uses for them, unless new fields are
discovered. In the meantime, however, it may necessary to make
still greater concessions in the price of coaL
Briquttting. ■ The slack coal can be very readily briquetted
or made into lumps by ttie use of pitch bander, since an unusually
small percentage of binder is required for the Aricansas coal as
compared with other coals. In some ways the briquets are
superior to lump coal, but with us, their quality is injured by the
great amount of fine slate in most of the Arkansas slack coal.
Besides, the American public has not yet learned to appreciate
briquets. Therefore, they must be s<Ad for less than the price
of Itunp coal. Also, the cost of the pitch for binding material
is high in Arkansas. For these reasons, there is generally not
enough niargin between the sale value of slack and briquets to
pay for their manaufacture in ttus State.
The best commercial plan for making briquets seems to be
to k)cate the factory in some large city* where binder is clicap
and where the briquets can be sold without reshipment. This
would realize the full advantage of the kmer freight rate upon
slack coal as compared with the rate upon lump coal or upon
briquets, and would also save wear upon the briquets. IV
plant could not be operated steadily during the early summer
■Information has been received that such a plant has recently been
erected at Kansas City, Mo. The commercial result and mechanical de-
tails are nuknown.
lyGoo'^lc
302 Coal Miking in Arkansas
because of lack of market, but that is the season when there is
the least surplus of slack.
The greatest difference in value between slack and lump
coal exist-s in the case of the semi-anthracite coal from Spadra
and Russellville. This is mined by so many small companies
ehat no one of them has a sufficient amount of slack to justify
the erection of a briquetting plant. It would be possible, how-
ever, for an independent briquetting company at a large city,
such as St. Louis, to buy slack from all of the mines on long
tiine contracts. The most valuable size of the semi-anthracite
coal is No. 4, which is sold for use in magazine stoves or base
burners. Briquets so small can not be profitably made, but tlie
smaller commercial sizes of briquets of this coal are admirable
for furnace use. An addition of Spadra or Russellville slack
will greatly improve briquets made from the more volatile or
smoky coals. A complete commercial investigation of the bri-
quetting possibilities at a number of lai^e cities seems advisable,
but must be done by a coal salesman. Afterwards, the necessary
scientific data can be secured. In the meantime, the cost of
briquets of Arkansas coal can be taken as about $1.00 per ton
more than the price of the slack from which they are made,
provided that the plant is large and well designed and that good
pitch can be had for about $12.00 per ton. Some allowance
must be made for the fact that if the mines are relieved of a
sufficient amount of slack to enaible them to supply the railroads
with clean lump, the market value of the slack must be in-
creased. Since both of these results will have a great benefit
upon the coal-mining industry, the briquetting should be done
by the operators.
Improvement in quality. The most obvious method of re-
gaining the lost market is to improve the quality of the coal.
This can be done by the repeal of the disastrous mine-run law,
the effects of which were shown in the last chapter, and by re-
storing reasonable control of the mining methods to the owners
of the ■ mines. This was the last thing contended for by the
operators during the long strike from April i to nearly October
I, 1910. It prolonged the strike for three months, and the
operators were finally forced to agree even to hire the men in
the order that their names appear upon a list of applicants kept
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition of the Industry 303
by the Union. There seems little hope, therefore, that the former
discipline of the mine crews can be re-established until after a
still greater depression and the closing of more mines.
Mining machines. Even under the best of discipline, the
old style mining of the coal is impossible on accotint of the loss
of skill on the part of the miners; but the percentage of slack
can be somewhat reduced and the mixing in of slate can he
prevented. Proper control of the mine crews will also permit the
introduction of coal-mining machines. At most of the mines
of the State, the physical conditions are admirably suited for the
use of miniag machines of one type or another. As compared
with shooting off the solid, mining machines do not save labor,
and for the same daily wages to the men, they will increase the
cost of the coal by about the cost of the maintenance of the
machines and the power. In a few cases, an increased per-
centage of recovery of the coal will pay a portion of the ex-
pense by reducing the average cost of driving the entries, but
in most cases the profit from the introduction of the machines
would come chiefly from the improved quality of the coal. When
properly undermined, as by machines, the coal can be obtained
in good solid lumps with very Httle slack, except the small
amount made by the machines themselves in those few cases in
which the cutting must be made in the coal and not in the soft
material under it. In any case, practically all of the slate can be
kept out of the coal which has been undermined.
The nearly universal experience in other coalfields is that
these improvements in the quality of the output will show a profit
in favor of mining machines even though the wage scales tor
mining with machines is no less than for shooting off the solid,
and the operators must bear the entire expense of the main-
tenance of the machine plant. This is only the case if the proper
type of machines has been selected and the plant is well managed.
The physical conditions in many of the Arkansas mines are
exceptionalh' favorable for the use of mining machines. In ad-
dition, the softness of the coal and the poor demand for slack,
make the commercial results of shooting the coal off the solid
especially disastrous at most of the coal-mining districts of Ark-
ansas. It is quite certain that mining machines would be profit-
able at many of the Arkansas mines if given a fair trial.
lyGoO'^lc
304 Coal Mining in Arkansas
The machines would be of further advantage in curtailing
the expense of handling dirt and draw slate, since the roof would
not be so badly shattered and props would not be knocked out, if
the present heavy blasting were done away with. It is agreed
by all persons who have investigated the subject that the de-
crease in the number of accidents, caused by shooting the coal
and by falls of the roof, would much more than offset the few
accidents caused by the machines themselves.
The only reasons, therefore, "why the machines are not used
almost everywhere, are lack of capital and experience, and the
opposition of the men. This opposition is partly due to the
prejudice of the less intelligent workmen against machinery of
all sorts that they themselves can not operate. Where the
loaders are paid upon a ^.lmp-coal basis they welcome the
machines, because of the large proportion of good lumps in
machine-mined coal. But whfrre they are paid upon the mine-run
basis, they often find it no more work to shoot out tiie coal and
load the slack and shattered lump, than to break up and load
the firm masses of coal, obtained by merely rolling out the coal
with powder after .t has been undermined. This is especially
true where the coal is soft and easily drilled for blasting. On a
mine-run basis, therefore, mining the coal by machines is an
advantage to the loader chiefly in reducing the amount of
blasting. This lessens the annoyance of replacing knodced-out
props and makes it unnecessary to set the props so carefully,
since they arc not subject to heavy blows. It also reduces the
amount of draw slate which must be handled, and makes the
work much safer. The chief money advantage to the loader is .
the saving of about 80 per cent of the powder ordinarily used.
This saving is 5c. to 16c, per ton of coal produced, but is seldom
sufficient to equal the cost of undermining the coal.
It follows, therefore, that the mine-run basis of payment is
largely responsible for the opposition of the miners to the mining
machines. But it is chiefly tWs basis of parent that makes the
adoption of machines necessary to maintain the quality of
the coal.
The machines serve to definitely divide the mine crew into
two classes, the few skilled men who can operate the machines, and
the less skilled laborers who timber the rooms and blast and load
the ooal. It, however, requires as much skill to shoot and load the
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition of thk Industry 305
coal which has been properly mined as it does to shoot it off
the solid with an excessive amount of powder. Therefore, the
machines have no had effect upon the average skill of the miner.
From the point of view of the miners, machines are objectionable,
since they develop a class of highly skilled machine runners who
may previously have been machinests instead of miners, and who
are less likely to go out on long strikes in the interest of the un-
skilled laborers.
Even though the men oppose the machines, it must be said
that the leaders of the Union recognize the great increase in the
prosperity of the coal-mining industry which has in certain dis-
tricts followed the introduction of mining machines. To their
great credit, they therefore, do not oppose machines, even though
these increase the difficulty of holding the men together. Tlus
acceptance of machines was explicitly stated in decision No. 21
of the ai4)itrators, selected to settle disputes between the miners
and operators under the last agreement. This decision was
rendered at Pittsburg, Kansas, July 16, 1909, and was signed by
Mt. James Elliott, President of the Southwestern Interstate Coal
Operators' Aasociation, and by Mr. T. L. Lewis, President of
the United Mine Workers of America. It contains the following
unqualified statements:
"It is not in harmony with the object and spirit of the joint move-
ment to prevent the installing of machines or labor-saving equipment in
coal mines, neiflier is it in harmony with the principles of the United Mine
Workers as we understand them to prevent the use ot labor-saving appli-
ances in or around the mines.
"The joint agreement for District 14 [also for District 21] recognizes
the right to place machines in the mines, as there is a wage scale provided."
It should be noted that the word machines meaning mathines
for undermining the coal is distinct from labor-saving equipment,
although both are allowed.
This decision is, however, not fully accepted by the men,
and many misstatements to the effect that mining machines are
devices to beat the miners out of their jobs are even printed in the
newspapers. For this reas<m, a brief statement of the influence of
labor-saving machinery upon the working men may be advisable.
Apparently most of the writers upon economic subjects take
for granted the advisibility of labor-saving machinery, and
merely answer the common objections to them. For this reason,
lyGoO'^lc
3o6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
no concise discussion of the su-bject by a recognized authority
is available. Most of the economists who have studied the
problem seem to agree that workmen, highly skilled in a special
trade, suffer more or less when they are replaced by epoch
making machines, which do the same amount of work with much
less labor or with labor of much inferior grade. But labor as a
whole does not suffer, because the decrease in the cost of produc-
tion generally results in such a greatly increased output that more
men are employed than before, which is a great advantage to the
large class of less efficient working men ; and because all working
men share with the entire community the great benefit resulting
from the cheapening of the product.
"It is a recognized economic axiom that the wages of labor
are paid out of the product of industry, and in so far as the
introduction of machinery increases the product of industrj', it
means higher wages and better labor conditions." (Ely, Selig-
man, Bullock, Hadley.)
When the displaced labor is not specialized, the hardship of
finding woric elsewhere is very much reduced, and the cheapened
product or the increased development of the industry more than
compensate for the temporary loss of work. When the saving
in labor is but little, and men experienced in the trade are re-
quired to operate the machines or do other parts of the work, and
especially when the labor is strongly organized, the most C(KTimon
effect of the introduction of machinery is merely to increase the
output of the product, with no change in the wages. Often there
is a decrease in the number of hours in a day's work or a reduc-
tion in the labor performed in a day without a decrease in the
daily pay of each man. These are the conditions in regard to
la'bor in the coal mines of Arkansas. It may be well to repeat
that coal-mining machines do not cause a reduction in the number
of men employed in producing each ton of coal. There are
generally the same number of men in the rooms and several
machine crews in additkm, together with the electricians and
machinists needed to maintain the general plant This extra
labor is about offset by an increased output per room. They
are slack-saving machines rather than labor-saving machines.
In order to expand the market for coal, and on account of
the recent change in the methods used by the miners, mining
machines are becoming almost as necessary as steam hoists.
lyGoO'^lc
Generai. Condition of the Industry 307
These have displaced a greai many men formerly in charge of
small horse-driven hoists. Indeed, at one time, the hoisting
of coal in England gave employment to large numbers of women,
who were themselves displaced by the horse-driven hoists.
These poor creatures received tmly 6c. per day of 14 hours, and
they carried the coal on their backs up ladders in the shafts,
with no machinery except the baskets. No one would now think
of giving the work back to them. On account of the great
advantage to the industry, there is now no objectitxi to the
installation of steam hoists. In iJie same way, the use of mining
machines is inevita,ble. If they are not accepted by the present
coal miners, they will be operated after repeated contests with
the companies, by crews recruited from the mechanical trades.
Therefore, even if the machines did really displace a few
of the miners temporarily, there should be no opposition to
them. Indeed, the miners, in their own interest, should do all
they can to encourage the installation of machines, because the
resulting increase in the output of the ooal would require large
additions to the present total force of miners, and so make it
easier for them to secure steady work. This increase in the
production of the Arkansas coal would certainly follow the im-
proved quality of properly mined coal, as compared with coal
dxW off the solid. This wouW give the .Arkansas coal full
command of many of the present competitive markets. The
general public would be benefited by the increased business and
also by the better quality of the fuel.
It may be of interest to note that there is little or no oppo-
sition among the men to the introduction of the newer tvpes of
labor-saving machinery, such as eleotrk: motors and other me-
chanical haulage systeins, which displace many mules and drivers.
This lack of opposition may be due to the fact that such ma-
ohinery is known to be recessary to permit tte cootinued work-
ing of the mine, after the coal near the shaft is exhausted:
or to the fact that the driving of a mule is less specialized
work, and the drivers have little difficulty in securing equally
satisfactory work elsewhere. The drivers have thus become
used to the si^bstitution of power haulage for mules, while the
diggers are still afraid of the results of mining machines. It
may also be that it is so easy to replace the drivers bv new
men that they do not dare to object as a 'body. At any rate.
lyGoO'^lc
3o8 Coal Mining in Akkamsas
all opposition to machiaery at tii« coal mines is directed agiuost
the machines for undermining die coal to accomplish the vKok
formerly d(Mie by pick miners, but now nearly imivefsally neg-
lected.
THE HIGH COST OF MINING.
Dipping coat seams. Except in the State of Washington
where the coal seams are much folded and broken up, tbe cost
of mining in the Aikansas-Oldahoma iield is greater than in
any odier important coalfield. This is partly due to the fact
that the coal seams are not flat so that the usual, nearly level,
twin-entries cannot be used. This fact nearly doubles the cost
of entry yardage. The expense of this doubling of yardage
is relatively higher than in other fields on account of the un-
balanced scale of prices of labor, and the unusual cost of
driving entries in Arkansas. The dip of the seams increases
the cost of haulage since the entries are rarely maintained at
the right grade, and are more crooked than in flat seams. Also,
it largely prevents the use of electric motors for hauling coal
underground, because of the difficulty of hauling from more
than one entry with the same motor. These factors increase
the cost of underground transportation.
High cost of labor. All the other physical conditions are
at least as fovoiable as the average. The main cause of the
high cost of mining the coal is the high scale of wages paid to
the miners, per unit of work. The wages of both the day-men
and the contract miners at Spadra are about twice those in the
Pennsylvania anthracite region. As the cost of supplies is not
greatly different in the two regions, the operating costs at
Spadra should be a little less than twice those in Pennsylavnia.
They are in fact quite a little more than twice as great where
the conditions of the mines are similar. This excess over the
amount expected is due to the petty contentions of *e men,
and the fewer number of days per year the mines are in <q>-
eration.
About 15 per cent* of the wages paid represents increases
gained by the Union and may be considered partly artificial.
•The formal increase was laj^ per cent in most piece work, which
means 14 per cent increase in net earnings as explained on p. 168. llie
Unton also secured a redaction in the hours of day-men from [o to 8
hoars per day. In addition, many extra payments have been secured, so
the average result is about 15 per cent increase in wage costs.
lyGoo'^lc
■ GsNEiAL Condition of the Industry 309
Nearly CMie-third of this goes to maintain the Union. Another
large proportion of the high wages was granted even before
the organization of the Union. At this time, coal mining was a
comparatively new industry in an old-settled community, where
tnost of the labtH- was profitably employed in other occupations,
chiefly fanning. There was no consider^le amount of negro
labor available, and at first no cheap European labor. Therefore,
it was necessary to pay hi^ wages to attract skilled miners from
the other states fast enough to supply the increasing demand of
a rapidly growing enterprise. These prices have been maintained
by the miners even during the recent times of depression.*
A further reason for the high wages is the less healthful
climate and the general unsanitary and disagreea'ble conditions
of the mining oamps. These conditions were discussed in Ch^>-
ter III, and need not be repeated here. Tliere seems to be no
compensation in the way of a reduced cost of living in Ark-
ansas except in the matter of less need for warm clothing and
for winter fuel than in colder regions. The standard of living
among the miners has been greatly raised during the last decade,
and with this comes a demand for higher wages.
In common with most other co^ miners, those in Ark-
ansas suffer from the summer idleness. This is especially severe
in the Spadra district because that coal k practically all used
for household heating. The domestic consumption of the soft
coal is such a small fraction of the output, that the
conditions for steady mining should be better than in any of the
states supplying a heavy domestic trade. Figures in the gov-
emmcnt. reports, however, seem to rfiow that they are as bad
as in any oAer part of the United States. T^is is true even
in Sdsastian County where tiie least proportion of domestic
coal is produced. It is believed that diis is due to the great
ease of <^ning up new mines and the small capital required.
As a result, the mines are not operated steadily even in winter
time. The shortage of cars may also be greater than in other
states.
Suspensions of mining. Another hard^ip to the industry
is caused by the biennial suspensions during which the miners
'Xhe Union consented to a reduction in 1904 due to the redaction
m demand for coal which followed the temporary, but arreat, overproduc-
tion of fnel oil in Texas.
lyGoo'^lc
3IO Coal Mining in Arkansas
and operators dispute over a new wage contract. Tiiis is en-
tirely due to the Union, and many of the miners are disgusted
with it as a result. Efforts are, therefore, being made by the
Union leaders to avoid this. It is hoped that they will be suc-
cessful. If not, the Union is likely to go to pieces, in which
case the miners probably would suffer on account of the ill
feeling which has been caused by labor disputes.
COST OF MINING COAL.
It is frequently claimed that the coal-mining business is
very profitable, since the miner gets 62c. or Syy^c. a ton for
mining coal, which is sold at an average price of $1.68 per ton.
The price paid for shooting and loading coal is, however, but
one of the items of the cost of tfie coal. Cost data were freely
furnished by all the companies but two. This was with the
understanding that costs at specific mines would not be published.
In very few cases was information obtained as to the cost of
administration ; or cost of selling the coal ; or interest on the
investment and depreciation of the plant; because these had no
technical interest, and in many cases were unknown to the book-
keepers. At many of the smaller mines, no detailed costs are
kept and the total costs were not copied. Even where operating
costs are kept in detail, the subdivision is different at the mines
of different companies. For this reason, the general figures of
costs can be divided only into a few groups.
There are two important classes of mines as far as costs
go, those paying the standard price of 6zc. per ton for 'mining*
and those paying more. The first class includes practically all
of the mines of Sebastian, Franklin; and Scott counties, where
the coal is soft and used largely for industrial purposes. The
second class includes the much smaller production from the
districts supplying coal cJiiefly to the household trade.
COSTS OF MINING COAL IN SEBASTIAN COUNTY.
Cosl of narrow work in Sebastian County. In Sebastian
County* and similar fields, the shooting out and loading of the
coal, not including the firing of the shots, costs 62c per ton
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition oe the Industry 311
when the coal is not 'deficient.' In addition, the shooters are
paid extra for all narrow woric and brushing, for deficient coal,
and for bad roof. This 'dead work' costs from 6c. to 30c. per
ton of coal, depending upon the agreed scale of payment and
the physical conditions of the mine. The cost is generally be-
tween Sc. per ton, the minimum, for the high coal, and 25c.
per ton, the maximum, for the low coal, if the seams have the
common dip and the ordinary good roof.
The cost of the entries and air-courses, and the crosscuts
between them, varies from 3c. to 18c. per ton of coal produced,
and is generally from 4c. to 14c. It may reach 20c. when the
main slope and air-courses are being pushed and the coal is
low. The cost of brushing is nothing in the mines where the
coal is everywhere more than 4 ft. 6 in. thick, and may reach
7c. per ton where the coal is only the limiting 2 ft. 10 in. thick,
below which more than 62c. per ton must toe paid for 'mining.'
The cost of room-necks varies from 0.2c. to 0.6c. and is gen-
erally between 0,25c. and 0.4c.
Aside from differences in the scale of wages, these costs
depend chiefly upon the thickness of the coal seams. If tne
entries were all the same distance apart in the different mmes,
the amount of coal produced from a hundred yards of entry
would vary according to the thidcness of the coal. If then
the cost- per yard of driving the entries did not diange, the items
of cost just given would increase in proportion to the decrease
in the hight of the coal, being twice as much in a 3-foot seam
as in a 6-foot seam. The cost of opening up roo yards of entry
in the low coal is, however, greater than in the high coal, be-
cause the cost of brushing per yard increases rapidly as the coal
seam gets thinner. In the low coal, the rooms must also be
shorter than in high coal and more entries must, therefore, be
driven in the same area. For these reasons, the cost per ton
of coal of opening up the entries and roonK increases quite a lit-
tle more rapidly than the hight of the coal decreases.
The cost of the break-throughs between the rooms varies
with the width of the pillars as well as with the hight of the
coal. This width is determined by the strength of the coal and
its depth below the surface, but chiefly by the policy of the
iriamagement of the mine. The cost of the break-throughs ranges
from 0.3c. to 3c. per ton.
lyGoO'^lc
312 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Cost of deHcient coal. There is a very little deficient coal
in these counties, but the cost vwhich is often nothing, may amount
to 6c. per ton ; from J/^c. to ic. per ton is common. The cost
of draw slate depends entirely upon the character of the roof.
In a few mines it is nodiing, and at one of those where it is
kept separate the cost is as much as 7c. per ton. It k, gen-
erally from Yic. to iViC. per ton of coal produced. This cost
will mcrease as the miners use shots that are fewer and heavier
than those now used, which are already twice as heavy as they
were some years ago.
Cost of bottom labor in Sebastian County. Besides the costs
for diners, tiiere is a large expense for day-men. This varies
from 25c. to 40c. per ton of coal and is commonly 30c. to 37c,
per ton. In many cases, this expense is merely divided into
the cost of bottom labor and the cost of top labor. At a few
mines, the cost of supplies needed for the different kinds of
work is very properly included with the cost of labor. The
cost of bottom lahor, as far as known separately, ranges from
14c. to 27c. per ton, and may be taken as i8c. to 22c. at most
mines.
Of this cost, that of the drivers is iSie largest item, and
including the labor of mechanical haulage, this amounts to from
5c. to lie. per ton of coal. This is a Httle greater in the tfiinner
coal seams than in the thicker ones because of the smaller cars
and the smaller mules which reduce the output per driver.
It also increases if the dip of the coal increases, since pushers
are needed to help the miners handle the cars in the rooms,
if the coal is too low for the mule, and the dip is steep. The
main cause of the variation is the length of the entries, or,
roughly, the age of the mine after the full output has been
reached. The more normal cost of haulage varies from 7c,
a ton in the thick seams, where the entries are generally
long, to Syic. in the thin seams, where pushers are often re-
quired .
There is also a cost for trackmen and a general repair
gang. This cost increases with the age of the mine, and may
be from 0.3c. to 5c. per ton. depending entirely upon the physical
conditions. The cost of shot-firers is generally from ij^c. to
2C, per, ton at those mines which employ them, which includes
lyGoO'^lc
GsHEKAL Condition op the Industry 313
practically all of the mines producing soft coal. The cost of
the cagers, couplers, greasers, and other men at the bottom
of tJie shaft, is generally from ic. to 2c, per ton of ooal produced.
This cost is influenced by the arrai^ement of the shaft bottom
and by the capacity of the mine. At those mines which do not
have shafts, there is a corresponding expense for rope-riders,
switdimen, and die extra track work in the slope. The cost
of the traK>«rs or door boys is rarely kept separately, but is
included with the cost of haulage or the labor cost of ventilation.
It is generally in the neighborhood of ic per ton.
There is also the general underground labor cost, made
up of the pay of the pit boss, the fire-boss, pumpman, etc. At
the smaller mines, the pit boss and the fire-boss do nearly all
of this work, and generally the cost is nearly independent of
the output of the mine and its physical condition. It is, there-
fore, one of the items which is especially reduced by increasing
the output of the mine. It is as low as 2C. per ton at some
of the larger mines, and as high as 9c. per ton at the small
ones, and is usually between 2j4c. and 5c per ton.
Cost of top labor in Sebastian County. At the surface of
the ground, a number of men are needed to weigh and dump
the coal, pick slate, handle railroad cars, attend to the boilers,
run the engines, repair cars, etc. Where- the mines have but
little mechanical equipment, the bladcsmith and his helper do
little more than sharpen the miners' tools. The ^ of i per
cent of the gross earnings of the diggers, which is the amount
they are charged for black smithing, then about equals the cost
of riie blacksmith ing. Where there is much general repair woric,
the cost of the extra blacksraithing. is paid by the company.
The total cost of the top labor varies chiefly according to the
output of the mine, since the general conveniences are not greatly
different at the large and small mines. As far as figures are
available, the extreme range is between 6c. and 20c. per ton.
It is gentrally from 7c, to 15c. per ton.
The labor cost of dumping the coal upon the screens is
very little at the shaft mines with self-dumping cages, and as
great «s 6c. per ton at some of the small slope mines. It is
generally from ^c to re. per ton. The wages of the hoisting
careers amount to from D.zc. to 3c per ton. Omitting ex-
lyGoO'^lc
314 CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
ceptional mines, they are generally from J^c. to H^. The cost
of the boiler attendance varies considerably, according to the
amount of water to be handled as well as the amount of power
required. The last item depends upon the capacity and size
of the mine. The boiler-room labor generally costs from 2c.
to 4c. per ton of coal mined. The cost of picking slate out of
the coal averaged ^c. per ton in 1909. The cost of loading
coal in the railroad cars is fairly uniform at from ic. to i'/5c.
per ton. The cost of the general repair work is seldom more
than IC. per ton, but in exceptional cases reaches 3c. per ton.
General expenses of mining in Sebastian County, To these
items of top and bottom labor should be added the general cost
of superintendence, bookkeepingj etc, whioh amounts to from
yic to J4C. per ton, depending mostly upon the output of the
mine. It is generally from ic. to 3c,
Most of the larger companies own their coal land, but to
repay (he purchiee price, they charge the coal with a royalty
of 5c. per ton. The smaller operators lease the coal land and
pay a cash royalty of usually 8c. to loc. per ton. In a few
cases, it is as low as 5c. and in one case it is as high as 15c.
The operators of the little mines on the very thin seams of coal
of Washington County, pay the extreme royalty of ic. per bushel
or 25c, per ton.
Cost of boiler coal in Sebastian County. A good deal of
coal is used under the mine boilers. At a few mines, this cost
is eliminated by dividing the total of all the other items of
cost by the number of tons shipped. But the general practice is
to figxire the cost, as has been done here, by the number of
tons of ooal hoisted or the total upon the miners' bulletins. Only
a few figures could be obtained as to the cost of boiler coal,
but it is from 1 J^c. to 4c. per ton of coal produced. The figures
of the production of the coal given to the government for
Mineral Resources, indicate that in both 1907 and 1908, 3.2
per cent of the coal produced in Sebastian County was used
at the mines, chiefly for making steam. Assuming 70c, a ton
as the average value of slack at the mines, this amounts to 2.2c.
per ton of coal mined which may be taken as the average cost
of the boiler coal.
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition op the Industry 315
Cost of supplies in Sebastian County. The final operating
cost is that of supplies. This includes timber, rails, cars, piping,
repairs for pumps and other niachinery, oil, waste, etc., as well
as the mules and their feed and harness. At many mines, these
costs are distributed among the general items, together with
the labor costs given above, but at most mines the cost of timber
(of all sorts) is kept separate from that of other supplies. This
is only a small fraction of a cent at one of the low coal mines
with a solid sandstone top, and is a little over 3c. a ton at the
mines with the unfavorable tops. It is usually about iVic to
20. a ton. The other supplies may cost between 4c. and 12c.
and are usually between 5c. and loc. a ton.
Fixed expenses in Sebastian County. The sum of all of
these costs makes up the operating cost of producing the coal
which cost practically ceases when the mine is shut down for
a lot^ time. There is in addition a heavy overhead charge which
must be added before the real cost of the coal can be deter-
mined, in order to figure the profit, if any. These costs include
taxes; insurance; law suits; the expense at the general offices
of the large companies; the cost of the suspensions of mining;
the cost of selling the coal ; interest upon the investment ; the
depreciation of the plant and buildings ; and the sum which must
be set aside to repay the cost of opening the mine during its
lifetime, or the amortization of the property.
The depreciation of the machinery and buildings is often
assumed to be cared for by the cost of maintaining them in a
working condition- This cost is of course very low during the
first year or two before the tipples begin to rot. Depreciation
should, therefore, be covered by a fixed per cent of the cost
of the plant distributed over the tonnage produced during
the year.
The most commonly overlooked cost is that of amortiza-
tioa. This cost arises from the fact that when the coal is all
mined out, only a hole in the ground and changes in the surface
of the land are left to represent the money paid for
opening the mime, putting in the railroad tracks, building foun-
dations, and dams for boiler ponds, etc. Also, the machinery and
bouses have only a very low second-hand value when the mine
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
3i6 Coal Mining in Arkaksas
is woiked out. The mines are exhausted in from 3 to 25 years
and as a rule from 10 to 25 per cent of the first cost of opening
and equif^ing tjie mine should be charged against the coal mined
each year.
The capacity of the mine has little influence upon the amount
of the fixed charges per ton of coal, since the mines with larger
capacity represent a larger investment than the small mines, and
require a lai^r staff of salesmen. At a little mine, the owner
is often pit-boss, sales agent, bookkeeper, and the rest of ^he
general staff ; and a very cheap plant will be sufTident to hoist
100 tons of coal per day. Thus the total cost of fixed expenses
is small when the output is small. When the capacity reaches
something like 500 tons per day, there is a saving in the admin-
istrative expenses per ton as the capacity increases, since the
general staff then increases slowly.
The accessibility of the coal makes a large difference in the
overhead cost, and each new mine is opened at a greater cost
than the previous ones in the same camp. The cost of amorti-
sation is reduced somewhat in sudi cases by first acquiring tiie
right to mine a large tonnage of coal, and thus assuring a long
life to the mine. The interest and depreciation are, however,
greater than at the older mines of the same capacity.
These overhead or general costs are approximately constant
from year to year, which is the reason they are often called
fixed charges. The greatest variation in the amount per ton
,of coal mined is, therefore, caused by differences in the number
of days per year that the mines are operated, and this depends
upon the maritet demand. It is for this reason that, rather
than keep the mine idle, the operator will take contracts during
hard times at prices showing but little operating profit, and
so be able to pay at least a part of the fixed charges while
he is waiting for better times.
These fixed charges so far as known are between 22c. and
37c. per ton of coal produced, and 2Sc. and 30c. may be taken
as an ordinary amount.
Summary of costs of mining coal in Seboitum County. The
general range of costs in the soft-coal mining-districts of Ark-
ansas may ibe summarized in the following table. ' The costs are
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition op the Industry
317
given in cents per ton of coal hoisted from the mine and excep-
tkxol mines have been omitted.
Items.
Shooting and )oadin|^ the coal $0.6200
Cost of entries, air-courses, and crosscuts
between them
Cost of brushing
Cost of room turnings
Cost of break-throughs between rooms
Cost of deficient coal
Cost of draw slate and rock
Total cost of dead work
Cost of drivers and general ihaulage labor . .
Cost of trappers
Cost of timbermen, trackmen, rockmen,
and general repair work
Cost of shot-firers
Cost of cagers, etc
Cost of underground supervision
Total cost of underground labor
Cost of coal dumpers
Cost of weighing coal
Cost of engineers
Cost of firemen and coal wheelers
Cost of picking slate
Cost of loading into railroad cars
Cost of general repair men
Cost of outside foremen and miscellaneous
labor
Total cost of top labor
Cost of superintendent, office force, watchman.
etc.
Cost of boiler coal
Cost of mine timbers
Cost of other supplies
Royalty
Cost of overhead charges
Total cost of coal omitting exceptional mines ,
^w.
High.
6200
$0.6200
0400
.1400
0000
.0600
0025
.0040
0030
.0250
0050
.0100
0050
.0300
1200
.2200
0700
.0950
0075
.0100
0400
.0600
0150
.0200
0100
.0200
0250
.0500
1900
.2400
0025
.0150
0025
.0150
0050
.0070
0200
.0400
0000
0150
0100
.0150
0050
.0300
.0300
.0800
0800
.1500
0100
.0300
.0100
.0300
0150
.0250
0500
.1000
0500
.1000
.2500
.3000
.3000
$1.7000
„Gooi^lc
3i8 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Adavantages of thicker seams of coal. It should be noted
from diis discussion that many expenses increase as the coal seam
gets thinner. Under the present scale and identical physical
conditions, the theoretical cost of narrow -work, brushing, laying
track, etc., in coal 7 ft. high, is some 7c. per tpn less than in
coal 4 ft. high. In practice the difference is still greater. In
mines of the same area, the difference in the cost of hauling coal
is also considerably greater in the low coal mines. As a result,
the thinner seams of coal are worked as yet, only where the
top is better than the average and the dip less, so that other
costs will be reduced to make up for the increases mentioned.
In many cases, however, the coal of the thin seams is cleaner
and harder than in the thick ones; and it coirmiands a higher
average price in tiie market, by reason of Jts freedom frcnn
slate and greater hardness. The small proportion of low priced
slack increases the average selling price of the coal produced.
In other words, where the quality of the coal and other physical
conditions are the same, and where railroad transportation is
available, the thick coal seams are mined first. As a result,
a large proportion of such coal in favoraWe positions has already
been exhausted, and there is little further opportunity of opening
up slope mines in high coal, except where the dip is steep or
the roof bad, or the coal seam much separated by partings,
COST OF MINING COAl, AT SPADRA.
The costs at Spadra may be summarized in the following
taible :
Low, High,
Cost of mining per ton hoisted $0.8750 $0.8750
Cost of entries and entry crosscuts 1300 .2100
Cost of brushii^ 0300 .1200
Cost of room turnings 0100 .0200
Cost of room break-throughs 0100 .0250
Cost of handling rock parting over 4 in.
thick 0000 .0600
Cost of deficient thickness oooo . 1500
Cost of sulphur .0200 ,0300
Cost of draw slate and rock 0700 -i 100
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition of the Industry 319
I/jw, High.
Cost of gob walls $0.0040 $0.0100
Cost of water yardage (wet places) 0150 .0200
Total cost of dead work 2500 -Soop
Cost of drivers and car pushers 1500 .2200
Cost of timbermen, trackmen, etc .0600 -1500
Cost of shot-firers (none employed)
Cost of cagers 0400 .0600
Cost of underground supervision 0800 .1200
Cost of pump runners 0400 .0800
Total cost of underground labor ?nr" 'iflY'
After "Total emt of uoderground labor", (p. 319), iaiert:
Low High
Cost of dumping anil kwdiog into railroad cars 0150 .0400
CMt of weighiDg coal . . . .' 0150 .0500
Cost of engineers 0400 .0600
Cost of flretnen 0300 .0800
the overhead cost at Spadra must be quite high, but no figures
could be obtained. The dead-work cost is quite accurate, as are
the totals of the bottom labor and top labor. The items of
the day labor cost are approximated by studying the organi-
zation of the crews and the mine capacities, and allowing for
idle day costs, etc., in such a way as to make the totals approxi-
mate those shown by the actual cost records. These items are,
therefore, not as trustworthy as desired. Almost no exact data
as to the cost of supplies other than props could be obtained,
but these will not differ greatly from the costs at the soft
coal mines.
Comparative conditions at Spadra and in Sebastian County.
The higgler costs at Spadra are due chiefly to the higher scale
of wages paid to the miners. This extra price is largely due
to the increased proportion of idle time, the less healthful camps,
the poor water, etc., and to the greater hardness of the coal
as compared with the conditions at the mines of the first group.
To an unknown extent, the higher cost is due to the exactions
of the Union and to lack of unity among the operators. The
lyGoO'^lc
320 Coal Mining in Arkansas
costs are further increased by the low hight of the coal as
previously outlined. The hardness of the coal and the band rock
also increase the cost of mining. The last two items account for
IOC a ton of the extra price regularly paid for shooting and load-
ing the coal, and at one mine reach a total of 22c. a ton. The
band rock also requires heavier shooting, which increases the
cost of the draw slate. The increased amount of draw slate,
together with the band rock, requires a great expense for slate
pickers, which has been increased by the operation of the mine-
run law. There is likewise more trouble from sulphur in the
coal and feulty places in the seams of coal than in the soft-coal
fields. The cost of the preparation of the coal into the different
trade sizes is also much greater, both in labor and cost of main-
tenance of the increased equipment.
The only considerable physical advantage in the field at
Spadra as compared with other camps, is the general gentle dip
of the coal seams, which usually allows the driving of twin-
entries. The extra price obtained for the coal is a great com-
mercial advantage.
MINING COSTS AT HUSSELLVILLE.
At Russellville only two companies are operating, and the
publication of the cost data is inadvisable. As shown by the scale
of mining prices, the minimum cost of shooting out the coal, is,
on account of the low hight, 17c. a ton more than at Spadra.
And on account of the considerable amount of coal thinner than
the standard, the mining cost is often increased by as much as
26c. a ton, making a total of $i.30j>2 in some rooms. The day-
work cost is a little greater than at Spadra on account of the
steep dip. At one of the mines, the cost of handling middle band
is also much greater. On the other hand, there is no expense
for sulphur, and the yardage and draw slate costs are much less
than at Spadra, while the coal commands a higher prke.
METHODS OF DECREASING THE COST OF MINING.
Lower labor costs. A decrease in operating costs by a simple
reduction in wages is not to be recommended, but mutual con-
cessions which will give the miner the same annual income and
still enable the companies to get cheaper coal, were discussed
lyGoc^lc
General Condition of the Industry 321
at lengfth in Chapter V. If the mines are operated many more
days per year than at present, the real income of the miners
will be much greater even though they earn a little less per
day. This is better for the men than the present system, and
will attract a larger number of first-class miners to the State
than are now here. This increase in the number of miners
would incidentally obviate the shortage of men during the busy
season. There are not enough men available in the winter-time
because the number of men at the mines is a rough average of
the summer and winter demands. There is a surplus of men
in summer and some of the nwners seek work elsewhere. If
die mines worked steadily, there would be less discontent among
the men, and fewer strikes and petty exactions than now. At
present it is necessary to pay much more per ton for mining
coal than in some of the competing districts. If the men had
steady employment this difference would be smaller than at
present. Steady work would attract men willing to work steadily.
.'\t present, many of the men prefer to work only a few days
per week at a high price per day, even though they do not earn
as much per week as the steady men in other districts. These
miners will follow the tramp element to the districts where irreg-
ular woric at high unit prices is the rule. A more con-
tented and steadier crew would mean lower labor costs, on
account of the increased output for the same number of day-
men. Of course any concession in wages per unit of work, would
give the operators just that much additional advantage in the
compet4tive markets.
Any method by which the mines can be operated more days
per year is therefore, of great advantage to both the operator
and the miners. At Russellville, this is accomplished by one com-
pany by large concessions in the price at which the coal is sold
in the early summer, as compared with the price in the fall.
The reduction in price of the coal is partly borne by the miners,
who receive 150. per ton less for the coal in summer than in
winter. The company reduces the price of the coal by con-
siderably more than this in the early summer and steadily ad-
vances the price as the demand increases, until the normal
winter price is reached. Such a policy induces the retail dealers
to buy the coal early, and store it in their own bins. Some of
their customers do the same. The men realize the advantage
ivGoc^lc
322 Coal Mining in Arkansas
the steady woric gives them. T*ie result is that this company has
one of the best and most contented crews in the State, even
though the average scale of prices is considerably less than
that at Spadra.
The softer coals which are mined in the western part of
the field can not be so readily stored in the consumers' bins.
If all the companies should make these general concessions in
the selling price, the increased demand at each mine would be
much less than it is when only one company lowers the selling
price. This is true because of the limited storage room available
among the dealers and consumers.
Storage of coal. The more effective method of securing
steady operation is a large scale storage of coal near the mines.
At present large quantities of bituminous coal are stored at the
ports of Lake Superior, so that the large copper mines can
take advantage of the cheap Lake freight rates in the summer,
to accumulate enough coal to supply their needs during the
winter, when the Lake traffic is stopped by ice. To prevent
injury to the quality of the coal, it is stored under roof and
the expense is considerable. Some of the low volatile Arkansas
coals could probably be stored nearly as well as the coal from
the A|^alachian field, but some of them are quite liable to spon-
taneous combustion. Whether or not the Atkansas coal would
catch fire could be tested only by actually storing the coal.
The companies do not wi^ to go to the expense of providing
the storage room, until they are sure that their coal is suitable
for storage. Still other varieties of coal are known to break
up into small pieces quite rapidly, even when only exposed
to damp air, and therefore can not be stored in the ordinary way.
Previous experiments in storing coal. It so happens that
at both Spadra and Russellville where the storage of coal would
be most advantageous, the coal will store very well even when
exposed to the weather. At some of the mines in Spadra, piles
of slack coal have burned, but at the zinc smelters this slack is
regularly stored in sufficient quantity to supply the demands
of the smelter throughout the idle period of the mines. This
is piled in the open air upon the surface of the refuse of the
ore from which the zinc has been extracted, and the hi^t of
the piles does not exceed 8 feet. It is therefore believed that
lyGoO'^lc
GSNEKAL COKDITION OP THE InDUSTSV 323
the buming of the slack at Spadra was caused by the cinder
£oun<la.tion upon which it was piled.
At one of the mines in Russellville, a large quantity of
coal was stored in a shed in anticipation of the suspension of
mining, pending an adjustment of the wage scale. This shed
and most of the coal burned. It is claimed by some that the
fire was lighted by some incendiary. But the coal was piled
aibove a hot steam pipe which would greatly increase the chance
of spontaneous comibustion. At ilpadra, it was once common
■ to drive the entries during the summer so as to get ready to
produce a larger amount of coal in the winter. The coal from
these entries was successfully stored in open piles upon the
ground. This practice has now been abandoned on account of
the expense of storing the coal without any adequate arrange-
ment, and ibecause the cost of supervision, ventilation, etc., made
the entries driven in summer very expensive. Since the entries
were then not driven in the winter, and rooms were not worked
in summer, different sets of miners were generally required for
each half of the year, so this plan was of no advantage to the '
men and they would make no concessions in the scale of wages.
Possible methods of storing coal. The above mentioned
practice demonstrated the possibility of storing the Spadra coal
without its deterioration. Mr. Joseph Meytrot, now of Russell-
ville, prepared a preliminary design of a covered storage bin
of several thousand tons capacity, with mechanical means for
filling it with coal and loading the coal in the cars without direct
labor. The first cost of the plant worked out at about $i.oo
per ton of capacity. Interest and depreciation upon this would
amount to a cost of about 20c. per ton of coal stored. The
Dodge or other system open air storage in piles such as those
used in Pennsylavnia would be even cheaper. With suitable
storage at Spadra, the chief cause of the labor troubles and
the high wage scale would he eliminated-
So far as known, all coals, even those which go to pieces
in the air, can be stored under water with no deterioration what-
ever except that a little slack is produced by handling. In the
few cases where this method has been followed, the coal has
been dumped from cars upon trestles into cement-lined pits filled
with water. The coal is removed by various mechanical appli-
lyGoO'^lc
324 Coal Mining in Arkansas
ances. In many parts of the Arkansas coalfield, the ground is
practically level, and there is a tight clay shale a short distance
below the surface. Storage pits in this material could be very
easily excavated and would be practically water tight without a
lining. A detailed design and estimate of costs of storage at
some of the mines of the larger companies, is therefore advisable,
as a possible alternative to the opening up of an additional mine
when an increased supply of coal is needed for the winter de-
mand. While the coal is in storage, interest must be paid upon
the cost of mining it, but the royalty and general charges need .
not be paid at once. This interest will be quite small, but must
be included in estimates of the cost of storage.
Incidental advantages of storing coal. Besides the advantage
to the operator in the way of a better labor supply and possibly
of less price per unit of labor, steady work with a full crew
will greatly increase the output per year, with proportionate
decrease In all fixed charges, notably pumping, ventilation, main-
tenance, supervision, interest, etc. There would also be less
ct^t to both operators and the miners from, car shortages, since
the coal can be dumped into the storage pit whenever the supply
of cars runs out. It could of course be reloaded as soon as
the extra cars could be obtained. These incidental advantages
might possibly pay for the cost of storage, and it is suggested
that an effort be made to negotiate a sliding scale with the miners,
with a lower basic price than the present price for mining. This
would be increased in a certain proportion for each day the
mine is idle in excess of a certain number of days per month.
This scale would be in effect only during the summer-time when
the miners suffer from short time. In the winter they should
receive the present price for mining.
Future labor supply. As the coal-mining industry in Ark-
ansas becomes older, and the condition of the camps becomes
adapted to the climate, there will be a better supply of trained
labor. The labor costs will then become more nearly equal to
those of other fields, which now have a great advantage. The
result probably will be brought about by more rapid increases
in the wage scale in the other coalfields than in Arkansas. Such
a readjustment will of course be a great advantage to the in-
dustry in this State. Its coming can be hastened by improving
the sanitary conditions and general attractiveness of the camps
n> 000^^10
General Condition op the Industry 325
as outlined in Chapter HI. The storage of the coal would he
more cfiEective, however, and would give a more immediate re-
turn to the individual company making the expenditure.
Other reductions in cost. A (^itsiderable reduction in the
cost of mining coal would follow the repeal of the mine-run
law in a manner indicated in Chapter VII. In many cases, costs
can be reduced by improvements in the mechanical plant and
mine equipment. This is usually most noticeable at the small
mines working patches of coal, which are more favorable than
the average, but of small size and often overlodced tiy the large
operators. It is often impossible at the small mines for lack
of capital.
Costs can generally be reduced by more intensive develop-
ment of the mines so as to give a predetermined maximum ca-
pacity of 600 to 1,500 tons per day, and by equipping all parts
■of a new mine upon the basis of this anticipated capacity. This
method is especially available to the companies operating several
mines, and able to open neiv ones when the market conditions
justify it. In some cases, the rapid development of the mine
is restricted by the Union rule which prevents the working of
the entry -men upon the days when the room-men and most
of the day-men would be laid off on account of poor demand
for coal. In other places, the rapid development is hindered
by gas, which prevents the putting on of double shifts in the
entries. Some methods of decreasing the time required for
development to a maximum capacity will be sug^sted in the
technical part of this report.
At some mines, a high cost of c^eration could have been
reduced by more preliminary prospecting, so that the mines could
have been more advantageously opened, or a greater capacity
secured. More than the customary amount of prospecting is
desirable in nearly all cases.
.A.t many mines, t*ie cost of haulage can be reduced by a
moderate expenditure upon the tracks and cars. This is often
the most obvious saving, hut may require additional capital, ad-
ditkinal supervision, or the bringing in of high priced trackmen.
Apparently quite a saving can be made by changes in the
methods of laying out many of the mines so as to directly reduce
the cost of yardage per ton, and also to avoid squeezes and
lyGoO'^lc
326 Coal Mining in Arkansas
other indirect costs. It would be especially easy to save a
little on the purchase price of the coal land and the entry cost,
by increasing the percentage of coai mined. These technical
changes will be discussed fully in Part II.
THE ORDINARY WASTE OF COAL.
Tihe waste of coal in Arkansas is unusually great, even
for wasteful America. What may be called the ordinary wastes
of coal, or the kinds of waste common to most American dis-
tricts, are excessive, and there are many additional wastes due to
unfavorable geological conditions.
Pillars. The largest item of Che ordinary waste is the coal
lost in the pillars, which are left to support the main mass of
rock above the coal, and which are not often mined in Arkansas.
The recovery of this coal is largely prevented by the small size
of the original pillars, and the resulting squeezes and caved
rooms. This causes a loss of most of the pillars even when an
attempt is made to mine a few of them. There is further diffi-
culty because the miner wit! not consent to keep the track
along the pillar on one side of the room, but lays it in the center
of the room so as to reduce the labor of turning out the coal
with his shovel. The result is that the pillars upon both skies
of the room are partly buried by heaps of gob and therefore
not readily accessible. The coal can he obtained by slabbing
the pillar and laying a new track in the space thus obtained.
Even this method is made inadvisable at many mines, on account
of the mine-run law, which compels the operator lo pay full min-
ing price for any fine slate the miner loads out from these old
waste piles.
Loss of entries. The squeezes cause a further loss of coal
by causing the abandonment of all the unmined coal in chose
entries which are caved shut, so near the anticipated limit that
it does not pay to drive a cut-off from another entry to get this
coal. Part of this loss is due to the fact that the coal seams
of Arkansas are rarely flat and it is unusually difficult to cut
off an abandoned entry. Whenever an entry is stopped for any
reason, even when it has reached the ■boundary line of the prop-
erty, some of the coal in a few of the last rooms is abandoned,
as soon as the output of that entry becomes too small to keep
lyGoo'^lc
General Cokdition o? the Inddstry 327
a mi^ and driver reasonably busy. This is largely due to the
recent refusal of the miners to accept a contract, both to mine
this coal and to haul it to the main slope. Such contracts are
oommon in other states, so this loss is greaiter than in most
other coalfields.
Loss of coal in abandoned farts of mines. On a still larger
scale, there is a loss of coal when large sections of a mine are
so nearly worked out that the coal coming from one or two
entries will not pay for the maintenance and ventilation of that
section of the mine, which is then closed. In the same way,
much good coal is lost m the comers and other distant parts
of a mining property when the mine is finally abandoned. This
loss is unusually large in Arkansas because of the large number
of separate small mines. Some of this coal can be recovered
through future adjoining mines, but most of it will be perma-
nently lost because of the danger of approaching too near the
abandoned mines, especially when no survey of the mines is
available. In any case there may be large errors in the survey
of either the old or the new mines. Such errors are nearly
always shown when the parts of two mines intersect while both
are in operation. They are due to the fact that the ordinary
working of a mine does not require exact surveying. For
these reasons, a very wide zone will be left around all old mines.
In many cases, the abandoned patches lie between the old mine
and Hie outcrop or unworkable areas of the coal seam. There
is still further difficulty in later mining these patches of coal
on the boundaries of abandoned mines on account of the ad-
verse ownership, and the difficulty of paying royalty upon only
a portion of the output of the new mine.
Waste due to interlaced ownership of land. There is a fur-
ther loss of coal due to the accidents of ownership. Parts of
the legal subdivision may extend over areas of good coal be-
yond geological displacements of the coal seam or strips of low-
grade coal too wide to profitably cross. Except for adverse
ownership, tWs coal could easily be mined by the operator work-
ing the ooal on the same side of the barrier but in another legal
subdivision. The coal under the adjoining tract of land may be
woiked out and the mine abandoned before the geological bar-
rier is discovered, so no arrangement by which the other land
lyGoO'^lc
39B CoAi, Mining is Arkansas
owner can mine this detached ooal can be made, even if both
parties could agree upon terms.
When Hit mming right needed for a new mine is bought
or leased from a number of individuals, the owner of a single
small division of land may ask such high prices that the coal
will not be mined by the operators who mine the coal from ad-
joining land. After this surrounding coal is exhausted and
the mines abandoned, it will be commercially impossible to sink
a pair of deep shafts to open up this small patch of coal, until
the value of coal in the ground has much increased. By this
time, these patches may be forgotten. If not, a wide zone around
the mai^n must be left as a protection from water in the old
mines, so the loss may be considered permanent. As yet, the
price of mining rights has been so low that Ihere has been but
little trouble on this account. The land in the coalfield is largely
owned in small patches, with occasional defective titles and many
undivided interests. An unusual amount of loss will be caused
by this fact unless at some future time laws can be passed to
prevent it.
There is already a little increase in the cost of mining due
to interlaced ownership of land by the larger companies who
have at times purchased it checker-board fashion hofring to se-
cure the rest later. In those places where the coal seam is of
standard quality this will merely delay the mining and cause
no loss except in the case of small patches. Up to the present
time the companies, except those at Spadra. have been able to
agree upon a mutually profitable exchange of land or readjust-
ment of boundaries.
UNUSUAL WASTES OF COAL.
Besides these wastes, which are of more or less importance
in all of the coal-mining states, there are many .others due to
local geol(^ical conditions. Similar conditions exist in other
places, but it is very seldom that any one coalfield has as many
special sources of loss of coal as the Arkansas field.
Losses due to irregular entries. The dip of the coal seam
varies frequently. The entries of the mines are turned off the
slope at a standard distance measured along t^ coal seam.
When they are prt^rly driven to grade, the vertical distance
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition of the Industry 329
between the entries remains constant as they get longer. If
then the dip of the coal seam increases, the horizontal distance
between the entries decreases, and the rooms between them get
short where the change is great. Some entries must then be
stopped, and the coal worked by longer rooms from the entry
below. When the dip is great, these rooms are often too long
to be worked without extra payment for handling the cars,
and if the prices are such that the company can not afford
this, rooms must be stopped with a loss of some coal beyond
them.
Wihen the dip gets much less than it is at the slope, the
horizontal distance between levels increases and the rooms get
too long to work. Usually, before the rooms are too long to
work, the dip is so much decreased that dip rooms can be
driven down from the entry above. Finally, intermediate entries
can be opened up without great loss of coal.
Coal is lost quite frequently by carelessness in driving en-
tries. On account of rolls in the floor and an attempt to keep
it straight, an entry may run badly up hill until it is so close
to die entry above that it can not be profitably worked. If the
entry below is correctly driven, the rooms beyond the entry which
is stopped would have to be of double length to get all of the
coal. On account of the extra expense of the long rooms, the
coal is lost instead of being mined.
Irregularities in the coal. As already noted in Chapter VII,
much coal is lost on account of irregularities in the coal seams.
In some places, these are patches or strips of the coal seams
which have been so crumpled, crushed, or mixed with waste that
the coal has no value. The only loss, therefore, is that caused
by the failure of the companies to extend the entries through
these places to get the good coal beyond. Ttie patches of good
coal are more certain to be lost if they are of limited extent,
and near the boundaries of the property or the limits of the
area to be worked from the given openings. The wider the
known strip of poor coal, the greater is the expense of crossing
it, and the greater the amount of good coal that must be aban-
doned beyond it. The less the profit in mining coal and the poorer
the financial condition of the companies, the less likely are they
to develop these detached areas of good coal. Indeed, at present,
sonw companies make it a rule to stop entries as soon as they
lyGoO'^lc
330 CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
strike faulty coat, without waking to determine the size of trie
faulty area. There is also the loss in a few unfinished rcx>iiis
on each of these stopped entries. Some of this coal may be
recovered if tiie condition of the industry is soon improved, but
after some time the entries leading to Che barrier of poor coal
will fall in and the loss will become permanent.
The coal seam in places may be thinner than usual or have
a thicker parting or a poorer top. The coal is then called 'defi-
cient' and an extra price must be paid for mining it. If the cost
of mining is increased sufficiently to destroy any possible profit
from mining this coal, it will be abandoned, although it may
be of excellent quali^. Long neglect of the approaching entries
makes the loss permaneat These deficient areas aIso*serve as
barriers, preventing the mining of better parts of the coal seam
beyond them.
Both of these losses are sometimes- greatly increased by
unfortunate contentions of the miners, and by the diflkulty of
handling die extra dut whidi is caused by the mine-run law. To-
gether they constittrte a very important loss.
Losses due to the dip of the coal seams. In coal seams that
are nearly flat, entries can be driven in any direction. When
bad coal in a flat seam is found, all the entries are stopped
as soon as they intersect it, until one entry passes the area of
bad coal. Branch entries are then turned off from this entry,
to get the good coal left behind the patch of b&d coal. If the
barrier of poor coal is too long to be worked around in this
way, a single pair of entries may be driven through it and
branch entries turned off in each direction to get the good coal
beyond the poor coal. In this way, the extra expense is not
great enough to make tfie mining of the good coal beyond the
areas of poor coal unprofitabie. Even the moderate dip of the
Arkansas Coal makes the working of these branch entries so
expensive that it can only be done to recover large areas of
coal. The waste of good coal caused by the barriers of poor
coal is therefore greatly increased by the dip of the Arkan-
sas coal.
Since the coal seams of Arkansas dip, level entries can
not follow the property line. There is, therefore, some coal
between the property line and the lowest level entry that can
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition op the Industry 331
be turned oflE from the slope. It can be mined only by dip en-
tries, as shown in Plate IV, opposite p. 24, or by dip rooms.
If tiiere is much water, the cost of water yardage and the
extra expense of hauling the coal up hill may prevent the profitable
mining of this coal, especially if the normal profit is very small.
Except for troubles caused by adverse ownership, this coal could
generally be worked from the next mine below, so the final loss
need not be great.
Loss in unmined benches of coal. In many places, the dif-
ferent benches of thick seams of coal are separated by thick
partings. If one single bench of coal is thick enough to mine
it is now worked separately. If the abandoned bench is above
that part of the seam which is worked, as at Bates, the coal
will be destroyed when the mine caves in. If it is beneath the
coal mined and of little thickness, or if it is separated by a
weak parting, it can not be mined after the worictng above it
becomes filled with bnAen rock caving in from the roof. This
is the condition at Hartford. Near Burma and at Coaldale, a
rather thkk bench of coal is left below a thick or strong parting.
W?ien coal has become scarce and high priced, tiiis may possibly
be mined, but at a greatly increased expense con^ared with the
present cost of getting it.
The loss of coal in these abandoned benches is about as
great as any of the other unnecessary wastes, and is probably
greater than in any other state except possibly Colorado. This
loss is now being reduced, and at Huntington quite a little of
the lower bench coal has been mined from the floors of old
rooms in the upper 'bench which have not yet caved. No more
of the lower bench is being abandoned at Huntington,
Loss due to need of protecting the surface. On account of
the low value of the farming land and the generally hilly surface
above the coal, there will .be little c^jection to the complete
mining of the coal with a consequent settling of the surface.
In this respect the conditions in Arkansas will allow a much
more complete extraction of the coal than can be made under
high priced and nearly level farming land, as in Illinois. There
will always be some loss of shallow coal beneath streams.
lyGoO'^lc
332 Coal Mining in Arkansas
remedies for wa5te of coat..
Change in the ownership. The loss of coal by adverse
ownership of land can be remedied only by fundamental changes
in the law in the direction of giving coal companies the power
of buying mining rights by condemnation under proper restric-
tions. This is essentially a legal problem and need not be further
discussed. To permit the profitable mining of the deep coat
under the high mountains it may be necessary to allow the
condemnation of a right-of-way through the old mines along
the outcrop of the coal.
More careful mining. The losses due to irregular entries
are largely caused by carelessness and are therefore avoided
by the more careful mine otTkials.
Increase in value of tJie coal. Practically all of the other
losses are preventable by known methods and are due to com-
meicia! considerations. The chief factors are the small profit
in mining and the cheapness of the coal in the ground. The
latter condition generally makes it more profitable to open up
a new mine than to work the less easily obtained coal in die
old nrines. Of late years, undeveloped coal lands have rapidly
increased in value and the easily mined coal has been getting
scarcer. This resuhs immediately in a slight effort to increase
the proportion of coal utilized, but has not yet led to any great
improvement except in the mining of the lower bench of coal
at Huntington. As the outcrop coal becomes exhausted, an
increased amount of capital will become necesdary to open
up mines. This will tend to increase the percentage of coal
recovered. Also, as the price of coal advances, the extra cost
of mining a larger proportion of the coal will become less in
proportion to the entire cost.
This future eiTect will of course not save the coal now
being wasted. It is certainly to the interest of the operators
of the Arkansas coal mines as well as of the public to postpone
the coming of high prices of coal. It seems better, therefore, not
to wait for high prices before reducing the waste of coal. On
account of the relatively small amount of coal in the State of
Arkansas as compared with other states, a high cost of Ark-
ansas coal would for a long time transfer the coal-mining in-
dustry to other fields. Sudi a condition is dangerously near.
lyGoo^^lc
Genekal Condition op the Industry 333
because the most important of the coal reserves of the State
are those under Sugarloaf and Poteau mountains, and other
relatively inaccessible places.
iVider pillars. It is believed that much of the coal now
wasted can be mined at a profit under normal conditions. Al-
ready some of the operators are finding that as their mines get
deeper, larger pillars must be left to prevent costly squeezes or
caving in of the workings. Where the pillars are of considerable
size, they can be cheaply mined except under streams and ponds.
To reduce the cost of this work, some minor changes in the
system of driving rooms will be needed. These changes and
the more feasible methods of mining the pillars under Arkansas
conditions, will be briefly outlined in Part II, although the more
common methods which are used in other fields are well known
to most of the operators. One of the chief reasons for leaving
small pillars is the cost of driving crosscuts through the pillars
to verrtilate the rooms. Some methods will be suggested for
reducing this expense.
An error ts often made by assuming that smaller pillars
are needed under a hard sandstone roof. The immediate roof
merely determines the safe width of the room, since as soon as
the area opened up becomes large enough, the pillars take the
full load regardless of the character of the roof. When they
once begin to crush under a hard sandstone top, the squeeze
will generally extend to the solid coal and cut off all of the
entries. On the other hard, a pure shale top can be readily
broken by any good pillar not already overloaded, and the en-
tries are often saved even if a squeeze starts. For this reason
it would be better to leave the pillars beneath a strong sandstone
roof until all the rooms m the entire mine or section of the
mine are convicted. On the other hand, pillars beneath a pure
shale roof can often be mined as soon as the room alongside
b completed. Under slightly stronger top, the pillars can be
pulled as soon as the entry is finished, retreating toward the
main slope in the way now done which is described in Chapter II.
If the pillars are to be mined, the entries should be narrow.
Narrow entries. The loss of the entries in any case can
be largely reduced by keeping them narrow. This should al-
ways be done if the roof is poor and is now done by some com-
lyGoO'^lc
334 Coal Mining in Ahxansas
panics under nearly all conditions. The narrow entries will stand
so much )ong;er that much coal can be recovered from unmined
areas, even after a lon^ interval during which there have been
no trades in the entries. When a mine is opened in the future
at stHne distance from the outcrop of the coal seam, it will often
be advisable to drain the old mines between it and the outcn^.
This will be most likely when the new mine is under a moun-
tain. If then, tiiese old entries are still open, much of the coal
in pillars and poor areas may be recovered. To remove all
the rock convenient rock bios should be provided at the tipples.
Longtuall nUtting. It is believed that in the Spadra field
and prospective Prairie View field, all new mines should be
operated upon the longwall system, since the character of the
roof and the coal with its strong band of rock parting, rep-
resent almost ideal conditions for longwall mining. By this
system no pillars are needed except around the shaft, and the
extraction can easily exceed 90 or 95 per cent of the coal in
the ground. The working face of a longwall mine is best
kept roughly circular. There is often some loss of coal in the
corners of the land owned, but this is very small. Experiments
with longwall machines are now being conducted, and a rather
complete study of the alternative methods of loi^wall mining
will be made for Part II of this report.
Longwail retreating. For most of the thicker seams of coal,
the method of mining by rooms and then mining most of the
pillars will be much cheaper than first driving entries to the
boundaries and mining the coal by longwall retreating. This
must, therefore, be considered as the only feasible way of work-
ing the coal although the loss is unavoidably a little greater
than the loss by longwall retreating. The latter method must,
however, be used for the thick coal seam deeply buried beneath
Poteau and S^igarloaf mountains. A discussion of the problem
of mining this deep coal will be given in Part. II.
Mining machines in compound seams. In many places, it
is feasible to mine all of Ae coal in the compound seams by first
digging out the parting with mining machines. Where the part-
ing is very soft, the extra cost will be little, and will usually
be paid for by the increased tonnage per yard of entry. In
many other cases, it will be more than made up by the increased
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition op the Industry 335
amount of good lump coal obtained instead of the present mixture
of dirt, slack, and shattered lump. There is also the advantage
of a slightly greater output for the same amount of develop-
ment. The chief reason why machines are not more freely
used is the opposition of the miners which was discussed fully
on p. 304. Estimates of the cost of machine mining will
be made in the technical portion of this report, together with a
discussion of tite type of machine best adapted to the various
conditions of different seams.
Longwall advancing and retreating. A study will also be
made of the possibility of mining the lower part of a double
seam of coal t>y loi^wall advancing and getting the rest by long-
wall retreating. This is successfully done in other countries,
where the coat has greater value, and seems feasible at some
of the Arkansas mines.
Modified leases. As yet, practically all of the coal-mining
leases contain no reference to mining methods, nor any require-
ment as to the proportion of coal which must be saved. This
fact makes the waste of coal a matter of no financial concern
whatever to those operators that do not own the mining right.
At other mines, even where the coal is owned by the operating
company, the ability of the superintendent is judged entirely
by the low cost at which he can get out a ton of coal, measured
on a mine-run basis. If then he has no financial interest in
the company, he has no direct incentive to strive for more com-
plete extration or even a conservation of the quality of the coal, '
These improvements may increase the cost per ton mined. The
superintendents neglect them even though they would pay well
by increasing the amount of total profit obtained from the
mines.
The cost of driving the entries and air-course, laying track,
and turning the rooms, is strictly in proportion to the area of
the coal land developed, so the cost per ton is decreased by
minir^ a larger proportion of the coal. This cost is never
less than loc. per ton of coal produced and is often much more.
For this reason the operators that lease the coal land, do not
waste much more of the coal in the ground actually opened
than the amount wasted by those operators that own the coal
land. But the lessees and a few superintendents do waste a large
lyGoO'^lc
336 CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
amount of the coal by failure to mine any deficient coal; or to
drive entries across strips of faulty coal; or to mine under bad
roof, as long as there is any better or more easily available coal
anywhere in the ground leased or owned by an absentee corpora-
tion. The total loss in the State from this cause is relatively
small, only because such a small proportion of the output of the
coal comes from leased land.
The coal lands in other states, notably in West Virginia,
are frequently owned by large companies, and all leases, based
upon a fixed royalty per ton of coal mined, fully specify the
method which shall be used in mining, and the dimensions of all
pillars, etc. This is possible in a district where the waste has
been reduced by the standard method of mining. As yet none
of the ordinary methods of mining in use in Arkansas are
adapted to a reasonably complete extraction of the coal. It
would be difficult, therefore, to negotiate a lease upon the basis
of a specified better system of mining, even if the owner of
the land were sufficiently posted upon mining methods. But
it is urged that all future leases require the mining of all possible
areas of coal with payment by the owner of the land for driving
exploratory entries through faulty strips of coal not previously
tested. A lease should also require that, except under a very
strong sandstone roof, all pillars be pulled as completely as
possible immediately upon the completion of the entry. It
should further require that the main slope or plane be protected
by very wide pillars between it and the first room, so that
squeezes started by pulling the pillars on the finished entries,
will not cut off the main slope. In any case, a minimum width
of at least 15 ft, should be required for the pillars between
rooms. An inspection of the operator's pay-roll will show the
size of the pillars, by giving the yardage paid the room men
for break-throughs, and the execution of the agreement could
be readily enforced. If the pillars are sufficiently wide, they
can be mined even swne >ears after the rooms have been com-
pleted, and are not lost to the owner of the land even if
the lessee does not mine them. To maintain access to this coal,
all such leases should forbid the driving of wide gob entries.
Slaie control of mining methods. When the coal land is
owned by the operator, it is generally supposed that he has a
lyGoO'^lc
General Condition ot the Industry 337
right to mine the coal as he sees fit, provided no one else is
injured by his method. It is believed, however, that when the
limitation of the coal supply of the United States tfecomes better
known, the states will assume mwe or less control over their
coal, and prevent its waste by prescribing the methods of mining
it, as is now done by the large leasing companies. This is the
only way by which ^e waste of coal can be reduced to a mini-
mum. It is the especial duty of the State to consider the welfare
of its future iidiabitants, for this is seldom a matter of any
concern to the present citizens and coal operators.
For the purpose of controlling the waste, the plans of
opening new mines with the full records of preliminary pros-
pectii^, might be submitted to some State Board for approval.
The expense of this engineering advice might well be borne by
the State as a partial compensation to the companies for the
extra expense of reducing the waste of coal, .^s an extreme
alternative, the companies might ^be required to pay a heavy
fee for the service, and could leave the entire formulation
of the plan of mining to the State Board, which would then
serve as a consulting engineer. If all the companies were treated
alike, none would have any competitive advantage, and the extra
cost of the coal would then be borne by the immediate con-
sumers. This hardship to the consumer would be so small in
proportion to the gain of the future users of the coal that the
S>tate would be justified in in^sing this upon them in order
to delay the time when no coal would be available. As a partial
oonqtensation to the operators, single interests owning, say, 60
per cent of any tract of coal land, should be permitted to buy
the rest at prices fixed by appraisement proceedings, or by the
State Engineering Board,
Such control of coal mining is already being advocated in
other states. It will most promptly become necessary in ttie
anthracite coalfield of I'ennsylvania and in Kansas, and its prac-
tical operation wherever established should be carefully studied.
A further step in the interest of conservation would be to
prevent the opening of new mines when the capacity of those
already supplying that particular grade of coal is in excess of the
de^iand for it. This would incidentally cheapen the cost of
miiiii^ the coal, and greatly benefit the woricmen by securing
lyGoO'^lc
338 Coal Mining in Arkansas
a steadier operation of the mines, but might require some storage
of coal either J>y the consumers or by the operators.
Any reduction in the cost of mining by such a metfiod will
benefit the consumer, since in the long run, the sale price of
the coal is r^^lated by the cost of mining it. As yet the forma-
tion of a monopoly in coal mining has not even been attenq>ted
anywhere in the United States, except in as far as the anthracite
mining business is controlled by the railroads which hring the
coal to maricet. This need not he feared as a result of restricting
the opening of new mines. A precedent for tfiis restriction of
new enterprises of a semi-public nature has been established
by the frequent refusal to permit the building of railroads,
uselessly duplicating existing lines. The shipping public profits
by this, in that the cost of railroad transportation need be only
enough to support one efficient road instead of two or more
inferior ones. The large number of railroads engaged in carry-
ii^ anthracite coal to the sea-board could very well 'be replaced
by two or three with controlled rates.
Technical discussion. Until interference by the State is defi-
nitely required, it is hoped that the superintendents and foremen
of the operating mines will soon be able to organize a technical
society for the interchange of ideas of mutual advantage, and
especially to report experiments planned to reduce the waste
of coal, with full cost data. The spirit of cooperation among
tedinical men is one of the greatest reasons for the rapid pro-
gress in technical methods made during recent years, and nearly
all of the Arkansas operators seem perfectly willing to give
the other <^)erators some of the benefit of their experience.
lyGoO'^lc
GLOSSARY OF COAL IBINING TERHS.*
Afterdamp. — The mixture of gas left in a mine after an ex-
plosion, diiefly carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Against the Air. — In a direction opposite to that in which the air
current moves. To fire shots against the air, to fire shots
in such an order that the shot-firer travels against the air.
Air. — The current of air which circulates through and ventilates
a mine.
Air-course. — A passage through which air is circulated. Par-
ticularly a long passageway driven parallel to the workings
specially to carry the air current. Entry air-course, a pas-
sage for air parrallel to an entry, In Arkansas usually
tielow the entry on the side opposite the rooms. Often called
in Arkansas back entry. Slope air-course, air courses par-
rallel to the slope on one or both sides of it.
Air-shaft. — A shaft used expressly for carrying the air current.
Airway. — Any passageway through wihich air is circulated.
Rare in .'Arkansas,
Anemometer. — An instrument for measuring the velocity of an
air current.
Anthracite. — Coal containing a small percentage of volatile
matter. Sometimes used in Arkansas for coal ordinarily
called semi- anthracite and containing a little more volatile
matter than the usual 2.5 to 6 per cent., which is the ordi-
nary maximum of anthracite,
Anticline. — A fold in the rocks with the convex side upward.
The arch part of a fold.
Apron. — A hinged extension of a loading chute. More com-
monly called lip in Arkansas.
•This glossary is largely condensed from ihe compilation in the
Coal and Metal Miner's Pocket Book. An effort has been made to
indicate the local variations in the use of terms but this is not complete.
.\11 expressions not current in technical literature have been marked
"(Arkansas)" although they are often used in other states, especially
in the Interior Coalfield. Specific British terms have been omitted as
far as possible, and also metal mining terms and definitions of terras
having a different meaning in metal raining, such as breast and cap.
A tew terms relating to deep drilling have been included.
n> 000^^10
340 CuAL Mining in Arkansas
Backlash. — (i) The backward siictioii of air-currents pro-
duced after a mine explosion.
(2) The reentry of air into a fan.
Ba£k shot. — A shot used for widening an entry placed at some
distance from the head of an entry. '
Back Work. — -(Arkansas) Loading coal, laying track, and other
work of driving an entry not done at the extreme face.
Biii!er.-~A person who removes water from a mine working by
dipping it up with a bucket.
BaJanced. — Said of a shot for blasting coal when the drill hole
for the powder is parallel to the face«of the coal which is to
be brciien by it.
Balk. — ^A *vud<len thinning of a coal seam. Rare in Arkansas.
Band. — A seam or the stratum of slate or otiier refuse in the
coal. Commonly called middle band in Arkansas; also dirt
band, sulphur band, or other band as the case may be.
Bank. — (0 The lop of a shaft.
(2) A coal mine, especially a small one.
Barney. — A small car used on inclined planes to push the inine
car up the slope.
Bar Screen. — A device for separating different sizes of coal, and
consisting of a number of parallel inclined bars at regular
distances apart along which the coal slides by gravity.
Basin. — (i) A coalfield resembling a basin in form.
2) The lowest part of a folded coal seam. That part in a
syncline.
Bearers. — Pieces of timber 3 or 4 ft. longer than the width of a
shaft, which are fixed into the solid rock to support the .shaft
tintbering at intervals.
Bearing. — (i) The course by a compass.
(2) The points of support of a beam, shaft, or axle.
Bearing in. — The depth of an undercut, mining or holing from
the face of the coal to the end of the uitdercut.
Bed. — (1) The level surface of a rock.
(2) .\ stratum of coal, ironstone, etc.
Bell. — Overhanging rock of bell-like form, not securely attached
to the mine roof. Pot is the conmion Arkansas term.
Bench. — (i) .\ portion of a coal seam which is separated from
the rest by a band of shale or other impurity. Rarely that
jyGooc^le
Glossary. 341
portion of a seam of coal separated from the rest only by
a smooth seam,
(2) A natural terrace marking the outcrop of any stratum.
Bench and Bench. — (Arkansas) That plan of mining coal in a
room which requires the blasting of the two benches of coal
alternately each a little beyond the other.
Bench Mark. — A mark whose elevation is exactly known or as-
sumed as a reference point by a surveyor.
Bevel Gear. — A gear-wheel whose teeth are inclined to the axis
of the wheel.
Blackdamp. — Carbon dioxide. Less* exactly any gas that will
neither burn nor support combustion
Black Jack. — (i) Crude black oil used to oil mine cars.
(2) Soft black, carbonaceous clay or earth associated with
coal.
Blast. — (i) To loosen or throw out coal or rock by the use of
dynamite, powder, or other explosive,
(2) The sudden rush of fire, gas, and dust of an explosion
through the workings and roadways of a mine.
Blasting Barrel. — A simall pipe used in blasting to affort a pas-
sage for the squib through the tamping.
Block Coal. — Coal that breaks into large cubical blocks.
Blocky. — (Arkansas) Breaking down in thick blocks. Applied
to the roof of a mine working.
Blossom. — The decomposed outcrop, float, surface stain or any
indication of a coal bed or mineral deposit.
Blow. — A dam or stopping is said to blow when gas escapes
through it.
Blower. — (i) A sudden emission or outburst of gas in a mine.
(2) Any emission of gas from a coal seam similar to that
from an ordinary gas burner.
(3) A type of centrifugal fan used largely to force air
into furnaces.
(4) A blowdown ventilating fan.
Blown^Out Shot. — A shot that has blown out the tamping with-
out breaking any of the coal except that aroimd the auger
hole.
olue Cap. — The blue halo of ignited firedamp which sliows above
the yellow flame of a safety lamp when it burns in air con-
lyGoO'^lc
342 Coal Mining in Arkansas
taining small quantities of firedamp. The percentage of
firedamp can be roughly measured by the hight of the cap.
Board-and-Pillar. — Practically the same sj-stem of mining as that
called room-and-pillar.
Bone. — Coal intimately mixed with slate or rock. More com-
monly called bony or bony coai in Arkansas.
Sonnet. — (i) The overhead cover of a cage.
(2) A cover for the gause of a safety lamp.
Boss. — (i) A person in immediate charge of a piece of work.
Pit Boss, mine foremap. Driz-er Boss or boss driver, a
person in charge of the drivers in a mine. In Arkansas
sometimes called the coal rustler. Fire-boss, am imder-
■ ground official who examines the mine for firedamp, and has
charge of its removal.
(2) (Arkansas) A coal mine employee not under the
jurisdiction of the miners' union.
Bottom. — (i) The landing at the bottom of the shaft or slope.
(2) The lowest point of mining oijerations.
(3) The floor, bottom rock, or stratum underlying a coal
bed.
Bottom Pillars. — Large pillars left around the bottom of a shaft;
a shaft pillar.
Bo.x'.—Ci) The part of a wheel which fits the axle.
(2) The threaded nut for the feed screw of a n>ounted
auger drill. More commonly called bo.ring.
Brattice. — (i) A temporary partition used for directing the
ventilating current into any part of a mine working.
(2) (Arkansas) The permanent partition used to close
any passageway against the air current. More properly
called a stopping.
Brattice Cloth. — Canvass or burlap used for making brattices arid
stoppings.
Brattice Man. — A person who assists the fire-boss in constructing
brattices.
Braltish. — An Arkansas vaTiation of brattice.
Breaker. — In anthracite mining the structure in which the coal
is broken, sized, and cleaned for the market.
Breaker Boy. — A boy who works in a coal breaker.
lyGoo'^lc
Glossary. 343
Breaking Prop. — (Arkansas) One of a row of props of suffi-
cient strength to cause ^the rock above the coal to break and
so limit the area of top brought down by a brushing- shot.
Break-lhrougb.—A narrow passage cut through the pillar to al-
low the ventilating current to pass from one room to another.
Also called a cross-cut, or room cross-cut. Larger than a
dog hole.
Break top and bottom. — To loosen the coal in both benches of the
seam with a single shot.
Breast. — A stall, board, or room in which coal is mined.
Breast Auger. — .\n auger supported by a breast plate against the
miner's body. Used for drilling holes in the soft Arkansas
coal.
Breast Plate. — .\ slightly cur\-ed iron plate fastened to the end
of a coal auger to enable the miner to press the auger for-
ward with his body.
Briquets. — Fuel consisting of slack pr coke breeze with usually
some binding material, whidi is pressed into lump form;
also called 'c Colettes' and 'eggettes.'
Brown Coal. — Lignite, a fuel interftiediate between peat and
bituminous coal.
Brush. — (i) To mix air with gas in a mine working by swing-
ing a jacket, etc., to create a little current.
(2) To shoot or wedge down some of the rock over a road-
way to increase the hight or head room.
(3) Less often to take up bottom for the same purpose.
Brushing. — The rode or slate removed from the roof of a road-
way. Bottom brushing, rock or clay taken up from the
bottom of a roadway.
Buddy. — A partner. Each of two men -who work in the same
' working place of a coal mine. Sometimes spelled butty.
Buckwheat. — Anthracite coal which will pass through a mesh of
yi in. and over a mesh of 3/16 in, to '4 in. Prepared in
Arkansas only at one mine near Russellville.
Building. — .\ built up pillar of rock to support the roof of a
Bulkhead. — (i) A tight partition or strong stopping.
(2) A pile of timlber lakl close together with alternate
layers crossing each other. A solid crib used to support a
very heavy roof.
lyGoO'^lc
344 CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
BuUelin, or Coal Bulletin. — A large card ihaving spaces beneath
the miners' ohecknumfoers m which the weight of each car
load of coal each miner sends out is entered.
Bull Wheel. — (i) Two large wheels and a reel itpon which the
rope carrying the boring rods is coiled when drilling holes
by machinery.
(2) (Arkansas) Any underground sheave wheel. Par-
ticularly the wheel around which the tail rope is passed
■beyond each terminal of a tail rope haulage system.
Bump Knocker. — Local term at Spadra for a person who picks
down portions of machine-mined coal which have not been
shot down by blasting.
Bunions. — Timbers placed horizontally across a shaft or slope
to carry the cage guides, pump rods, column pipe, etc. ; also,
to strengthen the shaft timbering.
Butt. — Coal surface exposed at right angles to the face ; the
"ends" of the coal. Not common in tfie Arkansas mines.
Butt Entry. — .\ gallery driven at right angles with the butt joint.
Not used in Arkansas,
Cage. — A platform on which mine cars are raised to the surface.
Cage Guides. — Vertical rods of pine, iron, or steel, fixed in a
shaft, between which cages run, and whereby they are pre-
vented from striking one another, or against any portion of
the shaft.
Cager. — The person who puts the cars on the cages at the bottom
of the shaft.
Cage Seat. — Scaffolding, scwnetimes fitted with strong springs,
to take off the shock, and on which the cage drops when
reaching the pit bottom.
Caking Coal. — Coal that agglomerates on the grate, when
burned.
Cap. — f 1) A piece of plank placed on top of a prop.
(2) The pale bluish elongation of the flame of a lamp
caused by the presence of gas.
Cap Board. — Same as cap (1).
Cap Rock. — ( i) The loose rock lying on top of the bed rock.
(2) (Arkansas) A hard layer of rock, usually sandstone,
a short distance above a coal seam.
Cap Piece. — Same as cap (i). Usually a piece of wood split
from a 1<^.
lyGoO'^lc
Glossary, 345
Carbon. — A combustible elementary substance forming the largest
component part of coal. Fixed carbon, that part of the car-
bon which remains behind -when coal is heated in a closed
vessel until the volatile matter is driven off.
Carbonaceous. — Coaly, containing carbon or coal. Especially
shale or rock containing small particles of carbon distributed
throughout the whole mass.
Car Haul. — An endless chain arranged to raise the cars auto-
matically up a hill from which they travel by gravity.
•Cartridge. — Paper Or waterproof cylindrical case filled with gim-
powder, forming the charge for blasting.
Car Trimmer. — .\ person who adjusts the load in a railroad car.
Casing. — Tubing inserted in a bore hole to keep out water or to
protect the sides from collapsing.
Cave, or Cave In. — The caving-in of the roof strata of a mine,
sMijetimes extending to the surface.
Center Shot. — .\ shot in the center of the face of a room or
entry. Used only when the coal can be shot directly np or
down.
Chain Pillar. — A pilllar left to protect the entry and air-course,
and running parallel to these passages.
Chairs. — Movaible supports for the cage arranged to hold it at
the landing when desired.
Chance. — fi) The opportunity a shot has to break the coal.
(2) The opportunity to put in a shot in a good position.
Charge. — (1) The amount of powder or other explosive used
in one blast or shot.
(2) To put the explosive into the hole, to arrange the fuse,
or squib, and to tamp it.
Check. — (Arkansas) A piece of tin bearing a stamped number.
This is placed upon the pit cars to indicate which miner
loaded them.
Check-number. — (Arkansas) A number assigned to each miner
by which his coal is identified, and under which its weight is
entered on the coal 'bulletin.
Check-off. — (Arkansas) A method of collecting union dues.
fees, and fines by withholding them from the miner's wages.
Check-puller. — A person who takes the miners' checks from the
cars and calls the number on them to the weighman.
lyGoO'^lc
346 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Chestnut Coal. — Anthracite coal that will pass throng a hole
1 5^ in. square and over a hole J4 in- square. In Arkansas,
coal that passes through a 2 in, round hole and over a i in,
round hole. This is larger than the Pennsylvania size, and
is prepared at only one mine.
Chock. — A square pillar for supporting the roof, contsructed of
prop timber laid up in alternate cross-layers, in Ic^-cabin
style, the center being filled with waste. Commonly called
crib in Arkansas.
Choke-damp. — Any kind of black-damp.
Chuitked'iip. — Built up with large lumps of coal to increase the
capacity of a car.
Churn Drill. — A long iron bar with a cutting end of steel, used
in quarrying, and worked by raising and letting it fall.
When worked by blows of a hammer or sledge, it is called
a "jumper."
Chute. — (i) A narrow inclined passage in a mine, down which
coal or ore is either pushed or slides by gravity.
{2) The loading spoilt of a tipple or bin.
Clanny. — A type of safety lamp invented by Dr. Clanny.
Clean-up. — ( i) To load out all the coal a miner has.
(2) An opportunity to clean up.
Cleat. — (0 Vertical cleavage of coal seams, irrespective of dip
or strike.
(2) A small piece of wood nailed to two planks to keep
them together, or nailed to any structure to make a support
for something else.
Cleavage. — The property of splitting more readily in some direc-
tions than in others.
Clinometer. — ;.\n instrument used to measure the angle of dip.
Coal Cutler. — A machine for holding or undercutting coal.
Coal Dust. — Very fine powdered coal suspended in the air-
ways of a mine.
Coal Measures. — Strata of coal with the attendant rocks.
Coal Smut. — The blossom of coal.
Cog. — h. chock.
Coke. — The fixed carbon aud ash of coal sintered together.
That part of a caking coal which is left after the volatile
matter has been driven off by heat.
Collar. — (i) \ flat ring surrounding anything closelv-
lyGoO'^lc
Gi,ossARY. 347
(2) Collar of a shaft is the first wood frame of a shaft.
. (3) The bar or crosspiece of a framing in entry timbering.
Colliery. — ^The whole plant, including the mine and all adjuncts.
Company Man. — A man employed by the day and working
directly under some boss. Distinguished from the miners
or diggers who are paid by piece work on contract,
Conlinuoiis Coal Cutter. — A coal mining machine of the *ype
that cuts across the face of the coal without being withdrawn
from the cut.
Cores. — Cylinder-shaped pieces of rock produced by the diamond-
drill system of boring.
Counter. — A secondary haulageway in a coal mine. Not used in
Arkansas.
Counter Gangway. — A level or gangway.
Country Sank. — (Arkansas) A small mine supplying coal for
local use only.
Coursing, or Coursing the Air. — Conducting the ventilating cur-
rent through all parts of the mine one after another by
means of doors and stoppings.
Creep. — The gradual upheaval of the floor of the mine workings
due to the sinking of the pillars into a tender floor.
Crib. — (i) A structure composed of horizontal timbers laid on
one another, or a framework built like a Ic^ cabin.
Cribbing. — (i) Close timbering, as the lining of a shaft.
(2) The construction of cribs of timber, or of timber and
earth or rock to support the roof.
Cross-bar. — (Arkansas) A horizontal timber held against the
roof to support it, usually over a roadway ; a collar.
Crosscut. — A small passageway driven at right angles to the
main entry to connect it with a parallel entry or air-course.
Also used in Arkansas instead of a break-through, especially
for the first break-through connecting two rooms or for
break-throughs which must be cut.
Cross-over. — .\ curved piece of track connecting two parrallel
tracks.
Crush. — h squeeze.
Culm. — Anthracite-coal dirt.
Curb. — (i) A timber frame intended as a support or founda-
tion for the lining of a shaft.
(2) Tlie heavy frame or still at the top of a shaft.
lyGoO'^lc
348 CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
Curtain, — A sheet of brattice cloth hung across an entry in such
• a way that it prevents the passage of the air current but '
does not hinder the passage of mules or mine cars.
Cut. — (Arkansas) To shear one side of an entry or crosscut
by digging out the coal from floor to roof with a pick.
Cutter Bar. — The structure supporting the cutting chain of a
chain mining machine.
Cutting. — (Arkansas) The opening made by shearing or cutting.
Cutting Chain. — Tihe sprocket chain which carries the steel points
used for undermining the coal with chain mining machines.
Cutting Shot. — (Arkansas) A diot put in beside a cutting so
as to blast some coal into it and to shatter the coal beyond for
aid in making the next cutting.
Cut-Off Entry. — (Arkansas) An entry driven to intersect
another and furnish a more convenient outlet for the coal.
Also called cut-off.
Cutter. — ^A term employed in speaking of any coal-cutting or
rock-cutting machines ; the men operating them, or the men
engaged in underholing by pick or drill.
Cutter-Bar. — That part of a chain mining machine that supports
the cutting chain and extends under the coal.
Dagger. — (Arkansas) A T-shaped iron used to force an auger
into the hard semi-anthracite coal of Arkansas. The bottom
is placed in a hole dug in the floor while the miner drilling
the hole presses his breast against the crossbar. The end
of the auger fits into any one of a number of recesses in the
stem of the dagger.
Dam. — A timber bulkhead, or a masonry or brick stopping built
to prevent the water in old workings from flooding other
workings, or to confine the water in a mine flooded to drown
out a mine fire,
Damf/.^-Wme gases and gaseous mixtures are called damps.
See also Afterdamp, Blackdamp, Firedamp, SUnkdamp,
Whitedamp.
Davy. — .\ safety lamp invented by Sir Humphrey Davy.
Day. — Light seen at the top of a shaft.
Uav-.Wiiw.— -(Arkansas) A coal mine employee paid by the day
as distinguished from those that are paid by the piece and by
contract. In Arkansas, also called "company man."
Day Shift. — The relay of men working in the daytime.
lyGoO'^lc
Glossary. 349
Day Work. — (Arkansas) All work other than that done by the
piece or contract. Such as repairing roads, handling cars, #tc.
In Arkansas, also called- "company work" and does not in-
clude work for which the men are paid by the month.
Dead. — The air of a mine is said to be dead or heavy when it
contains cartxjnic-acid gas, or when the ventilation is
sluggish.
Dead. — (i) Unproductive.
(2) Unventilated.
Deal-line. — (Arkansas) A row of marked empty powder kegs
or other danger signal placed by the fire-boss to warn miners
not to enter workings containing gas.
Dead Work. — Exploratory or development work not directly pro-
ductive. Pn^erly, brushing, taking- upnbottomi, hamdling
draw slate, etc. In Arkansas, often used to include yardage
costs for driving entries, cross-cuts, etc.
Deficient Coal. — (Arkansas) Coal more difficult to mine than
the standard, and for which the miners are paid an extra
prke.
Detaching Hook. — A self-acting mechanical contrivance for set-
ting free a winding rope from a cage when the latter is
raised beyond a certain point in the head-gear; the rope
being released, the cage remains spspended in the frame.
Diggers. — (Arkansas) Men who are paid by the ton of coal
produced. Miners in the stricter sense. Originally these
men mined or undermined the coal. The term is now ap-
plied to the men who merely shoot out the cc«il.
Dip. — (i) To slope downwards.
(2) The inclination of strata with a horizontal plane.
(3) The lower workings of a mine.
(4) (Arkansas) Being driven down hill, as dip entry,
dip room, etc
Dip-sTvitch. — (Arkansas) A slant or piece of track connecting
the back-entry or air-course or a dipping vein with the main
entry or gangway.
Dirt Fault. — A confusion in a seam of coal, the top and bottom
of the seam being well defined, but the body of the vein being
soft and dirty.
Dog. — (i) An iron bar, spiked at the ends, with which timbers
are held tog:ether or steadied.
lyGoO'^lc
350 Coal Mining in Arkansas
(2) A short heavy iron bar, used as a dragf behind a car
♦ or trip of cars when ascending a slope to prevent their run-
ning back down the slope in case of accident. A drag.
Dog-Hole. — A little opening from one place in a mine to aonthcr,
smaller than a break-through.
Doors. — Wooden doors in underground roads or airways to de-
flect the a'ir-current.
Door Tender. — A boy whose duty it is to open and close a mine
door before and after the passage of a train of mine cars.
In Arkansas, called trapper.
Double-diamond Bottom. — (Arkansas) An arrangement of
track at the shaft bottom consisting of two parallel tracks
(one to each compartment of the shaft) with a double cross-
over track between bhem and repeated on each side of the
shaft.
Double Entry. — (i) A system of Ventilation by which the air-
current is brought into the rooms through one entry and out
through a parrallel entry or air-course,
(2) (Arkansas) A pair of entries in flat or gently dip-
ping coal so laid out that rooms can be driven from both
entries ; tivin entries.
Double Shift. — (i) Two sets of men at work, one set relieving
the other.
(2) To en^loy two shifts of men, or to work double shift.
Downcast. — The opening through which the fresh air is drawn
or forced into the mine; the intake.
Drag. — (i) The frictional resistence offered to a current of air
in a mine.
(2) See Dog.
Draw. — fi) To 'draw the pillars,' to mine out the pillars, or
to pull or rob them after the rooms are worked out. Called
pull in Aricansas.
(2) An effect of creep upon the pillars of a mine.
Draw Slate. — (Arkansas) Loose slate, dirt, or rode that falls
from the roof of mine-working when the coal is shot out.
Drawing an Entry. — Removing the last of the coal from an
entry.
Drawn. — The condition in which an entry or room is left after
all the coal has been removed. See Robbed.
lyGoO'^lc
Glossary. 351
Drift. — In coal mining, a gangway or entry above water level,
driven from the surface in the seam.
Driving on Line. — Keeping a heading or breast accurately on a
given course by means of a compass or transit In Arkansas
called "driving on sights."
Dnimmy. — Sounding loose, open, ^laky, or dangerous when
tested.
Dummy. — (Arkansas) A short paper case filled with fine rock
for use as tamping drill holes.
Dump. — (i) A pile or heap or ore, coal, clum, slate, or rock.
(2) The tipple by which the cars are dumped.
(3) To unload a car by tipfwng it up.
Ear. — The inlet or intake of a fan.
Egg Coal. — Anthracite coal that will pass through a 2^4 in.
square mesh and over a 2 in. square mesh. The Arkansas
screens have 3 in. to 3!^ in. and 2 in. or 2;'2 in. round
openings.
Empties. — Empty mine or railroad cars. Empty railroad cars
are called "flats" in Arkansas.
Empty Track. A track for storing empty mine cars.
End, or End-On. — Working a seam of coal at right angles to the
principal or face cleats.
Engine Plane. — A passage^vay having a steep grade along which
cars are raised and lowered by a rope attached to an
engine; a plane. In Arkansas, limited to planes down
which coal is lowered. If coal is hoisted, the plane is known
as a slope.
Entry. — A main haulage road, gaHgzvay, or airway. An under-
ground passage used for haulage or ventilation, or as a
manway. (Arkansas) Commonly limited to haulage ways
sufliciently level to permit the hauling of coal by mules.
Back entry, the air-course parallel to and below an entry.
Distinguished from straight entry, front _entry, or main
entry. Dip entry, an entry driven down hill so that water
will stand at the face. If it is driven directly down a steep
dip it becomes a slope. Gob entry, a wide entry with a
heap of refuse or gob along one side. Slab entry, an entry
■which is widened or slabbed to provide a working place for
a second miner. Double-entry, a system of ventilation by
which the air-current is brought into the rooms through one
lyGoo'^lc
352 Coal Mining in Arkansas
entry and out through a parrallel entry or air-course. Cut-
off-entry (Arkansas), an entry driven to intersect another
and furnish a more convenient outlet for the coal. Single-
entry, a system of opening a mine by driving a single entry
only, in place of a pair of entries. The air-current returns
along the face of the rooms, which must ibe kept open.
Tripple-entry, a system of opening a mine by driving three
parallel entries for the main entries. Twin-entries, a pair of
entries close together and carrying the air current in and
out, so laid out that rooms can be worked from both entries.
Entry-man. — A miner who works in an entry.
Entry Stumps. — Pillars of coal left in the mouths of abandoned
rooms to support the road, entry, or gangway till the entry
pillars are drawn. In Arkansas these pillars are called entry
stumps even when the rooms are first driven, before an\-
pillars are pulled or the rooms abandoned.
Escape-way. — An opening through which the miners may leave
the mine if the ordinary exit is obstructed.
Explosion. — Sudden ignition of a body of firedamp or of coal
dust.
Eye. — (i) Circular hole in a bar for receiving a pin and for
other purposes.
(2) The eye of a shaft is the very beginning of a pit.
(3) The eye of a fan is the central or intake opening.
Face. — (i) The place at which the material is actually being
worked, either in a room or heading or in longwall.
(2) The end of a drift or tunnel.
Paces. — (Arkansas) Inclined joints in the coal.
Face-on. — When the face of the breast or entry is parallel to
the face cleats of the seam. Not used in Arkansas.
Fall. — A mass of roof or side which has fallen in any part of
a mine.
False Set. — A temporary set of timber used until work is far
enough advanced to put in a permanent set.
Fan. — ^A machine for creating a circulation of air in a mine.
Fancy-lump-coal. — (Arkansas) (l) Soft coal from which all
slack and nut coal has been removed.
(2) (Arkansas) Semi-anthracite coal of larger size than
grate coal.
lyGoO'^lc
GwsSARY. 353
Fan Drift.— A short tunnel or condnit lea<Iing from the top o(
the air-shaft to the fan.
Fault. — (i) Strictly a fracture in the rock along which there
has been movement so that single beds of rock or coal are
not at the same level in both sides of the fracture. In
Arkansas, this is called a "throii'." Korttiai fault, the ordi-
nary type of fauk or throw by wliich the rock layers upon
the side of the fissure toward which it dips have been slipped
down from the position they occupy on the other side. This
leaves a strip along which each bed of rock or coal is
wanting for short distance and is the reverse of a thnist
fault. Thrust fault, a displacement of the rocks along a
fissure in such a way that the end of a layer of rock on
one side of the fissure overlaps the end of the same layer
over the other side. Tbis is believed to be caused by
horizontal pressure and is the common type of fault found
in the coal mines south of the Arkansas River.
(2) (Arkansas) Any area of a coal seam in wbkrh the
coal is not of a good quality, generally caused by a crush-
ing of the coal, or a mixture of dirt with the coal or a sub-
stitution of dirt for the coal at the time the coal was de-
posited. AJso called diti faiiits. or rock faults. The
coal in them is called faulty coal.
Feather. — A slightly projecting narrow rib lengthwise on a shaft,
arranged to catch into a corresponding groove in anything
that surrounds and slides along the shaft
Feather Edge. — The thin end of a wedge-shaped piece of rock
or coal.
Feed. — Forward motion imparted to the cutters or drills of rock-
drillirig or coal-cutting machinery, either hand or automatic.
Feeder. — (i) A runner of water.
(2) A small blower of gas.
Fiery. — Containing explosive gas.
Fire. — (i) To blast with gunpowder or other explosives.
(z) A word shouted by miners to warn one another when
a shot is fired.
Fire-boss. — An underground official who examines the mine for
gas and inspects safety lamps taken into the mine, and re-
moves accumulations of gas.
lyGoO'^lc
354 , CoAi. Mining in Arkansas
Firedamp. — A mixture of light carbiiretted hydrogen (methane.
Chap. 4), and air in explosive proportions; often applied to
methane alone or to any explosive mixture of mine gases.
Firing Pin. — (Arkansas) A wooden cylinder upon which the
Wasting paper is formed in a case for the cartridge or
ditmmy.
First of the Air. — (i) (Arkansas) That part of the air cur-
rent which has just entered a mine working place; the
■ intake air.
(2) (Arkansas) The working place of a mine or split
which is nearest the intake, or receives the first of the air.
Fixed Carbon. — That part of the combustible matter of coal
which remains after all the volatile matter is driven off by
heating the coal in a closed vessel.
Flat. — (i) A district or set of workings separated bj' faults,
old workings, or barriers of solid coal. Not common in
Arkansas.
(3) A siding or station underground; a parting.
(3) (Arkansas) A railroad car of the gondola type for
shipping coal.
Floor. — (i) The stratum of rock upon which a seam of coal
imediately' lies,
(2) That part of a mine upon which the miners walk or
upon wiiich the road bed is laid.
Fork. — A wide fork with many tines used for separating lump
coal from slack when the coal is bad.
Frame Set.— The legs and cap or cross-bar arranged so as to
support a passage mined out of the rock or coal seam ; also
called framing or set.
Frozen Coal. — (Arkansas) Coal which strongly adheVes to the
rock above or below it.
Fuse. — (i) A hollow tube filled with an explosive mixture for
igniting cartridges. No longer made,
(2) Contraction for safety fuse, which see.
Gage Door. — A wooden door fixed in an airway for regulating
the supply of ventilation necessary for a certain district or
number of men. Called regulator in Arkansas.
Gallery. — A horizontal passage. Term rare in Arkansas.
Gallows Frame. — The fraime supporting a pulley over which the
hoisting rope passes to the engine.
lyGoO'^lc
Glossary. 355
Gangway. — The main haulage road or level. Commonly called
entry in Arkansas.
Gas. — See firedamp. Any iiredanq) mixture in a mine is called
gas.
Gate. — An underground road connecting a stall or 'breast with a
main road. Not used in Arkansas,
Gaieway. — (i) A road kept rthfoug'h the goaf in longwaU
mining.
(2) A gangway having ventilating doors.
Gathering Mule. — The mule used to collect the loaded cars for
the separate working places, and to return empties.
Get a Clean-up. — To have an opportunity to load out all the coal
a miner has loosened.
Goaf. — That part of a mine ftxjm which the coal has been worked
away, and the space more or less filled up with waste.
Rare in iht United States,
Gob. — (i) Common American term for goaf.
(2) Any pile of loose waste in a mine.
(3) To leave coal and other minerals that are not market-
able in the mine. .
(4) To stow or pack any useless underground roadway
with rubbish. Gob entry, a wide entry with a pile of brush-
ing, middle band, or other gob along one side. Gob fire,
spontaneous combustion underground of fine coal and slack
in the gob. Gob road, a roadway in a mine carried through
the goaf. Gob room, space for leaving gob. Gob wall, a
rough wall of flat stones built to prevent the piles of gnA
from obstructing the passageway for air.
Gobbing Dp. — Filling with waste.
Good Shooting Coa/.— (Arkansas) Coal that can be shot off
the solid with a large proportion of solid lump coal and little
slack.
Gouging Shot. — (Arkansas) A gripping shot or opening shot
used to make the first opening in a straight room face, or
to start a break-througli.
Grade. — (i) The amount of fall or inclination in ditches,
flumes, roads, etc,
(2) A filling made in improving a roadway.
(3) To prepare a roadway of more uniform slope.
lyGoO'^lc
356 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Crate Coal. — Coal which will pass through bars ^14 to 454 in-
apart and over round holes 2}i in.; also called broken coal.
Arkansas bars are 7 in. apart and the holes 3 in. to $% in,
in diameter.
Greaser. — (i) A person who oils or greases the mine cars.
(2) A slang name for a Mexican.
Grip. — To turn into the side of a working place.
Gripping Shot. — ^A shot so placed that the point or inner end of
the hole is considerably further from the face of tiie coal
to be broken than is the heel or outer end of the hole.
Griesley. — A coarse screen made of parallel inclined bars along
whidi the larger fragments slide by gravity ; a bar screen.
Half Set. — One leg piece and a collar.
Hauling. — The drawing or conveying of the product of the mine
from the working places to the bottom of the hoisting shaft,
or slope.
Head Block. — (i) A stop at the head of a slope or shaft to
stop cars from going down the shaft or slope.
(2) A cap piece.
Head Frame. — See gallotvs frame.
Heading. — (i) A continuous passage for air or for use as a '
manway ; a gangway or entry.
(z) A continuous passage between two rooms, breasts, or
other working places.
(3} (Arkansas) The narrow part of an entrj' near the
working face.
Head Piece. — A cap; a collar.
Head Work. — (Arkansas) The cutting and other work done
at the face ot an entry.
Heaving. — ^The rising of the floor of a seam where the coal has
been removed.
Heel. — The beginning or outer end of a blast hole, or the coal
near this which will be loosened by the blast.
Heel of Coal. — A small body of coal left under a larger body as
a support.
Hewer. — A collier that cuts coal ; a digger. Not used in
Arkansas.
High. — High coal is the miners' name for coal of a thick seam.
Hitch. — Notch or nick cut in the rock for holding cross-bars,
beams, or timber etc., for various purposes.
lyGoO'^lc
Glossary. 357
Hogback. — A roll occurring in the floor and not in the roof, the
coal being cut out or nearly so, for a distance.
Hole. — (i) To undercut a seam of coal by 'hand or machine.
{2) A bore hole.
(3) To make a communication from one part of a mine
to another.
Holing. — (i) The portion of the seam or underclay removed
from beneath the coal before it is broken down.
(2) A short passage connecting two roads.
Holing Through. — Driving a passage through to make connectifm
with another part of the same workings, or with those in an
adjacent mine.
Hood. — See bonnet.
Horizon. — That position in a series of rock formations occujMed
by any particular stratum. .
Horseback. — (i) Natural channels cut or washed away by
water in a coal seam, and filled up with shale and sand-
stone. Sometimes a bank or ridge of foreign matter in a
coal seam.
(2) A mass of country rock lying within a vein or bed.
Horse-Gin. — A gearing for hoisting by horsepower.
Horse Whim. — A vertical dnvm worked by a horse, for hauling
or hoisting.
Hydraulic Cartridge. — A contrivance for wedging down coal by
the pressure of a number of pistons driven forward by
hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrocarbons. — Compounds of hydrogen and carbon.
Inbye. — In a direction inward toward the face of the working,
or away irom the entrance.
Incline. — Short for inclined plane. Any inclined heading or
slope road or track having a general inclination or grade in
one direction.
Indicator. — (i) A mechanical contrivance attached to hoisting,
hauling, or other machinery, whk:h shows the position of the
cages in the shaft or the cars on an incline during its
journey or run.
(2) An apparatus for showing the presence of firedamp
in mines, the temperature of goaves, the speed of a ventilator,
pressure of steam, air, or water^ etc.
lyGoO'^lc
3S8 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Inset. — The entrance to a mine at ^e bottom, or part way down
a shaft wihere the cages are loaded.
Inside for/»ng.—'( Arkansas) A side track or parting some
distance from the beginning of a long entry, at which cars
are left by a gathering driver. Also called a sanng parting.
Inside Shpe.^A slope on which coal is raised from a lower to a
higher entry, but not to the surface.
Inspector. — A goverttment ofikial whose duties are to enforce
the laws regulating the working of the mines.
Intake. — { i ) The passa^^e through which the fresh air is drawn
or forced in a mine commencing at the bottom of a down-
cast shaft, or the mouth of a slope.
(2) The fresh air passing into a colliery.
Into the Solid, or On the Solid. — Said of a s'hot which goes into
the coal beyond the point to which the coal be broken by
the blast.
Jack. — (i) A jack-screw attached to a pointed pipe and used
for holding an electric coal mining machine in position while
at work.
(2) A pointed iron pipe wedged beneath the roof in a coal
mine to hold the feed chain of a continuous electric coal
cutter. Also called a pipe jack.
Jack, or Powder Jack. — A tin bucket with pouring spout in
which powder in quantities of 5 to 12^ pounds is carried
into the mine.
Jars. — In rope drilling, two long links which take up the shodc
of impact when the falling tools strike the bottom of the hole.
Jig. — (i) Self-acting incline.
(2) A machine for separating ores or nunerals from worth-
less rock by means of their difference in specific gravity;
also called a washer.
./'i'5'"^-— Separating heavy from light particles by agitation in
water.
Joints. — (i) Divisional planes that divide the rock in a quarry
into natural blocks. There are usually two or three nearly
parallel series, called by quarrymen end points, back points,
and bottom joints, according to their position.
(2) In coal seams, the less pronounced cleats or vertical
cleavages in the coal. The shorter cleats, about at right
lyGoO'^lc
GLOss.\Ry. 359
angles to the face cleats and the bedding plane of the coal.
(3) (Arkansas) Any cleavage surface in a coal seam.
Jugglers. — Timbers set d>Iiquely against the rib in a breast.- to
form a triangular passage to be used as a manway, airway,
or chute. Practically limited to Pennsylvania.
Jump. — An upthrow or a downthrow fault.
Jumper. — ^A hand drill used in iboring holes in rock for blasting.
Keeps. — Wings, catches, or rests to hold the cage at rest when
it reaches any landing.
Key. — An iron bar of suita;ble size and taper for filling the key-
ways of shaft and pulleys so as to keep both together.
Kerf. — The undercut made to assist the breaking of the coal.
Kick-bcuk. — (Arkansas.) To -break the coal on both sides of
the auger hole which contains the powder, usually along a
joint in the coal.
Laborer. — (i) A man hired by the contract miner to assist
him. Prohibited by the Union in .Arkansas.
(2) Mine laborer, a man working for day wages in or
about a mine; a company man distinguished from digger or
contractor.
Lagging. — (i) Smalt roimd timbers, slabs, or plank, driven in
'behind the legs and over the collar, to prevent pieces of the
sides or roof from falling through,
(2) Long pieces of timber closely fitted together and
fastened to the drum rings to form a surface for the rope
to wind on.
Lamp Men. — Cleaners, repairers, and those having charge of the
safety lamps at a colliery. Not employed in Arkansas.
Lamp Slations. — Certain fixed stations in a mine at which safety
lamps are allowed to be opened and relighted by men ap-
pointed for that purpose, or beyond which, on no pretense,
is a naked lig^it allowed to be taken.
Lander. — The man that receives a load of ore at the mouth of
a shaft.
Landing. — ( i ) A level stage for loading or unloading a cage
or skip,
{2) The top or bottom of a slope, shaft, or inclined plane.
Lap. — One coil of rope on a drum or pulley.
lyGoO'^lc
360 Coal Minino in Arkansas
Larry. — (i) A car to which an endless rope is attached, fixed
at the inside end of the road, forming part of the appliance
for taking up slack rope.
(2) See barney.
(3) A car with a hopper bottom and adjustable chutes for
feeding oc^e ovens.
Last of the Air. — (i) (Arkansas) That part of the air cur-
rent which has passed through all the workings of the mine
or split; the outtake air.
(2) (Arkansas) The working place of a mine or split
nearest the outtake of the air, or which receives the last of
the air current.
Latches. — (i) A s3monym of switch. Applied to the split rail
and hinged switches,
(2) Hinged switdi points, or short pieces of rail that form
rail crossings.
Launder. — Water trough.
Leader. — A seam of coal too small to be worked profitably, but
often being a guide to larger seams lying in known proximity
to it
Leg. — (Arkansas) A prop used to support a horizontal timber
sudi as a cross-bar.
Length of Shot. — The depth of the hole in which the powder is
placed or the size of the block of coal to be loosened by a
single blast measured parallel to the hole.
Lift. — (i) The vertical hight traveled by a cage in a shaft
(2) The lift of a pump is the vertical distance from the level
of the water in the sump to the point of discharge.
(3) The distance between the first level and the surface,
or between two levels.
{4) The levels of a shaft or slope.
Lifting Guards. — Fencing placed around the mouth of a shaft,
which is lifted out of the way by the ascending cage.
Lignite. — A coal of a peaty character, and a brown streak and
containing much water.
Lime Cartridge. — A charge or measured quantity of compressed
dry caustic lime made up into a cartridge and used instead
of gunpowder for breaking down coal. Water is applied to
the cartri<^, and the expansion breaks down the coal with-
out producing a flame.
lyGoO'^lc
Glossary. 361
Lines. — Plumfc-lincs, not less than two in number, hung from
hooks driven in wcxiden plugs. A line drawn through the
center of the two strings or wires, as the case may be, repre-
sents the bearii^ or course to be driven on. Called sights
in Arkansas.
Lining Up a Mine. — Placing the sights for driving entries or
rooms nearer the woritJng face by surveying, -
Lip Screen. — A small screen or screen bars, placed at the draw
hole of a coal pocket to take out the fine coal.
Lively Coat. — (Arkansas) Brittle and generally hard coal which
m^y be chipped off in good sized pieces while being under-
nnned or sheared with a pick.
Loaded Track. — Track used for loaded cars.
Loader. — (i) One iJiat fills the mine cars at the working places.
(2) (Arkansas) The nian w4k> loads coal at a certain
price per ton after the coal has been undermined by machines.
He also shoots the coal down and takes care of the working
place.
Load Dropper or Car Dropper. — (Arkansas) A person wlio
allows ears of loaded cars to run down a gently inclined
track one at a time.
Load Out. — (Arkansas) To load 'into a car which will be taken
out of a mine and emptied.
Loads. — Loaded mine cars.
Longwall. — A system of working a seam of coal in which the
whole seam is taken out and no pillars left, excepting the
shaft pillars, and sometimes the main-road pillars. Long-
wall advancing, mining the coal outward from the shaft
pillar and maintaining roadways through the worked out
portion of the mine. Longwall retreating, first driving
haulage road and airways to the boundary of a tract of coal
and then mining it in a single face without pillars back
toward the shaft.
Loose End. — Coal prepared by cutting, or that coal which is
certain to be loosened by a shot.
Low Coal. — (Arkansas) Coal occurring in a thin seam or bed.
Lump Coal. — (i) All coal (anthracite only) larger than broken
coal, or, when steamboat coal is made, lumps larger than
this size. In Arkansas called "fancy lump."
lyGoO'^IC
362 Coal Mining in Arkansas
(2) (Arkansas) All coal passing over a standard bar
screen, or screened coal; or any kind of coal containing less
of the smaller sizes than such coal. Railroad lump coal has
a less proportion of the slack removed and may contain all
of the slack in excess of 25 per cent or in cases 15 per cent
of the weight of the coal as mined.
Machine. — (i) A machine for undermining or bearing coal
by power. Pick machines or punchers are driven by com-
pressed air and strike the coal direct blows as with a hand
pick. Chain machines, locally called electric machines, scrape
out a cut in the coal by means of sharp points attached to
a rapidly moving sprocket chain.
(2) (Arkansas) An augur attached to some kind of a
post and fed forward with great force as it is rotated. Used
in Arkansas only for drilling holes in shale. ■ Also called a
post drill or ratchet drill.
Main Rope. — In tailrope haulage, the rope that draws the loaded
cars out.
Manager. — An official who has control and supervision of a mine,
both under and above ground, and generally also of the sale
of the product.
Man-hole. — (i) .\ refuge hole constructed Jn the side of a
gangway, tunnel or slope.
(2) A hole in cylindrical boilers through which a man can
get into the boiler to examine and repair it.
Man7fay. — \ small passage used as a traveling way for the
miner, and also often used as an airway or chute, or both.
Marble Drill. — (Arkansas) A prospecting drill containing a ball
valve or marble by which the current of water with the cut-
ting is made to rise in the drill ; a drill of the type made by
the Cyclone Drilling Machine Company.
Match. — (i) A charge of gunpowder put into a paper several
inches long, and used for igniting explosives.
(2) The touch end of a squib.
Measures. — St rata.
Middle Band. — (Arkansas) A stratum of rock or more usually
soft dirt near the middle of a coal seam.
Mine. — (1) Any excavation made for Uie extraction of
minerals.
lyGoO'^lc
. Glossary, 363
(2) To undermine the face of coal before it is wedged 01
blasted down.
(3) (Arkansas) To obtain the coal in working places in
any way.
Miner. — (i) One who mines.
(2) A worker in a coal mine who is paid a certain price
for each ton of coal he digs or blasts from the solid seam.
Mineral Oil. — Petroleum obtained from the earth, and its distil-
lates.
Mining. — (i) In its broad sense, it embraces all that is con-
cerned with the excavation of minerals and their complete
utilization.
(2) (Arkansas) The excavation made in undermining a
coal face.
(3) (Arkansas) A soft band of dirt in or beneath a coal
seam in which a preliminary excavation can be readily made.
Mining Engineer. — A man having knowledge and experience in
the many departments of mining.
Mining Retreating. — A process of mining by which the bed is un-
touched until after all the gangways, etc., are driven, when
the mineral extraction begins at the boundary and pro-
gresses toward the shaft.
Mother Gate. — The main road of a district in long^vall working.
Motive Column. — The length of a column of air whose weight is
equal to the difference in weight of like columns of air in
downcast and upcast shafts. The ventilation pressure in
furnace ventilation is measured by the difference of the
weights of the air columns in the two shafts.
Mouth. — The top of a shaft or slope, or the entrance to a drift
or tunnel.
Naked Light. — A candle or any form of tamp that is not a safety
lamp.
Narrow Work.—(i) AH work for which a price per yard of
length driven is paid, and which, therefore, must be measured.
(2) Headings, chutes, cross-cuts, entries, etc
Natural Ventilation. — \''entilation of a mine without either fur-
nace or other artificial means, the heat being imparted to
the air by the strata, men, animals, and lights in the mine,
causing it to flow in one direction, or to ascend.
;v 000^^10
364 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Neck. — A room neck is the narrow entrance to a room next to
the entry, or a place where the room has been narrowed on
account of poor roof.
Needle. — (i) A sharp-pointed metal rod with which a small
hole is made through the stemming to the cartridge in
blasting operations.
(2) A hitch cut in the side rock to receive the end of a
timber.
Nicfi.—To cut or shear coal after holing. Not used in Arkansas,
Nicking. — (i) A vertical cutting or shearing up one side of a
face of coal. Known as a cutting, or cut in Arkansas.
(2) The chipping of the coal atong the rib of an entry or
room which is usually the first indications of a squeeze.
Night Shift. — The set of men that work during the night.
A'l'^. — When the roof and floor of a coal seam come close
together, pinching the coal between them, ■
Nogs. — Logs of wood piled one on another to support the roof.
See chock. Known as cribs in Arkansas.
Normal Fault. — ^The ordinary type of fault or throw by which
the rock layers upon the side of the fissure toward whkh it
dips have been slipped down from the position they occupy
on the other side. This leaves a strip along which each
bed of rock or coal is wanting for a short distance and is
the reverse of a thrust fault. Also called tension fault or
gravity fault.
Notched. — (Arkansas) Framed to fit in position and hold to-
gether more securely as a 'notched set of timbers.'
Nut cod. — An abbreviation for chestnut coal, which is anthracite
coal passing through a 2 in. round opening and over a 1 in,
round opening. In Arkansas soft coal districts applied to
all smaller lumps of coal separated from slack and fancy
lump coal.
One-track Tipple. — A tipple having but one railroad track be-
neath it and used for preparing but one kind of coal.
On Sights. — Following sights placed by a surveyor.
On the Solid. — (i) Affiled to a Wast hole extending into the
coal further than the coal can be broken by the Uast.
(2) That part of a blast hole which can not be broken by
the blast.
lyGoo'^lc
Open Cast. — Workings having no roof. Commonly called open
cut.
Open Cuttings. — ^Any surface excavation.
Openings, An Opening, — Any excavation on a coal or ore bed, or
to reach the same ; a mine.
Opening Shot. — ^In shooting off the solid, the first shot fired in a
straight face of coal. Called also wedging shot or gowging
shot.
Operator. — ^The individual or company actually working a
colliery.
Outburst. — A blower. A sudden emission of large quantities of
occluded gas,
Outbye. — In the direction of the shaft or slope bottom, or toward
the outside.
Outcrop. — ^The portion of a vein or bed, or any stratum appear-
ing at the surface, or occurring immediately below the soil
or di hi vial drift.
Output. — The total amount of the product of a mine.
Oultake. — The passage by which the ventilating current is taken
out of the mine ; the upcast. Rare in Arkansas.
Overburden. — The covering of rock, earth, etc., overlying a
mineral deposit that must be removed before effective work
can be performed.
Oi-ercast. — A passage through which the ventilating current is
conveyed over a gangway or airway.
Overwind. — ^To hoist the cage into or over the top of the head-
frame.
Pack. — A rough wall or block of coal or stone built up to support
the roof.
Packing. — The material placed in stuffing boxes, etc., to prevent
leaks. ^
Pack Wail. — A wall of stone or rubbish built on either side of a
mine road, to carry the roof and keep the sides up.
Panel. — { i ) A large rectai^ular block or pillar of coal measur-
ing, say, 130 by 100 yds.
(2) A group of breasts of rooms separated from the other
workings by large pillars.
Parting. — ( i ) Any thin interstratified bed of earthy material in
a coal seam.
lyGoO'^lc
366 Coal Miking in Arkansas
(2) A side track or turnout in a haulage road.
Entry parting, the parting at the beginning of an entry in
a slope, nune. Inside or szving parting, a parting some
distance from the mouth of an entry, from which the cars
are hauled out by a special mule or team. Rope parting
or motor parting, a parting on which trips of cars are col-
lected for hauling out by a rope haulage system, or electric
motor.
Pea Coal. — A small size of anthracite coal. In Aricansas coal
which passes through a round hole i in. across and over
a hole J^ in. across.
Peat. — The deccMnposed partly carbonized organic matter of
bogs, swamps, etc.
Pentice. — A few pieces of timber laid as a roof over men's heads,
to screen them when working in dangerous places, as at the
bottom of shafts.
Picker. — (i) A small tool used to pull up the wick of a
miner's lamp.
(2) A person who picks the slate from the coal in an
anthracite breaker.
(3 A mechanical arrangement for removing slate from
coal.
Picking Chute.~A chute in an anthracite breaker along which
boys are stationed to pick the slate from coal.
Pick Machine. — A machine used to undermine or shear coa! by
heavy blows of short steel points attached to a piston driven
forward and back by compressed air. Commonly called a
Puncher.
Pigeon Hole. — (Arkansas) (i) .\ room driven directly into
the coal seam from the edge of a strip pit.
(2) Any small poorly equipped coal mine.
Pig-fool. — (1) An iron clamp shaped like a pig's foot used to
attach the 'jack' to the feed chain of a continuous electric
coal cutter.
(2) .\ pipe jack with a pig-foot at one end.
Pillar. — ^A portion of the coalleft to hold up the rock over a mine.
Pipe Jack. — An iron pipe with a clamp or pig-foot upon one end
and a curved point upon the other. It is wedged between
the floor and roof of a mine room to hold the feed chain of
a continuous electric coal mining machine.
lyGoo'^lc
Glossary. 367
PA.— (i) A shaft.
(2) The underground portion of a colliery, including all
■workings. Used in many combinations, as pit car, pfit
clothes, etc. Pit lamp or pit light is the open lamp a miner
wears upon his head as distinguished frtwn a safety lamp,
acetylene lamp, or electric light. Pit room, the extent of
the opening in a mine ; pit space. The pit boss has charge
of the surface work at the mine as well that in the mine.
Pit committee (Arkansas) a committee of three mine
workers elected by the Local Union to confer with the pit
iboss or superintendent in case of disputes between them and
any miner.
Pilch. — Used for inclination or dip.
Place. — ^The part of a mine in which a miner works by contract
is known as his "place" or "working place."
Plane. — .A.n inclined road along which coal is hauled by a rope
attached to an engine. In Arkansas limitol to planes down
which the loaded cars run by gravity while the empties are
pulled up by the engine or the extension or such a working
on which cars must be hauled 'both ways.
Plant. — ^The shafts or slope, tunnels, engine houses, railways,
machinery, workshops, etc., of a colliery or other mine.
Plenum. — A mode of ventilating a mine or a heading by forcing
fresh air into it.
Point. — The inner end of a shot or auger hole for a shot.
Pocket. — (i) A thickening oirt of a seam of coal or other
mineral over a small area.
(2) A hopper-shaped receptacle from which coal or ore is
loaded into cars or boats.
(3) A small mass of mineral.
(4) (Arkansas) A pocket of gas is a small accumulation
of gas.
Post. — (i) Commonly used in the metal mines Instead of leg.
which is the coal miner's term.
{2) The support fastened between the roof and floor of a
coal seam used with certain types of mining machines or
augers.
Post-drill. — An auger supported by a post.
Post-puncher. — A coal mining machine of the puncher tj-pe sup-
ported by a post.
lyGoo'^lc
368 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Pot. — ^A rounded mass of roof slate resembling in shape an iron
pot and easily detached. It is separated from the others by
old mud cracks.
Potty. — { I ) lOontaining pots.
(2) (Arkansas) Applied to any roof tn a coal mine whJth
falls down in thick blocks.
Pricker. — ( 1 ) A thin brass rod for making a hole in the stem-
ming when blasting, for the insertion of a fuse.
{2) A piece of bent wire by which the size of the flame
in a safety lamp is regulated without removing the top of the
lamp.
Prepare a Shot. — (i) To shear or undermine the coal so that
it can be readily blasted loose.
(2) (Arkansas) To make a cartridge for a blast.
(3) (Arkansas) To charge a blast hole.
Prop. — A -wooden or cast-iron temporary support for the roof.
Breaking prop (Arkansas), one of a row of props of suffi-
cient strength to cause the rock above the coal to break
and so limit the area of top brought down by a brushing shot.
Propping. — The timbering of a mine.
Prospect. — To examine land for the possible occurrence of coal
or other valuable minerals by drilling holes, ditchii^, or
other work.
Prove. — To ascertain, by boring, driving, etc., the position and
character of a coal seam, a fault, etc.
Puddle. — Earth well rammed into a trench, etc., to prevent
leaking.
Pulling Pillars. — The common expression used in .Arkansas for
mining the coal in the pillars of a mine; robbing . pillars.
Pump Station, or Pump Room. — An enlargement made in the
shaft, sk)pe, or entry, to receive the pump.
Puncher. — A pick machine used to undermine or shear coal by
heavy blows of sharp steel points attached to a piston driven
forward and hack by compressed air.
Pusher. — A person r^iilarly employed to push mine cars from
one place to another. He usually assists the digits to push
cars up into steep rooms.
Pyrites. — Sulphide of iron. Called sulphur by the miners.
Rashing. — Soft scaly slate or earth beneath a coal seam, often
containing much carSanaceous matter.
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Recm-ery. — The proportion of coal in the ground which is ex-
tracted.
Refuge Hole. — A place formed in the side of an underground .
plane in which a man can take reftige dnring the passing of
a train, or when shots are fired.
Regulator. — An ohstruction placed in an airway and containing
an opening which can be made larger or smaller to regulate
the quantity of air current sent to any part of a mine.
Rests. — Supports on which a cage rests when the loaded car is
being taken off and the empty one put on.
Return. — The air-course along which the vitiated air of a mine
is returned or conducted back to the upcast shaft.
Reverse Fault. — See thrust fault.
Rib.—(i) The side of a pillar.'
{2) The side of any entry or other working place.
Rib Shot. — A shot next to a rib.
Ride Over. — (Arkansas) A squeeze rides over a pillar when
it extends into the workings beyond the pillar.
Rider. — (i) A thin seam of coal overlying a thicker one.
(2) \ person who rides with the trains of cars, as rope-
rider, trip -rider.
Ring. — (0 .\ complete circle of tubbing plates around a cir-
cular shaft.
(2) Troughs placed in shafts to catch the falling water,
and so arranged as to convey it to a certain point.
Rise. — The inclination of the strata, when looking up hill. To
the rise, directly up hill in a dipping coal seam.
Rise Workings. — Underground workings carried on to the rise
or high sides of the rfiaft.
Roll. — An inequality in the roof or floor of a mine.
Rob. — (i) -To mine the pillars of coal, to pull or dran' them.
(2) (Arkansas) To leave the pillar too narrow for suf-
ficient support.
Roll. — An inequality in the roof or floor of a mine.
Roller. — A small steel, iron, or wooden wheel or cylinder upon
which the hauling rope is carried just above the floor.
Rolls. — Cast-iron cylinders, either plain or fitted with steel teeth,
used to break coal and other materials into various sizes.
Room. — A wide working place in a mine, formed by the removal
of coal and having no special purpose.
lyGoO'^lc
370 Coal Mining in Arkansas
l*-.<.!r* ■■^•"^
Room-and-Pillar. — The system of working the coal out in rather
wide rooms with pillars of solid coal between them. The
common American term for pillar-aiid-breast; braad-and
pillar; pillar-and-stall, etc., used indifferently for all relative
sizes of rooms and pillars.
Rope. — \ steel rope used for hauling trains of cars in a mine,
Rope-Rider. — A person who rides with the trains of cars attached
to a rope for engine haulage. Also called trip-rider.
Rope Trip. — A trip of cars handled by a rope.
Rubbing Surface. — The total area of a given length of airway;
that is, the area of top, bottom, and sides added together, or
the perimeter multiplied by the length.
Run. — (i) The sliding and crushing of pillars of coal.
(2) The length of a lease or tract on the strike of the
seam.
(3) The interval of time during which a mine is in opera-
tion.
Safety Catches. — Appliances fitted to cages to prevent them from
falling to the bottom of the shaft if the rope breaks.
Safety Fuse. — A cord with slow-burning powder in the center for
exploding charged blast holes. Commonly called "fuse."
Safety Lamp. — .\ miner's lamp in which the flame is protected
in such a manner, usually by a wire gauze, that an explosive
mixture of air and firedamp can be detected by the mixture
burning inside the gauze, without danger of igniting the
mixture outside of the lamp.
Sag. — A depression in a coal seam, rope, mountain range, etc.
Sand Pump. — A sludger; a cylinder provided with a stem (or
other) valve, lowered into a drill hole to remove the pul-
verized rock.
Scale. — The rate of wages to be paid, which varies ynder certain
contingencies.
Scoop. — A large-sized shovel with a scoop-shaped blade.
Scraper. — (i) A tool for cleaning the dust out of the bore
hole.
(2) A mechanical contrivance used at collieries to scrape
the clum or slack along a trough to the place of deposit.
Screen. — (i) .\ mechanical apparatus for sizing materials.
(2) A cloth brattice or curtain hung across a road in a
mine, to direct the ventilation. Standard screen, the screen
lyGoo'^lc
GuiSSARY. 371
for removing some of the slack from coal -before it is
weighed. The standard screen specified in the agreement
betwen the operators and miners of Arkansas is a screen
6 ft, wide and 16 ft. long, composed of continuous bars ^ in.
wide with spaces between them ij^ in. across.
Screened Coal. — (l) Coa! which has passed over any kind of
a screen and therefore consists mainly of the larger sizes.
(2) Specifically coal which is weighed and credited to the
miner after passing over a standard screen.
Scrub Wa/CT-.— (Arkansas) Soft water supplied to mining
camps for bathing and laundry purposes.
Sealing. — Shutting of all air from a mine or a part of a mine
by stoppings.
Seam. — (i) Synonymous with bed, etc.
(2) A plane in a coal bed at which the different layers of
coal are easily separated.
Seam-out. — To merely blow out a soft stratum in the coal, or
escape through a seam without loosening the main mass of
coal. In Arkansas, called squeal out.
Seamy. — Full of seams so as to 'be difficult to blast.
Second Working. — The operation of getting or working out the
pillars formed by the first working.
Self-Acting Plane.— An inclined plane upon which tlje weight
or force of gravity acting on the full cars is sufficient to
overcome the resistence of the empties; in other words, the
full car, running down, pulls the other car up.
Set. — (i) To fix in a place a prop or sprag.
(2) A train of mine cars, called a trip in Arkansas,
Set of Timber. — The timbers which compose any framing,
whether used in a shaft, slope, level, or gangway.
Shackle. — A t/-shaped link in a diain closed by a pin ; when the
latter is withdawrn the chain is severed at that point.
Shaft. — A vertical hole through the strata from the surface of
the ground to a coal seam and used for hoisting coal or the
passage of an air current, or for an escape way.
Shaft Pillar. — Solid material left unworked beneath buildings
and around the shaft, to support them against subsidence.
Shale. — (i) Strictly speaking, all argillaceous strata that split
up or peel off in thin laminx.
lyGoO'^lc
372 Coal Mixing in Arkansas
(2) A laminated and stratified sedimentary deposit of clay,
often impregnated with bituminous matter. Called slate
by the coal miners.
Shearing. — Cutting a vertical groove in a coal face or breast.
Called in Arkansas a cut or cutting.
Sheave. — A wheel with a grooved circumferance over which a
rope is turned either for the transmission of power or for
winding or hauling.
Shelly. — ^A name applied to coal that has been so crushed and
fractured that it easily breaks up into small pieces. The
term is also applied to a laminated roof that sounds hollow
and breaks into thin layers of slate or shale.
Shift. — (i) The number of hours worked without change.
(2) A gauge or force of workmen at one time upon any
■work, as the day shift, or the night shift.
Shoot. — To break rock or coal by means of explosives.
Shooting-off the Solid. — Obtaining the coal by mere blasting
without undermining or shearing it. The common .-Vrkanass
method of working rooms.
Shore Up. — To sta>-, prop up, or support by braces.
Shot. — (■!) A charge or blast.
(2) The firing of a blast.
(3) Injured by a blast.
Balanced shot, a shot so placed that the hole containing the
powder is parallel to one face of the coal to be broken.
Blown-out shot, a shot which merely throws out the tamping
without loosening much coal. Cutting shot, a shot arranged
to loosen the coal prepared by the cutting and to scatter the
coal in advance to facilitate the making of another cuttlnj:.
Gouging shot (Arkan^^as) a gripping shot or opening shot
used to make the first opening in a straight room face, or
to start a break-through. Gripping shot, a shot which is
farther from tlie face of the coal at the point than at the
heel : also called wfdgiiig shot. Opening shot, the first grip-
ping shot fired, in a straight face of coal. Slitting shot, a
shot put into a large ma.ss of coal detached by a previous
blast. Windy shot, a .shot which causes a concussion in the
air, usually by an e-xcessive amount of jwwder behind an
easily loosened mass of coal.
lyGoO'^lc
Glossary. 373
Shot-Hrer, or Shot-lighter. — One of two or more persons hired
to fire the shots in the more dangerous mines after all the
other men have left the mine.
Shutter. — (i) A movaible sliding door, fitted within the outer
casing of a Ouibal or other closed fan, for regulating the
size of the opening from the fan, to suit the ventilation and
economical working of the machine.
(2) A slide covering the opening in a door or brattice, and
fbnning a regulator for the proportionate division of the air-
current between two or more districts of a mine.
Side Chain. — A chain hooked on to the sides of cars running on
an incline or along a gangway, to keep the cars together in
case the coupling breakes.
Siding. — A short piece of track parallel to the main track, to
serve as a passing place.
Sight. — (i) A bearing or angle taken with a compass or transit
when making a survey.
(2) ■ Any established point of a survey.
Sights. — B6bs or weighted strings hung from two or more estab-
lished points in the roof of a room or entry, to give direction
to the men driving the entry or room.
Sill. — The floor piece of a timber set, or that on which the track
rests ; the base of any framing or structure.
Sing. — ^The noise made by a feeder of gas issuing from the coal.
Rarely used in Arkansas.
Singing Coal — Coal from which gas is issuing with a hissing
sound.
Single-entry System. — A system of opening a mine by driving a
single entry only, in place of a pair of entries. The air-cur-
rent returns along the face of the rooms, which must be kept
open.
Sink. — To excavate a shaft or slope ; to bore or put down a bore,
hole.
Sinker. — A man who works at the bottom of a shaft or face of a .
slope during the course of sinking. Known in Arkansas as
shaft sinker in a shaft.
Siphon. — A closed pipe for raising water over a low hill to a
lower position on the other side, operated by gravity.
Skip. — (r) A mine car.
(2) A car for hoisting out di a slope.
lyGoo'^lc
374 Coal Mining in Arkansas
(3) A thin slice taken off from a breast or pillar or rib
along its entire length or part of its length. Called slab in
Arkansas.
Skirting. — Road opened up or driven next a fall of stone, or an
old fallen place. Also called slab in Arkansas.
Slob. — (i) Split iwcces of timber from 2 in. to 3 in. thick, 4 ft.
to 6 ft. long, and 7 in. to 14 in. wide, placed behind sets or
frames of timber in shafts or levels.
(2) Pieces of wood sawed on the sides of a 1<^.
{3) A skip taken off the rib of an entry, or room.
Slack. — (i) Fine coal that will pass through the smallest sized
screen. The fine coal and dust resulting from the handling
of coal, and the disintegration of soft coal. In the soft coal
districts of Arkansas, this includes all coal which will pass
between bars i^ in. apart. In the semi-anthracite district
it includes all coal which passes through a yi in. round hole.
(2) The process by which soft coal disintegrates when ex-
posed to the air and weather.
Slant. — (1) An underground roadway at an angle between the
full rise or dip of the seam and the strike or level.
{2) Any inclined road in a seam.
(3) The short inclined crosscut connecting the entry with
its air-course to facilitate the hauling out of the coal. More
commonly called a dip switch when the coal seam is not level.
Slate. — (i) A hardened clay having a peculiar cleavage.
{2) About coal mines, slate is any shale accompanying
the coal, also sometimes applied to bony coal.
Slate Picker. — (i) A man or boy that picks the slate or bony
coal from anthracite coal,
(2) A mechanical contrivance for separating slate and coal.
Sliding Scale. — (i) A mode or regulating the wages paid work-
ing-men by taking as a basis for calculation the market
price of coal, the wages rising and falling with the state
of trade,
(2) (Ailfansas) A method of paying for the coal in pro-
portion to the amount of lump coal it contains.
Stip.—(i) A fault,
(2) .\ smooth joint or crack where the strata have moved
upon each other. •
lyGoO'^lc
Gi/)ssARY. 375
{3) (Arkansas) A joint in the coal upon which there may
have been no perceptable movement.
Water slip, a sl^ from which water flows.
Slope. — (i) A plane or inclined roadway, usually driven in the
seam from the surface.
(2) Any inclined haulage-way upon which the coal is
hauled by power, whether it reaches to the surface or not.
Distinguished from a plane down which the coal is lowered.
Rock slope, a slt^e driven through rock strata. Slope air-
course, a passageway parallel to the slope used for the pas-
sage of the air-current.
Small Bottom. — A local term used at Jennp Lind for the smaller
part of the bottom bench of the coal seam. This is below
the top bottom and separated from it by a smooth seam.
Smoke Room. — (Arkansas) An entry air-course driven room
width.
Snubbing. — (Aricansas) Increasing the hight of a mining by
picking down the lower layer of coal.
Socket. — (i) The innermost end of a shot hole, not blown
away after firing.
(2) A wronght-iron contrivance by means of which a wire
rope is securely attached to a chain or block.
Solid. — (i) Goal which has not been undermined, sheared, cut,
of otherwise prepared for blasting. Used in the expression,
'Shooting off the solid.'
(2) That part of the coal which can not be thrown out
by a single shot or the coal beyond the loose end. Used in
expressions describing holes drilled for blasting as, '3 ft.
into the solid,' or 'on the solid.'
Sollar. — A wooden platform fixed in a shaft, for the ladders, to
rest on.
Sounding. — (i) Knocking on a roof to see whether it is sound
or safe to work under.
(2) Ripping on a pillar so that a person on the other side
of it may be signaled to, or to enable him to estimate its
width.
Spike-team. — (Arkansas) A tandem team of mules hauling
coal.
Spiles. — A temporary lagging driven ahead on levels in loose
ground. Short pieces of planking sharpened flatways, and
lyGoO'^lc
3/6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
used for drivin|r into watery strata as sheet piling, to assist
in checking the flow.
Splint Coal. — A laminated, course, inferior, dull-looking, hard
coal, producing much white ash, intermediate between
cannel and bituminous coal.
Split. — (i) To divide an air-current into two or more separate
currents.
(2) Any division or branch of the ventilating current.
(3) The workings ventilated by that branch.
{4) Any member of a coal bed split by thick partings into
two or more seams.
(5) A bench .separated by a considerable interval from
the other benches of a coal bed.
Spiittjtig ^/lO/.— (Arkansas) A shot put into a large mass of
coal detached by a previous blast.
Spoon. — A slender iron rod with a cup-shaped projection at
right angles to the rod, used for scraping drillings out of a
bore hole.
Sprag. — (i) A short wooden prop set in a slanting position for
keeping up the coal during the operation of holing.
(z) A short round piece of hard wood, pointed at both
ends, to act as a brake when placed between the spokes of
a mine-car wheel.
(3) (Arkansas) Heavy slanting props wedged against the
coal to prevent it from flying when blasted.
Spragger. — One who tends to the spragging of cars, as at the
shaft bottom.
Sprag Road. — A mine road having such a sharp grade that
sprags are needed to control the speed of the car.
Spring Latch. — The latch or tongue of an automatic switch,
operated by a spring at the side of the track.
Spring Pole. — An elastic wooden pole from which boring rods
are suspended.
Spring. — To enlarge a blast hole by the explosion of a small
quantity of dynamite in it, in order to make it contain more
explosives.
Squealy Coal. — (Arkansas) Seamy coal from which the powder
often seams out with a squealing sound.
Squeeze.-^An extensive and slowly spreading crushing of the
mine pillars and settling of a strong roof.
lyGoO'^lc
Glossary. -^jy
Squib. — A straw, rush, paper, or quill tube filled with pritning
of gunpowder, with a slow match on one end, used for
lighting a blast by the use of a needle or blasting barrel.
Slamf. — (Arkansas) A mark from which the pit boss measures
the length of the working place for figuring yardage.
Standing Gas. — A body of firedamp known lo exist in a mine,
but not in circulation ; sometimes fenced off.
Steamboat Coal. — In anthracite only, coal small enough to pass
through bars set 6 to 8 in. apart, but too large to pass
through bars from 3 to 5 in. Comparatively few collieries
make steamboat coal except to fill special contracts or
orders. This size is called grate coal in Arkansas, and
fomis the chief output of the semi-anthracite mines.
Stem. — The heavy iron rod to which the bit is attached in deep
drilling by the rope method.
Stemming. — (i) Fine shale or dirt put into a shot hole after
the powder, and ramcned hard.
{2) Tamping a shot.
Sticky Coal. — (Arkansas) Coal strongly adhering to a hard
stratum of rock above or below it : frozen coal.
Stove Coai. — In anthracite only : two sizes of stove coal are
made, large and small; large stove, known as Xo. 3, passes
through a 254 to 2 in, mesh and over i-'^s in. to ij4 in.
mesh ; small stove, known as No. 4, passes through a 2 to
i^ in. mesh and over a i}4 in. to i in. mesh. Only No. 4
is made at most of the mines at Spadra; only No. 3 at
Russellville.
Sto'iL: — To pack away rubbish into goaves or old workings.
StratiHcation. — .\n arrangement in layers.
Stratum. — A layer or bed of rocks, or other deposit.
Streak. — The color of the mark made when a mineral is scratched
against a white surface.
Strike (of a seam or vein). — The intersection of an inclined seam
or vein with a horizontal plane. A level course in the seam.
The direction of strike is always at right angles to the
direction of the dip of the seam.
Strip. — (i) To remove the overlying strata of a bed or vein,
(2) To mine a deposit by first taking off the overlying
material.
lyGoO'^lc
378 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Strip-Pit. — A coal mine worked by stripping.
StuddU. — A piece of square timber placed vertically between two
sets of timbers in a shaft.
Stump. — The pillar between the gangway and each room turned
off the gangway. Sometimes the entry pillars are called
stumps.
Sulphur. — (i) One of the elements.
(2) Iron pyrites, occurring in coal seams.
Sulphide.— The combination of sulphur and a base.
Sump. — A catch basin into which the drainage of a mine flows
and from which it is pumped to the surface.
Sunshine, or Miners' Sunshine. — (Arkansas) The trade name
of a soft grade or paraffin wax with a low melting point. It
can be burned in an ordinary pit lamp with a nail (usually
c<^per} in the wick and gives little smoke.
Swing or S2t'ing Loose. — (Arkansas) To gradually loosen over
a considerable area and sag. Said of tTie rock over a mine
worsting place.
Swing Parting. — (Arkansas) A parting some distance from the
mouth of an entry. The loaded cars are left here by the
gatliering driver to be taken out by a sxt-ing driver, with a
su-ing mule or a spike team.
Swag. — An Arkansas form of sag.
Swamp. — A depression or natural hollow in a seam ; a basin.
Switch. — (i) The movable tongue or rail by which a train is
diverted from one track to another.
(2) The junction of two tracks.
(3) A movable arm for changing the course of an elec-
trical current.
Syncline. — A fold in the rode with the concave side upward ; a
hasm. The trough of a fold in the rocks.
Tail-rope. — (i) In a tail-rope system of haulage, the rope that
is used to draw tiie empties back into the mine.
(3) A wire rope attached beneath cages, as a balance.
Take Up Bottom. — (Arkansas) To remove rock from the floor
of a roadway to increase the bight ; bottom brushing.
Take the Air. — ( i ) To measure the ventilating current.
(z) Applied to a ventilating fan as working well, or work-
ing poorly.
lyGoO'^lc
Glossary. 379
Tally.— (i) A mark or number placed by the miner on every
car of coal sent out of his place, usually a tin ticket. By
counting these, a tally is made of all the cars of coal he sends
out. Called a check in Arkansas.
(2) Any numbering, or counting, or memorandum, as a
tally sheet.
Tamp. — To fill a bore hole, after inserting the charge, with some
substance which is rammed hard as it is ^ut into the hole.
Telegraph. — A sheet-iron trough-shaped shute, for conveying
coal or slate from the screens io the pockets, or boilers.
Temper Screw. — In rope drilling, a screw for gradually lowering
the clamped (upper) end of the rope as the hole is deepened.
Tension Fault or Gravity Fault. — See normal fault.
Three-track Tipple. — A tiwle having three railroad tracks
beneath it and used for preparing three kinds of coal.
Throw. — (i) A geological fault or displacement of the rock.
(2) The vertical distance between two edges of a faulted
bed or coal or rock.
Thrust. — A squeese.
Thrust Fault. — A displacement of the rocks along a fissure in
such a way that the edge of a layer of rock on one side of
the fissure overlaps the edge of the same layer over the other
side. This is believed to be caused by horizontal pressure
and is the common type of '^row' found in the coal mines
south of the Arkansas River. Also called reverse fault.
Tipper, or Tipple. — An apparatus for emptying cars of coal or
ore, by turning them upside down, and then bringing them
ba<k to the original position, with a minimum of manual
labor.
(2) (Arkansas) Any device for entptying mine cars.
Ti^le is the common name.
Tipple. — ^The dump trestle and tracks at the mouth of a shaft
or slope, where the output of a mine is dumped, screened,
and loaded.
Toe. — The inner end of a shot. Also called point.
Top. — Mine roof. Top coal, the upper part of a coal bed separated
from the rest by a seam or parting. Top bottom (Ark-
ansas), the upper part of the bottom bench of a coal bed.
lyGoO'^lc
380 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Train, or Trip. — The cars taken at one time by mules, or by any
motor, or run at one time on a slope, plane, or sprag road,
always together. Trip is the term used in Arkansas.
Tram. — A mine car, or the track on which it runs.
Trammer. — One who pushes cars along the track. In Arkansas
known as a pusher.
Trapper. — A boy employed tmderground to tend doors. .
Tree. — (Arkansas) A thick log used as a prop in heavy ground.
Trip. — The mine cars in one train. See train.
Tripple-entry System. — A system of opening a mine by driving
three parallel entries for the main entries.
Trommel.— A drum, consisting of a cylinder- or cone-shaped
sheet -iron mantle (generally punched with holes) that re-
voles ; used for washing or sorting ores.
Trouble. — .\ dislocation or fault; any irregularity in the bed.
Truck System. — Paying miners in food instead of money.
Tub. — (i) .\ mine car.
(2) An iron, or wooden barrel used in a shaft, for hoisting
material. Called car or bucket in Arkansas,
Tubbing. — Cast-iron, and sometimes timber, lining or walling of
a circular shaft.
Tunnel. — A horizontal passage driven across the measures and
open to day at both ends ; applied also to such passages
open to day at one end, or not open to day at either end.
Turn. — (1) The hours during which coal, etc., is being raised
from the mine. Called run in Arkansas.
(2) To open rooms, lieadings. or chutes off from an entrj-
or gangway.
(3 The number of cars allowed each miner. Good turn.
many cars for each miner.
Turnout. — .\ siding or passing on any tram or haulage road.
Tiirn Our.— (.Arkansas) To shovel coal towards the track for
more convenient loading.
Twin Entries. — .A pair of entries close together and carrying the
air current in and out. so laid out that rooms can be worked
from both entries. Often called in Arkansas double entries.
Two-track Tipple. — .\- tipple having two railroad tracks beneath
it and used for preparing two kinds of coal,
Undercast. — An air-course carried under another air-course or
roadway.
lyGoo^^lc
Glossary. 381
Underclay. — A bed of fireclay or other less clayey stratum, lying
immediately beneath a seam of coal.
Undercut. — Undermine, hole, or mine. Mine is the common
Arkansas term.
Upcast. — The shaft through which the return air ascends.
Upthrow. — The side of a fault or throw upon which the dis-
placement has been upwards.
Vein. — .\ tabular mass of mineral, deposited from liquid solu-
tions, often applied incorrectly to a seam or bed of coal or
other mineral.
Vent. — (i) A small passage made with a needle through the
tamping, which is used for admitting a squib, to enable the
charge to be lighted.
(2) .\ny opening made into a confined space.
Ventilation. — Circulalion. The asmospheric air circulating in
Volatile Combustible. — That part of the combustible matter of
coal which is driven off when the coal is heated in a closed
vesssel, chiefly compounds of hydrogen and carbon,
iValling. — The brick or stone lining of a shaft.
Wall Plates. — The two longest pieces of timber in a set used in a
rectangular shaft.
IVashery, or Coal JVasher, or Slack Washer. — Machinery for
separating by the aid of water the impurities from coal.
Washer. — .-V jig.
Water-Box. — A square open wooden tank car used for removing
small amounts of water from low places in a mine. Also the
tank car used for sprinkling roadways to settle the dust.
Water Cartridge. — A waterproof cartridge surrounded by an
outer case. The space between being filled with water,
which is employed to destrby the flame produced when the
shot is fired, thereby lessens the chance of an explosion
should gas be present in the place.
Water Gage. — An instrument for measuring the pressure per
square foot producing ventilation in a mine.
Water Grade. — (i) The inclination of an entry which is just
sufficient to drain off the water or 6 in, to 12 in. in 100 ft,
(2) A grade determined by keeping the working place
nearly parallel to the edge of the pool of water standing
lyGoO'^lc
382 Coal Mixing ix Arkansas
upon its floor. Water grade is sometimes incorrectly called
water level.
Water-slip. — (Arkansas) A crack or dislocation in the roof of
a coal mine from which a considerable water flows.
Water Yardage. — (Arkansas) Extra payment to the miners
who work in a wet place either by the yard of progress or
the ton of coal mined or rarely the day of time.
Weather. — To crumble by exposure to the atmosphere.
Wedging. — The material, moss or wood, used to render the shaft
lining tight.
Wedging Shot. — (Arkansas) .\n opening shot.
Wedging Doivn. — Breaking down rtie coal at the face with
hammers and wedges instead of by blasting.
Weigh Basket, or Weigh Pan. — .-^ny receptacle in which the coal
is weighed after it is dumped from the pit cars.
Whim. — A winding drum worked by a horse.
Whip. — A hoisting appliance consisting of a pully supporting
the hoisting rope to which the horse is directly attached.
Whitedamp. — Carbon monoxide (CO). A gas found in coal
mines, generally where ventilation is slack. It is extremely
poisonous.
Wind Gage. — An anemometer, for testing the velocity of air in
mines.
Windy Shot. — (Arkansas) A shot which causes a concussion in
the air, usualy by an excessive amount of powder behind an
easily loosened mass of coal.
Wings. — See rests and keeps.
Work.—ii) To mine,
(2) To crumble and yield under the action of a squeeze.
Applied to pillars or roof of a coal mine.
(3) To be slowly closing under the action of a squeeze.
Applied to portions of the mine workings.
Workable. — Any seam that can be profitably mined.
Worked Out. — When all available mineral has been extracted
from a mine, it is worked out.
Working Cost. — The total cost of producing the mineral.
Working Face. — See face.
Working Home. — Getting or working out a seam of coal, etc.,
from the boundary or far end of the mine toward the shaft
bottom.
lyGoo'^lc
GUJSSARY. 383
Working Place. — The place in a mine at which the coal is being
actually mined.
Workings. — ^The openings of a colliery inculding all roads, rooms,
levels, dips, airways, etc.
Woody. — (Arkansas) Having the consistency of partially de-
cayed wood.
Yardage. — (l) Price paid per yard for cutting coal.
{2) The extra compensation a miner receives in addition
to the mining price for working in a narrow place or in
d(£cient coal. Usually at such a price per yard the working
is advanced.
Yield. — The proportion of a seam sent to market ; the recovery.
lyGoo'^lc
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
The Geological Survey
ARKANSAS
Coal Mining in Arkansas
PART II
BY A. A. STEEL, B. S. in C. E., E. M.
Pivluwr ol Mining. Univeraiiy of Arknnw;
En(inMr in Ciiarga of Cnal-
Mining invwiigniion*
A. H. PURDUE
SLInGnolngiM
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
To the Chairman, Governor George W. Donaghey, and Members
of the Geological Commission of Arkansas:
Gentlemen: I have the honor to submit to you herewith,
Part II of the report on Coal Mining in Arkansas,
Respectfully yours,
A. H. PURDUK.
State Geologist.
Nashville, Tennessee.
July 6, 1912,
lyGoO'^lc
„Gooi^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
PART n
INTRODUCTION
Id recommending changes in Arkansas coal-mining methods,
three objects are to be kept in view. In the order of their impor-
tance to the State at large, these are, first, a reduction in the
number of accidents to the miners and in the amount of sickness
among them ; second, a reduction in the loss of coal and improv&-
meat in its quality as placed upon the market; and, lastly, a
decrease in the cost of raining the coal. These objects all come
under the head of conservation and may be called the conserva-
tion of the health and safety of the miners, the conservation of
the coal, and the conservation of the expense of mining it.
An increase in the cost of mining coal and, therefore, in its
cost to the consumers, is generally recognized as the pricfi of
increased safety. Therefore, some safeguards to the miners will
be suggested here, even though they increase the cost oJ the coal.
Such changes vriW but little more than place Arkansas abreast
of neighboring states in which the competing coal-mines are
situated and in which the coal-mining regulations are steadily
being made more stringent. At the best, there will still be acci-
dents as long as miners, operators, and mine inspectors are human
and careless, and as long as some of the causes of accidents are
as obscure as at present.
The complete recovery of the coal in mining will increase
the cost of the coal and, in many cases, the danger to the miners
also. There are, however, many changes wbich, it is believed,
will reduce ^e waste of coal without additional danger to the
miners, and without an increase in the final cost to the mine
owner. This discussion will be restricted to such methods, be-
cause it is useless to recommend others until a constitutional and
lyGoO'^lc
390 Coal Mining in Arkansas
practicable method of state supervision of mining has been
devised. Eccmomies in mining will be considered that do not
increase the danger to the men, do not cause greater waste of
coal, and do not reduce the wages of the individual miners.
Many dianges in mining methods and equipment will result
in a saving of money as well as a saving of the coal or the lives
of the miners. These changes might, therefore, be discussed in
order of the extent of variation from present methods, but it is
thought best to group them in accordance with the main object
of each change, with repetition when necessary. As the least
restricted by the others, the welfare of the miners is considercid
first. The conservation of the coal must then be considered
before the methods of reducing raining costs can be fully dis-
cussed.
lyGoO'^lc
CHAPTER IX
CONSERVATION OF THE HEALTH AND SAFETY OF THE
MINERS
MINING LAWS.
Kinds of accidents. Mine accidents, especially in the United
States, are caused chiefly by the carelessness of the victims, who
t^e needless risks, sometimes through ignorance of the danger,
but more often for the sake of saving time, labor, or expense.
Variable proportions of the remaining accidents are caused by
the carelessness of the mine operator or his officials, by the care-
lessness of the fellow employees of the victim, or by the hazard
of the industry.
The hazard of the industry. The hazard of the industry of
coal nuning is shown by the accidents that are unexpected or
whose causes are unknown. These accidents are as yet unavoid-
able and are a part of the price the community pays for its coal.
They are being reduced in number as our knowledge is increased
by constant study and investigatk>n. This work is done mostly
by the various state and government organizations and the tech-
nical associations of mining men. To reduce- these accidents,
such study should be liberally sujqxjrted.
Carelessness of the operators. The accidents due to care-
lessness can be largely prevented by the constant education of all
persons connected with mining, as to the cause and prevention
of accidents, and by enacting and enforcing laws preventing care-
lessness. Sickne&s among the miners can be reduced in a similar
way. The existing laws and especially the heavy cost of the
damages exacted for accidents have largely checked the careless-
ness of the operators. As the causes of accidents and sickness
become better known, the hazard of the industry can be reduced
by amending the mining regulations from time to time to throw
the burden of preventing accidents upon the operators if possible.
The cost will then come upon the consumer of the coal as it
should. Rigid enforcement of such regulatkms will protect the
miner from the carelessness of the operators.
lyGoO'^lc
392 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Carelessness of the mmer^. Most of the states of this coun- '
try also have laws designed to protect the miner from the care-
lessness of himself or of his feUows. The strict enforcement of
similar laws largely explains the low accident rate of Great Brit-
ain and other European countries. In this country, there is
unfortunately a feeling that a man should be allowed to run any
risk he wi^es regardless of those dependent upon him for sup-
port. In the mines, ^is is oftoi extended to permit a careless
miner to jeopardize his mates. This attitude causes tiie miners
to resent any but the most obvious regulations governing their
own conduct Owing to the political power of the miners, most
mine inspectors dare not enforce any of the more paternal regu-
lations. Nevertheless, it seems advisable to try to secure the
proper laws, and tiien begin to educate the miners and the public
sufficiently to allow the laws to be enforced.
Sickness among the miners. The enforcement and enact-
ment of laws preventing sickness is still more difficult because
of the greater obscurity of the causes. The example of some of
the energetic state and city boards of health is very encouraging.
The ^cial problems of the mines must await the solution of the
more general health problems of the State.
Changes in the laws. The most necessary changes in the
i\j-kansas mining laws have been fully discussed in Chapter VI,
Part I. The great increase in the accidents following the change
in mining methods induced by the mine-run law was indicated oo
page 274. It is hoped that the recommendations in Chapters VI
and VII can be immediately carried out. Then, as soon as the
industrial situation warrants it, the more stringent regulations
here mentioned may be successively enacted into law. If done
slowly to keep pace wttli neighboring states, this will cause no
hardship to the mining industry.
SLIGHT IMPROVEMENTS IN HEALTH CONDITIONS.
Smoky Ugkts. The injury caused by the burning of smoky
oil was pointed out on page 153. Better light is greatly needed
to reduce the accidents from falls of roof, and the matter will be
diseossed under that head.
Dust. Most of the dust of the coal mines is caused by the
drying effect of the ventilating current. To prevent this, the air
lyGoO'^lc
CONSEKVATION OF THE MINERS. 393
current should be warmed and moistened to mine conditions as
soon after it enters the mine as possible. This will also prevail
duat explosions and will be fully discussed on page 410. In the
very few mines in which the coal is naturally dry, the miners will
be oUiged to inhale a little dust while shoveling coal or making
tht cutting. The coal dust is not as irritating as street dust
containing grit and organic matter, and the miners would rather
breathe it than take the trouUe to sprinkle the coal pile. Sprink-
ling alone will not protect the miner irom dust while making a
cutting. Respirators would protect the miner if kept in good
OHiditicn, but the discomfort is so great that the miners would not
wear them except under most rigid supervision. The best pro-
cedure is, therefore, to take measures to reduce the injury caused
by the dust by maintaining the general health of the miners.
Physicians say that no local treatment is advisable.
Dry roads. By agreement between the Miners' Union and
the operators, the traveling-ways of the Arkansas mines are now
nearly all so well drained that the miners need not get their feet
wet in going to work, Experieoce has shown that the draining
of the entries gives a good return in the increased output of the
mules and drivers and the better condition of the feet of the
mules. The draining of most entries is a simple matter except
in low places or swamps of the coal seam, where the water must
be pumped. When necessary, it would be well to change the
hours of the pumpman so that he can get to these places as soon
as the fire-boss has inspected them, and get the water out before
the miners come in. All the smaller depressions should be
drained and the ditches maintained in good ccoidition so that
the entries will not be even muddy.
Sanitation. All of the Arkansas mines are without any
undei^ound toilet «>nveniences. If the ventilation is poor, an
offensive odor results. This odor alone has not been proved to
be injurious. Even with t^e best of ventilation, however, this
carelessness will pollute tiie mine-water and general surroundings,
S<xne miners use the dearer mine-water for drinking purposes,
and nearly all of them get it upon their hands :uid so into their
mouths in small quantities. This promotes the spread of water-
bom filth diseases, such as typhoid fever. Much more serious
is the danger of hook-worm and the allied miners' worm, which
lyGoO'^lc
394 Coal Mining in Arkansas
causes the disease called ankylostimiasts. Tliis has already be-
come serious in some o£ the German mines,* The eggs of these
worms hatch soon after they are discharged from the intestines.
Under the conditions of warmth and damp of the mines, the tiny
immature worms live for a long time and travel some distance.
They can enter the body and infect another miner whenever they
come in contact with his skin. The disease is not fatal but
decreases the strength and vitality of the miners.
Even thou^ it will be impossible to induce all the miners
to use them, privies should be provided in every entry. With a
separate split of air for each entry, they should be placed at the
last of the air so as to create no nuisance. Since the back entry
will then carry the return air-current, the best place is in the
hack entry just outside of the last dip switch. The waste should
be kept out of the mine-water and disinfected once or twice a
month hy a^jperas, which costs only 2c. or 3c. a pound. All
waste matter should be well sprinkled with cc^peras and deeply
buried' each time the foilet is moved forward. At some of the
metal mines, steel toilet oars are provided. They can be sealed
and at intervals taken to the surface and cleaned with o hose.t
With the ordinary surface arrangements of a coal mine, there
will he no advantage in taking waste to the surface. It can just
as well be buried underground.
Drinking water. At the entrance to every mine, there should
be an abundant and ctmvenient supply of the most wholesome
drinking water available, and the miners should be encouraged to
carry this into the mine. Any good springs found in the mine
should also be arranged for the use of the miners.
Tiresome walking. Primarily to prevent acckients from
cars, the miners should be carried to and from their working
places as discussed on page 441. This will relieve the workers of
the large mines from 4^e exhaustion caused by a walk of a mile
or more, often in a stocking position and over a rough road.
They will begin their day's work in better condition, and also be
more inclined to set necessary props at once. It will often pay
by attracting more good miners to the large mines.
'Ankylostimiasis, Its Cause, Treatment, and Prevention. London:
The Colliery Guardian Co., Ltd. 32 pp. Illustrated.
tAnaconda Toilet Cars. Mines and Minerals. Feb. 1910. Vol. XXX.
p. 410. Also used at Goldfield, Nevada.
lyGoo'^lc
COHSBRVATION OF THE MiNEBS. 395
Good explosives. No dynamite or other nttrc^lycerme ex-
plosive should be &red under such conditions that the men will
have to breathe the gases. The gases from black powder are
not so injurious, but even this should not be fired during woHcing
hours except in places having an air current strong enough to
carry the smoke away at once. If safety explosives are used
during working hours, the miners should be supplied with blast-
ing caps of ample strength, given but a few at a time and cau-
tioned to keep them as dry as possible, so that the explosive will
be properly detonated. The safety powder should be selected to
give as harmless fumes as possible. These precautions are
especially necessary wherever two shifts of men are at work. If
the mine is very wet, the more poisonous gases are quickly dis-
solved in water. When work must be rushed, sprays or water
may be used to quickly clear the working places.
Strong drafts. With splitting ventilation, none of the miners
will be subjected to a strong chilling draft except the few who
work in the main intake. When larger air-ways are provided,
the injury to these men will also be reduced. Such arrangement
will lessen the temptation to burn smoky oil. Sheltered rooms
should be provided for waiting and for eating lunch wherever
there is a strong chilling draft at the foot of a shaft in winter
time. If the air-current is moistened and warmed to mine con-
ditions as soon as possible after it enters the mine, the draft will
be less injurious.
At a few mines the sk>pe is unnecesarily heated by a long
steam line to the pump. As a result, the miners are overheated
in walking out and likely to take cold upon reaching the open
air. Such pipes should be kept off the regular traveling-way, or
better still, the more economical electric pump should be installed.
INCREASED VOLUME 07 AIR.
The present condition of mine ventilation. As stated in
Chapter VI, the ventilation of the Aricansas mines is seldom
sufBcient for the most healthful conditions. They should be ven-
tilated by splitting as now required by law. In addition, larger
air-ways should be provided, and the leakage through the stop^
pings should be reduced in order that a strong current of pure
air may reach each working place with the greatest certainty and
n> 000^^10
39^ Coal Mining in Arkansas
at th« least expense. Each split should have a sufficient current
to rapidly drive away any body of gas. The kakage througn
the stoppings is largely the result of the unfortunate law which
requires, in gassy nwws, a crosscut erery 30 ft., instead of speci-
fying the amount of air to be deHvered within 30 ft. of each
woricing [^ace. "Hie miners see that the crosscuts are drirea
because they get paid for driving them, but in many mines, the
driving of crosscuts actually reduces the efficiency of the ven-
tilation.
Avoiding stoppings in dipping coal. The law should be
modified as suggested oh page 231. In the meantime, the small
air-ways and the need of tight stoppings may be avoided by the
plans shown on plates IV and VIII. Plate VIII is intended to
represent half of what may be called a single panel of coal dip-
ping too steeply for twin haulage entries. The triple entry may
represent a slope from the surface or any inner slope or plane
off a main level entry leading to a shaft at the left. The double
entries of this panel will be driven as far as it pays to use mule
haulage, and the slope as far as it pays to woric by a single rope.
The plate also shows plans for leavmg room pillars at the least
expense and then robbing them.
. The course of the ventilating current is rather obscurely
shown by the small arrows. The air enters by the sl<^e and bc^
of its air-courses. The air from this half of the panel returns
tihrough the line of double rooms nearest the slc^. There is an
overcast and regulator at each well-advanced entry and a perma-
nent st«^)ping at the neck of one of the air-course rooms and m
the entry air-course between the slope and the overcast. If the
roof is of very strong sandstone, these rooms may be as wide as
the miners care to make them. If the roof is of average strength,
they should be held to the minimum room-width allowed by
agreement with the miners, and they should be systematically
timbered. Under a very poor roof, they must be narrower, and
yardage must be paud according to the local conditions. In gen-
eral, there will be no great need of rushing this work. The pil-
lar between the two rooms is small to avoid payment of yardage
on the required crosscuts. These rooms and the main slope ate
amply protected by ttie heavy pillars formed by omtttmg one or
more rooms on each side. These pillars cost only interest on
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation uF the Miners. 397
the yardage of the entry past them from the time of driving the
entiy till the time of driving the omitted rooms. This is paid
for by security against squeezes.
The present laV requires the overcasts, so doors can not be
snbstttated. Moreover, the cost of the overcasts is soon repaid
by the saving m wages of trappers. The cost of forcing suffi-
cient air through alt these workings to adequately ventilate them
by a single split would be prohibitive anyway. Additional over-
casts are shown at the head of the main slope. Stoppii^s may
be substituted and one overcast used as at present, biit the better
ventilation is worth the cost of the extra overcasts. If the slope
starts from the surface, two separate fans are better tlian the
extra overcasts.
Advantages of special air-course rooms. If the roof is good,
this plan costs no more than the present one of 'returning the
air trough the slope air-course, and it has the following advan-
tages : The heavy combined air-current is carried in passages of
some three times the present cross-section. The power required
is therefore only about one-ninth as much, and the air pressure
and tendency to leakage are correspondingly reduced. Only
two permanent stoppings are required for each lift instead of
ei^t or nine. These can be made of permanent concrete at the
cost of installing and maintaining wooden ones in the ei^t or
nine slope crosscuts. The leakage through slope crosscuts, which
is the most serious, is therefore eliminated entirely. The separa-
tion of the intake and return air-ways is a secure pillar of coal
interrupted by the minimum number of openings. This reduces
the damage from windy shots, and enables the rescue party to
carry the ventilation down the mine in one-fourth the time, in
case all stoppings are blown out by a dust explosion. The stop-
pings between the slope and its air courses may be of the most
temporary character. After the air-course rooms are connected,
the slope stoppings may be removed and ^the slope air-course will
form an ideal traveling-way for the miners. It will carry an
intake air-atrrent and be accessible from the sl<^ at short
intervals.
Addttional lines of overcasts. When entries become k)ng,
the leakage of even a snigle split bect»nes serious, because the
I must be placed every 36 ft, and are loosened by the
lyGoO'^lc
yjH CuAL MixixG IN Ahka.ssas
shocks of heavy blasting and occasional windy shots. This can
be reduced by a second line of overcasts connecting pairs of pro-
tected rooms as shown on Plate VIII. As long as coal is hauled
along the first entry, the small amount of air c(Knmg from the
lower entries can be returned through the first entry air-course.
By the time two or three lower entries are thus c<Minected, the
upper entry will have reached its limit and by placing a stoppmg
at its entrance, the main entry as well as its air-course' can be
used as a return. This avoids tlie need of the entry stoppii^
and reduces the resistance by increasing the size of the air-way.
The second entry will next become the return air-way, and pillar
robbing can be started at the end of the first entry.. The venti-
lating current will then return from the first entry through the
last room of the second entry. The plate shows No. S as th*
idle return entry and robbing in progress on 2, 3, and 4. As
long as no more than two splits of air-current are required for
pillar robbing no stc^pings will be needed in the entries oemg
robbed.
As soon as an entry is ventilateo oy tnis new line 01 over-
casts all the stoppings between the two overcasts can be replaced
by a single stopping placed where the regulator was. Both the
entry and its air-course can then carry an intake current with a
reduction in the resistence. On Plate VIII, the temporary stop-
pings still needed are shown by single lines. The masonry ones
are shown by double lines. This plate represents a ponion of
a mine sufficiently opened to provide working [daces for 100
men. With crosscuts 6 ft. wide and 30 ft. apart, or 36 ft, center
to center, it requires only two hundred temporary stoppings and
seventeen additional permanent ones. Under the plan ot venti-
lation in use at present, a mine of the same size would require
over five hundred st0[^tngs in the entries. Of these, three hun-
dred would have to resist greater air pressure than any of the
temporary stoppings under the modified plan, and have, say, twice
as great a leakage. Even without allowing for increased leak-
age as the stoppings get old, these results indicate that a second
lin,e of overcasts will avcnd three quarters of the leakage of a
mine of this size. This will require seven additional overcasts,
which would cost between $r,200 and $1,500. It will save an
unknown amount in repairs to st(q>pings. Replacing of the stop-
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of th^ Miners. 399
pings on the first 1,500 ft. of seven entries would cost nearly
half this amount.
Avoiding Stoppings in Hat coal seams. On Plate IV, the
second west entry shows the simplest method of avoiding leaky
stoj^iags where the coal is so flat that twin haulage entries can
be used. This may be called a twin single-entry system. The
first break-through between the rooms provides one of the air-
courses, and the room-necks serve as crosscuts. This can be
used whenever the cover is so thin that the pillars between room-
necks need not be more than 30 ft. wide. As soon as these single
entries become so long that the leakage at the room-neck is
serious, crosscuts may be driven between the haulage-ways.
These will be so few ^at the leakage through them will not be
serious. This change improves the ventilation and actually saves
money.
As soon as the twin entries are worked out to the next cut-off
entry, both of them can be used for return air -while the cutnaff
and its air-course bring in fresh air. In this way, the resistance
can be cut down. In a large mine, it will be necessary to drive
the main level haulage-ways as two sqarate pairs of entries
separated by a solid pillar of coal.
For the future deep mines in the basins, the pillars between
rooms must be thicker to prevent squeezes. In this case, leakage
through the crosscuts can only be avoided by very expensive
stoppings or a modification of the law, but in any case frequent
cut-off entries will m^e the renewal of stoppings unnecessary
and will reduce the air pressure i^ainst them.
CHANGE HOUSES.*
Requirements of change houses. For the general health of
the miners, more sanitary camps as outlined on page 114 are
the greatest need. Of almost equal importance is the use of
proper change houses. These are especially important in the
cold weather when the minere come up from the mine tired and
sweaty and have to go in the icy weather some distance to their
houses. Some wear old coats over their pit clothes, but there is
generally no place to store them at the mine, and the miners
rather run the risk of cold than carry their heavy wraps on the
*This discussion was published in Mines and Minerals. Jane, 1913.
[iqii^sanyGoOC^Ie
400
Coal Mining in Arkansas
long walk underground. Where the miners have been induced
to bathe and change clothes at the pit mouth, the amount of pneu-
nwnia among them has shown a remarkable falling off.*
Miners will not use change houses unless they are attractive.
The buildings must therefore be well ventilated, lighted, and
warmed, and be easily cleaned. It is strongly recommended that
there be a separate room m which the early miners can wait
until time to go down the mine. Since all riie miners will change
their clones at about the same time, a good deal of floor space
is needed and there will be plenty of room for large lockers in
a single tier. To dry Hie miners' towels, shoes, and pit clothes,
warm dry air must pass through each looker, T-o check the
spread of lice, the partitions between lockers should be tight and
the separate locker Tooms arranged to ^ lilied at intervals with
the vapor of some insecticide. Near the batiis sbouM be a space
in which the miners can dry themselves before returning to the
locker room.
s
IIIUI II l| >
pig. 67' Suggested change bouse.
Suggested arrangement of a change house. Figure 67 is a
sug^sted plan for one-half of such a change house to acconuno-
date 192 men. The entire floor is to be cemented and to slope
about % inch to the foot toward the central drain under tiie
baths. All lockers and benches are supported on iron pipe legs,
15 to 18 in. long, and the lower 6 ft. of the walls plastered with
*Bn^ffeering and Mining Journal, Feb. 18, 1911, p. 386.
1: :, ,1 .Goc^lc
GEOLOGICAL SUBVev OF ^
4^
i.i
jiiiiiLiHiiTn;
.1 ' 111 ILLLLliiL
'•%
)&iJA?a^*ii^^~iit.
c r
I *ivn:.v !iiDi;.i.!
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 401
cement on metal lath. The entire floor should be washed with a
hose twice a day. The lockers are shown 12 by 18 in, inside',
in rows 8 ft. apart, with a bench between the rows. Each locker
should have a pair of narrow shelves near ^k top and near the
bottom, clothes hooks on all four sides, and a partition to separate
the pit clothes from the street clothes. The top and bottom
should be heavy wire screen or expanded metal with a line of
steam pipe beneath each row of lockers. This steam should be
on a portion of the day in all kinds of weather; and for heating
in winter, there ^ould be wall coils on a separate circuit.
Fumigation of change houses. For ease of fumigation, the
k>cker room should be tight ; complete outside covering of some
ready mofing with cemented joints would be effective. There
should be tight partitions between the rooms, and the windows
should be close to the eaves to insure privacy as well as tightness
of the cemented part. Good air can be insured by opening the
windows inwards and fitting the ridge of the roof with a con-
tintwus ventilator which can be <^>ened and closed from the
ante-room.
The only feasible insecticide is carbon disulphide.* This is
a heavy liquid which bcrils at 115 degrees F. and rapidly saturates
the surrounding air with its vapor. The vapor is nearly three
times as heavy as air and fills up the bottom of any enclosed
place such as the proposed cement lined locker room. It can be
readily applied by throwing the liquid into the open top of the
lockers. For this purpose, there ^wuld be plank walks above the
lockers, leading to a high door to the ante-room. The attendant
will, therefore, get but little of the vapor. It does not readily
affect a human being and causes a warning headache long before
there is danger of fainting. It does not injure the hands or deli-
cate fabrics. It has a very disagreeable odor but this soon leaves
clothing hung in the open air. The liquid could be applied after
quitting time on Saturday and all the odor will be gone before
, Monday if the ventilation is restored on Sunday. Before ^>ply-
iog it, the steam heat below tiie lockers should be cut off. The
greatest objection to carbon disulfrfiide is its inflammability. The
'Hydrocyanic acid is cheaper and in sufficient quantities kitla even
the eggs of insects. It is, however, such a deadly poison that tt can be
safely used only by a skilled chemist. Formaldehyde has been recom-
mended but is not effective, costs too much, and leaves a penetrating odor
in tfie clotiiing.
lyGoo'^lc
402 Coal Mixing in Arkansas
mixture of its vapor and air is explosive and ignites at a low
red heat, much more readily than either firedamp or gasohne.
All fire must therefore be kept away from it,
Paul Hayhurst, Professor of Entomology, University of
Arkansas, states that fleas, lice, and most other insects can be
killed by vapor of carbon disulphide if i to i>^ pounds of it arc
applied to each lOo cubic feet of space containing grain, cloth-
ing, etc. For open rooms only one-tenth of this quantity is
needed. The locker room sketched here, large enough to accom-
accommodate ninety-six miners, will require only 7 to 10 pounds
of carbon disulphide for each fumigation, if the room is filled
to a deptli of 7 ft. Commercial carbon disulphide can be obtained
through a local dru|^ist in lots of ten galI<Mis or more, at ^bout
IOC, a pound. The cost will, therefore, be only about ic. for
each man. It does not kill the eggs, and, to prevent all breeding
of lice or fleas, the clothing would require fumigation about oince
every two weeks. The few mature insects brou^t in with the
street clothes will not spread seriously. If necessary, the locker
room could be fumigated occasionally, while the men are at woik
and the street clothes are in the lockers. It is only for a short
season each year that the fleas are annoying.
Change houses have been so arranged that the miner can
hang all his clothes upon a rope or light chain, hoist them up out
of Teach, and lock them there. This is cheaper than the lockers
but not as neat and docs not admit of ready fumigation.*
Water supply for change houses. To prevent waste of hot
water, each shower should be fitted with a single valve accessible
from the outside. The temperature of the water will be regu-
lated by the attendant. The hot water tank should be maintained
at a constant temperature. If under only a slight pressure and
heated by coils containing exhaust steam, it can be kept at the
ordinary boiling point without boiling and waste of heat. Tlie
hot water can be drawn off at; the top of the tank and cold water
let in at the bottom from the slightly elevated cold water tank.
Both tanks must have drain pipes to remove mud, settling from
the ordinary soft water supply of the mine.
The miners arc usually willing to pay ciKMigh for a good
(flange house to hire the attendant. He should, however, be
'Cool Age. Jan. 27. 19"-
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 403
hired by the mine foreman so that he will not trj' to coax the
men to put up with a little dirt. The operator should furnish
hof water and lights and maintain the building.
BETTER DISCIPLINE
For the prevention of accidents, the first thing needed is
better discipHne. At present the mine foreman is allowed no
control of the methods of digging coal or propping the rooms.
He, therefore, can not give any instruction to the miners diat
are inexperienced or new to the district, nor can he exercise any
restraint whatever over any miner that wishes to run a risk.
The drivers and other day-men are in general perfectly willing
- to take orders about matters affecting the company's interest, but
if the foreman suggests any change in the way of handling cars
or mules so as to reduce the danger to the ■woricmen, they look
upon it as an unwarranted interference. The most certain secur-
ity is the enactment of laws preventing the miner from risking
his life and that of his fellows, and in the enforcement of such
laws,
■ As a more practical and immediate relief, it is ui^d that
the local Unions adopt regulations governing safety at each of
the mines. All persons who violate the rules should be rather
severely fined and the money used as the Union wishes. It
might be well to use it as a fund for the relief of injured miners.
The mine foreman and pit-committee together can enforce the
rules, and if necessary the most reckless men can be discharged.
The Union has already prevented crowding on the cages.
CAS BURNS.
The frequent burns from gas are generally due to poor
discifJine and the impatience of the miners. These can be most
certainly prevented by keeping all men out of that split of air-
current which contains gas, until the gas is out, or generally until
noon. As another inducement to prevent the miners from brush-
ing gas out of their rooms, the company should provide plenty
of brattice men to get the gas out of the way before the miners
become impatient. These men should have plenty of materia),
and the air-current should be so split that there will be no objec-
tion to carrying the air behind long brattices.
lyGoO'^lc
404 Coal Mining in Arkans.\s
The fire-boss and superintendent should instruct alt the brat-
tice men in safe methods of blowing gas out of rooms. A few
of the more frequently violated rules may be repeated here :
1. The fire-boss shall see that no person working with gas has an
open lamp with him even though it is unlighted and supposed to be used
only in walking out.
2. Safety lamps should be kept in the fresh gal-free air at all times
while brattices arc being built, except when testing for gas. The Davy
tamp used for testing should be sheltered from all drafts.
3. It the ventilation of more than one or two places has been in-
terrupted for more than a few minutes by lesving a door open or blowing
down a stopping, it should not be restored until the fire-boss is certain
that there are no open lights on the return side of these workings.
4. After restoring such interrupted ventilation, he should inspect
the cut-ofl! working places by following the air-current.
5. He should then carefully examine all quiet air spaces near curtains
or doors and at falls before pronotmcing the workings safe.
6. If any man whose working place has been marked out is found
in hia entry before he is told to go there by the fire-boss, he should be
discharged. This does not prevent the fire-boss from using these men
as helpers if they are competent.
7. When building brattices to carry the air-current from the nearest
crosscut toward the working face, as much space as possible should be left
between the brattice and the rib. If possible, the cloth should be fastened
to the rib side of the props, so that the resistance to the air-current cansed
by the brattice, will be as small as possible.
8. When brattices must be built to remove gas, the air-current should
be strong enough to make it unnecessary to use special pains to keep the
brattice tight As long as crosscuts are not more than 40 ft. apart and
the mines are no more gassy than those now open, the air-current
should be sufficient to keep all workings free from gas when it is sinapl;
directed toward the face by a brattice. Before extending such a brattice,
the air-current should be increased by opening the regulator or by speed-
ing up the fan.
Rules 9 to 12 will apply to those mines ventilated by a sep-
arate split for each entry as atl the mines should be.
9. In dipping coal with no rooms turned off from the air-course, the
air-course should be used as a return, so that fire-bosses and bratdce-men
may easily follow the air-current to any body of standing gas without
entering tiie return from it.
10. Under no circumstances should any persons except brattice-men
be allowed to work on the return side of any body of gas, however small.
11. If possible, all persons except the brattice-men should be kept out
of any entry in which standing gas ts present.
13. If standing gas is found in more than one working place' on a
single split of air, the gas nearest the intake of fresh air should be Gon-
n^GoO'^lc
COKSERVATION OF THE MlNfiRS. 405
pletely removed, before the br»ttice-men proceed to the following body
of gas.
13. If the mine is 'small and ventilated by coursing, and gas is fre-
quently found, enough fire-bosses or brattice-men should be employed to
remove all. bodies of standing gas by directing an air-current into them
before any of (he regular day crew ia admitted to the mine. The gas-men
should follow the air-current through the mine and remove all gas as soon
as it is found
14. Under present condition!, at large mines ventilated by coursing,
it is thought necessary to remove small bodies of gas while men are work-
ing upon the retam side of thent. In this case, the iire-boss should see
that there are no open li^ts in any working place on the return side at
a body of gas and in the same entry. The body of gas nearest the return
air-current should then be removed by slowly extending the air-current
towards it in such a way as to dilute the gas as much as possible, rnie
remaining boilNes of gas should then be removed in the same manner. At
best, this OKthod ia risky and the condition requiring it should be re-
0M)Ttd at ^oroptly aa posaible.
Practically all the firt-bosses understand the minor precan-
tioiis to be taken in remortnf gas and they need not be given
here. It is earnestly recommended that the fire-boss dead-line
all places in which there is enough gas to give a distinct c^ in
a Davy lamp and that the present practice of marking some
places "Little gas — be careful !" should be abandoned.
CARELESS HANDUNG 0? POWDBR,
Handling powder vnth open lights. Many inexcusable acci-
dents are caused by the habit of leaving an open light upon the
miner's cap while he is preparing his shots or raking the powder
out of a missed hole. Many states attempt to stop this by 1^-
islation, but under the American notion that every man has a
right to be reckless, it is impossible to enforce such laws. The
practice can only be stopped by better discipline and the pron:q>t
punishment of all offenders. If the miner persists in handling
powder with a light cm his cap, electric or acetylene lights should
be used because they do not drop spatlcs. Some miners also
open their powder kegs by running a pick through them and do
not cover tip the hole. The rather <q>en powder box is then all
that protects this powder from any chance spark or mikl dust-
expk»i(Hi.
Amount of powder in the mine. The larger the quantity of
powder each miner has in his powder box, the more serious will
lyGoO'^lc
4o6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
be the resulting burn. In a few cases, the explosion of the pow-
der of a careless miner has caused other deaths by starting dust
or gas explosion. I^rge quantities of powder increase the dan-
ger of both gas and dust-explosions. Under the present plan
of handling powder, few of the miners ever have much more
than 25 pounds of powder in their woriring places at any one
time. At a few mines, the powder is handled in powder jacks
holding half a keg of powder or less. They can be easily and
securely closed and are less apt to cause spilling of powder. To
reduce the quantity of powder in the mine, small powder jades
should be used everywhere.
Missed shots. It missed shots are not picked out, the miner
runs the risk of a burn in handling the coal contaimng this pow-
der after it is loosened by another shot. The shot-firer is also
in danger because the substitute shot can not be so well placed
or may ignite the powder of the missed hole and cause a severe
windy shot. For these reasons, the nearly hopeless task of pre-
venting the miners from opening missed holes is not worth the
effort.
For picking out a missed shot, the miners should use a
copper tool. In coal containing any considerable amount of
pyrite (sulphur), copper tipped tamping bars are safer, although
the danger of steel tamping bars seems very slight under the
jwesent practice of making up the powder into cartridges befcwe
it is charged.
Hang-Ares. In gassy mines, the shot-firers are often paid
extra to go back and extinguish any blowers of gas wfiidi may
have been lighted by the shot. It is only under these conditions
that there is any tendency to go back too soon in case of a misfire.
In one mine of this State, squibs are used under diese conditicHis
because they are less Ukely to hang fire. It would be much safer
for the shot-firer not to go near a missed shot for an hour or
more, but, since they will be sure to take risks, a squib used in
a good copper barrel may be better than the almost universal
fuse {safety fuse) in spite of oliier objections. In any case, the
men should be induced to wait until the smoke has cleared away
so that they need not go clear to the face. If the miners fire
their own shots, or if each entry has a separate split of air, a
separate fire-runner should be employed where there is danger
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 407
of lighting gas blowers. He should not go into the entry until
the smoke has cleared out of the first working place, and should
follow the smoke through the entry. This will avoid most of
the danger of hang-fires.
The excessive use of powder.
The effect of lowered cost of powder. From the fime that
the value of labor became so much greater than the cost of pow-
der, the miners have been using an increasing amount of powder
to loosen their coal. This tendency has been greatly stimulated
by the unfortunate mine-run law, which has removed all incentive
to use powder carefully. Its effects upon the falls of roof and
dust explosions have been fully explained on page 271 of Part I
of this report. To reduce the number of accidents from this
cause, it will first be necessary to repeal the mine-run law. Until
this is done, any discussion of the reduction of underground
accidents seems a waste of time.
Even under mine-run conditions, the excessive blasting ^s
possible only because of the low price of powder. It can, there-
fore, be checked by an increase in the price of powder as outlined
on page 192, Part I. Owing to the force of public opinion, this
can not be done by the operators even if the extra price of powder
is .returned to the men in the form of increased wages. Owing
to difficulties of administration, it can not readily be done by the
State. It can, however, be easily carried out by the Miners'
Union. A heavy tax upon each keg of powder used will enable
the Union to collect a strike fund in proportion to the earnings
and recklessness of the diggers, and the diggers are financially
benefited by the Union much more than the day-men.
Relief fund from a tax on powder. A still more logical use
for the money is as a fund for the relief of sick, aged, or injured
nuoers, or of those dependent upon miners that are killed or
disabled. The Union already has an organization fitted for the
administration of this fund, and practically all of the operators
aire willing to contribute an equal amount to such a fund for the
sake of getting out better coal. The money would be collected
from the pay-roll by the company as are the Union dues. With
an equal amount dpnated by the company, this should then be
;anvGoO'^lc
4o8 Coal Mixing in Arkansas
deposited in some bank to be drawn out only by chedc signed by
both the cqjerator and the officials of the local Union.
If the price of powder were raised only $i per keg, the fund
would amount to some $200,000 a year in Arkansas,* If this
were equally divided among the victims of fatal and serious acci-
dents, each one would get about $6,000. Such an increase in
the price of powder will reduce the accidents to the old figure of
60 per cent of the present rate or less, and many of the seriously
injured miners finally recover completely and will need only tem-
porary help. With no extra administrative expense, $12,000
would then be available for relief of each fatal injury.
Money can not compensate, for a miner's life. It is Sup-
posed to no more than replace the Snancial value of a man to
his family. That of the average mine woricer in Arkansas is not
greater than $3,ooot or one-fourth of the money available. It
seems proper, therefore, that all of the operators' share of this
fund should be otherwise used for the benefit of the miners, or
paid to the general funds of the State. After mining machines
have been generally installed, a contribution of $1 per k^ of
powder by both operators and miners may not amount to so
much, but the accidents will be greatly reduced in number and
there will be little temptation to use too much powder.
Many skilled and steady miners contribute to their families
an income much greater than the proceeds of $3,000 cash. The
compensation should therefore be based upon the average earn-
ings of the victim of the accident. It should be invested in a
15-year annuity for the widow and annuities for each orphan
until he has reached the age of 14 years. The total of tbese-
annuities might be made equal to a little more than half the
♦The coal produced in Arkansas in 1909 was 3^77,257 tons. The con-
sumption of powder is from one keg for la tons to one keg for 35 tons.
The large mines use about one keg for eadi 35 tons, and the average is not
far from one keg of powder for 23 tons of coal, which would make a total
of 100,000 kegs of powder per year. During this year, 15 men were UUcd
at the mines and ig were seriously injured. The $20^000 fund wottld
therefore have yielded about $5,000 for each miner.
tThe average mine worker earns about $63 a month ten months a
, year. In addition to the cost of his own board, hi* family does not ordi-
' narily get much more than half of this, or $315 a year. He probably worics
in a mine not more than 28 years after he is married. The average moo^
obtained by (tie families of old as well b» young miners will then be $315
a year (or 14 years. Three thousand dollars will provide this amount if
the money left after each payment draws 6 per cent annual interest
;anvG00'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 409
miner's annual income for the three years preceding the accident,
or more if there is plenty of money. InjUTCd miners should
receive something like half their average \*ages, and if- perma-
nently injured, an annuity for life. To insure permanence, these
annuities should be purchased from some insurance company at
the time of the fatal accident. The funds of all the mines should
be available to provide for any accident at a small mine.
WINDV SHOTS.
£ven when they are not fatal to the shot-tirer, windy shots
injure the miners as a class by loosening doors and stoppings
until the ventilation is impaired. They also make it necessary
to employ reckless shot-firers that are more likely than careful
men, to kill themselves and blow up the mine. The financial
burden of these results falls almost entirely upon the operator.
Therefore, windy shots can be best prevented by giving the
operator conq)lete control of tiie work of the shot-firers, who
should be allowed to skip any shot they wish without abuse from
the miners. In the more dangerous mines, a shot- in spec tor
ranked as a boss should be employed. These men should go
through the mine at short, irregular intervals and consult with
the miners as to the position and loading of the shots they intend
to put in, and should especially instruct the new miners who are
not yet familiar with the shooting qualities of the coal.
Such a shot-inspector should either approve all shots or
accompany the shot-firer upon his rounds. The two should tamp
all shots and proceed as described on page 69. If the proper
dummies are provided, it is but little woilc to securely tamp the
holes and this tamping will not be neglected by any man who
understands the danger of blown-out shots. The miners will.
therefore, have little just cause for complaint on the score of
careless tamping.
To further safeguard the shot-firers, or the miners firing
their own shots, all the operators should be required by law to
deliver to the miners' powder boxes, suitable clay or earth for
tamping. Unless this is done, the temptation to use the coal
cuttings for tamping will be too great for the miner to resist.
The danger of windy ^lots can be greatly reduced by prop-
erly preparing ttie shots by mining, or by shearing. Under pres-
lyGoO'^lc
410 Coal Mining in Arkansas
ent labor ccMtditions, this requires the use of mining machines,
which will be discussed in the next chapter. Even then super-
visicm will be needed to see that the shots are not overloaded or
improperly placed. With chain machines, it will be necessairy
to see that the undercut coal is properly snubbed before the main
shots are fired.
Windy shots can also be largely prevented by the proper
use of safety explosives. These must, however, be properly used.
They have some disadvantages, such as a greater shattering effect
in our fragile coal, the danger in handling the sensitive caps
needed to detonate most varieties, deterioration of some varieties
by cold or damp, and their greater cost. They are nevertheless
recommended for use in tlie mines having explosive dust suJrh as
those south of Poteau Mountain. Elsewhere in this State black
powder can be used with safety if it is properly handled, and it
is simpler to prevent the spread of a dust exjJosion than to use
unaccustomed explosives. We again repeat the statement that
dynamite is not a safety explosive, and there is no excuse for
using it in coal.
COAL DUST EXPLOSIONS.
Means for controlling dust explosions. A few dust explo-
sions in Arkansas 'have been started by the exjrioston of loose
powder or small pockets of gas, but the common cause is some
kind of a windy shot. Besides eliminating windy shots, steps
should be taken to prevent the resulting dust explosion or retard
its ^read. The entire subject has been ably discussed by George
S. Rice in Miners' Circular No. 3, of the U. S. Bureau of Mines.
All mine superintendents are urged to obtain a copy of this circu-
lar by request to the Director of the Bureau of Mines, Washing-
ton, D. C.
Mr, Rice shows that only dry dust expkxles and that plenty
of water furnishes the simplest method of preventing the spread
of a dust explosion. But it is necessary to wet the dust thor-
oughly in all parts of the mine. After the dust has been thor-
ughly dried,, it can not be quickly moistened. Therefore, the
water should be applied continuously and the air-current of the
mine prevented from drying it up. These results are most read-
ily obtained by keeping the air current so moist that it causes all
lyGoO'^lc
COMSERVATION OF THE illNERS. 41 1
parts of the mine to sweat or at least allows the dust to become
wet from the nattiral dampness of the mine.
Humidity in the air. Mr. Rice explains that as air is cooled,
the amount of invisible water vapor it can carry is diminished.
If, therefore, the outside air in summer-time is sufficiently sup-
plied with moisture, some of this moisture is deposited in drops
upon all parts of the walls of the mine with which the warm air
comes in contact, because the temperature of the coal and rocks
of the mine does not change much during the year. In the winter-
time the cold outside air contains very little water and it rapidly
dries out the mine dust as it warms up on entering the mine.
These facts explain why the mines sweat in summer and are so
dry in winter.
Whenever the outside air does not contain substantially as
much water as if will hold at the mine temperature, water should
be added to it. The moisture in the air can at all times be learned
by placing in it two thermometers just alike except that the bulb
of one is covered with a fabric kept wet by water. The greater
the difference in the readings of the thermometers, the more
water the air needs to saturate it. The exact amount of water
needed can be determined from the tables which come with the
instrument. This instrument is called a psychrometer and can
be purchased through any of the dealers in mining instruments.
One of them S'hould be kept at every large mine. The air will
be moist enough whenever the reading of the wet bulb ther-
mometer is as high as the temperature of the return air from
the mine.
In order that the air can carry enough water, it must be at
least as warm as the rocks of the mine. It may be raised to the
mine temperature and at the same time moistened by a sufficient
number of sprays of warm water. In severe weather, there
will be trouble from the freezing of the pipes and the spray,
and a great deal of water will be needed.
Steam jets. It is cheaper and easier to use jets of exhaust
steam, which will both warm and moisten the air. No more
steam will be used tlian that needed to raise the air to a little
above mine temperature and the steam jets will cause no unccwn-
fortable heat if they are small and not pointed directly at a
passerby. If a number of small jets are used, the air will mix
lyGoO'^lc
412 Coal Mining in Askansas
with the steam before it has a chance to heat the roof unduly.
If the steam is turned toward the roof or wall, (his can be pro-
tected by light lagging.
It shouli^ be noted that the drying effect of the air-current
will extend throughout a mine as rapidly as the moisture nearer
the intake is gone. On the other hand, air deposits moisture
only while cooling and as soon as the warm air of summer reaches
the temperature of the mine, it cea&es to deposit water. The
sweating only extends into the mine as the dripping coal near
the intake gets warmer and this change is slight. Therefore, to
quickly dampen the mine by means of the air-curreut, steam jets
must be placed at more than one place in the path of a long ven-
tilating current. The writer has noticed, however, that coal dust
gets very wet if stored in cellars, the bottom of piles of ooal,
abandoned mine workings, or other damp places free from a cur-
rent of drying air. Therefore, jets' near the face will not be
necessary unless the dust is made very rapidly as by heavy shoot-
ing in a dry mine. This point can be determined by experience
' at each mine.
Mist. The heating effect of steam is not great unless it is
condensed to water. Therefore, except under exceptional con-
ditions, more steam will be needed to heat the air than is required
to moisten it. The condensed steam remains as a thick mist until
it settles upon the walls of the mine workings. This will make
the hauling of the coal past the steam jets both disagreeable and
dangerous, and some means must be taken to prevent tiie mist
from interfering with the hauling of coal.
Mr, Rice suggests using water jets to slightly moisten the
air during the day time and steam jets at night in case the coal
must be hauled past the jets. Warm water will make some mist
as well as steam, and at best only as much water will be taken
up by the air as it will hold at that temperature. Since even a
little steam will warm the air slightly, more water can be intro-
duced by steam jets without a fog than by water. In very cold
weather, water jets woubl freeze unless far from the mouth of
the mine with exfiensive pipes. For these reasons, it teems
better to omit water sprays in winter, and merely cut down the
amount of steam in the day time, until the mist is not objec-
tionable.
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 413
Where there are steam pipes in otie compartment of the
down cast shaft, they wjurn the air considerably and quite a
little steam can be added at the top of the shaft without causing
t (Dtft at tibe bottom. During the night, an excess of steua cao
be used to make up for the shortage during the day. This can
be obtained from the exhaust of the fan engine mp^demented by
some steam direct from the boilers if necessary. This sufficient
quantity of steam will of course melt all accumulations of ice and
make it unnecessary to reverse the fan at night. The mine will
not dry out too much in a single day.
The mist may be eliminated by the plan of first warming
the air by passing it over steam pipes until the steam jets will
just saturate the air and finish warming it without cottdensation.
At 3 large mine, however, this will require several t^usand dol-
lars' worth of radiators. This mist can also be avoided by super-
heating the steam until the steim needed to supply moisture to
the air will bring in enough heat to warm the air to mine tem-
perature. For outside air at 10 degrees F. with a humidity of
80 per cent, this would require 1,200 degrees of superheat, which
is also impracticable. The mist can be quickly settled by the
Cottrell process.* This consists of passing the air-current con-
taining suspended particles between electrodes charged with
static electricity. Groimded plates and heavily charged wires
are used, and the drops of water become charged and fly to the
plates. A charge of several thousand volts is needed, and this
would require a special shed outside the mine ami a plant more
expensive than the radiators needed to heat the air.
The suspended drops of water can be thrown out by cen-
trifugal force 1^ drivii^ the air at high velocity through a spiral
passage. This is done in some forms of steam separators, but
the velocity there used is 6,000 feet per minute or more, and it
is quite impracticable to give the entire ventilating current of the
mine this velocity. Other steam separators -cause the drops of
water to cling to metal surfaces by causing the steam to pass
projecting points. B. N. Wilson, Professor of Mechanical Engi-
neering, University of Arkansas, has suggested that this principle
might be used in the mine by stretching wire screens from the
'ifimng and ScknlHic Press, Aug. 26. tgii. Vol. 103. p. 255- /'•"-
gineering and Mining Journal, Oct. 14. 1911. Vol. 92, p. 763,
n> 000^^10
Coal MiNixG in Arkans;
roof to the floor on altf mate sides of the air-course as shown in
Fig. 68. The air-current will be sufficiently stirred so that all
Fig. 68. Arrangement
for precipitating t
parts of it will soon come into contact with the screens, and pass
through them without much extra resistance. As the mist passes
through the screen some drops of water cling to the metal ; other
drops unite with each other and so become heavy enough to settle
quickly. Light galvanized wire screen (hardware cloth) of
about '4 mesh is recommended. It is regretted that no funds
are available for the purpose of determining the efficiency of this
apparatus and affording data as to the number of screens neces-
sary. They are very cheap and screens can easily be added in
the mine until the air is cleared. This appears to be the most
feasible method for quickly settling the mist.
Objection to the mist can be avoided by placing the steam
jets where the fc^ will not interfere with the workmen. If the
air is to be moistened at the main intake, some intake may be
provided in addition to the main outlet for coal. ' If the mine is
large, additional intakes will be necessary anyway and the prob-
lem firesents little difficulty. With the plan of ventilation shown
on Plate VIII, these steam jets can be placed at intervals along
the first lift of the old slope air-courses now used as intakes.
The mist may then be settled by screens according to Professor
Wilson's suggestion, before it reaches the first haulage road. A
wooden brattice along the side opposite the jets will enable miners
to pass,- if they use this as a traveling-way while the main haul-
age-way is in iise. A curtain across the main haulage-way will
lyGoO'^lc
■Conservation of the Miners. 415
reduce the amount of cold air entering through it. A little steam
can be used in the main haulage-way without annoyance. If the
mine is ventilated by a separate split for each entry, the air
generally passes through the old workings of the entry first, A
few steam jets could then hfi placed at the entrance to the okl
rowns of each entry. By the time the air-current of such a mine
reaches those entries having no old workings, it would be so
warm that the air could be moistened sufficiently with little or no
condensation of the steam to a mist. Piping for such steam jets
will be expensive but this system is much che^>er as well as more
effective than that of piping all parts of the mine for sprinkling
with a hose, as is required by law in Ctlahoma. The pipes could
also be left bare to partly warm the air by radiation and so
reduce the mist. The small slope mines ventilated by coursing
can be moistened by the exhaust from the steam pump. This
can be distributed along the air-courses leading to the two lower
entries and so throughout the mine.
It is thus seen that objectionable mist can be avoided at little
Oppressive atmosphere. As yet none of the Arkansas coal-
mines are so deep that they are uncomfortably warm. There-
fore, the miners will not be inconvenienced by the humidity of
sprayed air. At the most the conditions will be the same as they
now are in the summer-time. Some of the recently published
lurid rhetoric about saving the miners from dire disaster of work-
ing in a moist mine is no argument against steam jets. As the
mines get wanner, stone dust will have to be substituted for
water to check dust explosions. *
Palls of roof caused by sprays. The most common objection
to spraying the air is that it causes the roof to fall. This is
unquestionably true if the roof is such a pure clay that it will
absorb water indefinitely. Even then it is doubtful if the num-
ber of accidents will be increased because in any case the rooms
will become moist in the summer-time and the same amount of
rock will fall. All of this js likely to fall on the miners except
that in the few working places finished before the roof be-
came wet.
Most of the falls of rock in old entries and traveling-ways
are caused by the wetting of roof that has dried out from its nat-
lyCoO'^lc
4i6 Coal Mining is Arkansas
urally moist cODdition and thus cracked open to let moisture get
bdiind the slabs. These falls, which are the heavy and danger-
ous ones, will be largely reduced by keeping the mine constantly
moist It is believed that falls are also caused by the changea in
ten^wrature of the mine workings. The fact that a uniform
moist air current does not injure the mine roof was demonstrated
by the Consolidation Coal Company of West Virginia and this
argument against sprays has little weight.
Requirement of steam jets by law. It seems, therefore, that
steam jets should be installed in all the mines hi Arkansas. If
experience proves tiiat they do not injtire the rrxrf, tfieir univer-
sal adoption should be required by a law, providing that tfie ven-
tilating current of the mine shall be so warmed that it is within
5 degrees of the temperature of the return air and shall have a
humidity of over 90 per cent of saturation before it reaches die
first active working place upon each split of the air.
Water sprays. On warm and very dry days, the air of a
mine should be moistened only, and the extra, heating caused by
steam will be objectionable. For this purpose a few sprays of
water will be sufficient. They can also be used to rapidly cool
the air even when it is wet The same apparatus can be used for
. the steam jets in winter. As a preliminary arrangement, a line
of pipe may be installed along each side of the main intake slope
or shaft bottom about of4>osite the center of the coal seam. To
prevent spoiling the pipe for other use, two or three h<^ for the
jets, say i/t6 inch in diameter, can be drilled in ea<li coupling
of the pipe. These may be placed as far apart as the ordinary
length of pipe, and the sprays received upon bits of sheet iron
fastened to the coal. Valves should be placed at intervals to
cut off as much of the end of the pipe as may be necessary when
using water. A valve at the exhaust of the pump or Can will
regulate the amount of steam to be used. Experience will show
how much tiie pipe must be extended or how many holes should
be plugged with wood. Special nozzles for mine sprays are now
on the market.
Amount of water and steam needed. To illustrate the
amount of water and steam needed to warm and moisten the
incoming air to saturated air at mine temperature, we may con-
sider the case of a medium-sized mine with an output of 1400
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 417
tons of coal in eight hours and requiring 50,000 cu. ft. of air
per minute. We will assume the mine temperature at 60 deg^rees
F., which is about the Aricansas mine temperature.
If the moisture is supplied in the form of a water spray, a
good deal of heat will be required to evaporate the water so that
it can enter the air as vapor. If the incoming air is warm, it
can supply this heat in cooling to 60 degrees F., provided that it
is not so dry, that too much water will be required. If the warm
incoming air at any given temperature has just the right humid-
ity, it can be both cooled and moistened to saturated air at 60
degrees F. by the evaporation of a certain amount of water. The
table below gives in round numbers this humidity and the weight
of water required for several temperatures.
Humidity of outside air at given temperature and pounds of voter at
60 degrees F. needed to produce 50,000 cu. ft. of
saturated air at 60 degrees P.
65
79.2
70
63.8
80
39.8
90
24.6
no
9-5
8.5 "
12.6 "
I6.S "
20. S
The humidity of this air at the higher temperatures is so
low that this condition will seldom if ever occur in this State.
The table shows, however, that the amount of water required to
saturate the air is in the extreme case only 2.5 gallons per minute.
This can be supplied by a one-inch pipe with a fall of only 3 feet
in 100 feet. Under a so-foot head this will require only 9 jets
1/16 inch in diameter.
If the air contains more water than the amounts given in
tilts table, it will become saturated before it is cooled to mine
temperature by the evaporation of the water of the jets. It can
only be cooled further by warming the water of the jets. In
practice, it can therefore not be cooled quite to mine temperature
and we will assume that it is to be cooled to 65 degrees F. and
that sufficient air will be used to make 50,000 cu. ft. when sat-
urated with moisture and at a temperature of 65 degrees F. If
the water is introduced as a fine spray, it can be assumed that
lyGoO'^lc
4i8
Co.\L .\il^
; Akk.\.\s.\s
the water is warmed and the air cooled until both reach the same
temperature. If enough water is sprayed into the air to cool it
at once, no part of the water will remain heated above 65 de-
grees F. The quantity of water at 60 degrees F. required by this
plan to cool the air entering the mine at various temperatures
and humidities is given in column 3 of the table below.
If the particles of water could be made to travel against
the air-current, they would continue to cool the air and warm
themselves until they all reached the temperature of the incoming
air. The amount of cooling water so required is given in col-
umn 5 of the table.
it is quite impracticable to apply cooling water in this wa)-,
but by appljing it slowly to the incoming air by a number of
Jets some distance apart, the water of the first spray can be
raised to nearly the temperature of the incoming air and that of
only the last to no higher temperature than that of the cooled air.
The minimum quantities of water required by this method are
given in column 4 of the table. .A,ctually a little more than this
amount of water will he needed even if the jets are small and
far apart, and directed i^ainst the air-current.
Pounds of ■u.-atcr at 60 degrtes P. required to cool 50.000 c«. ft. of air
measurrd at 6s degrees P. lo 65 degrees P.
•2^
i- t
1^1
l|
til
m
>3l ^
_ 3l ^
— si"
" '700
450
1.450
1,225
7SO
2,750
1,950
IJ75
4-4.iO
a.2oo
1. 125
6.230
3.150
1,575
R.000
3.850
2.025
g.8oo
4.350
2.475
11,400
4.6=0
1.900
13,900
5.200
2J25
16,450
S-72S
2.7SO
18.950
6.200
3.150
20.000
6.300
2.525
2.1.550
6,900
2.950
:!7.05r'
7.400
3.375
.!0..=1TO
7.850
3.800
„Gooi^lc
CON'SURVATION OF THE MiSERS. 4I9
The outside conditions will be seldom wbrse than 70 per cent
humidity at a temperature of 100 degrees. This may be assumed
to take about 7,500 pounds of water per minute. This will
require about 750 jets ^ inch in diameter under a 50-foot head
and will require about a 5-inch pipe. It seems, therefore, com-
mercially impossible to so cool the air that there will be no sweat-
ing in the mine at all. Even a small amount of water will be
beneficial and at least the amount given in the table on page 417
should be used to start the sweating immediately.
The difference in the amount of water reijuired to cool wet
air and dry air arises from the fact that the evaporation of a
pound of water spray has a greater cooling effect than two hun-
dred pounds of water heated 5 degrees, and because the moisture
of wann air has such a large proportion of its total heat.
If the outside air at any given temperature is drier than the
figures given in the table on page 417, or if, for any humidity, it
is colder than the temperatures there given, heat in addition to
the water spray will have to be added to bring it to the condition
of saturated air at 60 degrees. If heat is furnished by dry steam,
the auKiunt neederl is given in the table below. The third column
gives the steam needed to saturate the air with moisture. This
is merely cooled from the boiling point to 60 degrees. The next
column gives the ad<litional steam which will be condensed to mist
at 60 degrees F. For any given temperature, the steam required
increases as the humidity decreases, and the amount for any
other humidity can be readily iigured by noticing the rate of
change for the humidities given, for low temperatures, the
amount of moisture in saturated air is so small that the influence
of humidity is almost negligible.
Dry air at 60 degrees or warmer can be brought to the con-
dition of saturated air by adding warm water or a mixture of
mine-water and steam. There will then be no mist. The last
column of the table gives the negligible amount of water required
in connection with steam, for dry air at 60 degrees F. Dry air
at higher tentperature will need very little steam in addition to
the water given in the table on page 417.
lyGoo'^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
Pounds of dry steam needed to warm S0|0oo rK ft. of air to 60 degrees
and saturate it tvitk moisture.
t
2
^
■g
1
1
1
£3
S3
11
60
TOO
0.0
00
00
0.0
60
90
4.0
0.0
4.0
60
80
7-5
7-5
0-3
60
70
12.0
12.0
0-5
60
60
16.0
16.0
0.7
60
SO
I9-.5
0.0
19.S
0.8
50
100
12.2
8.0
20 2
0.0
50
g°
15.1
7.5
22.6
50
80
17.9
7.0
24.9
50
60
23-7
7.0
30-7
SO
40
295
6.5
36.0
40
■00
21.5
.5.0
36.5
40
90
23- 5
15.0
38.5
40
80
25s
14- S
40.0
40
60
29S
14.S
44.0
40
40
33.5
.4-0
47.5
30
100
28.0
22.0
50.0
30
80
30-5
52.5
30
60
33.0
22.0
55-0
20
100
32-S
30.0
62,5
20
340
30,0
64.0
20
60
35-5
30.0
65-5
10
100
35 0
38.0
73-0
80
36.0
38.0
74.0
10
60
370
38.0
75 0
0
100
37.0
46.0
83-0
38.0
46.0
84.0
0
60
39-0
46.0
85.0
—10
100
39.0
54-0
93-0
—10
80
39-5
54-0
93-5
—10
60
40.0
54- 0
940
—20
100
39-5
62.0
101.5
80
40.0
62.0
-20
60
40.6
62.0
102. s
The exhaust of a common slide valve engine may be assumed
to contain 25 pounds of dry steam for each horse-power for each
hour it runs. A temperature of 10 degrees F. above zero with a
humidity of 60 per cent is as severe as may be expected for even
jvGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 421
a day or two at a time in Arkansas. This would then require
all die exhaust steam of 180 horse-power of engines. This is
available at any mine of this size, which, in addition to the fan,
^ould have a good plant for power haulage and mining ma-
chines. If exhaust steam is used, a good steam separator must
be placed just before the first jet to take out the water condensed
in the engine. This water can be drawn off continuously into the
air along with a little steam if the pipe is so large it will not be
eprayed. It will then heat the air slightly.
Assuming 30 pounds of steam per hour as a boiler horse-
power, the same air would require at night J50 boiler horsepower
if all engines were stopped. One pound of Arkansas slack coal
should evaporate 6.5 pounds of water. This would then require,
in an extreme case, the burning of about 700 pounds of coal per
hour. At large mines, a fireman is now employed each shift
anyway and the coal would cost about $4.50 a day, 16 hours a
day. The night temperature will not average below 40 degrees
any month. This will require only 40 to 45 pounds of steam per
minute, which should be largely supplied by a fan engine. If
made especially, it will cost about $2.50 each winter night at the
larger mines, or $150.00 a year. This is a small price to pay
for freedom from dust explosions.
RECOVERY OF MINES AFTER EXPLOSIONS.
Rescue apparatus. Until dust explosions have been stopped
by the combined effects of more careful blasting, safer explo-
sives, and thorough wetting of the mine, provision should be
made for the most rapid rescue of shot-firers. For this purpose,
oxygen helmets and electric safety lights should be immediately
available, and men should be trained in their use at the govern-
ment rescue stations. It is only necessary to have one outfit for
joint use for all the mines in each camp. This will be more likely
to insure that the apparatus be inspected at intervals and so cared
for. The operators should unite to send some mine foreman to
McAlester, Oklahoma, for training, and on idle days should pay
the regular wages to fire-bosses and certain experienced miners
while they are trained to use the apparatus. It will be best to
select those men who volunteer for rescue parties and who own
lyGoO'^lc
4^2 Coal Mining in Arkansas
their own homes and are thus more likely to be in camp when
needed.
Restoring ventilation. After-explosions of gas are not likely
to follow dust explosions in any of the Arkansas mines, so imme-
diate steps should be taken to restore the ventilation at once. All
shot-firers should tkne themselves frequently and report to the
foreman and superintendent so that they may know where the
shot-iirers are by knowing the time at which the explosion occurs.
In tliose mines having a separate _split of air for each entry and
therefore an unbroken pillar of coal bek>w each entry air-course,
the air-current can be taken directly into any single entry by
placing temporary stoppings in all openings between the travel-
ling-way and the return air-courses. It is not even necessarj- to
repair the overcasts to reach any one entry. Other entries may
merely be cut off by temporary stoppings. An additional stop-
ping in the main slope will be necessary to carry the air to an
entry opposite the fan. By having a solid pillar of coal between
the main air-courses, as .shown on Plate VIII, the time required
to reach the beginning of any entry is only one-fifth or less of the
time required to close a crosscut every 30 or 40 ft.
To place tiiese stoppings with the least possible delay re-
quires a proper organization and the presence at all times of
sufficient supplies. This matter is fully discussed in "Suggested
Rules for Recovering Coal Mines After Explosions and Fires,"
by W. E. Garforth.*
In tliis country, the chief criticism regarding the conduct of
rescue operations is lack of preparation in advance and the fact
that all responsible officials present at the time often go tf^ether
in the most advanced party, and, if they are overcome, no one
remains to direct the work. To restore the ventilation with the
least possible delay and without breathing apparatus, the most
advanced party should consist of but one mine ofHcial accompa-
nied by one or rarely two healthy, temperate, and experienced
volunteers. They should carry with them only sufficient mate-
rial for one hastily placed storing. .A.s far behind them as the
distance to the next stopping-, at least, there should be two other
men who do nothing but keep themselves ready to render aid to
the advanced party if any of them are overcome by afterdamp.
•Published by C. Van Nostrand Cmnp.iny, New York. Price $i.?o.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners, 423
and to afford means of communication to the other parties. After
a stopping is placed or nearly finished, these supports can carry
down the materials for the next stopping while the advanced
party is waiting for the air to clear. Dangerous quantities of
poistmous afterdan^ can be most easily detected by watching
the behavior of a caged bird carried with the advance party. As
long as the bird is not overcome, there is little danger to the
men, and, by having the bird, the advance party will lose less
time hesitating to advance even when a safety lamp will bum.
The bird may be a canary and should be kept at every mine.
The advance party should be followed as closely as conven-
ient by several other men who will place tighter canvas st<^>pings
outside of the temporary ones, repair the most dangerous places
in the roof, and clear temporary passageways around the worst
obstructions so as to reduce the delay and danger of carrying out
unconscious men. Parallel passageways as on Plate VIII are a
great aid in passing obstructions. Men will also be provided to
carry in all supplies needed by this force and by the advance
party. The placing of brattices should be in charge of a regular
brattice man, and some mine official should have supervision of
this worit. A third responsible official should remain constantly
at the pit mouth to send messengers and see the supplies are
at hand.
OVERCASTS WITH EXPLOSION WALLS.*
After one entry has been explored, the overcast giving access
to the next entry should be repaired. The overcasts are also
indispensable to enable ventilation to be safely restored in two
entries at the same time. Explosion-proof overcasts can be made
only by driving tunnels above some solid rock stratum, and from
behind solid pillars of coal. There will be no feasible way to
remove the waste without an opening to be afterwards closed by
a stopping. In many mines, the overlying strata are so weak
that an explosion would cause a heavy rock fall at such an over-
cast. The ventilation of this rock tunnel will be difficult and an
effective rock tunnel is forbidden by the law requiring a crosscut
every 30 ft. For these reasons, it seems best to protect the main
structure of the overcast by providing ample relief passages for
the pressure caused by an explosion.
•This description was published in Mines and Minerals, April, 1<>I2.
Goc^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
Figure 69 shows a design for such an overcast to carry a
lO-foot air-course over a parting 14 ft. wide. It will be noticed
Pla n. "i
Fig. 69. Protected overcast with light walls,
that the main frame of this overcast is sheltered as much as pos-
sible by solid coal or rock. For this purpose, both the entrj- and
lyGoo'^lc
Consbbvation of the Minsks.
+25
the air-course should first be driven a foot or two narrower than
the intended width and then widened by pulling down all loose
coal and dressing the walls smooth with a. pick. These smooth
walls will rediKe the size of the air-course needed. The width
of the overcast can be further reduced by making the cut in the
rock higher than is at present customary. All spaces between the
timbers and the coal or rock should be packed solid with strong
cement mortar.
To proportion the members of the overcast for equal
strength, the roof and the main frame are designed just strong
enough to support a quiet downward load of 20 pounds per
square inch, or nearly a ton and a. half per square foot, in addi-
ti<m to its own weight. The posts arc made as wide as the osllars
to give sufficient bearing area. This gives them much surplus
strength as columns and will make them more secure against
blows from derailed cars.
The table bekiw gives the size of collars and the size and
spacing of the joists for overcasts of various sizes, to resist 20
pounds per square inch downward pressure, if fair yellow pine
is used. It should be noted that short overcasts will be much
cheaper than the long ones for the same strength. If a beam
Dimentiont of Timbers of Overcasts.
1
J
III
^£5
III
III
6
8
6 by 10
6 by 10
2 by 10
90
10
6 by 12
6 by la
2 by 10
ao
14
13 by 12
8 by 12
2by.O
20
a
8
6 by 12
6 by 12
2 by 12
16
8 by 13
8 by 12
2 by 12
16
14
12 by 14
12 by 12
2 by 12
16
10
10
10 by 12
6 by 12
a by 12
12
14
12 by 16
U by 12
2 by .a
of about the same size of the collar be placed above the overcast
and braced against the roof by two props at one-fifth the length
of the beam from the ends, the overcast will not fail from upward
lyGoO'^lc
426 Coal Mining ix Arkansas
pressure iinlil the force equals 80 pounds per square inch. This
construction is especially advisable if the entry carries the intake
air-current. In this case, the main shock of the explosion will
generally be from the entry toward the air-course. A smaller
beam and more props would be cheaper for the long overcasts.
If a cheaper overcast is desired, a 10 ft, by 14 ft. overcast to resist
only half as much pressure will require collars 10 in. by 12 in.,
and 2 by 12 joists spaced about 22 in. center to center.
Figure 70 shows two suggested details for framing the roof.
Both of these have about the same ultimate strength as the beams,
but will yield somewhat by crushing of the wood before the
Fig. 70. Details of overcast with light walls.
beams will break. The iron stirrups are a more nearly standard
construction for buildings but are more expensive. The beveled
notch in the beam can be used only if the collar is made from
2 to 4 in. wider than the dimensicms given in the table. It is
also necessary that roof rock be so strong that the beams can
not be forced apart. Because the joists must be held down b>-
wedging against the rock, it will be necessary to frame the over-
cast a foot or 90 below its final position and to jack it np after
the Joists are in place. Cement should be packed in above the
collar to make a tight joint before the 2 by 8 is put in.
To lessen the grip of the explosive blast, both top and bot-
tom of the roof should be covered with smooth boards. To pre-
vent leakage, either the top or bottom covering should be double
with tarred canvas between the layers. The resistance of the
overcast to a sudden shock can be greatly increased by weighting
it with stone and sand between the joists. This should be well
packed in.
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 427
Sacli side wall of the overcast can be made of two layers of
inch boards with tarred canvas between. These may be sup;*
ported at the top by a 2 by 4 strip nailed to the roof just firmly
enough to resist ordinary windy shots. If necessary, doors
for the convenience of the fire-boss may be [daced in these par-
titions if they are made self-closing by leaning the hinges, and if
they open against tlie air-pressure. In case these walls are totally
destroyed, and the roof remains substantially intact, the side
walls can be replaced by brattice cloth and ventilation restored in
a few moments. Even if the entire overcast is destroyed the
smooth nitch in the coal and roof will make it much easier to
build a canvas overcast on a wooden frame than in the case of
any style of masonry overcast.
The extra cost of such an overcast is chiefly in the extra
labor of preparing the entries. This will be repaid by reduced
maintenance. This overcast is very much cheaper than a rock
tunnel and just about as elTective because it can be restored as
easil}- as the stoppings leading to a rock tunnel can be replaced.
Its disadvantage is the fact that it will rot, and, if a long life is
needed, concrete might be better, but the concrete should be pro-
vided with equally large explosion doors.
All mine fans should be placed at some distance from the
mine opening so that the force of an explosion can be relieved
through explosion doors without destroying the fan. This prac-
tice is already common.
ACCIDENTS FROM FALLS OF ROOF.
Mine props. It is universally acknowledged that sufficient
timbering will largely prevent falls of roof in the working places.
This requires that the props be not shot out by blasting ofi-the-
solid and this in turn requires that the coal be undermined as by
machines, or that sprags be placed against the face of the coal
to protect the props from flying coal. This last practice is used
at Coaldale and was described on page 66. It is not as effective
as undermining, because the roof is still subject to the shock of
heavy blasting.
The sufficient roof support is best secured by systematic
propping with extra propping when necessary. This should be
required by law as suggested on page 235. The full discussion
IgnzrdvGoC^IC
4^8 Coal Miming in Arkansas
there need not be repeated. It has been thought that there would
be some advantage in so placing the props that they are stag-
gered, or alternated in succeeding rows across the room. This,
however, gives the shortest distance between props alcmg the
diagonals ; and, for the same total number of props set, leaves
a greater unprotected space along the face where the miner has
to work. Rows parallel to the room track and at right angles to
it are therefore recommended. If the props are set close enough
together, only a few rocks, relatively small ones, can fall without
giving warning by the pr(^s taking weight. If the props can
not hold the weight, the working place must be made narrower.
Narrow entries. To prevent falls of rock in entries and
traveling ways, sufficient rock-men should be employed to pull
down all slabs of loose rock in all such places and, where neces-
sary, to timber or retimber them.
In order not to weaken the roof any more than absolutely
necessary, no entries should be wider than lo feet except at part-
ings, or for double tracks, or for carrying an air-current too
great for a narrow entry. For double track and strong air-cur-
rent, two entries should generally be used instead of one. In
most places, the entries need not be wider than 8 or 9 feet.
In no case should gob entries be driven. They are neces-
sarily wide and so weaken the roof. If brushed, the roof gener-
ally becomes dangerous as soon as the props rot, and these props
can not be renewed. In all cases they are likely to cause car
accidents by obstructing the rails, or by tempting the miners to
take insecure positions to avoid a passing trip. They also inter-
fere with the renewal of defective stoppings. If the slate is care-
fully corded up by skilled rock-men, the gob is less objection-
able, but this increases the cost of the entry. It is generally
thought that by leaving the gob in the entries, the operator saves
the entire cost of hauling it out and dumping it ; but it is forgotten
that gob entries require extra timbering, greatly increased ex-
pense for maintenance per entry, and still worse retard the rate
of driving entries, and so reduce the output of the mine until
extra entries have been opened. This still further increases the
cost of the care of the mine. In spite of these objections to gob
entries, a change in the law will be required to prevent new ones.
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners.
BETTER UGHT.
Acetylene lamps. Next after systematic timbering and care-
ful blasting, good light is needed to protect miners from falls of
roof. The main shaft bottom and entry partings of most of the
larger mines are already lighted by electricity, but the chief
danger is in the working place. Here the acetylene lamp seems
to be the solution of the trouble. To encourage the use of car-
bide lights, the operators should sell the lamp and carbide to
the miners at the lowest possible rate.
Recently lamps have been designed small enough to be
attached to the miners' caps and they are being rapidly intro-
duced. Besides better light, the carbide required is much cheaper
than even the inferior grades of lamp oil, and, unless the flame is
too high, they do not smoke at aH. These small lamps are objec-
tionable because the carbide and water must be renewed every
two hours. When the miner works by himself, he often keeps
the old stj'ie lamp burning low to give light while he is renewing
the carbide. The change in position of the lamp also causes some
trouble as does the sediment of the mine water used in the reser-
voir. Still, the carbide lamp requires no more of the miner's
time than the open oil lamp.
The use of more than one light. As a remedy for all the
disadvantages of the carbide lamp, it is recommended that each
miner have two or more lights ; one of these may be a small cap
light to be used in handling cars or other woik requiring both
hands and a change of position of the miner. Another one
should be a larger lamp supplied with a sharp hook or chain so
that it can be readily fastened to either side of a prop or to the
face of the coal in order to throw a light in any direction. This
will give a good illumination of the miner's working place and
require little attention. The larger lamps can well be provided
with the two-jet burner to permit the miner to use a larger flame
without smoke. This should be interchangeable with the stronger
single-jet burner. For general illumination, especially of the
roof, the reflector of these latter lamps should be so small that
the shadow is but little larger than that of the body of the lamp.
The third light will be exactly similar to the second and will
be used instead of the miner's cap light at the woricing face. The
cap light will then be used only when the miner walks; and it
lyGoO'^lc
43° Coal Mixing in Akkansas
iiiusi be fitted with a valve to shut off the water supply at other
times. If two fixed lights are used, the miner can see in all parts
of the workings without shadow and will have greater freedom
of movement. The miners will soon get the habit of carrying
one of these large lights in their hands or fastening it to the
front of the car when traveling. This is the way in which most
of the metal miners of the West handle their candles.
SugSi^sled modification of the cap light. Some carbide
lamps are arranged with a valve for regulating t!ie flow of water;
These are a convenience in starting and stopping the light and
enable the miner to fill the reservoir with water some time before
he needs the light. Sediment in the water and changes in the
position of the lamp and depth of water in the reservoir change
the rate of flow and require adjustment of the valve. Others
have a pipe leading to the bottom of the carbide chamber and so
arranged that an increase in the pressure of the gas checks the
flow of ivater. Changes in position of the lamp may cause a
sufhcient increase in pressure to force carbide residue up this
tube. Both of these troubles can apparently be overcome by
the arrangement shown in the annexed sketch, Fig. 71. This
arrangement is not known to be patented. To the end of the
water tube is screwed a cup, closed for convenience of construc-
tion, by a screw plug. The water enters the lower part of the
Clip through small openings of an}' sort in the wall of the tube.
It can not flow upward out of the cup unless the lamp is vigor-
ously shaken or the gas pressure is less than the water pressure.
The gas pressure can be regulated b>- the manufacturer by chang-
ing the length of the tube which will alter the head of water
i>pon the cup. The valve is used to start and stop the light.
Small obstructions in the tube can be removed by rapidly work-
ing the rod in it after the valve is unscrewed. If necessary, the
cup can be taken ofiF by the miner.*
Electric lights. For mines having an electric plant, and
employing an electrician, electric cap-lights with storage batterj-
will soon become standard. t The recently perfected tungsten
light will furnish a three-candle power light for 12 to 14 hours
•Liferature upon Acetylene Mine Lights can be obtained from the
Maple Cily Mfg. Co., Monmouth, III.; Scranton Acetylene Lamp Co.,
Scranloii. Pa. ; and John Simmonds Co,, New York,
tSce Mines and Minerals, Vol. XXXII, p. 79 and p. 91. Sept.. 191I.
lyCoO'^IC
Cons£rvatio\ of the Miners. 431
with a storage battery weighing only 2 pounds, or about as much
as a miner's side can, or cadger. These lamps require no atten-
tion from the miner ami are absolutely free from smoke. They
can be readily made as safe as the ordinary safety lamp and
should supercede safety lamps for all purposes except testing for
gas, because they are the only safety lamp throwing any light
upon the roof. Three-candle power and absence of smoke will
Fig. yt. Suggested design for a carbide cap-lamp,
give much better light upon the roof than even the common pit
lamp. They are also unaffected by draft. With such lights, the
increased efficiency of the labor will make it profitable to supply
the lights free to the day-men and charge them only for break-
age. The batteries are being improved constantly to reduce
weight and inconvenience of acid solutions. Their maintenance
lyGoO'^lc
432 Coal Mining in Arkansas
including wages of the electrician who charges the batteries has
already been reduced to from 2c, to 3c. per day.
At the smaller mines a dynamo for charging the lamps can
be attached to the fan engine. Such a plant sufficient for 200
lights and consisting of a dynamo, switch board, and charging
racks for the batteries, will cost about $175. The lights them-
selves with storage battery and connections complete can be
obtained for $6 to $7.50 each depending upon the number
purchased.
MINE FIRES.
Prevention of fires. Severe mine fires can best be fought by
men equipped with oxygen helmets and under the supervision of
the officials of the United States Bureau of Mines. The best
method of handling mine fires is prevention. As yet the Arkan-
sas mines show few large blowers of gas, and the coal has a low
percentage of volatile matter and is not so readily ignited as
other coal. As a result mine fires are more easily prevented than
in other states. The number of fires can be reduced by the more
careful use of powder so as to reduce the frequency of large
flames after the gas has been liberated by breaking the coal, and
the chance of a powder flame coming in contact with a gas
blower at some other part of the working face. Safety explo-
sives are an advantage.
In case there are any gas blowers at all, the mine should be
paroled after each blast. This is now done in many cases by the
shot-firers, but on account of the smoke in the rooms, they do
not always find the small blowers burning with a colorless flame.
Such fires are not likeiy to become serious for some hours and
are generally found in time by the fire-boss next morning. So
far as known the serious fires have started on the evening before
an idle day or Sunday. For this reason and to restore disar-
ranged ventilation as soon as possible, it would seem well to have
the fire-boss inspect all gassy mines the night after shots are fired
whether the mine is to work next day or not.
Small mine Hres. In case of small fires, certain precautions
should be observed in fighting them. The velocity of the air-
current passing the fire should be reduced without reducing the
speed of the fan or impairing general ventilation. With a sep-
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 433
arate split for each entry this can be done by partly closing the
regulator. If the fire is in an entry, it will ordinarily be better
to short-circuit the air by opening a stopping as close to the
fire as possible. If it is in a room, the break-throughs leading to
the room should be closed by temporary stoppings. In this way,
there will be no chance for the accumulation of dangerous bodies
of firedamp to be lighted by the smoldering fire or the miners'
lights as soon as the ventilation is restored. To protect the men
from the poisonous gases given off by the fire, they should ap-
proach it with a line of brattice cloth carrying Just enough fresh
air to drive the smoke and steam away but not enough to fan ^e
fire. The air-current can be easily obtained at the opened stop-
ping. In this way, the fire fighters are not injured by the fumes.
Until the fire is all cleaned up, no man should be allowed to work
on the return side of the fire. For this purpose, separate splits
for each entry with return through the air-course is practically
required.
STifficient props and crossbars should be placed along the
line of attack to protect the men from the falls of roof likely to
be caused by the beat, and to assure a line of retreat.
For the convenience and comfort of the men a hand-driven
force pun^ is much better than throwing water upon the fire by
powder cans. This should be provided at the more firey mines
together with tank cars for bringing water; after the visible fire
is cooled, much more air can be used to drive away the gases
while the loose coal is being loaded out. It will then be best
to make the inlet for fresh air wide enough to cover the greater
part of the working place. More props should be set as soon as
the spread of the fire has been stopped and before any atten^t
is made to dig out the bottom of it.
Fire-proof structures. The stables, underground engine-
rooms, and shaft bottoms should be as nearly fire-proof as pos-
sible. At the small mines, the timbering should be heavy and
slow burning and all inflammable litter should be kept away. Hay
and straw for the mules should be placed in a separate room not
traversed by a strong ventilating current. If the mine is to have
a life of more than 12 or 14 years, it is just as economical to make
these structures of concrete and to support the roof of tfie shaft
bottom by steel mine supports. Wherever possible, places in
lyGoO'^lc
434 Coal Mining in Arkansas
which inflanimable material is stored, should be lighted b>- Ion-
voltage electric lights, or by portable electric lights worn by the
men. The mules have better health and can be shod more care-
fully if they are hoisted to the surface every night and at all
mines having large enough cages all underground stables should
be abolished.
To protect the miners fr<Mn surface fires, the fan house
should be loo or 150 ft. from any other building and should be
of brick or corrugated iron construction. To prevent tipple fires
from spreading down the mine, the fan should be easily reversi-
ble. At a short distance down the main shaft, there should be
lig^t easily closed doors. As a result of fire experience in build-
ings, wooden doors covered on both sides by heavy tin with
clamped scams and rivets are recommended. They should be
held open by hemp ropes extending up into the t^jple far enough
to be always dry and sure to be burned off before fire has spread
past the doors. The doors will then close even though no one
can approach the ^aft top. The mine inspectors should see to
it that these safety doors are never propped open. With these
simple precautions the men in a mine will be safer against fire
than persons working in frame buildings. The greatest danger
is from gas after the ventilation stops but the men will leave
the mine before there is much accumulation.
Alarm systems are not recommended. In the dampness ot
a mine, they are very likely to get out of order in spite of con-
stant care. They may therefore fail in an emergency and the
men, who would otherwise leave the mine or be warned by mes-
senger, may lose their lives by depending upon the alarm.
Falling of men.
All openings to shafts both at top and bottom should be
guarded by substantial gates. These can be made to open and
close automatically at the shaft bottom. The gate at the ground
level should be opened only by hand and so arranged that it will
not stay open except when the cage is at the landing. A simple
scheme for this purpose is shown in Fig. 7a. This is intended
for a substantial lifting gate so counter-balanced that it can be
readily raised, but still tending to close of its own weight. At
the top of its lift, it is held by the latch A. This is so propor-
lyGoO'^lc
Conservatio:^ of thk iliXEKS.
435
tinned that it tends to assume a horizontal position bwt is free to
rise, as the gate passes, by sliding in a link at the end of the
rod B. While the gate is open, the latch is held by the rod &,
t which is supported against the side
of the cage through the bell crank
, ; I /] and bar C As soon as the cage is
tji&4-f^, _^ moved, the gate is released and
later the weight on rod B pulls C
out of the way of the cage. The
gate caii be held open by other
means in case it is necessary to get
to the shaft while the cage is not
at the landing, but it will not be
left open after ordinary use.
' All stairways and walks around
the tipple should have strong rail-
ings upon both sides, and as far as
Fig ?2 Shaft gate. possible there should be sufficient
hight so that men can pass without striking their heads or stoop-
ing. The stairways in the escape shafts should be so railed and
arranged that the miners can go up and down them in the dark
if necessary.
To reduce the risk of stumbling, all ladders and stairways
should be kept in perfect repair and there should be no steps of
unusual hight.
ACCIDENTS FROM MACHINERY.
Guards. All mining machinery should be provided with all
possible safeguards. These consist of shields over all gears, rap-
idly moving saws, wheels, or any machinery not enclosed by rail-
ings. Ample room for attendants should be provided so that
they need not go too near any machine. These methods have
been vrorked out by mechanical engineers for the larger indus-
trial companies, and accounts can be found in technical liter-
ature.*
\cci(lcn!?.'' h\
,-hanir-aI Hngi'i
'The Mechanical Engineer and Prevention of
CaJder, Thr journal of American Society of Me-
Feb, igii
lyGoo'^lc
4^(3 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Rope carriages for slope tipples. At most of the slope mines,
it is necessary for the coupler on the tipple to throw the hoisting
rope upon the knuckle sheave, with an ir<Mi hook each time an
empty trip is sent down the mine. This is fatiguing work and
requires considerable skill to avoid injury. At the No, 2 slope
of the Russellville Anthracite Coal Company this is avoided by
carrying the ropt upon a car atiove the empty track and on a
level with the track for the loads. This car is pulled to the
knuckle by holding the rope in a clamp which is released by the
attendant at the right time. The car is then returned by gravity.
There is still some danger and this arrangement takes even more
time than the dangerous book.
Fig. 73. Rope carriage at the Hiawatha Mine.
A better plan is in use at the Hiawatha Mine at Coaldale and
the mine of the Harper Coal & C<*e Company at Bates.* Fig. 73
is redrawn from a dim photograph of the rope carriage in use at
the Hiawatha Mine. This shows the car on the side track with
the hoisting rope thrown into the spring clamp on top and ready
to be attached to the empty trip ahead of the cars shown. As the
trip is lowered, the car runs forward. Most of the way, the left
hand wheels run upon the near rail of the loaded track as shown
I published in Mines and Minerals tor April,
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Conservation op the Miners. 437
in Fig. 74. When the knuckle is reached, this rope carriage is
held by a firm stop, while the rope slides down the iron bar cm
top and drops down upon an iron inside the rail of the loaded
track, and slides over onto the knuckle pulley, as the trip swings
on to the straight track. The carriage is prevented from tiffing
over, as the rope slides off, by the tongue on the right hand side,
which enters a slot in the stop. When the loaded trip comes up,
it str9ces the end of the rope carriage and pushes it back until it
turns out of the way on the side track. After the loaded trip
has been spragged, the coupler detaches the rope, pulls it back
far enough, throws it into the clamp of the carriage, and jumps
down to the empty track and attaches the rope to the empty trip.
Then if the grades are right, he need merely to pull back the
stop and the trip starts oH without more attention.
The rope carriage must be high enough so that the rope will
not strike the frame woric of the upper track. If too high, there '
Fig. 74. Track for rope carriage.
is danger that the carriage will be jerked off onto the empty
track. This danger is reduced by placing the extra rail for the
sl<^e carriage as near the empty track as possible, by weighting
the other side of the car, and by decreasing the angle of the rope
from the carriage to the trip. This angle is sufficiently small
upon all gently sloping tipples. On the others, it can be in-
creased by placing the switch between the empty and loaded
tracks farther from the trucks.
The carriage should reach the knuckle just as the rope has
swung over to the first rail of the straight track. To insure this,
the side track for the rope carriage is placed just as far from
the end of the usual empty trip as the frc^ between the loaded
and empty tracks is from the knuckle. It is said to be better to
have the carriage strike the top too soon so the rope will slip in
the clamp, rather than too late so the rope may slip off and catch
at the edge of the rail.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Coal Mixing ln Arkansas
To prevent the carriage from turning over endwise, the
front wheels should be as far forward as possible and the stop
as high as it can be without striking the rope. If the rope rubs
on the extra rail for the carriage, the only harm is the extra
wear on tfie rope.
With this arrangement, the knuckle sheave can be in the
exact center of the slope track and only the empty track need be
curved- The sheave should be rather low, and heavy iron straps
should be provided to guide the rope from the arm of the car-
riage to the sheave.
The rope carriage here shown can be applied to any existing
tqiple at very little expense. The extra time and strength it
saves the coupler can be profitably spent in better inspection and
oiling of the pit cars and in assisting to drop loads to the dump.
knuckle sheave-
The slope carri
that it can not swi
that, as the cars
riage at Bates carries an upright arm so pivoted
ving toward the empty track, but so arranged
ving over to the straight track, this arm carries
the rope over to the center of the knuckle sheave. This carriage
has little advantage over the one slmwn and is more complicated.
It takes a little more time to put the rope on it and it is very
likely to be jerked off the track at the knuckle.
Spiral for raixing the rope at slope tipples. At one or two
slopes in this State, the rope is carried most of the way up to
the knuckle sheave by a screw-like arrangement as shown in
Fig. 75, Ordinarily these do not carry the rope all the way to
the sheave and the coupler has to throw the rope the rest of the
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 43CJ
way by pulling it with a hook. To insure the most certain action
it is best to place the knuckle sheave outside the track and put
an extra curve in the empty track and to raise the rc^e some
distance above the rail. Such an arrangement will always w'ork
and be free from deraibnents, and does not require the coupler
even to place the rope upon a carriage. It will, however, require
more expensive changes in existing slope tipples, is more expen-
sive to maintain than the carriage, and is troublesome to design
and construct.
The drawing shows a screw made of a one-inch square iron
rod riveted ^irally around an eight-inch steam pipe. The detail,
Fig- 76, shows a possible method of construction. The pipe is
fastened by riveted arms to a two-inch square shaft turned at
the ends. For simphcity in designing tlie bearings, the spiral
should be attached to a timber parallel to its axis as shown. The
l/pfitr aaering
Fig. 76. Details of spiral for raising rope,
support of tlMs timber depends upon the general design of the
tipple. The lower bearing is a simple thrust-bearing but the
upper one must carry a heavy wing to guide the rt^e from the
highest point of the pipe to the knudcle sheave. In order that
the rope may bear equally upon the pipe and the spiral, the hori-
zontal distance between the ends of the pipe at right angles to
the center line of the tipple shoukl equal the vertical distance.
For best results, the spiral should make the same angle with
the axis of the screw that the rope does. If this is done, the
rope is supported evenly on its lower side by the spiral. It is
also necessary that the rope reach the top of the spiral at ^bout
the time the end of the trip has swung over upon the main trade.
To bring this about, the total length of the spiral, above the
point at whicii the rope first touches it, must equal the distance
lyGoo'^lc
44<^ Coal Mining in Akkansas
the rope travels from the time it touches the spiral until the trip
is upon the main track.*
This distance, which may be called L, depends upon the
grade of the tracks and the vertical distance between them at
the knuckle. When too great, it can be reduced by keq>ing the
empty track so far away from the Joaded track that the rope
will not touch the spiral until the trip has nearly reached the
frog between the tracks.
The length of the spiral depends upon the number of turns
it makes around the pipe. This is increased by placing the pipe
more nearly at right angles to the rt^e. Tliis reduces the offset
A shown on the .plan and measured from tiie point at which the
n^>e first touches the spiral to the point at which it leaves it. If
the spiral is to be parallel to the rope at the point of contact, and
if the rope is to reach the top after it has traveled a distance L,
the offset A is given by the formula:
In this, H is the vertical distance the rc^e must be lifted and
A and L are as just defined.
The position of the spiral upon the pipe can be marked out
for the blacksmith by wrapping around the pipe a piece of paper
cut off at the angle the spiral is to make. This angle can be
laid off by measuring on the side of the paper a distance equal
to 1.414 times H, and, at right angles to this, the distance A and
completing the triangle by joining the ends of the two legs. This
triangle may be made to any scale and ^plied to the pipe as often
as necessary. The computation can then be checked by measur-
ing the length of the spiral to see if it equals L.
If trigonometrical tables are available, the angle of the spiral
called S may be obtained more simply from the formula:
2^/2H~
Sine of 2 5 —
L
The horizontal angle P, that the projection of the spiral tipon
the plan makes with the perpendicular to the direction of the
^Actually the spiral should be a'trifle shorter since the rope rests upon
the spiral at a distance from the axis greater than the outside of tfie
pipe. The correction is small and varies with the diameter of the rem
and the amount of wear upon the pipe. It is an error upon the safe tide.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 441
rope, is then given by the relation tangent P — ■\/ 2 tangent S.
This is readily laid out on the drawir^ board. H can be taken as
the difference in elevation between the two tracks at the knuckle.
Safety switches for slopes. For the protection of the men
in the mine and to prevent the destruction o£ cars that escape
from the empty track, a switch just above the sl(q)e mouth should
be lield by a s^nnng in such a positi<H] that all descending cars
will be turned to the repair track unless the attendant holds the
switch for the slope. The Arkansas mines do not have such a
safety switch because the coupler's attention is required at the
knuckle sheave while he should be attending to the safety switch,
and no one else is at hand to look after it. An automatic ar-
rai^enient such as described would therefore not only relieve
the coupler of the dangerous part of his wofk, but would also
permit the operation of a safety switch without additional ex-
pense. This switch can be closed by a wire from the position
most convenient for the coupler. It should be required by law
as in many other states.
ACCIDENTS FROM CARS.
Better light. Many accidents to drivers are caused by colli-
sions between different mule trips and by mules going in the
wrong direction. These can be largely avoided by having a good
light attached to the first car of the trip or hanging to the collar
of the mule. The only practicable tight for this purpose is the
electric light with storage battery. They should be at once intro-
duced in all mines having a direct current electric plant. Wher-
ever two or more mules haul to the same parting, they should be
supplied even when a ^)ecial dynamo for charging the batteries
must be purchased. Lights of three candle power are now made
for this purpose and cost from $9.00 up. The maintenance is
about 2c. or 3c. a day. Such a light will pay for itself in a very
short time by reason of the saving of time by the driver and the
much larger amount of work a mule can do if it is not obliged
to flounder around in the dark.
Accidents from hSIs in roadways. In many of the Arkansas
coa! mines, there are short steep hills in entries which are gen-
erally level. The drivers soon get into the habit of making the
mules run down these, instead of sprag^ng the cars and going
lyGoO'^lc
442 Coal iliNiNG in Arkansas
at an ordinary speed. In order to keep out of the way of tlie
cars, the mules will get to running; down such hills faster and
faster. The result is a bad 'wreck whenever the cars strike a
chunk of coal or any other obstruction. There are also wrecks
when the mule stumbles or tries to dodge the trip. Generally the
mule is hurt rather than the driver, but the driver is sure to get
hurt if he is caught in many wrecks. Usually, there is no excuse
for such hills, and the entries should be driven at grade. Gener-
ally, the exipense of removing hills or avoiding them in the first
place will be more than repaid by the better output and longer
life of the mules, even if the safety of the driver is not consid-
ered. This phase of the question will be discussed in Chapter XI.
When entries must be driven around squeezes or patches of
faulty coal.'hills may be necessary. They are also necessary for
twin-Jiaulage entries, and in nearly flat coal generally. Such
hills are usually long and the drivers are much more likely to
sprag their cars on them. This should be insisted upon by better
discipline. If the hills are so steep that more than three sprags
to the car are necessary, the general layout of the mine should be
changed to avoid them even in the rooms. This will be dis-
cussed later.
If there are hills in cut-offs or rooms, requiring more than
two aprags to the car, all cars should be fitted with brakes that
can be operated without danger while the car is in motion. This
is necessary because the grades will change in short distances
and swne cars will run stiffer than others. As a result, the cars
are either excessively spragged and wear out the mule, or they
are in places insufiioiently spragged, causing danger, or the
driver is forced to the dangerous practice of taking out spraggs
or putting them in while the trip is in motion. Often all three
conditions occur on the same run. With a good brake, the
miners in rooms or the drivers need put in only enough ^raggs
for the flattest part of the hill, and safely and easily control the
speed of the cars by the brake. As yet no brakes are used in
Arkansas. The extra cost per car is only $1.50 for single brakes,
and $3.00 for double brakes, and will often pay in additional out-
put from the mine. If brakes are used, care must be taken to
>ee that they are maintained in good condition.
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 44J
Bumpers. When cars are full and entries low, or when car»
are chunked up, the drivers are compelled to ride on the bump-
ers. Even wiien cars are empty, they ride between them to save
time in switching. For the protection of the driver, the cars
tnust be kept apart by bumpers. The tJiick comer bumpers now
in use are more safe and convenient for the driver, altliough
harder upon the cars than center bumpers. They should, how-
ever, be made a little longer than at present, say not less than
8 or 9 inches beyond the extreme ends of the car body. They
should also be wide. This change is impracticable in those mines
already t^ened by smalt sliafts. In existing slope mines, it pre- ,
sents little difficulty and all new shafts should be made large
enough to accommodate long cars.
Obstructions on the track. To reduce accidents, the tracks
should be kept clean, all gob entries eliminated, and plenty of
room maintained at the side of the track to receive any lumps
of coal the driver may wish to throw off the track. It is better
for the efficiency of tihe mule to fill the space between the ties
with good road material. Hard brushing from the mine is some-
times available, but it will generally be necessary to bring in
cinders or other material from the surface. This will have a
slightly beneficial effect in also avoiding accidents caused by
stumbling mules, and will prompt the company men to keep the
roads cleaner.
The filling of coal can be greatly reduced by less chunking
up of the cars. This is best accomplished by giving the miners
plenty of cars or a good turn. Some miners will arrange the
chunks upon lightly loaded cars in such a way tfiat some coal is
very likely to fall off, and enable the loader to claim an average
weight for the "broken car." The pit-bosses should occasionally
in^>ect the loading of the cars to check this cause of unnecessary
accidents to drivers. It may even be well in all cases except
actual bad wrecks reported by the driver, not to allow payment
for the filled coal but to credit all coal gathered from the road-
ways to the general funds of the Union. Under present condi-
tions, this is too likely to lead to unfairness, one way or the other.
Where a poor turn is unavoidable, it seems better to limit
the bight of the loaded car rather than its weight. This is less
troublesome to the miner, and the car is less likely to spill coal
lyGoO'^lc
444 Coal Mining in Arkansas
on the roadway or down the shaft. The simplest method of
enforcing this rule is to pass the cars under a bar swinging like
a gate, and so set that it will be opened by all cars of excess
hight An agreed amount of coal *ould then be deducted from
the chedc number on the car and credited to the Union, If
this agreement can not be made, the cars can be passed under a
strong fixed bar that will knock excess coal off. This exacts an
additional penalty because some coal below the bar will go with
the projecting lumps. In fairness, the coal knocked off must be
credited to the Union. It can not be refunded to the miner as
excess-Tveight deductions sometimes are.* It will, however, be
necessairy to make note of the cars that are broken before reach-
ing the bar, and there is an expense in gathering up the coal.
Obstruction of the track and delays may be avoided by placing
the bar over a good-sized pit beneath the track.
If it were not for the mine-run law, the falling of coal could
be almost entirely prevented in the high-coal mines by making
the car bodies higher to give the same capacity with less chunk-
ing up. This can not well be done in the low coal, and under
present conditions, high cars will increase the percentage of slack
produced.
Better tracks and switches will also reduce accidents slightly,
but this is primarily a matter of greater economy in hauling coal.
Accidents with rope haulage. Accidents on rope-haulage
ways can be reduced by keeping the speed as low as possible.
This requires that the trips be made as long as can be haindled
by the engine and n^e, and that delays between trips be reduced
as much as possible. When the output is small, there is no
excuse for running the trips so fast that there are frequent long
wtits for coal. To increase the length of trips, stronger rope
and better couplings and in some cases more cars will be needed.
These pay anyway in the reduced number of wrecks. The prac-
tical limit of the number of cars per trip will then be determined
by the capacity of the terminals at the top and at the different
levels.
There is little danger to the trip riders as long as the speed
can be kept down to 8 miles an hour. At higher speeds, better
track and better running gear on the cars become increasingly
•See page 2IS-
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners.
445
necessary to prevent derailments and the shaking off of coal.
With these greater speeds, a high-priced trackman should be em-
ployed occasionally to line up the track. It is believed that at
high speeds, the rope rider will be safest if on the car next the
rope both up and down.
At the head of all slopes, there should be a derailing switdi
t4iat must be held in position by some man each time a trip is to
be lowered. It should be far enough from the top that the entire
trip will pull cm the rope before the first car passes the switch.
Fig. 77. Trip dog used at Bates, Arkansas,
While slopes are being sunk, a similar safety switch should be
placed below the last working entry to protect the men at the
face. If the grade is steep, this should be connected to a side
track so graded that the runaway cars will wedge against the
roof and not run on down over the ties.
Safety dogs on the end of the trips are not always used
because they often fail to stop the trip but merely turn under the
last car.
lyGoO'^lc
44'* Coal Min'inc in- Arkansas
At the mine of the Harper Coal & Coke Co. at Rates. Arkan-
sas, a dog like that shown in Fig. 77 is in use. It is said to iiave
■ been designed by I. R. Packard. The to^) Is hookerl over the car
more easily than the ordinary dog is fastened to the edge of the
coupling. It is not in the center of the car and is pretty certain
to throw the car into the rib. It can not turn under the car
witfiout first tearing the end out, which will not happen at the
low speed of the beginning of the runaway. It can be made b\-
the mine blacksmith and the expense is not great. It is rather -
heavy and should, Hierefore. be made of crow!>ar steel to jvive
sufficient strength with 2 minimum weight.
Experience has ^own that for both main slopes and shafts
it is safer as well as cheaper to install ropes having a factor of
safety of about 5, and to discard these ropes as soon as the wires
of the outer layer are worn so that a small number of them are
broken. Such discanled ropes can then be further used in inside
slopes having a small capacity and low speed of lioist. If larger
ropes are used, they are likely to be used too long and there is
no easy way of judging the wear inside the rope. Jerks in start-
ing trips on slopes can not be avoided by even the most careful
engineers, and the rt^e generally breaks as the trip is starting.
without serious results.
Accidents ivith electric haulage. The entire subject of elec-
trical accidents in coal mines has been so fully discusse<l in
Miners' Circular No. 5, issued by tlie Bureau of Mines, tliat little
need be said here. The main thing seems to be to impress up<Mi
the men the fact that electricity is dangerous and shouUl he left
alone, ^Vhere men must pass under a trolley wire, tlie wire
shoukj be protected from accidental contact by a secure woi>den
guard.
Accidents to men walking in haulage-ways. To avoici these
accidents, all power and mule trips should carrj' a light, and the
present law requiring refuge holes every 40 ft. should be enforced,
and also amended to require that they be kept free from all rock,
coal, or other refuse ; and that the rib for a yard on each side of
the hole be kept whitewashed. In ordinary entries, the room
necks ■\vill serve as refuge holes. As mentioned before, gob piles
should be kept out of entries used as traveling-ways. Wherever
lyGoO'^k
Conservation of the Miners. 447
the old air-coiirses are no longer required to carry the return air,
they should be kept in good order as indqjendent traveling-ways,
ACCIDENTS FROM MISSILES IN SHAFTS.
At shafts having self-dumping cages, the bottom men are
in danger of injury from falling coal. This can be prevented by
stopping the excessive chunking up of cars. The danger can be
reduced by building a secure hojqwr at the top, so that no coal
can fall down outside the compartment of the dumping cage.
By watching the falling of the coal, the hopper at the top can
often be changed to reduce the amount of coal that falls down
that compartment even with excessive chunking up. A substan-
tial partition should then be built between the compartments from
the top to the bottom of the shaft. At the bottom, there should
be a gate regularly opened only by the descending cage. This
gate should be so strong that it will keep cars from nmning into
the sunip.
In this chapter, we have attempted to show that the mining
laws should be amended to protect the health of the miners as
well as to prevent accidents to the men. To enforce proper pre-
cautions upon the part of the miners, the entire responsibility
should be placed upon the operators and the miners should be
prevented from interfering with the enforcement of the rules
made by the operators and mine inspectors.
The general health conditions may be improved by avoiding
smoky lights, dust, muddy roads, strong drafts of cold air,
and long walks in low entries, by securing the best kinds of
explosives, and by properly firing them and removing the smoke
as rapidly as possible. The mines should also be provided with
proper drinking water and sanitary conveniences. Modern
change houses are strongly recommended.
Better ventilation is needed and can best be secured by sev-
eral strong splits of air rather than by coursing a single split
through the entire mine. Ijoss of air before the working places
are reached requires increased size of air-ways and reduction in
the number of stoppings used. Plate VITI shows a suggested
plan for accomplishing these results.
lyGoO'^lc
448 Coal Mining in Arkansas
For the prevention of accidents, better discipline is essential.
The powder should be more carefully handled ; the amount of
powder used in blasting coal should be reduced by a strict cootrtrf
of the shot-firing, and wherever possible, by undermining the
coal by machinery before it is blasted. It is suggested that the
price of powder be largely increased and that the increased price
paid for powder be used as a relief fund for the victims of mine
accidents. An equal tax should be placed upon the coal operator
to go to the general funds of the State. This would provide
money for more rigid state inspection and for the general sanita-
tion of the mining camps.
Rules for handling gas in tiie safest manner are suggested.
To check the common dust explosions, more careful use of pow-
der is necessary, safety explosives are advisable, and the mine
should be kept moist. For the last purpose, steam for both
warming and moistening the air-current is strongly recommended.
The advantages of the method are pointed out and the means for
reducing its disadvantages are suggested. This is followed by
calculations showing the amount of steam and water that wiU be
needed under various conditions, and the horsepower of boilers
and the expense necessary to keep the air in good condition.
The best methods of controlling mine fires and of recovering
mines with the least delay and danger are outlined. To reduce
the accidents from falls of roof, the legal requirement of system-
atic and extra proppings is necessafy. Better light, less powder,
and narrow entries will help reduce such accidents. Besides pro-
tecting the miners from falls of roof, better lights are needed to
prevent smoke, to light the front of all trains of cars whether
pulled by power or by mules, and to increase the efficiency and
comfort of the men. Electric or acetylene lights are recom-
mended and described.
The danger of the falling of men should be lessened by rail-
ings at shafts and stairways, and the falling of coal down shafts
should be prevented by a strict load limit upon cars and the best
possible dumping arrangements. Guards and safety devices are
outlined for the reduction of accidents from moving machinery.
To protect the men from car accidents, better lights, cars,
track, and bumpers are advisable. Obstructions upon the track
should be reduced by care in loading and handling cars and by
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Miners. 449
the abolition of gob entries. With rope haulage, the speed should
be as low as possible and strong hitchings and cars are necessary.
Refuge holes or separate traveling-ways for men should be main-
tained. Safety switches are needed upon slopes and the men
should be taught to fear electricity. The example should be set
by placing all possible guards around electric apparatus.
Without neglecting minor precautions, it is urged that spe-
cial attention be paid to the chief causes of accidents. These
are the falls of roof, the heavy blasting, and accidents from cars
and gas. It is also urged that more attention be paid to the pre-
vention of sickness among the miners.
Most of the suggestions here given involve some expense
to the operators or else extra work upon the part of the miners
themselves. In the long run, the expense falls upon the con-
sumers of the coal. It is for the sake of the consumers that the
coal is mined and it is for them that the miners toil. Why then
should they complain at the cost of the health and safety of the
men who supply them with coal? No users of coal should be so
heartless as to begrudge the few cents per ton of coal needed to
minimize the suffering and hardship caused the miners and their
families by sickness and injury.
Conditions in the different mines vary and general regula-
tions will be inadequate under some circumstances, and needlessly
drastic under others. Legislation can not keep exactly abreast
of knowledge of mine safety. For these reasons, legislation is
a last resort and it is gratifying to note the tendency of a large
number of operators to forestall the passage of rigid laws by
introducing safer methods and appliances as rapidly as they are
devised. It is for such operators that the suggestions here given
were prepared. At some future time, the consumers of coal may
become sufficiently humane and sufficiently conscious of their
own interest in the matter to give preference in the purchase of
their coal to those operators that pay the most attention to the
health and safety of their employees. When this attitude is well
established, safety laws will be unnecessary.
The miner may think it a hardship to be careful, but the
widow caused by his carelessness will find it a much greater
hardship to honorably provide for herself and children. The
miner who survives an accident but loses his eyes or limbs will
lyGoO'^lc
450 * CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
be quick to prefer careful mining to the hardships that so often
follow the shirking of this duty. Before they complain of safety
regulations, those miners that are too lazy to be careful without
regulations should think of the possible results of their careless-
ness to others. This thought should also make both miners and
operators wjlling to bear the tax upon powder that will prevent
many accidents and provide for the victims of the accidents that
are unavoidable.
lyGoO'^lc
CHAPTER X
CONSERVATION OF COAL
CONDITIONS OF COMPUTATIONS.
The general remedies for the loss of coal have been given
on page 332. The detailed computations to be given liere are
made upon the supposition that the mine-nm law will be repealed,
and that the miners will not resist those changes of mining
methods, that do not decrease the daily earnings of individual
miners. The scale prices of the 1908 wage contract will be used
since these form the basis of the costs given in Chapter VIII.
As long as the scale is increased or decreased by a uniform per-
centage, no change is made in the relative costs of different meth-
ods as compared widi each other. When methods of mining for
whicii there are no scales are studied, scales will be suggested
which are expected to yield to the miners the normal earnings
given on page 170. The scales for some proposed special kinds
of work are figured from the .Arkansas room tonnage scale by
using the ratio which exists between the tontiage and special
scales in certain other districts of the Southwest.
The value of the coal in the ground will be taken as loc.
.per ton, TWs includes the value of the land and cost of open-
ing the mine with interest, charged against the coal that may be
recovered during the life of the mine. In some cases of thick
coal purchased cheaply and opened at slight expense, the charge
is less than this. But the value of the mining right has increased
lately and the expense of opening mines is increasing raipidly.
The cost of opening some of the newer mines at Spadra has
exceeded this, not including interest. The difference between
the market value of slack and lump coal is taken as $1.00 a ton
for the softer coal and $2.50 for the Spadra coal.
Most of the mining methods hereafter described make it
possible for the <^rators to mine a larger proportion of coal
than at present and to do this at a profit. Other improvements
along the same lines will suggest themselves to the superintend-
ents. Some methods fully described are not the best that have
been devised, but they will cause the least disturbance in labor
n> 000^^10
45-2 Coal Mining in Arkansas
conditions. Others have been preferred to plans yielding a
slightly better extraction because they require much less depart-
ure from present p)ans. In many cases, only that plan which
shoHS the greatest net profit has been discussed. Much time
has been spent in an effort to devise plans for materially reduc-
ing the waste of mining under certain special conditions. When
more careful mining proved more costly than present methods,
no mention of the new plans has been made. Careful mining is
less profitable in the case of small mines cheaply opened and
having a top of thick unyielding sandstone. Wherever wage
scales and thicknesses of coal are such that deadwork costs are
low, the more complete mining becomes less profitable ttian usual.
The methods discussed here have not been hastily worked out.
NECESSITY OF SAVING THE COAL.
The operators are strongly urged to adopt more con^lete
methods of mining the coal whenever this is possible. In the
first place, it is often profitable from a mere commercial point
of view. Further, those in possession of nature's gifts of coal
may be compelled by law to use that gift for the greatest good
to mankind. It may be urged that the coal belongs to the
so-called owners, and that the public has nothing to say as to its
use. This argument has little practical importance, because
public opinion is rapidly approaching the point of regulating the
control of natdre's gifts by drastic legislation when necessary,
and in the final contest, the people will rule this coimtry rather
than those holding title to its natural resources.
No legislation for the prevention of waste of coal mining is
proposed in this report. One of the chief reasons is that no
practicable method of State supervision has suggested itself. This
consen'atism will not prevent the passage of laws upon the sub-
ject, if the operators continue to recklessly waste the coal. Unless
such legislation is prevented by voluntarily checking the waste
of coal, the operators may suddenly find themselves put out of
business by laws of such an ill-advised nature that none of the
coal mines can be profitably operated under its provisions.
A still more weighty reason for saving of the coal is the
future welfare of the race. The world's supply of coal is lim-
ited. Substitutes for coal will doubtless be worked out, but for
many purposes these substitutes wilt be expensive and unsatis-
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 453
iactory. The scarcity of fuel is, therefore, sure to retard prep-
ress and cause suflFering, The present wanton waste of coal
will in the future cause an incalculable hardship to mankind. By
increasing the severity of the struggle for existence, it may mean
death instead of life to untcM millions of our people. The wast-
ing of coal is, therefore, a crime against humanity and should be
stopped at once.
LOSS OF COAL IN PILLARS IN SHALLOW MINES.
Loss of pillars in shallow mines. In the future,, all mines
working coal at slight depth must be opened upon thin coal
seams, because the thicker coal is already exhausted near the
outcrop. This reduces the actual loss of coal in each pillar left
unmined, but it does not affect the percentage loss. Where the
coal is so low that the roof in the room must be brushed, or
pu^ers must be employed, the thinness of the seam will greatly
increase the cost of mining the coal. If, then, the roof is so
briftle that entries can be readily protected from squeezes in the
rooms, it seems best to make the room pillars just as small as
possible and to abandon them.
Karrow entries iw shallow mines. In this case, it is essen-
tial to fully protect the entries. This is best done by making
both of them narrow, by providing good pillars between room-
necks, and by leaving a pillar between the air-course and the
faces of the rooms below it. The narrow entry entails the ex-
pense of loading out the brushing. The good stump pillars
merely require vigilance to see that the miners live up to their
agreement to keep the room-neck 8 or 9 ft. wide for 3 yd., and
that the first crosscut between rooms be kept 30 ft. from the
entry. The pillar below the air-course can be obtained at the
negligible expense of measuring the rooms from the surveyed
entry and the cost of driving the slope a little longer for each lift.
Cost of coal with wide entries. To illustrate the various
costs and results, we may take the case of a mine opened on a
seam of coal 2 ft. 10 in. thick without room brushing. Accord-
ing to present practice, the entries will be 18 ft. wide ; the main
entry' will be brushed to a total hight of 5 ft. and the brushing
gobbed. If the dip is considerable, there will be a brushed dip
switch ever)' 150 ft. The back entry and rooms will not be
lyGoO'^lc
454 Coal Mining in Arkansas
brushed and the cars will hold about 1,200 pounds. The rooms
will be about, 150 ft. long holed mto the adr-course above, and
leaving a considerable block of coal at the head of each pillar.
The rooms, if single, will be 36 ft. from center to center. The
pillar will average about 9 ft. thick and there will be three break-
throughs aJid about 2 yd. of each must be paid for. There will
be a S-foot crosscut each 35 ft. along the entry, and the chain
pillar will be 12 ft. thick.
The yardage of entries, crosscuts, room-necks, and break-
throughs, the cost of bru^ing, ties, entry and breaking props,
stoppings, switches and trade laying, will amount to about
$117.08* for each 12 yd. along the entry. If the pillars between
room-necks are made small, tfie first mining will yield 600 tons
for a length of 36 ft. along the entry and width of 198 ft, from
air-course to air-course.f After (he entry is finished, the chain
pillar will be buried in gob and the amount of coal to be obtained
from the pillars on each side of the air-course will be so small
and so mixed with slate that they will not likely be mined. The
stumps of the room pillars are readily accessible, but can only
be mined at a profit by giving a pair of men a contract to both
mine the coal and haul it to the slope. This is now forttidden
by the Union, so that under present conditions very little if any
of this coal can be recovered. The entire output may then be
*a4 yd. of entry and air-course at $2.25 per yd $ 54-00
4 yd. of crosscut at $2.35 per yd 9.00
1 room-neck 3.37
6 yd. of break-throughs at $1.68 per yd lojiS
14 yd. brushing in entry and slant at $2.08 per yd 39^12
I stopping 3.00
3-cent ties, each 3 ft is ic per ft., 72 ft. phis 6 ft. slant .78
1 room switch and ^ dip switch at $3.50 4.37
Laymg track in main entry at 6c per ft 2.16
3-cent breaking prc^s, each 16 in., and other entry props i.so
Total $117.08
fArea:
Irregular end of room, 15 ft. long, average 14 ft, wide 210 sq. ft.
Room-neck, lo ft. by 8 ft 80 "
Room widening, 12 ft. by 10 to 27 ft. 222 "
Room, 115 ft. by 27 ft 3105 "
3 break-throughs, 9 ft. by 5 ft 135 "
2 entries, 18 ft. by 36 ft 1296 "
I crosscut. 12 ft. by 5 ft 60 "
Total S108 sq. ft.
At 24 cu. ft. per ton, this is 603 tons.
lyGoo'^lc
CONSKKVATION OF TH« COAL. 455
taken at 600 ttms and the direct theoretical cost of opening up
tJie rooms will be 19.Sc. per ton of coal mined.
Theoretical cost Tvith narrow entries. If, on t4ie other hand,
there are full sized stump-pillars and a 15-foot pillar below ttie
air-course and the entries are only 8 ft. wide, the pillars between
the rooms can be made so small that they will generally squeeze
in after the rooms have been finished a short time. They may
be assumed to average no more than 5 ft. wide between cross-
cuts. TTie first mining will then yield 590 tons from a strip 36
ft. by 193 ft. After the rooms are finished, the track can be
relaid in the back entry, and the pillars readily mined without
danger of mixing in the gob. Since the air-course pillar is
unbroken, (Hectically 100 per cent of it can be mined and also a
little coal from the ends of the room pillars bek>w. Between 80
and 90 per cent of the chain and stump pillars can be mined.
Six men can be employed at this work. The pay-roll records
show that with only a fair turn, the Arkansas miners will aver-
age Syi tons of coal apiece from the pillars each day. If then
the entry has been driven to sudi a distance that two mules were
required to take the coal away from the room miners, one mule
will be kept busy hauling coal from the pillar miners. As the
work retreats toward the slope, a single mule can be used in two
entries on opposite sides of the slope. The hauling cost of this
coal will, therefore, average no more than that of the room coal.
Eighty-five per cent of the stumps and chain pillars and all
of the air-course pillars will yield 160 tons additional coal and
the total yield from 12 yards of entry will be 750 tons.* The
cost of opening i^ the workings will be less only by the cost of
a little yardage for break-throughs and the cost of the entry
props and breaking props not now needed. It will amount to
about $l!D.oo for 12 yd. In addition, there wilt be the expense
of handling the bailing. If it weighs 160 pounds per cubic
foot, has a thickness of 26 in. and an average width of 7 ft., the
brushing in the main entry and dip switches will amount to
75,000 pounds for each 12 yd. of entrj-. It will cost about aoc.
a ton to haul, hoist, and dump the brushing and 28c. per 1,200
pounds to load it. This amounts to $24.50 per 12 yd. of entry.
To mine the pillar coal will require the relaying of the track in
600 h
lyGoO'^lc
4S6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
the back entry and of the switches at each slant. This will
amount to about $3.00 for each 12 yd. of entry. Extra props
will be needed for the pillar coal ; at ic. a ton this will cost $1.60.
The total cost will then be $139.10 or 18.5c. per ton. No pushers
will be needed to handle cars for the pillar coal, but this slight
saving will be ignored.
The cost of first opening up the rooms will be $134.50 and
will amount to 2Z.8c. for each of the 590 tons produced at the
first working.
Advantages of narrow entries. The direct expenses listed
amount to 19.5c. a ton under the old plan. With narrow entries
and better recovery of coal, they amount to 18.5c. per ton. The
narrow entries also have other advantages. If the men are given
plenty of cars, the narrow entry can be driven in two-tfiirds the
time it takes to drive a wide one and only two-thirds as many
entries will be required for the same number of working places.
Since the yield per yard of entry is 25 per cent more, the number
of advancing entries needed is still further reduced and only
about half as many entries will be needed. The number of re-
treating entries will be one-third as many as the number of ad-
vancing entries. There will then be about five-sixths as many
yards of entry to maintain. No notched cross-bars will be
needed and very few others. There will be no gob to clean off
the track and no breaking props to replace, so the cost of rock
men per yard of entry will be small. It is safe to estimate that
the cost of maintenance of the mine underground will be only
one-fourth as much with narrow entries as with wide ones. This
saving will vary from 2c. to 4c. per ton of coal.
There is a further advantage in the shorter time required to
reach full production and in the interest charge on the cost of
opening entries not now needed. At 10 per cent per annum, this
will amount to about ic. per ton. if the mine is operated 200 days
a year and has a capacity of about 500 tons per day. Against
this is the fact that the coal first mined costs 3,3c. per ton more
than coal could be obtained for, if it were mined without refer-
ence to the later working of the pillars. Upon this the operator
must pay interest until the pillar coal is mined. In low coal, the
entries will be short and it may be assumed that they will reach
their limit in two years. It will take about half as long to rob it
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of ths Coal. 457
back and the total life of the entry will be ttiree years. The
average time between the first and second minings will be a year
and a half. At 10 per cent per annum, this charge will be about
0,48c. per ton of room ooal. It will be OTily 0.38c. per ton of all
the coal ultimately obtained from the entry.
These direct savings in operating costs, therefore, amount to
from 3a to 5c. a ton, which is certainly worth while. Since the
coal is worth loc. a ton in a mine opened for the present method
of mining, there is a great saving due to the better recovery. If
by improved methods, 750 tons are obtained from an area of 36
ft. by 193 ft., some 770 tons would be obtained from a patch
36 ft. by 198 ft. This is 170 tons more than is obtained by pres-
ent methods. This value would amount to 2.3c, a ton on the
basis of the increased output. The recovery is increased from
68 per cent to 87 per cent of the coal in the ground.
Actual yardage costs. All the computations are based upon
tfie theoretical yardage costs. These are always too low because
the entry-men are credited with various extras, and because the
yield is reduced on account of the waste of coal in the gob, the
loss of rooms, short rooms, and the occurrence of faulty patches
in the coal. Cost records of the companies show that under the
conditions assumed, the cost of opening entries would be 30c, a
ton or more, rather than 20c. This increases the saving per ton
due to a higher percentage of extraction. If double-necked
rooms are used, the recovery of coal under the present method is
a little greater than with single-necked rooms because of the
fewer room pillars left, and the profit from better mining is
slightly reduced. The diflference is small, however.
As the coal gets thicker, the cost of handling brushing de-
creases more rapidly than does the yardage cost. If a 5-foot
seam at little depth were available, the same figuring on the basis
of rooms only 150 ft. long gives a saving of 2c. per ton in yard-
age costs alofte, due to making the entries narrow and increasing
the extraction. If the rooms are 250 ft. k>ng, the saving will be
about 1,4c. The total will not differ greatly as the thickness of
the seam varies as long as brushing is necessary.
PILLARS IN COAL MINES.
Strength of coal pillars. As the mines get deeper so much
coal must be left in the room pillars that it becomes economical
.Goc^lc
45S Coal Mining in Arkansas
to mine them. The load upmi the mine amounts to a little more
than I pound per square inch for each foot of depth below the
surface. The load upon the pillars is increased in the proportion
of the total area of mine workii^s divided by the area of the
pilUrs, The strength of the pillars depends primarily upon the
strength of the coal, and is generally assumed to vary in prop-
portion to the area of the pillars. The margins of the pillars are,
however, weakened as a resuh of the heavy blasts fired against
them when the room coal is blasted out, and by the slacking of
some coal when it is exposed to the air. As a resuh, a pillar
12 ft. wide is actually more than twice as strong as a pillar 6 ft.
wide. The pillars are greatly weakened by a layer of soft clay
or rashing in the coal, above it or below it. Pillars in high coal
are also supposed to be weaker than pillars in the same quality
of tow coal. Pillars in dipping coal are weaker than in flat coal.
This is especially noticeable if the pillars are parallel to the strike
of the coal bed. If the coal is rather sharply folded, the pillars
on the flanks of tfie basin will quite completely crush before those
in the basin begin to take much weight.
The actual strength of the pillars per square inch of area
can be rather exactly obtained by carefully surveying all the pil-
lars in an area in which a squeeze starts. The load upon these
pillars will be given by the weight of cover within a line drawn
half-way between the crushing pillars and the sound ones outside
the area of the squeeze. From this, the maximum resistance of
the coal per square inch can be figured. After a squeeze has
started, more or less weight will be concentrated upon the sur-
rounding pillars until the roof or the pillar yields. For this
reason, the average computed strength of pillars that yield under
an old squeeze will be less than their real strength.
It is regretted that lack of funds has made it impossible to
secure any exact figures in this way. Approximate data of the
size of crushed pillars in a number of mines were obtained from
a study of adjoining workings mined under the same pit-boss.
From these, it appears that the weaker coal, such as that at Hunt-
ington and Hartford, has a resistance of only 500 to 700 pounds
per square inch. The coal at Paris seems to have no more
strength, but in this case the load upon the coal is increased by
strains in the rock due to recent folding and by the weight of
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 459
Short Mountain. The stronger seams of soft coal will carry
1,000 to 1,200 pounds per square inch of pillar. The strong coal
at Russellvillc with a soft clay parting holds in the neighborhood
of 1,500 pounds at a considerable dip. No squeezes were ob-
served at Spadra and it is likely that the pillars there will sustain
2,500 pounds per square inch. These figures will be used in
subsequent conq}utations.
Breaking the roof. To hold up the roof, a sufficient area of
coal must be left in the pillars, but if the pillars are to be safely
mined, each individual pillar must be large enough to cause at .
least the lower part of the roof to bend or break. This size
depends upon the strength of the roof, and the thickness which
must be brokoi to relieve the pressure. No opportunity was pre-
sented for studying the breaking of a sandstone roof, but suffi-
cient and conhrmatoiy data were obtained from three different
mines with a pure diale roof, to show that the rather hard Arkan-
sas shale or "slate" will shear off when the load on the section
cradled is between 50 and 60 pounds per square inch, and that
the settling and, therefore, the cracking of the roof will under
ordinary conditions cease when the shale has fallen in to a bight
of 50 to 75 times the hight of the caved woricing. The strong
silictous sandstone of Arkansas will probably sustain a load of
1,200 to 1,500 pounds per square inch before it will shear off.
The total force on the pillar should be figured for the thickest
individual layer of sandstone above the coal.
Avoiding long break-throughs. The great disadvantage of
wide rocHn-fHllars is due to the yardage cost of the long break-
throughs required by law each 30 or 40 ft, A portion of this
expense can be avoided by die jrian shown on Plate VIII. Each
second pillar is a strip of coal thick enough merely to resist toast-
ing alongside of it In it the break-throughs can be made as
often as desired without expense. It will serve only to carry
the air to the rown faces and to relieve the props a little by hold-
ing up the lower layers of the roof.
If there is a separate si^it of air for each entry, the extra
resistance to flie air-current will be of little importance. There
will, however, be a necessary expense for temporary canvas or
dirt stoppings at each break-through. This will be about $r.oo
lyGoO'^lc
46o
CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
per break-through. To secure the best results with the present
system of pillars, stoppings should be used, so it is hardly fair to
chat^ this expense against the new plan.
Long crosscuts will be needed between each wide pillar and
its stump. If they are to be mined, an additional OFOSSCUt will
be needed next the air-course pillar to begin the mining. Even
if the pillars are not mined, but left only str<Hig enough to support
the roof, it is apparent that, as depth of mining increases, it will
be cheaper to drive one long crosscut through every second pillar
than it is to drive several through twice as many pillars of mod-
erate width.
The Sise of pillars required. If the pillars are to be success-
fully mined, they must not only su}^>ort the load, but must also
be strong enough to break the roof. The resulting extra expense
may be charged against the pillar coal. The tables below ^low
the size of the pillars under a shale roof required for each pur-
pose, at different dq>ths, and with different strengths of coal.
They are figured from the data given above. The strength of
the small pillars between large ones is ignored and each large
pillar is strong enough to support and to break the roof along its
full length. If the roof b broken as shown on Plate VIII, riie
pillars need not be quite so lai^, but the distribution of pressure
on the pillars is too uncertain for computation. Because of the
greater proportionate strength of wide pillars, the width given in
the table is excessive at the greater depths.
Widlh of pUlart m feel required bthueen pairs of 30-foot rooms.
rot WMk «wl
For nftUQiu oM
Forgpidn CMI
a
h
It
1
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800
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laoo
59
ms
«
„Gooi^lc
Conservation of the Coal.
461
Width of pillars in feet required between pairs of 24-foot rooms.
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5
Protecting the entries. To protect the entries from squeezes
after the room pilUrs have been mined, they should be made nar-
row and be protected by ample pillars on both sides and the
room-necks should be kept small. The maximum length of the
stump pillars between room-necks is limited by the present Ark-
ansas law to 30 ft. if gas is present. A 3ofoot pillar between the
air-course and the rooms below is then as wide as is effective.
lyGoO'^lc
462 Coal Miming in Arkansas
The cost of crosscuts each 30 ft. is so great that it seems best to
limit the chain pillar to the present staixlard of 12 ft.
To get some idea of the d^th at which such an arrangement
will protect the entries after the roc»n i»llars are mined, it will be
necessary to make assumptions as to how the pressure is dis-
tributed over the pillar. It will be necessary for lack of other
data to consider the roof no stronger than shale. Then if we
assume that the pressure is uniform all over the pillars, we get
the maximum depth of 250 ft. for weak coal, 600 ft for coal of
medium strength, and 1,500 ft. for the Spadra coal. If we
assume, as is more likely, that the direct load is uniformly dis-
tributed, but that the force required to break the roof varies
uniformly from nothing at the lower edge of the air-course pillar
to the necessary maximum at the edge of the first room break-
through, the depth becomes 200 ft. for soft coal, 500 ft. for coal
of medium strength, and 1,300 ft, for strong coal.* These can
more safely be taken as maximum depths under a roof consisting
of practically pure shale for a thickness of at least 500 ft, next to
the coal.
MINING PILLARS IN DEEP MINES,
Comparative costs of careful and careless mining of coal of
medium thickness and medium depth. As long as the pillars arc
not more than 40 ft. wide, they can be mined by slabbing off one
side to make a place for the track, and mining back the 30 ft.
remaining. This is the method shown cm Plate I, and the miners
are glad to do this woric and to lay then- own track at the regular
room-scale. If the rails are of steel and arc not lost, the expense
of this track is then the cost of the switch at the bottom or $3.50
and the cost of the ties, about ic. per foot of track. The extra
*The chain pillar is equal to a continuous strip of coal a little over
10 ft. wide. RotMn stumps will average, say, two-thirds solid coal or equal
a continuous strip ao ft. wide. The coal is then 60 ft wide in a width of
S8 ft. At a depth of X feet, the weight in pounds per square inch is
-f—, which is 147". The shearing stress for each inch of length uni-
formly distributed is .^°^~^^=o.56x. At the edge of the stump, the
pressure in pounds per square inch will be twice this or i.iax. Then
i47x-|-i.iax=soo for weak coal, and x equals 195 ft.
For medium coal, 2.sgx=i2co; and x equals 461 ft
For strong coal, the depth is so great that dl the roof will not be
broken before the workings are filled. If 500 ft. must be broken, we have
i-ffx=2Soo— 1.12 times 500, and x equals 1330 ft
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 463
cost is in narrow entries, the extra length of break-throughs,
and the extra props needed.
We will take for study the case of medium strong coal, 3 ft.
6 in. thick and under about 300 ft. of cover. There is a good
deal of such coc^ in'the western part of Sebastian County. If
the roof is at all good, a 95 per cent recovery of the room pillars
should be possible because there are no crosscuts to interfere with
the support of the roof. If the dip is such that 250-foot rooms
are possible, but not twin haulage entries, the workings will be
best laid out as given below, under the present plan of getting
Qut some of the coal at the least first-cost. The main entry and
also the dip switch, each 250 ft., will be brushed 18 in. to admit
a car of 2,000 pounds capacity. The entries will be about 12 ft.
wide and gobbed. The chain pillar will be 12 ft. wide with 5-foot
crosscuts, each 35 ft. The rooms will be 250 ft. ItMig and 30 ft.
wide and triangular blocks of coal will be left at the faces after
they are holed through to the air-course above. Eacdi second
pillar will average only 4 ft, wide and have five break-throughs,
say 5 ft. wide, shot through without yardage cost. The alternate
pillars will then have to average 21 ft. wide to prevent squeezes
and will require only one 5-foot break-through for which the
track will be turned. The stump must be left full size.
Figuring the coal at 24 cu. ft. in place equal to a ton, the
average of Arkansas coal, {in area 286 ft. from air-course to air-
course and 85 ft. along the entry, and covering a pair of rooms
and a pillar of each sort, should then yield 2,300 tons of coal.
The entire cost of getting in the entries and opening the rooms
including the long break-throughs will be $244.90* or io.6c. per
ton of coal,
*S6K yd. of entry at $2.25 per yd $i27-50
24 crosscuts. 4 yd. each, at $2.25 per yd 2t.6o
18 in. brusliing at $1.44 per yd. for aRj4 yd. entry and 1.7 yd,
of slant ■ 43'20
2 room-necks at $3.37 each 6,74
1 break-through, 7 yd., at $1.68 per yd 11.76
Laying track in main entry 5.10
2 room switches and yi oi a dip switch, and a curve for break-
through 8,75
2-4 stoppings at $3-00 7.20
4 temporary stoppings at $1,00 4.OO
Ties for entries 1,70
Ties for rooms 5,00
Breaking and entry props at 3c each 2,35
Total $244,90
jyGooc^le
464 Coal Mining in Arkansas
It the workings are laid out so as to facilitate the mining
of pillars, the entries will be only 8 ft. wide and without gob,
and a pillar averaging 30 ft. wide will be left between the squared
room faces and the air-course. Each second pillar will be 38 ft.
wide instead of 21 ft., and both break-throughs will be driven in
the first opening. Other arrangements will be as before. We
may assume that none of the 4-foot room pillars will be recov-
ered, but that 95 per cent of the wide room-pillars and air-course
pillars can be mined and 85 per cent of the stump and chain
pillars. An area of 308 ft. from room face to room face and
102 ft. akmg the entr)- will then yield 2,400 tons of coal from the
first working and 1,900 tons frcan tiie pillars. The cost of first
opening this up will be $359.50,* or 14.9c. per ton of coal first
mined.
The opening up cost of the coal first produced is 4.3c.
a ton more with careful mining than with careless mining.
To offset this cost, we have the saving, due to the narrow
entries, in wages of rock-men and timber-men and in other main-
tenance charges. In addition to the laying of track already
figured, this cost actually amounts to from 3c. to 5c. a ton, and
the saving will run from 2c. to 3c. a ton. The narrower entries
will also be driven considerably faster, but since less coal is
obtained per yard of entry the interest saving from this fact will
be small and may he neglected under ordinary conditions. After
pillar mining has begun, fewer entries will be needed, but this
is included in the reduced cost of maintenance. The total extra
cost of the coal first mined is then 1.3c. to 2,3c. a ton.
If the roof is sufficiently flexible, the room pillars can be
mined at once so the cost of the first coal becomes greatly re-
duced. We will, however, assume the less favorable case in
•68 yd, of entry at $2.25 llSS-OO
3 crosscut^, each 4 yd,, at $2.25 27.00
2 room-necka 6.74
2 break-throuKhs. i255 yd. each, at $1.68 42.,«*
Brushing ?S of a S-yard dip switch, 34 yd. of fntry at $1.44 51-84
Loading and hauling hrushing at 48c a ton, or $i.2i per yard, 36
yd. of entry and dip switch 43S6
Laying track in main entry 6.00
2 room ?iwitches. part of dip switch, etc 8.75
Ties for 204 ft. of entry a.04
Tips for soo ft. of room 5-°°
3 stoppinss at $3,00 ?W)0
4 temporary stoppings at $1.00 _.4-9''
Tftal $35949
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 465
which it is necessary to leave all the pillar coal until the limit of
the entry is reached. The limit may be taken as half a mile to
be reached in normal working of the mine three and a half years
after the entry is started. It will then take as long to rob all the
pillars and the operator must under these conditions pay interest
upon the extra cost of the coal first mined for about five years
on an average before he gets the profit from the pillar coal. At
10 per cent per annum, compound interest, this amounts to from
0.8c. to I-4C. per ton of coal first produced, or from $19.00 to
$33.60 for the block of coal considered.
The pillar coal can be mined at an additional expense of
relaying the dip switches and track in the back entry, and a
switch and ties for the track along the pillar. At first, the old
ties can be used but we will assume that they must all be replaced.
This offsets wear and interest upon the steel rails. The pillar
coal will also require extra props. This, extra cost may be figured
at ic. a ton more than that of the room coal. For the same block
of coal, these extra expenses amount to $34.00.* As many men
as desired can be set to work upon the pillar coal. Therefore,
the driver can be kept busy at all lengths of retreating entry and
the cost of hauling coal from the pillars will be less than from
the rooms. This can hardly be figured because it depends upon
the ability of the pit-boss more than anything else.
The mining of the pillar coal will then raise the total output
from the area occupied by two rooms to 4,300 tons and the cost
to from $412.50 to $427.10. including interest upon the extra
cost of the first opening. The final cost of opening up the coal
after the slope is down is, therefore, from 9.5c. to 9.9c. per ton.
This shows a direct saving of from 0.7c. to i,ic. or an average
of say 0.9c. a ton, . To this is to be added the saving of 2c. to 3c.
a ton upon the entire output due to cheaper maintenance.f
The recovery is increased from 65 per cent to 94 per cent of
the coal in the area opened up. The careful mining would,
•Prop! tor 1900 tons of coal at ic per ton $19.00
Relaying air-course track, and proirartion of dip switch 8.00
Ties in air-course and alongside pillars 3.50
Switch for pillar track 3.50
Total .$34-00
tU should be noticed that on the coal first obtained the saving was
figured only as reducing the interest upon the extra cost of this. It ia
not included in the cost of opening up the coal just given.
n> 000^^10
466 Coal Mining in Arkansas
therefore, yield 1,325 more tons of coal than the careless mining
from the area of two rooms and their pillars, which produced a
total of 4,300 tons. At loc, a ton, this represents a pr<^t of
3.1c. additional.
The total gain from the careful nrining under ordinary aver-
age conditions is tfien 6,Sc. a ton, Tlie interest charge against
the coal first produced will average about 0.6c. per ton upon the
entire output of the mine. For each 20,000 t<wis of coal pro-
duced per year, this will require an investment of $1,200, if it is
capitalized at 10 per cent per annum. This represents the addi-
tional investment for each 100 tons nominal daily ou^ut. It will
earn an average of about 108 per cent per annum.
If the mine is large, and so laid out in panels that the full
capacity of the mine is not reached much before the pillar mining
is in full swing, the greater output per yard of entry will greatly
reduce the capital required to open the mine, because only about
seven-tenths as many yards of entry need be driven before the full
capacity is reached. The entries may also be driven more rap-
idly, so the time required for opening the mine will not be more
than half as great. Both the investment and the interest upon
it are then reduced. The exact calculation of the amounts is
laborious and will vary greatly in different mines. It may be as
high as 4c. a ton, if the investment is large.
In the favorable case that the room pillars can be robbed as
soon as the rooms are finished, we get a first output of 3,500 tons
at the first mining at a first cost of $376.50* or 10.7c. per ton.
There will then be no interest charge whatever and the final profit
will be increased half a cent a ton without additional investment.
As we have already seen, this mining is perfectly feasible at
depths up to about 500 ft
Except for labor troubles, it would be possible to keep the
room track next the rib, and mine tJie pillar without extra cost
at all. This is more advantageous in case of the smaller pillars.
In a few cases with favorable roof, it may be po?:sible to
mine as much as 75 per cent of the stump pillar and say 50 per
cent of the big room-pillars if the entries are cluttered with gob
•Cost as before ._.■ $350-50
Laying track around stump, and ties for pillar 6.D0
Extra props it.OO
Total -. $3>6.SO
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 467
and np air-course pillar is left. There would be trouble from
the spreading of squeezes and the loss of rails. If these costs
are ignored, there will be a recovery of 82 per cent of the qoal
at an entry development cost of 8.6c,* a ton. The increased
recovery by the safer method will then cost i.ic. per ton of coal
mined. The saving in maintenance is now a little less because
the difference in yards of entry is less. There is, however, the
full saving due to better roof. This may be taken as 2C. a ton
as an average. The interest on .coal first opened is, as before,
half a cent per ton of total output, because in this case room
pillars can be mined at once. It is included in the cost of the
better recover}'. The total saving by the more careful laying
out of the mine and better recovery is then only 0.9c. a ton.
This will represent t8 per cent interest on the extra investment
needed to accomplish it and will also be much safer and more
certain.
Comparative costs of careful and careless, mining of coal of
medium thickness and considerable dip. At most mines with dtp-
ping coal only 3 ft. 6 in. thick, the rooms would be driven only
150 ft long to save the expense of pushers. If all other condi-
tions are as before, the coal can be opened up by careless methods
at a cost of i6.4c.f per ton. This will yield 1475 ^°^^ of coal
or a recovery of 64 per cent.
*The output would be 30D0 tons. The cost of opening:
As before $344.90
Cost of extra props for pillar coal at ic per ton jxn
Cost of reUying switch for pillars 3.50
Extra cost of track around stump, about ax»
Ties for las ft. along pillar U5
ToUl ?35&65
tAn area of 186 ft by 85 ft will contain 3,300 tons of coal 3 ft
6 in. thick at 24 cu. ft to the ton. This mining will cover an area In
square feet as follows:
Entries, 24 ft. by 85 ft 3,040 sq. ft
34 crosscuts, 5 ft by 13 ft 144 "
3 room-necks, 81 sq. ft 163 "
a room widenings, 9 to 30 ft wide and ai ft long 819 "
2 rooms. 60 ft t^ 113 ft, additional length, leaving an average
of 7 ft. of coal at the inner comers 6j8o "
4 break-throughs, 5 ft. by 4 ft 80 "
I break-through, 5 ft by 21 ft tog "
Total ro,i30 aq. ft
This gives 35,455 cu- ft or 1477 tons if the coal is 3 ft- 6 in. high.
Costs below next page.
lyGoo'^lc
468 Coal Mining in Akkaksas
The careful mining will give a first output of 1,525 tons of
coal at a cost of 22,8c. per ton,*
Mining the pillars later will increase the output of the block
of the rooms to 2,900 tonsf and give a recovery of 94 per cent.
■An area of aoS ft. bjr loa ft. will contain 3,090 tons of coal. The
square feet of workings will be:
&itries, 16 ft. by I03 ft 1.632 so. ft
3 crosscuts, s ft by 12 ft 180
3 room-necks, 81 sq. ft iGa "
3 room widenings 819 "
2 Tooms, 30 ft. by 1 20 ft each 7,200 "
4 break-throughs, 5 ft by 4 ft 80 "
3 break-throughs, S ft- by 38 ft 380 "
Total 10AS3 !q. ft
This will give i.s^S tons of coal.
The cost will be as follows:
68 yd entry, at $225 per yd $I53JX>
3 crosscuts, 4 yd. each, at $2.25 per yd..... tojoo
Brushing in 34 yd. entry and ^ of 5-yard dip switch, at S1.44 per yd. 51.84
3 room-necks at $3.37 &74
2 break-throughs, i3j^ yd. each, at $1.68 per yd 42.56
Loading and hauling the brushing at $1.2 1 per yd 43.36
Laying track in main entry 6.00
2 room switches, part of dip switches and curves for crosscuts 9.00
Ties for entries 3.04
Ties for rooms 3.00
3 stoppings at $3XX» 9410
3 temporary stoppings at fiJX) 3ilO
Total $34774
tLarge pillars, i to ft by 38 ft 4,180 sq. ft.
Air-course pillars, 30 ft by I03 ft ^fs6o "
Total 7,240 sq. ft
Small stump, 9 ft by 25 ft., 225 sq. ft; and 31 ft. by an aver-
age of 25 ft. and 4 ft, 303 sq. ft ; >um 537 m. ft
Big stump, 537 sq. ft. plus 30 ft by 33 ft tn the middle 1^487
Chain pillar, 12 ft. by 87 ft 1,044 "
Total SflSS sq. ft.
95 per cent of 7.*40 sq. ft 6,ftfl so. ft.
85 per cent of 3,058 sq. ft a,6oo **
The cost will be :
56^ yd entry at $2.25 per yd ¥l97-50
2.4 crosscuts, 4 yd, each, at $2.35 per yd 2i.£d
^'A yd. entry and 1.7 yd. slant brushing at $144 43.30
3 room-necks at $3.37 &74
1 break-through, 7 yd, at $1.68 per yd 11.76
Laying track in mam entry and curve for break-through 5.10
2 room switches and a half of dip switch, say. 8.75
24 stoppings at $3.00 7.20
3 temporary stoppings at $1.00 $ao
Ties for entries 170
Ties for rooms 3-00
Breaking and entry props 2,35
Total $341.90
lyGoo'^lc
CONSEKVATION OF THE COAL. 469
The cost of opening up the workings and mining the pillars will
be 13.OC. per ton of total output.*
The saving on maintenance will be greater with short rooms
than with long ones, because more entries are needed for the
same capacity. It may be taken as at least 3c. a ton. The net
extra cost of the coal first produced as the entries are opened is
tfien 3.4c. per ton. The interest on this, as before, will be z.2c.
a ton on the first output of 1,525 tons. This will amount to i.ic.
on the entire output of 2,900 tons.
The saving in extra coal obtained will amount to 3.2c. per
ton,f The net saving by careful mining under these c(H)dition$ is
then 8.5c. per ton. It will cost an investment of i.ic on each ton
of annual capacity capitalized at 10 per cent, or $2,200 per each
100 tons nominal daily capacity. This will yield 77 per cent
interest per annum.
If the room pillars can be mined as soon as the rooms are
driven, the cost of the coal first obtained will be 17.1c.ls: per ton.
Since we have assumed a pure shale roof this can be done, the
interest charge on the first coal disappears, and the total saving
is 9.6c. per ton. No extra investment will be needed, but it will
simply be necessary for the foreman to see that all rooms are
driven on sights, etc.
Comparative costs wfith bottom brushing. If the floor is
soft, it becomes possible to take up bottom in the rooms and use
cars holding, say, 3,000 pounds. The miners at Burma and
Dallas consent to do this work at 31c. and 40c. a yard. In this
case, the rooms will be 250 ft. long regardless of the dip. It will
be necessary to take up another strip of bottom along the pillar
•Cost:
Aa before $347-74
Extra props 13.80
Pillar switch 3,50
Relaying back entry track and switches 8.0D
Ties in air-course 1.09
Ties along pillar 1.50
Total $375-56
tThe increased recovery is 30 per cent. Thirty per cent of 3,090 tons
is 937 tons. This is $92.00 for each 2,900 tons mined, or 3,3c per ton.
tThe big pillar will yield 580 tons and the total of first mining will
be 3,105 tons. The cost will be:
As before $347-74
Extra props s&>
Extra cost of track around stump pillar, and ties 6xK)
$359-54
lyGoo'^lc
470 CoAi. Mining in Arkansas
at the same cost. To secure space for this waste, the first sldp
taken off the pillar can be made a little wider than lo ft. and the
track can be placed next the rib. The cost of loading out entry
brushing is reduced on account of the larger cars to 38c. a ton
or less. Other costs will be as before. With lower scale, the
cost of opening up the first coal then becomes 12,8c* per ton in
the case of wide entries, and 16,6c.* per ton in case of narrow
ones. This difference is less than 'before and the interest charge
upon the extra cost of the first coal is thus lightly reduced. The
additional cost of taking up bottom ak>i^ the pillar makes the
final cost of the coal obtained by careful mining 11.2c. per ton.f
The direct saving in (^ning up expense from the careful
mining is thus increased from 0-9c. to 1. 6c. per ton by bottcnn
brushing. This follows from the fact that the coal from a 38-
foot pillar is obtained at the same additional brushing expense
as from a 30-foot room. There is also the saving in loading
brushing.
In case the roof and bottom are both hard, the cost of brush-
ing in the rooms will be as high as $1.44 per yard. This will pay
at least with a long mechanical haulage. As before, this will
obviously increase the saving, more than the smaller change did.
Comparative costs with twin haulage entries and long rooms.
In case the coal seam is flat enough to permit the use of twin
haulage entries, no air-course pillar can be used, and both entries
will be brushed. If the rooms are 250 ft. long, 30 ft. wkle, and
12-foot gob entries are used, and the pillars are alternately 4 ft
*Wtde entries. Output, as on page 463, 3,300 tons of coal.
Cost, as on page 463, footnote 9^A4-90
166 y4 brushing in a rooms at 3rc per yd. 51,46
Total $296^6
Narrow entries. Output, as on page ^i, first coal, 2,400 tons.
Cost, as on page 464, foot note $359,49
Less saving on handling brushing at 38c, instead of 4& a ton 9.07
fe5<M3
Add cost of room brushing, as above 51,46
Total $401,88
tCost;
As before $40I.8S
Extra brushing, 83 yd at 31c Vfi yd. 35.73
Other extra cost of mining pillars, as before 34^)0
Average interest, as before aj.oo
Total $484-61
The output will be 4400 tons as before.
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the CoAt,. 471
and 21 ft. as before, two rooms and pillars on each entry require
a space of 85 ft. along the entries and 536 ft. across them. This
area will contain 6,640 tons of coal and wilt yield 4,510 tons at
a cost of $325.30.* This is 7,2c per ton.
If the entries are driven 8 ft. wide and all the brushing is
loaded out, and if each large pillar is left 38 ft. wide, the block
containing four rooms and pillars wilt be 102 ft. along the entry,
and 528 ft. across it. This will contain 7,850 tons of coal. The
first working will yield 4,525 tons at a cost of $471.25!, which is
10.4c. per ton. The extra cost is practically balanced by the
saving in maintenance charges, so interest may be neglected.
When the big pillars of <Hie pair of entries are mined next
the completely caved gob of an older pair of entries, it will be
necessary to drive a new break-through and leave, say, 4 ft. of
•Square feet of workings :
Entries, 24 ft. by 85 ft. 2,040 s(l ft.
24 crosscuts, 5 ft by 12 ft 144 "
4 room-necks, 9 ft by 9 ft 324 "
4 room wideniugs, 9 ft to 30 ft. by 21 ft 1,638 "
4 rooms each 30 ft. by 220 ft.,
(250 ft. less 30 ft. entrance) 26,400 "
10 break-throughs, 5 ft. by 4 ft aoo "
2 break-throughs, 5 ft. by 21 ft 310 "
Total 30,956 sq. ft.
30,956 sq. ft. of 3 ft. 6 in. coal will yield 4.S14 tons, and the recovery
will be 68 per cent
Cost:
56?^ yd entry at $2.25 per yd, ■ $I2?.S0
S6j^ yd. brushing at $1.44 per yd. 81.60
24 crosscuts, 4 yd. each, at $2.25 per yd 21.6a
4 room-necks, at $3.37 each 13.48
2 break-throughs, each 7 yd, at $I.6S per yd 23.52
Laying track in entry and curves for break- tli roughs 12.00
4 room switches, at $3.50 each 14.00
Ties for entries and rooms ir.70
Props in entry 4.70
24 stoppings at $3.00 each 7.20
8 temporary stoppings in rooms at $1.00 each 8.00
Total $325-30
tSquare feet of workings:
Entries, 16 ft. by 102 ft ■. 1,63a sq. ft.
3 crosscuts, 5 ft by 12 ft 180 "
4 room-necks at 81 sq. ft. each 324- "
4 room widenings at 409^ sq. ft 1.638 "
4 rooms, each 30 ft. by 220 ft 2^400 "
10 break-throughs, 5 ft. by 4 ft 200 "
2 break-throughs, 5 it. by 38 ft __3?? "_
Total 30.754 sq. ft
This win yield 4,524 tons.
Sec costs below next page.
lyGoo'^lc
472 Coal Mining in Arkansas
coal to protect the miner until the regular settling of die roof
has started. This requires the driving of two additional long
break-throughs for pillar robbing in each block. These will be
shorter by the width of the skip, or, say, only 27 ft. kmg. The
additional coal at 95 per cent of the room pillar and 85 per cent
of the stump and chain pillars is 2,810 tons. The cost of mining
this will be $70.32* in addition to the cost of opening.
The cost of the entire 7,335 tons will then be $541.60 or 74c.
per ton. This shows a nominal cost of two-tenths of a cent
greater than that of the careless mining. The recovery is, how-
ever, 93 per cent. The additional 22 per cent of 7,850 tons is
1,727 tons. At IOC. a ton, this represents a saving of 2.4c. a ton
on the entire output. With the 2.5c. a ton saving on maintenance
of entries, the entire profit is then 4.5c. per ton.
Comparative cost mitk twin entries and short rooms. If the
rooms of the twin entries are only 150 ft. long, we get with wide
•Square feet of pillars:
3 small stumps, each 525 sq, ft., as before i^S4 sq. ft
2 large stumps, each 1,487 sq. ft, as before 3,974 "
Chain pillar, 12 ft. by 87 ft J^944_ "__
Total 5,073 sq. ft
85 per cent of 5,072 sq. ft. is 4J11 sq. ft. This is 628 tons.
Tonnage :
As above 628 tons
: large pillar, as before i.ioo "
1 large pillar, less 4 ft by 38 ft, or 30 tons ■ ifiSo "
Total 2,808 tons
Cost;
2 break-throughs, 9 yd. each, at $1.68 per yd $30^24
Extra props for 2,808 tons of pillar coal 3&08
2 switches for pillars, $3.50 each 7.00
Ties for pillar track, 500 ft 5.00
, Total ¥70^33
Cost:
68 yd. entry at $2.25 per yd $153.00
68 yd. brushing at $144 per yd 97.93
leading and hauling brushing from 68 yd. at |i.3I per yd. &I.2S
3 crosscuts, each 4 yd., at. $2.25 per yd. 27«>
4 room-necks at $3.37 each 13.48
2 break-throughs, r2j^ yd. each, at $1.68 per yd. 42.56
(The inner break-throughs can not well be drrrcn until robbing
begins.)
I<aying track in both entries T2.00
4 room switches at $3.50 each 14.00
Ties for entries and rooms i2.<jo
3 stoppings at $300 each 9«0
8 temporary stoppings at $i.do each 8.00
Total $471.24
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coai., 473
entries from an area of 85 ft, by 336 ft. 2,750 tons of coal out
of the 4,165 tons in the ground, at a cost of $317.30 or ii-Sc.
per ton.*
The recovery will be 66 per cent.
With narrow entries, we get 2,720 tons of coal from the first
minii^ of an area of loa ft. by 328 ft., which contains 4,880 tons.
The cost will be $463.25 or 17.0c. per ton.f
The extra cost of the first coal mined will then be 5.5c, per
ton. In this case, the maintenance costs are high and the saving
may be taken as 3c, per ton. This leaves a net extra cost of
2.5c, The interest for 5 years will be 1.3c. per ton or $35.35 on
the entire block.
The pillars will yield 1,755 tO"s additional coal at an addi-
tional cost of $57.8o.J The total output will then be 4,475 tons,
•Square feet of workings:
Area as before 30.956 sq- ft-
Less 4 room heads, 30 ft. by 100 £l 12,000 sq. ft.
Less 4 break-throughs, 5 ft. by 4 ft 80 "
12,080 "
18,876 sq. ft.
This IS 2,752 tons.
Cost:
As before $325.30
Less ties for 400 ft of track $400
Less 4 temporary stoppings 400
8.00
tSquare feet ni workings; ^^'^-^^
Area, as before 30,754 sq. ft.
Less 4 room ends, 30 ft. by 100 ft la.ooo sq. ft.
Less 4 breafc-lh roughs, 5 ft. by 4 ft 80 "
12,C&I "
>. . 18.674 "sq- ft.
This IS 2,722 tons.
Cost:
As before $471.24
Less ties for 400 ft. of room track $4.00
Less 4 temporary stoppings 4.00
8.00
JTonnage: ^^^^-^
As before a,8o8
Less 95 per cent of the ends of two pillars, 38 ft, by 100 ft., or
in tons i/)52
Co.t: ■■«*
z break-th roughs, as before $3024
Extra props for 1,756 tons of coal 17-56
2 switches for pillar track 7.00
Ties for pillar track, 300 ft 3-<»
$57.80
lyGoo'^lc
474 Coal Mining in Arkansas
at a cost of $556.39, including $35.35 for interest, or 124c. per
ton. The interest atone amounts to d.8c. per ton.
The final recovery will be 92 per cent, and the extra saving
26 per cent. On the entire block of 4,880 tons, this is 1,268 tons
and the profit $126.80, or z.8c. a ton.
With the saving in maintenance of entries at 3c. a ton, the
entire gain is 4.9c. a ton. The loss in interest may, as before, be
eliminated by mining the room pillars as soon as the rooms are
completed.* The total gain will then be 6.0c. a ton.
Comparative cost with wide pilars and twin gob-entries. In
the case of twin entries and siiort rooms, the cost per ton of
loading out the brushing is so great that instead of using narTX>w
entries, it may be cheaper to drive the entries to their limit and
then mine as much as possiUe of the wider room pillars and
stumps, and to abandon the chain pillars entirely. If necessary,
the rooms may be made narrower, say, 24 ft. wide, and the same
38-(oot roc»n pillars left to secure the entries from squeezes.
The 30-foot rooms and 38- foot wide pillars n\ay be used at depths
less than 200 ft. without fear of squeezes caused by the wide
entries. This may be compared with the present catreless mining
using 30-foot rocwns and 21-foot large pillars, which, as we have
seen, yields a recovery of 66 per cent of the coal at a cost of
opening up the rooms equal to 11.5c. a ton. With ^8-foot pillars
instead of 21-fool pillars, the first mining with wide entries will
produce 2,840 tons of coal from an area of 102 ft. by 336 ft. at a
cost of $381.00 or 13.4c. a t(m.t
*If the rooms are choked with gob, the same new track ah)iis the
pillar will be necessary. In this case, there will be an expense in laying
the track around the stump pillar, but this will be less than the cost of
switches and what good lies are already in the rooms may be saved
Ninety-five per cent of the big pillars will yield 1,210 tons. The cost
of extra props will then be only $t3.io and the dead-work cost of tnininK
the pillars may be taken as $53.35. The output will then be 3.930 tons, at a
cost of $515.59, or 131c per ton, as against ii.Sc per ton with wide entries.
This extra cost is made ttp by saving in maintenance.
tSouare feet of workings ;
Area as with narrow entries '8,674 sq. ft.
Add 4 ft. on each entry, 102 ft. long 816 "
Total 19.490 «!■ ft
This amounts to 2^42 tons.
Cost;
As in case of narrow entries $463.24
Less loading of brushing 82.*
$380.96
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 475
The extra cost of the first coal produced is then 1.9c. per Km.
The interest will amount to i.oc. a ton for there is no saving on
maintenance. On the 2,840 tons first produced, this is $28.40.
The mining of, say, 80 per cent of the stumps and 90 per cent of
the pillkrs will yield 1,600 tons additional at an extra mining cost
of $56.25.* The total output will then be 4410 tons out of 5,000
t<Mis in the block at a cost of $465.65, including interest. This
is 10.5c. per ton. The recovery on this basis will be 89 per cent.
The extra saving is 23 per cent of Sfloo tons or 1,150 tons. At
IOC. a ton, this represents a saving of 2.6c per ton on the entire
output. On this plan, the total saving is 3.6c. per ton for there
is no saving in maintenance. The narrow entries are more profit-
able as well as safer than wide ones.
As a fairer proposition, we should compare the cost of min-
ing with wide entries and no pillar mining, with the co^ of min-
ing coal with wide entries and rooms only 24 ft. wide between
pillars alternately 4 ft. wide and 38 ft. wide, assuming that 80
per cent of the stumps, 90 per cent of the wide room-pillar, none
of the nant>w room-pillar, and none of the chain iwUar, can be
mined later.
With careless mining, we get a recovery of 66 per cent at
a cost of opening the rooms equal to 11.5c. per ton. Under the
new wmdition, the space of two rooms will be 90 ft. along the
entries and 336 ft, across them and will contain 4410 tons. The
'Square feet of pillars:
2 large and 2 small slumps as before 4,038 sq. ft.
80 per cent of 4,028 sc|. ft , 3,223 sq. ft
I large pillar. 38 ft. by 115 ft 4,370 m. ft.
I large pillar, 38 ft. by III ft 4.218 ''
^588 sq. ft
90 per cent of 8,588 sq. ft ^?30_J|
Total 10,953 sq, ft
This is 1,5^ tons.
Cost of mining pillars:
Break-tti roughs and track, as before $40-24
Extra props on 1,600 tons of pillar coal 16^
Total $56.24
lyGoo'^lc
47^ Coal Mining in Arkansas
first mining will yield 2,340 tons at a cost of $352.85* or 15.1c.
per ton. The extra cost con^ared with the cheapest possible
mining is then 3.6c. per ton. The interest for five years at 10 per
cent is 2.0c. On the 2,340 t(«is, this is $47.00.
The pillars will yield i)54o tons additional at an extra mining
cost of $55.65.t The total output is then 3,880 tons and the
cost, including interest, $455:50 oc 11.7c. per ton. The only
saving over the careless mining is then in the better recovery,
which is 86 per cent instead of 66 per cent. This yields a profit
of $S8.20 or 2.2c. per ton or 2.0c. per ton after deducting loss
on opening.'
*S<iuare feet of workings:
3 entries, 13 ft. by 90 ft 2,160 sa. ft
2.6 crosscuts, 5 ft. by la ft 156
4 room-necks, 81 sq. ft. each 324 "
4 room widenings, 21 ft. long and 9 to 24 ft wide 1,38b "
4 remaining parts of rooms, 34 ft by 120 ft 11,520 "
2 break-throughs, 5 ft. -by 38 ft 380 "
6 break- til roughs, 5 ft. by 4 ft I20 "
Total 16,046 sq. ft.
This will yield 2,339 tons.
Cost;
60 yd of entry, at $2.25 per yd $i35-oo
60 yd. of brushing, at $1.44 per yd 86.40
2.6 crosscuts, 4 yd. each, at $2.25 per yd. 23.4Q
4 room-necks, at $3.37 each I3j(8
2 break-throughs, 12^ yd. each, at $1.68 per yd. 4256
Laying track in entries iolSo
2 curves for break-throughs 2.0D
4 room switches, at $3-SO each 14.00
Ties in entries and rooms 7.80
Props in entries 5.00
2.6 stoppings, at $3-00 each 8.40
4 temporary stoppings, at $1.00 each 4.00
Total $352.84
tSquare feet of pillars:
2 small slumps, each 30 ft. long. 19 ft. wide for
9 ft., then narrowed to 4 ft 824 sq. ft
3 large stumps, same size as small stumps plus
30 by 32 ft. (additional width) 2,744 "
Total 3,568 sq. ft,
80 per cent of 3,568 sq. ft 3354 sq. ft
90 per cent of 38-foor room pillars as before 7.730 "
Total I0,5a4'sq. ft
This will yield 1,542 tons.
Cost:
Extra props for 1.540 tons $i5-*>
Break-throughs and track as before 4024
Total $55 64
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 477
With such large room pillars, however, more of the pillar
coal should be recovered. If we assume 95 per cent of the room
pillars and 85 per cent of the stump as before, the total recovery
becomes 3,970 tons.* The cost of mining the pillar coal is $56.6a
The total is $456.50 or 11.5c. per ton which is the same as the
first cost with careless mining. The recovery becomes 90 per
cent as compared with 66 per cent for careless mining. The
gain is 34 per cent and amounts to $106.00 or 2.6c. per ton on the
entire output.
The saving in maintenance of the narrow entries and the
greater strength of the entries together with the possibility of
mining the pillars as soon as the rooms have been &nished makes
it very profita'ble to drive the entries narrow and load out the
brushing. This is also much safer for the men.
Comparative costs zvith weak roof. If the roof is not firm,
30-foot rooms are inadvisable and it will be necessary to require
that the rocMns be kept down to 24 ft. or less. This case is not
so favorable for mining the room pillars because the size of pillar
required to merely support the roof is then smaller than before
and the extra size of pillar required to break the roof is of greater
relative importance. For study, we may take the extreme case
of rooms only 18 ft, wide under 300 ft. of sJiale. According to
the table, the lai^e room-pillars must then be 30 ft, wide to break
the roof and 13 ft. wide to merely support it. In the unfavorable
case of rooms 150 ft. long and no brushing in rooms, the mining
with wide entries gives a theoretical yardage cost of 12.5c. per
ton for opening up the entries and rooms, and the recovery will
'Square feet of pillars;
Stumps, as before 3,568 sq. ft
85 per cent of 3.586 sq. ft. 3.033 sq. ft
I pillar, 38 ft, by 115 ft 4.370 sq. ft.
I pillar, 38 ft. by III ft 4^18 ''
Total 8,588 sq. ft.'
95 per cent of 8,588 sq. ft _8,lSg "
Total 11,193 sq. ft.
This will yield 1,633 tons.
With room coal, 2,340 tons, this makes a total of 3,970 tons.
lyGoo'^lc
478 Coal Mining in Arkansas
be 65 per cent.* With narrow entries and immediate mining
of room pillars, which is possible with such a roof, the cost of
the first coal will be 14.2c per ton. The final recovery, at 95 per
cent of the room pillars and 85 per cent of the stump and chain
pillars, will be 92 per cent. If 3c. per ton extra is allowed for
hauling the coal from the stumps, the final cost of mining with
narrow entries is 12.7c. per ton, with a nominal loss of 0.2c.
a ton.t
With such a poor roof the cost of maintenance of wide
entries will be very high, and the saving due to narrow entries
may be taken as at least 4c. or 5c. per ton. The profit from the
'With wide entries, the area for a single uiut is 53 ft. liy 336 ft., which
contains 2,595 tons of coal. The square feet of workings will be:
3 entries, 12 ft. by 53 ft 1,273 sq. ft.
1.5 crosscuts, 5 ft. by 12 ft go "
4 room-necks, 61 ft. each 3^4 "
4 room widenings, 21 ft, by 11 ft 924 "
4 fooms, 18 ft. by 1 30 ft &A40 "
a break-throughs, 5 ft. by 13 ft 130 "
6 break-throughs, 5 ft, by 4 ft I30 "
Total 1 1,500 sq. ft.
This will yield 1,676 tons, and is a 65 per cent recovery.
Cost:
3Si4 yd. of entry, at $2.25 per yd. $ 79-SO
6 yd. of crosscuts, at $2.25 per yd 13.50
35yi yd. of brushing, at $144 per yd SO.88
4 room-necks, at $3,37 each 1348
2 break-throughs, 4 yd. each, at $1.68 per yd '344
Laying track in entries, 106 ft., say 6.0D
4 room switches, at $3.50 each 1400
Ties in entries and rooms 7.00
Props in entries 3-00
1.5 stoppings, at ^3-00 each 4-50
4 temporary stoppmgs, at $1.00 each 4°0
Total $209.30
This is 12.sc per ton.
tWiih narrow entries, the block is 7° ft by 328 ft., and contains
3,347 tons. The square feet of workings will be ;
2 entries, 8 ft by 70 ft i.iao sq. ft
2 crosscuts, 5 ft. by 12 ft I2o "
Complete rooms as before 9,888 "
2 break-throughs, 5 ft. by 30 ft 300 "
6 break-throughs. 5 ft. by 4 ft lao "
Total 11.548 sq. ft.
2 room pillars, 30 ft by 115 ft 6,900 sq. ft.
95 per cent of 6,900 sq. ft 6,555 "
Total ...18,103 sq. ft
This will yield 2,639 tO"S. The pillar coal makes up 955 tons of this.
See costs below next page.
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of thb Coal. 479
27 per cent better recovery will be 2.8c. per ton. The total gain
is then 7.7c, to 8.7c, a ton.*
Bifect of change in conditions. As with all illustrations with
the sfaadlow coal, the saving due to narrow entries will increase
as the hight of the coal increases, until no more brushing is
needed. The saving due to yardage will then decrease, but the
saving in recovery and in maihtenance will remain. At less
depth the size of the room pillars may be reduced. This lessens
the advantage of mining them until it becomes profitable to make
very small room pillars and merely protect the entries, as in the
case of tiie shallow mines studied.
*If the room pillars could not have been mined aX once, the room
coal would have cost 30.6c per ton and the interest on the extra cost over
the saving in maintenance would have been more than ic a ton on the
whole output.
Coat:
46^3 yd. of entry, at $2.25 per yd. $10500
46^ yd. of brushing, at $144 per yd 67.20
Handling brushing, at $1.21 per yd. brushed 56.46
8 yd. crosscuts, at $2.25 per yd I&OO
4 room-necks, at $3.37 each 1348
3 break-throughs, ro yd. each, at $1.68 per yd 33.60
Ties 740
Liaying track in entries 840
4 room switches, at $3.50 each 14-00
2 stoppings, at $3-00 each 6.00
4 temporary stoppings, at $1.00 each 4.QO
Room cost $33354
Laying track around 2 stumps, at $2.00 4.00
Ties along pillars 3.00
z break-throu^s, 30 ft. less 9 ft.. 7 yd. each, at $1.68 per yd 23.52
Extra props for pillar coal 9.55
Total first cost $373.61
This is 14.2c. per ton.
Stump pillars 1
2 small stumps, each 30 ft long, g ft. wide for 13 ft., then
narrowed to 4 ft- at 30 ft 591 sq. ft.
2 large stumps, same size as small stumps, plus 26 ft. by
30 ft. extra width 2,151 "
Chain pillar, 60 ft by 12 ft J'^_'L
Total '3.462 sq. ft.
65 per cent of 3,462 sq. ft. is 3,943 sq- ft. This is 429 tons.
The total will he 3/»70 tons. There will be no extra cost of mining
except the props at ic a ton. The output per entry will be small, so that
3c a ton will Jw allowed for extra expense of fiaulrng the stump coal, say,
$17.00 for both props and haul. The total cost of 3.068 tons will then be
$3go.6i, or 12.7c per ton. The final recovery is 92 per cent. The gain
is 27 per cent. On 3,347 tons, in the block of four rooms, this is 903 tons,
or at IOC a ton. $90.30, On 3.068 tons recovered, this :
per ton.
lyGoo'^lc
480 Coal Minixg in Arkansas
As the depth of mining increases, the proportion of coal
which must be left in the pillars increases. The loss of coal and
expense of mining the pillars will increase if they are more than
40 ft, thick. It is, therefore, best to first reduce the size of the
room. The table on page 461 ^ows that in soft coal with rooms
held down to 18 ft. in width, pillars more than 40 ft. wide will
be needed at a depth of 370 It. Under these conditions, the
profit from more complete mining is obviously greatly increased,
because the careless mining requires room pillars 17 ft. wide, and
only some 60 per cent of the coal could be recovered.*
Actual yardage costs. The foregoing discussion of mining
under the various conditions likely to be found in this State is
necessarily academic. It nevertheless shows that under all such
conditions more complete mining will pay even though the coal
land is leased. Fairly complete cost data were kindly supplied
by companies operating mines on coal seams of about the thick-
ness here considered. In all of these the dead-work exclusive of
slopes, amounts to considerably more than the entire cost of
opening the rooms theoretically ligured. In fact, the mere yard-
age costs run from 120 per cent to 220 per cent of the theoretical
cost. A safe average would be 150 per cent. This excess is due
to patches of bad coal, uncompleted rooms, grading in the entries,
water yardage, and excessive allowance of yardage by pit-bosses
to pay for various deficiencies in the coal.
The greater the yardage cost, the greater the profit from a
more complete mining of the coal. In general the saving in
maintenance will equal the cost of mining pillar coal, and the
profit from increasing the recovery from 60 per cent or 65 (wr
cent to 90 per cent will amount to roughly one-half the dead-
work cost, as this is usually figured by the bookkeepers.
Pillars in very deep mines. A possible mining of the smaller
pillars by the standard method of laying the room track alongside
the pillar and using it to pull back tfie pillar is cheaper than the
method of relaying the track in the space provided by taking a
skip or slab off the side of the pillar. It has not been considered,
•The block of four rooms, 18 ft. by 150 ft, is 57 fl. by 336 ft., and
contains 2,790 tons. The area of workings exceeds that just fibred in
the previous foot-note by the 4 ft greater length of two entries iz ft
wide and two break-throughs 5 ft wide, through 3 17-foot pillar inste:id
of a 13-foot pillar. This contains 00 tons and the output is 1,696 tons, or
60 per cent of the coal in the block.
lyGoo'^lc
I
Conservation of the Coal. ' 481
because it is nearly impossible to get the miners to lay the track
along the rib, unless the room must be kept narrow on account
of bad roof. If the track is not laid along the rib in the first
place, the handling of the gob makes it very expensive to relay
the track there unless a skip is first taken off the pillar. The
Arkansas crosscut law introduces a further labor complication
in immediate mining back of the pillars, because this makes it
advisable to leave only one large pillar for each two rooms. This
could, however, be met by having a crew of pillar-men entirely
distinct fr<Mn the room-men. For the very deep mines, such a
great percentage of coal must be left in the pillars that they must
obviously be mined if the mine is to be worked at a profit.
The wide pillars oan best be mined by laying a track in a
slabbed space to within 18 or 24 ft. of the end of the room, and
then carrying a working room-width across the end of the pillar.
The track in this place will then be taken up and another cut
made across the pillar nearer the entry. To protect the track and
the miner, and to secure a line of retreat, it will be necessary to
have a considerable stump between this working and the caved
area beyond the end of the pillar. The amount of coal so lost
will depend entirely upon the character of the roof and the
strength of the coal. If a large pillar is needed, the working can
be kept narrow while advancing across the end of the pillar, and
part of the coal between it and the gob may be mined on the
retreat. This method will require that the company deliver and
receive the cars at the first turn, or there will be runaway cars,
because the miner can not handle a sprayed car on the level part
of the track. If the cars have good brakes, this will not be neces-
sary unless the dip is quite steep.
If the pillars are not more than 60 ft. wide, a larger recovery
might be possible by splitting them with a narrow working upon
which yardage would be paid. This is, however, practically pre-
vented by the Arkansas crosscut law and need not be further
considered.
As depth increases, tlie relative size of pillajs mdst be still
further increased. This leads to longwall retreating, which ■will .
be discussed later. Unless the coal is thick, this will give place
to kingwall advancing.
lyGoO'^lc
Coal Minimc in Arkansas
PItE\'ENTION OP SQUEEZES,
Squeeges caused by small pillars. Coal is lost as a result of
squeezes, because the squeezes cut off entries or room-nedcs
leading to Unmlned areas of coal. If uncontrolled, they will also
destroy the coal of the pillars before they can be mined. Under
present conditicms, most squeezes start because the pillars left in
the iirst minit^ are too small. The small pillars are the result
of the high cost of crosscuts every 30 ft., and the failure to
increase the size of the pillars as the mine gets deeper. We have
shown that the lai^ pillars and narrow entries needed to pre-
vent the squeezes are profitable when the work is so laid out that
the pillars can be mined. Many of these squeezes can be pre-'
vented by Wasting down a hard stratum of sandstone just above,
the coal, and so causing the roof to break and take the accumu-
lated strain off the pillars. The first round of holes can not pene-
trate more of the roof than the thickness of the coal seam unless
special jointed augers are used, but if the first holes are drilled
in a slanting direction, it is often poswble to get in at the edge
of the fallen rock and drill another round of very deep holes.
The loose rock will then afford effective support to the roof, and
this method is often cheaper than the attempts to check squeezes
by timbering.*
Mining of pillars in panels. When the roof is brittle, there
is no danger of starting a squeeze by mining pillars, and the work
can be done in any manner, provided that the entries are pro-
tected. Where there is strong sandstone in the roof, it bec(Mnes
difficult to mine room pillars without causing the squeeze to
spread over the adjoining entry. It is then best to leave the pillar
mining until the entry has reached its limit and for this reason
the entries should be short or the interest and maintenance charge
will be too great. Long entries increase the cost of mule haulage,
and it is likely that when single mines in Arkansas cover more
ground than at present, a number of slopes or engine planes with
power haulage will be used to cut off the entries in the dipping
coal. In the deep coal of less dip in the western part of the
State, cut-off entries will be used as is now done in mines with
twin haulage entries. Both of these methods are in effect a
*Coal Age, Vol. I, p. ^i, Jan, 20, 1912.
Conservation of the Coal. -483
panel system of mining, and the robbing back of pillars can soon
b^in. In oa"der to secure the greatest benefit of roof weight, and
to avoid squeezes in the entries, the breakline between the sub-
stantia] room pillars and the mined out area should be as nearly
straight as possible. Plate VIII shows the most approved method
of working out a single panel. By this arrangement, no coal need
be hauled up-hill by mules.
The coal of adjoining panels can be left until the roof of
the first panel is down and all danger of squeeze is over, but the
main slope or cut-off entry must be protected by a strong barrier
pillar. These are best formed by omitting rooms next to the slope
as shown on Plate VIII. Enoughof such rooms should 'be
omitted to insure a sufficient output of coal during the final re-
treat to keep the minimum day crew busy. The width of the
pillar between the slope and nearest room does not have to be
uniform, but may increase as depth increases. The main level
haulage-ways can be protected by omitting frequent pairs of
roCHns, or all of the rooms on the upper side, and by leaving a
solid pillar below. This pillar can best be mined on the retreat
by diagonal dip-rooms.
In parts of the State, the roof is so strong that barrier pillars
would have to be very thick. In such places, it will be unsafe to
mine any pillars until after the completion of all the nxwns in the
section of the mine served by the slope, engine-plane, or cut-off
entry. The pillars must then be mined retreating toward the
main outlet for the coal. If the shaft is stmk in the lowest part
of the property, all the coal can be hauled down-hill and this
presents no difficulty. If the coal is hoisted out of the panel a
straight retreating breakline can not be maintained unless the
pillar coal is hauled up to the entrj' above. This can best be
done by a crab locomotive*, if the dip is great. If the property
is very large and the shaft can not be sunk to the deepest part,
it will pay in the long run to sink the main slope to the lower
boundary through a panel 800 to 1,000 ft. wide, which will not
be touched until all the pillars in the panels to the right or left
have been mined. All coal from the other panels can then be
brought down to the foot of this slope. The final panel can be
•A gathering locomotive carrying a hoisting drum with a light steel
cable long enough 10 reach to the face of a room from the air-course
lyCoO'^IC
484 Coal Mining in Arkansas
niineij toward the shaft by long horizontal rooms separated by
wide pillars. Each pillar will be mined back as soon as the room
below it is completed. The same method can be used where the
coal has so great a dip that it is. regularly mined by level rooms.
In this case, if the final retreat is up the panel, the small hoist
used to pull up the empty cars for room coal can pull the pillar
coal to the entry above.
Where both the floor and roof are strong and a straight
breakline is maintained, the weight of the roof shouifi largely
break out the coal without slHX>ting, and the tendency to squeeze
can be used to advantage. The pillars can be protected from a
squeeze during a long shut-down, by blasting down the roof as
described. If the holes are drilled into both the roof and floor
over a width of 100 to 150 ft. and as deep as possible, the space
of the coal seam will be well filled with broken rock, and the
roof will be effectively supported for an indefinite time, if this
should be necessary. The break will then occur at the side of
the blasted area next to the gob.*
MINING OF ADDITIONAL BEKClIliS OF COMrOt'-NO SEAMS.
There is a further loss of coal in .Arkansas in unmined
benches of compound seams. The mining of this coal costs the
removal of the intervening parting. The miners will do this for
zyic. an inch over each 15 sq. ft. whether it is in the roof or the
floor. The profit, if any, results from the mining of the extra
coal without a charge for entries and first cost of opening the
mine. These entry costs depend upon the thickness of the bench
at present mined. In most cases, the bench varies from 3 ft. to
4 ft. and tmder present methods the cost of opening up the rooms
to the stage of completed room-track, costs i8c. to 24c. a ton.
With improved ntethods of mining, they will be 12c. to i8c. a
ton. The value of the coal in the mine may be taken as loc, a
ton. .The net value of the coal in the unmined parts of the coal
seams is then 31c. a ton with the present layout of the mines, or
25c. a ton if the pillars are mined. One inch' of coal will con-
tain .052 tons for each 15 sq, ft. M 25c. a ton. this is worth
1.3c. and will pay for about half an inch of dirt that has to be
paid for. This means that 10 inches of bottom coal will pay for
'Coal .-tgr, Vi>l. t. p. j8i. Jan, jo. ii)I2,
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 485
the removal of 5 inches of parting plus the parting handled free.
If the parting is free from grit, as at Hartford, the con-
ditions are ideal for cutting it with chain machines. These will
remove 4 inches of the parting, if it is below the bench mined,
and this thickness can be added to the thickness of parting han-
dled free, making a total of 6 inches, usually.
Under present conditions, it is the custom to use large pit
cars as long as the room brushing does not exceed 3c, an inch
per yard, including bottom coal. Each inch of additional hight
of working is then worth 3c. per yard of room in saving of
brushing expense. The rooms are commonly five or six times as
wide as the brushing. At the least, therefore, each 15 sq. ft. of
coal or parting taken from the room floor is worth one-sixth of
3c. or .5c. for each inch of thickness. The value of i inch of coal
over 15 sq. ft. then becomes i.8c. and the cost of handling parting
only 2c. an inch. One 'inch of good second-bench coal then makes
it worth while to pay for the handling of 0.9 inches of parting.
The result is about the same if the miner is paid say 6c. per inch
for the rock brushing, and simply gets the coal for mining it from
the roadway.
Whenever, therefore, the second bench of coal becomes much
thicker than that portion of the parting which must be paid for,
it is decidedly profitahle to mine it. If the pillars are not mined,
the profit is still greater, for then one inch of coal will pay for
1.05 inches of parting. To both of these figures, 4 inches of part-
ing may be added, if machines are used.
For considerable benches of top or bottom coal separated by
too thick a parting to be handled at a profit, important modifica-
tion of mining methods will be needed, and this discussion is best
postponed until such fecial methods are taken up.
MINING MACHINES.
Different types of machines. The use of mining machines
is essential to prevent the shooting of so much of the soft and
brittle coal into low grade slack. Of the two general types of
punchers and chain machines, the advantages of the punchers
are : The blasting of coal cut by the puncher is safer than the
blasting of coal cut by chain machines, if this is carele.isly done,
and the coal may be obtained in slightly better and more con-
lyGoo'^lc
486 Coal Mining in Arkansas
venient condition. The punchers can be used to dig out a hard
or gritty underclay or a parting; and they can be much more
easily -worked around sulphur balls and rolls an the floor. On the
other hand, the cost of the plant per unit of capacity is more, the
machine man can cut less coal with a puncher and even though
he is paid twice as much per ton as the runner of a chain ma-
chine, he earns less per day. If the blasting is carefully done,
the coal cut with chain machines is obtained in just as good con-
dition with no greater danger, and an electric power plant is
more convenient at the mine than a comprescd air plant. For
these reasons, the chain machines will have an advantage at
most of ithe Arkansas mines.
All of the leading makers of chain mining machines are now
turning out machines of the continuous cutting type. These
operate on the principle of the one shown on page jy. The
different makes vary chiefly in the method of pulling the ma-
chine across the face and of controlling its direction. These are
superior to the older type of machines laboriously handled by
means of crowbars, and they are now rapidly superceding them.
Full information regarding these machines will be furnished by
their makers.*
Layout of the mine for continuous coal cutters. In using
such machines, it is a great advantage to cut a wide face at
once. If the roof will so permit, the rooms should have two
necks and two tracks as shown in the Second West Entry of
Plate II. If the tracks are placed as in Room No. 7, and there
is not too much gob, the room face can be made 50 to 55 ft.
wide without inconvenience to the loaders. Ordinarily, each
track will be next the rib aijd double rooms will be about 40 ft.
wide. Even in entries and crosscuts, or rooms which must be
narrow on acount of bad top, the continuous cutters have a great
advantage in loading and unloading from the track and general
ease of handling. The first cut of a crosscut can be readily made
by swinging the machine around under the rib before or after
the room face is cut.
The head of the pillars less than 40 ft. wide can be readily
cut by first pulling the machine to the far side and making the
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 487
cut back toward the track. These continuous cutters require
less space than tJie old type, between the nearest props and the
face, and if necessary props can be taken out in front of «ha
machine and reset after it has passed. In pillar work, props
should generally be set immediately behind the machine. If the
pillaiTS are wide and mined by extending the track in a working
crossing, the end of the pillar, the machine work does not differ
from that in rooms.
It is necessary that the loaders behind the machine get an
equal turn. This has sometimes been interpreted to mean that
the places be all cut in turn if the loaders are not laying off. If
there are narrow places in the mdne such as entries, pillar skips,
or rooms kept narrow on account of bad top, it is much fairer
simply to give the diggers, the same number of cars for the
week, and to cut the narrow places oftener than the wide ones.
For best results, it is also necessary to have enough places to
keep the machines always busy. Both of these results are ob-
tained by assigning two working places to each pair of miners,
who will work as partners in first one room and then the other,
and so lose no time waiting for the machine to get through. This
arrangement of two double rooms for eadi pair of miners or
two single rooms for each miner does not decrease the output of
the entry, because for the same tonnage, the rooms advance only
half as fast and there will be twice as many working rooms in
the entry if the speed of advance of the entry remains the same.
The only expense will be interest on trackage and yardage. To
increase the output of the entry, the width of the entry should be
so adjusted tiiat each entry will be cut and Wasted every day,
and the coal produced will keep two or three men busy in the
pair of entries.
Blasting of machine-cut coal. If the coal is more than
eight to twelve times as thick as the cut made by the machine,
and if there is any sort of loose seam in the coal, it should be
"snubbed" by first blasting down the lower part by light shots
just below the seamj Such blasting produces the best grade'of
solid lump coal -with the minimum of danger. If, in addition,
there is a good current of moistened air well divided into splits,
there is no reason why the blasting ^ould not be done at any
time. For good progress in the entries, if the coal be snubbed
lyGoO'^lc
488 Coal Mining in Arkansas
by blasting, shots must be fired at least twice a day. The entry
can be cut in the afternoon and snubbed at night. Next morn-
ing this coal can be loaded, cartridges prepared and the incidental
work done, so that the main lot of coal can be blasted at noon
and cleaned up in time for another cutting. If, as should be the
case, the entries are the last places on the split of air, the blasting
can be done at any time, and one entry snubbed at the time of
the main blasting in the other entry. In most cases, all the entry
coal must be shot down at once. Each room will be snubbed the
same day it is cut, and blasted the next day. In the meantime,
the other room of the pair of miners will be cleaned up and left
ready for the machine.
/6-foot Entry
40-/oot Room
Fig, ?8, .■Arrangement of shols in machine-cut rooms and entries.
In wizny mines the coal is snubbed by hand wedging. This
will not work well in the soft Arkansas coal, unless there is a
good free seam. In case the snubbing shots are not desirable,
all the coal must be shot down at one time. For this work it
seems best to use a number of light shots, so that the coal will
be well broken up witliout shattering. Generally, three shots in
the face of a room will bring down all the coal, but those shots
must be heavy and the coal is likely to remain in a very large
mass. Figure 78 shows suggested plans for the shots in an entry
and a room. Such shooting will tan*, .ess powder than the fewer
big shots, but more time and fuse, and to secure the best results
it is urged that all the shooting be done by the operator, who
lyGoO'^lc
. Conservation of the Cdal. 489
will furnish his own powder. The miners will allow a differen-
tial for the shooting.
A good turn for the loaders. If each miner or pair of
miners has two woricing places, there will always be plenty of
coal and the men can not run out of coal no matter how good
the turn is. The day-men will then be busy till quitting time,
and there is no reason why the turn should not be as good as
the men want. This is the great advantage of machine mining
as far as the men are concerned. With machine mining, there
Is no trouble about keeping the room face in good condition
and the men will not object to working in pairs. If the rooms
each have two tracks, the cars can be brought alternately to first
one track -and then the other and the driver can keep a cax
alivays in the room without any extra switching. With long
rooms or fiat rooms the cars can be handled both ways by the
company at much less than the present expense if driver or
pusher can take an en>pty car in on one track and a loaded one
out on the other. If the coal is low, it is better for all concerned
to provide three places for each pair of loaders, so that there
may always be places to cut and coal to load.
Output of loaders and machines. If given plenty of cars
and two working places, the loaders in rooms and wide entries
can get out an average of twelve tons of coal a day. In the nar-
row entries, they can load 10 tons per day if no brushing is
needed. In the hardest coal of the State, each machine can cut
100 ft. of face 6 ft. deep and move from place to place, pro-
vided that no time is lost waiting for places to cut and the men
do not loaf. In the softer coal, each machine can cut 200 ft. per
day. In places like Hartford, Bonanza, and Excelsior, where
there is a soft rashing under the coal, the machines can cut .still
more, but an extra labor will be needed to handle the cuttings
and help move the machine from room to room and this intro-
duces complications.
Number of machines in each entry. Ordinarily all the work-
ing places in a single entry will be cut by one machine if the
coal is soft, and by two machines if it is hard. Intermediate
conditions will require two machines part of the time and one
part of the time. One of the machines and its crew of loaders
will be transferred from entry to entry as fast as the extra places
lyGoo'^lc
490 Coal Mining in Arkansas ■
become available. Extra machines wit! be used if the room pillars
are mined as soon as the rooms are finished. At intervals, the
extra machine may be stopped to allow the room worit to catch up
with the pillar work. There must be enough places in each entry
to keep the machines busy.
The number of rooms in an entry can be increased by in-
creasing the distance between the entries so that it will take
longer to finish tht rooms after they are opened, or more easily
by speeding up the entry. Work in the entry on idle days vio-
lates the principle of an equal turn and is prohibited by the con-
stitution of the Union. When necessary, a night shift can be
employed and the entry made so narrow the day crew can shoot
and clean up the coal in time for a cut to be made again just
before quitting time. While one entry is being cut, the day crew
will be preparing the shots in the other entry. This can be done
before the cutting, as well as after it. This double shift work re-
quires extra payment for yardage and the employment of enough
drivers scattered through the mine to haul all the night coal to
the partings. The rapid driving of entries could be most simply
done by contract at so much per yard of entry of specified width,
the contractor to haul the coal to the parting. This is prevented
by the constitution of the Union, Article XII, section 9, and
also by the fact that good machine runners do not like to load
coal, and good loaders will not know how to manage a machine
to best advantage.
When the mine is small and it is desired to develop territory
rapidly, the best plan seems to be to operate the machinery stead-
ily on two shifts. The coal can be loaded from the rooms and
hoisted in the daytime only, but the entry loading can be double
sinfted and the machines will be available to cut the entry as
soon as the coal is loaded out. If the ventilation permits shoot-
ing at any time, the speed of driving can be increased by narrow-
ing the entries until they can be cut earlier each succeeding day
and cut twice every few days. The speed of the entries can be
reduced at any time by widening them until the cutting is omitted
every few days. This is so simple that it is best to have rooms
long enough in the first place.
Proper length of rooms. The method of first approximating
the proper length of rooms may be given by illustrations. We
n> 000^^10
Conservation of the Coal. 491
may assume that the <wjdth of the entries is so adjusted to the
entry crew that a 6-foot cut wiU be made each day in each entry
or crosscut, and that the crosscuts are 12 ft. long and 36 ft
apart center to center. The entries will then go 4 ft. 6 in, a day.
We may further assume tiiat the douWe rooms are 40 ft. wide
and the pillars alternately 4 ft. and 40 ft. thick. One pair of
rooms will then be started each 27.5 days.
If the coal is 5 ft. high, two men will advance a pair of
rocnns a little less than a foot and a half a day, and 20 ft. of
face will have to be cut daOy for each pair of rooms. If three
men are employed in the two entries, the entries will be about
12 ft. wide to keep them busy with one cutting a day. If the Qoa\
is as hard as that at Spadra and only 100 ft. can be cut per day,
75 ft. of cutting must be done in rooms. This requires that 3.8
pairs of rooms, as an average, be cut per day. Each pair of rooms
must then last 3.8 times 27.5 days, or 104 days. If advanced
1,5 ft. per day, this will require that the rooms be 156 ft. long.
If, as is more likdy in high coal, the coal is so soft that 200 ft,
can be cut in a day 8.8 pairs of rooms must be working and the
rooms will be 363 ft. long. The use of tfwo machines in the
hard coal would have the same effect. As the coal gets thinner,
the entry-men must spend time brushing, so the width of entry
will not increase. The rooms advance more rapidly for the same
output but more feet of room must be cut each day for each
room, fewer pairs of rooms are required, and the length of the
rooms will not change. The 150-foot rooms will, therefore, be
suitable for Hie hard coal at Spadra if one machine is used, and
360-foot rooms if two machines are used.
If the entries are shot more than once a day and advanced
6 ft. a day including the driving of crosscuts, the entries will be
9 ft. wide at the same output per man or 8 ft. allowing for extra
time required for blasting, track-laying, etc. At this speed a new
pair of rooms will be started each 20?^ days. The rooms will
be advanced i ft. 6 in, a day and if the coal is soft about
nine pairs of rooms will be cut per day. The rooms must be 280
ft. long. For the hard, low coal, allowing the same width of en-
tries, one machine will require rooms 127 ft. long, two machines
280 ft., and three machines 433 ft. After the machines have
iyGoo'^lc
49-2 Coal Mining in Arkansas
been in operation for some time, the length of the rooms may be
changed as required, when new entries are started.
Scale of ivages for machines. In hard coal, the daily output
per machine should be 25 tons per foot of thickness of coal. For
soft coal, it should be 50 tons. At Hartford or Bonanza, it will
be still greater, if there are two helpers to each machine. The
output per entry, if the length of the rooms does not change,
differs from that produced by shooting off the solid in proportion
to the speed of advance of the entries. This also fixes the num-
ber of machines for each entry.
It is perfectly obvious that the labor of cutting the coal is in
proportion to the number of square feet of coal cut regardless of
the thickness of the coal. It is, however, verj- much easier to
keep a record of the amount of coal cut and the payment should
be made on a tonnage basis and this should vary with the thick-
ness of the coal. It should also vary with the hardness of the
coal. In general the mines of the Sebastian county type should
have a lower rate per square foot cut than those of Spadra. The
Denning field is intermediate. The Sebastian county coal is so
soft that the cutting rate should be lower than in adjoining
. states even though the general wage scale is higher here. The
soft coal greatly reduces the trime lost in changing bits, because
they need be changed less often, and also the actual time of cut-
ting the coail. On the new basis of 65c. a ton for shooting off
the solid, it is su^^sted that coal of a standard thickness of 5
ft, or more should be cut for 5c. a ton to be divided between the
runner and helper in the proportion of 2,75c. and 2.25c. This
is on the supposition that there are two places for each pair of
miners and enough places to keep the machine faJrly busy. Un-
der these conditions, if the runner is reasonably expert, the pair
can earn $12.50 per day, or the runner $6,875 ^nd the helper
$5,625. This is ample allowance for loss by absence of diggers,
thin patches of coal, etc. On the same basis, the scale for coal,
say 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. thick, would be 6c. a ton, and for coal 2 ft.
10 in. to 3 ft. 6 in., 8c. a ton. For .Spadra coal, the price would
be double this or, as a general rule, 15c. a ton. At Bonanza and
Hartford, two helpers should be employed, and the total price paid
would be some 5.5c. per ton, giving the runner zc, and each of
the helpers 1.75c, a ton. These scales are maximum rather
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 493
than minimum, and are not intended as a S iting point for
concessions.
The loaders have the advantage of plenty ol coal at all times
and a good turn, greater safety, and a saving in i>owder amount-
ing to at least 5c. per ton. If the coa;I is cut by chain machines,
the loaders must often first snub it. This requires the drilling
of exitra holes and extra fuse not needed for punchers. In Illi-
nois, it is custoniarj' to pay 7c. a ton for snubbing the coal when
it is done by hand. Since the shooting rate is about the same as
in Arkansas and .the Illinois coal a little harder, the same price
should be paid in this state. The scale for loading coal without
snubbing has already been fixed at 47c. per ton. When the coal
is carefully snubbed, the price of shooting and loading will then
be 54c. a ton. With high and soft coal, the total price will be
only 60c., giving a differential under the most favorable condi-
itions of 5c. a ton. With lower coal, the cost of cutting should
increase, and the differential decreases slightly until the coal
becomes .so thin that snubbing is not necessary.
At Spadra, the mining eliminates most of the extra labor
due to the greater hardness of the coal, and saves the miner so
much more powder that this makes up for the greater difficulty
of drilling holes as compared with Sebastian county. At present
prices, the cost of handling the standard 4-inch rock band is
8c. a ton. This would make the cost of loading normal Spadra
coal 55c. a ton after cutting. With 7c. for snubbing, and 15c.
for cutting, the total cost will be 67c. At this price, the crews
would earn good daily wages equal to the best now paid in
Sebastian county, but owing to the unpleasant surroundings and
short working time at Spadra. a smaller differential in favor of
machines is desirable. This can best be done by an increase in
the price for snubbing the coal and picking out the rock, and so
should be paid only in case the coal is carefully mined. For cut-
ting, snubbing, and loading, 70c. or 75c. a ton might do as a
trial scale.
In all mines, it should be understood that the machine run-
ners will be allowed to load out coal at the standard rate at any
time they have cut all their places, and from any room contain-
ing coal but no loaders. With proper adjustment, this will be
necessary only when the loaders are out a good deal of the time.
lyGoo'^lc
494 Coal Mining in 'Arkansas
To facilitate it, the loaders should be required to snub all places
as soon after they are cut as posible, whether or not the spare
place has been cleaned up.
The entry yardage in other machine districts is from three-
fifths to two^thirds that of the solid shooting yardage. In all
cases, the machine relieves the miner of the task of making the
cutting, which, under the old scale, was worth $1,121/^ a yard.
(New scale $1.19.) It also relieves him of the labor of turning
the coal out of the heading, and saves a large proportion of his
pit expense. If the entry is -wide, the turn good, and the blast-
ing regulations such that the entry-men are provided with plenty
of coal, the only excuse for yardage except brushing is to hurry
the progress of the entry, and it should be divided equally be-
tween the machine men and the loaders. If the conditions of
entry work are hard, the two-thirds price is right, but the loaders
should get more than the half of this, say half the present yard-
age for entries less than 10 ft. wide. In all cases, it seems best
to pay the cutters a little more per ton for entry coal rather than
yardage ; for high coal from 6c. to loc. a ton would be reasonable
in 8-foot entries. This will be only 20c. a yard, but will pay the
runners 40c. for moving the machine, which is ample with
the new type of machine, handled by its own power.
Profil from machines in Sebastian county. In gcneraV the
differential in favor of machines may be counted upon to pay
for power, maintenance, interest, and care of the machines. A
mine producing 1400 tons of coal per day from a seam 5 ft.
thick will require only six machines in constant use and say two
in reserve. If the mine is new, it will cost about $22,000 to
install an eight-machine plant of the best type, including boilers
and power plant. Interest, depreciation, and maintenance may
be taken at 20 per cent of this or $4400 per annum. The wages
of one electrician at $roo a month and extra pay for a mine fore-
man able to look after a machine mine, say $25 a month, will
amount to $1,500 a year. If slack coal is worth 6oc a ton, the
cost of the 200-horsepower required, including wages of one
fireman, will be $4.75 per day or $950 a year of 200 woricing
days. The extra 200-horsepower boiler will not take all the fire-
man's time, but with the ash wheeling and incidental work, nearly
the full time of one man will be required. Even in the soft coal,
lyGoO'^lc
CONSERVAtlON or THE COAL. 495
it will be necessary to employ a skilled blacksmith to sharpen bits.
It will not take all his time and perhaps $2 a day or $400 a year
may be charged to the machines. The yearly charge iigainst ma-
chines will then be $7,250 or only 2.6c. per ton. This is much
less than the probable differential under any scale.
The general saving will result from a reduction in the cost
of draw slate amounting to from nothing to 6c. per ton or an
average of 3c. The smaller number of wnidcing entries causes a
reduction in the delay and cost of development equal to some 2C.
per ton. There will also be a reduced maintenance charge even
bey(»K] Uiat caused by narrow entries and wide pillars. An im-
portant saving -will result from a reduction of at least one^hird
of the present amount of sladc. In the soft coal mines, this will
increase the value of about 15 per cent of the output by about
95c. a ton. This is 7c. a ton on the entire output. The in-
creased freedom from slate will reduce the expense of slate
pickers and increase the sale value of the coal by 5c. a ton. This
would vary greatly acording to the source and character of the
dirt and the ability of the pit-boss. The indirect profit of the
machines will thus be at least 15c. a ton and is ample profit upon
them.
Pro/it from machines at Spaitra. At Spadra, for 39-inch coal
and a mine with an output of 800 tons per day, ten machines
would >be required for regular operation and three spare machines
or thirteen in all. The first cost will be $35,000. The interest
and maintenance at the same rate as before will be $7,000. One
man will hardly be able to take care of so many machines in this
hard coal, and it will be advisable to hire a machine boss as well
as an electrician. This cost may be taken as $2,400 a year, with-
out allorwance for time of a pit-boss. The cost of fuel and the
time of one and a half firemen will be $7 a day or $1,400 a year.
The sharpening of bits will take the time of one blacksmith and
helper, or about $5.50 a day or $1,100 a year. The coat of oper-
ating fche plant is then $11,900 a year or 74c. a ton. This is
olTset by the greater differential from the cost of shooting the
hard double bench coal off the solid.
At Spadra, the indirect saving is much greater. The roof
is such that the draw slate expense will nearly disappear if the
coal is cut before blasting. This will give an average saving of
lyGoO'^lc
49^ Co.\i, Mi.MNG IN" Arkansas
7c. a ton at least. Most of the rock band can be thrown back in
large pieces by the miner if the coal is first cut. This will make
an additional savings in the cost of slate picking of 6c, a ton.
Under Spadra conditions, the machines will more than make up
for the great increase in slack cau.sed by the mine-run law. The
difference in value of slack and lump coal at Spadra is as great
as 52.50 a ton, so the saving from 15 per cent extra himp coal
will be a little more than i6c. a ton on the entire output. The
total indirect saving is then at least 29c. a ton, and machines
should be used even without any difEerential.
MINING UACiriNES FOR UNUSrAT. CONDITION'S.
Double-bench high coal. If the coal seam contains a part-
ing, it is of course better to make the cutting in it than in the
good coal beneath, and so reduce the prodnction of slack and
enable the machine to keep some of the tlirt out of the coal.
When the dirt band is softer than tlie coal, there is an additional
advantage in cutting it. If the roof is strong, the top coal suffi-
ciently high (over 2 ft.), and the parting free from destructive
grit, the dirt can l>e cut out without difficulty by the continuous-
cutting chain-machines. These can be used at Mine Xo. 17,
Jenny Lind, at Greenwood, and at some of the Huntington and
Prairie Creek mines. For this work, a special high truck is
used holding the machine nearly as high as the top of the bottom
bench. About 5 ft. of the bottom bench must be left as a work-
ing platform. After the cut is made, the cuttings will be gobbed
and the top bench shot down and loaded out. At all the mines
mentioned, the upper part of the muck can be cut and the rest
loaded out before the lower bench. is disturbed by shooting. If
the parting is hard, it can be broken by blasting the bottom
bench. After the parting is out of the way, the outer 6 ft, of the
lower bench will be loaded out leaving enough of this for a plat-
form for the machine. Props will then be set close to the edge
of this lower bench.
The machines will eliminate the fine draw slate caused by
heavy blasting, and nearly all the dirt can be kept out of the coal
if it is mined in the manner outlined, and if the miners do not
load out dirt on purpose. Running the machine in the top bendt
will be quite convenient for the crew and the costs will be as
lyGoo'^lc
.,(&(»i««^e(is
p.
V
„Gooi^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 497
before. There will be an additional advantage in keeping out
the dirt and a greater reduction in the slack, as compared with
cutting the lower part of the coal itself.
In case the roof is not strong, it will be necessarj- to set a
row of short props between the bottom bench and the roof, imme-
diately behind the machine, as it cuts the uf^er part of the muck.
When necessary, the depth of cutting may also be decreased.
These props had best be set by tlie machine crew. The helper
will be relieved of much of the labor of handling cuttings, be-
cause they will fall off the lower bench. Still it will be necessary
to pay the machine crew extra for setting props or the men under
a hard top will have an unfair advantage. About ic. a ton for a
single line of props would amount to 4c. or 5c. a prop. This should
include digging the bottom of the props into the softer partings so
that they will not be knocked out by the light blasting needed to
bring down the top coal. These short props will serve as breaking
props when the bottom bench is shot up. In case the roof is so
bad that the loader must set extra short-props after loading out
the top coat and before the next cut, the compensation would best
be settled locally.
Steeply dipping coal. If the coal dips more than 10 degrees
or so, it is difficult to get the self-prcq)elling machine-truck into
the rooms because of the slipping of the wheels, and it becomes
better to drive the rooms across the 'dip even though the machine
will stay against the face and cut coal across rooms rising at a
14-degree angle. At TO degrees dip, there is difficulty in letting
cars out of the rooms without wrecks, and the level rooms are
cheaper anyway. This plan of mining will be discussed under
the head of the reduction in cost of mining.
Gritty partings. In portions of tiie Huntington field, the
parting contains so much grit that it will wear out the chains of
the electric machines. In many of the same rooms, the 6-inch
coal just below the main parting or the upper part of the lower
bench is bony and of no value. In such a case, the cutting can
readily be made in the bony coal unless it contains large sul[Aur
balls. '
It has been suggested that the thick parting at Huntington,
together with the 6-inch coal and the small parting, be cut out
rom]>Ielfly with a punching machine, and that all the cuttings
lyGoo'^lc
498 Coal Mining in Arkansi\s
be gobbed by the machine runners so the loaders will have no
tenqnation to load out dirty coal. This can be done most easily
by placing the puncher upon the lower bench of coal left for the
purpose, because the post punchers can not remove so much
rock at one cutting. With a hand-operated puncher, it is prac-
tically impossible to make the back of the cut as higii as the
front, and some of the dirt will have to be separated from the
top bench after it is blasted. The result will probably be dirtier
coal than that produced by the cheaper chain machines.
Partings near the top of the coal. If the dirt band is high
in the coal, as at Fidelity and Russellville, or if it is too gritty
to be cut by a chain machine, it can best be cut by the post
punchers. The cut should be made just beneath the top bench
of the coal to insure the most con^lete separation of the dirt after
blasting. The output of the post punchers is so small that it
will be necessary to pay the runners about l8c. per ton for coal
5 ft. high. This is the chief disadvantage of post punchers. In
coal of moderate hardness, they are expected to cut 90 ft, of
rocwn face 4 ft. 6 in. deep in an eight-hour day.
The only successful device for using electric distributitm of
power for punching machines is with the "Electric Air" device,
the patent of which is controlled by the Ingersoll-Rand Drill
Co., of New York. This is successful with post punchers,
but the two short lines of air hose connecting with the pulsator
interfere with the free movement of a puncher operated in the
ordinary way. Those punchers having the motor mounted on
the machine are very heavy if they have sufficient power. Com-
pressed air lines to the power house are better than these elec-
tric devices for common punchers.
The Jeffrey Manufacturing Co., Columbus, Ohio, has re-
cently brought out the Jeffrey-O'Toole type of coal mining ma-
chine described in Mines and Minerals, March, 1912, and in Coal
Age, January 20, 1912. This machine remains upon a track in
the center of the place while a long cutter bar swings around in
a half circle, cutting out a crescent-shaped blodc of coal about
18 ft. from tip to tip and 4 to 8 ft. wide. For entries, the cutter
is not swung all the way around. For wide rooms, two tracks
and a lo-foot, or possibly a 12-foot, arm can be used. This
machine can be adjusted to cut the partings in this State which arc
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 499
so close to the roof that the ordinary chain machine could not
be operated on the lower bench. The writer has had no personal
experience with this machine. It is shown in Fig. 79.
Fig 79. Jeffrey-O'Toole mining machine. (By courtesy of the Jeffrey
Mfg. Co.)
Thin coal. So far as known, none of the mines of Arkansas
have many rolls in a hard floor, or both sulphur in the lower
part of the coal and grit in the floor under it. For this reason,
chain machines rather than punchers will be used in high coal
and the chief use for punchers will be for digging out a hard
clay under thin coal. This is often the cheapest way to obtain
the necesary hight of working place. The punchers are now
used for this purpose at Paris and will be needed when additional
mines are opened on the low coal seams of Prairie View and
Excelsior. The scales at Paris are based definitely on the num-
ber of square feet of coal undermined. In rooms, the scale is 14c.
per foot of face undermined to a d^th of 4 ft. In the 21-inch
coal, this amounts to 40c. per ton. It is equivalent to 14c. a ton
for 5-foot coal and seems reasonable when compared with scales
in other districts. The runners earned only $3.83 a day, which ii
not sufficient. They were not very experienced, but it is prob-
able that this scale is too low for such hard clay. In other mines,
it might be ample.
lyGoO'^lc
500 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Combined use of chain machines and punchers. Where the
coal dips too steeply to permit driving rooms to the rise, the
rooms may be driven level and cut with chain machines. This
will work in seams quite a little steqier than any as yet known
in this State. In case the rooms are level, engine-planes must be
driven straight up the dip. If the mine is gassy, solid shooting in
the engine-planes becomes dangerous and machines may be con-
sidered indispensable. For this purpose the only successful ma-
chine is the post puncher, made by a number of compaiiies. It
can be used to both undermine and shear the entries so that, if
narrow, they can he driven very rapidly. If electric chain ma-
chines are u.sed in the rooms, the engine-planes in the entire mine
can be driven by a sitigle electric-air post-puncher. The work-
ings will generally be so laid out that development work need be
done in only two entries at a time unless the output is very large.
There will be a sufficient number of narrow places close together
to keep one machine busy in each entrj- and there will be no
trouble with the special crew. The scales can be easily adjusted
on the yardage basis.
For rapidly driving entries in flat seams, the same combina-
tion can be used, and an 8-foot mining or shearing put in each
day : but there will be a great delay in shifting the machine from
entry to entry, so probably not more than two pairs of entries
could be cut in a single day.
General advantages of mining machines. The proper use
of mining machines of any type does much to conserve the value
of the coal. If the blasting is carefully done, the machines make
it possible to load out good sound lump coal with the least pos-
sible production of slack and the greatest freedom from dirt and
slate. Even if the blasting is carelessly done, the percentage of
slack and the injury to the lump coal is less than caused by any
but the most careful blasting off the solid. The slate is So
easily separated from the machine-mined coal that even the care-
less miners will pick out more than they will from coal shot off
the solid. Under all conditions, the machines are an advantage
in these respects.
The reduction in the production of slack is an immediate
financial g^n to the operator, and in the long run it is a great
advantage to the entire community including the miners. The
lyGoo'^lc
CON-SERVATION OF THE CoAL. 5OI
more sound condition of the lump coat and its freedom from
slate, increase its sale value somewhat, and so is an advantage to
the producers; but the chief gain will be to the consumers who
are the general public. The greater value of the coal aiiid its
greater hardness will extend the market area of the Arkansas
coal, and thereby increase its production, which is a genera! gain
to the State.
tONGWALF, MIXING.
General advantages. Wherever longwall mining is used,
from 85 per cent to 95 per cent of the coal in the area mined is
recovered. Except under special conditions, the recovery is gen-
erally nearly 95 per cent. Longwall mining is, therefore, the
most certain method of reducing the waste of coal. The coal so
obtained is also in the best possible condition, because almost
none of it need be blasted out of tight corners next to pillars, or
shattered by opening shots in room faces and entries. This sys-
tem is also especially favorable to the use of mining machines.
Under a good roof, the method of longwall advancing can
be used quite profitably wherever the firm rock from middle
bands and draw slate, together with brushing obtained from the
roadways, is sufficient to provide substantial pack walls. If the
character of the coal and band rock is similar to that at Spadra,
the longwall method will pay even though the roof is not strong.
Wherever the total thickness of the coal seam is so small that the
roadways in the rooms can be brushed at a profit, the longwall
method will pay very well even though the roof is weak.
Longwall mining under weak roof. If the roof is weak,
the standard method of longwall advancing requires the driving
of roadways or gates at about right angles to the face and at
intervals of 40 ft. to 45 ft. along the face. Each interval is then
called a room. In many places the longwall face is driven in
all directions from the foot of the shaft. Where the dip is
slight, this is feasible, but in most parts of the Arkansas field, the
coal has considerable dip, and to avoid annoyances from water
it is best to work to the rise only. If the coal is low or the gates
quite steep, it will be necessary to drive haulage-ways cutting the
gates ofif so that the miner need pusli his car only 150 ft. Other-
lyGoo'^lc
502 Coal Mining in Arkansas
wise, it wiil be necessary to pay him loc. a toir extra for all coaJ
coining from a greater distance than 150 ft. If the cars are
brought in or taken out by mule or motor, the miners will handle
them one way for a distance of 250 ft. without extra charge. If
the gates are nearly perpendicular to the face, the fewest gates
will be required for the same interval along the face. The more
nearly the haulage-ways are placed at right angles to the gates,
the less the length of haulage-way required, but for convenience
in building them, the haulage-ways must make a considerable
angle with the working face and can not always be put square
across the gates.
In tiie gates, the cars are handled separately and grades are
of little importance until they exceed 8 per cent or 10 per cent in
favor of the loads and 2 per cent or 3 per cent against the loads.
Where the cars are handled in trains, especially by mules, the
grades should be in favor of the loads and shottld not exceed 3
per cent or 4 per cent. Grades of 0.5 per cent or i per cent are
better, espedally where the run is long and little of the time of
the driver is spent in gathering single cars.
Upon these principles, the best layout for a longwall mine
on a coal seam with a soft top and dipping not more than '5
degrees seems to be the nearly standard method shown on Plate
IX. The heavy lines represent the lines of motor haulage and
Abandoned roadways are shown as broken lines. Several arrange*
ments of shaft pillar can be made, but the plan shown will per*
mit the coal from the upper part of the mine to be taken tb
either side of the shaft and so facilitate caging from both sides.
The motor roads will cut off the mule roads before the mainte-
nance becomes costly and before the mule haul exceeds 700 to
1,000 ft.
In order to keep the gates short, the mule roads must be so
close together that there will be but few gates from each road
and a single mule can do the work for several toads. If the
roadways are good, cars for all the places off each road can be
handled in a single trip. This obviates the necessity for partings,
which must be heavily timbered, and are a general annoyance
in longwall work. In practice, tfie driver will leave the loaded
trip next to the motor road, go to the next road abovt, take all
the empty cars standing there to the miners, and get loaded cars
lyGoO'^lc
CONSERVATIOK OF THE COAL. 50J
for the return. By the time the miners have turned out the coal
for another car, the motor will have replaced the loads with
empties. The motor trips will not be long and the motor can be
light, but the track must be surfaced well enou|^ to allow the
pushing of the trains as well as pulling.
While the mine is small, the mining machines and loaders
will be thickly spaced around the face and each mule will serve
but few roads. As the mine gets larger, the output will rapidly
increase as more men and machines are added, until the capacity
of the shaft or tipple is reached. Then the interval between
loaders may be .increased as the working face becomes longer,
until there will finally be only one loader for several rooms. The
final limit is reached when the speed of advance of the face be-
comes so slow that the gate roads and working space can not
be maintained. The remaining coal of such an exceptionally
large area can then be worked as another panel, or through an-
other shaft.
Cost of such a system at Spadra. At Spadra, the standard
4-inch band rock fr<Mn a 40-foot room will yield material enough
to make a pack wall about 30 in. wide on each side of the room
roads. This should be built for something like 75c, per yard of
roadway in addition to the cost of handling the rock. More
material must be provided for the wall. If the roadways are
brushed 18 in., a mule can be used to haul in the empty cars
and. large cars can be used. The roadways must have ample
width and the brushing obtained from them will give enough ad-
ditional material for the pack -walls. At the standard price of
7c, per inch, this brings the cost of brushing to $1.25 a yard or
the entire cost of the roadway to $2.00 a yard. If there is a cut-
off roadway each 250 ft. with extra brushing and pack walls
costing say $3.00 a yard, the theoretical yardage cost is 164c.
per ton.* This compares very favorably with the present costs
of entry, air-course, crosscuts, room-necks, and break-throughs.
The track expense will be about the same and there will be a
large margin for the extra timbering, and the cost of cribs at
'Gates 40 ft. apart will keep the digtance along the face within 45 ft.
A room 40 ft. by 250 ft. will contain ijso tons of coal 39 in. high. Ninety-
five per cent of this is 1,280 tons. It will require 83 yd, of gate road at
$2.00 a yard and about 18 yd. of main haulage-way at $3.00. The total
is ^10 or 164c p«r-ton.
lyGoo'^lc
504 Coal Mixinx in Arkansas
switches. The* extra cost of hauling due to scattered woric is
offset by the saving caused by big'ger cars. There will be im-
portant gains from increased capacity of the mine, and better"
recovery of the coal.
If the band rock is thicker than the standard minimum, the
bight of working is greater and more material is available for
pack walls. As a result, less brushing will be needed and the
cost of yardage for longwal! greatly decreases. On the other
hand, thick band rock increases the expense of room and pillar
work by the expense of loading rock out of entries and room-
necks. It is therefore, evident that the advantage of longwall
increases with the thickness of the band rock. The cost of han-
dling the rock at the face will be the same with either svstem,
Longwall in thin coal seams. In the case of thin coal at
considerable depth as in the Prairie View field and the deeper
part of the coal .'^eam near Hackett and Bonanza, it will be neces-
sary to open up considerable bodies of coal from a single shaft.
This will require a long haul and the use of cars of a fair size
and brushing in the rooms. Under such conditions, the great
advantage of Igngwall mining will be self-evident without com-
putations. With room -and -pillar work, brushed entries have
to be driven at close intervals. Besides brushing, tliey involve
the heavy charge for yardage and crosscuts and there is the
expense of room-necks and room break-throughs. With long-
wall, a single roadway, driven at about the expense of the brush-
ing of one entry, serves instead. The better output per acre still
further cuts this expense down. The gate roads cost but little
more than the room brushing.
Lon^ivall for coal of considerable dip. If the dip of the coal
is greater than here assumeil. the longwall mining had best be
done by the method shown in Plate X. The cost figures will be
about as before. This plate also shows the methods of laying out
the work in panels and of working coa! below a shaft located most
conveniently upon the surface. To push the work in the corners,
more men may be employed there as, for example, a pair of men
for each two rooms instead of a pair for each three or four rooms.
The machine will then once in two or three cuts be hauled across
the top of the panel upon a track in the haulage road instead of
cutting continuou.sly from one end lo the other. After every cut.
lyGoo'^lc
,Googl^jx^
„Gooi^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 507
the machine will be hauled back along the bottom of the panel
to the starting point.
Longwail for high dip. If the dip of the coal is high as at
Bates and Coaldale, the most feasible longwall method is that of
driving the gate roads at a water grade and collecting the cars
by small engine-planes and motor hoists. The general plan is
shown in Plate XI which indicates the special method of mining
both benches of a compound seam with a thick parting. The first
working by longwall advancing will be discussed in that con-
nection.
Faulty patches and longwall mining. It is obvious that all
of the longwall methods so far mentioned are admirably adapted
to working around patches of bad coaL It will be a simple matter
to stop the working as soon as the coal is poor and then circle
back in the good coal behind. The fining for the air current
may be retained around such patches of coal or most of the air
may be sent around by the haulage roads. The only expense will
arise from the cost of extending the haulage roads through them
if they are so long that the coal behind can not be mined from
another road. This is much less than the cost of driving the
entries and air-courses through bad coal in room-and-pillar work
and there need be no loss whatever of good coal behind faulty
patches.
Longwall mining under good roof. Where the roof is strong
and the coal fairly high as at Spadra, no gate roads are required,
but the cars may be run directly along the face of the coal as
shown in Fig. 80. It will be necessary to place the roadway at
intervals of say 200 ft, and all the miners of the set or barrie
must run their cars out at the same time. The coal will be run
down the face to the roadway below and the miners will then
go up to the Toadway above for more cars. This system is very
flexible because the space for each loader can be varied accord-
ing to the number of men in the mine from day to day. If any
man of the group is not ready to load a car, he need not go up
for an empty car, but can pick down coal and set props while
the other loaders are each filling a car.
The machine requires 3 ft. 6 in. next to the face and the
trade 4 ft. 6 in. additional. This space of 8 ft. can be safely left
unsupported in front of Hie machine. Immediately behind the
lyGoO'^lc
5o8 CuAL Mi\[Nc. IN Ahkans<\s
machine. 14 ft. will be unsupported if the cut is 6 ft. deep, but
the track can be immediately moved over 3 ft. by company men
and more props set outside of it to reduce the unsupported width
to II ft, including the cut. In niany cases, the roof will stand
this and the weight will simply help break down the coal. As
Fig, So, I.oiigwall mining with good roof.
stMjii as ixxssible. the li aders will jmsh the track over the other
3 ft. or half the cut and set another row of props close together
behind the track. rc:hicing the space to 8 or 9 ft. again. The
rear props had best be piille<l by the company men who shift the
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 509
track and set props behind the machine. If done by a prop-
pnlling machine, there is little danger. If tlie roof is good
enough, the track can be moved 6 ft. at a time, after the coal is
loaded out.
If the roof is not quite so strong as this method requires.
props may be set between the track and the face after the ma-
chine passes. These will be in the waj; of the loaders but the
fact that all coal can be shoveled directly into the cars with no
turning out compensates for this inconvenience. As soon as the
coal is loaded out, an additional line of props may be set 4 ft.
from the face, the props next the track removed, the track moved
over, and tht props immediately reset behind it. After the ma-
chine has passed, the track may be moved over at wice or it may
be left imtil the coaJ is loaded out and then moved 6 ft. past two
lines of props. UrKler this plan, the greatest width of roof
unsupjjorted for any length of time will be only the depth of the
cut. Immediately behind the machine, there will be a width of
4 ft. greater. While the track is being shifted, 7 ft. 6 in. of roof
will be unsupported. This is entirely safe at most of the Spadra
mines.
For convenience, the tracks to the face should be so placed
that the coal between them can be cut in a single day. This will
vary from 150 to 250 ft. Enough loaders should work in each
section or barrie to load out the coal on another day, and, to
prevent delays, there should be two sections for each machine
and each set of loaders.
This plan is well adapted to flat seams and also to dipping
seams provided that the dip is not so great that it is unsafe to
push spragged cars along the face. The workings for steep dtp
are outlined in Fig. 81. The cars can be handled upon the main
plane by a rope and in the nearly level entries by mules. As the
entries gel too long, they can be cut off by inclined motor haulage
roads. The coal above the highest entry can be let down to it
through ordinary gates until the face has advanced far enough
for another entri-. If desired, the mine may be extended by a
slope below the shaft, because most of the water can be kept
from the face by ditches along the entries. Xo short gates will
then be needed, but a sump will have to be maintained in advance
of the lowest point of the face.
lyGoo'^lc
310 Coal Mining in Arkansas
The entries will have to be brushed and secured by wide
pack walls and if the dtp is high, cribs may be needed along the
upper side. In some cases, they may require timbering, but
these charges will be so much smaller than the dead work ex-
penses for room-and-pillar mining that no computations as to
financial advantages of this type of longwall are necessary.
Fig. 8i. Longwal] mining with good lop and steep dip.
In case of faulty patches in the coal, the face in the good
coal must be advanced beyond them. During this inter\'al, there
will be an extra expense and delay in handling cars both ways
on the same track and in moving machines past such places.
The air current can be canned around the areas of poor coal, and
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 51 1
generally the mule entries can be driven through them without a
special air-course. They will cause a greater annoyance than if
there are gate roads all along the face, but the expense of driv-
ing the regular room-and-pillar entries through faulty patches
will be almost as great.
Longwali with portable track along the face. If the roof is
too weak for a continuous track along the face, only enough
Fig. 82. Longwall mining with portable face track.
Space may be left to pass the machine, and props may be set
immediately behind the machine and close to the face. The coal
can then be loaded out by extending a track along the face in
lyGoO'^lc
5J2 Coal Mining in Arkansas
the space from which the coal has been loaded. For this pur-
pose, short tenths of ready-made portable steel track arc recom-
mended. As soon as the coal is all loaded out. the track may
be stacked up in any convenient place. Portable curves and short
trade may be used in entries. Fig. 82 shows the general arrange-
ment.
This method can be used only upon grades so low that the
empty cars can be pushed uphill. Its great disadvantage is the
fact that but two men can load coal in each section of the mine,
and to maintain a large output, the entries must be close together
and the mine large. It is especially adapted to old mines that
have been developed to full capacity by placing gate roads close
together and by turning out the coal between them by hand.
Longu-all mining it'ith conveyors. If the roof is good and
the coal so thin that cars can not be brought along the face, the
coal can best be removed by conveyors. If the coal is more than
24 in. high, it can be cut by machines and there is little trouble
in using the conveyors. The system is best described in a paper
read by J. F. Thomas before the Coal Mining Institute for
America in June, 1907, and entitled "Mechanical Conveyors as
Applied to Longwall Mining." This is reprinted in A/ifw and
Quarry, No. 3 of Vol. II, published by the Sullivan Machinery
Co., Chicago. In the Engineering and Mining lournal. May 18,
1907, Vol. 83, page 958, may be found another account of Ameri-
can practice- In the same journal for April 7, 1906, Vol. 81.
page 652, is an account of English practice and in the journal for
August II, 1906, Vol. 82, page 267, is an account of the Belgian
practice. In Coal Age, Feb. 24, 1912. Vol. I, page 643, is an
account of several types of English conveyors. In Europe, the
conveyors are sometimes operated by hand aitd may be of the
shaking type. In America, they are ordinary scraper conveyors.
No full account need be given here. The occurrence of extensive
and frequent faults in the coal will be the greatest hindrance to
the use of conveyors because conveyors require a uniform ad-
vance of a straight face. The other great objection is the fact
that the loading of the coal can not well be done by contract but
must be done by day labor.
One of the greatest advantages of conveyors is their inde-
pendence of grades. The special field for conveyors seems to
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation oi' the Coal. 513
be in the steep and low coal south of Poteaii Mountain. For
this purpose, the conveyors ^ould be placed as shown in Fig. 83.
The main slope and its air-course may first be sunk a sufficient
distance to give a longwall face with sufficient capacity. The
conveyors will then be placed in the air-course and worked out-
ward. These conveyors should be about 250 ft. long and at the
lower end of each, a roadway with brushed bottom is needed so
that the conveyor can dump directly into the cars. This roadway
will be extended by hand mining as an ordinary double entry.
The lower entry or air-course will be top-brushed. This entry
will then be used as a run-arouml parting to get cars beyond the
Fig. 83. Longwall face conveyors with steep dip.
conveyor. They can then be loaded on the way out. The coal
alongside the conveyor will be cut, shot, and loaded as rapidly as
possible, and the conveyors kept approximately in line. The
machine can cut downhill and wait alongside of the track until
the coal is loaded out. If the machine is of the reversible type,
it will start up as soon as it is overhauled and the last of the coal
loaded out. Until more coal has been cut and blasted, the crew
lyGoO'^lc
514 Coal Mining in Arkansas
of loaders will be occupied setting props and moving the con-
veyor.
The entries must be driven wide enou^ to leave room on
the side for the machine. For this, the roof will be strong-
enough in -the solid coal. It will be best to take the mule through
a crosscut and to keep the brushing as narrow as possible. The
chain pillars between the entries will be left until crushed by
squeeze, and can then be loaded directly into cars alongside and
replaced by a pack wall or cribs as may be needed. This will
protect the ends of the conveyors and the men handling cars.
The brushing must be done on the night shift -when the rock can
be hauled back to be used as pack walls. If the dip is steep,
cribs will be needed along the upper side of the roadway and the
brushing can be used as a lower pack-wall supported by a line
of props.
It has been demonstrated in Pennsylvania that the saving in
labor of turning out the coal much more than makes up for the
labor of moving the conveyor. The entries will cost more than
ordinary entries but the cost per ton will be less because the
distance apart will be more than is possible when the rooms are
driven at an angle, and because of the complete extraction of
the coal. There is a saving in room brushing and the handling
of rock in the rooms.
In certain cases, it will be better to leave a considerable
pillar on each side of the slope and start the longwall face from
the second of a pair of rooms turned off the entry partings.
This will require two breaks m the roof and cause loss of coal,
so it will generally be better to leave only nariiow strips of coal
along the slope and maintain the passageway by brushing after
the first break occurs. In this case the narrow pillars of coal
serve as pack walls for the slope.
W0RKl^fG COMPOUND SEAUS BY LONGWALL.
General method of working. At Bates under the present
conditions, only the lower 36-inch to 42-inoh bench of the com-
pound coal seam is mined. Above this is a parting of slate,
clay, and bony coal 30 in. thick, and above it 42 in. of good coal
with a single 4-inch parting. As a result of experience in
Europe, it seems that the only commercially feasible way ol min-
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 515
ing the entire seam is to mine the lower bench by longwall ad-
vancing and the upper bench by long\van retreating. The lower
bench may :be mined by the conveyor system just outlined or by
the plan shown in Plate XI, If it were not for labor questions,
the conveyor system would be much nK>re satisfactory because
it leaves so few irregularities in the floor upon which the upper
bench must settle. The settling of the upper bench will serve
to break the coal up ready for loadii^ out without blasting. This
breaking will be assisted by the weight of the roof upon the
edge of the coal during retreat. The effect is shown in all mine
squeezes.
Mining the lower bench. 'In the system shown on Plate XI,
it is assumed that the sinking of the lower working-place and the
building of solid pack walls for the slope are carried on by double
shift or double crew with payment for yardage. As rapidly as
possible, other miners are set to work on single shifts widening
out the walls of the slope so that the working maintains a
V-shape. At intervals of 40 ft. to 45 ft., level roadways are
brushed and cribs or padc walls built alongside. The cars from
the slope as well as the short rooms are at first handled by the
main rope or a special sinking engine.
As soon as these room roads are so long that the roof is
down between the slope and the working face, another little slope
is built, and brushed, and the cars are hauled up this by a small
electric hoist to a parting above. As soon as the roadways have
reached a length of 250 ft., a second slope will be started and a
new hoist put in, so that the miners need not push the cars more
than 250 ft. one way. A pusher will be employed to bring in
the empty cars, and to assist the miner with the loaded cars if
necessary. The roads will be brushed up to the coal above and
one or both of the upper benches over the road may then be
removed. Most of the brushing can be used as a pack wall along
the lower side, supported by props below. It is recommended
that cribs be used above the road.
From the top of the small slopes is a well brushed and sup-
ported roadway for mule haulage to the partings at the main
sl<^>e. As soon as the number of rooms off any little slope
becomes so great that the switching of the cars can not be done
by a single rope-rider, the little slopes should be cut off by
lyGoO'^lc
5i6 Coal Mining in Arkansas
another main haulage road. As many of these main haulage
roads will be turned off fr«n the slope as may he necessary to
supply the desired output. The sinking of the main slope will
then be stopped until a later time. When sinking is resumed, a
roadway in the well-settled mined-out district should be used as
the main haulage road, rather than one right at the edge of the
solid coal above which the roof will be br<^en to a great bight.
As the main haulage roads settle on the light cribs, all the upper
coal above them should be mined. If the roof above is more
scAid than the coal, all the upper bench coal can be shot down
from the roadways at once. For this work, nothing need be
paid, except the regular tonnage rate, because this coal will be
very easily mined. If done later, it should be shot down by
company men,
Mitting the upper bench. As soon as the roadways reach
the limit of the coal to be mined from this slope, or the property
line, a cut ibetween roadways will be made through the parting
and the upper bench. The props will then be pulled and mining
stopped until the roof settles. In the meantime, the remaining
coal in the roofs of the room roads will be removed. As soon as
the workings between roads close, the upper bench can be mmed
back toward the main slope and the coal taken through the road-
ways already driven, to the little bcMsts in their former places.
After the coal next the roadway is shot down and loaded, the
cribs on the high side can be knocked out and thrown back.
There will then be no obstruction in the floor next the roadway.
Costs. To figure costs, it is necessary to assume some rea-
sonable scale.of wages. The present scale for brushing is $i.oo
per yard up to the clay seam in the parting. This amounts to
from 5c. to 8c. per inch. The brushing is so soft that it does
not need to be shot, and often falls as far as the coal above, so
that 5c. per inch per yard seems to be ample for brushing and
piling the waste along the lower side. For the full 30 in., this
will amount to $1.50 a yard. The miners must be paid for
building the cribs along the upper side. Cribs of three sticks,
42 in. long each way piled 42 in. high should be built for 60c.
(Cribs 4 ft. high are built for 56c. in Missouri.) They will
require thirty-three props costing 3.5c. each, or $1.15 per crib.
This makes the cost of the line of cribs $1.50 a yard. Smaller
lyGoO'^lc
ivGooi^lc
,w iKJliO'f y'.i fii ^.-■••r.ibe II v.,-..;'.!
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 517
cribs will often be sufficient but this figure will be taken and the
cost of roadway figured at $3.00 per yard. For the mining of
the top bench, no allowance for extra labor need be made except
for turning out the coal nearest the roadway above. At loc.
per ton for coal shoveled over 30 ft., tiiis will amount to 3c. per
ton upon the entire output of the upper seam.
If the lower bench averages 3 ft. 6 in. thick, and the upper
bench 3 ft. 6 in., with a 95 per cent recovery in the lower bench
and 85 per cent in the upper bench, the narrow work after the
slope is sunk, costs 21.2c. per ton for the first working.*
The dip is so steep that under the present system, a pusher
is employed with each driver and the pushers can do more work
in the level rooms of the longwall mine than they can in the
present steep rooms. Under the new system, the drivers will
lose no time gathering cars and a larger size of cars can be
used on the high level roadways. This will compensate for the
wages of the rope-riders of the little slopes. Each little hoist
should be good for an average of fourteen rcKMns. When there
are fewer, the work of the rope-rider can be done by the pusher
and the hoist operator. Each room of a machine mine should
produce 12 tons of coal. (There will be a pair of miners for
each two rooms.) Interest and depreciation on the small rope
and hoist and wages of the operator will amount to $4.00 a day,
or 2.4c. per ton of coal. This added to the cost of narrow work
gives a sum of 23,6c, In the regular mining, fewer props will
be used, because the longwall props may be pulled. "Hie present
clay roof is fully as expensive to maintain in the entries as will
be the shale above the top bench using longwall.
At present, the rooms are 20 ft. wide and driven at an angle
with the entry at distances of 45 ft. along the entries. The
length of the rooms may be taken at 250 ft. Pillars are only
8 ft. thick and some crosscuts are blown through. Others are
cut at $1.68 per yard. All the crosscuts of a room may be taken
•A room 42 ft. wide and 250 ft. kmg requires 83 yd. of room road
and 14 yd. of little slope or 99 yd., assuming enough cribs alotig each
side of the slope to equal continuous cribs on one side.
99 yd, brushing and cribbing at $3.00 per yd $297.00
99 yd. ties 3.OO
14 yd. of track laying and one switch ?i5?„
Total $307-50
.^t 95 per cent recovery, the room will yield 1^5° »ons of coal and the
cost will be 21.2c. per ton.
lyGoo'^lc
5i8 Coal Mining in Arkansas
to cost $io.c». The rooms and entries are brushed at $i.oo a
yard. The cost of narrow work and ties is Z7.7c. per ton.*
There is thus an apparent immediate saving of 4,1c. per ton.
Actually, it is difficult to drive the present rooms acrc«s the I2j4-
degrec dip to the full length of 250 ft. and the yardage per ton
is greater than that figured above. There is a slight extra ex-
pense due to the falling of soft top across the room face and in
loading out extra brushing from falls or roadways. Since the
rooms are turned off at such long intervals, there will be but few
rooms in an entry and the cost of hauling and general main-
tenance will be high. The longwall plan gives the full output
in a shorter time. For these reasons, the saving by longwall will
be more than 4.1c. per ton.
Eighty-five per cent of the top bench wiH yield 1,300 tons
of coal additional. At 3c. per ton for turning out the coal and
2.4c. for small hoists, the cost of this coal will be $70-20. The
entire 2,750 tons of both benches will cost for development, turn-
ing out and hoisting to the main entries $411.60 or nearly 15c.
per ton. The ultimate saving will then be 12.7c. a ton. The
total recovery of the coal will be about 90 per cent as against
about 35 per cent as at present. If the value of the coal in a
developed mine be takeii as loc. a ton, this represents an addi-
tional prc^t of 7,2c. per ton' on the increased output. The total
of 20c. per ton will go far towards making the improved system
of mining profitable in this steep coal. It is a sufficient argu-
ment against the present wasteful method.
*Two entries 8 ft. wide, 4S ft. long; I'/i crosscuts la ft; one room;
one room-neck; and five break-throughs will yield 833 tons of coal. The
costs will be :
30 yd. of entry and air-course, at $2.25 per yd % 6j.SP
30 yd. of brushing, at $1.00 par yd 30.00
16 ft. of crosscuts, at $1.68 per yd. 8.96
I room-neck, at $3.37 3-37
Room break-throughs lO.OO
Room brushing, 83 yd., at $1.00 per yd 83-OO
Ties, 340 ft 3-40
I switch and track laying 7.50
Loading out brushing at 26c per 1,800 pounds, from entry and
room-neck i7-63
Total 5231-37
This is 27.7c. per ton. Actually $2.50 a yard is paid for driving entries
at Bates, but this seems unreasonable and the more common $2.25 a yard
is used as before.
„Gooi^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 519
LONGWALI. TO SAVE A THIN LOWEH BENCH.
Between Huntington and Burma and possibly east of Hart-
ford, only the upper bench of coal is mined and a thinner bottom
bench is left beneath a thick strong parting. There seems to be
no plan by which both benches can be mined at a profit at the
present time. If the upper bench is mined out clean by longwall
mining, the lower bench can be mined as soon as the scarcity of
coal makes it profitable to mine such thin coal. The second
mining must be done by the longwall method and the fact that
the roof 'has already settled once will facilitate the work except
for the maintenance of roadways. It is, therefore, strongly
ui^ed that these upper benches be mined by longwall, which has
been shown to be at least as cheap as the present method and to
give a better recovery from the upper bench now being mined,
U>NGWALI, HETREATINC.
General plan of the mine. The thick coal under the high
mountains like Sugarloaf must be mined by loi^;wall retreating.
The details of the work are sufficiently well known and will vary
with the nature of the roof. They will not, therefore, be discussed.
The main objection to longwall retreating is the cost of devel-
opment. In Arkansas, this is especially serious because the coal
will have to be brought to shafts near the foot of each mountain
and all the development must be from one side. The cost of
development for longwall retreating can best be reduced by
mining the coal in panels.
The roof is probably strong and the coal can be mined by
keeping a track along the face. Two panels 1,000 ft. on a side
will yield a sufficient output if mined by machines. Entries
should reach the face each 250 ft. and the general plan is shown
on Plate XII. To reduce the time of development and to venti-
late the mine without depending upon the tightness of the stop-
pings, the pair of entries next the top of the shaft panel should
be driven as soon as the main slope reaches them. Double entries
must be driven along each side of the panels connecting the ends
of the panel cross-entries. The chain pillar for these entries and
the pair of entries at the bottom of the panel should be as wide
as possible. Forty feet will he assumed. If the mining of the
panel 'be stopped at the nearest of the entries, the outer entry will
lyGoO'^lc
520 Coal Mixing is Arkansas
be in solid coal and should resist the squeeze. It will then re-
main open for ventilatbn and can be use<I as the opening face
or roadway of the adjoining panel. To further hasten tlie de\xl-
opment. it is advisable to drive the working along the near side
of the panels down-hill as well as up-hill even though it h cheaper
to drive them up-hill. All of the engine-plane and most of the
working on the far side can be driven up-hill.
As soon as the full productkm of the first pair of panels is
available, the next pair in the top tier can be opened up. This
may be hastened by driving the lower marginal working directly
from the first panel while the main entr>' is being extended to
the new engine-plane. This work can be done in the most eco-
nomical way and the expense charged against yardage for the
coal of the first panel. As soon as the end property lines are
reached, a new tier of panels may be started next below. For
these, the former main haulage-way becomes the npper cross
entry. The special slope driven for ventilation must be extended
from tier to tier of panels.
When only one tier of panels is left, no main haulage-way
need be driven and the engine-planes become slopes sunk from
the former main haulage-way to the lower property line. The
lower tier of panels can, therefore, be mined on the retreat mak-
ing them twice as long down the dip and mining only the side
away from the main slope. A lower boundary line not parallel
to the strike will thus be easily followed. The cross entries of
the panels will follow the strike and the lengths of face between
them can be varied as the dip changes and as experience indi-
cates. Finally the panels along the main slc^ will be mined
two at a time retreating up toward the shaft. There will be a
slight loss of coal in the pillars along the margins of the panels
and next the main slope.
Time required to develop the mine. To reduce the time of
paying interest on the cost of sinking the shafts and the general
expenses, all development should be done on two shifts. If the
crosscuts are only 12 ft. long and 36 ft. apart, and the entries
are kept down to 7 or 8 ft. in width, the slope and its air-course
should be sunk at the rate of 200 ft. per month, and the level
entries at the rate of 250 ft. working twenty-five double shifts a
month. The workings in the 40-foot pillars around the margin
lyGoO'^lc
ivGobi^lc
„Gooi^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 523
of the panel will be delayed by the long crosscut and go only
150 ft. per month.
The last point of the panfel to be reached will be the farther
lower corner, and because of the delay of the workings with
wide chain pillars, this will be reached first by way of the lower
cross-entry of the panel. This work will take about thirteen
months after the shafts are down.* It will take about one month
l<mger to finish the woridng across the bottom of the panel and
within fourteen mc»iths, the full output should be reached. The
extra pair of slopes irom the air-shaft should be driven from
below as soon as possible.
Extra cost of development. We may assume 6 ft. as the
most likely thickness of the coal under the mountains, and the
mine will produce enough coal to meet all the payroll except
yardage as soon as the first pair of cross-entries are turned off
from t^e main slope-f No brushing will be required and the
slope should be sunk for not more than $4XX> a yard. Including
the cost of crosscuts at $1.68 a yard and 25c. a yard for double
shifting, the slope and its air-course together will cost $10.00 a
yard. The engine-plane and its air-course driven up-hill and
the pair of level entries will cost $5.50 per yard of advance. The
extra-long crosscuts at $2.25 a yard wilt make the pair of work-
ing at the end of the panels cost $12.30 per yard of advance when
driven down-hill. Up-hill or across the bottom, the cost will be
• 250 ft. of mam stope at aoo ft. per month ijj months
500 £l of upper entry at 250 ft per month a "
750 ft. of wide-pillar end-working at 150 ft. per month... 5 "
1,000 ft of lower cross-entry at 250 ft. per month 4 "
Total I3J4 ntonths
Or, allowing for <lelays, thirteen months.
tBesides the diggers in slopes, one man will be needed to act as
superintendent, foreman, and engineer, at a salary of at least $150 a
month. On the day shift, there will be one fireman, one ear trimmer
and general surface man, one weighboss and top foreman, one blacksmith
and general mechanic, two engineers, two bottom men who will lay track
and build brattices when not caging, and one rope-rider. At night the
cars can be left on the bottom, and only one third-dass engineer and
fireman will be needed at the surface and the slope engineoc and a rope-
rider in the mine. This will make a payroll of about $950 a month, al-
lowing for extra labor, but not office expense. The two slopes with
crosscuts will yield 865 tons of coal per month. One hundred tons will
be used at the mine and the Test sold. Being entry coal, it will not bring
more than 70c. a ton more than the cost of shooting and loading. At first
the loss on day labor will then he $4iS a month. When the new entries
are be^n, only an extra mule is needed and the output of coal will be
three limes as great, and will meet the payroll.
n> 000^^10
524 Coal Mining in Arkansas
$S.oo per yard. In estimating the total extra development, the
ordinary entries and track across the panels need not be included
because an equivalent charge would be necessary in developing
a room-and-pil!ar mine. The total additional investment in yard-
age for the first two panels is then $40,000.*
In addftion to the cost of yardage, interest must be paid upon
the cost of the shafts for a longer time before full production is
reached. The cost of sinking and equipping the shafts will de-
pend entirely on their depth and the nature of the rock, but the
item of interest upon the expense together with loss on payroll
at first may be taken as $10,000. The total cost is, therefore,
about $50,000 more than that of opening a room-and-pillar mine.
While the first panels are being mined, the second pair will be
opened and so on. The cost of opening the panel is not returned
until the last two are mined and the interest upon this extra
investment remains as an annual charge upon the coal. The
annual output of 1,200 tons per day 20c days a year will be
240,000 tons-t Interest at 10 per cent per annum will then
amount to a little more than 2c. per ton. The output of the
mine can be increased by opening up more panels or making the
panels larger 'but this will not greatly aflfect the interest charge
because the development cost increases in nearly the same pro-
portion.
Cosi of extra yardage. Besides the interest upon the extra
development expense, the cost of mining by longwall retreating
will exceed that of ordinary room-and-pillar mining by the extra
cost of the narrow workings around the panetand the engine-plane
through it. To reduce this, the panels after the first two, can
be made longer. The exact size wi!! depend upon the relation
• 433 yd. double main slope at $10.00 per yd $4,333
867 yd. double engine-plane at $5.50 per yd. 4,767
667 yd. double main entry at $5.50 per yd 1™7
333 yd. double cross entry in shaft pillar at $5.50 l333
667 yd. marginal slope at $13.50 per yd. 8,300
1333 yd. marginal working at $8.00 per yd 10,667
83 vd. double air-course at shaft at $5-50 4S8
2.000 yd. main haulage track at $1.50 3.«»
1,600 yd. of track between panel entries at $I.0O i,6od
360 extra stoppings at $3.00 Ijtlo
Total $39,605
In round numbers, this is $40,000.
tThis allows an average of one loader loading 12 tons per shift for
each 40 ft. of face. The panels will last about two years, giving time
enough to develop a new set of longer panels.
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 525
to the property lines but they can be assumed to average 1,500 ft.
on the strike by 1,000 ft, on the dip, and to yield 375,000 tons of
6-foot coal. If driven upwards, the extra workings will cost
$8.00 per yard. In the center of the property, each marginal
working serves two panels and the one across the bottom takes
the place of an ordinary pair of entries costing $5.50 a yard. It
may be fair to charge each panel as an average with one end
working and the full cost of the bottom woriting. After the
mine is fully developed, rails can be obtained from the older
panels and the cost of the extra narrow work will be about
$ 1 0,000,* including interest.
This amounts to 2.7c. per ton.
Comparative results. The increased cost of narrow work
and capital charges will then make coal obtained by longwall
retreating cost about 4-75c. a ton more than coal mined at shal-
low depth by room-and-pillar. Against this is the profit from
better recovery and the reduced cost of mule haulage. With
panels, 1,500 ft. long, no mule entries will exceed 750 ft. By
leaving a track in both cross-entries of the pair, the empties may
be taken in on the lower track and left for the miners below.
The mule can then take out the loaded cars of the barrie above
along the upper entry. The work of the engine-plane is equally
simple and the general mechanical haulage will not cost more
tfian that of any large mine. It may be possible to reduce the
number of cross-entries and save greatly on yardage. It is thus
apparent that the careful mining of this deep coal will soon be
commercially feasible. It should not. however, be undertaken
except after thorough prospecting and then cmly by companies
with ample capital and controlling a large area of coal laud.
Deep coal under poor roof. If the roof over the deep coal
should be of such a nature that neither tracks nor conveyors can
be used along the retreating face, the entries must reach tlie face
at intervals of 40 or 60 ft. Under present conditions, this will
be a prohibitive expense, especially so long as crosscuts between
entries are required by law every 40 ft. Such coal if there is
•2,500 ft. of marginal working at $8.00 per yd $ 6,667
1,000 ft. of engine-plane at $SSo per yd 1.833
100 stoppings at $3.00 3oo
Track laying, incidentals, and interest _J^^
Toul iiofloo
ivGoc^lc
526 Coal Mining in Arkansas
any in the State will remain as a small reserve against the time
of nati<»ial scarcity.
MORE CAREFUL HANDLING OF COAL.
Avoiding wear on soft coal. All the Arkansas coal is easily
brdcen up, especially after it has been heavily blasted. For this
reason, all unnecessary handlii^ should be avoided. In the mine,
unnecessary handling is chiefly caused by the need of turning
out the coal long distances. Besides the wear on the coal, the
necessity for much shoveling tenqrts the miner to make as much
slack as possible in the shooting. Narrow rooms with track in
tfie center are an advantage in this regard. The cutting of the
entries by machines also makes it possible to keep the entry track
close to the coal, and there need be no turning out of heading
coal; The longwall method with a track along the face is espe-
cially favorable, and even the face conveyor, droj^ing coal into
the car, is better than turning it out even once and then shoveling
it into a car.
At the surface, the most general place of smashing coal is
in the old-style weigh-basket. To avoid the serious loss of double
pa>'ment to the miners for all coal that hangs in the weigh-basket,
the bottoms are necessarily given a steep slope and the coal
strikes violently against the door. The Pittsburgh type of weigh-
basket already in use at a few mines completely avoids this.
When closed, this presents to the coal a smooth gently sloping
iron trough, turned up at the end to bring the coal to rest. To
dump, the bend is lowered and opened so that all the coal slides
gently out upon the screen. They are not much more expensive
than the other type and are more easily operated and less apt to
get out of order. The main objection is that they require 4 or
5 ft. more head room between the dumping device and the top of
the screen so that they can not be used in some of the tipples
already built.
Very few tipples are arranged with chutes for lowering the
coal into the railroad cars. The simplest device is the closed steel
box about 2 ft. square and nearly long enough to reach to the
bottom of the car from the Up of the screen. This is made to
telescope in three or four sections largest at the bottom and is
normally kept full of coal. As fast as more coal is supplied in
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 527
the top, the bottom is raised by the car trimmer and the coal
rolls gently out upon a conical pile. The spout can be given an
inclination of about 45 degrees to reduce the shock upon the, first
coal of each pile. It is not very expensive and if prc^erly coun-
terbalanced it is easily operated by one man and saves a good
deal of the labor of trimming the load with a shovel. It is espe-
cially necessary for the preparation of fancy domestic-lump coal,
but will reduce the breakage upon all lump coal and so extend
the market area and prevent some complaints.
Unnecessary production of slack in semi-anthracite tipples.
In the Spadra district, much of the coal must be prepared for
the domestic market by breaking to grate size or less. This is
usually done by passing the coal through a Sauerman crusher.
At a few of the older tipples, the mine-run ooal is dumped directly
into the crusher from the cars. The result is that the wet slack
promptly chokes the crusher and much of the grate, egg, and
stove coal is needlessly crushed to slack. At a very little cost,
a 7-inch bar-screen can be placed before the crusher to throw
die fine part of the mine-run coal to the chute below the crusher.
In a few cases, this will require the raising of the dumping plat-
form, but even that expense is soon repaid by the greater sale
value of coal not crushed to slack.
At some of the newer Spadra and Russellville tipples, the
coal must pass through a great many appliances before its final
separation. This causes unnecessary wear. Revolving screens,
with spokes and bands inside, and elevators, are especially bad.
Generally the coal will be sized sufficiently if it is passed over a
shaking screen of less than the customary length. A little under-
sized material may get into the commercial coal but the quality
of the commercial coal can be better maintained by the use of
lowering chutes to the bins and cars and by placing lip screens
at the loading chutes from the bins.
Many tipples have an unnecessary number of elevators and
conveyors, which wear out the coal. The best arrangement of
the tipple seems to be to dump the coal up on a sheet that can
be raised to pass rock but which ordinarily discharges into a
weigh-pan. From the weigh-pan. the coal goes straight to the
short 7-inch screen with a discharge gate controlled by a crusher
attendant who will let the over-size into the crusher without
lyGoO'^lc
528 Co.\L- MiMNG IN Arkansas
choking it. At the small mines, the crushed coal joins the under-
size and passes directly onto a set of taking screens. The
screens are followed by diaigonal bars to take out flat slate. From
these, the different sizes of coal go past slate pickers and on to
the car or bins. No elevator is necessary except to return the
undersize from the lip screens to the main screens. Shaking
conveyors attached to the screen can be used to carry the egg
coal to the far end of the last bin which need not be very high.
Doors can be left in these conveyors to distribute the coa! and
they can be arranged for easy lowering and raising to reduce the
drop as the bins are filled. The rarely required "fancy lump
coal" can toe prepared by raising the first bar-screen to throw
mine-run coal directly to the main screens. The fancy lump
instead of grate coal will then go over the upper screen to the
car. Larger tipples can have separate sets of screens for the
fine coal from the mine and for that coal which has passed
through the crusher.
There is a further loss by burning at the mine-boilers coal of
high commercial value. Some of the slack ordinarily sold to the
zinc smelters can be screened to yield a well-sized product that
will burn with forced draft. The value of the slack to the smelt-
ers is not decreased by reduction in size of the particles.
There is considerable waste at Sapdra in the form of flat
pieces of coal which slide through the diagonal bars tc^ether with
the flat slate. The coal is not slippery enough to permit the use
of any of the common types of mechanical slate pickers depend-
ing upon the retardation of the slate. Therefore, the fiat coal
must be thrown out. The loss can be avoided by mining ma-
chines producing coal free from slate, or by the establishment of
a single washery, which will handle this product together with
the fine coal from all of the mines of the district.
In this chapter, many figures have been presented to show
that the present great loss of coal in the pillars can be
profitably prevented. In all cases, narrow, secure entries are
more economical than the dangerous gob-entries commonly used.
In ver\' shallow mines, it is not profitable to leave the pillars
between the rooms wide enough to be afterwards mined, hut it is
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of the Coal. 529
profitable to so securely protect the entri^ that the abandoned
room-pillars can be made much smaller and the entry pillars can
be mined.
Under all conditions of coal seams, the room pillars of all
but the shallow mines can be advantageously made larger than
at present and the coal almost completely recovered by mining
the pillars later. Under some conditions, the coal first mined
will cost more than that obtained by the present wasteful methods
and additional capital is required to get the extra profit from
mining of the pillars. This profit airises from the saving in the
costs of opening the rooms due to the greater output per yard of
entry, and the saving in the cost of land and the opening of the
mine due to the greater percentage of coal recovered. The cost
of the narrow entries is repaid by the reduced cost of maintenance
unless the roof is so strong that there are no expenses caused by
falls of roof. In any case, the better recovery reduces the cost
of maintaining tracks and ventilation because fewer working
entries are needed for the same output,
IDetailed calculations are made for deep and shallow coal 2 ft.
10 in. high and for coal of medium depth and 3 ft. 6 in. high
with all sorts of arrangements of workings and lengths of rooms
to meet the varied conditions. For the sake of uniformity, we
have assumed that, with careless mining, the minimum width of
pillar to suiqxrtt the roof is used between each pair of rooms and
that the other pillars are mere strips for ventilation. This is
cheaper than the present plan of making all the room pillars of
the same size. It saves either an expense for crosscuts or an
expense caused by squeezes and does not alter the general results.
It is then shown that the advantage of better mining holds for
other thicknesses of coal and is increased by any increase in
actual yardage expenses over the theoretical yardage.
The standard plans are suggested for the protection of the
main passageways of the mine from squeezes caused by the min-
ing of pillars. Calculations are given to show under what con-
ditions it will pay to handle thick partings for the mining of addi-
tional benches of compound seams now wasted in room-and-
pillar mines.
The advantage of mining machines is shown to lie in the
greatly improved quality of coal which results from the swbsti-
lyGoO'^lc
530 Coal Mining in Arkansas
tution of machine mining for the present wasteful method of
shooting off the solid. Figures are given to show the profit
which will result from the use of machines under the various
standard conditions, and methods are given for the use of ma-
chines in exceptional mines.
No discussion is needed to prove that Icmgwall mining recov-
ers a very large percentage of coal from the area worked. Fig-
ures are therefore given to show under what conditions loi^wall
mining can be profitably substituted for the more wasteful room-
and-pittar mining. Description is given of the modifications of
longwalt for unusual conditions. The use of longwall in certain
conqxjund seams is shown to be remaricably profitable and long-
wall is urged for all compound seams. Loi^wall retreating is
the only possible way to mine the high coal under the high moun-
tains. Computations are given to show that if the mine is prop-
erly laid out in panels, this method will be profitable as soon as
the demand for coal makes it advisable to open up this deep coal.
Finally the useless production of slack by the careless hand-
ling of coal is CMidemned.
Under nearly all conditions existing in this State, the waste
of coal can be prevented without extra cost to the operators and
the present waste is little short of crinunal carelessness.
lyGoO'^lc
CHAPTER IX
CONSERVATION OF EXPENSE
THK MINE PLANT.
The design of the mechanical plant. At all but the little
mines equipped with second-hand machinery, more money should
be spent upon the design of the mechanical plant. At the small
nunes, this can best be done by purchasing the engine from a
good ftTTn that will design the details and send out a skilled
mechanic to have charge of the erection at the expense of the
mining company. He will see that the engine has good founda-
tions, that the machinery is properly lined up, that the steam con-
nections are safely and efficiently made, and all such matters are
attended to. The larger mining companies have their own mas-
ter-mechanic or engineer. As a general rule, it is best to buy
the special plant of the mine from firms dealing in mining ma-
chinery exclusively. It is then more likely to ibe adapted to the
conditions. Cheaper engines are an endless expense on account ■
of the constant need of repairs and the innumerable delays they
cause. A little extra investment in better plant is good economy.
Engines of good design, material, and workmanship generally
inspire their attendants to take care of them and attract a better
class of engineers. The majority of the steam hoists that have
given good satisfaction in Arkansas were made by the Litchfield
Foundry & Machine Co., Litchfield, III. Other good engines
were made farther east.
Some of the larger makers of mining machines build the
electric apparatus needed in all mining machinery and even the
generating sets. Nearly all of them build the motors needed
for such special work as coal cutting machines. Others equip
their hoists, pumps, and fans with motors built by large electric
firms and do not install power plants. Both of these plans are
satisfactory, but mining machinery, especially locomotives, built,
by the larger electric firms have not been well adapted to mine
conditions. It is often difficult to change the wheels of a loco-
motive without head-room or a repair pit.
lyGoO'^lc
532 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Slope ropes and rollers. Most of the mines of the State
operate the slopes and engine-planes without rollers. The ropes
are rather heavy and cheap, have seven wires to the strand, and
rub on the oak ties. To keep the rope out of the dirt, the rollers
would have to be not more than 25 to 30 ft, apart and the full
time of one man will be needed to take care of them. It is,
therefore, much cheaper to wear out a few more ropes during the
life of the mine. This works well with steep dips or short runs.
When the length of the rope and the grades are such that the
empty trip can no longer drag down the heavy rope, the next
change is to substitute a smaller rope of better quality and much
less weight. This reduces the load on the hoist and wears longer,
and may even be advisable at the start. It should be tested in
each mine because of the variation in the amount of grit to wear
the rope. Finally, in slopes that are long or have less than 3 de-
grees icKlinaticm, rollers are necessary to reduce the friction of
the rope. Experience of the copper mines of Michigan indi-
cates that the best results are obtained from f4ain oak cylinders
mounted cm steel shafts with good bearings secured to heavy ties.
Rather than attempt the task of maintaining crowd sheaves
to take the rope into the entry partings, it is far better to use
several pieces of T rail firmly spiked to strong ties. The rope
wears out faster but enough extra rope can be bought so that
when one short leaigth is worn out, it can be cut off. Before
the second piece gives out, the rope is reversed to equalize the
wear, A piece may then be cut off the other end when that
gives out. By the time the fourth length is worn out, the entire
rope will be worn out and the extra cost is only the two short
lengths cut off. Against this, is the saving of many wrecks.
Some mines use oak blocks instead of rails but the rope soon
cuts into the spikes and the wear is just as great. The rails
should be rather heavy, long, well-curved so as not to tear loose,
and set close together to reduce wear <mi the rope. They should
be as high up as possible and set near the inside rail so as to
catch the rope.
Larger sheaves. Most of the drums of the hoists are large
enough, but in many engine-planes and haulage systems, the bull
wheels and angle sheaves are much too small. Large sheaves
are especially important for the seven-wire-strand ropes used on
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 533
slopes, for they are not as flexible as the ordinary hoisting ropes
and small sheaves cause dangerous, concealed wear inside the
rope. At angles in slopes and haulage -planes, the curve in the
track should have as long a radius as possible so that the cars
will not be derailed by the pull of the rope inside the curve of
the track. The rt^e is best carried around the curve by many
rather large drums set close together. These are best made of
wood and kept covered with oak lagging that can be easily re-
newed in the mine. The bearings are best sitpported by cross
pieces bolted between solid square props. The lower bearing
should be kept free from dirt and have an oiling pipe reaching
over to one of the props. Oak timbers between the drums will
keep the rope from slipping down to the lower bearing. Iron
sheaves may be substituted for the wooden drums but are more
expensive and much harder on the rc^.
Mine cars. With short mule haulage and poor tracks, the
cars now in use are generally as satisfactory as any. The cars
made by the Engineering Works, of Van Buren, Arkansas, have
given general satisfaction and are usually bought finished. Some
mining companies, especially those operating in several states,
buy their cars of the Watt Mining Car Wheel Co., of Bamesville,
Ohio. Usually on account of high freight and cheap local oak
lumber only tfie iron parts of these cars are shq>ped in. They
can be finished in the mine carpenter shop, where they are rebuilt
as often as needed. A wooden car commonly costs $30 to ^36.
The body is rebuilt every 6 to 9 montfis, and the wheels last five
years. There is no excuse for allowing the stock of cars to get
so low that complete cars must be rushed in.
The size of wheels should be adjusted to the capacity of the
car and the length of the wheelbase sbouk] be proportioned to the
length of the car. No general rules can be given. If the mine-
run law is repealed, the hight of the cars should be determined
only by the convenience of loading, the higher the better for
transportation. If the roof is poor and crossbars are needed in
entries or rooms, the high narrow steel car bodies are of advan-
tage. They are hard to load and to empty for the capacity. As
long as corner bumpers are used, the cars should have diagonal
iron straps on the bottom.
lyGoO'^lc
Coal Mixing in Arkansas
To support the flare boards of the wooden cars, a diagonal
brace is commonly attached to the kon str^ around the open end
of the car. The weak place is then at the bottom of the sides
where only the stiffness of the two straps keeps the walls from
spreading. It is strongly recommended ^at the two straps be
welded together at this place so that the angle will be formed
by a single iron twice as thick as a single strap. It will then be
eight times as stiff as one strap or four times as stiff as the two
straps acting separately. The weight of the car will not be
increased and mudi of the trouble due to tight doors will be
avoided without the annoyance of a tie rod across the end of
the car. Where center bun:q>ers are used, the brace should be
bent edgewise and attached to the ends of the planks across the
end of the bumper. Fig. 84 ^ows both plans, omitting the bump-
ers for the sake of clearness.
Fig. 84. Bracing for front of pit car.
Where the dip of the track varies as in rooms or entries
driven on sights, brakes on the cars are essential for both economy
and safety. As the mines get lai^r, some improvements la
the cars will be profitable. These will include roller bearings
and revolving axles with one loose wheel and greater capacity.
The most necessary present improvement is better hitchings
and stronger center straps to hold the hitchings. At the Fidelity
Mine at Greenwood, the very convenient hitchings shown in
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense.
535
Fig, 85 are used. It is reported that these hitchin^s were de-
signed by W. H. Barrett, the manager. They are very easily
connected and will not jar loose. The hitchings and cars are
bIScc at both ends. The net section can be designed to be every-
where of the same cross-section as the center strap of the car.
hitchings used by the Fidelity Fuel Co., Greenwood.
Larger cars. Large cars are a great advantage in transpor-
tation. If the mine has self-dumping cages and a properly
graded bottom, the large cars have no disadvantages and the
limit is placed by the hight of the seam. With ordinary slope
tipples, cars holding over 4,000 pounds of coal are hard to handle
and are advisable only in case the mine is equipped for mechan-
ical haulage for some distance.
Ordinaiily the size of the car is limited by the necessity of
loading it in low rooms and pushing the empty car up steep low
rooms. Besides the advantage of hauling coal in larger cars,
the high room-road makes it possiUe to take the cart up the room
with a mule and the miners do not object to rooms 250 ft, long.
The miner also finds it easier to load the cars. I^ong rooms
obviously reduce yardage costs greatly. The method of estimat-
ing the yardage that it is economical to pay for bottom brushing
lyGoO'^lc
536 Coal Mining in Arkansas
may be illustrated by a couple of examples. If the coal is 3 ft
6 in, thick and the rooms 150 ft. long, the cost of opening up the
rooms is 16.4c. per ton with a 64 per cent recovery.* With a 94
per cent recovery, it will be 14.1c, per ton.f If the rooms are
250 ft. long, the costs will be io.6c. and 9.7c. per ton respec-
tively.J The long rooms require some extra time on the part of
the driver but no pushers are needed and 3,ooo-pound cars
can be used instead of z,ooo-pound cars. The saving in hauling
coal will be at least 25 per cent of the cost with small cars and
may be taken as 2c. per ton at least. Tlie gain from long rooms
and bottom brushing is then 7.8c, per ton with present wasteful
methods, or 6.4c. per ton with greatest possible recovery. If tiie
rooms are 30 ft, wide, 13 tons of 3 ft. 6 in. coal will be produced
for each yard of bottom brurfiing. With the saving of 64c. per
ton, it is then profitable to pay anything less than 83c. a yard for
bottom brushing. With the poorer extraction and saving of
7.8c, a ton, the limit is $1.01 per yard of bottom brushing. If
the rooms are only 25 ft. wide, the profitable brushing price is
70c. or 85c. per yard. At»ut 16 in. of brushing will be needed
and in order to pay, it will have to be done for from 4.5c. to 7c.
per inch per yard, depending upon conditions. Inasmuch as
actual yardage costs exceed theoretical costs, the margin for
taking up bottom exceeds the amounts given. The advantage
greatly increases as the mine becomes larger. The cost of brush-
ing may be reduced by makjng the gage of the track less.
If the coal is only 2 ft. to in. high, the rooms must be
brushed anyway or they can not be driven even 150 ft. widiout
extra payment to the miners. It seems fair, therefore, to credit
the cost of taking up bottom to the difference in entry costs for
125-foot roCHns and 250-foot rooms. The theoretical cost of
opening up the coal according to present methods with 125-foot
rooms will be 20.4c. per ton, not counting break-throughs or room
tracks, which do not change with the length of the room. With
25o-foot rooms, the same expenses amount to 14c., a gain or 6.4c.
a ton. The saving in hauling caused by 3',000-pouiid cars instead
of 1,200-pound cars will amount to at least 5c. per ton if the mine
is large. If the rooms are 27 ft. wide, as assumed, they pro-
*See second foot-note on page 467.
tSee foot-notes pages 468 and 469. This includes i.ic. per ton interest.
iSee pages 463 and 41^5.
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 537
duce about g}i tons per yard, and the operator can afford to pay
$1.08 per yard for bnishing or 4c. per inch per yard. In general,
however, the longwalJ method would be better for such low coal.
GENERAL DESIGN OF MINE TIPPLES.
A great deal might be written upon the subject of the design
of tipples, but the most general criticism seems to be an unneces-
sary expense and inconvenience, In many tipples, some of the
timbers are unnecessarily large and solid. In the same tipple,
other timbers may be barely strong enough. In slope tipples, it is
customary to make the posts too big and the stringers too small.
These wastes can best be eliminated by designing all members
just strong enough to hold the load and then making them all
ten to fifteen times as large. The braces take but little material
and should have antple strength. Since the stresses in them can
seldom be computed, it seems safe to make them about half the
size of the main members. The high shaft-tipples designed in
this way will be subject to considerable vibration from the self-
dumping cages. All joints should, therefore, have substantial
fish-plates to make them as rigid as possible. With each brace
and cross-strut, there should be a strong tension rod with lock
nuts easily accessible so that any man can take up all the sladc
at intervals. At the smaller imnes, it seems unnecessary to paint
the tipples as protection against the weather. They first rot at
the joints or near the ground. If crcosoted timber becomes avail-
able, it should be used for the lower members. A covering of
galvanized iron often holds water next the timber and increases
the rot, or it gets knocked off. It seems best, therefore, to replace
the lower timbers when necessary. The large timber sometimes
used is more apt to be of inferior pine and will rot faster than
smaller timbers, and even with big timber, the bracing works
loose and the tipple will shake.
If the tipple is to have a long life, it can advantageously be
completely covered so as to be always dry, but this covering must
be complete and is expensive to maintain. For deep shafts for
large areas of coal, steel tipples carefully designed by an engi-
neering firm are far more economical.
At all tipples, the slate pickers, weigh-bosses, and others not
actively moving about should be protected from cold weather.
lyGoO'^lc
538 Coal Mining in Arkansas
In the winter time, the shed over the scales at least should be
comfortaWy warm. At many tipples, the men improvise stoves
out of powder kegs. This wastes coal, causes a great risk of
fire, and is very expensive on account of the time the men lose
in keeping the fire going. Good stoves are an improvement but
the best device is a radiator supplied by exhaust steam, which is
usually wasted.
All of the men ■who work in a single place should be pro-
tected from rain to avoid delays as well as discomfort, and all
of them should have plenty of room, plenty of light, and secure
footing in order to enable them to work efficiently. But all this
can be obtained without enclosing the entire tipple.
Many shaft tipples have the dumping platform too low. The
extra hight is not very costly and 40 ft. is ample for a Pittsburgh
weigh-pan and the fixed screens required by a two-track tipple.
Shaking screens require less higtit. All tipples with fixed screens
should be so planned that shaking screens can be added if the
market should make it advisaUe to supply a grade of coal entirely
free from slack. The output of some of the mines working com-
pound seams is cut down by delays in hoisting caused by the
necessity of picking out slate. This is best avoided by making a
double chute from the screen to the car with a swinging door
so that the coal can be sent first to one side and then to the
other. Space for this can be provided at all new tipples.
For fire protection the boiler house should be at least a short
distance away from the tipple, A few barrels of water can
be advantageously set around the tipple, but are useless unless
kept full of water at all times,
LABOR SAVING DEVICES.
Dumping arrangements. Many of the safety devices de-
scribed in Chapter IX are also labor saving, such as rope car-
riages, the improved trip dog, and better stairways, etc. The
amount of money to be spent upon special labor saving devices
is lai^gely determined by the output of the mine. If there is a
very small power plant, the single fireman can easily wheel all his
slack and ashes and would almost as soon be 'busy at this as to
sit around. If there are many iboilers, a good track and self-
dumping cars are verj' profitable. Above all. the designers
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 539
should avoid cwnplicated machinery requiring more time of the
attendant than is needed to do the work with primitive arrange-
ments.
At shaft mines, self-dumping cages are nearly universal, but '
at some of the larger slope-tipples, end dumps are still used.
When these limit the output or require extra men cross-over
dumps are much more economical. 9uoh dumps have been fail-
ures at old tipples for lack of proper grades for the track amd
because the tipple is so low that the dumping plate and screen
can not be g:iven sufficient inclination. The arrangement should
rather exactly follow the maker's draiwdngs.
Handling dirt. At all mines, there should be some simple
way of dunging dirt necessarily loaded out. At many mines,
the hoisting or dumping of coal must be stopped while the t<^
men push a car load of waste over the worst kind of a track.
At old tipples, where little dirt is hoisted, it may not be worth
while to change the general arrangement, but there is no excuse
Fig. 86. The kind of waste track to avoid.
for some of the poor tracks that are in use. Figure 86 shows an
extreme case. At this place, even if the car does not run off the
track, a great deal of time is lost in pushing the car up steep hills
or preventing runaways down others. A half day's work by a
good track-man and helper will generally put the dirt track into
such shape that one man can handle the car and two men can do
lyGoo'^lc
540 Coal Mining in Arkansas
it rapidly. If dirt is hoisted in pit cars, it can be dumped by one
man if the track ends in a low gooseneck on a trestle and if there
is a chain and lever for raising the rear of the car. A steeper
gooseneck delays the handling of the empty car and it racks the
axles too much. Figure 87 s^hows a suggested arrangement.
Fig. 87. Arrangement for dumping waste.
If the mine hoists much dirt, it is economical to put in a
rock bin Just below the dumping sheet above the screen or weigh-
pan. By raising the dumping sheet on signal from below, the
rock will fall into the bin. Rock can then be hoisted and dumped
as rapidly as coal and there is the minimum delay. The bin
should be large enough to hold several carloads of rock so that
it can be emptied at any convenient time. With a bin, it is con-
venient to have a special gable-bottom rock-car that will dump
on both sides of a sihort trestle with the least delay. If the dump-
ing place is distant or up a hill, the car can be handled by a light
engine and dumped automatically. At any mine, a little woric
with a watch will show how much such a bin will save. The
time of all the top and bottom men and engineers must be counted
while they are idle waiting for rock dumping. If the hoist or
tipple limits the output of the mine, the effect of a diminished
output upon general expenses must be included.
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense, 541
Faster weighing. Wherever the output is large, the weigh-
ing; is greatly facilitated by sprii^ scales with a large dial. The
weigh-boss need not then put down his pencil and will have
time to weigh the coal both before and after screening, if this
is desired and if the weigh pans are so arranged that he can see
both dials from one pla^e. Where the coal is -wdghed in the
cars, either in the mine or on the surface, long scale platforms
and spring dials make it possible to weigh the coal without stop-
. ping the cars, but the scale must be kept in adjustment and
accurately set level. All new tipples should have sufficient head
room to make it possible to use double weighing at the least pos-
sible expense if this should become profitable under a more rea-
sonable labor contract.
Sump guards. Of the small changes in equipment, one of
the most profitable seems to be the installation of guards to keep
the cars out of the sumps. When the bottom is level for caging
frtxn both skies, these may take the form of a stout timber
across the track next the sump and at such a bight above the
rails that it will be struck by the bumpers of the car. This can
be hung by a chain at each end, passing over grooved wheels to
a light timber across tfie cageway. Then wben the cage de-
scends, the guard timber is raised high enough to clear the car.
If properly arranged, this can be pulled from in front of a car
it has just stopped, without a wreck. The device was seen at
the Coronado Mine at Arkcoal, and is so simple that no drawing
seems necessary.
If the bottom has a grade so that cars can run down-hill onto
the cage from one side and off at the other, the most convenient
arrangement is a double stop on each track so interkxrked that
when the one next the ^laft is open, the one a little more than
a car length behind is ckwed and the reverse. In this way, only
one car at a time can run down to the shaft. A pair of pivoted
arms or wings in front of the wheels like those of a crossover
dump is the most effective sXop. Tihese should act against wrings
to reduce the shock upon the car and avoid spilling coat. The
near pair of arms can be swung away from in front of the car
by the descending cage but it seems better to have this light task
done by the bottom man, who is needed to signal the engineer.
An equipment of this t>-pe is manufactured by the Mining Safety
lyGoO'^lc
542 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Device Co., of Bowerston, Ohio, and illustrated descriptions can
be obtained from them. For the greatest convenience, the tracks
should 'have a grade of about ij^ per cent and the clamp for
holding cars on the cage should have ample strength to stop
the cars.
Besides avoiding the expensive delays caused by cars in the
sump, these guards save a great deal of time and strength of the
bottom men, who can have the car under way at the moment the
cage is expected without fear of runntng it into t^e sump if the
cage does not oome. Fewer bottom men will fee needed and if
the output of the mine is large, the small first cost of such a
device is soon rep^d.
Sump cleaning. At some mines, a good deal of coal falls
down the shaft and tills up the sump. If in addition, the shaft
sump can not be drained, there is considerable expense in clean-
ing it out. Under these conditions, a wooden box with a per-
forated bottom and weighted to cause it to sink may be placed
in each sump. A movable frame of boards must be placed above
the edges of the box so that coal will not wedge between the
shaft sides and the box. When the box is nearly full of coal,
the boards may be removed, and the chains at each corner of the
box fastened to the cage. By raising the czge, the box is drawn
up sufficiently to be supported on temporary timbers above the
sump. The cage will then be loosened and pulled up out of the
way while the coal in the box is shoveled into a pit car. The
men need not get wet and but little time need be lost.
Load-limit. To reduce the damage to cars, the number of
wrecks, and the expense of cleaning up tracks and sumps, all the
pit cars should have a conservative load-limit and the miners
should be given a sufficient number of cars per day to reduce the
temptation to overload the cars. This load-limit should be en-
forced as outlined on page 443.
BETTER GRADES AND TERMINALS.
Entry grades. At most of the mines of the State, much
money is lost by careless management of the hauling. If the
coal dips at the usual high angle, very little can be gained by an
attempt to drive the entries on sights, and they stiould be driven
strictly at grade except under special conditions. The grade is
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 543
best checked by the track layer. For this purpose, he should be
provided with a straight-edge, half as long as the ordinary rail
and having at each end a forked iron shoe that will hold the
straight-edge upright on the rail. One shoe will be thicker than
the other by the amount the track should rise in the length of
the straight-edge. In using this device, the new pair of rails is
spiked to the ties. Tben the thick shoe is placed on the end of
the previous rail and the new pair swung across the floor until the
level shows no inclination on the top of the straight-edge. The
center of the rail is secured in position and the straight-edge
moved forward to give the level of the other end of the rail. To
avoid sharp bends in the track, the floor may be raised or lowered
slightly at the rolls. If the track approaches either of the ribs,
the entryman can swing his cutting shot accordingly. If he has
been so careless that the track at proper grade can not be laid in
the entry, he should be required to correct the error by shooting
out the near rib. This will rarely be necessary.
The grade of the track should be such that the same eflFort
is required to pull the empty cars in and the loaded cars out.
This is most easily determined by trial. The grade increases as
the cars get stiffer and becomes less as the weight of the empty
cars per ton of coal carried increases. It will not be greatly differ-
ent from one-half of one per cent, except with small stiff cars. If
the straight-edge is 9 ft. long, this requires a shoe 0.54 of an
inch (or a little more than half an inch) thicker at one end than
at the other. At intervals, the straight-edge should be tested
by reversing it and measuring the distance the low shoe must be
raised to again bring the top level. This bight should be double
the difference in the thickness of the shoes.
With grades adjusted in this way, the mule is always work-
ing at full capacity whenever it is hauling a complete trip. The
mule can then do much more work in a day without becoming
exhausted. In many mines, the loaded trip will Just about rim
out by itself and one mule can haul in three big empty cars.
With proper grades, the raule can haul six cars with the same
effort required to haul in three cars, but must pull both ways. In
case of mules or teams hauling from swing partings, this just
halves the cost. With gathering mules, on a short run, the per-
centage of time spent in switching and hauling single cars is so
great that the saving from long trains is less. But good grades
lyGoo'^lc
544 Coal Mining in Arkaxsas
will often save the need of a second or third mule in the entry.
The saving increases with the length of the haul and it is ob-
viously more important to lo<ric after the grade for long entries
than for short stub entrie*. At several mines, the hills are so
bad that the mules are quite worn out hauling but one or two
cars to the trip. In many cases, the saving may easily be one-
half of the present cost of hauling coal or, say, from zc. to loc. a
ton on the entire output. The direct cost is almost negligible.
If the dip of the coal increases as the entries leave the slope,
the entries that are driven exactly at grade will approach each
other. The dead-work costs are then increased because the
rooms are short until finally it is more economical to stop every
second entry and mine the coal beyond by driving long rooms
from the other entries and paying a little extra for the coal from
the ends of these rooms. The length of the long rooms which
are cheaper than driving an intermediate entry and two short
rooms can be readily computed. As will be shown later, the
rooms except in very high coal are much too short for the great-
est economy. As a result, the intermediate entries should be
dropped as soon as this will make the long rooms come within
the ICO ft. extra length in which the miner will run out the coal
for IOC. a ton extra. It costs little more for the driver to pull
the empty car into a long room than it does to pull the empty car
into a short one. Ten cents per ton on the inner loo ft. of a
350-foot room raises the price of digging coal only 3c. per ton.
This is generally much less than the cost of driving a pair of
entries.
If the dip of the coal becomes less as the slope is left, the
rooms get longer farther from the slope. After a time, it be-
comes necessary to turn off an intermediate entry. The dip is
then sure to be rather gentle so that this intermediate entry can
be started from a room. The hauling will be expensive and this
stub entry should lead to a swing parting in the level entry.
Because of the extra expense of the haul in the stub entry, the
economical length of rooms will slightly exceed those at which
it would pay to drop the intermediate entry as the dip increased,
but it will not be less than 100 ft. longer than existing rooms.
At very few mines will the dip change enough serionsly to
affect the length of the roonw. This changing of room length
is the only objection to driving entries at grade and is not serious.
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 545
Shaft bottoms. At least two men are needed at the shaft
bottom. As long as the output of the mine is so small that they
can easily cage all the cars, labor saving arrangements are of
no commercial value, but the track and switches should be kept
in such a condition that there will be the fewest possible derail-
ments. As the mine gets bigger, it becomes very important to
give the tracks at the bottom, grades in favor of the loads, so that
the attendants need do little hard labor in handling cars. This
requires that the empty car be pushed off on one side of the cage
and the loaded car be run on from the other. If the empty track
be given a sharp grade, the empty can be bumped off by the
load, and no attendant will be needed to handle empties excq>t
tJie greaser and coupler, who prepares die empty trips. In all
such cases, a sump guard is necessary, and if the cars are heavy
and handled rapidly, it will be advisable to arrange a stop for
the loaded cars in addition to the device for clamping the car to
the cage. This may take the form of a stop against the car
bumpers, to be raised into position by the entering loaded car
after the empty has left and to be lowered again by the raising
of the cage. The apparatus can be readily designed, but is neces-
sary only at very large mines and the spilling of coal must be
guarded against.
If the shaft is so well centered that the coal can be supplied
equally to the two sides, it is cheaper to have one track for
loaded and one for empty cars on each side of the shaft. This
causes an awkward bit of grading to, give the differences in grade
for the two tracks and requires a long run-around to equalize
exactly the output from the two sides of the mine. In general,
it is the most feasible improvement upon the present plan of
doiAle diamond bottom shown on Plate II,
If the mine is large and ha« a moderate dip, it may be more
economical to arrange a bottom with both loaded tracks on the
same side as ^own on Plate III, This makes a bottom more
converwent for the men and avoids confusion of coming and
going trips, but an automatic car-haul is a nuisance and should
not be installed as long as the cars can be handled by men or
mules with about the same crew. At a few shafts in the center
of a coal basin, it is possible to so design this type of bottom that
the empties can be taken around the shaft by the regular haulage
lyGoO'^lc
54^ Coal Mining in Akkansas
motors. It has an additional advantage of avoiding double trades
for car storage. Many other types of bottom can be designed
to suit the capacity and dip of the mine, but the main require-
ments are ample capacity for storage and grades of i per cent
to J Yi per cent, down-hill for both toads and empties.
Entry partings for slopes. As now designed, the empty
track at the beginning of all entries off of slopes is put on the
low side of the parting to make sure that the empty car will pull
down the rc^e so far that it can be readily attached to the loaded
trip. This also has the advantage of a steep hill to st<^ the
empty trip in the right place without signaling to the engineer.
If the dip is slig^it or the roof poor, these conditions are intensi-
fied by using run-around partings with the empty track bellow.
Either plan requires that the mule pull the empty trip up a
steep hill to the main-entry track. In all cases, this is extra
work, and if the track and grade are good everywhere else, it
limits the number of cars that can be handled by a single mule.
A still greater objection to this kind of parting is the fact that
a second empty rope-trip can not he run into the parting until
the driver has taken out all the empties, and a loaded mule-trip
can not be conveniently left on the other track as long as a rope
trip is standing there. As a result, the drivers lose time if any-
thing at all delays the rope, and the hoisting of coal stops if the
drivers are delayed even for a short time. These delays are very
expensive and also annoying to the men, who wish to make a good
showing and do not like to stt around waiting.
All these objections may be overcome by the arrangement
shown in Fig, 88. The empty track will be given a sufficient
grade to drag in the rope until it can be attached to the other
trip. The empty track should then continue down grade for
some distance to a short safety hump. This will be only as long as
a single car and will not impede the mule seriously, hut will serve
to stop a sk>wly moving trip. After taking off some cars, the
driver can easily pull the remaining part of the trip down to
the hump before he uncouffles the mule trip from the inner end
and there will nearly always be room for another empty trip if
the rope-rider wishes to leave one there. In the same way, the
loaded track should have sudi a steep grade in favor of the loads
that the driver can easily push a mule trip down it. If tiien the
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense.
547
driver finds a loaded rope^trip standing at the outer end of the
parting, he can leave his mule-trip behind it and go on about his
work. As soon as he finds the rc^e trip gone, he runs the mule
trips ahead into position. If then the number of drivers i$
adjusted to the capacity of the slope, all trifling delays will equal-
ize each other and the joint output of rope and mules will be
much increased.
Fig. 88. Suggested plan and profile of an entry parting.
With this arrangement, the engineer must stop his rope at
the right place. This requires marks on the rope and a signal
by the latch thrower. The giving of signals as to where the trip
is to go is now generally done and is good practice. The extra
cost of the parting and additional cars is in proportion to the
increased length of the parting and is repaid by increased output
The grade can be arranged at all mines so steq> that slopes must
be used instead of twin haulage entries and motors.
Motor partings. The use of motors for mine haulage is so
new that the necessity for adequate terminals is not always appre-
ciated. The combined capacity of the partings at which die
trips are made up should exceed the number of cars in the tiip.
When possible, each parting should hold an entire trip. Where
the grade of the main haulage-way allows it and where the mule
haulage-roads necessarily have hills as in most motor mines, the
cheapest arrangement requires only two tracks both with con-
siderable down grade. The motor pulling in the empties can
with proper grades make a slow flying-switch, and the empties
lyGoO'^lc
548 Coal Mining jn Arkansas
will run on into the partii^ until ^ragged by the brakeman.
The motor can then be coupled onto the loads.
If two partings are served by the same motor trip, one part-
ing will be in a branch entry and the empties for the second
parting are uncoupled before the first flying-switch is made.
They are then taken into the second parting, and the loads from
the second parting iback into the loaded track of the first parting
to be coupled onto the trip standing there. This two-parting
arrangement is often very convenient for the mule haulage and
it is important to have the grades and lengtb of parting such
that there is always a supply of cars for the drivers as outlined
for entry partings. Besides the expense of arranging suitable
grades, the flying-switch parting requires that the mules pull
either the empties or the loads up a considerable hill. It also
requires the motor to pull the loads up the slight grade which is
necessar.- to keep the empties going after the motor is cut off.
Without this grade, the flying-switch must be made at a danger-
ous speed. This little grade may limit the capacity of the motor,
but in most cases the motors iwill have ample capacity to handle
the full output in short trips.
Where grades can not be arranged, three-track partings are
good. TTie motor then pulls the empties onto the side track and
returns on the idle track to the head of the loaded track and pulls
out the loads. It is often possible to put one of the tracks in
the air-course and to use the idle track for a motor road to
another parting as stKwn ni ttie Main East Entry of Plate IV,
Instead of using a three-track parting, the empties may be left
on one parting and the kiads taken from another just beyond,
as in the First East Cutoff of Plate IV.
The handling of the motor is still simpler if the trip is
pushed ahead of the motor one way. This requires verj- good
cars and track and if the speed is at all high, it is decidedly dan-
gerous, and is not recommended.
BETTER TRACKS.
Fish-plates. Manj- wrecks are caused by the poor track
even when tfiere are no bad grades. Wrecks are expensive and
should be prevented. At very few mines are fish-plates used in
the entries. As a result, the ends of the rails slip apart as soon
jyGooc^le
Conservation op Expense. 549
as the tie to which they are fastened becomes old or is kicked
out of place. The cost of fish-plates is very little and it costs
less to put them in than it does to spike the ends of two rails
to the same tie. To take up the track, it is best to knock tlie nuts
off two of the bolts with a sledge and leave a pair of fish-plates
fastened to one end of each rail. The gain from fish-plates can
only toe determined by trial, by comparing the number of wrecks
in entries with fish-plates and the number in the other entries.
The importance of fish-plates increases with the size of the cars,
the number of cars in a trip, and the length of the entry.
Leveling track. If the entries have a hard inclined floor,
much of the trackman's time will be saved by providing him with
oak wedges of the thickness needed to raise the lower end of the
tie to the level of the other end. After these wedges are adjusted
lengthwise under the tie, they should be nailed in position and
the track will be permanently level. '
Stvitches. For the sake of saving the track-man's expensive
time and to insure good switches, it is economical to buy com-
plete ready-made switches with light riveted steel ties from some
of the dealers. If the mine blacksmith and trackman are both
unusually expert and have plenty of time, as at a small mine, it
will be cheaper to make the switches at the mine. Otherwise
buy them.
Good switches are especially necessary where the dip is
steep or variable. Under these conditions, the miners can hardly
help letting the loaded cars down from the rooms so rapidly that
they frequently jump the track at the switch. If the dip is so
great that wooden sand-rails and four sprags do not check the
car, a change in the layout of the mine is required for good
results. At less dip, brakes on the cars can control their speed.
Where there is sufficient head room, the entry track should be
so raised that the inner rail of the switch can be depressed and
in many cases it will be an advantage to depress the rail on the
high side of the entry near the switch points.
At a few small mines, wooden turn-tables are used in place
of switches. If both the miner and driver are expert, the loaded
car can be swung rapidly over these, but the cars are always
severely racked by the process and about half the time the driver
is delayed pk^ing up the coal knocked off. In many cases, the
lyGoO'^lc
550 Coal Mining in Akkaksas
men have to lift the car aiomid by main strength. Besides tak-
ing time, tiiis woiic is so laborious that it is certain to reduce the
efficiency of the men. In one mine, the time lost in handling ten
cars was noted. The results showed that for veiy low coal and
150-foot rooms, the pay for the lost time of tlie driver wotdd
amount to a little more than $5-00 at each turn-table. This
would pay for putting in the best kind of switch.
Track ballast. If the coal is high or the entry long, the ties
^ould be well covered with the best material available in order
to preserve the (xmdition of the track and give the mule a good
path. If the entry is used as a main haulage road, it will gener-
ally pay to bring.in cinders or rock from the surface unless the
mine waste is unusually good. Where the coal is low, the rooms
short, the' brushing rate high, and the entry unimportant, the
present practice of making the mule walk between the ties in a
low entry is tiie most economical. Except under these conditions,
the gain in brushing tJie entries high enough for the mule to
walk on the ties is important. For illustration, we may assimie
coal 3 ft. 6 in. hig}i with rooms to the rise 250 ft. long and a
recovery of 95 per cent. If the brushing costs 7c. per inch per
yard and the haulage costs about loc. per ton, it will pay to
brush the outer half of the entry if the efficiency of the mule is
increased by only a trifle more than half of one per cent.
BETTER SYSTEM OF HANDLING CAKS.
The output of the drivers can often be increased by more
perfectly systematizing their work. An attempt to secure data
as to the delays in switching, making up mule trips, etc., soon
made it apparent that liie various drivers had very different
methods of handling the cars in making up trains. The varia-
tion is too great to be explained by the difEerence in equipment
and it is suggested that the boss drivers time all the different
operations, note where the greatest delays occur, and change
the system accordingly. In general, it is better to have the mule
do a little extra shifting of cars, if this saves time which would
otherwise be lost in waiting for ^e miners to run out their cars.
The boss driver can easily compare the delays by counting slowly
to himself instead of looking at a watch. This is one of die
principles of "scientific management,"
lyGoO'^lc
CONSERVATIOH OF EXPENSE. $$1
At most of the mines having long entries, it is customary to
use two gathering mules following each other to the entry part-
ing, as long as they can keep up with the turn. An inner or
swing parting is thai put in and a spike team used to pull the
cars out. Ordinarily it will be more economical to put the inner
parting in sooner and to use at first but one spike team for two
opposite entries. This is especially economical when the grades
are so laid out that the spike team can handle long trips. The
saving caused by using four mules and three drivers amounts to
$2.46 a day. This will pay for the two inner partings in a very
short time. It is of course safer for the men than having two
gathering mules following each other. Before the swing parting
is put in, there should be enough extra rooms developed and
ready to start, so that the spike team will be busy immediately.
As the ou^ut of the gathering mules decreases, the team driver
can assist the gathering drivers until enough more rooms are
developed and ready to work, to occupy the time of a spike team
in each entry hauling from a parting farther in:
GATHERING LOCOMOTIVES,
The long rooms, which will be shown to be economical, so
increase the output of each entry that it is possible to empkty a
gathering locomotive in each pair of entries. This entails no
great additional expense at those mines having an electric plant
for other purposes and, therefore, requiring the services of an
electrician. The gathering locomotive is especially profitable in
those mines where the coal is so low that mules can not enter the
unbrushed rooms, and in those mines where the entries are long.
The crew of the gathering locomotive receives but little more
wages than the pair of pushers needed for the long rooms. The
fact that the motor can push the cars as well as puU them reduces
the time lost in making up trains. The brakes on the motor
obviate the necessity of spragging cars, save wear on the cars,
and reduce the delays by wrecks and the danger attending the
running of loaded cars out of steep rooms. The great saving
arises from the greater speed of travel, and the longer trips
hauled. The motor can safely run 600 ft. to 800 ft. per minute
as against 250 ft. for a mule and can handle in a single trip cars
enough for every place in the entry. In high coal, there is an
lyGoO'^lc
552 CoAt, Mining in Akxansas
additional saving in the poseibility of using larger cars. Prop-
erly designed motors can be used in entries too low for mule
}iaulage and they save scxne brushing expense. This will be
important in the Prairie View field of low, valuable coal. On
the other Hand, the gathering motor requires more expensive
switches and better room tracks.
To illustrate the convenience of a gathering locomotive, we
may assume that the entry parting is graded as recommended for
mule haulage. The motor coining out with a loaded trip can
make a slow ilying-switch and go in with enough empties to
sti[q)ly all the places. Half of these will be left in the entry just
outside of the first room being mined. The others will be dropped
outside the middle room, which we will call No. lo. The motor
then runs up into room lo and the miner releases his loaded
car, w^ich follows the motor down to the entry. The brakeman
throws the switch and the motor pushes load lo past room ii
and gets load ii, which stops on the entry. While the motor
is in room ii, th^ brakeman pushes an empty past the switch
into room lo and the motor pushes this empty up to the face of
room 10 after it returns from room ii. Loads lo and ii are
then pushed past room 12 and left. While the motor gets load
12, the brakeman puts an empty beyond the switch into room 11.
This is continued until the load in the main entiy is picked up
by pushing in half the loaded trip. The empty for the entry
must be pushed in by the entry man from the last dip switch.
After half the trip is collected this way, it is left inside room 10
wiiile the motor returns to room 1 and gathers the cars from t
to 10. The two sections of trip are then coupled together and
run out. If the motor can push the entire loaded trip up the
entry grade, load I can be collected first, but this offers little
advantage and there must be a greater length between the face
of the entry and the last room in order to hold the entire trip.
If desired, one-third the trip can be collected at a time. By the
plan outlined, the brakeman is always at hand to throw switches
and has plenty of time to couple up the cars. The motor need
wait for a coupling to be made only while pulling up the empty
trip and hitching onto the full loaded trip. The stopping, start-
ing, and backing is so much quicker with a motor than with a mule
that no ailment is needed to prove the saving of time.
lyGoO'^lc
CONSISKVATION OF EXPENSE. 553
The motor need woric on two sides of a slope only while
the entries are short and near the bottom of the slope where
tfiere is no confusion in crossing the rope. In this case, no
flying-switch is made but the motor merely drops the loaded
trip at the slope, runs on over the vacant trade of the opposite
parting, and pulls in the empty trip standing there. Before the,
motor returns, the rope will take away the loads left in the first
entry so the motor can get back. If desired, one motor can
work in entries at different levels by laying a track between them
in the stope air-course, but in general, it will be cheaper to in-
crease the output of a single entry by lengthening the rooms.
No figures need be given to prove the great labor economy
of a gathering k)comotive and they should be used, as soon as
four mules or pushers can be displaced by one motor, provided
that an electric plant is already at hand. TUiis can be done when
there are only two men in each of two entries. This condition
is soon reached if the rooms are driven to a proper length. In
mines with twin haulage entries the motors have so much more
capacity than mules and can so easily go from entry to entry
that their use is economical almost immediately if the mine has
much capacity.
CRAB LOCOMOTIVES FOR DIP ROOMS.
The development of the combined crab locomotive and gath-
ering loccwnotive makes it possible to drive dip rooms at a profit
in the steep dif^ing ooal. This just divides the entry cost unless
brushing is required. With rooms not exceeding 250 ft. in
length, the miner then runs in his empty car and the brakeman
pulls down the hoisting rc^e of the motor, and the labor expense
is no greater than that of handling cars in rooms to the rise with
■ a driver or a pusher. The plan is feasible only in dry mines,
and has but little advantage over long rooms.
GASOLINE LOCOMOTIVES.
Recently locomotives with gasoline engines of the automo-
bile type have been introduced into coal mines. It is well known
that most of the smoke and smell of an automobile is caused by
improper cylinder lubrication and this can be avoided. The
main part of the exhaust gas will then consist of harmless nitro-
lyGoO'^lc
554 CoAi' Mining ik Arkansas
geo from the air and the nearly harmless carbon dioxide. The
carbon dioxide can be completely absorbed by passing it over
slacked lime which is cheap. 'Hiere still exists the possibility of
deadly carbon monoxide. Much seardi in the literature and
considerable correspondence failed to secure the report of a
single careful analysis of the exhaust gas of an automobile, but
' the combustion in the cylinder is suoh that there is little danger
of producing carbcwi monoxide and no injurious results have as
yet been experienced. The gasoline tanks are so arranged that
they can be filled only outside the mine, and there is no danger
of shocks from a trolley wire and no expense in the maintenance
of an electric system. The speed is also more economically ccm-
troUed. Gasoline locomotives' woukl be especially desirable for
gathering work because they avoid the delays and heavy main-
tenance charge attending the use of the portable cable needed
when using an electric motor beyond the trolley. The very
slight odor can be quickly removed by adequate ventilation. In
fact, the gasoline haulage locomotives would go far toward
requiring good ventilation at all times. Those companies which
have used these motors all report the greatest satisfaction and
Ihey are certainly worthy of trial. As yet, none are advertised
for use in low coal.
ELECTRIC PUMPS AND FANS.
In Chapter IX, we have shown that besides producing Oetter
coal, mining machines will be profitable and, therefore, offer a
means of saving expense. Either these or electric locomotives
require an efficient electric power-plant. All distant macfiinery
should then be driven by motors because of the cheap and efficient
electric distribution. With a power plant, all pun^s should be
driven by motors. They are especially useful for draining the •
little sags in mines in the basins of the coal seam. The mines
are frequently connected with other mines or have special shatts.
It is ttien econcmical to put in ventilating fans at a distance from
the boiler plant and motors should be used to drive them. In
the deep mines opened up in panels, much air leakage can be
avoided by putting boosting fans underground, and so reducing
the pressure across the stof^ings. All of these distant motors
without exception, but especially the fan motors, should be
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 555
equij^d with automatic starting boxes. If then the main cur-
rent is cut off for a minute, the distant fans and pumps can be
immediately started as before from the power house without the
delay and cost of a long trip to eadi motor. Self-dling bear^
ings are already in general use. Electric lights with storage
batteries should be attached to all mules if the mine has an
electric plant.
SPECIAt ELECTRIC PLANT.
Inside slopes and engine planes will also be operated by elec-
tricity if the power is available but they do not need autcmiatic
starting boxes. At the very large mines of Germany and where
central power plants are available in this country, electricity is
used for all power purposes. To equalize tiie load, special com-
plex plants are used.* Under Arkansas conditions, they seem
unnecessary and the ordinary hlg>h-gnide steam plant takes care
of the violent fluctuations caused by motor haulage and a num-
ber of electric slope hoists underground.
Where condensing water is available in large quantity, it is
very economical to put in steam turbines generating electric
power from the exhaust of steam hoists and haulage engines.
As long as liie production of slack exceeds the maricet demand,
the modem gas-producer power-plants are not advantageous.
loading machines.
Recently machinery has been used for loading coal, but all
the types as yet in use, except conveyors for longwall mines,
require that the coal occur in a single rather high bench with no
dirt partings-t
It is also necessary for the coal to be of such a nature that it
can be shot down into rather small lumps without excessive pro-
duction of slack. Either of these reasons will prevent the use
in the Aikansas ccal mines of the present types of loading ma-
chines and no further discussion is necessary,
•Rushmore and Paiily, Large Electric Hoisting Plants. Transactions,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 29, pt I, p. 291.
Sykes, Wilfred, Eleotric. Mine Hoists. Transactions, American In-
stitute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 29, pt. I. p. 240.
tWhaley, Wm. Mines and Minerals, Nov., igio^ Vol. 21, p. 30&
Harailton, Wm. E. Mints and Minerals, Dec., 1905. Vol. 26, p. 197.
i.^anyGoOC^Ie
55^ Coal Mining in Arkansas
LARGE CAPAaTY.
Capacity desired. Up to a certain point, the cost of coal is
greatly lessened as the capacity increases, but large capacity means
a larger investment and either a short life for the mine or the
mining of a large area of coal through a single opening. If the
coal is near the surface and cheaply opened, the size of the area
is best kept small to reduce the cost of underground haul;^,
and k is best to plan for a life of only about ten years, and to
develop the mine accordingly. During this time, the common
wooden construction will not require extensive replacement.
If the mine is deep, the sinking and equif^ing of the stait
for a suSictent capacity is expensive and a iMiger life should be
insured by the purchase of sufficient coal land. In this case, the
high cost of timber makes it cheaper to build steel tipples rather
than to renew the wooden ones. Then to reduce the interest
charge a still larger capacity is necessary.
A careful study of these factors should determine the most
desirable capacity for the mine, and new mines should be opened
only when thpre is good reason to think that the demand for that
particular kind of coal will insure fairly steady operation. A
capacity of less than 500 tons per day is rarely advisable except
at very small mines and a capacity of more than 1,500 toas in
8 hours requires special arrai^^ements for loading into railroad
cars and shifting the cars. These are the limits for ordinary
mines.
Development of large capacity. After the desired capacity
has been detemuned, every factor should be adjusted accgrdingly.
Where tfie hauling is done entirely by mules, the pit cars rarely
hold more than two tons of coal. If the coal is low, this load
is reduced, but if a large capcity frcm low coal is essential, die
length and width of the cars and the size of the shaft may be
increased, or the rooms may be brushed to admit higher cars.
The size of the car, the number of cars to be hoisted per minute,
and the depth of shaft determine the size of the hoist, which should
be ample. A small second-hand hoist is advantageous for the
early development. The hight and hardness of the coal determine
the size of the mining-machine plant required for the given ca-
pacity. The proposed area and plan of the mine fix the size of
fan needed, but in many cases, a smaller fan may be used at
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 557
tirst. These initial power requirements, with a smalt allowance
for pumping, determine the number of boilers required, but the
boiler house should be arranged for the easy addition of more
boilers as the steam requirements for pumping, haulage, and
ventilation increase. A pre-arranged plant is much more eco-
nomical than the replacement oi one piece of equipment after
another as fast as it is desired to increase the capacity.
After the plant is in place, it is advisable to open up a suffi-
cient number of working places in the shortest possible time. At
first, ivio shifts should be employed in all entries. As soon as
the first room of any entry reaches its full length, that entry may
be continued single-shift until finally double-shift is used only in
the main entries, slopes, or engine-planes from which entries are
to be turned. During development, there is additional profit
frcKti the safer narrow entries, because they go faster. When
full output is reached, the main slope or plane should be coti-
tinued until at least one pair of cross-entries has been turned
after all the other entries have been running for some time on
single shift. Otherwise, the output of the mine will decrease as
the output of each entry becomes less, after the rate of driving the
entry is decreased by dropping the second shift. After the nor-
mal production is reached, the main slope need be pushed only as
fast as needed to maintain the output by opening new entries
as required.
While the required number of places is being opened, enough
cars and drivers should be provided to always keep the coal away
from the miners. The size of partings and the capacity of the main
haulage must in the same way be kept up so that the mules are
busy. After sutficient capacity is reached, more rooms should be
opened until the turn is low enough to insure fairly clean coal
and steady work for the drivers. Care must be taken not to
overdo this, especially in machine mines, or there will be loss of
money in maintenances of entries, unnecessary scattering of the
day men, and additional pay for deadwork demanded by the
miners in the effort to earn good pay each day.
At a great many of the ^ines of the State, the capacity is
needlessly low because of failure to remedy the condition which
keeps it down. Cars and other equipment can either be sold, or
used in a new mine, and the only expense of an abundance of cars
lyGoO'^lc
558 . Coal Mining in Arkansas
is the interest upon the investment. The maintenance charge is
reduced by the possibility of sending a car to the repair shop
before it is completely disabled. It is remarkable what a great
number of factors are allowed needlessly to reduce the output
of the mines. The most common condition is complaint of lack
of places for the men, while the main 5l<^e or engine-plane is idle
and no effort is being made to open new entries. This is especially
wasteful in case the same company has several mines in the same
camp. It is then far better to shut down some of the mines and
increase the capacity of others, if the full production of all the
mines can not be sold.
Maintaining full capacity to the end. As the main slopes ap-
proach the boundary line, provision must be made for opening
up another main entry to take its place. These main entries
should be so laid out and so pu^ed that the full production of
the mine can be maintained almost to the time of complete ex-
haustion. Unless care is taken, it frequently happens that coal
i^ left in such positions far fF<mi a shaft that it can be mined out
only slowly, or is left in the ground when the mine is abandoned.
No general rule can be given for avoiding this except that after
the full production is reached, no main entry should be driven
unless the one that is to be ultimately the longest is driven at
the same time.
In each main entry, care must be taken to maintain a big
output to the end. If the cross-entries are long and the main
entry is regularly driven only at intervals, it is possible to pu^
the main entry to its limit and then start several cross-entries at
once, A corresponding number of more advanced entries will
then be stepped in succession until the lengths of the cross-
entries are so adjusted that the last group of entries in sufficient
number to supply the full output of the main entry will be finished
at the same time. If the main entry is steadily advanced in nor-
mal work, it should be pushed by double shift to reduce the time
interval between the starting of the cross-entries. Then the cross-
entries near the end can be driven by double shift until the output
is so increased that some of the more advanced entries can be
stopped until the last group is adjusted to reach the limit at the
same time. This adjustment of the entries is less important
where they are served by a motcM- that can be used on another
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 559
run. If the <iip of the coal is not too great, the direction of the
twin haulage entries can be adjusted to make it possible for
several to reach the boundary at once without change in the
method of working.
To save the expense of hauling coal in a cross-entry with but
little output, it is essential that several rooms at the end of the
entry ibe finished at the same time. This can be easily acccHn-
plishcd by continuing to drive the entry without increasing the
force of drivers until several roc«ns are developed at the end and
can be started together. There should be enough of these rooms
to keep at least one driver busy, or a driver and pusher if the
rooms are long. In case of the last group of entries off a single
main entry, the total output is maintained because the more rapid
development recommended will increase the number of entries
available.
CHANGES IN.THS MINE WORKINGS.
In Chapter X, we have described many changes that wiQ
enable the operators to produce more coal at less cost than is
possible by present methods. To the extent that they reduce
cost, they conserve the expense. In discussing other dianges, it
will be necessary, to a certain extent, to consider but one change
at a time, and we wilt assume that gathering motors, and other
improvements are not yet introduced. In considering the open-
ing of any new mines, all of these improvements should be
studied together and the mine workings arranged from the be-
ginning for their use.
LONGER ROOHS.
* One of the most common of the unnecessary expenses is
caused by the short rooms. The miners very properly object to
running their cars out of rooms exceeding a certain length. As
a result, the rooms are not driven longer than this. The dis-
tance was originally determined in pick mines where the yardage
rate for entries was relatively low, and in flat high coal where
twin haulage entries could be used. Owing to the high scale of
payment, the frequent crosscuts, and especially the dip of the
coal permitting rooms on only one side of the entry, the yardage
lyGoO'^lc
560 Coal Mining in Arkansas
expense in the Arkansas mines is unusually high, so that the old
adjustment of room length is not the best.
The saving from the longer rooms follows from the fact
that more coal can be obtained from the rooms without any addi-
tional cost for opening tliem up. This additional coal causes an
increased cost for handling the cars in the long rooms and long
rooms have some other disadvantages. The most economical
length of rooms can be determined by calculating the different
costs for rooms of different lengths and noting the length of
room for which the total is the least. Conditions vary greatly,
and all that can be done is to indicate the general result by a
few illustrations. In calculating yardage, the most general scale
will be used and no allowance made for the extra yardage caused
by faulty coal, etc.
It is ordinarily customary in the dipping coal for the miners
to run out the cars a certain distance at the regular mining rate.
They will generally run the coal out an additional 100 ft. for loc,
a ton extra. If the rooms are brushed or naturally high enough
for a. mule to bring in the empty car, the limiting distance is com-
monly 250 ft. If the coal is less than this, the miner usually
helps the driver or a special pusher to run in the empty car and
the limiting distance is 150 ft. Ordinarily, the expense of the
longer rooms is then due to the extra time it takes the pusher and
the extra payment to the miner.
The amount of the first expense per ton of coal produced
from the entire room is readily computed by dividing the extra
payment by the total output of the room. As an alternative, it
is often cheaper to handle the coal by company labor. It is ob-
vious that it will not l>e profitable to pay loc. a ton extra for
mining coal in the face of the room wherever the total entry
costs are less than loc. a ton.
To compute the cost of pushing the empties, we may con-
sider that the pusher goes only 200 ft. per minute or about 2j4
miles per hour. If done by the driver, the mule stands idle and
the cost of the mule must be included. Under the old scale, a
special pusher at $2.56 a day costs .533c. per minute. In a min-
ute, he can push a car lOO ft. and return so the cost of pushing
cars will be .533c. per 100 ft. The cost, the depreciation, care
and feed of the mule, allowing for idle days, amount to a little
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Exfensk.
561
' more than 50c. a day and the time of the driver and mule costs
.646c. for each 100 ft, of round trip pushed. It should be noted
that the delays in switchii^ cars, making up trips, and hitching
the mule are constant regardless of the length of the room. Only
the time of pushing up the empty car and walking out depends
upon the length of the room. The delay in waiting for the miner
to run out his car can he avoided hy properly arranging the
work. The total variable cost of puling the cars into the rooms
for rooms of different lengths may he figured for the average
distance from the entry to the face for each length of room.
Cost of long rooms in coal 2 /(. 10 in. high. If the coal is
only 2 ft, 10 in. high, the cars will hold only about 1,200 pounds
. and the cost of pushing them 100 ft, and returning will amount
to 1.777c, for each ton of coal produced. If the workings are
laid out as outlined on page 455 for the greatest possible re-
covery of coal, 75 tons of coal will be obtained from the 36 ft, of
entries past a single room, 160 tons from the mining of the entry
pillars, and 515 tons from the room 150 ft, king. Each additional
25 ft, of room will yield 91 J4 tons of coal. The cost of dead-
work may be taken as $139.10 for a room 150 ft, long and about
$1.25 for ties and temporary stoppings for each additional 25 ft.
The various costs are then as given in the table bekiw, assuming
that the driver helps the miner. If a special pusher is needed, the
cost of the extra length of room is a trifle less.
Parliai cosls t
» coal 2 ft
.0 .-.. hieh.
II
11
If
J
Is
i
1
it
is
si
ISO
175
250
z
933
1.024
1,116
$6.87
9.40
JI39-IO
140.35
141.60
142.8s
144.10
19.46c.
1S.89
18.46
18.16
17.93
-S?c.
■ 43
■30
From this table, it will be seen that the increase in room
length from 150 ft. to 175 ft. shows a profit of more than half a
cent a ton on the entire output of the mine. This may be more
forcibly expressed by saying that the additional 91 tons of coal
are obtained at an additional cost of only $12.93 o*" 14-3^- per
ton as against the 19.4c. per ton paid for all the coal from the
lyGoO'^lc
562
Coal Mining in Arkansas
shorter rorans. This means that the first 91 ions of extra coal
costs 5c. per ttm less than the coal produced by the former
method. It is profitaible to drive the rocmis in low coal as far as
the misers will consent to work at loc. per ton extra.
Cost of long rooms in coal 3 ft. 6 in. high with gob entries.
Unless the conditions are very favorable, rooms will be driven
cmly 150 ft, long in coal 3 ft. 6 in. high. Under the present sys-
tem of minimum width of pillars and no mining of the pillars,
we have figured on page 467 that from a pair of rooms 150
ft. long and the entries past them, there will be obtained 318 tons
of entry coal and 1,159 .tons of rocxn coaL Each additiona! 25
ft. of the two rooms will yield 220 tons of coal. The cost of ties
and stoppings and the ei^try cost for the pair of rooms will be
$241.90. Each additional 25 ft. will cost about $1.50 for ties and
stof^ings.
The cars will hold about 2,000 pounds of coal and the cost
of pushing in the empties by the driver will be 0.646 per 100 ft.
round trip for each ton of coal. Allowing the miner loc. per ton
of coal for helping push the cars more than 150 ft., the cost for
different lengths of rowns are as given below.
Partial cost m coat 3 ft. 6 m. high with gob entries.
!!
A
if
i
1
1
it
I
I
150
M75
$5.61
$241.90
16.77c
175
1. 69s
7.92
$22.«>
243-40
.6K.
225
1,915
2,135
f,t
44.00
66.00
244-90
246.40
-m
.48
■37
_^250 .
_2,355
247-90
_'4!>8_
This shows a decided gain in driving the rooms as far as the
miner will do it for loc. a ton extra.
Cost of long rooms in coal 3 ft. 6 in. high with wide pillars.
If the mine is laid out for the mining of pillars, the yardage costs
are less and the saving is not so great. The exact theoretical
calculation is complicated by the interest charge i^inst the coal
first mined. This lessens with increased length of room and
may be roughly taken to offset the cost of ties and stoppings for
the extra coal. On that basis, the costs are as given in the table
below.
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation op Expense.
563
Partial coit of long
rooms in
coal 3 ft. 6
M. high with pillar mining*
!l
ll
f!
A
1
h i
ISO
2flOS
$8.go
$375.56
13.23c
175
12.40
$35-70
375- 56
13.99
.24c.
aoo
3.619
16.50
71-40
375-56
13. 81
31 IS
107.10
375.56
250
4.333
36.40
143.80
375.56
13.57 .10
This table shows diat even with pillar mining, it is profitable
to increase the length of the rooms.
Handling haded cars by the company in high coal. Entry
costs in high coal with nx>ms already 250 ft. long will be so low
that it will not pay to give the miners loc. a ton to make the
ro<»ns longer. It will, therefore, be necessary for the company
to get the loaded cars from the faces of rooms more than 250 ft,
long. In most of the mines with high coal, the rooms have but
one track, and the miner expects to receive an empty car very soon
after he has run out the loaded car. Under these conditions, the
pusher will have to walk up into eadi of the long rooms to get
tiie car, and there will ^be a delay of a half a minute to a minute
in starting each car out and going from room to room. This
delay will cost from .26c. to .53c. per car and may be taken as
.42c, as an average. Both the mule and the pusher will, however,
go at least 250 ft. per minute while going,' and the cars will hold
an average of 3,500 pounds of coal. The extra cost of handling
cars per ton of coal will then amount to .24c. for the delay and
49c. for each 100 ft, round trip the two cars are pushed. To
calculate yardage costs, we may assume a final recovery of the
coal equal to 94 per cent and may omit all room expenses except
*The workings for a pair of rooms 150 ft. long will yield 264 tons
of entry coal, 1.261 tons of room coal, 80a tons of coal from entry pillars
and 578 tons of coal from the room pillars. Each additional 25 ft. of
the pair of rooms will yield 357 tons of coal from the Tooms and the pil-
lars between them. The cost of opening the rooms and pillars is $373.56
as already figured.
lyGoo'^lc
5<H
Coal Mining in Arkansas
Parliat cotts of long
00ms M
1
5-/00* co<U*
i!
i
if
I
1
K
h
h
250
6,143
¥18.40
$2S5.«.
275
26.00
255
33
300
7,143
00
325
7Au
430s.
J;*
00
7K
3?5
8A«
62.63
68
.10
400
9,143
73.6a
aS5
00
59
.09
taS
85.51
255
00 3
53
the room-necks and first long break-throughs. The cost of
different length of rocans are then as figured in the table below.
From this table, it appears that the most economical length
of room exceeds 425 ft., but that above 375 ft., the advantage is
small.
In still higher coal, Ae dead-work costs are less and the
advantage of long rocnns diminishes. As a general rule, the
extra cost of handling coal in rooms 25 or 50 ft. longer than now
■ in use may be taken ,as about one-fourth to one-half the entire
cost of hauling coal. If this sum is less than the cost of entry
yardage, room-necks, and other development expenses, it will
pay to lengthen the rooms.
"The block of two looms and pillars will be 308 ft across the entries
and 102 ft. along them. Ninety-four per cent of this will yield 6,143 tons
of coal. The two rooms-and 95 per cent of the sS-foot viom pillar will
yield 500 tons of additional coal for each 35 ft. of additional length of
room. The rooms will produce S/xx> tons of coal from 250 ft. and the
hauling of the empties for this an average distance of 125 ft. will cost
.368c a ton or $1840. The additional room coal requires the hauling of
cars both ways. The cost is figured for the avaragc haul of the extra coal.
The cost of opening up the two rooms is as given below:
68 yd. of entry, at $2.25 per yd. $i53-00
3 crosscuts, each 4 yd., at $2,25 per yd. 37.00
2 room-necks at $3-37 6.74
z long break-throughs, I2j'^ yd. each, at $1.68 per yd 42-56
Laying track in main entry 6.00
Room switches, dip switches, etc 8.75
Ties for entry 2.04
,1 stoppings 9.00
Tfotal $255.09
lyGoo'^lc
CONSBBVATION OF ExPENM. 565
Cost of handling cars in long rooms in lozv coal. If the coal
is so low th^ the empties must be pushed into the rooms, the
miner must handle the cars at least one way unless a special
helper is hired to assist the driver. In this case, the running out
of the coal entails no great loss of time because the two men can
bring an empty into one long room and step through the break-
through into the next room and run out the loaded car in k.
With the present requirement of equal turn for all miners, this
can always be done except when some of the miners are laying
off. Ordinarily, about one-sixth of the miners may be out and
one-sixth of the time the purfiers must go through an intervening
room. Going through the rooms saves the delay of going from
room-neck to Toom-neck along the entries.
If the mines are laid out as recommended with the pillars
ahemately wide and narrow with no intermediate break-throughs
in the wide pillars, it will be necessary for the pushers to return
to the entry for eac^i second room, but even then it will be much
cheaper to handle the cars by company men than to pay the
miner loc, a ton extra for handling them in long rooms. If
proAtable, the roc»ns can be made more than 100 ft. longer than
tfie present practice requires.
To illustrate the gain from the long rooms and the employ-
ment of a special pusher, we may take the case of coal 3 ft. 6 in.
high, pillars alternately wide and narrow laid out for pillar
mining. In this case, the pushers will have to make six trips
the length of the room and go through one break-through for
each two car loads of coal. The delay of going from room to
room and starting out the cars may be taken to average a minute
per car more than the delay of taking cars only one way. This
allows for the few vacant places. The cars will hold a ton of
coal and the men will go 200 ft, per minute while pushing the
car. The coal and yardage cost will be as before and the costs
are shown in the table below.
lyGoO'^lc
566
Coal Mining in Arkansas
Partial cfftts of haHdli*t
earj by company m long roomt m 3 ft. 6 in
cmL
!l ; 11
h
If
1
It
h
si
150
2.905
$ 8.go
?37S.S6
13 ■23c
13.18 I
3^
300
8t
325
3.976
87.45
375.56
IO-75
250
275
4600
375.56
375-56
•IM
§
SM7
S;M
31
325
5.404
37S-56
9.33
s
3SO
151-74
375 SO
9- 14
175 ■<«
200.78
9.00
400
6,47s
37S 56
8.9D
10
These show that the costs continue to decrease until the
rooms are more than 400 ft. long, and that the gain is important
until the rooms get 300 ft. long. By making the rooms 300
ft. long instead of only 150 ft, about 3.7c. per ton can be saved
on the entire output of coal. This saving will be greater if the
pillars are not robbed, or if the coal Is lower than 3 ft. 10 in.,
because the yardage cost per ton is then so much greater. This
also shows how very much better it is to handle the cars for tbe
miners than to pay them loc. a ton for doing it themselves. In
one case, the gain from making the rooms 250 ft. long instead
of 150 ft. is nearly 3c. a ton. In the other, it is only .66c., where
all other conditions are the same.
Long doubU rooms. If the cars are handled both ways by
the miners, they can not object to working in pairs in double
rooms with only one car in the room at a time, especially where
the coal is cut by machines. In this case, "the pushers or drivers
can always bring in the empty car, cross over at the room face,
and run the loaded car out on the other track. In high coal, this
will take but little more time than it takes the driver to walk out
without a car and less than it takes for the driver to wait for the
miner to run out the coal. In low coal, a second pusher must be
hired, but he can do much more work in douhle-track rooms than
•The cost for 150 ft. is as before. Each additional 25 ft. yields 357
tons of coal. The driver and pusher together oost r.o66c per minute and
the cost of pushing per ton is then 1.599c or i.6c per 100 ft from Ae entrf,
plus i.oc constant delay. The first 357 tons of coat is pushed 163 ft. 6 in.
on an average, and each succeeding lot is pushed 25 ft. further at an in-
cTrase in coat of 0.4c per ton.
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 567
in single-track rooms, and the expense of handling cars will be
less than we have just figured. It is obvious that if the rooms
can be made double, they should be lengthened under nearly all
conditions. The only exception is the case of coal so tbt that
twin haulage entries can be used, and so high that the miners will
push the cars one way 250 ft, and the expense of opening the
entries per ton of coal is very low. These are the conditions
under which the standard length of 250 ft. for rooms was estab-
lished, and they are unfortunately rarely found in Arkansas.
If the roCHns are laid out for no mining of pillars as at shal-
low depths, the saving from long rooms increases because the
entry charge increases as the percentage of coal recovered de-
creases. The gain in the case of shallow mines in low coal is so
great that no calculations seem necessary.
DESIRABLE LENGTH OV SOOUS.
Advantages of long rooms. We have shown that in all
cases where the miners will not help with the cars for more than
150 ft., it is economical to pay them loc. a ton more for mining
the coal beyond 150 ft and to make the room 50 to 150 ft.
longer. This is sometimes done at present, but in all cases. It is
cheaper to deliver and receive the cars at the faces of the rooms
than it is to pay loc. a ton to the miner. This will make it pos-
sible to save money even in high coal, by extending the rooms
100 ft, or more, to 350 ft. By making wide rooms with two
tracks in a room, the extra expense of handling- cars by company
men is still further reduced, and nearly half the present entry cost
can be saved by doubling the length of the rooms. In many
cases, such a saving will exceed loc. a ton, the present greatest
profit on the coal. In case gathering kx;omotives or gasoline
locnnotives are used, the expense of hauling in long rooms will
be reduced, and they can be made still longer than with mule
haulage.
The caving of long rooms. One of the common objections
to long rooms ts the statement that they are likely to be lost by
caving in, but a careful study of the mines shows that only a very
few rooms fall in, and they generally fall in next the face, where
the props have been shot out or have never been set. Even if
the rooms did fall in, the chief loss in the rails covered by the fall,
lyGoO'^lc
568 Coal Mining in Arkansas
for it costs only $io to $12 to turn off the room from one of the
adjacent rooms driven past the fall. This objection has, there-
fore, very little weight.
Suggested length of rooms. A more serioiis objection to
long rooms is the congestion on the entry, L<mgcr rooms mean
more working places per entry and a larger output from each
entry. This has the incidental advantage of making it more
advisable to keep the entry tracks in good repair, but the natural
limit of the length of rooms is that which, when room No. 1 is
just finished, will occupy all the time of one driver and one
pusher. Then as the entry gets longer, some rooms may be
stopped as soon as they are opened. Then, when a sufficient
number of these rooms are opened, another pusher or driver
may be put in the entry. Before a second mule is put on, there
should be enough pushers to relieve the driver of all switching
of cars. When the second driver is put on, the pusher will serve
the newly started rooms and the drivers will do the switching.
When the pair of entries is just starting, a single pusher can be
emi^oyed to help the miners in both entries, and if the grades
are right, he can run the cars to the parting, A pushef for each
entry will next be employed ; then a single mule and driver to
help the two pushers in the two entries; and finally in each entry
two pushers, two drivers, and three mules if the entries are long
enough. Each time another company man is put on, a number
of rooms will be started at once and in this way the hauling of
coal will be always at its greatest efficiency. Figure 89 shows
the suggested stage of leaving the rooms. A single pair of men
Pig. 89. Entries prepared (or starting several rooms a.t once,
can develop as many rooms as wanted far in advance of the last
working room if desired, and the slight additional vardage of
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
COKSERVATION OF EXPENSE. 569
break-throughs is quickly returned, by the increased ou^ut of
the drivers after an additional driver is put on. At present, the
drivers work harder and harder until an extra man is employed.
. Then the two men at first do but little more than one did.
The length of the room No. i that will just keep a sii^lc
company man busy can be figured if all the data are at hand, but
it can more easily be determined by noting the percentage of the
day each driver spends in gathering the cars after the trip haul
19 deducted, and figuring up how many more rooms would be
needed to keep him busy all day. If, for example, five more
rooms are needed, the extra length of room should ibe five times
the average difference in lengths of adjoining rooms. If the
length is much shorter than the economical length as figured
from yardage costs, at lea^t one other man should be fully occu-
pied in the two beginning entries before room No. i reaches its
limit. The rooms can be lengthened, witlhout confusion in haul-
ing, by driving the entries more slowly, but this requires more
entries for the same output and greatly increases maintenance
and capital expenses.
BEST L5NCTH OF ENTRIES.
In slope mines, the entries are kept short by opening new
mines along the outcrop. This requires a complete power plant
and tipple. If the market justifies the increased output, it is more
economical to build one good tipple and electric power plant.
The side slopes can then be supplied with an electric hoist and
a fan driven by a motor. The coal must be brought to the main
tipple by motor haulage. The (^portunities of opening such a
system of mines have now disappeared.
In the deeper mines on steep dipping coal, the entries can
be shortened only by inside slopes or engine-planes from the main
level entries. The expense of operating the rope and the con-
necting haulage road may be taken as equal to that of ten mules
and drivers if interest on the investment is included. The cut-
offs are justified only if they replace this number of mules. Tlie
mules are replaced only in case the entries are so long that two
or more mules are required to do the work that one could do in
a short entry. An extra mule in the entry is j&stified only where
half of the time of the first mule is spent in pulling the trips
lyGoO'^lc
570 Coal Mining in Arkansas
after they ar« made up. If the rooms are so long that more
than one mule is busy gathering the cars near the entry, a third
mule is needed when each of the first two spend one-third of their
time hauling full trips. The first conditions occur with short ■
rooms and the second with long ones. With the present short
rooms, each mule makes a trip in from 12 to 30 minutes. Taking
25 minutes as the general maximum time, and allowing i minute
for delay at the parting, and 250 ft, per minute as the speed, the
mule spends half the time pulling a trip if he goes 1400 ft. along
the entry after the trip is made up. The distance to the last rooni
is then about 1,600 or 1,700 ft. On the same basis, the third
mule or swing parting should be put in at 2,000 or 2,500 ft.
which checks practice fairly well. If then the output of the mine
is such that ten ordinary entries will be needed, they should not
exceed 1,700 ft. and inner slopes should be sunk at intervals of
3,000 to 3,500 ft., provided property lines do not interfere.
If the dip of the coal is uncertain, or rolls and faulty patches
are frequent, the entries should be shorter. As the rooms are
made longer, there will be a larger output per entry and more
congestion for the same length. Therefore, the distance between
slopes should be slightly reduced, as the length of the rooms is
increased.
REDUCING THE COST OF MAINTENANCE.
The cost of maintenance of a coal mine can be reduced by
leaving proper pillars, by decreasing the final length of the en-
tries, by abandoning each entry as soon as possible, by avoiding
wide gob entries, and by a reduction in the number of entries
made possible by longer rotKns, larger percenatge of extraction,
and greater speed of driving entries. In a lai^c mine, the rapid
working out and abandonment of the entries means that the mine
must be opened in panels. The coal in the panel nearest the
shaft is naturally the cheapest and must be opened first to insure
the full output as soon as possible. This will give a false idea of
the cost of the coal and it is strongly urged that the development
of the most distant panel be pushed as' soon as full production is
reached. If this development is char;ged to the coal at once, it
will partly offset the cost of hauling from the distant panel. As
soon as the most distant panels are mined, the barrier pillars can
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 571
be attacked, and the amount of main entry to be maintained will
constantly decrease.
In the small slope mines, the minii^ of the pillars of the
first entries and their immediate abandonment requires in most
cases only a strong pillar to protect the main slope.
THE GENERAL PLAN 09 THE MINES.
Hauling in break-throughs. Little improvements in fjie lay-
out of the smaller mines can be suggested, and when large mines
are opened, the plan of work will doubtless be so carefully con-
sidered by other engineers that suggestions will not be necesary.
If the roof of the mine is very strong, the entry cost can be
very largely reduced by the plan shown at the top of Plate IV.
By this plan, an engine-plane may be driven straight up the dip
and a single pair of level entries started to the right and left.
From these entries, rooms can be driven on sights, to the rise,
and parallel to the engine-plane. Every other pillar may be left
(Hily 4 ft. or 5 ft, wide with break-througfis each 30 ft. or 40 ft. as
required by law. The other pillars will be 30 ft. to 40 ft. wide and
strong enough to securely support the roof. At intervals of 250
ift. (or 150 ft. if the coal is low), break-throughs are made in
the wide pillars. A track will be laid in the break-through near-
est the engine-plane from a switch in the plane. This will be
extended across the first pair of rooms and switches put in where
it crosses the room tracks. This cross track at the right grade
will be used in driving the crosscut through the next wide pillar,
etc. In this way, the rooms are cut off with no yardage except
that which would anyway be required for break-throughs. The
jAaa, is used in parts of the Coronado Mine, and is not opposed
by the Union,
The grades are easily maintained, and if the panel is large,
partings next the plane may be made by slabbing not more than
one wide pillar at a very small expense. If brushing is neces-
sary, that it best d<Mie by day-men or by special contract, while
the room-men continue to push the rooms and break-throughs.
The engine-plane need advance no faster tiian the rooms and
should be driven as a room without yardi^e except brushing, but
this will be opposed by the miners. If driven as an entry, the
miners in it witl have time to do all the brushing in the break-
lyGoO'^lc
572 Ca\L Mining in Arkansas
throughs. The ventilation will be by the longwall method. The
intake air will be split at the head of the engine-plane and passed
through the room faces on eadi side of the puiel and returned
through the air-courses of the original level entries.
When the property line is reached, the large pillars can be
readily mined through the same openings, retreating down the
engine-plane. Since there is practically no yardage cost except
for the single pair of level entries and the engine-plane, the
pillars may be made full width for easy mining with only a
negligible interest cost. The panels may also be made as large
as permitted by economical haulage.
If the mine is large and the roof not too solid, the pillars
may be robbed in panels. Coal below the shaft must be mined
by first sinking the slope to the bottom of the panels and leaving
a sufficient slope pillar to make it possible to mine the pillars
down the dip. By increasing the size of the pillars between tiw
pairs of narrow rooms, this plan grades into the longwall retreat-
ing already described.
Where the roof is very poor, narrow room-necks are needed
to reduce the maintenance of haulage-ways, but in the majority
of the Arkansas mines, the plan of continuous rooms as outlined
above will be quite feasible. Under weak roof, the main pillars
between the rooms must be given ample Width and the tracks
crossing the rooms may have to be timbered as for a squeeze.
This arrangement of hauling through break-throughs is the
dieapest plan of using short rooms.
Mines in steep basins. Where mines are opened in narrow
basins with much of the coal too steep for the use of twin haul-
age entries, it is generally advisable to run the main entries
square up the dip from the shaft in the basin, and to place an en-
gine on this plane as soon as two or three level entries have
been turned oS from it. If the mine is small and the flat of the
basin is so wide that the cars can not be let down to the shaft
bottom, the cars from the engine-planes can be handled on the
flat by mules. If the mine is lai^e, tme or more motors can be
used for this purpose as well as to bring the cars from the engine-
planes of other panels.
In the small mines, a single pair of twin haulage entries will
be driven up the center of 'the basin from near tilt shaft. From
lyGoO'^lc
CONSESVAI'ION OF ExPBNSE. 573
these entries, rooms will be driven toward the outcrc^s of the
basin. If the roof permits, they oan be cut off at proper intervals
by haulage break-throughs as just outlined. Otherwise, they will
be cut off by entries at grade from the engine-plane. In this
case, all the pillars below the first level entry can be pulled as
a single panel if the roof permits. If the flat is wide, twin haul-
age-entries can be started from the rooms at proper intervals
along the main entry in the basin.
If the mine is to be large, it is better to avoid the swamp
entry by driving the main haulage-entry slightly off the axis of
the basin with the rooms on one side dipping slightly down-hiU.
A line of crosscuts in the axis of the basin will provide drainage,
the slight dip at the mouth of the room will cause no inconven-
ience, and the main haulage road will be dry.
"Unless the axis of the basin pitches at a considerable angle,
the coal below the shaft is most easily mined by two pairs of
twin haulage entries driven at grade from the shaft, with dip
rooms between. It will- be cheaper to pull single cars up this
slight dip than it will to pull the trips up a wet dip entry in the
swamp. If the mine is large, dip rooms of too great length may
be avoided fcy using the hoist of the next engine-plane on the
flank of the basin to pull cars up a short slope from another pair
of entries nearer the swamp.
Mines in Hat or irregular basins. Small mines in flat basins
are the simplest of all to mine, but if the mine is large, provision
must be made in the first plan of the mine for some form of
mechanical haulage. If but little of the coal has a dip too great
for twin-haulage entries, electric motors will be best for the main
haulage. To open the mine properly, there must be a suificient
amount of prospecting to make it possible to construct a fairly
accurate contour map of the coal seam.
Unless the surface features prevent, the main shaft will be
placed somewhere in the axis of the basin and a main haulage
road will be laid off along the basin. The twin entries for mule
haulage will be nearly at right angles to this and will be cut off
at intervals of about 1,500 ft. by motor roads with a small grade
in favor of the loads. To connect these roads with the least
yardage expense, a main motor entry will be started directly up-
hill on each side of the shaft. When the dip becomes greater
lyGoO'^lc
574 Coal Mining in Arkansas
than is desired for motor haulage, this road will fork to the
' rig;ht and left and continue as a F Qt the desired maximum
grade. From this Y, easy curves can be made to connect with
the level haulage roads on the outside. To get the motor upCHi
tJie roads inside the Y will require expensive grading or a steq>
hill at the curve. It will be better, therefore, to have the mules
bring the cars from the space within the Y to partings in At
arms of the Y. The general course of these entries can be laid
out in advance by plotting the grade contours. The dividers may
be set for the scale length of entry needed to rise from contour
to contour, and one end of this set at the point on the map where
the entry cuts a contour. The other end is then swung until it
intersects the contour above. Actually the entries will not occupy
the exact position indicated on the map, but the general layout
will be the same, and the maximum grade required for the entry
to reach any given point can be determined.
If there is a large area of coal below the shaft, level motor
roads can be started as often as necessary from the main road
in the axis of the basin. Any considerable area of steep coal can
be mined by level mule entries from an engine-plane above the
upper motor road. In most cases, the motor can be brought up
on a diagonal road and the plane avoided. The ordinary motor
roads can be given a grade where necessary on account of irregu-
larities. In a re^lar wide basin, they need not be exactly paral-
lel, but the direction can be gradually shifted to intersect the
property lines at a better angle.
In all such large mines, it is very advisable to push the main
road up from the shaft as rapidly as possible and to mine the coal
first above the highest cut-off. Then as soon as the mule roads
are finished the pillars can be mined back with no possible danger
of a squeeze and with the least amount of open space in the mine.
The tail-rope haulage system is advisable only where there
are grades too steep for motors and not continuous enough to
enaUe the trip to drag the rope behind. The typical use is for
crossing considerable hills or hollows in case the basin is irregu-
lar, or the shaft can not be sunk in the center of the basin. For
tail-rope haulage, the main roads should be as straight as possible
r^ardless of grade. At most big mines, motors will be advisable
for the level haulage, even where tail-rope haulage is used for the
lyGoO'^lc
CONSKRVATIOK OF EXPENSE. 575
hills. The yardage cost often interferes with the driving of motor
roads up hills at an angle to the dip.
MINES IN STEEP-DIPPING COAI,.
■ General plan of the mine. In Arkansas, there is a good
deal of coal of such steep dip that it is expensive and dangerous
to run the cars down the rooms even when wooden sand-rails are
used. In some mines, the rooms are driven diagonally across the
dip. This is not very effective and greatly increases yardage
costs because the entries must he closer together for the same
room length. In such cases, some saving can be made by also
giving the entries a big up-grade so they are more nearly at
right angles to the rooms. This increases the cost of haulage.
Instead of using these methods, it is far better to run the
rooms nearly level and gather the cars by small engine-planes off
of a few main level entries along which the cars are taken to the
slope by electric motors. This plan is shown on Plate XIII. The
method is very convenient and has been much used in the West,
but failed in Oklahoma because the pillars in the soft coal were
left so narrow that they rolled over. Under the existing crosscut
law, at least every second pillar must be kept narrow, but the
width of the rooms can he held down to 24 ft. or less and every
second pillar should be 40 ft. wide.
The track will be near the lower side of the room with space
below it for all the waste of compound seams. This material
can be used to level up the track in high coal. In low coal, bot-
' torn brushing can be done to level the track. In all cases, the
rOOTn men should be required to lay the track at such a grade
that the cars must be pushed both ways and can be easily handled
by one man. In order to keep the small hoist busy, it is best to
complete the plane before any rooms are started. The crosscuts
can be spaced to serve as necks for the rooms and the pillar
workings on the air-course side. All rooms may be started full
width because tbe room pillars must be adequate to prevent
squeezes, and no real room-necks will be needed.
Both the main entry and ks air-course will carry a current
of fresh air, and a separate split can be sent up through each
small plane. The amount can be adjusted by a regulator at
lyGoO'^lc
57^ Coal Mining in Arkansas
the top, and this atr can be sent through the rooms by maintain-
ing a curtain opposite each Httle pillar.
Mining the pillars. As soon as the rooms are finished, the
pillars can be mined by talcing a good sized skip off the bottom
and pulling back all the rest except a narrow strip to hold up
for a time the gob above. The main entries may be protected
above and below by omitting one or more rooms. If necessary,
the pillars can be reenforced by shooting the roof and floor of
the nearest room. The greatest strain will come on the entry
above the robbed {ullars, but this entry need be maintained only
a abort time after the rooms below are finished. At considerable
depth, the workings may in general retreat and the pillars of the
entry above can be prcxnptly mined. In this case, the room above
the pillar of the lower entry can be reenforced readily by rock
shot from the roof. These entry pillars can be mined by hori-
zontal rooms connected with the main entry by inclined roads.
The room farthest from the entry may be finished first, and the
pillar beyond pulled before the next room is started.
In most cases, at the less depth, it will be possible to pull
the pillars immediately. It is then advisable to drive the original
planes a long distance apart and rob back the first room pillars
only On the side away from the main slope. The hoist can then
be moved over to the line of break-throughs in the big pillars,
and the other room pillars robbed toward this new plane at the
same time the rooms are being advanced on the cAher side until
the plane is moved again. In this way, the capacity of the ^nall
plane will be nearly maintained. The saving in yardage will be
great, but twice as many partings on the entry will be necessary
and a little more money must be invested in preliminary work.
The hatched area of Plate XIII, shows the pillars which have
been mined and the broken lines indicate the workings in the
entry pillars.
Method of development. To keep the motor busy, all the
engine-planes of the entry should be developed before the room
mining is started. If the continuous cutting electric machines
are used in the rooms, as can readily be done at all the dips
known in the State, this development work can be rushed by the
nse of the electric-air post-puncher. There will be sufficient
places rather near together to keep one machine busy on each
lyGoO'^lc
Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
Conservation of Expense. 579
entry. In a machine mine, the rooms will advance at an equal
rate and the punchers will be concentrated occasionally on a
single line of break-throughs. This can be driven part way down
from the room above for ventilation and to save moving of the
machines.
At most of the mines in high coal, it will be possible for a
mule to drag the empty car up the engine plane, but the loaded
cars had best be let down by fastening an old wire rope to a
strong prop at t he top of the plane and fastening the
car to this rope by a screw clamp. The screw can be loosened
just enough to let the clamp slide over the rope to lower the car.
In low coal, the cars are best brought up by a light hoistir^ rope
passing over pulleys and pulled by a mule walking in the entry.
Handling cars on the planes. In most places, the dip is not
sufficient to interfere greatly with switches along the plane. Un-
der these conditions, the cars can be handled in trains. The hoist-
ing Tope must, however, be so light that it can be readily pulled
down the plane by the rope-rider and it will rarely be possible
to handle more than three cars in a trip. Even this introduces
delays in shifting cars and in general it would seem better to
handle but one car at a time. The miners, according to their
agreement with the operators, will handle the cars in level rooms
both ways for 150 ft., but must not have to wait for a car.
Under these conditions, there should be attached to the hoisting
rope, two chains, one about 10 ft. long and the other 25 ft. The
empty car can be attached to the long chain and stopped when
the other hook is opposite the loaded car waitnig at the switch.
The load is then attached to the short chain and pulled out on to
the entry while the rope rider holds the long chain down in the
cut in the curved rail while the wheels pass over it. The empty
is then let down on the empty track and detached. The rope
rider can signal the miners to run out their cars as needed. In
longer rooms, the miners will push the cars one way, but it seems
cheaper under these conditions to handle the cars both ways for
the miners and let them wait for the empty until it can be brought
up from the entry, and to handle the cars on the plane in trains.
The partings at the foot of the plane are most conveniently
arranged as shown on the plate. The empty may be dropped off
the end of a motor trip, run over the sidetrack. Any empty
lyGoO'^lc
580 Coal Mining in Arkansas
standing here may be pushed into the end of the entry until there
are enough for the last plane. The old dip switches may be used
for loaded track and no yardage is needed. The rope will be
pulled down far enough to be attached to the empty trip, the opera-
tor of the little hoist can see that there are no collisions with the
entry motor, and the loaded cars are easily attached to the end
of the outgoing trip.
If the dip is steep, it is better to handle the cars on a slope
carriage or barney. For this purpose, it is recommended that a
long carriage be used with two platforms. The empty will be
put cm the upper track and pulled up past the room so that the
load can be put on the lower track. The barney is then lowered
until the empty can be taken off. The miner or pusher is always
ready to help the rope-rider and there will be the least amount of
delay in changing cars or waiting for cars. An iron counterpoise
can be run on an inside track depressed at the passing place. It
should be heavy enough to pull up the carriage and the empty car
and light enough to be raised by the loaded car. No electric
power plant will then be needed. A single-deck slope-carriage will
work just as well, provided that the cars come equally from
rooms on both sides of the plane and that the miners lay off in
pairs only, and will wait for their cars. The last will be un'ikely
and there will be a big expense for pushers. The large carriage
is more convenient for tlie lOpe-rider, All the slope carriages
should have a device for holding them opposite the tracks.
Fig. go. Station for double-deck slope-carriage.
Figure 90 is a sketch of the station at the bottom of the
plane. A similar arrangement with tracks on the same level can
be used with switches provided that the cars are turned around
again at tlie slope. This can be done by dropping them from
the motor on the parting on the far side of the slope, but there
are no apiiarent advantages in this style of parting, over the one
in Plate XIII.
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation ot Expense. 581
Best length and number of plants. Each Iktle slope should
be so long that the engine-plane will be kept nearly busy. It is
advisable to give it surplus capacity in order to provide a good
turn and to keep the pushers busy. If the arrangement of rooms,
the speed of the travel, and the delays in switching cars are
known, this length is easily computed. The delay will be deter-
mined by the arrangement and the number of men. Two minutes
per car may be assumed. We may also assume tfiat the
speed will be 600 ft. per minute, t^t there are on the two
sides of the plane four rooms for each joo ft and that each room
yields four cars per day. "Kien in addition to the 60 or 7S-foot
pillar next the entry, 1,000 ft, of slt^ will be required if three
cars are handled at a trip. If only one car is handled at a time,
as will generally be advisable, and if there is no reduction In the
delay, the distance is 700 ft. A smaller hoist handling one car
at 400 ft per minute will need 600 ft. of plane. The daily out-
puts from each plane wUI then be about 320 tons, 224 tons, and
192 tons respectively. If machines are used with a pair of miners
in each pair of rooms, the output will be increased slightly and
the planes will be shorter.
These figures show at once that only a few planes will be
needed and the output can all be handled by one or two motors
on a single pair of entries. Unless the planes be put in break-
throughs, it will be necessary to have at least two sets of planes
in process of development while the first set is produdng room
coal.
Comparison with present methods. As compared with the
driving of rooms up the dip, the method here outlined has the dis-
advantage of requiring a litble more capital for the initial devel-
opment. It requires more machinery and, therefore, a different
type of mine foreman. It is a slight departure from present
methods.
The advantages of the method are : A good extraction at a
low intereslj charge because the pillars can soon be mined; the
entry yardage is greatly reduced ; there are no wrecks and over-
worked mules; the haulage is much cheaper; the hoisting is
mainly from one level and cheaper ; and finally, it is the only sat-
isfactory way of using mining machines in the moderately steep
coal. It is in a way the system of twin haulage entries applied
to steep coal.
Diqn.eaHyGoO'^lc
582 Coal Mining m Arkansas
Steep seams at greater depth. This steep-dipping coal soon
reaches a depth at which even 40-foot pillars will fail. For thick
coal, it is then advisable to use a system of longwall retreating
from the property line to the main slope. Entries, driven double
for ventilation, will riivide the face into panels some 250 to 300
ft. along the dip. Between these entries, conveyors disdiarging
at the lower end may be placed along the retreating face. Some
special piece of machinery can be attached to the lower part of
these conveyors, for carrying tfie coal to the cars, passing on a
parting in the wide entry at right angles to the face conveyors.
This is necessary to insure a heavy output -without the expense
of maintaining a doiAle-track entry beyond the end of the face
conveyor.
It will be some time before such coal is opened and before
the problem of labor for conveyors is adjusted. Until then no
more discussion of this problem seems necessary. The thin seams
of steep dipping coal are best mined by conveyors by longwall
advancing as discussed on page 512 of Chapter X.
PROSPECTING.
Before any mine is opened, the coal along the outcrop or in
adjoimng mines should be carefully studied. In many cases, the
outcrop is exposed by a nearly continuous line of strip pits.
Where these are not present, the outcrop should be fully located
by driHing holes to cut the seam just below the belt of weather-
ing. The results should be mapped and will show whether or not
many faulty patches or dislocations may be expected in the area
under consideration. This will give some idea in advance as to
the number of deep drill holes which may be needed properly to
locate the seam and determine the best location of the shaft and
preliminary plan of the mine. More deep holes may be drilled
if the first holes indicate that this is necessary. The drill holes
alone will give sufficient information as to the average thickness
of each bench of osal and the thickness and general character of
all the partings. If the work is carefully done and the cuttings
of different parts kept separate for analysis, the drill will also
show how much bony coal may be expected.
It is also advisable to determine the presence or absence of
frozen top, bottom, or band-rock; the number and position of
lyGoO'^lc
Conservation of Expense, 583
loose seams in ihe coal ; the presence or absence of small rolls in
the roof and floor ; and the general character of the roof and floor.
These greatly affect the cost of mining and the quality of the coal
produced. If there are a sufficient number of surrounding mines,
this information can be easily obtained. If there are no deep
accessible workings, a number of test pits are needed around
the outcrop. Where the roof, floor, or band-rock is hard, these
workings should extend some distance into unaltered coal, and
unless a distinct band of rashing can be found at the separation
of coal and rock, frozen coal is to be feared. Where there are
rolls along the outcrop, they are liable to be numerous in tbt
basins. If it is necessary to secure information as to frozen coal
and seamy coal at depth, core drills are necessary. Most of the
Arkansas coal is so soft that it will not yield cores with the ordi-
nary small diamond drill used for prospecting. It is, therefore,
advisable to use some form of drill like the Davis calyx drill
made by the IngersoU-Rand Prill Co., of New York. Such a
drill will yield a core of any size desired. Such cores will often
show the presence or absence of short rolls because at only a
few parts of a roll will the roof and floor of the coal be parallel.
For ordinary prospecting in soft rock, the common marble
drill of the type made by the Cyclone Drill Co., Orrville, Ohio, is
most used and is best. For shallow holes, these drills may be
home-made. For very hard rock, the drill needs to be sharpened
so frequently that it is expensive to uncouple the rods of a marble
drill, and it is much cheaper to drill through the hard sandstone
with an ordinary rope drill such as is used for sinking oil wells.
As soon as the hard rock is penetrated, the rod drill of either
type can be substituted to get a better record of the coal. The
combination of rope drill and Davis-cutter drill is recommended
for holes of large diameter.
If the prospecting shows that there are any unusual con-
ditions not found in adjoining mines, such as bony coal, frozen
coal, sulphur bands, or steeper dip, it is absolutely necessary to
secure enough data to make it possible to settle the "local con-
ditions" with the Miners' Union before any money is spent in
opening vtp the mine. If the prospecting shows unfavorable con-
ditions, the mine should not be opened until there is an outlook
for a good demand for coal at a profitable price.
lyGoo'^lc
Coal Mining in Akkansas
srORAGB OP COAU
Several reasons for the storage of coal in Arkansas have
been given on page 324. Besides these, it is quite essential to
store coal at Spadra and Russellville in order to prevent the com-
plete loss of the maricet, because of inability to deliver coal when
it is ordered.
In the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining
Engineers, volume 42, page 314, R. V. Norris has given all
possible data upon the stongc of anthracite coal in the air, and
the discussion need not be repeated. He strongly recommends
mechanically operated plants, designed especially to reduce the
breaking of the coal. This breaking causes a heavy loss, even
with the hard Pennsylvania anthracite coal, and will be worse
with the softer semi-antfaracite coal of Spadra and Qarksville.
Breakage is especially severe if the coal is dropped any distance,
or if it is drawn from the bottom of a high pile while it is under
pressure. Freezing need not be feared in Arkansas.
A few of the softer coals of Arkansas can be safely stored
in the same way, but, with most oi them, there is darker of
spcmtaneous combustion or of falling to slack, and the larger
sizes at least must be stored under water. All tests show that
no noticeable changes occur in coal under water and the only loss
will be breakage in handling. The chief objection to storing coal
under water in most places is the annoyance of frost, which inter-
feres with reloading and with unloading of wet coal from the
railroad cars. The mild climate of Arkansas obviates the first
difficulty and if the work is properly done, the coal will be drained
before it freezes in cars sent north.
By dropping the coal into water, the main source of break-
age is avoided. If any mechanical plant is used for reloading,
the shoveling types working from the bottom of the pile are best*
They can be easily used in a plant designed for Hand loading and
are recommended. Other machines handling grab buckets can
be used without dramng off the water, but they cause too mud)
breakage. For reloading slack, the large steam-operated slip
scraper, pulling the coal up an incline to the car, is cheaper to
install and is /ecommended. The best arrangement for storing
*Mmes and Minerals, Sept., 1908, Vol. 29, page 76.
Enpnttr^f Ntws, June 20, 191a, Vol. 67, page 1176.
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 585
lump coal under water seems to require a pond that can be readily
drained. This can be crossed by a series of trestles from which
the coal can be dumped into the water by gable-bottomed cars.
With a proper layout of these trestles, the cars can be hauled
from the tripple by mules and automatically dumped without stop-
ping, and the expense of putting the coal in is very small. The
coal can be reloaded into small cars running under the dumping
trestles. A hoist is necessary to pull the car up an incline to the
railroad cars, and several reloading tracks can be served by one
small hoist, or the cars may all be pushed to die foot of the incline.
The track can be relaid as the coal is removed. The hoist may
be a contractor's donkey engine on skids, but if near the tipple,
it will be cheaper to supply steam from the main boiler plant to
a small hoist.
To reduce the expense of grading, the ponds can be made
less than 150 ft. wide and as long as desired, following contours.
The waste dirt may be heaped up between the ponds and no re-
taining walls will be necessary. The ponds may be emptied one
at a time as needed and the coal allowed to drain for as long a
time 3s is desirable before it is loaded. The dam may be of earth
with a concrete outlet for draining. In most places, natural sur-
face water can be made to fill the pond and no cement bottom
will be necessary. To insure clean coal, a bed of slack may first
be'put down. For convenience in shoveling, a cement floor is
much iietter. It can be put in for 75c, a square yard. To keep
mud off the coal, the natural drainage ^ould be run past the
ponds until it is nearly clear, or if water is scarce, it should'be
run into a settling pond before reaching the coal ponds. The
main storage pond may occupy the widened bed of a tow-
banked stream. The waste earth can be used as a high dam
above this, and the lake formed by it will serve as a settling
pond. An overflow channel can then be made around the waste
bank along one side of the storage pond. If the settling dam is
high enough, other long fallow storage ponds may be built at
higher levels parallel to the iirst one. Valves and concrete cul-
verts will be needed for filling the storage ponds as desired. The
general arrangement will then be as shown on Plate XIV.
The coal may be dumped into water without shock. The
wear of dumping it into low gable-bottomed cars will be less than
lyGoO'^lc
586 Coal Mining in Arkansas
that of dumping it into railroad cars, if a proper chute is used.
The extra wear of storage is then only that caused by shovelmg
up the coal and dumping it into cars. Nearly all the slate may
be removed during the shoveling in day-light by paying a little
extra per ton for the slate picked out. The incline to the cars
may be high enough to admit the use of a bar screen. These
precautions will make it possible to supply coal of standard qua!-,
ity or twtter from the storage ponds.
the first cost will depend upon the nature of the land sur-
face. In favorable locations, the grading will cost less than loc.
per ton of capacity. The cost of the trestle and track will depend
upon the depth of the pond. If the trestles are high, they need not
be so close together. If we assume that the trestles are
20 ft. high and 20 ft. apart, each foot will allow the storage of
a'bout 10 tons of coal and their cost will not exceed 20c. per ton of
capacity. The total first cost will then be 30c.. and interest and
depreciation at 20 per cent per annum will be 6c. a ton if coal is
stored only once a year. The reloading can be done by the cheap-
est class of labor and will not cost more than 8c. per ton for shov-
eling, or 14c. for all labor together. This is repaid by the steady
operation by the mine and consequent reduction in fixed charges,
and by the difference in value of the coal in summer and winter.
A profit should be suj^lied by lower wages accepted by the
miners in return for steady work. The cost of a storage plant
should be compared to half that of opening another mine because
it will increase the annual capacity 50 per cent.
' The average depth of the coal pile will vary greatly. At
18 ft., a single acre will store about 20,000 tons. Storage should
be provided for nearly 100 days output and the larger mines will
need 7.5 acres of storage room. If the ponds are 150 ft. wide, the
total length must then be about 2,000 ft., and the greatest haul of
the coal in small cars will be ifloo ft. with best conditions and
three ponds,
MINE ACCOUNTS.
.Accurate cost records are desiraWe for the following pur-
poses: (i) To determine exactly the average cost, per ton of
coal, of each item of payment for which there is a special scale
price in the agreement with the mine workers, (2) To deter-
mine the total cost of the different kinds of openings and struc-
lyGoo'^lc
/ / I ik\
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
Conservation of Expense. 589
tures in the mine, per ton of coal and per unit of structure. (3)
To leant the effect of variation in local conditions, such as thick-
ness of coal, the kind of roof, and the amount of draw slate,
based on the tonnage of coal produced under those cotxlitions.
(4) To judge of the efficiency of the work of each group of
men paid by day labor, and to check any tendency to extravagance
in employing labor.
The costs first mentioned are generally entirely beyond the
control of the operator and are of use only in drawing up a labor
agreement and can,, therefore, be most easily dispensed with.
Some of the items are often needed for other purposes and can
be cheaply determined by two methods. First, the yardage book
of the mine foreman can have a number of names on a page and
have ruled columns for each item of dead work, and for the total
Ordinarily, only the total for each man need be copied upon the
payroll ledger, and whenever the totals of each item for the mine
or entry are desired, they can be taken directly from the fore-
man's book by merely adding i^ the figures. To reduce the size
of the book without cramping the space, the pages of the bocdc
should be ruled differently for entry-men and for room-men.
Spaces should be left for the actual measurement, as, so many
square yards of rock of such a thkkness. The office force can
then make the calculations of the total,
It is necessary to make out a complete statement ol payroll
items to give to the miners. These statements can as well as not
be made in columns beneath printed heads. They can then be
made as a carbon copy of the same entries transferred from the
present style of yardage book to the ledger, and the individual
items can then be obtained for the entire mine by merely adding
the columns. This second method of getting payroll items has
the incidental advantage of giving a check on the entries in the
ledger because the sum of the columns in each page must equal
the sum of the column for total yardage. There can also be no
undetected errors in copying the miners' statements. The ledger
is most convenient if of the loose-leaf form, and the pages for
room-men and entry-men should be different to save bulk and
expense. There seems to be no possible excuse for keeping a
special office yardage-book, into which the records of the fore-
man's book are copied.
lyGoO'^lc
590 Coal Mining in Arkansas
There is a great advantage in keeping a, record of the niim-
ber of diggers in the mine each day. This should be done by tne
weigh-boss who can receive reports frcan the drivers in case the
coal bulletin does not show conclusively whether or not the dig-
gers were in the mine. Separate records should be kept for
entry-men and room-men and for those men working double or
single or in entries of different widths. Such a simple record
will make it possible to compute the average daily earnings of all
the contract miners of each group. The weigh-man can make
a record for each man's attendance upon the. bulletin and this can
be copied into the daily coal-bode. At the end of the two weeks,
the number of days worked can be entered upon the payroll
along with the total tonnage.
The second lot of costs are important in adjusting tne gen-
eral layout of the mine, and are readily obtained by proper sum-
mations of the different pay-roll items. It is very advisable not
to make these according to any system but to prepare reports
only as desired by the superintendent at intervals. In order to
do this, the mine foreman's report of supplies and day labor mum
distribute the co.st of ties, props, and labor of maintenance among
the different sorts of workings. The superintendent shouM know
the average cost per yard of complete entry of each sort in us^:,
including switches and room-necks ; the cost of crosscuts, break-
throughs, etc. ; the cost of a switch, overcast, permanent or tem-
porary stopping ; the cost of maintenance of old and new entries,
and all such things ; and the cost of haul per unit of distance
under different conditions. In order to keep these records, it is
necessary that the yardage measurements of the pit-boss be
ohedted against the totals determined by surveys. If the miner
has been bothered by any unusual condition, it is quite customary
for the pit-boss to alk)w the entry-man a little extra yardage to
avoid the establishment of a precedent. Rather than do this, it
is better to state on the yardage boc4c just why the extra amount
is allowed, and not to spoil the yardage record for calculations.
The third lot of cost data is almost never kept. For this
purpose, it is necessary to know m what part of the mine each
miner works. This can be very simply done by assigning check-
numbers to the miners in such a way that all the men in each
entry will have numbers close together and by changing the
lyGoo'^lc
Conservation of Expense. 591
miner's check-number each time his place is changed. The owt-
piit from any entry may then be quickly determined by adding
the semi-monthly output of coal from the records in the miners'
coal-book. It is very important in some cases to figure these extra
costs against the coal obtained from that locality. Unless this is
done, much coal may be mined at a loss, which will reduce the
average earnings of the mine. This information is also necessary
for the intelligent planning of extensions of the mine into places
where unfavorable conditions are known to exist. It will often
serve to show the need of more prospecting, or a change in the
length of rooms or direction of the rooms, as the dip changes.
These records are vital for forecasting the pr«>bable cost-of coal
from distant parts of the mine and for comparison with the
known conditions of competing mines.
The record should be so kept that the information can be
obtained whenever desired, but there is no need of compiling the
separate costs except under special circumstances, and the extra
bo<Jckeeping will not be very expensive. All of these costs are
best figured upon the basis of the bulletin weight of coal hoisted,
rather than upon the weight of coal shipped. The cost of boiler
coal and shortage will then af^ar as perfectly proper items of
cost and will not be concealed. It will also make it possible cor-
rectly to average and sum the costs based on local outputs.
The fourth group of records gives the most dire<^ return.
Each mine foreman should be provided with blanks for a day-
labor report in detail. On this should be written the number
of men regularly employed about the mines, such as firemen,
rope-riders, etc., a detailed statement of the work of each man
of the miscellaneous crew, and the reason for any addhional
expense. Such reports will give the foreman a feeling of re-
sponsibility and will enable the office force to figure at any time
the cost of maintaining the roof of any particular main slope or
entry, and the cost of laying track, keeping track in condition,
and the cost of stoppings and so. forth. The boss drivers at the
larger mines should report the output of each individual driver,
the number of wrecks, and the reasons for delay. This will have
a good effect upon the drivers, and will reduce the danger of
slighting the track work in order to keep down the cost of track-
men. To be effective, these reports must be carefully studied
lyGoO'^lc
59^ Coal Mining in Arkansas
and the office force should compile monthly reports of the cost
per ton of 'haulage on the different entries and main haulage lines,
and of the different items of maintenance. Pains should be taken
to see that the sum of the reported outputs of the individual
entries checks with the total of the mine. Such records will show
the real cost of making switches and other machinery in the
blacksmith shop and so check much waste of money. It throws
extra work upon the mine foreman, but enables the more able
men to prove their superiority and will, therefore, make the
position more attractive to them. It will also show the cost of
each individual squeeze, mine fire, and other accident. They are
aibsolutety essential wherever mining machines are operated on
day's pay.
lyGoO'^lc
Abandoned parts of mines, wasts of ooal In tST
worklnKs. metliod of ivproaoblng; required b7 law SIS
AbatRLCt of Arkanaaa Iftwi 117
Acatj^ene lAgbU itt
Acoeaalble traveUnK-war SBT
Aooeaalblllty ot tbe coal, Influeoco upon fixed ezpenaeB SIC
Acddanta lO, iTt
and (Ob entriea '411
and hlKb cars 444
and laws, mlnlnc )tl
and narrow entriea 411
and poUtloal power of mlnei* ttl
burden of preventing Itl
car, and better ll«bt 141
the operators IBl
victims tsi
cars 441, 441
electric baulace 44f
tsIUns ot men 414
falls of root 417
Kood turn tSl
basard ot mining t Ill
hills In the roads 441
machinery 41S
mistUes In sbans 44T
rope hanlace 444
union rules. 114
walklDK In haulase-wayi 44(
compensation for 401
etCeets of mine-run law upon 21G
few, in Arkansas ooal mines 10
Increase In price of powder, to prevent 407
Inveatlsatlon and studr of mine til
of, required by law Its
Unds ot t>l
prevention of. br better discipline 403
sununary of discussion of mine 447
table of «4
, mine G8t
Actual and tbearetlcal yardase costs 450. 480
Additional bencbes, value of ccal In 4B4
Advantages of chain machines 4Bt
contlnuous-cutttnff machines tit
dry roads m
KOod turn to the oomganr 1)4
machines to miners
narrow entries In ahallow mines
pn^er srade*
a proper law for mine propplnK Mr tlmberlnc. .
„Gooi^lc
Coal MiNJNC in Arkansas
acreen-coBl scale at E>ennln8 Us
special air-course rooms 337
slorInK coal. Incidental 324
the thicker seams o( coal Slg
the Union !11
Asa of the coal 2
AKreement, Joint Interataie, for 190S 17S
general provisions of contract illccuealon of ISO
the turn, proposed Stb
violation of, by minors J15
Air. amount and distribution of, suKKested t32
of, for each spilt 3RE
amounts of water and steam needed for mine 4IG
amount of required by law
cold, dry, table of steam needed t
coal of molstenlnK mine
-course, defined
saturate and v
. 167
. 420
special. advantaKCB of I9T
wide pillars between
strength of, needed for removal of gas..
vater needed for
necessity for warming and molsienlng mine..
splits of, Arkansas law relating to
ti Jet
nolsli
mine.
warm, moist
table of water for cooling
-waya, large
separation of Intake and return
Alabama coal burned in Arkansas coalfield
Amortization of mines, cost of 316
Ankylostlmlasis 391
Annuities, recommended 408
Anticlines S
Appliances, safety. Injury of, forbidden by law 229
Appointing mine Inspectors. suBsesled method Of 219
Arbitrariness of the Union SIS
ArbltrB.tlon agreement 176
board J32
Area, coal-bearing, In Arkansas 1
Arguments In favor of mine-run law 2i8
Arkansas coal and coal mines, general conditions relating to the 1
coalfield S, 4
geology of J
map of the S
coal, geological history M 1
slack of )!
chamcter of 8
softness of 6!
Arrangement of change house, suggested *00
for dumping waste B40
of. motor parlingH B47
partings 646
of seml-anthraclte tipples, suggested E2T
of shaft bottoms E*5
lyGoo'^lc
surface »i
welghlnK. at llpplea 541
Ash of the Arhansaa coal ■. . . 8
AimoBpliere, oppressive, caused by steam Jets 11E
Attendance of dl8g:et«. record of 590
Attendant for change house 402
Altracllng Bood mlnere
Average car of coal, [layinent for £48
Avoiding entry stoppings S9B
mln by Bteam Jets, In old workings
radiators
stoppings In dipping coal
flat coal seams
unexpected strikes and the Union 213
wear on soft coal 626
Augers, Increased length of, following mine-run law £56
Back entry
Baldwin, longwall mining- at 72, 73
Ballast (or mine tracka .'..448, 460
Band rock 2
thickness of, and coat of longwall mining E04
Bands, dirt, and mine-run law 2SZ
sulphur 8
Barrels, blasting 40S
Basin 3
Oat or Irregular, mines In BTS
steep, mines In i GTS
Baskets, weigh, and breaking coal 520
Batea, rope carriage at 4)S
trip dog used at 446, 140
Bath'houae, see Change house.
Beginning of entry In low coal IS
Bench, a thin bottom, and longwall 619
•and-bencb, shooting 64
bottom, at Hlne No. 17, Jenny L.ind, seam in OS
mining the, by longwall 513
double, costs of mining 61T
high coal and machines 490
■hooting the bottom S4
top. frosen to the roof 44
mining the. by longwall retreating 610
of semi-ant hraclte coal at Russellvllle 16
Bsnehes, additional, value of coal in 484
Id the coal seam at Huntington 03
mining additional, of compound seams 184
unmlned. waste ot ooal In 331
Better grades and terminals 642
light, and car accidents 141
and fallB of roof 121
(or drivers 141
recovery, and narrow entries 167
tracks, recommended 548
Bins, dirl, at tipples 640
Birds (or rescue work 421
„Gooi^lc
596 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Bl«ck-<lamp IBT
Jack
Blaatlnc
at Coaldale, uas of apracs In
heavy, etteot o(, upon coal , 16B
■catterInK oool by
methods of
Blown-out ahot at Chant. Okia
Boiler coal, at soft coal mines, coat of
hlsh-prlMd, at Spadra
Bony coal
Booka, yardaKe
Bore boles, advanoed, required by law ItS
Bottom bSDCb, a thin, and lonswall
at Mine No. IT. Jenny Und, seam In
mlnins tbe, by lonrwall fill
shootlns tbe
comparmtlve coat* of mlnlnc medium ooal with..
profitable soalea for
scale for
double diamond
labor In soft coal, coat of
wedsbiK up
Bottoms, shaft, arrangement of
Boundary lines, waste of coal along
Box tor sumps
Bracing, lor mine cars, suggested
Brakes and hilts
for cara, recommended
for hoisting engine, required by law
for mine cara
method of building
see also stoppings.
suggested use of
Breaking of coal, ajid welsh ~ba«keta
prtnw In brusbed entries, use of
tbe roof by coeJ pillars
Break 'tb roughs, long, avoiding in wide pinars ttt
suggested acale tor
used at entries GTt
Bribing of drivers til
Briquets
'Broken oars' *• a cause ot accidents
Brushed entriea..
lyGoo'^lc
Bnublns and mlnliiK portlncs 4
bottom
aompaniUT« ooiU ot ninlnr medium ooal with t
coat of loadlns out. In BbaUow mlDM 1
Id low coal, 'view of
Buddies
BulIdlnK ot pack-walla at Baldwin
Bulletin SSe, U. S. O. S.
Bumpers for oara, disousaed .* t
Burden of preventlns acddants t
Bureau of ICloea, reterred to 410. 4
Bums, saa ( 4
Builn«aSi loaa ot, caused b7 mlne-rnn law 1
Cace, hood-ovor, re<iulred by law S
CaxInK machines B
Calyx drill, Davla S
Camps, unhealthy, hl^h ooM of labor cauaed by 1
Cap'llKbt, carbide. euKVested modUloallon ot the 4
Cap'pl«o«
Capacity, large, ot mines E
malDtalninK S
of loaders and mac^ilnes 4
ot mlnea, influence upon Oz«d expenses 3
Carbide cap-llKht, sugKested modification of the 4
Caibon dioxide 1
dlaulphlde as an insecticide 4
description of. '4
quantltr required to kUl Inseota ', 4
monoxide 1
Cor accidents and better Ugbt t
bodies, high, dlsouBsed. 4
bralces. cost ot i
Careless nUnlng, oost ot, •«« contparatlre ooats under desired oondltlana.
Careful mtntns, cost of, see oompaiatlve costs under destred condltlora.
Car of coal, aTerage, payment tor 1
tracks, obatructlona on 4
Cars, accidents caused by cllmblnc up 4
better system ot hiuidUng S
brakes for, recommended 4
broken, as a. cause ot accidents 4
bumpers tor, discussed 4
handllns In steep coal ■
hlsh, and acddenCs 4
loaded, excess weight ot 4
handllns, by company. In Ions rooms ESS, 6
mine, accidents caused by cbunUnr np of 4
bradiiK for, sUBKMted E
brakes tor 441. 6
bumpers for 4
hltchlngs tor, batter G
Bte of S
load limit for, entorehiK , 4
suBBested improvements In Ett, ES4, G
lyGoo'^lc
CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
raJIroKd, ajrreament reKardlns
SpraSK'nK. neKleeted
on lonff hillB
10 the mlnera supply o(
loilet S»<
Careful handling of coal
Carele» handling of powder
tamping, complaint of
CarelesHneaB. accldpnta caused by itti
checlted by damase suits 391
In Qrlns shoU
Carriage, see rope cerrlage and slope carriage.
Cause of dust In mines
CauseB for discharging employees
of gas bums t03
of unusual waste of coal SZ8
Caving of long rooms 6S7
Chain machines 75
advantages of 486
and punchers, combined use of GBO
at Denning T>
pillar IT. SO
Change houses ' 3RB, 102
Changes In mine workings for economy bit
In mining methods, object of 38»
In property law to prevent waste o( coal 3t2
Changing conditions and cobIb of pillar mining 4Tt
dip and entry grades 644
Chaiit. Okla., blown-out shot at S3
Character and extent of the coal beds 3
of the coa! of Arkansas 8
Cheap powder, elTect of 40~
Cheaper mining, limits of discussion of 330
Checking squeeies by shooting roof i 482
Check-off, agreement regarding 182
syatem, opposition to 311
Choke-damp 110
Chunking up of mine cars, accidents caused by
Clarkavllle, parting In coal near
Classes of work, agreement regarding
Clay for tamping
Clinkers, labor of handling
Closed shop, maintenance of the
Closing entries containing gas 404
Clothes, pit, drying
Coat, age of the
Alabama, burned tn Arkansas
and coal mines, general conditions relative to the Arkansas
Arkansas, character of coat and slack
softness of SI
at Coaldale, description of
at Dardanetle
at Denning 80
at Paris
bearing area
„Gooi^lc
beneath Sugarloaf Mountain and Poteau Uountaln 7
breaking, and welgh-baBketB 62B
careful handllns of , b2C
character and extent o( the bed* S
conaervallon of 4SI
cost of complete recovery of the 3g»
CoaWale, coal at, description of 06
method of mining at ee, n
allpa at : \ . 67
Coal, deep, mlnlnK, under poor roof b24
defldent Eg
waate of coal due to 330
dipping, avoiding: stoppings In gse
and longwall with face tiHck eO»
double-bench, and longwall BIB
coat* of mining BK
exploalons 415
wetting ^10
erosion of the rocks and ' j
eitent of the 3
faults In the '. j
faulty, and longwall 6O7
Coalfleld, ArkanBas 1^ 5 ' ^ j
Alattama coal burned In 281
and Oklahoma, unity of 2B8
Coal, flve-foot, coHla of long rooms in gSi
flat, waate of. at Spadra 62»
forming period 2
geological history of Arkansas '..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. i
good-ahoollng ^ g
hauling In the mine IB
Hartshome 2 4 (i
high, advanlagea o( '_ _ 'sjg
In the ground, asaured. value of 451
Joints In the " ' 53
machines and partings near the top of the 19g
mochlne-cut. blasting ^37
snubbing ^^3
mining at Bxcelslor 73
of considerable dip. longwall for B04
of high dip, longwall for B07
of medium hIghC, see medium coal.
operators and the Union 212
parting Itu near Clarksvllle g
portion worked 7
recovery of \ _[ 4
Ruaselivllle <al), description of 7
Huntington (at), benches In the fl3
seams, thin, longwall In B01
compound, mining (j, B]4
seml-anthracltB g
top bench of, at RUBsellvllle SB
soft, see Boft coal.
steeply dipping, see steeply dipping coal.
lyGoo'^lc
6oo CoAi. Mining in Arkansas
Coil — Cantimuid. gtot
atomse. coata ol 6g7
tachnlcal diaciualon of tg4
stuck, top and bottom Cg
thin. Me thin coaL
value of. In additional benchea 414
variation In the beda ol *. z
waate of, aee waata ol coal.
vaate of, aummary t]7
woody SI
Coke t
Cold, err air, table of ateam needed to aatumta sod warm 410
Colda, prevention of, by ahanse houaea |)t
Collier, Arthur (referred to} 1, 4
Combuatlon, apontaneotia, and atoraxe of coal ESG
Commltteo, pit, agreement laiardlnK dutlea of 181
Company men 84
aee operator.
Btorea ill
Compeoaatlon for accldenta 408
Compamtlve condition* at Spadrs and aoft-eool mines 119
Comparative ooata of careleaa and careful mlnlnx 4fil to 4TS
In medium ooal under weak roof tBt
with bottom bruablnK 400
with Ions rooma ill
witb abort rooma 4<T
wltb twin Kob entrlea and narrow room* 4TK
and wide pUlara. . 474
with twin haulace and lonK rooma 470
and abort rooma.... 471
In ahallow mlnea 4GI
Compatktira ooata of level and dipplni rooma In ataep oo«i 48t
Complate recovery of ea«L ooat o( ISO
Compound aeam and maoblnee 400
mintnj additional benchea of 4(4
by lonrwall 014
by room and pllUu- It
coat of mininc tlS, SI7
entrlaa In 4t
Computatlona on conaervatlon ot ootO, condltlona of 401
Conceaalona In prtce to secure ateady operation til
obtained by the ITnlon from the operatora tit
ptopoaed labor til
•mall, (ranted by the opeiaitora Its
Condamnatlon proceeding 811
Condition, general, ot the minlns Induatry 107
at the mine, acreemeot recardlDB 184
Condltlona. cIuuiKlnc, and coata of pillar mlnlns 470
oompamtlTe, at Spadi» and >ott-OMa roln«« tlO
local, and proapeotlng 088
unfavorable. In Arkanaaa mlnea under mine-run law tSt
worUnC, control of, by operatora ttt
dlacnaalon of the agreement resardlnf lOT
Conaerratfon 880
and draatlc leslalatlan 4Gt
and mankind 4Bt
llmlta of dlacuaaloa of ISO
lyGoo'^lc
ConKrv ■tioD — C^nHmud^
and acale priOM... ....,
coDdlClona of computatiOD on
mlnlDK moehlDeg for 48S
aumm^ry of dlscmulon ot
of the bealth and vafety of the roloera
profltB from
auKKeatad, plana of
Conaumers and oporatora. total annual ooat of mlna-run to
and alack ooal
ooat of Blata to S79, iSO
Injury to, cauaod br mine-run law
Contentiona of miner*, waate of ooal due to tSO
ConttnuouB-QuttlnK machine*
work (aee ateadr work.)
Contour m«^ of mines
ContToIllDK entry gradea, method of
Control of employaea S18> Ml
of isa, auKKeated
of mine workings prevented by Union
of working condltlona by operator
Conveyra^ longwall
Cooling warm, molat, air, table of watw tor > 418
Coppv blaatlng barrel*
tipped toola .,
Coat, with narrow entrlea
blgb, oauaed by dip ot the coal
of amortization of mines SIC
of brakes for mine cara i
of careful mining, eee comparative coata under oondlttons dealrad.
of carelcae mining, aee comparative coats under coodltlona dMired.
of dead work with wide entrlei, theoretical 4
of development, longwall retreatinK G
of entrlea, reducing li
of gob entrlea In ahallow mlnea 4
of good turn I
of handling parting* 486
of labor, high, reaaons for toa, 109
of loading out bruatalng In ahallow mlnea
of long rooms In flve-tool coal, table ot
In medium coal with gob entrlea
with wide plllara SeS
In thin coal
of longwall and thlckneu of bank rock
at Spadra
retreating
with conveyors
of loaa of market for Arkansas ooal, total
of maintenance reduced by good turn
by narrow entrlea
ot tnaohlne plant at Spadra
at aoft-coal
of mine-run law to minera of the State, total 978
to operators and conaumers, total
to the State, total
n> 000^^10
Coal Mining in Arkansas
of mining ArkansaB coal, hlsh .
or mining at RusseUvllle
at Spadra
compound H«<unE of coal by lonrwall G16
by room -and -pillar E16
pillars tn shallow mines
under changing conditions
■o(t-ooat, (able of - lie
of moistening mine air
of narrow entries In shallow mines, theoretical
of overcasts with light walls
of pushing cars In long rooms
of slate to consumers of coal STtl. I
to State government
of storage plant for soal
of storing coal
of suBpenslons of mining
of the complete recovery of coal
of unwarranted strikes ilT
of various Items In sort-coal mining 311 to aiT
records and labor efnclencf SSI
and miners' statements 68»
Of labor scale Items S89
of mine details BBl
various ESS
Costs, comparative, see comparative coats 5S3
reducing, labor, by steadier operations 321
by good turn 2H
by better mine plant 3*6
prospecting 315
yardage, actual and theoretical Ait, ISO
Cottrell. process, settling mist by 413
Coursing system of ventilation, advantages and disadvantages of 30
ventilation and gas 40G
by 18 to 20
Crab locomotives E$3
Cribs for longwall 610, 61S
Crossbars, method of setting at Coaldale 67
In gob entries *t
Crosscuts, excessive number of 3»«
Interval between, required by law 317
room, see break-throughs.
scale for 100
suggested scale for ■ 310
Cross-over dumps 639
Crowd sheaves for entry partings 633
Curtain, mine 16. 17
Cutting 38
In rooms 68
Cuttings, labor of malting tat
scale for 300
Dally earnings, decrease in, caused by mine-run law US
I>amage suits, carelessness checked by 3V1
Dardanelle. coal near 4
Davis calyx drill 683
lyGoo'^lc
603
Davy lamps, stielterinK trom drafts
Day, asTvement reKardlnx elKht-hour
Day crew, records of costs of
Day-men
and gooi turn 2Z1, 2Zt
records of costs of '. G9t
Dead-lines for sas 10, 40E
Dead-worlE, cemt In aoft-ooat mines,
Hcalea for lOO
with wide entries, theoretical cost of
Death of shot-ftrar cftused by the Union 214
Deaths and funerals, agreement regarding
Decreaae In coat of mining by better prospecting and better mine plant. . 315
In dally earnings caused by mlno-run law 271
In fixed expensas by storing coal St4
In labor by miners, caused by mine-run law
In quality of oosi
In sale value of coal due tq slack
of damage from windy shots
Decreasing cost of entries
of mining, methods ol ISO
Deep coal, mining, under poor roof
mines, mining plUara In ti:
Deflclent coal, defined '. ifiS
In soft-coal mines, cost of :
screened -ooal. scale (or !4B
suggested scale tor 1 10
waste Df coal caused by *
work, payment for, at Fidelity
Demands, local agreement regarding
unreasonable, at Spadra
Denning, advantages of screeded-coal scale at
chain machines at
Depreciation of plant at sott-COal mines
Depth at which entries can be protected
great, mining steep coal at Bg2
. Derailing switches 44B
Design of a corhlde cap-lamp, suggested
of mine plant (31
of mine tipples CST
Of spiral (or raising rope 140
Details of driving entries SI to fiO
of mining SS to 102
cost records of fidO
or overcasts with light walls 4ie
of spiral for raising rope 431
of working rooms G2 to 88
Devalopment of large capacity G&<
of longwall retreating, cost of ttt
time of E21
of machine mines 410
ol mines In steep coaL method of STS
rapid, and narrow entries IGt
Difference In value of slack coal and lump coal 2BS, 232
Difficulties of maintaining the tinlon 13ft
Difficulty of regulating mining by law 440
J, record of attendance of G9D
i.^anyGoOC^Ie
6o4 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Dicxer. sevsral llsbta lor each
Dtmenalon* of timbara tor ovarcaMa, taUa of . . .
Dip, chanKlnVi and eatry STtuJei
conaldarable, lonvwall for
reaulr«d for lonffwall with j>ortable track ■ .
hlKh. lonKwoU for
of coal ■eaniB, blsb ooat oauaed by
waste of ooal oauaed b; tlS. 1
of JotDts
Dlpplns and leval room*, oomparatlTe ooat of mlolns ateap cool with. . . E
coal Euid lonKwall with f«ce tnwk
avoiding atopplDgi In
ataeplr, machhiea Id
mlnaa la -
Dip rooms, crab locomotive for
Dlp-awltotaas
Dirt bands snd mlna-nm law
bins at tipples
handling, at tipples
aea slata.
Dirty coal caused by goat turn
Dlicbarrlns employees, causes for
and hIrlDK, asreement regardlnK
reckless men
Discipline, prevention of acddants by better
Discomfort of handling coal In dwelllnKl under mlne-r
Discussion of long rooms, technical
of mlae accidents, aiunmary of
of mining r
of scales for slopes
of the aareemont
Of the mine-run law, summary of
of the mining laws of Arkansas
of the »eala of minlns and yardage
f sights for rooms
Dlareapect of mine offlclals by members of the Union. .
Distribution of air, augseated
DootOT, agreement regarding
Dootora, information from
Dog, trip, used at Bates
Domestic market for Arkansas eoal
Doors, open, and gaa
aubatltutlon of. for overcaata
Double-bench coal, see compound seams of ooaL
Doubledar, pile of slack at
table of results of washing slack at
Double -diamond bottom
Double entries required by law
shift, extra payment for
shooting In machine mines
Drafts, aheltarlng Davy lampa from
strong. Injury of
Drainage, mine
Drastic legislation and conservation of ooal . .
„Gooi^lc
Draw Bbite and falls of roek SOI
d^lned t
dticuralon of the Bcreement rvgaiHiag SOT
Drirta, dellnsd 24
Drill, DCivlB calyx Egg
Hardaocg: 47
holea, advanoed. required br law iZg
ratchet 47
Drlllit ehum II
DrinkltiK water, wholeaome, at mines Ill, got
Drivers, agreement regardlnK woilc Of lit
better llgbt for 441
Drlvlnci rapid entry, machines lor GOO
DrunkenneHB, amount of .,, ....,.........,.,....,,.. 1£1
Dry air, table ot amount* of water needed tor 417
water eprayB for 411
Drying pit clothes tOl
Dry roads, advantages ot, to tho operator SSt
Dumps, cross-over Gt9
for tipples SIS
Dumping waste, arrangement for B4I)
Dust, coaJ, see coal duet.
eiploHlone, defined 10
Irritation, treatment for 3B3
Duties of Are boss, defined by law IIT
of pit committee, agreement regarding 188
Dysentery IJB
Earnings, Increase In, caused by good turn 114
of machine ninnen 4l>i
under mine-run law, decrease of ITS, STT, 178
under mine-run law. Increase of S60
Base of properly preparing shale In Arkansoa 1S3
Efficiency of labor, and C08t record* B90
Bfforte to get lump coal under mine-run law IGG
BnKlneen, hoisting, quallflcatlons required by law ZIB
Elght-bour day, agreement regarding 170
Electrlc-alr punchers BOO
Electric haulage and accidents 446
lights for miners 4S0
for mules 441
for BtabiM 414
mining machines TE
plant, special, for mines GS5
pumps and fans 854
Electrical machines, maker* of G3S
Bltglblllty for ofDcers In the Union, suggested 220
Bmployeei, causes for discharging 110
control of S18
right of hiring and discharging ITS, 110
End* of entries, hauling coal from tt>
waste of Qoal In SIS
Ehiforcement of laws controlling miners 301
BnforclDK load limit tor mine cars 441
Bnglne-plonea 21
In steep coal B7S, ESI
Entering gas, and dlsolpUne 404
jyGooc^le
Coal Mining in Arkansas
best lenKih of G<>
break -throuKhii u*ed as ITS
brushed, use ol breaklns-propa In 41
depths at which entries can be protected 4*0
double, required by low HI
ends of, haullne coal from SGt
waste of coal In lit
Bob 44
and accidents 418
comparative costs ol got entries and aarrow
entries 4ei, 4«1 to 480
coit of. In BluUlow mines 46>
in medium coal 4*1 to 480
use of cross-bars In 44
use of props In 44
trade of it. 64S
In dipping seems 4t
In double-bench coal 4>
irreffuiar, waste of coal due to SES
lonK hllU in 441
narrow, advantagea of. In shallow mines 4Et
and accidents 418
and better recovery 4S1
and maintenance coats 460
and rapid development' 4G*
first cost' of coal with 466, 4*4, 4*8, 410, 4T1, 4T>, 4T4, 478
In BhcJow mines 4Gt
theoretical, cost of 4St
protection, by pillars 4*1
reduction of waste of coal t>y Ill
aussested scale for 110
of different widths, scale for 108
reducinc coat of STO
sifhts for 41
stub grade for 644
waste of coal In ends of St*
Entry, back 17
berlnnlcK of, In lower coal 11
driving, rapid, machines for 600
grades and changing dip C41
method of controlling E4t
In low coal, beginning of ) I
men and good turn Ill
partings IS, 64*
crowd sheaves for hit
Equal turn, and machines 48t
agreement regarding 184
for Idle day work 21*
Erosion of the rooks and coal 8
Kscape-way 18
required by law 118
Exelslor, coal mining a.t IS
Bxce™ weight of loaded cars 444
Excessive amount of water required to cool mine air 41)
number of brattices 404
of crosH-cuIa »*
use of powder 407
„Gooi^lc
6o7
Bxhaust steam, amount yielded per horse-power hour.
Bipense, canier*atlon o(
load llmtt to save
maintenance, of mnchlnes in soft coal
of ihe Union
savInK of
Expenses, cost of general, of soft-coal mines
nxed, flxed. decrense In, by storing coa.1....
Of aoft-coal mines
Explosion walls, overcBSIs wlih
Explosions and mine tires
coal dust
recovery of mines after
Explosive
Extent of Che coal deposlls
Face conveyors. lonvwati, with steep dip
track, portable, longwatl with
tracks and loncwall
Faeior of safety for ropes, proper
Fairness, nomlnaL ot the mine-run law
of the scale '. .
FallInK of men. acldents due lo the
FUlls of rock and draw slate
loadtns of, and the Union
of roof, accidents from
and better light
caused by steam Jet
Family, flnanclal value of a miner to his
Families of the miners, provisions (or
Fan houses, tlreproaf
Fans, electric
Faults
Faulty patches and longwall
Favoritism
Fidelity, hllchlnga used at
payment for dellclent work al
Field for use ot longwall
Fighting mine tires
Financial value of a miner to his family
Fines tor unwarranted strikes
EMre alarm
men. Injury to, caused by mine-run law
-proof mine structures
runners and hang-flres
Firing -pin
Fires and tipples
mine
and eicploslons
FlrBt-ald supplies
cost ot coal with narrow entries
Fish-plates for track
Five-foot coat, costs of long rooms In
Fixed expense, decrease In, by storing coal
ot BotC-coai mines
„Gooi^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
Flat baalnB, mlnei In tit
coal'aeama, avoldlnK (topplnsa In »•
coaL WEUite of, at Spadra EIS
Floor and ttiof of Arkanau coal aaamB )
proteeUcB pUlarg by ahootlDK 484
nrlns Bwttctaee by motors t<T
Foldlnc, geoloBlo '. I
Fool'B goia S
FormaldBhrde, aa an Inuctlclde 401
PV««BlnK of water Bprars 411
FrOBt and itorass of coal G>6
Pn»«n ooal, defined tB
PamlKatlon of change housei 401
Fund, relief, from ta^z on powder 40T
f^eralB and deaths, asreement regardtnc IIS
PutMHU on timber* H
Future labor supply for Arkanns oool mine* tI4
Oarforth, W. a, refored to HI
0«B and oounlns TentUatlon 40G
bums, cauaes of 40|
dead IlnoB (or ...10, 40S
rulee for bandllnc 404
auKSeated control of by law SSI
Oaaes. polionous, from powder tOG
Oaiollne loaomotlTee GGS
OatM for lonswall, lenph ot EOl
QatherlnK locomotive* GCl
Ooolosy of the Arkaneaa coalfield 1
Qloesary of mlnlDK terms ttl
Qob entrlea 44
entrlos and accidents 41g
cost of. In shallow mines 4SS
In deep nine* 101 to 4B0
use of croM-boTB and props In 44
waUe In seml -anthracite mines BO
Gobs 14
Good eiplMlves KG
miners, attracting 194
root, longwall under GOT, GOB
-ahoottng coal CO
truck for hlEb-speed lutulace 44S
turn, see turn. good.
Goosenecks for dumping waste E40
Grade, desired for entries G4I, G41
economical limit of It
of entries 41
Grade* and termlnala, better , Gtl
entry, method of controlling , G4t
for entry partings 141
track, and longwall mining GO)
straight-edge for G4t
Grading shaft bottonu G4G
Graft In the Union , tit
Gritty partings a
lyGoo'^lc
<»9
Quards for machinery 43B
for aumpa E41
(or Irolley wlrea 44t
Quide rails for alopfl ropes , GSl
sliafU required by law Stt
High COBC due to dip of coal aeanis MS
dip, see steep dip.
Hltlng and dlacharKlnB, usreemeat regardlnB 1TB
Horizontal rooms in steep coal G7G, 5S£
Hood over cage, required by law SIS
HandllnSi oarelesB, of powder 406
cars, better aystem of S60
In steep coal mln^s STS
cllnkera, labor of 281
coal In dwelllDgs, discomfort of 181
dirt at tipples G3S
loaded cars In long rooms by company tflt, StS
Hang-flres 401
Hardaocg drill 4T
Harper Coal & Coke Co., trip dog used by 44G
HartBhome coal 2, 4, SI
aandstone 2, 4
Haulage, electric accldenls with 441
low-speed rope, recommended 444
rope, accidents with 444
tall-rope, limitations of 674
twin, camparatlve mining costs with. In medium
coal .^, 479. 472, 4TJ, 474, 47S
Haulage-ways, accldenls to men walking In 44e
Hauling coal at end of entry 66»
In longwall mines GO)
In Boft-coal mines, cost of SIS
In the mines 16
In break-throughs BTl
Hazard of mining, accidents caused by SBl
of the mining Industry Ill
Head boards, or cap pieces 44
Heading , SB
Health and safety of the miners, conservation of SBl
conditions. sUght Improvements In IBS
Heat, unnecasBary, In the mines 3SG
Heating tipples G3S
value of the Arkansas coal S
Heavy blasting, see blasting, heavy.
Hlawfttha mine, rope carriage at 4I(
High GST bodies, discussed 444
cars and accidents 444
dip, see steeply dipping coal.
••peed haulage, good track for 441
HIgllt of mine tipples 4SS
of working placet t
Hills and brtLka *42
In roadways, accidents from 4il, 441
Hiring employees 1TB. S2«
Hltchlngs. for mine cars, better ES4
Hobo miners, strikes caused by Sl<
„Gooi^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
HolBtluK CDElne, brakes tor, required by law SIB
englnearB, and tbe law IIS
ropes, factor of lafety for 441
Hook-worm )>I
HorliODfv KeoloKlCkl 1
Hot slopes MG
water for mines 402
Humldllr. explained 411
Huntington, benches in the coal seam at (■
mining machines tor grlttl' partlnga at 4e<
'pigeon- boles' at IS
soalo far br«ak-througbs at lAl
for entries and crosscuts at 101
atrip pit near 10
Hydrosyanlc acid, as an Insecticide 401
Hydrogen sulphide lET
Idle-day worl^ eauol turn for SIC
dars, eee short working time.
Importance of the mine-run law S14
Improper mining caused by Union 114
Improvements. suggeBted, In mine Cars , ES4
Impurities, penalties for loading, agreement regarding ITS
Incorporation of the Union IIR
Increase In price of powder, to prevent accident* 407
In value of coal, prevention of waste Of coal with SIS
Industry, mining, general condition of lit
baraxd of the .»l
Influence of mining machines upon welfare Of the miners SOS
Injured miners, provision for, agreement regarding. 18G
Injuries, see also accidents.
Injury of safety- appliances, forbidden by law 220
of strong drafts StS
to coal consumer, caused by mine-run law 2T1
to State as a whole, caused by mine-run law tit
to firemen, caused by mine-run law 2S1
Injustice of the mine-run law S60
Insecticides ^ 401
Insects, Quantity ot cart>on disulphide required to kill 40t
Inspecting restored ventilation for gas 404
Inspector, shot, recommended 4St
Inspectors, and the Ian S2S, 2)g
suggested means for removal of 141
method of appointing Sit
Intake, main entry as 404
Interference by pit committees 211
Interlaced ownership of land, waste of coal due to StT
Interstate operators' assoclatloa ITS
Interval between crosscuts, required by law IJ7
roads for face-track longwall SOS
Inlroductlon to Part II SSt
Investigation of accidents I2B. t>l
Irregular basins, mines In ITS
progress ot rooms, caused by good turn 11)
working time 1ST
Irregularities in coal, waste of coal duo to S88
Jacks, powder 40C
Jeffrey -O' Toole minlos macbine 4»S, 49B
lenny LInd. seam in bottom benoh at HIne No. IT •■
lyGoo'^lc
JeU. atearo. gee iteam Jets.
Joint Interatate asreement ,
Jolma, dip of
lit the ooal
Kind* o( ocddcDtB
Labor cODCeBilona, proiioaed
oOBts, reduclns, b7 Bto^JHy opflratioa
efflclency and oo«t records GSO
htch co«t of, oa.u««a of jog, soa
of bandllDK onoksr*
of nilnera, reduction in, eatwed b; mlne-mn lav
-■avlnj: devloei, mlBc«Il&n«oua
proBt from
■cale lt«niB, records of coat of
•upply anil the Union
future, for ArkuiHM coal mloM
top. In aoft-ooaJ rolnM, cost of
underiTound, In soft-coal mln«a, cost of
lAOk of urilformlty In th« coa]
Lamp oil. Impure, suBsented law tor. prevention of sale of
Lamps, cvblde
electric
miners', ordinary
Lorse alr-woys ,.
capaoily of mines
Lard oU, dlBcusalon of the agreement to bum
lAW, dinculty of reifulatlng mining by
property, changes In, to prevent waste of coal
see subject.
IdWB, aod accidents, mining
Arl£B.nBB8 mlnlns, dlscussltm of , .
abstract ot
controlling miner*, enforcement of
future modiflcations of . . . ,
mine, and the Union 212
mining, purposes of 3 g 1
preventing Blckness among the miners 392
Layout of mine for continuous coal cutter* 4gg
of mines, general
In steep coaJ
of l«ngwall mines eoi
of shallow mines with wide entrlee
of storage ponds G8B
Leakage, In old stoppings 3)B
Leases, modlfleation of, to prevent waste of coal 3tG
Ledges, mine 589
Legislation, drastic, and conservation 4EI
see law.
Length of augers 268
of entries, best Egg
ot gates for longwall 501
of machine rooms ISO
of planes for steep ooal, best GSi
of rooms, desirable : E8T, 5(8
Leveling track nt
Level rooms In steep coal 876, GBI
Life of mines GS(
mine cars GSS
Light, betier <21
lyGoo'^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
LightB, acetylene 42»
electric, for mltiera 430
for muleg 441
miners" ordinary 161
several, few each digger 429
amoky, agreement regarding 1S7
LJgnlte i
Limit of amount of slate In slack 260
LlmltB oT discussion of cheaper mining 390
of discussion of conservation SS>
Lltchfleld Foundry & Msohlne Co., referred to Gil
Loaded cars, handling by company In long rooms ESS. 5<E
Loaders and machines, capacity of 483
good turn for, after machines 489
In machine mines, advantages of 4BS
pairs of rooms for pairs of 489
Loading coal by machine runners 49!
falls of roek and the Union 813
Impurities, penalties for, agreement
machines .' 5GG
of shots In Oklahoma mines 6>
out brushlnK. cost of. In shallow mines 4EG
out slate, penaltilng miners for iGS
limit and the Union JIB
limit, Htrlct, recommended -....HZ, 443, 444
Load of mine cars, excessive 443
Local agreements regarding slopei ZIO
conditions and prospecting 583
demands, agreement regarding 180
Locker rooms for miners 401
Locomotives, mine, technical discussion of SGI to EG3
Long break-throughs, avoiding 4*0
Long rooms, technical discussion of 5&9 to S69
Longwall and a thin bottom bench 519
and face track ^.. £08, EOg
and faulty patches B07
and temporary props EOS
and track grades EOI
costs of mining double-bench coal by SIS
wflh conveyors El*
cribs for .SIO, E13
field for use of 501
for coal of considerable dip S04
for steep dip EOT
for thin coal seams 504
length of gates for EO 1
mines, hauling coal In EOS
layout of 502
partings In EOS
spacing of miners and machines In EOS
mining at Baldwin 72
compound seams by 513. EI 4. 515, 51«
cost of, at Spadra Gfti
retreating In top benches 518
profit from GSB
technical discussion of Sl»
saving of coal by 601
lyGoo'^lc
613
Lonswall — CcntitHitd. VAC*
technical dlocuBBlon of 601
wiatb alonf face required (or ElO
with oonveyora BlI, 611
with Bood root EOT, 608
and ateep dip GIO
with portable face track Ell
with weak roof ^ BOl
Loose top'CoaJ (6
LosH. annual, due to Increased amount of alack In coal 2E<
of buslnesH caused by Arkanaaa mine-run law £82
of coal, aee waste of coaL
of earnings to miners, caused by mine-run law 377, 27S
of market for Arkansas coal, total cost of S88
of skill caused by mine-run law 279
of slack caused by mine-run law 2ET
Lower, see also bottom or decreased.
Low-Bpeed rope-haulage, recommended 444
Lump and slack coal In Arkansas. diOferance In value of, compared with
other states 281
coal and slack coal, difference In value of 2t8
shattering of, caused by mine-run law 261
markets for 2S1
modlDed, value of 26«
under mine-nm law, efforts to cet 266
Machine, JeSrey-O'Toole mlnlnK 4SS, 488
Machinery, accidents from 436
electrical, makers of 533
firms and design of mining plant 531
guards for 43G
uneceasary> In tipples at Spadra and Russellville 621
Machines, ceglnK 541
loading
mining, advantages of, to miners 304
and coat records B92
discussion of, doscrtptive 74
general 203
technical 486
reduction of waste of coal by using 334
Magailne Mountain 3
Main entry at Intake 404
Maintaining capacity aSS
Maintenance, cost of, reduced by good turn 234
costs and narrow entries 458
eipenae of machines In soft-coal 494
of a good turn 224
of the coal screen 247
Malaria, reduction of 118
Management, sclentlllc G5D
Man-days, record of 690
Mankind and conservation 462
Man-way. see escape-way and traveltng-way.
Haps, contour, of mines 678
mine, law requiring 2S7
of the Arkansas coalfield 6
Uirket for ArkaoBOS cool S97
total annual cost of loss of 283
ivGooi^lc
6i4 Coal Mining in Arkansas
Masonry Btopplnpi 284, (Sg
■tructure« underBTOunil 43S
MeBBurements, asreemenl regardlnc time of 184
H«illum hlKht coal, costs of careful and careless ralnlna: of, see com-
parative DoatB.
Men. machine, eamlnn of 491
Melhnne .*. , S, 167
Melhod of bulldlns brattices . . ; 404
Of development of mlnAs In steep ooal BTS
of setting crOBs-bars and props at CoaJdale ST
auKKBHted, of appolntlos and removing mine inepectors. . .239. 240
Methods of blaatlng «t
of decreasing coat of mining S!Cl
of mining, purpose of chanses In 2S9
of storing Arkansas coal, possible 322
coal, genera] 322
Middle band 2
Midland. Mine No. S, Branner Coal Co., at 12
Mine accidents, see accidents.
accounts 586
air, necessity lor warming and moistening 411
cars, see cars, mine.
Condition of, agreement regarding 185
dotallB, coBt records of S90
doors, method of avoiding SSS
fans, and explosions 42T
fires 4S2
layout of, for continuous coal-cutters 488
No. 2, Dranner Coal Co.. slope 12
No. IT, Jenny LInd 32. 68
overcrowding of 221
plant design of 531
props ; 427
structures, fireproof 413
tracks, sea tracks.
water, drinking US
polutlon of 39!
Workers' Journal 212
workings, cbangea In for economy 5S9
Miner, financial value of a, to his family 108
Miners and machines 804
In longwall mines, spacing of 503
conservation of the health and safety of the 391
earnings of I«l to 171
electric lights tor 430
general sentiment among 128
good, attracting 394
miscellaneous torelgn-bom 12R
Irregular 128
lawi preventing sickness among the 392
machine, earnings of 492
political power of, and accidents 392
price of safety to the 389
alow and the good turn 2S6
surplus of 208
„Gooi^lc
Sis
Miner*— ConttiuMd.
total cost of the mlne-r
violation of agreainent
waste of coal due ti
Mlnen' Circular Na 8, referred lo 410
Circular No. G, referred to 44t
■uppUei, purchaae of 119
■tatementa and coat records 589
worm 3»S
Ulne-nin bajils, BUBgested means of prev«ntIiiK waste without S4>
ooal, market for 297
and non-caklTiK alack tRi
law *. 241
and accidents S7S
and dirt bands ' Z8t
and sort-cool '. iSl
and the Union SIT, 279
argument* In favor of 146
decrease In eamlnKS caused by STI, STT, 2T>
In qualltr of coal caused by ZBT
etforta to get lump coal under 25C
Imporlance of S4t
IncreBBcd leoKth of miners' augers following SBB
Increase of elate, caused by IBB
of smoke, cauaed by .' tSO
of number of Black mabera, caused by SEE
Injury to coal oonsumers, caused by !T9
to firemen, caused by iSI
to the State as a whole, caused by !Si
Injustice of the tSfi
loss of business, caused by ; SS!
of coal In unmlned areas, caused by !S4
of earnings to miners, caused by 276, 377, ITS
of skill, caused by 279
of slack, caused by • 2BT
nominal fairness of 244
number of miners killed as a result of 37t
passage of t4E
proper preparation of ihots unnaeeasary under !5S
prohibition of petitions against 277
shattering of lump coal caused by tGT
summary of the discussion of tSt
statement of ^ 24S
total cost to the State 216
to the operators and consumera 224
to the miners of the State STS
value of cool wasted as the result of 28B
unfavorable conditions In Arkansas mines under 282
waste of coal caused by 28)
ot unsold Black cauaed by 286
Hlne-run laws of other states 249
Ulne-run soale, origin and need of 245
Mines, accidents In Arkansas coal 10
recovery of after explosions 4S1
agreement regarding new 1ST
deep, mining plllara In 483
general lay-out ot ETl
hot water for ...
i.^anyGoOC^Ie
CoAt Mining in Arkansas
Id flat or Irregular basins BIS
1q Bleep baalna ,' . . , 67J
coal, layout and development of G76
In steeply dipping: coal STG
larga, capacity of , SGS
lonswsll, partlnKs In GOS
machine, advantases ol loaders In 4t(
double Bhootln* In 491
rapid development ol 190
non-union 218
Oklahoma. loadlnK of stiots In ■>
pillar, yield of r 4GG
small 2T
BlnBle-entry system of. ventilation In St
very deep, pillars In , ISO
preliminary contour maps of 4TS
■eml- anthracite, at Spadra and RussetlvlUe GO
Bha/t tl
shallow, comparative costs In 4GS
cost of sob antrleB !n 4EI
cost of loadinK out brushing In 4Ge
layout ot -with wide entries 4GS
loss of coal In plIlarB of 4Gt
sweating of, explained 411
Hlnlns additional benches of compound searaB 414
Arkansas coal, cost of ^ SOS
at Spadra. table of costs of SIB
by pick, at Baldwin It
carefully, see comparative costs of.
carelesly, see comparative coats of.
cheaper, llmlli of dlacuaslon ot StO
coal, cost of SIO
Bhootlng coal Instead ot lOS
compound seams by longwatl 614
costs at Russellvllle SiO
Of suspension of SOt
deep coal under poor roof 4S4
flat or Irreirular basins 4Tt
hazard of Stl
tndUBlry. general conditions of tST
Improper, caused by the Union 114
laws and accidents Sll
laws of Arkansaa I)T
10ngT»BU GOl
reduction of waste of cob] by SS4
savins of coal by GOl
aee longwall.
machines for conservation of coal 4BG
general discussion ot 48C
see machine mining,
mftdlum coal, comparative cost of under different condlUona. . 474
methods, object ot changes In 8Sf
ot large pillars ot coal •■!
of shots S8
partings and bottom brusblng 4BE
pillars, coBt of, under changing condlllonB 4TI
i.^anyGoOC^Ie
6i7
Uininf pillars, cott af — CcxHiHiril. lAOI
In deep mlnea its
la p&Qsla 48i
In ahallow mlnea, cost of .....*, 461
In stsep coal 576
under vary «trong roof 483
SafBtT Deytco Co., referred to G41
aof t coal, table of oosta of 316
Bteepl]' dipping coa.1, HUKsested method of G7G
steep basins GTI
the bottom bench by longTurall , 513
the top bertch br lon^wall retreating: 616
Tery nide plllara 4S1
Hissed shots. pIckinK out 406
MlaallM In shafts, aocldenta from 447
Mlat, avoiding by steam ]eta In old worldnKS \ iH
by stOBjn radistois 413
from steam jets 412
aettnng: by the CottreD procesa 413
settling by wire screens 413
Modification of leases to prevent waste of OOal !S6
carbide Ught, sugKested 430
the law, future 241
Moist, warm a.lr 417
MoistenlnK and warming mine air, neoeaslty for 411
mine air, steam Jets for , 411
warm dry air 419
Holature of the coal 8
Mosquitoes , ]14
Motor, haulage in Irregular mlnea STI
partings, arrangement of B47, 548
Motors, pushing trips by ........................................... 549
Mules, electric lights lor ......_ 441
Narrow entries, and accidents 4S8
and better r
and rapid development 456
and wide pillars, comparative costs of mining
medium coal with gob entries and with 4«1. 4B0
flrat cost with 456. 481, 480
in shallow mines 453
advantajtea of 4S6
theoretical, cost of 4G6
work In soft -coal mines, cost of 811
Nature of mine-run law .' 244
Necessity for conservation 463
for the Union 211
for warming and moistening mine air Ill
Need of mine-run scale 2*B
Now mines, agreement regarding 18T
Nitrogen 187
NlxoD make of ratchet drill 47
Non-caking slaok and mine-run coal 388
Non-union mlnea 31B
NoiTls. R, v., referred to 584
lyGoo'^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
Number and length of eiiKlne-plaiies tor rotnlnc steep coal Its
of acetdentB, ellect of mine-rgn law upoD 27S
of machine! In e&ch entry 48t
of miners killed as a result of mine-run Uw ITt
of strikes J17
Object of ctumsea In mining: m«tbod* I8>
Obllcatlon of tlie agreement 18)
Obstruction passing during rescue work 411
Obstructions on track, aooldsnts due to 441
Omoiais o( tbe mines 114
Union, protection of , tit
Oil, lamp, see lamp oU.
Oklahoma and Arkansas ooalflelds, unlt7 of 1>I
mines, loading of shots In SS
Old workings, see abandotied workings.
Open lamp and gas 404
lights, handling powder with 406
Operation, continuous, concesalons in price to secure SSI
of continuous coal-eutting machines 4Sfl
of mines, cODUhuoUb, sliding scale for SZ4
steadier, reducing labor costs by Ill
Operator, control of working conditions by ttt
aeflnltlon of „.. MT
Operators, accidents caused by oarelessness of the 191
and consumers, total annual cost of mine-run law to 104
and the Union. Ill
oonceaalons obtained from lit
stnaU concasBlona granted by S2*
OpSFatora* asoclatlon ITl
Opposition of mloera to mining machines tOS
to the check-off system Ill
Oppressive atmosphere caused by steam Jets 41G
Order of removing bodies of gas 404, 40B
Organisation of rescue parties 411
Origin of mine-run scale 14E
of the ooal 1
O'Toole. Jeffrey-, mining machine 418, i»»
Outcrop , )
Output of loaders and machines 489
Of ptllar-mlners 468
large, of mines 668
Overcast It
Overcasts, additional lines of tlT
and stoppings, replacing 411
and undercuats, suggested requirements for 23S
cost of nddiUonal t»t
substitution of doors tor 197
with explosion walls 4ZI
Overcrowding the mli^e 211
OwneiBfaip of land. Interlaced, waste of ooal due to tlT
PaciiaTd, I. R. trip dog designed by 448
Fatik-walls at Baldwin, building of
Pair of rooms tor pair of loaders 489
Panels for longwail retreating GtO
mining pillars In 482
Paris, coal at 7
punching machines at .' 74
lyGoo'^lc
Partlns. entry IG
In coal n«ai Clarkavllle 9
P»rtlDa», bnishtny and mining 485
cOBta of handllns '. 4St
dAflned »
entry. arranKemant oT G4g
crowd HbeH.ve« tor bSi
gritty and machlnea 4JIT
[D longwall mines EOS
mining macblnea for removlns IBS
motor, arrangement «( G4T, G4S
near tbo top of the ooaL and machlnea 4>g
Parrage of the inlne-run law 146
Payment of wages, agreement regarding Itl
for an average car of coal >. 248
for Black ooal on Bor«en-coal baaU 246
Peat 1
swampa, tertiary 2
Penalising mlnera for loading out elate ZES
Penalties for laadlng Impurltlea, agreement regarding ITS
Petitions against mine-run law. prohibition of 2TT
Pick mining at Baldwin 7S
Picking out rntaaed Bhots ♦. . . *9«
Pigeon-holes SI
Pile of Black at Doubleday 2<7
PUlar, cbaln IT
miners, output ol 4EG
mining, costs of, and changing conditions 479
Pillars, breaking the roof by coal 4G>
coal, Hlia of 3SS
dlOerent sorts, defined M
In coal mines 46T
In very, deep , f^nef , 480
mining, cost of. tn shallow mines 4G6
In deep mine* 412
In panels 482
In steep coal GT6
large s SS3
meiboa of 89
under very strong roof 483
protecttng entries by
by shooting roof and floor
Blie of. required under different condttlons
small, saueezes caused by
strength of coal
waate of coal tn S2S, 4ES t
wide, see wide pillars
Pit clothea, drying
committee, agreement regarding dudes of
committees. Interference by
Pitch
Pittsburgh welgh-pan 48«
Plan, eee layout.
beat for ventilating a single panel
Planes, engine, see engine planes.
Plana of conservation, preferred 461
„Gooi^lc
CoAi, Mining in Arkansas
Plant, belter mine, reduction In coat bv 3£E
electric, special for mloeB ■ ■ . . 6St
(or sIotIdk coal, cost of ESS
inacblne, coat of tii, 495
mine, design of .• &31
Places, working, rapid openlnK of SET
Pneumonia and change houses 400
Poisonous gases from powder SOS
Political power of minora, and accidents 392
Pollution of mine-water S9S
Ponda for storage of coal SSS
Porlable face trade, longwall -with 511
Portion ot the coal worked 7
Position o( temporary and masonry stoppings 398
Post-punchers, Bleolrlc-air 60"
for gritty partings
PoCeau Mountain
Powder, agreement regarding price of
amount of. In the ^ue
careless handling of
obeap. effect of
^icesslre use of
Jacks
poisonous gases (rom
relief fund from tax on
■Wll In the use of
power, saving, for ventilation
Frecautlons In tiring ahots
minor, for handling gas
Preparation for rescue work
of shots ■
proper, of the shots unnecessary undar mbi«-ruD It
Present condition of mine ventilation
Preventing waste of coat without mine-run basis
Prevention of accidents by better discipline
of colds by change houses
of mine flres
of squeetes
o( waste ot coal with Increase In value of ooal. ■ ■ ■
Prlc«. concessions In selling price to secure st«ady openLllon..
of safety to the miners
of powder, agreement regarding
Prices of mine cars
Privies, undergrouna
Prolll from conservation
from labor-BaVIng devices
from longwall retreating
from machines at Spadra
In soft oooJ
see also advantages of
Profllable scales (or bottom brushing
Progress of rooms. Irregular, caused by good turn
Piohlbtlloa of petitions against mlne-run law
„Gooi^lc
ProportlonlnK tipple timbers 6J7
Proporttona 0( mine cara 533
PropoBed. aee suKgeated.
PropploK 79
advantages of proper law for IIS
tor machines In double-bencti high coal 49T
required by law 41J
Props In Kob entries, use of 44
law regardlnK 2SE, 136
method of Betting at Coaldale ST
mine , 42T
temporary, and longwall GOS
ProspeotlnK, better, reduction In cost by 32S
Kcneral methods of GBS
In Irregular mines 574
pTOtectad. depth at whicb entries can be 4G0
overcasts with Ilsht walls 424
Protectins entries by pillars Igl
pillars by shooting- roof and floor 1S4
surface, waste of eoBl due to need of 331
tipple men from rain CSS
tipples from tbe weather GIT
Protection of the Union !11
Of Union offlclals 318
Provision for Injured miners, asreement regarding ISG
Provisions for the families of the miners 243
Psychrometer. recommended 411
Pumping, mine 21
pumps, electric GG4
for fighting fires 432
Punches, advantages of 486
and chain machines, combined use of EDO
electrlc-alr ■ GDO
for thin coal 49ft
post, for gritty partings 497
Punching machines at Paris 74
IPurchaser. see consumer.
Purpose of changes In mining methods 389
Purposes of mine accounts G86
of mining laws 391
Poshing cars In long rooms Geo. GS3
trips by motors G49
Pyrlte 8, G8
Qulst ale and gas 404
Quotation marks, use of explained
Badlators, staatn avoiding mist by 411
Railroad cars at mines, agreement regarding 186
market for lump coal 29T
Halls, guide tor slope rope GSt
Hapld development and narrow entries 4!iG
of machine mines 490
entry driving, machines for GOD
Hashing 7, 9
Ratchet, drill 4T
Reckless men, discharge of 403
Record of attendance of miners G90
Records of cost , GS9. G90, 591
lyGoo'^lc
Coal Mining in Arkansas
Kecoverr, complete, of the coal, coat of st»
of mines after esplosloni 421
BeducInK, >ee d«Or«asIiiK.
Refuse boles required by law 228
RBKulatloiia, aiif«ty, by tbe Union 403
Besulator ,. IT
Belief fund from tax on powder 407
Remedies for wasU of coal, genaral dlaouaalon ot Ill
Removal of mine Inapeotors, auKKftBtcd means for 34i
Removal, prompt of water from roads iS3
Bcmovlng, bodies of gas, order of 404, 406
Repair work, Kenerel, cost of In 80ft-00al Rilnee 311
In the mtnei 12S
ReplAClnt BtOpplnKB and overcasts 421
Reaulrements of ohsnge houses 400
Rescue operations 4S1
Reaplraton 393
Restoring ventilation ntter ezploslous 317, 422
Betreatins, lonswall, full dtocuasion 610
Betum Bide of gas, worktns on 404
Rib shots 43
Rloe, Qeo. 8., referred to 410
Blsky handling of cas 40G
Boads, accidents from htlls In 441
dry, advuitsices of 303
crades ot. In IoqkwbII SOt
Roadways, accidents from bills In 441
"Robber, the screen Is a" • . • 247
Rock augers 47
band, see band rock.
bins at tipples fi40
car special for tipples GSS, £40
tallB and draw slate 20T
discussion and aKreement to clean up 207
Hollers and slope ropes ; ESI
Roof, accidents from falls of 417
and floor of the c«al bed S
protectlnK pillars by shooting 484
breaking the, by coal pillars 4G9
Checking, squeeies by shooting 433
falls of. and better Ugtat 4t(
falls ot, caused by steam Jets 415
good, longwall under .507, G08, EilO
poor, mining deep cool under 524
very etrong. mining pillars under 433
poor, longwall under 501
Rooms, long, see long rooms.
Room-neckB. scale for J02
Boom, smoke- as air-course IT, SOI
Rooms, air-course 380, 317
and entries 14
at Baldwin, width of TS
comparative costs of long and short Gil, G6Z. 504, BtO
cutting In 63
desirable length of 6«7
details of working 52
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623
e dip n
iTTOKUlar prOKreu ot, ca.iuad by Kood turn
iBval and dipping, comparstlve oOBt of
level In steep coal
lonswall, leotfth ot
machine, proper lenstti ol
number ol shots per day In
■berterad at shaft bottom
■Ishts (or disregard of
suKSested lanfth of Big
Rope, spiral for ralslni ,
carrlaiB at Bates
(he Hiawatha mine ',.,".
for slope tipples
-baulace, accldeat* nttb
low speed recommended
Ropes, factor of safety for
sheaves for
elope, and rollere
(Tilde rails for
Hulea for handlloB gas ,
Runners machine loading coal by
Run-of-mlne, sea mine-run.
Busblns of work permitted by good turn
Hussellvllle and Spodra, unneoesaaiT machinery In tipples at
Ruswllvllle, coal seams at
semi- anthracite mines at
top bench of seml-onthraclte coal at
Safe tamping, recommended
Safety and bealtb of the miners, conservation of
appliances. Injury of. forbidden by law
Safety Device Company, Mining, T«ferred t
dog used at Bates ,
explortves
factor of, for mine ropes
lamps to be kept out of gas
regulation by the Union
. SSB
311, ouggeated lav for prevention of. .
Siale of Impure lamp o
Sandstone. deBned
Hartshome j,
Hanltallon of camps
jund
Sauerman eruHher
Saving from long rooms
of coal by longwall mining
power for ventilation
Scale at Denning, acreen-coal, advantage of .
dIsouMlon of
Items, labor, records of cost ot
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624 Coal Mining in Arkansas
mlnins at dlRerunt camps IBS
prloea ajid conBervntion of coal 4(>1
for dead work Items SOD
screen coal and deficient coal 248
sliding, 'or continuous operation of mines 3:4
susKosted, for dead work !0>
Scales at tipples 541
for special work 4EI
profitable, for bottom brushing G3G
ecarcltr of track tnen 208
acatlerlTiK of coal by heavr shootlnK SSt
Sctentinc manasement EEO
Screen-coal basis, payment for slack coal on > 146
waste of slack coal on £48
scale at Denning' advantage of S4<
for defldent coal 348
"Boreen Is a robber" 247
Screen maintenance of coal 147
ScreenlnKs. see slack.
Boreen* for ttpplea 5!9
unfair f oal 241
wire, aottllni mist by 41S
Seam In bottom bench at Mine No. IT. Jenny LInd (6
Beams, compound, mining additional benches of 434
br longwall EI4
waste of coal In 381
working ot es
dipping, entrtea In 42
of considerable dip. shaft mines on ti
thick, advantages of 318
Sebastian County mines, see soft-coal mines.
Semi- anthracite coal at Russell vtlle. top brach of tS
denned S
market for 297
mines at Spadra and RussellvlIIe GO
tipples, and alack 621
suggested arrang«mont of 527
Sentiment. Koneral, of the miners 188
Separation of Intake and return airways JOT
Setting of mine props, law requlrlns St(
3ett!InB mist from steam Jets 413
Shaft bottoms, arrangement of G4E
fireproof 4JS
defined II
guides, required by law 238
houses, see tipples.
mines ' 22
Shale 3
Sballow mines, reducing loss of coal In pillars of 4G8 to 4G(
Shattering of lump coal, caused by mine-run law 157
Shearing, see cutting.
Sheaves, crowd, for entry partings G32
for ropes Git
Sheltered rooms at shaft bottom ISG
Sheltering Davy lamps from drafts 4«*
Shift, double, In machine mines 4»0
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625
SbootiDK b«nch-and-benoh t*
coal Instead ot mlnliiB coaj 208
double. In machine mines 411
heftvy, BcatterlDK of coal by 288
roof and floor, pratectlngr plUan by 1S4
cbecklng aqueeies by 4Si
the bottom bench flrat 84
Short working time, hlg-h coat of labor caused bf SOB
Shot, blown-out, at Chant, Oklahoma El
cutting 41
-flrer, dwilh of. cauied by Union S14
-flrers SB
Inapector, recommended 40V
ShotB, back 41
blown-out B2
carelesaneaa in fliing' 71
eaae of preparing In Arkansas £Si
In Oklahoma mlnea, loading of •■
mining of ES
number of, per day In rooms tS
placlnc ot when slips are preaent E5
precaution tn fIrinK «9
preparatton of 4D9
proper preparation of, unnecessary under mine-run law I!5
rib 4t
flplltting GE
terms used to describe E2
windy, prevention of 40)
reduction of damage from SBT
results of 401
Sickness, laws preventing, among the miners >»2
strikes, called Sit
Sights for entries 41
(or rooms, disregard of 214
fllngle-entry system of ventilation In a small mine, plat of 2B
Iwin «»»
Btie of mine can recommended EiE
of plllara S2S, 469
table of *«0
Bkm, loss of, caused by mine-run law ITS
and lump coal, difference In value of SEC
and lump coal In Arkansas, difference In value of, compared with
other states 282
and semi -anthracite tipples 521
annual loss due <o Increased amonnt of. caused by mine-run law 266
at Doubleday, pile of 287
table of results of waAhlng SSI
coal, and consumers SBT
Increase of slate In 1S9. S<0
market (or !•?
payment for, on sereen-coal bssis S4E
waste of, on screen-coal basis S4S
caused by mine-run law 2t(
decrease In sale value of coal due to Ml
-makers caused by mine-run law. Increasing number of SIE
non-caUng, and ml;ie-run law Itt
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Coal Mining in Arkansas
SIM* !. Hd
coat of. to coDBumen at coal and to State II), ISS
draw, see draw slate.
In coal caoaed by Kood turn tit
lDCr«aae of, caused br mine-ran law SGS. H», ttS
penaJliInK mloen for loading out tGS
Sliding scale for oontlnuou* op«r*tloii of ntlnea 124
fillgrht ImproTcmenta In health condltloiu tSt
Slipa at Coaldale ST
at Spadra G8
pladnK of sbots In S5
Slope alr-couraCB H
-carriage station for double-deck tT9
Mine No. I, Btanner Coal Co., Htdlaiid II
mln*«, delUted 11
ropea and rollers Bit
Kulde rails for Bit
Slopes, dellned 11
dlBCUMlOD of scales for 210
hot MS
local asreement resardlnc SIO
safety awltcbea for 411
Small coal see slaclc
pillars, squeeies caused by 4>t
Smoke, Increase of, caused by mine-run law ISt
powder S9S
Smoke-room as air Course IT
Smokr lights. aKreement regardlnK IDT
referred to tSt
BnubbInK, defined GS
machine-cut coal 4Bg
Soft-coal and mine-run law tst
. mines, cost Items In and table of costs til to Sit
.inachtnea In 4S4, 4>G
cost of general expenses of S14
Softness of Arkansas coal I, Gt
Southwestern Interatate Coal Operators' AssoclatloD ITt
SjWCinC of miners and machines In longwall mines GOt
Spadia and RussellvUle. unnecesaary machinery In tipples at Glff
and soft-coal mines, comparative conditions at tl>
boiler coal, (liBh-prlced at Gtt
cost of loD^wall mining: at S04
costs of mining at, table of SIS
'flat pieces of coal, waste at Git
blgh wase* at tOS
mining: machines at 4IS
scale of machine trattu at 4tl
seml-onlhraclte mines at BO
slips at G>
tlppleo, suKKested arrangement of GIT
unreasonable demands at 101
Sparks and powder 4DS
SpeclOc gravltr of the coal S
Bplke teams, economy of BGI
SpInU for raMDK rope at slope tipples 4St
Spilt, amount of air for each t*G
Sputa of air. Arkansaa law relating to tl
i.^anyGoOC^Ie
Splitting, deflned IT
•hots Ei
ventUatlon by 17, 18, iO
SpontanaoOB eombiutlon and acorage o( coal ESS
BfitLggiae cars, neglected 141
on long hills 442
SpraggH, deflned 23
In blasting at Coaldale 6«
Sprays, ataam, and water for moistening 411, 41fi
Stiuare turn 129
SqueeEes. cauae and prevention of 482
chacldng, by shooting roof 482
eSect of 89
explained 84, 85
waste of coal caused by 32S
Squibs, use of, to prevent hang-fires 406
Stable, electric lights for 434
Stables, fireproof 438
Stagnant air and gas 404
Stairways and accidents 434
State government, cost of elate to 280
Statement of the mine-run law ,. . 243
Statements, miners', and coBt records 689
Station for double-deck slope -carriage ST9
Steam and water needed for mine air, amounta of 416
Jets (or moistening mine air 411 to 421
needed to saturate and warm cold, dry air, table of 420
turbines S6S
Steep basins, mine* In 67J
dip and good roof, lonKwall with 610
longwall face conveyors with 613
longwall for 50T
Steeply dipping coal, machines In 497
mines in 676
mining at great depth B83
SUnk-damp 157
Stores, company 211
Storngo- battery lights 431
Storing Arkansas coal, possible methods o( 824
Storage ponds tor coal 686
Storing ooal, general discussion of 322
technical discussion of 684
Stopplnge and overcasts, replacing 431
avoiding entry 396. 898, 399
defined 17
leakage in old 398
Straight-edge for track giadea 643
Strength of air current needed for removal of gas 404
of coal pillars *S7
Strict load limit recommended **i
StrlkeB and the Union 213 to 317
Slrip-plts, described ■ ■ ■ ■ l*
Strong roof, mining pillars under vary 483
Structures, mine, fireproof *83
Stub entries, grade for 644
Stuck top and bottom 68
Study and Investigation of mine accidents 391
Bugarloaf Mountain B. 7
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CoAi. MiNiNG IN Arka.
Sun«ated amount and dletrlbulloa of air 13!
uppolntment of mine Inspectors 23»
araiiK«ment ol Beml-nnthmelle tlpr^ea 627
carbide cap-llgbt «0
change house (»>
oontrol of saa 233
ellKiblllty (or ofBces In the Union 210
labor conceaalonB 117
law tor mine Inspection Stt
for overcsatB and undercasts 213
for preventing the iiala of Impure lamp oil 2SG
lawB Cor minor safety matters 23S
length of roonu GS8
prevention of waste of coal without mine-run teals ttS
removal of mine Inspeclora 241
scales for dead work !1<I
ventilation *•!
Sulphur at Coaldale •«
balls 8> B8
Summary of the discussion of conservation of coal (2T
or the miners 44T
of mine-run law tBt
of the mining laws 221
Sump cleaning G4I
guards til
Superintendents 134
Supplies at sott-coal mines, cost of SIG
first-aid 221
Bupply, future labor, for Arlcansaa coal mines 314
of cars to tbe miners T9
o( props, adequate, law (or 2IE
Supports, see props.
Surface arrangements SS
waste of coal due to need of protecting 321
Surplus of miners In Arkansas 208
Surveyors, mine 13S
Suspension of mining, agreement regarding 179
of mining, c«8t of 30»
Swags 26
Swamps, coal and heat 1. 2
Sweating of mines, explained , 411
Switches. 44B
flying, by motors E4T
In underground tracks G4B
safety, for slopes 441. 44S
Syndlnea I
Table o(. see subject desired.
Tall rope haulage, Imitations at ST4
Temping bars, copper-tipped 406
Tamping, shots 40t
Tax on powder tor reduotlon In number of ac^dents 40T
Teams, spike, economy of lEl
Temporary and masonry stopphigB lit
Terminals and grades, better B43
Terms, used to describe shots tt
Tertiary, peat swamps 1
Theoretical and actual yardage costs • 4BI, 4(4
i.^anyGoOC^Ie
629
Thlckneaa of band rock and cmt 0( tonKwall
Thin coal aofl mining machlneB
cost o( long rooms in
seams. lonRwall In
Three-track, motor partlngH 54g
Timbering, see propping,
for mine flres 438
Timbers for overcaBta. tabic ot dimensions of
Time of development for longwall retreatlnc 621
to be patd tor. Bgreenient resardlng
Tipple men, protectloo of E3B
Tiresome, wallclng 39J
Tlpplea and . flree 435
at Spadra and Buasellville, unnecesaary maehloerr la £2)
general design of 637 t
rock car. special for
aem I -anthracite and alack
HUKgested arrangement of to reduce wnu- o
weighing arraogement at
Toilet cars
Toilets underground 301 and 39*
Tools, copper-lipped 40(
Top bench froien to the roof e4
semi -anthracite coal at RussellvUle SB
Top coal loose
Top labor, cost of In soft-coal mines
Track ballast 44j, 559
far rope carriage . _
8^h plates for (143
grades and longwall mining G03
grades, straight edge tor leveling 543
-men, scarcity of jOg
mine, lereling o(
portable Cor longwall
obslructtons on
waite. the hind to avoid E3g
Training rescue -. 431
Trappers
Traveling- nay, i
Treatment of dust Irritation
Trip-dog. Improved, used al Bates .
Trolley wires, guards for
Turbines, steam GGE
Turn deflned
equaJ and machines 437
agreement regarding 184
good, general discussion of 221 to 224
good for loaders at the machines 4gt
proposed agreement regarding ,
Turn-table, wood
Twin entries 31
haulage, comparative cost of long and short rooms
with 470, 471, 472, 4TS
sln^e-entry system 399
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630 Coal Mining in Arkansas
'Typca at mine can In uae
mlnlnc machines
Typbold (ever, prevention at ■'.
UndercastB and overcaAta. ■uKxeatad requirement* (or
nnderBTound labor In wft-coal mines, coat o(
Undersround sanitation tf t
Unfair coal screens
measurements Ill, MO
Unlavorable conditions In Arkansaa mines under mine-run law
Unbealthf ul camps, blsh cost ot labor caused by
UnUormlty In the coal, lack o(
Union ■ "8
acoldeots, caused by il4
advantages ot ■
and coal operators
effect of mine-run law upon
miners', seneral dlsousslon o( lit. 181, 311 C
safety resulatlons by
■ussested ellvlbUlty for oflloes Id
tax on powder
United States Bureau of Hlnes, referred t« Ill
United States Qeolocloal Survey, referred to
Unity of the Arkansas and Ofclalioma ooalfleldB
Unmlned areas, lOM of oosl In caused by mlna-run law
Uunlned benches, waste of ooal In
UnnecMsary beat In the mines
machinery In tipples at Bpadra and BusseUvUle
Unreasonable demands of the miners at Spadr*.
Unsafe condition o( the mine and strikes
Unusual condltlooB, "'"'"y machines (or
Upper, see also top.
User, see consumer.
Value, financial, of a miner to his family
o( coal In additional benches
ot coal. lncre«se in, and constrvatlon
□( coal In the ground assumed
see price of cool,
wasted as a result of mine-run law
of modified lump oool
sale of coal, decrease In. due to Mack .'
Variation la the coal affecting the earnings of the miners
beds
In the dip, waste of coal due to
Tentllatlon
better, suggestions for
by couraliw Ig, JO
ot change houses
required by law
restoring after explosions
single-entry system
technical discussion of
Violation of agreement by miners
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Wasea for maohines, scale of , ill, iH
Uerb, at Spodra tot
increased, obtained by UdIou SIS
payment of, asreement regardlof 181
■ea also earatngs.
WBlklnB In haulMre-ways, aooldenta to men 44(
Walls, fob or pack ,.60, 78
Warm, moist air 417
Warmini; and moIatenlOK air, iieceBalty ifor 411
WaihlDK slack ai Doubleday, table of ronilts of ZGB
Waste. arranKeroeat for dumplns S40
ot ooal and the mine-run law 14S, 14), tSI, 181, E*K
r of dlsouaslon of (21
of flat pieces of coal at apadm 888
of alack coal on sor«ened-ooal basis 148
of time of day-men, caused by cood turn 118
tracks, the Idnd to avoid St9
Wastes of coal In T7nlted States 818
Water and steam o«eded for mine air, amounts of 411, 417, 4U
drlnklns mine 8)8
trade , 41
hot, for miners ,. 401
pollution ot talne 808
slips 11
■oft. supply of Ill
sprays for dry air 414
for powder smoke 1>C
fressInK of 418
storage of coal under G84
supply for camps Ill, 111
for cimnKe liouses 401
unwholesome, drlnhinK of - ■ lUi 1>4
Weak roof, comparative costs of careful and carelAss mining of medium
coal under 477
longwall mlnlDB under GOl
Wear on soft-coal 62(
Wedging up bottom 68
Welgh-bejskets and braaklnr oool EZ6
Walchlnx arrangements at tipples Ell
WeiRbt excess, of loaded cars Sit. 448
Welfare of the miners, iDfluence of mining machines upon 80E
of the race, and conservation 4ES
Wetting ooa] dust 410. 418
White-damp 187
Whitewashed refuge holes i.. 444
Wbolesome drtnklng water at mines 194
Wide entries In shallow mines, cost ot 451
pillars, avoiding break-throughs in 480
between air currents 898
comparative costs of mining medium coal with gob entries
and with narrow antrlea and 414
mlntng very 181
Width along face, required for longwall BIO
of rooms at Baldwin 78
Widths of entries, aoale for different , 109
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„Gooi^lc
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