S B
I
;klil Coffee
Bureau of .Arn.Republi
•A 'NT
BUREAU OF AMERICAN REPUBLICS,
WASHINGTON, U. S. A.
COFFEE IN AMEEIC1.
METHODS OF PRODUCTION
AND
FACILITIES FOE SUCCESSFUL CULTIVATION
IN
MEXICO, THE CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES, BRAZIL AND OTHER
SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES, AND THE WEST INDIES.
SPECIAL BUU.KTIN. OCTODKR, 189,.
BUREAU — OF AMERICAN — REPUBLICS,
WASHINGTON, U. S. A.
COFFEE IN AMERICA.
METHODS OF PBODUCTION
AND
FACILITIES FOR SUCCESSFUL CULTIVATION
IN
MEXICO, THE CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES, BRAZIL AND OTHER
SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES, AND THE WEST INDIES.
SPECIAL BULLETIN. OCTOBER, 1893.
; : BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS,
>".2 LAFAYETTE SQUARE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.
Director.— CLINTON FURBISH.
Secretary.— FREPERIC EMORY.
:
•
COFFEE IN AMERICA.
Throughout the world there is a constant and rapid increase in
the consumption of coffee. Although there has been a marked
increase in the production of this berry in Central and South American
countries, the rising prices indicate that the supply is still below the
demand. These facts have naturally turned attention to this indus-
try in those regions where the coffee plant thrives, and has prompted
many inquiries from persons seeking investment regarding favorable
locations, prices of lands and general information upon the subject.
To answer fully the many inquiries received at this Bureau on this
subject, is the object of this bulletin. Incidentally, the coffee pro-
duction of the Old World is noted, but attention is chiefly directed to
the lands, climates, soils and other natural conditions of growth of
plant, methods of propagation, cultivation, handling and marketing
of this product in the countries on this Continent, to- which it sef^s
probable the world must look for any increase in the present supply.
SOURCES OF SUPPLY.
The coffee plant, indigenous to Asia and Africa, has found its
true habitat in the New World, where its production is already many
times greater than in the Eastern Continent. Messrs. Schoffer & Co.,
of Rotterdam, estimated the world's total production in 1884 at
681,314 tons, of which Brazil alone produced 371,429 tons, or 61,544
tons more than one-half the entire product. Java, Sumatra and
Celebes produced 108,743 tons. Since that time the proportion in
favor of America has constantly and immensely increased ; the
Old World having hardly increased its production, while in Brazil
the crop in 1892 reached about 500,000 tons, and the other American
countries had shown, in certain cases, a still greater percentage of
growth .
The amount of coffee produced in the world has been steadily
646276
4 COFFKK IN AMERICA.
increasing for many years. The following table shows the production
by countries for the ten years prior to 1885 :
Cwt.
French Possessions in Africa and West Indies ..................................... 16,995
Menado ........................................................................................... 18,450
Mocha .............................. . .......................... . .................................. 19,054
Cuba ................................................................................................ 24,000
Salvador .......................................................................................... 92,000
Colombia .......................................................................................... 98,204
Guatemala .............. ......................................................................... 120,716
Costa Rica ........................................................................................ 185,472
Puerto Rico ....................................................................................... 192,645
Venezuela ........................................................................................ 230,000
East Indies ....................................................................................... 412,000
Santo Domingo ..................... . ........................................................... 606,000
Ceylon ............................................................................................. 850,000
Java and Sumatra ............................... ............................................. 1,415,105
Total .......................................................................................... 4,280,641
*.*. *.„*..«..* ..... ........................................................................ 4,250,000
6 coffee 'product of the world for 1888-89 was estimated as
••.••,•
ihe6lw<5 respective authorities :
The New York Chamber of Commerce gives :
Pounds.
Brazil .......................................................................................... 812,000,000
Java .......................................................................................... 96,824,000
Padang, Sumatra ........................................................................ 12,320,000
Celebes, Ceylon, India and Manila .......................................... ...... 62,720,000
Africa and Mocha ........................................................................ 12,320,000
Mexico and Central America ....................................................... 80,640,000
Venezuela .................................................................................. 78,400,000
West Indies ................................................................................. 94,304,000
Total .................................................................................... 1,249,528,000
The American Grocer estimates :
Brazil .......................................................................................... 892,944,000
Other American countries ............................................................ 301,123,744
East India and Africa ................................................................ 220,487.840
Total 1,414,555,584
COFFEE IN AMERICA.
5
The latter authority gives the following statement of the coffee
situation at the close of the year ending June 30, 1893 :
The trade year closed June 30 with deliveries of all kinds in the United
States, in comparison with the preceding year, as follows :
Year. Bags.
1892-93....'. ....................................................................................... 4, 98,549
1891-92 ................................. :.... ...................................................... 4,411,532
Decrease in 1892-93 ................................................................. 13,283
This shows great steadiness of consumption, and should be considered satis-
actory, in view of the high cost ruling and trade disturbances.
In Europe, however, we find an increase in deliveries, those at the eight
principal ports comparing as follows :
Year. Bags.
1892-93 ............................................................................ .' ............... 6,547,679
1891-92 .......................................... : ................................................. 6,392,719
Increase in 1892-93 ................................................................. 154,960
Bringing the deliveries of Europe and the United States together, we have
the following comparative statement :
Year. United States. Europe. Total.
1892-93 ...................... 4,398>549 ...................... 6,547,679 ...................... 10,946,228
1891-62 ...................... 4,411,832 ...................... 6,392,719 ...................... 10,804,551
These figures show annual deliveries for the trade year of, in round num-
Ders, 11,000,000 bags, or 647,000 tons, which may be accepted as the minimum
requirements of Europe and the United States.
For the four calendar years ending December 31, 1892, the average annual
deliveries in Europe and the United States were 651,384 tons.
It is fair, with these figures as a basis, to estimate that the world requires an
annual supply of 650,000 to 660,000 tons (11,050,000 to 11,220,000 bags), and until
the production exceeds this quantity, there is not much chance of a return to the
low prices of 1882 to 1886.
THE BRA^iiy CROP.
The receipts of coffee in Rio and 3antos, for the trade year ending June 30,
compare with preceding years as follows:
1892-93.
1891-92.
1890-91.
1889-90.
1888-89.
1887-88.
1886-87.
Rio.
Santos.
Bags.
2,989,000
3,722,000
2,413,000 j
2,389,000
4,189,000
1,912,000 |
3,497,000 ;
Bags.
3,213,000
3,675,000
2,945,000
1,871,000
2,638,000
1,121,000
2,581,000
Total.
Bags.
6,202,000
7,397,000
5,358,000
4,260,000
6,827,000
3,033,000
6,078,000
6 COFFKK IN AMERICA.
Here we have a decrease in receipts at Rio and Santos in 1892-93, as com-
pared with 1891-92, of 1,195,000 bags, a deficit of over 10 per cent of the world's
coffee requirements.
The average annual receipts at the two ports of Brazil for five years were
6,008,800 bags, so that the crop of 1892-93 was a full average.
The exports from Rio and Santos for the year ending June 30 and the pre-
ceding four years were as follows:
To United
States.
To
Europe.
Total
Exports.
1 802— Q ^ — Rio
1,972,000
053,000
»
Santos . . . .
1,102,000
2,268,000
\
6,295,000
1891—92 — Rio
2,556,000
1,148,000
}
Santos
997,000
2,556,000
}
7,267,000
1890-91 — Rio
1,556,000
750,000
)
Santos
798,000
2,253,000
[
5,537,000
1889-90 — Rio
1,767,000
724,000
i
Santos
512,000
1,567,000
\
4,570,000
1888-89 — Rio ...
2,^2,000
1,542,000
i
Santos
S^.ooo
2,024,000
\
6,431,000
The above shows average yearly exports for five years of 6,020,000 bags,
which is 275,000 bags below the exports of 1892-93.
Brazil furnishes about 54 */£ per cent of the world's requirement of coffee,
taking the average exports for five years as a basis of computation.
It is apparent that any decrease in the Brazil supply below a crop permitting
of minimum exports of 6,000,000 bags, or 54 >£ per cent of the world's total
supply, means high prices until other producing countries extend their area
under coffee to an extent great enough to produce and export an average of at
least one-half of the world's requirements — unless Brazil has other years of
exceptional yield, as in 1891-92, when the receipts at Rio and Santos went 1,388,-
200 bags beyond the yearly average.
Coffee culture is being pushed in Mexico, Central America and the United
States of Colombia, but new plantations have not yet reached a point where they
are able to push exports abreast of Brazil, and until that time is reached high
prices must rule. Consumption has not increased since 1886 as much as it
should, in view of the increase in population and the prosperous condition of the
United States. It requires the stimulus of low prices and exceptional prosperity
to advance coffee consumption in the old-time ratio of about 9 per cent per
annum.
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 7
THE MOVEMENT IN 1892-93.
Taking the official report of the New York Coffee Bxchange, we find the
position of coffee and movement in 1892-93 to be as follows:
In the United States-
Stocks, July i, 1892 525,889
Arrivals in United States, all kinds 4,283,239
Total supply 4,809,128
Less stocks, July i, 1893 410,579
Deliveries, 1892-93 4,398,549
In Europe —
Stocks, July i, 1892 1,451,134
Arrivals in Europe 6,987,191
Total supply .'.... 8,438,325
Less stocks, July i, 1893 1,890,039
Deliveries, 1892-93 6,547,679
In United States and Europe —
Stocks, July i, 1892 1,977,023
Arrivals in Europe, 1892-93 6,987,191
Arrivals in the United States, 1892-93 4,283,239
Total supply, 1892-93 13,247,453
Less stocks, July i, 1893 2,300,618
Deliveries, 1892-93 10,946,835
The total sales for future delivery on the New York Coffee Exchange
amounted to 7,911,500 bags for the year ended June 30, 1893, compared with
6,949,000 in 1891-92, 7,700,750 bags in 1890-91, and 13,011,500 bags in 1889-90.
The largest transactions for any one month were in April, when they reached
I»I75,75o bags. More than one-half of the year's business was done during the
first six months of the trade year, when transactions covered 4,157,250 bags
against 3,754,250 bags for the six months ended June 30, 1893. The highest
price paid was 17.70 cents for March delivery in January, 1893, and the lowest
was 11.75 cents for October, November and December delivery in July last.
The average monthly prices of No. 7 Rio for the trade year ended June 30,
1893, based on actual sales, were as follows:
1892. Cents. 1893. Cents.
July 13.15 January 17.19
August 13.86 February 18.03
September 15.02 March 17.71
October 16.01 April 15.85
November 16.59 MaY I5-72
December 16.77 June 16.68
Average for trade year, 16.05 cents.
8 COFFEK IN AMERICA.
It is certain that any decrease ;n the Brazil supply of 1893-94, below 6,000,-
ooo bags, means a heavy inroad upon the world's stocks, with the situation
favorable for the producers. The stocks, July i, in Europe and the United States,
were 2,300,618 bags, against 1,997,023 bags, July i, 1892, an increase of 323,595
bags. In the United States there was a decrease as compared with the. previous
year of 115,310 bags, while Europe shows an increase of 438,905 bags.
Any view of the situation" is subject to modification, owing to the financial
troubles which have unsettled the markets of the world. The liquidation in
South America, Australia, England and this country, has not been completed,
and until it is, no one can predict with any approach to certainty what the
course of the coffee market will be in 1893-94. Credits have as much to do with
the situation as crops.
VARIETIES OF COFFEE.
The coffee plant (genus cafed) indigenous to Africa and South-
western Asia possesses several more or less known varieties, viz :
Arabian Coffee : Mocha, Myrtle, Aden and Bastard.
Moorish Coffee : Marron of Reunion.
Monrovian Coffee : Coffee of Gabon.
Laurine Coffee.
Yellow Coffee (caf£ amarello): The richest of all in cafeine, with
yellow berries.
Red Coffee (caf6 vermelho): The common coffee of Brazil, Colom-
bia, Guatemala, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Salvador, Costa Rica and
Mexico. The berries of this coffee are red when full grown.
The subdivisions of the above-named varieties are quite numer-
ous, some of them being based rather on the district where they are
produced, or the port whence they are shipped, than on any real
difference in quality or appearance.
Thus we have for Brazil, the Rio Coffee, also subdivided accord-
ing to class or treatment; Santos Coffee, the coffee of Minas, that of
Bahia, of Ceara, etc.
For the West Indies there are the Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico,
Martinique, etc. For Venezuela, the Laguayra and Maracaibo. For
Bolivia, the Yungas. Central America presents as subdivisions the
Guatemala ordinary and Guatemala gragS ; the Costa Rica, ordinary
an&gragS, etc. All these classes or subdivisions, however, belong to
the^Red Coffee variety.
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 9
It is a well-established fact that the quality of coffee — that is, its
flavor and aroma — is improvld by keeping, and it is thought to be at
its best at eight years, provided it has been kept in a perfectly dry
place and atmosphere. As it is sold by weight, and as it loses by
the evaporation of the water contained in the freshly prepared beans,
dealers prefer to sell it as green as possible. When at its best, its
color should be a pale yellow, for the usual variety; and greenness
of color is an evidence of immaturity or of artificial coloring. Such
coffee should be avoided.
The following table will show the great variation in the size and
w'eight of coffee from different sources:
WEIGHT. — DENSITIES OP OI,D COFFEE.
Origin.
Date of crop.
Condition of the
grains.
Weight
per litre.
Number of
grains to the
decilitre.
Mocha (Admiral de
Rigny) .
Mocha of Aden
1828
1874-
Grains regular,
fine.
Much mixed
Grammes
500
606
5io
554
Zanzibar Mocha
1874
Much mixed
600
476
Java
Regular, large....
445
338
Reunion
1869
Fine, pointed at
630
488
Brazil
1872
the ends .
Regular, large
S22
294
{No. 16.
No. 17.
No. 18.
Venezuela
1867)
1871 \
1872)
i86s
Regular, large. <
Ovoid, medium ...
°
460
544
586
654
300
292
354
400
San Salvador
1877
Ovoid, medium
662
Cochin Chip a 1
Small
614
KMA
Rio Nunez
Small
S8o
618
Nossi Be.
Medium
584
432
Nossi Be(#W).
Very Dry. «
Ovoid, very small.
44°
752
Gabon
Large, irregular..
490
336
Caledonia
Medium
570
442
Ceylon
Medium Drv.
Fine
580
452
Brazil (Espirito Santo)
1875
Large (artificially
dried} .
567
3i8
io COFFEE IN AMERICA.
Its loss of weight by drying is shown by the following — the
density being:
Grammes.
For eight years 4.60
For four years 5.44
For three years 5.86
Since 1885 the production has increased enormously. Brazil
alone produced for exportation in 1891-92, 7,000,000 bags of 132
pounds each, showing that its exports for this year exceeded the
total production in 1888-89 by over 100,000,000 pounds. The exports
of coffee from Mexico for 1888-89 were to the amount of $3,886,034,
and $1,019,066 for the first six months of 1890-91. Costa Rica pro-
duced, in 1889—90, 33,363,200 pounds; Venezuela, 95,170,272; Colom-
bia exported in the latter year to the value of $4,262,030, and Guate-
mala 50,859,900 pounds, valued at $2,714,981. Nicaragua produced
in 1890-91 11,300,000 pounds.
While the total production of the world has thus been increasing,
the ratio of this increase has been far greater in the countries that
make up Latin America than in the coffee producing districts of the
Old World, where the once famed plantations of Arabia have dwin-
dled to an insignificant production, and the difficulties of cultivation
in Java have increased. It is in the former, therefore, that the
steadily growing demands shown by the constantly increasing price
must stimulate the opening of new fields.
RANGE OF PRODUCTION.
The plant is a native of the tropics and can be cultivated only
in regions free from frost, though excessive heat is inimical to
a healthy growth or good product. Thus, in the low, hot lands of the
entire coast of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and South Atlantic,
its cultivation is not attempted; and it is only back on the high lands
and hill ranges that successful plantations are found.
Mexico is the most northern and Paraguay the most southern of
the countries of this Continent, where its cultivation has been profit-
ably pursued, and the area of territory in each of the countries where
it is grown that can be successfully devoted to the production of
coffee is much less than is generally supposed.
COFFEE IN AMERICA. II
•The following information as to this industry has been gained
from those having personal knowledge of coffee culture in the differ-
ent localities:
MEXICO.
In regard to coffee raising in Mexico, Maj. J. D. Warner, of the
the City of Mexico, says, in the Mexican Trader, under recent date : *
Coffee raising in Mexico is yet in its infancy, but it pays from 100 to 200 per
cent on the capital invested, the Mexican coffee being of a superior quality and
ranking among the best in the world. Coffee is worth at present, at the planta-
tion, from 20 to 25 cents per pound, while the annual cost of production averages
only 7 cents per pound, the coffee being sold for cash only, and never commis-
sioned out to find a market. Good coffee land with an exceptional title can be
bought for from $5 to |ioo an acre, according to location and condition, and an
acre will grow 1000 trees.
He states that the coffee plantations of Mexico are never attacked
by any disease or parasite ; but in a document published by the
Department of Industry and Commerce of that country, in 1883, among
other insects injurious to the coffee plant, one, the gallina ciega, is
mentioned as attacking the roots and doing much damage to the plant.
The altitude recommended for the establishment of plantations
is from 1000 to 3000 feet above the level of the sea, and such locali-
ties are the healthiest to be found in the tropics, being above the
level where yellow fever and malarious diseases usually prevail.
The gathering of the crop is largely done by women and children,
and labor is not difficult to obtain. Major Warner states that the
average of wages paid in the coffee raising districts is 43 3^ cents
per day.
Serior Romero, Minister of Mexic oin the United States, in a
work on coffee culture -published in 1875, estimates the cost of each
coffee tree, four years from planting, at about n cents, including
price of land and wages ; that the tree in its fourth year will yield
two pounds of coffee, which, at a minimum price of 10 cents, makes
20 cents per tree. The expense of gathering and preparation for
market he puts at 5 cents, thus leaving a net profit of 15 cents per
tree. With 1000 trees per acre, the net profit per acre is seen to be
$150 for the fourth year. The yield increases, ordinarily, to the
seventh or eighth year.
12 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
The following remarks and directions in relation to coffee
planting in Mexico are taken in substance from the government pub-
lication referred to above, and may, with some unimportant modifi-
cations, be applied to the cultivation of coffee in all American coun-
tries that produce it :
CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.
The soil most generally suited for coffee plantations is a friable,
sandy, or even gravelly one, though the presence of clay in consid-
erable amount is not objectionable, when the drainage is good; but
soils that retain standing water, or those formed chiefly of alluvium,
while they produce vigorous trees, do not yield coffee of good quality.
The best soils are sufficiently deep to allow the roots to penetrate ver-
tically to a distance of three feet or more, and should not rest on a
substratum of solid rock or impermeable clay, as the moisture would
be too long retained, and the plants injured. For this reason it is
always advisable, in selecting ground for a coffee plantation, to make
sure that the above .conditions, as nearly as possible, exist; otherwise
disappointment and failure may result.
It must not be supposed, however, that moisture is not necessary
for the healthy growth and production of plant and fruit; for unless
there is abundant moisture afforded by nature, in the way of rains and
dews, artificial irrigation will be needed. The essential thing is that
the moisture pass freely through the soil and not be retained standing
about the roots of the plant.
The best plantations are made on virgin soil, from which a forest
growth has been removed by cutting the trees and burning the
branches and undergrowth on the ground, as the ashes are an excel-
lent fertilizer, whose properties are lasting. Hillsides are usually
selected to secure better drainage, and eastern exposures are pre-
ferred, though not essential to the growth of productive plantations.
Next to eastern, the western slopes are preferable, as on either of
these the growing plants are not exposed all day to the direct rays
of the sun, as is the case with northern and southern exposures.
Many planters are of the opinion that burning over the ground
injures it, and no doubt this is the case if the whole forest growth be
burned, as is sometimes done; but when only the branches of the
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 13
fallen trees and the undergrowth are consumed by the fire, the
general opinion is that the ashes are valuable as a fertilizer for the
coffee plants. In Brazil, the fallen trunks of such trees as make
valuable timber are sawed by hand by gangs of men, who 'go about
the country for that purpose, since saw-mills are scarce, and the
transportation of the heavy hard-wood logs would be almost impos-
sible. Some of these woods are almost as hard as iron, and the
sawing is difficult and very slow.
The plants for the future plantation are raised either on the spot
where they are to grow, or in seed-beds, to be afterwards transplanted
to their permanent place. The latter mode is that most generally
preferred, as by it plants without defect may be selected, and of
uniform size, which is not possible under the former system.
If the former method be chosen, however, the ground, cleaned of
all growth, is staked off in lines, in which the seeds are planted, a
few to each hill, at from six to eight feet apart. The rows are not so
far apart as the hills, for these are arranged in the quincunx order —
that is, three hills form the vertices of an equilateral triangle, two of
them being in one line and the third, or vertex of the triangle, being
in the next line. The distance apart of the plants, then, being rep-
resented by a, the distance of the lines from each other will be
the square root of Y^a. This arrangement gives each plant the
same root area as to every other one, and in situations when the
plough can be used, allows cultivation in three directions. Of course
the soil where the seeds are deposited must be thoroughly and deeply
stirred. This is done by long, sharp spades, made especially for the
purpose, and the holes are dug some two feet square and to about the
same depth, in order that the roots may easily penetrate the soil in
all directions. The earth removed from the hole is so replaced that
what was at the top shall be at the bottom.
As the young plants need to be protected from the burning rays
of the sun, banana plants, which are of very rapid growth, are set at
the centers of the triangular spaces; or, as the banana propagates so
rapidly and is so difficult to extirpate, when the coffee plants require
the whole ground, many prefer to plant the wild fig, or some other
plant easier to eradicate. In Brazil it is usual to plant a kind of tall
coarse pea, called guando, which shades the ground effectually, pre-
vents the soil from washing away, and is allowed to fall and decay
I4 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
on the ground. This plant is selected because it is rich in potash
and affords excellent manure for the growing coffee plants.
As the ground rarely admits of cultivation with the plow, the soil
is kept free from weeds by the use of heavy, sharp hoes, and the
bushes that spring up are cut down with mattocks or grubbers; all the
work being done by hand. During the first season, particularly, it is
important that all weeds and grass be destroyed before going to seed,
thus preventing new generations from appearing in subsequent years
to increase the labor of cultivation. The burning of the brush on
the ground, in the preparation of the future plantation, destroys many
seeds that would otherwise produce weeds.
After the seed is planted, if no rain falls, irrigation will be nec,-
essary to prevent the earth about the germinating seed from drying,
as in that stage moisture is necessary to the life of the embryo
plant. Care should be taken, however, that the irrigation be not
excessive, as too much water is as injurious as too little. After the
roots have formed and penetrated deep into the soil, the plant resists
drought more easily. Of course, if several seeds germinate, the most
vigorous plant is preserved and the rest removed, after a short time,
or before the roots of various plants have become mingled together,
so that in removing the others the roots of the one selected to remain
shall not be disturbed.
The propagation of the plants in seed beds, which, as has been
said, is the course usually pursued, is as follows: A spot of ground of
the same quality as that of the proposed plantation is selected; since,
if the seed bed be more fertile than the soil of the plantation, the
young plants will start off with a vigorous growth, which will be
injuriously checked by transplanting to a soil less rich. At the same
time, the seed bed should not be lacking in the elements of vigorous
growth, as puny plants rarely become vigorous, even when removed
to a very fertile soil. Very much, then, depends on a proper rela-
tion of fertility between the soil of seed bed and that of the perma-
nent plantation.
The location of the bed should be such that it will receive the
rays of the sun during the forenoon, and remain in comparative shade
after midday. The seed bed is thoroughly prepared by stirring and
inverting the soil, and the seeds may be planted in ridges or in boxes
set in the ground, having not less than ten inches of earth. Seeds
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 15
that are perfectly sound and regular in shape and size should be
selected and planted about two and a half inches apart. They should
be covered with vegetable mold to the depth of about three -fourths
of an inch, and the whole seed bed well sprinkled from a watering
pot immediately after the planting.
All grass and weeds must be carefully removed from the bed as
they appear, and the earth watered whenever it appears dry, which is
best done late in the afternoon. Frequent light sprinklings, which
keep the soil in an even condition of moisture, are preferable to pro-
fuse watering at long intervals, which makes the earth alternately too
wet and too dry.
The young plants begin to appear in about a month, and in ten
or twelve months are ready for transplanting, being, at that age, from
twelve to sixteen inches high. The banana or other plants intended
to shade the young coffee trees should be set out before the trans-
planting of the latter, and given time to become large enough to fur-
nish shade from the first. The cultivation of the new plantation will
consist in keeping down the weeds and grass, and if these should
grow to considerable size it is better to cut them down, allow them to
dry, and burn them in piles, than to cover them with earth. Many
insects and their eggs, or larvae, are destroyed by the burning, that
would not be killed by burying them.
The transplanting is done when the ground is moist from recent
rains, and if a ball of earth be taken up with the roots of the young
plant, it will start off more quickly and vigorously in its new place.
If the plants destined to furnish shade have not been previously
planted, it will be necessary to stick a branch with leaves in the ground
beside the young plant, so as to shade it until it takes new root; but
these branches should not be left there longer than necessary, as they
become the breeding place of insects which are injurious to the coffee
plant.
If the roots of the plants are torn in removal, they should be cut
obliquely and smoothly above the wound. The plants can be con-
veniently carried from the seed bed to the plantation in large baskets,
whose bottoms are covered with moist earth. The direct rays of the
sun should not be allowed to fall on the plants during their transpor-
tation and planting. The plants should be set at the same depth as
1 6 COFFBK IN AMERICA.
in the seed bed, and the ground about them watered in the afternoon
of the day of transplanting. .
In addition to keeping the new plantation free from grass and
weeds, the suckers or shoots which will push at the base of the
plant should be removed, as well as all diseased branches and such
as lie on the ground. Some of the plants will die, and these must be
replaced by the most vigorous ones from the seed bed.
Some planters think it best to pinch off" the terminal buds of the
top boughs when the plants have reached a height of five or six feet.
This is to prevent the tree from growing too high for the convenient
gathering of the berries. Others believe that this process injures the
quality of the coffee, an opinion apparently ill-founded, since the
general practice is to top the trees, which makes them more stocky
and the lateral branches stronger. In the forest, surrounded by other
trees, the coffee tree grows tall and straggling and produces but
little.
A Mexican authority declares that the coffee tree will not bear
pruning, but in Brazil and other countries it is freely practiced. The
distance of the plants from each other varies considerably in different
countries and localities. In Costa Rica it is recommended to give
them a distance of ten feet. In Brazil, from ten to twelve feet is the
usual distance, while in Mexico six, seven or eight feet seems to be
preferred. No doubt the size of the tree at maturity is that which
determines the proper distance under the system of pruning that is
practiced. A distance often feet in the quincunx order of planting
will give about 500 trees to the acre.
Generally, if the soil of the plantation is originally of sufficient
fertility, little or no manures will be required, if the leaves that fall
annually from the trees, and vegetable growth that is raised between
the rows are turned under the soil to decay ; but where manures are
necessary or desirable, the vegetable should be preferred to the
animal. Ashes are an excellent application, as the coffee plant is a
consumer of potash.
If the ground of the plantation is very steep and the soil inclined
to be washed away, it is better not to keep it too clean of grass and
weeds, as these retain the earth by their roots and stems that lie on
the ground ; and sometimes diagonal ditches must be made to carry
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 17
off the excess of water more slowly than it \vould descend the slope
if unobstructed.
Although there are few plants less exposed to the attacks of
insects and disease, the coffee has certain enemies, both animal and
fungus, which require attention, but none of these present great diffi-
culties in overcoming. A growth of moss is probably indicative of
too much moisture and a generally feeble condition. Very few spe-
cific remedies are employed against insects, which are rarely very
formidable.
The trees begin to produce in the fourth year, and in the seventh
reach their full capacity. A coffee plantation favorably located and
properly cared for will continue in profitable bearing some forty years.
Mexican coffee is considered to be milder and, in some respects,
superior to the product of some of the other coffee producing
countries. There remain still in Mexico vast bodies of virgin land.
United States Consul Sampson, at Paso del Norte, in a report dated
June 17, 1891, represents that nearly one-third of the lands of the
Republic are unoccupied, the greater part of which are available for
agricultural and pastoral purposes. Among this are many tracts
which may be profitably devoted to coffee culture. Any settler may
obtain as many as 6000 acres of government lands at prices varying
from 12 cents to $1.80 per acre. The Mexican government offers
every encouragement to actual settlers. To settlers in colonies, as
much as 247 acres are granted free, and the colonies will receive a
title to the same after having cultivated the land for five consecutive
years. The settlers are also exempted for the period of ten years-
from military service, from all -taxes except municipal, from all
import or domestic duties on articles imported for their own use, and
from export duties on their products. Public lands may be obtained
in any part of the Republic where they are situated, except within
sixty miles from the frontier. In sections suitable for coffee culture „
tobacco, vanilla, ramie, Indian corn, etc., may also be raised.
GUATEMALA.
The production of coffee in Guatemala is steadily, though not
rapidly, increasing. In 1887, the production was 48,539,267 pounds,
l8 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
and in 1891 it had advanced to 52,197,853 pounds. Between 1861
and 1870, only 11,481,420 pounds were exported, but between 1871
and 1883 the exports of coffee reached 293,274,971 pounds.
The temperature best suited to the healthy growth and abundant
production of the plant in Guatemala is between 60° and 90° Fahren-
heit, the former being rather too cool and the latter too warm for the
best results. In the lands whose altitude is from 1500 to 2000 feet,
and where the ruling temperature approaches the latter limit, the
young plants must be shaded, in new plantations, by tall and rapidly
growing plants, otherwise their growth is unhealthy, as is betrayed
by the small size and yellowish appearance of the leaves.
For the purpose of shading the young trees, the banana is very
generally employed; as it not only affords abundant shade, but pro-
duces paying crops of its own. After one or two seasons' growth ,the
coffee plants need no further extraneous shade.
In districts whose mean elevation is 4500 feet, plantations must
be sheltered from the cold north winds, which, during December,
January and February, blow almost continuously, and destroy planta-
tions exposed to their full force. A range of hills to the north of and
overlooking the plantation is the best natural protection that can be
found, but in the absence of this, it is customary, when the mercury
at night falls to 60°, to burn heaps of rubbish mixed with pitch on
the north side of the plantation, and the dense smoke, drifting over
and through the rows of trees, furnishes complete protection from
the effects of the cold.
The scarcity of labor has been, and continues to be, the main
obstacle to a rapid increase in the . coffee product in the extensive
lands of Guatemala so well suited to the growth of the plant.
Mr. Audly Gosling, in a report made to the British government
in 1892, says that lands suitable for coffee plantations may still be
had at moderate prices, and that the production would be increased
three or four times if sufficient laborers could be obtained for new
plantations. The lands most suitable for plantations and most favor-
ably situated with respect to centers of shipment naturally com-
mand the highest prices.
For the better and more favorably located lands, the govern-
ment price is about $80 per caballeria (120 acres), $40 to be paid to*
Hi? authorized surveyor; making, in all, about $i per acre. This,
COEFKE IN AMERICA. 19
however, is the price when there is no competition among bidders.
Mr. Gosling thinks that the most inviting fields are the districts more
remote from the cities, and that in these, well-directed energy and
moderate capital may expect abundant rewards from coffee raising.
The manner of raising the plants and setting them in the per-
manent plantations is almost the same as in Mexico, and the same
cultivation is given to the growing trees. The critical season for the
future crop is the blooming period. A heavy rainfall, while the trees
are in flower, will seriously damage the plants, washing away the
pollen and thus preventing fructification. This period lasts three or
four days, when the blossoms fall and the "cherry," as it is called,
begins to appear. This " cherry " reaches maturity in October and is
ready for gathering and "pulping" — that is, for the removal of the
outer shell and pulp, after which it is washed and carried to dry,
spread out in brick-paved yards exposed to the sun.
The methods employed for the handling of the berries after
gathering may be greatly improved, and when the modern machinery
and drying apparatus, such as are used on the larger plantations in
Brazil, shall have been introduced, the Guatemala product will be
greatly improved, both in quality and amount. The profit, too, of
the culture, in a country where labor is so scarce, must depend greatly
on the employment of all means which will economize manual labor.
German settlers have taken up coffee lands to such an extent
that it is estimated that fully one-fifth of the plantations are in their
hands.
Lands in Guatemala may be readily acquired by foreigners, at
prices that vary according to their situation, quality, etc.
Level lands covered with natural pasture are sold at $2 per
hectare (2^ acres). If level and covered with brush they bring
$1.50 per hectare, if they yield sarsaparilla and other valuable natural
products, and $i if without such products. Broken, stony, miry and
sterile lands are sold at 80 cents per hectare. Vacant public lands
sixty miles or more distant from the nearest center of population may
be obtained at one -fourth the above prices. Settlers introduced into
Guatemala, or through the government Bureau of Immigration, may
obtain concessions, of public land without payment and will receive
a title to the same on fulfilment of certain easy conditions.
Settlers are also exempt, for ten years, from any direct tax or impost,
20 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
and are also free from military service, and are entitled to introduce,
free of duty, such tools, implements and machinery as are needed for
their work. After becoming firmly established they may allow the
foreigner to pay taxes on their importations, as in other countries.
HONDURAS.
The soil, surface and climatic conditions of Honduras are so
similar to those of Guatemala that the cultivation of coffee is almost
identical in all respects, and the yield and profits are about the same.
As in Guatemala, scarcity of labor is the chief obstacle to coffee-
raising, and the government, recognizing the importance of immigra-
tion for the development of the public lands, offers them to settlers at
very low prices. Senor Jeronimo Belaya, delegate from Honduras in
the International American Conference, informed the Bureau of
American Republics that lands on the northern coast may be obtained
gratis, on application to the government.
The prices of land, when sold by the government, vary from 25
cents per acre, when suitable for pasture only, to 50 cents, when fit for
agricultural purposes. Lands situated within a league of a navigable
body of water are sold at 75 cents per acre, and those exceptionally
located, or possessing particular advantages, bring $i per acre.
United States Consul Herring, speaking of the various products
of Honduras, says its "coffee is perhaps without a superior in the
world," and while it is true that the cultivation of the plant has not
been extended so rapidly as in some other of the Central American
States, it seems that the field offered for enterprises in that direction
is not less inviting than in the neighboring countries.
NICARAGUA.
Coffee is the staple product of Nicaragua and the annual yield
has continued comparatively steady during the last ten years. In
1881-82 the production was 120,262 quintals, and in 1890-91 113,000
quintals; showing a slight falling off. There are under cultivation
in coffee about 76,000 acres, and each acre is estimated to produce
five quintals. (A quintal equals 220.46 pounds.)
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 21
The lands in this Republic suitable for coffee raising are found on
the Sierra de Managua, the greater part of which is adapted to that
purpose; in Diriamba, San Marcos and Jinotepe, and about the base
\h" the volcano Monbacho, near Grenada. Good coffee lands are also
found on the Island of Ometipe, in Lake Nicaragua, and around
Boaco, in the Department of Chontales, where the cultivation has
only recently begun. There are also many flourishing plantations
near Matagalpa and Jinotega, and in the vicinity of Esteli and
Lomato, in the Department of Nueva Segovia.
Water is scarce on the Pacific Coast lands, but in the Departments
of Chontales and Matagalpa, is abundant. Communication between
the districts and centers of population is, for the greater part, by
roads where only mules can travel, though some of them will admit
of transportation by wagons and carts. The altitude of the coffee
lands is from 3000 to 4000 feet above sea level, at which height the
atmosphere is pure and residents enjoy excellent health.
Labor is more abundant in the northern than in the Pacific
departments, and wages of laborers vary from 40 to 50 cents per
day. In the northern departments, too, are many streams that can
be utilized to afford motive power for machinery; also, rivers of
considerable size.
For the exportation of coffee, the principal roads are the National
Railway from Granada to Corinto; the route by steamer from Granada
to San Jorge, on Lake Nicaragua, and thence by wagons to San Juan
del Sur; and that from Granada to San Juan del Norte, on the
Atlantic. Freight on coffee from Granada to Corinto is about 60
cents per 100 pounds.
In order to encourage the establishment of coffee plantations the
government of Nicaragua does not place a penalty upon industry in
the form of a license tax, but has ade a law, by which, to every
person planting not less than 5000 coffee trees, a premium of 5 cents
per tree is given ; one-half of which is payable when the trees are
2 years old, and the remainder when they begin to produce. From
400 to 500 trees are set to the acre, and the cost of the plants is about
$5 per 1000. The expense of clearing the land for plantations is
placed by the United States consul at Managua at from $3 to $12.50
per acre. The same authority estimates the cost of producing 100
pounds of coffee at $5, which leaves a handsome margin for profit.
22 COFFKE IN AMERICA.
The price of government lands suitable for agricultural purposes
is about 75 cents per acre; for such as are well watered with running
streams, $i; and for those containing valuable building timber and
dye-woods, 20 cents per acre additional.
The consul above cited advises no one to go to Nicaragua to
establish himself as a coffee planter with less than $3000 or $4000
capital.
The methods of opening new lands for plantations, raising the
young plants, setting them in the plantations, the gathering and
handling of the product are the same as those employed in the coun-
tries already treated of.
Consul Newell, at Managua, in his report dated June 13, 1891,
estimated that the total area in cultivation of coffee in Nicaragua
amounts to about 28,000 acres. He further states that the amount of
public lands pre-empted December 31, 1890, was about 48,000 acres,
of which 32,000 were fit for coffee cultivation..
The greater part of the coffee exported goes to Europe. This is
owing, in part, to the fact that rates of freight to the United States
are higher, and in part to the better facilities offered by European
houses to shippers of coffee.
According to the same report, there were at that date in the
department of Matagalpa, 2,000,000 trees, which, in the beginning of
1893, would begin to produce. His estimate that these trees should
produce 10,000,000 pounds of coffe is clearly too high, since such a
yield would require an annual product of five pounds per tree;
whereas, the yield per tree, as estimated in another part of the same
report, is about one pound.
The departments of Masaya, Managua and Matagalpa, appear to
contain the greater of the lands adapted to coffee culture. Out of
17,000 acres of land pre-empted, only 120 acres were not suited for
coffee plantations; and out of 13,000 acres in Managua, over 8000
were fit for coffee.
COSTA RICA.
The coffee plant was introduced into Costa Rica in 1796, and its
cultivation there has been continuous since that time, the production
gradually and constantly increasing under the Spanish occupation and
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 23
since the independence of the country, reaching 5000 tons in 1861 and
18,000 in 1884. The exports of coffee in 1891 amounted to nearly
$6,140,000. Costa Rica coffee is of a superior quality and commands
the highest price in the market. It is largely used in England.
The census of 1890 showed the existence of 8130 coffee planta-
tions, with 26,558,251 trees. These plantations were situated at
various altitudes, from 2500 to 5000 feet above sea level, but the
best results are obtained at 4000 feet.
The method of raising the young plants in nurseries, the distance
at which they are planted, the preparation of the virgin lands for
the plantations, and the subsequent cultivation of the trees, are the
same as in the other coffee districts of the Western Continent.
The seed beds are sown in May, and in the same month of the
following year are set in the plantations. At the end of two years
a few berries will be produced, the first regular crop being harvested
the following season. The cultivation of other crops between the
rows while the trees are young is practiced to some extent, as else-
where; the banana, or a quick-growing tree called " poro bianco,"
being used to shade the young plants. The average annual cost per
acre of working a coffee plantation after it comes into bearing is esti-
mated at about $6, and the annual yield is put at an average of 2500
pounds per acre; but 2000 pounds is a safer estimate.
The quincunx order of planting the trees in the plantations of
Costa Rica is not so common as in the other coffee producing coun-
tries, notwithstanding its obvious and considerable advantages.
The gathering, which goes on from December to March, is done
largely by women and children, who pick the berries in baskets holding
from eighteen to twenty quarts. The gatherers are paid about 12
cents per basket, and active workers can fill eight to ten baskets per
day.
The provinces of San Jose, Alajuela, Cartago and Heredia and
those in which the cultivation of coffee is most extensively pursued,
and in all these, except Cartago, the greater part of the available
lands are already occupied by plantations. A vast extent of excel-
lent coffee lands is found on the Atlantic side of the country between
Cartago and Reventazon, and are said to be even better than those of
Heredia and San Jose.
24 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
The Costa Rican Government encourages the settlement of for-
eigners in the country to engage in agricultural pursuits, and offers lands
at very low prices, considering the great productiveness of their soil.
Public lands may be acquired by pre-emption, in tracts of not less
than 120 acres, by merely fencing them and giving notice to the
authorities of the intention of the occupant to put them under culti-
vation ; and if the cultivation be carried on for two years, a patent of
ownership will be issued to the holder, and he may inclose and claim
in the same manner another 120 acres, and so on.
Lands may also be purchased, in areas not to exceed 600 hectares
for each person, at public auction, at prices varying from 80 cents to
$2 per acre, according to locality, quality, irrigation and nature of
growth on them. If the lands at these prices are situated more than
fifteen miles from a town of 3000 inhabitants, or from a railroad, these
prices will be reduced one-half; if from thirty to sixty miles, they
will be sold at one-fourth, and if more than sixty miles, at one-
eighth the prices named. These lands may be paid for in cash or in ten
annual instalments, at 6 per cent interest. If at any time the pur-
chaser shows that the improvements he has made are worth double
the interest due, he is excused from payment of such interest ; and if
the improvements be worth twice as much as the price to be paid, by
the terms of the sale, he is exempted from payment of all interest due.
SALVADOR.
Coffee is the principal production of this country and amounts
annually, according to official publication, to about 60,000,000 pounds.
The lands most productive of this staple are situated in the depart-
ments of Santa Ana, La Libertad, San Salvador, San Vicente, La
Paz and San Miguel. The great profits realized in coffee raising in
these departments have stimulated the opening of new plantations on
a large scale
As in the other Central American States, an altitude of about
3000 feet above sea level is preferred. The methods of preparing
the soil, planting the trees, cultivating the plantation, gathering the
crop, and preparing it for market, are the same as are followed in the
neighboring states.
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 25
Want of railroad transportation and of properly constructed roads,
together with the difficulty of securing sufficient laborers, is here, as
in the other coffee producing States of America, the chief obstacle
to enterprises in coffee raising. There is only one railroad in the
country, and its length is only a little over forty miles. Others are
projected, but it must be many years before the coffee producing dis-
tricts can substitute transportation by rail for mule trains.
COLOMBIA.
The exports of coffee from Colombia in 1889 amounted to 3,51 6,-
293 pesos, equivalent to about $2,155,500 in United States currency,
and in 1890, the exports rose to $2,613,000, showing a considerable
increase in the production, and being larger by more than $1,000,000
than the gold exports, which come next in value.
The profits of coffee raising in Colombia are no doubt consider-
able and almost certain, when the proper locality is selected and the
necessary capital and intelligent management are employed in the
establishment of the plantations and their subsequent care and culti-
vation. The cost of the land for setting out and growing 100,000
coffee plants, and of implements and cultivation needed, is thus esti-
mated by an intelligent American, who examined various localities
and studied the question of coffee cultivation on the spot :
First year #5,567
Second year 5.414
Third year i,754
Fourth year 3»ooo
Machinery for cleaning the berries 2,000
Total $17,735
The same gentleman gives the yield of the coffee tree from the
third year forward as from two and one-half to four pounds per tree
each year. This estimate is probably too high, but even at one
pound per tree the product of 100,000 trees would be worth $20,000
for the fourth year, at 20 cents per pound
The cost of transportation from Bogota to New York is estimated
at 2.9 cents per pound, and the Estadistica Mercantil puts the cost of
26 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
production at 4^ cents per pound. The profit is thus seen to be very
substantial.
The price of labor is low, the wages of a day laborer being about
25 cents, and in some districts children are employed in gathering
coffee at the low wages of 5 cents per day, according to the statement
of the gentleman before alluded to.
The coffee plantations of Colombia are said to be remarkably
free from disease, and the equatorial situation of the country renders
it easy to find localities where the temperature is just suited to the
growth of the coifee tree, and but slightly variable. It is simply a
question of altitude, and the mountainous character of the surface
facilitates the selection of the proper height at which to establish
plantations.
Irrigation is said to be rarely necessary in Colombia, and almost
the only drawback to the rapid extension of coffee planting appears
to be the scarcity of labor, the adequate supply of which is the only
great unsolved problem that confronts all proposed enterprises in
Central and South America.
Many plantations produce in the third year almost enough to
pay for the expense of the cultivation up to that time.
The plants are set about nine feet apart, so that an acre will
contain about 460 trees. The manner of cultivation, pruning, gather-
ing and cleaning, is almost the same as prevails in the coffee-
producing countries already treated of, and needs not to be repeated
here.
The districts in which coffee is profitably produced lie at alti-
tudes varying from 1500 to 5000 feet above sea level ; but the tree
thrives and produces best at the mean of these two extremes. Con-
siderable quantities of coffee are gathered by the Indians from trees
that grow wild on the mountain slopes ; and this coffee is the same as
that produced in the cultivated plantations, except that the size of
the berries is generally smaller.
The consul-general of the United States at Panama states, in a
report to his Government, dated April 8, 1891, that there is no limit
to the amount of land that may be acquired by settlement and culti-
vation in the Department of Panama. Every person occupying
uncultivated public lands for agricultural purposes acquires the right
of property in the land he cultivates, whatever its extent ; and if such
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 27
occupation be made by the establishment of coffee plantations, the
settler has the right to claim an extent of land adjoining equal to
that already occupied.
Sr. Climaco Calderon, the consul-general of Colombia in New
York, referring to Colombia in general, says : " The government of
Colombia does not offer special inducements to immigration. Bona
fide immigrants are allowed in Colombia twenty -five hectares (about
sixty acres) of public land and the importation, duty free, of all the
implements and tools of their trade and profession."
VENEZUELA.
Venezuela ranks next to Brazil, and, therefore, second among the *<t/
coffee producing countries of America. The exports of that product
in 1890 amounted to 71,167,850 bolivars, or $13,685,577 in United
States currency. The importance of coffee culture in the country is
seen when it is known that this amount was about three times the
value of all the other exports combined.
That large districts in Venezuela are admirably suited for the
growth of coffee is thus placed beyond a doubt, and the production
already reached promises to make this Republic some day a rival of
the great country on her southern border.
The first coffee planted in Venezuela was near Caracas, in 1784,
and the seed from these first plants, distributed through the country,
formed the beginnings of the future plantations. It is estimated that
the lands already occupied by these plantations amount to 346,000
acres, containing about 168,000,000 trees.
A large portion of the mountainous part of the country, in the
northern part, is well suited to coffee raising, and can be brought
under cultivation with no greater expense than lands in the other
countries that produce the plant.
The coffee of Venezuela is undoubtedly of as good quality as
that of the neighboring countries. It may be remarked that here, as
well as elsewhere, it is the same plant, the same species, the same
variety, that produces nine-tenths of the American coffee, and that,
as in the hotter countries, a higher altitude is necessary than in the
cooler; or, in other words, about the same temperature is necessary
^or its profitable production, and about the same qualities of soil, the
28 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
quality of the coffee produced depends more on the seasons, the cul-
tivation, and handling than on any special adaptability possessed
by any country within the coffee zone.
About the same altitude is necessary for successful results as in
Colombia, and the same mode of establishing the plantations pre-
vails, except that the trees are planted rather closer together than in
Brazil and Central America. A gentleman who has resided many
years in Venezuela estimates that about 676 trees are contained on an
acre, and that the average product per tree is one pound. He states
the cost of handling and preparing for market at about $5.40
per bag of no pounds, and the selling price at $17 to $21 — giving a
profit of over $13 per bag. This would give a profit of about $75
per acre for the plantation. The adoption of the modern improved
machinery for the cleaning and drying of the berries, by lessen-
ing the cost of handling, and the amount of inferior coffee, will
doubtless increase the profits of coffee raising in Venezuela, as it has
done in other countries.
Under a decree signed on the 7th day of January, 1893, several
provisions were made by the government of Venezuela for the
encouragement of immigration. Under this decree immigrants are
divided as follows :
First. Immigrants without contract, coming in search of some
occupation in this country.
Second. Immigrants coming under contract between themselves
and the government of some one of the States.
Third. Immigrants coming under contracts between themselves
and private individuals or companies.
Fourth. Immigrants under contract to work in colonies belonging
to private persons on vacant public lands.
Fifth. Immigrants under contract to work in colonies belonging
to private persons on their own private lands.
Sixth. Immigrants under contract to work under the direct
management of the government.
A board of immigration was created to carry out the decree.
The board is known by the name, "Central Board of Immigration,"
and may establish subordinate boards throughout the Republic.
For the purpose of promoting immigration, the government
COFFKE IN AMERICA. 29
grants all immigrants voluntarily coming to the country the follow-
ing assistance :
First. The payment of their passage, both by sea and land, from
the place of embarkation to any of the main immigrant depots. The
national government may also pay the passage of the immigrants
from the place of residence to place of embarkation.
Second. Payment of landing expenses and board and lodging of
the immigrants for thirty days after arrival.
Third. Admission, free of duty, of their wearing apparel,
domestic utensils and instruments of their calling.
Fourth. Exemption from the payment of any fees for passports
given them.
Special provisions are made for the care of the immigrants, who
are guaranteed all the rights accorded by law to aliens, and if they
choose to be naturalized, they shall be exempt from military service
during the whole of their lives, except only in case of foreign war.
Special provisions are made in behalf of individuals and com-
panies organizing colonies for settlement in Venezuela.
The manner of making contracts with immigrants is carefully
guarded in this decree.
Such immigrants as may purchase public lands during the first
two years of their residence in the Republic shall not be bound to
pay the price thereof until after the expiration of four years, counted
from the day on which they enter into actual possession of the pur-
chased land ; but they will net be allowed to sell or transfer said
land during this period.
The patent, or title of ownership, shall not be delivered to the
immigrant until after he has paid the stipulated price and given suffi-
cient proof both of his residence on the tract of land referred to, and
of his having put the same under cultivation.
The prices to be charged under the decree for national lands are
as follows : For agricultural lands, $3.12 per acre, and $386 per square
league for pasture lands, or lands suitable for raising cattle.
Special provisions are made for the colonization of public lands
by private individuals and companies.
In general, it may be said that the provisions of this land law are
especially favorable to immigrants and parties seeking investments
in any industry that may be profitably carried on in the Republic.
30 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
BRAZIL.
In 1891 the exports of coffee from Rio de Janeiro alone were 425,
055,000, valued at $42,500,000 at 10 cents per pound. The exports
from Santos are usually about one-half of those from Rio, and from
these two ports the bulk of the coffee sent abroad is exported. The
magnitude of the coffee growing interests in Brazil, and its impor-
tance in maintaining the national wealth and credit, may be esti-
mated when it is considered that the United States alone paid to
Brazil for her coffee in 1891 more that $45,000,000.
The profitable cultivation of coffee in Brazil is confined to the
four states of Bspiritu Santo, Minas-Geraes, Rio de Janeiro and Sao
Paulo. It is produced as far north as Para and in considerable quan-
tities in Ceara, but the yield is less and the quality inferior to that of
the product of the famous zone comprised in the four states just men-
tioned. The growth of coffee culture has been natural and remark-
ably rapid. No favors from the government, such as have been
given to*sugar production, no inducements to immigration on the part
of national or state governments have contributed to the remark-
able development of this great agricultural interest; but the natural
adaptation -of the soil and the growing demand for this staple have
been sufficient to increase its exportation from thirteen bags in 1800
to the enormous quantities that annually load the vessels of all nations
in the ports of Rio and Santos. The facilities for transportation from
the interior to the coast have been a great factor in this increase, no
doubt, as well as the moderate rates of freight on the railroads that
have their termini in these ports.
The plantations are generally made on hillsides, from which the
heavy forest growth has been cleared by felling the trees and burn-
ing off the undergrowth. The valuable logs are sometimes sawed on
the spot into boards and planks ; sometimes burned, after drying, and
sometimes allowed to lie on the ground and decay. The latter
method is perhaps the best, as the logs contain the wealth of the soil
accumulated during years, which is thus returned to it again. As the
cultivation is done altogether with hoe, spade and mattock, these
decaying trunks are not so much in the way as might be supposed.
All the vegetable growth that can be kept on the ground and does
not interfere with the growing coffee trees aids in preventing the
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 31
washing away of the mold from the soil, which a bare cultivation
would carry off in a few years.
A plantation, properly managed, lasts for about thirty years in
profitable bearing, and by that time the soil is worn out, as is
attested by the many bald, red hills to be found in the older culti-
vated districts of the coffee zone.
The young plants are sometimes raised in seed beds, as described
in speaking of coffee culture in Mexico : sometimes young shoots
from the roots of old trees are employed, and sometimes the more
expensive, but better, method is resorted to of raising each plant in
a separate earthen pot, whence, at one year old, it is transplanted with
all the earth about its roots to its permanent location. Long rows of
these pots with their plants, set on a slope, over which water is con-
stantly running, and protected from the hot rays of the sun by matting
stretched on poles above them, may be seen on the plantations where
the best methods are employed. The system is costly, but about a
year is gained in the growth of the trees, and the plants, receiving
no check by transplanting, rarely need replacing. It has been found
advantageous also to select the very best grains for seed, and some
planters have succeeded in establishing improved and distinct varie-
ties, by repeated reproduction from the same kinds of seed.
Nowhere in the world is greater attention given to the cultivation
and handling of coffee than in Brazil, and nowhere else is improved
machinery for the preparation of the crop for market so generally
employed. It is the fashion in praising the coffee of other countries
to describe it as superior to the Brazilian, but no permanent advan-
tage is gained by unjust comparisons, for they are against the
facts. The truth is that no coffee anywhere in the world is superior
to the Brazilian, which is sold everywhere as Java, Mocha, Mara-
caibo, etc., at the fancy of the dealer and whim of the consumer.
Every plantation in the country produces the Java and Mocha of the
markets of the United States, and it is only an affair of sieves of
differently sized meshes to classify. the products of Brazilian planta-
tions into the falsely named kinds, in order to demand a higher price
from the buyer. These facts can not be controverted any more than
can the other truth that no country produces coffee superior to that
of Brazil. The coffee with a small, round grain, called, generally,
"pea-berry," and sold in the United States as "Mocha," is produced
if
32 COFFKK IN AMERICA.
by topping and severely pruning the ordinary plant, although many
such grains will always be found on trees treated in the usual manner.
While the young trees are growing, crops of corn or mandioca are
sometimes raised between the rows, which are planted in the
quincunx order, and these crops are sometimes sufficient to repay the
expenses of the plantation. At the age of four years the trees are
about six feet high and in profitable bearing, The principal gathering
month is November, and then every available hand is engaged in pick-
ing the berries in baskets. The average result of a day's gathering for
each person is enough to produce about fifty pounds of dried coffee.
The baskets are emptied of their contents into carts which convey the
berries to the mill -house, where they are to be prepared for market.
The berry resembles very closely the cranberry, and contains two
grains with their flattened sides toward each other. Each of the two
is covered with a closely adhering membrane called pergaminho, and
outside of this is a thicker and more loosely fitting coat called cas-
quinho. The two grains with their coverings are contained in a tough
shell called casco, and this is surrounded by a white pulp and outer
skin, thus forming the berry.
To prepare the coffee for market, all these coverings must be
removed. The outer pulp is removed, after maceration in water, by a
machine called despolpador, which consists of a revolving iron cylinder
set with teeth and covered on one side by a concave sheet of metal.
A trough lined with cement is placed on a hillside above the mill,
and through it a stream of water is kept running. Into this the coffee
berries are thrown and are carried down by the stream into a large
.vat. In this vat the heavier berries sink to the bottom, whence they
are drawn off through a pipe to the despolpador. This machine
removes the pulp, the berries passing with the water to another vat
beyond. In this the water is kept in constant motion by a revolving
wheel, and the pulp is thus thoroughly washed off and carried away
with the water, while the coffee grains sink to the bottom ; and thence
passing to a strainer the water is all drained off, leaving them ready
for the process of drying.
Two methods of drying are in use ; the old process, which con-
sists in spreading the grains on a cement-covered pavement called
terreiro, where they are allowed to dry in the sun. For this about two
months are necessary, and the grains have to be raked over and
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 33
turned during the day and gathered into piles and covered at night.
Whenever a shower comes up the coffee must also be covered. The
more modern and satisfactory process of drying by steam is employed
on many of the larger plantations. By this process the drying, which
by the old method requires about sixty days, is accomplished in a few
hours, with a vast economy of labor. Under this system drying is
done in large, shallow pans of zinc heated by steam coils beneath.
This process will, doubtless, on large plantations, supersede the older
and more expensive method. The drying is done more uniformly
and with no danger of injury from sudden rain.
The coffee, after drying, is still inclosed in the inner and outer
skins, which have been rendered more brittle by the drying. The
machinery necessary for the removal of this is somewhat complicated
and expensive. The most efficient of the machines in use are from
the United States, and a complete plant for a large plantation will
cost not less than $25,000. The coffee is brought from the drying
house and placed in bins, whence, by an eleyator band, it is carried
to a ventilator, where it is rid of rubbish and dust by sifting and
fanning. From the ventilator the coffee is carried to the sheller
(descascador), which consists of a toothed cylinder, by whose rapid
revolutions the outer and inner husks are broken. The grains and
broken husks are carried by a pipe to a second ventilator, where the
latter are sifted out and fanned away, and the former are carried by
an elevator to the separator. This is composed of hollow copper
cylinders, pierced with holes of different shapes and sizes. These
cylinders are kept constantly revolving, and the coffee grains, passing
through the holes, fall into separate bins, being thus assorted according
to their size and shape.
The coffee thus mechanically classified goes into the markets,
of the world, where it is sold, the small, round grains as Mocha, the
large flat grains as Java, and so on, until all the coffee-producing
countries are represented in all the corner groceries of the world by
the product of a single Brazilian plantation.
A small portion of the pergaminho which still remains is removed
by the brunidor (polisher) by trituration and fanning. Finally, after
passing through all this series of machines the coffee is carefully
picked over by hand and is ready to be put into bags.
Although immense tracts of land suitable for coffee culture yet
remain unoccupied, nearly all of them are held by large land owners
34 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
who generally refuse to sell. As there is no tax on land and a con
siderable one on land sales, the owners prefer to hold them, as the
constant demand for coffee lands annually enhances their value,
and they can be held with no expense to their owners. Good
coffee lands when sold bring large prices, and no person can engage
in coffee raising without considerable capital. As has been said the
coffee zone embraces the states of Bspirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro,
Minas-Geraes and Sao Paulo, and the greater part of the un-
occupied public lands are situated in the other states.
Under the new constitution of Brazil all wild lands formerly4
belonging to the Empire are declared to be the property of the
states within whose limits they lie, and their sale is governed by the
various regulations established by the respective legislatures.
ECUADOR.
Coffee is the third in value of the exports of Ecuador, though
its production has not reached the importance attained in most of the
other coffee -producing States of America. But little information
concerning its cultivation has been accessible to this Bureau, but it
may be said that the methods of planting, cultivating and gathering
are the same as in the neighboring countries.
There are, undoubtedly, large bodies of lands in the Republic
suitable for coffee culture, and the Secretary of the Treasury, in a
report submitted to the Congress of Ecuador, states that the govern-
ment possesses vast tracts of great fertility that are valueless for
want of occupants. These lands lie on the eastern and the western
slopes of the Andes and their difficulty of access is the chief obstacle
to their settlement. The price of public lands sold by the govern-
ment is from 20 to 80 cents per acre, and not more than 500 acres
will be sold at one time to one individual.
BOLIVIA.
Bolivia must be reckoned among the coffee -producing countries
of America, and although the exportation of that product has not
reached the proportions attained in some of the neighboring coun-
tries, the quality is of undeniable excellence. Mention may be made
of the famous coffee of Yungas which rivals the Mocha in excellence.
The coffee -producing lands are situated in the province qf Puna-
COFFEE IN AMERICA. 35
taand in the departments of Santa Cruz, Veni and La Paz. The
mountainous character of the country, while favorable in many
respects to the selection of sites for coffee plantations, renders trans-
portation so difficult that it constitutes the chief obstacle to the open-
ing of lands, and the day is probably distant when the steam car
shall take the place of the slew mule train. The same methods of
opening and cultivating coffee plantations prevail here as in the other
coffee -raising countries and their production is about the same; but
no statistics are available to show the price of labor and other
expenses of handling and marketing.
THE GUIANAS AND WEST INDIES.
The Guianas and most of the larger West India Islands produce
greater or less quantities of coffee. In the year 1890-91 the island
of Jamaica exported coffee to the amount of $1,381,114, and Puerto
Rico to the value of 4,858,306 pesos; in 1888 Guadalupe exported
905,368 francs' worth. Coffee culture was formerly an important
interest in Martinique. It is probable that no great increase in the
coffee product of the West Indies is to be looked for for many years,
and the markets of the world must continue to obtain their supplies
from the continental countries treated of in the foregoing pages.
JAMAICA
Exports annually from 800,000 to 900,000 pounds of coffee. The
value of the exports of this article in 1891 was about one-sixth of the
total export. More than half the coffee exported is taken by the
United States, but consists chiefly of the lower grades, the better and
higher-priced qualities going to England. The best coffee of the
island is raised in the eastern part of the parishes of St. Andrew
and St. Thomas, and goes almost entirely to England. The coffee of
Jamaica, like that of Haiti, is of fair quality, a little stronger than
Java and milder than Rio. The greater part of the product is raised
by negroes, who own from one -half an acre to five acres of ground,
where the trees are planted without order or system and receive
little attention.
The number of plantations where as much as fifty acres are
cultivated in coffee is only thirty. In the preparation of the coffee
36 COFFEE IN AMERICA.
for market, the most primitive means are employed, the cost of
machinery for that purpose being beyond the means of the small
growers. The berries, after picking, are dried on the ground, and
the outer skins are removed by beating in large wooden mortars.
On the larger plantations more care is given to the preparation of
the ground, and the plants are set at regular distances, generally six
feet apart. Being planted so near together, it is necessary to top the
trees when they reach the height of about four feet, and by annual
pruning to keep them from crowding each other. The plantations
are weeded with a hoe at least four times every year, as without this
weeding the ground would soon be overgrown with grass and plants
that spring up with marvelous rapidity in that tropical climate.
Jamaica appears not to offer any inducements to settlers proposing
to embark in coffee culture. Lands suitable for the growing of coffee
on a large scale are difficult to obtain, and suitable labor still more so.
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.
Coffee has been raised in Hawaii and the other islands of the
group for many years, although the production has varied greatly and
has never been sufficient to supply home consumption. It appears from
the records of the custom-house that in 1870 the exportation amounted
to 4i5,in-pounds, and in 1885 fell to 1675 pounds. For nine months
of 1892 the exportation was 13,098 pounds. The total exportation
since 1881 has been 215,782 against an importation of 877,409 pounds.
New enterprises are on foot for the planting of lands in coffee.
In the Hamakua and North Hilo districts, about 170 acres are already
planted. In the district of Puna about 100 acres are growing, and it
is estimated that about 1300 acres are planted in coffee on the island
of Hawaii. These are mostly new plantations, the greater part of
which will soon come into bearing.
'The first plantations made in the island were only a few feet
above sea level, and to this fact may, perhaps, be attributed the blight
which almost destroyed their production about 1860, since the plan-
tations more recently established at an elevation of 1000 and upwards
have been almost entirely free from blight. The high rate of wages,
the cost of transportation and the difficulty of buying or leasing suit-
able land for a long term are the greatest obstacles to the develop-
ment of the coffee -producing capacity of the islands.
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