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THE  UNIVERSITY 

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COLLIER'S 

NEW 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A   LOOSE-LEAF  AND    SELF-REVISING 
REFERENCE  WORK 


IN  TEN  VOLUMES  WITH  515  ILLUSTRATIONS 
AND  NINETY-SIX  MAPS 


VOLUME  THREE 


P.  F.  COLLIER  S"  SON  COMPANY 
New  York 


Copyright  1921 
By  p.   F.   Collier  &'  Son   Company 

manufactured  in  u.    s.  a. 


GENERAL  EDITORIAL  ADVISORY  BOARD  AND 
CONTRIBUTING   EDITORS 

DR.  WILLIAM  A.  NEILSON,  Chairman 

PRESIDENT    SMITH     COLLEGE,     NORTHAMPTON,     MASS. 

REAR    ADMIRAL    AUSTIN    M.   KNIGHT 

FORMER    PRESIDENT    OF    NAVAL    WAR    COLLEGE,    NEWPORT,    R.    I. 

DR.  JOSEPH    H.  ODELL 

DIRECTOR,    SERVICE    CITIZENS    OF    DELAWARE,    WILMINGTON,    DEL. 

DR.  KENNETH    C.   M.  SILLS 

PRESIDENT    BOWDOIN    COLLEGE,    BRUNSWICK,     ME. 

DR.  HENRY    S.  CANBY 

EDITOR    LITERARY    REVIEW,    NEW    YORK,    N.    Y. 

DR.  \V.  T.  COUNCILMAN 

DEPARTMENT  OF   PATHOLOGY,  HARVARD    MEDICAL   SCHOOL,  BOSTON,  MASS, 

DR.  CHARLES    F.  THVVING 

PRESIDENT    '.VESTERN    RESERVE    UNIVERSITY,    CLE\'^L.\ND,    OHIO 

DR.   EDWIN    GREENLAW 

UNIVERSITY    OF    NORTH    CAROLINA,    CHAPEL    HILL,    N.    C. 

DR.  J.  H.  KIRKLAND 

CHANCELLOR    VANDERBILT    UNIVERSITY,    NASHVILLE,    TENN. 

PROFESSOR    IRVING    FISHER 

YALE    UNIVERSITY,    NEW     HAVEN,    CONN, 


EDITOR  IN  CHIEF 

FRANCIS    J.  REYNOLDS 

FORMER    REFERENCE    LIBRARIAN,    LIBRARY'    OF    CONGRESS 


MANAGING  EDITOR 

ALLEN  L.   CHURCHILL 

ASSOCIATE    EDITOR    THE    NEW    INTERNATIONAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 

J.  W.   DUFFIELD 

EDITORIAL    STAFF    OF    THE    NEW    YORK    TIMES 

ALBERT    SONNICHSEN 

ECONOMIST,    WAR    CORRESPONDENT 

T.  C.   SHAFFER 

PROFESSOR    OF    HISTORY' 

B.  H.  GOLDSMITH 

EDITOR,    ECONOMIST 

BENEDICT    FITZPATRICK 

FORMERLY'    LITERARY    EDITOR    OF    THE    LONDON    MAIL 

C.  E.  MELOY    SMITH 

DREX:L    INSTITUTE,    CONSULTING    ENGINEER 

E.  D.  PIERSON 

EDITOR,    CORRESPONDENT    LONDON    TIMES 

J.  B.  GIBSON 

COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

J.  L.  FRENCH 

EDITOR,    AUTHOR 


653194 


List  of  Illustrations 


Constantinople — Colored  Frontispiece 


Opposite  page  36 
Communal  House — Cliff  Dwellers 
Mining  Coal — Alabama 
Loading  Coal — Charleston 
Coal  Bins  and  Coal  Trains 
CoBLENZ,  Germany 
Consulate  at  Mukden 
cocoanuts 

Coolies  and  Sedan  Chair 
Coolie  and  Jinrikisha 
Garden  of  the  Gods,  Colorado 
Roads  Near  Denver 

Opposite  page  SU 
Harvard 
Yale 

Princeton 
Oxford 
Cambridge 

University  of  Chicago 
University  of  California 
University  of  Pennsylvania 

Opposite  page  164. 
Colonnade,  Hall  of  Fame 
Estes  Park,  Colorado 
Stamp  Mill,  Colorado 
Salmon  Cannery,  Columbia  River 
Huge  Copper  Nugget 
Copper  Mines,  Australia 
Copper  Smelter,  Arizona 
Bananas,  Costa  Rica 


Opposite  page  260 
Town  in  Czecho-Slovakia 
Havana,  Cuba 
Danube  River 
Sorting  Raw  Cotton 
Cotton  Card  Suver 
Roving  Frames,  Cotton  Mill 
Color  Mixing,  Cotton  Mill 
Model  Dairy  Farm 
Date  Palms  on  Nile 

Opposite  page  372 
Bird's-Eyb  View  of  Delhi 
"Street  Called  Straight,"  Damascus 
Merchants'  Bazaar,  Damascus 
Diamond  Mine,  Kimberley 
Skeleton  of  Dinosaur 
Dinosaur  Country 
"Mt.  Vernon"  in  Dry  Dock 
Vessel  in  Floating  Dock 
"Virginia"  Entering  Dry  Dock 

Opposite  page  ^68 
Chimborazo,  Ecuador 
Pyramids,  Egypt 
Cairo,  Egypt 

Temple  of  Phil^  Submerged 
Public  Grain  Elevator,  New  Orleai^s 
Electricity — High-Frequency  Alter- 
nator 

Electric  Lighting,  Lower  Broadway 
Electric  Engine  and  Train 


List  of  Maps 


Ck)LORADO  District    of    Columbia — See    Mary- 

land, Delaware,  and  District  of 


Connecticut 


Columbia 


Delaware-See     Maryland,     Dela-       East  India  Islands 
ware,  and  District  of  Columbia       _ 

Egypt,   Abyssinia,  and   Northeast- 
Denmark  ERN  Africa 


U 


*^CIRCUM  — ELKHART" 


ill 


CIRCUM]:^"AVIGATOR 


CISTERCIAN 


CIRCUMNAVIGATOR,  one  who  sails 
round  the  globe.  The  first  European 
known  to  have  circumnavigated  the  globe 
was  Magellan  or  Magalhaens,  a  Portu- 
gTiese,  who  accomplished  the  feat  in  A.  D. 
1519.  From  him  the  Strait  of  Magellan 
deri^^es  its  name. 

CIRCUS,  among  the  Romans,  a  nearly 
oblong  building  without  a  roof,  in  which 
public  chariot-races  and  exhibitions  of 
pugilism  and  wrestling,  etc.,  took  place. 
It  was  rectangular,  except  that  one  short 
side  formed  a  half -circle;  and  on  both 
sides,  and  on  the  semicircular  end,  were 
the  seats  of  the  spectators,  rising  gradu- 
ally one  above  another,  like  steps.  On 
the  outside  the  circus  was  surrounded 
with  colonnades,  galleries,  shops,  and 
public  places.  The  largest  of  these  build- 
ings in  Rome  was  the  Circus  Maximus, 
capable,  according  to  Pliny,  of  containing 
260,000,  and  according  to  Aurelius  Victor 
385,000  spectators.  At  present,  however, 
but  few  vestiges  of  it  remain,  and  the  cir- 
cus of  Caracalla  is  in  the  best  preserva- 
tion. The  games  celebrated  in  these 
structures  were  known  collectively  by  the 
name  of  ludi  circeiises,  circensian  games, 
or  games  of  the  circus,  which  under  the 
emperors  attained  the  greatest  magnifi- 
cence. 

The  modern  circus  is  a  place  where 
horses  and  other  animals  are  trained  to 
perform  tricks,  and  where  exhibitons  of 
acrobats  and  various  pageantries,  includ- 
ing a  large  amount  of  buffoonery,  are 
presented. 

CIRRHOSIS,  a  chronic  nonsuppurative 
inflammation  affecting  the  interstitial 
connection  or  supporting  tissues  of  an 
organ.  The  process  begins  after  a  more 
or  less  hyperaemia  of  the  parts  in  a 
growth  of  new  connective  tissue  which  is 
fibrous  in  character.  This  subsequently 
contracts,  and  in  so  doing  interferes  with 
the  nutrition  of  the  proper  physiological 
tissue  of  the  organ,  causes  it  to  atrophy 
or  degenerate,  and  finally  takes  its  place. 
The  term  was  originally  applied  to  the 
Liver  {q.  v.). 

CIRRUS  (plural.  Cirri) ,  the  tendril  of 
a  plant  by  means  of  which  it  climbs, 
usually  a  modified  leaf  or  the  prolonga- 
tion of  a  midrib. 

CIRRUS.    See  Cloud. 

CIRTA,  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
Massylii  in  Numidia.  After  the  defeat 
of  Jugurtha  it  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  Romans,  and  was  restored  by  Con- 
stantine.  who  gave  it  his  own  name.  See 

CONSTANTINE. 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC,  a  former 
state  in  north  Italy.  After  the  battle 
of  Lodi,  in  May,  1796,  General  Bonaparte 


proceeded  to  organize  two  states — one  on 
the  S.  of  the  Po,  the  Cispadane  Republic, 
and  one  on  the  N.,  the  Transpadane. 
These  two  were  on  July  9,  1797,  united 
into  one  under  the  title  of  the  Cisalpine 
Republic,  which  embraced  Lombardy, 
Mantua,  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Cremona, 
Verona,  and  Rovigo,  the  duchy  of  Mo- 
dena,  the  principalities  of  Massa  and 
Cararra,  and  the  three  legations  of  Bo- 
logna, Ferrara,  and  the  Romagna.  The 
republic  had  a  territory  of  more  than 
16,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
3,500,000.  Milan  was  the  seat  of  the 
government  or  Directory.  The  army 
consisted  of  20,000  French  troops,  paid 
by  the  republic.  The  republic  was  dis- 
solved for  a  time  in  1799  by  the  victories 
of  the  Russians  and  Austrians,  but  was 
restored  by  Bonaparte  after  the  victory 
of  Marengo,  with  some  modifications  of 
constitution  and  increase  of  territory. 
In  1802  it  took  the  name  of  the  Italian 
Republic,  and  chose  Bonaparte  for  its 
president.  A  deputation  from  the  re- 
public in  1805  conferred  on  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  the  title  of  King  of  Italy ;  after 
which  it  formed  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
till  1814. 

CISCO,  a  city  of  Texas,  in  Eastland 
CO.,  on  the  Texas  and  Pacific  and  the  Tex- 
as Central  railroads.  It  is  the  distributing 
center  for  a  large  territory.  Its  business 
is  drawn  largely  from  the  oil  industry. 
In  1920  a  large  dam  to  provide  for  the 
city's  water  supply  was  begun.  It  is  the 
center  of  an  important  agricultural  re- 
gion and  in  the  neighborhood  are  impor- 
tant clay  and  coal  deposits.  It  has  news- 
papers, electric  lights,  natural  gas,  hotels, 
banks,  etc.  Fop.  (1910)  2,410;  (1920) 
7,422. 

CISLEITHANIA,  or  CISLEITHAN 
PROVINCES,  formerly  Austria  proper 
or  Austria  W.  of  the  river  Leitha,  which 
partly  forms  the  boundary  between  it 
and  Hungary. 

CIST,  a  place  of  interment  of  an  early 
or  prehistoric  period,  consisting  of  a  rec- 
tangular stone  chest  or  inclosure  formed 
of  rows  of  stones  set  upright,  and  cov- 
ered by  similar  flat  stones.  Such  cists 
are  found  in  barrows  or  mounds,  inclos- 
ing bones.  In  rocky  districts  cists  were 
sometimes  hewn  in  the  rock  itself. 

CISTERCIAN,  a  monastic  order  in 
connection  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  In  the  year  1098,  Robert,  Abbot 
of  Molesme,  in  Burgundy,  having  lost 
hope  of  inducing  the  monks,  whose  chief 
he  was,  to  live  up  to  the  rule  prescribed 
by  St.  Benedict,  retired  with  20  associates 
to  Citeaux  and  founded  there  a  congre- 
gation which  afterward  developed  into 
the  order  of  the  Cistercians.     It  went 


CITIES   OF   THE   PLAIN 


CIVET 


through  the  ordinary  cycle  of  such  mo- 
nastic institutions,  i.  e.,  at  first  its  mem- 
bers were  poor  and  really  holy;  then  the 
fame  of  their  sanctity,  spreading  through 
Europe,  branches  of  the  order  were 
established  in  many  places.  To  aid  men 
so  deserving,  large  contributions  were 
given  by  pious  men  and  women,  and  be- 
fore the  12th  century  had  run  its  course, 
the  Cistercian  communities  were  wealthy. 
With  the  growth  of  this  wealth,  the  grad- 
ual relaxation  of  the  strict  Benedictine 
rules  took  place,  till  finally  the  Cister- 
cians lost  their  high  reputation  and  sank 
to  the  level  of  the  order  against  which 
their  secession  had  been  a  protest,  and 
to  that  of  the  monastic  orders  generally. 
During  the  time  that  the  order  was 
rising  in  importance,  it  enjoyed  the  advo- 
cacy of  the  celebrated  St.  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux,  who  is  regarded  as  its  second 
parent  and  founder,  so  that  it  is  some- 
times called  the  Bernardine  order,  or  the 
order  of  St.  Bernard.  Between  them  and 
the  Cluniacensians  there  was  considerable 
animosity,  and  even  public  controversy. 
The  majority  of  Cistercian  houses  have 
ceased  to  exist.  There  are  still  a  few  in 
Italy,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  and  Austria, 
two  in  Ireland,  and  one  in  England. 

CITIES  OF  THE  PLAIN,  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  chief  of  those  five  cities 
which,  according  to  the  commonly  re- 
ceived account,  were  destroyed  by  fire 
from  heaven,  and  their  sites  overwhelmed 
by  the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

CITRIC  ACID  (CHsO,),  the  acid  of 
lemons,  limes,  and  other  fruits.  It  is 
generally  prepared  from  lemon-juice,  and 
when  pure  is  white,  inodorous,  and  ex- 
tremely sharp  in  its  taste.     In  combina- 


It  is  a  native  of  Asia.  The  tree  has 
short  and  stiff  branches,  oblong-toothed 
leaves,  flowers  purple  externally,  and 
fruit  generally  large,  warted,  and  fui»- 
rowed,  having  a  protuberance  at  the 
apex,  with  a  very  thick,  spongy  adherent 
rind  and  a  subacid  pulp.  The  Romans 
brought  it  from  Media,  where,  however, 
it  is  not  now,  if  it  ever  was,  indigenous. 
It  is  at  present  cultivated  in  gardens  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  both  hemispheres. 
It  furnishes  oil  of  citron  and  oil  of  cedra. 

CITRUS,  a  genus  of  Aurantiacex, 
trees  and  shrubs  of  tropical,  subtropical, 
and  warm  temperate  Asia,  but  many  of 
them  now  cultivated  in  all  similar  cli- 
mates for  their  fruit.  To  it  belong  the 
orange,  citron,  lemon,  lime,  bergamot, 
shaddock,  forbidden  fruit,  etc. 

CITY  (Latin,  eiritas),  in  a  general 
sense,  a  town  holding,  from  extent  of 
population,  favorable  situation,  or  other 
causes,  a  leading  place  in  the  community 
in  which  it  is  situated.  Popularly,  also, 
it  is  used,  both  in  Great  Britain  and 
France,  to  designate  the  old  and  central 
nucleus  as  distinguished  from  the  subur- 
ban growths  of  large  towns.  The  eccle- 
siastical sense  of  the  term  city  is  a  town 
which  is,  or  has  been,  the  see  of  a  bishop. 
This  seems  to  be  the  historical  use  of  the 
term  in  England,  and  still  possesses 
some  authority  there,  but  to  a  consider- 
able esJtent  it  has  been  superseded  by  the 
wider  one.  In  the  United  States  the  ap- 
plication of  the  term  is  dependent  upon 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  municipal 
privileges  possessed  by  corporations,  and 
a  town  is  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  city 
by  special  charter.  See  Municipal  Gov- 
ernment. 


CIVET   CAT 


tion  with  metals  it  forms  crystalline  salts 
known  as  citrates.  The  acid  is  used  as 
a  discharge  in  calico-printing  and  as  a 
substitute  for  lemon  in  making  bever- 
ages. 

CITRON,  the  fruit  of  the  citron-tree, 
resembling  a  lemon,  but  less  acid  in  taste. 


CIITDAD  (the-o-dad'),  the  Spanish 
word  for  city,  appearing  in  many  names 
of  Spanish  Latin-American  places. 

CIVET,  in  zoology,  the  same  as  Civet- 
cat;  found  in  north  Africa;  climbs  trees 
with  facility.  Its  food  consists  of  small 
mammals,  reptiles,  and  birds,  as  well  as 


CIVIC  ASSOCIATION  3 

roots  and  fruits.  It  is  sometimes  kept  in 
the  region  which  it  inhabits  for  the  sake 
of  the  perfume  which  it  furnishes.  There 
is  an  allied  species,  V.  rasse,  in  Java. 

CIVIC  ASSOCIATION,  AMERICAN, 
an  organization  established  in  1904  for 
the  general  purpose  of  cultivating  higher 
ideals  of  civic  life  and  to  promote  city, 
town,  and  neighborhood  improvement.  It 
has  for  an  additional  purpose  the  pres- 
ervation and  development  of  landscapes 
and  the  advancement  of  outdoor  art.  The 
work  of  the  association  is  conducted  on 
national  lines  by  its  varied  activities  for 
the  physical  improvement  of  the  various 
communities.  It  has  devoted  special 
attention  to  city  planning  and  the  cre- 
ation and  maintenance  of  parks,  the 
elimination  of  smoke,  billboards,  and 
other  nuisances,  and  the  organization  of 
citizens  into  working  groups  for  civic 
improvement.  The  association  did  valu- 
able work  in  the  preservation  of  the 
scenic  beauty  of  Niagara  Falls.  It  also 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  movement 
for  the  protection  of  the  national  parks. 
Its  headquarters  are  in  Washington. 

CIVICS,  the  science  that  treats  of 
citizenship  and  the  relations  between 
citizens  and  the  government.  It  em- 
braces ethics,  or  social  duties;  civil  law, 
or  governmental  methods;  economics,  or 
the  principles  of  finance  and  exchange; 
and  the  history  of  civic  development. 
The  study  of  this  science  has  been 
largely  introduced  into  the  schools  of 
the  United  States. 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  the  science 
or  art  of  constructing  machinery  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  constructions 
and  excavations,  for  general  transit,  as 
canals,  docks,  railroads,  etc.  It  is  so 
called  in  contradistinction  to  military  en- 
gineering, which  is  confined  to  war. 

CIVILIZATION,  a  condition  consist- 
ing in  what  may  be  broadly  called  cul- 
ture in  a  nation;  and  a  nation  may  be 
considered  as  civilized  when  a  large  pro- 
portion of  those  belonging  to  it  have 
their  intellectual  and  moral  faculties  and 
all  their  higher  nature  in  large  measure 
developed  and  becoming  increasingly  so 
with  the  advance  of  years.  Before  this 
can  take  place,  a  considerable  amount  of 
material  prosperity  must  have  been 
achieved,  between  which  and  the  culture 
already  described  there  are  continual 
action  and  reaction. 

Regarding  progression  in  material 
prosperity,  certain  stages  tend  to  occur: 
(1)  a  barbarous  one,  in  which  one  feeds 
on  roots,  fruits,  and  fishes,  when  these 
last  can  be  caught  without  effort;  (2) 
the  state  of  a  hunter;  (3)  that  of  the 
shepherd,  in  which,  to  avoid  the  uncer- 


CIVIL  SERVICE 

certainty  of  the  result  in  hunting,  wild 
animals  are  domesticated;  (4)  the  agri- 
cultural state,  and  (5)  that  of  manufac- 
tures and  commerce.  Regarding  mental 
advance  it  has  been  maintained  that  na- 
tions necessarily  passed  through  a  theo- 
logical, a  metaphysical,  and  a  positive  or 
scientific  stage. 

CIVIL  LAW.  the  law  of  a  state,  city, 
or  country;  appropriately  the  Roman 
law  comprised  in  the  Institutes,  Code, 
and  Digest  of  Justinian,  and  the  Novel 
Constitutions. 

CIVIL  LIST,  the  annual  allowance 
voted  to  the  members  of  the  reign^ing 
family  in  constitutional  monarchies  in 
which  Parliament  possesses  control  of 
the  finances  of  the  country. 

CIVIL  SERVICE,  that  branch  of  the 
public  service  which  includes  the  non- 
military  servants  of  the  government. 

The  purpose  of  the  civil-service  act, 
as  declared  in  its  title,  is  to  regulate 
and  improve  the  civil  service  of  the 
United  States."  It  provides  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  three  commissioners,  not 
more  than  two  of  whom  shall  be  adher- 
ents of  the  same  political  party,  and 
makes  it  the  duty  of  the  commission  to 
aid  the  President,  as  he  may  request,  in 
preparing  suitable  rules  for  carrying  the 
act  into  effect.  The  act  requires  that 
the  rules  shall  provide,  among  other 
things,  for  open  competitive  examina- 
tions for  testing  the  fitness  of  applicants 
for  the  classified  service,  the  making  ' 
appointments  from  among  those  passing 
with  highest  grades,  an  apportionment 
of  appointments  in  the  departments  at 
Washington  among  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories, a  period  of  probation  before  abso- 
lute appointment,  and  the  prohibition  of 
the  use  of  official  authority  to  coerce  the 
political  action  of  any  person  or  body. 
The  act  also  provides  for  investigations 
touching  the  enforcement  of  the  rules, 
and  forbids,  under  penalty  of  fine  or 
imprisonment,  or  both,  the  solicitation  by 
any  person  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States  of  contributions  to  be  used  for 
political  purposes  from  persons  in  such 
service,  or  the  collection  of  such  contri- 
butions by  any  person  in  a  government 
building. 

The  commission  was  organized  on 
March  9,  1883.  The  first  classification 
of  the  service  applied  to  the  departments 
at  Washington  and  to  postoffice  and  cus- 
tom houses  having  as  many  as  50  em- 
ployees, embracing  13,294  employees. 
The  commission  then  consisted  of  three 
commissioners,  the  chief  examiner,  sec- 
retary, stenographer,  and  messenger  boy. 
On  June  30,  1917.  there  were  517,805 
officers  and  employees  in  the  executive 
civil  service,  of  which  326,899  held  posi- 


CIVIL  SEBVICE  REF'M  LEAGUE      4 


CIVIL  WAR 


tions  subject  to  competitive  examination 
under  the  civil  service  rules.  On  June 
30,  1920,  the  total  number  of  employees 
was  approximately  640,000,  Examina- 
tions are  held  in  the  principal  cities 
throughout  the  country  through  the 
agency  of  local  boards  of  examiners,  of 
which  there  are  approximately  3,000. 
The  members  of  these  boards  are  de- 
tailed from  other  branches  of  the  service. 
During  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1919,  the  commission  examined  438,259 
persons,  and  of  this  number  179,533  were 
appointed.  The  present  force  of  the 
commission  consists  of  287  clerks  and 
examiners  and  37  sub-clerical  employees 
at  Washington,  and  12  district  secre- 
taries and  29  clerks  and  examiners  in  the 
field  service.  The  expenditure  for  sala- 
ries in  the  Executive  Civil  Service  is  over 
$200,000,000  a  year. 

The  commission  also  holds  examina- 
tions in  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands.  Under  the  rules,  it 
is  required  to  render  all  practicable  as- 
sistance to  the  Philippine  Civil  Service 
Board. 

Appointments  of  unskilled  laborers  in 
the  departments  at  Washington  and  in 
the  large  cities  are  required  to  be  made 
in  accordance  with  regulations  promul- 
gated by  the  President,  restrictmg  ap- 
pointments to  applicants  who  are  rated 
highest  in  physical  condition.  This  sys- 
tem is  outside  the  civil  service  act,  and 
is  auxiliary  to  the  civil  service  rules. 

Similar  provisions  have  been  made  in 
most  of  the  States  and  their  political  sub- 
divisions. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  REFORM  LEAGUE, 

an  organization  founded  in  1881,  for  the 
purpose  of  investigating  the  efficiency  of 
governmental  civil  service.  It  has  per- 
formed effective  work  in  this  connection 
and  largely  through  its  influence  many 
important  civil  service  measures  have 
been  passed.  During  the  World  War  its 
work  was  especially  valuable  in  securing 
civil  service  efficiency  as  a  factor  in  mili- 
tary success.  After  the  signing  of  the 
armistice  in  November,  1918,  the  League 
effected  an  investigation  into  the  sources 
of  inefficiency  in  the  civil  service  at 
Washington,  and  recommended  the  re- 
organization of  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission. 

CIVIL  WAR,  AMERICAN,  a  war  in 

the  United  States,  caused  by  the  attempt 
of  the  Southern  States  to  establish  an 
independent  government  under  the  name 
of  the  Confederate  States  of  America. 
The  first  gun  was  fired,  on  Jan.  9,  1861, 
by  batteries  in  Charleston  harbor,  which 
drove  back  the  steamer  "Star  of  the 
West,"  bearing  supplies  to  Fort  Sumter. 
The  actual  outbreak  of  war,  however,  is 


dated  from  April  12,  when  Fort  Sumter 
was  bombarded.  The  first  blood  was 
shed  in  Baltimore  on  April  19  in  a  street 
attack  on  the  Sixth  Massachusetts  regi- 
ment, which  was  on  its  way  to  Wash- 
ington. Bull  Run  (July  21,  1861)  was 
the  first  great  battle.  It  resulted  in  a 
severe  defeat  for  the  Union  army;  its 
effect  was  to  encourage  the  South  and 
raise  a  determined  spirit  in  the  North, 
and  to  unify  both  sections  in  support  of 
their  respective  policies.  The  Mississippi 
was  opened  to  Union  vessels  by  the  cap- 
ture of  New  Orleans  in  April,  1862,  and 
of  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson  in  July, 

1863.  The  latter  month  also  saw  the 
Union  victory  of  Gettysburg,  by  which 
the  Confederate  attempt  to  carry  the  war 
into  the  Northern  States  was  overthrovni 
From  July,  1863,  the  final  victory  of  the 
National  cause  was  assured.  Sherman's 
march  to  the  sea  in  the  latter  part  of 

1864,  cut  through  the  heart  of  the  Con- 
federacy and  did  incalculable  damage  to 
the  Southern  cause.  The  vigorous  blows 
which,  in  1864  and  the  spring  of  1865, 
Grant  dealt  to  Lee's  army  in  Virg:inia, 
brought  the  war  to  a  conclusion.  Lee 
surrendered  at  Appomattox  Court  House 
on  April  9,  1865.  Johnston's  army  sur- 
rendered on  April  26,  and  within  two 
months  more  all  the  Confederate  forces 
had  laid  down  their  arms. 

The  result  of  the  war  was  to  establish 
the  fact  that  the  United  States  is  a 
nation  and  not  a  league  of  States,  and 
that  no  State  has  the  right  to  secede 
from  the  Union.  It  also  resulted  in  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  The  proclamation 
of  emancipation,  issued  by  President 
Lincoln  on  Jan.  1,  1863,  declared  the 
freedom  of  all  slaves  within  certain 
designated  territory  which  was  in  rebel- 
lion, and  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to 
the  Constitution,  adopted  after  the  war, 
extinguished  slavery  in  the  United 
States.  During  the  Civil  War  there  were 
2,778,304  men  mustered  into  service  on 
the  Union  side  and  about  600,000  on  the 
Confederate.  The  number  of  casualties 
in  the  volunteer  and  regular  armies  of 
the  United  States  during  the  war,  accord- 
ing to  a  statement  prepared  by  the  Adju- 
tant-General's office,  was  as  follows: 
Killed  in  battle,  67,058;  died  of  wounds, 
43,012;  died  of  disease,  199,720;  other 
causes,  such  as  accidents,  murder,  Con- 
federate prisons,  etc.,  40,154;  total  died, 
349,944;  total  deserted,  199,105.  Number 
of  soldiers  in  the  Confederate  service 
who  died  of  wounds  or  disease  (partial 
statement),  133,821.  Deserted  (partial 
statement),  104,428.  Number  of  United 
States  troops  captured  during  the  war, 
212,608;  Confederate  troops  captured, 
476,169.  Number  of  United  States 
troops  paroled  on  the  field,  16,431;  Con- 


CIVITA  VECCHIA  I 

federate  troops  paroled  on  the  field, 
248,599.  Number  of  United  States 
troops  who  died  while  prisoners,  30,156; 
Confederate  troops  who  died  while  pris- 
oners, 30,152. 

CIVITA  VECOH!IA(che've-ta-vek'e-a), 
an  Italian  fortified  port,  50  miles 
N.  W.  of  Rome,  on  the  Mediterranean. 
The  harbor  is  both  a  commercial  and 
naval  one,  and  was  originally  constructed 
by  the  Emperor  Trajan;  the  town  in- 
deed owed  its  origin  entirely  to  the  port 
of  this  emperor,  and  hence  came  to  be 
known  as  Portus  Trajani,  The  harbor 
is  formed  by  two  moles  and  a  break- 
water, on  which  latter  is  a  lighthouse. 
The  place,  which  became  a  free  port  un- 
der Pope  Innocent  XII.  in  1696,  is  reg- 
ularly visited  by  steamers  from  many 
Italian,  French,  and  English  ports.  It 
suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  Goths  and 
Saracens,  and  was  occupied  by  the 
French  in  1849.  The  Papal  troops 
opened  the  gates  of  the  fortress  to  the 
Italian  general  Bixio  in  1870.  Pop.  about 
18,000. 

CLACKMANNANSHIRE,  the  small- 
est county  of  Scotland,  at  the  head  of 
the  Firth  of  Forth.  Area,  55  square 
miles;  pop.  about  35,000. 

CLAIMS,  COURT  OF,  a  judicial 
tribunal  created  by  an  act  of  Congress 
or  by  legislation  of  the  State  to  decide 
claims  against  the  general  government 
or  against  the  States  who  authorize 
them. 

CLAIRVOYANCE,  defined  as  the 
power  of  perceiving  without  the  use  of 
the  organ  of  vision  or  under  conditions 
in  which  the  organ  of  vision  with  its 
natural  powers  alone  would  be  useless. 
It  comprises  the  sight  of  things  past, 
present,  or  future.  Various  methods  of 
Clairvoyance  are  recounted:  by  direct 
vision  of  things  at  a  distance  (opaque 
substances  being  no  hindrance)  ;  by  look- 
ing into  a  black  surface;  by  looking  into 
water,  into  a  crystal,  etc. ;  or  by  laying 
the  object  to  be  described  on  the  fore- 
head or  chest  of  the  clairvoyant;  but 
clairvoyants  now  usually  represent  the 
cerebral  region  as  the  seat  of  illumina- 
tion. From  remote  antiquity  the  posses- 
sion of  such  powers  by  favored  indi- 
viduals has  been  believed.  As  instances 
of  clairvoyants  in  later  times  may  be 
mentioned  Jacob  Bohme  (1575-1624)  and 
Emanuel  Swedenborg  (1688-1772),  the 
Swedish  scientist  and  founder  of  the  re- 
ligious body  called  "The  Church  of  the 
New  Jerusalem."  The  phenomena  of 
Clairvoyance  have  been  carefully  ob- 
served.^ The  clairvoyant  state  seems  to 
be  intimately  connected  with  the  mes- 
meric, the  somnambulistic,  and  the  so- 


CLABE,  ST. 

called  "biological."  Mesmeric  somnam- 
bulism and  Clairvoyance  were  first 
brought  to  notice  by  Puysegur  in  1784. 
The  clairvoyant  is  usually  in  a  state  of 
trance,  which  may  be  induced  by  mes- 
meric passes.  In  this  state  he  is  some- 
times conscious  only  of  his  mesmerizer; 
in  others,  his  Clairvoyance  is  unrestrict- 
ed; but  the  Clairvoyant  may  enter  the 
trance  state  spontaneously,  or  he  may 
even  be  in  possession  of  his  ordinary 
faculties.  In  "second-sight,"  as  found  in 
Denmark,  parts  of  Germany,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
the  seer  is  not  in  a  state  of  trance  simi- 
lar to  that  in  other  forms  of  Clairvoy- 
ance.   See  Psychical  Research. 

CLAM,  the  popular  name  of  certain 
bivalvular  shell-fish  of  various  genera 
and  species,  e,  g.,  the  thorny  clam 
{Cliama  Lazarus),  the  yellow  clam 
(Tridacna  crocea),  the  giant  clam  (T. 
gig  as),  the  common  clam  of  the  United 
States  {Mya  arenaria),  etc.  The  giant 
clam  has  the  largest  shell  known,  and 
the  animal  is  used  as  food  in  the  Pacific. 
The  common  American  clam  is  found  in 
gravelly  mud,  sand,  and  other  soft  bot- 
toms, especially  between  high  and  low 
water  mark.  They  are  largely  used  for 
bait,  and  are  a  much-relished  article  of 
food. 

CLAPHAM,  a  S.  W.  suburb  of  Lon- 
don, lying  a  mile  S.  of  the  Thames. 
Clapham  Common  is  still  an  open  com- 
mon of  200  acres.  Clapham  Junction,  in 
Battersea  parish,  is  one  of  the  busiest 
railway  junctions  in  the  world. 

CLARE,  a  maritime  county  of  the 
province  of  Munster,  Ireland.  There 
are  extensive  coal  fields,  fisheries,  and 
sheep  and  cattle  pastures.  Chief  town, 
Ennis.  Area,  1,332  square  miles;  pop. 
about  100,000. 

CLARE,  JOHN,  an  English  poet;  born 
in  Helpstone,  near  Peterborough,  July 
13,  1793.  He  was  an  agricultural  la- 
borer, absolutely  uneducated;  and  wrote 
"Poems,  Descriptive  of  Rural  Life  and 
Scenery,"  in  which  a  talent  not  far  re-  * 
moved  from  genius  attains  many  fervent 
and  moving  effects.  He  died  in  North- 
ampton, May  20,  1864. 

CLARE,  ST..  born  in  1193,  of  a  noble 
family  of  Assissi;  in  1212  retired  to  the 
Portiuncula  of  St.  Francis,  and  in  the 
same  year  founded  the  order  of  Fran- 
ciscan nuns,  which  spread  i-apidly 
through  Europe.  She  died  Aug.  11,  1253. 
Two  years  afterward,  she  was  canonized 
by  Alexander  IV.;  her  festival  falls  on 
Aug.  12.  The  Nuns  of  the  Order  of 
St.  Clara  (also  called  the  Poor  Clares) 
at    first    observed    the    strictest    Bene- 


CLABE  COLLEGE 


CLARINET 


dictine  rule,  but  the  austerity  of  this 
rule  was  mitigated  by  St.  Francis  in 
1224,  and  further  modified  by  Urban 
IV.  in  1265.  Several  convents  adhered 
to  the  first  and  strictest  rule;  but  the 
large  proportion  of  the  nuns  adopted 
Urban's  rule,  and  are  distinguished  as 
Urbanists.  The  existing  convents  are 
chiefly  devoted  to  the  education  of  girls. 

CLARE  COLLEGE,  a  college  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  founded  in 
1326  by  Elizabeth,  sister  of  the  Earl  of 
Clare.  It  has  much-admired  buildings 
in  the  Renaissance  style. 

CLAREMONT,  a  tovsrn  in  Sullivan 
CO.,  N.  H.;  on  the  Sugar  river,  and  the 
Boston  &  Maine  railroad ;  48  miles  N.  W. 
of  Concord.  Sugar  river,  v^^ith  a  fall  of 
150  feet  in  a  mile,  supplies  power  for 
numerous  local  cotton  and  woolen  mills, 
paper  and  shoe  factories,  and  machine 
shops.  The  town  is  the  farming  trade 
center  of  the  surrounding  region  and  has 
several  churches,  weekly  newspapers,  a 
high  school,  free  library,  public  schools, 
tv/o  National  banks,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
7,529;   (1920)  9,524. 

CLARENDON,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF, 
a  code  of  laws  adopted  in  the  10th  year 
of  Henry  II.  (January,  1164),  at  a 
council  of  prelates  and  barons  held  at 
the  village  of  Clarendon,  Wiltshire. 
These  laws,  which  were  finally  digested 
into  16  articles,  were  brought  forward 
by  the  king  as  "the  ancient  customs  of 
the  realm,"  and  were  enacted  as  such  by 
the  council,  but  they  really  involved  a 
great  scheme  of  administrative  reform 
in  the  assertion  of  the  supremacy  of  the 
State  over  clergy  and  laity  alike.  The 
power  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  was  re- 
stricted, the  crown  secured  the  right  of 
interference  in  elections  to  ecclesiastical 
offices,  appeals  to  Rome  were  made  de- 
pendent on  the  king's  leave,  ecclesiastical 
dignitaries  were  deprived  of  their  free- 
dom to  leave  the  country  without  the 
royal  permission,  etc.  Becket  signed 
them,  but  retracted  his  signature  on  the 
refusal  of  Pope  Alexander  III.  to  counte- 
nance them.  Becket's  murder  followed, 
and  to  effect  a  reconciliation  with  the 
pope  Henry  promised  the  amendment  of 
the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon.  They 
were  accordingly  modified  in  1176  at 
Northampton  in  favor  of  the  Church, 
but  they  are  not  the  less  to  be  regarded 
as  containing  the  germ  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical policy  of  Henry  VIII. 

CLARENDON,  EDWARD  HYDE. 
EARL  OF,  Lord  High  Chancellor  of 
England;  bom  in  Dinton,  Wiltshire,  in 
1608.  During  the  civil  wars  he  zealously 
attached  himself  to  the  royal  cause,  was 


made  successively  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer and  privy  councillor,  and  was 
the  chief  adviser  of  the  king.  After  the 
failure  of  the  royalist  arms  he  took  ref- 
uge in  Jersey,  and  then  joined  Prince 
Charles  in  Holland.  He  contributed  to 
the  Restoration,  accompanied  Charles 
II.  to  London,  and  was  made  Lord  Chan- 
cellor. In  his  judicial  capacity  his  con- 
duct was  irreproachable,  and  he  was  the 
defender  of  his  country's  freedom 
against  the  abuses  of  the  royal  power; 
but  he  at  lengfth  became  unpopular,  was 
removed  from  his  high  employments,  and 
banished  by  act  of  Parliament.  His 
"History  of  the  Rebellion,"  though  con- 
sidered by  some  as  a  partial,  inaccurate, 
and  untrustworthy  narrative,  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  works  in  the  litera- 
ture of  his  time.  His  daughter  Anne  was 
married  to  the  Duke  of  York,  afterward 
James  II.,  and  two  daughters,  Anne  and 
Mary,  the  fruit  of  this  marriage,  both 
ascended  the  English  throne.  He  died 
in  Rouen  in  1674. 

CLARET,  a  name  originally  given  to 
wines  of  a  light-red  color,  but  now  ap- 
plied to  the  red  wines  imported  from 
France,  chiefly  from  Bordeaux.  These 
wines  vary  in  composition  according  to 
the  locality,  season,  and  age,  but  the 
produce  of  each  vineyard  usually  retains 
its  own  peculiar  characteristics.  The 
most  esteemed  are  those  produced  at  the 
vineyards  of  Lafitte,  Latour,  Chateau 
Margaux,  and  others.  Many  of  the  clar- 
ets formerly  sold  in  the  United  States 
were  nothing  more  than  the  vin  ordinaire 
used  by  the  French  peasants  and  work- 
ing classes,  but  the  development  of  the 
California  grape  industry  made  it  possi- 
ble to  obtain  as  good  domestic  claret  here 
as  anywhere. 

CLARETIE,  JULES  (klar-te'),  a 
French  novelist  and  dramatist;  born  in 
Limoges,  Dec.  3,  1840.  He  wrote  a  long 
series  of  very  successful  novels,  the  most 
noteworthy  of  them  being  "Madeleine 
Bertin"  (1868);  "The  Million"  (1882); 
"Monsieur  the  Minister"  (1882) ;  "Noris, 
Manners  of  the  Time"  (1883) ;  "The 
American  Woman"  (1892)  ;  etc.  He 
wrote  also  some  striking  chapters  of  con- 
temporary history,  as  "The  Revolution 
of  1870-1871";  "Paris  Besieged";  "Five 
Years  After:  Alsace  and  Lorraine  Since 
Annexation."  His  dramatic  composi- 
tions relate  mostly  to  the  time  of  the 
great  Revolution.  He  became  adminis- 
trator of  the  Comedie  Fran?aise  in  1885, 
and  was  chosen  member  of  the  Academy 
in  1888.     He  died  in  1913. 

CLARINET,  or  CLARIONET,  a  musi- 
cal instrument  akin  to  the  clarion.  It 
was   modified   from   the   ancient   shawm, 


CLABE 


CLABK 


its  first  maker  being  John  Christopher 
Denner,  of  Leipsic,  who  produced  it  after 
1690.  It  has  since  been  much  improved. 
It  consists  essentially  of  a  mouth-piece 
furnished  with  a  single  beating  reed,  a 
cylindrical  tube  ending  in  a  bell,  and  pro- 
vided with  18  openings  in  the  side,  half 
of  which  are  closed  by  the  fingers,  and 
half  by  the  keys. 

CI/A-^K,  ALVAN,  an  American  as- 
tronomical-instrument maker;  born  in 
Ashfield,  Mass.,  March  3,  1804.  He  was 
at  one  time  a  portrait  painter  in  Bos- 
ton; but  in  1844  his  attention  was  turned 
to  telescope  making.  Two  years  later  he 
definitely  adopted  the  business  of  astro- 
nomical-instrument making,  and  in  time 
achieved  a  world-wide  reputation.  ^  His 
famous  telescopes  include  the  Chicago 
18V2-inch,  the  Washington  26-inch,  the 
Russian  30-inch,  and  the  California  36- 
inch.  He  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass,  Aug. 
9,  1887.  His  son,  Alvan  Graham  Clark, 
born  in  Fall  River,  Mass.,  July  10,  1832, 
received  a  grammar  school  education; 
and  was  associated  with  his  father,  and 
his  brother,  George,  in  the  manufacture 
of  telescopes.  He  supervised  the  con- 
struction of  various  famous  lenses  and 
made  discoveries  of  stars  with  instru- 
ments of  his  own  manufacture.  He  died 
in  1897. 

CLABE,  CHAMP,  an  American  Con- 
gressman; born  in  Anderson  co.,  Ky., 
March  7,  1850.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1875,  and  has  been  in  practice 
since  that  date.  In  1878-1881  he  was  city 
attorney  of  Louisiana,  and  Bowling 
Green,  Mo.,  and  in  1885-1889  prosecuting 
attorney  of  Pike  co.  He  v/as  always 
active  in  politics,  having  been  presiden- 
tial elector  in  1880,  and  a  delegate  to 
several  national  conventions.  In  1893  he 
was  elected  to  the  53d  Congress,  and  was 
returned  to  the  55th  and  all  others  to 
the  67th.  In  1911  he  was  made  speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  to  suc- 
ceed Joseph  G.  Cannon  and  served  until 
1919.  He  has  served  on  several  impor- 
tant committees,  and  was  vice-president 
of  the  Trans-Mississippi  Congi-ess  at 
Denver.  At  the  Democratic  National 
Convention,  held  in  Baltimore  in  1912,  he 
led  on  27  ballots  for  the  Presidential  nom- 
ination, but  was  eventually  defeated  by 
Woodrow  Wilson.    He  died  Mar.  3,  1921. 

CLABK,      CHABLES     EDGAB,      an 

American  naval  officer;  born  in  Brad- 
ford, Vt.,  Aug.  10,  1843.  He  entered  the 
naval  service  in  1860;  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Mobile  Bay  and  in  the  bombai'd- 
ment  of  Fort  Morgan;  and  was  promotcc] 
captain  in  1896.  In  March,  1898,  he  took 
command  of  the  battleship  "Oregon"  at 
the  Mare  Island  navy  yard,  San  Fran- 


cisco, and  when  war  with  Spain  was 
deemed  inevitable,  he  received  orders  to 
proceed  to  Key  West,  Fla.,  with  all  haste. 
After  a  most  remarkable  voyage  of  over 
14,000  miles,  he  joined  the  American  fleet 
in  Cuban  waters  on  May  26,  and  on  July 
3  commanded  his  ship  at  the  destruction 
of  Cervera's  squadron.  In  1902  he  was 
promoted  rear-admiral  and  retired  in 
1905. 

CLABK,  CLABENCE  DON,  a  United 
States  Senator  from  Wyoming,  born  in 
Oswego  CO.,  N.  Y.,  in  1851.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Iowa  State  University,  and 
after  admission  to  the  bar,  practiced  in 
Wyoming.  He  was  chosen  to  the  51st 
and  52d  Congresses,  and  in  1895  be- 
came United  States  Senator  to  fill  a 
vacancy  caused  by  the  failure  of  the 
Legislature  to  elect.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1898,  in  1904,  and  in  1910,  serving 
until  1917. 

CLABK,  EDGAB  EBASTUS,  an 
American  public  official,  bom  at  Lima, 
N.  Y.,  in  1856.  After  being  educated  at 
the  Genesee  Wesleyan  Seminary  at  Lima, 
N.  Y.,  he  entered  the  railway  service  in 
1873  and  remained  in  that  employment 
until  1889,  when  he  became  Grand  Sen- 
ior Conductor  of  the  Order  of  Railway 
Conductors  of  America.  He  was  Grand 
Chief  Conductor  from  1890  to  1906.  In 
1902  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Roosevelt  as  a  member  of  a  commission 
to  determine  the  issues  involved  in  the 
anthracite  coal  strike.  In  1906  he  was 
appointed  '-  member  of  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission,  and  was  re-ap- 
pointed by  President  Wilson  in  1913. 

CLABK,  FBANCIS  EDWABD,  an 

American  clergyman;  born  in  Aylnier, 
Quebec.  Sept.  12,  1851;  graduated  from 
Dartmouth  College  in  1873,  and  con- 
tinued his  studies  at  Andover  Theolog- 
ical Seminary.  He  became  pastor  of  a 
Congregational  Church  at  Portland,  Me., 
and  there  organized  the  first  Young  Peo- 
ple's Society  of  Christian  Endeavor, 
Feb.  2,  1881.  In  1887  he  was  made 
president  of  the  United  Society  of  Chris- 
tian Endeavor,  and  president  of  the 
World's  Christian  Endeavor  Union,  and 
also  became  editor  of  the  "Christian  En- 
deavor World,"  the  official  organ  of  the 
society.  He  was  the  author  of  many 
books  on  religious  subjects  as  well  as  of 
books  of  travel,  and  published  many 
leaflets,  sermons,  addresses,  etc. 

CLABK,  or  CLABKE,  GEOBGE 
BOGEBS.  an  American  pioneer;  born 
near  Monticello,  Va.,  Nov.  19,  1752.  He 
studied  surveying,  and  settled  in  Ohio, 
serving  in  the  Indian  wars  of  that  time 
?nd  region.  He  removed  to  Kentucky  in 
1775,  procuring  the  organization  of  that 


CLABK 


8 


CLARKE 


territory.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  he  led  the  patriot  army 
on  the  frontier,  campaigning  against  the 
British  throughout  Illinois,  Ohio,  and 
Kentucky.  His  success  in  this  saved 
much  territory  to  the  colonies  in  the  final 
treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain.  He 
fell  into  penury  in  his  latter  years,  and 
died  in  neglect  near  Louisville,  Ky.,  Feb. 
18,  1818. 

CLARK,  JOHN  BATES,  an  Ameri- 
can economist;  born  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
Jan.  26,  1847.  He  was  graduated  at 
Amherst  in  1872,  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sities of  Heidelberg  and  Zurich,  and  re- 
ceived degrees  from  several  domestic 
and  foreign  universities.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  political  economy  at  Carleton 
College  (1877-1881),  Smith  College 
(1882-1893),  Amherst  (1892-1895),  and 
assumed  the  same  chair  at  Columbia 
University  in  1895.  He  was  a  member 
of  many  domestic  and  foreign  scientific 
associations,  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"Political  Science  Quarterly,"  and  con- 
tributed many  articles  to  economic  re- 
views and  journals.  He  also  published: 
"Philosophy  of  Wealth"  (1885);  "Dis- 
tribution of  Wealth"  (1895);  "Control 
of  Trusts"  (1901) ;  "Problem  of  Monop- 
oly" (1904) ;  "Essentials  of  Economic 
Theory"  (1907) ;  "Modern  Distributive 
Process"   (with  F.  H.  Giddings) ;  etc. 

CLARK,      LEWIS      GAYLORD,      an 

American  journalist  and  humorous 
writer;  born  in  Otisco,  N.  Y.,  March  5, 
1810.  In  1834  he  became  3ditor  of  the 
"Knickerbocker  Magazine,"  and  with 
Irving,  Bryant,  Longfellow,  Halleck,  and 
Willis,  as  contributors,  made  it  the  fore- 
most literary  publication  ^  of  that  time, 
and  an  inspiration  to  a  higher  standard 
of  periodical  literature.  The  "Editor's 
Table,"  written  by  him,  overflowed  with 
amusing  stories  and  witty  sayings.  The 
"Knickerbocker  Sketch-Book"  (1850), 
and  "Knick-Knacks  from  an  Editor's 
Table"  (1853),  are  his  only  publications 
in  book  form.  He  died  in  Piermont,  N. 
Y.,  Nov.  3,  1873. 

CLARK,  WILLIAM  ANDREWS,  an 
American  capitalist  and  senator;  born 
near  Connellsville,  Pa.,  Jan.  8,  1839. 
He  was  educated  at  Laurel  Hill  Acad- 
emy, and  at  Mt.  Pleasant  University,  in 
Iowa.  After  studying  law  and  teaching 
school  he  settled  in  Montana  in  1863, 
and  acquired  a  great  fortune  in  copper 
mining.  He  was  the  Democratic  choice 
for  United  States  Senator  from  Mon- 
tana in  1890  and  1896,  and  in  1899  the 
Legislature  elected  him.  In  April,  1900, 
the  United  States  Senate  declared  his 
election  void;  but  his  legislature 
re-elected  him  in  1901  and  he  served  un- 


til 1907.  In  his  palatial  home  in  New 
York  City  he  has  collected  many  rare 
paintings. 

CLARK,     WILLIS     GAYLORD,      an 

American  poet,  twin  brother  of  Lewis 
Gaylord;  born  in  Otisco,  N.  Y.,  March 
5,  1810;  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"Columbian  Star,"  a  religious  weekly 
paper  (1830),  but  resigned  shortly  after 
to  take  charge  of  the  Philadelphia 
"Gazette."  A  complete  edition  of  his 
poems,  edited  by  his  brother,  appeared 
in  1847.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
June  12,  1841. 

CLARK  COLLEGE,  an  institution  for 
higher  education,  founded  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  in  1902.  It  was  endowed  by  Jonas 
G.  Clark  with  $1,300,000  and  was  granted 
equal  rights  in  the  already  existing 
Clark  University.  It  is  legally  the  col- 
legiate department  of  the  University,  but 
under  the  terms  of  the  will  of  the 
founder,  it  is  a  completely  independent 
organization.  In  1918  there  were  184 
students  and  25  members  of  the  faculty. 
President,  Edmund  C.  Sandford. 

CLARKE,    CHARLES    COWDEN,    an 

English  prose-writer  and  poet;  born  in 
Enfield,  Middlesex,  Dec.  15,  1787;  pro- 
duced "Tales  from  Chaucer"  and 
"Shakespeare's  Characters,"  besides  lec- 
tures and  essays  innumerable;  and 
"Carmina  Minima,"  a  volume  of  verse. 
He  died  in  Genoa,  March  13,  1877. 

CLARKE,  FRANK  WIGGLES- 
WORTH,  an  American  scientist;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  19,  1847.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Lawrence  Scien- 
tific School  of  Harvard,  in  1867;  was 
Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics  at 
the  University  of  Cincinnati  from  1874 
to  1883,  and  in  1883  became  chief  chem- 
ist of  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey and  honorary  curator  of  minerals, 
United  States  National  Museum,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  He  was  a  member  of 
many  domestic,  foreign,  and  interna- 
tional commissions  and  scientific  so- 
cieties, received  several  honorary  degrees 
and  medals,  and  published  numerous 
books  and  papers  on  chemical,  miner- 
alogical,  and  geological  topics. 

CLARKE,  JAMES  FREEMAN,  an 
American  Unitarian  clerg:yman  and 
author;  born  in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  April 
4,  1810.  In  1852,  together  with  Emer- 
son and  William  H.  Channing,  he  pre- 
pared the  "Memoirs  of  Margaret  Fuller 
d'Ossoli."  His  chief  work  was  "Ten 
Great  Religions"  (1871-1883).  Among 
his  other  publications  were  "Self-Cul- 
ture" (1882)  ;  "Anti-Slavery  Days" 
(1884);   "Every-Day   Religion"    (1886); 


CLARKE 


9 


CLAUDE  LORRAINE 


and  "Vexed  Questions"  (1886).    He  died 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  June  8, 1888. 

CLARKE,  JAMES  P.,  an  American 
lawyer  and  public  official;  born  in  Yazoo 
City,  Miss.,  Aug.  18,  1854.  He  was  grad- 
uated in  the  law  department  of  the 
University  of  Virginia  in  1878,  and 
shortly  after  entered  politics.  He  was 
elected  to  the  State  Legislature  in  1886 
and  1887,  and  to  the  State  Senate  in 
1888,  of  which  body  he  was  President  in 
1891.  In  1893-1894  he  was  Attorney-Gen- 
eral of  the  State,  and  in  January,  1895, 
was  inaugurated  Governor  after  a  spir- 
ited triangular  contest.  In  1903-1909  he 
was  United  States  Senator,  and  was 
re-elected  in  1908  and  1914.  For  several 
years  he  was  Chairman  of  the  Senate 
Committee  on  Commerce,  and  the  rank- 
ing Democratic  member  of  the  Foreign 
Relations  and  Military  Affairs  Commit- 
tees.   He  died  in  1916. 

CLARKE,  JOHN  HESSIN,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist,  born  at  Lisbon,  0.,  in  1857. 
He  graduated  from  the  Western  Reserve 
University  in  1877,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  the  following  year.  After 
some  general  practice,  he  was  employed 
as  genei'al  counsel  of  several  railroads. 
He  was  appointed  United  States  district 
judge  for  the  Northern  District  of  Ohio, 
from  1914  to  1916,  when  he  became  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States. 

CLARKE,  MARY  COWDEN,  an  Eng- 
lish story-writer,  essayist,  and  Shakes- 
pearean scholar;  born  in  London,  June 
22,  1809.  She  married  Charles  Cowden 
Clarke,  with  whom  she  wrote  the  "Shake- 
speare Key"  and  compiled  an  edition 
of  Shakespeare's  plays.  Her  own  "Com- 
plete Concordance"  is  universally  known 
Among  her  novels  are:  "A  Rambling 
Story"  and  "The  Iron  Cousin."  "World- 
Noted  Women"  contains  biographical 
Studies.    She  died  in  Italy,  Jan.  12,  1898. 

CLARKE,  SAMUEL,  an  English  theo- 
logical and  philosophical  writer;  born  in 
Norwich,  in  1675;  educated  at  Caius  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  He  became  chaplain  to 
Dr.  More,  bishop  of  Norwich,  and  be- 
tween 1699  and  1701  published  "Essays 
on  Baptism,  Confirmation,  and  Repent- 
ance," replied  to  Toland's  "Amyntor," 
and  issued  a  paraphrase  of  the  Gospels. 
He  was  then  presented  with  two  livings, 
and  in  1704  and  1705  twice  delivered  the 
Boyle  lectures  at  Oxford.  In  1706  he 
published  "Immortality  of  the  Soul,"  and 
a  Latin  version  of  Newton's  "Optics." 
He  was  appointed  rector  of  St.  James's, 
London,  and  chaplain  to  Queen  Anne. 
In  1712  he  edited  Csesar's  "Commenta- 
ries," and  published  his  "Scripture  Doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity."     His  chief  subse- 


quent productions  were  his  discussions 
with  Leibnitz  and  Collins  on  the  "Free- 
dom of  the  Will,"  his  Latin  version  of 
part  of  the  "Iliad,"  and  a  considerable 
number  of  sermons.  His  philosophic 
fame  rests  on  his  a  priori  argument  for 
the  existence  of  God,  his  theory  of  the 
nature  and  obligation  of  virtue  as  con- 
formity to  certain  relations  involved  in 
the  eternal  fitness  of  things,  and  his  op- 
position to  Hobbes,  Spinoza,  Locke,  Leib- 
nitz, and  others.     He  died  in  1729. 

CLARKSBURG,  a  city  of  West  Vir- 
ginia, the  county-seat  of  Harrison  co.  It 
is  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  and  the 
Monongahela  Traction  Co.  railroads,  and 
on  the  Monongahela  river.  The  city  has 
important  manufacturing  industries,  in- 
cluding the  manufacture  of  chemicals, 
fire  brick,  bottles,  tableware,  iron  and 
tin  plate,  etc.  It  has  an  Elks'  Home,  and 
three  hospitals,  and  is  the  center  of  an 
important  coal,  oil,  and  natural  gas  re- 
gion. Pop.  (1910)  9,201;  (1920) 
27,869. 

CLARKSVILLE,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Montgomery  co.,  Tenn.,  on  the 
Cumberland  and  Red  rivers,  and  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville  and  the  Tennes- 
see Central  railroads,  50  miles  N.  W.  of 
Nashville.  It  is  the  center  of  the  great 
"dark  tobacco  belt,"  and  has  many  to- 
bacco factories.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Southwestern  Presbyterian  University 
(1874),  and  the  State  Odd  Fellows' 
Home;  has  several  manufactories,  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers,  a  female  acad- 
emy, high  and  graded  public  schools,  2 
National  banks,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  8,548; 
(1920)    8,110. 

CLARK  UNIVERSITY,  an  institution 
at  Worcester,  Mass.,  founded  in  1887  by 
Jonas  Gilman  Clark,  and  devoted  ex- 
clusively to  post-graduate  work.  At  the 
close  of  the  school  year  1919  the  uni- 
versity reported:  professors,  21;  stu- 
dents, 106;  volumes  in  the  library,  85,000; 
president,  G.  Stanley  Hall,  LL.  D. 

CLAUDE  LORRAINE,  a  landscape- 
painter  whose  real  name  was  Claude 
Gelee,  but  who  was  called  Lorraine  from 
the  province  where  he  was  born  in  1600. 
When  12  years  old  he  went  to  live  with 
his  brother,  an  engraver  in  wood  at  Frei- 
burg, went  from  him  to  study  under 
Godfrey  Watts  at  Naples,  and  was  after- 
ward employed  at  Rome  by  the  painter 
Agostino  Tassi,  to  grind  his  colors  and 
do  the  household  drudgery.  On  leaving 
Tassi  he  traveled  in  Italy,  France,  and 
Germany,  but  settled  in  1627  in  Rome, 
where  his  works  were  greatly  sought 
for,  and  where  he  lived  much  at  his  ease 
until  1682,  when  he  died  of  gout.  The 
principal  galleries  of  Italy,  France,  Eng- 


CLAUDIUS  I. 

land,  Spain,  and  Germany  are  adorned 
with  his  painting-s;  that  on  which  he  him- 
self set  the  greatest  value  being  the 
painting  of  a  small  wood  belonging  to 
the  Villa  Madama  (Rome).  He  excelled 
in  luminous  atmospheric  effects,  of  which 
he  made  loving  and  elaborate  studies. 
His  figure  work,  however,  was  inferior, 
and  the  figures  in  many  of  his  paintings 
were  supplied  by  Lauri  and  Francesco 
Allegrini.  He  made  small  copies  of  all 
his  pictures  in  six  books  known  as  "Libri 
di  Verita"  (Books  of  Truth),  which  form 
a  work  of  great  value  (usually  called  the 
LibA'  Veritatis),  and  much  esteemed  by 
students. 

CLAUDIUS  I.,  TIBERIUS  DRUSUS 
NERO,  surnamed  Germanicus,  and 
Britannicus,  the  fourth  Emperor  of 
Rome;  born  in  Lyons,  10  B.  c.  After 
spending  50  years  of  his  life  in  a  private 
station,  unhonored,  and  but  little  known, 
he  was,  on  the  murder  of  Caligula,  his 
nephew,  A.  d.  41,  proclaimed  Emperor  by 
the  soldiers,  and  confirmed  in  the  sov- 
ereignty by  the  Senate.  At  first  he  per- 
formed some  praiseworthy  acts,  but  he 
soon  became  contemptible  for  his  de- 
bauchery and  voluptuousness;  and  he 
died,  A.  D.  54,  of  poison  administered  by 
his  second  wife,  Agrippina.  Claudius 
went  to  Britain  two  years  after  his  ac- 
cession, and  made  it  a  Roman  province. 
He  built  the  port  of  Ostia,  the  Claudian 
aqueduct,  and  executed  other  great 
works. 

CLAUDIUS  II.,  MARCUS  AURELIUS 
FLAVIUS,  surnamed  Gothicus,  Roman 
Emperor;  born  in  Illyria,  A.  D.  214,  was 
raised  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Gal- 
lienus,  in  268,  and  by  his  virtues  as  well 
as  his  splendid  victories  over  the  Goths, 
proved  himself  worthy  of  his  exalted  sta- 
tion.   He  died  in  A.  D.  270. 

CLAUDIUS  CRASSUS,  APPIUS,  a 
Roman  decemvir  (451  and  450  B.  c), 
who  gained  the  high  favor  of  his  fellow- 
citizens  by  his  ability  and  activity.  In 
the  latter  year,  however,  he  began  to 
show  his  real  aims  toward  absolute  and 
illegal  power.  The  growing  indignation 
o±  the  Roman  populace  reached  a  height 
on  account  of  his  grossly  tyrannous  ac- 
tion toward  Virginia,  daughter  of  a  re- 
spected plebeian  named  Lucius  Virginlus, 
who  was  abroad  vsdth  the  army.  The 
proud  patrician  gained  possession  of  the 
I  person  of  the  maiden  by  pretending  that 
she  was  the  born  slave  of  one  of  his  cli- 
ents. Her  lover  Icilius  summoned  her 
father  Virginius  from  the  armv,  but  an- 
other mock-trial  again  adjudged  the 
g'lrl  to  be  the  property  of  the  decemvir's 
client.  To  save  his  daughter  from  dis- 
honor, the  unhappy  father  seized  a  knife 


10  CLAXTON 

and  slew  her.  The  popular  indignation 
and  the  father's  appeal  to  the  army  over- 
threw the  decemviri,  and  the  proud  Ap- 
pius  was  flung  into  prison,  where  he 
died  by  his  own  hand.  The  story  is  spe- 
cially familiar  to  English  readers  from 
Macaulay's  "Lays." 

CLAUSEWITZ,  KARL  VOi:  (klouz'e- 
vetz),  a  Prussian  militai-y  officer;  born 
In  Burg,  June  1,  1780.  He  served  with 
distinction  In  several  campaigns  In  the 
Prussian  and  Russian  services  In  1815, 
became  chief  of  a  Prussian  army  corps, 
and  was  ultimately  director  of  the  army 
school,  and  inspector  of  artillery.  He 
died  in  Breslau,  Nov.  16,  1831.  Of  his 
works  the  best  known  are  his  great  book 
"Of  War"  (3  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1880),  and 
his  "Life  of  Scharnhorst." 

CLAVARIA,  a  genus  of  fungi,  some 
species  of  which  are  edible. 

CLAVERHOUSE.    See  GRAHAM,  JOHN. 

CLAVICHORD,  a  key  and  stringed  In- 
strument, not  now  In  use,  being  super- 
seded by  the  pianoforte.  Its  form  Is  that 
of  a  small  pianoforte;  It  has  no  quills, 
jacks,  or  hammers.  The  strings  are  all 
muffled,  and  the  tone  Is  produced  by  little 
brass  wedges,  placed  at  the  ends  of  the 
keys,  which,  when  pulled  down,  press 
against  the  middle  of  the  strings,  acting 
as  a  bridge  to  each. 

CLAVIGERO,  FRANCESCO  SA- 
VERIO  (kla-ve-ha'ro) ,  a  Spanish  his- 
torian; born  In  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico, 
about  1720.  He  was  educated  as  an 
ecclesiastic,  and  resided  36  years  In  the 
provinces  of  New  Spain,  where  he  ac- 
quired the  languages  of  the  Mexicans 
and  other  Indigenous  nations,  collected 
many  of  their  traditions,  and  studied 
their  historical  paintings  and  other 
monuments  of  antiquity.  On  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Jesuits  by  the  Spanish 
government  in  1767  Clavigero  went  to 
Italy,  the  Pope  assigning  him  a  resi- 
dence In  Cesena.  where  he  wrote  his 
"Mexican  History,"  and  died  in  1793. 

CLAXTON,  KATE  (MRS,  CHARLES  A. 
Stevenson),  an  American  actress;  born 
in  Somerville,  N.  J.,  In  1848.  She  made 
her  debut  at  Daly's  Theater  before  she 
was  out  of  her  teens,  but  her  success 
dates  from  1873  when  she  acted  Mathilda 
in  "Led  Astray."  As  Louise  in  "The 
Two  Orphans"  she  attained  great  celeb- 
rity. She  was  playing  the  part  at  the 
Brooklyn  Theater  when,  on  the  night  of 
Dec.  5,  1876,  that  structure  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  with  great  loss  of  life. 
After  1896  she  toured  the  country  In 
emotional  plays  with  her  own  company, 
retiring  from  the  stage  In  1904. 


CLAXTON 


11 


CLAY 


CLAXTON,  PHILANDER  PRIEST- 
LY, an  American  educator;  born  in  Bed- 
ford CO.,  Tenn.,  Sept.  28,  1862.  He  grad- 
uated from  the  University  of  Tennes- 
see in  1882  and  pursued  special  studies 
at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  1884-1885 ; 
became  professor  of  pedagogy  at  North 
Carolina  State  Normal  and  Industrial 
College  in  1896;  and  was  appointed 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion in  1911.  He  has  written  largely  on 
educational  subjects. 

CLAY,  the  name  of  various  earths, 
which  consist  of  hydrated  silicate  of  alu- 
minum, with  small  proportions  of  the 
silicates  of  iron,  calcium,  magnesium, 
potassium,  and  sodium.  All  the  varieties 
are  characterized  by  being  firmly  co- 
herent, weighty,  compact,  and  hard  when 
dry,  but  plastic  when  moist,  smooth  to 
touch,  not  readily  diffusable  in  water,  but 
when  mixed  not  readily  subsiding  in  it. 
Their  tenacity  and  ductility  when  moist 
and  their  hardness  when  dry  has  made 
them  from  the  earliest  times  the  ma- 
terials of  bricks,  tiles,  pottery,  etc.  Of 
the  chief  varieties  porcelain  Clay,  kaolin, 
or  China  Clay,  a  white  Clay  with  occa- 
sional gray  and  yellow  tones,  is  the  purest. 
Potter's  Clay  and  pipe  Clay,  which  are 
similar  but  less  pure,  are  generally  of  a 
yellowish  or  grayish  color,  from  the  pres- 
ence of  iron.  Fire  Clay  is  a  very  refrac- 
tory variety,  always  found  lying  imme- 
diately below  the  coal;  it  is  used  for 
making  fire  bricks,  crucibles,  etc.  Loam 
is  the  same  substance  mixed  with  sand, 
oxide  of  iron,  and  various  other  for- 
eign ingredients.  The  boles,  which  are 
of  a  red  or  yellow  color  from  the  pres- 
ence of  oxide  of  iron,  are  distinguished 
by  their  conchoidal  fracture.  The  ochres 
are  similar  to  the  boles,  containing  only 
more  oxide  of  iron.  Other  varieties  are 
fuller's-earth,  Tripoli,  and  boulder  Clay, 
the  last  a  hard  Clay  of  a  dark-brown  color, 
with  rounded  masses  of  rock  of  all  sizes 
embedded  in  it,  the  result  of  glacial  ac- 
tion. The  distinctive  property  of  Clays 
as  ingredients  of  the  soil  is  their  power 
of  absorbing  ammonia  and  other  gases 
and  vapors  generated  on  fertile  and 
manured  lands;  indeed  no  soil  will  long 
remain  fertile  unless  it  has  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  Clay  in  its  composition.  The 
best  wheats  both  in  America  and  Europe 
are  grown  on  calcareous  Clays,  as  also 
the  finest  fruits  and  flowers  of  the  rosa- 
ceous kind. 

The  following  shows  the  value  of  the 
Clay  industry  in  the  United  States  for  the 
calendar  year  1919  (est.)  : 

Common  brick $58,220,000 

Vitrified  brick  or  block 11,210,000 

Face  brick 15,240,000 

Fancy  or  ornamental  brick. .  40,000 


Enameled  brick $640,000 

Drain  tile    10,420,000 

Sewer  pipe  16,170,000 

Architectural  terra  cotta 4,840,000 

Fireproofing      and      hollow 

building  tile 16,620,000 

Tile    (not  drain) 7,250,000 

Stove  lining 730,000 

Fire  brick 36,170.000 

Miscellaneous 7,100,000 

Total  brick  and  tile $184,650,000 

Total  pottery    76,140,000 

Grand  total $260,790,000 

The  total  imports  of  Clay  products  in 
1919  were  valued  at  $7,366,535,  of  which 
$7,230,061  were  pottery  products,  and 
$136,474  brick,  tile,  etc.  In  the  same 
year  the  total  exports  were  valued  at 
$6,582,284, 

CLAY,  CASSIUS  MARCELLUS,  an 
American  statesman;  born  in  Madison 
CO.,  Ky.,  Oct,  19,  1810.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College  in  1832,  and  three 
years  later  was  elected  to  the  Legisla- 
ture of  Kentucky.  He  opposed  the  an- 
nexation of  Texas,  supported  Henry 
Clay,  and  served  in  the  Mexican  War. 
He  was  an  opponent  of  slavery  and  sup- 
ported Lincoln  for  the  Presidency. 
From  1862  to  1869  he  was  Minister  to 
Russia.  In  1886  he  published  his 
speeches,  edited  by  Horace  Greeley.  In 
1896  he  was  prominent  as  a  "gold" 
Democrat,    He  died  July  22,  1903. 

CLAY,  HENRY,  an  American  states- 
man; born  in  "The  Slashes"  district, 
Hanover  co.,  Va.,  April  12,  1777.  Becom- 
ing a  student  of  law,  in  his  21st  year,  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began  pracT 
tice  at  Lexington,  Ky.  His  success  was 
signal  and  immediate.  About  1804  he  en- 
tered politics,  and  in  1806  became  United 
States  Senator  for  a  single  year,  to  fill 
the  unexpired  term  of  Mr.  Adair;  and  in 
1811  was  elected  to,  and  chosen  speaker 
of,  the  House  of  Representatives,  remain- 
ing in  that  post  till  1814,  when  he  was 
sent  abroad  as  one  of  the  commissioners 
to  negotiate  the  treaty  of  peace  with 
England  at  Ghent.  On  his  return  he  was 
again  sent  to  Congress,  and  re-elected  to 
his  old  position  as  speaker.  In  1824 
he  was  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency 
against  J.  Q.  Adams,  General  Jackson, 
and  W.  H.  Crawford,  and  no  choice  being 
effected  in  the  Electoral  College,  when 
the  matter  came  up  to  the  House  of 
Representatives,  Clay  and  his  friends 
voted  for  Mr.  Adams,  thereby  securing 
his  election.  During  the  entire  period 
of  the  Adams  administration,  1825-1829. 
Clay  was  Secretary  of  State.  In  1831, 
he  returned  to  the  United  States  Senate, 


CLAY 


12 


CLEARFIELD 


and  became  the  leader  of  the  opposition 
to  General  Jackson's  government. 

In  1832,  he  was  again  the  candidate  of 
his  party  for  the  Presidency,  though  with 
little  chance  of  success,  owing  to  the  over- 
whelming popularity  of  General  Jackson, 
who  was  re-elected.  In  March,  1842,  he 
resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate,  and  re- 
tired into  private  life,  till  1844,  when  he 
came  forward  a  third  time  as  a  candidate 
for  the  Presidential  chair.  In  one  of  the 
most  exciting  political  contests  that  ever 
occurred  in  the  United  States  he  was 
again  defeated,  but  by  a  very  small  nu- 
merical majority,  obtained  mainly  through 
the  influence  of  the  administration — then 
in  the  hands  of  his  political  opponents — 
and  the  obstinacy  of  the  so-called  "liberty 
party."  The  immediate  consequence  of 
this  defeat  was  the  annexation  of  Texas, 


HENRY   CLAY 

a  measure  to  which  he  had  given  his 
strenuous  opposition.  This  was  virtually 
the  termination  of  his  public  career, 
though,  in  1849,  he  consented  to  resume 
his  seat  in  the  Senate,  in  view  of  the 
perilous  contest  which  was  then  impend- 
ing between  the  slave-holding  party  and 
its  opponents,  on  the  California  and  terri- 
torial questions.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  celebrated  "Compromise  of  1850,"  as 
it  was  termed,  by  which,  after  a  long  and 
vehement  struggle,  this  dispute  was,  for 
the  time  being,  adjusted. 


This  was  the  third  occasion  in  his 
career  in  which,  by  giving  the  whole 
weight  of  his  abilities  and  influence  to 
an  intermediate  course  between  two  ex- 
tremes, he  put  an  end  to  a  violent  con- 
flict of  opinion,  which  menaced  the  peace 
of  the  country,  and  the  duration  of  the 
Union.  On  the  question  of  slavery,  he 
always  favored  moderate  counsels,  and  a 
pacificatory  policy.  The  excitement  and 
exhaustion  occasioned  by  this  last  great 
controversy  gave  the  final  blow  to  his 
already  enfeebled  constitution,  and  he 
died  in  Washington,  June  29,  1852. 

CLAY  SLATE,  in  geology,  a  rock  con- 
sisting of  clay  which  has  been  hardened 
and  otherwise  changed,  for  the  most  part 
extremely  fissile  and  often  affording 
good  roofing-slate.  In  color  it  varies 
from  greenish  or  bluish  gray  to  lead 
color. 

CLAYTON-BULWER  TREATY,  a 
convention  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  concluded  April  19,  1850, 
and  deriving  its  name  from  John  M. 
Clayton,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United 
States,  and  Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  British 
Minister  at  Washington.  The  object  of 
the  treaty  was  to  aid  the  construction  of 
an  inter-oceanic  canal  on  either  the  Nica- 
ragua or  Panama  routes. 

CLEANTHES,  a  Greek  Stoic  philoso- 
pher of  the  3d  century  B.  C.  He  was 
a  native  of  Assus,  in  Lydia ;  but,  visiting 
Athens,  he  became  a  zealous  disciple  of 
Zeno,  and  to  enable  him  to  attend  on 
that  master  in  the  day,  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  labor  by  night.  His  mental  and 
bodily  strength  was  immense,  and  de- 
spite all  obstacles,  he  studied  so  success- 
fully as  to  become,  263  B.  c.  Zeno's 
successor.  Of  his  writings  only  some 
fragments  remain,  among  which  is  his 
noble  "Hymn  to  Zeus." 

CLEARCHirs  (kle-ar'kus),  a  Spartan 
general  who  commanded  about  13,000 
Greeks  in  the  army  of  Cyrus  the  Young- 
er when  he  tried  to  conquer  the  throne 
of  Persia  from  his  brother,  Artaxerxes 
II.  When  Cyrus  was  defeated  at  Cunaxa 
(401  B.  c.) ,  Clearchus  and  his  chief  offi- 
cers were  seized  by  treachery  and  put  to 
death. 

CLEARFIELD,  a  borough  of  Penn- 
sylvania, the  county-seat  of  Clearfield  co. 
It  is  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  New  York 
Central  and  Hudson  River,  and  the  Buf- 
falo, Rochester  and  Pittsburgh  railroads, 
and  on  the  Susquehanna  river.  It  is  the 
center  of  an  important  coal  and  fire  clay 
region.  Its  industries  include  novelty 
vsrorks,  flour  mills,  knitting  mills,  brick- 
vards,  the  manufacture  of  sewer  pipes, 
cut  glass,  etc.    Pop.  (1910)  6,851;  (1920) 

'        *  1 — Vol.  Ill — Cyc 


CLEARING-HOUSE 


13 


CLEMENCEAU" 


CLEABING-HOUSE,  a  financial  in- 
stitution which  makes  daily  adjustment 
of  debits  and  credits  among  the  banks 
constituting  its  membership. 

In  the  old  days  before  the  American 
clearing-houses  were  established,  Bank 
No.  1  sent  a  runner  to  Bank  No.  2  with 
the  check  to  get  it  cashed;  and  if  No.  2 
had  a  check  on  No.  1,  it  sent  its  runner 
over;  and  so  on,  all  through  all  the  banks. 
But  now  each  morning  the  clearing-house 
clerks  of  a  bank  report  at  the  clearing- 
house, and  make  out  a  list  of  all  the 
checks  payable  to  that  bank  by  or 
through  other  banks;  then  the  clearing- 
house people  take  these  lists,  and  com- 
pare them.  They  find,  for  instance,  that 
Bank  A  owes  B  $1,000  and  C  $500;  that 
B  owes  A  $500  and  C  $1,000,  and  that  C 
owes  A  $500  and  B  $500.  Comparing 
these,  we  see  that  A  owes  B  $500  clear 
of  what  B  owes  A,  and  that  A  and  C 
stand  off;  that  B  owes  nothing  to  A,  and 
owes  $500  to  C;  and  that  C  owes  nothing 
to  A,  and  is  owed  $500  by  B.  That  is, 
that  A  owes  B  $500,  and  B  owes  C  $500. 
Then  if  A  pays  C  $500,  $4,000  of  mutual 
debts  is  settled  for  $500.  When  this  set- 
tlement is  worked  out,  the  clearing-house 
clerks  report  back  to  their  banks,  and  be- 
fore 1  o'clock  sums  of  money  are  sent 
from  each  bank  to  the  clearing-house  in 
settlement  of  balances,  and  the  checks 
drawn  on  each  bank  are  returned  to  it, 
to  be  charged  against  the  different  indi- 
vidual depositors. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount 
of  exchanges  at  the  various  clearing- 
houses of  the  United  States  for  two 
years,  each  ending  Sept.  30: 


1920 

1919 

New  York .... 

$252,338,249,000 

$214,703,444,000 

Boston 

19.570,085,000 

16,990,409,000 

Chicago 

32,845,595,000 

28,223,025,000 

Philadelphia. 

25,035,910,000 

21,320,246,000 

St.  Louis 

8,557,096,000 

8,065,368,000 

San  Francisco 

8,272,028,000 

6,703,134,000 

Baltimore.  .  .  . 

4,843,326,000 

4,196,983,000 

Pittsburgh.  .  . 

8,549,277,000 

6,998,946,000 

Cincinnati.  .  . . 

3,567,833,000 

3,047,801,000 

Kansas  City. . 

12,318,929,000 

11,036,406,000 

New  Orleans.  . 

3,562,716,000 

2,890,884,000 

Minneapolis.  . 

3,521,955,000 

2,263,056,000 

Detroit 

5,063,224,000 

4,032,443,000 

Louisville.  .  .  . 

1,153,048,000 

993,855,000 

Cleveland.  .  .  . 

6,755,509,000 

5,104,301,000 

Other  cities.  . 

67,065,470,000 

50,521,640,000 

Total 

$463,020,250,000 

$387,091,941,000 

CLEAVAGE,  the  manner  or  direction 
in  which  substances  regularly  cleave  or 
split.  The  regular  structure  of  most 
crystallized  bodies  becomes  manifest  as 
soon  as  they  are  broken.  Each  frag- 
ment presents  the  form  of  a  small  poly- 
hedron, and  the  very  dust  appears  un- 
der  the    microscope    an    assembla£fe   of 


minute  solids,  regularly  terminated.  The 
directions  in  which  such  bodies  thus 
break  up  are  called  their  planes  of  cleav- 
age; and  the  cleavage  is  called  basal, 
cubic,  diagonal,  or  lateral  (or  perito- 
r.ious),  according  as  it  is  parallel  to  the 
base  of  a  crystal,  to  the  faces  of  a  cube, 
to  a  diagonal  plane,  or  to  the  lateral 
planes.  In  certain  rocks  again  there  is 
a  tendency  to  split  along  planes  which 
may  coincide  with  the  original  plane  of 
stratification,  but  which  more  frequently 
crosses  it  at  an  angle.  This  tendency 
is  the  consequence  of  the  readjustment 
by  pressure  and  heat  of  the  components 
of  rocks,  which  is  one  of  the  phases  of 
metamorphism. 

CLEBURNE,  a  city  of  Texas,  the 
county-seat  of  Johnson  co.  It  is  on  the 
Gulf,  Colorado  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Trin- 
ity and  Brazos  Valley,  and  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Texas  railroads.  Its  indus- 
tries include  cotton  compresses,  floui* 
mills,  foundry  and  machine  shops,  and 
railroad  shops,  and  it  has  a  large  trade 
in  grain,  live  stock,  hides,  agricultural 
products,  etc.  There  is  a  court  house,  a 
public  library,  and  a  high  school.  Pop. 
(1910)   10,364;   (1920)   12,820. 

CLEF,  a  character  placed  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  stave,  to  show  the  elevation 
of  that  particular  stave  in  the  general 
claviary  or  system,  and  to  determine  the 
names  of  the  notes  according  to  their 
positions  on  the  stave.  There  are  three 
Clefs;  the  G  Clef,  generally  known  as 
the  treble  Clef,  which  is  placed  on  the 
second  line  of  the  treble  stave;  the  G 
Clef,  which  is  used  either  as  the  alto, 
tenor,  or  (rarely)  soprano  Clef,  accord- 
ing to  its  position  on  the  third,  fourth 
or  first  line  of  the  stave;  and  the  F  Clef, 
which  is  either  bass  or  baritone  (rare) 
Clef,  according  to  its  position  on  the 
fourth  or  third  line  of  the  stave. 

CLEMENCEAU,  GEORGES  BEN- 
JAMIN EUGENE,  French  statesman; 
born  at  Feole,  Vendee,  Sept.  28,  1841. 
His  early  schooling  was  at  Nantes, 
whence  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  began 
the  study  of  medicine.  His  republican 
opinions  led  to  his  suspension  from  the 
university,  and  it  was  not  till  after  a 
long  interval,  during  which  he  visited  the 
United  States  (1865-1869),  that  he  was 
able  to  return  and  obtain  his  diploma. 
The  next  year  he  was  chosen  mayor 
of  the  arrondissement  of  Montmartre, 
Paris,  and  during  the  struggle  with  the 
Commune,  acted  as  an  intermediary  be- 
tween the  revolutionists  and  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Republic. 

Clemenceau's  long  legislative  career  be- 
gan in  1871,  when  he  was  elected  Deputy. 
For  a  time  he  was  Member  and  President 
2— Vol.  in— Cyc 


CLEMENCEAXJ 


14 


CLEMENS 


of  the  Municipal  Council  of  Paris,  but 
from  1876  to  1893,  his  service  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  was  continuous. 
There  he  took  his  place  with  the  radicals 
of  the  extreme  left,  and  rapidly  rose  to 
leadership.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
overthrow  of  the  ministries  of  Gambetta 
(1882),  Ferry  (1885),  Brisson  (1886) 
and  Freycinet  (1886).  Boulanger  also 
found  in  him  a  formidable  opponent. 

The  Panama  scandal  of  1892  cast  un- 
favorable reflections  on  Clemenceau  and 
caused  a  vigorous  and  successful  cam- 


GEORGES  B.  E.  CLEMENCEAU 

paign  to  be  waged  against  his  re-election 
(1893).  He  then,  for  a  few  years,  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  journalism  and 
the  editorship  of  "L^  Justice,"  founded 
by  him  in  1880.  Later  (1900-1902)  he 
published  "Le  Bloc,"  and  after  his  elec- 
tion to  the  Senate  (1902),  edited  "L'Au- 
rore"  (1903-1907),  in  which  he  had  ar- 
dently supported  the  cause  of  Dreyfus. 
Later  he  became  the  editor  of  the  news- 
paper, "L'Homme  Libre." 

The  destroyer  of  so  many  ministries 
consented  for  the  first  time  to  accept  a 
portfolio  in  March,  1906,  whence  he  be- 
came Minister  of  the  Interior  in  the  Sar- 
rien  Cabinet.  In  October  of  the  same 
year  he  was  called  upon  to  form  the  min- 
istry which  was  to  be  of  such  long  dura- 
tion. Starting  with  an  anti-clerical  and 
even  socialistic  platform.  Clemenceau 
soon  won  other  than  radical  votes  by  his 


firmness  in  upholding  the  powers  of  the 
Government  against  the  demands  of  any 
of  the  classes  of  the  people,  as  he  showed 
in  his  handling  of  the  troubles  in  the 
wine-growing  districts  and  in  the  ener- 
getic measures  he  used  to  control  matters 
during  the  mining  and  other  strikes.  At 
the  same  time  he  pushed  the  reforms 
that  aimed  at  the  relief  of  the  working 
element  of  the  population,  such  as  the 
employers'  liability  law  and  the  bill  cre- 
ating old  age  pensions.  The  downfall  of 
his  ministry  occurred  unexpectedly  July 
20,  1909,  because  of  Clemenceau's  per- 
sonal attack  on  Delcasse,  former  Minis- 
ter of  Foreign  Affairs. 

During  the  World  War,  he  was  an  en- 
thusiastic advocate  of  determined  mili- 
tary action  and  an  unsparing  critic  of 
timid  policies  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
ment. He  exposed  the  treason  of  Bolo 
Pasha,  and  in  November,  1917,  suc- 
ceeded Painlevd  as  Premier.  At  that 
time  Allied  prospects  were  most  discour- 
aging, owing  to  the  Russian  defection 
and  the  preparations  by  the  Germans  for 
the  great  spring  drive  of  1918.  But  be- 
fore long,  Clemenceau's  indomitable  cour- 
age and  magnificent  energy  had  stimu- 
lated the  national  spirit  and  paved  the 
way  for  the  final  victory.  When  the  Ger- 
man cause  finally  collapsed,  Clemenceau 
was  chosen  President  of  the  Peace  Con- 
ference. While  the  Conference  was  in 
progress,  he  was  shot  by  an  assassin,  but 
the  wounds  he  received  were  not  fatal, 
and  he  himself  intervened  to  prevent  the 
death  penalty  being  carried  out  upon  his 
assailant.  In  1920,  he  was  a  candidate 
for  President,  but  withdrew  his  name 
before  the  election.  Immediately  after- 
ward, Clemenceau  started  on  a  journey 
to  Egypt  and  the  Orient,  and  later  went 
to  India. 

Clemenceau  was  the  author  of  several 
books  and  plays,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  following:  "De  la  gene- 
ration des  elements  anatomiques";  "La 
melee  sociale"    (1894) ;  "Le  grand  Pan" 

(1895)  ;      "Les     massacres     d'Armenie" 

(1896)  ;  "Les  plus  forts"  (1898)  ;  "Au 
pied     du     Sinai"     (1898);     "L'iniquite" 

(1899);  "Vers  la  reparation"  (1899); 
"Contre  la  justice"  (1900)  (the  last 
three  republished  from  "L'Aurore,"  in 
defense  of  Dreyfus)  ;  "Au  fil  des  jours" 

(1900)  ;  "Le  voile  du  bonheur"  (1901)  ; 
"Aux  embuscades  de  la  vie"  (1903) ;  "La 
grande  honte"  (1903)  ;  "Figures  de  Ven- 
due"  (1903),  etc. 

CLEMENS,  SAMUEL  LANGHORNE 
(best  known  by  his  pen  name  of  Mark 
Twain),  an  American  humorist;  born  in 
Florida,  Mo.,  Nov.  30,  1835.  He  worked 
for  some  time  as  a  compositor  in  Phila- 
delphia and  New  York,  and  then  in  1851 
learned  the  business  of  pilot  on  the  Mis- 


CLEMENS 


15 


CLEMENT  VI. 


sissippi.  Thence  he  went  to  the  Nevada 
mines;  became  in  1862  local  editor  of  a 
newspaper  in  Virginia  City;  went  to  San 
Francisco;  was  for  some  time  a  reporter; 
and  worked  in  the  Calaveras  gold-dig- 
gings. In  1884,  he  founded  the  publish- 
ing firm  of  C.  L.  Webster  &  Co.,  which 
failed  some  years  later,  though  it  had 
published  successful  works,  including 
General  Grant's  "Personal  Recollections," 
on  which  over  $300,000  in  royalties  were 


S.   L.   CLEMENS  (MARK  TWAIN) 

paid.  After  the  failure  Mr.  Clemens 
made  a  lecturing  tour  of  the  world  for 
the  purpose  of  paying  the  firm's  indebted- 
ness, which  he  insisted  on  doing  in  full, 
though  the  creditors  oflFered  to  settle  for 
half  of  the  amount.  His  works  include: 
"The  Jumping  Frog,"  "The  Innocents 
Abroad,"  "Roughing  It,"  "A  Tramp 
Abroad,"  "The  Prince  and  the  Pauper," 
"Life  on  the  Mississippi,"  "The  Gilded 
Age"  (with  Charles  Dudley  Warner) ,  "Old 
Ti*mes  on  the  Mississippi,"  "Tom  Saw- 
yer," "Huckleberry  Finn,"  "A  Connecti- 
cut Yankee  at  King  Arthur's  Court," 
"Pudd'nhead  Wilson,"  "Personal  Recol- 
lections of  Joan  of  Arc,"  "Following  the 
Equator,"  etc.    He  died  April  21,  1910. 

CLEMENS.  TITUS  FLAVIUS,  known 
as  Clement  of  Alexandria,  one  of  the 
fathers  of  the  Church;  born  about  the 
middle  of  the  2d  century.  Of  his  early 
career  so  little  is  known  that  it  is  doubt- 


ful whether  he  was  born  at  Alexandria 
or  at  Athens;  but  about  the  year  189 
he  succeeded  Pantaenus  in  the  catecheti- 
cal school  of  the  former  city  and  taught 
there  until  202,  when  the  edict  of  Seve- 
rus  compelled  him  to  seek  a  new  abode. 
In  210  he  was  in  Cappadocia.  He  died 
about  220. 

CLEMENT  L,  CLEMENS  BOMANUS, 
POPE,  and  one  of  the  apostolic  fathers; 
born  about  A.  D.  30.  It  is  supposed  that 
he  is  the  same  Clement  mentioned  by  St. 
Paul  (Phil,  iv:  3)  as  one  of  his  fellow- 
laborers.  He  was,  according  to  Catholic 
tradition,  baptized  by  St.  Peter,  and  or- 
dained Bishop  of  Rome  in  91,  succeed- 
ing to  Anacletus.  Among  the  writings 
which  are  attributed  to  him  are  one 
epistle  exhorting  to  unity  (generally  ad- 
mitted as  genuine)  ;  two  other  epistles 
preserved  by  the  Syriac  Church ;  the  two 
collections  of  apostolical  canons  and  con- 
stitutions ;  and  the  "Clementines,"  a  nar- 
rative of  his  life,  and  of  his  connection 
and  journeys  with  St.  Peter.  He  is  ac- 
counted a  saint  and  martyr  in  the  Ro- 
man calendar,  his  festival  being  Nov.  23. 
He  died  about  100,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Evaristus. 

CLEMENT  II.  (SUIDGER),  was  of 
Saxon  birth,  and  in  1046  succeeded  Greg- 
ory VI.,  who  was  Pope  during  the  tenure 
of  Benedict  IX.  He  crowned  Henry  III. 
Emperor,  and  died  1047;  and  at  his 
death,  Benedict  was  restored  to  the  pa- 
pal see. 

CLEMENT  III.,  succeeded  Gregory 
VIII.  in  1187,  preached  a  crusade 
against  the  Saracens;  died  1191,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Celestine  III. 

CLEMENT  IV,  (GuiDO  FULCODi), 
succeeded  Urban  IV.  in  1265.  He  signed, 
with  St.  Louis  of  France,  the  "Pragmatic 
Sanction,"  which  put  an  end  to  the  dif- 
ferences existing  between  Rome  and 
France.  He  died  in  Viterbo,  1268.  His 
death  was  followed  by  a  long  inter- 
regnum. 

CLEMENT  V.  (BertrAND  DB  Got), 
succeeded  Benedict  XI.  in  1305,  and  re- 
moved the  residence  of  the  Popes  from 
Rome  to  Avigrion.  He  was  the  tool  of 
Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  and,  at  his 
desire,  suppressed  the  order  of  Knights 
Templar.  He  died  in  1314,  and  had  no 
immediate  successor. 

CLEMENT  VI.  (PlERRB  ROGER) ,  a 
native  of  Limousin,  succeeded  Benedict 
XII.  in  1342.  During  his  pontificate, 
Rienzi  attempted  to  establish  the  re- 
public at  Rome.  His  learning  and  elo- 
quence are  applauded  by  Petrarch.  He 
died  in  Avignon,  1352.  His  successor 
was  Innocent  VI. 


CLEMENT  VII. 


16 


CLEON 


CLEMENT  VII.  (GlULIO  DE  MedICI), 
nephew  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  and 
cousin  of  LcJ  X.,  succeeded  Adrian  VI. 
in  1523.  He  entered  into  the  "holy 
league"  with  Francis  I.  of  France,  the 
Italian  princes,  and  Henry  VIII.  of  Eng- 
land, against  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
In  the  war  which  ensued,  Rome  was 
taken  and  plundered,  and  the  Pope  him- 
self was  shut  up  in  the  castle  of  St. 
Angelo.  He  had,  consequently,  to  make 
terms  with  Charles.  Subsequently, 
Henry  VIII.,  having  repudiated  Cath- 
arine of  Aragon  and  married  Anne  Bol- 
eyn,  Clement  excommunicated  him  in 
1534.  This  occasioned  a  schism,  and  ulti- 
mately resulted  in  the  separation  of  Eng- 
•  land  from  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  died 
in  1534,  and  was  succeeded  by  Paul  III. 

CLEMENT  VIII.  (IPPOLITO  ALDO- 
BRANDINI),  bom  in  Fano,  1536,  was 
elected  in  1592,  succeeding  Innocent  IX. 
He  absolved  Henry  IV.  of  France,  upon 
that  monarch  making  public  profession 
of  Catholicism,  and  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  the  peace  of 
Vervins  in  1598.  He  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  cardinal,  Baronius,  Bellarmine, 
and  other  distinguished  men,  and  was  a 
learned  and  sagacious  pontiff.  He  died 
in  1605  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  XI. 

CLEMENT  IX.  (GlULIO  ROSSPIGLI- 
OSI),  born  in  Pistoia,  1600;  succeeded 
Alexander  VII.  in  1667.  During  his 
pontificate,  Candia  was  taken  from  the 
Venetians  by  the  Turks.  He  died  in 
1666,  and  was  succeeded  by 

CLEMENT  X.  (Emilio  Altieri),  bom 
in  1590.  Being  of  great  age,  the  govern- 
ment was  left  in  the  hands  of  Cardinal 
Paluzzi,  a  distant  relative.  He  died  in 
1676,  and  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  XI. 

CLEMENT  XI.  (GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO 
Albani)  ,  born  in  Pesaro,  1649,  succeeded 
Innocent  XII.,  1700.  His  pontificate  was 
disturbed  by  the  quarrels  of  the  Jesuits 
and  the  Jansenists,  and  on  issuing  the 
famous  bull  "Unigenitus,"  a  schism  was 
produced,  which  lasted  many  years,  be- 
tween France  and  Rome.  He  died  in 
1721,    and    was    succeeded    by    Innocent 

xin. 

CLEMENT  XII.  (LORENZO  Dl  COR- 
SINI),  bom  in  Florence,  1652,  succeeded 
Benedict  XIII.  in  1730,  and  reformed 
many  abuses  of  the  Church.  He  died  in 
1740,  and  was  succeeded  by  Benedict 
XIV. 

CLEMENT  XIII.  (CARLO  REZZONICO), 
bom  in  Venice,  1693,  succeeded  Benedict 
XIV.,  1758.  The  Jesuits  having  been  ex- 
pelled from  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Naples,  he  made  great  but  useless  efforts 
to  reinstate  them.     In  1768  he  lost  Avi- 


gnon and  Benevento.  He  died  in  1769. 
There  is  a  splendid  mausoleum  to  him  in 
St.  Peter's,  executed  by  Canova,  who  was 
eight  years  employed  on  it.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by 

CLEMENT  XIV.  (Giovanni  Vincenzo 
Antonio  Ganganelli),  born  in  St.  Arc- 
angelo,  1705.  Being  of  a  conciliating 
disposition,  he  lived  on  good  terms  with 
all  the  European  courts,  and  recovered 
Avignon  and  Benevento,  which  had  been 
lost  under  the  preceding  pontiff.  Pressed 
to  decide  the  question  «f  the  abolition  of 
the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  he,  in  1773, 
after  temporizing  for  several  years, 
issued  the  bull  ordaining  their  suppres- 
sion. He  died  in  1774,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Pius  VI. 

CLEMENT,  JACQUES,  the  assassin 
of  Henry  HI.  of  France;  born  in  1567, 
became  a  Dominican,  and  the  fanatical 
tool  of  the  Dukes  of  Mayenne  and  Au- 
male,  and  the  Duchess  Montpensier. 
Having  fatally  stabbed  the  king,  he  was 
at  once  killed  by  the  courtiers;  but  the 
populace,  instigated  by  the  priests,  re- 
garded him  as  a  martyr;  and  Pope  Six- 
tus  V.  even  pronounced  his  panegyric. 

CLEOBULUS,  one  of  the  seven  wise 
men  of  Greece,  was  a  native  of  the  Isle 
of  Rhodes,  and  lived  in  the  6th  century 
B.C. 

CLEOMBROTUS,  King  of  Sparta,  gave 
battle,  at  Leuctra,  to  the  Thebans,  head- 
ed by  Epaminondas,  and  was  there  killed, 
371  B.  C.  This  battle,  when  the  Spartan 
army  was  almost  entirely  destroyed,  put 
an  end  to  the  pre-eminence  of  Sparta  in 
Greece. 

CLEOMENES,  the  King  of  Sparta  who 
assisted  in  the  expulsion  of  Happias 
from  Athens,  and  interfered  in  its  do- 
mestic affairs  in  other  respects,  about 
the  years  510,  508,  and  504  B.  C. 

CLEOMENES,  a  Spartan  king,  who 
attempted  to  revive  the  constitution  of 
Lycurgus.  He  was  defeated  by  the 
Achaean  League  at  Sellasia  in  221  B.  c, 
and  killed  himself  soon  afterward. 

CLEON,  an  Athenian  demagogue, 
originally  a  tanner  by  trade.  He  was 
well  known  in  public  before  the  death  of 
Pericles,  and  in  427  B.  C.  distinguished 
himself  by  the  proposal  to  put  to  death 
the  adult  males  of  the  revolted  Myti- 
leneans  and  sell  the  women  and  children 
as  slaves.  In  425  he  took  Sphacteria 
from  the  Spartans;  but  in  423  and  422 
he  was  violently  attacked  by  Aristoph- 
anes in  the  Knights  and  in  the  Wasps. 
He  was  sent,  however,  in  422  against 
Brasidas,  but  allowed  himself  to  be  taken 
unawares,  and  was  slain  while  attempt- 
ing to  flee. 


CLEOPATRA 


17 


CLERK 


CLEOPATRA,  a  Greek  Queen  of 
Egypt;  born  69  B.C.,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Ptolemy  Auletes.  When  she  was  17 
her  father  died,  leaving  her  as  joint- 
heir  to  the  throne  with  his  eldest  son 
Ptolemy,  whom  she  was  to  marry — such 
marriages  being  common  among  the 
Ptolemies.  Being  deprived  of  her  part  in 
the  government  (49  B.  c),  she  won  Caesar 
to  her  cause,  and  was  reinstated  by  his 
influence.  During  a  second  disturbance 
Ptolemy  lost  his  life,  and  Caesar  pro- 
claimed Cleopatra  Queen  of  Egypt; 
though  she  was  compelled  to  take  her 
brother,  the  younger  Ptolemy,  then  11 
years  old,  as  husband  and  colleague. 
Caesar  continued  some  time  at  Cleopatra's 
court,  had  a  son  by  her  named  Csesarion 
(afterward  put  to  death  by  Augustus), 
and  gave  her  a  magnificent  reception 
when  she  subsequently  visited  him  at 
Rome.  By  poisoning  her  brother  she  re- 
mained sole  possessor  of  the  regal  power, 
took  the  part  of  the  triumvirs  in  the 
civil  war  at  Rome,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Phillippi  sailed  to  join  Antony  at  Tarsus. 
Their  meeting  was  celebrated  by  splendid 
festivals;  she  accompanied  him  to  Tyre, 
and  was  followed  by  him  on  her  return  to 
Egypt.  After  his  conquest  of  Armenia 
he  again  returned  to  her  and  made  his 
three  sons  by  her,  and  also  Caesar  ion, 
kings. 

On  the  commencement  of  the  war  be- 
tween Augustus  and  Antony  the  latter 
lost  a  whole  year  in  festivals  and  amuse- 
ments with  Cleopatra  at  Ephesus,  Samos, 
and  Athens,  and  when  at  last  the  fleets 
met  at  Actium,  Cleopatra  suddenly  took 
to  flight,  with  all  her  ships,  and  Antony, 
as  if  under  the  influence  of  frenzy,  imme- 
diately followed  her.  They  fled  to  Egypt, 
and  declared  to  Augustus  that  if  Egypt 
were  left  to  Cleopatra's  children  they 
would  thenceforth  live  in  retirement. 
Augustus,  however,  demanded  Antony's 
death  and  advanced  on  Alexandria.  Be- 
lieving Cleopatra,  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  her  mausoleum,  to  be  treacherous  and 
dead,  Antony  threw  himself  on  his  sword, 
and  shortly  afterward  Cleopatra  killed 
herself  by  applying  an  asp  to  her  arm  to 
escape  the  ignominy  of  being  led  in  a 
Roman  triumph  (30  B.  c).  With  her  the 
dynasty  of  the  Ptolemies  ended. 

CLEOPATRA'S  NEEDLES,  two  obe- 
lisks that  were  set  up  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  in  Heliopolis, 
Egypt,  by  Thothmes  III.,  about  1500  B.  C. 
There  are  no  means  of  knowing  when 
they  were  built,  or  by  whom,  except  from 
the  inscriptions  on  them,  which  indicate 
the  above  time.  The  material  of  which 
they  were  cut  is  granite,  brought  from 
Syene,  near  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile. 
Two  centuries  after  their  erection  Ram- 
eses  II.  had  the   stones  nearly  covered 


with  carvings  setting  out  his  own  great- 
ness and  achievements.  About  14  B.  C. 
the  obelisks  were  moved  from  Heliopolis 
to  Alexandria  and  set  up  in  the  Caesa- 
rium.  In  1819  one  of  these  obelisks  was 
presented  by  the  Egyptian  Government 


CLEOPATRA'S    NEEDLE,   CENTRAL 
PARK,    NEW  YORK 

to  England,  but  as  no  one  knew  how  to 
move  them,  it  was  not  taken  to  London 
until  1878.  Subsequently  the  other  obe- 
lisk was  presented  to  the  United  States, 
and  is  now  in  Central  Park,  New  York 
City. 

CLERGY,  the  body  or  order  of  men 
chosen  or  set  apart  to  the  service  of 
God,  in  the  Christian  Church;  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  lay  worshipers,  or 
laity.  The  term  Secular  Clergy  is  the 
designation  of  priests  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  who  are  not  of  any  reli- 
gious order,  but  have  the  care  of  parishes. 
Monks  who  are  in  holy  orders  are  desig- 
nated Regular  Clergy. 

CLERK,  one  who  is  employed  in  an 
office,  store,  etc.,  subject  to  a  higher 
authority;  a  secretary,  as,  the  Clerk  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  or  Senate; 
Clerks  of  the  various  courts,  etc.  In 
England    a    parish    officer,    a    layman, 


CLEEK-MAXWELL 


18 


CLEVELAND 


whose  business  used  to  be  to  lead  the 
responses  in  the  church  services  and  to 
perform  other  duties  connected  with  the 
parish;  a  parish  Clerk. 

CLERK  -  MAXWELL,  JAMES,  a 
Scotch  physicist;  born  in  Edinburgh, 
Nov.  13,  1831.  He  was  a  Professor  of 
Natural  Philosophy  in  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1856-1860;  of  Physics  and 
Astronomy  in  King's  College,  London,  in 
1860-1865;  and  of  Experimental  Physics 
in  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1871. 
Among  his  most  important  works  are: 
"Essay  on  the  Stability  of  Motion  of 
Saturn's  Rings,"  "Theory  of  Heat," 
"Electricity  and  Magnetism,"  and  "Mat- 
ter and  Motion."    He  died  Nov.  5,  1879. 

CLERMONT,  THE,  the  name  given  by 
Robert  Fulton  to  the  steamboat  in  which 


monarchy,  founding  with  Malouet  the 
Monarchical  Club,  and  with  Fontanes 
the  Journal  des  Impartiaux.  In  1791 
he  was  charged  with  assisting  the  King 
in  his  attempt  to  escape,  but  was  set 
free  on  swearing  fidelity  to  the  Assem- 
bly. In  1792,  however,  he  was  murdered 
by  the  mob  at  the  house  of  the  Countess 
de  Brissac. 

CLEVELAND,  city,  county-seat  and 
port  of  entry  of  Cuyahoga  co.,  O.;  the 
first  city  in  population  and  importance 
in  Ohio.  It  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the 
Cuyahoga  river  at  its  mouth,  on  the  S. 
shore  of  Lake  Erie.  The  city  has  a  har- 
bor at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  giving 
safe  anchorage  for  a  large  number  of 
ships,  secured  by  artificial  breakwaters; 
for  the  coast,  which  here  runs  about  N. 


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k 

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^-niafrT-inrM^.».t.EfaferNpWH  P  \  -S^          | 

\|Kv= .^i^Pi^^^fx/^— ^ 

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...s\l-j'^*-\ 

"                   1 

THE  "CLERMONT" 


he  made  his  first  trip  from  New  York 
City  to  Albany  in  1807. 

CLERMONT-FERRAND  (klar-mon'- 
fa-ran'),  a  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Puy-de-D6me;  on  a 
hill  at  the  foot  of  the  volcanic  range  in 
which  the  summit  of  the  Puy  is  con- 
spicuous. It  possessed  considerable  im- 
portance under  the  Romans,  and  became 
a  bishop's  see  at  a  very  early  period.  It 
Is  an  antique  and  gloomy  town  built  of 
dark  volcanic  stone.  The  most  remark- 
able edifices  are  the  cathedral,  a  huge, 
irregular,  gloomy  pile,  and  the  Church 
of  Notre  Dame,  founded  in  580.  The 
manufactures  are  extensive,  and  the 
position  of  the  town  makes  it  an  im- 
portant center  of  trade.  Pop.  about 
70.000. 

CLERMONT-TONNERRE  (klar-mon'- 
ton-nar'),  the  name  of  a  noble  French 
family,  of  whom  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated was  Count  Stanislas,  born  in 
1747.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revo- 
lution of  1789  he  endeavored  to  promote 
the    establishment    of    a    constitutional 


E.,  is  naturally  an  open  one.  Great 
breakwaters  run  out  on  each  side  of  the 
river  at  its  mouth,  forming  commodious 
E.  and  W.  harbors.  Pop.  (1890)  261,353; 
(1900)  381,768;  (1910)  560,663;  (1920) 
796,841.  '       '    V         / 

The  greater  part  of  the  city  is  on  a 
plain  elevated  about  100  feet  above  the 
lake,  and  is  laid  out  with  much  taste, 
especially  the  public  squares  and  streets- 
The  latter  are  wide  and  well  paved,  and 
an  abundance  of  elms  and  other  shade 
trees  has  given  the  city  the  name  of  "The 
Forest  City."  The  two  portions  of  the 
city  are  united  by  a  stone  viaduct,  span- 
ning the  river  and  valley,  completed  in 
1878,  and  having  a  length  of  3,211  feet. 
Three  more  viaducts  connect  various 
parts  of  the  city  and  form  a  belt  elevated 
roadway. 

The  area  of  the  city  is  56.65  miles 
There  are  946  miles  of  streets  and  834.3 
miles  of  sewers.  The  Street  Railway 
Company  operates  412.71  miles  of  track. 
The  city  is  served  by  seven  railroad 
lines.  There  is  a  municipal  electric  light- 
ing plant  and  985  miles  of  water  mains. 


CLEVELAND 


19 


CLEVELAND 


There  is  an  excellent  police  force  of  807 
men,  and  the  fire  department  has  604 
employees. 

There  are  several  public  parks,  among 
them  Gordon,  of  about  120  acres,  on  the 
lake  shore;  Wade,  of  83  acres,  on  which 
$500,000  has  been  expended,  making  it 
one  of  the  finest  parks  in  the  W,  The 
total  park  and  boulevard  acreage  ex- 
ceeds 2,400  acres.  The  United  States 
Building,  including  the  Custom  House, 
PostofRce  and  Federal  Courts,  occupy 
one  building.  The  Federal  Building  is 
to  be  erected  within  a  few  years.  The 
two  County  Court  Houses,  the  City  Hall, 
and  Case  Library  Building,  containing 
the  Case  Library,  are  notable  structures. 
Other  important  buildings  are  those  of 
the  Western  Reserve  Historical  Society, 
Western  Reserve  University,  Case 
School  of  Applied  Science,  and  the  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce,  and  the  Hickox,  Gar- 
field, New  England,  Rose,  and  William- 
son ofiice  buildings. 

The  city  has  an  extensive  commerce 
and  excellent  harbor  facilities.  There 
are  14.2  miles  of  lake  frontage  protected 
by  a  breakwater  over  five  miles  long 
■which  has  been  constructed  at  an  ex- 
penditure of  $7,000,000.  It  is  the  nat- 
ural seaport  of  the  Lake  Superior  iron 
district  and  the  Middle  States  coal  re-' 
gion.  The  total  movement  of  freight  in 
1920  was  29,038,554  net  tons.  The  im- 
ports for  1920  were  valued  at  $10,- 
812,369  and  the  exports  at  $6,859,935. 
Bank  clearings  for  1919  were  $6,877,- 
387,037. 

The  Federal  census  of  1914  placed  the 
total  value  of  goods  manufactured  in 
Cleveland  at  $342,418,052.  The  capital 
invested  in  1920  was  $352,531,109.  The 
number  of  industrial  establishments  was 
2,346,  and  the  salaries  and  wages  paid 
amounted  to  $92,909,888.  The  principal 
products  are  steel,  iron,  foundry  and 
machine-shop  products,  meat  packing, 
clothing,  paint  and  varnish,  stoves  and 
furnaces,  printing  and  publishing,  elec- 
trical machinery,  tobacco  manufactures, 
cutlery  and  tools,  furniture  and  re- 
frigerators, bread  and  patent  medicines. 

Cleveland  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant lake  ports.  In  the  fiscal  year 
1920  the  imports  of  merchandise  aggre- 
gated in  value  $18,628,926,  and  the  ex- 
ports $27,993,181. 

Finances. — In  1919  the  net  funded 
debt  of  the  city  was  $55,068,850.  The 
total  realty  assessed  valuation  in  1920 
was  $1,073,842,860.  The  total  personally 
assessed  valuation  for  1920  was  $679,- 
403,330.  The  tax  rate  was  .70.  The 
budget  for  the  year  was  $6,347,200. 

On  Oct.  6,  1900,  there  were  16  Na- 
"xonal  banks  in  operation.  The  exchanges 


at  the  United  States  Clearing-house  in 
the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1919,  aggro- 
gated  $5,104,301,000. 

Education. — Marked  attention  is  given 
to  public  instruction.  There  are  127 
public  elementary  schools,  with  3,665 
teachers  and  95,582  pupils,  fourteen  pub- 
lic high  schools,  nine  junior  high  schools, 
and  ten  parochial  high  schools.  For 
higher  education  there  are  the  Western 
Reserve  University,  the  Case  School  of 
Applied  Science,  Saint  Ignatius  College, 
Cleveland  College  of  Law,  and  numerous 
art,  music,  and  commercial  schools. 
Cleveland  was  the  first  city  west  of  the 
Allegheny  Mountains  to  establish  a  free 
high  school,  on  July  13,  1846.  The  library 
contains  over  600,000  volumes,  and  has 
numerous  branches. 

Churches. — The  city  contains  425 
churches,  many  of  them  housed  in  im- 
posing and  beautiful  structures.  These 
include:  Roman  Catholic,  70;  Baptist, 
32;  Congregational,  31;  Episcopal,  25; 
Methodist-Episcopal,  53;  Presbyterian, 
27;  Disciple,  11;  the  rest  pertaining  to 
other  denominations. 

History. — Cleveland  was  settled  in 
1796,  under  the  direction  of  General 
Moses  Cleveland,  agent  of  the  Connecti- 
cut Land  Company.  It  was  situated  in 
the  "Western  Reserve"  of  the  State  of 
Connecticut,  and  its  early  settlers  were 
mostly  from  that  State.  It  became  a 
port  of  entry  in  1805,  though  it  had  then 
a  very  small  population.  In  1811  the 
first  library,  and  in  1816  the  first  bank, 
were  started.  The  first  steam  vessel 
was  built  in  1824.  In  1827  the  Ohio 
canal  was  opened  to  Akron,  in  1832  to 
the  Ohio  river.  The  city  then  began  to 
grow  rapidly;  but  its  era  of  great  pros- 
perity did  not  begin  to  be  attained  until 
after  about  1860,  when  the  coal  and  iron 
industry  began  to  be  developed.  The 
river  and  the  commodious  harbor,  to- 
gether with  the  central  situation  of  the 
city,  respecting  coal,  iron,  and  petroleum, 
give  it  commanding  position  with  respect 
to  trade. 

CLEVELAND,  a  city  of  Tennessee,  the 
county-seat  of  Bradley  co.  It  is  on  the 
Southern  railroad.  Its  industries  include 
woolen  and  flour  mills,  stove  works,  ho- 
siery mills,  lumber  mills,  etc.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  Centenary  Female  College. 
Pop.   (1910)   5,549;    (1920)   6,522. 

CLEVELAND,  FREDERICK  AL- 
BERT, an  American  economist;  born  in 
Sterling,  111.,  March  17,  1865.  He  grad- 
uated from  De  Pauw  University  in  1890. 
Intending  at  first  to  practice  law,  he  soon 
abandoned  that  field  for  economics,  pur- 
suing special  studies  in  that  subject  at 
the  Universities  of  Chicago  and  Pennsyl- 
vania.    He  was  professor  of  finance  at 


CLEVELAND 


20 


CLIFF  DWELLERS 


the  School  of  Commerce,  New  York  Uni- 
versity 1903-1905.  In  1907  he  became 
director  of  the  Bureau  of  Municipal  Re- 
search. Among  his  publications  are: 
"Funds  and  Their  Uses"  (1902)  ;  "The 
Bank  and  the  Treasury"  (1905)  ;  "Rail- 
road Finance"  (1912),  in  collaboration 
with  F.  W.  Powell;  "Organized  Democ- 
racy"  (1913);  etc. 

CLEVELAND,  GROVER,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman;  twice  President  of  the 
United  States;  born  in  Caldwell,  Essex 
CO.,  N.  J.,  March  18,  1837;  son  of  a  Pres- 
byterian clergyman.  He  studied  law, 
settled  in  Buffalo,  and  in  1863  became 
assistant  district  attorney  of  Erie  county, 
N.  Y.  After  becoming  in  succession 
sheriff  and  mayor  of  Buffalo,  he  was 
chosen  governor  of  New  York  in  1882. 
In  1884  he  received  the  Democratic  nom- 
ination   for    the    Presidency,    and    was 


GROVER  CLEVELAND 

elected,  defeating  James  G.  Blaine.  He 
was  renominated  in  June,  1888,  but  was 
defeated  by  Benjamin  Harrison,  Nov.  6 
following.  After  a  successful  law  prac- 
tice of  four  years  he  was  again  nomi- 
nated by  the  Democratic  National  Con- 
vention of  1892,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  delegation  from  his  own  State, 
and  elected  by  very  large  majorities. 
Some  of  the  measures  of  his  administra- 
tion were:  The  settlement  of  the  Vene- 
zuelan boundary  question  with  Great 
Britain;  the  consolidating  of  postoflfices 
in  large  centers  so  as  to  increase  the 
scope  of  the  civil-service  rules;  and  most 
notably  the  conclusion  in  January,  1897, 


of  a  general  arbitration  treaty  with 
Great  Britain,  which,  however,  was  re- 
jected by  the  Senate.  Possessed  of  great 
independence  of  character  and  persist- 
ence in  carrying  out  policies  once  deter- 
mined upon,  he  often  aroused  criticism 
and  hostility  in  the  ranks  of  his  own 
party.  On  the  other  hand,  these  quali- 
ties won  him  admiration  in  many  quar- 
ters. During  1896-1897  he  maintained 
an  attitude  of  friendliness  for  Spain  in 
the  midst  of  great  popular  clamor  in  be- 
half of  the  Cuban  cause,  offering  the 
friendly  services  of  the  United  States  in 
his  last  annual  message,  in  composing 
the  differences  between  Spain  and  Cuba 
on  a  basis  of  home  rule.  After  his  re- 
tirement from  the  Presidency  he  lived  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.  He  was  made  a  trustee 
of  Princeton  University,  where  he  lec- 
tured at  times.  Some  of  his  lectures 
formed  the  basis  of  his  book,  "Presiden- 
tial Problems"  (1904).  He  died  June  24, 
1908. 

CLEVELAND  HEIGHTS,  a  city  of 
Ohio,  in  Cuyahoga  co.  It  is  a  suburb  of 
Cleveland.  Pop.  (1910)  2,955;  (1920) 
15,236. 

CLEWS,  HENRY,  an  American  finan- 
cier; born  in  Staffordshire,  England, 
Aug.  14,  1840;  studied  for  the  ministry, 
but  left  school  to  embark  on  a  mercan- 
tile career  in  New  York,  where  his  father 
had  taken  him  on  a  visit.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed 
by  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Chase  gov- 
ernment financial  agent  to  continue  the 
sale  of  bond  issues  to  finance  the  war. 
In  1877  he  organized  and  has  since  been 
the  head  of  the  firm  of  Henry  Clews  & 
Co.  In  recognition  of  his  service  during 
the  war,  he  was  chosen  by  President 
Grant  fiscal  agent  of  the  United  States 
for  all  foreign  nations.  He  twice  de- 
clined the  portfolio  of  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  Among  other  works  he  wrote 
"Twenty-eight  Years  in  Wall  Street" 
(1885)  ;  "The  Wall  Street  Point  of  View" 
(1900);  "Speeches  and  Essays"   (1910). 

CLICHE  (kle-sha),  an  electrotype  or 
a  stereotype  cast  from  an  engraving,  es- 
pecially from  a  wood-cut. 

CLIFF  DWELLERS,  a  race  of  Indians 
who  lived  in  the  cliffs  bordering  on  the 
valleys  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  Rio  Col- 
orado. Their  homes  were  built  in  the  re- 
cesses of  these  cliffs  at  a  height  often  of 
several  hundred  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  at  the  present  time  seemingly  inac- 
cessible, as  the  former  paths  that  led  to 
them  have  nearly  all  been  destroyed  by 
the  crumbling  away  of  the  rocks.  These 
dwellings  sometimes  consisted  of  many 
rooms,  and  in  some  cases  were  two  or 
more  stories  high,  hewn  in  the  rock,  with 


CLIFTON 


21 


CLIMATB 


wooden  lintels  in  the  doors  and  windows, 
which  were  probably  closed  with  skins 
or  blankets.  The  walls  were  finished  with 
a  plaster  of  clay.  The  inhabitants  sub- 
sisted probably  mainly  by  hunting  and 
fish,  as  the  soil  about  these  localities  is 
barren.  The  Pueblo  Indians,  who  are 
still  to  be  found  in  that  section,  are  de- 
scendants of  the  Cliff  Dwellers,  and  pos- 
sess considerable  skill  in  making  articles 
of  pottery,  etc. 


perature,  humidity,  variations  of  baro- 
metric pressure,  the  tranquillity  of  the 
atmosphere  or  the  effects  of  wmds,  the 
purity  of  the  air,  or  its  mixture  with 
gaseous  emanations  more  or  less  salu- 
brious; and  lastly,  the  habitual  diaphan- 
ity  of  the  atmosphere,  that  serenity  of 
the  sky  so  important  on  account  of  the 
influence  which  it  exercises  not  only  on 
the  development  of  organic  tissues  in 
vegetables  and  the  ripening  of  fruits,  but 


CLIFF  DWELLING,  MESA  VERDE 


CLIFTON,  a  city  of  New  Jersey  in 
Passaic  co.,  on  the  Erie  and  the  Dela- 
ware, Lackawanna  and  Western  rail- 
roads. It  is  an  important  industrial  city, 
having  large  cotton  and  worsted  mills, 
and  is  also  the  center  of  an  important 
agricultural  and  horticultural  region.  It 
has  electricity  for  power  and  lighting,  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  power,  and 
many  handsome  business  buildings.  Pop. 
(1910)   11,869;    (1920)  26,470. 

CLIFTON  FORGE,  a  city  of  Virginia, 
in  Allegheny  co.  It  is  on  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  railroad.  Its  industries  in- 
clude railway  shops,  flour  mills,  and  ma- 
chine works.  In  the  neighborhood  are 
deposits  of  iron  ore  and  limestone.  Pop. 
(1910)  5,748;  (1920)  6,164. 

CLIMATE,  in  its  most  general  ac- 
ceptation, embraces  all  those  modifica- 
tions of  the  atmosphere  by  which  our 
organs  are  sensibly  affected;  such  as  tem- 


also  on  the  ensemble  of  moral  sensatioiis 
which  mankind  experience  in  the  differ- 
ent zones.  There  are  two  general  causes 
on  which  the  climate  peculiar  to  any 
country  principally  depends:  First,  its 
distance  from  the  equator;  second,  its  al- 
titude above  the  level  of  the  sea;  but 
their  effect  is  generally  modified  by  many 
circumstances  exerting  a  partial  influ- 
ence. Among  these  may  be  enumerated 
the  configuration  and  extent  of  the  coun- 
try; its  inclination  and  local  exposure; 
the  direction  of  the  chains  of  mountains 
by  which  it  is  intersected,  or  which  are 
in  its  vicinity;  the  nature  of  the  soil  as 
it  is  more  or  less  favorable  to  radiation, 
absorption,  and  evaporation;  the  proxim- 
ity to,  or  distance  from,  seas;  the  action 
of  winds  blending  the  temperatures  of 
different  latitudes;  and  even  the  changes 
produced  by  cultivation.  The  apprecia- 
tion of  all  these  causes,  which  modify  the 
results  deduced  from  the  consideration  of 


CLINTON" 

latitude  and  elevation  alone,  and  the  ef- 
fect produced  by  their  combined  oi)era- 
tion,  constitutes  the  science  of  Clima- 
tology. 

CLINTON,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Clinton  co.,  la.;  on  the  Mississippi  river, 
and  the  Chicago  and  Northvirestern,  the 
Chicago,  Milvs^aukee  and  St,  Paul,  and 
other  railroads;  60  miles  S.  E,  of 
Dubuque.  It  is  the  trade  center  for  a 
region  of  50  miles  radius,  and  has  large 
manufacturing  interests.  The  Missis- 
sippi is  crossed  at  this  point  by  several 
bridges.  The  city  has  Wartburg  College 
(Lutheran,  1894),  public  schools,  sev- 
eral churches,  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers, electric  lights,  and  railways, 
three  National  banks,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
25,577;    (1920)    24,151. 

CLINTON,  a  town  in  Worcester 
CO.,  Mass.;  on  the  Nashua  river,  and  the 
Boston  and  Maine  and  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroads;  40 
miles  W.  of  Boston.  It  has  important 
cotton  and  carpet  manufactories,  fur- 
nished with  excellent  power  from  the 
river;  is  connected  with  neighboring 
towns  by  electric  street  railroads;  and 
has  numerous  churches,  daily  news- 
papers, electric  lights,  public  library, 
high  and  graded  public  schools,  a  Na- 
tional bank,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  13,075: 
(1920)    12,979. 

CLINTON,  DE  WITT,  an  American 
lawyer  and  statesman;  born  in  Little 
Britain,  N.  Yo.  March  2,  1769.  He  was 
United  States  Senator  from  New  York 
(1802)  ;  mayor  of  New  York  City  (1803- 
1807,  1809-1810,  1811-1815)  ;  lieutenant- 
governor  (1811-1813)  ;  candidate  for 
President  (1812);  governor  (1817-1823, 
1825-1828).  He  was  the  chief  originator 
of  the  Erie  Canal  (1817-1825).  Besides 
purely  political  works,  addresses,  etc., 
he  wrote:  "Antiquities  of  Western  New 
York,"  "Natural  History  and  Internal 
Resou.ces  of  New  York,"  etc.  He  died 
in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  11,  1828. 

CLINTON,  GEORGE,  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States ;  born  in  Little  Brit- 
ain, Ulster  CO.,  N.  Y.,  July  26,  1739.  He 
served  as  lieutenant  under  his  brother 
James  at  the  capture  of  Frontenac,  but 
afterward  studied  law.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  in  1776,  and  voted  for 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  but 
was  summoned  to  the  army  as  brigadier- 
general  before  it  was  prepared  for  sig- 
nature. In  1777  he  was  elected  governor 
and  at  the  same  time  lieutenant-governor 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  which  latter 
office  was,  on  his  acceptance  of  the  other, 
conferred  upon  Mr.  Van  Courtlandt.  He 
held  the  office  of  governor  during  the 
next  18  years,  for  which  eventful  period 


22  CLITUS 

the  history  of  his  life  is  that  of  the  State. 
He  was  again  chosen  governor  after 
spending  five  years  in  private  life,  in 
1801,  and  in  1804  became  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States.  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  April  20,  1812. 

CLINTON,  SIR  HE:TRY,  a  British 
general,  born  about  1738;  served  in  the 
Hanoverian  war,  and  was  sent  in  1775, 
with  the  rank  of  major-general,  to  Amer- 
ica, where  he  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  He  defeated 
the  Americans  at  Long  Island,  but  had 
to  evacuate  Philadelphia  to  Washington. 
In  1782  he  returned  to  England.  He 
died  in  Gibraltar,  Dec.  23,  1795. 

CLINTON,  JAMES,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Little  Britain,  Ul- 
ster CO.,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  9,  1736.  With  his 
father  he  served  at  Frontenac,  in  1758, 
as  captain,  and  commanded  in  1763  the 
forces  raised  to  protect  Ulster  and  Or- 
ange counties  against  the  Indians.  He 
accompanied  Montgomery  to  Quebec  in 
1775,  and  was  appointed  brigadier-gen- 
eral the  following  year.  While  his 
brother  George  was  governor  of  New 
York,  he  was  overpowered  at  Fort  Clin- 
ton by  the  superior  force  under  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  and  being  severely 
wounded  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life. 
He  afterward  served  against  the  Indians 
under  Sullivan,  in  1779,  and  was  present 
at  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis.  After 
the  peace  he  occupied  many  distinguished 
civil  stations.     He  died  Dec.  22,  1812. 

CLIO,  glory,  renown,  the  muse  of  his- 
tory and  epic  poetry,  represented  as 
bearing  a  half-opened  roll  of  a  book. 
Daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne, 
she  was  the  mother  of  Hyacinthus  and 
Hymenaeus.  There  was  also  a  sea  nymph, 
Clio,  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  sister  of 
Beroe,  who  figures  in  Greek  mythology. 

CLIPPER,  a  name  familiarly  given  to 
a  ship  built  expressly  for  speed.  A 
Clipper,  as  compared  with  an  ordinary 
sailing  ship,  was  longer  and  narrower; 
very  sharp  at  the  bows,  which  were  gen- 
erally hollowed  more  or  less  below  the 
water-line ;  gracefully  fined  away  toward 
the  stern,  which  was  usually  elliptical; 
and  altogether  presenting  the  contrast 
of  the  race-horse  to  the  beast  of  burden. 
Clipper  ships  were  extensively  employed 
in  the  South  American,  California,  and 
China  trade. 

CLISTHENES,  an  Athenian  law-giver, 
who  established  a  popular  constitution 
after  the  expulsion  of  Hippias,  m 
509  B.  C. 

CLITUS,  a  distinguished  Macedonian 
general,  who  saved  the  life  of  Alexander 
the  Great  at  the  battle  of  Granicus,  but 


CLIVE 


23 


CLOCK 


who,  having  expostulated  with  his  im- 
perial master  when  the  latter  was  in  a 
fit  of  intoxication,  was  slain  by  him, 
B.  C.  328. 

CLIVE,  ROBERT,  Lord  Clive  and 
Baron  of  Plassey,  an  English  general  and 
statesman;  born  in  Shropshire,  Sept.  29, 
1725.  In  his  19th  year  he  entered  the 
East  India  Company's  service  at  Madras 
as  a  writer,  but  in  1747  quitted  the  civil 
for  the  military  service.  The  French 
under  Dupleix  had  recently  gained  im- 
portant privileges  and  large  grants  of 
territory,  and  in  alliance  with  Chunda 
Sahib,  Nabob  of  Arcot,  were  threatening 
the  existence  of  the  British  establish- 
ments. In  1751  Clive,  who  had  already 
a  reputation  for  skill  and  courage, 
marched  on  the  large  city  of  Arcot  with 
200  British  troops  and  300  Sepoys,  and 
took  it,  though  strongly  garrisoned,  with- 


ROBERT  CLIVB 

out  a  blow;  withstood  a  siege  by  Chunda 
Sahib  for  nearly  two  months;  and  at  last 
routed  the  enemy,  took  possession  of  im- 
portant posts,  and  returned  to  Madras 
completely  victorious.  In  1753  he  sailed 
to  England  to  recover  his  health,  and  was 
received  with  much  honor. 

Two  years  later  he  was  back  in  India, 
in  his  governorship  of  St.  David's,  from 
which  he  was  soon  summoned  to  com- 
mand the  expedition  sent  to  Bengal, 
where  the  Nabob  Suraj-ud-Dowlah  had 
attacked  the  British,  destroyed  their  fac- 
tories, taken  Calcutta,  and  suffocated 
(Dver  120  of  his  prisoners  in  the  Black 


Hole.  Clive  soon  took  possession  of  Cal- 
cutta and  brought  Suraj-ud-Dowlah  to 
terms;  but  having  no  trust  in  the  loyal 
intentions  of  the  nabob  he  resolved  to  de- 
throne him.  With  the  help  of  Meer  Jaf- 
fier,  one  of  the  nabob's  officers,  he  effected 
his  purpose,  and  in  the  battle  of  Plassey 
completely  overthrew  Suraj-ud-Dowlah 's 
forces.  Meer  Jaffier  now  became  the  new 
nabob,  and  Clive  was  made  Governor  of 
Calcutta.  Here  he  was  equally  success- 
ful against  the  encroachments  of  the 
Dutch,  defeating  their  forces  both  by  sea 
and  land. 

Clive  now  visited  England  again, 
where  his  success  was  highly  applauded 
without  much  inquiry  as  to  the  means; 
and  in  1761  he  was  raised  to  the  Irish 
peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Clive, 
Baron  of  Plassey.  In  1764  fresh  troubles 
in  India  took  him  back,  but  now  as  Presi- 
dent of  Bengal,  with  command  of  the 
troops  there.  Before  his  arrival,  how- 
ever. Major  Adams  had  already  defeated 
the  Nabob  of  Oude,  and  Lord  Clive  had 
only  the  arranging  of  the  treaty  by  which 
the  company  obtained  the  disposal  of 
all  the  revenues  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and 
Orissa.  In  1767  he  finally  returned  to 
England.  In  1773  a  motion  was  made  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  that  "Lord  Clive 
had  abused  the  powers  with  which  he 
was  intrusted";  but  it  was  rejected  for  a 
resolution  that  "Lord  Clive  had  rendered 
great  and  meritorious  services  to  his 
country."  His  health  was  by  this  time 
broken,  and  in  one  of  his  habitual  fits  of 
melancholy  he  put  an  end  to  his  life,  Nov, 
22,  1774. 

CLOACA,  a  sewer,  an  underground 
drain  or  conduit.  The  Roman  Cloaca 
Maxima  (the  greatest  or  main  sewer)  is 
said  to  have  been  constructed,  or  at  least 
be^n  under  the  auspices  of  King  Tar- 
qumius  Friscus,  about  B.  c.  588. 

CLOCK,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
and  indicating  the  time  of  day.  From  the 
earliest  periods  of  human  history  man 
has  sought  to  measure  time.  To  pastoral 
or  agricultural  nations  where  the  duties 
of  each  day  were  monotonous  and  bounded 
by  the  four  great  divisions  of  sunrise, 
midday,  sunset,  and  midnight,  extreme 
accuracy  was  not  important.  The  first 
measure  of  time  was  the  sun-dial,  but 
this  being  of  no  service  at  night  or  on 
cloudy  days,  the  hour-glass  was  invented, 
next  the  clepsydra,  subsequently  im- 
proved by  the  addition  of  a  toothed  wheel 
and  index  or  sort  of  dial  driven  by  the 
water  which  flowed  from  the  bottom  of 
the  jar.  These  have  been  in  use  2,000 
years.  The  next  improvement  was  the 
substitution  of  a  weight  for  the  water  to 
turn  the  wheel.  This  has  been  attributed 
to  Archimedes.     Some  contrivance  was 


CLOCK 


24 


CLOTHINa 


necessary  to  regulate  the  weight  so  as  to 
make  the  index  pass  over  equal  spaces 
in  equal  times.  This  must  be  accom- 
plished by  a  pendulum  or  escapement  of 
some  kind,  and  a  rude  escapement  is  at- 
tributed to  Gerbert,  about  A.  D.  1000.  A 
better  one  was  that  of  De  Vick  in  1379. 

Accuracy  in  marking  time  was  not  at- 
tained, however,  by  this,  though  it  was  a 
great  improvement.  For  270  years  there 
was  no  advance,  but  between  1641  and 
1658  the  idea  of  attaching  the  pallets  of 
the  escapement  to  the  pendulum-rod  and 
making  the  escapement  horizontal  oc- 
curred both  to  Harris,  an  English  clock- 
maker,  and  Huyghens,  a  Dutch  philoso- 
pher. The  anchor  escapement  of  Dr. 
Hooke,  invented  in  1666-1680,  and  the 
dead-beat  escapement  of  Graham  in  1700, 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  clockmaking. 
There  has  been  no  material  change  in 
the  principles  on  which  clocks  are  made, 
except  in  the  substitution  of  steel  springs 
for  weights  and  in  the  finer  movements, 
and  in  the  addition  of  the  hairspring  to 
regulate  still  further  the  action  of  the 
escapement  or  pendulum,  since  1700. 
There  have  been  a  great  variety  of  es- 
capements invented  and  much  more  at- 
tention paid  to  accuracy  in  the  details 
and  perfection  of  finish,  but  the  principles 
are  the  same. 

Considered  as  scientific  instruments  for 
the  precise  measurement  of  time,  they 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  compensation 
of  their  pendulums,  whether  of  the  grid- 
iron type  or  the  mercurial  pendulum.  The 
first  keeps  a  constant  length  of  the  pen- 
dulum-rod by  the  difference  of  expansion 
of  different  metals  with  change  of  tem- 
perature, and  the  other  makes  up  for  the 
lengthening  of  the  rod  with  rise  of  tem- 
perature by  the  greater  expansion  of  a 
jar  of  mei'cury  carried  on  the  bed-plate 
of  the  pendulum,  the  rise  in  the  center 
of  gravity  of  this  counterbalancing  the 
lengtheniHg  of  the  sustaining  rod.  Clocks 
differ  in  another  important  particular, 
that  of  the  escapement,  whose  function 
it  is  to  be  unlocked  at  each  oscillation  of 
the  pendulum  and  thus  allow  the  train 
of  wheels  to  move  forward  a  step,  and 
also  to  transmit  an  impulse  to  the  pen- 
dulum just  sufficient  to  counterbalance 
the  friction  caused  by  the  unlocking  of 
the  escapement.  In  fine  astronomical 
clocks  either  the  Graham  dead-beat  or 
some  form  of  gravity  escapement  is  the 
one  most  geiTierally  used.  In  any  of  them 
the  object  to  be  attained  is  to  make  the 
work  of  unlocking  and  the  impulse  given 
to  the  pendulum  to  make  up  for  it  as 
nearly  absolutely  constant  as  possible.  If 
this  is  not  done  the  arc  of  vibration  of 
the  pendulum  will  vary,  and  with  it  the 
steady  rate  of  the  clock. 


The  manufacture  of  clocks  in  America 
began  about  1800  in  Connecticut,  which 
is  still  the  center  of  the  industry  in  the 
United  States. 

CLCELIA,  a  girl  of  Rome,  who,  the 
legends  say,  having  been  given  up  to 
Porsena  as  a  hostage,  escaped  to  Rome 
by  swimming  the  Tiber. 

CLOQUET,  a  city  of  Minnesota,  in 
Carlton  co.  It  is  on  the  Northern  Pa- 
cific, the  Great  Northern,  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  and  the  Duluth 
and  Northeastern  railroads,  and  on  the 
St.  Louis  river.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
extensive  lumber  region  and  has  manu- 
factures of  print  paper,  boxes,  and  match 
blocks.    Pop.  (1910)  7,031;  (1920)  5,127. 

CLOSURE,  a  rule  in  British  parlia- 
mentary procedure  adopted  in  1887  by 
which,  at  any  time  after  a  question  has 
been  proposed,  a  motion  may  be  made 
with  the  speaker's  or  chairman's  consent 
"That  the  question  be  now  put,"  when  the 
motion  is  immediately  put  and  decided 
without  debate  or  amendment.  The  mo- 
tion must  be  supported  by  more  than  100 
members  and  opposed  by  less  than  40, 
or  have  the  support  of  200  members. 
The  introduction  of  the  Closure  was  in- 
tended to  prevent  debates  from  being  too 
much  spun  out. 

In  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
the  practice  has  been  to  allow  unlimited 
debate,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that 
there  are  so  many  instances  of  obstruc- 
tionary  tactics  being  resorted  to  by  a 
minority  to  delay  the  passage  of  a  meas- 
ure. These  tactics  have  been  given  the 
general  name  of  "filibustering,"  and  in- 
clude almost  every  expedient  known  to 
parliamentary  tacticians.  A  call  for  "the 
previous  question."  if  sustained,  will  usu- 
ally terminate  discussion  immediately. 

CLOTAIRE  I.,  son  and  successor  of 
Clovis  (q.v.),  first  king  of  the  Franks 
in  Gaul,  reigned  as  sole  king  from  558 
to  561.  Clotaire  II.,  a  king  of  the 
same  Merovingian  dynasty,  reigned  over 
the  Franks  30  years  later. 

CLOTH,  a  manufactured  substance 
consisting  of  wool,  hair,  cotton,  flax,  and 
hemp,  or  other  vegetable  filaments.  It  is 
formed  by  weaving  or  interlacing 
threads,  and  is  used  for  making  gar- 
ments or  other  coverings.  The  term 
Cloth,  when  used  alone,  is  generally  em- 
ployed to  distinguish  woolen  Cloth  from 
fabrics  made  of  any  other  textile  mate- 
rial.   See  Weaving. 

CLOTHING,  the  clothes  or  dress,  that 
is,  the  artificial  coverings  collectively, 
which  people  wear.  Nothing  is  more 
necessary  to  comfort  than  that  the  body 
should  be  kept  in  nearly  a  uniform  tern- 


CLOTHO 


25 


CLOUDS 


perature,  thus  preventing  the  disturb- 
ance of  the  important  excretory  func- 
tions of  the  skin  by  the  influence  of  heat 
or  cold.  Hence  in  a  changeable  climate 
the  question  of  Clothing  becomes  of  spe- 
cial importance.  The  chief  end  pro- 
posed by  Clothing  ought  to  be  protection 
from  the  cold.  A  degree  of  cold  amount- 
ing to  shivering  cannot  be  felt  without 
injury  to  the  health,  and  the  strongest 
constitution  cannot  resist  the  benumbing 
influence  of  a  sensation  of  cold  constant- 
ly present,  even  though  it  be  so  moderate 
as  not  to  occasion  immediate  complaint, 
or  to  induce  the  sufferer  to  seek  protec- 
tion from  it.  This  degree  of  cold  often 
lays  the  foundation  of  the  whole  host  of 
chronic  diseases,  foremost  among  which 
are  found  scrofula  and  consumption. 

The  only  kind  of  dress  that  can  afford 
the  protection  required  by  the  changes  of 
temperature  to  which  the  cooler  or  tem- 
perate climates  itre  liable  is  woolen. 
Those  who  would  receive  the  advantage 
which  the  wearing  of  woolen  is  capable 
of  affording  must  wear  it  next  the  skin; 
for  it  is  in  this  situation  only  that  its 
health-preserving  power  can  be  felt.  The 
great  advantages  of  woolen  cloth  are 
briefly  these: — the  readiness  with  which 
it  allows  the  escape  of  sweat  through  its 
texture;  its  power  of  preserving  the  sen- 
sation of  warmth  to  the  skin  under  all 
circumstances;  the  slowness  with  which 
it  conducts  heat;  the  softness,  lightness, 
and  pliancy  of  its  texture.  Cotton  cloth, 
though  it  differs  but  little  from  linen, 
approaches  nearer  to  the  nature  of  wool- 
en, and  on  that  account  must  be  esteemed 
as  the  next  best  substance  of  which 
Clothing  may  be  made.  Silk  is  the  next 
in  point  of  excellence,  but  it  i^  very  in- 
ferior to  cotton  in  every  respect.  Linen 
possesses  the  contrary  of  most  of  the 
properties  enumerated  as  excellencies  in 
woolen.  It  retains  the  matter  of  per- 
spiration in  its  texture,  and  speedily  be- 
comes imbued  with  it;  it  gives  an  un- 
pleasant sensation  of  cold  to  the  skin ;  it 
is  very  readily  saturated  with  moisture, 
and  it  conducts  heat  too  rapidly. 

Clothes  should  be  so  made  as  to  allow 
the  body  the  full  exercise  of  all  its  mo- 
tions. The  neglect  of  this  precaution  is 
productive  of  more  mischief  than  is  gen- 
erally believed. 

CLOTHO,  one  of  the  three  Fates  or 
Destinies  who  are  represented  by  the  an- 
cient classical  writers  as  spinning  the 
thread  of  life.  Clotho  held  the  distaff, 
Lachesis  spun  the  thread  of  life,  Atropos 
cut  the  thread  when  the  man  was  to  die. 

CLOTILDA,  ST.,  the  daughter  of 
Chilperic,  King  of  Burgundy;  born  in 
47.5,  and  in  493  became  wife  of  Clovis, 
King  of  the  Franks.     She  was  the  chief 


means  of  securing  the  conversion  of  her 
husband  to  Christianity,  and  largely  in- 
fluenced his  life.  After  his  death  she 
lived  a  life  of  austerity  at  Tours,  where 
she  died  in  545.  She  was  canonized  a 
few  years  after.  Her  remains  were 
buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Genevieve 
at  Paris,  and  burnt  at  the  Revolution  to 
prevent  their  desecration ;  the  ashes  are 
still  in  the  church  of  St.  Leu. 

CLOUDS,  formations  owing  their 
origin  to  aqueous  vapor  diffused  in  the 
atmosphere.  The  vapor  is  supplied  from 
the  evaporation  of  the  sea  and  other 
water  surfaces,  under  the  influence  of 
solar  heat,  and  is  diffused  through  the 
agency  of  winds.  Air — under  a  given 
pressure  and  temperature — can  absorb,  or 
hold,  only  a  certain  amount  of  invisible 
vapor;  when  charged  with  this  maximum 
amount  it  is  said  to  be  saturated.  Should 
the  temperature,  under  this  condition,  be 
lowered,  as,  for  instance,  when  a  current 
is  ascending  into  colder  regions,  or  ex- 
panding, condensation  takes  place,  and 
clouds  are  formed,  appearing  suspended 
at  a  certain  level  above  the  surface. 
Should  the  cooling  continue,  these  glo- 
bules unite  and  are  finely  precipitated  in 
the  form  of  rain,  and,  with  sufficiently 
reduced  temperatui'e,  as  snow,  or  perhaps 
hail  or  sleet.  Mists  and  fogs  are  simply 
incipient  states  of  clouds,  and  when  in 
contact  with  cold  bodies  produce,  by  de- 
position of  moisture,  dew,  and  hoar-frost. 
The  whole  subject  is  comprised  under  the 
name  hygrometry.  The  forms  of  clouds 
have  been  observed  to  depend  greatly  on 
altitude,  and  have  been  classified  ac- 
cordingly. 

The  nomenclature  proposed  by  Howard, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  is 
still  generally  adhered  to,  owing  to  its 
simplicity  and  appropriateness,  though  a 
few  minor  subdivisions  have  been  added. 
He  divides  clouds  into  three  primary 
modifications,  named  cumulus,  stratus, 
and  cirrus,  with  the  intermediate  compos- 
ite forms — cumulo-stratzts,  cii'^y-stratus , 
cirro-cumulus,  and,  lastly,  nimbus,  or 
rain-cloud.  These  varieties,  and  the  con- 
ditions accompanying  them,  may  be  brief- 
ly described  as  follows:  Cumulus — Con- 
vex or  conical  masses,  generally  resting 
on  a  horizontal  base  of  apparently  dense 
structure,  and  of  globular  shape  or  rolls 
(so-called  cotton  bale)  ;  they  form  in  the 
lower  atmosphere  under  the  influence  of 
ascending  heated  air,  and  are  most  de- 
veloped during  the  hottest  part  of  the 
day;  a  fair-weather  cloud.  Stratus — 
Consists  of  continuous  hoi'izontal  sheets, 
a  fine-weather  sign,  appearing  mostly 
during  the  night  and  at  no  great  eleva- 
tion. It  forms  dense  clouds  when  mixed 
with    smoke    or    dust.      Cirrus — A    lofty 


CLOUD,  ST. 


26  CLOVIS  I. 


cloud  of  loose  or  fibrous  structure, 
feathery  in  appearance  and  of  great  va- 
riety— said  to  have  been  seen  at  an  alti- 
tude of  10  miles.  Its  particles  are  sup- 
posed to  be  frozen  and  crystallized,  which 
give  rise  to  halos,  coronae,  and  other  op- 
tical appearances.  Cirrus  is  said  to  be 
often  the  precursor  of  windy  weather  or 
changes.  Their  movement  is  generally 
different  from  that  of  the  lower  clouds. 
Cumulo-stratus — A  modification  of  cumu- 
lus; flat-topped,  mushroom-shaped  mass- 
es; have  a  tendency  to  spread  and  over- 
cast the  sky,  and  indicate  coming  rainy 
weather.  Cirro-stratus — A  fibrous  cirrus 
cloud  in  close  horizontal  arrangement. 
Sky  mottled  with  these  clouds  is  known 
as  mackerel  sky.  Often  precedes  wind 
and  rain.  Cirro-cumulus — Small,  round 
masses,  disposed  with  more  or  less  regu- 
larity; usually  a  high  level  cloud,  though 
below  that  of  cirrus.  They  appear  most 
frequently  in  dry  and  warm  weather. 
Nivibus — A  low  cloud,  from  which  rain 
is  falling,  the  masses  so  blended  together 
as  to  form  no  definite  outline.  Sciid — A 
term  referring  to  low,  detached  clouds, 
drifting  rapidly  before  the  wind. 

Precipitation,  or  rain,  is  one  of  the 
most  irregular  of  all  meteorological  phe- 
nomena, there  being  places  of  habitual 
dryness  throughout  the  year  with  but  oc- 
casional sprinklings.  Tropical  countries 
generally  have  a  dry  and  a  wet  season, 
and  there  are  other  localities  where  rain 
may  fall  irregularly  at  all  seasons.  There 
are  places  where  the  annual  rain-fall 
amounts  to  several  hundred  inches.  Fifty 
inches  per  annum  may  be  regarded  as  a 
moderate  rain-fall,  and  below  20  inches 
a  very  light  one,  and  generally  insuffi- 
cient for  agricultural  purposes  unless  it 
should  fall  in  the  right  season. 

The  study  of  clouds  and  their  move- 
ments has,  in  recent  years,  been  greatly 
extended  through  international  agree- 
ments and  co-operation.  The  development 
of  aeronautics  has  greatly  advanced  our 
knowledge  regarding  clouds  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  made  more  accurate  and 
extensive  knowledge  regarding  them  a 
matter  of  practical  necessity  rather  than 
theoretical  interest. 

CLOUD,  ST.,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  a  few 
miles  from  and  S.  W.  of  Paris.  The  his- 
torical associations  of  this  place  are  in- 
timately connected  with  the  royalty  of 
France.  Its  palace,  which  is  very  beauti- 
ful, was  originally  the  property  of  the 
Dukes  of  Orleans,  and,  for  a  long  period, 
was  a  summer  residence  of  the  kings  of 
France.  Its  fountains  are  extremely  ele- 
gant, and  its  park  extensive.  Here,  in 
1799,  Napoleon  I.  dismissed  the  Assem- 
bly of  Five  Hundred,  and  caused  himself 


to  be  proclaimed  first  consul;  and  here, 
in  1830,  Charles  X.  put  his  signature  to 
the  ordinances  which  cost  him  his  throne. 

CLOUGH,  ABTHUE,  HUGH  (klof), 
an  English  poet;  born  in  Liverpool,  Jan. 
1,  1819.  He  studied  under  Dr.  Arnold 
at  Rugby,  and  then  at  Oxford,  where  he 
highly  distinguished  himself.  On  his  re- 
turn from  a  tour  in  the  United  States 
(1852)  he  was  appointed  an  examiner  at- 
tached to  the  educational  branch  of  the 
privy-council  office.  He  died  in  Florence, 
Nov.  13,  1861,  while  returning  from  a 
journey  to  Greece.  His  poems,  of  which 
the  best  known  are  "Bothie  of  Tober-na- 
Vuolich,"  "Amours  de  Voyage,"  and  the 
"Tragedy  of  Dipsychus,"  were  published, 
with  a  memoir,  by  F.  T.  Palgrave,  in 
1862. 

CLOVES,  a  very  pungent  aromatic 
spice,  the  dried  flower-buds  of  Cary- 
ophylhis  aromaticus,  a  native  of  the  Mo- 
lucca Islands,  belonging  to  the  myrtle 
tribe,  now  cultivated  in  Sumatra,  Mauri- 
tius, Malacca,  Jamaica,  etc.  The  tree  is 
a  handsome  evergreen  from  15  to  30  feet 
high,  with  large  elliptic  smooth  leaves 
and  numerous  purplish  flowers  on  jointed 
stalks.  Every  part  of  the  plant  abounds 
in  the  volatile  oil  for  which  the  flower- 
buds  are  prized.  The  spice  yields  a  very 
fragrant  odor,  and  has  a  bitterish,  pun- 
gent, and  warm  taste.  It  is  sometimes 
employed  as  a  hot  and  stimulating  medi- 
cine, but  is  more  frequently  used  in 
culinary  preparations. 

CLOVIS  I.,  King  of  the  Franks,  usually 
called  the  founder  of  the  French  mon- 
archy; born  in  466.  He  was  the  son  of 
Childeric  I.,  and  succeeded  him  in  481. 
During  his  reign  he  recovered  from  the 
Romans  all  their  possessions  in  Gaul.  He 
defeated  Siagrius,  near  Soissons,  in  486, 
compelled  Alaric,  King  of  the  Visigoths, 
to  surrender  himself,  and  had  him  put 
to  death.  Clovis  I.  married  Clotilda 
(q,  v.),  niece  of  Gundebald,  King  of  the 
Burgundians,  and  through  her  influence 
was  gradually  led  to  renounce  paganism, 
and  profess  Christianity.  His  final  de- 
cision was  made  after  his  great  victory 
over  the  Alemanni,  at  Tolbiac,  in  496; 
and  he  was  baptized  by  St.  Remi,  with 
3,000  of  his  subjects.  Clovis  I.  pursued 
a  crafty  policy  with  the  King  of  the 
Burgundians  and  his  brother,  on  the 
principle  "divide  and  conquer."  In  507 
he  made  war  on  Alaric  II.,  King  of  the 
Visigoths,  and  totally  defeated  him  at  the 
battle  of  Vougle,  killing  him  with  his 
own  hand.  Clovis  I.  thus  added  the 
whole  S.  W.  part  of  Gaul  to  his  domin- 
ions. At  Tours  he  soon  afterward  re- 
ceived ambassadors  from  Anastasius, 
Emperor  of  the  East,  who  gave  him  the 


CLOVIS   II. 


27 


CLYMEB 


titles  of  patrician  and  consul,  Clovis  I., 
about  that  time,  settled  at  Paris,  and 
made  it  the  capital  city.  He  disgraced 
himself  by  the  unjust  and  cruel  meas- 
ures he  took  to  get  rid  of  several  of  his 
kindred,  possible  competitors  for  the 
crown.  He  died  in  Paris,  in  511,  after 
dividing  his  kingdom  between  his  four 
sons. 

CLOVIS  II.,  second  son  of  Dagobert, 
King  of  Neustria  and  Burgundy,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  638.    He  died  in  655. 

CLOVIS  III.,  son  of  Thierry  III., 
King  of  France,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
691,  at  the  age  of  nine,  and  reigned  five 
years,  under  the  guardianship  of  Pepin 
d'Heristal,  mayor  of  the  palace.  He  died 
in  695. 

CLOWES,      WILLIAM     LAIRD,     an 

English  naval  critic  and  miscellaneous 
writer;  born  in  London,  Feb.  1,  1856.  He 
was  educated  at  King's  College,  London; 
and  from  1876  to  1895  was  correspondent 
for  various  newspapers.  He  wrote  much 
on  naval  development  and  on  art  and 
sociology.     He  died  Aug.  14,  1905. 

CLUB,  an  association  or  number  of 
persons  combined  for  the  promotion  of 
some  common  object,  whether  political, 
social,  or  otherwise.  The  earliest  London 
Club  of  any  celebrity  was  established 
about  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century, 
at  the  Mermaid  Tavern,  Friday  street. 
Among  its  members  were  Shakespeare, 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Beaumont,  Fletcher, 
and  Selden.  Ben  Jonson  figured  at  an- 
other club,  which  met  at  the  Devil 
Tavern,  near  Temple  Bar.  Of  other 
Clubs,  the  literary  one,  established  in  the 
year  1764,  had  among  its  members  John- 
son, Boswell,  Burke,  and  Goldsmith.  To- 
ward the  close  of  the  18th  century,  the 
French  political  Clubs  gained  world- 
wide notoriety  from  the  active  part  which 
they  took  in  the  first  French  revolution. 
The  most  celebrated  was  the  Jacobin 
Club,  founded  at  Versailles  in  1789,  and 
called  originally  the  Breton  Club.  This 
and  other  political  French  Clubs  were 
abolished  on  Sent.  4,  1797.  They  were 
revived  in  1848,  but  were  suppressed 
again  in  1849  and  1850. 

Well-appointed  Clubs  for  men,  in  the 
English  style  have  been  established  in  all 
the  leading  cities  of  the  United  States, 
and  within  recent  years  Clubs  exclu- 
sively for  women  have  become  numerous 
and  popular. 

CLUGNY,  or  CLTJNI  (klon'ye)  (an- 
cient Clnniacinn) ,  a  town  of  France  in 
the  department  of  Saone-et-Loire,  on  the 
Grone.  46  miles  N.  of  Lyons.  There  are 
seen  the  ruins  of  a  celebrated  abbey.  The 
monks  of  the  Order  of  Clugny  were  the 


first  branch  of  the  order  of  Benedictines, 
and  took  their  name  from  the  above 
town,  where  they  were  first  established. 
The  Benedictines  having  become  very  lax 
in  their  discipline,  St.  Odo,  abbot  of 
Clugny,  in  927,  not  only  insisted  on  a 
rigorous  observance  of  the  rules  by  the 
monks  under  him,  but  likewise  intro- 
duced new  ceremonies  of  a  severer  na- 
ture. These  new  rules  soon  came  to  be 
observed  in  the  principal  monasteries  in 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  and 
Britain;  and  by  the  12th  century  the 
order  numbered  about  1,000  cloisters  in 
different  parts  of  Europe.  The  order 
was  abolished  in  France  in  1790.  Pop. 
about  4,000. 

CLYDE  (klld),  a  river  of  Scotland, 
which  has  its  sources  amid  the  hills  that 
separate  Lanarkshire  from  the  counties 
of  Peebles  and  Dumfries,  passes  by  Lan- 
ark, Hamilton,  Glasgow,  Renfrew,'  Dum- 
barton, Greenock,  etc.,  and  forms  finally 
an  extensive  estuary  or  firth  before  it 
enters  the  Irish  Sea,  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  island  of  Bute.  From  its 
source  to  Glasgow,  where  navigation  be- 
gins, its  length  is  about  80  miles.  Its 
principal  tributaries  are  the  Douglas 
Water,  the  Mouse,  the  Nethan,  the  Avon, 
the  Calder,  the  North  Calder,  the  Kelvin, 
the  White  and  Black  Cart,  and  the 
Leven.  Near  Lanark  it  has  three  cele- 
brated falls — the  uppermost,  Bonniton 
Linn,  about  30  feet  high;  the  next,  Cora 
Linn,  where  the  water  takes  three  dis- 
tinct leaps,  each  about  as  high;  and  the 
lowest,  Stonebvres,  also  three  distinct 
falls,  altogether  about  80  feet.  The 
Clyde,  by  artificial  deepening,  has  been 
made  navigable  for  large  vessels  up  to 
Glasgow,  and  is  the  most  valuable  river 
in  Scotland  for  commerce. 

CLYDE,  LORD.  See  Campbell,  Sir 
Colin. 

CLYMENE,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus, 
and  mother  of  Atlas  and  Prometheus. 

CLYMEB,  GEORGE,  an  American 
patriot;  born  in  Philadelphia,  in  1739. 
He  entered  mercantile  life  when  a  lad 
and  acquired  a  competence.  He  was 
urominent  in  public  affairs  prior  to  the 
Revolution,  and  in  1775  became  one  of 
the  first  Continental  treasurers.  He  was 
chosen  in  1776  to  succeed  a  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress  who  had  re- 
fused to  sign  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, to  which  he  promptly  affixed 
his  signature,  although  not  on  the  4th  of 
July.  He  was  active  in  the  patriot  cause 
during  the  Revolution,  and  in  1787  was 
a  member  of  the  convention  that  framed 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
and  a  member  of  the  First  Congress  of 


CLYNES  28 

the  United   States.     He  died  in  Moins- 
ville,  Pa.,  Jan.  23,  1813. 

CLYNES,  JOHN  ROBEBT,  a  British 
Labor  leader;  born  at  Oldham,  England, 
in  1869.  He  represented  the  Labor  party 
in  Parliament  beginning  with  1906.  In 
1918  he  was  appointed  Food  Controller. 
He  was  President  of  the  National  Union 
of  General  Workers  and  Chairman  of  the 
Executive  Council. 

CLYSTER,  an  antiquated  term  for 
enema. 

CLYTEMNESTRA,  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, daughter  of  King  Tyndareus  and 
Leda,  and  half-sister  of  Helen.  During 
the  absence  of  Agamemnon  in  the  war 
against  Troy  she  bestowed  her  favors  on 
^gisthus,  and,  in  connection  with  him, 
murdered  Agamemnon  on  his  return 
from  Troy,  and,  together  with  her  para- 
mour, governed  Mycenae  for  seven  years. 
Her  son  Orestes  killed  them  both. 

COADJUTOR,  a  Latin  term,  nearly 
synonymous  in  its  original  meaning  with 
assistant.  The  term  is  especially  ap- 
plied to  an  assistant  bishop  appointed  to 
act  for  and  succeed  one  who  is  too  old  or 
infirm  for  duty. 

COAG-ULATION,  the  act  or  process 
of  being  coagulated,  or  of  changing  from 
a  liquid  to  a  curd-like  semi-solid  state, 
produced  without  evaporation  and  with- 
out crystallization.  It  differs  from  con- 
gestion in  not  being  attended  by  a  fall 
of  temperature  in  the  substance  coag- 
ulated. 

When  blood  is  drawn  and  allowed  to 
stand  it  emits  a  "halitus"  or  exhala- 
tion, which  has  a  faint  smell.  In  three 
or  four  minutes  a  film  overspreads  the 
liquid,  commencing  at  the  circumference 
and  gradually  spreading  to  the  center. 
Two  or  three  minutes  later  the  lower 
part  of  the  blood,  in  contact  with  the 
vessel,  becomes  solidified,  and  then  the 
whole  mass,  only  about  eight  or  nine 
minutes  being  needful  for  the  whole 
process  from  first  to  last.  In  about  15 
or  20  minutes  a  thin  serum  begins  to 
exude  from  it,  and  goes  on  to  do  so  for 
two  or  three  days. 

COAHUILA  (ko-a-we'la),  a  State  of 
Mexico,  separated  from  Texas  by  the 
Rio  Grande,  has  an  area  of  63,786  square 
miles,  partly  mountainous,  and  forming 
in  the  W.  a  part  of  the  wilderness  of  the 
Bolson  de  Mapimi.  The  climate  is 
healthy,  though  extremes  of  heat  and 
coW  are  usual.  The  State  is  rich  in  min- 
erals, especially  silver,  and  coal  has  been 
found.  It  has  valuable  pasturage,  and 
in  many  parts  a  most  fertile  soil.  The 
Mexican  International  railway,  travers- 
ing the   State  from  N.  to  S.,  has  con- 


COAL 


tributed  much  in  recent  years  to  the  de- 
velopment of  its  resources;  several  cot- 
ton-factories and  a  large  number  of 
flour-mills  are  in  operation.  Pop.  about 
400,000;  capital,  Saltillo  (pop.  about 
40,000). 

COAL,  a  solid  mineralized  vegetable 
matter  that  can  be  used  for  fuel.  In  the 
sense  of  a  piece  of  glowing  fuel,  thence 
a  piece  of  fuel,  whether  dead  or  alive, 
the  word  is  common  to  all  languages  of 
the  Gothic  stock,  and  seems  allied  to  the 
Latin  caleo,  to  be  hot,  and  is  allied  to 
glow  and  kiln.  The  different  sorts  of 
fuel  are  distinguished  by  prefixes,  as 
char-Coal,  pit-Coal,  sea-Coal,  but,  owing 
to  the  eminent  importance  of  mineral  or 
pit-Coal,  the  word  Coal  alone  has  come 
to  be  used  in  this  special  signification. 
Coal  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all 
minerals;  it  consists  chiefly  of  carbon, 
and  is  universally  regarded  as  of  vege- 
table origin.  It  occurs  generally  in 
strata  or  beds;  it  is  always  of  black  or 
blackish-brown  color;  some  of  the  va- 
rieties have  considerable  vitreous  or 
resinous  luster;  some  are  destitute  of 
luster;  some  have  a  shell-like  fracture, 
and  some  have  a  sort  of  salty  structure, 
and  are  readily  broken  into  cubical  or 
rhomboidal  fragments.  In  a  general  way 
we  may  define  Coal  as  a  fossil  fuel  of  a 
black  color  and  stony  consistency,  which, 
when  heated  in  close  vessels,  is  con- 
verted into  coke  with  the  escape  of  vola- 
tile liquids  and  gases.  The  variety 
known  in  Great  Britain  as  blind  Coal, 
and  in  the  United  States  as  anthracite, 
no  doubt  gives  off  scarcely  any  volatile 
matter ;  but  this  is  because  it  has  under- 
gone a  natural  distillation  through  meta- 
morphism  or  other  cause. 

Divisions. — We  may,  therefore,  divide 
Coal  into  two  primary  divisions,  viz..  An- 
thracite,  which  does  not,  and  Bituminous, 
or  soft  Coal,  which  does,  flame  when  kin- 
dled. Anthracite  averages  in  analysis  85 
to  87  per  cent,  of  fixed  carbon.  The  term 
"anthracite"  is  applied  to  all  Coals  con- 
taining more  than  80  per  cent,  of  fixed 
carbon.  Various  synonyms,  such  as 
stone  Coal,  glance  Coal,  culm,  and  Welsh 
Coal,  also  are  used  to  designate  this  sub- 
stance, which  in  Great  Britain  is  used 
chiefly  for  smelting  purposes  and  for 
raising  steam,  but  in  the  United  States 
is  used  also  almost  entirely  for  domestic 
fuel  and  manufacturing  purposes.  It  is 
difficult  to  kindle,  but  gives  out  a  high 
heat  in  burning,  and  holds  fire  for  a  long 
time.  Bituminous  Coal  includes  an  al- 
most endless  number  of  varieties,  one  of 
the  best  marked  being  cannel  or  parrot 
Coal.  Cannel  Coal  is  so  called  from 
burning  with  a  bright  flame  like  a  candle, 
and  the  name  "pt^rot  Coal"  is  given  to 


COAL 


29 


COAL 


it  in  Scotland  from  the  crackling  or 
chattering  noise  which  some  kinds  of  it 
make  when  burned.  That  of  different 
localities  varies  much  in  appearance, 
but  it  is  commonly  dull  and  earthy,  or 
with  only  a  slight  luster;  some  kinds  are, 
however,  bright  and  shining.  In  texture 
it  is  nearly  always  compact,  and  certain 
beds  of  it  admit  of  being  polished  in 
slabs  of  considerable  size,  which  ap- 
proach black  marble  in  appearance.  Of 
this  material  vases,  inkstands,  boxes, 
etc.,  are  made.  Cannel  Coal,  from  its 
comparative  scarcity  and  high  price,  is 
not  suitable  for  house  fires,  and  is  for 
the  most  part  consumed  in  making  gas, 
of  which  it  yields  from  8,000  to  15,000 
cubic  feet  per  ton.  When  distilled  at  a 
low  red-heat  it  yields  paraffine  oil.  The 
other  varieties  of  bituminous  Coal  are 
so  numerous  that  there  are  as  many  as 
70  kinds  of  it  imported  into  London 
alone.  Still,  among  these  there  are  three 
leading  kinds:  (1)  Caking  Coal,  which 
cakes  or  fuses  into  one  mass  in  the  fire. 
It  breaks  into  small  uneven  fragments, 
and  is  found  largely  at  Newcastle  and 
some  other  localities.  (2)  Splint,  or 
hard  Coal,  occurring  plentifully  in  Scot- 
land, which  is  hard  and  has  a  kind  of 
slaty  fracture.  It  is  not  very  easily  kin- 
dled, but  when  lighted  makes  a  clear, 
lasting  fire.  (3)  Cherry,  or  soft  Coal, 
which  breaks  easily  into  small,  irregular 
cubes,  has  a  beautiful,  shining  luster,  is 
readily  kindled,  and  gives  out  a  cheerful 
flame  and  heat.  It  is  common  in  Staf- 
fordshire. Brown  Coal,  or  lignite, 
though  inferior  to  true  Coal,  is,  never- 
theless, an  important  fuel  in  some  coun- 
tries, in  default  of  a  better  kind. 

Origin. — Several  theories  as  to  the  ori- 
gin of  coal  have  been  put  forth  from 
time  to  time.  The  one  now  generally  re- 
ceived is  that  the  rank  and  luxuriant 
vegetation  which  prevailed  during  the 
Carboniferous  Period  grew  and  decayed 
upon  land  raised  but  slightly  above  the 
sea;  that  by  slow  subsidence  this  thick 
layer  of  vegetable  matter  sank  below  the 
water  and  became  gradually  covered 
with  sand,  mud,  and  other  mineral  sedi- 
ment; that  then,  by  some  slight  up- 
heaval of  the  sea-bottom  or  other  process, 
a  land  surface  was  once  more  formed 
and  covered  with  a  dense  mass  of  plants, 
which  in  course  of  time  decayed,  sank, 
and  became  overlaid  with  silt  and  sand 
as  before.  At  length  thick  masses  of 
stratified  matter  would  accumulate,  pro- 
ducing great  pressure,  and  this,  acting 
with  chemical  changes,  would  gradually 
mineralize  the  vegetable  layers  into  Coal. 
Some  experiments  made  by  Dr.  Lindley  a 
few  years  ago  showed  that  of  a  large 
number  of  plants  kept  immersed  in  water 
for  two  years,  the  ferns,  lycopodiums, 


and  pines  were  those  which  had  the 
greatest  powers  of  resisting  decay,  and 
Coal  appears  to  be  mainly  composed  of 
the  suDstance  of  the  ancient  gigantic 
representatives  of  these  three  orders  of 
plants.  The  interesting  fact  has  also 
been  lately  proved  by  Huxley,  Morris, 
Carruthers,  and  others,  that  in  many  in- 
stances the  bituminous  matter  in  Coal  is 
formed  almost  wholly  of  the  spore  cases 
and  spores  of  plants  allied  to  our  club- 
mosses  and  ferns. 

Sources  of  Supply. — Since  the  pros- 
perity of  great  national  industries,  as 
well  as  much  of  our  domestic  comfort, 
depends  on  the  continuance  of  an  abun- 
dant and  cheap  supply  of  fuel,  much 
anxiety  has  arisen  of  late  years  regard- 
ing the  future  supply  and  price  of  Coal. 
An  exhaustive  survey  of  the  Coal  fields 
of  the  world  has  produced  the  estimate 
that  there  exist  in  the  United  States  and 
Alaska,  4,231,000,000,000  tons,  of  which 
22,000,000,000  tons  is  anthracite,  2,155,- 
000,000,000  tons  is  bituminous,  and  2,- 
054,000,000,000  tons  is  sub-bituminous 
and  lignite;  Canada,  1,361,000,000,000 
tons,  of  which  2,000,000,000  is  anthracite 
and  313,000,000,000  is  bituminous ;  China, 
1,097,000,000,000  tons,  of  which  427,000,- 
000,000  is  anthracite;  Germany,  467,000,- 
000,000  tons,  of  which  452,000,000,000 
tons  is  bituminous  and  the  rest  sub- 
bituminous;  Great  Britain,  209,000,000, 
000  tons,  of  which  12,000,000,000  is  an- 
thracite; Siberia,  192,000,000,000  tons, 
no  anthracite;  Australia,  183,000,000,000 
tons,  all  bituminous  or  sub-bituminous; 
India,  87,000,000,000  tons,  no  anthracite: 
Russia  in  Europe,  66,000,000,000  tons,  of 
which  41,000,000  is  anthracite;  Union 
of  South  Africa,  62,000,000,000  tons,  of 
which  13,000,000,000  is  anthracite;  Aus- 
tria, 59,000,000,000  tons,  no  anthracite; 
Colombia,  30,000,000,000  tons,  no  anthra- 
cite; Indo-China,  22,000,000,000  tons,  all 
anthracite;  France,  19,000,000,000  tons, 
of  which  4,000,000,000  is  anthracite; 
Belgium,  12,000,000,000  tons,  no  anthra- 
cite; Spain,  10,000,000,000  tons,  of  which 
2,000,000,000  is  anthracite;  Spitzbergen, 
9,000,000,000  tons,  no  anthracite;  Japan, 
9,000,000,000  tons,  no  anthracite;  Hol- 
land, 5,000,000,000  tons,  no  anthracite; 
other  countries,  24,000,000,000  tons,  of 
which  3,000,000,000  is  anthracite. 

Total  Coal  reserves,  8,154,000,000,000 
tons,  of  which  548,000,000,000  is  an- 
thracite; 4,302,000,000,000  is  bituminous, 
and  3,304,000,000,000  is  sub-bituminous 
and  lignite. 

Coal  in  the  United  States. — The  entire  ' 
area  of  these  is  about  330,000  square 
miles.  The  principal  fields  are  (1) 
Eastern,  approximately  70,000  square 
miles;  (2)  the  Interior  area,  about  133,- 
000  square  miles;  (3)  the  Gulf  area, 
3— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


COAL 


30 


COAL 


about  2,100  square  miles;  (4)  the  North- 
ern or  Great  Plains  area,  about  88,000 
square  miles;  (5)  the  Rocky  Mountain 
area,  about  37,000  square  miles;  (6)  and 
(7)  Pacific  Coast  area,  about  1,900 
square  miles. 

Anthracite  Areas.  —  Commercially 
speaking,  the  anthracite  division  may  be 
said  to  consist  of  Pennsylvania  alone, 
although  a  small  amount  of  anthracite 
coal  is  mined  in  other  States.  The  orig- 
inal Coal  beds  of  New  England  have 
been  metamorphosed  into  graphite  and 
graphitic  Coal.  This  area  is  confined  to 
eastern  Rhode  Island,  and  the  counties  of 
Bristol  and  Plymouth,  Mass,  The  prod- 
uct mined  from  the  beds,  v^^hich  may  be 
more  properly  called  graphite  than  Coal, 
requires  a  considerable   degree  of   heat 


Northern  or  Wyoming  and  Lackawanna, 
mostly  in  Luzerne  and  Lackawanna  cos. 
(5)  The  Loyalsock  and  Mehoopany  field 
is  within  the  area  di'ained  by  the  head- 
waters of  two  creeks  of  that  name,  20 
or  25  miles  N.  W.  of  the  W.  end  of  the 
field  last  mentioned.  The  anthracite 
region  of  Pennsylvania,  as  a  whole,  has 
a  maximum  length  of  about  115  miles, 
a  maximum  breadth  of  about  40  miles; 
area  about  1,700  square  miles;  but  the 
area  underlaid  by  workable  Coal  beds  is 
only  about  470  square  miles. 

Bituminous  Areas. — The  bituminous 
Coal  areas  of  the  United  States  may  for 
convenience  be  grouped  into  seven  di- 
visions: the  Triassic,  the  Appalachian, 
the  Northern,  the  Central,  the  Western, 
the    Rocky    Mountain,    and    the    Pacific 


MINING  COAL  WITH  AN  ELECTRIC  DRILL 


for  combustion,  and  can  be  used  only 
with  other  combustible  material  or  under 
an  intense  draught  or  blast.  Its  prin- 
cipal use  is  in  the  direct  manufacture 
of  steel ;  the  entire  annual  output  is  but  a 
few  thousand  tons.  There  are  five  recog- 
nized principal  divisions  of  the  Pennsylva- 
nia anthracite  region:  (1)  The  Southern 
or  Pottsville  field,  extending  from  the 
Lehigh  river,  at  Mauch  Chunk,  S.  E.  to 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  Susquehanna 
river,  directly  W.  of  Harrisburg.  (2) 
The  Western  Middle  or  Mahanoy  and 
Shamokin  field,  extending  from  the  east- 
ernmost headwaters  of  the  Little  Schuyl- 
kill  river  to  the  Susquehanna.  These 
are  sometimes  grouped  together  and 
given  the  common  name  of  the  Schuyl- 
kill region.  (3)  The  Eastern  Middle  or 
upper  Lehigh  field,  lying  between  the 
Lehigh  river  and  Catawissa  creek,  and 
mostly  situated  in  Luzerne  co.     (4)  The 


Coast  areas.  The  eastern  Triassic  area 
is  composed  chiefly  of  the  Richmond 
basin,  in  Virginia,  and  the  Deep  River 
and  the  Dan  River  fields,  in  North  Caro- 
lina. No  extensive  mining  operations 
are  now  carried  on  in  this  area.  The 
Appalachian  field  is  immediately  W.  of 
the  E.  border  of  the  Appalachian  range, 
and  extends  from  New  York  on  the  N. 
to  Alabama  on  the  S.,  its  direction  being 
N.  E.  and  S.  W.;  length,  about  900 
miles;  width,  from  30  to  180  miles. 
There  are  in  this  region  many  varieties 
of  bituminous  Coal,  the  best  and  most 
productive  beds  on  the  whole  being  those 
of  the  Pittsburgh  district  and  of  West 
Virginia.  The  thickness  of  the  coal 
measures  in  different  sections  varies 
from  100  to  over  3,000  feet.  The  north- 
ern bituminous  area  is  all  in  central 
Michigan.  The  coal  here  found  is  not 
of  superior  quality,  and  is  used  mostly 


COAL 


81 


COAL 


for  local  supply.  Of  the  central  area 
three-fourths  are  in  Illinois,  less  than 
one-sixth  in  Indiana,  and  about  one- 
twelfth  in  western  Kentucky.  In  the 
western  field  the  most  extensive  mining 
operations  have  been  carried  on  in  Iowa 
and  Missouri;  its  area  is  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  one  Coal  field  in  the 
United  States.  The  coals  are  of  great 
variety;  the  best  which  has  so  far  been 
mined  is  that  of  the  Indian  Territory. 
The  Rocky  Mountain  Coal  beds  have 
have  been  found  in  the  geological  forma- 
tions from  the  Carboniferous  up  to  and 
including  the  Cretaceous,  differing  in 
this  respect  from  those  hitherto  enumer- 
ated, which,  with  the  exception  of  that  in 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  are  all  con- 


was  not  largely  employed  until  the  18th 
century.  Of  late  years  rock-drills  driven 
by  steam  or  by  compi'essed  air  have  come 
largely  into  use.  The  bore-hole,  when 
finished,  is  then  charged.  The  gunpow- 
der is  inclosed  in  a  little  bag  of  cloth 
dipped  in  pitch  and  provided  with  a  fuse. 
The  fullest  benefit  of  modern  explosives, 
such  as  dynamite,  gun-cotton  and  yonite, 
can  be  obtained  only  by  the  use  of  strong 
detonators  fired  by  electricity,  by  which 
it  is  impossible  to  place  a  number  of 
bore-holes  in  such  a  manner  that  when 
fired  simultaneously  they  shall  help  one 
another.  Blasting  powder  is  still  used 
for  removing  coal  and  millions  of  tons 
are  obtained  by  its  aid.  In  order  to  obvi- 
ate the  danger  of  explosions  in  fiery  col- 


JEFFREY  LOADING  CONVEYOR  USED  IN  A  COAL  MINE 


fined    to  the    Carboniferous.      Coal    has 
been  mined  in  the  Pacific  States, 

Coal  Mining. — The  cutting  of  a  path 
through  the  harder  rocks,  as  carried  on 
by  the  ancient  miners,  was  particularly 
laborious  and  unhealthy.  Miners  became 
subject  to  disorders  of  the  lungs  at  an 
early  age.  Previous  to  the  introduction 
of  blasting,  the  implements  used  were 
wedges  and  hammers.  Bit  by  bit  pieces 
of  rock  wei*e  broken  away,  the  operation 
being  assisted  by  natural  fissures  in  the 
rock  and  by  the  brittleness  of  the  hard 
material.  In  this  way  the  ancient  min- 
ers cut  coffin-shaped  galleries  5  feet  in 
height.  At  the  present  time  the  galleries 
or  levels  are  usually  TVa  feet  high  and  5 
feet  wide,  thus  affording  facilities  for 
traveling  and  for  ventilation.  Gunpow- 
der was  not  applied  to  mining  purposes 
until  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century, 
and  it  made  its  way  so  slowly  that  it 


lieries,  many  ingenious  substitutes  for 
blasting  have  been  proposed.  For  ex- 
ample, a  hole  is  bored  and  wedges  in- 
serted to  force  down  the  Coal  which  has 
previously  been  under-cut  with  the  pick. 
Various  machines  have  been  invented 
with  a  view  of  lessening  the  labor  and 
expense  of  under-cutting  coal  seams. 
They  work  with  compressed  air  or  elec- 
tricity, and  have  the  cutters  arranged 
on  the  periphery  of  a  rotating  disc,  or 
on  a  traveling  pitch  chain.  The  coal, 
when  broken  down,  is  placed  in  cars  and 
drawn  to  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  and 
raised  to  the  surface.  The  actual  mode 
of  working  the  coal  varies  greatly  in 
every  district.  By  the  post-and-stall,  or 
board-and-pillar,  or  (in  Scotland)  stoop- 
and-room,  method  the  first  stage  of  ex- 
cavation is  accomplished  with  the  roof 
sustained  by  coal;  in  the  long- wall 
method  the  whole  of  the  coal  is  allowed 


COAL 


82 


COAL  GAS 


to  settle  behind  the  miners,  no  sustain- 
ing pillars  of  coal  being  left.  This,  when 
well  planned,  is  the  safer,  both  as  re- 
gards facility  of  ventilation  and  less  lia- 
bility to  accidents  from  falls.  At  a  Dur- 
ham colliery,  working  the  Harvey  seam, 
3V2  feet  in  thickness,  5,185  tons  of  coal 
were  obtained  when  working  by  the  long- 
wall  system  and  5,052  tons  when  work- 
ing by  the  post-and-stall  system.  In 
thick  and  highly  inclined  beds  it  is  usual 
to  remove  the  coal  by  horizontal  slices 
and  to  fill  the  excavation  with  waste  ma- 
terial. In  some  instances  blast  furnace 
slag  is  used  for  the  purpose. 

The  great  depth  and  size  of  modern 
collieries  necessitate  the  raising  of  vast 
quantities  of  coal  through  a  single  shaft 
and  the  winding  engines  of  modern  erec- 
tion are  of  extraordinary  power. 

Production. — The  total  coal  production 
of  the  United  States  in  1919  was  544,- 
263,000  short  tons.  Of  this  458,063,000 
tons  were  bituminous  and  86,200,000  tons 
were  anthracite.  This  production  was  a 
decrease  of  133,949,000  tons  over  that  of 
1918.  Pennsylvania  produced  the  larg- 
est amount  of  coal  for  1919,  145,300,000 
tons  of  bituminous  coal  and  86,200,000  of 
anthracite  coal.  West  Virginia  was  sec- 
ond with  75,500,000  tons;  Illinois  third 
with  64,600,000  tons;  and  Ohio  fourth 
with  35,050,000  tons.  Other  States  pro- 
ducing over  10,000,000  tons  were  Ala- 
bama, Indiana,  and  Colorado.  The  num- 
ber of  employees  in  the  coal  mines  in 
the  country  in  1918  was  762,426.  Of 
these  147,121  were  employed  in  the  an- 
thracite mines  and  615,305  were  em- 
ployed in  the  bituminous  mines.  The 
total  value  of  the  coal  produced  in  1918 
was  $1,828,290,287. 

During  the  participation  of  the  United 
States  in  the  World  War,  the  production 
of  coal  in  sufficient  quantity  became  an 
important  problem.  In  1918-1919  strikes 
in  various  fields  produced  a  shortage  of 
coal,  and  only  by  the  most  rigorous 
methods  of  distribution  was  it  possible 
to  obtain  sufficient  quantities  to  keep  in- 
dustrial plants  running  and  to  supply 
domestic  demands.  During  1918  indus- 
trial plants  were  shut  down  for  certain 
periods  owing  to  a  shortage  of  coal.  In 
1920  conditions  had  greatly  improved, 
and  there  was  no  alarming  shortage  of 
coal  during  that  year.  On  Aug.  30,  1920, 
President  Wilson  approved  a  report  of 
an  anthracite  wage  commission  which 
awarded  from  17  to  20  per  cent,  increase 
over  their  previous  pay  to  men  employed 
in  the  anthracite  coal  mines.  The  men 
refused  to  accept  the  provisions  of  the 
commission  and  undertook  a  strike  in 
September.  The  President  refused  to  re- 
open the  question  of  the  wage  award, 
and  the  strike  subsided.     The  coal  out- 


put for  the  first  8  months  of  1920  indi- 
cated an  increase  in  production  over 
1919.  For  205  working  days  the  pro- 
duction of  bituminous  coal  was  347,- 
406,000  tons,  and  nearly  30,000,000  tons 
more  than  were  produced  in  the  same 
period  of  1919. 

Histm-y. — The  use  of  coal  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancients, 
nor  is  it  known  at  what  time  it  began 
to  be  used  for  fuel.  Some  say  that  it 
was  used  by  the  ancient  Britons,  and 
at  all  events  it  was  to  some  extent  an 
article  of  household  consumption  during 
the  Anglo-Saxon  period  as  early  as  A.  D. 
852.  There  is  reason  for  thinking  that 
England  was  the  first  European  country 
in  which  coal  was  used  to  a  considerable 
extent.  About  the  end  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury it  began  to  be  used  in  London,  but 
at  first  only  in  the  arts  and  manu- 
factures, and  the  innovation  was  com- 
plained of  as  injurious  to  health.  In 
1316  Parliament  petitioned  the  king,  Ed- 
ward II.,  to  prohibit  the  use  of  coal,  and 
a  proclamation  was  accordingly  issued 
against  it;  but  owing  to  a  high  price  of 
wood  its  use  soon  became  general  in 
London.  It  was  for  a  long  time  known 
there  as  Sea-Coal,  because  imported 
by  sea. 

COALDALE,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Schuylkill  co.  It  is  on  the  Le- 
high and  New  England,  and  the  Central 
of  New  Jersey  railroads,  and  is  the  cen- 
ter of  an  important  coal  mining  region. 
Pop.   (1910)   5,154;   (1920)   6,336. 

COAL  GAS,  a  mixture  of  gases  pro- 
duced by  the  destructive  distillation  of 
coal  at  regulated  temperatures.  It  is 
used  in  lighting  streets,  houses,  etc.,  and 
for  cooking  and  heating  purposes.  Coal 
gas  is  colorless  and  has  a  disagreeable 
smell.  It  is  purified  from  H2S  by  ferric 
hydrate,  which  is  moistened^  with  FeSO^ 
and  H:S04  to  remove  ammonia.  The  car- 
bon disulphide  can  be  removed  by  pass- 
ing it  through  an  iron  tube  filled  with 
iron  turnings  and  heated  to  redness. 
Coal  gas  consists  of  a  mixture  of  hydro- 
gen, 40  to  50  per  cent.,  carbon-monoxide 
about  5  per  cent.,  marsh  gas  (CH<) 
about  40  per  cent.,  which  contribute 
nothing  to  the  illuminating  power  of  the 
gas;  it  depends  upon  the  presence  of 
heavy  hydro-carbons,  principally  C2H4 
ethene,  ordinary  gas  containing  about  4 
per  cent.,  and  cannel  gas  about  8  per 
cent.  Coal  gas  also  contains  small  quan- 
tities of  acetylene,  butylene,  etc.,  and 
aromatic  hydro-carbons,  as  benzine,  etc. 
The  percentage  of  nitrogen  is  very  vari- 
able. When  gas  is  burned  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water  is  formed,  hence,  if  a  gas 
stove  is  used  to  dry  a  room  there  must 
be  sufficient  ventilation  to  carry  off  tJie 


COAL  OIL 


33 


COAST  DEFENSE 


aqueous  vapor.  The  escape  of  coal  gas 
from  pipes  into  the  soil  is  very  injurious 
to  the  roots  of  trees  and  shrubs.  The 
admixture  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  air 
greatly  impairs  the  illuminating  power 
of  coal  gas.  Three  causes  are  capable  of 
decreasing  the  luminosity  of  flame,  viz.: 
(1)  withdrawal  of  heat;  (2)  dilution; 
and  (3)  oxidation  of  luminous  material. 
See  Gas. 

Poisoning  by  coal  gas,  is  known  only 
as  an  accident.  Occasionally  sudden 
fatal  consequences  ensue  among  workmen 
from  exposure  to  a  sudden  rush  of  un- 
diluted gas  from  gasometers  and  mains. 
More  commonly,  slowly  fatal  cases  result 
from  the  gas-tap  in  a  bedroom  being  left 
open  carelessly,  from  accidental  extinc- 
tion of  the  light,  from  blowing  the  gas 
out,  or  from  leakage  of  the  pipes  in  a 
house,  or  at  a  distance,  the  gas  gaining 
entrance  to  the  house  in  the  latter  case 
through  cellars,  walls,  and  more  especial- 
ly by  means  of  drains  and  sewer-pipes. 

COAL  OIL,  a  name  sometimes  given 
to  Petroleum  (q.  v.). 

COAL  TAR,  tar  produced  in  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  bituminous  coal. 
It  is  a  thick,  sticky,  dai'k-colored  sub- 
stance, and  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  printers'  ink,  for  asphalt  pavements, 
coating  ships,  etc.  The  composition  of 
coal  tar  varies  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  coal  is  distilled,  the 
higher  the  temperature  the  larger  being 
the  yield  of  solid  bodies.  Coal  tar  when 
distilled  first  gives  off  gas,  then  water 
containing  ammoniacal  salts,  then  a 
brown  light  oil  which,  when  purified,  is 
called  coal-naphtha ;  at  higher  tempera- 
tures a  yellow,  heavy,  foetid  oil  called 
dead-oil,  or  creosote  oil,  then  naphtha- 
lene; afterward  the  black  residue  in  the 
retort  solidifies  on  cooling  and  forms 
pitch,  which  is  used  to  form  asphalt,  and 
a  black  varnish  to  protect  iron  from  rust. 
If  the  distillation  is  continued,  the  pitch 
yields  a  yellow  substance  like  butter,  con- 
taining anthracene,  phenanthrene,  fluo- 
rene;  afterward,  at  red  heat,  a  bright 
orange  powder,  consisting  chiefly  of  py- 
rene  CieHio  and  chrysene  Ci-,H,..;  the  resi- 
due forms  a  hard,  porous  coke.  Coal  tar 
colors  are  dyes  prepared  from  aniline, 
naphthalene,  phenol,  and  other  com- 
pounds contained  in  coal  tar.  See  Dye- 
ing. 

COAL  TAR  COLORS.     See  Dyeing. 

COAN,  TITUS  (ko'an),  an  American 
missionary;  born  in  Killingworth,  Conn., 
Feb.  1,  1801.  After  spending  several 
months  (1833-1834)  on  a  dangerous  ex- 
ploring expedition  in  Patagonia,  he  went 
to  the  Sandwich  Islands  (1835),  occupy- 
ing the  Hilo  station  47  years,  and  in  that 


ulf  Stream  and 
off   from    them ; 

and  gi'avity  re- 
of    heights     by 

of    geographical 


time  converting  14,000  natives.  He 
wrote:  "Adventures  in  Patagonia" 
(1880);  "Life  in  Hawaii"  (1881).  He 
died  at  Hilo,  Hawaii,  Dec.  1,  1882. 

COANZA,  or  KUANZA,  a  river  of 
Portuguese  West  Africa,  flows  generally 
N.  W.,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  about  30 
miles  S.  of  St.  Paul  de  Loando,  by  a 
mouth  over  a  mile  broad.  It  is  naviga- 
ble for  light  vessels  as  far  as  the  Cam- 
bambe  cataracts,  over  120  miles. 

COAST  AND  GEODETIC  SURVEY, 
UNITED  STATES,  a  bureau  of  the  De- 
partment of  Commerce,  charged  with  the 
survey  of  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  Pacific 
coasts  of  the  United  States,  including  the 
coast  of  Alaska;  the  survey  of  rivers  to 
the  head  of  tidewater  or  ship  navigation; 
deep-sea  soundings,  temperature  and  cur- 
rent observations  along  the  said  coasts 
and  throughout  the  C 
Japan  Stream  flowing 
magnetic  observations 
search;  determination 
geodetic  leveling,  and 
positions  by  lines  of  transcontinental  trl 
angulation,  which  with  other  connecting 
triangulations  and  observations  for  lati- 
tude, longitude,  and  azimuth,  furnish 
points  of  reference  for  State  surveys  and 
connect  the  work  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
with  that  on  the  Pacific.  Results  of  the 
survey  are  published  in  the  form  of  an- 
nual reports,  which  include  professional 
papers  of  value;  bulletins  which  give  in- 
formation deemed  important  for  imme- 
diate publication;  notices  to  mariners, 
issued  monthly;  tide  tables,  issued  an- 
nually; charts  upon  various  scales,  in- 
cluding harbor  charts,  general  charts  of 
the  coast,  and  sailing  charts;  chart  cata- 
logues and  "Coast  Pilots." 

COAST  ARTILLERY.    See  ARTILLERY. 

COAST  DEFENSE,  a  system  of  forti- 
fications to  protect  a  country  from  hostile 
attacks  or  occupations  on  its  coast  lines. 
It  consists  of  forts  well  equipped  with 
heavy  guns  and  thoroughly  manned  and 
placed  at  strategic  points.  It  includes 
also  torpedo  boats,  submarines,  harbor 
mines,  searchlights,  and  all  the  other 
adjuncts  that  make  the  work  of  the  forts 
effective.  The  extensive  coast  line  of  the 
United  States  has  required  a  great  ex- 
penditure of  money,  planning,  and  in- 
genuity in  order  to  secure  the  country's 
safety  in  time  of  war.  Adequate  atten- 
tion had  not  been  given  to  this  important 
work  before  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War;  but  the  lessons  taught  by  that 
great  conflict  have  stimulated  the  "energy 
of  the  navy  depai'tment  and  the  liberal- 
ity of  Congress.  All  ports  of  commer- 
cial or  strategic  value  along  both  coasts 
of    the    United    States    have    now    been 


COAST  GUARD 


34 


COBALT 


fortified.  As  fast  as  possible,  the  old 
12-inch  guns  have  been  superseded  by 
14-inch  guns  that  are  designed  to  fire 
projectiles  weighing  1,660  pounds  to  a 
distance  of  18,000  yards.  At  Cape 
Henry  it  is  proposed  to  mount  16-inch 
"wire-wound  guns,  throwing  a  projectile 
of  2,200  pounds.  The  present  policy  of 
the  navy  department  is  to  mount  one  16- 
inch  gun  in  the  system  of  fortifications 
guarding  every  important  harbor.  The 
regular  establishment  of  the  coast  de- 
fense is  divided  into  three  districts,  the 
North  Atlantic  Coast,  the  South  Atlantic 
Coast,  and  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  former 
has  77  companies;  the  second,  43;  and 
the  third,  36.  Besides  these  there  are  in 
Manila  bay  11  companies,  in  Hawaii  6, 
and  in  Panama  8.  The  regular  estab- 
lishment of  the  coast  artillery  is   1,201 


The  men.  who  are  generally  old  men-of- 
war's  men  of  good  character,  have  high 
pay,  and  are  furnished  with  free  cottages. 
The  force  numbers  with  officers  and  men 
about  4,000.  In  the  United  States  the 
force  is  part  of  the  Treasury  Department- 
See  Coast  Survey,  United  States. 

COATESVILLE,  a  borough  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  Chester  co.,  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
railroads.  It  is  an  important  industrial 
center  and  has  manufactures  of  iron  and 
steel,  boilers,  brass  works,  silk,  tobacco, 
automobiles,  etc.  Its  notable  buildings 
include  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  and  a 
hospital.  Pop,  (1910)  11,084;  (1920) 
14,515. 

COATI,  or  COATI-MONDI,  a  name  of 
South  American  plantigrade  carnivorous 


1.  Rampart. 

2.  Loading  Platform. 


COAST   DEFENSE 

3.  Auxiliary    Station. 

4.  Battery  Chief's  Station. 

5.  Calculating  Room. 


6.  Observation    Stand. 

7.  Disappearing   Guns. 


officers  and  29,973  men.  As  regards  their 
duties,  the  troops  of  the  coast  defense  are 
thus  classified:  Coast  artillery  regulars 
who  man  the  guns,  coast  artillery  mi- 
litia who  serve  as  substitutes  or  auxili- 
aries to  the  regular  gun  crews,  coast 
artillery  supports  to  protect  against  land 
raids,  and  the  coast  guard,  which  in- 
cludes bodies  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
field  artillery  to  oppose  any  landing  by 
the  enemy. 

COAST  GUARD,  a  British  force 
foniierly  under  the  customs  department, 
and  intended  only  to  prevent  smuggling, 
but  now  organized  also  for  purposes  of 
defense  and  governed  by  the  admiralty. 


mammals,  of  the  genus  Nasua,  belonging 
to  the  ursidss  or  bears,  but  recalling 
rather  the  raccoon  or  civet,  and  having  a 
long  proboscis  or  snout.  They  feed  on 
worms,  insects,  and  the  smaller  quad- 
rupeds, but  chiefly  on  eggs  and  young 
birds. 

COAT  OF  ARMS.     See  HERALDRY. 

COBALT,  a  metallic  element,  at.  wt. 
59,  symbol  Co.  The  metal  was  first  ob- 
tained in  an  impure  state  by  Brandt,  in 
1733.  It  occurs  as  speiss  cobalt,  or  tin- 
white  cobalt  CoAs2,  and  cobalt-glance, 
CoAsS.  Cobalt  occurs  in  meteoric  iron. 
Metallic  cobalt  is  a  hard,  magnetic,  duc- 
tile,   reddish-gray    metal,    with    a    high 


COBALT 


S5 


COBBETT 


melting  point.  Its  sp.  gr.  is  8.9.  It  is 
1  ot  easily  oxidized  by  the  air,  when  pure. 
It  is  dissolved  by  dilute  HCl  or  H.SO* 
with  evolution  of  hydrogen.  Cobalt 
forms  two  oxides:  Cobaltous  oxide  CoO 
and  Cobaltic  oxide  Co203.  The  alloys  of 
cobalt  are  unimportant.  Zaffre  is  an 
impure  oxide  of  cobalt  prepared  by  roast- 
ing cobalt  ores  with  twice  their  weight 
of  sand.  Smalt  is  prepared  by  fusing 
partially  roasted  cobalt  ores  with  a  mix- 
ture of  powdered  quartz  and  potassium 
carbonate;  while  hot  it  is  poured  into 
water  and  then  ground  to  a  fine  powder; 
it  is  used  as  a  pigment;  this  color  was 
known  to  the  ancients.  The  cobaltous 
salts  are  the  most  stable  in  which  cobalt 
acts  as  a  dyad  element.  Cobalt  com- 
pounds give  a  blue  color  to  a  borax  bead. 

There  is  no  native  cobalt  known,  but 
many  ores  of  the  metal.  Arsenate  or  Ar- 
seniate  of  Cobalt  =  Erythrite;  Arsenical 
Cobalt  =  Smaltite;  Black  Cobalt  =  Asbo- 
lite;  Bright- white  Cobalt  =  Cobalt-glance; 
Carbonate  of  Cobalt  =  Remingtonite ; 
Earthy  Cobalt  =  Asbolite;  Gray  Cobalt  = 
Smaltite;  Red  Cobalt  =  Erythrite;  Sul- 
phate of  Cobalt  =:Bieberite;  Sulphuret  of 
Cobalt  =  Syepoorite,  Linnseite;  White  Co- 
balts Smaltite;  Cobalt  and  Lead  Sele- 
nite  =  Tilkerodite. 

Ammonia  cobaltous  salts  are  formed  by 
the  union  of  cobaltous  salts  with  am- 
monia in  excess,  the  air  being  excluded, 
as,  CoClcaNHs,  rose-colored  crystals. 
They  are  formed  when  an  ammoniacal 
solution  of  cobalt  is  exposed  to  the  air. 

COBALT,  a  city  of  Ontario,  Canada,  in 
the  Timiskaming  district.  It  is  on  the 
Timiskaming  and  Northern  Ontario  rail- 
way and  is  the  center  of  a  rich  mineral 
region,  including  mines  of  silver,  nickel, 
bismuth,  cobalt,  copper,  lead,  and  zinc. 
These  deposits  were  first  discovered  in 
1903.  The  silver  mines  were  especially 
rich  and  their  discovery  resulted  in  a 
rush  to  the  locality  by  a  large  number  of 
people,  and  the  rapid  development  of  the 
mines.  The  town  grew  rapidly,  but  in 
1912  a  large  part  of  it  was  destroyed  by 
fire.  It  was,  however,  rebuilt.  Pop.  about 
6,000. 

COB  AN,  a  city  of  Guatemala,  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  Alta  Vera 
Paz,  It  is  the  center  of  a  fertile  agri- 
cultural district  producing  coffee,  vanilla, 
and  sugar  cane.    Pop.  about  32,000. 

COBB,  HOWELL,  an  American  states- 
man; born  in  Cherry  Hill,  Ga..  Sept.  7, 
1815.  He  was  graduated  at  Franklin 
College  in  1834,  became  a  lawyer  in  1836, 
and  in  1843  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a 
Democrat.  He  served  eight  years  and 
was  Speaker  of  the  House  one  term. 
Elected  governor  of  Georgia  in  1851,  he 


returned  to  Congress  in  1855,  and  was 
made  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by  Pres- 
ident Buchanan  in  1857,  resigning  in 
1860  to  urge  secession.  He  held  a  Con- 
federate military  commission  in  the  Civil 
War,  but  saw  little  service.  He  died  in 
New  York  City,  Oct.  9,  1868. 

COBB,  IRVIN  S(HREWSBUIIY).  an 
American  writer,  born  at  Paducah,  Ky., 
in  1876.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  and  privately,  and  while  he  was 
still  a  boy  began  contributing  humorous 
matter  to  periodicals.  For  a  time  he 
served  on  the  editorial  staff  of  several 
papers  in  Kentucky.  In  1904  he  became 
special  writer  and  editor  of  the  humor- 
ous section  of  the  New  York  "Evening 
Sun."  For  several  years  following  he 
served  as  a  correspondent  of  other  New 
York  papers.  In  1911  he  became  staff 
contributor  to  the  "Saturday  Evening 
Post,"  and  in  1914-1915,  and  again  in 
1917-1918  he  represented  that  publica- 
tion as  war  correspondent  in  Europe.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer  and  was  also  well- 
known  as  a  lecturer.  He  wrote  also,  in 
collaboration  with  others,  several  plays. 
His  books  include:  "Back  Home"  (1912)  ; 
"Europe  Revised"  (1914)  ;  "Paths  of 
Glory"  (1915);  "Old  Judge  Priest" 
(1915);  "Those  Times  and  These" 
(1917)  ;  "The  Life  of  the  Party"  (1919) ; 
"The  Abandoned  Farmers"  (1920). 

COBB,  SYLVANUS,  an  American 
novelist;  born  in  Waterville,  Me.,  1823; 
was  editor  and  publisher  of  a  periodical 
called  the  "Rechabite,"  but  best  known  as 
a  prolific  story-writer.  His  most  popu- 
lar novels  are:  "The  King's  Talisman" 
(1851);  "The  Patriot  Cruiser"  (1859); 
and  "Ben  Hamed"  (1864).  He  died  in 
Hyde  Park,  Mass.,  July  2,  1887. 

COBBE,  FRANCES  POWER,  an  Irish 

writer;  born  in  Dublin,  Dec.  4,  1822.  She 
has  written  "Intuitive  Morals"  (1855)  ; 
"Religious  Duty,"  "Hours  of  Work  and 
Play"  (1867)  ;  "Duties  of  Women";  "The 
Hopes  of  the  Human  Race,  Hereafter  and 
Here";  "Scientific  Speculations  of  the 
Age"  (1888).  Wrote  extensively  on 
theological  and  humanitarian  questions 
and  books  of  travels  in  Greece,  Italy,  and 
Palestine.     Died  April  5,  1904. 

COBBETT.  WILLIAM,  an  English 
essayist  and  political  writer;  born  in 
Farnham,  March  9,  1762.  The  son  of  a 
farm  hand,  he  had  no  early  advantages, 
but  a  great  gift  for  controversy;  and  he 
plunged  warmly  into  the  social,  economic, 
and  political  discussions  of  his  day.  He 
visited  this  country,  and  wrote  here  for 
a  time  under  the  name  of  "Peter  Porcu- 
pine." He  is  at  his  best  in  his  countloss 
pamphlets,   and   in   "The   Political   Pro- 


COBDEN 


36 


COBRA 


teus,"  "Legacy  to  Laborers,"  and  "Ad- 
vice to  Young  Men."  He  died  near 
Farnham  in  June,  1835. 

COBDEN,  mCHABD,  an  English  poli- 
tician, the  "Apostle  of  Free  Trade,"  born 
in  Sussex,  June  3,  1804.  After  receiving 
a  meager  education  he  was  taken  as  an 
apprentice  into  a  warehouse  in  London 
where  he  made  up  for  the  defects  of  his 
education  by  diligent  self-tuition.  In 
1830  along  with  some  relatives  he  started 
a  cotton  manufactory  in  Manchester, 
which  in  a  few  years  was  very  successful. 
His  first  political  writing  was  a  pamphlet 
on  England,  Ireland,  and  America,  which 
was  followed  by  another  on  Russia.     In 


RICHARD   COBDEN 

these  he  advocated  non-intervention  in 
the  disputes  of  other  nations,  and  main- 
taining it  to  be  the  foreign  policy  of  Eng- 
land to  increase  and  strengthen  her  con- 
nections with  foreign  countries  in  the 
way  of  trade  and  peaceful  intercourse. 
Having  joined  the  Anti-Corn-Law 
League,  formed  in  1838,  it  was  chiefly  his 
efforts,  together  with  Bright  and  other 
zealous  fellow-workers,  which  won  victory 
for  the  movement. 

In  1841  Cobden  entered  Parliament  as 
member  for  Stockport,  and  after  several 
years'  effort  induced  Sir  Robert  Peel,  then 
prime  minister,  to  bring  in  a  bill  for  the 
repeal  of  the  com  laws  in  1846.  Next 
year  h«  was  chosen  member  for  the  West 


Riding  of  York,  a  constituency  which  he 
represented  for  10  years.  His  business 
had  suffered  while  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  agitation,  and  as  a  compensation  a 
national  subscription  was  made,  and  a 
sum  of  about  $350,000  presented  to  hini. 
In  1859  he  was  chosen  member  for  Roch- 
dale and  declined,  for  the  second  time, 
a  place  in  the  government.  He  refused 
also  a  baronetcy  and  several  other  dig- 
nities. His  last  great  work  was  the 
commercial  treaty  which  he  was  the 
means  of  bringing  about  between  Great 
Britain  and  France  in  1860.  He  died  in 
London,  April  2,  1865. 

COBHAM,   LORD.      See   Oldcastle. 

COBIJAI  (k5-be'),  or  PUERTO  LA 
MAR,  a  L.  aport  formerly  belonging  to 
Bolivia,  now  in  the  territory  of  Anto- 
fagasta,  Chile. 

COBLE,  or  COBBLE,  a  low  flat-floored 
boat  with  a  square  stem,  used  in  salmon- 
fishery. 

COBLENZ  (anciently  Conflv^ntes, 
from  its  situation  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Rhine  and  Moselle),  a  fortified  town 
of  Germany,  capital  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
finely  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine  in  the  angle  between  it  and  the 
Moselle,  and  connected  by  a  pontoon- 
bridge  over  the  Rhine  with  the  fortress  of 
Ehrenbreitstein ;  this,  along  with  its  other 
fortifications  is  capable  of  accommodat- 
ing 100,000  men.  The  palace  of  the 
Elector  of  Treves  was  a  Prussian  royal 
residence.  Its  industries  before  the 
World  War  embraced  cigars,  machinery, 
champagne-wines,  pianos,  and  it  had  an 
important  trade  in  Rhine  and  Moselle 
wines.  Coblenz  was  the  headquarters 
of  the  American  Army  of  Occupation, 
following  the  Armistice  of  November, 
1918.    Pop.  about  60,000. 

COB  NUT,  a  large  variety  of  hazelnut. 

COBOURG,  a  town,  port  of  entry,  and 
county-seat  of  Northumberland  co.,  On- 
tario, Canada;  on  Lake  Ontario,  and  the 
Grand  Trunk  railroad;  69  miles  N.  E. 
of  Toronto.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Wesleyan 
university,  and  has  several  woolen  mills, 
car  factory,  foundries,  newspapers, 
banks,  and  schools.    Pop.  about  6,000. 

COBRA,  or  COBRA  DE  CAPELLO,  a 

species  of  snake,  the  Coluber  Naja  of 
Linnaeus,  now  called  Naja  or  Naia  tri- 
piidians.  It  belongs  to  the  family 
Viperidae.  The  head  has  nine  plates  be- 
hind and  is  broad,  the  neck  is  very  ex- 
pansile, covering  the  head  like  a  hood, 
the  tail  round.  The  color  is  brown  above 
and  bluish-white  beneath.  When  the  disk 
is  dilated  the  hinder  part  of  it  exhibits 
dark  markings  like  a  pair  of  spectacles 


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COBURG  37 

leversed,  whence  it  is  sometimes  called 
the  spectacle  snake.  The  common  name 
is,  however,  the  Portuguese  one,  Cobra, 
C.  capella,  C.  de  or  di  capello.  It  is  from 
two  to  four  or  even  six  feet  long,  is  com- 
mon in  India,  and  is  so  venomous  that  it 


cocco 


COBRA 

causes  the  death  of  more  people  than 
does  the  tiger.  Notwithstanding  this,  it 
is  kept  in  various  temples,  fed  with  milk 
and    sugar,    and    worshiped. 

COBURG,  a  thin  fabric  of  worsted  and 
cotton,  or  worsted  and  silk,  twilled  on 
one  side,  for  ladies'  dresses,  intended  as 
a  substitute  for  merino. 

COBURG,  the  name  of  a  family  in 
Germany,  dating  from  the  5th  century, 
noted  for  intermarriages  with  royal 
houses,  especially  during  the  19th  cen- 
tury. A  sister  of  Duke  Ernest  I.  be- 
came Duchess  of  Kent  and  mother  of 
Queen  Victoria;  the  duke's  brother  Leo- 
pold became  King  of  the  Belgians,  and 
married  in  succession  daughters  of 
George  IV.  of  England  and  of  Louis 
Philippe;  one  of  his  nephews,  Ferdinand, 
married  the  Queen  of  Portugal,  and  was 
regent  of  that  kingdom,  1853;  another, 
August,  married  a  daughter  of  Louis 
Philippe;  one  of  his  sons,  Duke  Ernest 
11.,  declined  the  crown  of  Greece,  1863, 
and  another.  Prince  Albert,  was  the  hus- 
band of  his  cousin.  Queen  Victoria,  of 
England. 

COBURG  PENINSULA,  a  peninsula 
on  the  N.  coast  of  Australia  in  the 
northern  territory  of  South  Australia. 

COBURN,  FOSTER  DWIGHT,  an 
American  agriculturalist  and  public  of- 
ficial, born  in  Jefferson  co..  Wis.,  in  1846. 
He  was  educated  in  the  common  schools. 
After  serving  in  the  Civil  War  he  be- 


came a  farmer  and  stock  raiser  in  Frank- 
lin CO.,  Kan.  In  1882  he  was  secretary 
of  the  Kansas  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  from  1894  to  1914  was  editor 
of  the  Kansas  City  "Live-Stock  In- 
dicator." He  was  chief  of  the  depart- 
ment of  live  stock  at  the  St.  Louis  Ex- 
position and  was  for  many  years  a  re- 
gent of  the  State  Agricultural  College. 
He  was  one  of  the  foremost  authorities 
in  agricultural  matters  in  the  United 
States.  In  1906  he  was  appointed  United 
States  Senator  from  Kansas,  but  declined 
the  appointment.  He  served  as  chair- 
man of  the  Draft  Appeal  Board  of  the 
1st  district  of  Kansas,  in  1917.  His 
works  include:  "Swine  Husbandry"; 
"The  Book  of  Alfalfa";  "Swine  in 
America,"  and  over  30  volumes  on  agri- 
culture published  by  the  State  of 
Kansas. 

COBWEB,  the  web  or  network  spun 
by  spiders  to  catch  their  prey. 

COCA,  the  dried  leaf  of  Erythroxylon 
Coca,  a  shrub,  4-8  feet  high,  growing 
wild  in  Peru,  and  cultivated  there  on  the 
Andes,  between  2,000  and  5,000  feet  high. 
It  is  used  chiefly  by  the  Peruvian  miners, 
who  chew  its  leaves  mixed  with  the 
ashes  of  Chenopodium  qninoa.  It  is  said 
to  give  them  great  power  of  enduring  fa- 
tigue on  a  scanty  supply  of  food.  The 
officinal  preparation  in  the  United  States 
is  fluid  extract  of  coca. 

COCAINE,  an  alkaloid  obtained  from 
the  leaves  of  coca.  A  new  and  most  im- 
portant discovery  to  the  medical  profes- 
sion was  made  in  1884,  through  pure  ac- 
cident, by  a  German  student  who  had 
occasion  to  experiment  with  hydrochlo- 
rate  of  Cocaine.  Getting  some  by  acci- 
dent in  his  eye,  he  was  amazed  to  find 
that  it  caused  the  surface  to  become  in- 
sensible to  all  feeling.  The  remedy  has 
already  been  widely  employed  by  oph- 
thalmic surgeons,  with  brilliant  results. 
Nor  has  its  use  been  confined  to  the  eye. 
When  applied  locally  to  the  interior  of 
the  larynx,  to  the  ear  (in  severe  neu- 
ralgia), and  to  other  delicate  membranes, 
its  effect  is  the  same;  pain  and  irrita- 
bility are  relieved,  and  the  surgeon  is  en- 
abled to  accomplish  his  purpose  without 
causing  any  suffering  in  cases  where 
general  anaesthesia  is  not  desirable.  Co- 
caine is  one  of  the  drugs  most  commonly 
employed  by  drug  addicts,  and  its  sale  is 
carefully  safeguarded  in  most  States. 
See  Drug  Addiction. 

COCCO,  coco  ROOT,  or  EDDOES. 
plants  of  the  genus  Colocasia,  and  of  the 
nearly  allied  genus  Caladhtyn,  of  the  or- 
der A)rtceie,  widely  cultivated  in  trop- 
ical and  subtropical  countries  for  their 
ediblo  starchy  root-stocks,  of  which  the 


COCCOLOBA 


38 


COCHIN 


food  value  broadly  corresponds  to  the 
potato.  They  are  sometimes  included 
under  the  name  Yam,  but  are  totally 
different  from  the  true  yam.  The  names 
more  strictly  belong  to  Colocasia  anti- 
qnorutn,  a  stemless  plant  with  ovate 
leaves,  and  flowers  inclosed  in  a  cylindri- 
cal erect  spathe.  This  is  a  native  of 
India,  but  was  early  introduced  to 
Egypt  and  the  Mediterranean  countries, 
whence  it  has  now  passed  even  to  Amer- 
ica. C.  esculenta,  C.  macrorhiza,  or  tara, 
and  C.  Himalensis  are  also  of  economic 
importance  in  different  parts  of  the 
world. 

COCCOLOBA,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
Polygonacese.  C.  %ivifera  is  the  seaside 
grape,  which  grows  on  the  shores  of  the 
West  Indian  Islands,  Bermuda,  and  on 
the  American  continent.  It  has  large 
glossy  green  leaves  with  red  veins.  The 
berries  are  eatable.  It  is  an  evergreen. 
The  wood  is  used  for  cabinet  work.  A 
red  coloring  matter  in  it  is  employed  as  a 
dye.  The  wood,  leaves,  and  bark  are 
astringent,  and  a  decoction  of  them 
evaporated  forms  Jamaica  Kino. 

COCCOMILIA,  a  kind  of  plum  growing 
in  Calabria,  the  bark  of  which — especially 
of  the  root — is  highly  esteemed  by  the 
Neapolitan  faculty  for  its  virtues  in  in- 
termittent fever. 

COCCOSTEUS,  a  genus  of  fossil 
placoganoid  fishes,  pertaining  chiefly  to 
the  Devonian  and  Old  Red  Sandstone 
system,  but  met  with  also  in  Silurian 
strata.  The  head  was  protected  by  a 
great  shield  covered  with  tubercles.  Be- 
sides this  bony  cuirass  there  was  also  a 
ventral  shield,  but  the  rest  of  the  body 
was  naked.  The  mouth  was  furnished 
with  small  teeth. 

COCCULUS,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
Menispermaeese.  In  general  the  species 
are  bitter  febrifuges,  C.  crispus,  a  twin- 
ing species  with  tubercles  or  warts  on 
the  stem,  found  in  Sumatra  and  the  Mo- 
lucca Islands,  is  used  by  the  Malays  in 
intermittent  fevers.  The  root  of  what 
was  formerly  called  C.  palmatus,  but 
is  now  designated  Jateoi'hiza  palmata, 
found  in  Mozambique  and  Oibo,  is  the 
calumba-root  of  commerce,  from  which  a 
bitter  is  obtained.  A  decoction  of  the 
fresh  roots  of  C.  villosus  is  administered 
by  the  Hindus  in  rheumatism  and  old 
venereal  complaints.  An  ink  is  made 
j'rom  its  fruit.  In  Arabia  a  spirit  is 
distilled  from  the  acrid  berries  of  C. 
Cebatha. 

COCCULUS  INDICUS,  a  popular  name 
given  to  a  species  of  Menispermacese, 
which  furnishes  certain  dried  berries 
constituting    an    article    of    commerce. 


They  are  imported  from  the  East  Indies. 
There  is  no  botanical  species  with  this 
exact  name.  The  drupe  resembles  a 
round  berry,  the  size  of  a  pea  or  larger, 
wrinkled  externally,  and  with  a  brittle 
husk.  The  kernel  is  intensely  bitter.  It 
contains  about  one-fiftieth  of  its  weight 
of  a  powerful  bitter  narcotic  poison 
called  picrotoxin.  C.  indiciis  is  a  deadly 
poison,  is  used  to  give  a  bitter  taste  to 
beer,  and  is  thrown  into  rivers  to  kill 
the  fish.  It  has  been  used  in  form  of 
ointment  in  certain  skin  diseases.  They 
are  commonly  known  in  the  United 
States  as  fish-berries. 

COCCUS,  the  typical  genus  of  the 
family  Coccidse.  Many  species  are  hurt- 
ful to  plants  in  greenhouses  and  else- 
where. Gardeners  call  them  bugs.  C. 
adonidum  (the  mealy  bug)  does  damage 
in  hothouses,  as  does  C.  testudo.  C.  vitis 
(the  vine-scale)  injures  vines,  and  C. 
hespeHdum  oranges.  Others,  however, 
are  of  value  as  dyes.  C.  Cacti,  found  on 
the  cactuses,  is  the  cochineal  insect.  C. 
Ilicis,  found  on  quercus  coccifera,  an 
evergreen  oak  in  the  S.  of  France,  fur- 
nishes a  crimson  dye  which  has  long 
been  known  to  mankind.  C.  polonicus  is 
used  by  the  Turks  as  a  red  dye.  C.  laeca 
yields  lac. 

COCCYX,  the  lowermost  portion  of 
the  vertebral  column,  consisting  of  four, 
or  more  rarely  five  or  three,  divided 
terminal  vertebra,  which  become  more 
or  less  united  into  one  with  the  ad- 
vance of  age.  They  have  been  called 
united  vertebrje. 

COCHABAMBA,  a  central  department 
of  Bolivia,  with  offshoots  of  the  Eastern 
Cordilleras,  and  extensive  plateaus.  The 
climate  is  equable  and  healthy,  and 
though  poor  in  metals,  its  fertile  valleys 
render  it  the  richest  as  well  as  the  most 
picturesque  district  of  the  republic.  Ag- 
riculture and  cattle-raising  are  the  chief 
occupations.  Area,  21,430  square  miles; 
pop.  about  730,000.  The  capital,  Cocha- 
bamba  (8,396  feet  above  the  sea),  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Guapay,  was  founded  in 
1565,  as  Ciudad  de  Oropesa. 

COCHIN,  a  seaport  of  Hindustan,  in 
the  Malabar  district  of  the  Madras 
presidency;  on  a  small  island;  a  pic- 
turesque place  with  many  quaint  old 
Dutch  buildings.  Its  harbor,  though 
sometimes  inaccessible  during  the  S.  W. 
monsoon,  is  the  best  on  this  coast.  Co- 
chin was  one  of  the  first  places  in  India 
visited  by  Europeans.  In  1502  Vasco  da 
Gama  established  a  factory,  and  soon 
after  Albuquerque  built  a  fort;  he  also 
died  here  in  1524.  In  1663  the  Dutch 
took  the  place,  in  1795  the  British.  Pop. 
about  20,000. 


COCHIN  39 

COCHIN,  a  small  native  state  of  India, 
on  the  S.  W.  or  Malabar  coast,  connected 
with  the  presidency  of  Madras,  inter- 
sected by  numerous  rapid  streams.  Chief 
products:  Timber,  rice.  Area,  1,361 
square  miles;  pop.  about  1,000,000,  partly 
belonging  to  the  Jacobite  and  Nestorian 
Churches  established  here  in  early  times. 
The  capital  is  Ernakolam. 

COCHIN  CHINA,  a  country  forming 
part  of  the  peninsula  of  southeastern 
Asia,  and  generally  regarded  as  com- 
prising the  whole  of  Anam  {q.  v.)  and 
Lower  or  French  Cochin  China.  The 
latter  belonged  to  Anam  till,  in  1863,  a 
portion  of  it  was  ceded  to  France  after 
a  war  occasioned  by  the  persecution  of 
French  missionaries;  another  portion 
being  declared  French  territory  in  1867. 
The  territory  thus  acquired  covers  about 
20,000  square  miles.  Pop.  about  3,- 
050,785.  It  is  now  organized  into  four 
provinces  and  21  arrondissements  In 
the  low  and  wet  grounds  much  rice  is 
grown.  In  the  more  elevated  districts 
are  grown  tobacco,  sugar-cane,  maize, 
indigo,  and  betel.  Among  the  other 
products  are  tea,  gums,  cocoanut  oil,  silk, 
spices. 

Industrial  arts  are  as  yet  limited 
among  the  natives.  But  they  excel  in 
the  use  of  wood,  of  which  their  temples, 
pagodas,  and  tombs  are  built,  being  or- 
namented with  elaborate  carving.  They 
live  in  villages  adjacent  to  the  rivers, 
which  form  the  chief  means  of  com- 
munication. The  principal  export  is  rice, 
mainly  to  China;  cotton  and  silk  are  also 
exported.  The  majority  of  the  inhabit- 
ants are  Anamese.  In  their  monosylla- 
bic language,  their  religious  tendencies 
toward  Buddhism  or  the  system  of  Con- 
fucius, and  in  their  social  customs  they 
much  resemble  the  Chinese.  Upper  Co- 
chin China  is  the  name  sometimes  given 
to  the  narrow  strip  of  land  on  the  E. 
coast  of  Anam  between  the  mountains 
and  the  sea  extending  from  Tonquin  on 
the  N.  to  Champa  on  the  S.,  or  from 
about  18°  to  11°  N.  In  the  World 
War  of  1914-1918  Anamite  troops 
fought  with  the  French  in  the  Balkan 
campaigns. 

COCHIN,  HENRY  DENYS  BENOIT 
MARIE.  A  French  author,  born  in 
Paris  in  1854.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Lycee  Louis-le-Grand,  graduating  in  lit- 
erature and  law.  During  the  Franco- 
German  war  he  was  a  volunteer  in  the 
17th  batallion  of  the  Garde  Nationale. 
In  1877  he  became  attache  to  the  Minis- 
ter of  the  Interior;  and  deputy  in  1893, 
remaining  in  the  Chamber  till  1914,  when 
he  retired  in  favor  of  his  son.  For  four 
years  he  was  Conseiller  General  of  the 
North.    His  works  include:    "Giulietta  et 


COCKATOO 


Romdo,"  "Le  Manuscrit  de  M.  Larson- 
nier,"  "Boccace,"  "Un  Ami  de  Pt- 
trarque,"  "Le  Frere  de  Petrarque,"  "La 
Vita  Nuova  de  Dante  traduite  et  com- 
nient^e,"  "Tableaux  flamands,"  "Jubiles 
d'ltalie,"  "Lamartine  et  la  Flandre," 
"Les  deux  Guerres,"  "L'CEuvre  de  guerre 
du  peintre  Albert  Besnard,"  this  last 
appearing  in  1918. 

COCHINEAL,  a  dye-stuff  employed  in 
dyeing  scarlet  and  crimson;  consists  of 
the  bodies  of  the  females  of  a  species  of 
Coccus,  called  C.  cacti,  because  it  feeds 
upon  plants  of  the  Cactus  family,  par- 
ticularly on  one,  therefore  designated  the 
cochineal  plant.  The  cochineal  insect  is 
a  small  creature,  a  pound  of  Cochineal 
being  calculated  to  contain  70,000  in  a 
dried  state.  The  male  is  of  a  deep  red 
color,  and  has  white  wings.  The  female, 
which  is  wingless,  is  of  a  deep  brownish 
color.  When  a  plantation  of  the  cochi- 
neal plant  has  been  formed  the  culti- 
vator {nopalero)  procures  branches 
laden  with  cochineal  insects  and  after 
the  eggs  are  laid  places  the  females  with 
the  eggs  which  they  cover  in  nests  of  a 
soft  substance  upon  the  cochineal  plants, 
and  the  young  insects,  when  hatched, 
soon  spread  over  them.  The  insects  are 
killed  by  boiling  water,  by  heating  them 
in  ovens,  or  by  exposure  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun.  They  must  be  speedily  killed 
to  prevent  them  from  laying  their  eggs, 
which  diminishes  their  value. 

COCHINEAL  FIG,  a  name  given  to 
Opuntia  cochinillifera  and  two  other 
species  of  cacti,  natives  of  Mexico  and 
the  West  Indies,  the  plants  on  which  the 
cochineal  insect  lives. 

COCHLEA  (kok'le-a),  an  important 
part  of  the  internal  ear,  so  called  from 
its  shape,  which  resembles  that  of  a 
snail-shell. 

COCHLEARIA,  a  genus  of  cruciferous 
plants,  including  the  horse-radish  and 
common  scurvy-grass. 

COCKADE,  a  plume  of  cock's  feathers 
with  which  the  Croats  in  the  service  of 
the  French  in  the  17th  century  adorned 
their  caps.  A  bow  of  colored  ribbon  was 
adopted  for  the  cockade  in  France,  and 
during  the  French  revolution  the  tri- 
colored  cockade — red,  white,  and  blue — 
became  the  National  distinction.  Na- 
tional cockades  are  now  to  be  found  over 
all  Europe. 

COCKATOO  (Plyctolophus) ,  a  genus 
of  birds  of  the  pari'ot  family,  but  distin- 
guished from  true  parrots  by  the  greater 
heights  of  the  bill,  and  its  being  curved 
from  the  base,  and  by  the  lengthened, 
broad,  and  rounded  tail.  A  crest  of  long 
and  pointed  feathers  can  be  erected  and 


COCKATRICE 

expanded  like  a  fan.  The  true  cocka- 
toos are  also  all  of  generally  whitish 
plumage,   but   often    finely   tinged   with 


COCKATOO 

1.    Roseate  Cockatoo. 

S.    Head  of  Black  Cockatoo. 

red,  orange,  and  other  colors,  or  mixed 
with  these  colors. 

COCKATRICE,  a  fabulous  monster 
anciently  believed  to  be  hatched  from  a 
cock's  egg.  It  is  often  simply  another 
name  for  the  basilisk. 

COCKBURN,  SIR  ALEXANDER,  an 

English  jurist;  born  Dec.  24,  1802; 
studied  at  Cambridge;  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1829,  and  soon  became  distin- 
guished as  a  pleader  before  Parliamen- 
tary committees.  In  1847  he  became  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  Southampton  in 
the  Liberal  interest;  became  Solicitor- 
General  and  was  knighted  in  1850;  was 
made  Chief-Justice  of  the  Common 
Pleas  in  1856;  and  Lord  Chief -Justice  in 
1859.  He  presided  at  the  Tichborne  and 
other  famous  trials.  He  represented 
Great  Britain  at  the  Geneva  arbitration 
in  the  "Alabama"  case.  He  died  Nov. 
20,  1880. 

COCK  CHAFER,  the  popular  name  of 
a  lamellicorn  beetle,  Melolontha  vulgaris, 
found  in  England.  The  larvae  are  found 
in  dung  or  in  decaying  vegetable  matter 
or  buried  in  the  ground. 


40  COCKRAN 

COCKER,  a  dog  of  the  spaniel  kin^, 
allied  to  the  Blenheim  dog,  used  for  rais- 
ing woodcocks  and  snipes  from  their 
haunts  in  woods  and  marshes. 

COCK-FIGHTING,  an  amusement 
practiced  in  various  countries,  first  per- 
haps among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  At 
Athens  there  were  annual  cock-fights, 
and  among  the  Romans  quails  and 
partridges  were  also  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. It  was  formerly  a  popular  sport 
with  the  British.  In  Cuba  and  the  Phil- 
ippines it  enjoys  great  favor.  Cock- 
fighting  is  generally  prohibited  by  local 
laws  in  the  United  States. 

COCKLE,  a  plant.  Lychnis  Githago, 
formerly  called  agrostemma  githago.  Its 
fuller  English  name  is  corn-cockle.  It  is 
an  erect-branched  plant,  between  one  and 
two  feet  high  with  large  purple  flowers. 

It  is  also  the  popular  name  of  the 
shells  classed  by  naturalists  under  the 
genus  Cardium,  or  the  family  Cardiadse. 
The  most  common  one  is  C.  edule;  it  is 
the  one  to  which  the  name  cockle  is  most 
frequently  applied. 

COCK  OF  THE  PLAINS  (Centrocer- 
cus  urcypJiasidnus) ,  a  large  North  Amer- 
ican species  of  grouse,  inhabiting  deso- 
late plains  in  the  W.  States. 

COCK  OF  THE  ROCK  {Rupicola 
aurantia),  a  South  American  bird  of  a 
rich  orange  color  with  a  beautiful  crest, 
belonging  to  the  manakin  family. 


COCK  OF  THE  WOODS.  See  CAPER- 
CAILZIE. 

COCKPIT,  in  a  ship  of  war,  the  name 
still  given  to  the  compartment  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  ship  where  the  wounded 
are  attended  to  during  action. 

COCKRAN,  WILLIAM  BOURKE,  an 

American  lawyer  and  public  official,  born 
in  Sligo,  Ireland,  in  1854.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  France  and  Ireland  and  at 
Georgetown  College,  from  which  he  grad- 
uated in  1900.  After  his  removal  to 
the  United  States  in  1871  he  taught 
school  in  Westchester  co.,  N.  Y.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1876  and  soon 
became  prominent  in  New  York  politics. 
He  was  delegate  to  many  conventions, 
where  he  became  well  known  as  an 
orator.  He  opposed  the  nomination  of 
Grover  Cleveland  in  1884  and  1892.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  52d  and  53d  Con- 
gresses. In  1896  he  opposed  the  silver 
wing  of  the  party  and  supported 
McKinley  for  president.  He  returned  to 
the  Democratic  party,  however,  in  1900, 
supporting  William  J.  Bryan.  He  was 
elected  to  the  58th  Congress  in  1904,  but 
later  resigned.  He  was  re-elected  to  the 
59th     and    60th     Congresses,    declining 


COCKROACH 


41 


CODDINGTON 


re-election,  but  resumed  law  practice  in 
New  York.  He  was  a  conspicuous  figure 
at  the  Democratic  National  Convention 
in  1920  and  made  the  speech  nominating 
James  M.  Cox  for  presidency. 

COCKROACH,  generally,  any  insect 
of  the  family  Blattidse,  or  at  least,  of 
the  genus  Blatta;  and  specially,  the  B. 
orientates,  so  common  in  houses,  partic- 
ularly in  seaport  towns.  The  cockroach 
is  said  to  have  come  originally  from 
India,  through  the  Levant.  It  is  noctur- 
nal in  its  habits.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
in  horny  cases,  in  which  they  are  ar- 
ranged with  much  regularity,  in  two 
rows,  with  a  central  partition,  and 
smaller  ones  isolating  each  egg  from  the 
other. 

COCKSCOMB,  the  comb  of  a  cock,  be- 
ing a  sort  of  ensign  or  token  which  the 
fool  was  accustomed  to  wear.  Also  a 
name  sometimes  given  to  Celosia  cynstata. 
The  flowers  are  astringent  and  are  pre- 
scribed in  Asia  in  cases  of  diarrhoea, 
blennorrhoea,  excessive  menstrual  dis- 
charges, hsematesis,  and  similar  disor- 
ders. 

COCK'S-FOCT  GRASS  (Dactylis),  a 
genus  of  grasses,  closely  allied  to  fescue. 
The  common  or  rough  cock's-foot  grass 
(D.  glomerata)  is  a  native  of  both 
palaearctic  and  nearctic  regions,  and  is 
very  abundant  in  Great  Britain.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  called  orchard  grass, 
and  is  extensively  cultivated.  To  this 
genus  belongs  also  the  tussac  grass. 

COCLES,  HORATIUS,  a  hero  of  an- 
cient Rome,  who  alone,  in  506  B.  c,  op- 
posed the  whole  army  of  Porsenna  at 
the  head  of  a  bridge,  while  his  com- 
panions were  destroying  it  behind  him. 
This  effected,  though  wounded,  he  leaped 
into  the  Tiber  and  swam  safely  across. 

COCOA.    See  Cacao. 

COCOANUT,  a  woody  fruit  of  an  oval 
shape,  from  3  or  4  to  6  or  8  inches  in 
length,  covered  with  a  fibrous  husk,  and 
lined  internally  with  a  white,  firm,  and 
fleshy  kernel.  The  tree  (Cocos  nucifera) 
which  produces  the  cocoanut  is  a  palm, 
from  40  to  60  feet  high.  The  nuts  hang 
from  the  summit  of  the  tree  in  clusters 
of  a  dozen  or  more  together.  The  ex- 
ternal rind  of  the  nuts  has  a  smooth 
surface.  This  incloses  an  extremely 
fibrous  substance,  which  immediately 
surrounds  the  nut.  The  latter  has  a  thick 
and  hard  shell,  with  three  black  scars  at 
one  end,  through  one  of  which  the  em- 
bryo of  the  future  tree  pushes  its  way. 
The  kernel  incloses  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  sweet  and  watery  liquid. 

This  palm  is  a  native  of  Africa,  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  and  South  Amer- 


ica, and  is  now  grown  almost  every- 
where in  tropical  countries.  The  kernels 
are  used  as  food  and  yield  a  valuable  oil. 
When  dried  before  the  oil  is  expressed 
they  are  known  as  copra.  The  fibrous 
coat  of  the  nut  is  made  into  the  well- 
known  cocoanut  matting;  the  coarse 
yarn  obtained  from  it  is  called  coir, 
which  is  also  used  for  cordage.  The 
hard  shell  of  the  nut  furnishes  cups  and 
utensils.  The  fronds  are  wrought  into 
baskets,  mats,  sacks;  the  trunks  are 
made  into  boats  or  furnish  timber  for  ^ 
houses.  By  boring  the  tree  a  white 
sweetish  liquor  called  toddy  exudes  from 
the  wound,  and  yields  by  distillation  one 
of  the  varieties  of  the  spirit  called  arack. 
A  kind  of  sugar  called  jagge^-y  is  also 
obtained  from  the  juice  by  inspissation. 

COCOANUT      BEETLE  (Batocera 

rubus),  a  large  longicorn  beetle,  the 
larvae  of  which  are  very  destructive  in 
cocoanut  plantations.  They  are  desti- 
tute of  feet,  large  and  pulpy,  and  of  re- 
pulsive aspect;  but  are  esteemed  a  lux- 
ury by  the  coolies  of  the  East. 

COCO  DE  MER  (also  called  Sea  or 
Maldive  Double  Cocoanut),  the  fruit  of 
the  Lodo'icea  Seychellamm  palm.  Its 
double  kernel  has  long  had  an  extraordi- 
nary value  in  the  East  as  a  poison  anti- 
dote. The  tree  on  which  it  grows  is  pecul- 
iar to  some  of  the  Seychelles  Islands, 
reaches  a  height  of  100  feet,  and  has 
very  large  fern-like  leaves, 

COCOON,  the  silken  sheath  spun  by 
the  larvae  of  many  insects  in  passing  into 
the  pupa  or  resting  stage.  The  cocoon 
proper  is  due  to  the  secretion  of  special 
spinning  glands,  situated  anteriorly  or 
posteriorly,  but  larval  hairs  and  foreign 
objects  of  many  kinds  may  also  be 
utilized.  The  most  typical  and  perfect 
cocoons  are  those  of  many  moths,  a 
familiar  example  being  that  of  the  silk- 
worm. 

COD,  a  fish  of  the  family  Gadidse, 
almost  rivaling  the  herring  in  its  im- 
portance to  mankind.  The  roe  of  the 
female  has  been  estimated  to  contain 
4,000,000  to  9,000,000  eggs,  which,  when 
expelled,  float  on  the  surface  of  the 
ocean.  The  cod  is  found  in  all  northern 
parts  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  and  in  the 
Arctic  seas.      See  Cod-Liver  Oil. 

CODA,  in  music,  an  adjunct  to  the 
close  of  a  composition,  for  the  purpose 
of  enforcing  the  final  character  of  the 
movement. 

CODDINGTON,  WILLIAM,  the  found- 
er of  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island;  born 
in  England,  in  1601,  and  arrived  in 
Massachusetts  in  1630.     He  remained  in 


CODE 

Boston  for  several  years,  but  disagree- 
ments with  the  authorities  caused  him  to 
remove  in  1638  to  Aquidneck,  or  Rhode 
Island,  where  he  founded  a  colony  to  be 
governed  "by  the  laws  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ."  This  scheme  was  soon  aban- 
doned, and  in  1640  he  himself  was  chosen 
governor.  He  was  unable  to  secure  the 
reception  of  Rhode  Island  into  the  colo- 
nial confederacy.  In  1674  and  1675  he 
was  again  elected  governor.  He  died  in 
1678. 

CODE,  a  systematic  collection  or  digest 
of  laws,  classified  and  simplified. 

(1)  Code  Napoleon — The  name  given 
to  a  code  promulgated  in  France  in  1804, 
originally  under  the  name  of  Code  Civil 
des  Frangais,  but  altered  to  Code  Napo- 
leon under  Bonaparte. 

(2)  Code  of  Justinian. — [Named  after 
Justinian,  who  was  born  of  obscure 
parentage  in  A.  D.  482  or  483;  became 
emperor  at  Constantinople,  April,  527; 
added  Italy  and  Africa  to  his  empire,  and 
died  Nov.  15,  565.]  A  code  of  law 
drawn  up  under  the  auspices  of  the  Em- 
peror Justinian.  In  April,  529,  was  is- 
sued a  compilation  of  useful  laws  or  con- 
stitutions from  Hadrian  to  Justinian.  In 
December,  534,  a  revised  code  was  pub- 
lished, and  was  accorded  the  force  of 
law.  It  was  called  "Codex  Justinianus 
repetitae  praelectionis."  In  December, 
533,  a  commission,  headed  by  the  cele- 
brated jurist,  Trebonius,  published  an 
elaborate  work  called  "Digestse"  (things 
digested),  and  "Pandectae"  (embracing 
all).  This  also  received  the  force  of  law. 
Just  before  the  Digest  appeared,  there 
came  first,  by  direction  of  Justinian,  an 
abstract  of  the  greater  work.  To  this 
was  given  the  name  of  "Institutiones." 
New  laws  subsequently  enacted  were  pub- 
lished under  the  name  of  Novae  or  Con- 
stitutiones  Novellae,  or  Authenticae.  They 
are  often  quoted  as  his  "Novels."  The 
expression,  "Code  of  Justinian,"  com- 
prehends the  "Code"  properly  so  called, 
the  "Institutes,"  the  "Digest,"  and  the 
"Novels."  The  Code  of  Justinian  is  a 
very  essential  part  of  the  civil  law. 

(3)  Code  of  Theodosius. — [Named 
after  Theodosius  II.,  generally  called  the 
younger,  who  was  born  on  April  10,  A.  D. 
401,  and  died  emperor  at  Constantinople 
on  July  28,  450.]  The  Code  of  Theodo- 
sius (Codex  Theodosianus)  was  a  collec- 
tion of  laws  published  in  his  reign.  They 
acquired  legislative  force  in  A.  d.  438. 

(4)  In  the  United  States. — The  acts 
of  Congress  have  been  codified  and  are 
spoken  of  as  the  United  States  Code,  and 
in  each  State  the  acts  of  the  different 
legislatures  are  usually  annually  printed 
and  periodically  codified. 


42  CODEX 

Social  Economy. — Any  set  of  by-lawa 
or  of  ethical  rules  or  customs  governing 
conduct  of  the  members  of  a  profession 
or  any  special  branch  of  the  body  politic, 
as  the  medical  code,  the  naval  code,  etc. 

Cipher  Code. — A  system  of  arbitrary 
words  to  designate  prearranged  or  pre- 
determined words,  figures  or  sentences. 
See  Cipher  Writing:  Codex. 

CODEIA,  CODEINA,  or  CODEINE 
(C18H21NO3  or  CKH,s(CHa  NO,,  methyl 
morphine),  an  alkaloid  obtained  by  di- 
gesting opium  with  warm,  water,  pre- 
cipitating the  meconic  acid  with  calcium 
chloride,  and  concentrating  the  filtrate; 
the  hydrochlorates  of  morphine  and 
codeine  crystallize  out  first,  and  may  be 
separated  by  treating  their  aqueous  solu- 
tion vnth  ammonia,  which  precipitates 
the  morphine;  the  liquid  is  then  evap- 
orated, and  the  codeine  is  precipitated  by 
caustic  potash  and  recrystallized  from 
ether. 

CODEX,  a  roll  or  volume,  especially 
used  in  compound  terms,  as  Codex 
Justinianus,  Code  of  Justinian,  Codex 
Theodosianus,  Code  of  Theodosius.  In 
Biblical  criticism,  a  manuscript  of  any 
portion  of  the  New  or  Old  Testament, 
especially  of  the  former.  The  original 
manuscripts  of  the  two  Testaments  have 
been  lost.  In  our  inability  to  obtain 
them  for  purposes  of  consultation,  it  is 
needful  to  fall  back  on  other  copies  as 
few  removes  as  possible  from  the  original. 
When  in  copying  the  Scriptures  the  an- 
cient transcribers  detected  an  error  com- 
mitted by  some  one  of  their  predeces- 
sors, they  did  not  simply  erase  it,  but 
placed  it  as  an  erratum  on  the  margin 
of  their  copy.  As  further  transcriptions 
were  made  fresh  errata  were  similarly 
noted,  till  at  length  the  margin  became 
greatly  crowded.  In  attempting  to  re- 
store the  original  text  great  value  is 
attached  to  the  acquisition  of  any  manu- 
scripts made  in  one  of  the  earliest 
centuries,  from  the  power  it  gives  one 
of  eliminating  errata  belonging  to  sub- 
sequent periods.  Manuscripts  are  divided 
into  two  classes:  uncials,  written  in 
capitals  and  with  no  spaces  between  the 
words,  and  cursives,  written  more  in  con- 
formity with  modern  practice.  When  ' 
the  New  Testament  was  rendered  into 
English  for  the  authorized  version  of  the 
Scriptures,  the  Greek  text  used,  that  of 
Erasmus  and  Robert  Stephens,  was 
based  on  MSS.  more  modern  than  the  .^ 
10th  century.  Now,  some  of  much 
earlier  date  are  available,  prominent 
among  which  are  the  five  noted  below: 

Codex  A  (called  also  Codex  Alexandri- 
nus) . — The  Alexandrian,  or  Alexandrine, 
MS.  of  the  New  Testament;  a  MS.  sent 
by   the    Patriarch    of   Constantinople    as 


CODICIL  43 

a  present  to  the  English  King  Charles 
I,,  and  believed  to  belong  to  the  middle 
of  the  5th  century.  A  correct  edition 
of  it  was  printed  in  1860. 

Codex  B  (called  also  Codex  Vatica- 
mis). — The  Vatican  codex,  or  MS.;  so 
named  because  preserved  in  the  Vatican ; 
a  very  valuable  MS.,  belonging,  it  is 
thought,  to  the  middle  of  the  4th  century, 
if  not  even  older,  it  was  discovered  in 
the  latter  part  of  the   14th   century. 

Codex  C. — The  Ephraem  manuscript, 
so  called  because  some  of  the  composi- 
tions of  Ephraem  the  Syrian  had  been 
written  over  it.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
dated  at  least  as  early  in  the  5th  century 
as  Codex  A. 

Codex  D. — The  manuscript  of  Beza, 
called  after  this  eminent  reformer,  who 
presented  it  to  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge in  1581.  It  is  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  6th  century. 

Codex  Aleph  or  Codex  Sinaiticus:  The 
Sinaitic  codex,  or  manuscript;  so  called 
because  Tischendorf,  its  discoverer,  ob- 
tained it  from  the  monastery  of  St. 
Katherine  on  Mount  Sinai;  the  year  of 
the  great  acquisition  was  1859;  dating, 
it  is  supposed,  from  the  middle  of  the 
4th  century.  An  edition  of  it  was  pub- 
lished  in    1865. 

CODICIL,  a  supplement  to  a  will, 
whereby  anything  omitted  is  added,  or 
any  change  demanded  by  the  altered 
circumstances  of  the  testator  or  the 
beneficiaries,  is  affected.  A  codicil  is 
authenticated  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
will,  and  possesses  the  same  privileges 
when  holograph,  or  written  by  the  hand 
of  the  testator  himself. 

CODILLA,  the  coarsest  part  of  hemp 
and  also  of  flax,  sorted  out  and  separated 
from  the  rest. 

CODLIN  MOTH  (Carpocapsa  pomo- 
nella),  a  small  moth  which  infests  apple 
trees.  In  the  Northern  States  it  flies 
in  May,  laying  its  eggs  in  the  calyx  after 
the  blossoms  fall;  in  a  few  days  the 
larva  hatches,  in  three  weeks  it  becomes 
fully  grown. 

COD-LIVER  OIL,  an  oil  obtained  from 
the  liver  of  the  common  cod.  There  are 
three  kinds  known  in  commerce,  viz., 
pale,  pale-brown,  and  dark-brown,  the 
last  possessing  a  very  disagreeable  taste 
and  smell.  Cod-liver  oil  was  first  recom- 
mended as  a  remedy  for  the  debility  in- 
duced by  diseases  of  the  lungs  about  the 
year  1833. 

CODMAN,  JOHN,  an  American  sea- 
captain  and  miscellaneous  writer;  born 
in  Dorchester,  Mass.,  1814.  He  was 
author  of  "Sailors'  Life  and  Sailors' 
Yarns"  (1847)  ;  "The  Mormon  Country" 


COEDUCATION 


(1876);  "Round  Trip  by  Way  of  Pan- 
ama, etc."  (1879);  "Winter  Sketches 
from  the  Saddle"  (1888)  ;  etc.  He  died 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  6,  1900. 

CODY,    WILLIAM    FREDERICK,    a 

former  United  States  Government  scout; 
born  in  Scott  co.,  la.,  Feb.  26,  1845; 
better  known  as  "Buffalo  Bill,"  a  name 
earned  while  employed  by  the  Kansas 
Pacific  railway  to  furnish  meat  for  its 
laborers,  when  he  slaughtered  4,280  buf- 
faloes in  18  months.  He  was  an  un- 
erring shot,  a  fearless  rider  and  had 
some  thrilling  adventures  among  the 
savages.  In  1872  he  was  elected  to  the 
Nebraska  Legislature,  and  in  1883  or- 
ganized the  "Wild  West  Show,"  with 
which  he  toured  for  20  years.  Author, 
"Life  of  Hon.  W.  F.  Codv"  (1879); 
"Story  of  the  Wild  West"  (1888)  ;  "Ad- 
ventures of  Buffalo  Bill"  (1904);  "True 
Tales  of  the  Plains"  (1908).  Died  in 
1917. 

COE  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational  in- 
stitution in  Cedar  Rapids,  la.;  organized 
in  1881,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church;  reported  at  the  end  of 
1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  61; 
students,  1,032;  president,  J.  A.  Marquis, 
D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

COEDUCATION,  a  method  of  the 
liberal  education  of  women  and  of  men 
in  the  same  college,  under  similar  con- 
ditions, and  with  similar  results.  It  is 
the  method  commonly  prevailing  in 
American  colleges  and  universities. 
About  three-fourths  of  all  colleges  are 
open  to  both  men  and  women;  the  larger 
share  of  the  remaining  one-quarter  are 
open  to  men  only,  and  the  balance,  a 
small  number,  to  women  only.  The 
method  of  coeducation  began  in  Ohio  sev- 
enty years  ago.  It  has  received  constant 
enlargement.  Nearly  all  State  univer- 
sities are  now  open  to  both  sexes  with- 
out discrimination.  Since  coeducation 
has  become  the  rule,  and  since  separate 
colleges  for  women  have  been  estab- 
lished, a  method  called  the  co-ordinate 
has  come  into  view.  It  represents  a  uni- 
versity in  which  a  college  for  women  is 
established,  and  in  which  a  college  for 
men  is  also  established,  each  college  ad- 
ministered as  a  separate  unit.  Yet  in 
its  administration,  certain  executive  of- 
ficers are  frequently  identical  and  the 
members  of  the  two  faculties  may  be 
granted  the  right  to  exchange  instruc- 
tion. The  more  outstanding  examples 
of  this  method  are  Barnard  College 
in  Columbia,  Radcliffe  in  Harvard,  the 
Sophie  Newcomb  College  of  Tulane  Uni- 
versity, New  Orleans,  the  Brown  Uni- 
versity Women's  College,  and  the  Col- 
lege for  Women  of  Western  Reserve 
University. 


COEDUCATION 


44 


C0EDX7CATI0N 


Coeducation  possesses  certain  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  over  separate 
education.  It  has  the  advantage  of 
economy.  Many  colleges  and  univer- 
sities of  the  Western  States  were,  at 
their  beginning,  designed  for  both 
women  and  men,  because  the  people, 
either  as  a  community  or  through  the 
churches,  believed  they  ought  not  to  af- 
ford two  colleges  in  a  single  common- 
wealth. Coeducation,  also,  is  said  by  its 
defenders  to  possess  certain  rich  per- 
sonal advantages.  It  is  declared,  how- 
ever not  without  dissent,  that  it  tends 
to  make  the  male  students  more  cour- 
teous. It  is  also  declared  that  it  tends 
to  promote  a  high  type  of  moral  char- 
acter. For  women,  too,  it  is  affirmed 
by  its  adherents  to  have  special  ad- 
vantages. It  develops  the  forceful  type 
of  character,  a  type  which  the  woman 
who  is  to  make  her  way  in  the  world 
should  embody.  It  is  also  believed  by 
some  that  the  freer  life  of  the  coedu- 
cational college  tends  to  do  away  with 
fret,  and  morbidness,  and  worry,  results 
which  are  not  unknown  when  women  are 
educated  in  a  group  separated  from 
other  groups. 

Women,  themselves  graduates  of  a  co- 
educational college,  are  very  emphatic 
in  their  belief  in  its  exceptional  worthi- 
ness. One  says:  "I  believe  that  intel- 
lectually both  sexes  are  stimulated  and 
helped  by  association  with  each  other, 
and  that  morally  the  habits  of  each  are 
improved  or  kept  from  deteriorating,  as 
is  too  frequently  the  case  when  either 
sex  gets  together  in  large  numbers. 
There  is  set  up  a  healthful  interchange 
of  thought  and  magnetic  attraction  l^- 
tween  the  sexes,  which,  when  not  de- 
based, adds  the  chief  charm  to  society 
and  lays  the  foundation  for  the  greatest 
spiritual  development  and  inspiration  of 
both."  Another  declares :  "It  does  away 
with  much  false  modesty  that  afflicts 
girls  who  are  kept  to  themselves,  while 
it  does  not  in  the  least  detract  from  a 
girl's  true  modesty  and  refinement."  An- 
other says:  "It  leads  to  a  broader  sym- 
pathy, a  truer  understanding  between 
men  and  women;  and  it  tends  to  banish 
that  consciousness  of  sex  which  is  inim- 
ical to  purity  of  mind."  Another  gradu- 
ate declares:  "It  makes  them  stronger 
men  and  women;  they  understand  each 
other  better;  judge  of  character  better; 
awe  a  higher  mutual  respect.  It  takes 
the  simpering  out  of  girls— the  rough- 
ness out  of  men." 

Two  or  three  disadvantages  are,  how- 
ever, to  be  noted.  The  coeducational  col- 
lege is  more  difficult  to  administer  than 
the  separate,  and  it  is  the  more  difficult 
m   proportion  to  the   intimacy  of  rela- 


tionship existing  between  the  two  sets  of 
students.  Different  degrees  of  intimacy 
are  common  in  coeducation.  Simple 
presence  of  men  and  women  in  common 
recitation  room  represent  one  extreme. 
The  presence,  not  only  in  the  recitation 
room,  but  in  the  dining  hall  of  the  col- 
lege and  in  amusements,  represents  the 
other  extreme.  As  the  intimacy  becomes 
close  and  personal,  the  difficulty  of  ad- 
ministration for  deans  and  presidents 
greatly  increases. 

Another  disadvantage  of  coeducation 
lies  in  the  content  of  instruction.  Cer- 
tain topics  in  psychology,  in  biology,  in 
archaeology,  which  are  perfectly  proper 
for  presentation  to  a  class  of  men  alone, 
or  to  a  class  of  women  alone,  would  offer 
serious  difficulties  in  presentation  to  a 
class  of  both  women  and  men. 

A  further  consideration  which  would 
be  reckoned  by  some  as  an  advantage, 
and  by  others  as  a  disadvantage,  relates 
to  the  college  of  this  type  as  promoting 
marriage,  or  marriage  at  an  early  age. 
On  the  whole,  marriages  are  more  com- 
mon among  women  educated  in  the  same 
coeducational  college  than  among  the 
graduates  of  the  separate  women's  col- 
lege.^ The  disadvantage  lies,  be  it  added, 
not  in  the  becoming  married,  but  rather 
in  the  becoming  married  at  an  age  when 
neither  party  is  quite  qualified  to  as- 
sume the  obligations  of  a  family. 

American  life  is   greatly  enriched  by 
the  yearly  addition  of  thousands  of  lib- 
erally  educated   women,   most  of   whom 
come    from    the    coeducational    college. 
There  are  at  least  six  advantages  which 
American  life  receives  from  such  a  con- 
tribution.   First,  the  college  woman  adds 
a   mind   trained   to   think.      Second,    she 
also  brings  a  heart,  sympathetic  with  all 
human  problems,  and  yet  not  over-sym- 
pathetic.    She  is  not  a  merely  emotional 
interpreter   of    social    conditions.      With 
an   intellect   qualified   to  think   and   dis- 
criminate, she  unites  a  heart  which  feels 
the  sigTiificance  of  crises.     Third,  she  is 
able   to    offer    economic    suggestions    re- 
garding   the    processes    of    government. 
Fourth,   she    also   helps    to   supply   that 
vital  lack,  the  need  of  humanizing  indus- 
trialism.   Fifth,  she  promotes  the  giving 
of   a   broad   freedom  for   women   in  all 
forms  of  public  life  and  service.     In  the 
recent  political  enfranchisement,  the  just 
interpretation    and    application    of   such 
freedom  is  of  special  significance.     Sixth, 
she     represents     the     great     advantage 
through  her  education  of  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  period  of  youth.     The  young 
women   of   America   are   liable   to  bes:in 
their  life's  work  at  a  too  early  age.    Civ- 
ilization desires  that  all  those  who  can 
promote  its  welfare  shall  have  a  proper 


COEFFICIENT  45 

degree  of  maturity.  The  longer  the 
period  of  youth,  the  richer  and  the  more 
efficient  is  the  contribution  which  one, 
coming  to  maturity,  is  able  to  make  to 
worthiest  human  life  and  endeavor. 

This  article  has  primary  reference  to 
colleges  of  liberal  learning.  In  the  pro- 
fessional schools  of  medicine  and  of  law, 
women  are  received  more  commonly  than 
obtains  in  the  undergraduate  college. 
The  progress  made  in  admitting  women 
to  professional  schools  has  been  espe- 
cially great  in  the  last  decade. 

COEFFICIENT,  a  number  or  known 
quantity,  prefixed  as  a  multiplier  before 
a  known  or  unknown  quantity  of  letters, 
into  which  such  quantity  or  letters  are 
s.upposed  to  be  multiplied.  Thus  in  the 
expressions,  4a,  3a 6,  ex,  4  is  the  coeffi- 
cient of  a,  3  of  ab,  and  c  of  x. 

CCELENTERATA,  the  name  given  to 
a  sub-kingdom  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
the  species  of  which  are  distinguished 
from  those  of  humbler  organization  by 
possessing  a  hollow  digestive  cavity  with 
which  the  hollow  interior  of  the  body 
freely  communicates.  The  prehensile 
organs  are  hollow  tentacles  disposed  in 
a  circle  round  the  mouth.  AH,  or  nearly 
all,  are  moreover  provided  with  organs 
of  offense  and  defense,  called  thread- 
cells  or  nematocysts.  Professor  Huxley 
places  the  Ckelenterata  between  the  mol- 
luscoida  and  the  protozoa.  The  sub-king- 
dom is  divided  into  two  classes,  actino- 
zoa  and  hydrozoa.  Examples,  the  corals, 
the  sea  anemones,  the  fresh-water  hydra, 
etc. 

CCELE-SYPvIA  (that  is,  "Hollow- 
Syria"),  the  large  valley  lying  between 
the  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  moun- 
tain ranges  in  Syria.  Near  its  center 
are  the  ruins  of  Baalbec. 

CCE3LIAC  ARTERY,  an  artery  issuing 
from  the  aorta  just  below  the  diaphragm. 
It  is  called  also  the  Cceliac  axis. 

CCELIAC  PASSION",  a  diarrhoea,  or 
flux,  that  arises  from  the  indigestion  or 
putrefaction  of  food  in  the  stomach  and 
bowels,  whereby  the  aliment  comes  away 
little   altered. 

CCEUR  D'ALENE,  a  city  of  Idaho, 
the  county-seat  of  Kootenai  co.  It  is  on 
the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul,  and  other  railroads. 
The  city  has  manufactures  of  lumber, 
machinery,  bricks,  and  an  important 
trade  in  fruit  and  farm  products.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Cceur  d'Alene  College  and  a 
Catholic  academy,  and  has  parks  and 
several  handsome  public  buildings.  Pop. 
(1910)   7,291;    (1920)  6,447. 

CCEUR  DE  LION  (ker  de  le-6n'),  a 
title  given  to  several  historical  person- 


COFFEE 


ages,  as  Richard  I.  of  England;  so- 
called  from  the  prodigies  of  personal 
valor  performed  by  him  in  the  Holy 
Land;  Louis  VIII.  of  France,  frequently 
called  Le  Lion;  and  Boleslaus  I.  of  Po- 
land, also  called  "The  Intrepid." 

COFFEE,  the  seed  of  an  evergreen 
shrub  which  is  cultivated  in  hot  climates, 
and  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia  and  of 
Arabia.  This  shrub  (Coffea  arabica)  Is 
from  15  to  20  feet  in  height,  and  belongs 
to  the  Rubiaceae.  The  leaves  are  green, 
glossy  on  the  upper  surface,  and  the 
flowers  are  white  and  sweet-scented.  The 
fruit  is  of  an  oval  shape,  about  the  size 
of  a  cherry,  and  of  a  dark-red  color  when 
ripe.     Each  of  these  contains  two  cells, 


*:;:»j,_^         FLO  WE  I? 


COFFEE   PLANT 

and  each  cell  a  single  seed,  which  is 
the  coffee  as  we  see  it  before  it  under- 
goes the  process  of  roasting.  Great  at- 
tention is  paid  to  the  culture  of  coffee  in 
Arabia.  The  trees  are  raised  from  seed 
sown  in  nurseries  and  afterward  planted 
out  in  moist  and  shady  situations,  on 
sloping  ground  or  at  the  foot  of  moun- 
tains. When  the  fruit  has  attained  its 
maturity  cloths  are  placed  under  the 
trees,  and  upon  these  the  laborers  shake 
it  down.  They  afterward  spread  the 
berries  on  mats,  and  expose  them  to  the 
sun  to  dry.  The  husk  is  then  broken  off 
by  large  and  heavy  rollers  of  wood  or 
iron.  When  the  coffee  has  been^  thus 
cleared  of  its  husk  it  is  again  dried  in 
the  sun.  A  tree  in  great  vigor  will 
produce  3  or  4  pounds. 

The     best     coffee    is     imported     from 
4 — Vol.  Ill — Cyc 


COFFEE  BUG 


46 


COFFIN 


Mocha,  on  the  Red  Sea.  Next  in  quality 
to  the  Mocha  coffee  may  perhaps  be 
ranked  that  of  southern  India  and  that 
of  Ceylon,  which  is  strong  and  well- 
flavored  and  is  brought  to  Great  Britain 
in  large  quantities.  Java  and  Central 
America  also  produce  large  quantities  of 
excellent  coffee.  Brazilian  coffee  stands 
at  the  bottom  of  the  list  as  regards 
quality.  Of  the  best  Mocha  coffee  that 
is  grown  in  the  province  of  Yemen  little 
or  none  is  said  to  reach  the  Western 
markets.  Arabia  itself,  Syria,  and 
Egypt  consume  fully  two-thirds,  and  the 
remainder  is  exclusively  absorbed  by 
Turkish  or  Armenian  buyers.  The  only 
other  coffee  which  holds  a  first  rank  in 
Eastern  opinion  is  that  of  Abyssinia. 
Then  comes  the  produce  of  India,  which 
those  accustomed  to  the  Yemenite  vari- 
ety are  said  to  consider  hardly  drinkable. 
American  coffee  holds  in  the  judgment 
of  all  Orientals  the  very  last  rank.  The 
Dutch  were  the  first  to  extend  the  culti- 
vation of  coffee  beyond  the  countries  to 
which  it  is  native.  By  1718  the  Dutch 
planters  of  Surinam  had  entered  on  the 
cultivation  of  coffee  with  success,  and 
ten  years  after  it  was  introduced  from 
that  colony  by  the  English  into  Jamaica, 
and  by  the  French  into  Martinique. 

Coffee  as  an  article  of  diet  is  of  but 
comparatively  recent  introduction.  To 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  it  was  wholly 
unknown.  From  Arabia  it  passed  to 
Egypt  and  Turkey,  whence  it  was  intro- 
duced into  England  by  a  Turkish  mer- 
chant named  Edwards  in  1652,  whose 
Greek  servant,  named  Pasqua,  first 
opened  a  coffee-house  in  London.  The 
excellence  of  coffee  depends  in  a  great 
measure  on  the  skill  and  attention  ex- 
ercised in  roasting  it.  In  the  Asiatic 
mode  of  preparing  coffee  the  beans  are 
pounded,  not  ground;  and  though  the 
Turks  and  Arabs  boil  the  coffee,  they  boil 
each  cup  by  itself  and  only  for  a  mo- 
ment, so  that  the  effect  is  much  the  same 
as  that  of  infusion.  Coffee  acts  as  a 
nervous  stimulant,  a  property  which  it 
owes  mainly  to  the  alkaloid  caffeine.  It 
thus  promotes  cheerfulness  and  removes 
languor,  and  also  aids  digestion;  but  in 
some  constitutions  it  induces  sleepless- 
ness and  nervous  tremblings. 

The  imports  of  coffee  into  the  United 
States  in  1919  amounted  to  1,046,029,274 
pounds,  valued  at  $143,089,619.  The 
consumption  per  capita  in  1918  was  10.29 
pounds.  The  imports  in  1919  included 
571,921,573  pounds  from  Brazil,  158,- 
343,135  pounds  from  Central  America, 
and  121,416,418  pounds  from  Colombia. 

COFFEE  BUG  {Lecanium  coffsea) ,  an 
insect  of  the  coccus  family,  very  de- 
structive in  coffee  plantations. 


COFFEE-HOUSE,  a  house  of  entertain- 
ment where  persons  are  supplied  with 
coffee  and  other  refreshments.  Formerly 
the  chief  resort  of  every  class  for  pur- 
poses of  conversation  and  information. 
It  was  the  central  meeting-place  of  poli- 
ticians, literary  men,  etc.  Constanti- 
nople is  believed  to  have  been  the  first 
European  capital  in  which  coffee-houses 
were  instituted,  the  year  of  their  estab- 
lishment there  being  a.  d.  1554.  In  1650 
the  first  one  in  England  was  opened  in 
Oxford.  They  were  suppressed  by 
Charles  II.  in  1675,  but  were  soon  again 
allowed  to  be  re-opened. 

COFFERDAM,  a  water-tight  inclosure 
formed  by  piles  driven  into  the  bottom 
of  a  river  and  packed  with  clay,  planks. 
or  other  stop-gaps.  It  is  used  as  a  dam 
while  laying  bare  the  bottom  of  the 
river,  in  order  to  establish  a  foundation 
for  a  pier,  abutment,  or  quay. 

COFFER  FISH  (Ostracion),  a  peculiar 
genus  of  bony  fishes  in  the  small  order 
Plectognathi,  and  in  the  family  Sclero- 
dermi,  which  also  includes  the  file-fishes. 
The  body  is  inclosed  in  a  firm  box 
formed  of  hexagonal  bony  scales  fitted 
into  one  another  like  a  mosaic.  The  best 
known  form  is  O.  quadricomis  from  the 
tropical  Atlantic. 

COFFEYVILLE,  a  city  of  Kansas,  in 
Montgomery  co.  It  is  on  the  Missouri 
Pacific,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe,  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas, 
and  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and 
Southern  railroads,  and  on  the  Verdigris 
river.  Its  industries  include  planing  and 
flour  mills,  railroad  shops,  oil  refineries, 
glass  factory,  packing  plant,  brick 
works,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  12,687;  (1920) 
13,452. 

COFFIN,  the  box  or  chest  in  which 
corpses  are  inclosed  before  being  com- 
mitted to  the  ground.  Coffins  were  in 
use  in  Egypt  at  a  remote  period  of  an- 
tiquity. Some  of  the  Egyptian  coffins 
were  wood.  There  were  fine  sarcophagi 
of  stone,  and  in  Mesopotamia  of  clay. 
Cedar  was  used  in  Athens  for  inclosing 
the  remains  of  heroes,  and  marble  and 
stone  among  the  Romans. 

COFFIN,  CHARLES  CARLETON,  an 

American  novelist  and  lecturer;  born  in 
Boscawen,  N.  H.,  July  26,  1823;  began 
life  as  a  civil  engineer;  afterward  gave 
his  attention  to  telegraphy.  In  1851  he 
began  to  write  for  the  Boston  papers; 
and  during  the  Civil  War  and  the  Aus- 
tro-Prussian  War  of  1866  was  war  cor- 
respondent for  the  "Boston  Journal," 
writing  over  the  signature  of  "Carle- 
ton."  His  books  include:  "Days  and 
Nights    on    the    Battle-Field"     (1864); 


COFFIN 


47 


COHOES 


"Our  New  Way  Round  the  World" 
(1869);  "Story  of  Liberty"  (1878); 
"Life  of  Garfield"  (1883)  ;  and  "The 
Drum-Beat  of  the  Nation"  (1887),  the 
first  volume  of  a  series.  He  died  in 
Brookline,  Mass.,  March  2,  1896. 

COFFIN,  WILLIAM  ANDERSON,  an 
American  painter,  born  in  Allegheny, 
Pa.,  in  1855.  He  studied  art  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Paris.  In  1882  he 
opened  a  studio  in  New  York,  where  his 
pictures  immediately  attracted  attention. 
He  was  a  frequent  exhibitor  at  the  Paris 
Salon,  at  the  National  Academy,  and 
other  art  galleries.  He  received  many 
prizes  for  excellence  in  artistic  work. 
From  1886  to  1891  he  served  as  art  critic 
for  the  New  York  "Evening  Post,"  and 
he  filled  the  same  position  for  the  New 
York  "Sun"  from  1896  to  1900.  He  was 
Director  of  Fine  Arts  for  the  Buffalo 
Exposition  in  1901  and  served  in  many 
responsible  positions  on  art  commissions 
in  the  United  States  and  foreign 
countries. 

COGHLAN,  CHARLES  FRANCIS,  an 
American  actor;  bom  in  Paris,  France, 
in  1841.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar 
in  London,  but  went  on  the  stage,  mak- 
ing his  American  debut  in  1880  as  Cap- 
tain Absolute  in  "The  Rivals."  He  took 
leading  parts  for  many  years  at  Wal- 
lack's  and  supporting  eminent  actors. 
He  wrote  "Jocelyn,"  "Lady  Barter,"  and 
other  plays.  He  died  in  Galveston, 
Texas,  Nov.  27,  1899. 

COGHLAN,  ROSE,  an  actress;  sister 
to  the  above;  bom  in  Peterboro,  Eng- 
land, in  1853.  She  rose  from  humble 
roles  in  England  to  be  leading  lady,  mak- 
ing her  American  debut  in  1872.  From 
1880  to  1889  she  was  Wallack's  leading 
lady,  and  since  1893  has  been  identified 
with  important  productions. 

COGNAC,  (kon-yak)  ^  a  town  in  France, 
department  of  Charente;  near  the  river 
Charente;  22  miles  W.  of  Angouleme.  Is 
famous  for  the  brandy  bearing  its  name. 

COGNIZANCE,  in  Heraldry,  a  badge 
in  the  more  restricted  sense  of  that  term. 

COGNOSCENTI  (kon-yos-chen'te) , 
persons  professing  a  critical  knowledge 
of  works  of  art,  and  of  a  somewhat  more 
pretentious  character  than  amateurs. 

COGNOMEN,  the  hereditary  family 
name  such  as  Cicero,  Cato,  etc.) 
among  the  ancient  Romans.  The  other 
two  names  generally  borne  by  every 
well-born  Roman,  viz.  the  praeixomen 
and  nomen  (as  in  Marcus  TuUius 
Cicero),  served  to  denote  the  individual 
(Marcus),  and  the  gen?^  (TuUius)  or 
clan  to  which  his  family  belonged. 


COGNOVIT,  in  the  law  of  England, 
the  defendant's  written  confession  that 
the  plaintiff's  cause  against  him  is  just 
and  true.  By  this  confession  before  or 
after  issue,  the  defendant  suffers  judg- 
ment to  be  entered  against  him  without 
trial,  in  which  case  the  judgment  is 
called  judgment  by  confession. 

COHAN.  GEORGE  M(ICHAEL),  an 
American  actor  and  playwright,  born 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1878.  His  first 
appearance  on  the  stage  was  made  at 
the  age  of  9.  He  appeared  in  vaude- 
ville with  other  members  of  his  family 
for  many  years.  In  1904  he  appeared 
as  a  star  in  "Little  Johnny  Jones,"  and 
later  in  "George  Washington,  Jr."  He 
was  the  author  of  many  successful  com- 
edies, including  "The  Yankee  Prince" 
(1909)  ;  "Seven  Keys  to  Baldpate" 
( 1913 )  ;  "Hit-the  -Trail  Holliday" 
(1915).  He  was  also  a  composer  of 
many  popular  songs,  including  "Over 
There,"  for  the  writing  of  which  he  re- 
ceived a  prize  of  $25,000.  This  song  be- 
came extremely  popular  with  the  Amer- 
ican soldiers  and  civilians  during  the 
World  War. 

COHESION,  the  force  which  unites 
two  molecules  of  the  same  nature;  as, 
for  instance,  two  molecules  of  iron  or 
two  molecules  of  water.  It  is  strongly 
excited  in  solids,  less  strongly  in  liquids, 
and  not  at  all  in  gases.  It  varies  not 
merely  according  to  the  nature  of  dif- 
ferent bodies,  but  also  with  the  arrange- 
ment of  molecules  in  the  same  body ; 
thus  the  tempering  of  steel  alters  the 
molecular  arrangement  in  that  sub- 
stance, with  the  effect  also  of  altering  its 
cohesion.  Tenacity,  hardness,  ductility, 
etc.,  arise  from  modifications  in  their 
cohesion. 

COHOES,  a  city  of  Albany  co.,  N.  Y.; 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Mohawk  and 
Hudson  rivers,  and  the  junction  of  the 
Erie  and  the  Champlain  canals;  and  on 
the  New  York  Central  and  the  Delaware 
and  Hudson  railroads;  9  miles  N.  of 
Albany.  The  Mohawk  river  has  a 
fall  of  over  70  feet  at  this  point, 
and  supplies  unlimited  power,  making 
Cohoes  a  very  important  manufacturing 
community. 

The  Mohawk  river  is  crossed  by  a  dam 
above  the  falls,  and  the  water  is  supplied 
to  the  mills  and  factories  by  means  of 
canals.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
cotton,  woolen  and  worsted  knit  goods, 
foundry  and  machine  shop  products, 
boots  and  shoes,  tobacco,  paper  boxes, 
and  bread  and  bakery  products. 

The  city  is  connected  with  Albany, 
Troy,  and  other  neighboring  cities  by 
electric  street  railwavs.    The  most  note- 


COHOBT 


48 


COINAGE 


worthy  buildings  are  the  public  library, 
St.  Bernard's  Academy,  and  several  of 
the  numerous  churches;  there  v/ere  12 
public  schools.  Pop.  (1910)  24,709; 
(1920)  22,987. 

COHORT,  a  division  of  the  Roman 
army,  the  10th  part  of  a  legion,  con- 
taining three  maniples  or  six  centuries. 
The  number  of  men  varied  with  that  of 
the  legion,  the  10  cohorts  always  con- 
taining an  equal  number.  When  the 
legion  numbered  4,000  men,  the  cohort 
consisted  of  60  triarii,  120  principes, 
120  hastati,  and  100  velites,  in  all  400 
men. 

COHUNE  OIL,  a  product  of  the  kernel 
of  Attalea  funifera,  a  palm-tree  found  in 
South  America.  It  resembles  cocoanut 
oil,  but  is  more  oleaginous,  burning,  it 
is  said,  twice  as  long. 

COILA,  the  Latin  name  of  Kyle,  Ayr 
CO.,  Scotland,  embalmed  in  the  lyrics  of 


murdered.  The  University  of  Coimbra, 
the  only  one  in  Portugal,  was  originally 
established  at  Lisbon  in  1288,  but  was 
permanently  transferred  here  in  1537. 

COIN,  a  piece  of  metal  on  which 
certain  characters  are  stamped  by 
authority,  giving  the  piece  a  certain 
legal  current  value.  Homer  speaks  of 
brass  money,  1184  B.  c.  The  invention 
of  coin  is  ascribed  to  the  Lydians,  whose 
money  was  of  gold  and  silver.  Both 
were  coined  by  Pheidon,  tyrant  of  Argos, 
about  862  B.  C.  Money  was  coined  at 
Rome  under  Servius  Tullius,  about  573 
B.  c.  The  most  ancient  known  coins  are 
Macedonian  of  the  5th  century  b.  c. 
Brass  money  only  was  in  use  at  Rome 
previous  to  269  B.  c.  (when  Fabius 
Pictor  coined  silver).  Gold  was  coined 
206  B.  c.  Iron  money  was  used  in  Sparta, 
and  iron  and  tin  in  Britain.  In  the 
earlier  days  of  Rome  the  heads  were 
those  of  deities,  or  of  those  who  had  re- 


ANCIENT   COINS 


Coin   of  Dalmatius 


Coin    of    Cos. 


Burns.    The  word  is  also  used  as  a  fan- 
ciful designation  for  Scotland. 

COIMBRA,  capital  of  tha  Portuguese 
province  of  Beira,  on  a  hill  above  the 
Mondego  river,  here  crossed  by  a  stone 
bridge,  135  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Lisbon.  Its 
streets  are  steep  and  narrow,  its  manu- 
factures confined  chiefly  to  earthenware 
and  combs.  The  place  derives  its  name 
from  the  Roman  Conimhrica,  traces  of 
which  lie  to  the  S. ;  it  was  held  by  the 
Goths,  and  from  them  passed  to  the 
Moors,  from  whom  it  was  finally  con- 
quered in  1064,  by  Fernando  the  Great, 
aided  by  the  gallant  Cid.  Coimbra  was 
the  capital  of  Portugal  for  about  two 
centuries  and  a  half  from  its  erection 
into  a  kingdom,  in  1139,  and  many  of 
the  early  kings  are  buried  in  and  around 
the  old  town.  Of  the  public  buildings, 
the  most  noteworthy  are  the  older  of 
the  tv/o  cathedrals,  the  Church  of  San 
Salvador,  and  the  ruined  Convent  of 
Santa  Clara;  across  the  river  is  the 
Quintet  das  Lagrimas  ("House  of 
Tears"),    where    Inez    de    Castro    was 


ceived  divine  honors.  Julius  Caesar  first 
obtained  permission  of  the  Senate  to 
place  his  portrait  on  the  coins,  and  the 
example  was  soon  followed.  The  Britons 
and  Saxons  coined  silver. 

Fineness  of  United  States  Coin. — The 
gold  coins  are  nine-tenths  fine;  the  silver 
coins,  nine-tenths  fine;  the  copper-nickel 
coins,  such  as  the  5-cent  piece,  are  one- 
fourth  nickel  and  three-fourths  copper ; 
the  bronze  coins  are  95  per  cent,  copper 
and  5  per  cent,  tin  and  zinc.  The  alley 
in  the  gold  coins  is  silver  and  copper; 
in  the  silver  coins,  copper. 

COINAGE,  the  act  or  process  of  coin- 
ing money.  In  the  United  States  there 
is  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  gold; 
that  is,  standard  gold  bullion  may  be  de- 
posited at  the  mints  in  any  amount,  to 
be  coined  for  the  benefit  of  the  depositor, 
v/ithout  charge  for  coinage;  but  when 
other  than  standard  bullion  is  received 
for  coinage  a  charge  is  made  for  part- 
ing, or  for  refining,  or  for  copper  alloy, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  depositor  re- 
ceives in  gold  coin  the  full  value  of  the 


COIB 


49 


COKE 


gold  in  his  bullion,  less  such  charges  as 
are  specified  by  law.  Subsidiary  silver 
and  standard  silver  dollars,  under  exist- 
ing law  in  the  United  States,  are  coined 


ANCIENT   COINS 
1.     Coin  of  Cyrene      2.     Coin    of    Naxos 
3.    Coin   of  King  Egbert 

only  on  Government  account.  They  are 
coined  from  bullion  purchased  by  the 
Government,  and  the  profits  of  such 
coinage  belong  to  the  Government.  The 
following  table  gives  the  amount  and 
kinds  of  money  coined  at  the  mints  of  the 
United  States  during  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  1920: 


Denomination 

Pieces 

Value 

Gold: 

Double   Eagles.  . . . 
Eagles 

786,250 
126,500 

$15,725,000.00 
1,265,000.00 

Total    Gold 

Silver  : 

Half  Dollars 

Quarter  Dollars.  . 
Dimes 

912,750 

6,567,000 
28,426,400 
93,735,000 

$16,990,000.00 

$3,283,500.00 
7,106,600.00 
9,373,500.00 

Total    Silver 

Minor : 

Five  Cent  Nickel. 
One  Cent  Bronze. 

128,728,400 

91,335,000 
512,607,000 

$19,763,600.00 

$4,566,750,00 
5,126,070.00 

Total   Minor 

603,942,000 

$9,692,820.00 

Total     Coinage. 

733,583,150 

$46,446,420.00 

COIR,  a  material  used  for  small  cables, 
cordage,  matting,  etc.,  and  consisting  of 


the  outer  coating  of  the  cocoanut.  Cables 
made  of  this  substance  have  the  pecul- 
iarity of  making  a  curve  upward  be- 
tween the  vessel  and  the  anchor,  while 
a  hempen  cable  curves  downward. 

COIX,  a  genus  of  grasses,  tribe 
Phalerese.  C.  lachryma  has  hard  stony 
seeds,  called  Job's  tears.  They  are  said 
to  be  diuretic  and  strengthening.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  East  Indies  and  Japan. 

COKE,  one  of  the  products  of  the  dis- 
tillation of  coal  in  ovens  and  retorts.  It 
bears  the  same  relation  to  coal  that  char- 
coal does  to  wood.  Coke  was  originally 
produced  by  burning  coal  in  piles,  with 
a  limited  supply  of  air,  much  after  the 
modern  method  of  charcoal  burning. 
This  plan  occasioned  a  considerable  loss 
of  coal,  and  led  to  the  building  of  coke 
ovens,  the  coke  so  produced  being  found 
to  be  much  harder  and  denser  than  that 
made  in  open  heaps.  This  open  heap  or 
yard-coke,  and  that  produced  in  retorts, 
when  coal  is  distilled  for  gas  and  other 
volatile  matters,  may  be  used  in  place  of 
oven  coke  with  a  proper  blast. 

The  most  efficient  method  of  coking  is 
by  the  use  of  coke  ovens.  The  Beehive 
oven  is  probably  the  simplest.  Ovens  of 
this  pattern  are  either  circular  or  rec- 
tangular in  form  and  the  height  and 
diameter  vary  upward  to  10  feet.  These 
ovens  are  built  of  brick,  with  dividing 
walls  2  feet  thick,  lined  with  fire  brick. 
They  are  charged  from  the  top,  from 
coal  cars  running  on  rails  on  the  top 
of  the  ovens.  The  volatile  matter  es- 
capes through  the  charging  openings  and 
the  coke  is  removed  through  a  door  in  the 
front  of  the  oven.  Air  is  admitted 
through  the  door  for  about  24  hours 
after  firing,  when  all  openings  are  plas- 
tered up.  The  entire  process  occupies 
about  36  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  the 
coke  is  raked  out  and  quenched  with 
water.  The  heat  required  to  carry  on 
the  combustion  is  usually  obtained  by 
burning  the  volatile  gases  given  off  by 
the  coal.  The  oven  most  used  in  the 
United  States  is  the  Semet-Solvay.  This 
is  long  and  narrow  with  a  door  at  each 
end;  the  roof  is  supported  by  heavy 
masonry.  A  zigzag  flue  of  four  tui'ns 
runs  along  each  side  of  the  oven,  and 
the  gases  pass  alternately  from  front 
to  back  through  the  flue  to  a  return  flue 
leading  to  the  chimney  at  the  back.  The 
coal  is  charged  through  three  charging 
holes  in  the  roof,  which  are  then  closed. 
The  distilled  gases  pass  through  an  out- 
let at  the  end  of  the  roof  (the  only  hole 
left  open),  into  a  hydraulic  main,  where 
they  mix  with  the  gases  from  other 
ovens,  and  are  passed  through  purifiers 
for  the  removal  of  tar  and  other  con- 


COKE 


50 


COL 


densable  matter.  From  the  purifier  the 
gas  is  blown  by  fans  through  pipes  pass- 
ing beneath  the  ovens  to  branch  pipes 
where  it  is  burned,  heating  the  ovens. 
The  air  used  in  the  blast  is  pre-heated 
by  passing  through  channels  in  the 
heated  masonry.  The  coking  lasts  about 
24  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  time  a 
mechanical  ram  is  brought  behind  the 
oven  and  the  coke  is  pushed  out  by  it  to 
a  space  in  front  of  the  oven  where  it  is 
quenched.  The  ram  is  then  withdrawn, 
the  doors  closed,  and  the  oven  recharged 
while  still  hot.  Coking  is  carried  on  to 
a  large  extent  throughout  the  United 
States,  both  by  the  use  of  ovens  and  as 
a  by-product  of  gas  producers.  The  total 
production  of  coke  in  the  United  States 
in  1918  was  56,478,372  short  tons.  The 
State  producing  the  largest  amount  was 
Pennsylvania,  with  a  production  of  26,- 


COKE,  SIR  EDWARD,  an  English 
lawyer;  born  in  1551.  After  finishing 
his  education  at  Cambridge  he  went  to 
London,  and  entered  the  Inner  Temple. 
He  was  chosen  recorder  of  the  cities  of 
Norwich  and  of  Coventry,  knight  of  the 
shire  for  his  county,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
rivalship  of  Bacon,  attorney-general.  As 
such  he  conducted  the  prosecutions  for 
the  crown,  notably  those  of  Essex  and 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  In  1613  he  became 
chief-justice  of  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench;  but  his  rough  temper  and 
staunch  support  of  constitutional  liber- 
ties brought  him  into  disfavor  with 
King  James  and  his  courtiers.  In  1621 
Coke  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and 
soon  after  expelled  from  the  privy- 
council. 

In  1628  he  was  chosen  member  of 
Parliament    for    Buckinghamshire,    and 


BEEHIVE  COKE  OVEN 


1 23,645  tons.  Ohio  was  second  with  a 
production  of  5,364,242  tons;  Alabama 
third  with  4,352,172  tons;  and  Indiana 
fourth  with  3,898,215  tons.  Other  States 
having  a  production  of  over  1,000,000 
tons  were  New  York,  Utah,  and  West 
Virginia.  The  estimated  production  in 
1919  was  41,821,000  tons.  Coke  pro- 
duced in  bee-hive  ovens  in  1919  was  19,- 
650,000  tons,  and  the  production  of  coke 
ovens  was  25,997,580  tons.  There  were 
imported  in  1919  16,486  short  tons,  val- 
ued at  $140,653.  The  exports  were  716,- 
956  tons,  valued  at  $5,128,119.  The  value 
of  the  by-products  from  coke  ovens  in 
1918  were  $74,602,458.  The  most  im- 
portant by-product  was  sulphate  of  am- 
monia, with  a  value  of  $19,061,777. 
Toluol  was  produced  with  a  value  of 
$12,249,702,  and  benzol,  with  a  value  of 
$11,966,367. 


greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his 
vindication  of  the  rights  of  the  Com- 
mons, and  by  proposing  and  framing  the 
famous  Petition  of  Rights.  On  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Parliament  he  retired  to 
Buckinghamshire,  where  he  died,  in 
September,  1634.  His  principal  works 
are:  "Reports,  from  1600  to  1615,"  "In- 
stitutes of  the  Laws  of  England,"  in 
four  parts;  the  first  of  which  contains 
the  celebrated  commentary  on  Littleton's 
Tenures  ("Coke  upon  Littleton")  ;  "A 
Treatise  of  Bail  and  Mainprise,"  "Com- 
plete Copyholder,"  etc. 

COL  ("neck"),  in  geography,  a  de- 
pression or  pass  in  a  mountain-range. 
In  those  parts  of  the  Alps  where  the 
French  language  prevails,  the  passes  are 
usually  named  Cols — as  the  Col  de 
Balme,  the  Col  du  Geant,  etc. 


COLBERG 


&1 


COLBY 


COLBERG,  or  KOLBERG,  a  seaport 
and  watering-place  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Pomerania,  on  the  Persante, 
near  its  mouth  in  the  Baltic,  170  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  Berlin.  The  principal  church 
dates  from  1316.  In  1102  Duke  Boles- 
laus  of  Poland  vainly  besieged  Colberg, 
which  endured  long  sieges  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  in  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
and  again  in  1807,  when  it  was  most 
gallantly  defended  against  the  French. 
Colberg  has  manufactures  of  woolens, 
agricultural  machines,  and  spirits;  and 
salmon  and  lamprey  fisheries.  Pop. 
about  25,000. 

COLBERT,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  (kol- 
bar'),  Marquis  de  Seignelay,  a  French 
statesman;  born  in  Rheims  in  1619.  He 
served  his  apprenticeship  in  a  woolen- 
draper's  shop,  and  afterward  went  to 
Paris,  where  his  talents  introduced  him 
to  Mazarin,  who  soon  employed  him  in 
most  important  affairs  of  state.  On 
his  death-bed,  Mazarin  warmly  recom- 
mended Colbert  to  Louis  XIV.,  who,  in 
1661,  appointed  him  controller-general 
of  finances.  Colbert's  administration  be- 
came a  blessing  to  France.  Order  was 
restored  in  the  finances,  the  revenue  in- 
creased. He  organized  anew  the  colo- 
nies in  Canada,  Martinique,  and  St.  Do- 
mingo, and  founded  others  at  Cayenne 
and  Madagascar.  Made  minister  of  ma- 
rine in  1669,  he  found  France  with  a  few 
old  rotten  ships;  three  years  later,  she 
had  a  fleet  of  60  ships  of  the  line  and  40 
frigates.  Colbert  improved  the  civil 
code,  introduced  a  marine  code  of  laws, 
as  well  as  the  so-called  Code  Noir  for 
the  colonies.  He  did  not  neglect  the  arts 
and  sciences.  The  Academies  of  Inscrip- 
tions, Science,  and  Architecture  were 
founded  by  him.  In  short,  Colbert  was 
the  patron  of  industry,  commerce,  art, 
science,  and  literature — the  founder  of 
a  new  epoch  in  France.  He  died  in  1683. 
His  son,  also  named  Jean  Baptiste,  born 
in  1651,  succeeded  his  father  as  minister 
of  marine,  and  minister  of  the  king's 
household.  By  his  capacity  and  energy, 
he  raised  the  French  navy  to  its  highest 
power,  and  in  1684  he  led  in  person  the 
maritime  expedition  against  Genoa.  He 
died  in  1690. 

COLBURN,  ZERAH,  an  American 
mathematical  prodigy;  born  in  Cabot, 
Vt.,  Sept.  1,  1804;  displayed  such  re- 
markable powers  of  calculation  that  in 
1810  his  father  left  Vermont  to  exhibit 
him.  At  this  period  he  answered  cor- 
rectly such  questions  as  "How  many 
hours  in  1811  years?"  in  20  seconds.  He 
was  shown  in  Great  Britain,  and  for 
some  time  in  Paris;  from  1816  to  1819 
he  studied  at  Westminster  School  at  the 


expense  of  the  Earl  of  Bristol.  Hia 
father  died  in  1824,  and  he  returned  to 
the  United  States,  where  he  served  as  a 
Methodist  preacher  for  nine  years,  and 
from  1835  was  Professor  of  Languages 
in  Norwich  University,  Vt.,  where  he 
died  March  2,  1840.  His  remarkable 
faculty  disappeared  as  he  grrew  to  man- 
hood. 

COLBY,  BAINBRIDGE,  an  Amer- 
ican public  ofiicial.  Bom  at  St.  Louis 
in  1869,  he  graduated  from  Williams 
College  in  1890.  After  having  completed 
a  law  course  at  Columbia  University  he 
took  up  the  practice  of  law  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  instrumental  in  bringfing 
about  reforms  in  the  affairs  of  the  Equi- 


BAINBRIDGE  COLBY 

table  Life  Assurance  Co.  In  politics  he 
was  actively  associated  with  Roosevelt 
in  the  founding  of  the  Progressive  party 
in  1912,  but  in  1916  supported  Wilson 
for  the  presidency.  President  Wilson  ap- 
pointed him  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board,  and  later  made 


OOLBY 


62 


COLD 


him  a  member  of  the  American  mission 
to  the  inter-allied  conference  in  Paris  in 
November  of  1917.  When  Secretary 
Lansing  resigned  in  the  spring  of  1920 
the  President  appointed  Colby  Secretary 
of  State.  During  his  term  many  im- 
portant documents  laying  down  the 
principles  of  American  diplomacy  with 
relation  to  the  peace  settlement  with 
Germany  and  Russia  were  issued  by  his 
department. 

COLBY,  FRANK  MOORE,  an  Ameri- 
can editor  and  essayist;  born  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  in  1865.  He  graduated 
from  Columbia  University  in  1888.  For 
several  years  he  was  acting  professor  of 
history  at  Amherst  College  and  was  lec- 
turer in  history  in  Columbia  University 
from  1891  to  1895.  From  1895  to  1900 
he  was  professor  of  economics  at  the 
New  York  University.  He  was  editor 
of  the  "New  International  Encyclopedia" 
in  1898  and  of  the  "New  International 
Year  Book,"  1898-1902.  He  contributed 
essays  and  reviews  to  many  periodicals. 
His  published  writings  include:  "Out- 
lines of  General  History"  (1900) ; 
"Imaginary  Obligations"  (1904)  ;  "Con- 
strained Attitudes"  (1910). 

COLBY  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Waterville,  Me.;  founded 
in  1818,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Bap- 
tist Church;  reported  at  the  end  of  1919: 
Professors  and  instructors,  25;  students, 
360.     President,  A.  J.  Roberts. 

COLCHESTER,  a  borough,  and  sea- 
port of  England,  50  miles  N.  E.  of  Lon- 
don. It  has  a  large  oyster-fishing  trade, 
and  exports  of  corn  and  malt.  In  1648 
Colchester  stood  a  memorable  siege  of 
11  weeks  against  the  Parliamentary 
forces,  who  eventually  starved  out  the 
royalist  garrison,  and  hung  the  leaders. 

COLCHICTJM,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
Melanthacese.  C.  autuirmale,  the  mead- 
ow saffron,  is  found  in  meadows  and 
pastures  of  the  north  temperate  regions. 
To  a  superficial  observer  the  plant  looks 
like  a  crocus,  and  in  fact  it  has  received 
the  erroneous  name  of  autumnal  crocus; 
but  it  has  six  stamens,  while  the  crocus 
genus  has  but  three.  The  corms  of  the 
meadow  saffron  are  poisonous,  but  much 
use  has  been  made  of  them  in  medicine. 

COLCHICUM  CORM,  the  fresh  corm 
of  C.  autumnale,  or  common  meadow 
saffron,  which  is  collected  about  the  end 
of  June,  and  stripped  of  its  coat,  sliced 
transversely,  and  dried  at  150°  F.  Used 
to  make  extract,  an  acetic  extract,  and 
Vinum  colchici.  According  to  Garrod, 
Colchicum  increases  the  flow  of  the  bile, 
and  diminishes  the  heart's  action;  it 
possesses   the    power   of   c-nntroHing  the 


pain  and  inflammation  in  cases  of  gout 
and  inflammatory  rheumatism.  The 
seeds,  Colchici  semina,  are  used  to  form 
a  tincture  which  has  the  same  medicinal 
properties. 

COLCHIS,  or  COLCHOS.  a  former 
country  of  Asia,  to  the  S.  of  Asiatic 
Sarmatia,  E.  of  the  Euxine  Sea,  N.  of 
Armenia,  and  W.  of  Iberia.  In  ancient 
history  it  is  famous  for  the  expedition 
of  the  Argonauts,  and  for  being  the 
birth-place  of  Medea.  In  the  15th  cen- 
tury it  was  sub-divided  into  several  prin- 
cipalities, and  is  now  comprised  in  the 
Russian  government  of  Trans-Caucasus. 

COLCOTHAR,  red  oxide  of  iron,  ferric 
oxide,  FeaOa.  A  reddish-brown  powder 
obtained  when  ferrous  sulphate  is  dis- 
tilled for  Nordhausen  sulphuric  acid;  it 
remains  in  the  retorts.  It  is  used  as  a 
red  pigment,  and  is  employed  to  polish 
glass,  and,  when  finely  divided,  by  jew- 
elers is  known  under  the  name  of  rouge. 
It  is  sometimes  called  crocus  martis,  and 
was  called  caput  mortuuTn  vitrioli  by 
the  alchemists. 

COLD,  the  term  by  which  is  signified 
a  relative  want  of  sensible  heat.  When 
the  atmosphere,  or  any  substance  which 
comes  in  contact  with  our  body,  is  at  a 
lower  temperature  than  the  skin,  it  ab- 
sorbs heat  from  it,  and  we  call  it  cold. 

The  physiological  action  of  cold  on  the 
animal  organism  requires  a  brief  notice. 
All  animals  (the  warm-blooded  animals 
to  the  greatest  extent)  have  a  certain 
power  of  maintaining  the  heat  of  the 
body,  in  defiance  of  external  cold.  This 
power  is  mainly  due  to  a  process  analo- 
gous to  combustion,  in  which  carbon  and 
hydrogen  taken  into  the  system  in  food 
are  made  to  unite  with  oxygen  derived 
from  the  air  by  respiration.  If  the  com- 
bustible materials  are  not  duly  fur- 
nished, or  if  the  supply  of  oxygen  be 
deficient  (as  in  various  diseased  condi- 
tions), there  must  be  a  depression  of 
temperature.  Now,  if  the  temperatui-e 
of  a  bird  or  mammal  (except  in  the  case 
of  hibernating  animals)  be  lowered  about 
30°  below  its  normal  standard  (which 
in  birds  ranges  from  100°  to  112°,  and 
in  mammals  from  96°  to  102°),  the 
death  of  the  animal  is  the  result. 

In  hibernating  animals  (the  marmot, 
dormouse,  bat,  e"tc.)  the  power  of  gen- 
erating heat  within  their  own  bodies  is 
very  slight. 

Cold  is  applied  in  various  ways  in  the 
treatment  of  disease.  In  some  forms  of 
fever,  a  cold  bath,  or  cold  wet  pack,  is 
the  best  means  of  reducing  a  very  high 
temperature  which  of  itself  threatens 
life. 


GOLDEN 


63 


COLENSO 


GOLDEN,     GADWALLADER,     an 

American  scientist  and  colonial  official; 
born  in  Dunse,  Scotland,  Feb.  17,  1688. 
He  was  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  in  1705,  and  emigrated  to 
the  American  colonies  in  1708.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  botany  and  astronomy 
and  also  to  public  affairs,  becoming  sur- 
veyor-general of  New  York  and  presi- 
dent of  the  council.  He  sided  with  the 
crown  in  the  contest  over  the  stamp  act. 
Among  his  correspondents  were  Franklin 
and  Linnaeus,  and  he  wrote  "Cause  of 
Gravitation"  and  "History  of  the  Five 
Indian  Nations."  He  died  on  Long  Is- 
land, N.  Y.,  Sept.  28,  1776. 

COLD  HARBOR,  a  village  in  Hanover 
CO.,  Va.,  2  miles  N.  E.  of  Chickahominy 
Creek,  and  9  miles  N.  E.  of  Richmond. 
It  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  two  battles 
during  the  Civil  War:  June  3,  1864,  be- 
tween the  Confederates  under  General 
Lee  and  the  Federals  under  General 
Grant;  and  a  smaller  encounter,  June  27, 
1862,  at  Gaines'  Mill,  at  this  place. 

COL  DI  LANA,  a  pass  in  the  Alps  of 
Trentino  captured  in  a  forward  attack 
on  the  Austrians  by  the  Italians,  on  April 
17,  1916.  It  was  retaken  by  the  Aus- 
trians during  the  drive  down  the  Tren- 
tino in  May,  which  was  not  stopped  by 
the  Italians  till  the  middle  of  the  follow- 
ing month  at  the  northern  edge  of  the 
Val  d'Assa  and  the  Asiago  basin. 

COLD  STORAGE,  the  method  now 
generally  employed  to  preserve  perish- 
able articles  of  food  by  the  air  of  freez- 
ing machines,  which  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air.  Cold  storage  warehouses 
are  found  in  all  large  cities,  and  have 
proved  of  great  value  in  keeping  fruits 
and  meats  in  an  unchanged  condition 
from  one  season  to  the  other.  This 
method  is  also  used  on  cars  and  ships 
transporting  perishable  material 

COLDSTREAM,  a  town  of  Berwick- 
shire, Scotland,  15  miles  S.  W.  of  Ber- 
wick, on  the  Tweed,  over  which  there  is 
a  fine  bridge  by  Smeaton  (1766).  At 
Coldstream  was  the  famous  ford  by 
which  Edward  I.  entered  Scotland  in 
1296,  and  near  which  he  met  the  Scottish 
nobles,  to  settle  the  dispute  about  the 
crown  of  Scotland.  By  this  ford  also  the 
Scots  invaded  England  in  1640.  Being 
convenient  as  a  border  town,  Coldstream, 
like  Gretna  Green  and  Laniberton  toll- 
bar  near  Berwick,  was  formerly  cele- 
brated for  its  clandestine  marriages. 

COLDWATER,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Branch  co.,  Mich.,  on  Coldwater  river, 
and  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  South- 
ern railroad,  156  miles  E.  of  Chicago. 
The  Coldwater  river  supplies  power  for 


the  various  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. It  is  the  seat  of  the  State  School 
for  Dependent  Children,  and  has  a  park, 
two  libraries,  a  high  school,  several  news- 
papers, and  National  banks.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,945;   (1920)  6,114. 

COLE,  THOMAS,  an  American  land- 
scape painter;  born  in  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land, Feb.  1,  1801.  His  father,  a  woolen 
manufacturer,  came  to  the  United  States 
when  Thomas  was  18  years  old,  and  set- 
tled in  Steubenville,  O.  Thomas  worked 
in  his  father's  shop  for  two  years,  but 
the  coming  of  a  portrait-painter  to  the 
village  made  him  wish  to  be  an  artist. 
After  a  few  lessons  he  set  to  work  to 
paint  pictures,  and  traveled  for  a  while 
painting  portraits  and  landscapes.  In 
New  York,  by  hard  work,  he  succeeded 
in  becoming  one  of  the  best  American 
landscape  painters.  He  was  enabled  to 
go  to  Europe  and  study  the  old  masters. 
Among  his  best  pictures  are  the  five 
called  "The  Course  of  Empire"  and  the 
four  "The  Voyage  of  Life."  He  died  in 
Catskill,  N.  Y.,  February,  1848. 

COLE,  TIMOTHY,  an  English  wood- 
engraver;  born  in  London,  April  6,  1852. 
He  early  came  to  the  United  States,  and 
established  himself  as  an  engraver,  first 
in  Chicago,  and  afterward  in  New  York, 
where  he  pursued  his  calling  with  much 
success.  In  1883  he  went  to  Europe,  and 
began  a  series  of  engravings  from  the 
old  masters.  A  series  of  the  old  Italian 
masters  was  completed  in  1892;  of  the 
Dutch-Flemish  in  1896;  of  English,  1900; 
of  old  Spanish  masters,  1902-1907;  of 
French,  1910.  From  1914  he  was  en- 
gaged on  engravings  of  paintings  in 
American  galleries.  He  received  first- 
class  medals  from  every  exposition  since 
1893.  He  was  author  of  "Notes  on  the 
Old  Italian  Masters"  (1892)  ;  "Mono- 
graph on  Lives  of  Dutch  Masters" 
(1896) ;  "Notes  on  English  Masters" 
(1901). 

COLENSO,  JOHN  WILLIAM,  an  Eng- 
lish clergyman;  born  in  Cornwall,  Jan. 
24,  1814.  In  1846  he  was  appointed  rec- 
tor of  Forncett  St.  Mary,  in  the  county 
of  Norfolk,  and  1854  first  Bishop  of 
Natal,  South  Afi-Jca.  In  the  next  year 
appeared  his  "Ten  Weeks  in  Natal";  in 
1861  his  "Translation  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans  Commented  on  from  a  Mis- 
sionary Point  of  View";  and  "A  Letter 
to  His  Grace  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury upon  the  Question  of  the  Proper 
Treatment  of  Cases  of  Polygamy,  as 
Found  Already  Existing  in  Converts 
from  Heathenism."  The  outcry  raised 
by  his  professional  brethren  against  the 
"Letter"  was  sufficiently  loud,  but  it  was 
nothing  to   the   tempest  of   disapproba- 


COLEOPTERA 


64 


COLIBIDGE 


tion  that  burst  forth  in  the  following 
year  (1862),  when  he  published  "The 
Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua  Criti- 
cally Examined."  The  Bishop  of  Cape 
Town,  the  metropolitan  Bishop,  declared 
Colenso  deposed  from  his  see;  but  on  an 
appeal  to  the  Privy  Council,  in  1865,  the 
deposition  was  pronounced  null  and  void. 
Colenso  wrote  treatises  on  mathematics 
used  as  text-books.  He  died  in  Durban, 
Natal,  June  20,  1883. 

COLEOPTERA,  an  order  of  insects 
which  has  been  recognized  since  the  days 
of  Aristotle.  The  number  of  species 
enumerated  by  naturalists,  and  of  which 
examples  are  gathered  in  museums, 
amounts  to  100,000.  The  Coleoptera  are 
sometimes  collectively  called  beetles,  and 
many  of  them  are  known  as  weevils, 
lady-bugs,  etc.  The  glow-worm  and  the 
blistering-fly  belong  to  this  order. 

COLERIDGE,  HARTLEY,  an  English 
poet  and  critic,  son  of  Samuel  Taylor 
Coleridge;  born  in  Bristol,  in  1796. 
From  Oxford  he  went  to  London,  and 
there  published  some  exquisite  sonnets 
in  the  "London  Magazine."  He  inherited 
defects  of  character  and  will,  and  never 
realized  the  promise  of  his  great  talents. 
His  writings  in  prose  are  "Biographia 
Borealis"  (1833)  ;  "The  Worthies  of 
Yorkshire  and  Lancashire"  (1836) ;  and 
a  volume  of  "Essays  and  Marginalia." 
His  brother  Derwent  published  a  biogra- 
phy and  his  poems.    He  died  in  1849. 

COLERIDGE,  SAMUEL  TAYLOR,  an 
English  poet  and  philosopher;  born  in 
Ottery  St.  Mary,  Devonshire,  Oct.  21, 
1772.  Sent  to  school  at  Christ's  Church 
Hospital,  he  was  noted  for  a  dreamy  ab- 
stracted manner,  though  he  made  con- 
siderable progress  in  classical  studies. 
From  Christ's  Church  he  went  with  a 
scholarship  to  Jesus  College,  Cambridge. 
His  ultra-radical  and  rationalistic  opin- 
ions made  the  idea  of  academic  prefer- 
ment hopeless,  and  perhaps  to  escape  the 
difficulties  gathering  about  his  future, 
Coleridge  suddenly  quitted  Cambridge 
and  enlisted  in  the  15th  Dragoons.  Res- 
cued by  his  friends  from  this  position, 
he  took  up  his  residence  at  Bristol  with 
Robert  Southey,  who  had  just  been 
obliged  to  quit  Oxford  for  his  Unitarian 
opinions,  and  Lovell,  a  young  Quaker. 
The  three  conceived  the  project  of  emi- 
grating to  America,  and  establishing  a 
pantisocracy,  as  they  termed  it,  or  com- 
munity in  which  all  should  be  equal,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Susquehanna.  This 
scheme,  however,  never  became  any- 
thing more  than  a  theory,  and  was  finally 
disposed  of  when,  in  1795,  the  three 
friends  married  three  sisters,  the  Misses 
Fricket  of  Bristol.     Coleridge  about  this 


time  started  a  periodical,  the  "Watch- 
man," which  did  not  live  beyond  the  ninth 
number. 

In  1796  he  took  a  cottage  at  Nether 
Stowey,  in  Somersetshire,  where,  sup- 
ported by  the  companionship  of  Words- 
worth, he  wrote  much  of  his  best  poetry, 
in  particular  the  "Ancient  Mariner"  and 
the  first  part  of  "Christabel."  While 
residing  at  Nether  Stowey  he  used  to 
officiate  in  a  Unitarian  chapel  at  Taun- 
ton. An  annuity  bestowed  on  him  by 
some  friends  (the  Wedgewoods)  fur- 
nished him  with  the  means  of  making  a 
tour  to  Germany,  where  he  studied  at 
the  University  of  Gottingen.    In  1800  he 


SAMUEL  TAYLOR   COLERIDGE 

returned  to  England  and  took  up  his 
residence  beside  Southey  at  Keswick, 
while  Wordsworth  lived  at  Grasmere  in 
the  same  neighborhood.  About  1804 
Coleridge  went  to  Malta  to  re-establish 
his  health,  seriou-sly  impaired  by  opium- 
eating.  In  1806  he  returned  to  England, 
and  after  10  years  of  somewhat  desul- 
tory literary  work  as  lecturer,  contrib- 
utor to  periodicals,  etc.,  Coleridge  in  a 
way  took  refuge  in  the  house  of  his 
friend  Mr.  Gillman  at  Highgate,  Lon- 
don. Of  the  many  years  he  spent  here 
nothing  remains  but  the  "Table  Talk." 
He  died  July  25,  1834.  The  dreamy  and 
transcendental  character  of  Coleridge's 
poetry  eminently  exhibits  the  man.  As 
a  critic,  especially  of  Shakespeare,  his 
work  is  of  the  highest  rank.    (Coleridge's 


COLERIDGE-TAYLOR 


55 


COLISEUM 


poetical  works  include  "The  Ancient 
Mariner,"  "Cristabel"  (incomplete), 
"Remorse,"  a  tragedy;  "Kubla  Khan," 
a  translation  of  Schiller's  "Wallenstein," 
etc.  His  prose  works,  "Biographia  Lit- 
eraria,"  "The  Friend,"  "The  Statesman's 
Manual,"  "Aids  to  Reflection,"  "On  the 
Constitution  of  Church  and  State,"  etc. 
Posthumously  were  published  specimens 
of  his  "Table  Talk,"  "Literary  Re- 
mains," etc. 

COLERIDGE-TAYLOR,  SAMUEL,  an 
Anglo-African  composer;  born  in  Lon- 
don, Aug.  15,  1875.  His  father  was  a 
native  of  Sierra  Leone  and  his  mother 
an  English  woman.  He  composed  many 
successful  songs  and  waltzes  and  an  op- 
eretta entitled  "The  Dream  Lovers."  He 
conducted  orchestral  concerts  in  several 
English  cities,  and  made  tours  in  the 
United  States  in  1904,  1906,  and  1910. 
He  died  in  1912. 

COLESEED  a  name  for  a  variety  of 
cabbage  (Brassica  Napus) ,  and  its  seed, 
which  is  made  into  oil-cake  for  feeding 
cattle. 

COLE-WORT,  the  common  cultivated 
cabbage  (Brassica  oleracea)  ;  called  also 
collet. 

COLFAX,  SCHUYLER,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman;  born  in  New  York, 
March  23,  1823;  removed  in  1836  to  In- 
diana. He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Whig 
conventions  of  1848  and  1852;  was 
elected  to  Congi'ess  in  1854  by  the  newly 
formed  Republican  party,  and  re-elected 
until  1869,  being  thrice  chosen  Speaker; 
and  in  1868  he  was  elected  vice-president 
«f  the  United  States,  in  Grant's  first 
term.  Implicated,  unjustly,  as  he  and 
his  friends  claimed,  in  the  Credit  Mobi- 
lier  charges  of  1873,  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  political  retire- 
ment. Died  in  Mankato,  Minn.,  Jan. 
13,  1885. 

COLGATE  UNIVERSITY,  an  educa- 
tional institution  in  Hamilton,  N.  Y. ; 
organized  in  1819,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Baptist  Church;  reported  at  the 
end  of  1919:  Professors  and  instruc- 
tors, 44;  students,  599;  volumes  in  the 
library,  85,000;  income,  $193,353;  presi- 
dent, Elmer  Burritt  Bryan. 

COLIBRI,  a  name  for  various  species 
of  humming-bird. 

COLIC,  a  name  employed  by  the  later 
Greek  and  the  Roman  physicians  to  de- 
note diseases  attended  with  severe  pain 
and  flatulent  distention  of  the  abdomen, 
without  diarrhoea  or  looseness  of  the 
bowels.  The  disease  is  now  generally  be- 
lieved to  be  spasmodic  in  character,  and 
to  be  dependent  upon  irregular  contrac- 


tions of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  intes- 
tines. Colic  almost  always  ends  in  re- 
covery, preceded  by  free  evacuation 
of  the  bowels.  Purgatives,  therefore, 
should  be  given  combined  with  sedatives. 
A  suppository  or  hypodermic  injection 
of  morphia  may  secure  immediate  relief 
from  pain  before  aperients  have  time 
to  act.  Mustard  plasters,  turpentine 
stupes,  and  hot-water  fomentations  are 
also  useful. 

COLIGNI,  or  COLIGNY,  GASPARD 
DE  CHATILL0N,(k5-len'ye),  SIRE  DE, 
admiral  of  Fran  e,  and  leader  of  the 
Huguenots  in  the  civil  war;  born  in 
1517.  His  father,  also  named  Gaspard; 
was  Marshal  of  France,  and  took  part  in 
the  invasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII., 
and  in  the  conquest  of  the  Milanese  by 
Louis  XII.  and  Francis  I.  His  mother 
was  a  Montmorency.  He  entered  the 
army  at  an  early  age,  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battle  of  Cerisole,  at  the  tak- 
ing of  Carignan,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Rentz.  He  was  made  Admiral  of  France 
in  1552,  by  Henry  II.  At  the  siege  of 
St.  Quentin  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Spaniards.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
II.  he  returned  to  his  estates,  became 
a  convert  to  the  reformed  faith,  and 
when  the  war  broke  out  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  Protestants,  with  the 
Prince  of  Conde.  They  were  defeated 
by  the  Duke  de  Guise  at  the  battle  of 
Dreux;  the  indecisive  battle  of  St.  Denis 
followed,  and  the  Protestants  were  de- 
feated at  Jarnac,  and  Moncontour.  In 
1570,  after  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain, 
Coligny  was  flatteringly  deceived  by 
Catherine  de  Medici,  and  a  few  days 
later  his  assassination  was  attempted 
by  an  emissary  of  the  Duke  de  Guise. 
The  King,  Charles  IX.,  visited  him  and 
professed  his  regret.  On  the  signal  be- 
ing given  for  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew, Aug.  24,  1572,  De  Guise,  with 
a  party  of  assassins,  went  to  the  house 
of  the  Admiral;  by  these  he  was  stabbed 
and  thrown  out  of  a  window  at  the  f^et 
of  the  duke.  The  corpse  was  exposed  for 
three  days  to  the  mob,  and  then  hung 
head  downward. 

COLIMA  (ko-le'ma),  a  Mexican  State 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  with  an  area  of 
2,272  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  about 
80,500.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  the  cli- 
mate warm;  large  quantities  of  coff'ee, 
sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  maize,  and  cotton 
are  grown.  The  capital,  Colima,  1,450 
feet  above  the  sea,  about  40  miles  E.  N. 
E.  of  the  port  of  Manzanillo,  has  several 
cotton  factories.     Pop.  about  26,000. 

COLISEUM,  the  Flavian  amphitheater 
at  Rome,  built  by  the  Emperors  Ves- 
pasian and  Titus.     It  seated  80,000  per- 


COLLAR-BONE 


56 


COLLEGES 


sons,  and  was  adorned  with  columns  of 
the  three  Greek  orders  of  architecture. 
It  is  the  most  imposing  ruin  in  the 
world. 

COLLAB-BONE,  the  clavicle;  a  bone 
situated  on  either  side  of  the  neck.  The 
one  is  called  the  right,  the  other  the  left 
clavicle. 

COLLATINUS,  the  husband  of  Lu- 
cretia,  who,  in  conjunction  with  Brutus, 
expelled  the  Tarquin  family  from  Rome, 
and  established  the  consular  government. 


either  a  special  act  of  the  legislature, 
or  under  the  general  law,  was  the  actual 
corporation  secured.  The  college  thus  eau 
tablished  was  usually  of  a  denomination- 
al or  sectarian  type.  A  second  form  is 
found  in  a  method  which  is  still  personal, 
but  without  special  religious  affiliation. 
Leland  Stanford  University,  California, 
is  an  example.  The  third  form  is  what 
is  known  as  the  State  university,  an  in- 
stitution established  in  the  individual 
commonwealth  and  as  a  crown  to  its  pub- 
lic school  system.     It  is  supported  out  of 


^l;!_.'.';a?.'|f«-^' 


,7/*i 


COLISEUM    AT   ROME 


COLLECT,  a  name  given  to  certain 
brief  and  comprehensive  prayers,  found 
in  all  liturgies  and  public  devotional  of- 
fices. The  origin  of  the  term  is  not  cer- 
tain; according  to  some,  it  is  from  these 
prayers  being  said  in  the  congregation 
or  collection  of  the  people.  They  are  of 
great  antiquity,  and  occur  in  the  sacra- 
mentary  of  Gelasius,  patriarch  of  Rome, 
A.  D.  494. 

COLLECTIVE  BARGAINING.  See 
Labor  Organization. 

COLLECTIVISM,  a  word  of  quite 
recent  origin,  intended  to  express  the  cen- 
tral idea  in  the  economic  theory  of  so- 
cialism, that  industry  should  be  carried 
on  with  a  collective  capital.  It  means 
that  capital  should  not  be  owned  and 
controlled  by  individuals,  but  by  groups 
of  associated  workers;  the  joint  prop- 
erty of  the  community. 

COLLEGES.  Three  forms  of  the  in- 
stitutions of  the  higher  education  are 
easily  distinguished.  The  earliest  was 
the  private,  or  ecclesiastical.  By  this 
method  a  few  citizens,  usually  members 
of  a  church,  associated  themselves  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  a  charter  from 
the  government  of  the  State  in  which  it 
was  desired  to  establish  a  college.    Under 


the  public  funds  raised  by  taxation.  Its 
government  is  vested  in  a  board  of  re- 
gents or  trustees,  either  appointed  by  the 
governor  or  elected  by  the  people.  At 
least  40  such  universities  are  found  in 
the  United   States. 

In  the  government  of  each  college  or 
university  are  usually  associated  two 
bodies,  the  one  called  trustees,  or  direc- 
tors, or  overseers,  or  regents,  or  fellows, 
who  represent  the  legal  side  of  the  cor- 
poration. The  other  is  called  the  faculty, 
which  is  the  body  of  instruction.  These 
two  bodies  work  in  co-operation  in  car- 
rying on  the  essential  service  of  the  in- 
stitution. 

To  the  college,  or  to  the  undergradu- 
ate department  of  the  university,  stu- 
dents are  admitted  from  the  high  school 
or  the  academy.  The  average  age  is  18, 
plus.  The  direct  preparation  consists  in 
studies  embodying  English  literature  and 
language,  mathematics,  solid  geometry, 
either  Latin  or  French  or  German  and 
occasionally  Greek,  pursued  for  four 
years;  history,  either  ancient  or  modern, 
and  an  elementary  knowledge  of  chemis- 
try and  physics.  The  students  of  the 
age  of  18  enter  college  usually,  though 
not  always,  with  a  direct  purpose.  To 
prepare  themselves  for  a  profession  was 
formerly  a  primary  purpose.     It  is  now 


COLLEGES 


67 


COLLEGES 


not  the  only  purpose.  The  preparation 
for  business,  for  engineering,  for  jour- 
nalism, for  farming,  has,  however,  in  re- 
cent years  become  an  aim  not  unusual. 

The  studies  which  are  pursued  on  en- 
tering the  four  years'  course  are  easily 
divided  into  the  old  humanities,  the  new 
humanities,  and  the  sciences.  The  old 
humanities  were  primarily  Latin  and 
Greek.  These  have  in  recent  decades,  es- 
pecially Greek,  become  largely  eliminated 
for  modern  linguistic  studies.  French 
or  Spanish  have  been  substituted.  For- 
merly German  held  a  large  place.  The 
new  humanities  include  the  English  lan- 
guage and  literature,  history,  economics, 
political  science,  sociology,  philosophy, 
and  psychology.  The  rise  of  the  sciences 
in  the  last  70  years  has  been  constantly 
reflected  in  the  college  curriculum.  They 
have  now  assumed  an  important  place  as 
educational  instruments.  The  chief  sub- 
jects in  this  field  studied  in  addition  to 
mathematics  are  physics,  chemistry,  biol- 
ogy, and  geology. 

The  principle  on  which  these  studies, 
in  part  prescribed  and  in  part  elective, 
are  arranged  for  the  student  are,  first, 
to  promote  the  power  of  thinking,  and, 
secondly,  to  develop  the  character  of  the 
individual.  In  the  interpretation  of  the 
purposes  of  the  higher  education  such 
phrases  as  "Education  is  self-unfolding," 
"Education  seeks  to  train  leaders  in  de- 
mocracy," "Education  endeavors  to  form 
the  character  as  well  as  to  discipline  the 
mind,"  "Education  is  aimed  to  secure 
rational  living,"  "Education  is  to  help 
one  to  enjoy  one's  self,"  "Education  is  a 
preventive  of  evil  and  a  promotion  of  the 
good,"  "Education  is  designed  to  develop 
the  individual  and  to  incorporate  this  in- 
dividual into  the  whole  community," 
"Education  is  a  process  of  laying  up  cap- 
ital, both  intellectual  and  ethical,"  are 
constantly  used. 

In  addition  to  the  scholastic  feature  of 
the  college  and  the  university,  is  found  a 
very  vital  undergraduate  life.  This  life 
is  composed  of  manifold  associations. 
First  among  them  is  the  system  of  fra- 
ternities— brotherhoods,  organized  for  so- 
cial purposes — not  a  few  of  which  are 
intercollegiate.  Houses,  either  owned  or 
leased,  are  the  homes  of  these  organiza- 
tions. Next  to  them  the  highest  place 
is  occupied  by  athletic  sports,  including 
football,  baseball,  basketball,  hockey,  ten- 
nis, and  many  other  sports.  Dramatic 
associations,  musical  societies,  debating 
clubs,  literary  organizations,  civic  clubs, 
Young  Men's  Christian  Associations,  and 
Young  Women's  Christian  Associations, 
daily  and  weekly  papers,  monthly  maga- 
aines,  parKamentary  associations,  repre- 


sent happy  and,  in  many  relations,  prof- 
itable forms  of  undergraduate  activity. 

American  Colleges. — The  history  of 
American  colleges  may  be  divided  into 
three  periods — the  colonial  college,  the 
old  American  college,  and  the  new  Amer- 
ican college.  The  colonial  college  ended 
with  the  American  Revolution;  the  new 
American  college  begins  about  the  year 
1870  and  is  still  in  process  of  evolution. 

Before  the  Revolutionary  War  there 
had  been  a  continuous  development  of 
higher  education  in  the  colonies  for  150 
years.  The  point  of  beginning  was  the 
institutional  life  already  familiar  in  the 
home  beyond  the  seas.  Harvard  College, 
established  by  a  bequest  from  John  Har- 
vard in  1638,  was  a  combination  of  an 
English  public  school  and  Emmanuel  Col- 
lege. It  was  founded  as  the  "schoole  and 
colledge  at  Newton."  Yale  in  1701  was 
founded  as  a  "collegiate  schoole,"  and 
Dartmouth  grew  out  of  Dr.  Wheelock's 
School  for  the  Indians.  Altogether  11 
institutions  of  higher  learning  were 
founded  before  the  Revolution.  These 
were  all  very  poor.  Yale's  annual  budg- 
et after  25  years  of  labor  was  315 
pounds,  no  part  of  which  sum  came  from 
endowment.  After  a  century  and  a  half 
of  history  Harvard's  total  funds  were 
less  than  17,000  pounds.  William  and 
Mary  was  the  richest  of  our  early  col- 
leges. Its  main  building  was  a  hand- 
some brick  edifice,  136  feet  in  length, 
whose  architect  was  Sir  Christopher 
Wren. 

The  avowed  purpose  of  these  earliest 
colleges  was  the  training  of  leaders  for 
the  Christian  ministry.  One-half  the 
graduates  of  Harvard  for  the  first  100 
years  entered  the  ministry.  After  the 
Revolutionary  War  the  field  of  their  edu- 
cational service  altered  materially.  Their 
task  was  to  train  leaders,  not  for  the 
church  alone,  but  for  a  new  state,  for  a 
commercial  life  beginning  to  express  it- 
self in  new  callings,  for  a  period  of  pio- 
neer development  sweeping  across  the 
continent.  The  old  colleges  were 
strengthened  and  a  number  of  new  ones 
founded.  The  States  began  to  assume 
a  direct  responsibility  in  this  work.  The 
University  of  North  Carolina  was  char- 
tered in  1795,  Vermont  in  1800,  Georgia 
in  1801,  and  South  Carolina  in  1805. 
Still  progress  was  slow.  Dexter  esti- 
mates that  in  1800  all  existing  colleges 
in  the  country  had  less  than  2,000  stu- 
dents, hardlv  more  than  100  professors, 
and  $1,000,000  worth  of  property. 

During  the  period  now  under  discus- 
sion all  American  colleges  developed 
along  similar  lines.  The  course  of  study 
was  rigidly  prescribed,  based  on  Latin 
and   Greek   as   fundamentals,    to  which 


COLLEGES 


58 


COLLEGES 


were  added  English  literature  and  rhet- 
oric, mathematics,  logic  and  philosophy, 
with  a  little  history.  After  four  years 
of  work  the  degree  of  A.  B.  was  given. 
Between  1800  and  1870  8  new  subjects 
were  introduced  into  the  admission  re- 
quirements, viz.,  English  grammar,  Eng- 
lish composition,  algebra,  geometry,  geog- 
raphy, ancient  history.  United  States  his- 
tory, and  physical  geography. 

Within  the  last  50  years  the  American 
college  has  developed  greatly  along  many 
lines.  Some  problems  it  has  solved,  many 
are  still  in  process  of  solution.  Its  pres- 
ent status  may  be  discussed  under  sep- 
arate heads: 

1.  Material  Resources:  It  is  not  easy 
to  fix  a  definite  standard  of  wealth  as 
an  essential  condition  of  college  organ- 
ization. The  Association  of  American 
Colleges  has  published  a  suggestive  bul- 
letin on  "The  Efficient  College."  The 
conclusion  is  that  "an  efficient  college  of 
400  students  should  have  a  faculty  of  40 
teachers,  total  assets  of  about  $3,000,000 
and  an  annual  income  of  about  $125,000." 
At  present  this  standard  is  ideal.  A  few 
of  our  best  colleges  reach  it,  but  they 
have  usually  more  than  400  students. 
The  North  Central  College  Association 
requires  an  endowment  of  $200,000  and 
this  has  been  generally  accepted  by 
standardizing  agencies  as  a  minimum. 
But  the  enforcement  of  even  this  mod- 
erate provision  would  forfeit  the  char- 
ters of  a  large  proportion  of  the  institu- 
tions calling  themselves  colleges.  But  it 
should  be  said  that  these  feeble  institu- 
tions with  little  or  no  endowment  or 
source  of  income  other  than  student  fees 
are  not  examples  of  the  modern  Amer- 
ican college.  They  are  left-over  exam- 
ples of  the  old-fashioned  or  even  of  the 
colonial  college.  No  modern  college  can 
escape  the  financial  burden  involved  in 
providing  scientific  laboratories,  and  a 
well-filled  library  carefully  administered. 

From  the  standpoint  of  material  re- 
sources we  may  recognize  several  distinct 
types  of  colleges.  First,  there  is  the 
small  college  with  a  faculty  of  8  or  10, 
a  student  body  of  less  than  200,  and  a 
limited  election  of  work.  Then  there  is 
the  large  college,  still  detached,  with 
larger  resources  of  every  kind.  Then 
there  is  the  university  college — a  college 
still — the  center  of  a  university  that  of- 
fers professional  work  of  the  most  varied 
character.  Apparently  the  student  trend 
is  toward  these  large  institutions. 

2.  General  Purpose:  Long  ago  the 
college  ceased  to  be  vocational,  as  were 
the  earliest  institutions  in  America.  The 
next  rallying  point  was  the  call  for  intel- 
lectual discipline.  This  end  and  aim  of 
the    college   course  was   elaborately   de- 


fended in  1827  in  a  report  made  by  the 
Yale  faculty.  With  this  argument  every 
college  defended  its  rigid  technical 
course  of  study.  With  the  expansion  of 
the  curriculum,  made  necessary  through 
the  expansion  of  knowledge  and  madt 
possible  through  the  expansion  of  mate- 
rial resources,  the  college  relaxed  its 
claims  for  the  supremacy  of  mental  dis- 
cipline and  abandoned  its  rigid  curricu- 
lum for  securing  the  same.  For  disci- 
pline it  substituted  "culture,"  returning 
to  the  humanitarian  ideas  of  the  renais- 
sance. This  ideal  of  culture  has  been 
weakened  by  attacks  from  two  sides.  A 
report  of  the  Harvard  faculty  in  1904 
says:  "The  easiest  way  to  induce  stu- 
dents to  take  a  subject  for  culture  is  to 
make  it  not  too  difficult."  There  has  also 
been  a  demand  that  the  college  course 
relate  itself  to  the  life  purposes  of  the 
students.  This  has  been  heeded,  espe- 
cially by  colleges  attached  to  large  uni- 
versities, so  that  the  college  course  is 
again  becoming  vocational. 

3.  The  Curriculum:  Perhaps  the 
greatest  academic  struggle  of  the  past 
generation  has  been  carried  on  over  the 
college  curriculum,  the  introduction  of 
new  subjects,  the  adherence  to  old  re- 
quirements, the  adoption  of  a  system  of 
free  electives  or  parallel  courses,  the 
length  of  the  course  and  the  degrees  that 
should  crown  it.  The  whole  question  is 
older  than  1870.  It  was  brought  distinct- 
ly to  the  front  in  the  founding  of  the 
University  of  Virginia  in  1825.  Harvard, 
under  the  leadership  of  President  Eliot, 
was  the  center  of  the  liberal  influence. 
Out  of  the  confusion  and  strife  there  are 
some  broad  conclusions  that  may  be 
stated:  (a)  The  rigid  college  course  is 
gone  and  will  not  be  restored,  (b)  New 
subjects  and  new  courses  are  introduced 
by  every  college  to  the  extent  of  its 
financial  ability,  and  beyond.  Limitations 
are  financial  alone,  not  of  educational 
theory,  (c)  Free  election  is  making  lit- 
tle progress  at  present.  A  corrective  is 
applied  by  some  form  of  parallel  courses 
or  group  studies  or  requirement  of  ma- 
jors and  minors,  (d)  Admission  require- 
ments become  constantly  more  liberal 
with  the  ultimate  goal  that  no  student 
is  to  be  rejected — at  least  by  the  larger 
State  universities — who  has  finished  an 
acceptable  high  school  course,  (e)  The 
typical  course  is  to  occupy  four  years, 
but  some  students  will  accomplish  it  in 
three  and  most  professional  students  will 
have  their  first  year  credited  as  part  of 
their  college  course,  (f)  The  degree  of 
A.  B.  will  be  the  usual  degree  for  any 
course.  Some  institutions  will  continue 
to  give  B.  S.,  but  other  degrees,  as  B.  L., 
or  Ph.  B.,  will  be  abandoned. 


COLLEGE  DE  FRANCE 


59 


COLLEGES  FOE  WOMEN 


4.  Extra  Curricidum  Activities:  These 
cannot  be  omitted  in  any  account  of  the 
present  American  college.  There  has 
been  a  tremendous  and  not  altogether  de- 
sirable growth  of  non-scholastic  interests 
in  college  life.  These  interests  attract 
students  more  than  scholarship.  As  yet 
they  have  not  been  properly  organized 
and  vitalized  with  the  spirit  of  culture. 
Athletics,  fraternities,  and  social  life  are 
now  ahead  of  any  study  in  the  curricu- 
lum. 

From  the  foregoing  it  appears  that  no 
definition  of  the  term  "college"  has  yet 
secured  general  acceptance.  At  the  same 
time  influences  are  working  from  many 
quarters  looking  to  the  establishment  of 
certain  minimum  attainments,  financial, 
and  educational,  that  every  college  must 
possess.  These  are  an  endowment  of  at 
least  $200,000,  or  an  annual  income  from 
taxes  of  $40,000,  not  less  than  eight  de- 
partments, each  having  at  least  one  full- 
time  professor,  regular  appropriations  for 
laboratories  and  library,  and  satisfactory 
salaries.  Some  States  limit  the  granting 
of  charters  by  some  such  provisions  and 
educational  societies  have  urged  such 
limitation  as  a  universal  requirement. 

The  future  of  the  American  college 
has  been  much  discussed.  The  college  is 
threatened  by  the  high  school  and  junior 
college  on  the  one  side  and  by  the  uni- 
versity and  professional  schools  on  the 
other.  None  the  less  the  American  col- 
lege— even  the  detached  cultural  college 
— survives  to-day  and  is  being  strength- 
ened. It  has  no  counterpart  either  in 
England  or  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 
It  has  inherited  respect  and  affection  ac- 
cumulated through  hundreds  of  years 
and  in  spite  of  many  changes  still  re- 
mains in  some  respects  our  most  typical 
American  educational  institution. 

COLLEGE  DE  FRANCE,  a  celebrated 
institution  founded  by  Francis  I.,  in 
1530,  originally  a  College  de  Trois 
Langues  merely,  is  now  a  very  important 
educational  institution,  giving  instruc- 
tion over  a  very  wide  field  of  literature, 
history,  and  science.  It  is  independent 
of  the  University  of  France,  is  directly 
under  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
and  is  supported  by  the  government.  As 
in  the  Sorbonne,  the  lectures  are  gratu- 
itous. The  College  comprises  two  fac- 
ulties, one  literary,  one  scientific;  each 
has  about  20  professors. 

COLLEGE  FRATERNITIES,  socie- 
ties existing  in  American  colleges  which 
are  named  from  the  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet  and  therefore  commonly  called 
"Greek  Letter  Societies."  They  are 
secret  organizations  only  in  their  grips 
and  passwords.  They  are  organized 
chiefly  for  literary  and  social  purposes 


and  are  found  among  women  students 
as  well  as  men.  The  first  of  these 
fraternities,  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa,  was 
organized  at  William  and  Mary  College, 
in  Virginia,  in  1776.  On  account  of  the 
troubled  state  of  the  colony  during  the 
Revolutionary  War,  the  original  chapter 
ceased  to  exist  in  1781,  but  branches,  or 
"chapters,"  as  they  are  called,  had  al- 
ready been  established  at  Harvard  and 
Yale,  and  by  these  other  branches  were 
afterward  organized.  It  still  exists  as 
the  chief  society,  indicating  scholarly 
distinction  in  50  different  colleges.  Of 
the  general  fraternities  now  in  existence 
the  first,  the  Kappa  Alpha,  was  founded 
at  Union  College  in  1825.  There  are 
women's  college  fraternities,  the  oldest 
being  the  Pi  Beta  Phi,  founded  at  Mon- 
mouth in  1867.  A  number  of  journals 
are  published  by  the  societies,  the  oldest 
still  in  existence  being  the  "Beta  Theta 
Pi,"  established  in  1872.  The  oldest 
women's  journal  is  the  "Golden  Key," 
established  by  Kappa  Kappa  Gamma  in 
1882,  now  known  as  the  "Key," 

COLLEGE  OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW 
YORK,  an  educational  (non-sect.)  in- 
stitution in  Manhattan  Borough,  N.  Y. ; 
organized  in  1848;  reported  at  the  end 
of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors, 
270;  students,  10,763;  president,  S.  E. 
Mezes. 

COLLEGES  FOR  WOMEN,  institu- 
tions of  higher  learning,  designed  to  give 
women  practically  the  same  advantages 
of  instruction  and  research  as  are  af- 
forded to  men.  They  are  of  three  types; 
independent  or  separate  colleges;  co-or- 
dinate or  affiliated  colleges,  connected 
more  or  less  closely  with  an  older  college 
for  men,  and  coeducational  colleges. 

I.  Independent  colleges  for  women  of 
the  same  grade  as  those  for  men  are 
peculiar  to  the  United  States.  The  ear- 
liest foundation  was  Mount  Holyoke  Col- 
lege, opened  as  a  seminary  in  1837;  re- 
organized as  a  college  in  1893.  The  first 
charter  for  a  collegiate  institution  found- 
ed only  for  women  was  granted  Elmira 
College  in  1855.  The  four  colleges,  Vas- 
sar,  opened  in  1861;  Smith,  in  1875; 
Wellesley,  in  1875,  and  Bryn  Mawr,  iii 
1885,  are  ranked  among  the  leading  col- 
leges of  the  United  States. 

II.  The  affiliated  colleges  for  women 
are  five:  Radcliffe  College,  at  Harvard 
University,  opened  in  1879;  Barnard  Col- 
lege, at  Columbia  University,  in  1889; 
Woman's  College,  of  Brown  University, 
in  1892;  College  for  Women,  of  Western 
Reserve  University,  in  1888;  Sophie 
Newcomb  Memorial  College,  at  Tulane 
University,  in  1886.  In  all  these  colleges 
the  standards  of  entrance  and  gradua- 
tion are  the  same  as  in  the  men's  col- 


COLLIER 


60 


COLLIER 


leges  with  which  they  are  affiliated,  and 
usually  the  instructors  are  the  same. 

III.  The  prevailing  system  of  educa- 
tion in  the  United  States  for  both  men 
and  women  began  in  Oberlin  College,  in 
Ohio,  founded  in  1833,  chartered  as  a 
college  in  1850,  built  "for  the  education 
of  both  sexes  and  all  colors."  Antioch 
College,  also  in  Ohio,  followed  in  1853, 
by  admitting  both  men  and  women  on 
equal  terms.  In  1900  every  State  uni- 
versity in  the  country,  except  those  of 
Virginia,  Georgia,  and  Louisiana,  ad- 
mitted women. 

Many  professional  schools  and  colleges 
have  been  opened  to  women  in  theology, 
law,  medicine,  dentistry,  pharmacy, 
schools  of  technology  and  agriculture, 
and  the  number  of  women  entering  these 
professions  is  increasing  rapidly. 

In  Europe  the  advance  in  this  direc- 
tion has  been  much  slower.  The  first 
woman's  college  in  Cambridge,  England, 
was  begun  in  1869.  Now  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  give  large  opportunities  to 
women,  but  do  not  confer  upon  them 
their  degrees.  With  these  exceptions, 
all  the  greater  English  and  Scotch  uni- 
versities and  colleges  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  her  colonies  give  their  degrees 
to  women. 

COLLIER,  JEREMY,  an  English 
clergyman  and  political  writer;  born  in 
1650.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
and  having  taken  orders  became  rector  of 
Ampton  in  Suffolk  in  1659.  He  is  chiefly 
remembered  now  for  his  "Short  View  of 
the  Immorality  and  Profaneness  of  the 
English  Stage,"  a  work  which  effected  a 
reform  in  the  sentiments  and  language 
of  the  theater.     He  died  in  1726. 

COLLIER,  JOHN  PAYNE,  an  Eng- 
lish Shakespearean  critic;  bom  in  Lon- 
don in  1789,  He  became  known  as  a 
critical  essajrist  on  old  English  dramatic 
literature,  and  was  editor  of  the  new 
edition  of  "Dodsley's  Old  Plays"  in  1825. 
In  1831  his  best  work,  the  "History  of 
English  Dramatic  Poetry,"  was  pub- 
lished. In  1842-1844  he  published  an  an- 
notated edition  of  Shakespeare  in  8  vols.; 
in  1844  "Shakespeare's  Library";  and  in 
1862  an  edition  of  Spenser.  He  died 
in  1883. 

COLLIER,  PETER  EENELON,  an 
American  publisher  and  philanthropist, 
born  in  County  Carlow,  Ireland,  1849. 
He_  removed  with  his  parents  to  the 
United  States,  settling  in  Cincinnati,  and 
his  formal  education  was  completed  in 
St.  Mary  Seminary  in  that  city.  He 
began  his  business  career  in  New  York 
City  early  in  the  seventies,  selling  books 
from  door  to  door.  He  purchased  in 
1882,  for  a  small  sum,  a  complete  set  of 


the  plates  of  an  edition  of  Dickens* 
works.  Purchasing  a  printing  press,  he 
began  the  publishing  business  which 
within  a  few  years  had  become  very  suc- 
cessful. The  firm  of  P.  F.  Collier  &  Son 
published  and  sold  many  millions  of 
books,  chiefly  editions  of  standard  au- 
thors, made  in  inexpensive  form.  He 
founded  in  1888  "Collier's  Weekly."  Mr. 
Collier  was  well  known  as  a  sportsman 
and  breeder  of  blooded  horses.  He  died 
April  23,  1909. 

COLLIER,  ROBERT  JOSEPH,  an 
American  editor  and  publisher,  son  of 
Peter  Fenelon  Collier,  born  in  New  York 
City  in  1876.  He  graduated  from 
Georgetown  University  in  1894  and  took 
post  graduate  studies  at  Oxford  and 
Harvard  Universities,  On  the  death  of 
his  father  he  became  head  of  the  pub- 
lishing firm  of  P.  F.  Collier  &  Son,  and 
for  a  time  was  editor  of  "Collier's 
Weekly,"  He  initiated  the  formation  of 
the  Lincoln  Farm  Association,  which  by 
popular  subscripton  raised  funds  for  the 
purchase  of  the  farm  upon  which  Lin- 
coln was  born  in  Kentucky,  and  the  erec- 
tion of  a  granite  memorial  which 
inclosed  the  Log  Cabin  on  the  farm, 
This  memorial  was  formally  accepted  by 
the  United  States  Government  in  1916. 
Mr.  Collier  was  a  member  of  many  so- 
cieties and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
relief  work  during  the  World  War.  He 
was  a  well-known  sportsman.  He  died 
suddenly,  Nov.  9,  1918. 

COLLIER,  WILLIAM,  an  American 
comedian,  born  in  1868.  He  appeared 
in  many  minor  parts  in  various  com- 
edies until  1901,  when  he  became  a  star 
in  "On  the  Quiet."  He  afterward  ap- 
peared as  star  in  many  comedies  and  be- 
came one  of  the  best  known  and  most 
popular  of  American  comedians. 

COLLIER,  WILLIAM  MILLER,  an 
American  educator  and  diplomat;  born 
in  Lodi,  N.  Y.,  in  1867.  He  graduated 
from  Hamilton  College  in  1889  and 
studied  at  the  Columbia  Law  School  in 
1889-1890.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1892.  After  practicing  for  several 
years  in  New  York  City  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  State  Civil 
Service  Commission,  serving  as  presi- 
dent of  that  body  from  1901  to  1903. 
He  was  lecturer  on  the  law  of  bank- 
ruptcy at  the  New  York  Law  School 
from  1903  to  1905.  In  1903  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Roosevelt  as  special 
assistant  of  the  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  appointed  so- 
licitor-general of  the  United  States  in 
1904,  From  1905  to  1909  he  was  minis- 
ter to  Spain.  In  1917  he  was  elected 
president  of  George  Washington  Uni- 
versity.    During  the  World  War  he  wag 


COLLIMATION 


61 


COLLINS 


chairman  of  the  Extension  Committee 
of  the  Red  Cross  at  Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y., 
and  took  part  in  the  war-loan  campaigns. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  legal  subjects, 
including  "Collier  on  Civil  Service  Law 
(1901);  "The  Trusts"  (1900);  and  "The 
Law  and  the  Higher  Law"  (1918). 

COLLIMATION,  the  act  of  aiming  or 
pointing  toward  any  object.  ^  The  line  of 
CoUimation  of  a  telescope  is  that  from 
the  optical  center  of  the  objective  to  the 
middle  wire,  or  to  the  mean  of  the  wires 
of  a  transit,  or  to  the  zero-position  of 
the  micrometer-wires  in  an  instrument 
for  measuring  zenith-distances.  The 
Error  of  CoUimation  of  a  transit  is  the 
departure  of  this  line  from  a  direction 
at  right  angles  to  the  axis.  The  Col- 
limation  Correction  is  the  amount  to  be 
applied  to  the  observed  times  of  transit 
to  correct  them  for  this  error. 

COLLIMATORS,  telescopes  used  for 
the  determination  of  the  corrections  of 
collimation,  for  flexure,  or  for  the  zenith- 
point  of  a  meridian-circle  or  transit. 
They  are  generally  fixed  upon  piers  N. 
and  S.  of  the  instrument  and  pointed 
toward  each  other  and  toward  the  in- 
strument itself  when  in  a  horizontal  po- 
sition. They  are  adjusted  so  as  to  be 
intervisible  when  the  instrument  is  lifted 
out  of  its  Y's,  and,  on  looking  into  either, 
the  wires  of  the  other  are  seen  alongside 
those  in  the  field,  so  that  they  can  be 
pointed  on  each  other,  or  the  instrument 
itself  upon  either  in  turn.  Besides  the 
above  arrangement  there  are  many 
others,  and  also  other  uses  of  Collima- 
tors. Very  often  a  long  focus  lens  with  a 
distant  meridian-mark  takes  the  place  of 
one  of  the  Collimators,  and  it  is  then 
used  also  as  a  reference  point  for  the 
azimuth-correction  of  the  instrument. 

COLLINGWOOD,  CUTHBERT,  LORD, 

an  English  naval  commander;  born  in 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1750.  He  en- 
tered the  royal  navy  in  1761,  and  took 
part  as  flag-captain  on  board  the  "Bar- 
fleur"  in  Lord  Howe's  victory  of  June  1, 
1794,  commanded  the  "Excellent"  during 
the  battle  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  on  Feb. 
14,  in  that  year,  and  was  made  rear-ad- 
miral of  the  white  in  1799.  His  most 
distinguished  service  was  at  Trafalgar, 
where  he  won  the  praise  of  Nelson.  On 
the  latter's  death  Collingwood  as  senior 
officer  took  command  of  the  fleet.  For 
his  services  here  he  was  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  baron.  He  died,  while  cruising 
off  Minorca  in  the  "Ville  de  Paris,"  on 
March  7,  1810.  His  "Memoirs  and  Cor- 
respondence" have  been   published. 

COLLINS,  JOHN  CHURTON,  an  Eng- 
lish educator  and  writpr,  born  in  1848. 
He  graduated  from  Balliol  College,  Ox- 


ford, in  1872.  For  many  years  he  con- 
tributed book  reviews  and  criticisms  to 
the  English  reviews.  In  1904  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  English  literature 
at  the  University  of  Birmingham.  He 
edited  many  editions  of  English  classics 
and  wrote  "Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as  a 
Portrait  Painter"  (1874)  ;  "Study  of 
English  Literature"  (1891);  "Essays 
and  Studies"  (1895) ;  "Essays  in  Poetry 
and  Criticism"  (1905)  ;  and  "Rousseau 
and  Voltaire"  (1908).     He  died  in  1908. 

COLLINS,  WILLIAM,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  Chichester,  Dec.  25,  1721. 
His  melancholy  temperament  and  poetic 
musings  marked  him  as  a  boy,  and  at 
Oxford.  "The  Passions,"  the  "Ode  to 
Evening,"  the  "Dirge  in  Cymbeline,"  and 
the  "Ode  on  the  Death  of  Thomson," 
chiefly  perpetuate  his  fame.  He  died  in 
a  madhouse  at  Chichester,  June  12,  1759. 

COLLINS,  WILLIAM,  an  English 
painter;  born  in  London,  Sept.  8,  1788; 
father  of  William  Wilkie  Collins.  His 
most  popular  works  are:  "Happy  as  a 
King,"  "The  Stray  Kitten,"  "Putting 
Salt  on  the  Bird's  Tail,"  and  "The  Newly 
Found  Nest."  He  died  in  London,  Feb. 
17,  1847. 

COLLINS,    WILLIAM    WILKIE,    an 

English  novelist;  born  in  London,  Jan. 
8,  1824.     He  was  educated  at  a  private 


^#^ 


^ms^^ms 


WILLIAM    WILKIE   COLLINS 

school.  After  a  short  time  in  the  tea- 
trade  he  studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn. 
He  wrote  a  biography  of  his  father  in 
1848  and  made  literature  his  profession. 
5— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


COLLINSVILLE 


62 


COLLUSION 


His  first  novel  was  "Antonina"  (1850) ; 
"Rambles  Beyond  Railways"  follow.  In 
1852  he  returned  to  fiction  with  "Basil," 
and  "Mr.  Wray's  Cash  Box,"  "Hide  and 
Seek"  followed  in  1854.  In  "Household 
Words,"  "After  Dark"  and  one  of  his 
most  successful  works,  "The  Dead 
Secret,"  were  originally  published. 

Several  of  his  novels,  including  "The 
Woman  in  White"  and  "No  Name,"  were 
published  originally  in  "All  the  Year 
Round."  "Armadale"  and  many  of  his 
subsequent  stories  were  printed  in  Amer- 
ican magazines  before  appearing  in 
book-form.  "The  Moonstone,"  "Man  and 
Wife,"  "The  New  Magdalen,"  and  "The 
Law  and  the  Lady"  are  other  works  of 
his  that  had  wide  circulation.  His  prin- 
cipal books  have  been  translated  into 
French,  Italian,  German,  Dutch,  Danish, 
and  Russian.  He  died  in  London,  Sep- 
tember, 1889. 

COLLINSVILLE,  a  city  in  Illinois,  in 
Madison  co.,  on  the  Vandalia  railroad. 
It  is  the  center  of  an  important  coal- 
mining region  and  has  lead  smelters 
and  zinc  works.  There  are  also  manu- 
factures of  flour  and  wool.  The  city 
has  a  hospital  and  a  tuberculosis  sani- 
tarium. Pop.  (1910)  7,478;  (1920) 
9,753. 

COLLISION,  in  maritime  affairs,  the 
shock  of  two  ships  coming  into  violent 
contact,  whereby  one  or  both  may  suffer 
more  or  less  injury.  Collision  may  hap- 
pen without  blame  being  imputable  to 
either  party  as  in  a  storm.  Or  a  colli- 
sion may  arise  where  both  parties  are 
to  blame — where  there  has  been  a  want 
of  due  diligence  or  skill  on  both  sides; 
in  which  case  neither  party  has  an  ac- 
tion against  the  other.  Thirdly,  it  may 
happen  by  the  misconduct  of  the  suffer- 
ing party  only,  and  then  the  rule  is  that 
the  sufferer  must  bear  his  own  burden. 
Lastly,  it  may  have  been  the  fault  of 
the  ship  which  ran  the  other  down;  and 
in  that  case  the  injured  party  would  be 
entitled  to  an  entire  compensation  from 
the  other. 

By  the  rule  of  the  road  at  sea,  if  two 
sailing  ships  are  approaching  each 
other  end  on,  or  nearly  so,  the  helms  of 
both  must  be  put  to  port,  so  that  each 
may  pass  on  the  port  side  of  the  other; 
in  crossing  so  as  to  involve  risk  of  colli- 
sion the  sailing  ship  with  the  wind  on 
the  port  side  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  the  ship  with  the  wind  on  the  star- 
board, but  if  they  have  both  the  wind 
on  the  same  side,  the  ship  which  is  to 
windward  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of 
the  one  that  has  it  to  leeward.  If  a 
steamship  and  a  sailing  ship  are  ap- 
proaching, so  as  to  involve  collision  the 


former  must  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the 
latter.  If  one  vessel  is  overtaking  an- 
other she  must  keep  out  of  the  way  of 
the  last-named  vessel. 

COLLODION,  or  COLLODIUM,  a  sub- 
stance prepared  by  dissolving  one  part 
of  gun-cotton  in  a  mixture  of  36  fluid 
parts  of  ether  and  12  fluid  parts  of 
rectified  spirit.  The  gun-cotton  or  pyrox- 
ylin used  for  making  collodion  is  pre- 
pared by  immersing  one  part  of  raw  cot- 
ton fiber  in  a  mixture  of  five  fluid  parts 
of  sulphuric  acid,  and  five  fluid  parts 
of  nitric  acid,  for  three  minutes,  then 
carefully  washing  it  with  water,  and 
drying  it  in  a  water  bath;  it  must  be 
kept  in  a  well-corked  bottle.  Collodion  is 
used  in  photography;  also  in  surgery,  to 
form   a   protecting  surface  to  the   skin. 

COLLODION-PBOCESS,  a  process  in 
photography  invented  by  Archer,  in 
1851.  An  iodized  collodion  is  made  by 
impregnating  a  solution  of  gun-cotton  in 
ether,  with  a  small  quantity  of  iodide  of 
potassium  or  cadmium.  A  film  of  the 
iodized  collodion  is  spread  on  the  glass, 
which  is  then  immersed  in  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver.  The  image  is  taken  in 
the  camera,  developed  by  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  pyrogallic  acid  and  acetic  acid, 
or  a  solution  of  protosulphate  of  iron. 
Excess  of  iodide  of  silver  is  removed  by 
hyposulphite  of  soda  or  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium. This  gives  a  negative.  A  posi- 
tive is  obtained  by  laying  the  negative 
on  prepared  paper  and  exposing  them 
to  light. 

COLLOIDS.  The  first  extensive  in- 
vestigation of  colloids  was  made  by 
Thomas  Graham  in  the  years  1860-1864. 
He  found  that  certain  substances 
formed  what  were,  apparently,  solutions, 
in  that  they  would  pass,  unchanged, 
through  filter-paper,  but  that  they  dif- 
fered from  solutions  of  crystalloids, 
such  as  sugar  or  salt,  in  that  they  would 
not  dialyze.  See  Dialysis.  These  sub- 
stances he  called  colloids.  Well-known 
examples  are  starch,  glue,  dextrin,  albu- 
men, caramel,  and  tannins.  All  living 
matter  is,  for  the  most  part,  built  up  of 
colloids.  Recent  investigations  have 
tended  to  show  that  it  is  possible  to 
bring  any  substance  into  a  colloidal  con- 
dition, and  colloidal  solutions  of  metals 
and  their  compounds  have  been  pre- 
pared. The  word  "colloid"  is  now  used, 
therefore,  to  describe  a  state  of  matter 
rather  than  a  particular  class  of 
substances. 

COLLUSION,  in  law,  a  secret  agree- 
ment between  opposing  litigants  to  ob- 
tain a  particular  judicial  decision  on  a 
preconcerted  statement  of  facts,  Whether 


COLLYER 


63 


COLOMBIA 


true  or  false,  to  the  injury  of  a  third 
party.  Collusion,  when  proved  to  exist, 
nullifies  the  judgment  obtained  through  it. 

COLLYER,  ROBERT,  an  American 
clergyman;  born  in  Keighley,  Yorkshire, 
England,  Dec.  8,  1823.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1849,  being  then  a  Wes- 
leyan  preacher  and  a  blacksmith;  but 
became  a  Unitarian,  and  preached  some 
years  in  Chicago,  where  he  founded 
Unity  Church  in  1860.  He  was  made 
pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Messiah, 
New  York  City,  in  September,  1879,  and 
pastor  emeritus  in  1896.  Included  in  his 
publications  are:  "Nature  and  Life" 
(1866) ;  "The  Life  that  Now  Is"  (1871) ; 
"Lectures  to  Young  Men  and  Women" 
(1886);  "A  Man  in  Earnest";  "Clear 
Grit"  (1914).  His  "Life  and  Letters" 
edited  by  J.  H.  Holmes  was  published 
in  1917.     Died  in  November,  1912. 

COLLYRIDIANS,  a  sect  toward  the 
close  of  the  4th  century,  so  denominated 
from  the  little  cakes  which  they  offered 
to  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  sect  consisted 
chiefly  of  Arabian  women,  who  met  on 
a  certain  day  of  the  year  to  celebrate  a 
solemn  feast  and  to  render  divine  honors 
to  the  Virgin  as  to  a  goddess,  eating  the 
cakes  which  they  oflPered  in  her  name. 
While  pagans  they  had  been  accustomed 
to  offer  similar  cakes  to  Venus  or 
Astarte. 

COLMAN,  GEORGE,  the  Elder,  an 
English  dramatist;  bom  in  Florence, 
Italy,  April  28,  1732.  "The  Deuce  Is  in 
Him,"  "New  Brooms,"  "The  Separate 
Maintenance,"  and  several  other  come- 
dies, proclaimed  him  a  man  of  wit.  He 
died  in  London,  Aug.  14,  1794. 

COLOCASIA,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
Aracese.  The  leaves  of  the  colocasia  are 
peltate,  the  stem  herbaceous,  the  juice 
milky,  the  rootstocks  tuberous.  India  is 
the  home  of  the  genus,  though  species 
are  now  cultivated  in  most  hot  countries. 
The  rootstocks  of  C.  himaletisis  form  a 
chief  portion  of  the  food  of  some  hill 
tribes.  C.  antiquonim,  called  by  Linnaeus 
Arum  C,  the  best  known  species,  is  cul- 
tivated in  India,  Egypt,  etc.,  for  its 
leaves,  which  though  acrid  are  boiled  till 
they  are  wholesome,  and  eaten  as  spin- 
ach. It  has  been  introduced  into  green- 
houses. The  stems  and  the  tubers  of  C. 
indica  are  eaten  in  Brazil.  The  root- 
stocks  of  C.  esculenta  macrorhiza,  called 
"tara"  or  "kopeh"  in  the  South  Sea 
Islands,  are  used  as  food.  The  leaves  of 
C.  esculenta  have  a  quivering  motion  at 
uncertain  intervals  every  day. 

COLOCYNTH,  the  pith  of  the  bitter 
apple;  the  fruit  of  the  Citridhis  Colocyn- 
^^h^^s,  which  is  violently  purgative.    It  is 


imported  dried,  and  generally  peeled, 
from  Turkey,  and  is  rarely  used  alone. 
One  of  the  most  valuable  purgatives  is 
the  compound  extract  of  Colocynth,  which 
is  a  combination  of  this  drug  with  aloes, 
scammony,  cardamom  seeds,  and  soap. 
In  large  doses,  Colocynth  is  an  irritant 
poison. 

COLOGNE  (k5-lon'),  German,  Koln 
(keuln),  a  city  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  forming,  in 
connection  with  Deutz,  which  serves  as 
a  tete-du-pont  of  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river  (across  which  are  several  bridges), 
a  fortress  of  the  first  rank. 

The  most  important  edifice  is  the 
cathedral,  begun  in  1248,  one  of  the 
finest  and  largest  Gothic  structures  in 
Europe.  It  was  only  completed  in  the 
19th  century,  there  being  expended  on  it 
in  1828-1884  over  $5,000,000.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  a  cross;  its  entire  length  is 
about  445  feet;  breadth,  200  feet;  height 
to  ridge  of  roof,  202  feet;  height  of  the 
two  western  towers,  between  which  is  a 
grand  poi'tal,  520  feet,  being  thus  among 
the  highest  edifices  in  the  world.  The 
council-house,  museum,  and  Gross  St, 
Martin  Church  vnth  its  imposing  tower 
should  also  be  mentioned.  The  manufac- 
tures before  the  World  War  embraced 
sugar,  tobacco,  glue,  carpets,  leather, 
machinery,  chemicals,  pianos,  and  the 
celebrated  Eau  de  Cologne.  The  trade 
by  river  and  railway  was  very  great. 
Cologne  was  occupied  by  the  British 
Army  of  Occupation  following  the  ar- 
mistice of  November,  1918. 

Cologne  is  of  pre-Christian  origin,  and 
was  originally  called  Oppidum  TJhiomm, 
being  the  chief  town  of  the  Ubii,  a  Ger- 
man tribe.  The  Romans  made  it  a 
colony  A.  D.  51,  and  called  it  Colonia 
Agripphm  (whence  the  name  Cologne). 
It  was  annexed  to  the  German  Empire  in 
870,  and  became  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful and  wealthy  cities  of  the  Hanseatic 
League,  but  latterly  it  declined.  In  1792 
it  ceased  to  be  a  free  city.  It  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1794,  ceded  to  them  by 
the  Treaty  of  Lun^ville  in  1801,  and  an- 
nexed to  Prussia  in  1814.  Pop.  about 
520,000. 

COLOGNE  EARTH,  a  native  pigment 
similar  to  the  Vandyke  brown  in  its  uses 
and  properties  as  a  color. 

COLOMBIA,  a  Republic  of  South 
America;  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Panama 
and  the  Caribbean  Sea;  E.  by  Venezuela 
and  Brazil;  S.  by  Brazil  and  Ecuador; 
and  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean;  area, 
513,938  square  miles.  Pop.  about  5,- 
000,000. 

Topography.  —  The  surface  of  the 
country  is  extremely  varied,  with  loftf 


COLOMBIA 


64 


COLOMBIA 


mountains  in  the  W.,  and  vast  plains  in 
the  E.  scarcely  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  Andes  spread  out  in  three 
great  ranges,  from  the  extensive  plateau 
of  Pasto  in  the  S.  W.;  forming  valleys 
running  from  N.  to  S.  parallel  to  the 
three  chains.  Of  the  sections  outside 
the  main  Cordilleras,  the  principal  are 
the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  in 
the  N.,  and  the  low  Baudo  range,  along 
the  N.  W.  coast.    From  the  Central  Cor- 


miles),  on  the  Pacific  coast;  the  Atrato 
and  Zulia  (150  miles),  flowing  N.;  the 
Arauca  (600),  which,  as  well  as  the 
Meta  (700)  and  Guaviare  (850),  feeds 
the  Orinoco;  and  the  Caqueta  (1,350), 
the  Putumayo  (1,100),  and  the  Napo 
(750),  tributaries  of  the  Amazon.  The 
lakes  are  unimportant. 

Climate  and  Productions.  —  Colombia 
possesses  all  the  climates  of  the  world; 
perpetual  snows  cover  the  summits   of 


CATHEDRAL  AT   COLOGNE 


dillera  the  principal  rivers,  the  Mag- 
dalena  and  the  Cauca,  flow  into  the  Ca- 
ribbean Sea,  besides  several  affluents  of 
the  Amazon  in  the  E.,  and  the  Patia, 
which  forces  its  way  to  the  Pacific, 
through  a  gorge  between  cliffs,  10,000  to 
12,000  feet  high,  and  forms  the  only 
notable  break  in  the  long  wall  of  the 
Western  Cordillera  from  Darien  to 
Patagonia.  The  Eastern  Cordillera  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  extensive  tablelands, 
cool  and  healthy,  where  the  white  race 
flourishes  as  vigorously  as  in  Europe. 
E.  from  this  Cordillera  stretch  vast 
llanos  or  plains,  through  which  flow  the 
Meta,  the  Guaviare,  and  other  tributaries 
of  the  Orinoco.  Besides  these,  the  chief 
rivers  are  the  San  Juan   (navigable  150 


the  Cordilleras,  while  the  valleys  abound 
in  the  rich  vegetation  of  the  tropics. 
The  mean  temperature  ranges  from  32° 
to  82°,  according  to  the  elevation.  The 
rainy  season  falls  from  November  to 
April,  except  among  the  low-lying  for- 
ests of  the  S.  E.,  where  the  rain-fall  is 
distributed  throughout  the  year,  and  in 
the  Choco  coast  district  of  the  N.  W., 
where,  shut  in  from  the  N.  E.  winds, 
the  heavy  atmosphere  hangs  motionless, 
and  mists  and  torrents  of  rain  alternate. 
The  hot  region,  extending  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  3,200  feet,  produces  in 
abundance,  rice,  cacao,  sugar-cane,  ba- 
nanas, yams,  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton 
caoutchouc,  vegetable  ivory,  and  many 
medical    plants;    and   the   forests,   with 


COLOMBIA 


65 


COLOMBIA 


their  tangua  and  other  stately  palms, 
their  rare  balsamic  resins  and  valuable 
dyewoods,  are  ablaze  with  flowers  and 
creepers,  and  steeped  in  the  perfume  of 
the  delicate  vanilla  orchid.  In  the  tem- 
perate zone,  from  3,200  to  8,500  feet 
above  the  sea,  many  of  these  plants  are 
equally  common,  but  the  cocoanut  palm 
gives  place  to  the  oak,  the  encenillo, 
groups  of  laurels,  and  arborescent  ferns, 
and  here  flourish  the  coffee  plant,  the 
odorous  cherimoya  and  curibano,  the  fig, 
and  the  cinchona  tree.  The  wax-palm 
extends  beyond  this  region,  and  is  found 
at  a  height  of  nearly  11,000  feet,  and 
large  crops  of  potatoes,  grain,  and  le- 
guminous plants  are  raised  in  the  cold 
regions.  In  the  N.  departments,  and  in 
the  immense  llanos  of  the  E.  great  herds 
of  cattle,  descended  from  those  imported 
by  the  Spaniards,  are  reared;  in  the 
central  districts,  shorthorns  and  other 
English,  Dutch,  and  Norman  cattle  and 
horses  have  been  introduced,  and  are 
largely  raised  throughout  the  temperate 
zone.  Among  the  natural  mineral 
products  are  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper, 
lead,  coal,  sulphur,  zinc,  antimony,  ar- 
senic, cinnabar,  rock-salt,  crystal,  gran- 
ite, marble,  lime,  gypsum,  jet,  ame- 
thysts, rubies,  porphyry,  and  jasper; 
while  much  of  the  world's  platinum  is 
obtained  from  the  upper  San  Juan,  and 
the  principal  source  of  the  finest  emer- 
alds is  at  Muzo  in  Boyaca. 

Commerce  and  Production. — The  im- 
ports in  1918  amounted  to  £4,406,800 
and  the  exports  to  £7,545,712.  The  chief 
trade  is  carried  on  with  the  United 
States.  The  principal  articles  of  ex- 
port are  coffee,  bananas,  gold,  silver, 
and  platinum.  The  chief  imports  are 
flour,  lard,  petroleum,  and  cotton  works 
from  the  tlnited  States  and  Great  Brit- 
ain. Only  a  small  part  of  the  country 
is  under  cultivation.  While  much  of 
the  area  is  fertile,  its  development  is  pre- 
vented by  lack  of  communication  and 
transport.  The  chief  product  is  coffee. 
Tobacco  is  also  grovni  and  cotton  is  pro- 
duced in  several  provinces. 

Finance, — The  estimated  revenue  for 
1920-1921  was  22,000,000  gold  pesos,  and 
the  estimated  expenditure  the  same 
amount.  The  revenue  in  1919-1920  was 
15,307,350  pesos,  and  the  expenditure 
15,307,345  pesos.  The  external  debt  in 
1919  was  £3,766,746.  The  internal  debt 
in  1919  was  4,500,432  gold  pesos. 

Railways. — There  are  15  lines  of  rail- 
ways, of  which  10  are  national  and  5 
are  owned  by  British  companies.  The 
total  length  of  track  is  740  miles.  The 
government  has  undertaken  the  improve- 
ment of  the  main  roads,  but  in  general 
the  roads  are  scarcely  more  than  mule 


tracks.  Much  of  the  inland  traffic  is  by 
river,  and  the  lower  and  upper  Magda- 
lene are  being  improved  and  cleared. 
From  1891  numerous  attempts  have  been 
made  to  construct  a  ship  canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  following  the 
line  of  the  railroad.  The  French  com- 
pany failed,  and  in  1903  sold  out  their 
franchise  and  property  to  the  United 
States  Government,  and  in  the  same  year 
Panama  seceded  from  Colombia  and 
became  an  independent  state.  See 
Panama. 

Government. — The  government  is  that 
of  a  republic,  the  chief  magistrate  being 
a  president,  elected  for  six  years.  The 
president  has  a  cabinet  consisting  of  six 
members,  responsible  to  Congress.  The 
legislative  power  vests  in  a  Congress  of 
two  Houses,  called  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives.  The  Senate, 
numbering  34,  is  composed  of  three 
representatives  from  each  department. 
The  House  of  Representatives  is  elected 
for  four  years  by  universal  suffrage  and 
consists  of  one  member  for  each  50,000 
inhabitants.  Congress  elects  for  a  term 
of  two  years  a  substitute,  who,  failing 
the  president  and  vice-president  during 
the  presidential  term,  fills  the  vacancy. 
Education,  Religion,  etc. — In  1870  a 
system  of  compulsory  education  was 
adopted  which  has,  on  the  whole,  proved 
successful.  Public  instruction  is  under 
the  direction  of  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction,  There  were  in  1917  5,488 
primary  schools,  with  430,707  pupils,  and 
5,733  teachers.  Nearly  all  the  schools 
for  secondary  education  are  carried  on 
by  religious  corporations  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church.  There  are  nearly  400  sec- 
ondary and  professional  schools  with 
about  35,000  pupils.  There  are  about 
100  art  and  trade  schools  with  about 
8,000  pupils.  The  chief  university  is 
that  of  Bogota,  which  was  founded  in 
1572.  There  are  also  universities  at 
Medellin,  Cartegena,  Popayan,  and 
Pasto.  There  were  in  1918  29  normal 
schools.  The  annual  expenditure  for 
education  is  about  1,000,000  pesos. 

The  State  Church  is  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic, which  in  the  management  of  its  own 
affairs  is  independent  of  civil  authority; 
religious  orders  were  suppressed  in 
1863,  and  toleration  in  matters  of  re- 
ligion is  guaranteed;  but,  by  the  terms 
of  a  concordat  entered  into  with  the 
Holy  See  in  1888,  religion  is  one  of  the 
obligatory  subjects  of  study  in  all  educa- 
tional establishments. 

History. — The  N.  coasts  of  Colombia 
were  visited  by  Ojeda  and  Amerigo  Ves- 
pucci, in  1499,  and  afterward  by  Bas- 
tidas;  in  1502  Columbus  explored  part 
of  the  country,  and  endeavored  to  found 


COLOMBIA 


66 


COLON 


on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  the  first 
Spanish  colony  on  the  American  main- 
land. In  1513  Balboa  discovered  the 
Pacific,  and  Pizarro  and  Almagro  sailed 
along  the  W.  coast  of  Colombia  on  their 
way  to  Peru  in  1526.  Ten  years  later 
Jiminez  de  Quesada  broke  the  power  of 
the  Muyscan  empire,  and  the  Nuevo 
Reino  de  Granada  was  formed.  As  the 
country  was  opened  up,  the  Indians  sank 
to  the  condition  of  serfs,  and  the  policy 
of  the  crown,  aided  by  the  Inquisition, 
which  was  introduced  in  1571,  put  an 
end  to  the  democratic  institutions  of  the 
early  settlers.  The  country  formed  a 
presidency  (except  during  the  years 
1718-1724)  from  1564  to  1739,  a  period 
memorable  for  the  disastrous  descents  of 
Drake,  Morgan,  Dampier,  and  others  on 
the  coast  towns;  it  was  then  raised  to  a 
viceroyalty,  which  lasted  until  the  war 
of  independence.  A  revolution  broke  out 
July  20,  1810,  which  ended  in  the  election 
of  Bolivar  to  the  presidency  of  the  Re- 
public of  Colombia,  a  term  which,  like 
the  viceroyalty,  embraced  all  that  now 
belongs  to  Venezuela,  Colombia,  and 
Ecuador.  So  long  as  union  was  neces- 
sary to  meet  external  dangers,  it  main- 
tained an  imposing  attitude  in  the  eyes 
of  the  world;  but  gradually  sectional 
interests  and  political  jealousies  did  their 
work,  and  in  1831  the  ill-assorted  ele- 
ments of  the  confederation  were  sep- 
arated. What  is  now  Colombia  was  then 
formed  under  the  title  of  the  Republic 
of  New  Granada,  but  in  1861  a  fresh 
civil  war  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia.  In  1863  a 
constitution  was  adopted,  based  on  that 
of  the  United  States  of  America,  with  a 
president  elected  for  two  years ;  but  this 
proved  altogether  unsuited  to  the  Colom- 
bians, and,  after  twenty  years'  trial, 
brought  about  the  revolution  of  1884- 
1885.  In  1886  a  fresh  constitution  was 
adopted  for  the  new  Republic  of  Colom- 
bia, placing  the  central  authority  in  the 
hands  of  the   Federal   Government. 

The  chief  international  political  in- 
terest of  Colombia  in  recent  years  has 
centered  about  the  formation  and  rec- 
ognition of  the  Republic  of  Panama  and 
the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
The  recognition  of  the  new  Republic  of 
Panama,  which  included  a  former  prov- 
ince of  Colombia,  created  much  resent- 
ment in  the  latter  country.  In  1909  a 
treaty  was  negotiated  between  Panama 
and  the  United  States  in  which  the  two 
powers  were  exonerated  by  Colombia 
from  the  charge  of  injustice.  The  popu- 
lar feeling  against  the  treaty  was  so 
great  that  President  Reyes,  who  sup- 
ported it,  was  forced  to  resign.  In  the 
following  year  there  were  serious  riots 


in  Bogota  against  the  United  States 
minister  and  American  citizens.  This 
was  followed  by  an  apology  by  the  Co- 
lombian Government.  Shortly  after  the 
inauguration  of  President  Wilson  a 
treaty  was  negotiated  with  Colombia  in 
which  the  United  States,  in  effect,  apolo- 
gized for  the  methods  employed  to  secure 
the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  and  offered  to 
pay  Colombia  $25,000,000  damages.  This 
treaty,  however,  failed  to  pass  the  Sen- 
ate. Difficulties  with  Peru  over  the 
southern  boundary  of  Colombia  arose  in 
1911  and  Peruvian  troops  occupied  a 
strip  of  territory  along  this  boundary. 
They  were  attacked  by  Colombian  forces 
and  the  latter  were  defeated. 

During  the  World  War  Colombia  re- 
mained neutral,  but  in  October,  1917, 
Congress  passed  a  resolution  protesting 
against  the  submarine  warfare  of  Ger- 
many. 

COLOMBO,  a  seaport  town,  the  capital 
of  Ceylon,  on  the  S.  W.  coast,  and  about 
70  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Kandy,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is  a  pleas- 
ant town  with  an  extensive  fort,  within 
which  are  some  of  the  best  houses.  On 
the  margin  of  the  sea  is  the  Pettah  or 
Black  Town,  inhabited  chiefly  by  Singha- 
lese, while  in  the  environs  are  most  of 
the  houses  occupied  by  the  English. 
Through  the  construction  of  a  break- 
water and  other  works  there  is  excellent 
harbor  accommodation;  and  numerous 
vessels  call  here.     Pop.  about  215,000. 

COLON,  the  greatest  and  widest  of  all 
the  intestines,  about  8  or  9  hands' 
breadth  long.  It  begins  where  the  ilium 
ends,  in  the  cavity  of  the  os  ilium  on  the 
right  side;  from  thence  ascending  by  the 
kidney  on  the  same  side,  it  passes  under 
the  concave  side  of  the  liver,  to  which  it 
is  sometimes  tied,  as  likewise  to  the  gall- 
bladder, which  tinges  it  yellow  in  that 
place;  then  it  runs  under  the  bottom  of 
the  stomach  to  the  spleen  in  the  left  side, 
to  which  it  is  also  knit;  from  thence  it 
turns  down  to  the  left  kidney;  and 
thence  passing,  in  form  of  an  S,  it  ter- 
minates at  the  upper  part  of  the  os  sac- 
rum in  the  rectum. 

The  Colon-bacillus  is  the  microbe  of 
Asiatic  cholera. 

COLON,  or  ASPINWALL  (the  former 
the  official  name) ,  a  free  port  of  Pana- 
ma, on  Manzanillo  Island,  on  the  N.  side 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  at  the  Atlan- 
tic extremity  of  the  interoceanic  railway, 
and  near  that  of  the  Panama  canal.  It 
had  an  important  transit  trade  before 
the  canal  was  begun,  and  since  then  the 
place  has  been  entirely  transformed,  a 
new  town  with  wide  and  regular  streets 
having  been  built  on  a  tract  of  land  re- 


COLONEL 


67 


COLONNA 


claimed  by  the  canal  company.  There  is 
extensive  harbor  accommodation.  The 
completion  of  the  Panama  canal  made 
Colon  an  important  commercial  port.  The 
United  States  Government  has  intro- 
duced modern  systems  of  sanitation  and 
sewers,  which  have  made  the  city,  for- 
merly very  unhealthful,  one  of  the 
healthiest  places  in  the  tropics.  Pop. 
about  20,000.     See  Panama. 

COLONEL,  the  commander  of  a  regi- 
ment, whether  of  cavalry,  infantry,  or 
artillery.  Any  rank  above  a  Colonel  con- 
stitutes the  bearer  of  it  a  general  officer. 
In  the  British  service  the  rank  of  Colonel 
is  honorary,  except  in  the  artillery  and 
engineers,  and  is  usually  bestowed  upon 
officers  of  superior  rank  and  princes  of 
the  blood.  In  the  United  States  army  a 
Colonel  is  commander  of  troops  below  a 
Brigadier-General,  and  above  a  Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel. 

COLONIA,  a  department  of  Uruguay, 
on  the  Plata,  below  the  Uruguay  river. 
The  uplands  are  barren,  but  in  the  fer- 
tile valleys  and  plains  are  numerous  Eu- 
ropean colonies,  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  stock-raising.  Area,  2,192  square 
miles;  pop.  (1917)  82,596.  The  capital, 
Colonia  del  Sacramento,  on  the  Plata, 
about  100  miles  above  Montevideo,  has 
a  good  harbor. 

COLONIAL  ANIMALS,  organisms 
which  cannot  be  fairly  regarded  as  uni- 
ties, but  consist  of  numerous  more  or  less 
similar  individuals  united  in  a  common 
life.  Among  the  usually  single-celled 
simplest  animals  or  protozoa,  loose  colo- 
nies not  infrequently  occur,  and  are  of 
not  a  little  importance  as  suggestions  of 
the  bridge  between  the  single-celled  and 
many-celled  animals.  Such  colonies  arise 
when  the  original  cell,  instead  of  repro- 
ducing discontinuously,  retains  its  daugh- 
ter-cells in  union  with  itself  or  with  one 
another,  just  like  the  egg-cell  of  a  higher 
animal.  By  sacrifice  of  individuality  at 
the  epoch  of  reproduction,  a  higher  unity 
is  formed.  In  the  same  way  a  simple 
cup-shaped  sponge,  by  continuous  bud- 
ding, forms  a  colony  of  similar  forms, 
which  may  possess  more  or  less  distinct 
individuality.  The  common  fresh-water 
Hydra,  to  mount  a  step  higher,  buds  off 
daughter  Hydrss,  which  remain  for  a 
while  connected  with  the  parent  organ- 
ism and  make  it  temporarily  colonial. 

COLONIAL  DAMES  OF  AMERICA, 
NATIONAL  SOCIETY  OF  THE,  a 
women's  patriotic  organization,  founded 
at  Wilmington,  Del.,  in  1892.  Each  of 
the  original  13  colonies  has  a  State  soci- 
ety, as  has  also  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia.   In  many  of  the  non-colonial  States 


there  are  associated  chapters.  To  be- 
come a  member  one  must  be  especially 
invited,  and  must  have  one  worthy  an- 
cestor who  was  in  the  colonies  by  the 
year  1750.  The  object  of  the  society  is 
to  preserve  historical  monuments  and 
relics,  erect  memorials,  and  publish  in- 
formation regarding  American  history. 
One  of  their  important  publications  is 
"The  Letters  of  William  Pitt,  Lord  Chat- 
ham." 

COLONIAL  DAMES  OF  AMERICA, 
SOCIETY  OF,  women's  patriotic  society 
founded  at  New  York  City  in  1890,  with 
the  object  of  fostering  a  spirit  of  patri- 
otism, caring  for  the  historical  relics  of 
colonial  and  Revolutionary  times,  and  of 
celebrating  the  success  of  the  American 
Revolution.  To  become  a  member  one 
must  have  had  an  ancestor  of  distinction 
who  resided  in  the  colonies  prior  to  the 
year  in  which  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence was  issued.  There  are  chap- 
ters of  the  society  in  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore,  Paris,  San  Francisco, 
and  Shreveport,  La. 

COLONIAL  WARS,  SOCIETY  OF,  a! 

patriotic  organization  founded  in  New 
York  City  in  1892.  There  are  many 
State  societies  with  a  general  society 
made  up  of  officers  and  delegates.  Their 
object  is  to  keep  alive  the  memory  of 
men  and  events  of  the  colonial  and  Rev- 
olutionary times.  They  admit  to  mem- 
bership men  who  are  descended  from 
those  who  fought  for  or  served  in  the 
establishment  and  preservation  of  the 
American  colonies  as  a  nation.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  collecting  of  many  papers  val- 
uable for  throwing  light  upon  colonial 
times  they  have  erected  valuable  memo- 
rials to  American  heroes :  one  at  Louis- 
burg  on  Cape  Breton  Island,  one  at  Fort 
Oswego  and  Fort  Ticonderoga,  and  a 
very  striking  monument  at  Lake  George. 

COLONNA,  a  village  in  the  former 
Papal  states,  which  gave  its  name  to  one 
of  the  most  powerful  and  celebrated  aris- 
tocratic Roman  families.  The  Colonna 
produced  in  the  Middle  Ages  many  dis- 
tinguished members,  among  whom,  be- 
sides Pope  Martin  V.,  were: 

Colonna,  Prospero,  son  of  Antonio 
Colonna,  prince  of  Salerno.  He  assisted 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  to  conquer  Na- 
ples, but  subsequently  aided  in  retaking 
it  for  the  House  of  Aragon.  He  served 
under  the  great  Gonsalvo,  and  was 
charged  by  him  to  conduct  Cesare  Borgia 
prisoner  to  Spain.  In  1513  Prospero  de- 
feated the  Venetians  near  Vicenza,  was 
captured  by  the  French  two  years  later, 
but  won  several  victories  over  them  _  in 
1521  and  the  following  years.  He  died 
in  1523. 


COLONNA 


68 


COLONY 


CoLONNA,  POMPEO,  nephew  of  the 
above,  a  restless  and  intriguing  Roman 
cardinal.  He  quarreled  in  succession 
with  the  Popes  Julius  II.,  Leo  X.,  and 
Clement  VII.,  and  had  part  in  all  the 
troubles  of  the  court  of  Rome.  When 
Clement  VII.  was  the  prisoner  of  the 
Constable  de  Bourbon,  Pompeo  exerted 
his  influence  for  his  liberation.  He  at 
length  became  viceroy  of  Naples.  He 
died  in  1532. 

CoLONNA,  ViTTORiA,  an  Italian  poetess, 
daughter  of  Fabrizio  Colonna,  high  con- 
stable of  Naples,  born  in  1490.  When  4 
years  old,  she  was  betrothed  to  a  boy  of 
the  same  age,  Fernando  d'Avalos,  son  of 
the  Marchese  di  Pescara.  At  17  they 
were  married.  After  her  husband's  death 
in  the  battle  of  Pa  via  (1525),  Vittoria 
found  her  chief  consolation  in  solitude, 
and  the  cultivation  of  her  poetical  genius. 
During  seven  years  of  her  widowhood,  she 
resided  alternately  at  Naples  and  Ischia, 
and  then  removed  to  the  convent  of  Or- 
vieto,  and  afterward  to  that  of  Viterbo. 
In  her  later  years  she  left  the  convent, 
and  resided  in  Rome,  where  she  died  in 
February,  1547.  Her  poems  were  chiefly 
devoted  to  the  memory  of  her  husband. 
The  Colonna  palace,  at  the  base  of  the 
Quirinal,  in  Rome,  is  celebrated  for  its 
splendid  picture-gallery  and  magnificent 
gardens. 

COLONNA,  CAPE  (ancient  Swiium 
Promontorium) ,  a  headland  of  Greece, 
forming  the  southernmost  point  of  At- 
tica, and  crowned  by  the  ruins  of  a  tem- 
ple of  Minerva,  13  of  whose  white  mar- 
ble columns,  from  which  the  cape  derives 
its  modern  name,  are  still  standing. 

COLONNADE,  a  range  of  columns.  If 
the  columns  are  four  in  number  it  is 
tetrastyle;  if  six  in  number,  hexastyle; 
when  there  are  eight,  octastyle;  when  ten 
decastyle,  and  so  on,  according  to  the 
Greek  numerals.  When  a  colonnade  is 
in  front  of  a  building  it  is  called  a  por- 
tico; when  surrounding  a  building  a  peW- 
style:  and  when  double  or  more,  poly- 
style.  The  colonnade  is,  moreover,  des- 
ignated according  to  the  nature  of  the 
intercolumniations  introduced  as  follows: 
pycnostyle,  when  the  space  between  the 
columns  is  one  diameter  and  a  half  of 
the  column;  systyle,  when  it  is  of  two 
diameters;  eustyle,  when  of  two  diame- 
ters and  a  quarter;  diastyle,  when  three; 
and  arsestyle,  when  four.  A  colonnade 
differs  from  an  arcade  in  this  respect, 
that_  the  columns  of  the  former  support 
straight  architraves  instead  of  arches. 

COLONUS,  in  civil  law,  a  freeman  of 
inferior  rank,  corresponding  with  the 
Saxon  ceorl  and  the  German  rural  slaves. 
It  has  been  held  probable  that  many  of 


the  ceorls  were  descended  from  the  coloni 
taken  into  Saxony  by  the  Romans.  The 
names  of  the  coloni  and  their  families 
were  all  recorded  in  the  archives  of  the 
colony  or  district,  from  which  fact  they 
were  also  known  as  adscriptitii. 

COLONY,  a  settlement  formed  in  one 
country  by  the  inhabitants  of  another. 
Colonies  may  either  be  formed  in  depend- 
ence on  the  mother  country  or  in  inde- 
pendence. Among  ancient  nations  the 
principal  promoters  of  colonization  were 
the  Phoenicians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Ro- 
mans; the  greatest  colonizers  in  modern 
times  have  been  the  English  and  the 
Spaniards. 

Ancient  Colonies. — The  Phoenician  col- 
onies were  chiefly  commercial,  serving  as 
entrepots  and  ports  of  repair  for  Phoe- 
nician commerce  along  the  coasts  of  Af- 
rica and  Spain,  in  the  latter  of  which 
they  numbered,  according  to  Strabo, 
more  than  200.  Carthage,  which  was  it- 
self a  colony  of  Phoenicia,  was  the  great- 
est colonizing  state  of  the  ancient  world. 
The  Greek  colonies,  which  were  widely 
spread  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  islands  of 
the  Mediterranean,  the  coasts  of  Mace- 
donia and  Thrace,  in  south  Italy  and 
Sicily,  were  commonly  independent,  and 
frequently  soon  surpassed  the  mother 
states  in  power  and  importance.  The  col- 
onies of  Rome  were  chiefly  military,  and 
while  the  empire  lasted  were  all  in  strict 
subordination  to  the  central  government. 
As  the  Roman  power  declined  the  re- 
mains of  them  amalgamated  with  the 
peoples  among  whom  they  were  placed, 
thus  forming  in  countries  where  they 
were  sufficiently  strong  what  are  known 
as  the  Latin  races,  with  languages 
(Spanish,  Portuguese,  French,  and  Ital- 
ian) which  are  merely  modifications  of 
the  old  Roman  tongue. 

Portuguese. — These  were  the  first  great 
colonizers  among  modern  states.  In  1419 
they  discovered  Madeira,  the  Azores,  and 
the  Cape  Verde  Islands;  the  Kongo  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  followed;  and 
before  the  century  was  out  Vasco  da 
Gama  had  landed  at  Calicut  on  the  Mala- 
bar coast  of  India.  The  first  Portuguese 
colonies  were  garrisons  along  the  coasts 
where  they  traded;  Mozambique  and  So- 
fala  on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa;  Ormuz 
and  Muscat  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  Goa, 
and  Damao  on  the  W.  coast  of  India. 
Colonies  were  established  in  Ceylon  in 
1505;  in  the  Moluccas  in  1510.  Brazil 
was  discovered  in  1499,  and  this  magnifi- 
cent possession  fell  to  Portugal,  and  was 
colonized  about  1530.  The  Portuguese 
now  possess  several  territories  in  Asia, 
at  Goa,  Damao  and  Diu,  India;  Macao, 
China;  and  some  islands  in  the  Indian 
Archipelago.    In  Africa  they  possess  the 


COLONY 


69 


COLONY 


Cape  Verde  and  other  islands;  settle- 
ments in  Senegambia,  Guinea,  Mozam- 
bique, Sofala,  Angola,  Benguela,  Mossa- 
medes,  amounting  in  area  to  about 
700,000  square  miles;  but  Portuguese 
influence  is  really  limited  to  a  very  small 
portion  of  this. 

Spanish. — Soon  after  the  Portuguese 
the  Spaniards  began  the  work  of  colo- 
nization. In  1492  Columbus,  on  board  of 
a  Spanish  vessel,  discovered  the  island  of 
San  Salvador.  Haiti,  or  San  Domingo, 
Porto  Rico,  Jamaica  and  Cuba  were  soon 
colonized,  and  before  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century  Mexico,  Ecuador,  Venezue- 
la, New  Granada,  Peru,  and  Chile  were 
subdued,  and  Spain  took  the  first  rank 
among  the  colonizing  powers  of  Europe. 
In  1899  Spain  sold  to  Germany  the  Caro- 
line Islands;  all  of  the  Ladrones  except- 
ing Guam,  which  had  been  ceded  to  the 
United  States  in  1898;  and  the  Pelew 
or  Palaos  group;  and  only  retained  her 
African  possessions. 

Dutch. — Philip  II.  barred  Dutch  ves- 
sels from  the  port  of  Lisbon,  and  this 
forced  the  Dutch  to  import  directly  from 
India.  Several  companies  were  soon 
formed,  and  in  1602  they  were  united 
into  one,  the  Dutch  East  India  Company, 
with  a  monopoly  of  the  East  India  trade 
and  sovereign  powers  over  all  conquests 
and  colonies  in  India.  The  Dutch  now 
rapidly  deprived  the  Portuguese  of 
nearly  all  their  East  Indian  territories, 
settled  a  colony  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  (1650),  established  a  West  India 
Company,  made  extensive  conquests  in 
Brazil  (1623-1660),  which  were  soon 
lost,  and  more  permanent  ones  on  some 
of  the  smaller  West  India  Islands,  as 
San  Eustatia,  Curasao,  Saba,  etc.  The 
Dutch  still  possess  numerous  colonies  in 
the  East  Indies,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  Java,  Sumatra,  Dutch  Borneo, 
the  Molucca  Islands  and  part  of  New 
Guinea;  also  several  small  islands  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  Surinam. 

English. — No  colonizing  power  of  Eu- 
rope has  had  a  career  of  such  uniform 
prosperity  as  Great  Britain.  After 
many  fruitless  attempts  to  find  a  N.  E. 
or  N.  W.  passage  to  the  East  Indies, 
English  vessels  found  their  way  round 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  East  In- 
dies in  1591,  and  the  East  India  Com- 
pany was  established  in  1600.  On  the 
suppression  of  the  Indian  mutiny  (1857- 
1858)  the  government  of  India  was 
transferred  to  the  crown  by  act  of  par- 
liament in  1858.  The  English  claim  to 
North  America,  though  allowed  to  lie 
dormant  for  nearly  a  century,  was  not 
relinquished  and  in  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, led  to  colonization  on  a  large  scale. 
Australia  was  discovered  in  the  begin- 


ning of  the  17th  century,  and  the  first 
Australian  settlements  were  British 
penal  colonies.  In  1851  the  discovery  of 
the  abundance  of  gold  in  Victoria  gave 
a  great  impetus  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
Australian  colonies.  In  1874  the  Fiji 
Islands,  and  in  1884  part  of  New  Guinea, 
were  annexed  as  crown  colonies.  In 
south  Africa,  Cape  Colony,  first  settled 
by  the  Dutch  in  1652,  became  an  English 
colony  in  1814.  The  latest  annexations 
in  this  quarter  are  Griqualand  West 
(1880),  the  Transkeian  Territories 
(1875-1884),  Walfisch  Bay  (1884), 
Bechuanaland  (1885),  the  former  Orange 
Free  State  and  Transvaal  Republics 
(1900).  The  Protectorate  of  Southwest 
Africa,  taken  from  Germany  in  1915, 
and  administrated  under  a  mandate  by 
the  Union  of  South  Africa.  Further  N. 
are  the  crown  colonies,  Lagos,  the  Niger 
Districts,  the  Gold  Coast,  Gambia,  and 
Sierra  Leone,  all,  except  Lagos,  which 
was  acquired  in  1851,  ancient  possessions 
of  the  British  Crown.  Togoland  and  a 
part  of  Cameroon,  both  conquests  from 
the  Germans.  In  Europe,  Great  Britain 
has  a  few  colonies  acquired  for  military 
reasons,  Gibraltar  in  1704,  Malta  and 
Gozzo,  1800. 

French. — Among  the  most  important 
are  Pondicherry,  and  a  few  other  small 
territories  in  India;  Cochin-China,  Ton- 
quin,  and  the  protectorates  of  Annam  and 
Cambodia  in  southeastern  Asia;  New 
Caledonia,  the  Loyalty  and  Marquesas 
Islands,  etc.,  in  Oceania;  in  Africa,  Al- 
geria, Tunis,  Senegambia,  Islands  of  Re- 
union, the  protectorate  of  Madagascar, 
etc.;  in  America,  Martinique,  Guade- 
loupe, St.  Bartholomew,  and  Guiana.  Al- 
geria is  now  officially  a  French  depart- 
ment. One  senator  and  one  deputy  are 
allowed  to  represent  French  Indo-China 
in  the  Chambers  of  Paris.  Cochin-China, 
populated  by  Annamites,  Cambodians, 
Chinese,  Malays  and  Malabarians,  is  en- 
titled, however,  to  but  one  representative, 
a  deputy.  Tonquin,  the  adjacent  French 
colony,  is  not  represented,  the  govern- 
ment being  administered  by  resident 
French  officials.  The  African  colonists 
are  administered  by  the  Minister  of  the 
Colonies  through  governors  or  commis- 
sioners-general. Algeria,  however,  on 
the  N.  coast,  i.s  given  a  distinct  govern- 
ment and  laws,  and  is  looked  upon  as  a 
part  of  the  Republic,  the  Chambers 
alone  having  the  right  to  legislate  for  it. 
Crossing  to  the  West  Indies,  France 
allows  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe  each 
one  senator  and  two  deputies.  French 
Guiana,  however,  has  only  one  repre- 
sentative, a  deputy. 

Germans  and  Danes. — Germany  made 
a  strong  effort  to  take  rank  as  a  colonial 


COLOPHONY 


70 


COLORADO 


power,  and  acquired  in  Africa  the  terri- 
tories of  Damaraland  and  Liideritzland 
to  the  N.  of  Cape  Colony,  the  Kamerun 
District,  a  considerable  portion  of  terri- 
tory formerly  claimed  by  the  Sultan  of 
Zanzibar,  the  Kilima-Njaro,  the  greater 
part  of  Somaliland,  etc.;  also  in  the  Pa- 
cific a  portion  of  New  Guinea,  now  called 
Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land;  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago;  and  the  Caroline,  Pelew, 
and  Ladrone  (excepting  Guam)  Islands. 
These  colonies  were  all  lost  by  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  By 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  Great  Britain 
was  given  a  mandate  for  the  former 
German  African  colonies,  Australia  ad- 
ministers the  Bismarck  Archipelago  and 
Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land.  Denmark's  de- 
pendencies, Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the 
Faroe  Islands,  though  of  considerable 
extent,  are  of  small  value. 

The  United  States  has  acquired  Porto 
Rico,  the  Philippine  and  Sulu  Islands,  the 
Ladrone  Island  of  Gucm;  and  the  Virgin 
Islands  (Danish  West  Indies)  by  treaty 
and  purchase  ($25,000,000)  in  1916. 

COLOPHONY,  the  dark  resin  obtained 
by  distilling  turpentine. 

COLOR,  the  visual  impression  derived 
from  the  hue  of  any  object.  The  color 
of  any  source  of  light,  or  of  any  object 
which  we  see,  is  solely  dependent  upon 
the  wave-lengths  of  the  vibrations  of  the 
light  which  come  to  our  eyes  from  the 
object.  In  the  case  of  self-luminous  ob- 
jects these  wave-lengths  are  principally 
dependent  on  the  temperature  of  the  ob- 
ject and  the  character  of  the  surrounding 
absorbing  atmosphere,  if  it  has  any  such ; 
or,  in  the  case  of  gaseous  masses,  like- 
wise upon  their  electrical  condition  and 
the  pressure  to  which  the  gas  is  sub- 
jected. In  the  case  of  the  non-luminous 
bodies  the  wave-lengths  are  dependent 
upon  the  reflecting  nature  of  their  sur- 
faces, and  are  also  modified  by  surround- 
ing atmospheres  if  they  have  such. 

COLORADO,  a  State  in  the  Western 
Division  of  the  North  American  Union; 
bounded  by  Wyoming,  Nebraska,  Kan- 
sas, Oklahoma,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah; 
gross  area,  103,645  square  miles;  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  July  4,  1876;  num- 
ber of  counties,  sixty -three;  population 
(1890)  412,198;  (1900)  539,700;  (1910) 
799,024;  (1920)  939,629:  capital,  Denver. 

Topography. — Colorado  is  very  moun- 
tainous, being  traversed  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  which  extend  over  nearly  the 
entire  W.  part  of  the  State.  The  aver- 
age altitude  of  the  State  is  7,000  feet, 
the  lowest  portion  being  3,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  there  are  over  100  moun- 
tain peaks  more  than  13,000  feet  high. 
The    Sawatch    or    Sagfuache    range,    or 


Great  Divide,  is  a  continuation  of  the 
Sierra  Madre  range  of  Mexico,  and  con- 
tains the  peaks,  Mt.  Harvard,  14,375; 
Mt.  Elbert,  14,351;  and  the  Mountain 
of  the  Holy  Cross,  14,175  feet.  The 
Park  Range  joins  this  range  in  the  N., 
highest  points  Torrey's  Peak,  14,147 
feet,  and  Gray's  Peak,  14,341  feet.  The 
Fi'ont  Range  contains  Pike's  Peak,  14,147 
feet,  and  Evans,  14,330  feet,  and  is  sit- 
uated a  little  E.  of  the  main  ranges.  In 
the  S.  is  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  range,  con- 
taining Blanca  Peak,  the  highest  in  the 
State,  14,464  feet.  In  the  W.  part  are 
several  lower  ranges,  running  in  a  gen- 
eral N.  W.  and  S.  E.  direction.  The  val- 
leys are  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the 
scenery,  and  are  known  as  parks.  San 
Luis  is  the  largest  and  has  an  area  of 
8,000  square  miles,  quite  level,  and  at  an 
elevation  of  7,000  feet.  The  only  lake 
of  any  size  in  Colorado  is  in  this  park, 
is  about  6  miles  in  length,  and  is  fed 
by  nearly  20  streams.  Colorado  is  the 
principal  watershed  in  the  Western 
States,  many  of  the  largest  rivers  having 
their  origin  here,  among  them  the  Platte, 
Colorado,  San  Miguel,  Arkansas,  and 
Rio  Grande  del  Norte.  Nearly  all  these 
rivers  wind  their  way  through  rocky 
caiions,  varying  from  one  to  3,000  feet 
in  depth.  "Monument  Park"  and  the 
"Garden  of  the  Gods"  have  rock  spires, 
rising  above  the  meadow  land,  shaped 
like  towers  and  pillars,  caused  by  erosion. 

Geology. — The  mountains  of  Colorado 
are  mostly  of  azoic  and  eozoic  formation, 
while  the  E.  and  S.  W.  slopes  are  of 
palaeozoic,  bordered  by  metalliferous, 
Jurassic,  and  triassic  strata  in  the  W. 
central  parts.  The  extreme  E,  plain  is 
largely  tertiary,  and  the  S.  W.  is  chiefly 
cretaceous,  the  valleys  of  the  South 
Platte  and  Arkansas  rivers  being  of  this 
formation. 

Soil,  Climate,  etc. — Colorado  has  about 
15,000  square  miles  of  fertile  arable 
land,  and  about  70,000  square  miles  of 
grazing  land.  Most  of  the  land  will  pro- 
duce abundant  crops  under  irrigation, 
which  is  now  being  carried  on  exten- 
sively, one  irrigating  canal  having  a 
length  of  54  miles.  The  mountains  are 
well  covered  with  pine,  spruce,  and  fir 
forests.  The  climate  is  very  healthful 
and  mild,  and  people  suffering  from  pul- 
monary and  asthmatic  troubles  find  much 
relief  here.  There  are  various  mineral 
springs,  which  are  valuable  for  medicinal 
purposes.  The  hot  sulphur  springs  in 
Middle  Park  and  Wagon  Wneel  gap,  and 
the  hot,  iron,  and  soda  springs  in  Mani- 
tou  are  popular  resorts. 

Mineral  Production. — Colorado  for 
many  years  was  first  among  the  States 
in  the  value  of  its  mineral  products.  For 


COLORADO 


71 


COLORADO  BEETLE 


various  reasons,  including  the  develop- 
ment of  mineral  fields  in  other  Western 
States,  the  working  out  of  hitherto  im- 
portant mines,  and  the  decline  in  the 
price  of  silver,  have  resulted  in  a  rela- 
tive change  of  this  position.  The  min- 
eral industry,  however,  is  still  the  most 
important  in  the  State,  and  Colorado 
continues  to  rank  high  among  the  min- 
eral-producing States.  The  total  value 
of  the  mineral  products  in  1917,  the 
latest  date  for  which  complete  figures 
are  available,  was  $80,586,021.  Coal  was 
the  most  valuable  of  the  mineral  prod- 
ucts, with  12,483,336  tons,  valued  at  $27,- 
669,129.  Gold  was  second  in  value  with 
760,901  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $15,729,- 
224.  Zinc  was  third  with  60,158  tons, 
valued  at  $12,272,209.  The  silver  pro- 
duction was  7,304,353  fine  ounces,  valued 
at  $6,018,787.  Other  important  mineral 
products  were  coke,  clay  products, 
tungsten  ore,  and  ferro  alloys.  The  pro- 
duction of  the  principal  minerals  mined 
in  the  State  in  1919  was  as  follows:  Gold, 
$9,892,000;  silver,  5,630,000  ounces;  lead, 
35,650,000  pounds;  copper,  3,400,000 
pounds;  zinc,  52,300,000  pounds.  The 
total  value  of  these  products  was  $22,- 
522,000.  The  estimated  coal  production 
in  1919  was  10,100.000  short  tons,  a  de- 
crease of  over  2,000,000  tons  from  the 
production  of  1918, 

Agriculture. — The  acreage,  produc- 
tion, and  value  of  the  principal  crops  in 
1919  were  as  follows:  Corn,  671,000 
acres,  with  a  production  of  11,206,000 
bushels,  valued  at  $15,913,000;  oats, 
249,000  acres,  with  a  production  of 
6,524,000  bushels,  valued  at  $5,872,000; 
wheat,  1,459,000  acres,  with  a  production 
of  17,645,000  bushels,  valued  at  $35,643,- 
000;  hay,  1,065,000  acres,  with  a  pro- 
duction of  2,396,000  tons,  valued  at  $44,- 
326,000 ;  beans,  69,000  acres,  with  a  pro- 
duction of  448,000  bushels,  valued  at 
$1,568,000;  potatoes,  92,000  acres,  with 
a  production  of  11,004,000  bushels, 
valued  at  $18,768,000. 

Manufactures. — There  were  in  1914 
2,126  manufacturing  establishments  in 
the  State,  employing  27,228  wage  earn- 
ers. The  capital  invested  was  $181,- 
776,000;  the  amount  paid  in  wages,  $20,- 
200,000 ;  the  value  of  the  materials  used, 
$89,776,000;  and  the  value  of  the  finished 
products,  $136,839,000. 

Banking. — In  1919  there  were  128  Na- 
tional banks  in  operation,  having  $5,491,- 
000  capital,  $7,981,596  in  outstanding  cir- 
culation, and  $7,885,250  in  United  States 
bonds.  There  were  also  228  State  and 
savings  banks,  with  $5,063,000  in  capital, 
$44,709,000  in  deposits,  and  $55,231,000 
in  resources.  In  the  year  ending  Sept, 
30,   1919,  the  exchanges  at  the   United. 


States  clearing-house  at  Denver  aggre- 
gated $1,520,001,000. 

Education. — There  were  in  1918  176,- 
523  pupils  enrolled  in  the  elementary 
schools.  Of  this  91,229  were  boys  and 
85,294  were  girls.  In  the  secondary 
schools  were  enrolled  24,240  pupils.  The 
total  enrollment  in  all  grades  was  200,- 
763.  The  average  daily  attendance  was 
137,984.  There  were  employed  in  the 
elementary  schools,  6,167  teachers,  of 
whom  5,944  were  women  and  223  men. 
In  the  secondary  schools  were  1,052 
teachers,  of  whom  714  were  women  and 
338  were  men.  There  were  in  all  6,926 
teachers  in  the  elementary  and  second- 
ary schools  of  the  State.  The  average 
annual  salary  of  teachers  in  all  schools 
was  $749.  The  permanent  school  fund 
of  the  State  amounted  to  $4,948,492, 
The  total  expenditures  for  the  support 
of  schools  were  $7,093,598, 

Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions numerically  in  the  State  are  the 
Roman  Catholic,  Methodist  Episcopal, 
Presbyterian,  Baptist,  Protestant  Epis- 
copal, Congregational,  Lutheran,  and 
Disciples  of  Christ. 

Railways. — The  railway  mileage  of  the 
State  in  1919  was  5,542.  The  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  has  a  mileage  of  approx- 
imately 2,600  miles  of  track. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years,  and  re- 
ceives a  salary  of  $5,000  per  annum. 
Legislative  sessions  are  held  biennially. 
The  Legislature  has  35  members  in  the 
Senate  (elected  for  four  years  and  65  in 
the  House  (elected  for  two  years). 
There  are  four  Representatives  in 
Congress. 

History. — The  name  Colorado  comes 
from  that  of  the  river,  meaning  "red 
water."  Explorations  were  made  here 
by  United  States  army  officers  in  1806, 
1819,  and  1842-1844,  and  several  fur- 
trading  stations  were  established.  In 
1854  Conejos,  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley, 
was  founded  by  colonists  from  New  Mex- 
ico, and  a  Jesuit  mission  established. 
Gold  was  discovered  in  1858,  and  as  a 
consequence  of  this,  Denver,  Boulder,  and 
Auraria  were  speedily  founded  and 
made  a  county  of  the  Territory  of  Kan- 
sas. In  1861  Colorado,  according  to  its 
present  limits,  was  organized  as  a  Ter- 
ritory, and  in  1876  was  admitted  into 
the  Union,  receiving  the  popular  designa- 
tion of  the  "Centennial  State." 

COLORADO  BEETLE,  a  beetle  first 
described  by  Thomas  Say,  in  1824,  from 
specimens  found  by  him  near  the  Up- 
per Missouri.  He  called  it  Do^-yphora 
decemlineata.  The  genus  doryphora  had 
been  previously  founded  by  Illiger.  The 


COLORADO  COLLEGE 


72 


COLORADO  T7NIVEBSITT 


genus  is  American,  and  is  placed  under 
the  chrysomelidse.  The  larva  of  the 
species  distin^ished  as  decemlineata 
feeds  greedily  on  the  potato,  and  having 
attracted  notice  in  Colorado  for  its  rav- 
ages among  the  crops  of  that  esculent  in 
the  Territory,  it  moved  eastward  year  by 
year,  till  in  1874  it  had  reached  the  At- 
lantic seaboard. 

COLORADO  COLLEGE,  a  coeduca- 
tional (non-sect.)  institution  in  Colorado 
Springs,  Col.;  organized  in  1874;  re- 
ported at  the  end  of  1919:  Professors 
^nd  instructors,  43;  students,  592;  presi- 
dent, Clyde  A.  Duniway,  LL.D. 

COLORADO  RIVER,  or  COLORADO 
OF  THE  WEST,  a  great  river  of  the 
United  States  and  Mexico,  formed  at 
about  38°  N.  lat.  and  110°  W.  Ion.,  by 
the  junction  of  the  Green  and  Grand 
rivers.  The  Green  river  rises  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  in  the  W.  of  Wyoming, 
leceiving  in  its  S.  W.  course  the  waters 
of  the  Bear,  the  White,  the  Uintah,  and 
San  Rafael.  From  Flaming  Gorge,  a 
point  in  the  N.  W.  of  Colorado,  where 
the  Uintah  Mountains  rise,  the  Green 
river  cleaves  its  way  rapidly  through 
canons,  the  walls  of  which  tower  up  to  a 
height  of  nearly  1,500  feet.  The  Grand 
river  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  W. 
of  Denver,  Col.,  receiving  in  its  S.  W. 
course  the  South  Fork  or  Gunnison,  the 
San  Miguel,  and  Dolores.  After  the 
junction  the  Colorado  flows  S.  W. 
through  Utah,  joined  on  the  E.  by  the 
San  Juan,  on  the  W.  by  the  Dirty  Devil 
and  Escalante;  S.  W.  through  the  N. 
of  Arizona,  till  its  waters  are  increased 
by  the  Colorado  Chiquito,  or  Little  Colo- 
rado of  Arizona. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Colo- 
rado the  river  bends  W.,  and  for  the  first 
200  miles  shoots  through  the  wonderful 
''Grand  Caiion."  The  walls  of  this 
water-worn  trench  are  often  vertical,  or 
nearly  so,  for  a  distance  of  thousands  of 
feet  at  a  time;  sometimes  they  slope 
steeply,  or  constitute  magnificent  ter- 
races. Escaping  from  the  Grand  Caiion, 
the  river  flows  S.  W.  to  the  borders  of  Ne- 
vada, receiving  from  the  W.  the  Paria, 
Tapeat's  river,  the  Kanat  (of  Arizona), 
•and  the  Virgin    (of  Nevada). 

Above  Callville,  Nev.,  the  Colorado,  as 
also  its  tributaries,  again  bores  its  way 
through  deep  canons,  the  sides  of  which 
in  some  places  present  walls  of  solid 
rock  nearly  7,000  feet  high.  Below  Call- 
ville the  river  is  again  shut  in  by  the 
last  of  the  caiions,  the  Black  Canon,  25 
miles  long,  and  from  1,000  to  1,500  feet 
high.  Shortly  after  receiving  the  Virgin, 
the  Colorado  takes  a  S.  course,  severing 
Arizona  and  Sonora  on  the  E.  from  Ne- 


vada, California,  and  Lower  California 
on  the  W.,  and  receiving  on  the  E.  Bill 
Williams'  Fork  and  the  Gila.  After  ab- 
sorbing the  Gila  the  river  sweeps  round 
in  a  W.  direction  for  7  or  8  miles,  and 
soon  expands  to  a  width  of  1,200  feet. 
Thence  it  pursues  a  tortuous  course  of 
180  miles,  the  last  portion  being  through 
Mexican  territory  to  its  mouth  in  the 
Gulf  of  California.  From  the  sources 
of  the  Green  river  the  Colorado  meas- 
ures a  total  length  of  about  2,000  miles. 
It  is  navigable  for  steamers  as  far  as 
Callville,  612  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
can  be  made  navigable,  it  is  thought,  t« 
the  foot  of  the  Grand  Caiion,  57  miles 
higher. 

COLORADO  RIVER,  one  of  the  chief 
streams  of  Texas.  Rising  in  the  high 
tablelands  of  Bexar,  near  the  line  of  New 
Mexico,  about  lat.  32°  30'  N.,  and  Ion. 
102°  W.,  it  flows  S.  E.,  receiving  in  its 
upper  course  the  Conca,  the  San  Saba, 
and  the  Lano  on  the  S.,  and  the  Pecan 
from  the  N.,  and  empties  into  Matagorda 
Bay.  Austin,  Bastrop,  and  Columbus 
are  on  its  banks,  and  Matagorda  near  its 
mouth.  For  most  of  its  course  it  flows 
through  a  fertile  reg:ion  and  has  an 
average  width  of  250  feet.  It  is  a  clear 
stream;  its  name,  meaning  red,  was 
originally  applied  to  the  Brazos  N.  and 
E.,  but  the  two  were  interchanged.  The 
Colorado  is  some  900  miles  long,  and 
navigable  to  Austin  or  farther. 

COLORADO  SPRINGS,  a  city  and 
county-seat  of  El  Paso  co.,  Colo.;  on  the 
Denver  and  Rio  Grande,  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  Chicago,  Rock  Is- 
land and  Pacific  and  other  railroads;  70 
miles  S.  of  Denver.  It  is  situated  on 
a  plain  6,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
is  a  health  resort  for  victims  of  lung 
troubles.  The  city  is  the  center  of  the 
gold  mining  district  of  Colorado,  and 
the  seat  of  Colorado  College,  sanita- 
riums, St.  Francis  Hospital,  the  State 
School  for  Deaf  Mutes,  and  the  Union 
Printers'  Home,  several  parks,  and  many 
handsome  public  buildinigs.  It  has  elec- 
tric railway  connection  with  adjacent 
towns,  electric  lights,  public  schools,  sev- 
eral daily  and  weekly  newspapers, 
churches,  and  National  banks.  Pop. 
(1910)    29,078;    (1920)   30,105. 

COLORADO  STATE  AGRICULTU- 
RAL COLLEGE,  a  State  institution  for 
agricultural  and  scientific  education, 
founded  at  Fort  Collins,  Colo.,  in  1876. 
It  is  coeducational.  It  gives  degrees  in 
engineering,  agriculture,  and  home 
economics.  The  library  contains  about 
50,000  volumes. 

COLORADO,     UNIVERSITY     OF,     a 

coeducational    (non-sect.)    institution    in 


COLOB  BLINDNESS 

Boulder,  Col.;  founded  in  1877;  reported 
at  the  end  of  1919:  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 200;  students,  1868;  volumes 
in  the  library,  118,500;  income,  $600,000; 
president,  George  Norlin,  Ph.  D. 

COLOR  BLINDNESS,  a  peculiar  de- 
fect of  sight  in  which  those  who  are  af- 
fected are  incapable  of  distinguishing 
different  colors.  Some  see  everything 
either  to  be  light  or  dark,  and  have  no 
conception  of  any  other  colors.  This 
condition  is,  however,  happily  rare. 

COLOR  HEARING,  a  vision  of  colors, 
which  in  some  persons  is  thought  to 
accompany  their  pecepticn  of  sounds. 
Known  also  as  Color  Audition. 

COLOR  LINE,  a  line  of  social  distinc- 
tion drawn  between  the  white  people  and 
negroes  in  the   United   States. 

COLOR  PHOTOGRAPHY,  a  system  of 
photographic  reproduction  of  objects  in 
their  own  colors,  which  should  not  be 
confused  with  colored  photographs.  The 
successful  accomplishment  of  this  has 
long  been  desired,  and  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  research  and  investigation, 
but  even  to-day  it  is  generally  felt  that 
the  best  solution  has  not  been  found. 
Although  one  large  manufacturer  of 
photographic  apparatus  and  camera  has 
had  a  staff  of  scientists  at  work  on  this 
problem  for  years,  and  has  had  several 
exhibitions  of  the  work  of  this  labora- 
tory, there  has  been  no  introduction  of  a 
popular  system  of  color  photography. 

Early  experimenters,  such  as  Edmond 
Becquerel,  G.  W.  Sempson,  and  Robert 
Hunt,  produced  daguerreotypes  and  other 
prints  in  which  colors  other  than  the 
customary  gray  or  brown  appeared. 

Modern  investigation  is  along  two 
general  lines,  one  the  principles  of  which 
were  laid  down  by  Gabriel  Lippmann, 
of  Paris,  which  system  utilizes  the  dif- 
ference in  wave  number  of  the  different 
colors. 

The  other  system  is  founded  upon  the 
work  of  Dr.  J.  Clark  Maxwell,  of  Cam- 
bridge, who  proved  that,  by  the  proper 
adjustment  of  red,  green,  and  blue,  any 
desired  color  of  the  spectrum  could  be 
produced. 

In  1915  Frederick  E.  Ives  introduced 
a  process  in  which  the  print  is  made 
directly  from  the  negatives  upon  the 
print  paper,  which  was  a  marked  im- 
provement. In  the  Ives  process  a  cam- 
era with  plates  sensitized  to  red,  green, 
and  blue.  After  exposure  the  three 
plates  are  developed  in  a  tank,  and  the 
print  from  the  blue  plate  is  made  upon 
specially  prepared  paper,  while  the 
prints  of  the  red  and  green  negatives 
are  made  upon  transparent  films,  which 


73  COLOSSIANS 

are  then  laid  over  the  blue  print  and 
properly  located.  From  this  combined 
film,  any  number  of  prints  may  be  made. 

COLOR  PRINTING,  the  art  of  produc- 
ing pictures,  desig:ns,  cards,  etc.,  in 
various  colors  by  means  of  lithography, 
printing  from  metal  blocks,  etc.  The 
ordinary  methods  are:  (1)  the  chromo- 
lithographic,  in  which  a  tracing  of  the 
original  picture,  or  the  like,  is  first  made 
and  a  copy  transferred  to  as  many  stones 
as  there  are  colors  in  the  original,  every 
color  requiring  a  fresh  stone.  The  draw- 
ing on  each  stone  is  made  to  fit  in,  or 
register,  with  the  preceding  one,  and  as 
the  paper  passes  through  the  machine 
an  additional  color  is  added  every  time, 
and  thus  the  picture  is  built  up  color 
upon  color  (each  being  allowed  to  dry 
before  the  next  is  put  on)  until  it  is  com- 
pleted. Some  chromos  or  oleographs  may 
have  as  many  as  25  or  30  printings  or 
colors.  (2)  Block  or  surface  color-print- 
ing is  specially  adapted  for  book  illus- 
trations or  similar  work  where  nicety  of 
detail  or  rapidity  is  required. 

As  in  chromo-lithognraphy  various 
printings  are  necessary;  but  these,  while 
producing  similar  effects,  are  reduced  in 
number  by  a  method  of  printing  several 
tints  of  the  same  color  at  one  operation. 
Each  block,  which  is  usually  of  zinc  and 
prepared  in  the  usual  way,  is  capable 
of  producing  three  or  more  gradations 
of  the  same  color;  the  darkest  shade 
from  the  normal  surface,  lighter  shades 
being  got  from  parts  which  have  been 
bitten  or  corroded  in  an  almost  im- 
perceptible degree — the  deeper  corro- 
sions giving,  of  course,  the  lightest 
shade.  When  all  the  tints  of  one  color 
are  thus  printed  from  one  block  and  at 
one  operation,  a  second  block  with  grada- 
tions, in  the  same  way,  is  used,  register- 
ing as  in  chromo-lithography,  and  so  on 
until  the  picture  is  finished. 

COLOSSI,  an  ancient  town  of  Asia 
Minor,  in  the  S.  part  of  the  province  of 
Phrygia,  on  the  Lycus  river  12  miles  E. 
of  Laodicea.  It  is  mentioned  by  Xeno- 
phon  as  "a  populous  city,  prosperous  and 
great,"  but  in  the  time  of  Strabo  had  be- 
come "a  small  town."  It  was  ruined  by 
an  earthquake  in  61  A.  D. ;  but  it  was 
again  rebuilt,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages 
was  named  Chonae. 

COLOSSIANS,   EPISTLE  TO  THE,   a 

letter  written  to  the  Colossians  by  the 
Apostle  Paul  either  from  Rome  or 
Cassarea,  at  the  same  time  that  he  wrote 
the  epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  to  Phil- 
emon. The  epistle  contains  a  summary 
of  Christian  doctrine,  especially  dwell- 
ing on  the  divine  power  and  majesty  of 
Christ,  and  a  series  of  practical  exhorta- 


COLOSSUS  74 

tions  to  specific  duties  of  Christian 
morality. 

COLOSSUS,  a  Greek  word  of  unknown 
origin,  used  to  denote  a  statue  very 
greatly  beyond  the  size  of  life.  The 
"Bavaria,"  the  "Germania,"  and  our  own 
"Liberty"  are  noted  modern  examples. 
The  colossal  was  the  peculiar  character- 
istic of  Egyptian  art,  and  innumerable 
colossi  v/ere  raised  in  Egypt,  mostly  of 
the  hardest  stone,  many  of  them  from  50 
to  60  feet  in  height.  The  most  cele- 
brated is  the  vocal  statue  of  Memnon,  in 
the  plain  of  Thebes. 

It  was  in  Greece,  however,  that  the 
most  famous  colossi  appeared;  e.  g.,  the 
bronze  statue  of  Pallas  Athene,  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens,  the  plume  of  whose 
helmet  and  the  point  of  whose  spear 
were  landmarks  to  sailors  between  Su- 
nium  and  Athens;  another  statue  of  the 
same  goddess,  of  gold  and  ivory — the 
so-called  Palladium  in  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens;  and  the  Olympian  Jupiter,  of 
the  same  materials,  the  masterpiece  of 
Phidias. 

Among  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  Old 
World  was  reckoned  the  gigantic  Colos- 
sus of  Rhodes,  representing  Fhcebus,  the 
national  deity  of  the  Rhodians.  It  was 
erected  in  honor  of  the  sun  by  Chares  of 
Lindus,  disciple  of  Lysippus,  290  or  288 
B.  c.  The  figure  stood  upon  two  moles, 
a  leg  being  extended  on  each  side  of 
the  harbor,  so  that  a  vessel  in  full  sail 
could  pass  between. 

COLPORTEUR  (kol-por-ter) ,  a  French 
term  now  naturalized  in  the  United 
States,  and  appropriated  to  a  class  of 
men  most  commonly  employed  by  socie- 
ties or  associations  to  distribute  religious 
publications. 

COLQUHOUN,    ARCHIBALD    ROSS, 

an  English  traveler  and  writer,  born  in 
1848.  He  was  engaged  in  government 
service  in  Siam  and  other  eastern  coun- 
tries, and  in  1883-1884  made  extensive 
tours  of  exploration  for  the  purpose  of 
finding  a  route  for  a  railway  between 
India  and  China.  In  1890  he  was  ap- 
pointed Administrator  of  Mashonaland. 
He  visited  Central  America  in  1895  in 
an  investigation  of  Panama  and  Nica- 
ragua canal  projects.  His  numerous 
books  on  travel  and  politics  include  "The 
Opening  of  China"  (1884) ;  "English 
Policy  in  the  Far  East"  (1885)  ;  "Over- 
land to  China"  (1901);  "The  Whirlpool 
of  Europe"  (1907)  ;  "Germany  and  Sea 
Power"  (1909)  ;  and  "China  in  Reforma- 
tion"   (1912).     He  died  in   1914. 

COLT,      LE      BARON      BRADFORD, 

United  States  Senator  from  Rhode 
Island.  Born  in  Dedham,  Mass,  in  1846, 
he  graduated  from   Yale  in   1868,  and 


COLUMBA,  ST. 


from  the  Columbia  Law  School  in  1870. 
Later  he  practiced  law  in  Chicago  and 
Providence,  R.  I.  In  1881  President  Gar- 
field appointed  him  United  States  Dis- 
trict Judge  for  Rhode  Island,  and  later 
President  Arthur  made  him  a  Circuit 
Judge  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  in  1913  for  the  term 
1913-1919,  and  re-elected  in  the  latter 
year  for  the  term  1919-1925.  A  Repub- 
lican in  politics. 

COLT,  SAMUEL,  an  American  in- 
ventor; born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  July  19, 
1814.  He  had  a  common  school  educa- 
tion and  was  employed  in  his  father's 
textile  mill;  but  went  to  sea  as  a  sailor 
boy  when  aged  15.  His  attention  being 
drawn  to  fire-arms  while  at  sea,  he  be- 
gan to  perfect  a  revolver  and  patented 
it  in  1835.  Its  great  success  led  to  the 
erection  by  him  at  Hartford  of  one  of 
the  most  extensive  weapon  factories  in 
the  world.  He  died  in  Hartford,  Jan. 
10,  1862. 

COLTSFOOT,  a  composite  plant,  Tus- 
silago  Farfara.  The  species  now  named 
is  cordate,  angular,  toothed,  downy  be- 
neath. The  flowers  are  yellow,  and  come 
forth  in  March  and  April,  before  the 
leaves  appear.  It  is  abundant  in  the 
United  States  in  moist  and  clayey  soils. 
The  leaves  have  been  used  medicinally 
as  an  infusion,  or  have  been  smoked 
like  tobacco  for  the  cure  of  asthma. 

COLUBER,  a  linnasan  genus,  compre- 
hending all  the  snakes  now  included 
under  the  family  Colubridse.  The  same 
genus,  as  limited  by  Cuvier  and  his 
successors,  is  the  typical  one  of  the 
family  Coluhridse,  and  the  sub-order 
colubrina.  The  species  are  very  nu- 
merous, some  of  them  beautifully  colored, 
and  all  are  harmless.  For  a  long  time 
the  common  snake  of  England  was 
called  C.  natrix;  now  it  is  termed 
Matrix  torquata,  or  Tropidonotus  Natrix. 
C.  dumfriesensis  of  Sowerby  is  probably 
an  immature  variety  of  the  common 
species.  C.  austriacus  is  common  in  Ger- 
many and  France.  C  or  Boscanion  Con^ 
stridor,  the  black  snake  of  Catesby,  is 
common  in  all  the  Southern  and  South 
Atlantic  States.  It  is  very  useful  in 
destroying  rats  and  kindred  vermin.  It 
sometimes  attains  a  length  of  eight  or 
nine  feet. 

COLUMBA,    or    COLUMBA    NOACHI 

(Lat.  "Noah's  dove") ,  a  small  constella- 
tion S.  of  Lepus  and  Canis  Major,  It 
is  situated  between  Puppis,  Pictor, 
Caelum,  Lepus,  and  Canis  Major. 

COLUMBA,  ST.,  a  native  of  Ireland 
(Gartan  in  Donegal)  ;  born  in  521.  In 
545  he  founded  the  monastery  of  Derry, 


COLTJMBANUS,  ST. 


75 


COLUMBIA 


and  subsequently  established  many 
churches  in  Ireland.  About  563  he  landed 
in  the  island  of  Hy,  now  called  lona, 
and  founded  his  Church.  About  565  he 
went  on  a  mission  of  conversion  among 
the  northern  Picts,  and  traversed  the 
whole  of  northern  Scotland,  preaching 
the  Christian  faith  and  founding  mon- 
asteries, subject  to  that  which  he  had 
set  up  on  the  island  of  Hy.  The  Colum- 
ban  Church  was  in  some  points  of 
doctrine  and  ceremonial  opposed  to  that 
of  Rome.  Shortly  before  his  death  he 
revisited  Ireland.  There  is  a  well- 
known  life  of  St.  Columba,  "Vita 
Sancti  Columbae,"  written  by  St.  Adam- 
nan,  abbot  of  lona.  He  died  in  lona, 
697. 

COLUMBANTJS,  ST.,  a  monk;  bom  in 
Ireland  about  540.  He  went  to  France 
in  590,  and  founded  the  celebrated  mon- 
astery of  Luxeuil,  over  which  he  pre- 
sided for  20  years.  The  enmity  of  Queen 
Brunehaut  caused  him  to  be  ordered 
back  to  Ireland,  from  whence  he 
journeyed  into  Italy,  where  he  founded 
the  monastery  of  Bobbio  in  615.  The 
order  of  the  Columbans  was  united  to 
that  of  the  Benedictines  in  the  beginning 
of  the  8th  century. 

COLTTMBARIUM,  a  dove-cote  or 
pigeon-house.  When  used  in  the  singular 
Columbarium  also  signifies  a  particular 
kind  of  sepulchral  chamber  used  by  the 
Romans  to  receive  the  ashes  of  bodies 
which  had  been  burned. 

COLUMBELLA,  a  genus  of  mollusks, 
of  the  family  Buccinvdse ;  small,  prettily 
marked  shells,  with  a  long  narrow  aper- 
ture, a  thickened  and  dentated  outer  lip, 
a  crenulated  inner  one,  a  small  lamellar 
operculum.  Recent  species  known  205, 
fossil  8.  The  former  are  from  the  sub- 
tropical and  tropical  parts  of  the  old  and 
new  worlds;  the  latter  from  the  Tertiary. 

COLUMBIA,  a  city  of  Missouri,  the 
county-seat  of  Boone  co.  It  is  on  the 
Wabash  and  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and 
Texas  railroads.  Its  manufactures  in- 
clude lumber,  elevators,  packing,  and 
shoes.  There  are  also  important  farm- 
ing, fruit-growing,  and  stock-raising  in- 
dustries. The  city  is  the  seat  of  the 
University  of  Missouri,  Christian  College, 
Bible  College,  and  Stephens  College.  It 
has  also  several  institutions  for  the  edu- 
cation of  women.  There  is  a  United 
States  Government  weather  station  and 
a  memorial  hospital.  Pop.  (1910) 
9,662;   (1920)   10,681. 

COLUMBIA,  a  city  of  Lancaster  co., 
Pa. ;  on  the  Susquehanna  river,  the  Phila- 
delphia and  Reading,  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania railroads  and  the  Pennsylvania  and 


^squehanna  canals;  10  miles  W.  of 
Lancaster.  The  Susquehanna,  here  over 
a  mile  wide,  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  con- 
necting with  Wrightsville.  This  bridge 
is  one  of  the  longest  in  the  United  States. 
Columbia  is  the  trade  center  for  Lan- 
caster and  surrounding  counties,  and  has 
numerous  silk  and  lace  mills,  sugar  re- 
fineries, ironworks,  and  brush  factories. 
It  is  connected  by  electric  railways  with 
all  nearby  towns,  and  is  lighted  by  elec- 
tricity. It  is  the  seat  of  Franklin  and 
Marshall  College,  and  has  a  public  li- 
brary, St.  Peter's  convent  school,  several 
newspapers  and  National  banks.  The 
city  was  founded  as  Wright's  Ferry  in 
1726,  by  Quakers,  and  in  1798  it  was  one 
of  the  places  voted  upon  for  the  National 
capital.  The  original  bridge  crossing  the 
Susquehanna  was  burned  in  1863  to  pre- 
vent the  Confederates  marching  on  Phila- 
delphia. Pop.  (1910)  11,454;  (1920) 
10,836. 

COLUMBIA,  city,  capital  of  the  State 
of  South  Carolina,  and  county-seat  of 
Richland  co. ;  on  the  Congaree  river  near 
the  junction  of  the  Broad  and  Saluda 
rivers,  on  five  railroads,  and  the  Colum- 
bia canal.  The  city  is  built  on  a  bluff, 
15  feet  above  the  river,  has  a  fine  park, 
and  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  shade  trees 
and  flower  gardens. 

The  industries  of  the  city  are  impor- 
tant, and  include  manufactures,  cotton, 
fertilizers,  lumber,  iron,  etc.  There  are 
National  and  private  banks. 

The  city  is  well  supplied  with  water 
and  gas,  and  has  abundant  sources  of 
water-power.  The  most  noteworthy  build- 
ings include  the  State  House,  costing 
about  $4,000,000;  Executive  Mansion, 
State  Penitentiary,  Insane  Asylum, United 
States  Government  Building,  City  Hall, 
University  of  South  Carolina,  College  for 
Women,  Lutheran  Seminary,  Allen  Uni- 
versity, and  a  Presbyterian  theological 
seminary. 

Columbia  was  laid  out  in  1786,  and  the 
State  Legislature  first  met  there  in  1790. 
During  the  Civil  War  a  large  part  of 
the  city  was  burned  by  the  Federal 
troops,  destro3nng  the  old  State  House 
with  an  extensive  library,  a  convent,  sev- 
eral churches,  and  the  railroad  depot. 
Pop.    (1910)    26,319;    (1920)    37,524. 

COLUMBIA,  a  city  of  Tennessee,  in 
Maury  co.  It  is  on  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville,  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga 
and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Nashville,  Flor- 
ence and  Sheffield  railroads,  and  on  the 
Duck  river.  It  is  the  center  of  an  im- 
portant agricultural  region  and  is  also 
of  industrial  importance.  There  are  flour 
mills,  lumber  mills,  marble  works,  phos- 
phate works,  etc.  The  city  has  a  court 
house,    military    academy,    a    library,    3 


COLUMBIA 


76 


COLUMBUS 


hospital,  and  a  school  for  young'  women, 
Pop.    (1910)    5,574;     (1920)    5,526. 

COLUMBIA.      DISTRICT      OF.       See 

District  of  Columbia. 

COLUMBIA  BIVEK,  after  the  Yukon 
the  largest  river  on  the  W.  side  of  Amer- 
ica; rises  in  British  Columbia,  on  the  W. 
slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  near 
Mounts  Brown  and  Hooker,  in  about  lat. 
50°  N. ;  has  a  very  irregular  course,  gen- 
erally S.  W.  through  Washington;  forms 
the  N.  boundary  of  Oregon  for  about  350 
miles;  and  enters  the  Pacific  by  an  estu- 
ary 35  miles  long  and  from  3  to  7  wide. 
Its  estimated  length  is  1,400  miles.  The 
area  drained  by  this  stream  and  its  afflu- 
ents, of  which  the  largest  are  Clarke's 
Fork  and  the  Snake  river  (with  very 
remarkable  carions) ,  has  been  computed 
at  298,000  square  miles.  The  river  is 
broken  by  falls  and  rapids  into  many 
separate  portions,  and  the  ingress  and 
egress  are  embarrassed  by  a  surf-eaten 
bar.  Still,  it  is  open  to  steamboat  navi- 
gation from  its  mouth  to  the  Cascades 
(160  miles),  and  goods  are  carried  past 
the  obstruction,  for  6  miles,  by  railway; 
the  next  reach,  of  50  miles,  extends  to 
Dalles,  where  another  railway,  of  14 
miles,  has  been  constructed  past  the 
Great  Dalles  channel;  and  immediately 
above  this  are  two  sections,  of  185  and 
250  miles  respectively,  navigable  for 
small  steamboats.  The  extraordinarily 
abundant  salmon-fisheries  of  the  Colum- 
bia have  been  largely  developed. 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY,  an  in- 
stitution for  higher  education,  in  New 
York  City.  It  was  incorporated  in  1754 
as  King's  College.  In  1784  the  State 
Legislature  passed  an  act  vesting  the 
property  of  King's  College  in  the  re- 
gents of  the  State  of  New  York,  and 
changing  the  name  of  the  college  to  Co- 
lumbia College.  This  act  was  repealed 
in  1787,  and  by  a  new  charter  granted 
by  the  State  the  property  and  fran- 
chises of  King's  College  were  vested  in 
the  trustees  of  Columbia  College.  From 
1857  to  1897  the  university  was  situated 
at  49th  street  and  Madison  avenue.  New 
York.  In  the  latter  year  it  was  removed 
to  its  present  location  on  Morningside 
Heights.  The  university  includes  Co- 
lumbia College,  Barnard  College,  found- 
ed in  1899,  which  is  an  under-graduate 
college  for  women,  the  Graduate  School, 
Schools  of  Political  Science,  Philosophy, 
Pure  Science,  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  School  of  Mines,  School 
of  Engineering,  Teachers'  College,  Col- 
lege of  Pharmacy,  School  of  Journalism, 
School  of  Architecture,  School  of  Busi- 
ness, and  School  of  Dentistry.  The  uni- 
versity also  maintains  a  summer  session 
of  six  weeks  in  which  are  offered  courses 


that  are  accepted  as  partial  fulfillment 
of  the  requirements  of  certain  academic 
degrees  and  diplomas.  There  is  also  a 
system  of  extension  teaching  for  men 
and  women  who  are  engaged  in  teaching 
and  can  give  only  a  portion  of  their  time 
to  study.  The  property  of  the  univer- 
sity is  valued  at  about  $72,000,000,  of 
which  about  $35,000,000  has  been  added 
by  gift  or  bequest  in  the  past  twenty 
years.  The  annual  expenses  amount  to 
about  $6,500,000.  The  teaching  staff  in 
1920  numbered  1,150.  The  total  enroll- 
ment in  all  courses  and  departments  is 
28,314,  President,  Nicholas  Murray 
Butler. 

COLUMBIAN  UNIVERSITY.  See 
George  Washington  University. 

COLUMBID^,  a  family  of  birds,  the 
typical  one  of  the  sub-order  columbacei. 
The  bill  is  moderate  and  compressed, 
having  at  its  base  a  soft  skin  in  which 
the  nostrils  are  placed.  The  feet  have 
three  divided  toes  before  and  one  behind. 

COLUMBINE,  a  popular  name  for 
Aquilegia  vulgar^is  or  other  species  of 
the  genus  Aquilegia.  The  common  colum- 
bine has  drooping  purplish-blue  flowers 
with  five  flat  sepals;  five  petals,  with 
long  spurs,  often  curved;  five  follicles, 
the  root-leaves  twice  or  thrice  ternate, 
the  others  singly  ternate.  The  word  is 
also  applied  to  a  female  character  in 
the  Italian  comedy,  the  "Daughter  of 
Cassandra,"  and  the  mythic  Harlequin, 
and  to  the  female  dancer  in  the  English 
pantomime. 

COLUMBITE.  A  mineral  containing 
iron,  columbium,  and  usually  manganese 
and  tantalum.  Its  formula  is  commonly 
given  as  (Fe,  Mn)  (Cb,  Ta)j06.  Occurs 
as  opaque  orthorhombic  crystals,  dark 
brown  or  black  in  color;  specific  gravity 
about  6.0.  The  mineral  is  found  in  Colo- 
rado, Connecticut,  Maine,  North  Carolina, 
South  Dakota,  Virginia,  and  in  Norway, 
and  is  of  interest  because  the  element 
Columbium  was  first  discovered  in  it  by 
C.  Hatchett,  in  1802,  the  name  being 
given  because  the  mineral  in  which  the 
metal  was  found  cam.e  from  America. 

COLUMBUS,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Muscogee  co.,  Ga. ;  on  the  E.  bank  of 
the  Chattahoochee  river ;  on  the  boundary 
line  between  Georgia  and  Alabama;  and 
on  the  Central  of  Georgia,  the  Southern, 
and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line;  100  miles 
S.  W.  of  Macon.  It  is  connected  by 
steamship  lines  with  Appalachicola,  Fla. 
On  account  of  its  large  and  important  ««. 
manufacturing  interests  it  is  known  as 
the  "Lowell  of  the  South."  The  city  is 
regularly  laid  out  with  an  excellent 
street  system. 


COLUMBUS 


77 


COLUMBUS 


Columbus  is  one  of  the  leading  cotton 
manufacturing  cities  in  the  South.  It  uses 
over  100,000  bales  of  cotton  for  manufac- 
tures annually.  In  addition  there  are 
manufactories  of  cotton-seed  oil,  barrels, 
agi'icultural  machinery,  fertilizers,  etc. 
The  city  has  several  National  banks, 
newspapers,  public  library,  conservatory 
of  music,   and   other  public   institutions. 

The  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  Court 
House,  Georgia  Home  Insurance  Co., 
Bank  of  Columbus,  Garrard  Building, 
and  numerous  churches.  Four  handsome 
bridges  connect  Columbus  with  its  sub- 
urbs in  Alabama. 

History. — Columbus  was  laid  out  in 
1828;  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1829;  and 
captured  by  the  Federal  forces,  April  16, 
1885.    Pop.  (1910)  20,554;  (1920)  31,125. 

COLUMBUS,  a  city  of  Indiana,  the 
county-seat  of  Bartholomew  co.  It  is  on 
the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and 
St.  Louis,  and  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 


ter  of  the  country;  it  is  the  seat  of  the 
State  Industrial  Institute  and  College, 
Franklin  Academy,  and  the  State  bank, 
Court  House,  several  weekly  and  semi- 
weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  8,988; 
(1920)    10,501. 

COLUMBUS,  a  city  of  Nebraska,  the 
county-seat  of  Platte  co.  It  is  on  the 
Union  Pacific  and  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton, and  Quincy  railroads,  and  on  the 
Loup  river.  There  are  flour  mills,  foun- 
dry, shoe  factory,  and  other  industries. 
The  city  has  a  hospital  and  a  public  li- 
brary.    Pop.   (1910)  5,014;   (1920)  5,410. 

COLUMBUS,  a  city,  capital  of  the 
State  of  Ohio,  and  county-seat  of  Frank- 
lin CO.;  on  both  sides  of  the  Scioto  river, 
about  70  miles  from  its  mouth;  and  100 
miles  N.  E.  of  Cincinnati.  It  is  the  cen- 
ter of  11  railroad  lines,  and  the  third  city 
in  the  State  in  population  and  impor- 
tance.   Area,  16^/^  square  miles. 


STATE    HOUSE,    COLUMBUS,   OHIO 


Chicago  and  St.  Louis  railroads,  and  on 
the  White  river.  It  is  an  important 
manufacturing  city.  Among  the  indus- 
tries are  the  making  of  tanned  leather, 
threshing  and  saw-mill  machinery,  gaso- 
line engines,  flour,  furniture,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)   8,813;    (1920)   8,990. 

COLUMBUS,  a  city,  and  county-seat 
of  Lowndes  co..  Miss.;  on  the  Mobile  and 
Ohio  and  Southern  railroads  and  the 
Tombigbee  river;  150  miles  S.  E.  of 
Memphis  and  the  same  distance  N.  E.  of 
Jackson.     It  is  the  farming  trade  cen- 


There  are  over  800  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, with  an  annual  product  val- 
ued at  about  $100,000,000.  Among  the 
chief  products  are  wagons,  boots  and 
shoes,  tobacco,  and  machine  shop  prod- 
ucts. There  are  eight  National  banks. 
The  exchanges  in  the  clearing  house  for 
the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1919,  were 
$638,410,000. 

There  are  excellent  street  and  sewer 

systems.    The   noteworthy   buildings   are 

the  United  States  Government  Building, 

containing    the    Postoflice    and     Federal 

6— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


COLUMBUS 


78 


COLUMBUS 


Court;  the  State  Capitol;  the  Ohio  State 
University;  Central  Ohio  Insane  Asy- 
lum; Odd  Fellows'  Hall;  Masonic  Tem- 
ple; the  Franklin  County  Court  House; 
Soldiers  and  Sailors'  Memorial ;  Columbus 
Public  Library;  and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building, 
and  among  70  Protestant  and  10  Roman 
Catholic  churches  are:  Trinity  Church 
(P.  E.),  St.  Joseph's  Cathedral  (R.  C), 
Second  Presbyterian,  St.  Paul's  (Germ. 
Luth.),  Broad  Street  (M.  E.),  Wesley 
Chapel,  and  the  Third  Avenue.  The  edu- 
cational institutions  include  the  Ohio 
State  University,  Columbus  Normal 
School,  Capital  University,  and  several 
public  and  private  high  and  secondary 
schools. 

History. — Columbus  was  laid  out  in 
1812;  became  the  seat  of  the  State  gov- 
ernment in  1816;  and  was  incorporated 
as  a  city  in  1834,  with  a  population  of 
less  than  4,000.  Pop.  (1910)  181,548; 
(1920)  237,031. 

COLUMBUS,  CHRISTOPHER,  the 
Latinized  form  of  the  Italian  Colovibo, 
and  the  Spanish  Colon,  the  great  naviga- 
tor who  added  a  new  hemisphere  to  our 
globe;  born  near  Genoa,  probably  in  1451, 
He  was  the  son  of  a  wool-comber;  at- 
tended for  some  little  time  the  school  of 
learning  in  Pavia,  where  he  evinced  a 
taste  for  astronomy  and  cosmography; 
and  early  went  to  sea,  and  made  several 
voyages  in  the  Mediterranean.  Settling 
in  Lisbon,  in  1470,  he  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  an  Italian  named  Palestrello,  once 
a  navigator  in  the  Portuguese  service, 
and  with  her  obtained  some  valuable 
charts,  journals,  and  memoranda.  While 
constructing  maps  and  charts  for  the  live- 
lihood of  his  family,  Columbus  gained  the 
belief  of  a  great  land  in  the  west. 

To  qualify  himself  for  his  great  enter- 
prise he  made  several  voyages  to  the 
Azores,  the  Canaries,  and  the  coast  of 
Guinea — ^then  the  limit  of  European  navi- 
gation in  this  direction.  Not  until  about 
1482  or  1483  did  he  find  opportunity  to 
lay  his  scheme  before  John  II.  of  Portu- 
gal. This  monarch  referred  it  to  a  junta 
of  nautical  and  scientific  men,  who  de- 
cided against  it.  The  king,  however,  tak- 
ing advantage  of  a  detailed  plan  obtained 
from  Columbus  under  false  pretenses,  se- 
cretly sent  out  a  vessel  to  examine  the 
route.  Too  timid  to  venture  far  from 
the  beaten  track,  the  pilots  soon  returned 
to  Lisbon  to  throw  ridicule  on  the  proj- 
ect. Disgusted  with  the  duplicity  of  his 
sovereign,  Columbus  secretly  left  Lisbon 
in  1484,  taking  with  him  his  motherless 
boy  Diego.  He  found  his  way  to  Genoa, 
where  the  republic  treated  his  project 
with  scorn.  Disappointed,  but  not  de- 
spairing, Columbus  turned  his  steps  to- 
ward   Spain.     Weary    and    hungry,    he 


stopped  one  day  at  the  gate  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan convent.  La  Rabida,  in  Andalusia, 
to  beg  some  bread  and  water  for  his  child. 
This  day  was  the  turning-point  in  his 
career.  The  superior  of  the  convent,  Juan 
Perez  de  Marchena,  passing  at  the  mo- 
ment, entered  into  conversation  with  the 
traveler,  and  was  so  struck  with  the 
grandeur  of  his  views  that  he  used  all 
his  influence  to  procure  him  the  favor- 
able consideration  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella, and  it  was  to  the  latter,  not  the 
king,  to  whom  he  owed  assistance  in  his 
project. 

Eight  years  of  disappointment  passed, 
during  which  Columbus  applied  to  other 


CRISTOFORO   COLOMBO 


NATO    M-CCCCXLIl         MORTO   MD-YI 


CHRISTOPHER   COLUMBUS 

courts,  and  without  avail,  when  he  found 
himself  in  command  of  three  small  ves- 
sels, only  one  of  which  was  decked,  with 
120  men,  ready  to  start  on  his  adventur- 
ous enterprise.  Columbus  claimed,  as  re- 
ward, to  be  nominated  high-admiral  and 
governor-general  and  viceroy  over  all  the 
lands  he  discovered,  with  a  tenth  of  the 
produce  of  the  countries.  On  Aug.  3, 
1492,  he  set  sail  from  the  bar  of  Saltes, 
near  Palos.  Delaying  a  month  at  the  Ca- 
naries to  refit,  he  started  thence,  on  Sept. 
6,  over  unknown  seas.    His  crew  soon  be- 


COLUMN 


79 


COLUMN- 


came  openly  mutinous,  but  Columbus 
never  f.inched  in  his  determination  to 
press  on.  On  Oct.  12  his  perseverance 
was  rewarded  with  the  sight  of  land, 
which  proved  to  be  one  of  the  Bahama 
Islands.  Here  he  solemnly  planted  the 
cross,  giving  the  island  the  name  of  San 
Salvador.  After  discovering  several  other 
of  the  West  India  Islands,  including  Cuba 
and  Haiti,  or  San  Domingo,  at  the  latter 
of  which,  called  by  him  Hispaniola,  he 
settled  a  small  colony,  he  set  sail  again 
for  Spain,  where  he  arrived  March  15, 
1493,  and  was  received  with  every  dem- 
onstration of  joy  and  admiration  by  the 
people  and  the  court.  In  September  of 
the  same  year  he  sailed  from  Cadiz  on 
the  second  expedition,  with  17  ships  and 
1,500  men.  In  this  voyage  he  discovered 
the  Caribbee  Islands,  Jamaica,  etc.,  but 
calumnies  at  home  forced  him  to  return 
in  1496.  Having  cleared  himself  with  his 
sovereig:ns,  he,  in  1498,  set  out  on  a  third 
expedition.  This  time,  steering  more  to 
the  S.,  he  discovered  Trinidad  and  the 
mouths  of  the  Orinoco,  and  landed  at 
Paria,  on  the  coast  of  South  America. 
After  these  discoveries  Columbus  steered 
for  Hispaniola,  where  he  found  every- 
thing in  disorder.  Enemies  in  Spain  had 
been  at  work,  and  an  officer  named  Bo- 
badilla  had  been  appointed  to  supersede 
him  as  governor,  and  by  this  person  Co- 
lumbus was  sent  home  in  chains.  This 
unworthy  treatment  excited  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  Spanish  people  to  such  a  de- 
gree that  Ferdinand  was  forced  to  dis- 
avow all  knowledge  of  the  disgraceful 
affair.  But  Columbus  failed  to  obtain  re- 
dress from  the  king.  The  spirit  of  adven- 
ture, however,  was  not  crushed  and  he 
set  out  on  May  9,  1502,  with  four  vessels 
and  150  men  to  seek  a  passage  uniting 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  which  he 
imagined  lay  somewhere  between  Hon- 
duras and  Paria.  The  voyage  was  disas- 
trous, and  the  constitution  of  Columbus 
r  rpj.  recovered  from  the  shock  which  it 
sustained.  In  coasting  Central  America 
hs  e;ot  a  hint  which,  if  followed  up,  might 
have  led  to  the  discovery  of  Mexico  and 
the  Pacific;  but  the  mutinous  character 
of  his  crew  forced  him  aside  to  seek  for 
gold,  and  having  added  little  of  impor- 
tance to  his  previous  discoveries,  he  re- 
turned to  Spain  in  November,  1504.  Isa- 
bella was  dead;  Ferdinand  proved  basely 
ungrateful,  and  he  was  permitted  to  die 
in  poverty  at  Valladolid,  on  May  20, 1508. 

COLUMN,  a  pillar,  shaft,  or  solid 
body  of  considerably  greater  length  than 
thickness,  standing  upright,  and  general- 
ly serving  to  support  some  superincum- 
bent mass.  It  is  the  principal  part  in  the 
ancient  orders  of  architecture.  There  are 
five  orders  of  architecture,  each  having 


its  own  proper  style  of  column.    The  Gre- 
cian-Doric has  no  base,  and  in  some  other 


CORINTHIAN   COLUMN 

respects  differs  from  the  Roman  Doric, 
which  is  an  imitation  of  it.  It  was  short, 
powerful,  and  massive,  and  very  simple 


COLUMN 


80 


COLUMN 


in  character.  Its  height  was  between 
seven  and  eight  diameters.  The  Ionic  col- 
umn was  distinguished  by  its  volutes,  and 
was  nine  diameters  in  height.     The  Co- 


of  a  column  are  the  plinth,  the  torus,  the 
shaft,  the  astragal,  the  neck,  the  ovato., 
the  abacus.  Above  these  rose  the  entab- 
lature. 


TUSCAN   COLUMN 

rinthian,  which  was  10  diameters  high, 
was  adorned  with  leaves,  etc.,  and  was 
noted  for  its  lightness  and  richness  of 
decoration.  Of  these  the  Doric  and  Ionic 
were  the  earliest  and  oftenest  employed 
in  Greek  architecture.  The  Corinthian 
was  preferred  by  the  Romans,    The  parts 


DORIC   COLUMN 

COLUMN,  in  military  tactics,  a  for- 
mation of  troops  drawn  up  in  deep  files, 
showing  a  small  front;  as  distinguished 
from  line,  which  is  extended  in  front  and 
thin  in  depth.  They  are  said  to  be  close 
or  open,  according  to  the  intervals  be- 
tween the  battalions,  regiments,  etc.,  of 
which  they  are  composed.  Sometimes  the 
name  column  is  given  to  a  small  army, 
especially  when  actively  engaged. 


COLURE 


81 


COMA  BERANICES 


COLURE,  one  of  the  two  imaginary  COLVIN,  SIR  SIDNEY,  an  Enj^lish 
great  circles  of  the  celestial  sphere  in-  critic;  born  in  Norwood,  England,  June 
tersecting  the  poles  of  the  world;  one  18,  1845.  He  became  professor  of  fine 
passing  through  the  equinoctial  points  of    arts    at    Cambridge    in    1873.      He    was 

keeper  of  prints  and  drawings,  British 
Museum  (1884-1912).  He  wrote  "Life  of 
Landor"  (1881)  ;  "Keats"  (1887)  ;  "Early 
History  of  English  Engraving"  (1905)  ; 
and  edited  Edinburgh  edition  of  Steven- 
son's works;  "John  Keats,  His  Life  and 
Poetry"  (1917).  He  was  knighted  in 
1911. 

COLVOCORESSES,  GEORGE  PAR- 
TRIDGE, an  American  naval  officer,  born 
in  Norwich,  Vt.,  in  1847.  He  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1869.  Prior  to  that  time  he  had  served 
in  the  navy  in  the  Civil  War.  He  was 
commissioned  ensign  in  1870  and  rose 
through  the  various  grades,  becoming 
captain  in  1905.  He  was  retired  at  his 
own  request  as  rear-admiral  in  1907,  after 
45  years  of  service.  He  was  advanced 
five  numbers  in  grade  for  conspicuous 
sei'vice  at  the  battle  of  Manila  Bay.  He 
filled  nearly  every  capacity  in  the  naval 
service,  both  on  shore  and  at  sea. 

COLZA,  a  variety  of  cabbage.  Oil  is 
extracted  from  the  seeds  and  sometimes 
burned  in  lamps. 

_  COMA,  a  morbid  state  which,  if  con- 
sidered a  distinct  disease,  is  a  milder  form 
of  apoplexy,  but  which  may  be  properly 
regarded  as  a  symptom  rather  than  an 
idiopathic  affection.  It  is  characterized 
by  a  morbid  condition  of  the  brain,  pro- 
ducing loss  of  sensation  and  voluntary 
motion,  so  that  the  patient  seems  as  if 
in  a  deep  sleep.  It  constitutes  the  most 
pronounced  state  of  torpor  which  can  oc- 
cur. The  cerebral  functions  are  suspend- 
ed in  coma,  and  the  nervous  and  sangui- 
niferous  systems  deranged.  There  are 
two  well-marked  types  of  it,  one  in  which 
the  pulse  is  oppressed,  irregular,  and 
slow;  and  the  other  in  which  it  is  strong, 
with  a  hot  skin  and  other  marks  of  fe- 
brile inflammation.  When  coma  is  in- 
tense it  passes  into  apoplexy. 

COMA  BERENICES  ("the  Hair  of 
Berenice"),  a  northern  constellation 
whose  origin  is  sometimes  wrongly  stated. 
In  his  introduction  to  "Ptolemy's  Cata- 
logue" Baily  says  that  though  it  was  a 
well-known  constellation  long  before  Ptol- 
emy's time  the  latter  did  not  introduce 
it  into  the  Almagest  as  a  distinct  con- 
stellation, but  called  it  Plokamos  (Gr., 
"hair,"  or  "curls").  It  appears  to  have 
been  restored  as  a  distinct  constellation 
by  Tycho  Brahe  in  his  catalogue,  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  in  1602.  It  is  made 
up  of  rather  faint  stars,  none  of  them 
brighter  than  the  fourth  magnitude.  The 
constellation  is  surrounded  by  Ursa  Ma- 


lONIC   COLUMN 

Aries  and  Libra  and  the  pole  of  the  equa- 
tor; and  the  other  through  the  solstitial 
points  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  and  the 
poles  both  of  the  ecliptic  and  equator. 
For  this  reason  the  first  is  called  the 
equinoctial,  and  the  second  the  solstitial 
Colure.  The  name  is  supposed  to  have 
been  given  to  them  because  a  portion  of 
these  circles  is  always  concealed  from 
View  under  the  horizon. 


COMANCHES 


82 


COMBRETACE^ 


jor,  Canes  Venatici,  Bootes,  Virgo,  and 
Leo. 

COMANCHES,  an  aboriginal  tribe  of 
North  American  Indians,  whose  hunting 
grounds  were  the  regions  now  known  as 
Texas  and  northern  Mexico.  They  were 
very  numerous  between  1700  and  1750, 
having  a  tribal  organization  under  chiefs 
of  their  ovvm  selection.  They  hunted  on 
horseback,  and  were  estimated  to  number 
400,000  when  first  encountered  by  the 
whites.  They  have  dwindled  to  about 
2,000  and  now  live  on  a  reservation 
opened  in  1901  in  Oklahoma. 

COMAYAGTJA,  a  city  of  Honduras, 
Central  America,  situated  in  a  fertile  val- 
ley, 1,935  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the  Rio 
Humuya,  190  miles  E.  of  Guatemala. 
Founded  in  1540,  it  has  a  handsome  ca- 
thedral and  a  college,  and  before  1880 
was  the  capital  of  the  republic.  Pop. 
about  3,100, 

COMB,  a  toothed  implement  used  in 
every  age  and  by  all  peoples  for  dressing 
and  keeping  clean  the  hair.  Combs  are 
also  used  for  fastening  the  hair  when 
dressed,  and  as  head  ornaments.  Combs 
are  made  of  horn,  tortoise  shell,  ivory, 
wood,  bone,  metal,  india-rubber,  celluloid, 
and  composition.  Saw-cutting  is  the  only 
process  available  for  bone,  ivory,  and 
wooden  combs,  and  it  is  used  for  the 
finer  kinds  of  horn  combs  also.  India- 
rubber  combs,  now  so  extensively  used, 
are  manufactured  by  pressing  the  caout- 
chouc to  the  required  form  in  molds, 
and  "vulcanizing"  or  combining  it  with 
sulphur  afterward. 

COMB,  the  wax  cavities  in  which  bees 
lodge  their  honey.  The  comb  of  a  bee  is 
composed  of  hexagonal  cells,  of  which 
there  are  two  tiers,  the  cells  in  which 
are  placed  end  to  end,  so  that  the  three 
plates  of  wax,  which  serve  as  the  bottom 
of  the  cell  in  the  one  tier,  constitute  also 
that  of  the  corresponding  one  in  the 
other. 

COMBACONUM  (Kuvibhakonam) ,  one 
of  the  oldest  and  most  sacred  cities  of 
India,  in  the  center  of  the  fertile  Kaveri 
delta,  193  miles  S.  W.  of  Madras,  with 
Hindu  temples,  a  government  college, 
etc.     Pop.  about  64,000. 

COMBINATION,  in  law,  a  combina- 
tion to  commit  a  crime  is  an  indictable 
Conspiracy  (q.  v.).  A  combination  to 
commit  an  act  which  is  injurious,  im- 
moral, or  contrary  to  public  policy,  is  in 
some  but  not  in  all  cases  held  to  amount 
to  conspiracy.  Combinations  of  work- 
men to  raise  the  rate  of  wages  were 
formerly  unlawful;  but  the  law  was 
amended  in  this  respect  in  1825,  and 
now   such  combinations  are  freely  per- 


mitted, provided  they  effect  their  pur- 
poses by  lawful  means. 

In  mathematics,  the  different  collec- 
tions •  which  may  be  made  of  certain 
given  quantities  without  regard  to  the 
order  in  which  they  are  arranged  in 
each  collection.  The  term  is  almost 
always  mentioned  in  conjunction  with 
permutations  in  which  there  is  regard 
to  the  order  of  the  quantities,  and  a 
department  of  arithmetic  is  technically 
called  Permutations  and  Combinations. 
If  a,  h,  and  c  be  three  quantities  to  be 
taken  two  together,  there  will  be  three 
possible  Combinations,  that  is,  ways  of 
arranging  them  in  pairs,  without  allow- 
ing b  to  stand  before  a,  or  c  before  the 
two  letters  which  precede  it  in  the 
alphabet.  These  combinations  will  be 
ah,  ac,  and  be.  But  there  can  be  six 
permutations  of  the  same  three  letters, 
i.  e.,  six  distinct  pairs  of  them  if  per- 
mission be  granted  to  put  them  in  any 
order  one  pleases,  viz.,  ab,  ha,  ac, 
ca,  be,  cb. 

In  chemistry,  the  act  of  uniting  by 
means  of  chemical  affinity;  the  state  of 
being  so  united.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  chemical  combination,  that  by  weight 
and  that  by  volume.  In  a  large  num- 
ber of  instances  the  law  relating  to  Com- 
bination by  weight  is  as  follows:  When 
two  bodies,  A  and  B,  are  capable  of 
uniting,  the  several  quantities  of  B, 
which  combine  with  a  given  or  constant 
quantity  of  A,  stand  to  one  another  in 
very  simple  ratios.  With  regard  to 
gases  combining  by  volume,  the  law  is 
that  the  combining  volumes  of  all  ele- 
mentary gases  are  equal,  excepting 
those  of  phosphorus  and  arsenic,  which 
are  only  half  those  of  the  other  elements 
in  the  gaseous  state,  and  those  of  mer- 
cury and  cadmium,  which  are  double 
those  of  the  other  elements. 

COMBLES,  a  tovm  in  the  department 
of  the  Somme,  France,  7  miles  N,  W,  of 
Peronne,  and  20  miles  S.  E,  of  Arras. 
The  Germans  took  it  during  the  second 
battle  of  the  Somme  in  March,  1918,  in- 
flicting heavy  losses  on  the  British, 
mostly  South  Africans,  under  General 
Dawson,  who  was  captured.  Attempts 
at  counter-attack  were  unavailing,  till 
the  arrival  of  American  forces  and  the 
general  retreat  of  the  Germans. 

COMBRETACE^,  in  botany,  Myro- 
balans,  an  order  of  exogens,  alliance 
Myrtales.  It  consists  of  trees  or  shrubs 
with  alternate  or  opposite  entire  dotless 
leaves,  destitute  of  stipules.  The  flow- 
ers are  on  axillary  or  terminal  spikes. 
The  calyx  is  adherent,  with  a  4-5  lobed 
deciduous  limb.  The  petals,  where  they 
exist,  rise  from  the  orifice  of  the  calyx. 


COMBUSTION 


83 


COMET 


The  stamens  are  generally  twice  as 
many  as  the  segments  of  the  calyx;  the 
ovary  one-celled,  2-4  pendulous  ovules, 
style  1,  stigma  simple.  The  order  is 
divided  into  three  tribes:  termmulese, 
covibretese,  and  gyrocarpeai.  The  myro- 
balans  are  found  within  the  tropics  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America. 

COMBUSTION,  the  act  of  burning, 
the  state  of  being  burned.  Spontaneous 
Combustion  is  Combustion  occurring 
without  any  means  taken  on  the  part  of 
man  to  produce  it.  A  Combustion  of 
the  human  body  produced  by  occult  in- 
ternal causes  is  alleged  to  have  occurred 
several  times.  Most  chemists  believe  the 
Combustion  of  the  human  body  in  the 
way   described   an   impossibility. 

COMEDIE  FBANCAISE,  the  national 
subsidized  theater  of  France,  formed  in 
1680  by  the  fusion  of  the  two  bodies 
into  which  Moliere's  company  of  actors 
had  split.  It  is  at  present  managed  by 
regulations  made  in  1812,  modified  by 
subsequent  resolutions. 

COMEDIETTA,  a  dramatic  composi- 
tion of  the  comedy  class,  but  not  so 
much  elaborated  as  a  regular  comedy, 
and  generally  consisting  of  one  or  at 
most  two  acts. 

COMEDONES,  a  name  applied  to  the 
little  cylinders  of  sebaceous  and  epithe- 
lial substance  which  are  apt  to  accumu- 
late in  the  follicles  of  the  skin  and  to 
appear  on  the  surface  as  small  round 
black  spots.  When  squeezed  out  they 
have  the  appearance  of  minute  mag- 
gots or  grubs,  with  black  heads,  and 
thence  have  derived  their  name. 

COMEDY,  a  dramatic  representation 
of  a  light  and  amusing  nature,  in  which 
are  satirized  pleasantly  the  weaknesses 
or  manners  of  society  and  the  ludicrous 
incidents  of  life.  Comedy  took  its  origin 
in  the  Dionysian  festivals,  with  those 
who  led  the  phallic  songs  of  the  band 
of  revelers  (Gr.,  kdmos)  who,  at  the 
vintage  festivals,  gave  expression  to  the 
exuberant  joy  and  merriment  by  parad- 
ing about,  dressed  up,  and  singing  jovial 
songs  in  honor  of  Dionysus.  Comedy 
first  assumed  a  regular  shape  among  the 
Dorians.  The  first  attempts  at  it  among 
the  Athenians  were  made  by  Susarion, 
a  native  of  Megara,  about  578  B.  c. 
Epicharmus  first  gave  comedy  a  new 
form  and  introduced  a  regular  plot. 
That  branch  of  the  Attic  drama  known 
as  the  Old  Comedy  begins  properly  with 
Cratinus.  It  lasted  from  458  B.  c.  to 
404  B.  c.  The  later  pieces  of  Aristoph- 
anes belong  to  Middle  Comedy.  The 
most  distinguished  of  Roman  comic 
writers  were  Plautus  and  Terence. 


COMET,  a  luminous  heavenly  body 
which,  in  general,  consists  of  a  nucleus 
or  "head"  with,  or  frequently  without, 
a  tail,  the  whole  moving  in  the  heavens, 
first  toward,  then  around,  and  finally 
away  again  from  the  sun,  like  a  planet 
at  one  part  of  its  elliptic  orbit.  Comets 
have  in  every  age  excited  attention,  and, 
till  recently,  have  inspired  terror  in  the 
general  public,  or  at  least  in  ignorant 
minds.  Tycho  Brahe,  about  1577, 
showed  that  a  certain  comet  was  at  a 
greater  distance  from  the  earth  than 
the  moon.  Hevelius,  in  1668,  ascertained 
that  the  orbit  of  a  comet  was  concave 
and  not  a  straight  line,  the  latter  erro- 
neous view  having  been  held  by  Tycho 
Brahe,  already  mentioned,  and  Kepler. 
Doerfel  (1861)  believed  comets  to  move 
in  parabolas.  In  1682  Halley  proved 
the  comet,  subsequently  called  after  him, 
to  be  periodic  in  its  returns.  In  1704 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  proved  comets  to  obey 
the  law  of  gravitation,  and  held  that  in 
all  probability  they  moved  in  elliptic 
orbits. 

Present  state  of  knowledge  and  opin- 
ion.— More  than  600  comets,  according 
to  J.  R.  Hind,  have  been  taken  note  of, 
but  about  17,500,000  are  believed  to  exist 
in  connection  with  the  solar  system.  The 
head  or  nucleus  is  much  less  solid  than 
it  seems.  Thus,  in  1832,  Sir  John 
Herschel  saw  a  group  of  stars  only  of 
the  16th  magnitude,  almost  through  the 
center  of  Biela's  comet.  When  such  a 
body  might  be  expected  to  exercise 
gravitation  its  influence  is  too  small  to 
be  perceptible.  Regarding  orbit,  the 
comets  may  be  divided  into  two  very 
distinct  classes:  First,  those  whose 
orbits  are  so  long  that  they  are  usually 
regarded  as  parabolas,  and  second, 
those  whose  orbit  and  period  are  both 
short.  Of  the  latter  class,  about  12  or 
15  are  known.  The  first  seem  to  have 
come  to  us  from  outside  space;  the  sec- 
ond set,  originally  belonging  to  the 
former,  to  have  had  their  direction 
changed  so  as  to  produce  their  present 
short  elliptic  orbits  by  the  action  on 
them  of  some  planet.  In  1866  Professor 
Schiaparelli,  of  Milan,  discovered  that 
the  orbit  of  Tuttle's  comet,  the  third 
which  had  appeared  in  1862,  was  nearly 
identical  with  that  of  the  August  me- 
teors, and  Tempel's  comet,  the  first  of 
1866,  with  that  of  the  November  me- 
teor stream.  In  consequence  of  this  dis- 
covery, Prof.  P.  G.  Tait  published  the 
view  that  the  sudden  development  of 
tails  many  millions  of  miles  in  length, 
the  occurrence  of  comets  with  many 
tails,  and  the  observed  fact  that  there 
is  no  definite  relation  of  direction  be- 
tween a  comet's  tail  and  its  solar  radius 


COMET 


84 


eOMINES 


vector,  may  be  accounted  for  on  the  sup- 
position that  a  comet  is  a  cloud  of  small 
masses,  such  as  stones  and  fragments 
of  meteoric  iron,  shining  by  reflected 
light  alone,  except  where  these  masses 
impinge  on  each  other,  or  on  other 
matter  circulating  around  the  sun,  and 
thus  produce  luminous  gases  along  with 
considerable  modifications  of  their  rela- 
tive motion.  The  differences  of  motion 
of  the  meteoric  fragments  relatively  to 
the  earth  present  appearances  analo- 
gous to  those  of  a  flock  of  sea-birds  fly- 
ing in  one  plane,  and  only  becoming  as 
a  long  streak  when  the  plane  of  the 
flock  passes  approximately  through  the 
spectator's  eye.  The  so-called  envelopes 
surrounding  them  are  compared  with 
the  curling  wreaths  of  tobacco  smoke 
emitted  from  a  pipe.  On  June  24,  1881, 
Wm.  Huggins  examined  the  bright  comet 
then  in  the  sky  with  the  spectroscope. 
Assuming  this  to  be  similarly  composed 
to  other  comets,  he  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  part  of  their  light  is  reflected 
sunlight  and  part  original  light,  and 
further  that  carbon  is  present  in  the 
cometary  matter. 

Among  the  best  known  periodic  comets 
are: 

(1)  Biela's  Cornet:  named  after  M. 
Biela,  an  Austrian  officer,  who  discovered 
it  at  Prague  on  Feb.  27  or  28,  1826,  a 
comet  which  has  a  periodic  time  of  about 
6%  years  or  338  weeks.  It  returned  in 
September,  1832,  again  in  1839,  then  in 
1845;  when,  between  Dec.  19,  1845,  and 
Jan.  13,  1846,  it  separated  into  two 
comets,  which  went  off  in  company,  com- 
ing back  together  in  1852,  since  which 
time  they  have  returned  no  more;  but  it 
has  been  discovered  that  when,  toward 
the  end  of  November,  the  earth  inter- 
sects the  lost  double  comet's  path,  there 
is  a  display  of  meteors.  This  was  notably 
seen  on  Nov.  30,  1867,  and  on  Nov.  27, 
1872.  Biela's  is  called  also  Gambart's 
Comet. 

(2)  Doyutti's  Comet:  named  after  Dr. 
Donati  of  Florence,  a  comet  discovered 
by  Donati  on  June  2,  1858.  Periodic 
time  about  2,000  years. 

In  1910  two  brilliant  comets  appeared; 
1910A  and  Halley's.  The  latter  had 
long  been  expected,  but  the  other  was 
new  and  came  as  a  surprise  to  the 
astronomers.  Consult  "Story  of  the 
Comets,"    Chambers     (1910). 

(3)  Encke's  Comet:  named  after 
Johann  Franz  Encke,  Director  of  the  Ob- 
servatory at  Berlin,  a  comet  the  perio- 
dicity of  which  was  detected  by  Encke 
in  1819.  He  proved  it  identical  with 
Mechain  and  Messier's  comet  of  1786, 
with  Herschel's  of  1795,  and  Pons'  of 
1805.     It  appeared  again  in  1822,  1828, 


and  at  such  intervals  as  to  show  that 
its  periodic  time  is  3.29  years,  or  1,210 
days.  Its  orbit  is  everywhere  nearer  the 
sun  than  that  of  Jupiter. 

(4)  Halley's  Comet:  named  after  the 
celebrated  Edmund  Halley,  the  friend  of 
Newton,  and,  from  1720  to  1741-1742, 
English  Astronomer-royal,  a  comet  the 
first  whose  periodic  time  was  ascer- 
tained. It  is  about  75  years.  It  was 
identical  with  the  comets  of  1456,  1531, 
and  1607,  and  appeared  again  in  1759 
and  1835.  This  comet  was  due  in  1910 
when  it  appeared  in  January.  Also  in 
the  same  year  a  new  comet — 1910A.  Two 
new  comets  appeared  in  1918,  one  dis- 
covered by  Reid,  June  12,  the  other  by 
Bergdorf,  Nov.  23.  Five  comets  ap- 
peared in  1919,  four  of  which  were 
previously  known. 

COMFORT,    WILL   LEVINGTON,   an 

American  novelist,  born  in  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  in  1878.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  of  Detroit.  During  the 
Spanish-American  War  he  served  in  the 
5th  United  States  Cavalry.  He  was  war 
correspondent  in  the  Philippines  and 
China  in  1889  and  served  in  the  same 
capacity  during  the  Russo-Japanese 
War.  His  books,  which  acquired  a  wide 
circle  of  readers,  include:  "Routledge 
Rides  Alone"  (1910)  ;  "Down  Among 
Men"  (1913);  "Child  and  Country" 
(1916);  and  "The  Shielding  Wing" 
(1918),  etc. 

COMFBEY,  the  Symphytum  officinale. 
The  stem  is  2-3  feet  high,  branched  above. 
The  flowers  are  in  pairs,  secund,  and 
drooping.  The  corolla  is  large,  yellow- 
ish-white, often  purple.  The  plant  is 
frequently  found  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
or  in  watery  places  generally.  It  flow- 
ers in  May  and  June.  It  was  formerly 
regarded  as  a  vulnerary.  The  leaves 
gathered  while  young  may  be  used  as  a 
substitute  for  spinach.  Comfrey  stewed 
in  sugar,  with  a  small  amount  of  pare- 
goric added,  makes  a  highly-prized  do- 
mestic remedy  for  coughs  and  bronchial 
irritation. 

COMINES,  PHILIPPE  DE  (ko-men'), 
a  French  chronicler;  born  in  Comines, 
in  1445;  was  the  trusted  counselor  of 
Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  of 
his  son  and  successor  Charles  the  Bold, 
of  Louis  XI.,  King  of  France,  and  his 
successor  Charles  VIII.  His  "Memoirs" 
supply  the  most  trustworthy  material  we 
have  for  the  history  of  his  age.  The 
first  six  books  were  written  between 
1488  and  1494,  and  the  last  two  between 
1497  and  1501;  they  were  first  printed 
in  1524-1525.  He  died  at  the  chateau 
of  Argenton,  Oct.  13,  1510. 


COMITIA 


85 


COMMERCE 


COMITIA,  the  ordinary  and  legal  as- 
semblies of  the  Roman  citizens  for  the 
passing  of  laws,  election  of  magistrates 
and  officers,  etc. 

COMMANDER  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
four  islands  off  the  coast  of  Siberia,  in 
the  Bering  Sea.  The  largest  of  them, 
Bering,  has  an  area  of  609  square  miles, 
and  the  next  largest,  Mednj,  180  square 
miles,  both  of  them  having  a  small  pop- 
ulation. The  chief  industry  is  the  breed- 
ing of  fur  seals,  protected  by  the  Si- 
berian Government. 

COMMANDITE  (kom-man-det) ,  a 
term  used  in  France,  a  partnership  en 
commandite  being  one  in  which  a  person 
may  advance  capital  without  takmg  an 
active  part  in  the  management  of  the 
business,  and  be  exempt  from  responsi- 
bility for  more  than  he  put  into  it;  much 
the  same  as  limited  liability. 

COMMELYNACE-ffi,  spiderworts,  an 
order  of  endogens,  alliance  xyridales. 
They  are  herbaceous  plants,  with  flat 
narrow  leaves.  The  species  are  found  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies,  New  Holland, 
Africa,  etc. 

COMMENDAM,  the  administration  or 
provisional  management  of  a  benefice 
during  a  vacancy.  The  person  intrusted 
with  the  management  was  called  com,- 
mendator.  The  grant  of  ecclesiastical 
livings  in  this  way  gave  rise  to  great 
abuses.  In  England  the  term  was  ap- 
plied to  a  living  retained  by  a  bishop 
after  he  had  ceased  to  be  an  incumbent. 
By  6  and  7  William  IV.  the  holding  of 
livings  in  commendam  was,  for  the  fu- 
ture, abolished. 

COMMENSAL,  messmate;  applied  in 
zoology  to  animals  which  live  on  or  in 
other  animals  for  part  or  the  whole  of 
their  life,  simply  sharing  the  food  of  their 
host  without  being  parasite  on  him ;  thus 
the  pea-crabs  live  within  the  cavity  of 
shell-fish,  and  find  their  food  in  the 
water  introduced  for  the  benefit  of  their 
host. 

COMMENSURABLE,  an  appellation 
given  to  such  quantities  or  magnitudes 
as  can  be  measured  by  one  and  the  same 
common  measure.  Commensurable  num- 
bers are  such  as  can  be  measured  or 
divided  by  some  other  number  without 
any  remainder:  such  are  12  and  18,  as 
being  measurea  by  6  or  3. 

COMMENTARY,  a  term  used  (1)  in 
the  same  sense  as  memoirs,  for  a 
narrative  of  particular  transactions 
or  events,  as  the  "Commentaries"  of 
Caesar.  (2)  A  series  or  collection  of 
comments  or  annotations.  These  may 
either  be  in  the  form  of  detached  notes. 


or  may  be  embodied  in  a  series  of  re- 
marks written  and  printed  in  a  con- 
nected form. 

COMMERCE,  a  mutual  exchange, 
buying  and  selling,  whether  abroad  or  at 
home,  but  in  a  more  specific  or  limited 
sense  it  denotes  intercourse  or  trans- 
actions of  the  character  now  described 
with  foreign  nations  or  with  colonies; 
mutual  exchange  or  buying  and  sellinj; 
at  home  being  designated  not  commerce 
but  trade. 

History. — The  Phoenicians,  whose  prim- 
itive seat  was  at  Sidon  and  their  next  at 
Tyre,  were  the  great  commercial  nation 
of  the  old  world.  The  Greeks  with  all 
their  intellect,  and  the  Romans  with  their 
unparalleled  opportunities,  did  not  show 
remarkable  aptitude  for  Commerce,  nor 
was  their  success  high. 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Venetians,  the 
Pisans,  the  Genoese,  the  Hanse  or  Han- 
seatic  towns  and  Flanders,  either  suc- 
cessively or  in  some  cases  two  or  more 
together,  took  the  lead  in  Commerce. 
The  great  impulse  communicated  by  the 
discovery  of  America  brought  first  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  then  the 
Dutch,  and  finally  the  British  upon  the 
scene.  Even  before  this  time  London 
had  become  a  large  emporium  of  trade. 
The  reign  of  Elizabeth  gave  an  impulse 
to  Commerce,  and  before  the  16th  cen- 
tury had  closed,  the  English  engrossed, 
by  an  exclusive  privilege,  the  Commerce 
of  Russia;  they  explored  the  sea  of 
Spitzbergen  for  a  passage  to  the  mar- 
kets of  the  East;  they  took  an  active 
part  in  the  trade  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  they  excited  the  jealousy  of  the 
Hanse  Towns  by  their  operations  in  Ger- 
many and  the  continent  of  Europe. 
Other  English  cities  were  now  engaged 
in  foreign  trade,  the  merchants  of  Bris- 
tol doing  so  with  the  Canary  Islands, 
and  those  of  Plymouth  with  the  coasts 
of  Guinea  and  Brazil.  The  English 
traffic  with  India  created  the  Anglo-In- 
dian empire,  and  it  again  favorably  re- 
acted on  the  Commerce  which  had  given 
it  birth. 

Commerce  of  the  United  States. — 
Even  before  the  Revolutionary  War  the 
Commerce  of  the  colonies  had  grown  to 
a  considerable  extent,  so  much  indeed  as 
in  some  departments  to  excite  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  mother  country  and  cause 
the  enactment  of  stringent  customs  reg- 
ulations, discriminating  against  the  co- 
lonial products.  For  a  long  time  after 
the  war  had  ceased,  the  unsettled  condi- 
tion of  Europe,  while  it  gave  an  exten- 
sive market  for  American  products,  yet 
was  a  source  of  considerable  risk  and 
annoyance  to  shipping,  by  reason  of  the 
exposure    to    privateering,    piracy,    etc., 


COMMERCE,    CHAMBERS   OF 


86 


COMMON  COUNCIL 


which  such  a  condition  of  affairs  engen- 
dered. Despite  these  annoyances,  how- 
ever, American  Commerce  continued  to 
increase,  until  the  stars  and  stripes  were 
familiar  in  every  port  of  the  earth.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  our  com- 
merce was  at  its  height,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  war  it  continued  to  increase  in 
volume.  For  the  Commerce  of  the  vari- 
ous countries  see  section  Commerce 
under  those  countries. 

COMMERCE,   CHAMBERS  OF.      See 

Chamber  of  Commerce. 

COMMERCIAL  LAW,  the  law  which 
regulates  commercial  affairs  among  the 
merchants  of  different  countries  or 
among  merchants  generally.  It  is  de- 
rived from  the  different  maritime  codes 
of  mediaeval  Europe,  the  imperial  code 
of  Rome,  international  law,  and  the  cus- 
tom of  merchants.  Lord  Mansfield 
(1704-1793)  was  the  first  great  exponent 
of  commercial  law  in  Great  Britain. 

COMMINATION,  the  act  of  threaten- 
ing or  denouncing  vengeance;  a  threat; 
also  a  solemn  recital  of  God's  command- 
ments and  a  "Denouncing  of  God's  anger 
and  judgments  against  sinners,"  ap- 
pointed to  be  used  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land on  Ash- Wednesday  and  such  other 
times  as  the  ordinary  may  direct.  It 
was  introduced  at  the  Reformation  as  a 
substitute  for  the  ceremony  of  sprinWing 
the  head  and  making  the  sign  of  the 
cross  with  ashes  on  Ash-Wednesday. 

COMMISSARY,  an  ecclesiastical  term, 
an  ofiicer  of  a  bishop  who  exercises  spir- 
itual jurisdiction  in  remote  parts  of  a 
diocese,  or  one  intrusted  with  the  per- 
formance of  the  duties  in  the  bishop's 
absence.  Also,  in  the  army,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  officers  charged  with  furnishing 
provisions,  etc.,  for  its  use. 

In  the  United  States  the  army  com- 
missary up  to  1912  was  vmder  Depart- 
ment of  Subsistence,  but  in  that  year 
was  joined  to  the  Quartermaster  Corps. 
It  now  falls  partly  in  the  Army  Service 
Corps,  in  which  body  alone  there  are 
commissary  officers. 

COMMISSION  PLAN.  See  Municipal 

Government. 

COMMISSURE,  an  anatomical  term 
applied  to  nervous  connections  between 
adjacent  parts  of  the  nervous  system. 
Though  it  is  not  always  used  in  quite 
the  same  way,  the  general  signification 
of  the  term,  and  the  physiological  im- 
port of  the  structure,  is  that  of  a  unit- 
ing bridge. 

COMMITTEE,  one  or  more  persons 
elected  or  deputed  to  examine,  consider 
and  report  on  any  matter  of  business. 


A  Committee  of  the  whole  House,  a 
term  used  when  a  legislative  body  re- 
solves itself  into  a  committee  to  consider 
any  bill  or  matter,  in  which  case  the 
speaker  leaves  the  chair,  which  is  taken 
by  one  of  the  members,  called  the  Chair- 
man of  Committee.  While  in  committee 
a  member  is  allowed  to  speak  more  than 
once  on  any  point. 

The  Comtnittee  of  Public  Safety;  a 
rendering  of  the  French  term,  Comite  d« 
Salut  public,  the  name  given  to  a  com« 
mittee  of  members  of  the  French  Na- 
tional Convention  during  the  first  revolu- 
tion. When  the  National  Convention, 
about  the  end  of  1792,  abolished  mon- 
archy and  proclaimed  a  republic,  it  di- 
vided the  executive  government  among 
several  committees,  paramount  over 
which  was  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  appointed  on  April  6,  1793.  It 
was  the  rule  of  this  tyrannical  and 
sanguinary  committee  which  is  known  as 
the  Reign  of  Terror.  Robespierre  was 
its  animating  spirit,  next  to  whom  stood 
Couthon  and  St.  Just.  In  March,  1871, 
the  Communists  established  a  similar 
committee  in  Paris,  which  fell  in  May 
of  the  same  year. 

National  Comnnittee,  a  body  vested 
with  control  of  a  political  party  in  the 
United  States  with  special  reference  to 
a  Presidential  election. 

COMMODORE,  in  the  United  States 
navy,  formerly  an  officer  ranking  next 
above  a  captain  and  commanding  a  few 
ships  when  they  were  detached  for  any 
purpose  from  the  rest  of  the  fleet.  The 
grade  was  abolished  by  Congress  in  1899, 
when  all  commodores  became  rear-ad- 
mirals. 

The  word  is  also  a  title  given  in  cour- 
tesy to  the  president  of  a  yachting  club, 
or  to  the  senior  captain  of  a  line  of 
merchant  vessels. 

COMMODUS,  LUCIUS  AELIUS 
AURELIUS,  a  Roman  Emperor;  born 
in  A.  D.  161;  the  son  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 
He  was  most  carefully  educated,  and 
accompanied  his  father  on  several  _  mili- 
tary expeditions.  He  succeeded  him  in 
180,  and,  after  a  short  period  of  orderly 
government,  he  dismissed  his  wisest 
counsellors,  and  gave  himself  up  to  the 
lowest  society.  He  went  so  far  in  de- 
fiance of  decency  as  to  fight  in  the  circus 
like  a  gladiator,  and  then  gave  himself 
out  to  be  a  god,  and  would  be  worshipped 
as  Hercules.  He  was  at  last  poisoned 
by  Marcia,  and  then  strangled  by  an 
athlete.  The  vices  and  misgovemment 
of  Commodus  hastened  the  fall  of  the 
empire.    He  died  Dec.  31,  192. 

COMMON  COUNCIL,  the  council  of  a 
city   or  corporate   town,   empowered   to 


COMMONER 


make  by-laws  for  the  government  of  the 
citizens. 

COMMONER,  in  Great  Britain,  a 
term  applied  to  all  citizens  except  the 
hereditary  nobility. 

COMMON  LAW,  the  unwritten  law, 
the  law  that  receives  its  binding  force 
from  immemorial  usage  and  universal 
reception,  in  distinction  from  the  written 
or  statute  law;  sometimes  from  the  civil 
or  canon  law;  and  occasionally  from  the 
lex  mercatoria,  or  commercial  and  mari- 
time jurisprudence.  It  consists  of  that 
body  of  rules,  principles,  and  customs 
which  have  been  received  from  former 
times,  and  by  which  courts  have  been 
guided  in  their  judicial  decisions.  The 
evidence  of  this  law  is  to  be  found  in 
the  reports  of  those  decisions  and  the 
records  of  the  courts.  It  is  contrasted 
with  the  statute  law  contained  in  acts 
of  Parliament;  equity,  which  is  also 
an  accretion  of  judicial  decisions,  but 
formed  by  a  new  tribunal,  which  first 
appeared  when  the  common  law  had 
reached  its  full  growth ;  and  the  civil  law 
inherited  by  modern  Europe  from  the 
Roman  Empire.  Wherever  statute  law, 
however,  runs  counter  to  common  law, 
the  latter  is  entirely  overruled ;  but  com- 
mon law,  on  the  other  hand,  asserts  its 
pre-eminence  where  equity  is  opposed 
to  it. 

COMMON  PLEAS,  in  law,  pleas 
brought  by  private  persons  against  pri- 
vate persons,  or  by  the  government,  when 
the  cause  of  action  is  of  a  civil  nature. 
In  many  States  of  the  United  States  it 
is  a  court  having  jurisdiction  generally 
in  civil  actions.  In  England  the  old 
Court  of  Common  Pleas  is  now  merged 
in   the   High   Court  of   Justice. 

COMMON   PRAYER,    BOOK   OF,   the 

public  form  of  prayer  prescribed  by  the 
Church  of  England  to  be  used  in  all 
churches  and  chapels,  and  which  the 
clergy  are  to  use  under  a  certain  penalty. 
It  dates  from  the  reign  of  Edward  VI., 
was  published  in  1549,  and  again  with 
some  changes  in  1552.  Some  slight 
alterations  were  made  upon  it  when  it 
was  adopted  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
In  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and  finally  soon 
after  the  Restoration,  it  underwent  new 
revisions. 

COMMONS,  the  people  who  have  a 
right  to  sit  or  a  right  to  vote  for  repre- 
sentatives in  the  English  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  all  who  in  England  are  under 
the  rank  of  peers  without  reference  to 
their  voting  privileges. 

English  Honse  of  Commons  is  that  one 
of  the  two  Houses  of  the  English  Parlia- 
ment  which   consists   of  representatives 


87  COMMONS 

duly  elected  according  to  law  in  pre- 
scribed numbers  by  the  burgh,  county, 
and  university  constituencies  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  name  Commons 
is  given  to  its  members  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  Peers  of  the  United  King- 
dom who  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

History. — The    earliest   traces   of   the 
English  House  of  Commons  are  in  A.  D. 
1265.     The  year  previously   (on  May  12, 
1264) ,  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leices- 
ter,   who    was    of    French    origin,    but 
brother-in-law   to   King  Henry   III.,   de- 
feated   his    sovereign    at    the    Battle   of 
Lewes,  and  made  him  prisoner.    In  1265 
the    victor    issued    writs    in    the    King's 
name  requiring  each  sheriff  of  a  county 
to  return  to  a  Parliament  which  he  pro- 
posed to  hold,  two  knights  for  the  shire 
under   his   jurisdiction,  two  citizens  for 
each  city  within  its  limits,  and  two  bur- 
gesses for  each  borough.     A  Parliament 
of   lords  and  other  dignitaries  had  ex- 
isted previously;  county  representatives 
may  occasionally  have  sat  almost  from 
the  commencement  of  the  13th  century, 
and    an    assembly   of   knights    and    bur- 
gesses, nicknamed  the  Mad  Parliament, 
had  met  in  A.  D.  1258,  but  no  writs  are 
extant  before  De  Montfort's,  summoning 
the    representatives    of    cities    and    bor- 
oughs to  attend.     The  Parliament  thus 
called  together  met  in   London  on   Jan. 
22,    1265,   but  on   Aug.   4,   De  Montfoi-t 
was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Evesham,  and 
the    royal    government    restored.      The 
victory  was  obtained  for  the  king  mainly 
through    the   military   ability   of    Prince 
Edward,    afterward    King    Edward    I., 
who,  at  least  as  early  as  1294,  i.  e.,  the 
22d  year  of  his  reign,  himself  called  to- 
gether  a    parliament   of   the    De    Mont- 
fort type.     The  borough  representatives 
were    246,    those    from    the    counties    or 
shires    74.      Under    Edward    III.    these 
members    had    altered    to    282    and    74. 
Each  place   represented   sent  two  mem- 
bers, without  reference  to  its  population. 
There  was  universal  suffrage;  members 
required   no   property   qualification,   and 
were  paid.     In  the  eighth  year  of  Henry 
VI.,  the  county  franchise  was  narrowed 
in   its   operation,   no   one   now  being   al- 
lowed to  vote  unless  he  possessed  free- 
hold worth  40  shillings,  a  sum  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  which  would  have  been 
about  the  equivalent  of  £12  ($60)  at  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century,  and  £20 
(SlOO)  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th.    The 
Act  23  Henry  VI.  c.  14,  made  it  an  in- 
dispensable  qualification  for  election  as 
a   member  of  Parliament  that  the   per- 
son should  be  a  knight,  or  eligible  to  be 
one,  by  which  was  meant  that  he  should 
have  a  freehold   of  £40    ($200)    a  year. 
James  L,  by  his  royal  prerogative,  con- 


COMMONS  8&  COMMUNE 

ferred  two  members  on  the  University  at  moned  to  meet.  Few  Parliaments,  how- 
Oxford  and  the  same  number  on  that  of  ever,  die  a  natural  death.  When  the 
Cambridge.  All  along  till  the  revolu-  Ministry  is  defeated  on  what  they  deem 
tion  of  1688,  efforts  were  made  insidi-  a  vital  point,  and  they  are  of  opinion 
ously  to  reduce,  or,  if  not,  then  at  least  that  the  country  agrees  with  them  and 
to  damage,  the  burgh  representation,  not  with  their  adversaries,  the  sovereign 
But  in  1694  the  6  and  7  William  and  generally  receives  and  acts  upon  the  ad- 
Mary,  c.  2,  enacted  that  Parliaments  in  vice  to  dissolve  Parliament,  an  act  which 
future  should  be  triennial,  an  alteration  formally  submits  to  the  judgment  of  the 
which  much  tended  to  render  the  House  constituencies  the  disputed  point  which 
of  Commons  independent  of  the  royal  caused  the  ministerial  crisis, 
authority.  A  similar  act  had  been  ««„„,«„  «^-,,«.«.t«  ^  j  • 
passed  in  1641,  but  repealed  in  1664.  ^,  ^°T^^°?e?^?^°°^^'  a.  term  used  in 
The  Act  9  Queen  Anne,  c.  5,  established  ^^^  United  States  as  equivalent  to  pri- 
a  landed  property  qualification  for  mem-  1^^^^  or  elementary  schools.  The  term 
bers,  whether  for  counties  or  boroughs,  is  officially  used  to  include  public  schools 
and  by  the  first  George  I.,  passed  in  of  the  elementary  grades,  the  first  eight 
1716,  the  Septennial  Act  was  established  years  of  the  course  of  study,  and  the 
which  made  the  legal  duration  of  a  Par-  secondary  grade,  which  includes  the  9th 
liament  seven  instead  of  three  years,  to  the  12th  years  of  course  of  study. 
It  is  still  in  force.  At  the  beginning  of  S,  1"^  are  the  principal  statistics  of 
the  18th  century,  England  and  Wales  gl^P^^^c  ^^{^Jool  system  of  the  United 
had    513   members   of   Parliament.     The  (States  in  iyi«: 

union   with    Scotland  in   1707    added   30  Estimated  population   105,253,300 

county  and  15  borough  members  to  the  ^"o^^a^e"^  persons  5  to  18  years        ^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

House    of    Commons,    that    with    Ireland  Number  o'f'pupils'enro'lled  ■.'.'.'.".  20',853',516 

on   Jan.   1,    1801,   64  for   counties,   35   for  Per  cent,  of  population  enrolled.  26.3 

cities,    and    one   for    Dublin    University,  ^^^^^^^^f  persons  5  to  18  years  ^^  ^^ 

This  made  up  the  entire  representation  Number^  of    pupiis    iii    average 

of   the    United    Kingdom    to   658,    a   num-  daily  attendance    15,548,914 

ber  which  was  nominally  preserved  until  ^"™^^''  °|  ™^i®,  teachers i9^i?t 

loor     xu         -u    J.1-  ^         r  -i.      •„  Number  Of  female  teachers 545,515 

1885,   though   the   suspension    of   writs   m  Number  of  school   houses 276,827 

individual    constituencies    for    proven    fla-  Value  of  public  school  property.     $1,983,508,818 

grant   bribery    occasionally    slightly   re-  Total  receipts  of  the  year ll^-llHil 

5„„^  I    XT ^„^v. TU        A„<-^4?    1QQK  Total    expenditures 763,678,089 

duced    the    number.       The    Act    of    1885  Expenditures  per  capita  of  popu- 

made  radical  reforms,  placing  the  basis        lation  7.28 

of  representation  at  about  one  member  Total  expenditures  per  pupil 49.12 

for  every  9,000+  electors.     The  number         rj,^^   system   which   has   produced   the 

of  members  for  the  entire  realm  of  Great  foregoing  results  in  the  United  States  is 

Britain    and    Ireland    IS    now     (1920):  now     extended     to     Cuba,     Porto     Rico, 

England  and  Wales    495;   Ireland,  103;  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 
Scotland,   72.     In  1917  women  were  en- 
rolled in  the  Parliamentary  franchise.  COMMONWEALTH,      the     state     or 

Present   state.— A   Parliament   cannot  prosperity  of  a  country  without  any  ref- 

spring  into  life  by  any  effort  of  its  own ;  erence  to  the  form  of  government  under 

it  requires  to  be  summoned  by  the  sov-  which  it  may  be  at  the  time.     Owing  to 

ereign.     During  an  interregnum  a  Con-  the    semi-independent    position     of     the 

vention     Parliament,     sometimes     called  States  of  the  American  Union  the  term 

simply  a  Convention,  can  do  so,  and  has  commonwealth    is    of    frequent    applica- 

done  it  twice  in  English  history,  once  in  tion  to  the  various  members  of  the  great 

1660,  the  other  time  in  1688.  Federal     Government,     which     itself     is 

TViQ    w^„o-,    ..f   n  •  -J  J  spoken   of   as   the   National   or    Federal 

ovJr  L^  W.vL^TlT  fi'  f''    presided  Commonwealth  in  contradistinction  from 

Peter  ^dpl^^TVw'  J      1''1  T^'  '!^  1?  its  constituent  autonomies.     In  many  of 

1^7?     t'ol?    fTif'  ^^'  ^^'l^?  ^!^/;.^-  the  States  the  legal  proceedings  against 

Ifhilh  e^i^itPc^fvni^'^r^T"^  legislation  ^..i^j^als,  etc.,  ari  instituted  in  the  name 

^^ri^JTJ^\tl  ^^?^  ^^^  l^'P  u'^^  ^^""i  of  the  (e   g.)  "Commonwealth  of  

liament  has  its  origin   m  the   House  of  .,.    T-r,„  rtUJf 

SmeTwhiSf  ha^  l?'nS^' w'  ^  ^T         The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  period 

S^^^Srrf^^^  Se^^aiiSSi^^^^tL^SH 

iep?SnVtiv^'s%o^  s^rre^in^^SrV^  Sector    Oliver    Cr'omwdl    exerdsed    the 

House  of  Commons  then  takes  place,  and  P°^^^  ^^  government.    See  Oliver  CROM- 

when   a  new   Parliament   assembles,  the  '*^'^'"^- 

House  of  Lords,  as  an  essential  part  of        COMMUNE,  the  unit  or  lowest  division 

the    complex    machinery,    is    also    sum-  in  the  administration  of  France,  corre- 


COMMUNION 


89 


COMMUNISM 


spending  in  the  rural  districts  to  the 
English  parish  or  township,  and  in  towns 
to  the  English  municipality.  Each  com- 
mune has  a  council  elected  by  universal 
suffrage,  and  the  council  is  presided  over 
by  a  maire  and  one  or  more  adjoints  or 
assistants.  In  the  larger  communes  the 
maire  is  selected  by  the  central  govern- 
ment out  of  the  members  of  the  council; 
in  others  he  is  appointed  by  the  prefect 
of  the  department.  The  central  govern- 
ment through  its  officials  exercises  gen- 
erally a  very  large  control  over  the  af- 
fairs of  the  commune. 

The  rising  of  the  Commune  of  Paris 
in  1871  should  not  be  confounded  with 
Communism  (q.  v.).  It  was  a  revolu- 
tionary assertion  of  the  autonomy  of 
Paris,  that  is,  of  the  right  of  self-gov- 
ernment through  its  commune  or  munici- 
pality. The  rising  began  on  March  18, 
1871,  and  was  only  suppressed  10  weeks 
later  after  long  and  bloody  fighting  be- 
tween the  forces  of  the  commune  and  a 
large  army  of  the  central  government; 
6,500  Communists  having  fallen  during 
May  20-30,  and  38,578  been  taken  pris- 
oners. 

COMMUNION,  in  theology,  the  act  of 
partaking  with  others  of  the  sacra- 
mental symbols  in  the  Lord's  Supper. 
For  the  first  three  centuries  the  com- 
munion was  administered  every  Lord's 
Day;  then  it  became  more  infrequent, 
and  before  long  was  limited  to  Easter, 
Whitsunday,  and  Christmas.  Many 
neglecting  it  even  on  these  days,  the 
Council  of  Lateran,  in  1215,  ordered  all 
Catholics  to  commune  at  least  once  a 
year,  naming  Easter  as  the  time,  an  in- 
junction which  the  Council  of  Trent  con- 
firmed. For  the  first  seven  centuries 
the  practice  was  somewhat  general  of 
mixing  water  with  the  wine  to  symbolize 
the  mystic  union  between  Christ  and  the 
communicant's  soul.  Originally  both 
bread  and  wine  were  administered,  but 
in  1096,  Pope  Urban  II.  sanctioned  the 
practice  of  omitting  the  wine  when  the 
communicant  was  a  layman.  This 
method  the  Council  of  Constance  enjoined 
in  1414.  It  has  since  remained  in  force 
in  the  Church  of  Rome,  but  at  the  Re- 
formation communion  in  both  kinds,  as  it 
is  often  termed,  was  restored  to  the 
laity. 

The  word  applies  also  to  the  com- 
munity of  belief,  and  theoretically,  at 
least,  of  Christian  affection,  existing 
among  those  who  partake  together  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  From  this  use  of  the 
Latin  word  is  derived  the  practice  of 
calling  the  several  denominations.  Com- 
munions, as  the  Lutheran  Communion, 
the  Congregational  Communion,  etc. 


COMMUNISM,  a  system  of  society  in 
which  common  property  is  the  recognized 
form.  In  later  times  it  is  an  attempt  to 
prevent  or  remedy  the  evils  arising  out 
of  the  inequalities  of  private  property 
by  holding  property  in  common.  But  in 
primitive  societies,  in  the  hunting  and 
pastoral  stages  of  civilization,  commun- 
ism was  universal.  Long  after  the  pri- 
vate use  of  land  had  been  established,  the 
common  ownership  of  it  by  the  tribe  or 
clan  was  still  recognized  and  enforced, 
and  the  arable  land  of  the  community 
was  subject  to  periodical  redistribution 
with  the  view  to  cultivation.  Survivals 
of  this  system  still  exist  in  various  coun- 
tries of  the  world,  notably  in  the  Mir  of 
the  Russian  empire.  The  Soviet  Re- 
public that  succeeded  in  1917  was  in 
1920  experimenting  with  communism. 
See  Council  of  Workingmen  and 
Soldiers. 

In  the  ancient  world  a  partial  com- 
munism prevailed  in  Crete  and  Sparta. 
During  the  decline  of  Greece  more  sys- 
tematic speculations  and  experiments  in 
communism  appeared.  The  most  emi- 
nent example  of  the  former  w^as  the  Re- 
public of  Plato.  In  Palestine,  about  the 
Christian  era,  the  Essenes  were  a  society 
of  recluses  with  celibacy  and  the  com- 
munity of  goods. 

A  most  remarkable  instance  of  com- 
munity of  goods  is  that  of  the  early 
Christians  at  Jerusalem,  recorded  in 
Acts  iv:  32.  During  the  middle  ages, 
sects  holding  the  community  both  of 
goods  and  women  appeared,  like  the  sect 
of  the  Giovannali  in  Corsica. 

At  the  Reformation  the  anabaptists 
Miinzer  and  Bockholt  set  up  communism 
in  Germany,  and  similar  notions  had  a 
wide  diffusion  in  other  countries.  The 
most  eminent  literary  form  of  it  was  the 
Utopia  of  Sir  Thomas  More  (1516). 
Campanella's  "Civitas  Solis"  (1623)  has 
a  community  of  goods  under  the  despotic 
rule  of  the  wise  men,  with  a  working- 
day  of  four  hours. 

At  the  discovery  of  America  the  Span- 
ish conquerors  found  a  system  of  agri- 
cultural communism  under  a  central  des- 
potism both  in  Mexico  and  Peru.  In 
the  earliest  English  settlements  in  Amer- 
ica, both  Virginia  and  New  England,  a 
system  of  common  property  was  at- 
tempted, but  soon  abandoned.  During 
the  fermentation  which  preceded  and  ac- 
companied the  French  Revolution  com- 
munistic ideas  again  emerged  in  the 
writings  of  Morelly  and  Mably. 

Socialism  is  a  vague  phenomenon 
which  must  not  be  identified  with  com- 
munism. In  the  anarchist,  as  also  in  the 
Marx  school  to  a  considerable  degree, 
socialism  takes  the  form  of  a  systematic 


COMNENTJS  90 

community  of  property,  associated  with 
vague  theories  of  the  emancipation  of 
women. 

COMNENUS,  the  name  of  a  family, 
originally  Italian,  of  which  many  mem- 
bers occupied  the  throne  of  the  Byzan- 
tine empire  from  1057  to  1204,  and  that 
of  Trebizond  from  1204  to  1461.  See 
Byzantine  Empire,  Trebizond,  Alexius 
CoMNENUs.  —  Anna  Comnenus,  who 
lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  12th  century, 
was  a  high  literary  as  well  as  historical 
celebrity. — David  Comnenus,  the  last 
representative  of  the  imperial  race  in 
Trebizond,  was  executed  at  Adrianople 
in  1462,  with  all  his  family,  by  command 
of  Mohammed  II. 

COMO,  a  city  of  Lombardy,  northern 
Italy ;  at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  the  Lake 
of  Como,  30  miles  N.  of  Milan  by  rail. 
The  city  is  surrounded  by  old  walls 
flanked  with  towers,  the  gateways  by 
which  the  walls  are  pierced  being  fine 
specimens  of  mediaeval  military  architec- 
ture. Among  the  principal  buildings  of 
Como  are  the  cathedral  (1396-1732),  and 
the  town  hall,  built  of  marble,  dating 
from  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century. 
The  chief  articles  of  manufacture  are 
silk,  gloves,  and  soap.  Como,  the  ancient 
Comum,  was  the  birthplace  of  Caecilius 
Statius,  the  two  Plinys,  of  several  popes, 
and  of  the  physicist  Volta.  In  1107  it 
began  to  war  with  Milan,  and  in  the 
course  of  20  years  was  utterly  destroyed 
by  its  antagonist.  As  an  important  head- 
quarters of  the  Ghibelline  party,  it  was 
rebuilt  in  1158  by  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
and  remained  a  republic  for  two  cen- 
turies, when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Viscontis,  its  history  since  that  time 
being  bound  up  with  that  of  Milan.  Pop., 
commune,  about  50,000. 

COMO  LAKE  (anciently  Lacus  Lari- 
us),  a  lake  in  the  N.  of  Italy,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Alps;  fed  and  drained  by  the 
river  Adda,  which  carries  its  surplus 
waters  to  the  Po.  It  extends  from  S. 
W.  to  N.  E.,  30  miles,  giving  off  toward 
the  middle,  at  the  promontory  where 
stands  Bellaggio,  a  branch  running  for 
about  13  miles  S.  E.  to  Lecco,  called  the 
Lake  of  Lecco;  greatest  width  two  and 
a  half  miles,  greatest  depth  1929  feet. 
It  is  celebrated  for  the  beautiful  scenery 
of  its  shores. 

COMORO  ISLANDS,  a  volcanic  group 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  between  the  N.  ex- 
tremity of  Madagascar  and  the  conti- 
nent of  Africa.  They  are  four  in  num- 
ber: Great  Comoro,  Mohilla,  Johanna, 
and  Mayotta;  total  area,  1,050  square 
miles ;  pop.  about  70,000.  The  people  are 
nominally  Mohammedans,  and  are  akin 
to  the  mixed  races  of  Zanzibar.     They 


COMPASS 


have  large  flocks  and  herds;  and  the 
coast  lands  are  very  fertile,  abounding 
in  tropical  grains  and  fruits.  Mayotta 
belonged  to  France  since  1843,  and  in 
1886  the  others  became  a  French  posses- 
sion. Since  1914  the  islands  have  been 
governed  by  the  Governor-General  of 
Madagascar. 

COMPANY,  a  word  of  various  ap- 
plications, including: 

(1)  A  number  of  persons  legally  as- 
sociated for  the  performance  of  any 
duty  or  the  carrying  on  of  any  business. 
The  profits  are  divided  among  the  mem- 
bers or  shareholders  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  capital  invested. 

(2)  The  partners  in  any  firm  whose 
names  do  not  appear  in  the  title  or  style 
of  the  firm ;  in  this  use  the  word  is  gen- 
erally contracted  to  Co. 

(3)  A  society,  corporation,  or  guild 
for  the  promotion  and  protection  of  the 
interests  of  any  trade.  When  companies 
are  authorized  by  the  State  or  Govern- 
ment, they  are  termed  corporations. 

In  military  language,  the  smallest  com- 
mand of  a  captain  of  infantry.  In  the 
United  States  a  company  of  infantry 
(full  strength)  numbers  100  men.  In 
Europe  it  varies  in  strength  from  48 
rank  and  file  (peace  strength)  to  120 
(as  in  England),  which  is  the  limit  of  a 
dismounted  officer's  command,  to  250  (as 
with  the  Continental  armies),  where  the 
captain  is  mounted.  It  is  formed  in 
three  ranks  in  Germany,  in  two  ranks  in 
other  countries,  with  a  supernumerary 
rank  containing  the  captain,  a  lieutenant, 
and  the  sergeants.  In  England  it  forms 
one-eighth  of  a  war  battalion,  and  has 
little  independent  action;  on  the  Conti- 
nent the  company,  which  is  one-fourth  of 
the  war  battalion,  acts  almost  independ- 
ently. War  strength  (English)  :  3  of- 
ficers (captain  and  2  subalterns),  5  ser- 
geants, 2  drummers,  5  corporals,  113 
privates,  1  driver. 

COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  special  anatomy;  the 
science  which  examines  and  compares 
the  structure  of  two  or  more  different 
kinds  of  animals,  so  as  to  discover  their 
points  of  resemblance  and  unlikeness; 
and  as  such  it  is  a  most  important  de- 
partment of  the  science  of  biology. 

COMPASS,  an  instrument  used  to  in- 
dicate the  magnetic  meridian  or  the  po- 
sition of  objects  with  respect  to  that 
meridian,  and  employed  especially  on 
ships,  and  by  surveyors  and  travelers. 
Its  origin  is  unknown,  but  it  is  supposed 
to  have  been  brought  from  China  to 
Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury. As  now  generally  used  it  consists 
of  three  parts :  namely,  the  box,  the  card 


COMPASS 


91 


COMPASS 


or  fly,  and  the  needle — ^the  latter  being 
the  really  essential  part,  and  consisting 
of  a  small  magnet  so  suspended  that  it 
may  be  able  to  move  freely  in  a  horizon- 
tal direction.  The  box,  which  contains 
the  card  and  needle,  is,  in  the  case  of 
the  common  mariner's  compass,  a  cir- 
cular brass  receptacle  hung  within  a 
wooden  one  by  two  concentric  rings 
called  gimbals,  so  fixed  by  the  cross  cen- 
ters to  the  box  that  the  inner  one,  or 
compass-box,  shall  retain  a  horizontal 
position  in  all  motions  of  the  ship.  The 
circular  card  is  divided  into  32  equal 
parts  by  lines   drawn   from   the   center 


bar  of  magnetized  steel.  It  is  fixed  on 
the  under  side  of  the  card,  and  in  the 
center  is  placed  a  conical  socket,  which 
is  poised  on  an  upright  pointed  pin  fixed 
in  the  bottom  of  the  box;  so  that  the 
card,  hanging  on  the  pin,  turns  freely 
round  its  center,  and  one  of  the  points, 
by  the  property  of  the  needle,  will  always 
be  directed  toward  the  North  Pole.  The 
needle,  however,  is  liable  to  a  certain 
deviation  owing  to  the  magnetism  of  the 
ship  itself,  and  this  is  especially  strong 
in  iron  ships.  To  obviate  this  defect  Sir 
William  Thomson  invented  a  compass, 
having  a  number  of  needles  arranged  in 


COMPASS 


to  the  circumference,  called  points  or 
rhumbs;  the  intei*vals  between  the  points 
are  also  divided  into  halves  and  quarters, 
and  the  whole  circumference  into  equal 
parts  or  degrees,  360  of  which  complete 
the  circle ;  and  consequently,  the  distance 
or  angle  comprehended  between  any  two 
rhumbs  is  equal  to  11%°. 

The  four  principal  are  called  cardinal 
points:  viz.,  North,  South,  East  and 
West.  The  names  of  the  rest  are  com- 
pounded of  these.    The  needle  is  a  small 


a  particular  manner  instead  of  one.  In 
this  compass  quadrantal  erroi's  are  cor- 
rected by  means  of  two  iron  globes  fixed 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  binnacle;  while 
the  various  components  of  the  ship's 
magnetic  force  are  neutralized  by  a 
series  of  bar-magnets  so  arranged  as  to 
act  as  correctors.  In  the  compass  used 
by  land-surveyors  and  others  the  needle 
is  not  fixed  to  the  card,  but  plays  alone, 
the  card  being  drawn  on  the  bottom  of 
the  box. 


COMPASSES 


92 


COMPIEQNE 


COMPASSES,  a  mathematical  instru- 
ment used  by  describing  circles,  measur- 
ing lines,  etc.  They  consist  simply  of 
two  pointed  legs  movable  on  a  point  or 
pivot.  For  describing  circles  the  lower 
end  of  one  of  the  legs  is  removed  and  its 
place  supplied  by  a  holder  for  a  pencil 
or  en. — Hair  Compasses  are  compasses 
having  a  spring  tending  to  keep  the  legs 
ipart,  and  a  finely-threaded  screw  by 
which  the  spring  can  be  compressed  or 
relaxed  with  the  utmost  nicety,  and  the 
distance  of  the  legs  regulated  to  a  hair's 
breadth. — Boiv  Compasses  are  compasses 
having  the  two  legs  united  by  a  bow 
passing  through  one  of  them,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  legs  being  adjusted  by 
means  of  a  screw  and  nut. — Proportional 
Compasses  are  compasses  used  for  reduc- 
ing or  enlarging  drawings,  having  the 
legs  crossing  so  as  to  present  a  pair  on 
each  side  of  a  common  pivot.  By  means 
of  a  slit  in  the  legs,  and  the  movable 
pivot,  the  relative  distinces  between  the 
points  at  the  respective  ends  may  be  ad- 
justed at  pleasure  in  the  required  pro- 
portion. 

COMPASS  PLANT  (Silphium  lacin- 
iatum) ,  a  plant  of  the  order  Cotnpositx, 
It  is  called  compass-plant  because  it  is 
said  that  it  presents  the  edges  of  its 
leaves  N.  and  S.,  while  their  faces  are 
turned  E.  and  W.  It  grows  freely  on 
our  western  prairies. 

COMPENSATION,  that  which  is  given 
or  received  as  an  equivalent  for  services 
rendered,  losses  sustained,  sufferings 
endured,  or  in  payment  of  a  debt; 
amends,  remuneration,  payment,  recom- 
pense. 

COMPENSATION  BALANCE,  a  bal- 
ance-wheel for  a  watch  or  chronometer, 
so  constructed  as  to  make  isochronal 
(equal  time)  beats,  notwithstanding 
changes  of  temperature.  This  effect  is 
usually  attained  by  having  the  balance- 
wheel  cut  into  two  segments,  the  arcs 
being  fixed  at  one  end  each.  This  allows 
space  for  the  expansion  and  contraction 
with  no  variation  in  size  of  the  wheel. 

COMPENSATION      PENDULUM,      a 

pendulum  constructed  of  two  different 
metals,  as  brass  and  iron,  which  so  work 
against  each  other,  that  the  expansion 
of  the  one  downward  is  counteracted  by 
that  of  the  other  upward.  By  this  ar- 
rangement the  pendulum  does  not  vary 
in  length,  and  consequently  in  frequency 
of  vibration,  whatever  the  temperature 
may  be. 

COMPETITION,  the  act  of  endeavor- 
ing to  gain  what  another  endeavors  to 
gain  at  the  same  time.  In  political 
economy  it  is  simply  the  form  taken  by 


the  struggle  for  existence  as  applied  to 
industry.  Formerly,  prices  and  gener- 
ally the  economic  relations  of  men  to 
each  other  were  regulated  by  custom  or 
authority.  The  growth  of  freedom  has 
now  brought  it  about  that  these  rela- 
tions are  determined  by  individual  effort. 
In  mediaeval  times  the  relations  of  men 
were  fixed  by  custom  or  authority.  But 
the  restraints  of  custom  and  authority 
were  felt  to  be  vexatious,  oppressive,  and 
injurious,  and  in  the  various  spheres  of 
human  activity,  in  religion,  politics,  and 
economics,  the  free  individuality  of  men 
sought  and  found  wider  room  to  develop 
itself.  This  great  movement  began  with 
the  revival  of  learning,  the  discovery  of 
America,  and  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion and  has  been  continued  through  the 
revolutions  of  the  17th,  18th,  and  19th 
centuries.  In  the  industrial  sphere  it 
means  that  whereas  in  former  times  a 
man's  calling,  place  of  residence,  and  the 
remuneration  of  his  industiy  were  fixed 
for  him,  he  is  now  at  liberty  to  decide 
them  for  himself  as  best  he  can.  The 
English  trades-unions  are  an  attempt  to 
regulate  competition  in  the  interest  of 
labor.  Employers'  combinations  have  a 
like  object  in  the  interests  of  the  capital- 
ist. In  the  United  States  especially  the 
development  of  "trusts"  tends  to  make 
competition  a  dead  letter,  but  recent  leg- 
islation has  curbed  their  power.  The 
protective  systems  of  France,  Germany, 
and  the  United  States  are  intended  to 
maintain  native  industries  against  Brit- 
ish competition. 

COMPIEGNE  (komp-yan'),  a  pictur- 
esque town  in  the  French  department  of 
Oise,  on  the  Oise  river,  a  little  below  its 
junction  with  the  Aisne,  52  miles  N.  N. 
E.  of  Paris.  Of  its  churches  three  de- 
serve notice,  St.  Germain  (15th  cen- 
tury), St.  Antoine  (12th  century),  and 
St.  Jacques  (13th  century).  But  the 
chief  pride  of  Compiegne  is  its  palace, 
built  anew  by  Louis  XV.,  and  splendidly 
fitted  up  by  Napoleon,  who  often  occu- 
pied it.  Its  facade  toward  the  forest  is 
624  feet  long.  The  forest  extends  over 
30,000  acres.  Compiegne  manufactures 
canvas,  cordage,  and  sugar.  Compiegne 
is  mentioned  in  the  times  of  Clovis  under 
the  name  of  Cotnpendiutn.  It  was  at  the 
siege  of  this  tovm,  in  1430,  that  the  Maid 
of  Orleans  was  captured;  and  here,  in 
1810,  Napoleon  first  met  Maria^  Louisa 
of  Austria,  on  occasion  of  their  mar' 
riage.  The  tovm  was  captured  by  the 
Germans  in  1914,  and  suffered  heavily 
during  the  battles  of  the  Marne  and 
Aisne.  The  French  later  captured  the 
place,  but  almost  lost  it  in  the  great 
German  drive  in  June,  1918.  Pop.  about 
18,000. 


COMPLEMENT 


93 


COMPRESSED  AIE 


COMPLEMENT,  of  an  angle,  what  it 
lacks  to  make  up  90°  ;  of  an  arc,  to  make 
up  a  quadrant;  and  hence,  in  astronomy, 
the  complement  of  a  star  is  its  zenith- 
distance.  In  music,  two  intervals,  which 
together  make  up  an  octave,  are  called 
complementary.  In  arithmetic,  if  any 
number  is  subtracted  from  the  next 
higher  power  of  10,  the  result  is  its 
complement.  Thus  7  and  3  are  comple- 
mentary; so  are  63  and  37;  881  and  119; 
and  1.4384386  is  the  complement  to 
8.5615614.  In  chromatics,  red  is  the 
complement  of  green,  orange  of  blue,  and 
yellow  of  violet. 

COMPLEXION,  a  word  formerly  ap- 
plied to  the  temperament,  and  natural 
disposition  of  the  body. 

The  human  skin  was  supposed  to  con- 
sist of  only  two  parts — the  cuticle,  or 
epidermis,  and  the  cutis,  or  real  skin; 
but  Malpighi  showed  that  between  these 
two  was  a  soft  gelatinous  cellular  text- 
ure, which  he  distinguished  by  the  title 
rete  mucosum.  On  this  discovery  that 
anatomist  offered  a  suggestion  as  to  the 
color  of  negroes.  The  rete  mucosum  is 
of  very  different  color  in  different  na- 
tions; and  the  difference  of  its  color 
corresponds  so  exactly  with  the  differ- 
ence of  their  complexions,  that  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  it  is  the  principal 
seat  of  the  color  of  the  human  complexion. 

COMPLINE,  the  last  of  the  daily 
canonical  hours  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
breviary;  the  complement  of  the  Vespers 
or  evening  office. 

COMPOSIT.ar,  an  order  of  plants, 
founded  in  1751  by  Linnasus,  and  adopted 
in  1763  by  Adanson.  It  contains  many 
plants  separated  from  others  by  char- 
acters so  obvious  that  it  still  stands  with 
essentially  the  same  limits  as  those  as- 
signed it  in  the  infancy  of  botany. 
Lindley  altered  the  name  of  the  order  to 
AsteracesB.  De  Candolle,  Lindley,  etc., 
divided  it  thus — Sub-order  1,  TnbuH- 
florae:  Tribe  (1)  Vemoniacese,  (2) 
Eupatoriacese,  (8)  Asterioidese,  (4)  Sen- 
ecioidese,  (5)  Cynarese.  Sub-order  2, 
Labiatiflorae :  ^  Tribe  (1)  Mutisiaceae, 
(2)  Nassauviacese.  Sub-order  3,  Ligidi- 
florse:  Tribe  Cichoracese.  The  eight 
tribes  now  mentioned  were  first  properly 
discriminated  by  Lessing,  who  showed 
that  each  had  a  different  stigma. 

COMPOSITE  ORDEB,  a  term  denoting 
the  last  of  the  first  orders  of  architec- 
ture. As  its  name  implies,  it  is  com- 
posed of  two  orders,  the  Corinthian,  and 
the  Ionic.  In  detail,  the  Composite  is 
richer  than  the  Corinthian,  but  it  is  less 
light  and  delicate  in  its  proportions.  Its 
architecture  has  only  two  facias,  and  the 
cornice   varies   from    the    Corinthian    in 


having  double  modillions.  The  column 
is  10  diameters  high.  The  principal  an- 
cient examples  of  this  order  are  the  tem- 
ple of  Bacchus  at  Rome,  the  arch  of 
Septimius  Severus,  that  of  Titus,  and  the 
baths  of  Diocletian. 

COMPOSITION,  an  arrangement  which 
a  bankrupt  or  person  in  pecuniary  diffi* 
culties  makes  with  his  creditors,  and  by 
which  he  arranges  to  pay  them  a  certain 
proportion  only  of  the  debts  due. 

COMPOSTS,  in  agriculture,  are  mix- 
tures of  various  fertilizing  substances. 

COMPOUND  ANIMAL,  an  animal 
which,  originally  simple,  develops  into  a 
few  or  many  others,  which  retain  physi- 
cal connection  with  the  parent  instead 
of  being  sooner  or  later  detached  in  the 
normal  way. 

COMPOUND  FRACTURE,  a  fracture 
in  which  the  bone  is  broken  and  the  sur- 
rounding integuments  have  been  pierced, 
making  a  wound  from  the  external  sur- 
face to  the  seat  of  the  fracture. 

COMPOUNDING  OF  FELONY,  the  ac- 
cepting of  a  consideration  for  forbear- 
ing to  prosecute;  or  the  agreeing  to  re- 
ceive one's  goods  again  from  a  thief  on 
condition  of  not  prosecuting.  This  is 
an  offense  punishable  by  fine  and  im- 
prisonment. 

COMPOUND  SPIRITS,  rectified  spirits 
to  which  has  been  added  one  or  more 
flavoring  ingredients.  They  are  called 
also  compounds.  The  chief  compounds 
are  gin,  British  rum,  British  brandy,  and 
some  grades  of  American  whisky,  cor- 
dials and  liquors. 

COMPOUND      STEAM-ENGINE,      a 

form  of  steam-engine  originally  patented 
by  Hornblower  in  1781,  in  which  steam 
at  a  relatively  greater  pressure  was  al- 
lowed CO  expand  in  a  small  cylinder,  and 
then  escaping  into  a  larger  cylinder,  to 
expand  itself  against  a  larger  piston. 
Compound  engines  are  of  two  classes, 
which  may  be  called  compound  and  in- 
dependent compound  engines.  The 
former  are  those  in  which  the  cylinders 
are  near  each  other,  and  the  pistons 
commence  their  respective  strokes  simul- 
taneously or  nearly  so,  the  steam  ex- 
panding from  one  cylinder  direct  to  the 
other  through  as  small  a  passage  as  con- 
venient. To  this  class  belong  most  land 
engines,  and  the  compound  marine  with 
cranks  at  about  130°. 

COMPRESSED  AIR.  atmospheric  air 
compressed  by  means  of  pumps,  etc.,  and 
used  in  driving  stationary  and  loco- 
motive engines  and  excavating  machines ; 
as  also  in  working  pneumatic  dispatch- 

7— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


COMPRESSED  AIB  94 

tubes,  railway-brakes,  etc.  The  use  of 
compressed  air  by  railroads  began  with 
the  introduction  of  the  Westinghouse  air 
brake  on  passenger  trains,  about  1869. 
See  Air  Brake. 

A  few  years  later  the  Denver,  and  Rio 
Grande,  the  Union  Pacific,  and  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  railroads  began  equipping 
freight  cars  with  the  air  brake.  For 
some  time  sleeping  cars  have  used  com- 
pressed air  to  force  water  from  a  tank 
under  the  car  to  the  wash  bowls  in  the 
toilet  rooms.  The  train  signal  is  op- 
erated by  compressed  air;  pulling  the 
bell  cord  in  any  of  the  cars  blows  a 
small  whistle  in  the  locomotive  cab.  Au- 
tomatic bell  ringers  on  the  locomotives 
are  run  by  compressed  air.  It  has  also 
been  applied  to  shake  the  grates  in  the 
fire-box  of  a  locomotive,  and  to  open  and 
close  the  furnace  door. 

For  some  years  railroad  crossing  gates 
have  been  raised  and  lowered  by  it,  the 
air  being  supplied  by  a  hand  pump  op- 
erated by  the  crossing  watchman. 

In  1891  its  first  application  to  car 
work  was  in  cleaning  the  dust  from  the 
window  sashes  and  blinds  in  coaches, 
and  such  parts  of  the  inside  that  a  duster 
could  not  reach.  A  round  nozzle  with  a 
small  opening  was  first  used.  This  led 
to  the  use  of  a  flat  nozzle  about  two 
inches  wide  for  cleaning  cushions,  seat 
backs,  carpets,  blankets  and  bedding. 
The  sleeping  car  companies  recognized 
its  superiority  for  cleaning  cars,  and  are 
using  it  very  extensively.  As  its  value 
in  shops  began  to  be  appreciated,  and 
the  demand  made  by  increased  use  ex- 
ceeded that  which  air  pumps  could  sup- 
ply without  an  extravagant  waste  of 
fuel,  air  compressors  were  added  to  give 
an  increased  supply  of  air.  This  opened 
a  new  field  for  the  use  of  compressed 
air.^  Pneumatic  hoists  began  to  replace 
chain  hoists  at  all  the  heavy  machines 
in  the  shops,  driving  wheel  lathes  were 
equipped  to  handle  drivers  in  and  out 
of  the  lathe,  cranes  were  located  in  the 
yards  for  loading  and  unloading  ma- 
terial, and  in  each  instance  a  large  sav- 
ing of  labor  and  time  was  effected. 

The  introduction  of  compressed  air  in 
shop  practice  has  brought  out  by  the 
shops  themselves  and  by  tool  manufac- 
turers a  number  of  very  useful  and  val- 
uable tools — pneumatic  drills,  hammers, 
riveters,  punches,  and  machines  especi- 
ally designed  for  boiler  work.  The 
pneumatic  drill  performs  a  very  im- 
portant part  in  the  construction  of  new 
or  the  repair  of  old  boilers.  It  has  dis- 
placed the  flexible  shaft,  and  is  now  con- 
sidered an  indispensable  tool  for  fasten- 
ing the  flues  in  a  locomotive  boiler.  Air 
can  be  led  to  and  run  a  number  of  ma- 


COMPRESSED  AIR  ENGINE 


chines  where  light  power  is  required. 
The  pneumatic  hammer  is  used  for  chip- 
ping and  caulking  the  seams  of  a  boiler, 
beading  over  the  ends  of  flues,  chipping 
castings  and  driving  rivets.  The  pneu- 
matic riveter  is  made  either  stationary 
or  portable,  and  for  all  varieties  of  work, 
such  as  riveting  locomotive  boilers  or 
locomotive  tanks.  Portable  riveters  are 
used  for  riveting  locomotive  mud  rings, 
or  car  and  tender  trucks.  Jacks  for 
raising  passenger  and  freight  cars,  and 
raising  locomotives;  machines  for  pull- 
ing down  draft  timbers  from  the  car 
sills;  shears  for  cutting  off  bolts,  ham- 
mers for  straightening  bolts  (the  latter 
machine  is  usually  located  at  the  scrap 
pile) ;  the  sand  blast  for  taking  old  paint 
from  locomotive  tanks;  a  machine  for 
sandpapering  the  outside  surface  of  a 
passenger  cai". 

Aside  f rom_  the  number  of  useful  tools 
compressed  air  has  brought  into  service, 
it  has  been  used  in  a  number  of  ways  in 
place  of  hand  and  steam  power.  A 
whitewashing  machine  run  by  air  does 
better  work  than  a  man  with  a  brush, 
and  can  do  as  much  work  in  10  hours 
as  30  men  can  do.  It  is  also  used  for 
painting  buildings  and  freight  cars. 
Compressed  air  is  also  used  in  connec- 
tion with  gas  for  burning  paint  off 
coaches.  It  is  sometimes  introduced  into 
a  barrel  or  a  tank  through  a  coil  of  gas 
pipe,  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  paint. 
It  is  used  for  kindling  fires  in  loco- 
motives with  oil  fuel;  elevating  oil  from 
tanks;  elevating  water;  running  trans- 
fer tables;  copying  letters;  blowing  out 
the  steam  passages  in  locomotive  cylin- 
ders. It  may  be  said  the  use  of  com- 
pressed air  on  railways  will  in  the  near 
future  perform  a  large  share  of  the 
work  done  by  hand  labor  and  steam. 

In  1893,  John  Wanamaker,  as  Post- 
master-General, opened  the  first  pneu- 
matic mail-tube  line,  extending  from  the 
postoifice  to  the  house  in  Philadelphia. 
Pneumatic  mail  tube  lines  are  in  opera- 
tion in  most  all  large  American  cities. 

COMPRESSED  AIR  ENGINE,  an 
engine  which  is  actuated  by  air  under 
pressure,  which  air  has  been  compressed 
by  mechanical  means.  Air  under  pres- 
sure is  able  to  act  as  a  piston  of  an 
engine  in  the  same  manner  as  steam, 
and  an  ordinary  steam  engine  is  capable 
of  being  operated  by  compressed  air  by 
merely  changing  a  few  connections.  The 
average  compressed  air  engine  is  small 
in  size,  and  usually  designed  for  some 
special  use,  and  is  generally  located  in 
some  distance  from  the  source  of  power, 
or  in  place  where  the  discharge  of  ex- 
haust steam  would  be  objectionable,  as 
in  a  mine.     Air  under  pressure  can  be 


COMPRESSED  AIR  LOCOMOTIVE    95 


COMSTOCK  LODE 


more  easily  transported  a  distance  than 
can  steam,  which  loses  some  of  its  power 
through  condensation. 

COMPRESSED  AIR  LOCOMOTIVE, 
a  locomotive  in  which  the  power  is  fur- 
nished by  air  under  pressure.  These  loco- 
motives resemble  a  steam  locomotive,  ex- 
cept that  in  place  of  the  steam  generat- 
ing apparatus  they  carry  tanks  of  air 
under  pressure,  which  tanks  have  to  be 
recharged  at  a  pumping  station.  The 
principal  use  is  in  chemical  works,  ex- 
plosive plants,  textile  works,  mines,  lum- 
ber mills,  cotton  presses;  in  fact,  any- 
where that  every  precaution  against  fire 
has  to  be  taken. 

The  mining  locomotive  may  be  taken 
as  a  typical  example  of  a  compressed 
air  locomotive.  The  air  is  carried  in 
one  or  two  steel  tanks,  the  capacity  of 
which  is  determined  by  the  use:  load, 
length  of  haul,  etc.,  which  is  to  be  made 
of  the  locomotive.  These  tanks  are 
placed  in  the  same  position  that  the 
boiler  would  occupy  on  a  steam  loco- 
motive, and  the  air  is  conducted  to  an 
auxiliary  tank,  the  pressure  in  which 
can  be  controlled,  from  which  tank  it  is 
conducted  to  the  engine  cylinders.  The 
flow  of  the  air  is  controlled  by  a  reduc- 
ing and  a  stop  valve. 

For  a  number  of  years  an  attempt 
was  made  to  operate  street  railway  mo- 
tor cars  with  air.  In  New  York  City 
several  cross-town  lines  were  equipped 
with  cars  carrying  tanks  imder  the  floor 
of  the  car  or  under  the  seats. 

In  most  cases  modern  engineering 
uses  some  form  of  electric  vehicle  such 
as  the  storage  battery  locomotive,  in 
place  of  the  compressed  air  locomotive. 

COMPRESSED  AIR  TREATMENT,  a 
system  of  treatment  in  which  use  is 
made  of  air  under  pressure.  The  treat- 
ment is  used  for  tuberculosis,  and  in 
some  forms  for  asthma  and  chronic 
bronchitis.  There  are  two  main  methods 
of  administering  the  treatment.  In  the 
first  the  patient  is  placed  in  an  air-tight 
chamber,  and  the  pressure  of  the  air  is 
increased.  In  this  case  the  pressure  on 
all  parts  of  the  body  is  the  same,  and  is 
said  to  cause  increased  absorption  of 
oxygen.  In  the  second  method,  the  pa- 
tient is  placed  in  a  cabinet,  a  tube  which 
he  places  in  his  mouth  being  the  only 
connection  with  the  outside  air,  and  the 
air  pressure  in  the  cabinet  is  reduced; 
thus  the  pressure  on  the  lungs  is  greater 
than  on  any  other  part  of  the  body, 
which  may  relieve  collapse  of  the  pul- 
monary vesicles. 

COMPTOMETER,  a  calculating  ma- 
chine that  is  operated  by  a  key-board  in 
the  manner  of  a  typewriter.    It  consists 


of  a  box  entirely  inclosing  the  mecha- 
nism, with  the  operating  keys  projecting 
from  the  box  in  typewriter  fashion. 
Along  the  front  edge  of  the  box  are  open- 
ings in  which  numbers  appear,  and  above 
these  openings  are  pointers.  The  keys 
are  72  in  number,  and  each  has  two  fig- 
ures painted  on  it.  One  is  a  large  black 
figure  and  the  other  a  small  red  one. 
The  black  ones  indicate  the  keys  that 
are  to  be  struck  in  addition  and  multi- 
plication, and  the  red  ones  those  to  be 
struck  in  division  and  subtraction.  The 
successful  operation  of  the  machine  de- 
pends upon  the  practice  of  the  operator 
in  the  same  manner  that  efficiency  of  the 
typewriter  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
practice  that  the  operator  has  had.  No 
proficiency  in  mathematics  is  required 
on  the  part  of  the  operator;  anyone 
skilled  in  handling  the  keys  can  rattle 
away  at  the  comptometer  as  confidently 
as  if  he  were  writing  letters  on  a  type- 
writer, and  all  the  time  be  adding  up 
large  sums  or  dividing  millions  by  thou- 
sands without  any  of  the  laborious 
thinking  usually  required  of  the  mathe- 
matician, the  bookkeeper  and  the  ac- 
countant. 

COMPULSORY  MILITARY  SERV- 
ICE. See  Military  Organization, 
United  States. 

COMSTOCK,     GEORGE     CARY,     an 

American  astronomer,  bom  in  Madison, 
Wise,  in  1855.  He  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  1877.  After 
studying  law  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
but  never  engaged  in  active  practice.  He 
was  assistant  engineer  of  the  United 
States  Lake  Survey  from  1874  to  1878. 
He  was  later  assistant  engineer  on  the 
improvement  of  the  Mississippi  river; 
assistant  astronomer  at  the  Washburn 
Observatory;  and  computer  in  the  Nau- 
tical Almanac  Office.  From  1885  to  1887 
he  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy at  the  Ohio  State  University. 
From  the  latter  year  he  was  full  pro- 
fessor and  director  of  the  Washburn  Ob- 
servatory. In  1906  he  was  created  dean 
of  the  Graduate  School  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin.  He  was  a  member  of 
many  learned  societies.  His  writings  in- 
clude "Method  of  Least  Squares"  (1890) ; 
"Text-Book  of  Astronomy"  (1900) ; 
"Field  Astronomy  for  Engineers"  (1902) ; 
and  "The  Summer  Line  as  an  Aid  to 
Navigation"  (1919). 

COMSTOCK  LODE,  a  large  and  ex- 
tremely rich  metallic  lode  in  the  W.  part 
of  Nevada,  on  the  E.  slope  of  the  Vir- 
ginia Mountains.  To  it  belong  the  Big 
Bonanza  and  other  mines,  which  have 
yielded  gold  and  silver  to  the  value  of 
over  $300,000,000. 


COMTE 


96 


CONCEPTION 


COMTE,  AUGUSTE  (kont),  a  noted 
French  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Posi- 
tive Philosophy;  bom  in  Montpellier, 
Jan.  19,  1798,  On  leaving  college  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  Saint- Simon,  and 
joined  the  band  of  brilliant  disciples  that 
distinguished  social  reformer  had  gath- 
ered around  him.  On  the  death  of  its 
founder^  in  1825,  Comte  deserted  the 
Saint-Simonian  school  to  found  one  of 
his  own;  and  during  the  next  20  years 
devoted  himself  to  the  elaboration  of  an 
original  system  of  scientific  thought — 
Positive  Philosophy.  In  his  view  the 
problem  for  philosophy  is  to  ascertain 
the  positive  and  verifiable  basis  of  all 
knowledge,  science,  and  religion — of  the 
whole  intellectual,  moral,  and  religious 
world  of  man.  In  working  out  this  prob- 
lem Comte  studied  the  basis  of  the  State 
or  civil  society  and  set  forth  his  conclu- 
sions in  "The  Positive  Polity."  He  bases 
the  law  of  morals  or  of  conduct  on  the 
.''social  feeling"  or  altruism.  The  central 
fact  of  religion  and  the  one  object  of 
religious  worship  is  Humanity  conceived 
as  a  personality.  He  contemplated  the 
constitution  of  a  priesthood  whose  au- 
thority was  to  have  as  wide  a  reach  as 
the  authority  of  the  popes  in  mediseval 
times.  His  "Positive  Philosophy,"  "Posi- 
tivist  Catechism,"  and  "Positive  Polity," 
have  been  translated  into  English.  He 
died  in  Paris,  Sept.  5,  1857. 

COMTJS,  in  later  Greek  mythology,  a 
divinity  of  festive  mirth,  represented  as 
a  winged  youth,  sometimes  drunk  and 
languid  as  after  a  debauch,  or.  slumber- 
ing in  a  standing  posture  with  legs 
crossed.  Comus  thus  becomes  the  repre- 
sentative deity  of  riotous  merry-making, 
of  tipsy  dance  and  jollity. 

CONATY,  THOMAS  JAMES,  an 
American  clergyman;  born  in  Ireland, 
Aug.  1,  1847.  He  was  graduated  at 
Montreal  Theological  School  and  or- 
dained a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  1872, 
and  from  1880  to  1897  was  pastor  of 
the  Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  from 
1893  to  1897  president  of  the  Catholic 
Summer  School.  In  1896  he  was  made 
rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of 
America,  in  Washington,  D.  C,  and  on 
Nov.  24,  1901,  he  was  consecrated  titular 
bishop  of  Samos.  He  became  bishop  of 
Monterey  and  Los  Angeles,  1903.  He 
was  author  of  "New  Testament  Studies," 
etc.     He  died  on  Sept.  18,  1915. 

CONCENTRATION  CAMPS,  or  DIS- 
TRICTS, the  terms  are  in  military 
usage  applied  to  points,  contiguous  to 
the  scene  of  intended  departure  or  oper- 
ations, where  troops  are  appointed  to 
assemble  in  large  force.  The  object  may 
be  an  immediate  attack  '^n  ^bp  enemy  or 


embarkation  for  the  front.  During  the 
World  War  the  terms  were  also  applied 
to  the  improvised  places  where  war 
prisoners  were  confined,  and  at  an 
earlier  date  to  the  camps  in  which  the 
British  collected  Boer  non-combatants 
during  the  war  in  South  Africa  (1899- 
1902),  This  is  the  sense  in  which  the 
term  is  popularly  used,  and  it  was  given 
a  wider  application  during  the  rebellion 
in  Cuba  against  Spanish  rule  (1896- 
1898)  when  the  commanders  of  the 
Spanish  forces  compelled  Cuban  women 
and  children  and  other  non-combatants 
to  remain  within  certain  fixed  bound- 
aries. The  idea  has  been  put  into  prac- 
tice in  most  modern  campaigns,  and  con- 
centration camps  or  districts,  where 
non-combatants  were  kept  out  of  danger 
and  prevented  from  interfering  with 
military  operations,  were  established  by 
the  American  forces  in  the  Philippines 
during  the  war  with  Spain. 

CONCEPCION,  the  name  of  several 
places  in  Spanish  America,  including  (1) 
a  province  of  Chile  stretching  from  the 
Andes  to  the  coast  N.  of  Arauco.  It  is 
an  important  agricultural  and  cattle- 
raising  district;  and  has  valuable  coal- 
mines. Area,  3,535  square  miles;  pop. 
about  225,000.  Concepcion,  the  capital, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Biobio,  has  a 
cathedral  and  notable  buildings.  Its 
port  is  the  safest  in  Chile.  It  ranks  next 
to  Valparaiso  as  a  mart  of  foreign  trade. 
Pop.  about  55,000.  (2)  Concepcion  del 
Uruguay,  the  former  capital  of  the 
Argentine  province  of  Entre  Rios,  on  the 
Uruguay,  180  miles  S.  E.  of  Parana  by 
the  Entre  Rios  railway,  with  large 
slaughter-houses  and  active  river-trade. 

(3)  Concepcion,  a  town  of  Paraguay,  on 
the  Paraguay  river,  about  260  miles 
above    Asuncion,    with    trade    in    mate. 

(4)  The  name  of  several  places  in  Bo- 
livia, the  largest  being  Concepcion  de 
Apolobamba,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Caupolican,  formerly  a  Franciscan  mis- 
sion. Its  Indian  population  cultivate 
coca  and  cacao,  and  collect  medicinal 
barks  from  the  surrounding  forests.  (5) 
Concepcion,  a  town  of  Mexico,  50  miles 
W.  of  Chihuahua,  in  the  upper  Yaqui 
valley,  famous  for  its  apples.  (6)  Con- 
cepcion de  la  Vega,  a  town  of  San  Do- 
mingo, 5  miles  S.  E.  of  Santiago. 

CONCEPTION,  in  physiology,  the  first 
formation  of  the  embryo  of  an  animal; 
the  first  animation  of  the  ovum  at  the 
moment  when  it  escapes  from  the 
ovarium,  passing  through  the  Fallopian 
tube  to  the  uterus. 

In  mental  philosophy: 

(1)  The  cognition  of  classes,  as  distin- 
guished  from   individuals;    that   special 


CONCEPTION,    IMMACULATE        97 


CONCHOLOGY 


application  of  abstraction,  comparison, 
and  attention  which  elaborates  what 
logicians  call  notions  or  concepts;  the 
acts  of  the  mind  in  producing  concepts 
or  notions. 

(2)  The  notions  or  concepts  so  pro- 
duced; the  "general"  or  "abstract  ideas" 
of  Locke;  the  "abstract  general  notions" 
of  Hamilton.  These  are  properly  ex- 
pressed by  common  terms,  and  constitute 
the  object  of  study  in  pure  or  formal 
logic.  The  number  of  attributes  em- 
braced in  a  concept  or  notion  constitutes 
its  intention,  comprehension,  or  logical 
content,  and  this  determines  its  area  or 
sphere  of  applicability,  that  is,  its  ex- 
tension or  logical  extent.  These  two 
quantities  exist  in  an  inverse  ratio  to 
one  another.  The  maximum  of  the  ex- 
tent of  a  conception  or  notion  is  the 
minimum  of  the  content,  and  the  maxi- 
mum of  the  content  is  the  minimum  of 
the  extent.  On  this  single  maxim  pure 
or  formal  logic  has  been  based. 

CONCEPTION,  IMMACULATE,  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  doctrine 
that  the  Virgin  Mary  was  born  without 
the  stain  of  original  sin.  This  doctrine 
came  into  favor  in  the  12th  century, 
when,  however,  it  was  opposed  by  St. 
Bernard,  and  it  afterward  became  a  sub- 
ject of  vehement  controversy  between  the 
Scotists,  who  supported,  and  the  Tho- 
mists,  who  opposed  it.  In  1708  Clement 
XI.  appointed  a  festival  to  be  celebrated 
throughout  the  Church  in  honor  of  the 
immaculate  conception.  Since  that  time 
it  was  received  in  the  Roman  Church  as 
an  opinion,  but  not  as  an  article  of  faith 
till  1854,  when  the  Pope  issued  a  bull 
which  makes  the  immaculate  conception 
a  point  of  faith. 

CONCEPTION  OF  OUR  LADY,  an 
order  of  nuns,  founded  in  Portugal  in 
1484  by  Beatrix  de  Sylva,  in  honor  of 
the  immaculate  conception.  It  was  con- 
firmed in  1489  by  Pope  Innocent  VIII. 
In  1489  Cardinal  Ximenes  put  the  nuns 
under  the  direction  of  the  Franciscans, 
and  imposed  on  them  the  rule  of  St. 
Clara.  The  order  subsequently  spread 
into  Italy  and  France. 

CONCEPTUALISM,  the  distinctive 
speculative  opinion,  or  opinions,  of  the 
conceptualists. 

CONCEBTINA,  a  musical  instrument 
invented  by  Professor  Wheatstone,  the 
principle  of  which  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  accordion.  It  is  composed  of  a  bel- 
lows, with  two  faces  or  ends,  generally 
polygonal  in  shape,  on  which  are  placed 
the  various  stops  or  studs,  by  the  action 
of  which  air  is  admitted  to  the  free 
metallic  reeds  which  produce  the  sounds. 


In  the  English  concertina  the  compass 
is  three  octaves  and  three  notes. 

CONCERTO,  a  composition  for  the 
display  of  the  qualities  of  some  especial 
instrument,  accompanied  by  others  of 
a  similar  or  dissimilar  character.  The 
word  is  at  the  present  time  usually  ap- 
plied to  a  composition  for  a  solo  instru- 
ment accompanied  by  full  orchestra,  as 
opposed  to  a  sonata,  in  which  the  soloist 
is  unaccompanied  by  other  instruments, 
or  only  supported  by  the  pianoforte. 

CONCH,  a  marine  shell,  especially  of 
the  Strombus  gigas;  and,  in  art,  a  spiral 
shell  used  by  the  Tritons  as  a  trumpet, 
and  still  used  by  some  African  people 
in  war.  The  shells  are  found  in  large 
numbers  in  West  Indies,  in  Florida,  and 
in  Bahamas.  The  conches  are  shipped 
generally  to  Europe  and  used  for  medi- 
cal purposes,  ornaments,  etc. 

CONCHA,  JOSE  GUTIERREZ  DE  LA, 

a  Spanish  soldier  and  statesman,  born  in 
Cordoba,  Argentina,  in  1809.  He  served 
in  the  Spanish  army  and  was  appointed 
captain-general  of  Cuba.  In  1862  was 
made  a  minister  to  France,  and  between 
1864-68  served  as  president  in  the  Span- 
ish senate.     He  died  in  1895. 

CONCHA,  MANUEL  GUTIERREZ 
DE  LA,  a  Spanish  general,  brother  of 
Jose  Concha,  born  in  1808.  In  1845  he 
put  down  an  uprising  in  Catalonia,  and 
in  1847  amicably  adjusted  a  dispute  be- 
tween Portugal  and  Spain.  In  the  revo- 
lution of  1868  he  vainly  aided  the  cause 
of  the  Bourbons  and  was  forced  to  flee 
from  Spain.  He  was  killed  in  1874 
while  assaulting  a  fortress  at  Estella. 

CONCHOID,  a  curve  invented  by 
Nicomedes  in  the  2d  century  A.  D.,  and 
used  by  him  for  finding  two  mean  pro- 
portionals. 

CONCHOLOGY,  the  science  of  shells. 
Two  well-marked  stages  in  its  develop- 
ment are  traceable.  At  first  shells  were 
studied  without  any  reference  to  the  ani- 
mals of  which  they  constituted  the  hard 
framework  or  sekelton.  Subsequently 
the  study  took  a  wider  scope,  and  for 
the  first  time  became  worthy  of  being 
called  a  science,  when  the  animals  and 
their  shells  were  viewed  as  parts  of  one 
common  whole. 

When  shells,  and  they  alone,  were  stud- 
ied, conchology  was  a  not  unsuitable 
name,  except  that  the  termination  -ology 
suggested  that  the  investigation  was 
more  scientific  than  in  most  cases  it 
really  was.  When  the  animals  came  to 
be  carefully  examined,  M.  de  Blainville 
proposed  for  this  deeper  study  the  name 
malacozoology — i.    e.,   the    study    of    the 


CONCINI 


98 


CONCORDANCE 


softer  animals — viz.,  mollusks;  this  has 
been  since  abbreviated  into  malacology. 

CONCIKI,  CONCINO,  an  Italian,  min- 
ister to  Louis  XIII. 

CONCLAVE,  the  place  where  the  cardi- 
nals assemble  for  the  election  of  the 
Pope;  also  the  electoral  assembly  of  the 
cardinals  themselves.  Pope  Gregory  X., 
whose  election  had  been  delayed  for  three 
years,  established  in  the  council  at  Lyons 
(1274)  the  regulations  of  the  conclave. 
The  cardinals  are  shut  up  together  in  a 
particular  suite  of  apartments  in  the 
palace  where  the  pontiff  dies,  and  they 
aije  supposed  to  have  no  communication 
with  the  outside  world  during  the  period 
of  the  election.  The  companion,  either 
lay  or  clerical,  whom  the  cardinal  is 
allowed  to  take  with  him  into  the  con- 
clave during  the  election  of  a  Pope  is 
called  a  conclavist.  The  office  is  one  of 
great  delicacy  and  trust. 

CONCORD,  in  music,  the  combination 
of  two  or  more  sounds  pleasing  to  the 
ear.  Concords  are  the  octave,  the  fifth, 
third,  and  sixth.  The  two  first  are  called 
perfect,  because  as  concords  they  are 
not  liable  to  any  alteration  by  sharps  or 
flats.  The  two  last  are  called  imperfect, 
as  being  alterable. 

CONCORD,  a  town  of  Middlesex 
CO.,  Mass.;  on  the  Concord  river  and  the 
Boston  and  Maine  railroad;  20  miles  W. 
of  Boston.  It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful 
rural  district,  and  has  several  manufac- 
turing establishments.  It  was  for  many 
years  the  seat  of  the  famous  Concord 
School  of  Philosophy,  and  is  the  site  of 
the  Concord  State  Reformatory.  It  has 
a  public  library,  high  school,  a  National 
bank,  and  an  assessed  property  valua- 
tion of  $4,000,000.  During  the  early  part 
of  the  Revolution  the  Americans  had  a 
large  stock  of  arms  and  military  stores 
at  Concord.  Gen.  Gage,  the  British  Com- 
mander in  Boston,  hearing  of  this,  sent 
a  body  of  soldiers  to  destroy  these  stores, 
and  on  their  v/ay  they  fought  the  battle 
of  Lexington,  the  first  of  the  war.  When 
they  reached  Concord  they  destroyed 
what  stores  they  could  find,  but  were 
soon  driven  off  by  the  Americans  (April 
19,  1775),  Concord  is  celebrated  as  the 
home  of  many  famous  writers,  among 
them  Emerson,  Hawthorne,  Thoreau,  and 
Miss  Alcott.  Pop.  (1910)  6,421;  (1920) 
6,461. 

CONCORD,  a  city,  capital  of  the  State 
of  New  Hampshire,  and  county-seat  of 
Merrimac  county;  on  the  Merrimac  river 
and  several  branches  of  the  Boston  and 
Maine  railroad;  75  miles  N.  W.  of 
Boston. 


Concord  has  an  abundance  of  water 
power  supplied  by  near-by  streams,  and 
extensive  manufactories  of  carriages, 
shoes,  twine,  electrical  apparatus,  silver- 
ware, leather  goods,  machine  shop  prod- 
ucts, etc.  Near  the  city  are  extensive 
quarries  of  a  fine-grained  white  granite. 
There  are  three  National  banks  and  sev 
eral   private   banking   houses. 

Public  Interests. — The  city  is  well  laic 
out  with  finely  shaded  streets,  is  lighted 
by  gas  and  electricity,  and  has  an  exten- 
sive waterworks  plant.  The  noteworthy 
buildings  include  the  State  Capitol,  a 
fine  building  of  Concord  granite,  the 
City  Hall  and  Court  House,  the  State 
Prison,  State  Insane  Asylum,  and  the 
United  States  Government  buildings. 
There  is  an  excellent  system  of  public 
schools,  and  several  private  schools,  in- 
cluding St.  Paul's  School  for  boys. 

History. — Concord  was  settled  by  the 
whites  in  1725,  on  the  site  of  an  Indian 
village,  but  till  1765  it  was  called  Rum- 
ford.  It  became  a  city  in  1853.  It  is 
noted  as  the  place  where  Hannah  Dustin, 
another  woman,  and  a  boy,  who  had  been 
taken  captive  by  Indians  at  Haverhill, 
Mass.,  killed  the  10  Indians,  when  asleep, 
with  hatchets,  and  so  escaped.  Pop. 
(1910)   21,497;    (1920)   22,167. 

CONCORD,  a  city  of  North  Carolina, 
the  county-seat  of  Cabarrus  co.  It  is  on 
the  Southern  railroad.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  foundries,  and  ma- 
chine shop.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  the 
Jackson  Training  School  and  the  Scotia 
Seminary.  Pop.  (1910)  8,715;  (1920) 
9,903. 

CONCORDANCE,  a  book  of  reference 
in  which  all  the  words  existing  in  a 
particular  version  of  the  Bible  are  ar- 
ranged alphabetically  —  part  of  th< 
verse  being  extracted  with  each,  so  that 
if  one  remember  a  notable  word  in  any 
part  of  the  Bible  he  may  find,  witk 
scarcely  any  expenditure  of  time,  where 
it  occurs.  A  similar  work  may  be  con- 
structed to  enable  students  to  find  where 
each  Hebrew  word  occurs  in  the  Old 
Testament,  or  each  Greek  one  in  the 
New  Testament  or  in  the  Septuagint. 
The  first  known  Concordance  of  the  Bible 
in  any  language  was  that  of  St.  Anthony 
of  Padua,  who  was  born  in  1195,  and 
died  in  1231.  His  work  was  called  "Con- 
cordantise  Morales,"  and  was  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate.  The  first  Hebrew  Con- 
cordance was  that  of  Rabbi  Isaac 
Nathan,  commenced  in  1438  and  finished 
in  1448.  The  first  Greek  Concordance 
to  the  New  Testament  was  that  of 
Xystus  Betuleius,  whose  real  name  wa? 
Birck;  it  came  forth  in  A.  D.  1546.  The 
first   English    Concordance  to   the   Ne\T 


CONCORDAT 


99 


CONDE 


Testament  was  that  of  Thomas  Gybson, 
before  A.  D.  1540;  the  first  to  the  whole 
English  version  of  the  Bible  that  of  Mar- 
beck,  A.  D.  1550.  These,  of  course,  pre- 
ceded the  appearance  in  A.  D.  1611  of 
the  authorized  version  of  the  Bible.  The 
elaborate  and  well-known  work  of  Cruden 
appeared  first  in  1737. 

The  first  known  Concordance  to 
Shakespeare  was  that  of  Ayscough,  in 
1790.  Mrs.  Cowden  Clarke's  elaborate 
and  most  useful  work  first  appeared  in 
1847.  Concordances  to  Milton,  Thomp- 
son, and  other  celebrated  poets  and 
authors  have  been  published. 

CONCORDAT,  a  compact,  a  conven- 
tion, or  an  agreement  entered  into  be- 
tween the  Pope  and  a  sovereign  prince 
or  a  government  for  regulating  the  af- 
fairs of  the  Church  within  the  kingdom. 
A  Concordat  between  Pope  Calixtus  II. 
and  the  Emperor  Henry  V.  of  Germany 
was  agreed  on  in  1122,  which  terminated 
the  fierce  controversy  about  investitures, 
and  still  to  a  certain  extent  regulates 
the  affairs  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  Germany.  In  1516  a  Concordat  took 
place  between  Pope  Leo  X.  and  Francis 
I.,  King  of  France,  by  which  the  Chap- 
ters were  deprived  of  the  right  which 
they  had  formerly  enjoyed  of  electing 
the  bishops  of  the  several  sees.  After 
much  delay  and  royal  importunity  the 
French  Parliament  reluctantly  regis- 
tered this  surrender  of  privilege  on 
March  15,  1518.  Omitting  less  interest- 
ing Concordats,  a  celebrated  one  took 
place  on  July  15,  1801,  between  Pope 
Pius  VII.,  acting  through  Cardinal  Con- 
salvi,  and  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  first 
consul.  This  engagement  re-established 
the  Papal  authority  in  France,  but  placed 
the  clergy,  in  temporal  and  in  some  spir- 
itual matters,  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  civil  power.  Other  concordats  with 
the  French  Government  were  on  Jan.  25, 
1813,  and  Nov.  22,  1817.  On  Aug.  18, 
1835,  a  Concordat  concluded  between 
Pope  Pius  IX.  and  the  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  I.  of  Austria  considerably  in- 
creased the  legal  power  of  the  Papacy 
in  that  empire;  it  was  virtually  abol- 
ished in  1868. 

ZiONCORDIA,  a  goddess,  to  whom 
many  temples  were  built  at  Rome;  she 
typified  the  good  results  of  the  compact 
between  the  patricians  and  the  plebeian 
classes. 

CONCORDIA,  a  town  of  the  Argen- 
tine state  of  Entre  Rios,  on  the  Urugxiay, 
302  miles  N.  of  Buenos  Aires  by  river. 
It  has  a  custom  house  and  a  river-trade 
exceeded  only  by  that  of  Buenos  Aires 
and  Rosario,  exporting  salted  meat  and 
Paraguay  tea.    Pop.  about  13,000. 


CONCRETE,  a  technical  term  in  logic, 
applied  to  an  object  as  it  exists  in  na- 
ture, invested  with  all  its  attributes,  or 
to  the  notion  of  such  an  object.  Concrete 
is  opposite  to  abstract.  The  names  of 
individuals  are  concrete ;  those  of  classes, 
abstract.  A  concrete  name  is  a  name 
which  stands  for  a  thing;  an  abstract 
name  is  a  name  which  stands  for  the 
attribute  of  a  thing. 

CONCRETE,  a  composition  used  in 
building,  consisting  of  hydraulic  or  other 
mortar  mixed  with  gravel  or  stone  chip- 
pings  about  the  size  of  a  nut.  It  is  used 
extensively  in  building  under  water,  for 
example,  to  form  the  bottom  of  a  canal 
or  sluice,  or  the  foundation  of  any  struc- 
ture raised  in  the  sea;  and  it  is  also  fre- 
quently used  to  make  a  bed  for  asphalt 
pavement,  or  to  form  foundations  for 
buildings  of  any  kind.  It  is  used  as  the 
material  with  which  the  walls  of  houses 
are  built,  the  concrete  being  run  into 
moulds  of  the  requisite  shape,  and  then 
allowed  to  set.  It  is  generally  re-enforced 
with  steel  wire  to  strengthen  it  especially 
in  open  wall  building.    See  Cement. 

CONCRETIONARY   STRUCTURE,    a 

condition  in  rocks  produced  by  molecular 
aggregation  subsequent  to  the  deposition 
of  the  strata,  whereby  the  material  of  the 
rock  is  formed  into  spherules  or  balls, 
as  in  the  concretions  of  magrnesian  lime- 
stone and  the  somewhat  similar  struc- 
tures occasionally  seen  in  certain  tuffs 
and  crystalline  igneous  rocks.  _  Concre- 
tions are  nodules,  balls,  or  irregular 
masses  of  various  kinds  which  occur  scat- 
tered through  the  body  of  a  rock,  and 
consist  of  mineral  matter  which  was  for- 
merly diffused  through  the  material  of 
the  rock. 

CONCUBINAGE,  the  act  or  state  of 
living  with  one  of  the  opposite  sex  with- 
out being  legally  married.  Concubinage 
was  tolerated  among  the  patriarchs  (Gen. 
XXV :  6)  and  by  the  Mosaic  law  (Exod. 
xxi:  9-12;  Deut.  xx:  14),  and  was 
largely  practiced  by  Solomon  (I  Kings 
xi:  3).  It  was  tolerated  also  among  most 
if  not  all  other  Oriental  nations,  as  well 
as  among  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  to 
the  time  of  Constantine.  The  laws  of 
the  various  States  of  the  United  States 
generally  sanction  only  proper  marriage; 
but  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  morga- 
natic or  left-handed  marriages  sometimes 
contracted  by  royal  personages  are  es- 
sentially the  same  as  the  concubinage  of 
the  old  Romans. 

CONDE  (kon-da'),  the  name  of  a 
French  family,  the  younger  branch  of 
the  Bourbons,  who  took  their  name  from 
the     town     of     Conde,    department     of 


CONDE 


100 


coNPf: 


Nord.  One  Godfrey  de  Conde,  about 
1200,  was  in  possession  of  a  part  of  the 
barony  of  Conde.  His  great-granddaugh- 
ter, Jeanne  de  Conde,  married  in  1335, 
Jacques  de  Bourbon,  Comte  de  la  Marche, 
and  the  barony  of  Conde  went  to  their 
second  son,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  Comte  de 
Vendome,  whose  great-grandson,  Louis 
de  Bourbon,  Prince  of  Conde,  in  virtue 
of  his  blood-relationship  to  the  royal 
family,  assumed  the  title  of  Prince,  and 
is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  new 
house  of  this  name.  Its  more  celebrated 
members  in  history  are  the  following: 

Conde,  Louis  I.  de  Bourbon,  Prince 
DE,  son  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Vendome; 
born  in  1530.  He  married  the  grandniece 
of  the  Constable  de  Montmorenci.  He 
served  his  early  campaigns  in  Piedmont, 
but  first  distinguished  himself  at  the  de- 
fense of  Metz,  besieged  by  Charles  V.  in 


the  request  of  Henry  IV.  became  a  Catho- 
lic; born  in  1588.  In  1616  he  was  sent 
to  the  Bastille,  where  he  remained  for 
three  years.  After  the  death  of  Louis 
XIII.  the  prince  was  liberated,  and  was 
made  Minister  of  State  to  the  regent.  He 
died  in  1646. 

Conde,  Louis  II.  de  Bourbon,  Prince 
DE,  called  The  Great,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing; born  in  Paris  in  1621.  He  married 
a  niece  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  was 
at  first  known  as  the  Due  d'Enghien. 
His  first  great  achievement  was  the  vic- 
tory over  the  Spanish  army  at  Rocroi, 
in  1643.  The  capture  of  Thionville  sooii 
followed.  The  following  year  was 
marked  by  the  battle  of  Freiburg,  which 
lasted  three  days,  and  the  great  victory 
over  the  Imperialists  at  Nordlingen. 
After  taking  Dunkirk,  in  1646,  Conde 
was,  through  envy,  sent  to   Catalonia, 


•ir** 


building  a  concrete  house 


1552.  Affronted  at  court,  and  hated  by 
the  Guises,  he  joined  his  brother,  the 
King  of  Navarre,  at  Nerac,  and  became 
a  Protestant.  In  1560  he  was  arrested 
and  sentenced  to  death,  but  was  dis- 
charged after  the  death  of  Francis  II. 
He  soon  after  appeared  as  head  of  the 
Protestants,  and  was  defeated  and  cap- 
tured at  the  battle  of  Dreux.  He  was 
again  wronged  by  being  refused  the  of- 
fice of  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom, 
to  which  he  was  entitled.  In  1567  he 
fought  the  battle  of  St.  Denis.  Two  years 
later  the  Protestants  were  defeated,  and 
Conde  was  slain  at  Jarnac. 

Conde^  Henri  II.,  Prince  de,  who  at 


where  with  poor  troops  success  failed 
him.  It  was  necessary  soon  to  recall 
him  to  Flanders,  where  he  won  the  vic- 
tory of  Lens  over  the  Archduke  Leopold, 
in  1648.  Having  off'ended  the  first  min- 
ister, Cardinal  Mazarin,  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  more  than  a  year,  and  after 
his  liberation  he  led  the  army  of  the 
Fronde,  began  the  siege  of  Paris,  and  en- 
countered Turenne  and  the  royalists  in 
the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine.  Soon  after 
he  entered  the  service  of  Spain,  and  con- 
tended with  varying  success  against  his 
countrymen  in  Flanders.  After  the 
Peace  of  the  Pyrenees  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  was  employed  in  the  conquest 


CONDENSATION 


101 


CONDORCET 


(of  Franche-Comte.  In  the  war  with  Hol- 
land, in  1672,  he  was  wounded  for  the 
only  time.  His  last  great  exploit  was 
his  victory  over  William,  Prince  of 
Orange  (William  III.),  at  Senef,  in  1674. 
A  martyr  to  the  gout,  he  retired  in  the 
following  year  to  Chantilly.  He  died  in 
1686.    ^ 

ConiJe,  Louis  Joseph,  Prince  de,  born 
in  Paris  in  1736,  was  brought  up  by  his 
uncle,  the  Count  of  Charolais,  served  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battles  of  Hastenbeck, 
Minden,  and  Johannisberg.  He  became 
the  associate  of  the  Dauphin.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Bastille  he  emigrated.  The 
murder  of  his  young  grandson,  the  Due 
d'Enghien,  by  Napoleon,  affected  him  pro- 
foundly. At  the  Restoration,  he  returned 
with  Louis  XVIII.  to  France,  lived  again 
at  Chantilly,  and  was  the  author  of  an 
"Essai  sur  kt,  vie  du  grand  Conde."  He 
died  in  1818.  The  great  family  of  Conde 
became  extinct,  Aug.  27,  1830,  in  the 
person  of  the  Due  de  Bourbon,  Louis 
Henri  Joseph. 

CONDENSATION,  the  reduction  of 
anjrthing  to  another  and  denser  form,  as 
of  a  vapor  or  gas  to  a  liquid,  or  a  liquid 
to  a  solid ;  the  passage  of  gases  or  vapors 
from  the  aeriform  to  the  liquid  state. 
It  may  be  due  to  one  of  three  causes: 
coolness,  compression,  or  chemical  affin- 
ity. When  vapors  are  condensed  their 
latent  heat  becomes  free.  The  condensa- 
tion of  liquids  is  the  reduction  of  a  liquid 
to  smaller  bulk,  with  a  proportionate  in- 
crease in  the  sp.  gr. 

CONDENSED  MILK,  milk  reduced 
greatly  in  bulk  and  rendered  proportion- 
ately denser.  Gail  Borden  (g.  v.)  in 
1849  invented  a  process  for  the  condensa- 
tion of  milk,  which  has  since  been  car- 
ried out  extensively  in  the  United  States 
and  Europe. 

CONDENSER,  one  who  or  that  which 
condenses. 

Steam-engine. — An  apparatus  for  re- 
ducing to  a  liquid  form  the  steam  in  front 
of  the  piston,  so  as  to  obtain  a  partial 
vacuum  at  that  point,  and  thus  utilize  the 
natural  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
Watt  invented  the  injection  condenser  and 
the  separate  condenser.  The  surface  con- 
denser has  a  series  of  flat  chambers  or 
tubes,  usually  the  latter,  in  which  the 
steam  is  cooled  by  a  body  of  water  sur- 
rounding the  tubes.  Distilled  water  for 
ships'  use  is  obtained  by  the  condensa- 
tion of  steam  in  a  surface  condenser. 

Distilling. — The  still-condenser  is  an 
apparatus  generally  made  of  the  worm- 
tub  form;  the  coil  containing  the  alco- 
holic vapor  traversing  a  tub  which  re- 
ceives a  constant  accession  of  cold  water, 


condensing  the  vapor  in  the  coil.  The 
liquid  escapes  at  a  cock  valve  below. 

Metal. — An  apartment  in  which  metal- 
lic or  deleterious  gaseous  fumes  are  con- 
densed to  prevent  their  escape  into,  and 
contamination  of,  the  atmosphere.  The 
device  consists  of  a  prolonged  duct  for 
the  fumes,  with  showers  of  water  to  con- 
dense the  volatile  matters. 

Electricity. —  (1)  An  instrument  for 
concentrating  electricity  by  the  effect  of 
induction.  It  usually  consists  of  a  con- 
folded  sheet  of  tin-foil,  whose  layers  are 
separated  by  a  thin  sheet  having  a  non- 
conducting surface. 

(2)  With  induction  apparatus,  a  de- 
vice for  absorption  or  suppression  of  the 
extra  current,  induced  by  the  rapid 
breaks  in  the  main  current. 

(3)  An  instrument  in  which  an  elec- 
tric spark  passes  between  the  poles  in  a 
closed  glass  cylinder,  so  as  to  be  employed 
in  burning  metals  in  an  atmosphere  of 
any  given  tenuity  or  specific  chemical 
character,  to  obtain  the  spectra  of  metals 
or  gases  free  from  accidental  character- 
istics of  the  general  atmosphere  for  the 
time  being. 

CONDIMENTS,  or  seasoning  agents, 
are  employed  at  table  to  impart  a  flavor 
to  food.  The  principal  condiments  are 
butter  and  olive  oil,  salt,  mustard,  gin- 
ger, pepper,  vinegar,  pickles,  sugar,  and 
honey. 

CONDOR,  a  magnificent  vulture,  Sar- 
coramphus  or  Sarcorhamphus  gryphus, 
native  to  the  Andes,  with  a  wing  expan- 
sion of  from  9  to  12  feet.  The  male  con- 
dor has  a  comb  on  its  head.  Both  sexes 
have  a  ruff  round  their  necks.  Their 
bodies  are  usually  deep  black,  with  a 
tinge  of  gray;  the  wing  coverts  in  the 
males  are  white,  at  least  at  the  tips;  the 
legs  are  bluish -gray.  Children  are  re- 
puted to  be  in  no  danger  from  it,  though 
two  condors  will  attack  the  vicuna,  the 
heifer,  and  even  the  puma.  The  species 
is  found  in  most  parts  of  the  Andes,  es- 
pecially in  Peru  and  Chile. 

CONDORCET  (kon-dor-sa'),  MARIE 
JEAN  ANTOINE  NICOLAS  DE  CARI- 
TAT,  MARQUIS  DE,  a  French  writer; 
born  near  St.  Quentin,  Sept.  17,  1743.  At 
the  age  of  21  he  presented  to  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  an  "Essay  on  the  Inte- 
gral Calculus,"  and  in  1767  his  "Memoir 
of  the  Problem  of  Three  Points"  ap- 
peared. The  merit  of  his  work  gained 
for  him  in  1769  a  seat  in  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  of  which,  after  the  publication 
of  his  "Eulogy  on  the  Academicians  hav- 
ing died  before  1699"  (1773),  he  was  ap- 
pointed perpetual  secretary  (1777).  In 
1777  his  "Theory  of  Comets"  gained  the 
prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of  Berlin; 


CONDOTTIERI 


102 


CONE 


he  enriched  the  "Transactions"  of  many 
learned  societies;  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  "Cyclopedia."  During  the  troubles 
of  the  first  French  Revolution  his  sym- 
pathies were  strongly  engaged  on  the  side 
of  the  people.  By  the  city  of  Paris  he 
was  elected  deputy  to  the  legislative  as- 
sembly, of  which  he  was  soon  appointed 
secretary,  and  in  February,  1792,  presi- 
dent. On  the  trial  of  Louis  he  was  in 
favor  of  the  severest  sentence  not  capi- 
tal. The  fall  of  the  Girondist  party,  May 
31,  1793,  prevented  the  constitution  which 
Condorcet  had  drawn  up  from  being  ac- 
cepted, and  as  he  freely  criticized  the 
constitution  which  took  its  place,  he  was 


CONDOR 


denounced  as  being  an  accomplice  of 
Brissot.  He  was  forced  to  hide  himself 
for  8  months,  during  which  he  wrote  his 
"Sketch  of  an  Historic  Tableau  of  the 
Progress  of  the  Human  Mind."  Fearing 
that  Madame  Verney,  who  sheltered  him, 
would  be  punished  for  it,  he  fled  Paris, 
was  captured  and  imprisoned,  and  died 
March  28,  1794,  probably  of  poison,  self- 
administered. 

CONDOTTIERI  (kon-dot-ya're),  a 
class  of  mercenary  adventurers  in  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries,  who  commanded 
military  bands,  amounting  to  armies,  on 
their  own  account,  and  sold  their  services 
for  temporary  engagements  to  sovereign 
princes  and  states.     They  took  no  inter- 


est in  national  contests,  except  to  receive 
pecuniary  advantages,  the  v/ars  between 
them  became  a  sort  of  bloodless  contests, 
in  which  the  only  object  of  each  party 
was  to  take  as  many  prisoners  as  possi- 
ble for  the  sake  of  the  ransom.  Only  one 
Condottieri  attained  to  high  rank  and  in- 
dependent power;  this  was  Francesco 
Sforza,  originally  a  peasant,  who  in  1451 
made  himself  Duke  of  Milan,  and  trans- 
mitted that  sovereignty  to  his  descend- 
ants. 

CONDUIT  (kun'dit  or  kon-dwe),  a 
line  of  pipes  or  an  underground  channel 
of  some  kind  for  the  conveyance  of 
water. 

CONE,  in  geometry,  a  solid  figure  de- 
scribed by  the  revolution  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  about  one  of  the  sides  con- 
taining the  right  angle,  which  side  re- 
mains fixed.  If  the  fixed  side  be  equal  to 
the  other  side  containing  the  right  angle, 
the  cone  is  called  a  right-angled  cone;  if 
it  be  less  than  the  other  side,  an  obtuse- 
angled,  and,  if  greater,  an  acute-angled 
cone.  The  axis  of  the  cone  is  the  fixed 
straight  line  about  which  the  triangle 
revolves.  The  base  of  a  cone  is  the  circle 
described  by  that  side  containing  the 
right  angle  which  revolves.  Similar 
cones  are  those  which  have  their  axes  and 
the  diameters  of  their  bases  proportion- 
als.    (Euclid.) 

In  optics,  a  pencil  of  rays  of  light  ema- 
nating from  a  point  and  diverging  as 
they  proceed  on  their  course. 

In  astronomy,  a  conical-shaped  shadow 
projected  by  a  planet  on  the  other  side 
from  that  on  which  it  is  illuminated  by 
the  sun. 

In  geology,  a  conical  mound  or  hill  pro- 
duced by  the  showering  down  around  the 
orifice  of  eruption  of  scoriae,  dust,  and  the 
various  other  materials  ejected. 

In  zoology  (1)  the  English  name  of 
any  shell  of  the  large  tropical  molluscous 
genus  Conus.  The  name  also  of  any  ani- 
mal of  that  genus. 

(2)  PI.  (cones),  the  English  name  of 
the  Conidss,  a  family  of  Gasteropodous 
mollusks.    See  Cone-Shells. 

In  botany,  a  kind  of  anthocarpous  or 
collective  fruit,  called  also  Strobilus, 
shaped  somewhat  like  a  mathematical 
cone,  and  consisting  of  an  ament,  the  car- 
pella  of  which  are  (scale-like)  spread 
open,  and  bear  naked  seeds. 

CONE,  HUTCHINSON  INGHAM,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  Brooklyn 
in  1873.  He  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy  in  1894.  During 
the  war  with  Spain  he  served  on  the  U. 
S.  S.  "Baltimore."  He  was  commander 
of  the  flotilla  of  torpedo  boats  on  the 
voyage    from    Hampton    Roads    to    San 


CONE-SHELLS 


103 


CONFEDERATE   STATES 


Francisco  in  1908  and  was  fleet  engineer 
of  the  Atlantic  fleet  on  the  tour  around 
the  world  in  1908-1909.  In  1909  he  was 
appointed  head  of  the  Bureau  of  Steam 
Engineering  with  the  rank  of  rear-ad- 
miral and  engineer-in-chief.  This  was 
followed  by  service  at  sea  as  commander 
of  several  vessels.  During  the  World 
War  he  was  in  command  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Aviation  Forces  and  was 
wounded  on  board  the  S.  S.  "Leinster" 
when  she  was  sunk  in  the  Irish  Sea  by 
a  German  submarine.  He  received  many 
decorations  from  foreign  countries  for 
his  service  in  the  war  and  was  a  member 
of  many  naval  and  scientific  societies. 

CONE-SHELLS,  or  CONID^,  a  family 
so  called  on  account  of  their  form.  All 
the  cones  have  a  similar  external  out- 
line; the  aperture  is  long  and  narrow,  the 
head  of  the  living  animal  is  more  or  less 
lengthened,  the  foot  is  splay  and  abrupt- 
ly cut  off  in  front,  the  tentacles  are 
rather  widely  separate  and  the  eyes  are 
placed  on  these  organs.  The  textile  cone- 
shells,  brought  from  Mauritius,  a  hand- 
some species  4  or  5  inches  in  length,  are 
marked  with  narrow,  angular  lines  of 
dark  brown,  variegated  with  dashes  of 
yellow  and  irregular  white  spots.  The 
Admiral  cone-shell  is  similar  in  appear- 
ance but  smaller,  and  both  species  haunt 
the  fissures  and  holes  in  rocks  and  the 
warmer  pools  in  coral  reefs.  They  all 
take  a  moderate  range  of  depth,  varying 
from  1  to  40  fathoms. 

CONESSIBARK,  the  bark  of  WHghtia 
anti-dysenterica,  an  apocynaceous  plant 
of  India,  used  as  a  tonic,  a  febrifuge,  and 
an  astringent  in  diarrhoea. 

CONEY  ISLAND,  a  small  island  in 
the  Borough  of  Brooklyn,  about  10  miles 
S.  E.  of  New  York  City.  It  is  about  5 
miles  in  length  and  from  half  to  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  in  width;  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  Coney  Island  creek. 
It  is  connected  with  New  York  and 
Brooklyn  by  steam  and  electric  railroads 
and  steamboat  lines.  It  is  a  noted  day 
summer  resort,  and  has  numerous  bath- 
ing houses,  hotels,  concert  and  other 
amusement  halls,  carousels,  pavilions, 
electric  lights,  and  a  fine  cycle  path  con- 
nectmg  it  with  Prospect  Park,  Brook- 
lyn. Brighton  and  Manhattan  have  ex- 
tensive hotels,  and  are  the  preferred 
resorts  for  the  wealthier  class.  Coney  Is- 
land was  one  of  the  first  landing  places 
of  the  Dutch,  and  for  over  200  years  was 
considered  a  worthless  waste.  In  1840 
steamboats  began  making  excursions 
there,  and  for  25  years  it  was  a  popular 
resort.  In  1875  steam  railroads  were 
built,  and  since  then  the  island  has  been 
the  most  popular  resort  in  the  immedi- 


ate neighborhood  of  New  York  City.  In 
1903  and  again  in  1911  public  parka  were 
opened  by  the  city. 

CONFEDERACY,  UNITED  DAUGH- 
TERS OF  THE,  a  woman's  patriotic  so- 
ciety founded  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in 
1894  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  those 
in  the  South  who  fought  for  or  assisted 
the  Confederate  States  of  America  in 
their  fight  for  independence.  To  be  a 
member  of  the  society  one  must  be  a  fe- 
male descendant  of  one  who  rendered 
service  to  the  Confederacy,  either  civil  or 
military.  There  are  chapters  in  all  the 
Southern  States,  as  well  as  elsewhere. 
The  combined  membership  in  1920  was 
about  100,000. 

CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMER- 
ICA, THE,  the  name  adopted  by  the 
Southern  States  when  they  seceded  from 
the  Union  and  formed  a  government  at 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  Feb.  4,  1861.  Dele- 
gates from  the  States  of  South  Carolina, 
Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia, 
and  Louisiana,  adopted  a  Constitution 
and  elected  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mis- 
sissippi, President,  and  Alexander  E. 
Stephens,  of  Georgia,  Vice-President. 
Texas,  Arkansas,  North  Carolina,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Virginia  afterward  joined 
the  Confederacy.  Missouri  and  Ken- 
tucky were  always  in  dispute  and 
had  representatives  in  both  the  United 
States  Congress  and  the  Confederate 
States  Congress.  The  States  which  en- 
tered into  the  formation  of  the  Confed- 
eracy had  all  passed  ordinances  of  seces- 
sion, withdrawing  from  the  Union  in  full 
confidence  that  they  not  only  had  the 
legal  right  to  do  so,  but  were  fully  jus- 
tified in  their  action  by  circumstances 
and  the  interests  of  their  people.  His- 
torical precedent  certainly  seemed  to  give 
them  the  right  of  withdrawal. 

After  the  first  gun  had  been  fired  by 
John  Brown  at  Harper's  Ferry  and  when 
Major  Anderson  marched  out  of  Fort 
Sumter  in  Charleston  harbor,  both  sec- 
tions were  wild  with  excitement  and  there 
seemed  nothing  left  but  to  fight  it  out  to 
the  bitter  end.  The  odds  in  numbers  and 
resources  were  overwhelmingly  in  favor 
of  the  North.  The  States  which  adhered 
to  the  Federal  government  (not  count- 
ing Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri, 
which  furnished  more  troops  to  the  Fed- 
eral than  to  the  Confederate  armies)  had 
a  population  of  20,000,000,  while  the 
white  population  of  the  Confederate 
States  numbered  only  5,000,000.  The  ofii- 
cial  reports  of  the  Adjutant-General, 
United  States  army,  show  that  there  were 
actually  mustered  into  the  Federal  ar- 
mies during  the  war  2,778,304  men,  while 
the  Confederate  Adjutant-General,  Sam- 
uel Cooper,  has  shown  that  the  Confed- 


CONFEDERATION" 


104 


CONFISCATION 


erates  mustered  into  service  only  600,000 
men  in  all. 

The  South  had  to  depend  upon  scant 
resources  and  material,  and  had  no  cause 
to  be  ashamed  of  its  leaders,  but  could 
proudly  point  to  its  soldier-President, 
Jefferson  Davis,  and  its  generals,  such  as 
Robert  Edward  Lee,  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston,  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  P.  G.  T. 
Beauregard,  "Stonewall"  Jackson,  Bed- 
ford Forrest,  J.  E.  B.  Stuart,  Stephen 
D.  Lee,  Richard  Taylor,  Fitzhugh  Lee, 
Wade  Hampton,  Kirby  Smith,  W.  J. 
Hardee,  John  B.  Gordon,  Jubal  A.  Early, 
and  others. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Confederate 
States  was  modeled  after  that  of  the 
Federal  Constitution,  and  in  some  im- 
portant differences  has  won  the  approval 
of  even  Northern  statesmen.  It  recog- 
nized Almighty  God  and  invoked  His 
favor  and  guidance.  It  guarded  care- 
fully the  doctrine  of  the  "sovereignty  of 
each  State."  It  expressly  forbade  the 
slave  trade,  or  the  importation  of  slaves 
from  any  foreign  country  other  than 
the  slave-holding  States  and  Territories 
of  the  United  States.  It  forbade 
"bounties"  or  "trusts"  of  any  kind,  and 
provided  a  ''tariff  for  revenue."  It 
gave  Cabinet  officers  the  privileges  of 
the  floors  of  its  Congress,  allowed  the 
President  to  veto  any  part  of  a  bill  and 
approve  the  remainder,  giving  his  reasons 
for  such  action,  and  fixed  the  term  of 
office  of  the  President  at  six  years  and 
made  him  ineligible  for  a   second  term. 

The  "Confederate  States  of  America" 
passed  away,  but  its  survivors,  their 
children  and  their  children's  children  may 
proudly  claim  that  in  four  short  years 
the  Confederacy  made  a  name  and  a 
history  which  "the  world  will  not  will- 
ingly let  die."  See  Civil  War,  Ameri- 
can. 

CONFEDEBATION,    ARTICLES    OF, 

a  form  of  constitution  adopted  by  the 
Continental  Congress  of  the  United 
States  in  1777  and  ratified  by  the  colonies 
in  the  next  four  years.  It  provided  for 
a  Congress  of  one  house  only,  in  which 
each  State  should  have  one  vote.  This 
body  was  empowered  to  declare  war  and 
peace,  make  treaties  with  foreign  powers, 
regulate  the  value  of  coin,  etc.,  but  as  it 
had  no  power  to  enforce  its  laws  upon 
the  States,  it  soon  fell  into  contempt  and 
on  March  4,  1798,  expired  by  limitation 
under  the  provisions  of  the  present  Con- 
stitution. 

CONFEDERATION  OF  THE  RHINE, 

the  league  of  Germanic  States  formed  by 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  in  1806,  and  includ- 
ing Bavaria,  Wiirttemberg,  Baden,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  the  Kingdom  of  Westphalia, 
etc.      It    extended    over    125,160    square 


miles,  and  comprised  14,608,877  inhab- 
itants. The  princes  undertook  to  raise 
collectively  a  large  body  of  troops  in 
event  of  war,  and  established  a  diet  at 
Frankfort;  but  the  failure  of  Napoleon's 
Russian  campaign  of  1812  shook  the 
structure,  and  the  league  soon  after  broke 
up.  It  was  succeeded  by  a  new  league, 
the  Germanic  Confederation.  See  Ger- 
many. 

CONFERENCE,  in  diplomacy,  a  meet- 
ing of  the  representatives  of  different 
powers  for  the  purpose  of  adjusting 
differences;  also,  an  annual  gathering  of 
the  ministers,  now  with  a  certain  number 
of  lay  representatives  of  the  several 
Methodist  congregations,  to  deliberate 
upon  the  affairs  of  the  religious  denomi- 
nation to  which  they  belong;  also  a  meet- 
ing not  held  at  stated  intervals,  but  ar- 
ranged to  adjust  some  difference  which 
may  exist  betwen  Churches  or  sections 
of  Churches. 

Many  conferences  have  taken  place 
abroad  between  Churches  or  parties  in 
Churches.  Thus  there  were  conferences 
between  Lutherans  and  Roman  Catholics 
at  Ratisbon  in  A.  D.  1601;  one  in  1685 
between  John  Claude,  of  the  French  Re- 
formed Church,  and  James  Benigne  Bos- 
suet,  a  Roman  Catholic;  and  one  at 
Thorn  in  1645,  with  the  view  of  reconcil- 
ing the  Lutherans  and  the  Reformed 
Churches;  but  the  conference  to  which 
the  name  is  most  frequently  applied  in 
England  was  that  at  Hampton  Court. 

The  Hampton  Court  conference  was  a 
conference  between  King  James  I.  of 
England,  immediately  after  his  accession 
to  the  English  throne,  and  the  represent- 
atives of  the  Anglican  and  the  Puritan 
parties  in  the  Church,  which  first  met 
Jan.  14,  1604,  and  lasted  three  days. 

CONFERVA,  a  genus  of  algals,  the 
typical  of  the  sub-order  confervess  and 
the  order  confervaceae.  Most  of  the 
species  are  marine,  though  a  few  are 
fresh-water.  Rabenhorst  describes  30  in 
all. 

CONFERVACE.aE,  an  order  of  flower- 
less  plants,  alliance  algales.  They  are 
water-plants,  generally  green,  but  occa- 
sionally olive,  violet,  and  red;  most  of 
them  are  found  in  fresh  water,  attached 
or  floating,  some  in  salt  water,  and  a 
few  in  both.  The  confervaceae  bear  the 
lichens  ccenogonium  and  cystocoleus. 

CONFESSIONAL,  in  Roman  Catholic 
churches  and  chapels,  a  kind  of  inclosed 
seat  in  which  the  priest  sits  to  hear 
persons  confess  their  sins. 

CONFISCATION,  the  act  of  condemn- 
ing as  forfeited,  and  adjudging  to  the 
public  treasury,  the  goods  of  a  criminal 


CONFLUENTES 


106 


CONGER 


in  part  punishment  of  a  crime.  The 
subject  of  confiscating  the  property  of 
those  in  rebellion  was  warmly  discussed 
both  in  and  out  of  the  United  States 
Congress  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War.  A  bill  "to  confiscate  property  used 
for  insurrectionary  purposes,"  etc.,  ap- 
proved Aug.  6,  1861,  providing  for  the 
immediate  confiscation  of  all  property 
belonging  to  office-holders  under  the  Con- 
federate government,  and  confiscation 
within  60  days  after  the  President's  Am- 
nesty Proclamation  of  all  property  be- 
longing to  disloyal  citizens  or  privates  in 
the  Confederate  army,  was  passed  by  the 
House  July  11,  1862,  and  the  Senate  the 
next  day;  and  after  a  slight  modifica- 
tion, suggested  by  the  president  in  his 
veto  of  the  same,  on  constitutional 
grounds,  it  was  again  passed  by  both 
houses  on  the  16th,  and  approved,  be- 
coming a  law  the  next  day.  On  July  22, 
the  president  issued  an  order  that  prop- 
erty needed  for  the  support  of  the  armies 
of  the  United  States  should  be  seized. 
After  the  United  States  entered  the 
World  War  a  number  of  German  and 
Austrian  ships  in  American  harbors 
were  seized.  A  custodian  was  also  ap- 
pointed for  alien  enemy  property  for  the 
period  of  the  war.  A  presidential  procla- 
mation, March  20,  1918,  confiscated  68 
Dutch  ships  in  United  States  ports  under 
the  law  of  augury. 

CONELUENTES.      See  CoBLENZ. 

CONFORMABLE  STRATA,  beds 
which  lie  parallel  to  each  other,  the  ac- 
cumulation of  the  upper  strata  having 
followed  the  deposition  of  the  underly- 
ing beds  without  any  break  or  prolonged 
interruption.  Conformity  thus  points  to 
a  continuity  of  the  same  physical  con- 
ditions. 

CONFUCIUS,  or  KONG-FU-TSE,  that 
is,  "the  teacher,  Kong,"  the  famous  Chi- 
nese sage;  born  about  550  B.  c.  in  the 
province  of  Shantung,  state  of  Lu.  His 
father,  Shuh-liang-heih,  who  was  of 
royal  descent,  died  three  years  later,  and 
the  boy  was  reared  in  comparative  pov- 
erty by  his  mother,  Ching-tsai.  At  the 
age  of  17  he  was  made  inspector  of  corn- 
markets,  at  19  he  married,  and  after 
about  four  years  of  domesticity,  in  which 
a  son  and  two  daughters  were  born  him, 
he  began  his  career  as  a  teacher.  In 
517  B.  c.  he  was  induced  by  two  mem- 
bers of  one  of  the  principal  houses  in 
Lu,  who  had  joined  his  band  of  disciples, 
to  visit  the  capital  with  them,  where  he 
had  interviews  with  Laotze,  the  founder 
of  Taoism.  Driven  from  Lu  to  Tsi  by  a 
revolution,  he  soon  returned  thither  with 
an  increasing  following,  and  at  the  age 
of  52  was  made  chief  magistrate  of  the 


city  of  Chung-too.  So  striking  a  refor- 
mation was  effected  by  him  that  he  was 
chosen  minister  of  crime,  and  with  the 
aid  of  two  powerful  disciples  elevated 
the  state  of  Lu  to  a  leading  position 
in  the  kingdom.  Its  marquis,  however, 
soon  after  gave  himself  up  to  debauch- 
ery, and  Confucius  became  a  wanderer 
in  many  states  for  13  years. 

In  483  he  returned  to  Lu,  but  would 
not  take  office.  The  deaths  of  his  favor- 
ite disciples.  Yen  Hwin  and  Tze-lu,  in 
481  and  478  did  much  to  further  his  own, 
which  took  place  in  the  latter  year. 
Confucius  left  no  woi'k  detailing  his 
moral  and  social  system,  but  the  five 
canonical  books  of  Confucianism  are  the 
"Yih-king,"    the    "Shu-king,"   the    "Shi- 


GRAVE  OF  CONFUCIUS,  CHEFOO,  CHINA 

king,"'  the  "Le-king,"  and  the  "Chun- 
tsien,"  with  which  are  grouped  the  "Four 
Books,"  by  disciples  of  Confucius,  the 
"Ta-heo  or  Great  Study,"  the  "Chung- 
Yung  or  Invariable  Mean,"  the  "Tun-yu 
or  Philosophical  Dialogues,"  and  the 
"Hi-tse,"  written  by  Meng-tse  or  Men- 
cius.  The  teaching  of  Confucius  has 
had,  and  still  has,  an  immense  inf.uence 
in  China.  All  his  teaching  was  devoted 
to  practical  morality  and  to  the  duties 
of  man  in  this  world  in  relation  to  his 
fellowmen.  It  is  doubtful  if  he  had  any 
real  belief  in  a  personal  god. 

CONGER,  a  large  sea-eel.  Conger 
vulgaris  of  Cuvier,  Munena  Conger  of 
Linnaeus.  It  is  of  the  family  Muraenidse. 
It  is  5,  6,  or,  in  rare  eases,  even  10  feet 


CONGER 


106 


CONGREGATIONALISM 


long.  Its  upper  parts  are  brownish- 
white,  and  the  lower  dirty-white;  the 
lateral  line  spotted  with  white,  the  dorsal 
and  anal  fins  white  margined  with  black. 
A  smaller  species,  C.  myrus,  is  found  in 
the  Mediterranean. 

CONGER,  EDWIN  HURD,  an  Amer- 
ican diplomatist;  born  in  Knox  co.,  Ill,, 
March  7,  1843.  He  was  graduated  at 
Lombard  University  in  1862  and  imme- 
diately enlisted  in  the  Union  army,  at- 
taining the  brevet  rank  of  major.  At  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War  he  studied  law, 
graduating  at  the  Albany  Law  School  in 
1866;  practiced  at  Galesburg,  111.,  remov- 
ing to  Iowa  in  1868.  He  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1884  and  twice  re-elected  as 
a  Republican.  In  1890  he  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Brazil,  serving  four  years. 
In  1897  he  was  again  appointed  and  in 
the  following  year  was  transferred  to 
China.  He  was  at  his  post  throughout 
the  Chinese  crisis  of  1900,  in  Peking,  be- 
ing imprisoned  with  his  family,  and  the 
entire  diplomatic  corps  in  the  British  le- 
gation compound  from  June  20  to  Aug. 
15.  He  narrowly  escaped  slaughter  at 
the  hands  of  the  Boxers.  The  allied 
forces  rescued  him  and  his  colleagues  on 
August  20.  See  China.  He  died  May 
17,  1907. 

CONGLOMERATE,  in  geology,  peb- 
bles, gravel,  or  any  similar  collection  of 
rounded  water-worn  fragments  of  rocks, 
the  whole  bound  together  by  a  silicious, 
calcareous,  or  argillaceous  cement.  It  is 
sometimes  called  also  pudding-stone. 
The  pebbles,  or  gravel,  have  a  history 
before  becoming  fixed  in  the  conglom- 
erate. By  reading  that  history  the  geol- 
ogist is  able  to  trace  the  direction  of 
currents  of  water,  etc.,  and  recompose 
lost  chapters,  or  parts  of  chapters,  in 
the  history  of  the  earth. 

In  anatomy,  the  conglomerate  glands 
are  compound  glands,  chiefly  of  the  race- 
mose class.  Examples  —  the  pancreas, 
the  salivary,  lachrymal,  and  mammary 
glands,  Brunner's  glands,  and  most  of 
the  small  glands  that  open  into  the 
mouth,  the  fauces,  and  the  windpipe. 

CONGO.    See  Kongo. 

CONGREGATION,  an  assembly,  gen- 
erally a  religious  assembly;  in  its  most 
ordinary  use,  an  assembly  of  Christians 
met  in  one  place  for  worship.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  it  often  desig- 
nates a  sort  of  board  of  cardinals,  prel- 
ates, and  divines,  to  which  is  intrusted 
the  management  of  some  important 
branch    of    the    affairs    of   the    Church. 

Thus  the  Congregation  of  the  Index 
examines  books  and  decides  on  their  fit- 
ness for  general  perusal.  The  word  is 
also  used  in  the  Church  of  Rome  to  de- 


scribe communities  of  ecclesiastics  who 
live  together  under  rule,  but  without  be- 
ing bound  by  vow,  or  at  least  by  solemn 
vow.  Such  are  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory,  the  Congregation  of  the  Most 
Holy  Redeemer,  usually  called  Re- 
demptorists,  etc. 

CONGREGATIONALISM,  or  INDE- 
PENDENCY, a  form  of  evangelical 
Christianity  which  vests  all  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority  in  the  individual  believers 
associated  in  a  local  church,  complete  in 
itself,  but  holding  advisory  cooperative 
relations  with  similar  bodies.  Congre- 
gationalism holds  in  common  with  other 
evangelical  Christians  the  great  facts  of 
sin  and  of  redemption  through  the  in- 
carnation and  atonement  of  Christ  as 
taught  in  the  Bible.  Congregationalism 
denies  that  there  is  any  authority  in 
Scripture  for  uniting  the  churches  of  a 
nation  or  province  into  one  Church  or 
corporation,  to  be  ruled  by  a  bishop  or 
bishops,  superior  to  the  bishop  or  pastor 
of  particular  congregations  or  by  a  pres- 
bytery or  synod  consisting  of  the  pastors 
or  elders  of  the  several  congregations  of 
the  nation  or  province.  This  principle 
of  Church  polity  is  the  specialty  which 
plainly  distinguishes  Congregationalism 
from  Episcopacy,  Presbyterianism,  Meth- 
odism, and  all  denominations  whose 
churches  are  organized  into  a  body  hav- 
ing over  its  members  any  authority  other 
than  advisory. 

Congregational  polity  is  based  upon 
three  ideas:  the  right  of  each  individual 
to  take  part  in  the  government  of  the 
community;  the  autonomy  of  the  local 
church;  and  its  independence  of  all  ex- 
ternal ecclesiastical  authority.  While 
complete  in  itself,  the  local  church  may 
voluntarily  unite  with  other  churches  for 
consultation  and  common  action;  but  no 
resolution  of  any  such  union  binds  the 
individual  church  without  its  own  con- 
sent. Usually  each  church  has  one  min- 
ister or  pastor,  who  is  chosen  by  the  free 
suffrages  of  the  membership,  but  there 
may  be  more  than  one.  In  addition  to 
the  pastor  or  pastors,  home  missionaries 
and  evangelists  are  sometimes  appointed. 
Home  missionaries  and  evangelists,  _  if 
employed  by  a  church  for  local  service, 
are  under  the  supervision  of  the  church 
and  not  of  the  pastor,  save  as  he  is  an 
agent  of  the  church.  Those  commonly 
known  as  home  missionaries  and  many 
evangelists,  while  members  of  some  local 
church,  are  usually  clergymen  who  haye 
been  formally  inducted  into  the  minis- 
terial office  according  to  the  usages  of 
the   denomination. 

Standing  in  the  ministry  is  given  (1) 
by  the  action  of  the  church  authorizing 
one  of  its  members  or  any  other  person 


CONGREGATIONALISM 


107 


CONGREGATIONALISM 


it  may  deem  qualified  to  exercise  minis- 
terial functions;  (2)  by  the  action  of  a 
voluntary  association  of  Congregational 
ministers  approving  a  candidate  after 
due  examination,  and  commending  him 
for  a  limited  time  as  such  to  the 
churches:  (3)  by  an  action  of  a  Council 
of  Churches  called  by  some  local  church 
or  acting  in  its  name,  ordaining  a  man 
as  pastor  or  evangelist  or  missionary, 
or  installing  a  minister  as  pastor  of  the 
church  calling  the  council.  The  secular 
affairs  of  the  church  are  administered  by 
trustees  appointed  by  the  church  or  by 
an  ecclesiastical  society  called  the  parish, 
made  up  of  members  of  the  congregation, 
not  all  necessarily  members  of  the 
church.  In  some  matters,  like  calling 
and  installing  a  pastor,  the  church  and 
the  society  act  conjointly.  The  princi- 
ples of  this  polity  are  held  also  by  the 
Baptists,  Unitarians,  Universalists,  and 
other  denominations. 

The  first  Congregational  Church  in  Eng- 
land, of  which  there  was  any  record,  was 
formed  in  London  about  1571.  Robert 
Fitz  was  the  minister,  and  his  "True 
Marks  of  Christes  Churche"  is  the  first 
document  relating  to  English  Congrega- 
tionalism known  to  be  in  existence.  The 
most  prominent  name  in  connection  with 
Congregationalism  at  this  time  is  that 
of  the  Rev.  Robert  Browne,  who  left  the 
Established  Church,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Rev.  Robert  Harrison,  formed 
a  Congregational  Church  at  Norwich  in 
1580.  Another  famous  clergyman  was 
John  Robinson.  The  members  of  his 
church  fled  from  persecution  to  Holland, 
and  12  years  later  crossed  the  Atlan- 
tic "landing  at  Plymouth,  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  of  the  Mayflower."  In  the 
cabin  of  the  "Mayflower"  was  signed 
the  famous  compact  which  might  be 
called  the  magna  charta  of  American 
Congregationalism.  At  this  time  the 
Congregationalists  were  sometimes  called 
"Brownists"  (after  the  Rev.  Robert 
Browne),  sometimes  "Separatists"  (be- 
cause they  would  keep  the  church 
separate  from  the  world),  and  some- 
times "Independents."  This  last  designa- 
tion Congregationalists  themselves  soon 
adopted,  and  have  ever  since  retained. 

Congregatimialism  in  England.  —  In 
the  Westminster  Assembly  (appointed 
by  Parliament  in  1643  to  draw  up  some 
order  of  public  worship  for  the  nation), 
there  were  five  representatives  of  the 
Congregationalists.  Under  Cromwell 
the  Independents  became  supreme.  Their 
church  meetings  were  held  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  At  the  time  of  the  Pro- 
tector's death  (Oct.  12,  1658),  a  general 
council  of  Congregationalists  was  meet- 
ing in  the   Savoy.     The  council  issued 


a  "Declaration  of  Faith  and  Order." 
The  "Declaration"  was  not  binding  upon 
any  particular  church,  but  it  is  almost  as 
important  in  the  history  of  Congrega- 
tionalism as  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion is  in  the  history  of  Presbyterian- 
ism.  The  denomination  was  greatly  and 
permanently  strengthened  by  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  (Aug.  24,  1662),  which 
drove  2,000  ministers  and  many  thou- 
sands of  laymen  out  of  the  Established 
Church.  Under  the  later  Stuarts  Con- 
gregationalists had  their  share  of  per- 
secution. After  passing  the  Act  of  Tol- 
eration (May  24,  1689),  they  took  an 
active  part  in  the  extension  of  civil  and 
religious  liberty.  They  were  chief  among 
the  founders  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society  (1795),  and  the  first  tract  for 
the  Religious  Tract  Society  was  written 
by  Dr.  Bogue,  in  1799.  In  1831,  the 
Congreg^ational  Union  of  England  and 
Wales  was  formed,  and  an  International 
Council  of  Congregationalists  met  in 
London  in  July,  1891. 

Congregationalism  in  America.  —  In 
the  United  States  the  first  Congrega- 
tional Church  was  founded  at  Plymouth, 
New  England,  in  1620,  by  the  party  of 
pilgrims  sent  from  Holland  by  John 
Robinson.  In  1837,  the  spread  of  the 
Antinomian  doctrine  caused  much  dis- 
cussion in  the  Church.  By  a  synod  con- 
vened in  New  England  Antinomianism 
was  unanimously  condemned.  In  1638 
Harvard  College  was  founded.  In  1658 
the  Savoy  Confession  was  adopted  and 
still  remains.  Unitarian  principles  spread, 
about  1800,  widely  in  the  Congregational 
churches  of  America,  and  though  a  sepa- 
ration took  place  between  the  Unitarians 
and  the  Trinitarians,  both  still  retain 
the  Congregational  form  of  church  gov- 
ernment. 

In  addition  to  the  Conference,  or  Asso- 
ciation of  Churches,  by  which  they  co- 
operate for  common  ends,  a  National 
Council  meets  triennially  "for  advisoi-y 
and  not  juridical  ends."  Beside  such 
well-known  colleges  as  Bowdoin,  Am- 
herst, Williams,  and  Oberlin,  the  Ameri- 
can Congregationalists  possess  theologi- 
cal seminaries  at  Andover,  Bangor,  New 
Haven,  Hartford,  Oakland,  Chicago,  and 
elsewhere.  There  are  six  National  So- 
cieties, through  which  the  charities  of 
Congregationalists  mainly  flow.  There 
were  in  the  United  States  in  1919  808,- 
122  members  of  Congregational  churches 
with  6,019  churches  and  5,722  ministers. 
In  the  Sunday  Schools  were  709,859 
pupils.  The  expenses  of  the  church  were 
$10,251,506.  A  five-year  tercentenary 
campaign  for  a  $5,000,000  fund  for 
ministers'  pensions  was  completed  suc- 
cessfully in  1920. 


CONGREGAT'L   METHODIST         108 


CONGREVE 


CONGBEGATIONAL  METHODIST 
CHXTBCH,  THE,  a  church  founded  in 
1852  in  Georgia  by  ministers  and  lay- 
men of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
with  the  purpose  of  following  Methodist 
beliefs,  but  giving  the  congregations  of 
the  respective  churches  the  controlling 
voice  in  church  government.  The  first 
general  convention  of  the  church  was 
held  in  1855.  The  growth  of  the  move- 
ment has  been  slow,  for  in  1913  they  re- 
ported but  333  churches  with  somewhat 
over  15,000  members.  The  Atlanta  Bible 
School  is  conducted  under  the  auspices 
cf  this  church.  The  official  organ  is 
"The  Messenger,"  published  at  Ellisville, 
Miss. 

CONGREGATIONISTS,  the  Scotch  re- 
formers. The  whole  body  was  called  the 
Congregation;  but  from  1638,  when  they 
bound  themselves  by  oath  to  adhere  to 
the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  the 
reformers  were  called  Covenanters.  Not 
unfrequently  the  Congregationists  are 
called  Covenanters. 

CONGRESS,  an  assembly  either  of 
sovereign  princes,  or  of  the  delegated 
representatives  of  sovereign  States,  for 
the  purpose  of  considering  matters  of  in- 
ternational interest.  Even  in  the  United 
States,  though  the  term  has  now  a  dif- 
ferent meaning,  it  had  a  similar  origin, 
the  first  congress  being  that  of  the  dele- 
gates from  the  various  British  colonies, 
who  met  on  Oct.  7,  1765,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  considering  their  grievances. 
Previous  to  signing  a  treaty  of  peace, 
a  meeting  of  plenipotentiaries  usually 
takes  place,  to  which  the  name  of  a  con- 
gress is  sometimes  applied.  It  is  more 
properly  reserved  for  important  meet- 
ings to  decide  great  European  ques- 
tions. To  this  class  belonged  the  famous 
Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815;  that  of 
Carlsbad  in  1819,  for  regulating  the  af- 
fairs of  Germany;  that  of  Paris  at  the 
end  of  the  Russian  war  of  1854-1856; 
and  that  at  Berlin  after  the  Russo- 
Turkish  war  of  1877-1878. 

CONGRESS,  LIBRARY  OF,  an  insti- 
tution in  Washington,  D.  C,  established 
in  1800.  It  was  destroyed  in  1814  at 
the  time  of  the  burning  ox  the  Capitol 
by  the  British.  It  was  again  burned  in 
1851.  It  was  housed  in  the  Capitol  until 
1897,  when  it  was  removed  to  a  building 
erected  for  it  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $6,- 
500,000.  It  contains  the  largest  col- 
lection of  books  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. The  library  has  grown  constantly 
and  in  1919  contained  2,710,556  books, 
163,484  maps  and  charts,  848,292  vol- 
umes and  pieces  of  music,  and  409,029 
prints.  A  copy  of  each  book  printed  in 
the  United   States  under  the   copyright 


laws  is  deposited  in  the  Library  of  Con* 
gress.  The  library  is  supported  by  an- 
nual appropriations  made  by  Congress, 
From  1899  Herbert  Putnam  has  been 
librarian. 

CONGRESS  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  the  legislative  branch  of  the 
Federal  Government,  deriving  its  powers 
from  the  Constitution.  It  consists  of  a 
Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives. 
The  powers  of  Congress  are  enumerated 
in  Article  1,  section  8,  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, and  all  powers  not  granted  to  Con- 
gress, or  prohibited  to  the  States,  are 
reserved  to  the  States  or  to  the  people; 
but  the  power  of  Congress  is  absolute 
within  the  scope  of  its  authority.  The 
Senate  is  composed  of  two  members  from 
each  State,  regardless  of  size  or  popula- 
tion; the  members  of  the  House  are  ap- 
portioned on  the  basis  of  population. 
Thus,  while  in  the  House  the  influence  of 
the  people  is  felt  directly,  according  to 
their  numbers,  the  Senate  provides  the 
means  of  defending  the  smaller  States 
from  the  possible  encroachments  of  the 
larger;  and  to  assure  the  safety  of  the 
smaller  States,  the  Constitution,  Article 
5,  provides  that  "no  State  without  its 
consent  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal 
suffrage  in  the  Senate."  Bills  that  have 
passed  both  Houses  are  sent  to  the  Presi- 
dent, who  may  either  sign  or  veto  them, 
or  do  neither,  in  which  case  the  bill  be- 
comes a  law  after  10  days  unless  Con- 
gress has  previously  adjourned.  The 
veto  of  the  President  is  the  only  check 
upon  the  power  of  Congress  to  legislate 
within  the  scope  of  its  authority.  Legis- 
lation exceeding  the  constitutional  power 
of  Congress  will  be  declared  unconstitu- 
tional by  the  Supreme  Court,  if  that 
body  is  appealed  to  by  either  party  to 
any  controversy  arising  in  an  attempt  to 
enforce  such  laws.  Each  House  is,  by 
the  Constitution,  "the  judge  of  the  elec- 
tions, returns  and  qualifications  of  its 
own  members." 

In  1910  the  48  States  were  represented 
by  96  Senators  and  the  ratio  of  Repre- 
sentatives was  fixed  at  1  to  every  212,407 
population.  The  17th  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution  provided  for  a  direct  vote 
for  Senators  by  the  people. 

CONGREVE,  WILLIAM,  an  English 
dramatist;  born  near  Leeds  in  1670.  He 
entered  himself  as  a  student  at  the  Mid- 
dle Temple,  but  abandoned  the  law  for 
literature.  His  first  piece,  written  at 
the  age  of  17,  was  a  romance,  entitled, 
"Incognito,  or  Love  and  Duty  Recon- 
ciled." In  1693,  being  then  only  23  years 
old,  he  wrote  his  first  comedy,  "The  Old 
Bachelor."  This  produced  him  not  only 
great  reputation,  but  a  cpmmissionership 


CONmBR-ffl 


109 


CONJUNCTION 


in  the  hackney-coach  office,  from  the 
Earl  of  Halifax,  who  afterward  still  fur- 
ther patronized  and  favored  him.  lie 
wrote  also  "Love  for  Love,"  "The  Double 
Dealer,"  "The  Mouniing  Bride,"  "The 
Way  of  the  World,"  an  opera,  and  some 
poerns.  He  died  in  London,  Jan.  19, 
1729. 

CONIFER-ffi,  an  order  of  plants,  one 
of  those  recognized  in  1751,  in  the  in- 
fancy of  botany,  by  Linnaeus.  They  be- 
long to  the  class  or  sub-class  of  G^fm- 
nospentis.  They  are  fine  trees  or  shrubs 
abounding  in  resin.  Lindley  divides  it 
into  two  sub-orders,  (1)  Aoietese,  with 
the  ovules  inverted  and  the  pollen  oval, 
curved;  and  (2)  Cupressesc,  with  the 
ovules  erect  and  the  pollen  spheroidal. 
Sometimes  the  Toxinese  (Yews)  figure 
as  a  third,  but  Lindley  makes  them  a 
distinct  order,  and  calls  them  Taxacess 
(Taxads).  Nearly  200  species  are 
known.  They  are  most  useful  to  man, 
supplying  timber,  with  oil,  resin,  and 
turpentine.  They  are  diffused  over  the 
world. 

The  wood  of  the  coniferas  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  ordinary  dicot- 
yledons by  the  absence  of  proper  ducts 
in  the  woody  layers,  and  by  the  pres- 
ence of  large  areolar  disks  on  the  walls 
of  the  wood  cells.  The  wood  of  the 
Yew  (Taxus  baccata),  and  the  Douglas 
Fir  (Abies  Douglasii),  are  exceptions  to 
this  rule.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Win- 
terer, which  are  not  coniferous,  but  be- 
long to  the  Magnoliads,  have  similar 
circular  disks.  The  coniferae  commence 
at  least  as  early  as  the  Devonian.  They 
are  well  represented  in  the  Carbonifer- 
ous rocks,  Deing  associated  there  with 
the  higher  Acrogens.  They  flourished 
through  the  Secondary  period,  and  on  to 
present  times.  The  Carboniferous  Coni- 
fers may  have  been  taxoid  (Yew-like), 
though  the  genus  Pinites  also  occurs. 
The  species  in  the  Secondary  rocks  were 
more  akin  to  the  Araucaria  of  our 
gardens  than  to  ordinary  pines. 

CONINGTON,  JOHN,  an  English 
classical  scholar;  born  in  Boston,  Aug. 
10,  1825.  He  was  educated  at  Beverley 
and  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  In 
1854  he  was  appointed  to  the  newly 
founded  chair  of  Latin  Language  and 
Literature  at  Oxford,  which  he  filled  un- 
til his  death,  Oct.  23,  1869.  His  greatest 
work  is  his  edition  of  "Vergil"  (3  vols., 
1861-1868).  His  edition  of  the  "Aga- 
memnon" (1848),  and  "Choephori" 
(1857),  of  iEschylus  are  of  less  moment. 
In  his  last  years  he  gave  himself  much 
to  translation;  a  metrical  version  of  the 
"Odes"  of  Horace  (1863),  the  ".Eneid" 
(1866),     in     Scott's     ballad-meter;     the 


"Iliad"    (1868),    and   the    "Satires   and 
Epistles"  of  Horace   (1869). 

CONISrON  LAKE,  in  the  English 
Lake  district,  in  N.  Lancashire;  at  the 
E.  foot  of  the  Conistcn  Fells,  9  miles  W. 
of  Bowness  on  Windermere.  It  is  5 
miles  long,  V2  mile  broad,  147  feet  fibove 
the  ,:ea,  and  its  greatest  depth  is  200 
feet.  Its  waiers  abound  with  trout  and 
per;h.  On  tlie  E.  shore  .stand  Ruskin's 
ho.oie,  Brantv/od.  and  Tent  House,  once 
Tennyson's  rtsider.ce.  The  Old  Man  of 
Conistcn,  to  the  N.  W.,  is  2,633  feet  high. 

CONJUNCTION,  in  astronomy,  one 
of  the  aspects  of  the  planets.  Two  heav- 
enly bodies  are  in  conjunction  when  they 
have  the  same  longitude — that  is,  when 
the  same  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic 
passes  through  both.  If  they  have,  at  the 
same  time,  the  same  latitude — that  is,  if 
they  are  both  equally  far  north  or  south 
of  the  ecliptic — they  appear  from  the 
earth  to  be  in  the  same  spot  of  the 
heavens,  and  to  cover  one  another.  The 
sun  and  moon  ar'?  in  conjunction  at  the 
period  of  new  moon.  In  the  case  of  the 
inferior  planets  Mercury  and  Venus,  there 
is  an  inferior  conjunction  when  the 
planet  is  between  the  earth  and  the  sun, 
and  a  superior  when  the  sun  is  between 
the  eai-th  and  the  planet.  In  general, 
a  heavenly  body  is  in  conjunction  with 
the  sun  when  it  is  on  the  same  side  of 
the  earth,  and  in  a  line  with  him;  and 
it  is  in  opposition  to  the  sun  when  it  is 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth,  the 
earth  being  in  a  line  between  it  and  the 
sun.  Planets  are  invisible  when  in  con- 
junction with  the  sun,  except  in  rare 
cases  when  an  inferior  planet  passes  over 
the  sun's  disk,  and  may  be  seen  as  a 
speck  on  his  surface.  Conjunctions  are 
either  geocentric  or  heliocentric,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  actually  witnessed  from 
the  earth,  or  as  they  would  be  witnessed 
if  observed  from  the  sun.  In  observing 
a  conjunction  from  the  earth's  surface  it 
is  usual  to  reduce  the  observation  to  what 
it  would  be  if  made  from  the  earth's  cen- 
ter; by  this  means  the  exact  times  of  con- 
junction are  more  accui'ately  fixed,  and 
the  observations  of  an  astronomer  made 
available  to  every  other,  wherever  he 
may  be  on  the  earth's  surface.  Grand 
conjunctions  are  those  where  several 
stars  or  planets  are  found  together.  Chi- 
nese history  records  one  in  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Tehuen-hiu  (2514-2436  B. 
c),  which  astronomers  calculate  to  have 
actually  taken  place. 

CONJUNCTION,  in  grammar,  a  con- 
nective indeclinable  particle  serving  to 
unite  words,  sentences,  or  clauses  of  a 
sentence,  and  indicating  their  relation  to 
one  another.  They  are  classifiable  into 
8— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


CONJURING 


110 


CONNECTICUT 


two  main  groups:  Coordinating  conjunc- 
tions, joining  independent  propositions, 
and  subdivisible  into  copulative  disjunc- 
tive, adversative,  and  illative  conjunc- 
tions; subordinating  conjunctions,  link- 
ing a  dependent  or  modifying  clause 
to  the  principal  sentence.  The  only 
active  influence  which  the  conjunction 
can  be  said  to  exercise  grammatically 
in  a  sentence  is  in  respect  of  the  mood 
of  the  verb  following  it  in  dependent  sen- 
tences, the  rule  being  to  employ  the  sub- 
junctive where  futurity  and  contingency 
are  implied,  the  indicative  where  they  are 
not;  as  "I  will  do  it  though  he  be  there" 
(which  he  may  or  may  not  be) ;  or  "I 
will  do  it,  though  he  is  there"  (which 
he  is). 

CONJUBING,  the  production  of  effects 
apparently  maraculous  by  natural  means. 
The  earlier  professors  of  the  art  claimed 
bond  fide  supernatural  powers;  and  in 
ages  when  the  most  elementary  princi- 
ples of  physical  science  were  unknown 
beyond  a  very  limited  circle,  it  was  not 
difficult  to  gain  credence  for  such  a  pre- 
tension. The  modern  conjurer  makes  no 
such  claim,  but  tells  the  public  frankly 
that  his  marvels  are  illusory,  and  rest 
either  on  personal  dexterity  or  on  some 
ingenious  application  of  natural  prin- 
ciples. Of  the  conjurei's  of  remote  anti- 
quity we  have  few  reliable  records; 
though  it  is  a  tolerably  safe  conjecture 
that  the  prestige  of  the  ancient  mysteries 
rested  in  no  small  degree  upon  effects  of 
natural  magic.  The  founder  of  the  mod- 
ern school  of  conjuring  was  Robert 
Houdin  (1805-1871),  with  whom  a  new 
era  began  in  1841.  He  was  followed  by 
Frikell,  Hartz,  Herrmann,  Buatier  de 
Kolta,  Verbeck,  Lynn,  Bertram,  etc.,  pro- 
ducing their  magical  results  with  the 
minimum  of  visible  apparatus.  There 
are,  however,  signs  of  a  reaction  in  favor 
of  more  spectacular  illusions  in  which  the 
resources  of  optical  and  acoustic,  as  well 
as  mechanical  science,  are  laid  under  con- 
tribution in  aid  of  conjuring  proper. 

CONKLING,  ROSCOE,  an  American 
legislator;  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  30, 
1829;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1850; 
sat  in  Congress  as  a  Republican  in  1858- 
1862  and  1864-1866,  and  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1867,  1873, 
and  1879,  He  became  an  influential  mem- 
ber of  his  party;  in  1876  he  received  93 
votes  for  the  Presidential  nomination,  and 
in  1880,  by  his  support  of  Grant  and  his 
personal  opposition  to  Blaine,  divided 
the  Republicans  into  two  sections.  In 
1881  he  and  his  colleague,  Thomas  C. 
Piatt,  suddenly  resigned  from  the  Senate, 
owing  to  a  dispute  with  President  Garfield 
on  a  question  of  patronage,  and  sought 
re-election;   but  after  a  warm  canvass 


both  were  rejected,  though  vigorously 
supported  by  Vice-president  Arthur. 
Conkling  afterward  practiced  law  in  New 
York  City.     He  died  April  18,  1888, 

CONNAUGHT  (kon'nat),  the  smallest 
of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland ;  between 
Leinster  and  the  Atlantic;  area,  4,392,- 
086  acres.  Its  W.  coast  is  much  broken 
up  by  numerous  bays  and  inlets,  and  is 
thickly  studded  with  islands.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  province  is  bog,  and. 
generally,  it  is  the  least  fertile  of  all 
the  provinces.  It  is  divided  Into  five 
counties:  Galway,  Mayo,  Roscommon, 
Leitrim,  and  Sligo.     Pop.  about  595,000. 

CONNEAUT,  a  city  of  Ohio  in  Ashta- 
bula CO.  It  is  on  Conneaut  creek  and  on 
the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern, 
the  New  York,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis, 
and  the  Bessemer  and  Lake  Erie  rail- 
roads. It  is  an  important  port  for  the 
shipping  of  iron  ore  and  coal.  It  has  a 
good  harbor  and  excellent  shipping  facili- 
ties. There  are  railroad  shops  and  man- 
ufactures of  canned  goods,  bricks,  shovels, 
lumber,  etc.  There  are  hospitals,  a  pub- 
lic library,  and  a  park.  Pop,  (1910) 
8,319;   (1920)  9,343. 

CONNECTICUT,  a  State  in  the  North 
Atlantic  division  of  the  North  American 
Union ;  bounded  by  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Long  Island  Sound,  and  New 
York;  gross  area,  4,845  square  miles; 
one  of  the  original  13  States;  number 
of  counties.  8;  population  (1890)  746,- 
258;  (1900)  908,420;  (1910)  1,114,756; 
(1920)  1,380,631;  capital,  Hartford. 

Topography. — Connecticut  lies  on  the 
S.  slope  of  the  New  England  hill  region, 
and  while  its  surface  is  diversified  by 
hills  and  valleys  it  is  in  only  a  few  places 
over  1.000  feet  in  altitude.^  The  highest 
elevation  is  Bear  Mountain,  Salisbury, 
2,354  feet.  The  State  is  drained  by  three 
large  rivers  and  their  tributaries;  the 
Connecticut,  rising  in  New  Hampshire, 
bisects  the  State  in  a  N,  and  S.  direction, 
and  is  navigable  for  50  miles;  the 
Thames,  formed  by  the  Shetucket,  Yantic, 
and  Quinnebang,  is  navigable  as  far  as 
Norwich;  and  the  Housatonic,  with  its 
main  branch,  the  Naugatuck,  navigable 
to  Derby,  The  coast  line  is  about  100 
miles  in  length  and  affords  many  ex- 
cellent harbors,  of  which  New  Haven  and 
New  London  are  the  largest. 

Geology. — The  valley  of  the  Con- 
necticut river  exhibits  triassic  sandstone 
and  post-tertiary  formation,  but  _  the 
greater  part  of  the  State  is  of  eozoic  or 
primary  formation,  which  is  separated 
into  E.  and  W.  sections  by  secondary 
rocks.  Extensive  trap  dykes  traverse  the 
E.  and  W.  sections,  and  boulders  of  great 
size    on    the    hill    tops,    together    with 


n 


CONNECTICUT 


111 


CONNECTICUT 


scratches  on  the  mountain  sides,  are  in- 
dications of  a  glacial  passage  dowTi  the 
Connecticut  valley. 

Soil. — Along  the  coast  as  far  N.  as 
Middletown  the  soil  is  very  sandy;  but 
the  remainder  of  the  Connecticut  valley 
has  a  rich  deep  loamy  soil.  In  the  N. 
E.  is  a  light  gray  loam  and  in  the  S. 
E.  a  dark  argiUaceous  soil.  The  climate 
is  temperate,  and  there  are  no  swamps  or 
marshes.  The  trees  include  several 
varieties  of  oak,  pine,  cedar,  tamarack, 
chestnut,  beech,  wild  cherry,  ash,  bass- 
wood,  hickory,  walnut,  willow,  poplir, 
dogwood,  sycamore  and  holly. 

Minci-ulogy. — Of  various  mineral  pro- 
ductions iron  ore  is  the  most  abundant. 
Copper  and  lead  exist,  but  have  never 
been  mined  with  much  profit.  Silver 
occurs  in  minute  quantities.  There  are 
immense  quarries  of  red  sandstone  at 
Portland  and  Cromwell,  and  marble  and 
limestone  is  quarried  at  Canaan  and 
Washington,  while  the  largest  amount 
of  orthoclase  quarried  in  the  United 
States  comes  from  Glastonbury  and 
Middletown.  The  total  value  of  the  min- 
eral production  is  about  $4,000,000  annu- 
ally. Clay  products  rank  first  in  value — 
about  $2,000,000 — and  stone  second,  with 
a  value  of  about  $1,300,000. 

Agriculture. — The  agricultural  inter- 
ests of  the  State  are  very  important. 
Cereals,  fruits,  and  vegetables  gr..w  in 
great  abundance  in  the  W.  valleyp  and 
tobacco  in  the  valley  of  the  Connfn.iicut- 
The  acreage,  production,  and  vai ;-  ?  of 
the  chief  crops  in  1919  was  as  follows: 
Corn,  55,000  acres,  3,300,000  bushels, 
with  a  value  of  $5,940,000;  hay,  340,000 
acres,  544,000  tons,  with  a  value  of  $16,- 
429,000;  tobacco,  25,000  acres,  39,000,- 
000  pounds,  with  a  value  of  $18,057,000; 
potatoes,  24,000  acres,  1,680,000  bushels, 
with  a  value  of  $3,276,000. 

Manufactttres. — Connecticut  is  one  of 
the  foremost  manufacturing  States  in 
the  Union.  There  were  in  1914,  4,104 
manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
State,  employing  226,264  wage-earners. 
The  capital  invested  amounted  to  $620,- 
194,000.  There  were  paid  in  wages 
$125,220,000.  The  value  of  materials 
used  was  $288,511,000,  and  the  value  of 
the  finished  product  was  $545,472,000. 
The  principal  articles  were  cotton  goods, 
foundry  and  machine  shop  products, 
hardware,  and  brassware.  Other  impor- 
tant manufactures  are  woolen  goods,  silk 
and  silk  goods,  plated  and  britannia 
ware,  hats  and  caps,  brass  castings  and 
finishings,  corsets,  and  worsted  goods. 

Banking, — In  1919  there  were  66  Na- 
tional banks  in  operation,  having  $20,- 
306,000  capital,  $13,577,478  in  outstand- 
ing circulation  and  $12,858,850  in  United 


States  bonds.  There  were  also  3  State 
banks,  with  $550,000  capital,  $12,179,000 
in  deposits,  and  $14,515,900  in  resouxces. 
In  the  year  sending  Sept.  30,  1919,  the 
exchanges  ft  the  United  States  clearing- 
houses at  Hartford  and  New  Haven  ag- 
gregated $722,532,000. 

Education. — The  school  population  of 
the  State  is  about  330,000,  with  an  en- 
rollment of  about  250,000.  There  are 
about  8,000  teachers,  with  an  average 
monthly  salary  of  about  $75.  The  annu- 
al expenses  of  the  tovv^ns  for  educational 
purposes  is  about  $10,000,000.  For  higher 
instruction  there  are  public  high  schools, 
private  secondai-y  schools,  public  normal 
schools,  at  Bridgeport,  New  Britain,  New 
Haven  (State  Normal  School),  and  Willi- 
mantic,  and  Yale  University,  New  Ha- 
ven University,  New  Haven  (opened 
1701,  Cong.) ;  Wesleyan  University,  Mid- 
dletown (1831,  M,  E.),  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Hartford  (1824,  P.  E.).  Among 
the  principal  private  secondary  schools 
are:  tlxe  Hotchkiss  School,  at  Lakewood; 
Morg'an  School,  at  Clinton;  Nor->vich 
Free  Academy,  at  Norwich;  and  Bulkley 
School,  at  New  London. 

Charities  and  Corrections. — The  char- 
itable and  correctional  institutions  in- 
clude the  Connecticut  Hospital  for  the 
Insane  at  Middletown,  the  Norwich  Hos- 
pital for  the  Insane  at  Norwich,  the  Con- 
necticut State  Prison  at  Wethersfield,  the 
Connecticut  School  for  Boys  at  Meriden, 
the  Connecticut  Industrial  School  for 
Girls  at  Middletown,  the  Connecticut  Col- 
ony for  Epileptics  at  Mansfield,  and  the 
Connecticut  School  for  Imbeciles  at  Lake- 
viWe. 

Railivays.  —  There  are  about  1,000 
miles  of  railway  in  the  State.  The  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  has 
about  850  miles,  the  Central  New  York 
about  83  miles,  and  the  Central  Vermont 
about  58  miles.  There  has  been  practi- 
cally no  new  construction  of  railways  in 
recent  years. 

Finance. — The  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  1918  amounted  to  $15,198,- 
326,  and  the  expenditures  to  $13,706,034. 
There  was  a  balance  at  the  end  of  the 
year  of  $642,572.  The  State  has  a  fund- 
ed debt  of  about  $12,000,000. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years  and  re- 
ceives a  salary  of  $5,000  per  annum. 
Legislative  sessions  are  held  biennially. 
The  legislature  has  258  members  in  the 
House  and  35  in  the  Senate,  each  elected 
for  a  term  of  two  years.  Connecticut 
sends  five  representatives  to  Congress. 

Histor^f. — The  first  settlement  in  Con- 
necticut was  made  at  Hartford,  in  1633, 
by  the  Dutch.  The  first  constitution  was 
adopted  in  Hartford  in  1639,  and  formed 


CONNECTICUT 


112 


CONNOB 


the  basis  of  the  charter  of  1662.  In  1686 
the  royal  governor,  Andros,  attempted 
to  obtain  the  charter,  but,  according  to 
popular  belief,  it  was  hidden  in  the  hol- 
low of  an  oak  tree.  On  the  dethrone- 
ment of  James  II.  the  colonial  govern- 
ment resumed  its  functions.  Connecticut 
took  an  active  part  in  the  French,  Indi- 
an, Revolutionary,  English  (1812),  and 
Civil  Wars.  She  instructed  her  delegates 
in  the  Continental  Congress  to  propose  a 
declaration  of  independence,  and  was  the 
fifth  State  to  ratify  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution. The  Hartford  convention,  most 
memorable  of  gatherings  in  the  State, 
assembled  Dec.  15,  1814.  It  protested 
against  the  war  with  England  and 
against  the  action  of  the  national  gov- 
ernment with  reference  to  State  defense. 
This  convention,  which  adjourned  Jan.  5, 
1815,  raised  the  Federal  party  in  the  es- 
timation of  the  people. 

CONNECTICUT,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  the  W,  branch  of  which  forms  by 
treaty  the  boundary  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada  to  lat.  45°  N.  It  rises 
on  the  N.  border  of  New  Hampshire; 
forms  the  boundary  between  Vermont 
and  New  Hampshire,  passes  through  the 
W.  part  of  Massachusetts  and  the  cen- 
tral part  of  Connecticut,  and  falls  into 
Long  Island  Sound.  It  is  navigable  for 
vessels  drawing  from  8  to  10  feet  for 
about  300  miles  from  its  mouth,  subsidi- 
ary canals,  however,  being  required 
above  Hartford;  total  length,  450  miles. 
It  is  famed  for  its  shad  fisheries. 

CONNECTICUT  COLLEGE  FOR 
WOMEN,  an  institution  for  the  higher 
education  of  women,  founded  in  New 
London,  Conn.,  in  1911.  The  college  has 
received  generous  gifts  for  endowment, 
including  $1,000,000  from  Morton  F. 
Plant.  It  was  officially  opened  in  Sep- 
tember, 1915.  In  1919  there  were  42 
teachers  and  304  students.  President,  B. 
T.   Marshall. 

CONNECTICUT  RESERVE.  See 
Western  Reserve,  The. 

CONNELLSVILLE,  a  borough  in 
Fayette  co..  Pa.;  on  the  Youghiogheny 
river,  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Pittsburgh  and  Lake 
Erie,  and  the  Western  Maryland  rail- 
roads, 57  miles  E.  of  Pittsburgh.  It  is 
the  center  of  the  most  extensive  coke 
burning  region  in  the  United  States. 
Other  important  industries  are  machine 
shops,  pump  works,  brick  works,  and  coal 
mining.  It  is  the  seat  of  Cottage  State 
Hospital;  and  has  electric  lights,  electric 
railways  connecting  with  South  Con- 
nellsville  and  adjacent  towns,  several 
newspapers  and  National  banks.  Pop. 
(1910)    12,845;    (1920)   18,804. 


CONNEMARA  ("the  Bays  of  the 
Ocean"),  a  boggy  and  mountainous  dis- 
trict occupying  the  W.  portion  of  County 
Galway,  Ireland;  about  30  miles  in 
length  and  15  to  20  miles  in  breadth. 
Its  coasts  are  very  broken,  and  there  are 
numerous  small  lakes.  It  is  subdivided 
into  Connemara  Proper  in  the  W.,  Jar- 
Connaught  in  the  S.,  and  Joyce's  Coun- 
try in  the  N. 

CONNERSVILLE,  a  city  of  Indiana, 
the  county-seat  of  Fayette  co.  It  is  on 
the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  and  Dayton,  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati.  Chicago  and  St. 
Louis,  and  the  Fort  Wayne,  Cincinnati 
and  Louisville  railroads,  and  on  the 
White  Water  river.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  motor  cars,  pianos,  carriages, 
furniture,  flour,  etc.  There  is  a  public 
library,  an  excellent  high-school  build- 
ing, a  park,  and  a  sanitarium.  Pop. 
(1910)   7,738;    (1920)   9,901. 

CONNING  TOWER,  the  place  in 
modern  battleships  where  the  commander 
stands  during  a  naval  engagement,  and 
from  which  he  directs  the  movements  of 
the  ship  and  men.  The  conning  tower 
is  built  over  the  foreward  turret  and  is 
a  circular  chamber,  scarcely  6  feet  across 
and  protected  by  walls  of  steel  12  inches 
thick.  The  roof  is  also  of  solid  steel. 
Between  the  arched  roof  and  the  walls 
is  a  narrow  slit  from  which  the  eye  can 
sweep  the  whole  horizon.  The  sharp- 
pointed  bow  of  the  boat  is  just  below, 
and  directly  in  front  are  the  two  big 
guns  that  protrude  from  the  turret. 
Throughout  the  engagement  the  com- 
mander is  invisible  to  his  men,  his  voice 
alone  being  heard  through  the  speaking 
tubes  and  telephone  vidth  which  the  tur- 
ret is  fitted.  In  its  center  are  the  steam- 
steering  wheel,  binnacle  and  compass, 
and  by  the  directing  hand  of  the  com- 
mander, standing  beside  the  compass,  the 
battle  is  fought. 

CONNOLLY,  JAMES  BRENDAN,  an 

American  writer,  born  in  Boston,  Mass. 
He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools 
and  for  a  time  served  with  the  United 
States  Engineer  Corps.  In  1896  he  won 
the  first  Olympic  championship  of  mod- 
ern times.  During  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War  he  served  with  the  9th  Massa- 
chusetts Infantry.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Let- 
ters. His  novels  include  "Out  of  Glouces- 
ter" (1902);  "The  Deep  Sea's  Toll" 
(1905) ;  "The  Trawler"  (1914)  ;  "Run- 
ning Free"  (1917),  and  "The  U-Boat 
Hunters"   (1918). 

CONNOR,  RALPH  (REV.  CHARLES 
W.  GORDON),  a  Canadian  author,  bom 
at  Glengarry,  Ont.,  186n.    Re  was  edo- 


CONOID 


113 


CONRAD 


cated  at  the  high  school,  St.  Mary's,  Ont., 
Toronto  University,  and  King's  College, 
Toronto.  He  was  missionary  to  miners 
and  lumbermen  in  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
1890-1903;  and  representative  of  Cana- 
dian Western  Missions  for  the  Presbyter- 
ian Church  in  Great  Britain,  1893-1894. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  social  service 
work,  and  during  the  World  War  was 
chaplain  with  the  Canadian  forces  at  the 
front.  His  works  include:  "Beyond  the 
Marshes,"  "Black  Rock,"  "The  Sky  Pi- 
lot," "Ould  Michael,"  "The  Man  from 
Glengarry,"  "Glengarry  School  Days," 
"Breaking  the  Record,"  "The  Prospec- 
tor," "The  Pilot  of  Swan  Creek," 
"Gwen:  The  Doctor  of  Crow's  Nest," 
"Life  of  Dr.  James  Robertson,"  "The 
Foreigner,"  "The  Angel  and  the  Star," 
"The  Dawn  by  Galilee,"  "The  Recall  of 
Love,"  "Corporal  Cameron."  etc. 

CONOID,  in  geometry,  a  surface  gen- 
erated by  a  straight  line  moving  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  constantly  touches  a 
curve  and  another  straight  line;  similar 
to  the  cone,  but  having  a  straight  line  in- 
stead of  a  point  for  its  apex. 

CONON,  a  celebrated  astronomer  of 
Samos,  who  lived  in  the  3d  century  B.  c. 

CONNOR,  RALPH.  See  Gordon, 
Charles  William. 

CONRAD  L,  Duke  of  Franconia;  was 
elected  King  of  Germany  in  911;  but 
Arnulf,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Henry, 
Duke  of  Saxony,  disputed  his  title,  and 
engaged  the  Huns  to  overrun  Germany. 
Conrad  is  said  to  have  received  a  mortal 
wound  in  combat  with  these  revolted 
chiefs.  He  died  in  918. 

CONRAD  II.,  son  of  Henry,  Duke  of 
Franconia;  was  elected  King  of  Ger- 
many in  1024.  Attempts  were  made  to 
displace  him,  but  without  success,  and  in 
1027  he  was  crowned  emperor  at  Rome, 
in  the  presence  of  Canute,  King  of  Eng- 
land, and  Rudolph,  King  of  Burgundy. 
As  heir  to  Rudolph,  who  died  in  1033, 
C'mrad  became  King  of  Burgundy.  He 
died  in  1039. 

CONRAD  III.,  Duke  of  Franconia,  of 
the  house  of  Hohenstauff en ;  bom  in 
1093;  was  elected  emperor  in  1138.  His 
title  was  disputed  by  Henry  the  Proud, 
Duke  of  Saxony,  and  the  rivalry  of  these 
two  princes  was  the  germ  of  the  factions 
afterward  so  famous  under  the  names  of 
Guelfs  and  Ghibellines.  In  1146,  at  the 
diet  held  at  Spire,  Conrad  was  persuaded 
by  the  eloquence  of  St.  Bernard  to  un- 
dertake a  crusade,  on  which  he  set  out 
the  following  year.  It  was  fruitless  and 
disastrous,  and  Conrad  returned  with  the 
wreck  of  his  army  in  1149.  He  died  in 
1152. 


CONRAD  IV.,  Duke  of  Suabia,  chosen 
King  of  the  Romans  in  1237,  son  of  the 
great  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  and  like 
him  was  excommunicated  by  the  Pope, 
Innocent  IV.,  who  set  up  a  rival  em- 
peror in  William,  Count  of  Holland.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1250,  Conrad 
marched  into  Italy  to  recover  the  towns 
which  had  declared  against  him.  He 
took  Nap)es,  but  could  not  get  the  inves- 
titure of  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  from  the 
Pope.     He  died  in   Italy  in   1254.     See 

CONRADIN. 

CONRAD,  JOSEPH  an  English  novel- 
ist, of  Polish  birth  and  ancestry,  bom  in 
1856.  His  full  name  was  Joseph  Conrad 
Korzeniowski.      When    his    father    died. 


JOSEPH  CONRAD 

young  Conrad,  then  a  boy  of  13,  wan- 
dered from  Poland  to  Marseilles,  France, 
where  he  joined  a  French  vessel  and  rose 
to  be  a  captain  in  the  merchant  service. 
Later  he  held  an  office  on  an  English 
ship  and  late  in  life  learned  the  English 
language.  With  this  handicap  he  yet 
learned  to  write  novels  in  clear  idiomatic 
English  and  became  one  of  the  foi'emost 
modern  English  novelists.  He  is  at  his 
best  in  his  portrayal  of  the  life  of  the 
sailors  in  the  southeastern  seas,  his 
studies  of  the  contact  of  the  western  Eu- 
ropean with  the  Oriental  mind  being  ex- 
tremely subtle  and  interesting.  His  most 
successful  novels  are  "Gales  of  Unrest" 
(1898)  and  "Lord  Jim"  (1900),  both 
stories  of  sailor  life  in  the  East.  Among 
his  other  works  are  "Typhoon"   (1902) ; 


CONRADIN 


IH 


CONSERVATION 


"The  Mirror  of  the  Sea"  (1906) ;  "Point 
of  Honor"  (1908)  ;  "Twixt  Land  and 
Sea"  (New  York,  1913);  "Victory" 
(1917). 

CONRADIN,  the  son  of  Conrad  IV., 
Duke  of  Suabia,  and  the  last  of  the  house 
of  Hohenstauffen ;  born  in  1252.  As  the 
greatest  part  of  the  possessions  of  his 
family  had  been  swept  away,  Conradin 
accepted  the  invitation  of  the  Italian 
Ghibellines  to  place  himself  at  their  head. 
He  crossed  the  Alps  with  10,000  men; 
was  well  received  at  Verona,  and,  not- 
withstanding the  treason  of  his  relatives, 
Meinhard  and  Louis  of  Bavaria,  who  left 
him  with  but  3,000  men,  he  entered  south 
Italy.  Charles  d'Anjou,  on  whom  the 
crown  of  Naples  had  been  bestowed  by 
Pope  Urban  IV.,  met  Conradin  at  Tagli- 
acozzo,  defeated  him,  and  caused  him  to 
be  beheaded,  in  1268. 

CONSANGUINITY,  the  quality  or 
state  of  being  related  by  blood;  nearness 
of  kin;  descent  from  a  common  ancestor. 
Consanguinity  is  of  two  kinds,  lineal  and 
collateral.  Lineal  subsists  among  per- 
sons who  descend  in  what  may  be  called 
a  straight  line  from  a  common  ancestor; 
thus  grandfather,  father,  son,  grandson, 
great-grandson  have  lineal  consanguin- 
ity. Collateral  consanguinity  is  when 
there  is  descent  from  a  common  ancestor, 
but  not  in  a  direct  line;  as  grandfather, 
father,  his  brother,  son  of  the  first,  etc. 
Here  the  line  is  not  direct. 

CONSCIOUSNESS,  the  state  of  being 
conscious;  knowledge  or  perception  of 
what  passes  in  one's  own  mind.  In- 
ternal sense  or  knowledge  of  guilt  or 
innocence.  Consciousness  is  the  recog- 
nition by  the  mind  of  its  own  acts. 

CONSCRIPTION,  the  enlisting  of  the 
inhabitants  of  a  country  capable  of  bear- 
ing arms,  by  a  compulsory  levy,  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  government,  being  thus 
distinguished  from  recruiting,  or  volun- 
tary enlistment.  The  word  and  the  sys- 
tem were  both  introduced  into  France"  in 
1798  by  a  law  which  declared  that  every 
Frenchman  was  a  soldier,  and  bound  to 
defend  the  country  when  in  danger.  On 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  con- 
scription was  abolished.  It  was,  how- 
ever, re-enacted,  and  continued  through 
the  Second  Empire  to  form  the  mode 
of  recruitment  in  France.  An  army-bill, 
passed  by  the  National  Assembly  in 
1872,  affirmed  the  universal  liability  to 
conscription,  but  allowed  certain  excep- 
tions and  postponements.  The  term  of 
service  was  fixed  at  5  years  in  the  ac- 
tive army,  4  years  in  the  reserve  of  the 
active  army,  5  years  in  the  territorial 
army,   and   6   years   in   its   reserve — the 


total  length  of  military  service  being 
thus  20  years.  Universal  liability  to 
military  service  is  the  law  in  Italy,  and 
was  in  Germany  and  Austria  until  abol- 
ished in  these  two  countries  by  the  Peace 
Treaty  of  1919  following  the  World 
War.  Under  the  Empire  the  Russian 
army  was  raised  by  conscription,  all  men 
who  completed  their  21st  year  being 
liable.  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  began  conscription  in  1916  and 
1917,  respectively,  of  the  World  War 
(1914-1918). 

CONSECRATION,  the  act  of  solemnly 
dedicating  a  person  or  thing  to  the  serv- 
ice of  God.  In  the  Jewish  law,  rites  of 
this  nature  are  frequently  enjoined,  the 
Levites  and  priests,  the  tabernacle  and 
altar,  etc.,  being  specially  dedicated  or 
consecrated  to  God.  Among  Christians 
the  word  consecration  describes — the 
ordination  of  bishops.  The  Nicene  Coun- 
cil requires  the  ceremony  to  be  per- 
formed by  not  less  than  three  bishops. 
This  rule  is  maintained  by  the  Church 
of  England.  Among  Roman  Catholics 
the  Pope  may  permit  Consecration  by 
one  bishop  and  two  priests.  The  hallow- 
ing of  the  elements  in  the  eucharist,  by 
the  words  of  institution  according  to 
Roman  Catholics  and  Anglicans;  by  the 
invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  according 
to  the  Greeks.  The  dedication  of 
churches.  The  rites  have  become  long 
and  elaborate  in  the  Church  of  Rome. 
In  the  English  Church  the  bishop 
chooses  his  own  form.  That  most  gen- 
erally used  was  drawn  up  by  the  An- 
glican episcopate  in  1712.  In  the  Amer- 
ican Episcopal  Church  a  form  was  ap- 
pointed in  1799.  The  benediction  of 
abbots  and  abbesses  according  to  forms 
prescribed  in  the  Roman  Pontifical.  It 
is  usually  performed  by  a  bishop.  The 
consecration  of  altars,  chalices,  and 
patens  by  the  bishop  with  the  chrism  or 
hallowed  oil.  The  consecration  of  altars 
is  mentioned  by  councils  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury, that  of  chalices  and  patens  in  the 
Gregorian  Sacramentary, 

CONSERVATION,  the  act  of  preserv- 
ing, maintaining,  supporting,  or  protect- 
ing. The  conservation  of  energy  is  a 
principle  based  on  the  general  one  that 
energy  communicated  to  a  body  or  sys- 
tem of  bodies  is  never  lost;  it  is  merely 
distributed  and  continues  to  exist  as  po- 
tential energy,  as  motion  or  as  heat.  It 
now  stands  as  one  of  the  axioms  of 
physics,  and  is  sometimes  called  correla- 
tion of  forces. 

CONSERVATION,  the  purpose  of  the 
movement  for  the  conservation  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  United  States 
is  to  protect  from  wasteful  use  and  from 


CONSERVATION 


118 


CONSERVATION 


private  monopoly  the  mineralg,  waters, 
land,  and  forests.  The  conservation 
movement  was  really  started  by  Gifford 
Pinchot,  head  of  the  Forestry  Depart- 
ment under  President  Roosevelt.  Ob- 
serving the  waste  of  natural  resources 
that  was  daily  taking  place  in  the  United 
States,  he  urged  upon  the  President  the 
necessity  of  action.  President  Roose- 
velt issued  a  call  for  the  governors  of 
all  the  States  to  meet  ■with  him  at  the 
White  House  on  May  15,  1908,  to  devise 
measures  to  deal  with  the  situation.  The 
result  of  the  conference  was  a  declara- 
tion to  the  nation  of  the  need  of  co-oper- 
ation between  the  States  and  the  Na- 
tional Government  to  preserve  for 
posterity  the  great  natural  wealth  of  the 
United  States.  Conservation  commis- 
sions were  appointed  soon  afterward  by 
nearly  all  the  States  to  make  an  in- 
ventory of  their  natural  wealth  and  to 
suggfest  means  for  preserving  the  same. 
On  June  8,  1908,  President  Roosevelt 
appointed  the  National  Conservation 
Commission,  naming  Pinchot  as  chairman 
for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  au  in- 
ventory of  the  natural  resources  of  the 
nation.  This  report  was  made  the  fol- 
lowing year  and  contains  some  startling 
facts.  The  commission  discovered  that 
the  waste  in  the  extraction  of  minerals 
in  the  United  States  amounted  to  over 
three  hundred  millions  of  dollars  a  year, 
and  that  if  present  rate  of  use  of  the 
high  grade  iron  ores  was  continued  the 
supply  would  be  exhausted  within  the 
century.  Similarly  the  end  of  the  sup- 
ply of  petroleum  was  within  sight,  un- 
less unexpected  sources  should  be  dis- 
covered. The  waste  in  natural  gas  was 
found  to  be  appalling,  enough  being 
wasted  to  supply  nearly  half  tr?  people 
of  the  United  States  with  fuel.  Of  the 
five  tons  of  coal  used  per  capita  three 
tons  per  capita  were  wasted. 

While  it  was  found  that  conservation 
of  foreets  was  being  practiced  on  njist 
of  the  land  owr^ed  by  the  public,  four- 
fifths  of  the  standing  timber  in  the 
United  States  was  privately  owned  and 
was  being  frightfully  used  up.  Not 
counting  fires  which  destroy  $50,000,000 
v.-orth  of  timber  every  year,  the  United 
States  was  taking  from  the  forests 
every  year  nearly  four  times  their  na- 
tural growth.  If  this  be  continued,  the 
commission  estimated  that  long  before 
the  century  was  over  the  United  States 
would  be  in  want  of  timber. 

The  waste  in  water  power  was  found 
to  be  even  more  pronounced,  less  than 
3  per  cent,  of  it  being  used  for  munic- 
ipal supplies  and  for  irrigation,  where- 
as if  used  to  the  fullest  extent  available 
the  power  generated  would  be  sufficient 


for  the  entire  mechanical  needs  of  the 
nation. 

Following  this  analysis  of  the  condi- 
tion and  use  of  our  natural  resources 
steps  followed  which  were  designed  to 
deal  adequately  with  it.  The  national 
forests  which  contain  nearly  one-fifth  of 
the  standing  timber  of  the  United  States 
have  been  so  administered  in  the  past 
ten  years  as  to  put  great  quantities  of 
timber  to  good  use,  while  protecting  the 
new  growth  and  the  headwaters  of  all 
the  important  Western  rivers.  The 
area  of  the  national  forests  was  greatly 
increased  until  in  1919  it  had  reached 
153,933,700  acres  and  yielded  an  income 
of  nearly  five  million  dollars.  Yet,  not- 
withstanding the  really  excellent  care 
our  national  forests  have  lately  received, 
the  available  timber  supplies  have  not 
kept  pace  with  the  demands.  This  is 
largely  because  97  per  cent,  of  the  for- 
ests are  in  private  hands  and  therefore 
difficult  to  regulate.  Steps  were  being 
taken  in  1919  and  1920  to  educate  the 
o^mers  in  the  proper  use  of  their  for- 
ests and  to  encourage  reafforestation. 
The  airplane  was  used  by  the  Forest 
Service  in  1919  to  guard  the  forests  and 
to  locate  forest  fires;  it  is  hoped  that 
this  will  lessen  the  enormous  loss  in- 
curred by  these  conflagrations. 

The  conservation  movement  has  like- 
wise operated  to  induce  caution  in  the 
sale  of  mineral  lands  without  proper 
compensation  to  the  Government  and 
strict  regulations  to  insure  their  being 
efficiently  exploited.  President  Roose- 
velt by  his  own  authority  withdrew  from 
settlement  many  thousands  of  acres  of 
public  land  until  Congress  should  pass 
appropriate  laws  for  their  protection. 
During  the  following  administration 
this  was  done.  The  attempt  by  Presi- 
dent Taft,  through  his  Secretary  of  In- 
terior Ballinger,  to  open  up  the  vast 
mineral  deposits  of  Alaska  for  use,  was 
unsuccessful  largely  because  Gifford 
Pinchot,  United  States  Forester,  was 
not  satisfied  that  the  interests  of  the 
public  were  being  protected.  While  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior  in  the  Wilson  ad- 
ministration Franklin  K.  Lane  saw  the 
completion  of  a  railroad  in  Alaska  and 
also  by  direction  of  Congress  insured 
that  the  great  mineral  resources  of  that 
country  should  be  developed  in  conso- 
r.ance  with  sane  conservation  priiiciples. 

Perhaps  in  no  field  covered  by  the  con- 
servation movement  was  waste  more  ap- 
parent than  in  the  use  of  water  power. 
Not  only  was  waste  iii  evidence,  but  what 
use  was  being  made  of  water  power  was 
centered  in  private  monopoly.  Due 
largely  to  the  conservation  movement, 
this  tendency  to  center  a  large  amount 


CONSERVATION"  OF  FOOD 


116 


CONSERVATION  OF  FOOD 


of  the  available  water  power  in  a  few 
hands  has  been  checked.  During  the 
Wilson  administration  Congress  passed 
laws  for  the  development  of  the  water 
powers  of  the  national  forests  and  of 
the  public  domain  which  gave  fair  terms 
to  the  interests  desiring  to  exploit  them 
and  also  protected  the  public  interests. 
The  National  Conservation  Commis- 
sion discovered  that  agriculture  in  the 
United  States  had  decreased  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  instead  of  increasing  it  as 
had  been  the  case  in  most  European 
countries.  To  meet  this  evil,  exper- 
imental stations  were  opened  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  an  exten- 
sive campaign  of  education  of  the  farm- 
ers in  better  methods  of  tilling  the  soil 
was  undertaken.  At  the  same  time  the 
Department  of  Interior  took  up  the  task 
of  irrigating  and  reclaiming  for  use  vast 
desert  areas  of  the  West.  From  1902 
until  June,  1919,  the  Reclamation  Serv- 
ice had  spent  nearly  $150,000,000  on 
projects  designed  to  reclaim  land  for 
use.  When  all  the  projects  under  con- 
struction are  completed  3,200,000  acres 
of  formerly  waste  land  will  be  irrigated. 
1,120,000  acres  were  already  being  irri- 
gated in  1919. 

CONSERVATION  OF  FOOD,  an 
economic  problem  which  first  became  the 
object  of  serious  consideration  by  gov- 
ernments during  the  World  War.  The 
axiom  that  "every  army  fights  on  its 
stomach"  was  suddenly  found  to  be 
as  true  of  the  nations  at  war  as  a 
whole.  Tv/o  important  causes  were  be- 
hind this  increased  significance  of  the 
food  supplies  of  the  civil  populations  of 
the  belligerent  countries.  First  of  all, 
the  tremendous  increase  in  transporta- 
tion facilities  between  the  countries  dur- 
ing the  past  half  century  had  made  the 
peoples  of  those  countries  more  mutually 
dependent  on  each  other,  because  of  the 
ease  with  which  the  products  of  labor 
could  be  exchanged,  and  more  especially 
foodstuffs.  Whereas  in  earlier  times 
each  country  was  naore  or  less  eco- 
nomically self-sufficient,  they  now  de- 
pended on  each  other  for  certain  food 
products,  in  some  cases  almost  com- 
pletely. As  an  instance,  England  was 
dependent  on  foreign  importations  for 
almost  all  her  food  supplies.  To  a  lesser 
extent,  this  was  also  true  of  Gei'many. 
The  war,  naturally,  by  severing  commer- 
cial relations  between  the  two  sets  of 
belligerents,  and  making  it  extremely 
difficult  between  the  countries  that  were 
allied  together,  forced  each  country  back 
into  a  position  of  being  again  dependent 
on  its  own  food  resources. 

Another  reason  for  the  need  of  food 
conservation  was  the  number  of  coun- 


tries involved  in  warfare,  and  the  great 
percentage  of  the  laboring  population 
which  must  be  drawn  into  the  military 
establishments.  In  no  previous  war  had 
there  been  such  a  drain  on  the  laboring 
population  for  fighting  purposes,  and 
never  before  had  this  drain  been  so 
universal  throughout  practically  all  of 
the  civilized  world.  This  seriously  ham- 
pered the  production  of  food,  even  in 
countries  which  had  large  sources  of 
food  supply  within  their  own  boundaries. 
Such  was  especially  the  case  in  Germany 
and  Hungary,  possessed  of  large  areas 
of  grain  producing  lands,  but  where 
each  was  compelled  to  draft  its  peasants 
into  their  respective  armies. 

Germany  was  the  first  to  feel  the  pres- 
sure, for,  though  she  had  the  wheat  fields 
of  Hungary  behind  her,  the  demands  for 
transportation  of  men  and  military  sup- 
plies made  on  the  railroads  seriously 
hampered  the  transportation  of  food- 
stuffs. Having  anticipated  this  situa- 
tion, however,  the  German  Government 
had  made  full  preparations,  and  at  once 
systematized  her  food  conservation  pol- 
icy from  the  very  beginning,  with  such 
a  high  degree  of  scientific  efficiency  that 
it  is  probable  that  the  German  civil 
population  did  not  suffer  from  scarcity 
so  soon  as  did  those  of  belligerents 
more  favorably  situated.  An  Imperial 
Food  Control  Board  was  at  once  estab- 
lished, which  took  over  all  the  food 
stored  in  the  country  and  assumed  the 
responsibility  of  distribution,  regardless 
of  the  purchasing  power  of  the  units  of 
the  population.  Heads  of  families,  of 
all  classes,  v/ere  supplied  with  food  ra- 
tioning cards,  by  means  of  which  they 
were  enabled  to  receive  only  so  much 
food  as  was  necessary  for  physical  main- 
tenance. A  national  food  inventors? 
was  kept  by  the  Imperial  Board,  with 
the  same  accuracy  with  which  the  quar- 
termasters' department  of  an  army 
keeps  a  record  of  its  food  supplies,  and 
when  the  stores  decreased,  the  rations 
were  diminished  in  proportion.  Thus, 
the  German  population  was  often  hun- 
gry, but  there  was  no  famine.  This 
same  system  was  installed  in  Austria 
and  Hungary,  but  was  not  administered 
with  the  same  high  degree  of  efficiency, 
with  the  result  that  the  civil  populations 
of  those  countries,  especially  in  the 
larger  cities,  suffered  more  severely. 

In  France  and  England,  whose  gov- 
ernments and  populations  were  more 
taken  by  surprise  by  the  war,  such  elab- 
orate preparations  had  not  been  worked 
out.  At  a  later  period  the  rationing 
system  was  partially  applied,  in  certain 
commodities,  but  both  these  countries 
were  more  fortu^inte  in  that  they  were 


CONSEEVATION  OF  FOOD 


117 


CONSERVATION  OF  FOOD 


able,  throughout  the  whole  course  of  the 
war,  to  draw  food  supplies  from  neutral 
countries,  especially  from  Canada,  the 
United  States  and  the  South  American 
countries,  this  supply  being  only  limited 
by  transportation  facilities. 

When  the  United  States  entered  the 
war,  in  1917,  food  conservation  also  be- 
came a  very  serious  administrative  prob- 
lem in  this  country,  though  for  a  differ- 
ent reason.  There  was  no  fear  of  a 
scarcity  of  home  supply,  so  far  as  the 
domestic  population  was  concerned,  even 
though  several  millions  of  young  men 
were  drafted  for  the  army,  most  of 
them  from  the  rural  districts.  But  the 
moment  the  country  decided  to  engage 
in  hostilities  on  the  side  of  the  Entente, 
the  Government  at  once  assumed  the  re- 
sponsibility of  supplying  the  European 
Allies  with  the  food  they  so  sorely 
needed,  and  to  do  so  immediately  there 
was  begun  a  tremendous  fleet  of  cargo 
vessels.  In  the  words  of  President  Wil- 
son, as  uttered  in  his  proclamation  in 
January,  1918,  there  was  needed  "a  more 
intensive  effort  on  the  part  of  our  people 
to  save  food,  in  order  that  we  may  sup- 
ply our  associates  in  the  war  with  the 
sustenance  vitally  necessary  to  them  in 
these  days  of  privation  and  stress." 

On  Aug.  10,  1917,  Congress  passed 
the  Food  Control  Act,  authorizing  the 
President  to  assume  control  of  the  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  food  prod- 
ucts during  the  full  period  of  the  war; 
to  commandeer  stores;  to  license  export, 
manufacturing,  etc.;  to  suppress  "prof- 
iteering"; and  even  to  buy  directly  from 
the  producers  and  sell  to  the  consumers 
certain  food  commodities,  including  coal. 
Herbert  C.  Hoover  was  appointed  head 
of  the  new  Food  Administration,  to  en- 
force the  provisions  of  the  Food  Control 
Act.  He  immediately  announced  that 
he  would  bend  all  his  efforts  to  the 
elimination  of  private  speculation  in 
food,  and  that  there  would  be  a  strict 
supervision  of  the  private  export  of 
food  stuffs.  He  would  also  prepare  a 
detailed  program  for  the  elimination  of 
waste  and  food  conservation  which  the 
people  would  be  asked  to  put  into  prac- 
tice voluntarily. 

On  Aug.  14  President  Wilson  issued 
a  proclamation  requiring  all  persons  en- 
gaged in  the  wheat  and  rye  trades  to 
apply  for  licenses.  Exception  was  made 
of  those  operating  mills  producing  less 
than  one  hundred  barrels  of  flour  and 
farmers'  co-operative  sales  associations. 
September  11th  was  set  as  the  day  on 
which  all  licenses  must  be  applied  for. 
At  the  same  time  Mr.  Hoover  appointed 
a  special  commission,  on  which  were 
represented    the    producers,    middlemen, 


and  consumers,  to  determine  a  fair  price 
for  the  1917  crop  of  wheat.  Fifty  mil- 
lion dollars  was  appropriated  for  the 
purchase  of  the  bulk  of  the  wheat  crop, 
so  that  the  producers  would  be  assured 
of  a  certain  maximum  price  and  the 
consumers  of  a  minimum  retail  price. 
Next,  all  dealers  were  required  to  apply 
for  licenses,  including  such  retailers  as 
did  a  business  of  over  $100,000  a  year. 

Meanwhile  the  program  of  the  Food 
Administration  to  insure  economy  was 
proclaimed  and  became  effective  on  Jan. 
28,  1918.  To  reduce  the  consumption  of 
wheat  by  a  third,  as  was  proposed,  re- 
tailers were  compelled  to  sell  flour  on 
what  was  called  the  fifty-fifty  plan;  for 
every  pound  of  flour  sold  they  must  sell 
a  pound  of  some  other  cereal.  Bakers 
were  compelled  to  bake  what  was  called 
the  victory  loaf:  bread  in  which  the 
flour  of  other  cereals  was  mixed  with 
that  of  wheat.  The  people  were  urged  to 
observe  wheatless  Mondays  and  Wednes- 
days. By  March,  1918,  retailers  were 
made  to  restrict  their  sales  of  wheat 
products  to  one  and  one-half  pounds  per 
person  per  week.  Victory  bread  now 
included  25  per  cent,  of  non-wheat  flours. 

Meatless  Tuesdays  and  porkless  Satur- 
days were  also  proclaimed.  In  March, 
1918,  these  two  restrictive  days  were 
rescinded,  but  in  the  following  June 
housewives  were  requested  to  limit  their 
purchases  of  beef  to  one  and  one-fourth 
pounds  weekly.  Restaurants  could 
serve  roast  beef  and  beefsteak  only  one 
day  a  week,  and  boiled  beef  on  two  days 
a  week.  The  consumption  of  poultry 
products,  and  especially  eggs,  was  urged, 
and  for  a  while,  from  February  to  April, 
the  traders  in  freshly  killed  fowl  were 
not  required  to  carry  licenses.  Mean- 
while the  shortage  of  sugar  had  become 
extremely  acute  and  in  August  a  sugar 
rationing  program  was  instituted,  which 
allowed  each  person  only  two  pounds  of 
sugar  a  month.  Exception  was  made  in 
the  case  of  housewives  who  wished  to 
can  fruits  and  berries,  which  was 
strongly  urged,  and  they  could  procure 
extra  amounts  of  sugar  by  special  li- 
cense. By  September,  when  it  became 
obvious  that  a  good  crop  of  cereals  was 
insured,  the  restrictions  on  flour  were 
raised  so  far  as  consumers  were  con- 
cerned, but  President  Wilson  issued  a 
proclamation  forbidding  their  use  in 
the  production  of  spirituous  liquors,  a 
measure  which  was  later  fortified  and 
amplified  by  special  Federal  legislation, 
to  endure  until  demobilization. 

After  the  signing  of  the  armistice  one 
after  another  of  the  various  restrictions 
were  removed,  and  high  prices  took  the 
place  of  scarcity.   By  the  measures  taken 


CONSERVATIVE 


118 


CONSPIRACY 


by  the  Food  Administration  it  was  an- 
nounced that  between  July  and  Novem- 
ber the  sugar  distribution  had  been 
economized  to  the  extent  oi  775,000  tons. 
On  June  30,  1919,  the  administration  of 
the  Food  Controller  came  to  an  e.id, 
and  competition  was  again  fully  re- 
stored, except  in  the  case  of  sugar, 
which  was  continued  on  into  1920. 

CONSERVATIVE,  as  applied  co  one 
of  the  two  great  parties  in  English  pol- 
itics, was  firrt  used  by  J.  W.  Croker  in 
an  article  in  the  "Quarterly"  for  Jan- 
uary, 1830.  Conservative  began  to 
supersede  Tory  about  the  time  of  the 
Reform  Bill  controversies.  The  plural 
form  of  the  word  has  been  assumed  as  a 
distinctive  name  by  certain  political 
parties  in  many  nations.  These  parties 
are  sometimes  actually,  and  always 
avowedly,  opposed  to  changes  from  old 
and  establish  ?d  forme  and  practices.  In 
United  States  history  these  names  have 
never  been  in  general  use,  but  in  Van 
Buren's  administration  the  name  of  Con- 
servatives was  applied  to  those  Demo- 
crats that  at  the  special  session  of  Con- 
gress, of  September,  1837,  opposed  the 
establishment  of  the  sub-treasury  sys- 
tem. In  the  Congress  that  met  in  De- 
cember, 1839,  they  had  practically  dis- 
appeared. The  name  was  also  assumed 
by  Southern  whites  during  the  recon- 
struction period  following  the  Civil  War, 
to  show  their  adherence  to  the  old  State 
governments,  the  abolition  of  which  by 
Congress  they  opposed.  In  Virginia  the 
name  was  in  use  until  1872.  The  name 
was  also  used  at  the  North  during  this 
period.  The  Democrats  applied  it  to 
themselves  to  draw  moderate  Republican 
votes. 

CONSERVATORY,  a  name  given  on 
the  European  continent  to  a  systematic 
school  of  musical  instruction.  In  Great 
Britain  the  term  is  usually  applied  to 
foreign  schools  of  music.  Conservatories 
were  originally  benevolent  establish- 
ments attached  to  hospitals,  or  other 
charitable  or  religious  institutions.  In 
Naples  there  were  formerly  three  con- 
servatories for  boys;  in  Venice  four  for 
girls;  the  Neapolitan  group  being  re- 
duced in  1818  to  a  single  establishment 
tinder  the  name  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Music.  In  Milan,  a  conservatory  was 
established  in  1808.  In  France  the 
musical  school  established  in  connection 
with  the  Opera  received  its  final  organ- 
ization in  1795  under  the  name  of  Coti- 
aervatoire  de  Mufiiqne.  The  Conserva- 
torium,  founded  at  Leipzig  in  1842  un- 
der the  auspices  of  Mendelssohn,  is  one 
of  the  most  influential  in  Germany.  In- 
stitutions   of   the    same    description    are 


established    in    the    capitals    and    large 
cities  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

CONSERVATORY,  in  gardening,  is  a 
term  generally  applied  by  gardeners  to 
plant-houses,  in  which  the  plants  are 
raised  m  a  bed  or  border  without  the 
us2  of  pots,  the  buildinj-j-  being  frequently 
attached  to  a  mansion. 

CONSERVE,  a  form  of  medicine  in 
which  flowers,  herbs,  fruits,  roots,  are 
preserved  as  nearly  as  possible  in  their 
nati^.rvJ  fresh  state. 

CONSHOHOCKEN,  a  borough  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  Montgomery  co.  It  is  on 
the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Philadelphia 
and  Reading  railroads,  and  on  the 
Schuylkill  river.  It  has  rolling  miUs, 
foundries,  furnaces,  rubber  works,  cot- 
ton and  woolen  mills,  ard  steel  mills, 
and  is  an  important  manufacturing 
center.  Pop.  (1910)  7,480;  (1920) 
8,481. 

CONSPIRACY,  a  secret  agreement  or 
combination  between  two  or  more  per- 
sons to  commit  any  unlawful  act  that 
may  injure  any  third  person  or  persons. 
Every  act  of  conspiracy  is  a  misdemeanor 
at  common  law.  In  June,  1900,  the 
House  Committee  on  the  Judiciary  of 
the  United  States  Congress,  reported  a 
bill  that  aroused  widespread  iv+  rest  in 
the  labor  and  business  world  l-ecause  it 
contained  a  definition  of  the  word  con- 
spiracy. The  bill  provided  "That  no 
agreement,  combination  or  contract  by 
or  between  two  or  more  persons  to  do 
or  procure  to  be  done,  or  not  to  do  or 
procure  not  to  be  done,  any  act  in  con- 
templation or  furtherance  of  any  trade 
dispute  between  employers  and  employees 
in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  any  Ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States,  or  who  may 
be  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  trade 
or  commerce,  shall  be  deemed  criminal, 
nor  shall  those  engaged  therein  be  in- 
dictable or  otherwise  punishable  for  the 
crime  of  conspiracy  if  such  act  committed 
by  one  person  would  not  be  punishable 
as  a  crime,  nor  shall  any  I'estraining 
order  or  injunction  be  issued  with  re- 
lation thereto.  Provided,  that  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  shall  not  apply  to 
threats  to  injure  the  person  or  the  prop- 
erty, business  or  occupation  of  any  per- 
son, firm,  association  or  corporation,  to 
intimidation  or  coercion,  or  to  any  acts 
causing  or  intended  to  cause  an  illegal 
interference  by  overt  acts  with  the 
rights  of  others. 

"Nothing  in  this  act  shall  exempt 
from  punishment,  otherwise  than  as 
herein  excepted,  any  persons  guilty  of 
conspiracy  for  which  punishmerL  is  now 
provided   by    any   act    of   Congress,   but 


CONSTABLE 


119 


CONSTANTINE 


such  act  of  Congress  shall,  as  to  the 
agreements,  combinations  and  contracts 
hereinbefore  referred  to,  be  construed 
as  if  this  act  were  therein  contained." 

CONSTABLE,  ARCHIBALD,  a  Scotch 
publisher;  born  in  1774.  He  was  the 
original  publisher  of  the  "Edinburgh 
Review,"  the  poems  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
the  "Waverley  Novels,"  the  "Supplement 
to  the  Encyclopjedia  Britannica,"  and 
other  valuable  works.  In  1825  he  pro- 
jected the  well-known  series  of  works, 
"Constable's  Miscellany."  In  1826,  how- 
ever, the  firm  was  compelled  to  stop  pay- 
ment with  liabilities  exceeding  $1,250,- 
000.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  was  heavily 
involved,  practically  sacrificed  his  life 
in  the  endeavor  to  meet  his  creditors, 
and  Constable  himself  died  in  1827. 

CONSTABLE,  JOHN,  an  English 
landscape  painter;  bom  in  East  Berg- 
holt,  Suffolk,  June  11,  1776;  son  of  a 
miller.  He  studied  at  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy; began  with  portraits  and  history, 
but  fi.nally  fixed  upon  landscape  as  his 
vocation.  The  National  Gallery  has  his 
best  pictures,  "The  Cornfield,"  "The 
Valley  Farm,"  and  "The  Hay-wain." 
In  1824  some  of  his  pictures  were  ex- 
hibited at  the  Paris  Salon,  and  excited 
great  interest  among  the  French  artists. 
To  these  pictures  of  Constable  a  more 
powerful  influence  upon  modern  French 
landscape  art  has  been  ascribed  than 
the  facts  will  warrant.  Paul  Huet,  The- 
odore Rousseau,  and  Diaz  were  all  work- 
ing before  Constable's  pictures  went  to 
France;  but  they  were  working  in  ob- 
scurity. Georges  Michel,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  these  men  (born  1763,  died 
1843),  was  entirely  independent  of  Con- 
stable; but  he  was  hardly  known  to  his 
own  time.  What  Constable's  pictures 
did  was  to  make  a  conspicuous  rallying- 
point  for  the  new  school.  Mr.  Henry 
Marquand  presented  two  fine  Constables 
to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  in 
New  York  City.  Constable  died  in  Lon- 
don, March  30,  1837. 

CONSTABLE  OF  BOURBON.  See 
Bourbon,  Charles,  Duke  of. 

CONSTANCE  (Ger.  Constanz,  or 
Konstanz,  ancient  Constantia) ,  city  and 
lake-port  of  Germany,  in  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Baden,  occupying  the  only  ter- 
ritory belonging  to  Germany  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  Lake  of  Constance.  The  chief 
edifices  are  a  cathedral,  the  Kaufhaus, 
in  which  the  famous  Council  of  Con- 
stance sat  from  1414  to  1418  (and 
which  deposed  three  anti-popes,  and 
condemned  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague)  ; 
an  ancient  palace;  a  grand  ducal  resi- 
dence.    One  of  its  suburbs  is  connected 


with  it  by  a  long  covered  bridge  across 
the  Rhine.  The  city  has  manufactories 
of  cotton  goods,  carpets,  chemicals,  and 
sacking.  Constance  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  in  378  A.  D.  by  Constantius 
Chlorus  as  a  bulwark  against  the  Ale- 
manni.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  when  it 
reached  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  it 
was  frequently  called  Kostnitz.  It  was 
annexed  to  the  Austrian  dominions  in 
1549,  and  to  Baden  in  1805.  Pop.  about 
30,000. 

CONSTANCE,  LAKE  OF  (ancient 
Lacus  Briganthius;  German  Bodensee), 
a  lake  of  central  Europe,  in  which  Swit- 
zerland, Baden,  Wiirttemberg,  Bavaria, 
and  Austria  meet;  forming  a  reservoir 
in  the  course  of  the  Rhine;  length  N.  W. 
to  S.  E.  42  miles,  greatest  breadth  about 
8  miles;  area  207  square  miles.  At  its 
N.  W.  extremity  the  lake  divides  into 
two  branches  or  arms,  ea.ch  about  14 
miles  long;  the  N... called  tJberlingersee 
after  the  town  of  Uberlingen,  on  the  N. 
bank;  the  S.  the  Zellersee,  or  Unter- 
see,  in  which  is  the  fertile  island  of 
Reichenau,  3  miles  long.  The  lakej  which 
is  of  a  dark-green  hue,  is  subject  to 
sudden  risings,  the  causes  of  which 
are  unknown.  It  freezes  in  severe 
winters  only.  The  traffic  on  it  is  con- 
siderable. 

CONSTANT,  JEAN  JOSEPH  BENJA- 
MIN, a  French  portraitpainter;  bom  in 
Paris,  June  10,  1845.  He  studied  in  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  and  under  Cab- 
anel.  He  has  exhibited  with  gi'owing 
distinction,  at  successive  salons,  from 
that  of  1860,  with  his  "Hamlet,"  his 
"Samson"  in  1872,  his  "Scenes  from 
Algiers"  in  1873-1874,  his  great  histor- 
ical painting  of  "Mohammed  II.  in  1453" 
in  the  Exposition  of  1878,  and  in  1885 
a  large  Oriental  subject,  as  melodram- 
atic as  possible,  with  splendid  rendeiung 
of  the  human  figure  and  strong  effects 
of  color.  His  noble  picture  of  "Jus- 
tinian" is  in  the  Metropolitan  Art  Mu- 
seum, New  York.  He  was  decorated 
with  the  cross  of  the  Legrion  of  Honor  in 
1878.    He  died  May  26,  1902. 

CONSTANTINE,  the  ancient  Cirta. 
a  fortified  city  and  bishopric,  in  Algeria ; 
capital  of  the  department  of  Constan- 
tine  (of  which  the  other  chief  towns  are 
Philippeville  and  Bona  on  the  coast, 
Setif  and  El  Wad  in  the  interior) ;  on 
a  detached  rocky  height,  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  ravines,  crossed  in  one 
place  by  a  Roman  bridge,  elsewhere  by 
four  natural  bridges.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  ravines  flows  the  Wad  Rummel. 
The  city  has  Roman  remains,  and  a 
citadel  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Numid- 
ian   fortress,   rising   300   feet   above   the 


CONSTANTINE 


120 


CONSTANTINE  XL 


level  of  the  rock.  It  manufactures  sad- 
dlery and  leather  {]roods,  and  experts 
corn  to  Tunis.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French,  Oct.  13,  1837,  after  two  meni- 
orable  sieg:es. 

CONSTAITTINE,  OAIUS  FLAVIUS 
VALERIUS  AUI^ELIUS  CLAUDIUS, 
a  Roman  eraperor,  tsurnamed  the  Great; 
son  of  the  Eniperor  Canstantine  Chlorus; 
bovn  274  A.  D.  After  the  death  of  his 
father  he  was  chosen  emperor  by  the 
soldiery,  in  tiie  year  306,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  countries  which  had  been 
subject  to  his  father,  namely,  Gaul, 
Spain,  and  Britain.  He  defeated  the 
Franks  who  had  obtained  a  footing  in 
Gaul  and  drove  them  across  the  Rhine; 
and  then  directed  his  arms  against  Max- 
entius,  who  had  joined  Maximian 
against  him.  In  the  campaign  in  Italy 
he  saw,  it  is  said,  the  vision  of  a  flaming 
cross  in  the  heavens,  bearing  the  in- 
scription, "In  hue  signo  vinces."  Under 
the  standard  of  the  cross,  therefore,  he 
vanquished  the  army  of  Maxentius  un- 
der the  walls  of  Rome,  and  entered  the 
city  in  triumph.  In  313,  together  with 
his  son-in-law,  the  Eastern  emperor^ 
Licinius,  he  published  the  memorable 
edict  of  toleration  in  favor  of  the  Chris- 
tians, and  subsequently  declared  Chris- 
tianity the  religion  of  the  state.  Licinius 
twice  took  up  arms  against  him,  h\'  i  was 
on  each  occasion  defeated,  and  finally 
put  to  death.  Thus  in  325  Constantino 
became  the  sole  head  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. His  internal  administration  was 
marked  by  a  wise  spirit  of  reform,  and 
by  many  humane  concessions  with  re- 
gard to  slaves,  etc.  In  329  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  new  capital  of  the  em- 
pire, at  Byzantium,  which  was  called 
after  him  Constantinople,  and  soon 
rivaled  Rome  herself.  In  332  he  fought 
successfully  against  the  Goths,  relieving 
the  empire  of  a  tribute  previously  paid 
the  barbarians.  In  337  he  was  taken  ill 
near  Nicomedia,  was  baptized,  and  died 
after  a  reign  of  31  years,  leaving  his 
empire  between  his  three  sons,  Constan- 
tine,  Constantius,  and  Constans. 

CONSTANTINE  II.,  called  the 
younger,  eldest  son  of  the  above,  re- 
ceived, as  his  share  of  the  empire,  on  the 
death  Sf  his  father,  Gaul,  Spain,  and 
Britain.  Being  desirous,  however,  of  pos- 
sessing himself  of  the  territory  of  his 
brother  Constans,  he  was  killed  in  Italy, 
in  340. 

CONSTANTINE  III.  (NOVUS),  bom 
in  612  A.  D.;  died  in  641. 

CONSTANTINE  IV..  Emperor  of  the 
East,  surnamed  Pogonatus,  c/  the 
Bearded,  was  son  of  Constans  II.,  whom 


he  succeeded  in  668.  His  two  brothers, 
Tiberius  and  Heraclius,  shared  the  title 
of  Augustus,  but  had  little  or  no  share 
in  the  government,  and  toward  the  close 
of  his  reign,  Constantine  IV.,  under  the 
influent'^  of  suspicion,  had  them  put  to 
death.  Constantinople  was  unsuccessful- 
ly attacked  by  the  Mussulmans  in  672- 
678.  During  these  wars  the  famous 
"Greek  fire"  was  invented.  Constantine 
died  in  685. 

CONSTANTINE  V.,  Emperor  of  the 
East,  succeeded  his  father,  Leo  the 
Isaurian,  in  743.  He  sided  with  the 
Iconoclasts,  who  hurled  down  the  images 
of  the  saints,  and  persecuted  the  follow- 
ers of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He 
died  in  an  expedition  against  the  Bul- 
garians in  775. 

CONSTANTINE  VI.,  Emperor  of  the 
East,  was  the  son  of  Leo  IV.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  780.  Being  only  10  years 
old  when  his  father  died,  his  mother 
Irene  was  his  guardian  and  regent  of  the 
empire.  After  arriving  at  the  mature 
age  he  wished  to  assume  the  government 
himself;  but  Irene  had  him  imprisoned. 
He  escaped  in  790,  exiled  his  mother,  re- 
called her,  and,  finally,  ruined  by  his 
licentious  living,  and  despised  by  his  sub- 
jects, a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  Irene  leading;  and  being  impris- 
oned, his  eyes  were  put  out  by  her  orders. 
The  blind  prince  died  in  797. 

CONSTANTINE  VII.,  was  named  em- 
peror in  868,  during  the  lifetime  of  his 
father,  Basilius  I.,  but  died  in  878. 

CONSTANTINE  VIII.,  surnamed 
Porphyrogenitus,  Emperor  of  the  East, 
succeeded  Leo  the  Wise  in  905.  He  was 
destitute  of  energy,  and  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  study.  He  admitted  colleagues 
to  the  throne,  so  that  at  last  five  em- 
perors were  reigning  together.  Constan- 
tine VIII.  left  a  treatise  on  state  affairs, 
a  geography  of  the  empire,  and  the  "Life 
of  the  Emperor  Basilius,  the  Macedoni- 
an."   He  died  in  959. 

CONSTANTINE  IX.,  son  of  Romanus 
I.,  reigned  with  his  father  and  two 
brothers,  from  919  to  945,  during  the 
time  that  Porphyrogenitus  was  deposed. 

CONSTANTINE  X.,  son  of  Romanus* 
II.,   succeeded   John   Zemisees,   D.nd   was 

Eroclaimed  emperor  of  the  East,  with  his 
rother,  Basilius  II.,  who  held  the  prin- 
cipal authority  till  1025,  when  he  died. 
Constantine  X.  was,  after  that,  sole  em- 
peror.    He  died  in  1028. 

CONSTANTINE  XI.,  surnamed  the 
Gladiator,  obtained  the  empire  in  1042, 
having  married  the  Empress  Zoe,  widow 
of  Romanus  III.     This  prince  is  known 


CONSTANTINE  XII. 


121 


CONSTANTINE  TOLMEN 


alone  for  his  debaucheries.  He  allowed 
the  Turks  to  increase  their  territories  at 
his  expense,  and  to  establish  themselves 
in  Persia. 

CONSTANTINE  XII.,  surnamed  Du- 
cas,  succeeded,  in  1059,  Isaac  Comnenus, 
who  had  adopted  him.  In  his  reign  the 
Scythians  ravaged  the  empire,  and  some 
cities  were  destroyed  by  earthquakes.  He 
died  in  1067. 

CONSTANTINE  XIII.,  the  last  of  the 
Greek  emperors,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1448.  He  was  killed  in  bravely  de- 
fending Constantinople  against  Mahomet 
II.,  who  in  1453  besieged  the  city  with 
300,000  men.  Constantine  displayed 
great  valor,  but  the  city  was  taken  and 
thus  ended  the  Greek  empire. 

CONSTANTINE,  FLAVIUS  JULIUS, 
a  privatt  soldier,  who  was  raised  by  the 
army  in  Britain  to  the  imperial  dignity 
in  409,  on  which  he  crossed  over  to  Gaul, 
and  conquered  that  country  and  Spain. 
He  fixed  nis  court  at  Aries,  where  he  was 
besieged  by  Constantius,  the  general  of 
the  Emperor  Honorius,  to  whom  he  sur- 
rendered on  the  promise  that  his  life 
would  be  spared;  but  it  was  basely  vio- 
lated, and  both  Constantine  and  his  son 
were  put  to  death,  411  A.  D. 

CONSTANTINE  I.,  King  of  Greece, 
born  in  Athens,  eldest  son  of  King 
George  I.  and  Olga,  daughter  of  the  Rus- 
sian Grand-Duke  Constantine  Nikolaye- 
vitch,  and  niece  of  the  Russian  Czar, 
Nicholas  I.  He  was  reared  in  the  Greek 
Orthodox  faith  and  educated  in  Germany, 
at  Leipzig  and  Berlin.  In  1889  he  mar- 
ried Princess  Sophia,  sister  of  Emperor 
William  II.  of  Germany.  In  1897  he 
took  command  in  the  field  of  the  Greek 
armies  engaged  in  the  war  against  Tur- 
key, with  the  result  that  he  was  held 
largely  responsible  for  the  disasters 
which  befell  the  Greek  forces  in  that 
campaign.  In  1912-1913  he  largely  re- 
trieved his  military  reputation  by  his 
successful  operations  against  the  Turks 
before  Saloniki,  when  he  was  again  in 
full  command  of  the  Greek  forces.  On 
March  9,  1913,  his  father.  King  George 
I.,  was  assassinated  in  Saloniki,  and  on 
March  21  follovdng  Constantine  ascended 
the  throne.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War  (1914)  he  immediately 
showed  himself  in  sympathy  with  the 
Central  Empires,  for  which  reason  he 
came  into  constant  friction  with  the  Al- 
lies, who  had  been  invited  by  the  Greek 
Premier,  Venizelos,  to  land  a  force  in 
Macedonia  for  operations  against  the 
Turks.  King  Constantine  persisted  in 
his  pro-German  policy  so  assiduously 
that  finally,  on  June  12,  1917,  under  pres- 


sure from  the  Allies,  he  abdicated  in 
favor  of  Prince  Alexander,  his  second 
oldest  son,  the  Crown  Prince  being  also 


CONSTANTINE  I.  OF  GREECE 

regarded  as  infected  with  his  father's 
sympathies.  He  lived  in  retirement  in 
Switzerland  until  he  was  recalled  by  a 
vote  of  the  people  held  on  Dec.  5,  1920. 

CONSTANTINE  I.,  King  of  Scotland 
from  458  to  479.  Constantine  II.,  king 
from  858  to  871.  Constantine  TIL,  king 
from  903  to  943.  Constantine  IV., 
usurped  the  throne,  and  was  killed  by 
the  brother  of  Kenneth,  1062. 

CONSTANTINE,  NIKOLAEVITCH, 
the  second  son  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas 
of  Russia,  and  brother  of  the  Emperor 
Alexander  II.,  grand-duke  and  great  ad- 
miral of  Russia;  born  in  St.  Petersburg, 
Sept.  21,  1827.  In  the  war  of  1854-1856, 
he  had  the  defenses  of  the  Baltic  intrust- 
ed to  his  care,  in  conjunction  with  Ad- 
miral Liitke;  but  the  policy  of  the  em- 
peror  hardly  allowed  the  prince  any  dis- 
play of  courage  or  ability.  He  was  made 
Viceroy  of  Poland  in  1862.  He  died  in 
St.  Petersburg,  Jan.  24,  1892. 

CONSTANTINE  TOLMEN,  a  great 
oblong  stone,  33  feet  long,  18  wide,  and 
14  thick,  poised  on  the  points  of  two  up- 
right rocks  in  Cornwall,  England. 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


122 


CONSTELLATION 


CONSTANTINOPLE  ("city  of  Con- 
stantine"),  called  by  the  Turks  Stam- 
boxtl;  a  celebrated  city  of  Turkey  in  Eu- 
rope; capital  of  the  Turkish  empire;  on 
a  promontory  jutting  out  into  the  Sea  of 
Marmo.a,  having  the  Golden  Horn,  an 
inlet  of  the  latter,  on  the  N.  and  the 
Bosporus  on  the  E.  The  city  proper  is 
thus  surrounded  by  water  on  all  sides 
excepting  the  W,,  where  is  an  ancient 
and  lofty  double  wall  4  miles  in  length, 
stretching  across  the  promontory.  On 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Golden  Horn  are 
Galata,  Pera,  and  other  suburbs,  while  on 
the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bosporus  entrance 
is  Skutari.  Occupying  the  extreme  point 
of  the  promontory  on  which  the  city 
stands  is  the  Seraglio  or  palace  of  the 
Sultan,  which,  with  its  buildings,  pavil- 
ions, gardens,  and  groves,  includes  a 
large  space. 

Of  the  300  mosques,  the  most  remark- 
able are  the  royal  mosques,  of  which 
there  are  about  15,  esteemed  the  finest 
in  the  world.  First  among  these  is  the 
Mosque  of  St.  Sophia,  the  most  ancient 
existing  Christian  Church,  converted  into 
a  mosque  in  1453  on  the  capture  of  the 
city  by  the  Turks.  Another  magnificent 
mosque  is  that  of  Soliman;  after  which 
are  those  of  the  Sultana  Valide,  built  by 
the  mother  of  Mohammed  IV.,  and  of 
Sultan  Achmet,  the  most  conspicuous  ob- 
ject in  the  city  when  viewed  from  the 
Sea  of  Marmora. 

Constantinople  has  but  one  remarkable 
square,  called  the  At-Meidan,  occupying 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Hippodrome. 
There  are  about  180  public  baths  in  the 
city,  mostly  of  marble,  of  plain  exterior, 
but  handsome  and  commodious  within. 
The  few  manufactures  are  chiefly  con- 
fined to  articles  in  morocco  leather,  sad- 
dlery, tobacco-pipes,  fez  caps,  arms,  per- 
fumes, gold  and  silver  embroideries,  etc. 
The  foreign  commerce  is  considerable. 
The  harbor,  the  Golden  Horn,  which  more 
resembles  a  large  river  than  a  harbor,  is 
deep,  well-sheltered,  and  capable  of  con- 
taining 1,200  large  ships,  which  may  load 
and  unload  along  the  quays.  It  is  about 
6  miles  long,  and  a  little  more  than  half 
a  mile  broad  at  the  widest  part.  The 
exports  consist  of  silk,  carpets,  hides, 
wool,  goats'-hair,  and  valonia. 

The  suburb  Galata  is  the  principal 
seat  of  foreign  commerce.  Here  are  sit- 
uated the  arsenals,  the  dock-yard,  and  the 
artillery  barracks,  extending  along  the 
Bosporus  for  nearly  1%  miles.  It  is  an 
ancient  place.  Pera  occupies  the  more 
elevated  portion  of  the  promontory  of 
which  Galata  forms  the  maritime  port. 
Both  it  and  Galata  have  now  much  of 
the  appearance  of  a  modern  European 
town.     Constantinople   occupies  the   site 


of  the  ancient  Byzantium,  and  was 
named  after  Constantine  the  Great,  who 
rebuilt  it  about  330  A.  D.  It  was  taken 
in  1204  by  the  Crusaders,  who  retained 
it  till  1261;  and  by  the  Turks  under  Mo- 
hammed II.,  May  29,  1453 — an  event 
which  completed  the  extinction  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire.  See  Byzantine  Em- 
pire and  Byzantium.  In  1915  the  Brit- 
ish and  French  fleet  and  forces  attempt- 
ed to  capture  Constantinople  by  attack- 
ing in  the  Dardanelles,  but  failed.  With 
the  collapse  of  the  empire  in  October, 
1918,  Constantinople  was  occupied  by  an 
Allied  military  commission.  Pop.  about 
1,000,000. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,     STRAIT     OP. 

See  Bosporus. 

CONSTANTItrS,  CHLOSUS,  nephew 
of  the  emperor  Claudius  II.,  became  Czesar 
in  292  A.  D.,  received  Britain,  Gaul,  and 
Spain  as  his  governm.ent,  and  after  re- 
establishing Roman  power  in  Britain  and 
defeating  the  Alemanni,  became  one  of 
the  two  Augustuses  in  305,  Vut  died  in 
York  in  306.  Constantine  the  Great  was 
his  son. —  (2)  Constantius,  third  son  of 
Constantine,  was  Roman  emperor,  337- 
361  A.  D.  He  fought  with  the  Persians; 
and  after  the  death  in  350  of  his  brother 
Constans  (who  in  340  had  defeated  their 
elder  brother  Constantine) ,  became  sole 
emperor  till  his  death  in  361. 

CONSTELLATION,  a  group  or  con- 
figuration of  stars,  within  certain  bound- 
aries, to  which  a  definite  name  has  been 
assigned,  the  name  being  generally  ex- 
pressed in  its  Latin  for  the  sake  of  in- 
ternational convenience  and  of  exactness. 
This  grouping  is  almost  entirely  arti- 
ficial, though  some  of  the  configurations 
bear  some  resembic.nce  to  the  object  in- 
dicated by  the  name. 

Histary. — Before  the  invention  of  al- 
manacs the  risings  and  settings  of  the 
constellatioiis  were  loclred  to  by  husband- 
men, shepherds,  and  st:: -faring  men  as 
the  landmarks  of  the  seasons,  and  of  the 
weather  which  each  season  was  expected 
to  bring.  The  earliest  description  that 
we  have  of  the  constellations  is  the  poem 
by  Aratus,  called  "The  Phenomena  of 
Aratus,"  about  280  B.C.  The  Greek 
sphere  used  by  Hipparchus,  125  B.  C,  ap- 
pears to  be  the  earliest  known  accurate 
representation  of  the  positions  and  mag- 
nitudes of  the  stars,  and  upon  this  they 
were  grouped  into  48  constellations.  We 
know  of  this  work  through  the  descrip- 
tion of  it  in  Ptolemy's  "Meg ale  Syn- 
taxis,"  A.  D.  170.  This  was  translated  by 
the  Saracens  into  Arabic,  A.  D.  813-832, 
and  miscalled  by  them  the  "Almagest," 
and  it  is  principally  through  translations 
of  this  work  that  we  know  of  these  48 


CONSTELLATION 


123 


CONSTITUTION 


original  asterisms.  Various  astronomers 
have  since  then  added  a  host  of  others, 
but  most  of  these  have  fallen  into  disuse. 
Lettering  the  Stars. — In  1603  Bayer, 
in  his  "Uranometria,''  immortalized  him- 
self by  the  happy  thought  of  assigning 
letters  to  the  individual  stars  of  each  of 
the  48  constellations  of  the  "Almagest" 
beginning  with  the  Greek  alphabet  and 
following  approximately  the  order  of 
brightness  of  the  stars,  and  then  using 
the  lower-case  Roman  letters  where  need- 
ed to  complete  any  constellation.  Some 
confusion  has  arisen,  especially  in  those 
extending  far  toward  the  S.,  in  trying  to 
identify  all  of  Bayer's  lettered  stars.  Ar- 
gelander's  "Uranometria  Nova"  is,  how- 
ever, accepted  to-day,  with  a  few  trifling 
exceptions,  as  the  cori'ect  interpretation 
of  Bayer.  Lacaille,  at  the  Cape,  1751- 
1752,  extended  the  same  system  to  the 
southern  constellations,  and  was  also 
compelled  to  revise  the  lettering  of  a  few 
of  Bayer's  most  southern  ones,  which 
were  very  inaccurately  delineated.  As 
far  N.  as  his  work  extended,  to  +  10°  of 
declination,  Dr.  Gould  also  assigned  let- 
ters in  the  constellations  still  unlettered, 
Monorceros,  Scutiim,  and  Sextans.  In 
the  northern  constellations  added  by 
Hevelius,  or  between  his  time  and  Ptol- 
emy, and  which  had  not  been  lettered, 
Bailey  assigned  a  few  Greek  letters  when 
publishing  the  "  B.  A.  C"  {British  Asso- 
ciation Catalogue)  in  1845.  These  let- 
ters will  probably  stand  in  any  future 
revision  of  the  northern  heavens,  though 
they  are  not  very  generally  used  by  as- 
tronomers to-day.  It  should  also  be  noted 
that  the  last  letters  of  the  capital  Roman 
alphabet,  beginning  with  R,  are  reserved 
for  the  variable  stars.  This  has  been 
agreed  upon  since  Argelander's  time,  and 
has  compelled  the  abandonment  of  sev- 
eral such  letters  assigned  by  Lacaille  in 
the  southern  heavens  to  stars  that  are 
not  variables.  Flamsteed's  numbers  in 
each  constellation  of  the  stars  observed 
by  him  are  also  extensively  used  as  a 
system  of  naming  individual  stars. 
These  numbers  refer  to  the  order  in 
which  the  stars  occur  in  each  constella- 
tion in  his  "Catalogus  BHtannicus.'' 
Other  early  catalogues  of  stars  arranged 
in  this  way  by  constellations  are  often 
used  as  a  means  of  naming  individual 
stars,  especially  that  of  Hevelius,  a  capi- 
tal H  being  used  in  this  case.  These 
numbers  refer,  not  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  stars  in  Hevelius's  original  "Prodo- 
mus  Astronomise"  (1690),  nor  to  Bailey's 
edition  of  it  in  the  13th  volume  of  the 
"Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  So- 
ciety," but  to  Flamsteed's  edition  of  the 
catalogue  as  published  in  the  third  vol- 
ume  of  the   "Historia    Cselestis   Britan- 


nica"  London,  1725,  and  considerable 
confusion  has  at  times  arisen  from  igno- 
rance of  this  fact. 

CONSTIPATION,  an  undue  retention 
of  the  faeces  or  their  imperfect  evacua- 
tion. When  the  morbid  affection  is  but 
slight  it  is  of  little  moment.  In  most 
cases,  however,  there  is  headache,  more 
rarely  vertigo;  while  if  the  disease  be 
protracted  and  severe,  colic,  haemor- 
rhoids, cutaneous  eruptions,  hysteria, 
epilepsy,  or  even  ileus  or  enteritis,  the 
last  two  fatal  diseases,  may  be  the  re- 
sult. 

CONSTITUENT  ASSEMBLY,  a  name 
given  to  the  first  convention  of  the  dele- 
gates of  the  French  nation  (1787-1791) 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  legislative  as- 
sembly of  1791.  It  drew  up  and  obtained 
the  acceptance  of  the  first  of  the  famous 
revolutionary  constitutions.  The  Con- 
stituent Assembly  of  1848  had  a  similar 
aim. 

CONSTITUTION,  the  organic  law, 
written  or  unwritten,  of  a  body  politic, 
though  the  word  is  used  popularly  with 
great  vagueness.  The  natives  of  Eng- 
land speak  with  pride  of  the  British 
"constitution."  Each  of  the  United 
States  of  America  has  a  "constitution," 
while  the  Federal  "constitution"  holds 
them  all  together.  During  the  demo- 
cratic uprising  in  Continental  Europe  in 
1848,  the  people  in  each  country  de- 
manded that  their  despotic  sovereigns 
should  grant  them  a  "constitution."  In 
all  these  cases  the  constitution  is  an  or- 
ganization of  the  great  body  politic  with 
regard  to  such  fundamental  matters  as 
legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  power 
and  authority.  In  the  uprisings  in  1848, 
the  constitution  sought  was  an  instru- 
ment having  the  force  of  solemn  com- 
pact, by  which  the  despot,  who  had  hith- 
erto ruled  alone,  or  nearly  alone,  gave 
a  substantial  share  of  his  power  to  his 
subjects,  so  as  to  render  them  in  a  man- 
ner self-governed.  In  the  United  States, 
whether  the  State  in  point  was  founded 
before  or  after  the  War  of  Independence, 
it  was  an  engagement  between  the  dif- 
ferent portions  of  society  as  to  the 
political  powers  which  they  should  re- 
spectively exercise.  In  the  British  con- 
stitution it  is  the  complex  political  or- 
ganization which  has  grown  up  during 
the  many  centuries  that  the  British  peo- 
ple have  existed,  and  which  consequently 
has  a  stability  and  an  adaptation  to  all 
classes. 

One  reason  of  the  successful  working 
of  the  American  and  the  British  con- 
stitutions has  been  their  mixed  char- 
acter. No  class  of  men  are  morally 
capable  of  wielding  supreme  power  with- 


CONSTITUTION 


124      CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


out  abusing  it.  A  Nero,  a  Caligula,  a  Ti- 
berius, and  a  multitude  of  other  emper- 
ors, show  what  uncontrolled  royal  power 
can  do.  By  the  State  and  National  Con- 
stitutions of  the  United  States  the  legis- 
lative power  is  vested  in  the  National 
and  State  legislatures;  the  executive 
power  in  the  President  and  governors, 
both  of  whom  are  elected  and  removed  at 
frequent  intervals.  The  judiciary  inter- 
pret the  law,  and  are  in  turn  restrained 
by  written  statutes  and  prescription. 
The  rights  of  the  people  are  guarded  by 
the  habeas  corpus  act,  and  by  the  further 
constitutional  guarantees  of  both  the 
State  and  National  charters.  The  jury 
trial  stands  as  a  bar  to  malicious  per- 
secution. Should  an  exigency  arise 
necessitating  a  change  in  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  State  or  of  the  nation,  the 
change  must  be  submitted  to  the  people 
and  ratified  by  them. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
as  it  now  stands  consists  of  7  orig^inal 
articles  and  19  articles  of  amendment, 
the  last  two  being  those  providing  for 
the  prohibition  of  intoxicating  liquors 
and  for  woman  suffrage.  It  was  origi- 
nally framed  by  the  representatives  of 
the  people,  who  met  at  Philadelphia,  and 
finally  adopted  it  on  Sept.  17,  1787.  It 
became  a  law  of  the  land  on  the  first 
Wednesday  of  March,  1789.  In  the  Brit- 
ish constitution  legislative  power  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  king,  lords, 
and  the  commons ;  the  executive  power  is 
nominally  in  the  hands  of  the  sovereign, 
but  really  in  these  of  responsible  minis- 
ters. The  judicial  authority  is  vested  in 
judges,  not  removobie  except  for  very 
serious  fault;  while  the  jury  system 
affords  a  guaracteo  that  no  one  can  be 
pronounced  guilty  Uiiless  12  of  his  peers 
see  their  way  to  convicting  him  of  the 
offense.  Nor  can  one  I^  imprisoned  for 
an  indefinite  period  without  being 
brought  to  trial;  for  a  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  may  be  applied  Tor,  which  re- 
quires the  individual  to  be  produced  for 
trial  within  a  certain  time,  or  released. 
These  fundamental  arrangements  are 
not  like  the  changeless  laws  of  nature. 
A  constitution  made  directly  or  indi- 
rectly by  men  may  be  altered  by  men, 
and,  in  exceptional  circumstances,  when 
parts  of  the  constitution  are  systemati- 
cally abused  to  the  detriment  of  society, 
society,  speaking  by  its  mouthpiece,  the 
Legislature,  can  meet  the  crisis  by  en- 
acting that  they  shall  be  temporarily 
suspended  or  permanently  repealed. 

Apostolic  Constitutions  are  ordinances 
for  the  discipline  of  the  Church,  partic- 
ularly the  apostolic  constitutions  and  a 
collection  of  regulations  attributed  to  the 
Apostles,  and  supposed  to  hav*  been  col- 


lected by  St.  Clement,  whose  name  they 
bear.  Their  authenticity  has  been 
greatly  questioned. 

In  Scots  Law,  a  decree  of  constitution 
is  a  decree  by  which  the  extent  of  a  debt 
or  obligation  is  ascertained.  The  term 
is  generally  applied  to  those  decrees 
which  are  requisite  to  found  a  title  in 
th3  person  of  the  creditor  in  the  event  of 
the  death  of  the  debtor  of  the  original 
creditor. 

The  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  are 
constitutions,  in  the  sense  of  laws  or 
regulations,  made  at  a  Council  held  at 
Clarendon,  near  Salisbury,  on  Jan.  25, 
1164.  They  were  designed  to  define  the 
boundary-line  between  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical jurisdiction,  and  did  so  in  a  sense 
favorable  to  the  civil  power.  On  this 
account  Thomas  a  Becket,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  refused  to  sign  them,  and 
excommunicated  many  of  the  ecclesias- 
tics who  had  done  so.  This  led  to  the 
feud  between  him  and  the  civil  govern- 
ment, which  ultimately  caused  his  as- 
sassination on  Dec.  29,  1170. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES. — We,  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
Union,  establish  ^'ustice,  insure  domestic 
tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  de- 
fense, promote  the  general  welfare,  and 
secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  our- 
selves and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United 
States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Section  I.  AH  legislative  powers  herein 
granted  shall  be  vested  In  a  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate 
and    House    of    Representatives. 

Section  IL  1.  The  House  of  Representatives 
shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen  every 
Becond  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States, 
and  the  electors  In  each  State  shall  have  the 
qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  moat 
numerous    branch    of   the   Str.te    Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  25  years, 
and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an 
Inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be 
chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be 
apportioned  among  the  several  States  which 
may  be  included  within  this  Union  according 
to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  de- 
termined by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of 
free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service 
for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed,  three-flfths  of  all  other  persons.  The 
actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three 
years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent 
term  of  10  years,  In  such  manner  as  they  shall 
by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives 
shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  30,000,  but  each 
State  sha!J  have  at  least  one  Representative ; 
and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the 
State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to 
choose  3  ;  Massachusetts,  8  ;  Rhode  Island  and 
Providence  Plantations,  1  ;  Connecticut,  5 ; 
New  York,  6;  New  .Jersey,  4:  Pennsylvania,  8; 
Delaware,  1  ;  Maryland,  6  :  Virginia.  10  ;  North 
Carolina,  5  ;   South   Carolina,  5,  and  Georgia,  3. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S.       125        CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  represen- 
tation from  any  State,  the  Executive  Authority 
thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacanclea. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose 
their  Speaker  and  other  officers,  and  shall  have 
the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  III.  1.  The  Senate  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators  from 
each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof, 
for  six  years ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have 
one   vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled 
in  consequence  of  the  first  election,  they  shall 
be  divided  as  equally  as  may  bo  Into  three 
classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first 
class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the 
second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class 
at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that 
one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ; 
and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or 
otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  Legislature 
of  any  State,  the  Executive  thereof  may  make 
temporary  appointment  until  the  next  meeting 
of  the  Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such 
vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  30  years,  and 
been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabit- 
ant of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  President  of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have 
no   vote  unless   they   be   equally   divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  officers, 
also  a  president  pro  tempore,  In  the  absence  of 
the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  extrcise 
the   office  of   President   of   the   United   States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to 
try  all  impeachments.  When  sitting  for  that 
purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  President  of  the  United  States  Is 
tried,  the  Chief-Justice  shall  preside ;  and  no 
person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of   two-thirds   of   the   members   present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  Impeachment  shall 
not  extend  further  than  to  remove  from  office, 
and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office 
of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United 
States ;  but  the  party  convicted  shall  neverthe- 
less be  liable  and  subject  to  Indictment,  trial, 
judgment,  and  punishment,   according  to  law. 

Section  IV.  1.  The  times,  places,  and  man- 
ner of  holding  elections  for  Senators  and  Rep- 
resentatives shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State 
by  the  Legislature  thereof ;  but  the  Congress 
may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such 
regulations,  except  as  to  places  of  choosing 
Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once 
in  every  year,  and  such  meeting  shall  be  on  the 
first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall 
by   law   appoint   a   different   dav. 

Section  V.  1.  Each  House  shall  be  the 
judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and  qualifica- 
tions of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of 
each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business  ; 
but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day 
to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the 
attendance  of  absent  members  in  such  manner 
and  under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may 
provide. 

2.  Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of 
its  proceedings,  punish  its  members  for  dis- 
orderly behavior,  and  with  the  concurrence  of 
two-thirds  expel   a  member. 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its 
proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  publish  the 
same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy ;  and  the  yeas  and 
nays  of  the  members  of  either  House  on  any 
question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of 
those    present,    be    entered    on    the    journal. 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of 
Congress,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor 
to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two 
Houses  shall   be   sitting. 


Section  VL  1.  The  Senators  and  Repre- 
sentatives shall  receive  a  compensation  for 
their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and 
paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States. 
They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony, 
and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from 
arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session 
of  their  respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to 
and  returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any 
speech  or  debate  in  either  House  they  shall 
not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  dur- 
ing the  time  for  whicii  he  was  elected,  be  ap- 
pointed to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority 
of  the  United  States  which  shall  have  boeu 
creat^d,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  hav« 
been  Increased  during  such  time ;  and  no  per- 
son holding  any  office  under  the  United  States 
shall  be  a  member  of  either  House  during  hia 
continuance  In  office. 

Section  VII.  1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue 
shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives, 
but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with 
amendments,    as    on    otiier    bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the 
House  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate  shall, 
before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States ;  if  he  approve, 
he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  It. 
with  his  objections,  to  that  House  in  which  it 
shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the 
objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  pro- 
ceed to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  reconsidera- 
tion two-thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to 
pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the 
objections,  to  the  other  House,  by  which  it 
shall  likewise  be  reconsidered  ;  and  if  approved 
by  two-thirds  of  that  House  it  shall  become  a 
law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both 
Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays, 
and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and 
against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal 
of  each  House  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall 
not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  10 
days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have 
been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law 
in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless 
the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its 
return  ;   in  which   case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which 
the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States  ;  and  before 
the  same  shall  take  effect  shall  be  approved  by 
him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be 
repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rulea 
and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Section  VIII.  1.  The  Congress  shall  have 
power : 

To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and 
excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the 
common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the 
United  States  ;  but  ail  duties,  imposts,  and  ex- 
cises shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United 
States. 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the 
United    States. 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  na- 
tions and  among  the  several  States,  and  with 
the  Indian   tribes. 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  natural- 
ization and  rniform  laws  on  the  subject  of 
bankru'  tcies  ■•  hroughout  the  United  States. 

5.  'I'll  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  there- 
of, ana  of  for  igu  coin,  and  &x  the  standard  of 
weigh'.?   .'ind  ir.oasures. 

6.  To  pro^  ide  for  the  punishment  of  coun- 
terfeiting the  securities  and  current  coin  of  the 
United    ?tatet 

7.  To   est:  blish    postofflces   and   postroads. 

8.  To  r'rc'mote  the  progress  of  science  and 
useful  arts  by  securing  for  limited  times  to 
authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to 
their   respective    writings    and    discoveries. 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the 
Supreme   Court. 

10.  To     define     and     punish     piracies     and 

9— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S.       126      CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


felonies    committed    on    the    high    seas,    and    of- 
fenses against   the  law  of   nations. 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque 
and  reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  cap- 
tures on   land  and  water. 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no 
appropriation  of  money  to  that  use  shall  be 
for  a  longer  term  than  two   years. 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy. 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  the  land  and   naval  forces. 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia 
to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  in- 
surrections, and  repel  invasions. 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and 
disciplining  the  militia,  and  for  governing  such 
part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States 
respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers, 
and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  ac- 
cording to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress. 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all 
cases  whatsoever  over  such  district  (not  ex- 
ceeding 10  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States  and  the  acceptance  of  Con- 
gress, become  the  seat  of  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority 
over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the 
Legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall 
be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arse- 
nals, dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings. 
And 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  neces- 
sary and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the 
foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer 
thereof. 

Section  IX.  1.  The  migration  or  importa- 
tion of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States  now 
existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit  shall  not 
be  prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  vear 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a 
tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importa- 
tion,  not  exceeding  10   dollars  for  each   person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when  in  cases  of 
rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  re- 
quire  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law 
shall    be   passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be 
laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or 
enumeration   hereinbefore  directed   to   be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles 
exported   from   any   State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  reg- 
ulation of  commerce  or  reveflue  to  the  ports  of 
one  State  over  those  of  another,  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged 
to   enter,  clear,  or  pay   duties   in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treas- 
ury but  in  consequence  of  appropriations  made 
by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account 
of  tne  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public 
money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

8-  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by 
the  United  States.  And  no  person  holding  any 
office  ot  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any 
present,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any  kind 
whatever    from    any    king,    prince,    or    foreign 

Sections.  1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any 
treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation,  grant  letters 
or  marque  and  reprisal,  coin  money,  emit  bills 
nL„  o  r  ?^^®.  anything  but  gold  and  silver 
hni  J  oft°?^^  *°  payment  of  debts,  pass  any 
nniHn,,  ♦l^' ""^SV'  ^^.  ^'0'*  /«f'o  law,  or  law  im- 
a"ny"?ifle'of  Zf^ttT     "'    '°°'^"'*^'    ''    ^^^"^^ 

r^l\,.rl!2  f^^*®  ^^^V'  without  the  consent  of  the 
Congress,  lay  any  Impost  or  duties  on  imports 
or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws  and 
the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts  laid 
*L  ^°v^  ^^^^^  ^°  Imports  or  exports,  shall  be 
lor    the    use    of    the    Treasury    of    the    United 


States :    and    all    such    laws   shall   be   subject   to 
the   revision    and    control    of   the   Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep  troops 
or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into 
any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  State, 
or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  _  in  war, 
unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent 
danger  as  will  not   admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE    IL 

Section  I.  1.  The  executive  power  shall  be 
vested  in  a  President  of  the  United  States  of 
America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the 
term  of  four  years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice- 
President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  e»ected 
as    follows : 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner 
as  the  Legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a  number 
of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Sen«- 
ators  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State 
may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress ;  but  no  Sen- 
ator or  Representative  or  person  holding  an 
office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States 
shall  be  appointed  an   elector. 

3.  [The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  re- 
spective States  and  vote  by  ballot  for  two  per- 
sons, of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves. 
And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons 
voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each, 
which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify  and 
transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President 
of  the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and 
the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be 
the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and 
if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such 
majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes, 
then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  im- 
mediately choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for 
President ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority, 
then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said 
House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  Presi- 
dent. But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes 
shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation 
from  each  State  having  one  vote.  A  quorum, 
for  this  purpose,  shall  consist  of  a  member  o" 
members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a 
majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to 
a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of 
the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the 
Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain 
two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate 
shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice- 
President.] 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time 
of  choosing  the  electors  and  the  day  on  which 
they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be 
the    same    throughout    the    United    States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen, 
or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the  time 
of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be 
eligible  to  the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall 
any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  35  years  and 
been  14  years  a  resident  within  the  United 
States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President 
from  office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  in- 
ability to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  Eaid  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the 
Vice-President,  and  the  Congress  may  by  law 
provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resigna- 
tion, or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then 
act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act 
accordingly  until  the  disability  be  removed  or  a 
President  shall   be  elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  re- 
ceive for  his  services  a  compensation,  which 
shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected, 
and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period  any 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  TJ.  S.       127       CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or 
any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his 
office  he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or 
affirmation : 

"I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will 
faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of  the 
UuHed  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my 
ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States." 

Si-.CTiON  II.  1.  The  President  shall  be  Com- 
mander-in-Chief of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several 
States  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of 
the  United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion, 
in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  departments  upon  any  subject 
relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices, 
and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and 
pardons  for  offenses  against  tlie  Uni^ad  States 
except    in   cases   of    impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  rnd  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make 
treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  Senators  • 
present  concur;  and  he  sharll  nominate,  and  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate 
shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  minis- 
ters and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States  whose 
appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided 
for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law ; 
but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appoint- 
ment of  such  inferior  officers  as  they  think 
proper  tn  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of 
law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up 
All  vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the 
recess  of  the  Senate  by  granting  commissions, 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next 
session. 

Section  III.  He  shall  from  time  to  time 
give  to  the  Congress  information  of  the  state 
of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consid- 
eration such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  neces- 
-ary  and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of 
them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them 
with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall 
think  proper  ;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and 
other  public  ministers ;  he  shall  take  care  that 
the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  com- 
mission all  the  officers  of  the  United   States. 

Section  IV.  The  President,  Vice-President, 
and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for  and 
conviction  of  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III. 

Section  I.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme  Court, 
and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress 
may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish. 
The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior 
courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good 
behavior,  and  shall  at  stated  times  receive  for 
their  services  a  compensation  which  shall  not 
be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Section  II.  1.  The  judicial  power  shaH  ex- 
tend to  all  cases  in  law  and  equitv  arising 
under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  their  authority  ;  to  all  cases  affect- 
ing ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and 
consuls  :  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime 
jurisdiction ;  to  controversies  to  which  the 
United  States  shall  be  a  party :  to  controversies 
between  two  or  more  States,  between  a  State 
and  citizens  of  another  State,  between  citizens 
of  different  States,  between  citizens  of  the  same 
State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different 
States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citi-5ens 
thereof,  and  foreign  States,  citizens  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other 
public  ministers,  and  consuls,  and  those  in 
which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all 
the  other  cases   before-mentioned   the   SuDreme 


Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction  both  &a 
to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under 
f:iich  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases 
of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury,  and  such 
trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said 
crimes  shall  have  been  committed ;  but  when 
not  committed  within  any  State  the  trial  shall 
be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may 
by   law   have   directed. 

SiiCTiON  III.  1.  Treason  against  the  United 
States  shall  consist  only  In  levying  war  against 
them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving 
them  aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be 
convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony 
of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  oa 
confession    in   open   court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare 
the  punishment  of  treason,  but  no  attainder  of 
treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  or  for- 
feiture except  during  the  life  of  the  persoa 
attainted. 

ARTICLE    IV. 

Section  I.  Pull  faith  and  credit  shall  be 
given  In  each  State  to  the  public  acts,  records, 
and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State. 
And  the  Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe 
the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and 
proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect 
thereof. 

Section  II.  1.  The  citisens  of  each  State 
shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties  of  citizens   in   the   several   States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  trea- 
son, felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from 
justice,  and  be  found  In  another  State,  shall, 
on  demand  of  the  Executive  authority  of  the 
State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up.  to 
be  removed  to  the  State  having  Jurisdlctloa 
of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one 
State,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping  into 
another  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or 
regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such 
service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  oa 
claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or 
labor   may   be   due. 

Section  III.  1.  New  States  may  be  admitted 
by  the  Congress  into  this  Union ;  but  no  new 
State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  tha 
jurisdiction  of  any  other  State,  nor  any  State 
be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more 
States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent 
of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned,  as 
well   as   of   the   Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose 
of  and  make  all  needful  rules  and  regulations 
respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  be- 
longing to  the  United  States ;  and  nothing  in 
this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to 
prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or 
of  any  particular  State. 

Section  IV.  The  United  States  shall  guar- 
antee to  every  State  in  this  Union  a  republican 
form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of 
them  against  invasion,  and,  on  application  of 
the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the 
Legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  do- 
mestic violence. 

ARTICLE  V. 
Tha  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both 
Houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose 
amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds  of 
the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for 
proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either  case, 
shall  be  valid  to  all  Intents  and  purposes,  as 
part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the 
Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  several 
States,  or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths  there- 
of, as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification 
may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress;  provided  that 
nu  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to 
the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight 
shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth 
clauses  in  the  Ninth  Section  of  the  First  Ar- 
ticle;   and   that  no   State,   without   its   consent, 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S.       128       CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


shall   be  deprived   of   its   equal   suffrage   in  the 
Senate. 

ARTICLE    VI. 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements 
entered  into  before  the  adoption  of  this  Con- 
stitution shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution  as  under  the 
Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution  and  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance 
thereof  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall 
be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land ; 
and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound 
thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws 
of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before 
mentioned,  and  the  members  of  the  several 
State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  ju- 
dicial officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath 
or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution  ;  but 
no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a 
qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under 
the  United   States. 

ARTICLE    VII. 

The  ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine 
States  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establishment 
of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  rati- 
fying the   same. 

AMENDMENTS   TO  THE   CONSTITUTION. 
ARTICLE   I. 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an 
establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the 
free  exercise  thereof  ;  or  abridging  the  freedom 
of  speech  or  of  the  press  ;  or  the  right  of  the 
people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition 
the  Government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II. 

A  ■well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to 
the  security  of  a  free  State,  the  right  of  the 
people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be 
infringed. 

ARTICLE    III. 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quar- 
tered in  any  hoxise  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner,  nor  in  time  of  war  but  in  a  manner  to 
be  prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV. 
The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their 
persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  un- 
reasonable searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be 
violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon 
probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirma- 
tion, and  particularly  describing  the  place  to 
be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be 
seized. 

ARTICLE   V. 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a 
capital  or  other  infamous  crime  unless  on  a 
presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury, 
except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval 
forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  serv- 
ice, in  time  of  war  or  public  danger  ;  nor  shall 
any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offense  to 
be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor 
shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a 
witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life, 
liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law  ; 
nor  shall  nrivate  property  be  taken  for  public 
use  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI. 
In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall 
enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial, 
by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed. 
Which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascer- 
tained by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature 
and  cause  of  the  accusation  ;  to  be  confronted 
with  the  witnesses  against  him ;  to  have  com- 
pulsory process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his 
favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel 
for  his  defense. 


ARTICLE   VII. 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in 
controversy  shall  exceed  20  dollars,  the  right 
of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined 
in  any  court  of  the  United  States  than  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 
Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  ex- 
cessive   fines    imposed,    nor    cruel    and    unusual 
punishments   inflicted. 

ARTICLE    IX. 
The   enumeration   in   the   Constitution   of  cer- 
tain  rights    shall    not   be  construed   to   deny   or 
disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X. 
The     powers    not     delegated     to    the    United 
States  by  the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it 
to    the    States,    are    reserved    to    the    States    re- 
spectively,  or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XI. 
The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall 
not  be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law 
or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one 
of  the  United  States,  by  citizens  of  another  State, 
or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 

ARTICLE  XII. 
The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and 
Vice-President,  one  of  whom  at  least  shall  not 
be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  them- 
selves ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the 
person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President ; 
and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  per- 
sons voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number 
of  votes  for  each,  which  list  they  shall  sign 
and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  President  of  the  Senate;  the  President 
of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all 
the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be 
counted ;  the  person  having  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  votes  for  President  shall  be  the  Presi- 
dent, if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  per- 
son have  such  majority,  then  from  the  person: 
having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceeding  three 
on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  tht 
House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immedi- 
ately, by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choos- 
ing the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by 
States,  the  representation  from  each  State  hav- 
ing one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall 
consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two- 
thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the 
States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose 
a  President,  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall 
devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of 
March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President 
shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the 
President.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  as  Vice-President  shall  be  the 
Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and 
If  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the 
two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate 
shall  choose  the  Vice-President ;  a  quorum  for 
the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligi- 
ble to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible 
to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the   United   States. 

ARTICLE  XIII. 
1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servi- 
tude, except  as  a  punishment  for  crime  whereof 
the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall 
exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place 
subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


129 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  TT.  S. 


2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this 
article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

ARTICLE   XIV. 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the 
United  States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State 
shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States ;  nor  shall  any  State  de- 
prive any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property 
without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any 
person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  pro- 
tection of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned 
among  the  several  States  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number 
of  persons  In  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  elec- 
tion for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President 
and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Repre- 
sentatives in  Congress,  the  executive  and  ju- 
dicial officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of 
the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the 
male  members  of  such  State,  being  of  21  years 
of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in 
any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in 
rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  repre- 
.sentation  therein  shall  be  reduced  In  the  pro- 
portion which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens 
shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citi- 
zens 21  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  peraon  shall  te  a  Senator  or  Repre- 
sentative in  Congress,  or  elector  of  President 
and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or 
military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any 
State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath,  as 
a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the 
United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State 
Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  of- 
ficer of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  In 
insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or 
given  aifl  and  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereo*. 
But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of 
each   House,  remove  such   disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the 
United  States,  authorized  by  law,  including 
debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrec- 
tion and  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But 
neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall 
assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred 
in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the 
United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or 
emancipation  of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts, 
obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal 
and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  en- 
force by  appropriate  legislation  the  provisions 
of  this  article. 

ARTICLE    XV. 

1.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United 
States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged 
by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  iwwer  to  en- 
force the  provisions  of  this  article  by  appropri- 
ate   legislation. 

Adoption. — On  Sept,  28,  1787,  in  Con- 
stitutional Convention,  in  Philadelphia, 
the  "Constitution  of  the  United  States" 
was  adopted.  The  convention  had  given 
fou^  months  to  its  consideration.  In  its 
final  preparation  it  was  assigned  to  a 
committee  consisting  of  Governeur  Mor- 
ris, of  Pennsylvania;  William  S.  John- 
son, of  Connecticut;  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton, of  New  York;  James  Madison,  of 
Virginia;  and  Rufus  King,  of  Massa- 
chusetts. In  this  committee,  by  common 
consent,  the  work  was  intrusted  mainly 


to  Morris,  who  wrote  out  the  entire  doc- 
ument. With  rome  minor  changes  the 
work  was  adopted  by  the  convention  aa 
written,  and  sent  out  to  the  several 
States  at  the  above  date,  for  ratification. 

Ratification  of  Constitution.  —  The 
Constitution  was  ratified  by  the  13  orig' 
inal  States  in  the  following  order: 

Delaware,  Dec.   7,   1787,  unanimously. 

Pennsylvania,  Dec.  12,  1787,  vote  46 
to  23. 

New  Jersey,  Dec.  18,  1787,  unani- 
mously. 

Georgia,  Jan.  2,  1788,  unanimously. 

Connecticut,  Jan.  9,  1788,  vot ;  128 
to  40. 

Massachusetts,  Feb.  6,  1788,  vote  187 
to  168. 

Maryland,  April  28,  1788,  vote  63 
to  12. 

South  Carolina,  May  28,  1788,  vote 
149  to  73. 

New  Hampshire,  June  21,  1788,  vote 
57  to  46. 

Virginia,  June  25,  1788,  vote  89  to  79. 

New  York,  July  26,  1788,  vote  30  to  28. 

North  Carolina,  Nov.  21,  1789,  vote 
193  to  75. 

Rhode  Island,  May  29,  1790,  vote  34 
to  32. 

Ratification  of  Amendments. — 

I.  to  X.  inclusive  were  declared  in 
force  Dec.  15,  1791. 

XI.  was  declared  in  force  Jan.  8,  1798. 

XII.,  regulating  elections,  was  rati- 
fied by  all  the  States  except  Connecticut, 
Delaware,  Massachusetts  and  New 
Hampshire,  which  rejected  it.  It  was 
declared  in  force  Sept.  28,  1804. 

XIII.  The  emancipation  amendment 
was  ratified  by  31  of  the  36  States;  re- 
jected by  Delaware  and  Kentucky,  not 
acted  on  by  Texas;  conditionally  ratified 
by  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  Proclaimed 
Dec.  18,  1865. 

XIV.  Reconstruction  amendment  was 
ratified  by  23  Northern  States;  rejected 
by  Delaware,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  and 
10  Southern  States,  and  not  acted  on  by 
California.  The  10  Southern  States  sub- 
sequently ratified  it.  Proclaimed  July 
28,  1866. 

XV.  Negro  citizenship  amendment 
was  not  acted  on  by  Tennessee,  rejected 
by  California,  Delaware,  Kentucky, 
Maryland,  New  Jersey,  and  Oregon ;  rat- 
ified by  the  remaining  30  States.  New 
York  rescinded  its  ratification  Jan.  5, 
1870.     Proclaimed  March  30,  1870. 

XVI.  A  taxation  amendment;  _  its 
purpose  being  to  obviate  the  require- 
ment of  distributing  direct  taxes  among 
States  according  to  their  respective  pop- 
ulations. Passed  both  Houses  in  1909. 
Declared  in  force  Feb.  25,  1913. 

XVII.  Providing  for  the  direct  elec* 


CONSTITUTIONAL  CONVENTION   130 


CONSUMERS'  LEAGUE 


tion  of  United  States  Senators.     Effec- 
tive May  31,  1913. 

XVIII.  An  amendment  providing  for 
national  prohibition  submitted  to  the 
States  for  ratification  was  passed  in  De- 
cember, 1917.  In  January,  1919,  36 
States  having  ratified,  the  amendment 
was  declared  in  force  Jan.  1,  1920. 

XIX.  The  Woman  Suffrage  amend- 
ment passed  both  Houses  in  May  and 
June,  1919,  for  ratification  of  the  States, 
Aug.  18,  1920,  Tennessee,  the  36th  State, 
ratified  the  amendment  for  inclusion  in 
the  Federal  Constitution. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  CONVENTION, 
in  the  United  States,  an  assembly  of 
delegates  elected  by  popular  vote  to  pre- 
pare or  revise  the  constitution  of  a  State. 
The  13  original  States  were  admitted 
into  the  Union  by  the  act  of  ratifying 
the  Federal  Constitution  of  1787;  the 
others  have  been  received  after  the  pas- 
sage of  enabling  acts  by  Congress,  and 
the  approval  by  it  of  drafts  of  proposed 
constitutions.  The  first  duty  of  a  terri- 
torial candidate  for  statehood  after  the 
adoption  of  its  enabling  act  is  to  call  a 
Constitutional  Convention  and  prepare  a 
constitution,  which  must  conform  to  the 
provisions  of  the  Federal  Constitution 
and  amendments,  and  to  the  spirit  of 
subsequent  legislation  by  Congress.  On 
the  filing  in  Washington  of  a  certificate 
of  adoption  of  a  constitution  by  the  pop- 
ular vote  of  the  people  in  the  territory, 
the  President  of  the  United  States 
issues  a  proclamation  announcing  the  ad- 
mission of  the  territory  into  the  Union 
as  a  State.  Subsequently,  if  deemed 
necessary  or  advantageous,  the  Legisla- 
ture may  authorize  a  Constitutional 
Convention  for  the  purpose  of  revising 
the  Constitution.  At  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  each  of  the  States  formerly 
in  the  Confederacy  was  obliged  to  hold 
a  Constitutional  Convention  to  prepare 
a  new  constitution,  recognizing  the 
amendments  to  the  Federal  Constitution 
that  had  been  adopted  by  the  Northern 
States  as  a  consequence  of  the  war,  with 
those  portions  of  national  legislation 
which  were  designed  to  be  general  in 
their  application. 

CONSUL,  two  supreme  magistrates, 
with  equal  authority,  elected  annually  in 
ancient  Rome  from  the  time  of  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Kings  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Republic  (A.  U.  C.  244;  509 
B.  C.)  They  were  called  at  first  praetors 
(praetors),  imperatores  (commanders), 
and  indices  (judges)  ;  but  ultimately  the 
name  consules  (consuls)  prevailed  over 
these  designations.  The  annual  meeting 
or  assembly  of  the  Roman  citizens  for 
their  election  was  called  by  the  plural 


term  comitia,  from  the  comitium,  a  place 
in  or  near  the  forum,  where  the  elections 
were  held.  They  continued,  with  a  few 
exceptional  elections,  during  the  whole 
period  of  the  republic,  and  were  so  im- 
portant in  the  State  that  the  successive 
years  were  distinguished  by  the  consuls 
who  had  held  office  during  each  of  them. 
At  first  none  but  patricians  could  hold 
the  dignity,  but  366  B.  C.  a  plebeian  was 
elected  one  of  the  consuls,  and  in  172  B.  c. 
two.  The  consulate  nominally  continued 
under  the  empire,  but  was  little  more 
than  a  titular  dignity.  Tiberius  trans- 
ferred the  power  of  electing  consuls  from 
the  people  to  the  Senate.  Afterward 
their  number  was  augmented.  The  last 
consul  at  Rome  was  Decimus  Theodorus 
Paulinus  in  536  A.  D.;  the  last  at  Con- 
stantinople, Basilius  junior  in  541  A.  D. 

In  French  history,  a  consul  was  one  of 
three  supreme  magistrates  designated 
first,  second,  and  third  consul,  who  held 
office  between  1799  and  1804.  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  was  the  first  consul,  and  his 
power  soon  absorbed  that  of  the  rest. 

In  commerce,  a  consul  is  an  officer  ap- 
pointed by  the  government  of  his  coun- 
try to  reside  in  a  specified  foreign  land, 
with  the  view  of  promoting  the  mercan- 
tile interests  of  the  nation  in  whose 
service  he  is  engaged.  He  annually  or 
more  frequently  reports  to  his  govern- 
ment the  state  of  commerce  in  the  region 
where  his  opportunities  of  observation 
lie.  The  office  of  consul  in  this  sense 
seems  to  have  arisen  in  Italy  about  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century,  and  by  the 
16th  had  spread  over  Europe. 

CONSUMERS'  LEAGUE,  an  organiza- 
tion of  American  housewives  whose  pur- 
pose is  to  exercise  their  joint  purchasing 
power  on  merchants  and  manufacturers 
in  favor  of  labor  conditions,  especially 
for  women  and  children.  The  idea  orig- 
inated in  England,  where  the  Women's 
Co-operative  Guild,  composed  of  the 
women  members  of  the  co-operative 
store  societies,  play  a  very  significant 
part  in  influencing  legislation  in  favor  of 
women  and  children  workers.  In  1890 
the  Working  Women's  Society,  of  New 
York  City,  which  was  interested  specially 
in  conditions  of  employment  for  women, 
was  conducting  a  thorough  investigation 
into  such  conditions.  It  then  called  on 
the  consumers  for  support,  so  effectively 
that  in  January,  1891,  the  Consumers' 
League  of  New  York  was  organized.  The 
new  organization  immediately  took  up 
the  work  of  the  Working  Women's  So- 
ciety, though  on  a  much  more  extensive 
scale.  It  also  conducted  investigations 
into  labor  conditions  for  women  and 
children,  more  especially  in  department 
stores,  but  instead  of  merely  publishing 


CONSUMPTION 


131 


CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES 


the  results,  set  about  to  devise  means  to 
improve  them.  The  organization  was 
especially  concerned  about  the  environ- 
ment of  the  young  girls  beginning  to 
work  for  their  livelihoods  and  not  yet  old 
enough  to  guard  themselves  against  the 
evils  and  temptations  of  a  big  city.  One 
of  the  methods  employed  to  force  the 
owners  of  department  store  establish- 
ments to  better  the  conditions  of  their 
employees  is  the  "white  list."  The  white 
list  is  composed  of  the  names  of  those 
establishments  which  observe  certain 
conditions  of  wages  and  hours  of  daily 
labor  demanded  by  the  organization.  It 
is  printed  and  cirralated  among  the  mem- 
bers, who  bind  themselves  to  give  pref- 
erential treatment  to  the  firms  on  the 
list.  Another  method  of  enforcing  its 
conditions  on  merchants  employed  by 
the  Consumers'  League  is  the  "con- 
sumers' label."  This  label  is  granted  for 
use  only  to  those  firms  which;  (1)  com- 
ply with  state  legislation  passed  for  the 
benefit  of  female  labor;  (2)  which  manu- 
facture their  goods  only  on  their  own 
premises,  or  procure  their  goods  from 
manufacturers  who  manufacture  only 
on  their  own  premises;  (3)  which  do  not 
employ  girls  under  sixteen  years  of  age; 
(4)  which  limit  the  hours  of  employ- 
ment to  ten  or  under;  and,  finally,  those 
which  allow  inspection  of  their  establish- 
ments by  representatives  of  the  League. 
Many  of  these  provisions  are  now  en- 
forced in  New  York  by  law,  but  they  are 
all  still  insisted  upon  by  the  National 
Consumers'  Leag^ue  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  this  more  general  body  having 
been  organized  in  1899,  with  Mrs.  Flor- 
ence Kelley  as  secretary.  The  influence 
of  the  Consumers'  League  in  bettering 
the  working  conditions  of  women  in 
large  mercantile  establishments,  espe- 
cially in  those  which  cater  to  the  trade 
of  the  ultimate  consumer,  can  hardly  be 
overestimated,  and  in  many  cases  has 
been  more  effective  than  legislation. 

CONSUMPTION,  TUBERCULOSIS, 
or  PHTHISIS,  a  more  or  less  rapidly  ad- 
vancing process  of  lung-destruction,  a 
disease  characterized  by  emaciation,  de- 
bility, cough,  hectic  fever,  and  purulent 
expectoration.  It  is  caused  by  a  germ 
known  as  the  tubercle  bacillus.  The 
predisposing  causes  are  very  variable, 
hereditary  taint,  scrofulous  diathesis, 
syphilis,  smallpox,  etc.,  exposure  to 
fumes  and  dusty  air  in  certain  trades; 
violent  passions  and  excess  of  various 
kinds;  sudden  lowering  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  tho  body,  etc.  The  more  imme- 
diate or  occasional  causes  are  pneu- 
monic inflammation  proceeding  to  suppu- 
ration, catarrh,  asthma,  and  tubercles  in 
the  lungs. 


The  morbid  appearance  most  fre- 
quently to  be  met  with  on  the  dissection 
of  those  who  die  of  phthisis  is  the  exi.st- 
i'V.ce  of  tubercles  in  the  cellular  sub- 
.srance  of  the  lungs,  most  usually  at  the 
upper  and  back  part;  but,  in  some  in- 
stances, occupying  the  outer  part,  and 
forming  adhesions  to  the  pleura.  In 
some  cases  life  has  been  protracted  till 
not  one-twentieth  part  of  the  lungs  ap- 
peared on  dissection  fit  for  performing 
their  function.  The  left  lobe  is  oftener 
affected  than  the  right.  This  form  of 
the  disease  is  known  as  pulmonary  tu- 
berculosis. The  tubercle  bacillus  also 
affects  the  lymphatic  glands,  the  bones 
and  many  other  parts  of  the  body.  Re- 
moval to  an  equable  climate  or  to  a  pure 
and  mild  air,  may  arrest  the  disease  in 
its  incipient  stage.  In  October,  1890, 
Dr.  Koch,  of  Berlin,  gave  to  the  medical 
world  his  theory  of  the  treatment  of 
tuberculo:?is  by  a  new  medicament  which 
he  styled  lymph.  Its  composition  was 
made  known  by  Dr.  Koch,  Jan.  15,  1891. 
It  consists  of  a  glycerine  extract,  derived 
from  the  pure  cultivation  of  tubercle 
bacilli,  and  contains  besides  the  effective 
matter  all  the  other  matters  soluble  in  50 
per  cent,  glycerine.  The  remedy  does 
not  destroy  the  tubercle  bacilli,  but 
rather  the  affected  tissues.  It  has  been 
tried  in  various  tuberculous  affections, 
including  lupus,  and  the  fluid  has  a  dis- 
tinctly specific  action  on  tubercular  proc- 
esses of  all  kinds.  No  markedly  success- 
ful results  have  been  obtained  from  its 
use.  There  are  quite  a  number  of  prep- 
arations of  tuberculin  now  in  use.  See 
Koch,  Robert. 

CONTAGION,  the  communication  of  a 
disease  by  contact  with  the  person  labor- 
ing under  it,  as  distinguished  from  in- 
fection, used  to  signify  its  transmission 
by  means  of  the  air  without  actual  per- 
sonal contact  with  the  diseased  person. 
But  sometimes  the  word  contagion  is 
used  in  both  of  these  senses,  and  is  di- 
vided intx)  immediate  or  contactical  con- 
tagion, that  produced  by  actual  contact, 
and  mediate  or  remote  contagion,  com- 
municated by  the  air. 

CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES,  those  dis- 
eases which  may  be  contracted  by  the 
healthy  from  the  sick,  either  by  direct 
contact  with  an  affected  part,  or  by  in- 
direct contact  through  bodily  excretions 
and  exhalations. 

Typical  contagious  diseases  are  Span- 
ish influenza,  diphtheria,  measles,  scarlet 
fever,  mumps,  smallpox,  typhus  fever, 
erysipelas,  and  bubonic  plague. 

Diseases  of  this  class  are  a  menace 
to  public  health,  and  in  all  civilized  na- 
tions stringent  methods  are  used  to  pre- 
vent their  spread,  and  the  sufferers  are 


CONTI 


132 


CONTRACT 


usually  placed  in  quarantine.  In  the 
United  States  the  enactment  of  quaran- 
tine laws  by  the  several  States  is  pro- 
vided in  the  Federal  Constitution.  In 
most  States  there  is  a  State  board  of 
health  which  either  divides  the  State 
into  districts  for  administration,  or  else 
delegates  its  authority  to  county,  town- 
ship, or  city  officials. 

Before  the  World  War  there  was  a 
well-established  system  of  international 
quarantine  operating  under  a  code 
drawn  by  Sir  Shenstone  Baker  in  1879, 
which  was  approved  by  the  United 
States,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and 
many  other  nations. 

CONTI,  HOUSE  OF,  this  younger 
branch  of  the  princely  French  house  of 
Conde  took  its  name  from  the  small  town 
of  Conti,  near  Amiens,  and  sprang  from 
Armand  de  Bourbon,  brother  of  the 
"Great  Conde";  born  in  1629;  died  in 
1666.  The  most  remarkable  member  of 
the  family  was  Francois  Louis,  Prince 
de  la  Roche-sur-Yon  and  Conti,  born  in 
1664.  He  took  a  brilliant  part  in  the 
victories  of  Steinkirk  and  Neerwinden, 
and  Massillon  pronounced  his  funeral 
oration.  He  died  in  1709.  The  last  of 
the  House  of  Conti  was  Louis  Francois 
Joseph,  born  in  1734;  died  in  Spain  in 
1814. 

CONTINENT,  the  large,  unbroken 
tracts  of  land  on  the  earth,  whether  al- 
together or  entirely  disconnected,  are  in- 
cluded under  this  name.  Thus  Europe 
and  Asia  together,  Africa,  North  Amer- 
ica, South  America,  and  Australia,  may 
nil  be  thus  regarded.  The  word  is  also 
applied  to  the  mainland  of  Europe,  as 
distinguished  from  the  British  Islands. 

CONTINENT,      THE      DARK.        See 

Africa. 

CONTINENTAL,  pertaining  or  relat- 
ing to  a  continent;  as  a  continental  sys- 
tem. Belonging  or  relating  to  the  main- 
land of  Europe,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  islands  belonging  thereto,  more  es- 
pecially Great  Britain;  as,  a  continental 
tour.  Relating,  or  pertaining  to,  the 
American  colonies  confederated  during 
the  Revolutionary  War;  as,  the  Conti- 
nental Congress. 

CONTORTED  STRATA,  in  geology, 
beds  which  are  highly  folded,  plicated, 
twisted — the  folds  being  extremely  ir- 
regular, and  giving  rise  to  rapid  changes 
in  the  direction  and  angle  of  inclination. 
Contorted  strata  are  frequently  ci'um- 
pled  and  puckered — the  fossils  and  peb- 
bles which  they  may  chance  to  contain 
being  compressed,  flattened,  and  dis- 
torted— facts  which  show  that  the  beds 
have  been  subjected  to  great  crushing 
and  squeezing. 


CONTRABAND  OF  WAR,  articles 
carried  by  neutrals  in  vessels  or  other- 
wise for  the  assistance  of  an  enemy  in 
waging  war.  The  term  embraces  arms, 
ammunition,  materials  for  manufactur- 
ing gunpowder,  armed  vessels,  coal  for 
warships,  provisions  and  money  in- 
tended for  the  military  forces,  and  all 
supplies  of  warlike  stores  or  any  articles 
required  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war. 
Articles  which  are  not  ordinarily  contra- 
band are  also  liable  to  confiscation  if 
they  belong  to  the  owner  of  the  contra- 
band and  are  mingled  with  the  same  in 
the  same  vehicle  of  conveyance  or  in  the 
same  packages.  Where  a  blockade  of  a 
port  is  declared  and  successfully  main- 
tained, all  articles  of  value  become  prac- 
tically contraband  in  that  they  are  liable 
to  seizure  and  confiscation  if  the  attempt 
is  made  to  carry  them  into  the  blockaded 
port.  According  to  international  law, 
these  are  liable  to  seizure  and  to  confis- 
cation by  order  of  a  prize  court.  No 
recompense  is  made  to  the  neutral  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  provisions. 

During  the  World  War  all  the  mari- 
time powers  declared  contraband  or 
conditionally  contraband  provisions  and 
goods  too  numerous  to  mention.  The 
sinking  of  the  "W.  B.  Frye,"  laden  vdth 
grain  for  London,  called  forth  a  protest 
from  the  United  States  Government, 
and  Germany  promised  compensation. 
When  Germany  declared  a  submarine 
warfare  on  commerce,  all  previous  laws 
relating  to  contraband  were  disregarded. 

CONTRACT,  the  term  usually  applied 
to  such  agreements  (whether  express 
or  implied)  as  create,  or  are  intended 
to  create,  a  legal  right,  and  correspond- 
ing liability;  such  right  not  attach- 
ing to  the  possession  of  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  contract,  except  in  equity, 
and  that  indirectly,  but  subsisting  both 
in  equity  and  law  against  the  contract- 
ing party.  The  conditions  essential  to 
the  legal  validity  of  a  contract  relate 
either  to  the  competency  of  the  parties, 
the  sufficiency  of  the  consideration  or 
inducement,  the  nature  of  the  thing 
contracted  for,  the  fairness  of  the  trans- 
action, or,  lastly,  to  the  form  of  agree- 
ment. First,  as  to  the  competency  of 
the  parties :  The  party  to  be  sued  must 
have  been  at  the  time  of  the  contract  of 
sound  mind,  and,  unless  it  was  for  the 
supply  of  necessaries,  of  full  age;  and 
if  a  woman,  she  must  have  been  unmar- 
ried, subject  as  to  the  latter  condition 
to  some  exceptions  established  either  by 
local  custom  or  by  the  doctrines  of 
equity.  As  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  con- 
sideration on  the  part  of  the  person 
suing:  It  must  have  been  either  future 
marriage  since  performed,  or  money,  or 


CONTRACT  LABOR  LAW 


133 


CONVENT 


something  capable  of  being  estimated  in 
money;  or  some  act,  whether  of  per- 
formance or  abstinence,  whereby  some 
undoubted  advantage,  though  not  capa- 
ble of  being  exactly  valued,  accrues  to 
the  party  sued.  The  act  contracted  for 
must  be  neither  contrary  to  written  law, 
nor  to  public  policy ;  and  it  must  be  bene- 
ficial to  the  party  seeking  either  per- 
formance or  compensation,  or  to  some 
one  on  whose  behalf  he  gave  the  con- 
sideration. There  must  have  been 
neither  fraud  (either  by  concealment  or 
misstatement)  nor  compulsion  on  the 
part  of  the  plaintiff  in  obtaining  the 
agreement;  and  fraudulent  acts  subse- 
quent to  the  agreement  having  reference 
to  it  are  also  sufficient  to  deprive  the 
guilty  party  of  all  right  under  it.  Some 
circumstances  are  in  equity  considered 
either  as  conclusive  evidence  of  fraud,  or 
as  substantive  acts  of  coercion,  which 
are  not  strictly  of  such  a  nature,  and 
are  not  so  deemed  at  law.  Lastly,  as  to 
the  form  of  the  agreement:  Where  it 
relates  to  an  interest  in  land  of  three 
years'  duration  or  more,  or  to  goods  of 
the  value  of  $50  or  upward,  unless  there 
be  earnest  or  delivery,  or  where  it  is  an 
agreement  as  surety,  or  where  it  is  upon 
marriage  as  a  consideration,  it  must,  by 
American  law,  be  in  writing;  though 
the  want  of  a  written  instrument  may 
be  supplied  in  equity  by  partial  perform- 
ance, that  is,  by  acts  evidently  done  in 
pursuance  of  the  alleged  contract. 

CONTRACT  LABOR  LAW,  an  Act  of 
Congress,  passed  Feb.  26,  1885,  and  sev- 
eral times  amended.  Previous  to  the 
passage  of  this  law  it  had  been  the  prac- 
tice of  large  manufacturers  to  recruit 
cheap  labor  in  the  poorer  countries  of 
Europe,  even  to  the  extent  of  paying 
for  the  transportation  of  immigrant 
workers  and  their  families,  this  charge 
being  later  subtracted  from  their  earn- 
ings. At  first  the  courts  interpreted  the 
provisions  of  the  law  as  applying  only 
to  unskilled  labor,  but  on  March  3,  1903, 
the  law  was  amended,  so  that  it  now  in- 
cludes skilled  workers  as  well.  Infrac- 
tion of  this  law  now  bears  with  it  a 
penalty  of  $1,000  fine  for  each  immi- 
grant brought  into  the  country  illegally 
by  manufacturers  or  their  agents,  and  a 
fine  of  $500  and  six  months'  imprison- 
ment for  the  master  of  a  ship  who 
knowingly  carries  immigrants  contrary 
to  the  law. 

CONTRALTO,  in  music,  the  highest 
voice  of  a  male  adult,  or  the  lowest  of  a 
woman  or  a  boy;  called  also  the  Alto, 
or,  when  possessed  by  a  man,  Cminter- 
tenor.  It  is  next  below  the  treble  and 
above  the  tenor,  its  easy  range  being 
from  tenor  G  to  treble  C. 


CONTRA VALLATION,  LINES  OF,  in 
military  language,  a  chain  of  works 
round  a  besieged  place  to  resist  the 
sorties  of  the  garrison. 

CONTUSION,  a  bruise  or  injury  of 
the  soft  parts  of  the  body,  without 
breach  of  surface.  If  the  skin  be  broken, 
the  injury  is  called  a  contused  wound. 
See  Bruise. 

CONVALLARIA,  a  genus  of  plants, 
order  Liliaceie,  tribe  Asparacjcse.  The  C. 
niajalis  is  the  sweet-scented  Lily  of  the 
Valley.  It  is  found  in  woods  and  cop- 
pices, especially  in  a  light  soil.  There 
are  a  red-flowered  and  a  double  variety 
in  gardens.  C.  majalis  is  a  valuable 
cardiac  tonic,  administered  in  form  of 
fluid  extract  or  tincture.  It  has,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  superseded  digitalis 
purpurea  for  heart  disease,  it  being  free, 
to  a  large  degree,  from  many  objections 
to  which  digitalis  is  obnoxious. 

CONVENT,  the  fraternity  or  sister- 
hood of  an  abbey  or  priory;  a  commu- 
nity of  religious  persons,  whether  monks 
or  nuns.  At  first  those  who  withdrew  to 
the  desert  lived  solitarily;  the  gathering 
together  into  a  community  of  all  those 
solitaries  who  could  be  brought  to  toler- 
ate the  restraint  of  a  society  regulated 
by  rule  was  a  later  movement. 

In  the  United  States,  owing  to  religious 
upheavals  going  on  in  the  Old  World, 
a  very  large  number  of  the  religious  con- 
secrate of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
have  found  refuge.  One  of  the  oldest  of 
our  commonwealths,  that  of  Maryland, 
was  settled  by  the  Catholics  who  at  an 
early  date  laid  the  foundations  of  nu- 
merous convents  and  monasteries.  As 
the  settlements  and  centers  of  popula- 
tion pushed  farther  in  every  direction 
from  the  Atlantic  coast,  convents  and 
nunneries  were  established  in  every 
large  town.  The  term  convent  is  here 
applied  almost  exclusively  to  an  estab- 
lishment containing  a  sodality  of  nuns, 
the  male  religiouses  being  d^enominated 
monks  and  their  establishments  monas- 
teries. 

It  is  said  that  the  first  convent  in 
England  was  erected  by  Eadbald  at 
Folkestone  in  630,  and  the  first  in 
Scotland  at  Coldingham  in  670.  They 
were  numerous  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
Henry  VIII.  suppressed  them,  confis- 
cating their  revenues.  By  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Emancipation  Act  of  1829 
their  erection  in  the  United  Kingdom 
was  prohibited,  but  the  Act  was  from 
the  first  so  much  of  a  dead  letter  that 
they  were  established  in  various  places. 
In  1875  one  was  opened  at  Bournemouth 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Ritualist  party 
in  the  Established  Church. 


CONVENTICLE 


134 


CONVOCATION 


CONVENTICLE,  a  small  gathering  for 
religious  worship.  The  word  was  ap- 
plied to  the  schools  of  Wycliffe.  After- 
ward it  was  used  of  Dissenters  from 
the  Establishment  in  Queen  Elizabeth's 
time,  but  it  did  not  come  into  great 
prominence  till  the  passing  of  the  Uni- 
formity Act  in  1662. 

CONVENTION,  the  act  of  coming  to- 
gether or  assembling;  the  state  of  being 
assembled.  The  word  convention  has  in 
the  United  States  an  association  of  ideas 
pregnant  with  all  that  is  most  important 
in  our  political  history.  The  secession 
conventions  held  in  the  Southern  States, 
resulted  in  the  Civil  War  of  1860-1865. 
Several  times  have  constitutional  con- 
ventions been  called — the  most  impor- 
tant being  those  held  in  the  Southern 
States  during  the  "Reconstruction"  pe- 
riod. The  great  national  political  parties 
meet  in  convention  to  nominate  candi- 
dates for  President,  and  the  same  method 
of  nomination  prevails  down  to  the 
smallest  candidate  for  the  lowest  muni- 
cipal or  county  office.  Many  conventions 
for  miscellaneous  purposes  are  annually 
held. 

In  English  history  the  word  is  applied 
to  an  extraordinary  meeting  of  the 
Houses  of  Lords  and  Commons  at  a  time 
of  national  crisis  or  revolution,  without 
being  called  together  by  the  writ  of  the 
sovereign  or  waiting  to  ask  his  assent. 
The  name  is  specially  applied  (a)  to  the 
Parliament  summoned,  not  by  the  sov- 
ereign, but  by  Gen.  Monk,  which  met  on 
April  25,  1660,  and  restored  Charles  II., 
and  (b)  to  the  Parliament  convened  by 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  at  the  time 
was  not  King  of  England.  It  met  on 
Jan.  22,  1689,  and  bestowed  the  kingdom 
on  its  author  and  his  vnte,  William  and 
Mary. 

In  French  history  the  word  is  applied 
to  what  was  more  fully  named  the  Na- 
tional Convention,  which  succeeded  the 
National  Legislative  Assembly  on  Sept. 
21,  1792,  and  was  dissolved  Oct.  26,  1795. 
It  began  by  abolishing  royalty  and  pro- 
claiming a  republic. 

In  diplomacy,  a  convention  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  treaty.  Thus  there  have  been 
conventions  by  the  United  States  with 
the  leading  nations  of  the  world  to  se- 
cure uniform  and  reciprocal  action  for 
special  purposes. 

CONVEBSE,  FLORENCE,  an  Ameri- 
can writer,  born  in  New  Orleans  in  1871. 
She  graduated  from  Wellesley  College  in 
1893.  From  1908  she  was  a  member  of 
the  staff  of  the  "Atlantic  Monthly."  Her 
novels  include  "The  Burden  of  Chris- 
topher" (1900)  ;  "The  House  of  Prayer" 
(1908);  "The  Children  of  Light"  (1912). 
She  also  wrote  "The  Story  of  Wellesley" 


(1915)    and  "The  Blessed  Birthday,"  a 
play  (1917). 

CONVERSE,  FREDERICK  SHEP- 
HERD, an  American  composer,  born  in 
Newton,  Mass.,  in  1871.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  University  in  1893.  After 
studying  music  in  Munich,  he  bece  ne 
instructor  of  harmony  at  the  New  Eng- 
land Conservatory  of  Music.  From  1904 
to  1907  he  was  assistant  professor  of 
music  at  Harvard  University.  He  com- 
posed many  songs  and  other  musical 
works,  including  "The  Pipe  of  Desire," 
an  opera;  "Job,"  an  opera;  and  many 
cantatas,  tone  poems,  and  other  musical 
work.  He  was  one  of  the  best  known  of 
American  composers. 

CONVICT  LABOR,  the  emplojrment  of 
convicts  in  the  production  of  useful  com- 
modities as  a  means  of  lessening  the 
cost  of  prison  administration  and  for  the 
moral  betterment  of  the  convicts.  This 
has  been  accomplished  through  various 
systems,  the  first  of  which,  in  point  of 
time,  is  the  "lease  system,"  still  em- 
ployed in  many  Southern  States.  Here 
convicts  are  directly  turned  over  to  pri- 
vate contractors  or  employers,  and  prac- 
tically the  whole  responsibility  devolves 
on  them.  Many  abuses  have  been  the 
result,  convicts  being  often  retained  in 
a  condition  of  chattel  slavery  long  after 
the  expiration  of  their  terms,  in  many 
cases  imposed  on  them  for  trivial  of- 
fenses. This  system  is  now  universally 
condemned  and  is  fast  going  out  of  prac- 
tice. Instead  the  "public  account"  system 
is  being  adopted  by  an  ever-growing 
number  of  States.  Here  the  labor  is 
performed  on  State  premises  and  the 
prison  authorities  are  in  full  control.  In 
some  of  the  States  the  commodities  man- 
ufactured are  sold  on  the  open,  competi- 
tive market.  This  method  has  aroused 
considerable  opposition  from  organized 
labor.  In  other  States  only  such  com- 
modities are  manufactured  which  can  be 
used  in  other  departments  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. This  plan  is  especially  favored 
by  the  national  Commission  on  Prisons 
and  Prison  Labor.  In  several  States,  as 
in  New  Jersey,  the  convicts  are  paid 
regular  wages,  which  they  may  collect 
at  the  expiration  of  their  terms.  In 
1920,  however,  no  employment  was  given 
prisone -s  in  29  States. 

CONVOCATION,  an  assembly  of  the 
clergy.  Specifically  the  name  given  to 
either  of  two  such  gatherings,  the  one 
termed  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury, 
or  simply  Convocation,  the  other  the 
Convocation  of  York.  In  theory  the 
Church  of  England  is  governed  by 
means  of  the  convocations  of  its  bishops 
and  clergy.     Each  of  the  two  ecclesias- 


CONVOLVULUS 


135 


COOK 


tical  provinces  of  Canterbury  and  York 
has  its  Convocation  consisting  of  two 
houses,  the  upper  composed  of  Bishops 
presided  over  by  the  Archbishop,  and 
the  lower  being  made  up  of  the  deans 
of  Cathedrals,  archdeacons,  and  proctors 
elected  from  the  Cathedral  chapters,  with 
two  additional  proctors  elected  by  clergy 
at  large  in  the  province  of  Canterbury 
and  by  the  archdeacons  in  the  province 
of  York.  The  life  of  the  Convocation  is 
coincident  with  that  of  Parliament. 

CONVOLVULUS,  a  genus  of  plants, 
the  typical  one  of  the  order  Convolvula- 
cese  and  the  tribe  Convolvulese.  The 
flowers  are  small  and  of  a  pale  rose 
color.  It  is  common  in  fields  and  hedges, 
especially  when  the  soil  is  light.  C. 
Soldayiella,  the  Sea-side  Convolvulus  or 
Bindweed,  has  reniform  fleshy  lines,  and 
large  rose-colored  flowers.  It  has  been 
sometimes  placed  in  the  genus  Calys- 
tegia.  C.  dissectus  abounds  in  prussic 
acid,  and  is  one  of  the  plants  used  in  the 
preparation  of  the  liquor  called  noyau. 

CONVOY,  a  fleet  of  merchantmen 
under  the  protection  of  a  ship  or  ships 
of  war,  or  the  ship  or  ships  appointed  to 
conduct  and  defend  them  from  attack 
and  capture  by  an  enemy.  In  military 
language  it  is  used  for  escort.  Convoys 
were  largely  employed  by  the  Allies  in 
moving  troop  ships  in  the  World  War 
(1914-1918),  as  they  supplied  the  best 
protection  against  submarine  attacks. 
The  transport  of  United  States  troops 
to  Europe  in  1917-1918  was  under  con- 
voy, and  not  a  ship  was  lost. 

CONWAY,  MONCURE  DANIEL,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Stafford 
county,  Va.,  March  17,  1832.  He  was 
graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1849 
and  at  the  Harvard  Divinity  School  in 
1854,  affiliating  first  with  the  Methodists 
and  later  with  the  Unitarians.  From 
1863  to  1884  he  was  minister  at  South 
Place  Chapel,  in  London.  He  has  writ- 
ten lives  of  Thomas  Paine,  Edmund 
Randolph,  Hawthorne,  and  Thomas  Car- 
lisle, and  also  "Emerson  at  Home  and 
Abroad,"  "Demonology  and  Devil  Lore," 
etc.     He  died  Nov.  16,  1907. 

CONWAY,  SIR  WILLIAM  MARTIN, 
an  English  explorer;  born  in  Rochester 
in  1865.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge 
and  was  made  Professor  of  Art  at  Uni- 
versity College,  Liverpool,  soon  after  his 
graduation.  In  1889  he  explored  Egypt; 
in  1892  the  Himalayas;  in  1894  the  Alps; 
in  1898  the  western  slope  of  the  Andes; 
and  in  1900  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Andes.  He  has  published  "Early  Flem- 
ish Artists,"  "The  Alps  from  End  to 
End,"  "Climbing  and  Exploration  in  the 
Bolivian    Andes,"    etc.      He    also    wrote 


"Great  Masters"  (1904);  "No  Man's 
Land"  (1906)  ;  "The  Crowd,  in  Peace 
and  War"    (1915). 

CONWELL,  RUSSELL  HERMAN,  a 
Baptist  clergyman  and  educator.  He 
was  born  at  Worthington,  Mass.,  in  1843 
and  graduated  from  the  Yale  Law 
School  in  1860.  From  1862  to  1865  he 
served  in  the  Union  armies  in  the  Civil 
War,  after  which  he  practiced  law  at 
Minneapolis.  From  1869  to  1871  he  was 
the  foreign  correspondent  of  the  New 
York  "Tribune"  and  the  Boston  "Trav- 
eler." Returning  from  abroad  he  prac- 
ticed law  in  Boston  until  1879.  In  that 
year  he  was  ordained  a  Baptist  minister 
and  two  years  later  was  called  to 
Grace  Church,  Philadelphia.  Dr.  Conwell 
founded  and  became  president  of  Temple 
University,  Philadelphia,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  books  on  relig- 
ious and  moral  subjects. 

COOCH-BEHAR,    or   KUCH-BEHAR, 

a  native  state  in  India,  in  political  rela- 
tion with  the  government  of  Bengal.  It 
forms  a  level  plain  of  triangular  shape, 
intersected  by  numerous  rivers,  and  is 
entirely  surrounded  by  British  territory. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  soil  is  fertile 
and  well-cultivated.  Area,  1307  square 
miles;  pop.  593,000.  The  chief  town, 
Cooch-Behar,  contains  handsome  public 
buildings  and  a  splendid  new  palace  of 
the  Maharajah. 

COOK,     FRANCIS     AUGUSTUS,     an 

American  naval  officer,  born  in  1843. 
He  graduated  from  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  in  1863  and  served  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War.  He  rose  through  the 
various  grades,  becoming  captain  in 
1896.  During  the  Spanish-American  War 
he  commanded  the  cruiser  "Brooklyn." 
At  the  Battle  of  Santiago  Bay,  the 
"Brooklyn,"  in  his  command,  destroyed 
the  Spanish  vessel  "Cristobal  Colon." 
Until  his  retirement  in  1903  he  served 
on  the  Naval  Examining  and  Retiring 
Board.     He  died  in  1916. 

COOK,  JAMES,  a  British  navigator; 
born  in  Yorkshire,  in  1728,  of  parents 
not  above  the  rank  cf  peasantry.  He 
was  at  first  apprenticed  to  a  shop- 
keeper, but  became  a  sailor.  In  1755  he 
entered  the  royal  navy,  and  four  years 
later  as  sailing-master  of  the  "Mercury" 
surveyed  the  St.  Lawrence  river  and  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland.  Some  observa- 
tions on  a  solar  eclipse,  communicated 
to  the  Royal  Society,  brought  him  into 
notice,  and  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  a  scientific  expedition  to  the  Pacific. 
During  this  expedition  he  successively 
visited  Tahiti,  New  Zealand,  and  dis- 
covered New  South  Wales.  In  1772 
Captain  Cook,  now  raised  to  the  rank  of 


COOKE 


136 


COOKERY 


a  commander  in  the  navy,  commanded  a 
second  expedition  to  the  Pacific  and 
Southern  oceans.  In  1776  he  again  set 
out  on  an  expedition  to  ascertain  the 
possibility  of  a  N.  W.  passage.  On  this 
voyage    he    explored    the    W.    coast    of 


CAPTAIN   JAMES   COOK 

North  America,  and  discovered  the  Sand* 
wich  Islands,  on  one  of  which,  Hawaii, 
he  was  killed  by  the  natives,  Feb.  14, 
1779. 

COOKE,    GBACE    MACGOWAN,    an 

American  writer,  born  in  Grand  Rap- 
ids, O.,  in  1863.  She  was  educated  pri- 
vately. In  1877  she  married  William 
Cooke.  She  was  the  first  president  of 
the  Tennessee  Woman's  Press  Club.  Her 
writings  include  "Mistress  Joy"  (1902) ; 
"Hulda"  (1904);  "The  Power  and  the 
Glory"  (1910)  ;  and  "The  Joy  Bringer" 
(1912),  and  several  books  for  children. 
She  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  mag- 
azines. 

COOKE,  JAY,  an  American  financier; 
born  in  Sandusky,  0.,  Aug.  10,  1821. 
He  entered  mercantile  life  at  15.  Hav- 
ing leprned  banking  he  founded  in  1858 
the  house  of  Jay  Cooke  &  Co.,  which  fi- 
nanced the  Civil  War  Bond  issues  of  the 
United  States  to  the  extent  of  $2,000,- 
000,000.  The  house  failed  in  1873,  caus- 
ing widespread  financial  panic.  In  1894 
he  re-established   his  fortune,  investing 


in  Western  land  and  securities.  He  died 
Feb.  16,  1905. 

COOKE,  JOHN  ESTEN,  an  American 
novelist;  born  in  Winchester,  Va.,  Nov. 
3,  1830.  He  was  an  extensive  contribi^ 
tor  of  stories,  sketches,  and  verses  to 
various  periodicals,  and  has  written 
many  books,  in  which  are  included:  "The 
Virginia  Comedians"  (1854),  "Hilt  to 
Hilt"  (1869),  "Life  of  Gen.  Robert  E. 
Lee"  (1871),  "Virginia,  a  History  of  the 
People"  (1883),  "The  Youth  of  Jeffer- 
son," "Surry  of  Eagle's  Nest,"  "Wear- 
ing the  Grey,"  "Pretty  Mrs.  Gaston," 
"Virginia  Bohemians,"  etc.  He  died 
near  Boyce,  Va.,  Sept.  27,  1886. 

COOKE,   MRS.    ROSE    (TERRY),   an 

American  poet  and  story  writer ;  born  in 
West  Hartford,  Conn.,  Feb.  17,  1827. 
Her  complete  poems  were  published  in 
1888:  "The  Gentian"  and  "The  Two 
Villages"  are  good  representatives.  Her 
best  short  stories  treat  of  New  England 
rural  life.  The  novel  "Steadfast"  ap- 
peared in  1889.  Her  finest  work  appeared 
originally  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  and 
other  periodicals.  She  died  in  Pittsfield, 
Mass.,  July  18,  1892. 

COOKERY,  the  art  and  practice  o£ 
preparing  food  mainly  by  means  of  heat. 
The  various  processes  of  roasting,  toast- 
ing, broiling,  boiling,  stewing,  brewing, 
baking,  grilling,  braising,  and  frying, 
chemically  or  mechanically  alter  the  con- 
stituent elements  of  organic  matter  and 
make  them  more  easily  digestible.  Thus 
vigorous  boiling  serves  to  loosen  the 
fibers  of  cellulose  which  constitutes  the 
largest  constituent  of  vegetable  food. 

The  art  of  cookery  was  carried  to  con- 
siderable perfection  among  the  Egpti- 
ans,  Persians,  and  Athenians.  Extrava- 
gance and  luxury  at  table  were  notable 
features  of  Roman  life  under  the  em- 
pire. Among  moderns  the  Italians  were 
the  first  to  reach  a  high  degree  of  art 
in  this  department.  Their  cooking,  like 
that  of  the  ancient  Romans,  is  distin- 
guished by  a  free  use  of  oil.  Italian 
cookery  seems  to  have  ■■'jin  transplanted 
by  the  princesses  of  the  House  of  Medici 
to  France,  and  was  carried  there  to  per- 
haps the  highest  degree  of  perfection; 
even  yet  the  skill  and  resource  which 
the  French  cook  shows  in  dealing  often 
with  very  slight  materials  is  a  highly 
creditable  feature  in  the  domestic  econo- 
my of  the  nation.  British  cookery  has 
been  mostly  confined  to  simple,  strong, 
and  substantial  dishes.  Attempts  have 
been  made  in  many  places  to  diffuse  a 
knowledge  of  cookery  more  widely  among 
the  lower  classes.  Cooking  classes  have 
been  organized  in  the  public  schools  and 
regular   cooking   schools   have   met  with 


COOK   INLET 


137 


COOLIDGE 


great  success.  The  philosophy  of  cook- 
ery has  a  very  limited  literature.  In 
the  third,  sixth,  and  tenth  essays  of 
Benjamin  Thompson,  Count  Rumford 
(1796),  "The  Chemistry  of  Cookery,"  by 
W.  Mattieu  Williams  (1885)  ;  and  the 
Cantor  Lectures  on  "The  Scientific  Basis 
of  Cookery,"  by  the  same  author,  the 
subject  is  treated  as  a  branch  of  applied 
science. 

COOK  INLET,  a  bay  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  on  the  south  coast  of  Alaska,  about 
200  miles  in  length  and  60  miles  at  its 
greatest  breadth.  It  is  partially  blocked 
with  ice  during  the  winter  months,  and 
in  summer  the  rough  coast  line  is  sub- 
ject to  frequent  storms,  but  navigation 
is  being  rendered  less  dangerous  every 
year.  It  contains  several  islands,  the 
largest  being  Augustine  Island,  which 
has  a  volcanic  mountain.  The  Sushitna 
and  other  rivers  flow  into  it,  and  sev- 
eral active  volcanoes  are  on  the  coast, 
among  them  Mt.  Iliamna,  12,066  feet 
high.  The  chief  harbor  is  Seldonia,  and 
there  are  a  number  of  other  growing 
towns  overlooking  the  bay. 

COOK  ISLANDS,  otherwise  known  as 
the  Hervey  Archipelago,  lie  about  mid- 
way between  the  Society  and  Navigator 
groups,  near  20°  S.  lat.,  and  158°  W. 
Ion.,  and  are  some  volcanic,  some  coral- 
line. The  principal  members  of  the  clus- 
ter are  Mangaia,  Atiou,  and  Raratonga. 
The  natives  number  about  7,000,  mainly 
of  the  brown  Polynesian  stock.  For- 
merly cannibals,  they  are  now  all  Chris- 
tians, and  dress  after  the  European 
fashion.  The  islands  were  annexed  by 
Great  Britain  in  1888. 

COOK,  MOUNT,  the  highest  peak  of 
Australasia;  is  one  of  the  southern  Alps 
near  the  center  of  the  range,  on  the  W. 
side  of  the  South  Island  of  New  Zea- 
land. It  is  12,349  feet  high,  is  covered 
with  perpetual  snow  (the  snow-line  be- 
ing 3,500  feet  lower  than  in  Switzer- 
land), is  difficult  of  access,  and  was 
scaled  for  the  first  time  by  the  Rev.  W. 
3.  Green  on  March  2,  1882. 

COOK  STRAIT,  discovered  by  Captain 
Cook  on  his  first  voyage,  separates  the 
N.  and  S.  islands  of  the  New  Zealand 
group,  and  varies  from  20  to  80  miles 
in  width. 

COOLEY,   THOMAS  MCINTYRE,   an 

American  jurist;  born  in  Attica,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  6,  1824.  He  was  Professor  of  Law 
in  the  University  of  Michigan  (1859  and 
1881)  ;  chief -justice  of  that  State  (1868- 
1869)  ;  chairman  of  the  United  States 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  (1887- 
1891).  He  wrote:  "A  Treatise  Upon 
Wrongs  and   Their   Remedies"    (Vol.   i., 


1878)  ;  "General  Principles  of  Constitu- 
tional Law  in  the  United  States"  (1880); 
etc.  He  died  in  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  Sept. 
12,  1898. 

COOLIDGE,  ARCHIBALD  CARY,  an 

American  educator,  born  in  Boston  in 
1866.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1887  and  studied  in  Berlin 
and  in  Paris.  He  acted  as  private  sec- 
retary to  his  uncle,  T.  J.  Coolidge,  for 
several  years,  and  in  1893  was  secretary 
of  the  American  Legation  at  Vienna. 
He  was  appointed  instructor  of  history 
in  Harvard  University  in  1893,  becom- 
ing assistant  professor  in  1899  and  pro- 
fessor in  1908.  From  1911  he  was  di- 
rector of  the  University  Library.  Hi 
was  Harvard  lecturer  at  the  Sorbonne 
and  other  French  universities  in  1906 
and  1907,  and  acted  as  delegate  to  the 
Pan  -  American  Scientific  Congress  at 
Santiago,  Chile,  in  1908-1909.  In  1913- 
1914  he  was  Harvard  exchange  profes- 
sor at  the  University  of  Berlin.  During 
the  World  War  he  acted  as  special  agent 
of  the  State  Department  in  Sweden  and 
northern  Russia,  and  was  chief  of  the 
mission  in  Vienna.  In  1919  he  was  at- 
tached to  the  Peace  Conference  as  ad- 
viser and  was  a  member  of  several  sci- 
entific societies.  He  wrote  "The  United 
States  as  a  World  Power"  (1908)  ;  and 
"Origins  of  the  Triple  Alliance"   (1917). 

COOLIDGE,  CALVIN,  an  American 
public  official.  Republican  candidate  for 
vice-president  in  1920.  He  was  born  in 
1872  in  Plymouth,  Vt.,  and  graduated 
from  Amherst  College  in  1895.  In  the 
fall  of  that  year  he  began  the  study  of 
law  in  the  offices  of  Hammond  and  Field 
in  Northampton,  Mass.,  and  two  years 
later  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  Soon 
after  he  entered  the  practice  of  law  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  North- 
ampton City  Council,  and  has  held  pub- 
lic office  almost  continuously  since.  In 
1900  and  1901  he  was  City  Solicitor  of 
Northampton.  From  1907-1908  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  House 
of  Representatives  and  later  Mayor  of 
Northampton.  In  1912-1916  he  served 
in  the  State  Senate,  being  president  of 
that  body  for  two  years.     From  1916  to 

1918  he  held  the  post  of  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  and  in  1918  was 
elected   Governor  of  the   State.     During 

1919  a  strike  of  the  Boston  police  left 
that  city  for  a  few  days  at  the  mercy  of 
the  lawless  elements.  Governor  Coolidge 
took  vigorous  measures  to  enlist  a  volun- 
teer force  and  refused  to  make  any 
terms  with  the  strikers  who  were  dis- 
charged and  not  re-employed.  His  action 
brought  him  nation-wide  fame  and  was 
indorsed  by  a  majority  of  the  citizens  of 


COOLIDGE 


138 


COOPER 


his  State,  who  re-elected  him  Governor  in  dies,  Mauritius,  and  other  places,  their 
1919.  He  was  nominated  for  vice-presi-  passage  being  paid  for  them  on  their 
dent  on  the  first  ballot  by  the   Hepub-    agreeing  to  serve  for  a  term  of  years. 

The  first  coolie  emigrants  appear  to 
have  been  those  sent  to  Bvitish  Guiana 
from  Calcutta  in  1839  to  supply  the 
want  of  labor  felt  after  the  abolition  of 
slavery.  The  coolies  employed  in  Guiana 
are  still  chiefly  from  India.  Coolies 
have  also  been  introduced  into  Jamaica, 
Trinidad,  Natal,  and  large  numbers  into 
Mauritius.  There  are  over  600,000  in 
the  British  coloniea.  The  Chinese  coolies 
have  been  principally  sent  to  Cuba  and 
Peru.  The  name  is  also  given  to  Chinese 
immigTants  to  the  United  States. 

COOPEB,     JAMES    FENIMORE,     an 

American  novelist;  born  in  Burlington. 
N.  J.,  Sept.  15,  1789;  studied  at  Yale 
College,  and  entered  the  American  navy 
as  a  midshipman  at  the  age  of  16.  In 
1821  appeared  the  novel  of  "Precaution," 
but  it  was  not  till  the  production  of  the 
"Spy"  and  the  "Pioneers"  that  he  began 
to  take  a  high  place  among  contemto- 
rary  novelists.  The  "Pilot,"  "Water- 
witch,"  "Pathfinder,"  "Deerslayer,"  "Last 
of  the  Mohicans,"  and  "Red  Rover" 
are  familiar  names  to  the  novel-reading 
public.    After  visiting  Europe  and  serv- 


CALVIN    COOLIDGE 

lican  National  Convention  meeting  in 
Chicago  in  June,  1920,  and  was  elected  on 
Nov.  4,  1920. 

COOLIDGE,  T(HOMAS),  JEFFER- 
SON, an  American  diplomat,  born  in  Bos- 
ton in  1831.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  in  1850  and  began  business  in 
the  firm  of  Gardiner  &  Coolidge,  East 
India  merchants.  He  also  took  an  ac- 
tive part  in  the  development  of  railways 
in  the  West.  He  was  president  of  the 
A-tchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe,  and 
other  railroads.  In  1892-1893  he  was 
United  States  Minister  to  France,  and 
in  1898-1899  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Joint  High  Commission  to  adjust  dis- 
putes between  England  and  the  United 
States.  He  gave  the  Jefferson  Physical 
Research  Laboratory  to  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. 

COOLIE,  a  name  in  Hindustan  for  a 
day  laborer,  also  extended  to  those  of 
some  other  E.  countries.  Many  of  these 
have  been  introduced  Into  the  West  In- 


JAMES   FENIMORE   COOPER 

ing  as  consul  of  the  United  States  at 
Lyons  for  three  years,  he  returned  to 
Cooperstown,  N.  Y.,  where  he  died,  Sept. 


COOPER 


139 


CO-OPERATION 


14,  1851.  Besides  his  novels  he  wrote  a 
history  of  the  United  States  navy,  and 
some  volumes  descriptive  of  his  travels. 

COOPER,  PETER,  an  American  inven- 
tor, manufacturer,  and  philanthropist; 
born  in  New  York,  Feb.  12,  1791.  A 
coachmaker  by  trade,  he  became  a  suc- 
cessful inventor  and  glue  manufacturer, 
and  acquired  a  large  fortune.  He  built, 
after  his  own  designs,  the  first  locomo- 
tive engine  constructed  on  this  continent 
(1830)  ;  was  one  of  the  original  pro- 
moters of  the  electric  telegraph,  actively 
interested  in  the  construction  of  the  New 
York  State  canals,  etc.  He  was  the  can- 
didate of  the  "Greenback"  party  for 
President  in  1876.  He  is  best  known  by 
the  institution  that  was  dearest  to  his 
own  heart,  the  "Cooper  Union"  of  New 
York,  founded  for  the  instruction  of  the 
industrial  classes  (1854-1859) .  He  wrote: 
"Political  and  Financial  Opinions,  with 
an  Autobiography"  (1877) ;  "Ideas  for 
a  Science  of  Good  Government"  (1883). 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  April  4,  1883. 

CO-OPERATION,  when  signif  jdng  so- 
cial organization,  and  in  its  widest  appli- 
cation, is  the  voluntary  association  of  a 
number  of  persons  for  the  attainment 
of  certain  economic  advantages,  as  in 
the  combination  of  farmers  for  the  sale 
of  their  produce  in  such  large  volume  as 
to  eliminate  parasitic  middlemen.  Spe- 
cifically, however,  the  word  signifies  co- 
operation of  the  consumers,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  production  and  distribution  of 
commodities  for  use,  with  the  element  of 
private  profit  eliminated. 

The  modern  co  -  operative  movement 
had  its  beginning  in  the  now  famous 
Rochdale  co-operative  society,  founded 
by  twenty-eight  fiannel  weavers,  in  1844, 
for  the  purpose  of  operating  a  food- 
stuff store  on  this  principle.  In  the  con- 
stitution of  their  society  they  first  en- 
nunciated  those  fundamental  principles 
which  are  to-day  the  basis  of  the  modern 
movement;  one  man,  one  vote;  member- 
ship open  to  all  comers;  invested  capital 
to  receive  no  other  reward  than  the  cur- 
rent rate  of  interest;  and  the  profits  of 
the  enterprise  to  be  retained  as  collective 
capital,  or  returned  to  the  purchasing 
members,  to  each  in  proportion  to  the  vol- 
ume of  his  trade  with  the  society's  store. 

Beginning  as  small  distributive  enter- 
prises,^ Rochdale  co-operation  attracted 
very  little  attention  for  over  a  genera- 
tion. It  was  not  till  the  numerous  local 
food  supply  societies  federated  (1861  in 
England)  and  formed  what  was  called 
a  wholesale  society,  that  the  economic 
power  of  the  movement  began  to  attract 
public  attention  and  aroused  the  alarm 
of  the  merchant   class.     Through  these 


central,  or  national,  purchasing  agen- 
cies, the  local  societies  were  enabled  to 
pool  their  purchases  and  to  trade  in 
such  a  volume  as  to  make  their  influence 
felt  on  the  general  market.  This  influ- 
ence was  further  enhanced  when  the 
federations,  with  their  organized  market 
behind  them,  began  to  manufacture  to 
supply  the  needs  of  their  own  constitu- 
ents. This  entry  into  the  field  of  pro- 
duction marked  their  economic  independ- 
ence of  private  industry,  especially  when 
large  tracts  of  land  were  acquired  for 
the  production  of  raw  material  needed 
in  manufacture.  As  an  instance,  the 
English  Co-operative  Wholesale  Society 
now  owns  and  operates  30,000  acres  of 
farm  land  in  England,  on  which  it 
raises  fruit  for  its  jam  factories,  vege- 
tables for  canning,  dairy  products  for 
distribution  among  the  store  societies; 
and  an  equal  acreage  in  Ceylon  and  In- 
dia for  the  production  of  tea ;  vast  areas 
of  land  in  Africa  for  cocoanut  and  palm 
oil;  and  10,000  acres  of  land  in  Can- 
ada for  the  production  of  wheat  for  its 
flour  mills,  the  largest  in  England.  All 
these  vast  enterprises,  including  facto- 
ries which  are  the  largest  of  their  kind 
in  the  world,  are  owned  collectively  and 
controlled  democratically  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  local  societies,  the  directors 
and  managers  being  the  paid  servants 
of  the  collectivity.  Thus  use,  or  service, 
is  the  stimulus,  rather  than  private  com- 
mercial profit. 

It  has  been  only  within  the  past  few 
years,  since  the  beginning  of  the  World 
War,  that  the  Consumers'  Co-oper- 
ative Movement  has  been  recognized  as 
a  significant  social  movement,  presenting 
itself  as  a  distinct  and  practical  alter- 
native to  Socialism,  Syndicalism,  or  any 
of  the  other  purely  theoretical  collectivist 
movements.  This  development  of  its  so- 
cial significance  was  entirely  due  to  its 
abnormal  growth  during  the  war  period, 
a  result  of  its  efficiency  as  a  source  of 
food  supply  during  the  dislocation  of 
private  trade  and  production.  With  a 
general  world-wide  membership  of  about 
8,000,000,  in  1914,  the  membership  in 
1920  stood  at  24,000,000,  each  unit  rep- 
resenting a  family,  rather  than  one  in- 
dividual. It  was  in  Russia  that  this 
growth  attained  most  abnormal  dimen- 
sions, the  membership  attaining  15,000,- 
000  throughout  the  country  in  1920.  In 
other  countries,  however,  the  develop- 
ment has  also  been  remarkable.  In 
France  membership  rose  from  800,000  to 
over  1,500,000;  in  Great  Britain  it  rose 
from  a  little  over  8,000,000  in  1914  to 
over  4,000,000  in  1920.  In  Switzerland, 
Denmark,  and  Finland  a  majority  of  the 
population  already  is  involved. 


COOPER  UNION" 


140 


COPAIBA 


In  the  United  States,  before  the  war, 
the  development  of  consumers'  co-opera- 
tion had  been  least  marked,  though  it 
had  a  history  of  effort  stretching  back 
through  fifty  years.  In  1916  the  Co- 
operative League  of  America,  the  edu- 
cational federation  of  the  movement  in 
this  country,  had  a  record  of  only  600 
co-operative  societies  in  the  United 
States.  To-day,  in  1920,  its  card  index 
directory  indicates  4,000  such  societies, 
most  of  them  in  the  Middle  West.  In 
Illinois  these  societies  have  already  fed- 
erated into  a  wholesale  society,  doing  a 
monthly  business  of  $300,000.  Another 
wholesale  society  has  also  appeared  in 
Boston,  supplying  local  societies  in  New 
England,  doing  a  slightly  smaller  vol- 
ume of  trade.  A  third  federation  is 
located  in  Superior,  Wis.,  supplying  a 
large  number  of  Finnish  societies  in  that 
region,  while  the  Pacific  Co-operative 
League  operates  a  central  purchasing 
agency  in  San  Francisco. 

Being  of  spontaneous  growth,  con- 
sumers' co-operation  is  not  based  on  any 
social  theory  of  organization,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  other  collectivist  move- 
ments. But  the  movement  itself,  by  its 
own  practical  development,  has  now  sug- 
gested certain  laws  of  social  evolution 
which  indicate  a  system  of  social  organ- 
ization peculiar  to  itself. 

Thus  considered,  it  may  be  said  that 
co-operation  is  distinctly  a  social  move- 
ment, in  contrast  to  a  class  movement; 
that  it  is  representative  of  the  people 
as  consumers,  rather  than  as  workers. 
Thus,  it  holds  that  consumption  is  the 
motive  behind  all  industry,  and  on  this 
element  in  society  only  may  a  true  in- 
dustrial democracy  rest.  In  method  it  is 
evolutionary,  as  contrasted  to  the  revo- 
lutionary method  of  Marxian  socialism 
or  the  industrial  action  of  syndicalism, 
or  militant  industrial  unionism.  While 
co-operation  does  not  hesitate  to  employ 
political  action  to  protect  itself  against 
discrimination,  as  has  been  the  case  in 
Great  Britain,  it  is  essentially  an  eco- 
nomic, non-political  movement,  in  that  it 
has  no  tendency  to  establish  its  practices 
by  legislation.  Consult:  Leonard  Woolf, 
"Co-operation  and  the  Future  of  In- 
dustry" (London,  1918) ;  Emerson  P. 
Harris,  "Co-operation,  the  Hope  of  the 
Consumer"  (New  York,  1918) ;  Albert 
Sonnichsen,  "Consumers'  Co-operation" 
(New  York,  1919). 

COOPER  UNION,  or  COOPER  IN- 
STITUTE, an  institute  founded  in  New 
York  City  in  1857  by  Peter  Cooper.  Its 
object  is  to  provide  free  schools  of  art 
and  science,  and  free  reading  rooms  and 
library  for  the  working  classes.  The 
course  in  science  includes  the  engineer- 


ing, chemistry,  astronomy,  and  mechan- 
ical drawing;  and  that  of  art  includes 
architectural,  industrial,  and  ornamental 
drawing,  clay  modeling  and  painting.  In- 
struction is  also  given  in  English  liter- 
ature and  Belles  Lettres,  wood  engrav- 
ing, pottery,  typewriting,  stenography, 
and  telegraphy.  There  are  lecture 
courses,  a  museum,  an  art  gallery,  and 
a  library  with  a  reading  room  contain- 
ing current  numbers  of  nearly  500  mag- 
azines and  newspapers.  The  Institute 
was  built  at  a  cost  of  $630,000  and  was 
endowed  by  Mr.  Cooper  with  $300,000. 
It  has  received  additional  gifts  from 
time  to  time  from  Edward  Cooper  and 
Abram  S.  Hewitt,  and  in  1899  Andrew 
Carnegie  gave  it  $300,000  for  the  found- 
ing of  a  mechanical  day  art  school.  The 
endowment  of  the  Union  in  1920 
amounted  to  about  $3,000,000.  Over  4,000 
persons  were  enrolled  in  the  various  de- 
partments. 

COORG,  or  KURG,  an  ancient  prin- 
cipality, now  a  province  in  southern  Hin- 
dustan, lying  between  Mysore  on  the  E. 
and  N.  E.  and  the  districts  of  South 
Canara  and  Malabar  on  the  W. ;  area, 
1,583  square  miles.  The  country  has  a 
healthful  climate,  and  yields  coffee, 
spices,  tim.ber,  etc.  The  capital  is  Mer- 
kara.    Pop.  (1901)  180,607. 

COOT,  a  wading  bird  boVngin^  to  the 
family  Rallidse,  and  the  suo-family  Gal- 
limUinse  (water  hens).  The  head  and 
neck  are  deep  black,  the  upper  parts 
slaty  black,  those  beneath  bluish  ash,  the 
bill  and  frontal  plate  white,  the  former 
with  a  slightly  roseate  hue,  iris  crimson, 
feet  ash-colored  with  greenish  tinge  be- 
low the  knee,  above  it  yellow  or  greenish 
red.  It  is  found  in  Great  Britain,  Hol- 
land, France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
throughout  Europe.  It  deposits  from 
seven  to  ten  egg^s  of  a  brownish  white 
color,  spotted  with  dark  brown. 

COPACABANA,  a  small  peninsula  in 
the  S.  part  of  Lake  Titicaca,  Peru,  which 
was  a  sacred  place  of  the  Incas  and 
where  many  ruins  of  their  tempTes  and 
other  buildings  can  still  be  seen.  Thou- 
sands of  pilgrims  yearly  visit  the  chapel 
there,  which  contains  an  alleged  mirac- 
ulous painting  of  the  Virgin. 

COPAIBA,  the  balsam  or  oleo-reain 
obtained  from  incisions  made  in  the 
trunk  of  copaifera  rmiltijuga  and  other 
species  of  copaifera.  Copaiba  is  about 
the  consistence  of  olive-oil,  light  in  color 
and  transparent,  wilh  a  peculiar  odor, 
and  an  acrid,  aromatic  taste;  it  is  per- 
fectly soluble  in  an  eo.ual  volume  of  ben- 
zene ;  it  does  not  become  gelatinous  when 
heated  to  270°  Fahr.,  and  is  not  fluores- 


COPAL 


141 


COPENHAGEN 


cent.  It  contains  a  resin,  copaivic  acid, 
and  an  essential  oil,  copaiba  oil.  It  dis- 
solves one-fourth  of  its  weight  of 
magnesia  carbonate  when  heated,  and 
remains  transparent;  it  is  said  that  a 
small  quantity  of  water  contained  in  the 
balsam  first  combines  with  the  magnesia, 
forming  a  hydrate  which  is  soluble  in  the 
resin.  Copaiba  acts  as  a  stimulant  on 
the  mucous  membranes,  especially  on  the 
genito-urinary  organs. 

COPAL,  a  resin  produced  by  a  plant, 
Rhus  copallinum,  which  grows  in  Mexico. 
It  is  obtained  in  rounded,  nearly  trans- 
parent, masses;  is  brittle  and  colorless, 
or  sligntly  yellow.  It  is  slightly  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  essentials  oils,  and  is  made 
into  varnish  by  mixing  in  a  melted  state 
with  oils. 

COPAN,  an  Indian  village  in  the  S. 
W.  corner  of  the  Central  American  State 
of  Honduras;  in  a  mountainous  region; 
the  site  of  a  city  still  populous  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest,  and  of  which  mag- 
nificent ruins  still  remain ;  first  described 
by  Stephens. 

COPE,  CHARLES  WEST,  an  English 
painter;  born  in  1811;  studied  at  the 
Royal  Academy  and  in  Italy;  and  first 
exhibited  at  the  Academy  in  1831.  In 
1843  he  gained  a  prize  of  $1,500  for  his 
picture  The  First  Trial  by  Jury";  in 
1844,  by  his  fresco  the  "Meeting  of 
Jacob  and  Rachael,"  secured  the  com- 
mission for  one  of  six  frescoes  for  the 
House  of  Lords,  producing  accordingly 
"Edward  the  Black  Prince  receiving  the 
Order  of  the  Garter."  Altogether  he  ex- 
ecuted eight  frescoes  for  the  House  of 
Lords.  Some  of  his  noted  works  are: 
"Last  Days  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  "Prince 
Henry  before  Justice  Gascoigne,"  "De- 
parture of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,"  "Burial 
of  Charles  I.,"  "Parting  of  Lord  William 
and  Lady  Russell,"  "L'Allegro  and  II 
Penseroso,"  "Milton's  Dream,"  "Ann 
Page  and  Slender,"  "Lear  and  Cordelia." 
He  became  an  A.  R.  A.  in  1844  and  R.  A. 
in  1848,  but  retired  in  1883.  He  died  in 
Bournemonco,  Aug.  21,  1890. 

COPECK  (a  lance),  a  Russian  copper 
coin,  so  called  from  the  impression  of 
St.  George  bearing  a  lance,  the  hundredth 
part  of  a  silver  ruble,  or  about  the 
eightieth  pai-t  of  a  paper  ruble. 

COPELAND,  CHABLES  TOWNSEND, 
an  American  aut'  r  r  and  educator,  born 
in  Calais,  Me.,  iji  1860.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  University  in  1882.  From 
1893  to  1910  he  was  lecturer  on  English 
literature  at  Harvard,  assistant  profes- 
sor from  1910  to  1917,  and  associate  pro- 
fessor from  1917.  He  was  Harvard  Uni- 
versity lecturer  in  the  Lowell  Institute 


on  the  university  extension  courses  in 
English  literature.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Life  of  Edwin  Booth"  (1901),  and 
edited  "Letters  of  Thomas  Carlyle  to 
His  Youngest  Sister";  "Tennyson's  The 
Princess";  and  the  works  of  other  Eng- 
lish poets. 

COPENHAGEN  (Merchants'  Haven), 
the  capital  of  Denmark,  and  headquar- 
ters of  the  national  commerce,  literature, 
and  art;  situated  on  the  shore  of  the 
island  of  Zealand,  in  the  Sound,  which  is 
here  about  12  miles  broad;  an  outlying 
portion,  Christianshavn,  stands  at  the  N. 
end  of  the  island  of  Amager  or  Amak, 
which  is  separated  from  Zealand  by  a 
narrow  arm  cf  the  sea.  The  channel 
forms  a  fine  and  capacious  harbor,  which 
is  bridged  over  so  as  to  connect  Chris- 
tianshavn and  the  main  part  of  the  city 
at  two  points.  To  counterbalance  the 
expected  injury  to  the  city's  commerce 
from  the  opening  of  the  Baltic  Canal,  a 
great  free  port  (free  from  customs  dues) 
was  constructed  in  1890-1894  to  the  N. 
of  the  harbor.  The  business  quarter 
stretches  from  the  harbor  in  a  N.  E. 
direction  toward  the  principal  and  cen- 
tral square,  Kongens  Nytorv,  which  in 
itself  forms  the  focus  of  the  life  of  the 
city.  Farther  N.  E.  of  this  point  lies 
the  aristocratic  quarter,  with  the  hand- 
some Amalienborg  Square  and  its  royal 
and  ministerial  palaces. 

Among  its  few  buildings  of  historical 
interest  or  intrinsic  beauty,  the  metro- 

?olitan  cathedral  church,  known  as  Vor 
'rue  Kirke,  possesses  a  baptismal  font, 
designed  and  in  part  executed  by  Thor- 
waldsen.  Trinitatis  Kirke  is  remarkable 
for  its  round  tower,  which  is  ascended  by 
a  winding  causeway  instead  of  steps; 
and  Holmens'  Kirke  contains  interesting 
monuments  to  the  great  naval  heroes, 
Juel  and  Tordenskjold.  The  royal  palace, 
called  Christiansborg,  was  rebuilt  be- 
tween 1794  and  1828.  The  principal  part 
of  the  vast  building  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1884.  Happily  most  of  the  pic- 
tures in  its  great  art  gallery  were  saved. 
The  castle  of  Rosenborg  (1610-1624), 
where  the  regalia  are  kept,  contains  in- 
teresting art  objects;  and  the  palace  of 
Charlottenborg  (1624),  is  now  used  as 
an  academy  of  arts.  The  university  was 
founded  by  Christian  I.  in  1479.  Con- 
nected with  the  university  are  a  surgical 
academy,  an  observatory,  a  botanical 
garden,  a  zoological  museum,  a  polytech- 
nic institution,  and  a  library  of  250,000 
volumes,  containing  also  a  great  collec- 
tion of  ancient  Persian  MSS.,  and  an- 
other of  ancient  Northern  MSS.  Copen- 
hagen is  the  center,  not  only  of  Danish, 
but  Northern  literature  and  art,  and  is 
the  seat  of  a  number  of  societies,  among 
10 — Vol.  Ill — Cyc 


COPENHAGEN  UNIVERSITY      142 


COPERNICirs 


which  are  the  Royal  Society,  founded  in 
1742;  and  the  Royal  Society  of  Northern 
Antiquaries,  founded  in  1825;  as  well  as 
agricultural  and  others.  The  royal  library 
contains  500,000  volumes.  The  Museum 
of  Northern  Antiquities  in  Prindsens 
Palais,  is  unrivaled  in  its  kind.  The 
Thorwaldsen  Museum  consists  of  works 
of  art  by  that  sculptor  himself,  and 
others  left  by  him  to  the  Danish  nation. 
The  chief  exports  of  Copenhagen  are 
grain,  rape-seed,  butter,  cheese,  beef,  cat- 
tle, wool,  hides,  bones,  and  grain-spirit. 
Porcelain,  pianos,  clocks,  watches,  math- 
ematical instruments,  chemicals,  sugar, 
beer,  and  tobacco  are  manufactured. 

About  the  middle  of  the  12th  century, 
Copenhagen  was  but  a  fishing  village. 
In  1254  the  village  obtained  the  privi- 
leges of  a  town,  and  in  1443  King  Chris- 
topher made  it  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom. It  was  several  times  attacked  by 
the  Hanseatic  League;  was  besieged  by 
the  Swedes  in  the  17th  century;  was 
bombarded  by  the  English,  Dutch,  and 
Swedes  in  1700;  suffered  grievously  by 
fires  in  1728,  1794,  and  1795;  witnessed 
a  great  sea-fight  in  its  roads  on  April 
2,  1801,  when  the  English,  under  Sir 
Hyde  Parker,  with  Nelson  as  his  second 
in  command,  destroyed  the  Danish  fleet; 
and  (to  prevent  the  Danish  fleet  from 
falling  into  the  power  of  Napoleon) ,  was 
bombarded  by  the  English  from  the  2d 
to  the  5th  of  September,  1807,  when 
great  destruction  was  wrought,  both  in 
houses  and  public  buildings,  and  hun- 
dreds of  persons  lost  their  lives.  Pop. 
(1916)   506,390. 

COPENHAGEN,    UNIVERSITY    OF, 

the  oldest  university  in  northern  Europe 
and  the  only  one  in  Denmark,  founded  in 
1478  and  modelled  after  the  university 
of  Cologne,  to  which  most  of  the  Danish 
students  had  gone  prior  to  that  date. 
The  university  suffered  so  much  from 
the  wars  and  commotions  attending  the 
Reformation  that  it  had  to  be  re-estab- 
lished in  1539,  this  time  taking  as  its 
model  the  university  of  Wittenberg.  De- 
stroyed by  fire  in  the  18th  century,  it 
was  established  in  its  present  form  in 
1788.  During  the  first  half  of  the  19th 
century  many  men  famous  in  Norse 
scholarship  taught  at  Copenhagen.  It  is 
open  to  both  sexes  and  its  present  enroll- 
ment (1919)  is  over  3,000.  It  is  en- 
d(?wed,  but  a  great  share  of  its  income  is 
derived  from  the  state.  There  are  no 
charges  for  tuition.  Attached  to  it  are 
zoological  and  botanical  gardens. 

COPEPODA,  an  order  of  Crustacea, 
ranked  under  the  subclass  entomostraca 
and  the  legion  lophyropoda.  They  are 
animals  of  small  size,  the  body  divided 


into  two  segments,  viz.,  a  cephalothorax 
and  an  abdomen.  There  are  two  pairs 
of  antennae,  two  pairs  of  footjaws,  and 
five  pairs  of  ordinary  feet  furnished  with 
bristles  and  adapted  for  swimming. 
There  are  two  families,  the  cyclopidse, 
which  have  but  a  single  eye;  and  the 
cetochilidae,  which  have  two  eyes.  The 
English  book-name  of  the  Copepoda  is 
oar-footed  crustaceans. 

COPERNICUS,  or  KOPPERNIGK, 
NICHOLAS,  a  noted  astronomer;  born 
in  Thorn,  Poland,  Feb.  19,  1473.  Having 
studied  medicine  at  Cracow,  he  after- 
ward devoted  himself  to  mathematics  and 
astronomy,  and  in  1500  taught  mathe- 
matics at  Rome  with  great  success.  Re- 
turning to  his  own  country  he  was  made 


NICHOLAS   COPERNICUS 

a  canon  in  the  cathedral  of  Frauenburg, 
and  began  to  work  out  his  new  system 
of  astronomy.  Doubting  that  the  mo- 
tions of  the  heavenly  bodies  could  be  so 
complicated    as    the    Ptolemaic    system 


COPLEY 


143 


COPPERHEAD 


made  them,  he  was  induced  to  consider 
the  simpler  hypotheosis  that  the  sun  was 
the  center  round  which  the  earth  and  the 
other  planets  revolve.  Besides  this  fun- 
damental truth  Copernicus  anticipated 
many  other  of  the  principal  facts  of  as- 
tronomical science,  such  as  the  motion  of 
the  earth  round  its  axis,  the  immense 
distance  of  the  stars  which  made  their 
apparent  position  the  same  from  any 
part  of  the  earth's  orbit,  etc.  His  gen- 
eral theory  also  enabled  him  to  explain 
for  the  first  time  many  of  the  important 
phenomena  of  nature,  such  as  the  varia- 
tions of  the  seasons  and  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes.  The  great  work  in 
which  Copernicus  explained  his  theory 
"On  the  Revolutions  of  the  Celestial 
Orbs,"  was  completed  in  1530,  and  pub- 
lished at  Nuremberg  in  1543.  He  was 
excommunicated  by  the  Pope  on  account 
of  it.  He  died  at  Frauenburg,  May  24, 
1543. 

COPLEY,     JOHN     SINGLETON,     an 

American  painter;  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
July  3,  1737;  removed  to  London,  Eng- 
land, in  1776,  and  acquired  a  reputation 
as  a  historical  painter.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1779.  His  most  celebrated  picture  is 
"Death  of  Lord  Chatham,"  now  in  the 
National  Gallery.  He  died  in  London, 
Sept.  9,  1815. 

COPPEE,  FRANCOIS  (ko-pa),  a 
French  dramatist;  born  in  Paris,  Jan. 
12,  1842.  He  was  trained  for  what  the 
Parisians  call  a  ministerial  career,  but 
wrote  "The  Reliquary"  and  "Intimacies," 
books  of  verse.  In  "Modern  Poems," 
"The  Benediction,"  and  "The  Strike  of 
the  Smiths,"  we  have  a  very  modern 
note.    He  died  May  23,  1908. 

COPPER,  a  dyad  metallic  element; 
symbol,  Cu.;  at.  wt.  63.5:  sp.  gr.,  8.95; 
melting  point,  1,091°  C.  Copper  is  a  red 
malleable,  ductile  metal,  occurring  in  a 
native  state  on  the  S.  shore  of  Lake 
Superior.  It  also  occurs  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent as  copper  pyrites  of  a  brass  yellow 
color  as  peacock  ore,  characterized  b^  its 
iridescent  colors,  in  the  Butte  mines, 
Montana;  as  gray  copper  ore,  a  sulphide, 
in  Cornwall  and  Freiberg;  as  indigo 
copper,  so  called  from  its  color,  in  Chile; 
as  malachite,  or  green  carbonate,  in  Si- 
beria and  Australia;  and  as  azurit^  or 
blue  carbonate  in  Buna  Burra,  Aus- 
tralia. 

Copper  forms  several  alloys.  Brass  is 
an  alloy  of  two-thirds  copper  and  one- 
third  zinc;  bronze,  gun-metal,  and  bell- 
metal  are  alloys  oi  copper  with  tin.  Cop- 
per forms  two  series  of  compounds,  the 
cuprous  and  cupric  salts.  Copper  ar- 
senite,  or  Scheele's  green,  is  used  as  a 


pigment  for  wall  papers;  it  is  very  poi- 
sonous. Copper  salts  are  detected  by 
giving  in  an  acid  solution  a  black  pre- 
cipitate with  H,.S.  All  salts  of  copper 
are  poisonous.  Verdigris  is  an  acetate 
of  copper,  often  formed  by  cooking  food 
in  copper  vessels. 

Production. — Since  the  census  year  1880 
the  United  States  has  risen  to  the  rank 
of  the  largest  copper  producer  in  the 
world,  outstripping  by  far  any  other 
country.  The  production  of  copper  in 
the  United  States  in  1919  was  1,310,- 
541,529  pounds.  The  production  in  1918 
was  1,908,533,595  pounds.  The  largest 
production  was  from  Arizona,  which  con- 
tributed 536,513,368  pounds.  Michigan 
was  second  with  201,716,335  pounds,  and 
Montana  third  with  176,189,873  pounds. 
The  production  of  Utah  was  148,057,450 
pounds.  Other  States  producing  over 
50,000,000  pounds  were  New  Mexico  and 
Nevada.  Alaska  produced  56,534,992 
pounds.  The  total  value  of  the  produc- 
tion in  1919  was  $243,761,000,  compared 
with  a  value  in  1918  of  $471,408,000. 
The  imports  of  copper  ore  in  1919 
amounted  to  49,716,511  pounds.  There 
were  imported  263,220,449  pounds  of  un- 
refined black  copper,  and  copper  in  bars, 
pigs,  or  other  forms.  The  exports  of 
copper  in  1919  amounted  to  516,627,775 
pounds. 

History. — Copper  has  been  known  since 
prehistoric  times.  There  may  have  been 
a  copper  age  before  that  of  bronze.  The 
latter  compound  metal,  an  alloy  of  cop- 
per and  tin,  was  known  long  before  brass 
had  been  made.  The  word  copper  occurs 
once  in  the  Old  Testament  (Ezra  viii :  27) , 
but  what  is  in  many  places  called  brass 
should  have  been  rendered  copper.  Cop- 
per was  in  use  in  ancient  Assyria.  The 
classical  nations  were  familiar  with  it. 
The  Greeks  brought  it  from  Cyprus,  the 
mines  being  at  Tamassus,  near  Fama- 
gosta.  Copper  mines  were  first  opened 
in  England  a.  d.  1189,  but  not  very  suc- 
cessfully till  A.  D.  1689. 

COPPERAS,  sulphate  of  iron  or  green 
vitriol  {FeS04.7H=0),  a  salt  of  a  pecu- 
liar astringent  taste  and  of  a  fine  green 
color.  When  exposed  to  the  air  it  as- 
sumes a  brownish  hue.  It  is  much  used 
in  dyeing  black  and  in  making  ink,  and 
in  medicine  as  a  tonic.  The  copperas  of 
commerce  is  usually  made  by  the  decom- 
position of  iron  pyrites. 

COPPERHE/  D,  a  venomous  serpent* 
closely  allied  to  che  rattlesnake,  found  in 
the  United  States  from  New  England  to 
Florida.  It  has  a  thick  body  from  2  to 
3  feet  long.  Lurking  in  dark  and  moist 
places,  and  giving  no  warning,  it  is  more 
dreaded  than  the  rattlesnake. 


COPPERMINE  BIVER 


144 


COPYING  MACHINES 


COPPERMINE  RIVER,  a  river  of 
Mackenzie  district,  Canada,  475  miles 
long,  having  its  source  in  a  small  lake 
north  of  Lake  Gras  through  which  it 
flows  to  Coronation  Gulf  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  The  stream,  flowing  between 
hills  and  morasses,  is  too  rapid  to  be 
navigable.  Hearne  discovered  the  river  in 
1771,  and  part  of  it  was  explored  by 
Franklin  in  1821. 

COPPER  NICKEL,  or  KUPFER- 
NICKEL,  an  ore  of  nickel,  an  alloy  of 
nickel  and  arsenic,  containing  about  60 
of  the  former  and  40  of  the  latter,  of  a 
copper  color,  found  in  the  mines  of  West- 
phalia. 

COPPER  PLATE,  a  polished  plate  of 
copper  on  which  the  lines  of  some  draw- 
ing or  design  are  engraved  or  etched  to 
be  printed  from;  also  a  print  or  impres- 
sion from  such  a  plate. 

COPPER  PYRITES,  or  yellow  copper 
ore,  a  double  sulphide  of  copper  and  iron 
composed  in  equal  parts  of  copper,  sul- 
phur, and  iron.  It  occurs  mostly  in  pri- 
mary and  metamorphic  rocks,  and  is  the 
chief   copper   ore   of   England. 

COPPER  RIVER,  also  called  Atna, 
a  river  of  Alaska,  having  its  source  in 
the  Copper  Glacier  on  Mt.  Wrangel  and 
flowing  in  the  Gulf  of  Alaska.  The 
upper  river  flows  first  N.  then  W. 
through  a  wide  plain,  and  the  lower 
through  defiles  in  the  Chugach  Moun- 
tains. It  is  about  300  miles  long;  its 
basin  is  about  23,000  square  miles  in 
area,  and  its  fall  is  about  3,600.  The 
name  of  the  river  was  derived  from  the 
belief  that  it  held  copper  in  solution.  It 
has  several  tributaries,  the  chief  be- 
ing the  Chitna,  which  flows  into  it  from 
the  E. 

COPPICE,  or  COPSE  WOOD,  a  wood 
in  which  the  trees  are  cut  over  periodi- 
cally as  they  attain  a  certain  size.  The 
period  for  cutting  varies  with  the  soil 
and  the  tree.  The  oak  usually  requires 
from  15  to  25  years'  growth,  while  the 
willow  is  cut  regularly  every  year.  The 
term  is  also  used  in  a  general  sense  for 
a  wood  of  small  growth,  or  consisting  of 
underwood  and  brushwood. 

COPRA,  the  dried  kernel  of  the  cocoa- 
nut,  from  which  the  oil  has  not  yet  been 
expressed. 

COPT  [said  to  have  been  derived  from 
Kupt  (Coptos),  a  city  in  Upper  Egypt, 
now  Ckoof t  or  Gooft,  to  which  the  Chris- 
tians sometimes  fled  during  persecution 
by  the  Romans.  The  Rev.  Dr.  John  Wil- 
son considers  that  the  Arab  Gubt  or 
Gibt    is    simply    Gr.    Aigyptos^EgyTpf], 


one  belonging  to  the  Coptic  Church;  one 
of  the  old  Egyptian  race. 

COPTIC,  pertaining  to  the  people 
called  Copts,  or  to  their  sect;  the  rem- 
nants of  the  once  numerous  Church  of 
Egypt  —  that  which  had  the  celebrated 
school  at  Alexandria.  It  broke  off  from 
the  body  Catholic  in  embracing  the  Mo- 
nophysite  doctrine,  viz.,  that  not  two 
natures,  but  only  one,  existed  in  Christ, 
a  view  from  which  it  has  never  since  de- 
parted. About  250,000  Copts  still  exist 
in  Egypt,  mostly  in  its  upper  province. 

The  Coptic  language  was  the  language 
not  of  the  old  Egyptians  who  built  the 
pyramids  and  covered  monuments  and 
temples  with  hieroglyphics,  but  of  their 
successors  subsequent  to  the  introduction 
of  Christianity.  It  continued  till  the 
10th  century,  when  it  was  in  large  meas- 
ure superseded  by  Arabic.  By  the  17th 
it  had  ceased  to  be  spoken,  and  existed 
only  as  a  virritten  dialect.  While  it  lived 
three  dialects  were  recognized,  the  Sa- 
hidic,  in  Upper  Egypt;  the  Bahiric  or 
Memphitic,  in  Lower  Egypt;  and  the 
Bashmuric,  in  the  Delta. 

COPYING  MACHINES  AND  PROC- 
ESSES, the  various  methods  of  produc- 
ing duplicates  of  written  or  typed  copy 
without  transcription  may  be  divided 
into  two  general  classes — those  in  which 
the  copies  are  made  at  the  same  time  as 
the  original,  and  those  in  which  the 
copies  are  made  after  the  original  is 
completed. 

The  most  common  of  the  first  methods 
is  the  use  of  carbon  paper  between 
sheets  of  thin  writing  paper.  This 
method  can  be  used  on  a  typewriter,  and 
anywhere  from  one  to  ten  satisfactory 
copies  can  be  made  with  little  additional 
effort. 

Of  the  second  type,  a  common  method 
is  to  v^nrite  the  original  with  special 
heavy  ink.  The  original  is  pressed 
against  a  gelatinous  surface  which  ab- 
sorbs some  of  the  ink.  Copies  of  the 
original  may  be  made  by  pressing  sheets 
of  paper  against  the  surface. 

In  another  system  a  stencil  is  cut  by 
a  typewriter  or  with  a  special  stylus  in 
waxed  or  other  specially  prepared  paper. 
This  stencil  is  placed  on  a  roller,  and 
inked  from  the  inside,  and  will  produce 
an  almost  unlimited  number  of  copies, 
when  paper  is  passed  over  its  surface. 
This  is  the  mimeograph  apparatus  and 
was  said  to  be  invented  by  Thomas  A. 
Edison  in  1878.  It  has  since  been  sub- 
ject to  many  changes  and  improvements. 

In  recent  years  the  photostat  system 
of  direct  photograph  has  been  used  for 
securing  copies  of  valuable  papers,  and 
the  blue-print  process  is  still  the  most 


COPYRIGHT 


145 


COPYBIGHT 


used  method   of  reproducing  engineers' 
drawings,  architects'  plans,  etc. 

COPYBIGHT,  the  exclusive  right  of 
property  in  any  intellectual  production; 
the  protection  afforded  by  the  law  for  a 
limited  number  of  years  to  the  origina- 
tor of  any  \vritten  or  printed  composi- 
tion or  work  of  art,  or  to  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  whereby  persons  unauthorized 
are  prevented  from  multiplying  and  sell- 
ing copies,  or,  in  case  of  dramatic  works, 
from  representing  them  on  the  stage. 
Such  rights  were  claimed  by  authors  be- 
fore the  introduction  of  printing.  After 
the  invention  of  the  printing  press,  the 
right  to  publish  books  became  the  sub- 
ject of  licenses  and  patents.  The  com- 
mon law  affords  a  certain  measure  of 
protection  to  works  unpublished  or  pub- 
lished only  for  a  limited  purpose.  The 
tvriter  of  a  letter,  for  example,  trans- 
fers his  property  in  it  to  the  receiver; 
but  the  receiver  has  no  right  to  print 
it  for  sale  or  distribution  without  the 
writer's  consent.  The  copyright  in  pub- 
lished works  is  the  creation  of  statute; 
the  first  Copyright  Act  was  passed  in 
1709;  and  by  virtue  of  its  provisions  au- 
thors acquired  the  sole  liberty  of  print- 
ing their  books  during  a  term  of  14 
years  from  first  publication,  and,  if  the 
author  should  be  living  at  the  end  of 
that  time,  during  a  further  term  of  14 
years. 

At  the  Union  with  Ireland,  the  Copy- 
right Act  was  extended  to  that  country, 
and  the  trade  in  cheap  editions,  printed 
in  Dublin  and  secretly  imported  into 
Great  Britain,  came  to  p,n  end.  In  1814 
the  term  of  copyright  was  extended  to 
28  years,  and  the  residue  of  the  author's 
life,  if  he  were  living  at  the  end  of  the 
term.  The  basis  of  the  existing  law  is 
the  Copyright  Act  of  1842.  In  Great 
Britain  the  term  of  copyright  in  a  book 
is  42  years,  or  the  life  of  the  author  and 
seven  years,  whichever  of  the  two  terms 
is  the  longer.  No  copjnright  can  be  en- 
joyed in  seditious  or  immoral  publica- 
tions, or  in  books  first  publishea  out  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  Articles  contrib- 
uted to  encyclopaedias  and  periodicals 
and  books  published  in  parts  or  series 
belong  to  the  proprietor;  out  he  may  not 
publish  them  separately  without  the 
writer's  consent,  and  after  28  years  the 
copyright  reverts  to  the  author.  Dramas 
and  musical  pieces^  if  first  published  in 
book-form,  are  subject  to  the  same  rules 
as  books;  but  if  they  are  performed  in 
public  before  appearing  in  print,  the  au- 
thor retains  the  sole  right  of  permitting 
them  to  be  represented  during  the  term 
of  copyright;  and  this  right  is  distinct 
from  the  copyright  he  acquires  if  his 
drama  or  piece  is  published  as  a  book. 


By  an  Act  of  1882  the  proprietor  of  a 
piece  of  music,  desiring  to  reserve  tlie 
right  of  performance,  must  give  notica 
to  that  effect  on  the  cover.  Verses  may 
not  be  taken  from  a  copyright  work  and 
set  to  music  for  sale,  without  permission. 
A  novel  may  be  dramatized  without  the 
author's  permission;  but  if  copies  of  the 
drama  are  published  containing  passages 
borrowed  in  substance  from  the  novel, 
the  author  of  the  adaptation  is  liable  to 
an  action.  The  right  to  dramatize  can 
only  be  exercised  with  precautions  which 
must  greatly  restrict  it  in  practice. 

Copyright  in  engravings,  maps,  etc.,  is 
secured  by  several  Acts ;  the  term  is  28 
years.  Each  plate  and  print  must  bear 
the  name  of  the  proprietor.  Copyright 
in  paintings,  drawings,  and  photographs 
is  secured  to  the  artist  during  his  life 
and  seven  years  after  by  an  Act  of  1862. 
In  1874  the  Canadian  Copyright  Act  en- 
abled a  British  author  to  obtain  copy- 
right in  Canada  for  28  years,  provided 
his  work  be  published  in  the  colony. 
This  right  is  concurrent  with  and  in  ad- 
dition to  the  rights  given  by  the  impe- 
rial Act  of  1842.  By  the  laws  in  force 
in  1904  the  author  has  in  Great  Britain 
exclusive  right  to  his  publication  for  42 
years  or  for  his  life  plus  seven  years, 
whichever  may  be  the  longer,  but  to  ob- 
tain this  right  he  must  copyright  the 
book,  give  one  copy  to  the  British  Mu- 
seum within  a  month,  and  certain  other 
copies  on  demand. 

Section  4,952  of  the  "Revised  Statutes" 
of  the  United   States,  in  force   Dec.   1, 

1873,  as  amended  by  the  Act  of  June  18, 

1874,  as  amended  by  the  Act  of  March 
3,  1891,  provides  that  the  author,  in- 
ventor, designer,  or  proprietor  of  any 
book,  map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical 
composition,  engraving,  cut,  print,  or 
photograph,  or  negative  thereof,  or  of  a 
painting,  drawing,  chromo,  statuary,  and 
of  models  or  designs  intended  to  be  per- 
fected as  works  of  the  fine  arts,  and  the 
executors,  administrators  or  assigns  of 
any  such  person,  shall  upon  complying 
with  the  provisions  of  this  chapter  have 
the  sole  liberty  of  printing,  reprinting, 
publishing,  completing,  copying,  execut- 
ing, finishing,  and  vending  the  same; 
and  in  the  ease  of  a  dramatic  composi- 
tion, of  publicly  performing  or  repre- 
senting it,  or  causing  it  to  be  performed 
or  represented  by  others.  And  authors 
or  their  assigns  shall  have  exclusive 
right  to  dramatize  or  translate  any  of 
their  works  for  which  copyright  shall 
have  been  obtained  under  the  laws  of  the 
United  States. 

A  printed  copy  of  the  title  of  the  book, 
map,  chart,  dramatic,  or  musical  compo- 
sition, engraving,  cut,  print,  photograph 


COPYRIGHT 


146 


COPYRIGHT 


or  chromo,  or  a  description  of  the  paint- 
ing, drawing,  statue,  statuary,  or  model 
or  design  for  a  work  of  the  fine  arts, 
for  which  copyright  is  desired,  must  be 
delivered  to  the  Librarian  of  Congress 
or  deposited  in  the  mail,  within  the 
United  States  prepaid,  addressed  "Li- 
brarian of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C." 
This  must  be  done  on  or  before  day  of 
publication  in  this  or  any  foreign  coun- 
try. Not  later  than  the  day  of  publica- 
tion in  this  country  or  abroad,  two  com- 
plete copies  of  the  best  edition  of  each 
book  or  other  article  must  be  delivered  or 
deposited  in  the  mail  within  the  United 
States,  addressed  "Librarian  of  Con- 
gress, Washington,  D.  C,"  to  perfect 
the  copyright.  The  freight  or  postage 
must  be  prepaid  or  the  publications  in- 
closed in  parcels  covered  by  printed  pen- 
alty labels,  furnished  by  the  Librarian, 
in  which  case  they  go  free  by  mail  (not 
express),  without  limit  of  weight,  ac- 
cording to  the  rulings  of  the  PostofRce 
Department.  Books  must  be  printed  from 
type  set  in  the  United  States,  or  plates 
made  therefrom;  photographs  from  neg- 
atives made  in  the  United  States;  chro- 
mes and  lithographs  from  drawings  on 
stone  or  transfers  therefrom  made  m  the 
United  States.  Without  the  deposit  of 
copies  above  required,  the  copyright  is 
void  and  a  penalty  of  $25  is  incurred. 
The  law  requires  one  copy  of  each  new 
edition  wherein  any  substantial  changes 
are  made  to  be  deposited  with  the  Libra- 
rian of  Congress. 

No  copyright  is  valid  unless  notice  is 
given  by  inserting  in  every  copy  pub- 
lished on  the  title-page  or  the  page  fol- 
lowing if  it  be  a  book;  or  if  a  map, 
chart,  musical  composition,  print,  cut, 
engraving,  photograph,  painting,  draw- 
ing, chromo,  statue,  statuary,  or  model 
or  design  intended  to  be  perfected  as  a 
work  of  the  fine  arts,  by  inscribing  on 
some  portion  thereof,  or  on  the  sub- 
stance on  which  the  same  is  mounted, 
the  following  words,  viz.:  "Entered  ac- 
cording to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year 

,  by  ,  in  the 

office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at 
Washington,"  or  at  the  option  of  the 
person  entering  the  copyright  the  words : 

"Copyright,  19—,  by  ." 

The  copyright  law  secures  to  authors 
and  their  assigns  the  exclusive  right  to 
translate  or  to  dramatize  any  of  their 
works;  no  notice  is  required  to  enforce 
this  right.  The  original  term  of  copy- 
right runs  for  28  years.  Within  six 
months  before  the  end  of  that  time,  the 
author  or  designer,  or  his  widow  or  chil- 
dren, may  secure  a  renewal  for  the  fur- 
ther term  of  14  years,  making  42  in  all. 
In  the  case  of  books  published  in  more 


than  one  volume,  or  of  periodicals  pub- 
lished in  numbers,  or  of  engravings, 
photographs,  or  other  articles  published 
with  variations,  a  copyright  must  be  en- 
tered for  each  volume  or  part  of  a  book, 
or  number  of  a  periodical,  or  variety  as 
to  style,  title,  or  inscription,  of  any 
other  article.  To  complete  the  copyright 
on  a  book  published  serially  in  a  period- 
ical, two  copies  of  each  serial  part,  as 
well  as  of  the  complete  work  (if  pub- 
lished separately),  should  be  deposited. 
To  secure  copyright  for  a  painting, 
statue,  or  model,  or  design  intended  to 
be  perfected  as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts, 
a  definite  title  and  description  must  ac- 
company the  application  for  copyright, 
and  a  mounted  photograph  of  the  same, 
as  large  as  "cabinet"  size,  mailed  to  the 
Librarian  of  Congress  not  later  than  the 
day  of  publication  of  the  work  or  de- 
sign. The  fine  arts,  for  copyright  pur- 
poses, include  only  painting  and  sculp- 
ture, and  articles  of  merely  ornamental 
and  decorative  art  should  be  sent  to  the 
Patent  Office;  as  subjects  for  Design 
Patents.  Copyrights  are  not  granted  on 
trade-marks  or  on  names  of  companies, 
libraries  or  articles,  or  on  an  idea  or 
device  or  on  prints  or  labels  intended  to 
be  used  for  any  article  of  manufacture. 
If  protection  for  such  names  or  labels  is 
desired,  application  must  be  made  to  the 
Patent  Office. 

Until  1891  copyright  could  be  acquired 
only  by  a  citizen  of,  or  permanent  resi- 
dent in,  the  United  States.  By  acts  of 
1909,  1912,  1913,  1914  protection  was  ex- 
tended to  photo-plays  and  pictures  and 
many  art  productions.  In  December, 
1887,  the  convention  of  Berne  brought 
nearly  all  the  states  of  Europe  into 
copyright  relations  with  one  another. 
This  was  the  most  important  step  ever 
taken  in  the  history  of  the  world's  liter- 
ary dealings,  for  it  secured  an  almost 
universal  recognition  of  the  rights  of 
authors.  The  rights  of  citizens  or  sub- 
jects of  a  foreign  nation  to  copjrright  in 
the  United  States  extend  by  Presidential 
proclamations  to  Great  Britain,  France, 
Belgium,  Switzerland,  Germany,  Italy, 
Spainj  Denmark,  and  Portugal,  and 
Americans  can  secure  copyright  in  those 
countries.  For  this  direct  arrangements 
must  be  made  abroad.  For  an  Ameri- 
can citizen  to  secure  copyright  in  Great 
Britain  the  title  should  be  entered  at 
Stationers'  Hall,  London,  the  fee  for 
which  is  5  shillings  sterling,  and  5  shil- 
lings additional  if  a  certified  copy  of 
entry  is  required.  The  work  must  be 
published  in  Great  Britain  or  in  her  do- 
minions simultaneously  with  its  publica- 
tion in  the  United  States,  and  five  copies 
of  the  publication  are  required,  one  for 


COQUELIN 


147 


CORAL 


the  British  Museum  and  four  on  demand 
of  the  Company  of  Stationers  for  four 
other  libraries.  Copyright  may  be  se- 
cured in  France  by  a  foreigner  by  de- 
positing two  copies  of  the  publication  at 
the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  at  Paris. 
No  fee  or  entry  title  required.  To  se- 
cure copyright  in  Belgium  a  foreigner 
may  register  his  work  at  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Pub- 
lic Works,  at  Brussels.  In  Switzerland, 
register  of  title  at  the  Department  of 
Commerce  and  Industry  at  Berne  is  op- 
tional, not  obligatory;  fee,  2  francs.  If 
registered,  deposit  of  one  copy  is  re- 
quired. Copyright  in  Canada  is  to  be 
registered  with  the  Minister  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Ottawa;  fee,  $1  for  registry  and 
50  cents  for  certificate,  and  the  work  to 
be  published  in  Canada  and  two  copies 
deposited.  In  Greece  the  period  during 
which  an  author  can  hold  a  copyright 
is  restricted  to  15  years.  The  Swiss 
grant  copyright  during  the  life  of  the 
author  or  his  heirs  during  30  years  from 
the  date  of  publication  of  his  work.  In 
Brazil  the  author  enjoys  a  copyright  for 
life,  and  it  is  extended  for  10  years  after 
his  death.  In  Venezuela  the  copyright 
endures  for  the  life  of  the  author  and 
14  years  after  his  death.  In  Holland 
and  Belgium  the  copyright  lasts  during 
the  life  of  the  author  and  during  20 
years  after  his  death.  In  Germany, 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Portugal  copy- 
right endures  during  the  life  of  the  au- 
thor and  during  30  years  after  his  death. 
The  duration  of  cop3n:Ight  in  Italy  is 
regulated  in  a  peculiar  manner.  It  en- 
dures for  the  life  of  the  author  and  40 
years  after  his  death,  or  for  80  years 
after  the  publication  of  the  work,  the 
term  of  years  being  divided  into  two  pe- 
riods of  40  years  each.  If  the  author 
dies  within  the  first  period  of  40  years 
the  remainder  of  the  term  is  enjoyed  by 
his  heirs  or  assigns.  The  second  period 
of  40  years  begins  at  the  death  of  the 
author,  if  he  has  died  after  the  first  pe- 
riod of  40  years  has  elapsed;  or  if  he 
has  died  before  them,  at  the  end  of  the 
first  period  of  40  years.  During  the  sec- 
ond period  any  one  is  at  liberty  to  re- 
publish  the  work  on  payment  to  the 
owner  of  the  copyright  of  a  royalty  of  5 
per  cent,  on  the  price  which  must  be 
marked  on  the  book.  France,  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark  accord  a  copy- 
right during  the  life  of  the  author  and 
50  years  after  his  death.  The  law  of 
Spain  accords  a  copyright  during  the 
life  of  the  author  and  for  80  years  there- 
after. 

COQUELIN,  BENOIT  CONSTANT,  a 

French  actor;  bom  in  Boulogne,  Jan.  23, 
1841;  was  admitted  to  the  Conservatoire 


in  1859;  and  having  gained  the  second 
prize  for  comedy,  made  his  debut  at  the 
Comedie  Fran^ais,  Dec.  7,  1860,  as  Gros- 
Rene  in  the  "Amorous  Vexation."  For 
over  twenty-two  years  he  played  with  un- 
broken success  at  the  Theatre  Fran?ais, 
both  in  classical  pieces  and  in  roles  created 
by  himself;  in  the  broader  aspects  of  com- 
edy, standing  without  a  rival.  He  left 
the  Theatre  Frangais  in  1836,  and  ap- 
peared in  1887  in  London,  in  1888  in 
South  America  and  the  United  States. 
He  wrote  (with  Coquelin  the  younger) 
"The  Art  of  Monologue."  He  died  Jan. 
26,  1909. 

COQUELIN,  ERNEST  ALEXANDRE 
EONORE,  a  French  actor;  brother  of 
Benoit;  born  in  Boulogne,  May  16,  1848. 
He  has  played  important  parts  on  the 
stage  of  the  Theatre  Frangais.  He  has 
written  monologues,  including  "The 
Horse,"  "The  Art  of  Monologue"  (with 
the  elder  Coquelin),  etc.  He  died  Feb. 
8,  1909. 

COQUILLA  NUT,  the  seed  of  the 
piassava  or  piacaba  palm,  one  of  the 
cocoanut  group,  a  native  of  Brazil.  The 
nuts  are  3  or  4  inches  long,  oval,  of  a 
rich  brown  color  and  very  hard,  and  are 
used  in  turnery  for  making  umbrella 
handles,  etc. 

COQUIMBO,  also  called  La  Serena, 
capital  of  the  Chilean  province  of  the 
same  name ;  near  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Coquimbo,  on  three  terraces.  It  is  a 
handsome  town,  with  a  new  cathedral, 
seminary,  lyceum,  and  hospital.  The 
port  of  Coquimbo  is  on  a  bay.  It  ex- 
ports copper,  silver,  and  manganese  ores, 
wool,  cattle,  hay,  and  cobalt.  The  prov- 
ince of  Coquimbo  occupies  the  entire 
breadth  of  uie  country  from  the  sea  to 
the  Andes,  Its  area  is  13,457  square 
miles;  pop.,  province,  about  200,000; 
town,  about  13,000.  In  the  S.  some 
farming  is  carried  on.  The  main  occu- 
pation is  mining  of  copper,  as  also  silver 
and  gold. 


STAR  CORAL — REEF  CORAL  TYPE  IN  LIVING 
CONDITION 

CORAL,  the  name  applied  to  the  cal- 
careous   stony    structures    secreted    by 


CORAL 


148 


CORAL 


many  of  the  actinozoa,  which  form  one 
of  the  divisions  of  the  coelenterate 
zoophytes,  and  also  applied  to  the  ani- 
mals themselves.  Two  kinds  of  corals 
are  distinguished  by  naturalists,  sclero- 
dermic and  sclerobasic,  or  those  in  which 
the  calcareous  skeleton  is  developed  in  the 
walls  of  the  body,  as  in  the  reef-building 
corals,  and  those  in  which  (as  in  the  red 
coral  of  commerce)  the  skeleton  is  ex- 
ternal or  cuticular.  Reproduction  takes 
place  by  ova,  but  chiefly  by  budding,  the 
new  individual  remaining  in  organic 
union  with  the  old.  The  coral  masses 
grow  not  merely  by  the  multiplication  of 
individuals,  but  by  the  increase  in  height 
of  each  of  the  latter,  which,  as  they  grow, 
become  divided  transversely  by  parti- 
tions. The  animal,  distended  with  ova, 
collapses  on  their  discharge,  and  thus 
becomes  too  small  for  the  cup  which  it 
formerly  occupied;  it  cuts  off  the  waste 


cific,  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the  Red  Sea, 
are  built  up. 

The  coral  of  commerce  is  the  produc- 
tion of  various  polyps,  and  is  of  differ- 
ent colors  and  internal  structure.  The 
red,  pink,  and  black  sorts  are  the  most 
highly  prized.  The  red  coral  has  a 
branching  shrublike  form,  and,  as  well 
as  other  sorts,  is  found  abundantly  in 
the  Mediterranean.  The  coral  fishery, 
as  it  is  called,  is  carried  on  in  various 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  principal 
localities  being  the  S.  W.  coast  of  Cor- 


CORAL 


1.    Organ   pipe  Coral — skeleton   of   colony 
with  two  living  polyps. 


2.  True    or   stony    Coral. 

3.  Cup    Coral. 


space  by  a  horizontal  layer  of  coral,  and  sica,  where  the  finest  quality  is   found, 

the  repetition  of  this  process  gradually  the  coast  of  south  Italy,  and  the  N.  coast 

adds  to  the  height  of  the  mass.    It  is  in  of    Africa     (Algeria    and    Tunis).      The 

this  way  that  the  coral  reefs  and  islands,  raw  coral  is  wrought  chiefly  in  Leghorn, 

occurring  in  such  abundance  in  the  Pa-  Genoa,  and  Naples. 


CORAL  FISHES 


149 


COUDELE 


COBAL  FISHES,  a  name  given  to 
several  fishes  of  different  genera,  belong- 
ing to  the  Chxtodontidse.  They  are 
found  in  all  tropical  seas,  especially 
about  coral  reefs,  and  are  all  brilliantly 
colored.  The  most  important  is  the  hO' 
locanthus  imperdtor,  the  "emperor  of 
Japan,"  which  measures  about  15  inches 
in  length,  and  is  the  most  esteemed  of 
all  the  Indo-Pacific  fishes. 

CORBEL,  a  form  of  bracket  used  in 
Gothic  architecture  for  the  purpose  of 
supporting  the  ends  of  timbers,  arches, 
parapets,  etc.  It  consists  of  a  project- 
ing block  of  stone,  usually  carved  and 
having  a  receding  face. 

CORBEL,  RICHARD,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  Surrey,  in  1582,  A  noted 
ecclesiastic  of  a  jovial  nature,  he  wrote 
a  "Journey  to  France"  and  a  "Farewell 
to  the  Fairies,"  and  other  verse.  He 
died  in  Norwich,  July  28,  1835. 

CORBIE  STEPS,  in  architecture, 
steps  into  which  the  sides  of  gables  from 
the  eaves  to  the  apex  are  broken.  They 
are  common  in  old  Scotch  architecture. 

CORBIN,  HENRY  CLARK,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer;  born  in  Clermont 
CO.,  O.,  Sept.  15,  1842.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  common  school,  studied  law, 
and  entered  the  Union  army  in  1862  as 
lieutenant  of  volunteers  rising  for  gal- 
lantry to  brevet  rank  of  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral. Entering  the  regular  army  as 
lieutenant  in  1866,  he  rose  to  be  Adju- 
tant-General in  1898  with  rank  of  Briga- 
dier-General;  was  appointed  a  Major- 
General  of  volunteers,  and  promoted  to 
Major-General,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1899.  He 
died  Sept.  8,  1909. 

CORBIN,  JOHN,  an  American  writer, 
born  in  Chicago  in  1870.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  in  1892  and  took  post- 
graduate courses  in  Oxford.  He  was 
successively  editor  of  "Harper's  Maga- 
zine," dramatic  critic  of  "Harper's 
Weekly,"  dramatic  critic  of  the  New 
York  "Times"  and  New  York  "Sun,"  and 
literary  manager  of  the  New  Theater, 
holding  the  latter  position  from  1908  to 
1910.  He  wrote  "Schoolboy  Life  in  Eng- 
land (1898)  ;  "An  American  at  Oxford" 
(1902);  "The  Cave  Man"  (1907);  "The 
Edge"  (1915).  He  was  secretary  of  The 
Drama  Society  in  New  York  from  1913 
to  1916.  From  1919  he  was  editorial 
writer  of  the  New  York  "Times." 

CORCHORUS,  the  genus  9f  plants  to 
which  jute  belongs,  order  Tiliacex  (the 
lime-tree) .  They  are  herbs  or  small 
shrubs  with  serrated  leaves  and  small 
yellow  flowers. 

CORCORAN,  WILLIAM  WILSON,  an 
American  banker;  born  in  Georgetown, 


D.  C,  Dec.  27,  1798.  He  engaged  in  the 
banking  business  and  accumulated  a 
large  fortune.  His  charities  are  esti- 
mated to  exceed  $5,000,000.  He  founded 
the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery  at  Washing- 
ton, where  he  died  Feb.  24,  1888. 

CORCYRA.     See  CORFU. 

CORDAY,  or  CORDAY  D'ARMANS, 
MARIE  ANNE  CHARLOTTE,  a  young 
Frenchwoman  who  killed  the  notorious 
revolutionist  Marat.  She  was  born  in 
St.  Saturnin,  near  Seez,  in  Normandy, 
in  1768,  a  granddaughter  of  the  poet, 
Corneille.  Marat  appeared  to  her  the 
master-spirit  of  the  atrocities  perpetrated 
or  threatened,  and  she  determined  to  rid 


CHARLOTTE   CORDAY 

the  country  of  him.  She  left  her  home, 
and  on  arriving  in  Paris  (July  12,  1793), 
she  went  to  Marat's  house,  but  was  not 
admitted.  On  Saturday,  the  13th,  she 
purchased  a  large  knife,  and  at  7  o'clock 
in  the  evening  procured  admittance  to 
Marat.  She  had  obtained  this  interview 
by  writing  to  him  that  she  was  from  the 
seat  of  rebellion,  and  would  "put  it  in 
his  power  to  do  France  a  great  service." 
Marat  was  in  his  bath.  She,  vdth  des- 
perate determination,  plunged  her  knife 
into  his  bosom,  and  he  instantly  expired. 
She  was  condemned,  and  guillotined,  July 
17,  1793. 

CORDELE,    a    city    of    Georgia,    the 
county-seat  of  Crisp  co.     It  is  on  the 


CORDIACE^ 


150 


COBELLI 


Georgia  Southern  and  Florida,  the  Sea- 
board Air  Line,  the  Atlanta,  Birming- 
ham and  Atlantic,  and  the  Georgia, 
Southwestern  and  Gulf  railroads.  It  is 
the  center  of  an  extensive  cotton-gi'ow- 
ing  region,  and  its  manufactures  include 
cottonseed,  oil,  and  lumber.  There  are  a 
library  and  other  public  buildings.  Pop. 
(1910)   5,883;   (1920)   6,538. 

CORDIACE^,  an  order  or  sub-order 
of  perigynous  exogens,  alliance  Solana- 
les.  It  is  most  closely  akin  to  the  bora- 
ginaceas,  and  next  to  the  convohmlacese. 
The  species  are  found  in  the  tropics  of 
both  hemispheres,  in  South  America 
straggling  into  more  temperate  latitudes. 
Two  hundred  species  of  cordia  itself  are 
now  known. 

CORDIERITE,  DICHROITE,  or 
lOLITE,  a  natural  silicate  of  magnesia, 
alumina,  and  ferric  oxide.  It  crystallizes 
in  stout  orthorhombic  prisms,  and  is  of 
various  shades  of  blue,  sometimes  with 
a  tinge  of  gray  or  brown. 

CORDILLERAS,  a  name  applied  in 
America  to  various  chains  of  mountains. 
The  Cordilleras  of  South  America  are 
described  under  Andes;  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains  are  the  Cordilleras  of  North 
America.  Those  of  Central  America  ex- 
tend from  Darien  to  the  N.  of  Mexico, 
and  gradually  increase  in  elevation  from 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  until  they  form 
magnificent  plateaus,  and  reach  a  height 
orf  more  than  17,000  feet  in  Mexico. 

CORDITE,  an  explosive,  the  component 
parts  of  which  are  nitroglycerine,  58  per 
cent.:  gun  cotton,  37,  and  mineral  jelly, 
5.  Acetone  dissolves  thid  combination, 
but  evaporates  in  drying.  One  of  the 
features  that  make  cordite  valuable  is 
that  its  two  ingredients,  which  by  them- 
selves are  dangerous  to  handle,  are  al- 
most hai-mless  combined.  It  can  hardly 
be  exploded  by  accident.  While  in  a 
plastic  state  it  is  pressed  through  a  die 
in  the  form  of  a  thread  or  cord  and 
wound  upon  reels  to  dry. 

CORDOBA,  a  central  province  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  mostly  pampa  land, 
rising  to  the  Sierras  de  Cordoba  and  de 
Pocho  in  the  W.  Area,  62,160  square 
miles.  Pop.  about  770,000.  Copper 
and  silver  are  mined,  but  cattle-rais- 
ing and  agriculture  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries. The  climate  is  healthy,  but 
very  dry;  the  temperature  ranges  from 
18'  to  1.07°  F.  The  capital,  Cordoba, 
lies  ir  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Pri- 
mero,  .^6  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Rosario. 
It  is  regularly  built,  with  open  water- 
courses running  through  the  streets, 
has  street  railways,  a  cathedral  with  a 
fine    Moorish    exterior,    numerous    other 


churches,  a  handsome  city  hall,  the  old 

university  building,  with  walls  from  4 
to  6  feet  thick,  a  national  observatory, 
and  noble  baths.  The  university  (1613) 
sank  gi-eatly  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  (1767),  until  in  1870  several  Ger- 
man professors  settled  here.  The  town 
possesses  also  a  national  college,  a  school 
of  art,  and  an  academy  of  sciences,  which 
publishes  a  valuable  "Boletin."  Founded 
by  Cabrera  in  1573,  the  town  was  fa- 
mous during  the  Spanish  occupation  as  a 
seat  of  learning  and  the  center  of  the 
Jesuit  missions  in  South  America.  Pop. 
about  105,000. 

CORDOBA,  a  town  of  Mexico,  66  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Vera  Cruz;  in  a  fruitful 
valley,  3,045  feet  above  the  sea.  For- 
merly important,  it  sank  greatly  after 
the  revolution;  but  in  later  years  it  has 
recovered  its  trade.  It  is  surrounded  by 
rich  cofFee-plantations.    Pop.  about  9,000. 

CORDOVA,  an  ancient  Spanish  city  on 
the  Guadalquivir,  in  Andalusia,  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name.  A  part  of 
the  town  is  of  Roman,  a  part  of  Moorish 
origin.  The  cathedral  is  a  splendid  build- 
ing, originally  a  mosque,  erected  in  the 
8th  century  by  Fing  Abderahman.  The 
city  is  well  supplied  with  schools,  hos- 
pitals, and  other  institutions.  It  has 
always  carried  on  considerable  trade; 
and  under  the  Moors  the  leather  exclu- 
sively manufactured  there  (cordovan) 
was  exported  in  all  directions.  Cordova, 
which  was  founded  by  the  Romans,  be- 
came the  capital  of  Arabian  Spain  and 
the  center  of  Arabian  splendor  and 
science  under  the  caliphs  of  the  West. 
With  the  decay  of  the  Moorish  empire 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ferdinand  III. 
of  Castile.  The  province  includes  the 
fertile  and  beautiful  valley  of  the  Gua- 
dalquivir and  the  mountains  of  Sierra 
Morena.     Pop.  about  75,000. 

COREA.     See  Korea. 

COREGONtrS,  a  genus  of  abdominal 
fishes,  family  Salmonidas.  The  teeth  are 
very  small  or  wanting,  the  scales  very 
large,  the  height  or  front  of  the  first 
dorsal  greater  than  its  breadth. 

CORELLI,  MARIE,  an  English 
author ;  born  in  Italy  in  1864.  In  infancy 
she  was  adopted  by  Dr.  Charles  Mackay, 
the  author.  She  was  educated  in  London, 
and  on  beginning  her  literary  career 
adopted  as  a  pen  name  that  which  subse- 
quently became  her  legal  name.  Her 
vrritings  were  greatly  admired  by  Queen 
Victoria.  She  has  published  "A  Romance 
of  Two  Worlds";  "Vendetta";  "Thelma"; 
"Ardath,  the  Story  of  a  Dead  Self"; 
"Wormwood";  "The  Soul  of  Lilith"; 
"Barabbas";  "The  Silence  of  the  Mahara- 


CORFU 


151 


CORINTH 


jah";  "The  Sorrows  of  Satan"  (the 
last  two  in  1895)  ;  "Cameos"  and 
"Mighty  Atom"  (both  in  1896)  ;  "The 
Master  Christian"  (1900)  ;  "God's  Good 
Man"  (1904)  ;  "Holy  Orders"  (1908) ; 
"Life  Everlasting"  (1911);  "My  Little 
Bit"  fl919). 

CORFIT  (anciently  Corcy'ra),  a  Greek 
island  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  moat 
northerly  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Adriatic,  near  the  coast  of 
Albania,  about  40  miles  long,  and  from 
3  to  20  miles  wide;  square  miles,  277. 
The  surface  rises  at  one  point  to  the 
height  of  3,000  feet,  the  scenery  is  beau- 
tiful, the  climate  pleasant  ana  healthy, 
the  soil  fertile.  Oranges,  citrons,  grapes, 
honey,  wax,  oil,  and  salt  are  abundant. 
A  Corinthian  colony  settled  in  the  island 
in  the  8th  century  B.  C.  The  Venetians 
possessed  Corfu  from  1386  to  1797,  the 
British  from  1815  to  1864.  Pop.  about 
100,000.  Corfu,  the  capital,  is  finely  sit- 
uated on  a  promontory  which  terminates 
in  a  huge  insulated  rock  crowned  by  the 
citadel;  the  streets  are  Italian  in  style; 
chief  edifices,  the  cathedral,  government 
palace,  and  Ionian  academy.    There  is  a 


CORIGLIANO  (ko-rel-ye-a'no),  a 
town  of  southern  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Cosenza,  on  a  hill  above  the  right  bank 
of  the  Corigliano,  near  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Sybaris,  of  which  no  vestiges 
remain.     Pop.  about  17,000. 

CORINTH,  a  famous  city  of  Greece 
within  the  Morea  (ancient  Peloponne- 
sus),  near  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name, 
between  the  gulfs  of  Lepanto  {Corinthia- 
cus  Sinus)  on  the  W.,  and  of  ^Egina 
{SaronicTis  Sinus)  on  the  E.,  48  miles 
W.  of  Athens.  Corinth  was  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  in  1858,  and  has  now 
but  few  remains  of  its  ancient  splendor. 
The  only  interesting  monument  of  an- 
tiquity is  the  citadel  or  Acrocorinthus. 
Corinth  was  first  founded  by  Sisyphus, 
son  of  .(Eolus,  A.  M.  2616,  and  received 
its  name  from  Corinthus,  the  son  of 
Pelops.  It  was  totally  destroyed  by  L, 
Mummius,  the  Roman  consul,  and  burnt 
to  the  ground,  146  B.  c.  The  government 
of  Corinth  was  monarchial  till  779  B.  C, 
when  officers,  called  Prytanes,  were  insti- 
tuted. Its  inhabitants  formed  numerous 
colonies,  and  Paul  preached  the  Gospel 
in  it  for  upward  of  a  year.     After  the 


RUINS  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  APOLLO  AT   CORINTH 


food  harbor  and  considerable  trade, 
'op.  about  27,000.  The  town  is  a  winter 
resort  for  invalids.  It  was  occupied  bv 
the  Allies  in  the  World  War  after  1915. 

CORIANDER,  an  umbelliferous  plant, 
Coriandrum  sativum.  It  has  an  erect, 
leafy  stem,  the  lower  leaves  bipinnate, 
the  upper  more  divided,  the  uppermost 
of  all  nearly  setaceous.  Fruit  globose, 
nearly  undivided,  with  10  obscure  lines 
or  ribs.  It  has  escaped  from  cultivation 
and  become  wild  in  many  places.  It  is 
a  native  of  southern  Europe  and  the 
Levant.  The  word  occui-s  in  Exod.  xvi: 
81,  and  Num.  xi:  7.  It  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  word  gad,  and  the  trans- 
lation is  probably  correct,  for  Celsus 
snys  that  goid  is  coriander. 


taking  of  Constantinople  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  from  whom  it  was 
retaken  in  1687  by  its  former  possessors, 
the  Venetians.  In  1715  it  was  again  pos- 
sessed by  the  Turks,  who  held  it  till 
1823.     Pop.  about  5,000. 

CORINTH,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Alcorn  co.,  Miss.,  on  the  Southern,  Il- 
linois Central,  and  Mobile  and  Ohio  rail- 
roads, 93  miles  E.  of  Memphis,  Tenn. 
It  has  machine  shops,  woolen  mills, 
and  other  industries.  During  the  Civil 
War  Corinth  was  the  scene  of  many 
battles.  Brisk  skirmishes  were  fought 
April  24  and  29,  1862,  and  on  the  30th 
its  railroad  communications  N.  were  cut 
by  the  Union  forces.  During  May  of  the 
same  year  several  encounters  took  place 


CORNITH,  GULF  OP 


152 


CORMORANT 


here.  Early  on  the  morning  of  Oct.  4, 
the  combined  Confederate  forces,  under 
Van  Dorn,  Price,  and  Lovell  attacked  the 
Union  lines  at  Corinth.  The  fight  lasted 
until  night  closed  the  contest.  The 
Union  army  was  driven  back  into  the 
town.  The  battle  was  renewed  next 
morning,  and  raged  fiercely  till  noon, 
when  the  Confederates  were  repulsed 
and  retreated.  The  Confederates  num- 
bered in  this  fight  38,000  men;  while 
General  Rosecrans,  who  commanded  the 
Union  army,  had  not  over  20,000.  The 
Union  loss  was  315  killed,  including  Gen- 
eral Hackleman,  1,812  wounded,  and  232 
missing;  the  Confederate  loss  was  1,423 
killed;  wounded  estimated  at  5,692; 
2,248,  including  137  officers,  taken  pris- 
oners; and  3,300  stand  of  arms,  14  stand 
of  colors,  together  with  vast  quantities 
of  stores.    Pop.  (1920)  5,498; 

CORINTH,  GITIiF  OF,  a  beautiful 
inlet  of  the  Mediterranean,  about  80 
miles  long,  between  the  Peloponnesus 
and  northern  Greece,  having  the  Isthmus 
of  Corinth  closing  it  in  on  the  E.;  also 
known  as  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto. 

CORINTH,  ISTHMUS  OF,  the  isth- 
mus which  connects  the  Morea  (Pelopon- 
nesus) with  northern  Greece,  varying  in 
width  from  4  to  8  miles.  A  canal,  about 
4  miles  long,  was  constructed  across  the 
isthmus  in  1882-1893,  which  enables  ves- 
sels to  sail  from  the  Archipelago  to  the 
Adriatic  without  rounding  Cape  Mata- 
pan. 

CORINTHIANS,  EPISTLES  TO  THE, 
two  epistles  addressed  to  the  Church  at 
Corinth  about  a.  D.  57  or  58,  which  have 
been  admitted  as  genuine  writings  of  St. 
Paul  by  even  the  most  critical  assailants 
of  the  New  Testament  canon. 

CORK,  a  city  in  the  S.  of  Ireland, 
capital  of  the  county  of  Cork,  situated 
on  the  river  Lee.  It  is  15  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  besides  an  upper  harbor  at  the 
city  itself,  and  quays  extending  over  4 
miles  in  length,  there  is  a  lower  harbor 
at  Queenstown,  11  miles  below.  Cork  is 
the  third  city  in  Ireland,  and  exports 
great  quantities  of  grain,  butter,  bacon, 
eggs,  and  live  stock.  The  principal  in- 
dustries are  tanning,  distilling,  brewing, 
and  the  making  of  tweeds  and  friezes. 
There  are  also  iron  foundries  and  yards 
for  the  building  of  iron  ships.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  Protestant 
and  Roman  Catholic  cathedrals,  ex- 
change, custom  house,  chamber  of  com- 
merce, court  house.  Queen's  College,  etc. 
There  is  a  naval  dockyard  at  Haulbow- 
line,  an  Island  within  Cork  harbor.  The 
city  was  the  scene  of  disorders  during 
the  Sinn  Fein  uprising  of  1920.  The 
Lord    Mayor,    Terence    McSwiney,    was 


found  guilty  of  treason,  and,  refusing  to 
eat  while  in  prison,  died  of  starvation. 
Pop.  about  100,000. 

CORK,  the  outer  layer  of  bark  of  the 
cork  oak.  It  is  a  very  elastic  tissue  con- 
sisting of  thin-walled  nearly  cubical  cells. 
It  does  not  peel  off,  but  often  contains 
long  clefts.  It  forms  a  protection  to  the 
subjacent  cells  from  injurious  influences. 

CORK,  FOSSIL,  a  kind  of  mineral,  a 
species  of  asbestos. 

CORK,  EARL  OF.  Real  nam^ 
R.    Doyle,   an   English   artist. 

CORKING  PIN,  a  pin  of  a  large  size, 
formerly  used  for  fixing  a  lady's  head- 
dress. 

CORLEONE,  town,  province  of  Pa- 
lermo, Sicily,  42  miles  S.  of  Palermo,  and 
nearly  2,000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
The  town  was  of  chief  importance  in  me- 
diaeval times,  when  the  Saracens  occupied 
it,  the  Lombards  entering  in  the  12th 
century.  The  vine  is  cultivated  in  the 
vicinity,  and  there  are  interesting 
churches  and  castles.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

CORLISS,      GEORGE      HENRY,      an 

American  inventor;  born  in  Easton,  N. 
Y.,  June  2,  1817.  The  construction  of 
stationary  steam-engines  was  revolution- 
ized by  his  improvements  and  a  single 
engine  made  by  him  moved  all  the  ma- 
chinery in  the  Centennial  Exposition  of 
1876.  He  died  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Feb. 
21,  1888. 

CORMORANT  (bald-headed  raven), 
a  genus  of  web-footed  birds  in  the  order 
Steganopodes,  besides  pelicans,  solan, 
^eese,  and  frigate-birds.  They  are  famil- 
iar birds,  frequenting  islands  in  most 
parts  of  the  world.  The  head  is  relative- 
ly small,  and  is  naked  behind  the  eyes 
and  at  the  root  of  the  beak.  At  the 
breeding  season  some  forms  exhibit  a 
crest  and  wattles.  There  is  a  dilatable 
membrane  beneath  the  lower  jaw.  The 
bill  is  moderately  long,  straight,  rounded 
above,  and  strongly  hooked  at  the  end. 
The  neck  is  long,  snake-like  and  naked  on 
the  throat.  The  wings  are  of  moderate 
length;  the  tail  is  rather  short  and 
rounded,  but  with  stiff  feathers,  which 
are  used  as  aids  in  progression. 

The  common  British  cormorant  is  an 
almost  cosmopolitan  bird  about  three 
feet  long,  for  the  most  part  of  a  black- 
ish-green metallic  color,  with  brownish 
feathers  on  the  shoulder  region.  When 
in  full  breeding  plumage  it  has  a  crest 
on  the  head,  white  plumes  on  the  throat, 
and  a  white  patch  on  the  lower  flanks. 
The  bill  is  black,  the  face  yellow,  the 
feet  also  black.    It  was  formerly  train <='d 


CORN 


153 


CORNELIA 


in  England,  as  still  in  China,  for  fishing 
purposes.  The  dwarf  cormorant  from 
southeastern      Europe,      north      Africa, 


CORMORANT 

southern  Asia,  and  the  Florida  shag  are 
other  well-known  species. 

CORN,  a  hardened  portion  of  the 
cuticle  of  the  foot,  appearing  as  a  sort 
of  distinct  growth,  produced  by  pres- 
sure. Corns  are  generally  found  on  the 
outside  of  the  toes,  but  sometimes  be^ 
tween  them,  on  the  sides  of  the  foot, 
or  even  on  the  ball. 

CORN,  the  generic  term  for  all  kinds 
of  grain  used  for  making  bread,  and  is 
applied  specifically  to  the  principal 
bread-stuff;  in  England  to  wheat,  in  the 
United  States  generally  to  maize,  and 
frequently  in  Scotland  to  oats. 

CORNACE-ffi,  Cornels,  an  order  of 
epigynous  exogens,  alliance  Umbellales. 
They  are  mostly  trees  or  shrubs  with  op- 
posite exstipulate  leaves,  capitate,  um- 
bellate, or  corymbose  flowers,  with  four 
sepals,  four  stamens,  a  filiform  style,  a 
simple  stigma,  a  two-celled  drupe,  with 
a  solitary  pendulous  seed  in  each.  They 
are  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  the  Unit- 
ed States. 

CORNBURY,  EDWARD  HYDE,  lordj 
English  governor  of  New  York,  was  the 
son  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  and  one  of 
the  first  officers  who  deserted  the  army 
of  King  James.    King  William,  in  grati- 


tude for  his  services,  appointed  him 
governor  of  New  York.  He  began  his 
administration  as  a  successor  of  Lord 
Bellamont,  1702.  He  was  a  bigot  in 
religion,  and  oppressive  and  unjust  in 
his  administration  of  the  government. 
He  died  in  London,  April  1,  1723. 

CORN-COCKLE,  the  common  name  of 
Agrostemma  {Lychnis)  Githago.  When 
its  seeds  become  mixed  with  those  of  the 
grain  among  which  they  grow,  and  are 
ground  with  them,  the  effect  is  to  render 
the  grain  unwholesome. 

CORN  CRAKE,  or  LANDRAIL,  a 
species  of  bird  of  the  order  Grallae  or 
waders,  and  of  the  family  Rallidx  or 
rails.  The  crakes  differ  from  the  rails 
proper  in  having  the  bill  shorter.  The 
common  crake  of  Great  Britain  is  of  a 
reddish-brown  color.  It  lives  in  fields 
and  meadows,  and  feeds  on  worms  and 
insects.  It  is  a  bird  of  passage,  frequent- 
ing the  northern  parts  of  Europe  during 
summer,  and  the  southern,  including  the 
Mediterranean  coasts  of  Africa,  in  winter, 

CORNEA,  one  of  the  coats  of  the  eye, 
a  transparent  membrane  in  the  forepart 
of  it, 

CORNEILLE,  PIERRE,  the  father  of 
French  tragedy  and  classic  comedy,  born 
in  Rouen  in  1606,  at  which  place  his 
father  was  advocate-general.  He  began 
his  dramatic  career  with  comedy,  and  a 
series  of  vigorous  dramas.  "Melite" 
(1629),  "Clitandre,"  "La  Veuve,"  "La 
Suivante,"  etc.,  announced  the  advent  of 
a  dramatist  of  a  high  order.  In  1635 
he  entered  the  field  of  tragedy  with 
"Medea";  but  it  was  not  till  the  appear- 
ance of  his  next  work,  the  famous  "Cid," 
that  Corneille's  claim  was  recognized  to  a 
place  among  the  great  tragic  poets.  After 
the  "Cid"  appeared  in  rapid  succession 
"Horace"  (1639);  "Cinna"  (1639),  his 
masterpiece,  according  to  Voltaire;  and 
"Polyeucte"  (1640)  ;  works  which  show 
Corneille's  genius  at  its  best.  _  Besides 
his  dramas  he  wi'ote  some  elegies,  son- 
nets, epistles,  etc.,  as  well  as  three  prose 
essays  on  dramatic  poetry.  He  died 
in  1684. 

CORNEL,  a  tree  {Cornus  sanguinea) 
called  the  corn-tree,  the  female  cornel, 
prickwood,  dogberry-tree,  dogwood-tree, 
hounds-tree,  gaten,  and  gaten-tree.  Its 
seeds  furnish  lamp-oil. 

CORNELIA,  an  illustrious  Roman 
lady;  a  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus, 
wife  of  Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus, 
and  mother  of  the  two  famous  tribunes. 
When  a  friend  condoled  with  her  on  the 
death  of  her  sons,  she  replied,  "The 
woman  who  had  the  Gracchi  for  sons 
cannot  be  considered  unfortunate."    Her 


COBNELIAN 


154 


CORNET-A-PISTON 


literary  talents  must  have  been  consider- 
able, as  Cicero  very  highly  commends 
some  of  her  epistles.  She  lived  in  the 
second  century  B.  C,  and  after  her  death 
the  Romans  erected  a  statue  to  her  mem- 
ory, bearing  the  inscription,  "To  Cor- 
nelia, the  mother  of  the  Gracchi." 

CORNELIAN,  a  cornel  cherry  (Comus 
mas  or  mascula) .  It  has  little  clusters 
of  yellow,  starry  flowers  studding  its 
naked  branches  in  early  spring.  It  was 
formerly  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its 
fruit,  which  is  like  a  small  plum.  The 
Turks  use  it  as  an  ingredient  in  sherbet. 
The  fruit  and  leaves  were  formerly  era- 
ployed  as  astringents.  It  is  sometimes 
called  also  the  male  cornel. 

CORNELIUS,  PETER  VON,  a  Ger- 
man painter;  born  in  Dvisseldorf,  Sept. 
23,  1783.  He  early  exhibited  a  taste  for 
art,  and  studied  the  great  masters,  espe- 
cially Raphael.  In  1811  he  went  to  Rome, 
where,  in  conjunction  with  Overbeck, 
Veit,  and  other  associates,  he  may  be  said 
to  have  founded  a  new  school  of  German 
art,  and  revived  fresco-painting  in  imi- 
tation of  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael. 
He  left  Rome  in  1819  for  Diisseldorf, 
where  he  had  been  appointed  director  oi 
the  academy,  but  he  soon  settled  in  Mu- 
nich to  give  his  whole  attention  to  the 
painting  of  the  Glyptothek  and  the  Lud- 
wigskirche  there.  In  these  two  great 
works  he  was  assisted  by  his  Munich 
pupils.  In  1833  he  made  another  visit  to 
Rome,  and  in  1839  he  visited  Paris.  In 
1841  he  was  invited  to  Berlin  by  Fred- 
erick William  IV.,  who  intrusted  him 
with  the  painting  of  the  royal  mausoleum 
or  Campo  Santo.  The  most  celebrated 
cartoon  in  this  series  is  the  Four  Riders 
of  the  Apocalypse.  The  series  consists  of 
twelve  paintings,  which  have  been  en- 
graved. He  died  in  Berlin,  March  6, 1867. 

CORNELIUS  NEPOS,  a  Roman  author 
of  the  first  century  B.  C,  the  contempo- 
rary of  Cicero  and  Catullus.  The  only 
extant  work  attributed  to  him  is  a  collec- 
tion of  thort  biographies,  probably  an 
abridgment  of  a  work  written  by  Nepos. 

CORNELL,  EZRA,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist; born  in  Westchester  Land- 
ing, N.  Y.,  Jan.  11,  1807.  He  accumulat- 
ed a  large  fortune  and  is  best  known  as 
the  founder  of  Cornell  University.  He 
began  life  as  a  mechanic  and  miller  at 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and  subsequently  became  a 
contractor  for  the  erection  of  telegraph 
lines.  He  was  a  member  of  the  State 
Assembly  in  1862-1863  and  of  the  State 
Senate  in  1864-1867.  He  died  in  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  9,  1874. 

CORNELL  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Mt.  Vernon,  la.;  organized 
in  1857,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Meth- 


odist Episcopal  Church;  reported  at  the 
end  of  1919:  Piofessors  and  instructors, 
42;  students,  600;  number  of  graduates, 
1.990;  president,  Charles  W.  Flmt,  LL.  D. 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY,  a  non- 
sectarian,  coeducational  institution,  at 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  owing  its  origin  to  the 
Land  Grant  Act  of  Congress  of  1862. 
It  is  named  in  honor  of  the  late  Ezra 
Cornell,  who  promised  the  State  $500,000 
with  which  to  erect  buildings  for  the  new 
university,  the  terms  of  the  land  grant 
forbidding  the  use  of  its  proceeds  for 
that  particular  purpose,  on  condition 
that  it  should  be  located  at  Ithaca.     His 

fifts  amounted  in  all,  however,  to  about 
750,000.  The  University  received  be- 
sides Mr.  Cornell's  endowment,  990,000 
acres  of  public  domain,  and  large  gifts 
from  Henry  W.  Sage  for  a  women's  dor- 
mitory, a  chapel,  a  library,  a  school  of 
philosophy,  a  museum  of  archasology, 
etc.,  all  generously  endowed,  John  Mc- 
Graw  for  a  building  devoted  to  museums 
and  scientific  laboratories,  Hiram  Sibley 
for  a  college  of  mechanical  engineering 
and  mechanic  arts,  Andrew  D.  White  a 
priceless  historical  library,  etc.,  Hiram 
W.  Sibley  for  extending  and  enlarging 
the  Sibley  College  of  Mechanical  Engi- 
neering, Dean  Sage  a  fund  for  supplying 
the  college  pulpit,  etc.,  A.  S.  Barnes  a 
Christian  Association  building,  William 
H.  Sage  for  the  chapel  organ,  the  pur- 
chase of  the  great  Zamcke  library,  a 
stone  bridge,  and  in  conjunction  with 
Dean  Sage,  an  endowed  infirmary  for 
sick  students,  Oliver  H.  Pajme  for  the 
Cornell  Medical  College,  and  others.  The 
total  invested  funds  in  1920  were  $17,- 
875,436  and  the  total  income  for  the 
fiscal  vear  ending  June  30,  1920,  was 
$4,031,923.  On  the  occasion  of  the  Uni- 
versity's semi-centennial  celebration  in 
June,  1919,  the  trustees  began  a  cam- 
paign for  new  endovnnent  and  up  to 
Jan.  1,  1921,  had  obtained  cash  and 
pledges  amounting  to  about  $6,000,000. 
The  library  comprised  610,000  volumes. 
The  instructing  stas'  numbered  about 
700.  The  total  attendance  at  the  end  of 
1920  was  5,176.  There  were  about  25,- 
000  graduates.  The  University  annually 
grants  free  tuition  to  600  students  of 
New  York  State,  also  to  students  in 
Agriculture,  and  to  Nev  York  State  stu- 
dents in  Forestry  and  Veterinary  Medi- 
cine. There  are  numerous  university 
undergraduate  and  graduate  scholar- 
ships. The  president  in  1920  was  Jacob 
Gould  Schurman,  who,  after  having 
served  since  1892,  resigned  in  June,  1920. 

C0RNET-1.-PIST0N,  a  metallic  wind- 
instrument  of  the  trumpet  class,  fur- 
nished with  valves  and  stoppers.  It  was 
formerly  called  a  cornopean.    Its  quality 


CORNETO 


155  CORN   LAWS 


Is  midway  between  that  of  the  bugle  and 
the  trumpet.  It  is  frequently  used  in 
orchestras  where  a  trumpet  is  not  ob- 
tainable, and  also  in  church  service  in 
conjunction  with  the  organ. 

CORNETO,  a  picturesque,  mediseval- 
looking  town  of  central  Italy,  12  miles 
N.  of  Civita  Vecchia,  3  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean.  Corneto  rose  out  of  the 
ruins  of  the  Etruscan  city  of  Tarquinii, 
whose  remains,  within  a  mile  and  a  half 
of  Corneto,  are  among  the  most  impor- 
tant for  the  student  of  Etruscan  history. 
The  painted  tombs,  of  which  some  20  are 
specially  interesting,  were  known  in  the 
18th  century;  but  it  is  mainly  since  1842 
that  they  have  been  examined;  valuable 
new  discoveries  were  made  during  ex- 
cavations in  1881-1882. 

CORN  FLOUR,  a  name  applied  to  the 
finely  ground  flour  of  maize  or  Indian 
corn;  also  known  in  the  United  States  as 
corn  meal. 

CORN  FLOWER,  a  well-known  com- 
posite weed  of  cornfields,  universally 
known  and  admired  for  the  beauty  of 
its  wreath-like  circle  of  outer  barren 
florets,  and  the  splendid  deep  azure  of 
their  hue.  It  was  formerly  of  some  lit- 
tle medicinal  repute,  and  its  blue  flowers 
were  used  in  domestic  dyeing;  from 
early  times,  too,  it  has  been  used  for 
decoration  in  wreaths  and  garlands.  This 
use  became  specially  prominent  in  Ger- 
many after  1870,  on  account  of  its  being 
the  Emperor  William's  favorite  flower. 

CORNIFEROUS  PERIOD,  in  geology, 
the  second  of  the  five  divisions  of  the 
Devonian  age,  sometimes  included  with 
the  first  under  the  name  of  Lower  De- 
vonian. It  contains  the  earliest  discov- 
ered remains  of  fishes. 

CORNIMIT,  a  by-product,  obtained  in 
the  treatment  of  fish  offal  by  a  secret 
process  originating  in  Denmark.  It  is 
claimed  that  by  this  process  a  high- 
grade  oil  and  a  fertilizer  are  also  pro- 
duced. Cornimit  can  be  used  as  an 
electrical  insulating  material,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  such  articles  as  combs, 
door-handles,  telep'hone  receivers,  etc. 
The  material  is  considered  to  be  a  satis- 
factory substitute  for  galalith,  which  is 
an  artificial  product  make  from  milk 
casein. 

CORN,  INDIAN,  also  known  as  Maize, 
a  genus  of  grasses  having  monoecious 
flowers;  the  male  flowers  forming  a  loose 
panicle  at  the  top  of  the  culm ;  the  female 
flowers  in  axillary  spikes,  inclosed  in 
large,  tough  spathes,  from  which  only 
the  extremely  long  styles  hang  out  like 
tufts  of  feathers  or  silken  tassels.  The 
Common    Indian   Corn   is   generally   be- 


lieved to  be  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  America,  where  it  was  cultivated  by 
the  aborigines  before  the  discovery  by 
Columbus;  but  the  discovery  of  grain  in 
ancient  houses  in  Athens  have  led  some 
to  suppose  that  it  is  a  native  also  of  the 
East,  and  from  a  very  early  period  has 
been  cultivated  there,  and  even  that  it 
is  the  "corn"  of  Scripture.  On  this  sup- 
position it  is  not  easy  to  account  for  the 
subsequent  neglect  of  it  until  after  the 
discovery  of  America,  since  which  its  cul- 
tivation spread  rapidly  throughout  the 
Old  World.  Columbus  himself  took  it  to 
Spain. 

The  principal  corn-producing  coun- 
tries of  the  world  are  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, Canada,  Egypt,  Italy,  Rumania, 
Russia,  the  United  States,  and  Uruguay. 
Prior  to  the  World  War  Hungary,  Rus- 
sia, and  Bulgaria  were  among  the  large 
producers  of  corn.  The  production  of 
corn  in  the  United  States  in  the  calendar 
year  1920  was  3,232,367,000  bushels, 
from  104,601,000  acres.  The  States  hav- 
ing the  largest  production  were  Iowa, 
Illmois,  Nebraska,  and  Missouri.  For 
table  showing  the  acreage,  production, 
and  value  of  this  crop  in  the  United 
States  by  States,  see  Agriculture. 

CORNING,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Steuben  co.,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Chemung 
river  and  several  railroads;  is  widely 
known  for  its  extensive  foundries,  glass 
factories,  railroad  car  works,  and  the 
coal  mines  in  its  vicinity.  Pop.  (1910) 
13,730;   (1920)   15,820. 

CORNISH  DIAMOND,  a  variety  of 
quartz  found  in  Cornwall,  and  employed 
even  in  the  16th  century  for  personal 
ornaments.  This  variety  being  now 
scarce,  ordinary  rock-crystal  is  often 
used  instead. 

CORNISH  LANGUAGE,  a  Celtic  dia- 
lect spoken  in  Cornwall,  which  died  out 
in  the  18th  century,  though  isolated 
words  or  terms  are  still  in  use,  and  some 
fragments  of  literature  are  still  extant. 
It  is  allied  to  the  Welsh  and  Breton. 

CORN  LAWS,  various  enactments  of 
the  British  Parliament.  The  exporta- 
tion of  corn  from  England,  except  in 
certain  cases,  was  prohibited  by  34  Ed- 
ward III.  c.  20,  1361.  The  law  was 
modified,  and,  in  1436,  exportation  was 
permitted  by  15  Henry  VI.  c.  2,  provided 
the  home-price  did  not  exceed  6s.  3d.  per 
quarter.  The  importation  of  corn,  un- 
less the  pnce  of  wheat  exceeded  6s.  3d. 
per  quarter,  was  prohibited  by  Edward 
IV.  c.  2,  1463.  The  importation  of  corn 
was  heavily  taxed  by  22  Charles  II.  c.  8, 
1670,  and  also  by  1  William  and  Mary, 
c.  12,  1689.  The  rapid  increase  of  popu- 
lation, however,  led  to  successive  altera- 


COaN  SALAD 


166 


CORNWALLIS 


tions  in  the  regulations  respecting  im- 
portation. Mr.  RoWnson's  Act,  55 
George  III.  c.  26  (March  23,  1815),  re- 
moved all  restrictions  on  foreign  corn 
impoi-ted  in  order  to  be  warehoused,  and 
permitted  its  importation  for  home  con- 
sumption when  at  80s.  per  quarter.  This 
bill  was  very  unpopular,  and  occasioned 
serious  riots  in  London  and  Westmins- 
ter, March  6-9.  By  3  George  IV.  c.  60. 
1822,  the  importation  price  was  reduced 
to  70s.  per  quarter.  Mr.  Canning's  Corn 
Bill,  proposed  March  1,  1827,  passed  the 
House  of  Commons,  but  was  rejected  by 
the  Lords.  Several  modifications  were 
embodied  by  9  George  IV.  c.  60,  1828, 
which  is  known  as  the  sliding-scale,  be- 
cause the  duty  varied,  and  by  5  Victoria 
c.  14,  1842.  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Corn  Im- 
portation Bill,  9  and  10  Victoria  e.  22, 
1846,  reduced  the  duty  on  all  corn  im- 
ported at  from  53s.  per  quarter  to  4s. 
till  Feb.  1,  1849,  when  the  duty  was  per- 
manently reduced  to  4s.  per  quarter  on 
all  grain  imported. 

CORN  SALAD,  or  LAMB'S  LET- 
TUCE, a  genus  of  ValeriaTiacese,  humble 
annual  weeds,  of  which  some  are  used 
as  spring  salads,  especially  in  France 
and  Germany.  The  commonest  species 
is  V.  olitoria,  which  is  naturalized  in  the 
United  States,  and  often  called  fetticus 
or  vetticost.  There  are  several  native 
American  species. 

GOB.N  SAWFLY,  a  hymenopterous  in- 
sect, family  Tenthredinidx.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  on  the  stalks  of  wheat  and 
rye,  to  which  they  are  very  destructive. 

COE.NSTONE,  an  arenaceous  or  sili- 
ceous limestone,  often  mottled  and  not 
infrequently  concretionary.  It  usually  oc- 
curs in  those  systems  which  are  largely 
composed  of  reddish  sandstones. 

CORNUCOPIA,  the  horn  of  plenty,  a 
horn  wreathed  a»d  filled  to  overflowing 
with  flowers,  fruit,  com,  etc.  It  was 
the  symbol  of  plenty,  peace,  and  concord. 
It  was  fabled  to  have  been  a  gift  from 
Jupiter  to  his  nurse,  the  goat  Amalthaea. 
It  was  a  frequent  attribute  of  Ceres. 

In  botany,  Cornucopias  is  a  genus  of 
Tasses,  tribe  Phalerex.  The  only 
.».nown  species  is  the  C.  cucvllata  (horn 
of  plenty  grass) ,  often  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens. It  is  a  native  of  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor. 

CORNUS,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  tjrpi- 
cal  one  of  the  order  Comaacese.  Calyx, 
four-toothed;  petals,  four  superior;  sta- 
mens, four.  C.  sanguinea  has  an  arbo- 
rescent stem,  five  to  six  feet  high,  with 
straight  branches,  the  older  ones  dark 
red,  and  producing  white  flowers.  It  is 
found  in  woods  and  thickets,  especially 
on  a  chalk  or  limestone  soil.    The  dwarf 


cornel,  C.  suedca,  is  a  herbaceous  plant 
about  six  inches  nigh,  with  few  flowers, 
a  creeping  plant,  growing  in  alpine  pas- 
tures. The  barks  of  C.  fiorida,  C.  seri- 
cea,  and  C.  circinata  are  used  in  the 
United  States  as  substitutes  for  Pen> 
vian  bark  in  intermittent  fevers.  The 
Indians  extract  a  scarlet  color  from  the 
bark  of  the  fibrous  roots.  C.  offlcinaUs 
is  cultivated  in  Japan,  where  its  fruits 
are  an  ingredient  in  the  fever  drinks  of 
the  country. 

CORNWALL,  a  port  of  Ontario, 
Canada;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cornwall 
canal,  and  on  the  St.  Lawrence  river,  67 
miles  S.  W.  of  Montreal.  Among  nu- 
merous other  factories  it  contains  the 
principal  woolen  mill  of  the  Dominion. 
The  Cornwall  canal  gives  the  town  ex- 
ceptional water  facilities.  There  are 
Episcopal,  Presbyterian,  Roman  Catho- 
lic, and  Methodist  churches.  Pop.  about 
7,000. 

CORNWALL,  BARRY.    See  Procter.  ' 

CORNWALLIS,  CHARLES,  MAR- 
QUIS, an  English  military  commander; 
born  in  Brome,  Suffolk,  Dec.  31,  1738. 
He  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
American  war.  After  gaining  the  battles 
of  pamden  and  Guilford,  he  determined 
in  invade  Virginia,  but,  being  surround- 
ed by  the  American  and  French  forces, 


LORD   CORNWALLIS 

he  and  his  army  were  made  prisoners  at 
Yorktown.  In  1786  he  was  made  Gov- 
ernor-Genei'al  of  India.  The  govern- 
ment of  Bengal  found  it  necessary  to 
uphold  the  Rajah  of  Travancore  against 
the  Sultan  of  Mysore,  and  the  first  cam- 
paign being  unsuccessful,  in  1791  Corn- 
wallis  invaded  the  Mysore,  besieged  Se- 


CORCEBUS 


157 


CORONER 


ringapatam,  and  compelled  Tippoo  Saib 
to  submit  on  humiliating  terms.  Having 
performed  this  important  service,  Lord 
Cornwallis  returned  to  England,  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  marquis,  and  made 
Master-General  of  Ordnance.  In  1798 
he  was  sent  to  Ireland  as  Lord-Lieuten- 
ant; and  in  the  trying  and  terrible 
scenes  of  the  rebellion  so  conducted  him- 
self as  to  gain  the  good  opinion  of  the 
public,  while  vigorously  upholding  and 
vindicating  the  la^vs.  In  1801  he  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  France,  where,  in 
1802,  he  signed  the  peace  of  Amiens.  In 
1805,  he  was  a  second  time  appointed 
Governor-General  of  India;  but  soon 
after  his  arrival  in  India,  he  died  in 
Ghazepore,  Oct.  5,  1805. 

CORCEBTTS,  a  native  of  Elis,  who  was 
the  conqueror  at  the  Olympic  games  in 
776  B.  c,  from  which  period  the  Olym- 
piads  are   reckoned. 

COROLLA,  the  inner  whorl  of  two 
series  of  floral  envelopes,  occurring  in 
the  more  highly  developed  plants.  It  is 
situated  within  the  outer  of  these  en- 
velopes called  the  calyx,  and  exteriorly 
to  the  stamens  and  pistils.  In  all  cases 
its  divisions,  which  are  called  petals,  al- 
ternate with  those  of  the  calyx.  They 
are  generally  colored — i.  e.,  in  botanical 
language,  they  are  some  other  color  than 
green.  The  corolla  is,  as  a  rule,  larger 
than  the  calyx,  but  in  some  plants  this 
is  not  the  case.  When  the  petals  of  a 
corolla  are  all  distinct,  they  are  said  to 
be  polypetalous,  which  is  the  normal  type 
of  a  corolla.  When  they  cohere  con- 
tinuously by  their  margins  they  are  gen- 
erally called  monopetalous  (one-petaled), 
which  is  a  not  quite  accurate  term; 
a  better  one  is  gamopetalous,  meaning 
that  the  petals  have  in  a  certain  sense 
contracted  what  may  be  poetically  called 
a  marriage  union.  The  petals  of  a  co- 
rolla are  really  only  modifications  of 
leaves.  The  corolla  is  not  essential  to 
the  reproduction  of  a  plant.  It  shades 
the  productive  organs  inside  it  from  in- 
jury, and,  in  some  cases,  by  secreting 
honey  attracts  bees  and  other  insects  to 
aid  in  their  fertilization. 

COROLLARY,  a  proposition  the  truth 
of  which  appears  so  clearly  from  the 
proof  of  another  proposition  as  not  to 
require  separate  demonstration. 

COROMANDEL  COAST,  the  E.  coast 
of  the  Indian  peninsula,  Madras  presi- 
dency, or  that  portion  of  it  between 
Palk's  strait  and  the  Pennar  river.  It  is 
open,  sandy,  and  has  no  secure  harbors, 
and  the  surf  renders  landing  difficult. 

COROMANDEL  WOOD,  the  wood  of 
diospyros  hirsuta,  a  tree  found  in  Cey- 
lon.   Its  ground  color  is  chocolate  brown, 


with  black  stripes  and  marks ;  it  is  hard, 
turns  well,  and  makes  very  handsome 
furniture. 

CORONA  (a  crown),  in  astronomy,  a 
halo  or  luminous  circle  round  one  of  the 
heavenly  bodies;  specifically  the  portion 
of  the  aureola  observed  during  total 
eclipses  of  the  sun,  which  lies  outside 
the  chromosphere  or  region  of  colored 
prominences.  In  botany,  the  corona  is  an 
appendage  of  the  corolla  in  some  flowers, 
coming  as  it  were  between  the  corolla 
and  the  stamens,  well  seen  in  the  cup 
of  the  dafl'odi).  In  architecture,  it  is  the 
lower  member  of  the  projecting  part  of 
a  cornice.     See  Halo. 

CORONA  AUSTRALIS  (the  southern 
crovsTi),  one  of  Ptolemy's  southern  con- 
stellations, containing  12  stars. 

CORONA  BOREALIS  (the  northern 
crown),  one  of  Ptolemy's  northern  con- 
stellations, containing  21  stars. 

CORONACH,  a  name  formerly  used 
for  the  funeral  dirge  among  the  Irish 
and  Scottish  highlanders.  The  dirge, 
disused  in  Scotland,  is  in  Ireland  com- 
monly known  as  the  keen. 

CORONEA,  a  small  town  of  Boeotia, 
S.  W.  of  Lake  Copais,  where  in  447  B.  C. 
the  Boeotians  defeated  the  Athenians, 
and  in  394  Agesilaus  defeated  the  allied 
Greeks. 

CORONELLA,  a  genus  of  ophidians, 
the  typical  one  of  the  family  Coronelli- 
dse.    C.  austriaca  is  common  in  Europe. 

CORONELLID^,  a  family  of  ophi- 
dians, suborder  Colubrina.  They  are 
broad  snakes,  flat  beneath,  with  the 
shields  of  the  head  regular. 

CORONER,  a  functionary  whose  name 
coroner — anciently  coronator,  from  Lat. 
corona — a  crown — implies  that  he  has 
principally  to  do  with  pleas  of  the  crown 
or  in  which  at  least  the  crown  is  con- 
cerned. His  office  is  very  ancient,  men- 
tion being  made  of  it  in  A.  D.  925.  His 
court  is  a  court  of  record  in  which,  after 
sight  of  the  body  of  one  who  has  died  in 
prison,  or  so  suddenly  that  suspicions  of 
violence  may  be  excited,  a  jury  sum- 
moned for  the  purpose  pronounce  deci- 
sion as  to  the  cause  of  death.  "Acciden- 
tal death"  is  a  frequent  verdict,  but 
there  are  cases  in  which  it  is  "Willful 
murder  against  some  person  or  persons 
unknown,"  or  an  individual  is  named.  In 
this  the  proceedings  under  the  auspices 
of  the  coroner  prepare  the  way  for  a 
criminal  prosecution.  He  also  officiates 
as  a  sheriff's  substitute  when  the  sheriff 
himself  is  interested  in  a  suit,  and  can- 
not therefore  act  in  it  himself.  From 
four  to  six  are  appointed  for  each  coun- 
11— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


CORONIS 


158 


CORPS 


ty  in  England.  In  the  United  States 
the  coroner  is  an  elective  county  officer. 
His  duties  are  similar  to  those  of  a 
coroner  in   England. 

CORONIS,  the  daughter  of  King 
Phoroneus,  whom  Neptune  loved,  and 
who  was  changed  into  a  crow  by 
Minerva. 

CORONITE,  an  explosive,  consisting 
of  a  mixture  of  nitroglycerin,  nitro-cel- 
lulose,  ammonium  nitrate,  potassium  ni- 
trate, aluminum  stearate,  rye  flour,  wood 
meal,  and  liquid  paraffin. 

COROT,  JEAN-BAPTISTE-CAMILLE 

(ko-rO),  a  French  artist;  born  in  Paris, 
July  28,  1796;  studied  under  Michallon 
and  Victor  Bertin  and  afterward  in 
Italy.  He  exhibited  for  the  first  time  in 
the  Salon  in  1827,  but  some  years  elapsed 
before  the  high  qualities  of  his  _  work 
were  recognized.     The  fortune  which  he 


COROT 

inherited  from  his  father  enabled  him, 
however,  to  follow  out  the  bent  of  his 
genius,  and  the  last  25  years  of  his  life 
were  a  continuous  triumph.  He  fre- 
quently painted  figure  subjects,  includ- 
ing the  large  sacred  pictures,  the  "Flight 
Into  Egypt"  and  the  "Baptism  of 
Christ";  but  his  most  characeristic  and 
successful  work  was  in  landscape.  Few 
artists  have  been  so  successful  in  paint- 
ing light  and  air,  or  in  infusing  work 
manifestly  closely  studied  from  nature 
v-ith  an  ideal  charm.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Feb.  23,  1875. 


COROZO  NUT,  the  seed  of  a  palm, 
phytelephas  macrocurpa,  a  native  of 
tropical  America,  the  hardened  albumen 
of  which  is  used  by  turners  under  the 
name  of  vegetable  ivory. 

CORPORAL,  formerly  a  kind  of  bri- 
gade-major, who  commanded  skirmish- 
ing parties  detached  from  the  other 
forces.  As  now  used  it  means  a  petty 
non-commissioned  officer  ranking  imme- 
diately under  a  sergeant,  and  just  above 
the  ordinary  rank  and  file.  He  has 
charge  of  one  of  the  squads  of  the  com- 
pany, places  and  relieves  sentinels,  and 
keeps  good  order  in  the  guard. 

CORPORAL,  a  name  given  to  the  linen 
cloth,  also  called  pall  and  chalice-veil, 
with  which  the  celebrant  covers  what  is 
left  of  the  consecrated  elements  in  the 
Holy  Communion  till  the  service  is  con- 
cluded. 

CORPORATION,  a  corporate  body 
legally  empowered  to  act  as  a  single  in- 
dividual, and  having  a  common  seal.  A 
corporation  may  be  either  aggregate  or 
sole.  Corporations  aggregate  consist  of 
two  or  more  persons  legally  incorpo- 
rated in  a  society,  which  is  kept  up  by 
a  succession  of  members,  either  in  per- 
petuity or  till  the  corporation  is  dis- 
solved. A  corporation  sole  consists  of  a 
single  individual  and  his  successors,  the 
intention  being  to  perpetuate  a  function 
or  office,  which  cannot  be  done  in  any 
man  in  his  personal  or  bodily  capacity. 
To  render  valid  a  transfer  of  lands  to 
such  a  corporation,  the  phraseology 
must  always  include  the  words  "and  his 
successors."  In  England  the  king  or  a 
bishop  is  a  corporation  sole,  as  the  off.ce 
is  immortal  though  the  man  may  die. 

Corporations  are  liable  to  the  ordinary 
laws  and  treaties  of  the  country,  but  are 
not  citizens  in  the  sense  of  exercising  a 
political  or  municipal  franchise.  United 
States  law  has  also  had  occasion  to  em- 
phasize the  distinction  between  a  public 
corporation  which  may  be  affected  by 
legislation,  and  a  private  corporation. 
Further,  according  to  United  ^  States 
law,  the  franchises  of  a  corporation  are 
treated  as  realizable  assets  for  creditors. 
The  amount  of  property  which  may  be 
held  by  a  corporation  in  the  United 
States  is  frequently  limited  in  the  act  or 
charter.  In  the  United  States  less  nn- 
portance  is  attached  to  the  use  of  the 
common  seal  of  a  corporation  than  in 
Great  Britain.  In  Oregon,  Delaware, 
District  of  Columbia,  South  Dakota,  and 
Porto  Rico  the  laws  affecting  corpora- 
tions are  more  liberal  and  the  fees 
smaller  than  in  most  other  States. 

CORPS  (kor),  a  body;  a  word  often 
used  as  a  military  and  a  political  term. 


CORPULENCE 


159 


CORPUSCLE 


A  corps  d'armee,  or  army  corps,  one  of 
the  largest  divisions  of  an  army.  In  the 
United  States  it  formerly  numbered  25,- 
000  men,  but  has  now  been  replaced  by  a 
Field  Army  of  two  or  more  divisions 
under  a  lieutenant-general.  The  terra 
was  abolished  in  the  British  army  in 
1906.  Corps  diplomatique,  the  body  of 
ministers  or  diplomatic  characters. 
Corps  legislatif  (kor  la-zhis-la-tef),  the 
lower  house  of  the  French  legislature  in 
1857-1870.  Its  members  were  elected 
for  six  years  in  the  proportion  of  one  to 
35,000  electors. 

CORPULENCE,  or  CORPULENCY, 

grossness  or  fleshiness  of  body;  exces- 
sive fatness;  a  state  of  being  loaded 
with  flesh.  It  is  impossible  to  define 
exactly  the  limit  beyond  which  the  body 
can  be  said  to  be  corpulent,  depending, 
as  it  does,  very  much  on  the  general 
habit  and  the  state  of  health  of  the  in- 
dividual. It  most  commonly  takes  place 
after  the  age  of  40,  but  is  not  confined 
to  any  particular  period  of  life,  being 
found  also  in  childhood  and  youth.  The 
causes  of  corpulence  are  both  natural 
and  acquired.  There  are  some  persons 
who  have  a  natural  tendency  to  corpu- 
lence; in  others  it  may  be  induced  by 
modes  of  life,  indolent  and  sedentary 
habits,  and  the  use  of  certain  kinds  of 
food.  The  undue  accumulation  of  fat 
produces  a  variety  of  effects,  interfer- 
ing with  the  vital  energies  of  the  body, 
and  incapacitating  for  exei'tion.  The 
chances  of  life  are  not  so  great  among 
persons  of  a  corpulent  habit  as  among 
those  of  a  normal  condition.  All  sudden 
or  violent  measures  to  get  rid  of  corpu- 
lence are  attended  with  harm. 

Attention  to  diet,  and  the  avoidance  of 
such  articles  as  tend  to  generate  fat,  to- 
gether with  active  exercise,  and  the 
counteracting  of  indolent  habits,  are 
among  the  best  means  that  can  be  em- 
ployed. 

CORPUS  CHRISTI,  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Nueces  co.,  Tex.;  on  Corpus 
Christi  bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nueces 
river,  and  on  the  Mexican  National,  the 
St.  Louis,  Brovimsville  and  Mexico,  and 
the  San  Antonio  &  Aransas  Pass  rail- 
roads, 140  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  San  An- 
tonio. It  is  the  stock-raising  and  farm- 
ing center  of  the  county,  and  has  an  ex- 
tensive fish  and  oyster-packing  business, 
several  daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  a 
Catholic  convent,  several  churches,  2 
National  banks,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  8,222; 
(1920)   10,522. 

CORPUS      CHRISTI      COLLEGE,      a 

college  of  Cambridge  University,  Eng- 
land, founded  in  1352,  when,  by  reason 
of  the  plague,  many  churches  in  Eng- 
land were  left  without  priests.  To  help 


meet  this  need  two  guilds  of  Cambridge, 
St.  Mary  and  Corpus  Christi,  united  to 
found  a  college  to  educate  clergymen. 
The  meml^ers  of  this  college  held  the 
services  in  St.  Benet's  church,  hence  the 
college  was  known  as  Benet  College.  In 
1827  its  official  name  was  changed  to 
Corpus  Christi.  In  the  reigns  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  of  Elizabeth,  the  master  of 
the  college  was  Archbishop  Parker,  to 
whom  it  is  chiefly  indebted  for  the  valu- 
able collection  of  monastic  records  in  its 
possession  which  were  donated  to  the 
college  upon  the  dissolution  of  the  mon- 
asteries. A  large  and  interesting  collec- 
tion of  plate  is  another  of  its  valuable 
assets.  The  main  building  of  the  col- 
lege stands  practically  the  same  as  it 
did  when  erected  in  the  14th  century. 
Among  its  many  distinguished  alumni 
were  the  dramatists  Marlowe  and  Flet- 
cher. The  college  consists  of  1  master 
and  33  fellows,  in  addition  to  about  100 
undergraduates. 

CORPUS      CHRISTI      COLLEGE,      a 

college  of  Oxford  University,  England, 
founded  in  1516,  when  the  humanist 
movement  in  Europe  was  at  its  height. 
Its  foundation  and  the  provisions  gov- 
erning it  are  notable  in  the  intellectual 
history  of  the  university.  Richard 
Foxe,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and  Bishop 
Oldham,  of  Exeter,  were  the  founders. 
It  was  the  first  college  in  England  to 
break  away  from  the  old  scholastic  tra- 
ditions and  to  establish  an  endowed 
chair  in  Greek.  It  also  admitted  all 
members  of  the  university  to  the  lec- 
tures. For  these  measures,  as  well  as 
for  the  emphasis  placed  on  the  humanis- 
tic studies,  it  won  high  praise  from 
Erasmus.  Among  its  many  distin- 
guished graduates  were  Thomas  Arnold, 
Hooker,  and  Nicholas  Udall,  the  author 
of  the  first  English  comedy.  Its  present 
foundation  provides  for  a  president,  14 
fellows,  27  scholars,  and  a  number  of 
undergraduates.  In  1913  the  number  of 
the  latter  was  89,  but  the  war  reduced 
their  numbers  considerably. 

CORPUS    CHRISTI    FESTIVAL,    the 

most  splendid  festival  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  It  was  instituted  in 
1264,  in  honor  of  the  Consecrated  Host 
and  with  a  view  to  its  adoration,  by 
Pope  Urban  IV.,  who  appointed  for  its 
celebration  the  Thursday  after  the  festi- 
val of  the  Trinity,  and  promised  to  all 
the  penitents  who  took  part  in  it  indul- 
gence for  a  period  of  from  40  to  100 
days.  The  festival  is  chiefly  distin- 
guished by  magnificent  processions.  In 
France  it  is  known  as  the  Fete  Dieu;  in 
German,  as  the  Fronleichnamsfest. 

CORPUSCLE,     minute     solid     micro- 
scopic bodies  found  in  the  blood.     They 


CORBAL 


160 


COBREZE 


are  of  two  kinds,  (1)  colored  corpuscles, 
known  also  as  the  red  particles  or  the 
red  globules;  and  (2)  the  colorless, 
known  also  as  the  white  or  pale  cor- 
puscles. The  former  are  the  more  nu- 
merous. The  colored  corpuscles  are  not 
really  globular;  they  are  flattened  or 
discoidal,  the  outline  being  circular. 

In  most  mammals  the  corpuscles  are 
like  those  of  man.  In  the  camel,  how- 
ever, they  are  elliptical  in  outline.  In 
birds,  reptiles,  and  most  fishes  they  are 
oval  disks  with  a  central  elevation  on 
each  side.  Those  of  the  invertebrata 
are,  as  a  rule,  not  colored,  the  annelids 
alone  being  an  exception. 

COBBAL,  in  South  America  and  else- 
where, a  yard  or  stockade  for  cattle. 

COBBEGGIO,    ANTONIO    ALLEGBI 

(ko-redg'yo) ,  commonly  called  CoRREG- 
GIO  from  his  birthplace;  born  in  1494, 
and  appears  to  have  first  studied  paint- 
ing under  Tonino  Bartolotto  of  Correg- 
gio;  in  1519  he  was  established  as  a 
painter  at  Parma.  The  celebrated  cupo- 
la at  Parma  was  begun  in  1520,  and  in 
1522  he  undertook  the  great  works  of  the 
dome  of  the  cathedral;  in  the  former 
representing  the  ascension  of  Christ,  and 
in  the  latter,  the  assumption  of  the  Vir- 
gin, both  of  which  series  are  now  ad- 
mirably engraved  by  the  Cavalier  Toschi. 
The  frescoes  of  the  cathedral,  left  un- 
finished by  Correggio,  were  completed  by 
his  pupil,  Giorgio  Gandini.  Correggio 
died  at  his  native  place  in  1534.  His 
great  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  the 
above-mentioned  frescoes;  but  he  had 
executed  many  excellent  oil  pictures  be- 
fore he  proceeded  to  Parma  in  1519.  The 
"Night,"  of  Correggio,  in  the  Gallery  of 
Dresden,  is  a  picture  of  the  nativity  of 
Christ,  in  which  the  light  proceeds  from 
the  body  of  the  infant  Saviour. 

COBBEGIDOB,  a  small  island  com- 
manding the  entrance  to  Manila  bay, 
P.  I.  It  has  an  area  of  2  square  miles, 
rising  abruptly  from  the  sea  to  a  height 
of  635  feet.  There  is  a  lighthouse  at  the 
summit.  The  island  was  strongly  forti- 
fied by  the  Spaniards  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury, but  the  defenses  were  not  kept  up. 
"When  Admiral  Dewey  made  his  dash 
into  Manila  bay,  May  1,1898,  he  steamed 
past  this  island,  which  was  supposed 
to  be  very  strongly  fortified.  The  forts 
have  been  strengthened  by  the  United 
States  Government,  which  established  an 
arsenal  here  in  1900.  Pop.  of  San  Jose, 
the  only  town,  500.  South  of  Corregi- 
dor  is  the  smaller  island  of  Caballow, 
separated  by  a  narrow  strait. 

CORRESPONDENCE     SCHOOLS, 

schools  in  which  instruction  is  given  by 
mail  to  those  students  who  are  unable 


to  attend  schools  and  college,  either  be- 
cause they  cannot  afford  to  stop  remuner- 
ative labor  or  because  they  are  too  far 
distant  from  any  good  school.  Under 
the  system  the  student,  after  the  payment 
of  fees,  receives  textbooks  and  lessons  by 
mail  from  the  institution,  returns  the 
completed  exercises,  and  receives  them 
back,  corrected  and  marked.  This  type 
of  instruction  presupposes  on  the  part 
of  the  student  a  conscientious  desire  to 
learn  and  a  willingness  to  work.  Such 
students  have  been  greatly  benefited 
by  the  correspondence  schools.  In 
1868  the  University  Extension  move- 
ment was  started  in  England,  the 
object  being  to  give  to  mature  men 
and  women,  who  had  been  deprived 
of  any  education  in  early  life,  some  op- 
portunity to  acquire  knowledge  of  science 
and  literature.  Probably  from  this  in- 
stitution, adopted  in  America  in  1873, 
arose  the  first  correspondence  university 
at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  For  a  time  the  Chau- 
tauqua, under  President  William  Rainey 
Harper,  undertook  to  educate  by  corre- 
spondence, but  abandoned  it  when  some 
of  the  Western  universities,  such  as  Wis- 
consin and  Chicago,  took  over  this  task. 
Many  of  the  great  Western  universities 
have  courses  which  can  be  taken  by  cor- 
respondence, and  by  adopting  this  method 
of  instruction  the  State  universities  gain 
a  hold  upon  the  people  of  the  common- 
wealth, which  in  part  accounts  for  the 
generous  support  given  them  by  the 
State  Legislatures.  One  of  the  most 
successful  correspondence  schools  in  the 
United  States  is  a  private  institution,  the 
International  Correspondence  Schools,  lo- 
cated at  Scranton,  Pa.  Not  only  are  the 
regular  college  courses  offered  by  this 
school,  but  virtually  every  vocation  or 
trade  can  be  learned  by  correspondence 
with  this  school.  In  fact,  the  larger 
proportion  of  its  students  are  learning 
trades,  the  number  of  its  students  who 
are  doing  college  work  being  compara- 
tively small. 

CORREZE,  (ko-raz'),  a  French  de- 
partment, formed  out  of  part  of  the  old 
province  of  Limousin,  and  taking  its 
name  from  a  river,  the  Correze,  flowing 
52  miles  S.  W.  to  the  Vezere.  Area,  2,272 
square  miles.  Pop.  about  300,000.  The 
chief  rivers  of  Correze  are  the  Dordogne, 
the  Vezere,  and  the  Correze.  The  sur- 
face of  the  department  is  mountainous, 
especially  in  the  N.  and  E.,  where  it  is 
broken  in  upon  by  offsets  from  the 
Auvergne  Mountains  which,  in  Mount 
Odonze,  attain  a  maximum  altitude  of 
3,129  feet  above  the  sea.  The  lower 
slopes  are  clad  with  forests,  but  the  dis- 
trict is  in  general  sterile.  Minerals,  par-  • 
ticularly  coal,  iron,  lead,  alabaster,  and 


CORSIB 


161 


COBBUPT  PRACTICES 


granite  of  various  colors,  are  found.  The 
department  is  divided  into  the  three 
arron(}issements  of  Tulle,  Brive,  and 
Ussel.     Tulle  is  the  chief  town. 

CORRIB,  LOUGH,  a  lake  of  the 
counties  Galway  and  Mayo,  the  second 
largest  in  Ireland.  Lying  only  30  feet 
above  sea-level,  it  is  of  vei'y  irregular 
shape,  25  miles  long  from  N.  W.  to  S. 
E.,  and  1  to  6  broad,  with  an  area  of  68 
square  miles.  From  its  S.  end,  4  miles 
N.  of  Galway,  it  discharges  its  surplus 
waters  by  Galway  river  into  Galway 
bay.  It  receives  the  waters  of  Lough 
Mask,  at  its  N.  end,  through  the  Pigeon 
Hole  and  other  caves,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  Clare  and  other  smaller  rivers. 
It  contains  many  islets,  and  to  the  W. 
are  mountains  3,000  feet  high,  while 
near  it  are  many  stone-circles. 

CORRIENTES  (kor-yen'tes),  a  prov- 
ince of  the  Argentine  Republic,  between 
the  Parana  and  Uruguay  rivers,  extend- 
ing from  Entre  Rios  to  Misiones  terri- 
tory, with  an  area  of  33,535  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  generally  flat, 
with  numerous  lakes  and  swamps,  but 
has  undulating  stretches  along  the  Pa- 
rana and  in  the  E.,  and  is  heavily  wood- 
ed in  parts.  Lake  Ibera,  a  group  of 
lakes  and  swamps  covering  some  1,800 
square  miles,  is  surrounded  with  a 
jungle,  in  which  the  taciiara  bamboo  (30 
feet)  is  conspicuous;  and  here  jaguars 
and  alligators  abound.  The  mean  tem- 
perature (72°  F.)  is  the  highest  in  the 
republic,  and  the  extremes  (44° — 98°) 
are  not  so  excessive.  As  in  Paraguay, 
Guarani  is  the  common  language,  Span- 
ish being  employed  only  by  the  official 
and  educated  classes.  Cattle-raising  is 
the  chief  occupation;  agriculture  is  very 
backward.  Pop.  about  350,000.  The 
capital,  Corrientes,  is  almost  hidden 
among  orange-groves,  15  miles  below 
the  confluence  of  the  Parana  and  the 
Paraguay,  and  takes  its  name  from 
seven  currents  formed  by  points  of  rock 
above  the  city;  vessels  of  nine  feet 
draught  can  reach  the  town  at  all  sea- 
sons. Steamers  from  Buenos  Aires 
(832  miles)  touch  here.  Pop.  about 
30,000. 

CORRIGAN,  MICHAEL  AUGUS- 
TINE, an  American  clergyman;  bom  in 
Newark,  N.  J.,  Aug.  13,  1839.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Roman  Catholic  Theo- 
logical seminaries  of  St.  Mary's  and 
Mount  St.  Mary's  and  at  the  American 
College  in  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  in  1864.  He  was  made 
president  of  Seton  Hall  College  in  1868, 
Bishop  of  Newark  in  1873;  Archbishop 
of  Petra  and  coadjutor  to  Cardinal  Mc; 
Closkev  in  1880;  and  Archbishop  of 
New  York  in  1885.    He  died  in  1902. 


CORROSIVES,  in  surgery,  substances 
which  eat  away  whatever  part  of  the 
body  they  are  applied  to;  such  are  gla- 
cial acetic  acid,  burned  alum,  white  pre- 
cipitate of  mercury,  red  precipitate  of 
mercury,  butter  of  antimony,  etc. 

CORRPSIVE  SUBLIMATE,  also 
called  mercuric  chloride,  HgCU,  bichlo- 
ride of  mercury,  perchloride  of  mercury; 
prepared  by  heating  mercuric  sulphate 
with  dry  sodium  chloride;  the  mercuric 
chloride  sublimes  as  a  white  transparent 
crystalline  mass,  sp.  gr.,  5.43.  It  is  dis- 
solvable in  about  20  parts  of  cold  water, 
and  very  soluble  in  aloohol  and  ether. 
It  precipitates  albumen,  hence  white  of 
egg  is  an  antidote.  It  is  very  poisonous, 
and  is  used  to  preserve  both  animal  and 
vegetable  substances.  It  is  used  in 
pharmacy  as  Liquor  Hydrargyri  Per- 
chloridi,  and  as  Lotio  Hydrargyri  Flava 
when  mixed  with  lime.  Corrosive  sub- 
limate is  a  powerful  irritant,  and  is  used 
externally  in  skin  diseases.  It  is  admin- 
istered internally  in  syphilis,  usually  in 
conjunction  with  iodide  of  potassium. 
It  is  also  much  in  use  by  surgeons  in  an 
antiseptic  spray  and  as  a  cleansing 
agent  for  sterilizing  their  operating 
instruments.  As  an  antiseptic  v\rash  for 
wounds  or  sores  its  strength  is  generally 
used  in  proportion  of  one  part  of  the 
salt  to  5,000  of  the  solvent. 

CORRUGATED  METAL,  metal  that 
has  been  corrugated  to  give  it  increased 
rigidity  and  power  to  resist  buckling 
and  collapse.  The  process  is  merely  an 
application  to  metallic  substances  of  the 
old  contrivance  of  "goffering"  or  "pip- 
ing," by  means  of  which  frills  are  stiff- 
ened and  kept  in  shape.  The  metal  to  be 
corrugated  is  passed  between  pairs  of 
rollers  with  ridged  surfaces,  the  ridges 
of  one  fitting  into  the  hollows  of  the 
other,  and  the  sheets  or  plates  operated 
on  are  bent  and  compressed  into  the 
wavy  outline  of  the  rolls.  Walls  and 
roofs  of  light  and  temporary  buildings 
are  extensiveljr  made  of  corrugated  gal- 
vanized iron — i.  e.,  sheet-iron  first  corru- 
gated and  subsequently  coated  with  zinc 
by  dipping  the  sheets  into  a  bath  of  the 
liquid  metal. 

CORRUPT  PRACTICES,  methods  em- 
ployed in  elections  to  influence  the  voter 
or  to  change  the  result  of  the  election  in 
an  improper  manner.  The  practices  al- 
luded to  are  bribery,  making  false  elec- 
tion returns,  making  false  declaration 
regarding  election  expenses,  and  person- 
ation of  voters.  The  English  Parlia- 
ment led  the  way  in  putting  a  stop  to 
these  abuses  of  democratic  elections.  As 
early  as  1854  it  had  passed  a  law 
against  bribery  at  election,  entitled  the 
Corrupt    Practices   Prevention   Act.     In 


CORBY 


162 


CORSICANA 


1883  Parliament  passed  what  is  prob- 
ably, even  to-day,  the  most  effective  and 
sweeping  Corrupt  Practices  Act.  Its 
main  provisions  are  that  it  inflicts  se- 
vere penalties,  imprisonment  and  fine, 
upon  those  who  practice  bribery  or  "un- 
due influence"  upon  voters.  So  broadly 
has  this  last  phrase  been  interpreted 
that  an  English  court  has  held  an  en- 
tertainment given  with  the  intention  of 
corrupting  voters  to  be  a  violation  of  the 
law.  The  law  further  provides  for  the 
lestriction  within  very  narrow  limits  of 
the  number  of  persons  paid  by  campaign 
committees  for  their  work  in  the  elec- 
tions; it  prescribes  a  fixed  scale  of  law- 
ful expenditures  by  candidates  or  com- 
mittees, and  requires  a  full  and  correct 
account  of  all  expenditures.  The  United 
States  was  slow  in  following  Great  Brit- 
ain in  this  respect.  The  opening  of  the 
20th  century  saw  a  change  for  the  bet- 
ter, and,  by  1920,  nearly  every  State 
had  placed  upon  its  statute  book  a  Cor- 
rupt Practices  Act.  Hardly  any  of  them 
are  as  sweeping  in  their  provisions  as 
the  English  act,  but  all  require  the  pub- 
lication of  campaign  expenses  and  set 
penalties  for  false  returns.  See  Elec- 
toral Reform, 

CORRY,  a  city  in  Pennsylvania,  in 
Erie  CO.,  on  the  Erie  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania railroads.  It  is  an  important  in- 
'  dustrial  center,  and  has  steel  works, 
machine  shops,  flour  mills,  and  manu- 
factures of  locomotives,  gas  engines, 
furniture,  shovels,  toys,  etc.  It  has  the 
State  Fish  Hatchery.  There  are  a  hand- 
some high  school  and  other  important 
public  buildings.  In  the  vicinity  are 
mineral  springs  and  petroleum  wells. 
Pop.    (1910)    5,991;    (1920)    7,228. 

CORSET,  an  article  of  dress  laced 
closely  round  the  body;  a  bodice;  stays. 
the  corset  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and 
necessary  articles  of  female  dress, 
though  many  of  the  worst  diseases  of 
the  chest  have  been  developed  and  are 
frec[uently  greatly  exaggerated  by  tight 
lacing.  Corsets  are  as  necessary  to  a 
woman,  after  a  certain  stage  of  life,  as 
a  bandage  is  for  a  sprain.  Stays,  or 
rather  corsets,  however,  are  quite  un- 
called for  with  growing  girls,  unless,  in- 
deed, there  should  be  some  natural  de- 
formity or  v/eakness  to  correct.  The 
idea  that  such  a  rigid  incasement  is 
requisite  to  give  contour  to  the  bust,  and 
impart  a  graceful  carriage  to  the  figure, 
is  equally  erroneous.  Up  to  17  or  18, 
or  perhaps  till  her  marriage,  no  young 
female,  if  she  takes  due  care  of  her  per- 
son, and  does  not  acquire  bad  habits,  has 
any  occasion  to  wear  a  corset  for  the 
mere  sake  of  support  and  strength. 
Whatever    is    worn    up    to    that    time 


around  the  chest  requires  neither  whale- 
bone nor  steel,  nor  any  tension  more 
rigid  than  that  afforded  by  strings  or 
straps.  But  to  the  mother  who  has 
domestic  duties  to  perform,  and  children 
to  nurse  and  suckle,  the  corset  becomes 
an  absolute  necessity.  It  is  against  the 
universal  employment  of  steel-ribbed 
stays  and  tightly-drawn  corsets  in 
young  women  under  20  years,  that  both 
authority  and  reason  should  be  directed 
to  urge  the  discontinuance  of  a  system 
decidedly  hurtful. 

CORSICA,  an  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, forming  the  French  department 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  separated  from 
the  island  of  Sardinia,  on  the  S.,  by  the 
Strait  of  Bonifacio,  about  10  miles  wide; 
length,  N.  to  S.,  110  miles;  breadth,  near 
its  center,  53  miles;  area,  3,367  square 
miles.  The  E.  coast  is  almost  unbroken, 
but  on  the  W.  coast  a  number  of  deep 
bays,  St.  Fiorenzo,  Calvi,  Porto,  Liscia, 
Ajaccio,  and  Valinco,  follow  in  rapid 
succession.  The  interior  is  traversed  by 
a  mountain  chain,  the  culminating  point 
of  which  is  Monte  Cinto,  8,891  feet  high, 
Monte  Rotondo  coming  next  with  8,775 
feet.  From  the  E.  and  W.  side  of  the 
chain  numerous  streams  flow  to  opposite 
sides  of  the  coast,  generally  mere  tor- 
rents. With  the  exception  of  some 
marshy  districts  on  the  E.  coast,  the 
climate  is  very  fine.  There  are  fine 
forests  containing  pines,  oaks,  beeches, 
chestnuts,  and  cork-trees,  and  the  moun- 
tain scenery  is  splendid.  In  the  plains 
and  numerous  valleys  the  soil  is  general- 
ly fertile;  but  agriculture  is  in  a  back- 
ward state.  Mules,  goats,  horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep,  and  among  wild  animals,  the 
boar,  the  fox,  and  the  deer,  are  common. 
There  are  good  fisheries.  In  minerals 
Corsica  is  not  rich.  The  chief  exports 
are  wine,  brandy,  olive-oil,  chestnuts, 
fruits,  and  fish.  The  chief  towns,  Aiac- 
cio(pop.  19,000)  and  Bastia  (pop.  30,000), 
are  connected  by  railway.  The  island 
was  first  colonized  by  the  Phoenicians, 
from  whom  it  got  the  name  of  Cyrnos. 
The  Romans  afterward  gave  it  that  of 
Corsica.  From  the  Romans  it  passed  to 
the  Goths,  and  from  them  to  the  Sara- 
cens, and  in  the  15th  century  to  the 
Genoese.  France  had  the  rights  of  the 
Genoese  ceded  to  her,  after  Paoli  had 
virtually  made  Corsica  independent,  and 
entered  on  forcible  possession  of  it  in 
1768.  An  insurrection  in  1794,  headed 
by  General  Paoli  and  assisted  by  the 
British,  for  a  time  restored  the  island 
to  independence;  but  in  1796  it  again  fell 
under  the  dominion  of  France.  Pop, 
about  289,000. 

CORSICANA,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Navarro  co.,  Tex.;    on    the    Houston 


COKSO 


163 


CORTEZ 


and  Texas  Central  and  other  railroads; 
180  miles  N.  E.  of  Austin.  It  is  a  great 
oil  district.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  the 
State  Orphans'  Home  and  the  Odd  Fel- 
lows' Widows  and  Orphans'  Home,  and 
has  street  railways,  waterworks,  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers,  three  National 
banks,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  9,749;  (1920) 
11.356. 

COBSO,  an  Italian  term  given  to  a 
leading  street  or  fashionable  carriage- 
drive. 

CORSON,  HIRAM,  an  American  edu- 
cator; born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  6, 
1828.  He  became  Professor  of  Rhetoric 
and  English  Literature  at  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Annapolis,  in  1866,  and  of  English 
language  and  literature,  rhetoric,  and 
oratory  in  Cornell  University  in  1870. 
Among  his  publications  are:  a  "Hand- 
Book  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Early  Eng- 
lish" (1871);  "An  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Robert  Browning"  (1886); 
"Jottings  on  the  Text  of  Hamlet,"  "Lec- 
tures on  the  English  Language  and  Lit- 
erature," "The  Aims  of  Literary  Study, 
"Introduction  to  the  Prose  and  Poetical 
Works  of  John  Milton"  (1899) ;  etc.  He 
died  in  1911. 

CORTELYOU,       GEORGE      BRXTCE, 

statesman,  was  born  in  New  York  City, 
July  26,  1862.  He  was  a  general  law  re- 
porter, private  secretary  to  several  pub- 
lic officials,  and  head  master  of  a  school 
at  Hempstead,  N.  Y.  Private  secretary 
to  Presidents  McKinley  and  Roosevelt, 
1896-1903;  Secretary  of  Commerce  and 
Labor,  1903-1904;  Postmaster-General 
1905-1907;  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
1907-1909.  President  of  Consolidated 
Gas  Co.,  New  York,  after  1909,  and  a 
director  in  numerous  corporations. 

CORTES,  the  states  or  legislative  as- 
semblies of  the  kingdoms  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,  composed  of  the  nobility, 
clergy,  and  representatives  of  cities. 
They  thus  correspond  in  some  measure 
to  the  British  Houses  of  Parliament. 

CORTEZ,   or  CORTES,  HERNANDO, 

the  conqueror  of  Mexico;  born  in  Estre- 
madura,  Spain,  in  1485.  At  the  age  of 
19  he  left  Spain,  to  seek  fame  and  for- 
tune in  the  new  world.  He  distinguished 
himself  under  Velasquez  in  the  conquest 
of  Cuba ;  and  after  passing  several  years 
in  that  island  he  obtained  leave  from 
Velasquez  to  conduct  a  small  expedition 
to  the  newly  discovered  coast  of  Yuca- 
tan and  Mexico.  With  less  than  600 
soldiers,  and  16  horses,  10  cannon,  and 
four  falconets,  he  sailed,  in  1519,  to 
conquer  the  most  powerful  empire  in 
America.  He  landed  on  the  Mexican 
coast  on  Good  Friday,  April  21,  on  the 


spot  where  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz  now 
stands.  He  persuaded  his  followers  to 
destroy  their  ships,  and  to  march  inland, 
with  no  prospect  but  to  succeed  or  per- 
ish. The  Indian  republic  of  Tlascala  lay 
between  him  and  the  Mexican  capital. 
He  defeated  the  Tlascalans  when  they 
attacked  him,  and  then  succeeded  in 
winning  their  friendship.  They  acted 
thenceforth  as  his  zealous  and  faithful 
allies.  Alarmed  by  the  reports  of  the 
prowess  of  the  Spaniards,  and  of  the 
superhuman  terrors  of  the  arms  which 
they  wielded,  Montezuma,  the  Mexican 
emperor,  sought  to  conciliate  the  stran- 
gers, and  received  Cortez  and  his  troops 
in  the  capital.  Though  they  obtained 
lavish  presents,  and  received  courteous 
treatment,  the  treasures  which  they 
saw  around  them  inflamed  more  and 
more  the  cupidity  of  the  invaders.     The 


HERNANDO  CORTEZ 

sight  of  the  idolatrous  rites,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  human  sacrifices  which  the 
Mexicans  practiced,  inflamed  their  re- 
ligious bigotry;  the  ambition  of  Cortea 
thirsted  after  absolute  conquest,  and,  by 
a  bold  stroke  of  treachery,  he  seized 
the  person  of  the  Mexican  emperor. 
Cortez,  soon  after  this,  received  a  ma- 
terial increase  of  strength  from  a  force 
which  the  Viceroy  of  Cuba  had  sent 
to  depose  him  and  take  him  prisoner, 
but  which  he  partly  defeated,  and  partly 
persuaded  to  come  over  to  him. 

He  now  found  himself  plunged  into  a 
most  desperate  war  with  the  native 
Mexicans,  who  rose  upon  the  Spaniards, 
and    assaulted    them    in    their    fortified 


CORTISSOZ 


164 


coEviD-aa 


quarters  in  the  capital.  The  Mexicans 
strove  with  equal  courage,  and  infinitely 
preponderating  numbers,  against  the 
superior  weapons  and  discipline  of  the 
Europeans,  who  throughout  the  strug- 
gle were  gallantly  supported  by  their 
Tlascalan  confederates.  Cortez  was 
now,  at  last,  obliged  to  evacuate  the  city, 
July  1,  1520.  Encouraged  by  this  suc- 
cess, the  Mexicans  followed  the  Span- 
iards, and  fought  the  battle  of  Otumba, 
in  which  they  were  badly  defeated. 
After  receiving  some  re-enforcements, 
he  again  advanced  upon  the  Mexican 
capital.  Guatemozin  was  now  Emperor 
of  Mexico,  and  had  learned  the  inability 
of  his  troops  to  face  the  Europeans  in 
the  open  field.  He  remained  within  the 
city,  which  Corrtez  besieged.  The  geo- 
graphical position  of  the  city,  and  the 
great  number  of  native  allies  who  now 
served  under  him,  enabled  Cortez  to 
establish  a  strict  blockade.  Many  as- 
saults were  made,  and  met  with  various 
fortune.  Fire  and  the  sword  swept 
away  thousands  of  the  Mexicans,  but 
famine  was  their  most  fatal  foe;  and 
Mexico,  on  Aug.  13,  1521,  surrendered, 
and  the  whole  of  its  vast  empire  became 
subject  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  _  Cortez 
disgraced  his  triumph  by  putting  the 
brav©  Guatemozin  to  a  cruel  death,  an 
act  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  after- 
ward deeply  repented.  The  domestic 
enemies  of  the  conqueror  of  Mexico  had, 
meanwhile,  been  busy  in  their  intrigues 
against  him  at  the  Spanish  court,  and  in 
1528  Cortez  returned  to  Spain  to  face 
his  accusers.  He  was  coldly  received, 
and  he  could  not  prevail  on  Charles  V. 
to  continue  him  in  the  governorship  of 
Mexico.  He  returned  to  America  in 
1530,  a  powerful  and  wealthy  noble,  but 
without  public  authority.  He  made  sev- 
eral brilliant  and  important  voyages  of 
discovery  along  the  Californian  and 
other  coasts  of  the  Pacific.  In  1540  he 
finally  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  was 
treated  by  his  sovereign  with  ungra- 
cious neglect.  He  died  near  Seville,  Dee. 
2,  1547. 

CORTISSOZ,  ROYAL,  an  American 
journalist  and  art  critic,  born  in  New 
York  City.  He  served  as  literary  editor 
and  art  editor  of  the  New  York  "Trib- 
une," and  contributed  many  articles  on 
art  subjects  to  magazines.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  lives  of  Augustus  St. 
Gaudens  (1907),  and  John  La  Farge 
(1911),  and  also  edited  several  works. 

CORTLAND,  a  village  and  county-seat 
of  Cortland  co.,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Tioughni- 
oga  river;  and  the  Lackawanna,  the 
Lehiffh  Valley,  and  the  New  York 
Central  railroads;  37  miles  S.  of  Syra- 
cuse.    It  is  a  farming  and  manufactur- 


ing trade  center,  and  has  several  wire- 
works,  foundries,  machine  shops,  and 
manufactories  of  carriages,  stoves,  har- 
ness, furniture,  cash  registers,  and  steel 
ware.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  State  Normal 
School,  and  has  electric  lights  and  rail- 
ways, several  churches,  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers,  2  National  banks,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)   11,504;   (1920)   13,294. 

CORUNA.     See  Corunna. 

CORUNDUM,  a  rhombohedral  trans- 
parent or  translucent  mineral,  very 
tough  when  compact.  Its  hardness  is 
9,  its  sp.  gr.  3.9-4.16.  Its  luster  is  gen- 
erally vitreous;  its  colors  blue,  red,  yel- 
low, brown,  gray,  or  nearly  white;  its 
streak  in  all  cases  colorless.  It_  consists 
of  pure  alumina.  Chemically  viewed,  it 
is  aluminum-oxide,  AUOs.  There  are 
three  varieties  of  it — sapphire,  corun- 
dum proper,  and  emery.  It  includes  the 
species  of  the  genus  which  are  dark  in 
color  and  only  translucent;  but  its  hues 
may  be  light  blue,  gray,  brown,  or  black. 
The  United  States  imports  corundum  to 
the  value  of  $100,000  every  year,  princi- 
pally from  Canada. 

CORUNNA  (Spanish  Comna),  a  sea- 
port of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  the 
same  name  in  Galicia,  on  the  N.  W. 
coast,  on  a  peninsula  at  the  entrance  of 
the  bay  of  Betanzos.  It  consists  of  an 
upper  and  a  lower  town,  the  former 
built  on  the  E.  side  of  a  small  peninsula, 
and  the  latter  on  the  isthmus  connecting 
the  peninsula  with  the  mainland.  The 
harbor,  which  is  well  protected,  is  deep, 
spacious  and  safe.  Cattle  form  the 
chief  export.  There  is  a  government 
tobacco  factory  employing  thousands  of 
women  and  girls.  There  is  a  lightJiouse, 
92  feet  high,  called  the  Tower  of  Hercu- 
les, and  supposed  to  be  of  Roman  con- 
struction. Corunna  was  the  port  of  de- 
parture of  the  Spanish  Armada  (1588), 
and  the  scene  of  the  repulse  of  the 
French  and  the  death  of  Sir  John  Moore 
(1809).     Pop.  about  60,000. 

CORVEE,  an  obligation  on  the  tenants 
or  inhabitants  of  certain  districts  to  per- 
form certain  services  for  their  lord,  such 
as  the  maintenance  of  roads,  etc. 

CORVETTE,  a  term  applied  to  a  flush- 
deck  vessel,  ship-  or  bark-rigged,  having 
only  one  tier  of  guns,  either  on  the  upper 
or  main  deck.  The  term  is  no  longer 
used  in  the  navy. 

CORVID^,  a  family  of  conirostral 
birds  containing  the  crows  and  their 
allies.  Their  nest  is  of  sticks,  lined  with 
soft  materials.  They  may  be  divided  into 
five  sub-families:  (1)  strepeHnx,  or  pip- 
ing crows;   (2)  gannilinx,  or  jays;   (3) 


^ 


l§)Photo  by  Ewing  Galloway 

A    "STAMP    mill"    for    CRUSHING    ORE,    NEAR    SILVERTON.    COL. 


©  Underwood  dr  Underwood 


A  BANANA  HARVEST  IN  COSTA  RICA 


CORVINUS 


185 


COSSACKS 


callxatinse,  or  tree  crows;    (4)   corvinas, 
or  true  crows,  and    (5)   jryrrhocwacinse. 

CORVINUS,  MATTHIAS.  See  Mat- 
thias. 

CORYLACE.ffi,  mastworts;  an  order 
of  diclinous  exogens,  alliance  Quernales. 
It  consists  of  trees  and  shrubs  with  alter- 
nate, simple,  exstipulate  leaves,  often 
with  the  veins  running  straight  from  the 
midrib  to  the  margin.  Male  flowers 
amentaceous,  with  5  to  20  stamens; 
female  having  the  ovary  cro%vned  by  the 
rudiments  of  an  adherent  calyx;  ovary 
with  two  or  more  cells.  Among  the 
genera  are  carpinus  (hornbeam) ,  co)-y- 
his  (hazel),  fagiis  (beech),  castanea 
(chestnut),  and  quercus  (oak).  They 
are  found  in  the  temperate  parts  of  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds.  In  the  tropics 
they  grow  chiefly  on  mountains. 

CORYMB,  in  botany,  that  form  of  in- 
florescence in  which  the  flowers,  each  on 
its  own  pedicel  of  different  lengths,  are 
so  arranged  along  a  common  axis  as  to 
form  a  flat,  broad  mass  of  flowers  with  a 
convex  or  level  top,  as  in  the  hawthorn 
and  candytuft. 

CORYPHjENA,  a  genus  of  scomheridse, 
or  by  some  it  is  made  the  type  of  a 
family  coryphsenidee.  The  head  is  great- 
ly elevated,  and  the  palate  and  jaws  both 
furnished  with  teeth.  C.  hippuris  and 
several  other  species  are  found  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  adjacent  parts  of 
the  Atlantic.  They  pursue  the  flying  fish. 
The  first-mentioned  species  is  one  of  the 
two  animals  called  the  dolphin. 

CORYZA,  a  synonym  for  acute  nasal 
catarrh,  or  "cold  in  the  head."  The  af- 
fection usually  subsides  without  any 
treatment. 

COS,  now  called  Stanchio  or  Stanko, 
an  island  in  the  .^Egaean  Sea,  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor;  area,  95  square  miles; 
pop.  about  10,000.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  Hippocrates,  and  had  anciently  a  cele- 
brated temple  of  .^sculapius.  In  Cos 
was  manufactured  a  fine,  semitrans- 
parent  kind  of  silk,  much  valued  by  the 
ancients.  Cos  is  also  the  name  of  the 
principal  town,  a  decayed  seaport.  The 
island  yields  grain,  wine,  silk,  cotton, 
citrons,  etc.  It  was  occupied  by  Italy  in 
1912  and  afterward  restored  to  Greece. 
The  peace  treaty  with  Turkey  awards  it 
to  Italy,  but  when  that  is  signed  it  will 
be  ceded  to  Greece. 

COSENZA,  a  town  in  Calabria,  Italy, 
43  miles  S.  W.  of  Sibari ;  on  a  hill  be- 
tween Crati  and  Busento.  Its  history 
goes  back  to  330  B.  c,  when  it  was 
named  as  the  burial  place  of  Alexander 
of   Epirus.     Alaric   was   killed   there   in 


410  A.  D.,  and  it  became  an  archbishop- 
ric in  the  11th  century.  It  has  a  fine 
Gothic  cathedral  and  law  courts.  Pop. 
about  15,000. 

COSMOGONY,  the  origin  or  creation 
of  the  world;  an  investigation  or  dis- 
sertation regarding  it.  Cosmogony  and 
geology,  though  having  certain  relations 
to  each  other,  are  still  distinct,  cosmog- 
ony inquiring  into  the  first  origin  of 
things,  and  geology  commencing  at  a 
period  when,  that  origin  having  taken 
place,  successive  events  in  the  earth's 
history  began  to  leave  behind  them  me- 
morials from  which  their  character 
might  be  more  or  less  clearly  reasoned 
out. 

COSMOS,  order  or  harmony,  and  hence 
the  universe  as  an  orderly  and  beautiful 
system.  In  this  sense  it  has  been  adopted 
by  Humboldt  as  the  title  of  his  cele- 
brated work,  which  describes  the  nature 
of  the  heavens  as  well  as  the  physical 
phenomena  of  the  earth. 

COSSACKS,  tribes  who  inhabit  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Russia, 
and,  previous  to  the  Russian  revolution, 
paying  no  taxes,  but  performing  instead 
the  duty  of  soldiers.  Nearly  all  of  them 
belong  to  the  Gr«co-Roman  Church,  to 
which  they  are  strongly  attached.  They 
must  be  divided  into  two  principal  class- 
es, both  on  account  of  their  descent  and 
their  condition — the  Cossacks  of  Little 
Russia  and  those  of  the  Don.  Both 
classes,  and  especially  those  of  the  Don, 
have  collateral  branches,  distributed  as 
Cossacks  of  the  Azoff,  of  the  Danube, 
of  the  Black  Sea,  of  the  Caucasus,  of  the 
Ural,  of  Orenburg,  of  Siberia,  of  the 
Chinese  frontiers,  and  of  Astrakhan. 
Writers  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  origin 
of  this  people  and  of  their  name,  but 
they  are  believed  to  be  a  mixed  Cau- 
casian and  Tartar  race.  In  personal 
appearance  the  Cossacks  bear  a  close  re- 
semblance to  the  Russians,  but  are  of  a 
more  slender  make,  and  have  features 
which  are  decidedly  more  handsome  and 
expressive. 

Originally  their  government  formed  a 
kind  of  deniocracy,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  a  chief  or  hetman  of  their  own 
choice;  while  under  him  was  a  long 
series  of  oflficers  with  jurisdictions  of 
greater  or  less  extent,  partly  civil  and 
partly  military,  all  so  arranged  as  to 
be  able  in  any  emergency  to  furnish  the 
largest  military  array  on  the  shoi'test 
notice.  The  democratical  part  of  the 
constitution  has  gradually  disappeared 
under  Russian  domination.  Each  Cos- 
sack, under  the  Empire,  was  liable  to  mili- 
tary service  from  the  age  of  18  to  50, 
and  obliged  to  furnish  his  own  horse.    In 


cossus 


166 


COSTA  RICA 


1570  they  built  their  principal  "stanitza" 
and  rendezvous,  called  Tcherkask,  on  the 
Don,  not  far  above  its  mouth.  As  it  was 
rendered  unhealthful  by  the  overflowing 
of  the  island  on  which  it  stood,  New 
Tcherkask  was  founded  in  1805  some 
miles  from  the  old  city,  to  which  nearly 
all  the  inhabitants  removed.  This  forms 
the  capital  of  the  country  of  the  Don 
Cossacks,  which  constituted,  under  the 
Empire,  a  government  of  Russia,  and 
has  an  area  of  63,532  square  miles,  pop. 
3,291,000.  Their  war  strength  numbers 
5,000  officers  and  175,000  men.  Reserve, 
300,000  officers  and  men.    See  Russia. 

COSSUS,  a  genus  of  nocturnal  lepidop- 
tera,  family  hepialidss  or  ghost-moths. 
They  have  long,  slender,  half-serrate 
antennae,  a  small  head,  and  the  upper 
wings  longer  than  the  lower  ones.  The 
larvae  feed  on  wood,  the  pupa  is  inclosed 
in  a  cocoon.  C.  ligniperda  is  the  goat- 
moth,  so  called  because  its  larvas  emit  a 
disagreeable  smell,  as  the  goat  does.  It 
is  a  large  moth,  the  upper  wings  gray 
mottled  with  white,  and  having  more- 
over black  bands;  the  lower  ones  brovtm- 
ish  ash;  the  body  brownish  gray,  with 
silvery  lines.  The  ground  color  of  the 
larva  is  yellow.  It  takes  three  years  to 
come  to  maturity. 

COSTA  RICA,  a  republic  of  Central 
America;  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Nicara- 
gua; E.  by.  the  Caribbean  Sea;  S.  by 
Panama;  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean; 
area,  32,000  square  miles;  pop.  (official 
estimate,  1918)  459,423;  capital,  San 
Jose,  38,000. 

Topography. — The  interior  of  the 
country  is  very  mountainous,  the  ranges 
reaching  an  altitude  of  11,000  feet,  and 
having  many  volcanoes.  The  highest 
point  is  Pico  Blanco,  11,800  feet.  There 
are  many  small  rivers,  the  drainage 
usually  being  N.  E.  or  S.  W.,  and  the 
fall  great.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Tempisque,  Colorado,  and  Rio  Grande. 
The  coast  is  very  irregular,  being  in- 
dented by  many  large  gulfs  and  bays,  of 
which  the  Gulfs  of  Nicoya  and  Dulce 
are  the  most  important.  The  Nicaragua 
Lake  forms  nearly  half  the  N.  boundary. 
The  E.  coast  is  a  gradual  slope  and  is 
heavily  wooded,  while  the  W.  is  covered 
with  immense  savannahs. 

Climate  and  Productions. — The  cli- 
mate in  the  interior  is  temperate,  and 
that  on  the  coasts  averages  about  80° 
up  to  an  altitude  of  3,000  feet.  The 
rainy  season  on  the  W.  slope  lasts  from 
April  to  November.  The  soil  is  exceed- 
ingly fertile,  and  the  forests  are  exten- 
sive, yielding  mahogany,  cedar,  rose- 
wood, lignum-vitae,  granadilla,  ebony. 
Brazil-wood,  and  caoutchouc.  Nearly  all 
tropical  fruits  abound,   including  coffee, 


cocoa,  banana,  sugar,  sarsaparilla,  and 
vanilla.  Other  important  productions 
are  tobacco,  rice,  barley,  dye  woods,  and 
cotton.  The  mineral  resources  are  quite 
extensive,  but  as  yet  they  have  not  been 
systematically  worked.  Gold  is  the  prin- 
cipal metal  mined,  and  is  found  both  in 
rock  and  in  placers.  Silver,  lead,  and 
copper  also  exist  in  large  quantities. 
Cattle  raising  is  carried  on  to  a  large 
extent. 

Commerce. — The  principal  exports  in 
1919  were  coffee,  30,784,184  bags;  ba- 
nanas, 7,129,655  bunches  (1918).  Hard 
woods,  hides,  and  skins  are  also  ex- 
ported considerably.  There  are  about 
3,300  factories.  The  imports  consisted 
of  merchandise,  flour,  machinery,  oil, 
cotton,  iron,  woolens,  and  worsteds. 

Comm,unications. — There  are  about 
435  miles  of  railway,  including  branches 
and  sidings.  The  Port  of  Limon  is 
visited  by  steamers  of  British,  Ameri- 
can, and  Italian  steamship  companies. 
The  Pacific  port  of  Punta  Arenas  is  also 
visited  by  steamers  of  three  lines.  Li- 
mon and  Panama  are  connected  by  wire- 
less telegraph,  as  are  Bluefields  in  Ni- 
caragua and  Colon  in  Panama.  There 
were  in  1919  about  2,300  miles  of  tele- 
phone in  the  country. 

Finance. — The  revenue  in  1919  was 
about  $4,600,000,  and  the  expenditure 
slightly  less.  The  chief  sources  of  rev- 
enue are  customs,  liquors,  railways, 
postage,  and  telegraphs.  The  chief 
items  of  expenditure  are  administration, 
public  instruction  and  internal  develop- 
ment. 

Government. — The  government  is 
purely  republican  in  form.  The  presi- 
dent and  vice-president,  since  1918,  are 
elected  by  an  electoral  college  of  sena- 
tors and  deputies  for  a  term  of  four 
years.  The  president  is  assisted  by  a 
cabinet  of  six  secretaries,  appointed  by 
him.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in 
a  Chamber  of  Representatives,  termed 
Constitutional  Congress  on  a  basis  of 
one  representative  to  every  8,000  inhabit- 
ants, chosen  in  electoral  assemblies,  the 
members  of  which  since  the  Law  of 
August,  1913,  are  elected  by  the  suffrage 
of  all  who  are  able  to  support  them- 
selves. The  members  of  the  chamber 
are  elected  for  four  years,  one  half  re- 
tiring every  two  years. 

Religion  and  Education. — The  Roman 
Catholic  is  the  state  religion,  but  there 
is  entire  religious  liberty  under  the  con- 
stitution. In  1918  there  were  315  ele- 
mentary schools,  a  lyceum  for  boys,  a 
college  for  girls,  a  normal  school  and 
colleges  for  medicine,  law,  and  dentistry. 
Public  instruction  in  all  branches  is 
rigidly  enforced. 

History. — Costa    Rica    was    discovered 


COSTA    RICA 


167 


c3te  D'OR 


by  Columbus  in  1502  and  settled  in  1504. 
During  the  Colonial  period  it  was  part 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Guatemala,  which 
proclaimed  independence  in  1821.  From 
1824  to  1839  it  was  a  state  in  the 
United  Provinces  of  Central  America. 
On  the  dissolution  of  the  latter,  it  be- 
came an  independent  republic.  In  1856 
it  declared  war  on  the  troops  under  the 
filibuster  William  Walker  and  defeated 
them.  Its  constitution  is  a  most  liberal 
one.  Foreigners  enjoy  every  civil  right 
without  being  admitted  to  citizenship  or 
being  compelled  to  contribute  heavy 
sums.  Admission  to  citizenship  may  be 
applied  for  at  any  time  and  will  be 
granted  after  one  year's  residence.  Set- 
tlers are  not  obliged  to  become  natural- 
ized citizens.  They  can  carry  on  busi- 
ness and  manufacture,  possess  real  es- 
tate, buy  and  sell,  navigate  the  rivers 
and  coasts,  exercise  their  religious 
creeds,  marry,  and  dispose  of  their  prop- 
erty by  will.  Although  from  time  to 
time  minor  revolutions  have  taken  place, 
the  population  is  homogeneous  and  pro- 
gressive. 

A  revolution  in  January,  1917,  re- 
sulted in  the  deposition  of  President 
Gonzales.  The  former  Secretary  of 
War,  Pinoco,  was  put  in  his  place.  Gon- 
zales fled  to  Havana.  The  government 
broke  off  diplomatic  relations  with  Ger- 
many on  Sept.  1,  1917,  and  took  steps  to 


1920,  the  right  of  suffrage  was  granted 
to  all  citizens  of  Costa  Rica,  including 
women.  Those  who  would  exercise  the 
light  must  be  able  to  read  and  write, 
and  must  be  citizens  by  birth,  naturali- 
zation, or  adoption. 

COSTMARY,  or  ALECOST,  a  com- 
posite herbaceous  plant,  a  hardy  peren- 
nial, a  native  of  Italy,  introduced  into 
Britain  in  1568,  and  common  in  almost 
every  rural  garden.  It  was  formerly 
put  into  ale  to  give  it  an  aromatic  flavor, 
hence  the  name  alecost. 

COSTS,  in  law,  are  the  expenses  in- 
curred by  the  plaintiff  and  defendant. 
As  a  rule  these  are  paid  by  the  loser  in 
a  suit,  but  there  are  always  extra-judi- 
cial expenses  incurred  by  both  parties, 
which  each  has  to  pay  whatever  be  the 
issue  of  the  suit.  In  criminal  cases,  the 
party  accused  may  have  his  expenses  if 
the  court  thinks  the  accusation  unrea- 
sonable. In  matrimonial  suits,  the  wife, 
whether  petitioner  or  respondent,  is  gen- 
erally entitled  to  her  costs  from  the 
husband. 

COSTUME,  the  style  of  attire  charac- 
teristic of  an  individual,  community, 
class,  or  people;  the  modes  of  clothing 
and  personal  adornment  which  prevail 
in  any  period  or  country.  Costume 
balls,  also  called  fancy  dress  balls,  are 


COSTUME 


1.  14th     Century 

2.  16th    Century 


(Spanish) 


3.  16th    Century     (English) 

4.  17th    Century 


irttem  all  German  residents.  On  May 
23,  1918,  war  was  declared  against  Ger- 
many. On  Aug.  4,  1919,  Pinoco  aban- 
doned the  task  of  ruling  the  country  and 
fled  from  the  revolutionists  who  had  de- 
feated his  army.  The  National  Assem- 
bly nominated  Julio  Acosta  as  provision- 
al president,  but  he  was  shortly  after 
succeeded  by  S.  Barquero.     On  Aug.  23, 


entertainments  at  which  the  guests 
adopt  a  style  of  dress  different  from  the 
one  usually  worn. 

COTE  D'OR  (kote-dor),  an  E.  depart- 
ment of  France,  formed  of  part  of  the 
old  province  of  Burgundy;  area,  3,392 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  in  general 
rather  elevated,  and  is  traversed  by  a 


COTES-DU-NORD 


168 


COTOPAXI 


chain  of  hills  forming  the  connect- 
ing link  between  the  Cevennes  and  the 
Vosges.  A  portion  of  that  range,  called 
the  Cote  d'Or  (golden  slope),  receives  its 
name  on  account  of  the  excellence  of  the 
wines  produced  on  its  declivities.  A 
great  part  of  the  department  is  covered 
with  forests.  The  valleys  and  plains 
are  fertile,  and  there  is  good  pasture 
land;  but  the  vine  culture  is  by  far  the 
most  important  branch  of  industry.  To 
this  department  belong  the  first-class 
wines  of  Clos  Vougeot,  Romance,  Cham- 
bertin,  Gorton,  Richebourg,  Volney,  Po- 


and  sail-cloth.  Among  the  minerals  are 
iron,  lead,  and  granite.  Pop.  about 
605,000. 

COTINGA,  a  g-enus  (of  ampelidse 
(chatters).  They  have  beautiful  plum- 
age, and  are  found  in  South  America. 

COTISE,  or  COST,  in  Heraldry,  one  of 
the  diminutives  of  the  Bend. 

COTNrB,  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeduca- 
tional in^titation  in  Bethany,  Neb.;  or- 
ganized ii;  1889,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Disciples  of  Christ;  reported  at  the 


COSTUMES — 18th  and   19TH   CENTURIES 
1.   Early    18th    Century  3.   18th  Century 


2.    18th   Century 

mard,  Beaune,  Montrachet,  and  Meur- 
sault.  Cote  d'Or  is  watered  by  the  Seine, 
which  rises  in  the  N.  W.,  and  by  several 
of  its  affluents;  by  the  Saone,  and  by 
Arroux,  a  tributary  of  the  Loire.  The 
climate  is  temperate;  iron,  coal,  marble, 
gypsum,  and  lithographic  stones  are 
found,  the  first  in  large  quantities. 
Cote  d'Or  is  divided  into  four  arrondisse- 
ments,  viz.,  Beaune,  Chatillon-sur-Seine, 
Dijon,  and  Semur,  with  Dijon  for  its 
capital.     Fop.  about  356,000. 

COTES-DU-NORD  (kot-dti-nor) ,  a 
maritime  department  in  the  N.  of 
France,  forming  part  of  ancient  Brit- 
tany; capital,  Brieuc.  Area,  2,659 
square  miles.  The  coast  extends  about 
150  nHles,  and  the  herring,  pilchard, 
and  mackerel  fishing  is  actively  pur- 
sued. One  of  the  main  branches  of  in- 
dustry is  the  rearing  of  cattle  and 
horses.  In  manufacturing  industries 
the  principal  branch  is  the  spinning  of 
flax  and  hemp,  and  the  weaving  of  linen 


4.  Early    19th    Century 

end  of  1919:  Professors  and  instruc- 
tors, 25;  students,  387;  president.  An* 
drew  D.  Harmon,  A.  M. 

COTONEASTER,  a  genus  of  plants, 
order  Pomacegs.  The  flowers  are  polyg- 
amous, the  calyx  turbinate,  with  five 
short  teeth;  petals  five,  stamens  erect, 
as  long  as  the  teeth  of  the  calyx;  fruit 
turbinate,  its  nuts  adhering  to  the  in- 
side of  the  calyx,  but  not  united  in  the 
center  of  the  fruit.  C.  vulgaris  is  the 
common  cotoneaster.  Several  varieties 
of  it  are  cultivated  in  gardens.  Other 
species  are  from  the  European  conti- 
nent, from  India,  etc.;  some  of  them 
also  have  been  introduced  into  Great 
Britain.  C.  Uva  Ursi  and  mierophylla 
have  acid  in  their  seeds. 

COTOPAXI,  the  most  remarkable  vol- 
canic mountain  of  the  Andes,  in  Ecua- 
dor, about  60  miles  N.  E.  of  Chimbo- 
razo;  lat.  0°  43'  S.;  Ion.  78°  40'  W.; 
altitude,  19,500  feet.  It  is  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  colossal  summits  of  the 


COTSWOLD  HILLS 


169 


COTTON 


Andes,  being  a  perfectly  symmetrical 
truncated  cone,  presenting  a  uniform, 
unfurrowed  field  of  snow  of  resplendent 
brightness.  Several  terrific  eruptions  of 
it  occurred  in  the  course  of  the  18th 
and  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century. 
The  most  recent  eruption  was  in  1903. 

COTSWOLD  HILLS,  a  range  of  hills 
in  England,  county  of  Gloucester,  which 
they  traverse  N.  to  S.  for  upward  of  50 
miles;  extreme  elevation  near  Chelten- 
ham, 1,134  feet.  The  Cotswold  sheep 
are  a  breed  of  sheep  remarkable  for  the 
length  of  their  wool. 

COTTON,  a  vegetable  hair  or  filament 
constituting  the  wing  of  the  seed  of  the 
different  species  of  Gossypium,  a  plant 
belonging  to  the  order  of  Malvacese, 
growing  both  in  the  temperate  and  tropi- 
cal climates,  indigenous  in  Asia,  Africa, 
and  South  America.  Both  fiber  and  seed 
are  produced  in  pods  not  unlike  the  outer 
shell  of  the  walnut.     When  the  seed  ap- 


and  is  one  of  the  purest  forms  of  cel- 
lulose. Although  cotton-seed,  which  is 
produced  at  the  ratio  in  weight  of 
two  and  a  half  to  three  parts  of  seed 
to  each  one  of  fiber,  has  long  been  the 
source  of  valuable  oils  and  food  for  cattle 
in  Egypt  and  India,  the  cotton-seed  of 
the  United  States  was  in  former  days 
mostly  wasted.  It  has  now  become  a 
secondary  product  of  very  great  value. 
Tree  cotton  {G.  arhoreum)  is  found  in 
India,  China,  Egypt,  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa,  and  in  some  parts  of  America, 
especially  in  the  West  Indies.  It  only 
attains  the  height  of  from  12  to  20  feet; 
but  another  cotton-bearing  tree  (bom- 
bax  ceiba) ,  seen  in  the  West  Indies  and 
elsewhere,  familiarly  called  the  umbrella 
tree,  attains  the  height  of  100  feet.  The 
produce  of  the  latter,  however,  is  of  a 
short  and  brittle  fiber.  Being  unfit  for 
spinning,  it  is  only  useful  for  stuffing 
pillows  and  beds.  Shrub  cotton  (G. 
religiosum)  occurs  in  one  or  other  of  its 


COSTUMES — ANCIENT 


1.  Greek 

2.  Roman 


3.  Early  German 

4.  13th  Century 


preaches  maturity  the  fiber  in  which  it 
is  enveloped,  which  had  previously  been 
in  a  cylindrical  form  filled  with  watery 
sap,  becomes  dry.  The  sap  is  then  de- 
posited upon  the  walls  of  the  outer  cell, 
which  then  collapses  longitudinally  and 
takes  on  a  spiral  form  slightly  blunt  at 
the  point  where  it  is  attached  to  the  seed, 
and  pointed  at  the  end.  In  the  green- 
seed  variety,  the  one  chiefly  cultivated, 
it  is  of  a  white  or  yellowish  hue,  soft, 
flexible,  and  a  non-conductor  of  hrat.  The 
fiber  consists  chiefly  of  carbonaceous 
material    drawn    from    the    atmosphere, 


varieties  throughout  the  tropical  parts 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  In  ap- 
pearance it  resembles  a  currant-bush.  Its 
duration  varies  acording  to  the  climate; 
in  the  hottest  countries  it  is  perennial, 
while  in  cooler  places  it  becomes  an  an- 
nual. The  Guiana,  Brazil,  and  most  of 
the  West  India  cotton,  is  of  this  kind, 
the  whole  being  long-stapled. 

Herbaceous  cotton  (G.  herbacenm), 
commonly  called  the  green-seed  variety, 
is  far  the  most  useful  and  important  of 
the  three  kinds  noticed.  It  is  an  annual 
plant   cultivated   in   the   United    States, 


COTTON 


170 


COTTON 


India,  China,  and  many  other  countries. 
It  attains  the  height  of  18  or  24  inches. 
The  seed  is  usually  planted  in  rows  in 
March,  April,  and  May;  the  cotton  is 
g-athered  by  hand  within  a  few  days  of 
the  opening  of  the  pods,  in  August,  Sep- 
tember, and  October;  in  the  United 
States  often  through  November  and  De- 
cember, or  even  till  it  becomes  necessary 
to  prepare  the  land  for  a  new  crop.  It 
is  to  this  kind  that  planters  mainly  con- 
fine their  attention  in  the  United  States. 
In  places  where  cotton  is  more  exten- 
sively cultivated  the  following  varieties 
are  commonly  distinguished:  (1)  Nan- 
keen cotton,  abundant  in  produce,  the 
seed  covered  with  down,  the  wool  of  a 
dirty  yellow  color,  and  usually  low- 
priced.  (2)  Green-seeded  cotton,  which, 
as  well  as  the  former,  is  grown  in  up- 
land  and   middle   districts,   whence   the 


destructive  to  the  crops,  which  are 
besides  precarious  from  the  disease 
to  which  the  plant  is  subject,  par- 
ticularly blight.  In  general  it  flourishes 
most  luxuriantly  and  yields  prod- 
uce of  the  best  quality  on  the  coast, 
as  is  proved  by  the  growth  of  the  sea- 
island  cotton,  which  is  mostly  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  ocean's  spray;  and  a 
manure  of  soft  mud  is  known  to  impart 
a  healthful  action  to  the  plant  and  to 
produce  a  staple  at  once  strong  and 
silky.  To  this  rule,  however,  the  fine 
Fernambuco  cotton  is  an  exception;  also 
the  Egyptian,  the  growth  of  the  upper 
provinces  being  greatly  superior  to  that 
of  the  Nile  Delta.  In  the  United  States 
by  special  cultivation  two,  three,  and 
even  four  bales  of  500  pounds  each  can 
be  made  on  a  single  acre. 

The  cotton  production  of  the  United 


COTTON  GIN 

A.  Wagon   with    raw   cotton 

B.  Vacuum  pipe  to  draw  cotton  into  gin 


C.  Gin 

D.  Press 

E.  Cotton   bale 


latter  is  called  upland,  also  short-staple, 
and,  from  the  mode  in  which  it  was  for- 
merly cleaned,  "bowed  Georgia  cotton." 
This  kind  was  at  first  chiefly  raised  in 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  but  in 
later  years  its  cultivation  has  been  very 
greatly  extended  throughout  the  South- 
ern States.  (3)  Sea-island,  or  long- 
stapled  cotton,  the  finest  of  all,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  black  color  of  its  seed, 
and  the  fine  yellowish-white,  strong  and 
silky  long  staple  by  which  it  is  sur- 
rounded; it  is  grown  in  the  lower  parts 
of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  near  the 
sea,  between  Charleston  and  Savannah, 
and  on  small  islands  adjoining  the  shore 
and  in  Florida. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  plant  require  a 
dry  and  sandy  soil.  Marshy  ground  is 
wholly  unfit  for  it,  and  a  wet  season  is 


States  in  1920  was  12,987,000  bales, 
compared  with  11,421,000  bales  in  1919. 
The  total  acreage  was  36,383,000  in 
1920,  compared  with  33,566,000  in  1919. 
The  total  farm  value  of  the  1920  pro- 
duction was  $914,590,000,  compared 
with  a  value  of  the  1919  crop  of  $2,034,- 
658,000.  The  increased  value  of  the 
1919  crop  is  due  to  the  unusually  high 
prices  received  for  cotton.  Industrial 
conditions  in  1920  produced  a  lessened 
demand  and  consequently  lesser  price. 

The  States  producing  the  largest 
yields  in  1920  were  as  follows:  Texas, 
4,200,000  bales;  South  Carolina,  1,530,- 
000  bales;  Oklahoma,  1,300,000  bales; 
Georgia,  1,400,000  bales;  North  Caro- 
lina, 840,000  bales;  Mississippi,  885,000 
bales;  Alabama,  660,000  bales. 

There  were   imported  to  the   United 


COTTON 


171 


COTTON  INSECTS 


States  in  1920  345,314,126  pounds  of 
unmanufactured  cotton,  valued  at  $156,- 
918,719.  The  largest  quantity  of  this 
was  received  from  Egypt.  Other  coun- 
tries from  which  cotton  was  imported 
were  Mexico,  Peru,  China,  and  British 
India.  There  were  exported  from  the 
United  States  in  1920  6,915,408  bales, 
weighing  3,543,743,487  pounds,  valued 
at  $1,381,707,502.  In  1919  there  were 
exported  5,353,895  bales,  valued  at  $873,- 
579,669.  Cotton  growing  has  been 
greatly  developed  in  recent  years  in 
Egypt.  In  1919  there  were  grown  about 
1,188,000  bales  of  500  pounds  each.  The 
Brazilian  crop  in  the  same  year  was 
estimated  at  1,600,000  bales;  the  Mexi- 
can crop  at  120,000  bales;  and  the  Span- 
ish crop  at  11,200  bales.  The  world's 
production   of   cotton   in    1918   was   ap- 


THE  COTTON    PLANT 

proximately  18,000,000  bales  of  500 
pounds  each,  and  the  consumption  for 
the  year  1919  was  approximately  15,970,- 
000  bales.  The  total  number  of  spindles 
in  the  world  was  placed  at  150,000,000. 

South  Africa  is  undoubtedly  destined 
to  become  a  large  producer  of  cotton. 
About  12,000  acres  were  planted  in  1919. 

Cotton  is  affected  by  a  variety  of  in- 
sect pests  and  stringent  measures  have 
been  taken  in  recent  years  to  destroy 
these.  The  bollworm  and  the  bollweevil 
are  especially  destructive.  A  World's 
Cotton  Conference  was  held  in  New  Or- 
leans in  1919  with  the  purpose  of  adopt- 
ing the  uniform  size  of  the  bale,  finding 
new  sources  of  cotton,  and  bringing 
about    uniform    classification,    etc.      Ac- 


cording to  data  submitted  at  this  con- 
ference there  were  more  than  6,000,000 
persons  engaged  in  the  cotton  industry 
throughout  the  world  and  about  $20,- 
000,000  was  invested  in  the  growing, 
sale,  and  manufacture  of  cotton. 

COTTON-GRASS,  a  name  given  to  the 
species  of  the  genus  Eriophomm,  be- 
cause of  their  fi'uit  being  clothed  at  the 
base  with  a  silky  or  cotton-like  sub- 
stance. It  really  belongs,  not  to  the 
grasses,  but  to  the  sedges  (Cyperaceoe) . 
There  are  several  species;  the  most 
common  is  Eriophomm  angustifolmm, 
the  narrow-leaved  cotton  grass.  Paper 
and  the  wicks  of  candles  have  been  made 
of  its  cotton,  and  pillows  stuffed  with 
the  same  material.  The  leaves  were  for- 
merly used  in  diarrhoea,  and  the  spongy 
pith  of  the  stem  for  the  removal  of  tape- 
worm. 

COTTON  INSECTS.  There  are  a  great 
many  insects  that  do  injury  to  cotton, 
among  them  the  cotton  worm,  the  bud- 
worm,  the  bollworm,  the  yellow  bear,  the 
io,  and  the  bogworm.  Perhaps  the  most 
injurious  of  these  is  the  cotton  worm, 
the  ravages  of  which  first  began  to  be 
noticed  in  the  United  States  early  in  the 
last  century.  The  insect  is  the  larva  of 
a  nocturnal  moth,  and  is  thought  to  have 
had  its  origin  in  South  America.  Its  de- 
structions have  sometimes  covered  whole 
districts,  a  Government  report  of  1879 
estimating  the  loss  due  to  its  despolia- 
tions as  averaging  nearly  $20,000,000 
each  season.  The  moth  makes  its  jour- 
neys during  the  night  and  deposits  eggs 
on  the  leaves  of  the  cotton  plant,  the 
hatching  taking  place  at  the  end  of  a 
couple  of  nights.  The  caterpillars  then 
begin  their  ravages,  eating  up  the  leaves 
and  passing  from  one  district  to  an- 
other. Following  a  period  of  about  six- 
teen days  the  caterpillar  begins  to  enter 
the  chrysalis  stage,  following  which  the 
female  moth  begins  to  lay  eggs  totaling 
into  hundreds  during  the  season.  The 
generations  sometimes  amount  to  seven 
in  a  season  in  districts  favorable  to  the 
insect,  about  four  weeks  separating  one 
generation  from  another.  Following  the 
cotton  worm,  the  budworm  appears  to 
approach  next  in  destructiveness.  It  re- 
sembles the  cotton  insect  in  its  various 
stages,  being  hatched  oil  the  plant  and 
living  largely  on  flowers  and  bolls.  It 
breeds  in  the  winter  as  well  as  in  the 
summer,  the  first  three  generations  liv- 
ing chiefly  in  the  cornfield,  the  fourth 
generation  making  its  appearance  on  the 
cotton  plant.  Beetles,  fleas,  and  bugs  of 
various  kinds  are  also  apt  to  do  damage 
to  the  plant.  The  capsid  or  cotton  flea 
is  a  cause  of  apprehension  in  some  dis- 
tricts.    The  red  bug  or  stainer  is  apt  to 


COTTONSEED  OIL 


172 


COUGAB 


have  an  injurious  effect  on  the  cotton 
fiber,  not  only  sucking  the  sap  from  the 
bolls,  but  ejecting  also  a  liquid  which 
leaves  an  indelible  stain,  greatly  lovi'er- 
ing  the  value  of  the  fiber.  Continued  ex- 
periment has  resulted  in  the  discovery 
of  methods  of  counteracting  the  destruc- 
tive power  of  the  varieties  of  cotton  in- 
sects, and  these,  aided  by  their  natural 
enemies,  tend  to  lessen  the  damage  each 
successive  season. 

COTTONSEED  OIL,  an  oil  obtained 
from  the  seed  of  the  cotton-plant,  which 
is  crushed  between  powerful  rollers.  It 
is  used  chiefly  as  an  adulterant  for  other 
more  expensive  oils,  as  linseed-oil  and 
olive-oil,  and  for  packing  sardines,  etc. 
There  are  about  900  mills  in  operation 
in  the  United  States  engaged  in  ex- 
tracting oil,  preparing  oil  cakes,  etc. 
Oil  production  about  5,000,000  gallons 
(1920). 

COTTUS,  a  genus  of  fishes,  by  some 
made  the  type  of  a  family  Cottidse,  by 
others  placed  under  the  Triglidx  or  Gur- 
nards. The  head  is  large,  depressed, 
furnished  with  spines  or  tubercles;  there 
are  teeth  in  front  of  the  vomer  and  in 
both  jaws;  there  are  two  dorsal  fins;  the 
anal  fin  is  small;  the  body  is  without 
scales.  Yarrell  enumerates  four  species: 
C.  gobio,  the  River  Bullhead,  Miller's 
Thumb,  or  Tommy  Logge;  C.  scorpius, 
the  Sea  Scorpion  or  Short-spined  Cottus; 
C.  bubalis,  the  Father  Lasher  or  Long- 
spined  Cottus;  and  C.  qiuidricornis,  the 
Four-horned  Cottus.  In  this  country 
there  are  several  representatives  of  the 
species  called  indifferently  bullhead  and 
catfish. 

COTYLEDON,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
Crassulacese.  Calyx,  5-partite;  petals, 
united  into  a  tubular  or  campanulate  co- 
rolla; stamens  10,  inserted  in  the  tube  of 
the  corolla.  C.  umbilicus  is  a  succulent 
plant  with  pendulous  cylindrical  flowers 
of  a  yellowish-green  color.  It  is  from 
6  to  12  inches  high. 

The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  first 
leaf,  or  one  of  the  first  two  leaves,  de- 
veloped in  a  plant.  In  exogens  two  such 
leaves  are  present  in  the  embryo  of  every 
plant,  while  in  endogens  there  is  one.  In 
exogens  the  two  cotyledons  are  always 
opposite;  in  endogens  the  second  leaf  de- 
veloped is  alternate  with  the  first.  On 
these  distinctions  or  their  absence  have 
been  founded  three  primary  divisions  of 
the  Vegetable  Kingdom,  viz.,  Dicotyle- 
dons.  Monocotyledons,  and  Acotyledons. 
Sometnnes,  though  rarely,  there  are  more 
than  two  cotyledons:  thus  the  Boragi- 
nacm  and  the  Brassicacese  have  four,  and 
the  Coniferas  10,  12,  or  even  15;  hence 
the  term  Polyootyledons  has  been  used. 


In  some  cases  they  are  absent;  at  other 
times  they  cohere  instead  of  unfolding. 

COUCAL,  or  LARK-HEELED 
CUCKOO,  a  genus  of  common  bush-birds 
in  Africa,  India,  and  through  the  Malay- 
an Archipelago  to  Australia.  The  hind- 
toe  is  prolonged  into  a  very  long  spur. 
Their  call  is  loud  and  in  some  cases  ap- 
parently ventriloquistic. 

COUCHANT,  in  Heraldry,  a  beast  ly- 
ing down,  with  his  head  up.  If  the  head 
is  down,  he  is  dormant. 

COUCH  GRASS,  a  grass  iTriticum 
repev.s)  sometimes  called  in  books  creep- 
ing wheat-grass.  It  has  long  spikes,  the 
spikelets  with  four  to  eight  flowers.  It 
is  very  common  in  fields  and  waste 
places.  When  occurring  as  a  weed  in 
cornfields,  its  long,  creeping  root  renders 
it  difficult  of  extirpation.  Couch  gi'ass  is 
a  diuretic  and  aperient,  and  is  useful  in 
cases  where  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
urinary  tract  is  irritated  or  inflamed,  as 
in  irritation  of  the  bladder,  gonorrhoe?., 
etc. 

COUDERT,  FREDERIC  RENE  (ko- 
dar'),  an  American  lawyer  and  expert  in 
international  law;  born  in  New  York  in 
1832,  was  graduated  at  Columbia  College 
in  1850,  and  admitted  to  the  New  York 
bar  in  1853.  In  1892  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  counsel  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States  before  the  Bering  Sea 
Tribunal  of  Arbitration  in  Paris,  and  was 
especially  complimented  by  Baron  de 
Courcel,  president  of  the  tribunal,  for  his 
argument  on  the  necessity  of  putting  a 
stop  to  pelagic  sealing.  On  Jan.  1,  1896, 
President  Cleveland  appointed  him  a 
member  of  the  Venezuela  Boundary  Com- 
mission. He  had  a  world-wide  reputation 
as  an  advocate  and  an  authority  on  inter- 
national law,  and  several  times  declined 
the  offer  of  appointment  to  the  bench  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  He 
was  legal  representative  of  the  French 
Government  for  many  years.  He  died 
Dec.  20,  1903. 

COUES,  ELLIOTT  (kouz),  an  Ameri- 
can naturalist;  born  in  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  Sept.  9,  1842.  He  was  of  late 
years  connected  with  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitute, and  was  author  of  "Key  to  North 
American  Birds"  (1872),  "Field  Orni- 
thology" (1874),  "Check-List  of  North 
American  Birds"  (1882),  "Biogen,"  "The 
Daemon  of  Darwin,"  etc.  With  J.  S. 
Kingsley,  he  edited  the  "Standard  Natu- 
ral History"  (three  vols.,  1883).  He  was 
activelv  interested  in  Theosophy.  He  died 
Dec.  26,  1899. 

COUGAR,  the  name  given  in  Brazil 
to  the  puma,  formerly  called  the  Ameri- 
can lion,  and  now  the  American  panther. 


COUGH 


173 


COXTNCIL  BLUFFS 


It  extended  formerly  throughout  a  great 
part  of  both  North  and  South  America; 
but  it  has  been  destroyed  through  a  great 
part  of  the  former,  except  its  most  south- 
erly portions.  It  is  the  Felis  concolor  or 
the  Puma  concolor  of  naturalists. 

COUGH,  a  spasmodic  effort,  attended 
with  noise,  to  expel  from  the  air  pas- 
sages of  the  lungs  some  foreign  body  or 
irritating  matter,  which  else  would  injure 
the  delicate  respiratory  apparatus.  Prop- 
erly speaking  it  is  not  a  disease;  it  is  the 
effort  of  nature  to  remove  what,  if  it  be 
allowed  to  remain,  may  generate  one;  or 
it  may  be  the  symptoms  of  a  disease  of 
the  lungs,  the  liver,  the  stomach,  or  the 
intestines;  or  may  be  produced  by  the 
over-excitability  of  the  system  in  the 
nervous  temperament.  At  the  same  time, 
when  itself  violent,  it  may  produce  mor- 
bid effects. 

COULTEE,  JOHN  LEE,  an  Ameri- 
can statistician,  born  in  Mallory,  Minn., 
in  1881.  He  graduated  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  North  Dakota  in  1904  and  took 
post-graduate  courses  at  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  and  the  University  of  Min- 
nesota. He  served  on  the  faculties  of  sev- 
eral colleges  and  universities,  becoming, 
in  1909,  professor  of  rural  economics  at 
the  University  of  Minnesota.  In  1910- 
1912  he  was  expert  special  agent  of  the 
United  States  Census  Bureau  and  was  in 
charge  of  the  Division  of  Agriculture 
from  1912  to  1914,  From  1915  he  was 
dean  of  the  West  Virginia  College  of 
Agriculture  and  director  of  the  experi- 
mental station.  He  served  as  lecturer 
on  agricultural  subjects  in  several  col- 
leges and  was  on  the  editorial  staff  of 
several  statistical  and  economic  journals. 
In  1918-1919  he  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Overseas  Educational  Commis- 
sion. He  was  a  member  of  many  eco- 
nomic societies  and  was  the  author  of 
"Economic  History  of  Red  Valley  of  the 
North"  (1910) ;  and  "Co-operation  Among 
Farmers"  (1911). 

COUMAHIN,  in  chemistry  (CsHaO^,  or 
/CH  =  CH] 
C«H4\  y  occurs   in   the   tonka- 

Xq  — CO.  J 
bean,  the  fruit  of  Coumarouna  odorata, 
in  small  white  crystals,  between  the  seed- 
coating  ana  the  kernel ;  also  in  Woodruff, 
Asperula  odorata,  and  in  the  leaves  and 
flowers  of  sweet-scented  vernal  grass,  an- 
thoxanthum  odoratum,  and  other  plants. 
It  has  been  prepared  synthetically  by 
heating  salicylic  sodium  aldehydes  with 
acetic  anhydride,  sodium  acetate  being 
produced  at  the  same  time.  Coumarin  is 
extracted  from  the  tonka-bean  by  strong 
alcohol ;  it  crystallizes  in  colorless  rectan- 
gular plates,  melting  at  67°.    It  is  nearly 


insoluble  in  water,  has  an  aromatic  odor 
and  a  burning  taste,  and  is  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  ether. 

COUNCIL,  an  assembly  met  for  de- 
liberation, or  to  give  advice.  The  term 
specially  applies  to  an  assembly  of  the 
representatives  of  independent  Churches, 
convened  for  deliberation  and  the  enact- 
ments of  canons  or  eccleciastical  laws. 
The  four  general  or  oecumenical  councils 
recognized  by  all  Churches  are:  1,  the 
Council  of  Nice,  in  325,  by  which  the 
dogma  respecting  the  Son  of  God  was  set- 
tled; 2,  that  of  Constantinople,  381.  by 
which  the  doctrine  concerning  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  decided;  3,  that  of  Ephesus, 
431;  and  4,  that  of  Chalcedon,  451;  in 
which  two  last  the  doctrine  of  the  union 
of  the  divine  and  human  nature  in  Christ 
was  more  precisely  determined.  Among 
the  principal  Latin  councils  are  that  of 
Clermont  (1096),  in  the  reign  of  Ur- 
ban II.,  in  which  the  first  crusade  was 
resolved  upon;  the  Council  of  Constance, 
the  niost  numerous  of  all  the  councils, 
held  in  1414,  which  pronounced  the  con- 
demnation of  John  Huss  (1415),  and  of 
Jerome  of  Prague  (1416)  ;  the  Council  of 
Basel,  in  1431,  which  intended  a  reforma- 
tion, if  not  in  the  doctrines,  yet  in  the 
constitution  and  discipline  of  the  Church ; 
and  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  began  its 
session  in  1545,  and  labored  chiefly  to 
confirm  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic 
Church  against  the  Protestants.  On  Dec. 
8,  1869,  an  oecumenical  council,  sum- 
moned by  a  bull  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  assem- 
bled at  Rome.  This  council  adopted  a 
dogmatic  Decree  or  Constitutio  de  Fide, 
and  a  Constitutio  de  Ecclesia,  the  most 
important  article  of  which  latter  declares 
the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  when  speak- 
ing ex  cathedra. 

COUNCIL  BLUFFS,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Pottawattamie  co.,  la.;  on  the 
Missouri  river,  opposite  Omaha,  Neb., 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  bridges. 
The  city  is  the  E.  terminus  of  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad  and  the  converging 
point  of  all  E.  railroads  which  join  the 
Union  Pacific.  It  is  situated  at  the  foot 
of  the  bluffs,  four  miles  from  the  river. 
The  city  is  the  farming  trade  center  of 
southern  Iowa.  It  contains  several  rail- 
way repair  shops,  stock  yards,  grain 
elevators,  and  other  interests.  The  prin- 
cipal industries  are  carpentering,  ma- 
sonry, printing  and  publishing,  plumb- 
ing and  gas  fitting,  flour  and  grist  mill- 
ing, and  brick  and  tile  making.  In  1919 
there  were  3  National  banks,  with  $420,- 
000  capital,  and  several  private  banking 
houses.  The  city  is  well  lighted  by  gas 
and  electricity,  is  connected  with  Omaha 
by  electric  railways,  and  has  several  fine 
parks.  The  most  noteworthy  buildings 
12— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


COUNCIL  OF  WORKINGMEN        174     COUNCIL  OF  WOBKlNGMEN 


are  the  County  Court  House,  United 
States  Government  Building,  _  High 
School,  Masonic  Temple,  and  Union  De- 
pot. There  are  many  churches,  a  Li- 
brary Association,  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  the 
State  Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes.  Coun- 
cil Bluffs  derives  its  name  from  a 
council  held  on  the  bluffs  between  the 
Indians  and  the  explorers,  Lewis  and 
Clarke.  It  was  a  Mormon  settlement  in 
1846,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1853.  Pop.  (1910)  29,292;  (1920) 
36,162. 

COUNCIL  OF  WORKINGMEN  AND 
SOLDIERS,  more  generally  known  by  its 
Russian  name,  the  Soviet,  a  word  signi- 
fying "Council."  A  Council  of  Work- 
ingmen  was  first  organized  in  Moscow, 
in  1905,  by  the  Russian  revolutionists, 
with  Leon  Trotzky  as  its  chief  execu- 
tive. It  participated  to  a  leading  extent 
in  the  revolutionary  disorders  which 
took  place  in  Moscow  at  that  time,  but 
was  dissolved  with  the  suppression  of 
the  revolutionary  movement  by  the  Rus- 
sian authorities.  In  March,  1917,  a 
council  of  Workingmen's  Delegates  was 
again  organized  in  Petrograd,  this  time 
not  for  the  purpose  of  creating  a  revo- 
lution, but  to  meet  revolutionary  condi- 
tions created  by  the  Premier,  Protopo- 
pov. 

The  tern*  "Soviet"  has  been  uni- 
versally associated  with  the  Russian 
Bolsheviki,  or  Communists,  but  this  is 
distinctly  erroneous.  The  relation  is 
closely  parallel  to  the  relation  between 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
and  the  political  party  which  happens 
to  be  in  power.  The  Russian  Govern- 
ment, or  a  number  of  its  higher  officials, 
desired  to  make  a  separate  peace  with 
Germany,  in  the  early  part  of  1917.  To 
create  a  pretext,  they  deliberately  set 
about  creating  those  abnormal  economic 
conditions  which  they  hoped  would  lead 
to  disorders  in  the  capital.  Conscious 
of  this  move,  the  radicals  and  liberals 
were  strongly  opposed  to  any  revolu- 
tionary activities  at  that  time,  wishing, 
as  they  did,  to  bring  the  war  against 
Germany  to  a  successful  conclusion. 
Nevertheless,  the  autocracy  continued  in 
its  irritative^  tactics.  Realizing  the  in- 
evitable crisis,  and  to  prevent  general 
disorder,  the  liberals,  through  the  Duma, 
where  they  were  in  a  majority,  organ- 
ized a  Supreme  Committee  to  take  over 
the  reins  of  government.  The  radical 
elements,  and  especially  the  labor  or- 
ganizations, feeling  that  they  would  not 
be  fully  represented  by  this  body,  at  the 
same  time  took  steps  to  form  their  Coun- 
cil of  Workingmen's  Delegates,  This 
was  actually  accomplished  in  the  night 
of  March  11,  1917,  when  public  disorder 
was  already  in  full  swing  and  the  police 


had  already  begxin  firing  on  the  assem- 
bled populace. 

For  months  after  these  two  bodies  co- 
operated amicably  in  exercising  the  real 
power  of  the  Provisional  Government, 
both  alike  being  in  favor  of  maintaining 
order  at  home  while  the  war  was  prose- 
cuted against  the  enemy  outside.  A  few 
weeks  after  the  formation  of  the  Council 
its  name  was  changed  to  the  Council  of 
Workingmen's  and  Soldiers'  Delegates, 
since  the  delegates  from  the  military 
organizations  at  the  front  were  allowed 
to  participate  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
body  in  increasing  numbers. 

During  the  early  pai't  of  the  regime 
of  the  Provisional  Revolutionary  Govern- 
ment the  moderate  Socialists  were  in 
control  of  the  Council  by  a  large  ma- 
jority, their  representative,  Alexander 
Kerensky,  becoming  Premier  and  War 
Minister.  On  Sept.  10,  1917,  an  effort 
was  made  to  establish  a  military  dicta- 
torship by  the  Cossack  commander-in- 
chief.  General  Kornilov,  who  sought  to 
eliminate  the  Kerensky  civil  government. 
The  effort  failed,  largely  through  the 
efforts  of  Kerensky,  but  the  effect  was 
to  create  a  Bolshevist  majority  in  the 
Soviet,  the  Bolsheviki,  or  extreme  radi- 
cals, being  in  favor  of  terminating  the 
dual  character  of  the  administration 
and  establishing  the  Soviet  in  supreme 
authority.  This  swing  to  the  extreme 
left  continued  with  increasing  strength, 
as  delegates  from  the  military  organi- 
zations at  the  front  arrived,  and  a 
month  later  the  Bolshevist  majority  was 
able  to  overthrow  the  Provisional 
Government  and  establish  what  became 
generally  known  as  the  Soviet  Govern- 
ment. 

The  Council,  or  Soviet,  was  intended 
by  its  founders  to  be  something  much 
more  than  a  temporary  measure  for 
"iiaintaining  working-class  organization 
during  a  critical  revolutionary  period. 
It  embodies  what  they  consider  a  rad- 
ically new  principle  in  government. 
Many  of  the  Soviet  organizers  have 
stated  that  they  were  primarily  in- 
spired by  the  old  town  meeting  system 
of  our  New  England  States,  under 
which  the  people  gathered  periodically 
in  meeting  and  directly  initiated  legisla- 
tion. Based  on  this  free  democracy,  the 
Soviet,  however,  instead  of  being  based 
on  geographical  representation,  insists 
on  representation  by  occupation.  Thus, 
in  a  large  city  the  school  teachers  have 
a  council  of  their  own,  quite  separate 
and  distinct  from  the  council  of  the  men 
engaged  in  building,  or  of  the  trans- 
portation workers.  Thus,  locally,  the 
Soviets  have  a  strong  resemblance  to 
trade  unions.  But  in  federation  they 
lose  this  trade  charactex',  for  the  f edera- 


COUNSEL 


175 


COUNTY 


tions,  which  are  formed  on  a  geogra- 
phical basis,  consist  of  a  union  of  all 
the  Soviets  within  their  territories. 
Thus  it  is  only  locally  that  the  Soviet 
has  an  educational  aspect.  It  elects 
delegates  to  the  regional  federation,  who 
represent  their  constituents  as  workers 
in  a  special  trade  or  profession,  rather 
than  as  citizens.  Before  the  ascendancy 
of  the  Bolsheviki  the  Soviet  was  open  to 
all  citizens  above  voting  age,  including 
women,  but  after  they  came  into  power 
the  Communists  restricted  suffrage  to 
what  they  called  the  proletariat,  persons 
living  from  the  proceeds  of  their  labor 
and  not  employing  others  as  workers. 

In  1920  the  Soviet  system  of  govern- 
ment was  still  in  full  power  over  the 
greater  part  of  Russia.  There  has  been 
much  criticism  of  its  efficiency  by  radi- 
cal observers,  themselves  in  favor  of  a 
Socialist  system  of  government.  So  far 
removed  is  the  local  Soviet  from  the 
authority  exercised  by  the  National 
Executive  Committee  in  Moscow,  chosen 
by  a  quarterly  All-Russian  Congress  of 
Soviets,  that  it  exercises  almost  no  con- 
trol over  its  actions.  This  is  said  to  be 
due  to  the  many  relays  of  delegates 
which  are  finally  represented  at  the  Con- 
gress. The  local  Soviets  send  delegates 
to  a  regional  soviet,  which  in  turn  sends 
delegates  to  a  provincial  soviet,  where 
the  delegates  to  the  Congress  are  elected. 
By  this  time  the  popular  character  of  the 
representatives  is  almost  completely  lost. 
See  Russia. 

COUNSEL,  in  English  law,  a  coun- 
selor-advocate in  a  trial;  also  the  whole 
number  of  advocates  engaged  on  any 
side  collectively.  King's  Counsel  are 
barristers  appointed  counsel  to  the  Crown 
by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  take  pre- 
cedence of  other  barristers.  They  have 
the  privilege  of  wearing  a  silk  gown, 
that  of  an  ordinary  barrister  being  of 
stuff.  In  the  United  States  the  word 
counsel  is  applied  indiscriminately  to  all 
members  of  the  legal  profession  retained 
in  a  cause;  as,  the  counsel  for  the  plain- 
tiff, the  counsel  for  the  defendant. 

COUNT,  a  title  of  nobility  in  most  of 
the  continental  states  of  Europe,  equiva- 
lent in  rank  to  the  British  earl  and  the 
German  graf.  Under  the  first  two  races 
of  the  Frank  kings,  the  title  was  given 
to  officers  of  various  degrees,  and  was 
at  first  attached  to  the  office,  and  not 
the  person;  but  in  the  progress  of  time, 
when  feudalism  had  introduced  inheri- 
tance instead  of  election  as  a  fixed  rule 
in  succession,  it  became  subject  to  the 
same  law  as  the  higher  titles  of  kings 
and  dukes,  and  conferred  hereditary 
privileges  on  its  possessor.  The  term 
count  has   in  most  of  the   states  where 


it  is  in  use  degenerated  into  a  mere  title* 
to  which  no  political  importance  is  at- 
tached. Though  the  title  has  never  been 
introduced  into  England,  the  wives  of 
earls  have  from  the  earliest  period  of 
its  history  been  designated  as  countesses. 

COUNTERFEIT,  to  imitate,  with  the 
intention  of  deceit,  the  current  medium 
of  exchange  or  money  of  a  country.  In 
the  United  States,  the  crime  of  counter- 
feiting paper-money  is  punishable  up  to 
15  years'  hard  labor,  and  a  fine  of  $15,- 
000;  large  coin,  10  years  and  $5,000  fine; 
minor  coin,  5  years  and  $1,000  fine. 
Forging  postal  money  orders,  postal 
cards,  government  stamps  of  all  kinds, 
and  government  securities,  as  also  im- 
porting, possessing,  or  uttering  false 
coins  or  notes  with  fraudulent  intent  are 
crimes  punishable  up  to  10  years'  hard 
labor.  Mutilating  and  debasing  the  coin 
is  also  counterfeiting,  but  is  not  so  se- 
verely punished  as  the  making  of  coun- 
terfeit coins. 

COUNTER-IRRITANT,  an  irrijant 
application  to  the  external  parts  of  the 
body  designed  to  diminish,  counteract, 
or  remove  some  other  irritation  or  in- 
flammation then  existing.  Such  are  ru- 
befacients, perpetual  blisters,  issues  of 
setons,  cauterizing  agents. 

COUNTERPOINT,  in  music,  a  term 
equivalent  to  harmony  or  the  writing  of 
a  carefully  planned  accompanying  part; 
or  that  branch  of  the  art  which,  a  musi- 
cal thought  being  given,  teaches  the  de- 
velopment of  it,  by  extension  or  embel- 
lishment, by  transposition,  repetition,  or 
imitation  throughout  the  different  parts. 
Counterpoint  is  di^^ded  into  simple, 
florid  or  figurate,  and  double.  Simple 
counterpoint  is  a  composition  in  two  or 
more  parts,  the  notes  of  each  part  being 
equal  in  value  to  those  of  each  corre- 
sponding part  or  parts  and  concords.  In 
florid  counterpoint,  two  or  more  notes 
are  writen  against  each  note  of  the  sub- 
ject, or  canto- fermo,  and  discords  are 
admissible.  Double  counterpoint  is  an 
inversion  of  the  parts,  so  that  the  base 
may  become  the  subject,  and  the  subject 
the  base,  etc.,  thus  producing  new  melo- 
dies and  new  harmonies. 

COUNTERSIGN,  in  military  affairs, 
is  a  watch-word  used  to  prevent  un- 
authorized persons  passing  a  line  of 
sentries  whose  orders  are  to  stop  anyone 
unable  to  give  it.  It  is  fixed  each  day 
by  the  commanding  officer,  but  may  be 
changed  at  any  moment,  if  necessary. 

COUNTER-TENOR,  the  highest  adult 
male  voice,  the  same  as  alto. 

COUNTY,  a  county  or  subdivision  of 
a   state   for  purposes  of  administration, 


COUPE 


176 


COURT 


tailed  in  some  states  a  parish  or  a  shire; 
or,  more  specifically,  the  Roman  name  of 
what  in  Saxon  times  had  been  called  a 
shire.  In  Saxon  times,  one  created  an 
earl  received  a  shire  to  govern.  When 
the  Normans  took  possession  of  the  land 
these  Saxon  earls  were  displaced  by 
noblemen  of  similar  rank  who  had  come 
across  with  the  Conqueror,  and  who 
from  being  his  companions  were  called 
comites.  These  each  ruled  a  shire 
{comitatus) ,  and  from  the  Latin  desig- 
nation comitatus  the  English  word  coun- 
ty ultimately  came.  In  most  of  the 
United  States  the  counties,  to  a  great 
extent,  preserve  an  autonomy,  each 
being  provided  with  its  own  sheriff,  cor- 
oner, judiciary,  and  inferior  legislative 
body  (for  purposes  of  local  enactment), 
generally  styled  commissioners.  Each 
county  is  charged  with  the  support  of 
its  own  paupers,  with  the  maintenance 
of  good  roads,  etc.,  and  for  local  election 
purposes,  usually  constitutes  an  inde- 
pendent constituency. 

COUPE  (ko-pa'),  a  four-wheeled 
carriage  carrying  two  inside,  with  a  seat 
for  the  driver  outside. 

COUPON,  a  warrant  or  certificate  for 
the  periodical  payment  of  interest  on 
bonds  issued  for  any  term  of  years.  The 
interest  being  payable  in  different  cases 
quarterly,  half-yearly,  or  yearly,  as  many 
coupons  are  attached  to  each  bond  as  rep- 
resent the  total  number  of  such  pay- 
ments as  are  to  be  made,  with  the  date 
of  payment  printed  on  each. 

COURBET,  GUSTAVE  (kor-ba'),  a 
French  painter;  born  in  Ornans,  Franche- 
Comtd,  June  10,  1819.  In  1839  he  was 
sent  to  study  law  in  Paris,  but  turned  to- 
ward art.  In  1841  he  took  to  landscape 
work,  painting  in  the  forest  of  Fontaine- 
bleau.  In  1844  he  began  to  exihibit  at 
the  Salon;  and  his  works  created  a  great 
sensation  when  shown  in  the  Salon  of 
1850.  His  hunting  scenes  and  animal  sub- 
jects are  especially  vigorous  and  spirit- 
ed. In  1869  he  accepted  the  Cross  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Michael  from  the  King  of 
Bavaria,  and  after  the  revolution  of  1870 
he  was  appointed  Director  of  the  Fine 
Arts.  In  the  following  year  he  joined  the 
Commune,  and  was  concerned  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  Vendome  Column  (May 
16),  for  which,  in  the  following  Septem- 
ber, he  was  sentenced  to  six  months'  im- 
prisonment, and  to  be  fined  for  its  res- 
toration, his  pictures  being  sold  in  1877 
toward  that  purpose.  On  his  release  he 
retired  to  Vevey,  in  Switzerland,  where 
he  died,  Dec.  81,  1877. 

COURLAND,  or  KURLAND,  a  former 
Russian  government,  and  one  of  what, 
under  the  Empire,  were  called  the  Baltic 


provinces.  It  was  formerly  an  inde- 
pendent duchy — properly,  indeed,  consist- 
ing of  two  duchies,  Courland  and  Sem- 
gallen — and  belonged,  along  with  Livonia, 
to  the  Teutonic  Knights.  The  difficulty 
of  resisting  the  Russians  led  to  the  ac- 
knowledgment in  1561  of  the  feudal  sov- 
ereignty of  Poland.  The  country  was 
long  distracted  by  the  contentions  of  two 
parties,  one  Russian  and  the  other  Polish ; 
and  was  finally  united  to  Russia  in  1795. 
Biron  was  made  Duke  of  Courland  in 
1737.  It  contains  about  10,480  square 
miles;  population  about  812,000,  mostly 
Protestants.  It  is  generally  a  level  coun- 
try, with  ranges  of  low  hills,  and  con- 
tains many  lakes,  bogs,  forests,  and  sand- 
dunes,  but  some  parts  have  a  very  fertile 
soil.  Cattle-breeding  is  on  the  increase; 
game  abounds;  and  bears,  boars,  elks, 
and  wolves  are  met  with  occasionally. 
The  proprietors  of  land  are  mostly  Ger- 
man; the  peasantry,  of  Lettish  extrac- 
tion, are  chiefly  engaged  in  husbandry. 
There  is  little  manufacturing  industry. 
The  capital  is  Mitau  (pop.  47,000),  the 
most  flourising  town  is  Libau  (pop.  about 
90,000).  In  the  World  War  (1914-1918) 
the  Germans  occupied  it  as  a  base  for 
their  attacks  on  Riga.  In  November, 
1918,  Courland,  together  with  certain 
parts  of  the  former  Russian  provinces  of 
Livonia  and  Vitebsk,  was  formed  into 
an  independent  state  under  the  name  of 
Latvia  (g.  v.). 

COURSING,  the  hunting  of  hares  with 
greyhounds,  which  follow  the  game  by 
sight,  and  not  by  scent.  Coursing  meet- 
ings are  held  in  open  parts  of  the  coun- 
try where  hares  are  abundant,  and  the 
owners  of  greyhounds  enter  their  respec- 
tive dogs  for  various  stakes.  A  judge  is 
appointed,  whose  duty  it  is  to  decide  witl 
respect  to  the  merits  of  the  dogs  engaged. 
The  sport  then  begins  by  two  dogs  being 
selected  for  n  course.  The  judge  follows 
the  greyhounds  throughout  the  whole 
course,  and  awards  the  victory  to  the  dog 
which  shows  the  finest  qualities  of  speed, 
endurance,  and  sagacity;  and  not  neces- 
sarily to  the  dog  which  kills  the  hare. 
Coursing  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  is 
treated  of  by  Arrian,  who  flourished  A.  D. 
150.  A  pastime  known  as  "Hare  and 
Hounds,"  somewhat  similar  to  coursing, 
was  at  one  time  quite  popular  in  the 
United  States.  In  this  form  one  or  more 
men,  known  as  the  Hares,  were  given  a 
time  handicap  and  provided  with  slips  ol 
paper  which  they  dropped  from  time  to 
time  to  show  their  trail.  These  runners 
were  followed  by  others,  known  as 
Hounds,  and  the  object  was  that  the 
Hounds  should  overtake  the  Hares. 

COURT,  in  law,  a  tribunal  of  justice; 
the  hall,  chamber,  or  place  where  justice 


COURT-MARTIAL 


177 


COVENANT 


is  administered,  or  the  persons  (judges) 
assembled  for  hearing  and  deciding 
causes,  civil,  criminal,  military,  naval,  or 
ecclesiastical.  Courts  may  be  classified 
in  various  ways.  A  common  distinction 
is  into  courts  of  record  and  not  of  record ; 
the  first  being  those  the  judicial  proceed- 
ings of  which  are  enrolled  in  records. 
They  may  also  be  divided  into  courts  of 
original  jurisdiction,  inferior,  and  su- 
perior courts.  In  the  United  States  the 
courts  of  law  are  either  Federal  or  State. 
Federal  courts  derive  their  authority 
from  the  National  Government.  They 
comprise  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  District  Courts  of 
the  United  States.  The  latter  in  1911  as- 
sumed the  work  of  Circuit  Courts,  abol- 
ished in  that  year.  Other  courts  existing 
under  the  National  Government  are  the 
United  States  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals, 
the  United  States  Court  of  Claims,  the 
United  States  Court  of  Custom  Appeals, 
and  various  local  tribunals  for  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia. 

The  State  courts  derive  their  authority 
from  the  several  State  constitutions. 
They  consist  usually  of  a  Supreme  Court 
or  Court  of  Appeals,  and  of  local  crim- 
inal and  civil  courts  for  the  various  coun- 
ties. Speaking  generally,  Federal  courts 
have  jurisdiction  in  cases  involving  the 
laws  of  the  United  States;  State  courts 
have  jurisdiction  in  cases  involving  State 
laws. 

Courts  in  England  derive  their  author- 
ity from  royal  or  parliamentary  enact- 
ment. They  are  designated,  according 
to  their  jurisdiction,  as  "King's  Bench 
Division,"  "Chancery  Division,"  "Probate, 
Divorce,  and  Admiralty  Division,"  "Court 
of  Appeals,"  and  the  like.  There  are  also 
the  terms  of  court  held  by  the  Lord  High 
Chancellor,  the  Lord  Chief -Justice  of  Eng- 
land, the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  the  Lords 
of  Appeal  in  Ordinary,  and  the  various 
county  courts.  The  highest  legal  tribu- 
nal in  England  is  the  House  of  Lords 
when  sitting  as  a  court  of  appeal. 

In  France  the  courts  exist  in  accord- 
ance with  the  provisions  of  the  code 
Napoleon.  At  their  head  is  the  Court  of 
Cassation.  In  Germany  there  are  fed- 
eral courts  and  courts  of  the  various  Ger- 
man states.  The  Latin  countries  organ- 
ize their  courts  to  some  extent  upon  the 
French  model,  except  that  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  most  South  American 
countries  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood 
have  their  own  courts  and  cannot  be  he'  i 
amenable  to  the  ordinary  tribunals. 

COURT-MARTIAL,  a  court  authorized 
by  the  articles  of  war,  for  the  trial  of 
all  offenders  in  the  army  or  navy,  for 
military  offenses.  It  has  no  jurisdiction 
over  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  not 


employed  in  military  service.  It  n^^y 
consist  of  any  number  of  commissioned 
officers,  from  5  to  13.  See  Military 
Courts. 

COURT-PLASTER  (so-called  because 
originally  applied  by  ladies  of  the  court 
as  patches  on  the  face),  black,  flesh- 
colored,  or  transparent  silk  varnished 
over  with  a  solution  of  isinglass,  which  ' 
is  often  perfumed  with  benzoin,  used  for 
covering  slight  wounds. 

COURTRAI  (kor-tra'),  a  fortified 
town  of  Belgium,  province  of  West 
Flanders.  26  miles  S.  of  Bruges,  on  the 
Ly?.  Before  the  World  War  it  was  well 
built,  having  handsome  and  spacious 
streets,  and  a  fine  Grande  Place,  with 
several  other  squares.  Its  manufactures 
are  table-linens,  lace  (which  is  cele- 
brated), cambrics,  cotton  goods,  etc.,  and 
it  has  extensive  bleaching  and  dyeing 
works.  Here,  in  1302,  took  place  the 
"battle  of  spurs"  between  the  French 
and  Flemings.  During  the  World  War 
(g.  V.)  it  was  at  various  times  the  scene 
of  important  military  operations.  Pop. 
about  36,000. 

COUSIN,  VICTOR,  a  French  philoso- 
pher; born  in  Paris,  Nov.  28,  1792.  He 
founded  a  school  of  eclectic  philosophy; 
combining  the  doctrines  of  the  Scotch 
school  of  Reid  and  Stewart,  based  on 
sensation,  with  those  of  Schelling  and 
Hegel,  which  rest  on  the  opposite  prin- 
ciple of  idealism  or  intuition.  He  pos- 
sessed in  a  high  degree  the  faculty  of 
clear  exposition,  and  for  that  reason  his 
lectures  and  his  writings  enjoyed  a 
great  popularity.  He  rendered  a  mem- 
orable seivice  both  to  philosophy  t.nd 
literature  by  his  translation  of  "Plato," 
praised  by  Jowett.  Besides  his  "History 
of  Philosophy"  and  other  works  on  that  - 
theme,  he  was  author  of  a  few  bio-  •.-, 
graphical  sketches.  He  died  in  Cannes,  'l. 
Jan.  2,  1867. 

COUTTS,  THOMAS,  a  Scotch  banker; 
born  in  Edinburgh,  Sept.  7,  1753;  the 
son  of  a  merchant  and  banker.  Wiiki 
his  brother  James  he  founded  the  bank- 
ing house  of  Coutts  and  Co.  in  London, 
and  on  the  latter's  death  in  1778  became 
sole  manager.  Keen  and  exact  in  mat- 
ters of  business,  although  charitable  and 
hospital  in  private,  he  left  a  fortune  of 
some  $4,500,000  at  his  death  in  London, 
Feb.  24,  1822.  By  his  first  wife,  who 
had  been  a  servant  of  his  brother,  he 
had  three  daughters,  who  married  re- 
spectively the  Earl  of  Guilford,  the  Mar- 
quis of  Bute,  and  Sir  Francis  Burdett, 
Bart.;  in  1815  he  married  Miss  Mellon, 
the  actress. 

COVENANT,  in  law,  an  agreement  be- 
tween two  or  more   parties  in  writing, 


COVENANT 


178 


COVENTRY 


signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  whereby 
they  agree  to  do,  or  not  to  do,  some 
specified  act.  In  theology,  the  promises 
of  God  as  revealed  in  the  Scriptures, 
conditional  on  certain  terms  on  the  part 
of  man,  as  obedience,  repentance,  faith, 
etc.  In  international  politics  an  expres- 
sion used  to  designate  the  terms  on 
which  agreements  between  nations  are 
based.    See  League  of  Nations. 

COVENANT,  in  Scotch  history,  the 
name  given  to  a  bond  or  oath  drawn  up 
by  the  Scottish  reformers,  and  signed  in 
1557,  and  to  the  similar  document  or 
Confession  of  Faith  drawn  up  in  1581, 
IB  which  all  the  errors  of  Popery  were 
explicitly  abjured.  The  latter  was  sub- 
scribed by  James  VI.  and  his  council, 
and  all  his  subjects  were  required  to  at- 
tach their  subscription  to  it.  It  was 
again  subscribed  in  1590  and  1596.  The 
subscription  was  renewed  in  1638,  and 
the  subscribers  engaged  by  oath  to 
maintain  religion  in  the  same  state  as 
it  was  in  1580,  and  to  reject  all  innova- 
tions introduced  since  that  time.  The 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant  was  a 
solemn  contract  entered  into  between 
th  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  and  commissioners  from  the 
English  Parliament  in  1643,  having  for 
its  object  a  uniformity  of  doctrine,  wor- 
ship, and  discipline  throughout  Scot- 
land, England,  and  Ireland,  according  to 
the  word  of  God  and  the  example  of  th-e 
best  reformed  churches.  In  1662  it  was 
abjured  by  act  of  Parliament,  both  in 
England  and  Scotland. 

COVENANTERS,  in  Scottish  history, 
the  name  given  to  the  party  which 
struggled  for  religious  liberty  from  1637 
on  to  the  revolution;  but  more  especially 
applied  to  the  insurgents  who,  after  the 
passing  of  the  act  of  1662  denouncing 
the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  as  a 
seditious  oath  (see  above  article),  took 
up  arms  in  defense  of  the  Presbyterian 
form  of  Church  government.  The  Pres- 
byterian ministers  who  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge the  bishops  were  ejected  from 
their  parishes  and  gathered  around 
them  crowds  of  their  people  on  the  hill- 
sides, or  any  lonely  spot,  to  attend  their 
ministrations.  These  meetings,  called 
"conventicles,"  were  denounced  as  sedi- 
tious, and  to  frequent  them  or  to  hold 
communication  v^ath  those  frequenting 
them  was  forbidden  on  pain  of  death. 
The  unwarrantable  severity  with  which 
the  recusants  were  treated  provoked 
them  to  take  up  arms  in  defense  of  their 
opinions.  The  first  outbreaks  took  place 
in  the  hill  country  on  the  borders  of  Ayr 
and  Lanark  shires.  Here  at  Drumclog, 
a  farm  near  Loudon  Hill,  a  conventicle 
was    attacked    by    a    body    of    dragoons 


under  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  but  were 
successful  in  defeating  their  assailants 
(1679).  The  murder  of  Archbishop 
Sharp  on  Magus  Moor,  and  this  defeat, 
alarmed  the  government,  who  sent  a 
large  body  of  troops  under  the  command 
of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  to  put  down 
the  insurgents,  who  had  increased  in 
number  rapidly.  The  two  armies  met  at 
Bothwell  Bridge,  where  the  Covenanters 
were  totally  defeated  (June  22,  1679). 
In  consequence  of  the  rebellious  pro- 
test called  the  Sanquhar  Declaration, 
put  forth  in  1680  by  Cameron,  Cargill, 
and  others,  as  representing  the  more  ir- 
reconcilable of  the  Covenanters  (known 
as  Cameronians),  and  a  subsequent 
proclamation  in  1684,  the  government 
proceeded  to  more  severe  measures.  An 
oath  was  now  required  of  all  who  would 
free  themselves  of  suspicion  of  com- 
plicity with  the  Covenanters;  and  the 
dragoons  who  were  sent  out  to  hun<- 
down  the  rebels  were  empowered  to  kill 
anyone  who  refused  to  take  the  o?th. 
During  this  "killing  time,"  as  it  was 
called,  the  sufferings  of  the  Covenanters 
were  extreme;  but  notwithstanding  the 
great  numbers  who  were  put  to  death, 
their  fanatic  spirit  seemed  only  to 
grow  stronger.  Even  after  the  acces- 
sion of  William  some  of  the  extreme 
Covenanters  refused  to  acknowledge 
him  owing  to  his  acceptance  of  Episco- 
pacy in  England,  and  formed  the  earli- 
est dissenting  sect  in   Scotland. 

COVENT  GARDEN,  corrupted  from 
Convent  Garden,  from  having  been  orig- 
inally the  garden  of  the  Abbot  of  West- 
minster, is  a  spacious  square  in  London, 
celebrated  for  a  gi'eat  market  held  with- 
in it  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and  flowers. 
The  square  was  formed  about  1631 
from  the  designs  of  Inigo  Jones.  In  the 
17th  century  Covent  Garden  was  a  very 
fashionable  quarter  of  the  town.  The 
market,  now  so  famous,  appears  to  have 
originated  about  1656  in  a  few  wooden 
sheds  and  stalls.  It  was  long  the  prop- 
erty of  the  noble  House  of  Bedford,  but 
in  1913  the  Duke  of  Bedford  sold  the 
property.  London's  most  famous  opera 
house,  the  Covent  Garden  Theater,  is  lo- 
cated there. 

COVENTRY,  a  city  in  England, 
county  of  Warwick,  85  miles  N.  W.  of 
London.  It  was  formerly  surrounded 
with  lofty  walls  and  had  12  gates,  and 
was  the  see  of  a  bishop  early  conjoined 
with  Lichfield.  Parliaments  were  con- 
vened here  by  the  earlier  monarchs  of 
England,  several  of  whom  occasionally 
resided  in  the  place.  Pageants  and  pro- 
cessions were  celebrated  in  old  times 
with  great  magnificence,  and  a  remnant 


COVERDALE 


179 


COWDRAY 


of  these  still  exists  in  the  processional 
show  in  honor  of  Lady  Godiva  {q,  v.). 
There  are  still  a  few  narrow  and  irreg- 
ular streets,  lined  with  houses  in  the 
style  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries. 
There  are  several  fine  churches.  Coven- 
try is  the  center  of  the  ribbon  trade. 
Pop.   (1918)   119,023. 

COVERDALE,  MILES,  the  earliest 
translator  of  the  Bible  into  English; 
was  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in 
1487.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  1514.  He 
was  led  some  years  afterward  to  em- 
brace the  reformed  doctrines,  and,  hav- 
ing gone  abroad,  assisted  Tindall  in  his 
translation  of  the  Bible.  In  1535  his 
own  translation  of  the  Scriptures  ap- 
peared, with  a  dedication  to  Henry  VIII. 
Coverdale  was  almoner  to  Queen  Cath- 
arine Parr,  and  officiated  at  her  funeral. 
In  1551,  daring  the  reign  of  Edward  VI., 
he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Exeter,  but 
was  ejected  on  the  accession  of  Mary, 
and  thrown  into  prison.  After  two 
years*  confinement  he  was  liberated,  and 
proceeded  first  to  Denmark,  and  subse- 
quently to  (Geneva,  where  he  was  em- 
ployed in  preparing  the  Geneva  trans- 
lation of  the  Scriptures.  On  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  he  returned  to 
England,  and  held  for  a  short  time  the 
rectory  of  St.  Magnus,  London  Bridge. 
He  died  in  London,  in  1568. 

COVINGTON,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Kenton  co.,  Ky.;  on  the  Ohio  river, 
opposite  Cincinnati,  which  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  handsome  suspension 
bridge,  2,250  feet  long,  and  costing 
$2,000,000.  It  is  on  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
railroads.  Electric  lines  connect  it  with 
near-by  towns.  It  is  a  residence  town  for 
Cincinnati  business  men  and  is  the  see 
of  a  Catholic  bishop.  Covington  is  the 
farming  and  live-stock  producing  and 
trade  center  of  central  Kentucky,  and 
has  steamer  connections  with  all  river 
ports.  The  principal  manufactories  are 
cotton  and  woolen  mills,  rolling  mills,  to- 
bacco factories,  etc.  Previous  to  the 
enactment  of  prohibition  there  were 
many  distilleries.  In  1919  there  were  3 
National  banks,  with  $1,150,000  capital, 
and  several  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers. Covington  is  built  on  a  beauti- 
ful plain,  and  has  an  area  of  over  5 
square  miles.  The  most  notable  build- 
ings are  the  combined  City  Hall  and 
Court  House;  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment building,  including  the  Postoffice 
and  Federal  Court  rooms;  the  Public 
Library,  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral, 
and  the  Hospital  of  St.  Elizabeth.  Cov- 
ington was  settled  in  1812;  laid  out  in 


1815,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1834. 
Pop.    (1910)    53,270;    (1920)    57,121. 

COW,  the  female  of  the  bovine  species 
called  the  ox  {Bos  tawrus),  of  which  the 
bull  is  the  nale.  Like  other  domestic 
animals  it  has  run  into  numerous  varie- 
ties, and  its  primitive  uniformity  has 
given  rise  to  manifold  diversity.  Nor  is 
it  in  color  alone  that  it  has  alterated.  It 
has  done  so  in  form,  besides  which,  there 
are  horned  and  hornless  oxen.  The  Dar- 
winian principle  of  natural  selection 
with  the  survival  of  the  fittest  has 
adapted  cattle  of  different  sizes  and 
qualities  to  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try; little,  active  cattle,  thriving  on  the 
scanty  herbage  found  high  up  the  moun- 
tainside, and  large,  heavy,  slow-going 
cattle  of  luxurious  proclivities  falling 
off  unless  they  are  allowed  to  revel  amid 
the  rank  vegetation  of  river  sides  and 
meadows.  The  latter  furnish  the  great- 
est quantity  of  milk.     See  Dairy. 

COWBANE,    or    WATER-HEMLOCK 

{Cicuta  virosa),  a  perennial,  umbellifer- 
ous, aquatic  plant,  producing  an  erect, 
hollow,  much-branched,  striated  stem 
three  or  four  feet  high,  furnished  with 
dissected  leaves.     It  is  highly  poisonous. 

COW-BERRY,  the  red  whortleberry, 
a  procumbent  shrub  of  high  moorlands 
in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  has 
evergreen,  box-like  leaves,  and  produces 
a  red  acid  berry  used  for  jellies  and  pre- 
serves. 

COWBOYS,  in  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, a  band  of  American  Tories  who  in- 
fested the  neutral  ground  of  Westches- 
ter county,  N.  Y.,  robbed  the  Whigs  and 
Loyalists,  and  made  a  specialty  of  steal- 
ing cattle.  A  similar  band  of  marau- 
ders on  the  British  side  received  the 
name  of  "Skinners."  The  word  cow- 
boys is  now  used  to  designate  the  men 
who  have  charge  of  the  cattle  on  the 
vast  ranges  in  the  W.  and  S.  W.  of  the 
United  States.  Many  of  them  were  en- 
listed in  two  regiments  of  cavalry  for 
the  war  with  Spain,  and,  under  the  pop- 
ular name  of  "Rough  Riders,"  greatly 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  early 
part  of  the  campaign  against  Santiagro, 
in  Cuba. 

COWDRAY,  WEETMAN  DICKINSON 
PEARSON,  Viscount,  a  British  capital- 
ist, born  in  1856.  He  contested  Colches- 
ter for  Parliament  in  1892,  and  was 
elected  for  that  city  as  a  liberal  in  1895, 
representing  it  till  1910.  He  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1894,  baron  in  1910.  and 
viscount  in  1916.  He  was  largely  in- 
strumental in  building  up  the  oil  inter- 
ests of  S.  Pearson  and  Son,  Ltd.,  of 
which  he  was  president.  During  the 
war  he  was  President  of  the  Air  Board. 


COWES 


180 


COWSLIP 


He  was  High  Steward  of  Colchester,  and 
in  1918  was  elected  Rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen. 

COWES  (kowz),  a  British  seaport  on 
the  N.  coast  of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  It  is 
built  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Medina, 
dividing  it  into  two  tovsms,  East  and 
West  Cowes.  The  town  has  an  excellent 
harbor,  is  much  frequented  for  watering 
ships,  and  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
Royal  Yacht  Club,  and,  moreover,  a 
place  of  very  fashionable  resort,  not 
only  in  the  season,  but  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  The  famous  Cowes 
Regatta  is  held  there  annually  in  Au- 
gust.   Fop.  about  15,000. 

COW-ITCH,  COW-AGE,  or  COW- 
HAGE,  the  stinging  hairs  of  the  plant 
described  below,  or  any  species  akin  to 
it,  as  Mucuna  urens,  M.  m.onosperma, 
etc.  They  are  used  as  a  mechanical  an- 
thelmintic. The  plant,  Mucuna  pruriens, 
is  a  twining  annual,  with  pendulous 
racemes  of  dark-colored  flowers,  which 
appear  in  India  in  the  rainy  season.  The 
legume,  which  is  shaped  like  the  letter 
S,  is  clothed  with  stinging  hairs.  These 
are  easily  detached  and  stick  on  the  skin, 
producing  intolerable  itching.  The  leg- 
ume, when  young,  can  be  boiled  and 
eaten  like  kidney-beans.  The  name  is 
sometimes  (improperly)  given  by  the 
negroes  of  the  Southern  States  to  the 
poison-ivy,  Rhus  toxicodendron. 

COWLES,  WILLIAM  SHEFFIELD, 
an  American  rear-admiral,  born  in  Farm- 
ington,  Conn.,  in  1846.  He  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1867,  and  rising  through  the  various 
grades,  became  lieutenant-commander  in 
1892,  commander  in  1899,  captain  in  1902, 
and  rear-admiral  in  1908.  Besides  seeing 
service  in  all  the  principal  stations,  he 
acted  as  naval  attache  at  London,  and  as 
naval  aide  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
He  was  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Equip- 
ment, and  a  member  of  the  Board  of 
Construction  in  1906.  In  1908  he  retired 
from  active  service.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Connecticut  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  1916,  and  during  the  World  War 
served  as  an  officer  of  the  Home  Guard  of 
Connecticut. 

COWLEY,  ABRAHAM,  an  English 
poet  and  essayist;  born  in  London  in 
1618.  Well  educated  and  high  in  royal 
favor,  he  was  a  fashionable  and  fortunate 
poet  till  the  Civil  War  made  havoc  of 
royal  favorites.  His  volumes,  "The  Mis- 
tress," "Poems,"  various  Vergilian  elegies 
and  anacreontic  love  songs,  and  his  es- 
says, were  set  in  the  first  rank  by  contem- 
poraries. The  first  collection  of  his 
works,  in  one  volume,  appeared  in  1668. 
He  died  in  Chertsey,  Surrey,  July  28, 1667. 


COW  PARSNIP  (so  called  because  the 
plant  is  good  fodder  for  cows),  Herac- 
leum  sphondylium,  or  any  other  species 
of  the  genus. 

COW  PEA  (Trifolium  medium),  called 
also  cow-grass,  etc.,  but  is  neither  a  pea 
nor  a  grass;  it  is  a  trefoil  or  clover. 

COWPER,  WILLIAM,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  Berkhampstead,  Nov.  15, 
1731 ;  was  the  great-nephew  of  the  Lord- 
Chancellor  Cowper.  After  completing  his 
education,  his  family  procured  him  the 
place  of  clerk  to  the  House  of  Lords, 
but  his  nervousness  and  constitutional 
timidity  were  such  that  he  was  obliged 
to  resign  it.  He  now  fell  into  so  terrible 
a  state  of  nervous  debility  that  he  was 
for  some  time  placed  in  the  lunatic 
asylum  of  Dr.  Cotton.  The  skill  and 
humanity  of  that  gentleman  restored  him, 
and  he  retired  to  Huntingdon.  Here  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  family  of  the 
Unwins;  and  after  Mr.  Unwin's  death  he 
removed  with  Mrs.  Unwin  to  Olney, 
Buckinghamshire.  His  natural  melan^ 
choly  colored  his  religious  views  and  feel- 
ings, and  he  fell  often  into  the  most  pain- 
ful despondency,  but  continued  to  write. 
In  addition  to  translating  Homer,  he 
wrote  "The  Task,"  the  best  of  all  of 
his  poems;  "Tirocinium";  a  host  of 
smaller  works;  and  his  correspondence 
exhibits  him  as  one  of  the  most  elegant 
of  English  letter-writers.  He  died  in 
Norfolk,  April  25,  1800. 

COW  PLANT,  a  perennial  asclepiad 
of  Ceylon,  which  acquired  a  factitious 
celebrity  from  the  oft-repeated  statement 
that  its  milky  juice  is  used  as  milk,  and 
that  its  leaves  are  boiled  to  supply  the 
want  of  cream. 

COWRY,  the  English  name  of  the 
molluscous  genus  Cyprsea.  The  money- 
cowry  is  C.  tnoneta,  a  native  of  the 
Pacific  and  Eastern  seas.  Many  tons  are 
annually  shipped  to  Great  Britain, 
whence  they  are  again  taken  as  money  to 
be  used  in  commercial  transactions  with 
the  tribes  of  western  Africa.  There  is 
another  species,  C.  annulus,  used  locally 
among  the  Eastern  islands  for  the  same 
purpose. 

COWSLIP,  a  well-known  plant,  Pt-im- 
ula  veris,  of  the  same  genus  as  the  prim- 
rose, P.  vulgaris,  the  oxslip,  P.  elatior, 
etc.  The  two  last  are  very  much  akin. 
The  first  and  second  widely  differ  in  ap- 
pearance, but  statements  from  time  to 
time  appear  that  they  have  been  found 
growing  from  the  same  root,  in  which 
case  they  would  not  be  two  species,  but 
varieties  of  one.  The  cowslip  has  ovate- 
crenate,  toothed,  and  wrinkled  leaves, 
with  the  flowers  in  an  umbellate  scape. 


cox 


181 


COX 


The  flowers  are  sedative  and  diaphoretic. 
They  make  a  pleasant  soporific  wine, 

COX,  ISAAC  JOSLIN,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  West  Creek,  Ocean  co., 
N,  J.,  in  1873.  He  graduated  from 
Dartmouth  College,  engaged  in  research 
work  in  Mexico  for  several  years  and 
took  post-graduate  studies  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Texas  and  the  University  of 
Chicago.  After  serving  on  the  faculties 
of  several  colleges  and  universities  he  be- 
came professor  of  history  of  Northwest- 
ern University  in  1919.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  many  historical  societies  and  the 
author  of  "The  Journeys  of  La  Salle  and 
His  Companions"  (1905);  "The  Early 
Exploration  of  Louisiana"  (1906)  ;  "The 
West  Florida  Controversy,  1798-1813" 
(1918).  He  contributed  historical  ar- 
ticles to  several  encyclopaedias,  and  in 
1919  was  a  member  of  the  Doheny  Re- 
search Foundation  in  Mexico. 

COX,  JACOB  DOLSON,  an  American 
soldier;  born  in  Montreal,  Oct.  27,  1828; 
was  graduated  at  Oberlin  in  1851,  becom- 
ing a  lawyer;  but  upon  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  was  made  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral of  Ohio  Volunteers.  In  1862  he  be- 
came Major-General  of  United  States 
Volunteers,  and  in  1864  commanded  a 
division  at  Nashville.  He  was  elected 
governor  of  Ohio  in  1865,  and  in  1869  be- 
came Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Presi- 
dent Grant's  cabinet.  He  died  in  Magno- 
lia, Mass.,  Aug.  4,  1900. 

COX,  JAMES  MIDDLETON,  an  Amer- 
ican public  official,  born  in  Jacksonburg, 
0.,  in  1870.  He  was  the  son  of  Gilbert 
and  Eliza  A.  Cox.  His  father  was  a 
farmer  and  his  early  days  were  spent  at 
Jacksonburg  on  his  father's  farm.  His 
first  schooling  was  obtained  in  the  coun- 
try schools  of  the  neighborhood,  but  he 
later  removed  to  Middletowp,  where  he 
again  attended  the  village  school.  For 
several  years  he  taught  school  and  at  the 
same  time  wrote  for  the  local  newspa- 
pers. Removing  to  Cincinnati,  he  be- 
came a  reporter  on  the  staff  of  the 
"Inquirer,"  and  during  this  service  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Paul  J.  Sorg, 
a  wealthy  tobacco  manufacturer,  and 
when  the  latter  was  elected  to  Congress, 
Cox  became  his  private  secretary.  Fol- 
lowing the  conclusion  of  this  service,  he 
purchased  the  Dayton  "News"  of  Dayton, 
O.,  and,  with  Mr.  Sorg's  help,  built  it  up 
until  it  was  a  very  profitable  enterprise. 
Five  years  later  he  purchased  the 
Springfield,  O.,  "Press  Republic."  These 
two  papers  formed  the  news  league  of 
Ohio.  In  1908  he  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, and  on  the  expiration  of  his  term, 
was  re-elected.  He  served  on  the  Com- 
tnittee  of  Appropriations  and  gained  the 


conviction  of  the  necessity  of  a  budget 
system  for  the  State  and  Nation.  Dur- 
ing his  second  term  in  Congress,  he  was 
nominated  for  governor  of  Ohio,  and, 
after  an  aggressive  campaign,  was 
elected.  At  the  same  time  there  was 
adopted  a  new  State  constitution  and  in 
connection  with  the  application  of  this 
instrument,  Governor  Co«  inaugurated 
many  reforms  of  his  own,  including  a 
model  rural  school  measure,  and  reforms 
relating  to  taxation  and  financial  reform. 
At  the  expiration  of  his  first  term,  he 


JAMES   M.   COX 

retired  from  public  office,  having  been 
defeated,  but  he  was  re-elected  again  in 
1916  and  again  in  1918.  His  administra- 
tion of  the  office  of  governor  was  notable. 
In  addition  to  the  measures  noted  above, 
he  put  into  effect  the  Workmen's  Com- 
pensation Law,  Mothers'  Pension  Law, 
Child  Labor  Law,  and  the  Budget  Law. 
His  administration  attracted  wide  atten- 
tion and  he  became  one  of  the  strongest 
candidates  for  the  Democratic  nomina- 
tion for  the  presidency  in  1920.  He  was 
nominated  on  the  44th  ballot  at  the  con- 
vention at  San  Francisco,  on  July  6th. 
Following  his  nomination  he  at  once  be- 
gan an  aggressive  campaign  of  speech- 
making  throughout  the  country,  and, 
from  this  time  until  Nov.  2,  visited 
nearly  every  State  in  the  Union.  He  was 
defeated  by  Senator  Harding,  the  Repub- 
lican candidate,  and  at  once  resumed  his 


cox 


182 


CRABB 


duties  as  governor  of  Ohio,  serving  until 
March  4,  1921.  See  United  States, 
History. 

COX,  KEN  YON,  an  American  painter; 
born  in  Warren,  0..  Oct.  27,  1856.  He 
studied  in  Paris  under  Duran  and  Ge- 
rome,  settling  in  New  York  in  1883  as  a 
portrait  and  figure  artist.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists.  He  was  especially  noted  for  his 
mural  paintings.  Notable  examples 
are  "Art  and  Science,"  Congressional 
Library;  "Progress  of  Civilization," 
State  House,  Des  Moines,  la.;  "Benefi- 
cence of  Law,"  County  Court  House, 
Newark,  N.  J.,  etc.  Among  his  pictures 
may  be  mentioned  "Hope  and  Memory," 
Cox  collection,  Cleveland,  0.;  "Harp 
Player,"  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York.  His  portrait  of  St.  Gaudens  re- 
ceived a  medal  at  the  Paris  Salon.  He 
died  on  March  17,  1919. 

COX,  PALMER,  a  Canadian  author 
and  illustrator.  He  was  born  at  Granby, 
Quebec,  in  1840,  and  was  educated  at 
Granby  Academy.  In  1863  he  went  to 
California,  engaging  in  railroading,  con- 
tracting, etc.,  and  writing  for  news- 
papers. He  arrived  in  New  York  in 
1875,  and  took  up  writing  and  illus- 
trating for  children's  magazines  and 
humorous  books.  His  works  include: 
"Squibs  of  California/'  "Hans  Von 
Pelter's  Trip  to  Gotham,"  "How  Colum- 
bus Found  America,"  "That  Stanley," 
"The  Brownies,  Their  Book,"  "Brownies 
at  Home";  "Brownies,"  a  spectacular 
play  in  three  acts;  "The  Brownies  in 
Fairyland,"  a  musical  cantata;  "Brownie 
Primer,"  etc. 

COX,  SAMUEL  SULLIVAN,  an 
American  statesman  and  author;  born  in 
Zanesville,  O.,  Sept.  30,  1824.  He  served 
some  terms  in  Congress,  and  became 
minister  to  Turkey.  His  works  are: 
"Eight  Years  in  Congress,"  "Why 
We  Laugh,"  "Diversions  of  a  Diplomat 
in  Turkey,"  "A  Buckeye  Abroad,"  "Arc- 
tic Sunbeams,"  "Orient  Sunbeams," 
"Free  Land  and  Free  Trade,"  and  others. 
He  died  in  New  York,  Sept.  10,  1889. 

COYOTE  (koi-of),  the  American  wild 
dog  or  prairie-wolf,  Canis  ochrojms  or 
Lyciscus  latrans.  The  Coyote  is  virtually 
a  wild  dog  and  breeds  with  the  domestic 
dog,  and  dogs  will  often  refuse  to  injure 
the  female  coyote.  In  general  appear- 
ance the  coyote  resembles  the  typical 
wolf,  the  fur  being  a  dull  yellowish  gray, 
with  dark,  even  black,  clouded  spots. 

COZUMEL,  an  island  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Yucatan. 

CRAB,  a  popular  name  for  all  the  10- 
f  ooted,  short-tailed  crustaceans  constitut- 


ing the  sub-order  Brachynra,  order  De- 
capoda,  comprising  many  genera,  distin- 
guished from  the  lobster  and  other  ma- 
crurous  or  long-tailed  decapods  by  the 
shortness  of  their  tail,  which  is  folded 
under  the  body.    The  mouth  has  several 


COYOTE 

pairs  of  strong  jaws,  in  addition  to  which 
the  stomach  has  its  internal  surface 
studded  with  hard  projections  for  the 
purpose  of  grinding  the  food.  The 
stomach  is  popularly  called  the  ''sand- 
bag"; a  little  behind  it  is  the  heart, 
which  propels  a  colorless  lymph  (the 
blood)  to  the  gills  ("dead  man's  fin- 
gers"). The  liver  is  the  soft,  rich  jrellow 
substance,  usually  called  the  fat  of  the 
crab.  They  "moult"  or  throw  off  their 
calcareous  covering  periodically. 

The  first  pair  of  limbs  are  not  used  for 
locomotion,  but  are  furnished  with  strong 
claws  or  pincers.  Their  eyes  are  com- 
pound, with  hexagonal  facets,  and  are 
pedunculated,  elongated,  and  movable. 
Like  most  individuals  of  the  class,  they 
easily  lose  their  claws,  which  are  as 
readily  renewed.  The  racer-crabs  of  the 
West  Indies  suck  the  juice  of  the  sugar- 
cane. Most  inhabit  the  sea,  others  fresh 
water,  some  the  land,  only  going  to  the 
sea  to  spawn.  The  common  large  edible 
crab  {Cameer  pagurus)  is  much  sought 
after. 

CRAB,  a  name  given  to  various  ma- 
chines, especially  to  a  kind  of  portable 
windlass  or  machine  for  raising  weights. 
Crabs  are  much  used  in  building  opera- 
tions for  raising  stones  and  many  other 
weights,  and  in  loading  and  discharging 
vessels. 

CRAB  APPLE,  a  small,  wild,  veiy 
sour  species  of  apple,  from  which  a  fine 
jelly  is  made. 

CRABB,  GEORGE,  an  English  lawyer 
and   writer;    born   in   Palgrave,   Suffolk, 


CRABBE 


183 


CRAFTS 


Dec.  8,  1778;  best  known  as  the  author 
of  a  "Dictionary  of  English  Synonyms," 
published  in  1816.  He  died  near  London, 
Dec.  4,  1851. 

CRABBE,  GEORGE  (krab),  an  Eng- 
lish poet;  bom  at  Aldborough,  Suffolk, 
in  1754.  Having  failed  as  a  surgeon  and 
apothecary  in  his  native  village  he  went 
to  London  to  engage  in  literary  work. 
Burke  helped  him  to  publish  his  poem 
"The  Library,"  and  soon  after  he  entered 
the  Church.  He  was  appointed  domestic 
chaplin  to  the  Duke  of  Rutland,  and 
afterward  obtained  ample  preferment. 
In  1783  appeared  the  "Village,"  which 
was  followed  two  years  afterward  by  the 
"Newspaper."  "The  Parish  Register" 
appeared  in  1807.  The  "Borough"  ap- 
peared in  1810  and  was  followed  in  1812 
by  "Tales  in  Verse,"  and  in  1819  by 
"Tales  of  the  Hall."  The  latter  years 
of  Crabbe's  life  were  spent  in  the  peace- 
ful discharge  of  his  professional  duties 
at  Trowbridge  in  Wiltshire.     His  poems 


fortified.  The  cathedral,  a  fine  old  Gothic 
edifice,  contains  monuments  of  many 
Polish  kings,  of  Kosciusko,  etc.  The  uni- 
versity was  founded  in  1364,  but  gradu- 
ally fell  into  decay,  and  was  reorganized 
in  1817.  It  has  a  library  of  300,000 
volumes.  Three  miles  from  the  city  is 
a  hill  65  feet  high  thrown  up  in  1820- 
1823  in  honor  of  Kosciusko.  In  November, 
1914,  the  Russians  reached  the  outer  line 
of  forts,  but  were  repulsed  by  Austrian 
forces.  The  region  around  the  city  was 
the  scene  for  concentrating  German- 
Austrian  armies  for  Mackensen's  drive, 
which  resulted  in  the  reconquest  of  near- 
ly all  of  Galicia.  As  a  result  of  the  World 
War  Cracow  became  a  part  of  the  new 
republic  of  Poland  (q.  v.).  Pop.  about 
180,000. 

CRADLE,  or  "rocker,"  a  mechanical 
contrivance  used  in  placer  mining,  con- 
sisting of  a  box  on  rockers  and  moved  by 
hand,  used  for  washing  out  the  gold- 
bearing  soil. 


CRAB 

A.   Common      Crab.  B.   Blue     Crab. 


are  all  characterized  by  homely  truthful- 
ness, simplicity,  and  pathos.  He  died  in 
Trowbridge,  Wilts,  in  1832. 

CRAB    SPIDER    or    MATOUTOU,    a 

spider  that  belongs  to  the  typical  genus 
of  the  family  Mygalidse,  which  may  be 
at  once  known  by  the  shape  of  its  man- 
dibles and  the  terrific  claws  which  pro- 
ceed from  them.  In  the  greater  number 
of  spiders  the  claws  are  set  horizontally, 
but  in  the  Mygalidse  they  are  bent  dovym- 
ward,  and  strike  the  prey  much  as  a  lion 
clutches  at  his  victim  with  his  curved 
talons.  The  great  crab  spider  preys  on 
young  birds  and  other  small  vertebrates. 

CRACOW,  the  old  capital  of  Poland; 
in  1815-1846  capital  of  a  republic  of  the 
same  name  later  forming  part  of  Aus- 
trian Galicia;  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  where  it  becomes  navigable,  and 
consists  of  Cracow  proper,  or  the  old 
city,  and  several  suburbs.  It  is  the  see 
of  a  bishop,  is  well  built  and  regularly 


CRADLE  OF  LIBERTY,  a  name  by 
which  Faneuil  Hall,  in  Boston,  is  known. 
During  the  Revolution  it  was  the  favor- 
ite meeting  place  of  the  Americans.  The 
name  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  the 
city  of  Boston. 

CRAFTS,  WILBUR  FISK,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman  and  publicist,  born  in 
Fryeburg,  Me.,  in  1850.  He  graduated 
from  Wesleyan  University  in  1869  and 
was  ordained  a  Methodist  clergyman  in 
1867.  In  1880  he  joined  the  Congrega- 
tional Church,  and  in  1883  the  Presby- 
terian, serving  in  pastorates  in  several 
churches  in  New  England,  Chicago, 
Brooklyn,  and  New  York.  Always  having 
been  active  in  Sunday  School  work,  he 
founded,  in  1889,  the  American  Sabbath 
Union.  He  lectured  throughout  the 
United  States  as  field  secretary  of  this 
organization,  and  in  1895  founded  and 
was  superintendent  of  the  International 
Reform  Bureau.  He  made  many  journeys 


CBAIO 


184 


CRAIOVA 


to  Europe  and  to  the  Orient,  lecturing  on 
religious  subjects.  His  writings  include 
"The  Ideal  Sunday  School"  (1876),  "Suc- 
cessful Men  of  To-day"  (1883),  "Practi- 
cal Christian  Sociology"  (1895),  "Patri- 
otic Studies"  (1906),  "Prohibition  Hand- 
book" (1911),  and  "Bible  Stories  and 
Poems"  (1914).  He  served  as  a  member 
on  many  commissions  on  prohibition  and 
other  social  subjects,  and  was  a  member 
of  many  commissions  on  war-time  activ- 
ities during  the  World  War. 


CRAIK,  DINAH  MARIA  MULOCK, 

an  English  author;  born  in  Stoke-upon- 
Trent  in  1826.  She  early  took  the  burden 
of  supporting  an  ailing  mother  and  two 
younger  brothers  and  wrote  stories.  Her 
first  serious  appearance  as  a  novelist  was 
in  1849,  with  her  story,  "The  Ogilvies," 
which  was  followed  by  "Olive,"  "The 
Head  of  the  Family,"  and  "Agatha's 
Husband."  She  never  surpassed,  how- 
ever, or  even  equaled  her  domestic  novel, 
"John  Halifax"  (1857),  which  had  an 
extraordinary  popularity,  and  has  been 
translated  into  French,  German,  Italian, 


CRAB 

Masked   Crab.      B.  King    Crab. 


CRAIG,     (EDWARD)    GORDON,    an 

English  theatrical  manager.  He  was 
born  in  1872  and  acted  for  the  first  time 
in  1889  in  London,  at  the  Lyceum  Thea- 
ter, under  the  direction  of  Henry  Irving. 
He  was  active  as  an  actor  for  eight 
years  and  in  1897  commenced  the  study 
of  the  art  of  the  theater.  He  made  many 
productions  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the 
Continent,  in  which  he  introduced  fea- 
tures which  were  the  results  of  his  study. 
He  founded  a  school  for  the  art  of  the 
theater,  Arena  Goldoni,  Florence,  in  1913, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Twelve.  His  works  include:  "The  Art 
of  the  Theater,"  essays  in  "The  Mask," 
and  in  "The  Marionette,"  "Portfolio  of 
Etchings,"  "The  Page,"  "On  the  Art  of 
^e  Theater,"  "Towards  a  New  Theater." 


CRAIGIE,  PEARL  RICHARDS. 

HoBBES,  John  Olivkr. 


See 


Greek,  and  Russian.  The  scene  is  laid 
at  Tewkesbury,  where  a  marble  medallion 
has  been  placed  to  her  memory  in  the 
abbey.  A  pension  of  £60  a  year,  awarded 
to  her  in  1864,  she  set  aside  for  authors 
less  fortunate  than  herself.  In  1865  she 
married  George  Lillie  Craik,  a  partner  in 
the  publishing  house  of  Macmillan  &  Co. 
She  died  Oct.  12,  1887. 

CRAIOVA,  or  KRAJOVA,  the  chief 
cuy  of  the  province  of  Doljiu,  Rumania, 
situated  on  the  river  Jiu,  110  miles  W.  of 
Bucharest,  with  a  population  before  the 
World  War  of  about  45,000.  The 
town  is  the  center  of  an  important  grain 
district  on  the  edge  of  the  Wallachian 
Plain,  It  was  the  first  important  capture 
made  by  the  Germans  on  the  Rumanian 
northern  front,  after  the  Teutons  had 
broken  through  the  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains in  November,  1916,  and  began  their 


CRAM 


185 


CRANBERRY 


invasion  of  Rumania,  the  town  falling 
into  their  hands  on  Nov.  21,  1916,  and 
giving  them  control  of  the  Craiova- 
Orsova  railroad  line.  The  final  defeat 
of  the  Central  Empires  brought  the  town 
once  more  into  the  hands  of  the  Ruma- 
nians. 

CRAM,  RALPH  ADAMS,  an  Ameri- 
can architect.  He  was  bom  in  1863  at 
Hampton  Falls,  N.  H.,  and  began  working 
as  an  architect  when  he  was  26  years  old, 
becoming  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Cram, 
Goodhue  and  Ferguson.     His  early  work 


others.  He  was  chosen  also  as  consulting 
architect  for  the  Cathedral  of  St.  John 
the  Divine,  New  York,  and  has  written 
on  architectural  subjects,  titles  of  his 
works  being:  "Church  Building,"  "The 
Ruined  Abbeys  of  Great  Britain,"  "Im- 
pressions of  Japanese  Architecture  and 
the  Allied  Arts,'^  "The  Gothic  Qi;est." 

CRAMP,  an  irregular  spasmodic  con^ 
traction  of  the  muscles  of  the  whole  or 
different  parts  of  the  body,  causing  most 
severe  pain  by  the  knotty  and  hardened 
state   into  which  their   fibers   are  con- 


A  FLOATING  CRANE 


was  Taried,  but  was  gradually  concen- 
trated on  ecclesiastical  and  educational 
buildings.  Among  his  important  under- 
takings were  the  Graduate  College  and 
Cleveland  Tower,  Princeton  University; 
Rice  Institute,  Tex.,  and  Richmond 
and  Sweet  Briar  Colleges,  Va.  These 
were  followed  by  Williams  College  and 
Phillips  Exeter  Academy;  St.  Albans 
Cathedral,  Toronto;  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
Detroit;  St.  Thomas'  Church,  New  York; 
Calvary    Church,    Pittsburgh,    Pa.,    and 


tracted.  Though  it  may  involve  the 
greater  number  of  the  muscles  at  once, 
the  parts  most  generally  affected  are 
those  of  the  feet,  legs,  thighs,  abdomen, 
and  arms.  In  general,  it  is  readily  re- 
moved by  the  forcible  exertion  of  the 
antagonist  muscles  by  friction  and 
warmth. 

CRANBERRY,  a  plant,  vaccinium 
oxycoccos,  having  also  the  book-name  of 
the  marsh  whortleberry.     It  has  a  fili« 


CBANE 


186 


CRANE 


form  stem,  ovate  ever^een  leaves;  a  ter- 
minal single-flowered  peduncle,  a  four- 
parted  revolute  corolla,  and  a  berry  of  a 
bright  roseate  hue.  It  is  found  in  bogs. 
The  berries  are  used  for  preserves  and 
pies. 

CBANE,  a  machine  for  lifting  weights, 
worked  either  by  hand,  or  by  steam,  or  by 
hydrauKc  power.  The  most  common  hand 
form  consisting  of  an  upright  revolving 
post  and  a  projecting  arm  (usually  at  an 
angle  of  about  45°),  the  jib  with  a  fixed 
pulley  at  its  extremity. 

Whenever  much  hoisting  or  heavy  work 
has  to  be  done,  steam  or  hydraulic  power 
is  always  used;  the  cranes  are  then  either 
stationary  or  portable,  the  latter  type  be- 
ing used  whenever  it  is  more  convenient 
to  move  the  crane  to  its  work  than  the 
converse.  The  stationary  power  cranes 
differ  from  the  hand  ones  mainly  in  their 
vastly  greater  power,  and  consequently 
greater  size  and  complexity  of  gearing; 
where  steam  is  used  there  are  generally 
two  direct-acting  steam-cylinders,  which 
replace  the  two  handles  worked  by  hand. 
The  very  powerful  stationary  cranes  used 
in  docks  capable  of  lifting  50  to  75  tons 
are  examples  of  this  kind.  Hydraulic 
power  is  very  largely  used  in  cranes  for 
these  places  and  in  great  steel -works; 
they  are  simpler  in  construction,  a  good 
deal  of  gearing  being  done  away  with; 
the  water  in  the  operating  cylinder  is 
always  under  great  pressure. 

CBANE,  any  bird  of  the  genus  Grus, 
or  the  family  Gruidss.  The  common  crane 
is  G.  cinerea.  The  tip  of  the  bill  is  horn- 
colored,  its  middle  part  greenish-black, 
the  base  reddish.  The  top  of  the  head, 
which  is  naked,  is  of  a  red  color;  the 
plumage  in  general  is  an  ashy-gray;  the 
throat,  neck,  and  occiput  darker ;  the  feet 
black — length,  3  feet  8  inches  to  3  feet 
10  inches.  It  is  a  grallatorial  bird,  fre- 
quenting marshes.  It  is  a  migratory  bird, 
in  winter  living  in  India,  Eg^ypt,  and 
other  warm  countries  of  the  Old  World, 
and  in  summer  migrating  to  the  N.  In 
these  passages  it  flies,  generally  by  night, 
high  in  air,  in  a  large  wedge-formed 
flock,  led  by  a  single  leader,  or  in  long 
lines,  and  with  discordant  cries.  Where  it 
breeds,  which  is  in  the  N.  of  Europe  and 
Siberia,  the  nest  is  among  rushes.  The 
eggs,  two  in  number,  are  pale  bluish- 
green,  with  brown  markings. 

CBANE,     BOBEBT     BBUCE,     an 

American  painter.  He  was  born  in 
New  York  in  1857,  receiving  his  first 
lessons  under  Alexander  Wyant,  and 
later  studying  in  Europe.  He  devoted 
his  talent  in  the  main  to  the  portrayal  of 
landscapes,  such  subjects  as  plowed  fields 
and  meadows  covered  with  snow  attract- 


ing him.  Interesting  examples  of  his 
work  are  "Autumn"  (National  Gallery, 
Washington)  ;"Autumn  Uplands"  (Metro- 
politan, New  York)  ;  "March"  (Brooklyn 
Museum),  "Springtime"  (Peabody  Insti- 
tute, Baltim.ore)  ;  "The  Hiils,"  which  won 
the  Saltus  prize  (National  Academy). 
He  was  a  member  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Design  and  American  Water 
Color  Society. 


mmi 


THE  CROWNED  CRANE 

CBANE,    CHABLES    BICHABD,    an 

American  manufacturer  and  diplomat, 
born  in  Chicago  in  1858.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Chicago  public  schools,  en- 
tered the  employ  of  the  Crane  Company, 
and  became  1st  vice-president  in  1894 
and  president  in  1912.  In  1909  he  was 
appointed  minister  to  China,  but  resigned 
before  assuming  his  oflicial  duties.  He 
was  again  appointed  minister  to  China 
by  President  Wilson  in  1920.  In  1917  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Diplomatic  Com- 
mission to  Russia,  and  was  American 
commissioner  on  mandates  in  Turkey  in 
1919. 

CBANE,  EBANK,  an  American 
clergyman  and  writer.  He  was  bom  in 
1861  in  Urbana,  111.,  was  educated  at 
Illinois  Wesleyan  University  and  or- 
dained to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
istry in  1882.  A  preacher  in  Methodist 
churches  in  Chicago  from  1896,  he  joined 
the   Congregationalists   in    1903.     After 


CRANE 


187 


CRANMER 


being  pastor  of  the  Union  Congrega- 
tional Church  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  for 
five  years,  ending  in  1909,  he  took  up 
writing  moral  essays  for  syndicated 
newspapers.  His  works  include:  "The 
Religion  of  To-morrow,"  "Lame  and 
Lovely." 

CRANE,  STEPHEN,  an  American 
story- writer ;  born  in  Newark,  N,  J.,  Nov. 
1,  1870.  He  wrote  "Maggie,"  "The  Red 
Badge  of  Courage,"  and  "George's 
Mother"  (1898),  stories;  "The  Black 
Riders  and  Other  Lines"  (1895),  verse; 
and  other  books.  He  died  in  Badenweiler, 
Germany,  June  5,  1900. 

CRANE,  WALTER,  an  English 
painter;  born  in  Liverpool,  Aug.  15,  1845; 
the  son  of  an  artist,  Thomas  Crane  (1808- 
1859).  He  himself  was  trained  as  an 
artist,  and  much  of  his  work  consisted  of 
book-illustrations.  Among  these  may  be 
named  his  series  of  "Toy-books"  (1869- 
1875);  "The  Baby's  Opera"  (1877),  and 
"The  Sirens  Three."  In  1862  he  began 
to  exhibit  paintings  at  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy, showing  in  that  year  "The  Lady  of 
Shalott,"  and  he  was  a  constant  contrib- 
utor to  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  from  its 
foundation  in  1877  till  1888.  His  pictures 
nearly  always  deal,  in  a  somewhat  deco- 
rative fashion,  with  subjects  of  an  imag- 
inative nature,  such  as  "The  Riddle  of 
the  Sphinx"  (1887) ;  "La  Belle  Dame 
Sans  Merci"  (1895).  He  also  painted 
"Britannia's  Vision"  (1897)  ;  "The 
World's  Conqueror"  (1898),  etc.  He  also 
produced  many  very  delicate  landscape 
subjects  in  water-colors;  designed  wall 
papers;  and  published  poems,  illustrated 
by  himself,  "Queen's  Summer"  (1891), 
and  "The  Claims  of  Decorative  Art" 
(1892).  Since  1888  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Painters  in  Water- 
colors,  he  was  in  1893  appointed  art  di- 
rector to  the  city  of  Manchester.  He  was 
a  prominent  socialist,  and  died  in  1905. 

CRANE,  WILLIAM  H.,  an  American 
actor;  born  in  Leicester,  Mass.,  in  1845. 
He  made  his  first  appearance  on  the 
stage  when  18  years  old  and  soon  won 
recognition  as  a  comedian.  His  role  in 
"The  Henrietta,"  in  which  he  was  associ- 
ated vdth  Stuart  Robson,  was  his  first 
great  success.  Since  1889  he  "starred" 
in  "The  Senator";  "The  American  Min- 
ister"; "Father  and  the  Boys"  (1907); 
"The  Senator  Keeps  House"  (1911) ; 
"The  New  Henrietta"  (1914),  etc. 

CRANE,    W(INTHROP)    MURRAY, 

an  American  public  official  and  manufac- 
turer; bom  at  Dalton,  Mass.,  April  23, 
1853.  He  was  educated  at  the  public 
schools,  and  at  Williston  Seminary  (A.M., 
Williams  1897) .  He  was  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts  (1897-1899)  and 


Governor  (1900-1902).  On  the  death  of 
Senator  Hoar  he  was  nominated  to  fill  the 
vacancy  in  the  United  States  Senate,  and 
was  elected  in  January,  1905,  for  the 
term  expiring  in  1907,  and  re-elected  for 
the  term  1907-1913.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Republican  National  Committee 
(1892-1902),  and  again  from  1904  -.n, 
and  a  delegate-at-large  to  all  Republican 
National  Conventions  since  1892,  except 
in  1900.     He  died  in  1920. 

CRANE-FLY,  singular,  any  two- 
winged  fly  of  the  genus  Tipula  or  the 
family  Tipulidee;  plural  crane-flies,  the 
genus  Tipula  or  the  family  of  Tipulid^; 
the  typical  species  is  popularly  known  as 
Daddy  Long-legs. 

CRANGANORE,  a  town  in  Hindustan, 
in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  state  of 
Cochin,  on  the  Malabar  coast.  Pop. 
about  10,000.  It  is  the  traditional  field  of 
St.  Thomas'  labors  in  India;  Jews  have 
been  settled  here  since  the  4th  century; 
and  it  is  certain  the  Syrian  church  was 
established  before  the  9th. 

CRANK,  in  machinery,  a  lever  or  arm 
on  a  shaft,  driven  by  hand  (e.  g.,  a 
winch-handle) ,  or  by  a  connecting-rod,  its 
object  being  to  convert  reciprocating 
motion  into  rotary  motion.  Engine- 
cranks  which  convert  the  to  and  fro 
motion  of  the  piston  into  continuous  rota- 
tion of  crank-shaft  are  connected  to  the 
piston-rod  end  by  the  connecting-rod. 

CRANMER,  THOMAS,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury;  born  in  Aslacton,  Not- 
tinghamshire, July  2,  1489.  The  opinion 
which  he  gave  on  the  question  of  Henry 
VIII.'s  divorce  from  his  first  wife,  Cath- 
arine of  Arragon,  recommended  him  to 
that  monarch,  who  employed  him  to  vin- 
dicate the  measure,  and  sent  him,  in  1530, 
with  other  envoys,  to  maintain  his  view 
before  the  Pope.  His  mission  was  fruit- 
less. On  his  way  home,  he  visited  Ger- 
many, and  at  Niirnberg  married  a  niece 
of  Osiander.  After  his  I'eturn  he  was 
raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
bury, in  which  ofiice  he  zealously  pro- 
moted the  cause  of  the  Reformation. 
Through  his  means  the  Bible  was  trans- 
lated and  read  in  churches;  and  he  great- 
ly aided  in  suppressing  the  monastic  in- 
stitutions. A  few  weeks  after  his  ap- 
pointment, he  pronounced,  in  a  court  held 
at  Dunstable,  the  sentence  of  divorce  of 
Catharine,  and  confirmed  the  king's  mar- 
riage with  Anne  Boleyn.  In  1536,  when 
Anne  Boleyn  was  destined  to  lose  her  rep- 
utation and  her  life,  he  meanly  stooped 
to  promote  the  sentence  of  divorce.  This 
and  other  compliances  with  the  monarch's 
will  insured  him  the  gratituce  of  Henry, 
who  upheld  him  in  all  his  contests  with 
Bishop  Gardiner  and  others  who  accused 


CRANNOG 


188 


CRAT^GUS 


him  of  heresy  and  faction.  By  Henry's 
will  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  council 
of  regency  to  Edward  VI.;  and  as  the 
young  king  was  brought  up  chiefly  under 
the  archbishop's  care,  it  enabled  him  to 
further  the  objects  of  the  Reformation 
in  a  regular  and  consistent  manner,  by 
framing  the  liturgy,  the  homilies,  articles 
of  religion,  etc.  On  the  accession  of  Mary, 
he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  along 
with  Latimer  and  Ridley.  In  March, 
1554,  they  were  removed  to  Oxford,  and 
confined  there  in  common  prison.  Lati- 
mer and  Ridley  bore  their  cruel  fate  with 
courage ;  but  the  spirit  and  principles  of 
Cranmer  temptorarily  gave  way  under  the 
severity  of  his  sufferings.  He  was  in- 
duced, in  the  hope  of  saving  his  life,  to 
sign  no  fewer  than  seven  recantations; 
but  his  enemies  were  determined  on  his 
death.  On  March  21,  1556,  he  suffered 
martyrdom,  as  his  fellow-reformers  had 
done,  opposite  Baliol  College.  His  cour- 
age returned  at  the  end,  and  he  died 
repenting  that  he  had  changed  his 
faith. 

CRANNOG,  a  fortified  lake  dwelling, 
of  which  many  are  to  be  found  in  Ireland. 
They  are  supposed  to  have  been  formed 
about  the  9th  or  10th  century. 

CRANSTON,  a  city  in  Rhode  Island, 
in  Providence  co.  It  is  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroad,  and 
the  Providence  river.  Included  within 
its  limits  are  several  villages.  It  is  the 
site  of  a  State  reformatory  for  boys  and 
girls,  State  prison,  almshouse,  insane 
asylum,  and  a  workhouse.  The  industries 
include  cotton  mills,  dairying,  print  goods 
manufacture  and  a  wire  factory.  Pop. 
(1910)  21,107;  (1920)  29,407. 

CRANSTON,  EARL,  an  American 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
Born  in  Athens,  O.,  in  1840,  and  gradu- 
ated from  Ohio  University  in  1861,  he 
served  as  a  cavalryman  in  the  Union 
armies  during  the  Civil  War.  When  the 
war  closed  he  entered  the  Ohio  Confer- 
ence of  the  Methodist  Church,  At  the 
General  Conference  of  1884  he  was 
elected  publishing  agent,  a  position  he 
held  until  his  election  to  the  episcopate 
in  1896.  From  1898-1900  he  visited  the 
rhurches  in  China,  Japan,  and  Corea.  He 
wns  placed  on  the  retired  list  by  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  1912. 

CRASHAW,  RICHARD,  an  English 
poet;  born  in  London  in  1613.  A  convert 
to  Catholicism,  he  wrote  "Steps  to  the 
Temple"  and  "Sacred  Poems,"  produc- 
tions of  great  imaginative  power.  In 
1634  Crashaw  published  a  volume  of 
Latin  poems,  "Epigrammatum  Sacrorum 
Liber"  (2d  ed.,  1670),  in  which  appeared 
The  famous  line  on  the  miracle  at  Cana: 


"Lympha  pudica  Deum  vidit  et  erubuit" 
(The    modest   water    saw    its    God   and 
blushed.) 
He   died  in  Rome  or  Loreto,  May  or 
June,  1649. 

CRASSULACEiE,  house-leeks ;  an 
order  of  hypogynoits  exogens,  alliance 
violales.  It  consists  of  succulent  herbs 
or  shrubs  with  entire  or  pinnatifid  leaves 
and  no  stipules,  flo-vers  usually  in  sessile, 
often  unilateral  cymes. 

CRASSXJS,     LUCIUS     LICINIUS,     a 

Roman  orator,  140  B.  C,  who  is  intro- 
duced by  Cicero,  in  the  treatise  "De 
Oratore,"  as  the  representative  of  that 
writer's  own  opinions  on  the  subject  of 
oratory.  He  was  unfortunate  as  a  legis- 
lator, inasmuch  as  the  law  proposed  by 
him,  to  compel  all  who  v/ere  not  citizens 
to  depart  from  Rome,  was  a  main  cause 
of  the  Social  War.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  love  of  the  arts;  and  his  mansion 
upon  the  Palatine  is  cited  as  having  been 
one  of  the  most  noteworthy  in  ancient 
Rome.    He  died  91  B.  c. 

CRASSUS,  MARCUS  LICINIUS,  a 
Roman  consul  and  triumvir;  immensely 
rich  and  passionately  fond  of  money; 
took  part  with  Sulla  in  the  civil  war.  As 
prastor,  in  74  B.  c,  he  was  sent  against 
the  insurgent  gladiators  under  Spartacus, 
and  totally  defeated  them  near  Rhegium. 
The  next  year  he  was  consul  with  Pom- 
pey.  Pompey  and  Crassus  were,  how- 
ever, personal  enemies,  and  it  needed  the 
powerful  influence  of  Caesar  to  effect  a 
formal  reconciliation  between  them,  which 
took  place  in  60  B.  C,  the  first  triumvi- 
rate being  then  formed.  Consul  again 
five  years  later,  Crassus  had  Syria  for 
his  province,  and  made  war  on  the  Par- 
thians.  He  was  defeated  by  them  with 
immense  slaughter,  and  was  put  to  death, 
53  B.  c.  It  is  said  that  Orodes,  King  of 
Parthia,  had  melted  gold  poured  into  the 
dead  mouth,  with  the  taunt,  "Sate  thyself 
now  with  that  metal,  of  which  in  life  thou 
wert  so  greedy." 

CRAT.ffiGUS,  a  genus  of  trees,  order 
Pomaceae.  Calyx  segments  short  and 
acute,  petals  large  and  roundish,  styles 
1  to  5,  fruit  oval  or  round,  concealing  the 
upper  end  of  the  cells,  which  are  long. 
It  differs  from  the  genus  Pyrus  in  con- 
taining a  variable  number  of  stones,  and 
from  the  medlar  by  having  the  fruit 
closed.  The  genus  contains  about  80  well 
marked  specie  and  varieties,  occurring 
in  the  tempe  ■,  te  parts  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. C.  oxyacantha  is  the  hawthorn, 
or  may.  It  is  a  European  thorn.  The 
Oriental  species  have  heavy  leaves,  large, 
fragrant  flowers,  and  large,  succulent, 
somewhat  angular  fruit;  those  of  Amer- 
ica are  often  very  spinous.    Finally,  some 


CRATER 


189 


CRAWFORD 


species  of  the  genus — viz.,  C  mexicana 
and  C  pyracantha — are  evergreens. 

CRATER  (a  cup),  the  central  cup- 
shaped  cavity  in  the  summit  of  a  volcano 
through  which  the  lava,  stones,  scoria, 
etc.,  are  for  the  most  part  ejected. 

CRATER  (the  bowl,  or  goblet) ,  a  con- 
stellation S.  of  the  equator  and  N.  of 
HyJra,  one  of  Ptolemy's  original  48.  Its 
brightest  star  is  only  a  little  above  the 
fourth  magnitude.  The  constellation  lies 
between  Leo,  Virgo,  Corvus,  Hydra,  and 
Sextans. 

CRATER  LAKE,  a  small  lake  in  the 
Cascade  Mountains,  in  Oregon,  remark- 
able for  its  well  of  perpendicular  rock, 
from  1,000  to  2,000  feet  high. 

CRAWFISH,  or  CRAYFISH,  a  name 
of  various  crustaceous  animals,  the  com- 
mon crawfish  being  the  river  lobster,  a 
macrurous  (long-tailed),  10-footed  crus- 
tacean, resembling  the  lobster  in  appear- 
ance and  habits.  It  inhabits  the  fresh 
waters  of  Europe  and  the  N.  of  Asia,  and 
is  common  in  some  of  the  streams  of 
England.  In  the  United  States  crawfish 
of  the  genus  Astacus  and  Cambdrus 
occur. 

CRAWFORD,  COE  ISAAC,  an  Amer- 
can  public  official;  bom  at  Volney,  la., 
Jan.  14,  1858.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  University  of  Iowa,  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  began  the  practice  of  law  at 
Independence,  la.,  in  1883,  removing  in 
1884"  to  Dakota  Territory.  In  1886  he 
was  appointed  Attorney  of  Hughes  coun- 
ty, and  in  1889  became  a  member  of  the 
Territorial  Legislative  Council.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  South  Dakota  by  the 
Republicans  in  1907,  and  served  as 
United   States   Senator  from   1909-1915. 

CRAWFORD,  FRANCIS  MARION, 
an  American  novelist;  bom  in  Tuscany, 
Italy,  Aug.  2,  1853;  son  of  Thomas 
Crawford  (q.  v.).  He  was  educated  at 
Concord,  N.  H.;  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge* Karlsrune,  and  Heidelberg.  At 
Rome  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
Sanskrit,  and  during  1879-1880  was  en- 
gaged in  press  work  at  Allahabad,  where 
he  was  admitted  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
He  was  selected  by  the  government  com- 
mittee to  write  the  National  Ode  at  the 
centennial  of  the  American  Constitution, 
Sept.  17,  1887.  His  first  novel,  "Mr. 
Isaacs"  (1882),  was  a  book  of  striking 
and  quite  unusual  merit,  securing  a  new 
romantic  element  in  certain  of  the  as- 
pects and  contrasts  of  modern  Oriental 
life.  His  works  include:  "Dr.  Claudius" 
(1883) ;  "To  Leeward"  (1883)  ;  "A 
Roman  Singer"  (1884)  ;  "Zoroaster" 
(1885)  ;  "A  Tale  of  a  Lonely  Parish" 
(1886) ;    "Saracinesca"    (1887) ;    "Mar- 


zio's    Crucifix"    (1887);    "Paul    PatoflF" 

(1887);  "Greifenstein"  (1889);  "Sant 
Ilario"  (1889);  "A  Cigarette-Maker's 
Romance"  (1890);  "The  Witch  of 
Prague"  (1891) ;  "Khaled"  (1891) ;  "The 
Three  Fates"  (1892)  ;  "Katharine  Lau- 
derdale," and  its  sequel  "The  Ralstons" 


F.  MARION  CRAWFORD 

(1895);  "Casa  Braccio"  (1895);  "Ta- 
quisara"  (1896) ;  "A  Rose  of  Yesterday" 
(1897)  ;  "Corleone"  (1897)  ;  "Ave,  Roma 
Immortalis,"  "In  the  Palace  of  the 
King,"  "Via  Crucis,"  "Rulers  of  the 
South."    He  died  April  8,  1909. 

CRAWFORD.  THOMAS,  an  American 

sculptor;  born  in  New  York  City,  March 
22,  1814.  His  most  famous  works  com- 
prise "Orpheus  and  Cerberus,"  "Adam 
and  Eve,"  "Hebe  and  Ganymede,"  "Mer- 
cury and  Psyche,"  and  "Dancing  Jenny." 
He  performed  important  works  for  the 
National  Government  and  State  of  Vir- 
ginia.   He  died  in  London,  Oct.  16,  1857. 

CRAWFORD,  WILLIAM  HARRIS, 
an  American  statesman;  born  in  Am- 
herst CO.,  Va.,  Feb.  24,  1772.  In  1783, 
he  settled  in  Columbia  co.,  Ga.,  began 
teaching  school,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1798,  and  entered  on  practice 
in  Lexington.  He  assisted  in  compiling 
the  first  digest  of  State  laws,  was  elected 
to  the  State  Senate  in  1802,  and  to  the 
United  States  Senate  to  fill  a  vacancy  in 
IS — Vol.  in — Cyc 


CRAWFORD 


190 


CREATINE 


1807  (fighting  two  duels  during  the  can- 
vass) ;  was  re-elected  for  a  full  term  in 
1811;  was  chosen  president  of  the  Senate 
pro  tern,  in  1812;  and,  refusing  the  sec- 
retaryship of  war,  was  appointed  minis- 
ter to  France  in  1813.  Two  years  later 
he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  War,  and 
the  next  year  became  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  and  held  the  latter  office  till 
March,  1825.  He  was  urged  as  a  candi- 
date for  the  Presidency  several  times,  re- 
ceived the  nomination  in  1824,  and  in  the 
election  had  41  electoral  votes.  No  choice 
for  President  having  been  reached,  the 
election  was  decided  in  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, but  meanwhile  Crawford 
had  been  stricken  with  paralysis,  which 
precluded  his  effectual  candidacy.  He 
died  Sept.  15,  1834. 

CRAWFORD,  WILLIAM  HENRY, 
an  American  educator;  bom  in  Wilton 
Center,  111.,  in  1855.  He  graduated  from 
Northwestern  University  in  1884.  After 
studying  at  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute 
he  was  ordained  to  the  Methodist  minis- 
try in  1884.  After  serving  in  several 
pastorates,  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  historical  theology  at  the  Gammon 
Theological  Seminary  of  Atlanta,  serving 
from  1889  to  1893.  In  the  latter  year  he 
became  president  of  the  Allegheny  Col- 
lege. He  lectured  widely  on  historical 
subjects  and  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  magazines  and  newspapers.  He  was 
a  trustee  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation,  a 
member  of  the  Federation  for  Social 
Service  and  other  organizations,  and  the 
author  of  "Life  of  Savonarola"  (1906) ; 
"The  Church  and  the  Slums"  (1908); 
"The  American  College"  (1915).  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  he  was  National  War 
Work  Council  secretary  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 

CRAWFORDSVILLE,  a  city  and 
county-seat  of  Montgomery  co.,  Ind. ;  on 
the  Chicago,  Cleveland,  Cincinnati  and 
St.  Louis,  the  Vandalia,  the  New  York 
Central,  and  the  Chicago,  Indianapolis 
and  St.  Louis  railroads;  44  miles  W. 
of  Indianapolis.  It  is  the  trade  center 
of  an  extensive  agricultural  region.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Wabash  College,  and  has 
foundries,  planing  and  flour  mills,  elec- 
tric lights,  water  works,  high  school, 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  3  National 
banks,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  9,371;  (1920) 
lUjioy, 

CRAYON,  a  colored  pencil  consisting 
of  a  cylinder  of  fine  pipe-clay  colored 
with  a  pigment.  Crayons  are  said  to 
have  been  made  in  France  in  1422. 

In  lithography,  a  composition  formed 
as  a  pencil,  and  used  for  drawing  upon 
lithographic  stones. 

CREAM,  the  most  oily  part  of  milk. 
It  is  specifically  lighter  than  the  other 


constituents,  and  therefore  rises  to  the 
surface,  whence  it  is  generally  skimmed 
to  be  used  as  an  adjunct  in  making  tea 
and  coffee  palatable,  to  be  eaten  with 
various  fruits,  or  for  other  purposes. 

In  chemistry,  hydrogen  potassium  tar- 
tarate  (KHC4H4O6),  a  salt  obtained  from 
the  crude  tartar,  or  argol,  which  is  de- 
posited on  the  side  of  wine  casks  during 
the  fermentation  of  grape  juice.  It  is  a 
gritty  white  powder  which  forms  small 
rhombic  prisms,  is  sparingly  soluble  in 
water,  and  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Heated 
in  a  crucible  it  evolves  inflammable  gas 
and  the  odor  of  burned  sugar,  and  leaves 
a  black  residue  of  charcoal  and  potas- 
sium carbonate.  In  small  doses  it  is  a 
refrigerant  and  diuretic ;  in  large  doses  a 
powerful  hydragogue  purgative.  It  is 
given,  mixed  with  jalap,  as  a  purgative 
in  cases  of  dropsy,  and  is  used  as  a  drink 
in  febrile  affections. 

CREASY,  SIR  EDWARD  SHEPHERD 

(kre-se),  an  English  historian;  born  at 
Bexley,  Kent,  in  1812.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton,  and  at  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
of  which  he  was  elected  a  fellow  in  1834. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
in  1827,  and  was  for  about  20  years  a 
member  of  the  home  circuit.  In  1840  he 
was  appointed  Professor  of  History  at 
the  London  University,  and  in  1860 
was  made  Chief  Justice  of  Ceylon,  re- 
ceiving at  the  same  time  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  His  principal  works  are: 
"The  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  British 
Constitution,"  and  "The  Fifteen  Decisive 
Battles  of  the  World."  He  died  Jan. 
27,  1878. 

CREATINE,  methyl-glycocyamine. 
Methyl-guanido-acetic  acid,  CiHgNsOz  + 

mo.  or  HN=Cj^((^jj  )_(.jj^(.Q  Qjj. 

Creatine  is  obtained  from  the  muscular 
flesh  of  mammalia,  birds,  reptiles,  and 
fishes.  It  has  been  found  in  the  blood 
and  urine,  and  brains  of  pigeons  and  dogs. 
It  is  obtained  by  chopping  up  the  lean 
muscular  flesh,  removing  the  fat,  and 
rubbing  it  with  water  and  pressing  it; 
the  liquid  is  heated  in  a  water-bath  to 
coagulate  the  albumen,  then  strained;  to 
the  filtrate  baryta-water  is  added,  so  long 
as  it  gives  a  precipitate,  the  filtrate  con- 
centrated on  a  water-bath,  the  crystals, 
which  separate,  decolorized  by  animal 
charcoal  and  re-crystallized  from  water. 
Creatine  crystallizes  in  rhombic  needles 
containing  one  molecule  of  water,  which 
is  driven  off  at  100°.  The  water  solution 
has  a  bitter  taste,  and  is  neutral  to 
litmus.  It  gives  a  white  precipitate  with 
silver  nitrate,  which  is  soluble  in  potash. 
After  a  time  the  solution  solidifies  to  a 
transparent  gelatinous  mass,  which  is  re- 


cr]6billon 


191 


CREDIT  UNIONS 


duced    when    heated.      Creatine    heated 

gives  off  ammonia  and  hydrocyanic  acid, 
reatine  is  dissolved  by  strong  acids;  it 
loses  a  molecule  of  water,  and  is  con- 
(^erted  into  creatinine.  Creatine  has  been 
formed  synthetically. 

CBEBTLLON  (kra-be-yon),  PROS- 
PER JOJLYOT  DE,  a  French  dramatic 
poet;  born  at  Dijon,  in  1674.  He  was  in- 
tended for  the  legal  profession,  bat  de- 
voted himself  to  the  tragic  muse,  and 
produced  "Idomeneus,"  which  met  with 
success.  This  was  followed  by  "Atreus," 
"Electra,"  and  "Rhadamistus,"  which 
were  still  more  successful.  He  then  led 
a  secluded  life  for  many  years,  but  again 
resumed  his  dramatic  labors,  and  pro- 
duced the  tragedies  of  "Catiline"  and 
"The  Triumvirate."    He  died  in  1762. 

CREOY-EN-PONTKIEU,  or  CRESSY, 
a  village  in  the  French  department  of 
Somme,  on  the  Maye,  12  miles  N.  of  Ab- 
beville. Oecy  is  celebrated  on  acount  of 
the  brilliant  victory  obtained  here,  Aug. 
26,  1346,  by  Edward  III.,  with  40,000 
English  soldiers,  over  a  French  army 
amounting,  according  to  Froissart,  to 
100,000  men  under  the  command  of  the 
Count  of  Alengon.  In  this  great  battle 
perished  the  flower  of  the  French 
chivalry,  as  well  as  the  blind  King  of 
Bohemia,  who  was  fighting  on  the  side 
of  France.  The  Black  Prince  here  dis- 
tinguished himself  greatly,  and  gained 
his   spurs. 

CREDIT,  in  economics,  is  the  post- 
ponement agreed  on  by  the  parties  oi  the 
payment  of  a  debt  to  a  future  day.  It 
implies  confidence  of  the  creditor  in  the 
debtor;  and  a  "credit  system"  ia  one  of 
general  confidence  of  people  in  each 
other's  honesty,  solvency,  and  resources. 
By  means  of  a  credit  system  a  compara- 
tively small  stock  of  money  can  be  made 
to  do  duty  for  carrying  on  a  number  of 
different  transactions ;  but  it  is  indispen- 
sable for  every  good  system  of  credit  that 
money  must  be  instantly  available  when 
required,  and  this  principle  applies  to 
every  species  of  transaction  where  post- 
poned pavment  is  concerned.  Public 
credit  is  the  confidence  which  men  enter- 
tain in  the  ability  and  disposition  of  a 
nation  to  make  good  its  engagements 
with  its  creditors;  or  the  estimation  in 
which  individuals  hold  the  public  promises 
of  payment,  whether  such  promises  are 
expressed  or  implied. 

The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  gen- 
eral credit  of  individuals  in  a  nation; 
when  merchants  and  others  are  wealthy 
and  punctual  in  fulfilling  engagements; 
or  when  they  transact  business  with 
honor  and  fidelity;  or  when  transfers  of 
property  are  made  with  ease. 


CREDIT,  LETTER  OF,  an  order  given 
by  bankers  or  others  at  one  place  to  en- 
aole  a  person  to  receive  money  from  their 
agents  at  another  place. 

CREDIT  EONCIER  (kra-de'f dn-sya) ,  a 
mode  of  raising  money  on  land  in  France, 
the  peculiarity  of  which  is  that  tho  ad- 
vance must  not  exceed  one-half  of  the 
value  of  the  property  pledged  or  hypothe- 
cated, and  that  the  repayment  of  the  loan 
is  by  an  annuity  terminable  at  a  certain 
date.  Several  companies  have  been  es- 
tablished by  the  French  Government  with 
the  privilege  of  making  such  loans. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER  (-mo-bel-ya') , 
the  name  given  to  a  gigantic  scheme  pro- 
mulgated in  France  in  1852,  and  sanc- 
tioned by  the  existing  government,  the 
objects  of  which  are:  1.  To  take  in  hand 
and  originate  trading  enterprises  of  all 
kinds,  on  the  principle  of  limited  liability. 
2.  To  supersede  or  buy  up  trading  com- 
panies; and  to  substitute  script  and 
shares  of  its  own,  for  the  shares  and 
bonds  of  the  company.  The  Credit  Mo- 
bilier  of  America  was  a  corporation  with 
a  Pennsylvania  charter,  granted  in  1859 
nominally  to  conduct  a  banking  business. 
The  charter  passed  into  the  hands  of  rail- 
road financiers  in  1864,  who  used  it  to 
finance  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  and 
to  shield  themselves  from  loss  in  case  the 
railroad  proved  a  failure.  Congress  in- 
vestigated the  enterprise  in  1872-1873, 
and  two  members  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, Oakes  Ames,  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  James  Brooks,  of  New  York, 
were  censured  by  resolution  of  the  House. 

CREDIT  UNIONS,  or  co-operative 
banks,  the  members  of  which  deposit  sav- 
ings, or  invest  in  shares,  and  with  the 
funds  thus  pooled  extend  credit  to  one 
another  for  individual,  family,  or  busi- 
ness purposes.  These  local  institutions 
sometimes  federate  into  national  institu- 
tions and  so  create  powerful  financial 
concerns,  such  as  the  Moscow  Narodny 
(People's)  Bank,  which  was  doing  a  busi- 
ness of  over  a  billion  dollars  a  year  be- 
fore it  was  taken  over  by  the  Soviet  Gov- 
ernment, in  1919.  In  this  country  credit 
unions  are  of  more  recent  origin,  except 
in  the  form  of  building  and  loan  associa- 
tions, a  form  of  co-operation  which  has 
existed  in  this  country  for  the  past  two 
generations.  The  latter  form  of  mutual 
credit  differs  only  from  the  general 
credit  union  in  that  it  has  the  specific 
object  of  helping  its  members  finance 
building  operations,  while  the  credit 
union  lends  money  for  all  purposes.  Mas- 
sachusetts leads  in  the  formation  of 
credit  unions,  there  being  over  sixty  in 
that  State  in  1920,  with  a  membership 
of    nearly    20,000    and    assets    of    about 


CREED 


192 


Cxv£R^xv 


512,000,000.  Seven  other  States  have  fol- 
owed  Massachusetts  in  official  recogni- 
tion of  this  type  of  bank,  while  North 
Carolina  has  passed  special  legislation 
for  fostering  such  institutions  among 
farmers.  The  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 
New  York  City,  devotes  much  energy  to 
the  encouragement  of  the  formation  of 
credit  unions,  and  published  a  number  of 
pamphlets  on  the  subject. 

CREED,  CREDE,  or  CREDO,  a  sum- 
mary of  the  articles  or  Christian  doc- 
trines of  which  the  several  churches 
profess  their  belief.  In  the  Church  of 
England  three  such  creeds  are  accepted 
— viz.,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  Athana- 
sian  Creed,  and  the  Nicene  Creed.  In  the 
Church  of  Scotland  the  creed  accepted  is 
the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  to 
which  may  perhaps  be  added  the  Larger 
and  Shorter  Catechisms.  The  Church  of 
Rome  accepts  the  same  creeds  as  that  of 
England  does,  but  adds  to  them  the  creed 
of  the  Council  of  Constantinople. 

CREEL,  GEORGE,  an  American 
journalist  and  author,  born  in  Black- 
burn, Mo.,  in  1876.  Educated  in  the 
public  schools,  he  served  in  an  editorial 
capacity  on  several  newspapers  in  the 
West  and  did  much  special  writing  for 
magazines,  especially  on  social  and  eco- 
nomic subjects.  He  was  appointed  by 
President  Wilson  as  chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Public  Information,  on 
April  14,  1917,  and  continued  in  this 
capacity  until  March,  1919.  He  had 
charge  of  the  dissemination  of  propa- 
ganda in  Europe  during  the  war,  and 
perfected  a  very  complete  organization 
for  the  promotion  of  publicity. 

CREELMAN,  JAMES,  an  American 
author  bom  in  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1859. 
Educated  in  the  public  schools  of  the  Do- 
minion, he  later  moved  to  New  York  C'ty, 
where  he  served  as  a  reporter  and  edi- 
torial writer  for  the  New  York  "Herald." 
In  1890  he  became  the  editor  of  the 
London  edition  and  the  year  following  of 
the  Paris  edition  of  the  same  newspaper. 
From  1892-1894  he  acted  as  editor  of  the 
New  York  "Evening  Telegram."  Dur- 
ing the  Graeco-Turkish,  Cuban,  and 
Spanish-American  Wars  he  was  a  noted 
war  correspondent.  He  was  shot  and 
badly  wounded  while  fighting  with  the 
American  forces  for  the  capture  of  San- 
tiago. From  1900-1906  he  was  editorial 
writer  for  the  New  York  "World,"  and 
later  for  the  New  York  "Evening  Mail." 
He  died  Feb.  12,  1915. 

CREIGHTON  UNIVERSITY,  an  in- 
stitution for  higher  education,  founded  in 
1879,  at  Omaha,  Neb.,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  1919 
there  were  130  instructors  and  1,061  stu- 
dents.   President,  A.  J.  Burrowes,  S.  J. 


CREMATION,  the  act  of  cremating  or 
disposing  of  a  corpse  by  burning  instead 
of  burying  it.  Cremation  was  practiced 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
mass  of  the  Hindus  properly  so  called 
thus  dispose  of  their  dead,  while  the 
Mohammedans  have  recourse  to  burial 
In  1873  an  eminent  physician.  Sir  Henry 
Thompson,  advocated  its  introduction 
into  England  on  sanitary  grounds,  but 
public  feeling  was  against  the  innova- 
tion, and  it  made  little  progress  there. 
Later,  however,  in  many  of  the  European 
countries  cremation  of  the  dead  received 
the  highest  indorsement  of  the  govern- 
ments, while  in  the  United  States  crema- 
tories were  established  in  many  of  the 
cities.  The  first  crematory  in  the  United 
States  was  established  at  Washington, 
Pa.,  in  1876.  It  was  first  used  for  the 
incineration  of  the  body  of  the  Baron  de 
Palm  in  December  of  that  year.  Other 
crematories  have  since  been  established 
in  most  of  the  large  cities  of  the  country. 

CREMONA,  a  city  of  northern  Italy, 
on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Po,  60  miles  S.  E. 
of  Milan.  Cremona  has  some  fine  build- 
ings— the  principal  the  cathedral  (1107- 
1606),  with  gorgeous  interior;  the  neigh- 
boring octagonal  Baptistry;  the  Palazzo 
Publico  (1245)  ;  the  so-called  Campo 
Santo;  and  the  famous  Torrazzo  (1288) 
or  belfry — the  loftiest  campanile  in 
Italy,  being  396  feet  high,  and  command- 
ing magnificent  views  over  the  fertile 
plains  of  Milan.  By  means  of  the  Po, 
Cremona  carries  on  a  considerable  trade 
in  produce  of  the  district;  and  it  has 
manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  earthen- 
ware, and  chemicals.  In  the  16th,  17th, 
and  18th  centuries  it  was  greatly  cele- 
brated for  its  manufacture  of  violias, 
the  most  famous  makers  being  the 
Amatis,  the  Guarneris,  and  Stradivari. 
Pop.  about  43,000.  Cremona  is  the  capi- 
tal of  a  pro\'ince  of  the  same  name ;  area, 
678  square  miles.    Pop.  about  353,000. 

CREOLE,  a  person,  in  either  Ameri- 
ca or  the  West  India  Islands,  of  Euro- 
pean progenitors;  as,  a  Spanish  creole. 
It  is  sometimes,  also,  applied,  but  wrong- 
ly, to  any  person  bom  within  tropical 
latitudes,  of  whatsoever  color. 

CREON,  the  King  of  Thebes,  who,  in 
the  legend  of  the  war  against  that  city, 
forbade  anyone  to  bury  the  bodies  of 
Eteocles  and  Polynices,  and  condemned 
their  sister  Antigone  to  death  for  dis- 
obeying this  order. 

CRERAR,  JOHN,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist; born  in  New  York  City, 
about  1828.  He  entered  mercantile  life 
and  accumulated  a  fortune,  removing  to 
Chicago  in  1862,  and  adding  to  his 
wealth     by     railway     financiering.      He 


CRESCENDO 


193 


CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM 


readily  bestowea  large  sums  upon  char- 
itable undertakings,  and  in  his  will  left 
$2,500,000  to  found  the  John  Crerar 
Publie  Library,  from  which  sensational 
novels  and  skeptical  works  should  be 
excluded.  He  died  in  Chicago,  Oct.  19, 
1889. 

CRESCENDO,  inci'easing;  a  gradual 
increase  in  the  force  of  sound.  Ex- 
pressed by  the  sign  <,  or  the  abbrevia- 
tion cres.  The  sign  was  first  employed 
in  England  by  Matthew  Locke,  in  1676. 

CRESCENTIACE^,  crescentiads,  an 
order  of  perigynous  exogens.  It  consists 
of  small  trees,  with  alternate  or  clus- 
tered exstipulate  leaver  and  flowers 
growing  out  of  the  old  stems  or  branches. 

CRESS,  the  name  of  several  species  of 

Slants^  most  of  them  of  the  natural  order 
ruciferse.  Water-cress,  or  Nasturtmm 
officinale,  is  used  as  a  salad,  and  is 
valued  in  medicine  for  its  antiscorbutic 
qualities.  The  leaves  have  a  moderately 
pungent  taste.  It  ^ows  on  the  brinks  of 
rivulets  and  in  moist  grounds.  Common 
garden  cress  is  the  Lepidium  sativum; 
Normandy  cress,  Barbarea  prsscox;  win- 
ter cress,  B.  vulgaris;  Indian  cress,  Tro- 
paedlum  ma  jus;  bitter  cress,  Cardamlne 
pratensis    (cuckoo-flower) . 

CRESSY.     See  Crecy-EN-Ponthibu. 

CRESTON,   a   city  of   Iowa  and  tho 

county-seat  of  Union  co.  Its  industries 
include  machine  shops,  car  works,  plan- 
ing mills,  and  cold-storage  plant.  It  is 
on  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy 
railroad.  There  are  a  public  library,  Elks' 
Home,  and  other  public  buildings.  Pop. 
(1910)   6,924;    (1920)   8,034. 

CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM,  the  highest 
division  of  the  Mesozoic  or  Secondary 
strata,  rests  conformably  upon  the 
Jurassic  System,  and  is  overlaid  uncon- 
formably  by  the  oldest  deposits  of  the 
Eocene  System.  The  Cretaceous  strata 
of  Great  Britain  are  confined  chiefly  to 
the  E.  and  S.  E.  of  England.  They  form 
the  Yorkshire  Wolds,  extend  over  large 
parts  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Hertford, 
and  compose  the  Chiltern  Hills,  Salis- 
bury Plain,  the  Downs,  and  the  S.  part 
of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  On  the  Continent 
the  Cretaceous  rocks  form  a  broad  basin 
in  the  N.  of  France,  and  stretch  E.  from 
Belgium,  Holland,  Denmark,  and  the  S. 
of  Sweden,  through  the  great  plains  of 
northern  Europe  to  the  S.  end  of  the 
Ural  Mountains;  but  over  extensive  re- 
gions within  that  wide  area  they  lie  more 
or  less  concealed  under  younger  forma- 
tions. There  is  another  extensive  de- 
velopment of  Cretaceous  strata  in  south- 
ern Europe,  where  they  enter  largely 
into   the    composition    of   many   of   the 


Mediterranean  coast-lands.  The  chief 
petrological  feature  of  the  Cretaceous 
strata  of  western  and  northern  Europe 
is  the  great  development  of  white  chalk 
in  the  Anglo-French  area,  and  its  grad- 
ual replacement,  when  following  E.  into 
Germany,  etc.,  by  earthy  limestones, 
shales,  sand,  .ones,  etc.  The  most  marked 
characteristic  of  the  Cretaceous  system 
in  southern  Europe  is  the  great  de- 
velopment in  that  region  of  massive  ma- 
rine limestone   (hippurite  limestone). 

In  North  America  Cretaceous  strata 
likewise  occur,  especially  in  the  Western 
States  and  Territories.  They  also  oc- 
cupy wide  tracts  in  the  Gulf  States, 
whence  they  extend  up  the  Mississippi 
Valley  to  the  Ohio;  they  put  in  appear- 
ance at  interval^  on  the  Atlantic  bor- 
der between  South  Carolina  and  New 
Jersey,  and  are  met  with  again  on  the 
Pacific  border  and  in  the  coast-range. 
Strata  of  the  same  age  occur  also 
in  the  far  W.  of  Canada,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mackenzie  river,  and  in  Green- 
land. In  India  the  system  is  marked  in 
the  Deccan  by  a  massive  series  of 
basalt-rocks  4,000  to  6,000  feet  thick,  and 
covering  an  area  of  200,000  square  miles. 
In  Australia  and  New  Zealand  there  is 
a  considerable  development  of  these 
rocks,  such  as  the  "desert  sandstones" 
of  Queensland,  and  a  small  coal-bearing 
group  of  beds.  In  New  Zealand,  the 
system  contains  coals,  some  of  which  are 
lignites  while  others  are  bituminous  of 
fair  quality.  The  Wealden  Beds  con- 
sist largely  of  clay  and  sand,  and  are 
almost  entirely  of  fresh-water  origin.  In 
Yorkshire,  however,  the  strata  which 
occur  on  the  same  horizon  as  the  Weal- 
den Beds  of  the  S.  are  of  marine  origin, 
as  seen  in  the  Speeton  clay  near  Brid- 
lington. The  Lower  Greensand,  consist- 
ing of  sand,  clay,  etc.,  is  marine.  The 
gault,  a  tough  blue  clay,  is  likewise  ma- 
rine, and  so  also  are  the  shallow-water 
sands  of  the  Upper  Greensand,  and  the 
thin  layer  of  chalky  marl  called  Chlo- 
ritic  Marl.  The  most  characteristic 
rocks  of  the  system  are  the  chalk  beds. 

The  Cretaceous  strata  of  Great  Brit- 
ain being  almost  exclusively  of  marine 
origin,  it  is  not  surprising  thar  land- 
plants  seldom  occur,  and  that  they  are 
met  with  chiefly  in  the  iresh-water  beds 
near  the  base  of  the  system.  They  con- 
gist  chiefly  of  ferns,  cycads,  and  conifers, 
a  flora  resembling  that  of  the  preceding 
Jurassic  period.  The  Upper  Cretaceous 
rocks  of  Germany,  however,  have  fur- 
nished many  plant  remains.  Among 
those  are  the  oldest  known  dicotyledons, 
such  as  extinct  species  of  maple,  oak, 
walnut,  beech,  laurel,  magnolia,  etc.,  also 
several   proteaceous   plants.     A   similar 


CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM 


194 


CRETE 


admixture  of  forms  occurs  in  the  Cre- 
taceous strata  of  North  America.  Among 
animals  the  protozoa  played  a  very  im- 
portant part — the  white  chalks  and 
earthy  limestones  being  very  largely 
composed  of  the  minute  shells  of  fora- 
minifera,  such  as  globigerina,  rotalia, 
and  textularia,  which  still  swarm  in  the 
ooze  of  the  Atlantic.  Ordinary  bivalves 
were  also  very  numerous.  In  the  Da- 
nian  beds  carnivorous  gasteropods  begin 
to  abound,  and  they  include  a  number 
of  existing  genera.  Cephalopods  are  not 
only  the  most  abundant,  but  also  the 
most  characteristic  fossils  of  the  Cre- 
taceous rocks.  Among  the  fishes  were 
ganoids,  and  various  kinds  of  the  shark 
tribe,  together  with  the  earliest  repre- 
sentatives of  the  teleostei,  which  include 
most  living  genera  of  fishes.  The  waters 
of  the  period  seem  also  to  have  swarmed 
with  reptiles,  such  as  the  ichthyosaurus 
and  plesiosaurus.  Winged  reptiles  were 
also  present,  such  as  pterodactylus. 

The  American  Cretaceous  system  is 
likewise  characterized  by  the  presence  of 
huge  dinosaurs  and  other  reptiles,  some 
of  them  being  European  types,  while 
others  are  peculiar.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  features  of  the  American 
rocks  is  the  occurrence  in  them  of  the 
toothed  birds,  ichthyornis  and  hesper- 
ornis. 

No  break  separates  the  Jurassic  from 
the  Cretaceous  system ;  there  is  a  gradual 
passage  from  the  upper  beds  of  the  one 
into  the  lower  beds  of  the  other.  At  the 
beginning  of  Cretaceous  times  most  of 
the  British  and  Irish  area  existed  as 
dry  land.  Over  the  S.  E.  of  England 
lay  the  estuary  of  a  large  river,  flowing 
probably  from  the  N.  The  Wealden 
beds  are  the  delta-deposits  of  that  river; 
the  English  and  French  beds  of  this 
division  covering  an  area  of  20,000 
square  miles.  The  sea  into  which  that 
river  flowed  occupied  a  considerable  area 
in  the  N.  of  France,  spread  over  the 
Low  Countries  into  Hanover,  filled  the 
basin  of  the  North  Sea,  and  overflowed 
a  portion  of  eastern  England.  Wealden 
beds  occur  in  northwest  Germany,  and 
indicate  the  delta  of  a  river,  like  that  of 
the  British  area,  flowing  from  the  N. 
While  land-conditions  predominated  in 
northern  and  middle  Europe,  an  open 
sea  covered  vast  areas  in  southern  Eu- 
rope. Gradual  subsidence  of  the  sea- 
bottom  took  place  during  the  deposition 
of  the  Wealden  series,  and  eventually  the 
great  deltas  became  submerged,  and  a 
wide  sea  covered  most  of  what  are  now 
the  low  grounds  of  the  British  area,  and 
passing  E.  submerged  vast  regions  of 
middle  Europe  up  to  the  slopes  of  the 
Ural    Mountains.     The    depression   was 


greatest  in  the  W.  areas  where  in  the 
deep  clear  waters  there  gradually  ac- 
cumulated the  calcareous  matter  which 
subsequently  formed  our  white  chalk. 
In  the  Mediterranean  basin,  a  deep  open 
sea  would  seem  to  have  persisted  all 
through  the  Cretaceous  period.  It  was 
in  this  sea  that  the  massive  hippurite 
limestone  was  formed.  Open  water  ap- 
pears at  this  time  to  have  extended 
through  the  Mediterranean  area  into 
Asia,  covering  there  also  vast  tracts  of 
what  is  now  dry  land,  and  communicat- 
ing with  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  condi- 
tions of  climate  seem  to  have  been  re- 
markably uniform  over  the  vast  regions 
of  the  earth's  surface.  Ferns,  cycads, 
and  conifers  flourished  in  the  lands  with- 
in the  Arctic  Circle,  and  the  waters  of 
the  same  region  were  tenanted  by  cuttle- 
fish, ammonites,  and  huge  reptiles. 

CRETE,  or  CANDIA,  an  island  be- 
longing to  Greece,  the  largest  of  the 
Mediterranean,  except  Sicily,  lying  S.  of 
the  Grecian  Archipelago  and  the  JEgean 
Sea.  It  is  150  miles  long,  and  from  6  to 
35  miles  wide.  Its  area  is  3,326  square 
miles.  It  commands  the  entrance  to  the 
Black  Sea.  The  surface  is  mountainous, 
the  highest  peak  being  Mt.  Ida,  8,061  feet 
in  height;  pop.  about  350,000.  Capital, 
Canea  (pop.  about  25,000).  The  island 
produces  silk,  wool,  cotton,  tobacco, 
lemons,  oranges,  grapes,  olive  oil,  wines, 
and  cereals.  The  population  is  mostly 
Hellenic.  The  Greek  Church  predomi- 
nates, having  eight  bishops.  The  Moham- 
medan population  is  largely  Greek.  The 
history  of  Crete  is  very  ancient,  the 
island  being  in  mythology  regarded  as 
the  original  seat  of  the  human  race.  It 
was  fabled  to  have  been  ruled  anciently 
by  Minos.  Crete  was  conquered  by  the 
Turks  in  1669,  but  never  really  submitted 
to  Turkish  authority. 

There  was  a  rebellion  against  Turkey 
in  1866,  that  was  at  length  subdued.  An- 
other revolt  broke  out  in  1897,  during 
which  many  atrocities  of  the  Turkish  gar- 
risons were  reported.  Feb.  14  it  was  an- 
nounced that  Greece  had  assumed  respon- 
sibility of  protecting  the  Christian  inhab- 
itants against  the  Sultan's  forces.  A 
Turkish  transport,  the  "Fuad,"  on  its 
way  to  re-enforce  the  Crete  garrison,  was 
fired  upon  by  a  Greek  cruiser,  and  com- 
pelled to  turn  back.  A  regiment  of  Greek 
troops  was  dispatched  to  the  island,  and 
the  army  reserves  of  Greece  called  out. 
The  Sultan  notified  the  leading  powers  of 
the  warlike  action  of  Greece,  and  re- 
quested them  to  restrain  the  latter  power. 
In  answer  to  this  request  the  powers — 
Germany,  Italy,  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
France  and  Russia — warned  Greece  that 
she  must  not  occupy  or  invade  Crete,  and 


CRETINISM 


195 


CRIBBAQE 


when  Greece,  nevertheless,  began  to  send 
troops  and  vessels  to  Crete,  each  of  these 
powers  landed  a  small  force  on  the  island, 
and  took  possession  of  several  important 
stations,  and  the  entire  coast  was  pa- 
trolled by  war  vessels  to  prevent  the 
Greeks  from  re-enforcing  in  the  island. 
The  Cretans  attacked  some  of  the  Turk- 
ish forts,  and  were  shelled  by  cruisers  of 
the  blockading  fleet.  Both  Greece  and 
Turkey  began  preparing  for  war.  Ulti- 
mately, Greece  yielded  to  the  demand  of 
the  Powers,  and  withdrew  her  troops 
from  Crete,  the  Powers  undertaking  to 
set  up  autonomy  under  the  nominal  su- 
zerainty of  the  Sultan,  and  to  secure  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Turkish  forces  also. 
The  evacuation  of  the  island  by  the  Turk- 
ish troops  was  completed  Nov.  6,  1898, 


rault.     The  department  has  an  area  of 
2,163  square  miles.     Pop.  about  266,000. 

CREUSOT,  LE  (krez-6'),  a  town  in 
the  French  department  of  Saone-et-Loire, 
236  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Paris.  Situated  in 
the  midst  of  a  district  rich  in  coal  and 
iron,  it  owes  its  importance  to  the  estab- 
lishment here  in  1837  of  the  great  iron- 
works of  Schneider  &  Co.,  which  rank 
among  the  largest  in  the  world.  In 
normal  times  over  15,000  men  are  em- 
ployed. During  the  World  War  the 
number  of  workers  was  more  than 
doubled. 

CREWE,  ROBERT  OFFLEY  ASH- 
BURTON  CREWE-MIL■^rES,  MAR- 
QUIS OF,  a  British  statesman.  Ho 
was    born    in    London,    1858,    and    was 


FORT  AT   HARBOR    E>tTRANCE,  ISLAKD  OP  CRETE 


and   Prince   George  of   Greece   was   ap- 

?ointed    the    high   commissioner    of   the 
'owers  in  Crete. 

In  1904-1905  there  were  revolts  against 
the  high-handed  methods  of  the  commis- 
sioner. A  revolutionary  assembly  sought 
the  annexation  of  the  island  to  Greece, 
but  the  Powers  forced  them  to  abandon 
the  attempt.  In  1906  Prince  George  re- 
signed. In  1910  Venizelos,  Cretan  leader 
and  Premier  of  Greece,  formed  the  Bal- 
kan League  and,  as  a  result  of  the  Bal- 
kan War  of  1912,  Crete  was  annexed  to 
Greece. 

CRETINISM,  a  kind  of  idiocy  preva- 
lent in  various  Alpine  valleys.  In  most,  if 
not  in  all  cases,  the  afflicted  person  has 
an  ugly  swelling  called  a  goitre  on  the 
neck.  The  mental  deficiency  varies  in 
degree,  being  in  some  cases  so  gi'eat  that 
the  unhappy  person  thus  affected  is  un- 
able to  do  anything  for  himself,  and  can- 
not even  articulate  words ;  in  others  there 
are  some  faint  glimmerings  of  mind. 

CREUSE  (krez) ,  a  river  and  a  depart- 
ment in  the  center  of  France.  The  river 
rises  near  Feniers,  on  the  N.  slope  of 
Mont  Odouze,  and  flows  146  miles  N.  W. 
till  it  falls  into  the  Vienne,  a  tributary 
of  the  Loire,   12  miles   N.   of   Chatelle- 


educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College^ 
Cambridge.     He  was   Assistant  Private 
Secretary  to  the  Secretary  for  Foreign 
Affairs     (Earl     Granville),     1883-1884 
Lord-in- Waiting  to  Queen  Victoria,  1886 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,   1892-1895 
Lord  President  of  the  Council,  1905-1908 
and    1915-1916;    Lord   Privy   Seal,   1908 
and   1912-1915;    Secretary  of   State  for 
the    Colonies,    1907-1910;    Secretary    of 
State  for  India,  1910-1915;  President  of 
the    Board    of    Education,  1916;  Chair- 
man L.  C.  C,  1917.     He  is  H.  M.  Lieu- 
tenant of  the  County  of  London;  Elder 
Brother    of   Trinity   House;    and    Chan- 
cellor of  Sheffield  University.     His  works 
include:   "Stray  Verses,"  and  numerous 
political  and  literary  articles. 

CRIBBAQE,  a  game  played  by  two 
persons  with  a  complete  pack  of  52  play- 
ing-cards. It  is  divided  into  two  classes ; 
the  five-card  and  six-card  games.  The 
five-card  is  the  original  game,  and  af- 
fords the  greatest  scope  for  the  exer- 
cise of  skill.  The  points  are  scored  upon 
a  board,  and  61  points  constitute  tha 
game.  All  the  kings,  queens,  knaves,  and 
tens  count  as  te  .  each,  ana  the  rest  of 
the  cards  acording  to  the  ordinary  value; 
that  is,  six  for  six,  five  for  five,  and  so 
on.       The  points  which  reckon  for  tho 


CmCHTON 


196 


CBICXET 


game  are  fifteens,  sequences,  flushes, 
pairs,  etc.  After  dealing,  the  players 
gather  up  their  cards,  and  having  taken 
out  two  each,  place  them,  with  their 
faces  down,  on  the  table.  These  four 
cards  form  the  crib,  which  becomes  the 
property  of  the  dealer,  under  certain  con- 
ditions. Points  are  scored  in  two 
different  ways  in  cribbage — first  in  play, 
and  second  in  reckoning  up  the  cards 
held.  After  the  crib  is  put  out,  the  pack 
is  cut  by  the  non-dealer,  and  a  card 
turned  up  by  the  dealer.  When  this  card 
is  a  knave,  it  is  called  two  for  his  heels, 
and  counts  two  to  the  dealer;  and  a 
knave  held  in  hand,  of  the  same  kind  as 
the  turn-up  card,  entitles  the  player  to 
score  one;  it  is  called  one  for  his  knob. 
A  six-card  cribbage'  is  played  in  a  very 
similar  manner,  but  is  inferior  in  science 
to  five-card  cribbage.  When  three  parties 
play  at  the  game,  each  plays  on  his  own 
account;  and  when  four  play,  sides  are 
generally  chosen, 

CBICHTON,  JAMES  (kri'ton),  sur- 
named  The  Admirable;  born  in  Scot- 
land, in  1560.  His  father  was  a  lord  of 
session,  and  through  his  mother  he  was 
[)f  royal  descent.  He  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  St.  Andrew's,  and  gradu- 
ated M.  A,  in  1575.  He  was  one  of  the 
young  men  selected  to  be  fellow-students 
of  the  young  king,  James  VI.,  under  the 
direction  of  George  Buchanan.  He  then 
went  to  France,  where  he  continued  his 
studies,  and  also,  as  he  adhered  to  the 
Roman  Church,  took  part  in  the  war  car- 
ried on  by  Henry  III.  against  the  Hugue- 
nots. The  beauty  of  his  person,  the 
strength  and  agility  he  displayed,  joined 
to  his  multifarious  accomplishments  and 
surprising  capacity  of  eloquent  talk, 
made  him  the  admiration  of  all.  About 
1580  he  went  to  Italy,  visiting  probably 
Genoa  and  Rome,  and  then  Venice,  where 
he  was  warmly  received  by  the  g^reat 
printer  Aldus.  He  was  introduced  to  the 
Doge  and  Senate,  created  astonishment 
at  Venice  and  Padua,  by  his  brilliant  off- 
hand discourses  on  philosophy,  theology, 
and  other  high  themes,  and  his  challenge 
to  disputation  in  any  of  several  lan- 
guages, and  on  either  side  of  any  contro- 
versy. He  next  went  to  Mantua,  and  was 
appointed  tutor  to  the  son  of  a  duke. 
Attacked  in  the  streets  one  night  by  a 
party  of  men  armed  and  masked,  he  over- 
came them  by  his  superior  skill,  and  rec- 
ognized his  pupil,  to  whom  he  at  once 
presented  his  sword.  The  young  prince 
immediately  ran  him  through  with  it, 
July  3,  1582. 

CRICKET,  the  name  given  to  any  in- 
sects of  the  genus  Aeheta,  or  the  tribe 
Achetina.  The  antennae  are  long  and 
tapering,  the  wings  are  laid  flat  upon  the 


back.  When  at  rest  they  are  folded,  but 
are  so  long  that  they  project  behind  the 
wing-cases.  The  tail  ends  in  two  bris- 
tles, besides  which  the  female  has  an 
ovipositor.  The  best  known  species  are 
the  following:  The  common  cricket  or 
house  cricket.  Its  appropriate  habitat  is 
the  kitchen  hearth,  where  it  makes  its 
presence  known  by  its  song.  The  field 
cricket  is  found  in  burrows  among  stones 
and  sand.  The  mole  cricket  has  curious 
mole-like  hands  or  hand-like  organs,  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  digging. 

CRICKET,  a  well-known  game,  played 
in  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
Australia,  and  India,  the  players  being 
arranged  in  two  contesting  parties  of  11 
each.  Strutt,  one  of  the  best  English 
authorities  on  ancient  sport,  adduces 
some  evidence  to  show  that  "club-ball," 
played  in  the  14th  century,  may  have 
been  the  parent  of  cricket. 

Cricket  stands  pre-eminent  in  England 
among  the  many  outdoor  pastimes  pur- 
sued during  the  summer  months.  Cricket 
is  not  solely  an  affair  of  skill;  chance  is 
also  a  factor  to  a  very  large  extent.  To 
excel  at  cricket  it  is  necessary  that  the 
study  of  the  game  should  begin  early,  as 
a  great  deal  of  patience  and  practice  is 
requisite.  At  nearly  all,  if  not  all  of  the 
English  public  schools,  a  cricket  "coach" 
or  tutor  is  engaged. 

Cricket  may  be  played  either  single- 
wicket  or  double-wicket,  but  it  is  now  so 
rarely  played  in  the  former  manner  that 
we  can  safely  confine  our  attention  to  the 
latter.  For  a  double-wicket  match  game 
11  players  on  a  side  are  necessary,  and 
after  the  captains  have  tossed  to  settle 
who  shall  go  to  the  bat  first,  the  loser 
places  his  field  and  the  winner  sends 
in  two  of  his  surest,  safest  batters  to 
defend  the  wickets  and  to  make  runs. 
The  disposition  of  the  field  depends  upon 
the  style  of  bowling,  whether  it  be  fast, 
medium  pace  or  slow,  and  the  following 
diagrams  will  give  a  pretty  clear  idea  of 
how  the  fielders  are  placed  and  what 
dangers  the  batsman  has  to  guard 
again.st.  A  distance  of  22  yards  sepa- 
rates the  wickets,  and  by  the  scale  the 
relative  position  of  the  players  may 
easily  be  estimated.  The  field  having 
been  duly  placed,  the  batsmen  having 
taken  their  stand,  with  legs  carefully  pro- 
tected by  pads,  and  hands  by  ingenious 
rubber  gloves,  the  umpire  calls  "play," 
and  the  bowler  sends  down  his  first  ball. 
After  five  balls  have  been  delivered  from 
one  wicket  the  umpire  calls  "over,"  and 
the  whole  field  changes  about  till  the 
position  of  the  men  bears  the  same  re- 
lation to  the  other  wicket  that  it  did  to 
the  one  first  bowled  against.  These 
"overs"  continue  to  be  bowled  from  alter- 


CRIMEA 


197 


CRIMEAN  WAR 


nate  ends  by  different  bowlers  until  the 
whole  11  players  have  tried  their  hand  at 
the  bat  and  been  disposed  of.  Runs  are 
made  by  the  batsman  driving  the  ball  far 
enough  away  to  give  him  time  to  change 
places  with  the  other  batter  before  the 
ball  returns.  Each  change  constitutes  a 
run,  and  in  matches  in  England  it  has 
sometimes  happened  that  one  batsman 
has  made  over  400  runs  in  this  way.  Six 
is  the  largest  number  of  runs  that  can  be 
made  from  a  single  hit,  that  being  what 
'  is  allowed  when  the  ball  is  driven  clear 
out  of  the  grounds.  The  business  of  the 
bowler  is  to  try  in  every  possible  way  to 
knock  down  the  wickets  in  front  of  which 
the  batsman  stands,  or  else  to  tempt  him 
into  hitting  the  ball  up  into  the  air  so 
that  it  may  be  caught  on  the  fly  by  one  of 
the  fielders.  Besides  being  bowled  or 
caught  out,  a  batter  may  be  "run  out," 
i.  e.,  have  his  wicket  knocked  down  by 
the  ball  while  he  is  busy  making  a  run, 
or  he  may  be  "stumped  out,"  which  is  to 
have  the  same  thing  happen  when  he  in- 
cautiously steps  out  of  his  ground  to  hit 
at  an  unusually  tempting  ball.  The  ball 
comes  to  the  batter  on  the  first  bounce, 
and  the  bowler's  skill  is  shown  in  varying 
the  nitch,  speed,  and  direction  of  the  ball 
so  that  the  batter  may  become  bewildered 
and  fail  to  defend  his  wickets.  The  best 
kind  of  bowling  is  what  is  known  as^  a 
"bowling  with  a  break,"  the  peculiarity 
of  which  consists  in  thnt  the  ball  after 
striking  the  ground  does  not  continne 
straight  on.  bnt  swerves  sharT>1v  to  the 
right  or  left  like  a  "cut"  ten-m's  hall,  a 
kind  of  bowling,  therefore,  which  hears 
much  the  same  relation  to  the  ordinary 
that  "curve  pitching"  does  to  the  old- 
fashioned  style.  It  is  not  easy  to  acquire, 
and  few  have  the  art  in  perfection.  In 
the  United  States  the  two  chief  homes  of 
cricket  are  in  Philadelnhia  and  Boston, 
although  there  are  good  clubs  in  New 
York,  Detroit,  and  elsewhere,  and  also  at 
some  of  the  larger  colleges. 

CRIMEA,  THE  (anciently,  Cherso- 
nesus  Taurica),  a  peninsula  of  southern 
Ru<:sia,  government  of  Taurida,  to  the 
mainland  of  which  it  is  attached  by  the 
Isthmus  of  Perekop;  area,  10.000  square 
miles.  On  the  W.  and  S.  it  is  washed  by 
the  Black  Sea.  and  on  the  E.  by  the  Sea 
of  Azof,  a  portion  of  which,  shut  off 
from  the  res*  by  a  long  and  narrow  strip 
of  land,  forms  the  Sivash  or  Putrid  Sea. 
Three-fourths  of  the  Crimea  belongs  to 
the  region  of  steppes,  but  the  other  part, 
confined  entirely  to  the  S.,  and  stretcning 
along  the  coast  from  W.  to  E.,  abounds  in 
beautiful  mountain  scenery.  Here  the 
valleys  looking  S.  are  luxuriant  with 
vines  and  olive  and  mulberry  planta- 
tions, while  the  N.  slope  gives  a  large 


yield  in  cereals  and  fruits.  The  climate, 
however,  is  unequal,  and  in  winter  is 
severe.  The  chief  stream  is  the  Salghir. 
Others  of  celebrity  are  the  Tchernaya 
and  tha  Alma.  The  most  important  of 
the  productions,  besides  those  already 
mentioned,  are  tobacco,  of  which  a  large 
quantity  of  excellent  quality  is  produced, 
flax  and  hemp.  The  forests  are  of  limited 
extent.  There  are  large  numbers  of  fine- 
wooled  sheep  and  horned  cattle  and 
horses  are  reared  in  large  numbers.  Pop. 
about  500,000.  The  chief  town  and  port 
is  Sebastopol. 

The  country  was  anciently  associated 
with  the  Cimmerians,  and  in  later  times 
with  various  Greek  settlements  and 
minor  kingdoms.  After  being  for  some 
time  a  dependency  of  Rome,  it  was  over- 
run by  successive  bodies  of  barbarians, 
and  in  1237  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Mongols  under  Genghis  Khan.  About 
1261  the  Genoese  were  permitted  to  oc- 
cupy and  fortify  Kaffa,  and  they  rapidly 
extended  their  power  in  the  formation 
of  other  settlements.  They  were  expelled, 
however,  in  1475  by  Mahomet  II.,  who 
made  it  a  dependent  khanate.  In  1783 
the  Russians  took  possession  of  the 
country;  and  with  the  view  of  overaw- 
ing the  Turks  the  great  naval  arsenal  of 
Sebastopol,  occupying  the  most  command- 
ing position  on  the  Black  Sea,  was  begun 
by  Catharine  II.  in  1786.  Its  military  re- 
sources were  steadily  developed  up  to 
the  time  of  the  Anglo-French  campaign 
of  1854,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  allies.  Here,  in  November,  1920, 
the  Anti-Bolshevist  leader.  General  Bar- 
on Wrangel,  and  his  forces  suffered  a 
great  defeat  from  the  red  army. 

CRIMEAN  WAR,  the  struggle  be- 
tween England,  France,  and  Turkey  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Russia  on  the  other, 
to  prevent  the  undue  preponderance  of 
Russia  in  the  E.  of  Europe,  which  oc- 
curred in  1854  to  1856.  The  old  plans  for 
the  extension  of  Russian  power  conceived 
by  Catharine  II.  and  Potemkin  were  re- 
suscitated by  Nicholas  I.,  who,  believing 
that  he  had  secured  himself  from  inter- 
ference on  the  part  of  Austria  and 
Prussia,  and  that  an  Anglo-French  al- 
liance was  impossible,  prepared  to  carry 
them  into  acfrion.  Servia,  Bosnia,  Bul- 
garia, and  the  principalities  of  the 
Danube  were  to  become  Russian  protec- 
torates, and  Constantinople  was  to  be 
provisionally  occupied  by  Russian  troops. 
The  first  markedly  aggressive  step — the 
demand  by  Russia  for  a  protectorate  over 
the  Greek  Church  throughout  the  Turk- 
ish empire — brought  matters  to  a  crisis. 

An  ultimatum  presented  by  Menschi- 
koff  in  May,  1853,  was  rejected  by  the 
Porte;  the  Russians  occupied  the  Danu- 


CBIMINAL  LAW 


198 


CEIMINOLOGY 


bian  principalities;  and  war  was  de- 
clared by  the  Porte  in  October,  1853 ;  by 
France  and  England  in  1854,  and  by 
Sardinia  in  1855.  A  French  and  English 
fleet  entered  the  Baltic  and  captured 
Bomarsund  and  one  of  the  Aland  Islands, 
and  in  the  S.  the  allies  landed  at  Varna, 
under  Lord  Raglan  and  Mai'shal  St. 
Arnaud  as  commanders-in-chief.  While 
the  allies  were  making  preparations 
Prussia  and  Austria  demanded  the  evacu- 
ation of  the  Danubian  principalities,  and 
an  evacuation  being  ordered  by  Nicholas, 
"for  strategic  reasons,"  the  principalities 
were  provisionally  occupied  by  the  Aus- 
trians.  It  soon  became  obvious  that  the 
Crimea  must  be  the  seat  of  the  war,  and 
50,000  French  and  English  troops  with 
6,000  Turks  were  landed  at  Eupatoria 
(September,  1854).  Five  days  later  the 
battle  of  Alma  was  won  by  the  allies 
(Sept.  20),  and  the  march  continued  to- 
ward the  E.  side  of  Sebastopol.  Soon 
after  St.  Arnaud  died  and  was  succeeded 
by  Canrobert. 

The  siege  of  Sebastopol  was  begun  by 
a  grand  attack  which  proved  a  failure, 
and  the  Russians  under  Liprandi  re- 
taliated by  attacking  the  English  at 
Balaklava  (Oct.  25),  but  were  defeated 
with  heavy  loss.  It  was  at  this  battle 
that  the  famous,  but  useless,  charge  was 
made  by  the  Light  Brigade.  A  second 
attack  at  Inkermann  was  again  repulsed 
by  the  allies,  but  the  siege  works  made 
slow  progress  during  the  winter,  in  which 
the  ill-supplied  troops  suffered  great  pri- 
vations. The  death  of  Nicholas  and  suc- 
cession of  Alexander  II.,  in  March,  1855, 
brought  no  change  of  policy.  Canrobert 
resigTied  in  favor  of  P61issier;  and 
shortly  after  an  unsuccessful  attack  on 
those  parts  of  the  fortifications  knov?n 
as  the  Malakhoff  and  Redan  Lord  Raglan 
died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Simpson.  The 
bombardment  was  continued,  and  in 
September  the  French  successfully 
stormed  the  Malakhoff,  the  simultaneous 
attack  on  the  Redan  by  the  British  prov- 
ing a  failure.  The  Russians,  however, 
then  withdrew  from  the  city  to  the  N. 
forts  and  the  allies  took  possession.  The 
chief  subsequent  event  was  the  capture 
of  Kars  in  Asia,  by  the  Russians  after  a 
splendid  defense  by  the  Turks  under  C^en- 
e^  al  Willianis.  By  this  time,  however, 
tne  allies  had  practical  possession  of  the 
Crimea,  and  overtures  of  peace  were 
gladly  accepted.  A  treaty  was  accord- 
ingly concluded  at  Paris  on  April  27, 
1856,  by  which  the  independence  of  the 
Ottoman   Empire  was   guaranteed. 

CRIMINAIi  LAW,  that  branch  of  law 
which  deals  with  crimes  and  their  pun- 
ishment and  is  in  use  in  one  shape  or 
another  wherever  human  society  exists. 
The  earliest  form  of  penal  law  seems  to 


have  rested  on  a  principle  of  private 
vengeance,  and  to  have  taken  shape 
in  the  lex  talionis,  the  law  of  retaliation 
formulated  in  the  familiar  passage  in 
Exodus  which  lays  down  as  a  fit  punish- 
ment an  eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for 
a  tooth.  The  severity  of  this  doctrine  was 
mitigated  when  the  right  of  personal 
vengeance  was  satisfied  by  a  money  pay- 
ment, a  custom  which  can  be  traced  in 
the  early  laws  of  the  Hebrews,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  and  which  is  particularly 
characteristic  of  early  Teutonic  systems 
of  penal  law.  According  to  these  a  family 
is  made  pecuniarily  responsible  for  the 
offenses  of  its  members,  or  accepts  a  fine 
as  a  compensation  for  the  life  of  a  lost 
kinsman.  When  a  man  was  killed,  a  part 
of  this  fine  was  paid  to  the  king  or  head 
of  the  community  to  compensate  the 
clan's  loss  of  a  fighting  member;  and  in 
the  distinction  established  between  in- 
juries done  to  the  individual  and  injuries 
done  to  the  community,  the  foundation  of 
a  system  of  criminal  law  was  laid.  The 
sovereign  power  in  a  community  or  state 
took  up  tne  wrongs  of  private  persons 
and  exercised  a  right  of  public  venge- 
ance. Legislation  upon  this  principle 
had  for  its  object  tne  intimidation  of 
the  wrongdoer,  and  was  specially  char- 
acterized by  the  great  variety  and  se- 
verity of  its  punishments.  It  was  not 
until  the  18th  century  that  a  more  en- 
lightened jurisprudence  prevailed.  Bec- 
caria's  work,  "On  Crimes  and  Punish- 
ments," published  in  1764,  has  exercised 
a  strong  influence  on  criminal  legislation 
by  urging  the  claims  of  criminals  to 
humane  consideration,  and  examining  the 
basis  in  morals  upon  which  ciiminal  law 
rests.  The  modem  view  gains  ground 
that  crime  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  dis- 
ease of  the  social  body,  and  that  the 
remedy  is  to  be  looked  for  rather  in  im- 
proved education  and  social  well-being 
than  in  a  repressive  S3'stem  of  arbitrary 
punishments.  The  criminal  law  of  a 
particular  state  is  the  body  of  legal  rules 
affecting  the  commission  and  prosecution 
of  crimes. 

CRIMINOLOGY,  a  term  denoting  the 
branch  of  anthropology  which  deals  with 
crime  and  criminals,  sometimes  called 
"criminal  anthropology."  The  science 
is  largely  based  on  the  researches  and 
views  of  Dr.  Cesare  Lombroso,  born  of 
Jewish  stock  at  Verona  in  1836,  who, 
after  serving  as  an  army  surgeon  and 
holding  posts  as  professor  of  mental  dis- 
eases at  Pavia  and  director  of  a  lunatic 
asylum  at  Pesaro,  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Forensic  Medicine  and  Psy- 
chiatry at  Turin.  His  great  work  is 
"The  Delinquent  Man"  (1875),  in  which 
his  theory  of  criminology  is  expounded. 
The   criminologist   holds   that   the   con- 


CRIPPLE  CREEK 

genital  habitual  criminal  is  marked  by 
conspicuous  physical  and  mental  defects. 
Arrested  cranial  development  and  de- 
formity, heavy  jaws,  ugly  features,  and 
many  other  miner  abnormal  physical 
characters,  are  associated  with  moral  in- 
sensibility, low  intelligence,  vanity,  and 
irregular  emotional  peculiarities  verging 
on  insanity.  The  occasional  criminal 
who  yields  to  severe  or  special  tempta- 
tions is  treated  as  belonging  to  a  wholly 
distinct  category.  The  acceptance  of 
these  anthropological  views  would  natu- 
rally lead  to  somewhat  sweeping  changes 
in  the  treatment  of  criminals,  with  a 
view  to  their  reclamation  somewhat  on 
the  lines  of  the  treatment  in  use  at 
Elmira.     See  also  Bertillon  System. 

CRIPPLE  CREEK,  a  town  in  Teller 
CO.,  Col.;  on  the  Florence  and  Cripple 
Creek  and  the  Midland  Terminal  rail- 
roads, 50  miles  W.  of  Colorado  Springs. 
It  is  the  trade  center  for  the  Cripple 
Creek  mining  district,  which  was  one  of 
the  richest  gold-mining  districts.  It  has 
several  cyanide  mills,  smelters  and  other 
mining  industries,  a  National  bank,  and 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  It  was 
founded  in  1890,  and  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1896.  Pop.  (1910) 
6,206;   (1920)   2,325. 

CRISHNA,  in  Hindu  mythology,  an 
incarnate  deity  of  perfect  beauty.  King 
Canza,  being  informed  that  a  child  of 
the  family  of  Devaci  would  overturn  his 
throne,  gave  orders  to  destroy  all  the 
male  infants  that  were  bom.  When 
Crishna  was  born,  his  nurse  attempted 
to  poison  him,  but  failed,  and  the  mother 
and  child  fled,  and  were  taken  care  of  by 
a  shepherd.  As  he  grew  up,  his  beauty 
was  so  divine  that  all  the  princesses  of 
Hindustan  fell  in  love  with  him,  and  even 
to  the  present  hour  he  is  the  Apollo  of 
India  and  the  "idol  of  women." 

CRISIS,  ECONOMIC,  a  term  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  succession  of  phe- 
nomena, recurring  at  regular  intervals  in 
the  industrial  cycle,  arising  from  disturb- 
ances and  general  depression  in  business 
following  a  period  of  prosperity.  This 
alternation  of  prosperity  and  depression 
has  become  so  marked  a  feature  of  recent 
economic  history  as  to  wear  the  appear- 
ance of  a  natural  law,  and,  though  the 
causes  that  lie  at  its  foundation  have  not 
been  fully  ascertained,  students  of  eco- 
nomics have  begun  to  look  on  it  as  an 
inevitable  accompaniment  of  the  existing 
industrial  order.  The  course  of  the 
crisis  has  been  so  pronounced  that  its 
characteristics  are  easily  described. 
There  is  first  of  all  the  current  of  pros- 
perity with  growing  business  and  expan- 
,8ion  m  industry  and  commerce,  and  then 


199  CRISIS  ' 

the  period  of  uncertainty  arising  from 
the  great  increase  in  cost.  A  diminished 
volume  of  operations  follows,  with  less 
demand  for  material  and  labor.  So  the 
decline  of  demand  is  felt  in  ever  widen- 
ing circles  until  the  whole  industrial 
world  becomes  sensible  of  the  commer- 
cial depression.  A  condition  of  general 
anxiety  supervenes,  in  the  course  of 
which  a  catastrophe  of  some  kind,  the 
failure  of  a  great  mercantile  firm,  drags 
the  depression  to  a  lower  level  by  bring- 
ing down  with  it  other  firms  having 
relations  with  it. 

The  repercussion  is  felt  in  many  direc- 
tions throughout  the  business  world,  con- 
fidence undergoes  a  process  of  further 
demoralization,  creditors  call  in  their 
debts,  debtors,  however  solvent,  find  it 
harder  to  get  credit,  and  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  credit  shows  signs  of  crumbling. 
The  demoralization  may  take  on  huge 
proportions  and  business  may  become 
almost  stagnant.  Then  follows  a  period 
of  quiescence,  during  which  the  psycho- 
logical influences  at  work  are  apt  to  run 
their  course.  Then  follows  a  general 
sense  that  the  worst  has  passed,  and 
since  a  state  of  quiescence  becomes  in 
time  intolerable,  the  wheels  begin  to 
work  again,  and  out  of  the  depression 
confidence  and  credit  begin  to  build  their 
structure  again.  So  the  cycle  runs  its 
course,  the  period  of  prosperity  again 
being  followed  by  a  period  of  depres- 
sion and  disturbance,  and  this  again 
having  run  its  course,  confidence  and  in- 
creased production  return. 

Crises  of  the  kind  described  are  of 
course  more  rare  than  the  disturbance 
regularly  referred  to  in  the  press.  There 
are  crises  of  a  less  important  kind,  those 
leading  to  and  resulting  in  panics  in  the 
money  market.  These  do  not  always 
affect  the  commercial  or  industrial  world 
in  any  appreciable  degree.  Of  more 
import  are  crises  having  their  intrinsic 
causes  in  the  commercial  and  industrial 
world,  for  these  last  affect  the  actual 
wealth  of  a  country,  while  a  stock  ex- 
change crisis  is  apt  merely  to  affect  the 
sjmibols  of  wealth.  A  crisis  in  the  in- 
dustrial world  generally  betokens  a 
period  of  hard  times,  which  often  extends 
itself,  owing  to  the  tightening  of  inter- 
national relations,  to  several  countries. 
A  succession  of  bad  harvests,  for  ex- 
ample, would  be  quite  apt  to  cause  enor- 
mous distress  and  dislocation  of  trade, 
with  the  result  of  successive  periods  of 
crises  in  different  countries.  One  of  the 
worst  crises  in  the  history  of  United 
States  business  was  that  of  1873.  It 
exhibited  in  full-blown  investiture  all  the 
characteristics  of  crises  that  have  oc- 
curred before  or  since,  the  great  indus- 
trial  activity  following  the   Civil   War, 


CRISP 


200 


CROATIA-SLAVONIA 


the  years  of  prosperity,  the  period  of 
overconfidence,  the  sudden  failures  here 
and  there  of  conspicuous  landmarks  in 
the  mercantile  world,  the  increase  of 
other  failures,  the  panic  and  decline,  the 
stagnant  condition,  and  then  the  gradual 
return  of  confidence  and  activity  after 
the  lowest  point  had  been  reached  in 
1876.  The  list  of  business  failures  in 
those  years  tells  the  tale. 


Year 

Number 

Uabllitlea 

1871 

2,915 
4,069 
5,183 
5,830 
7,740 
9,092 
4,735 

$85,252,000 

1872 

121,056,000 

1873 

228,499  000 

1874 

155,239,000 

1875 

201,000,000 

1876 

1.91,117.000 

1880 

65,752,000 

CRISP,  CHARLES  FREDERICK,  an 

American  jurist;  born  in  Sheffield.  Eng- 
land, Jan.  24,  1845;  removed  to  Ameri- 
cus,  Ga. ;  served  in  the  Confederate  army 
from  1861  to  1864;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1866 ;  was  Solicitor-General  of  the 
State  from  1872  to  1877;  he  was  Judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court  from  1877  to  1882. 
He  resigned  the  last  office  to  accept  a 
nomination  for  Congress,  of  which  body 
he  was  chosen  speaker  in  1891,  and  again 
in  1893.  He  died  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Oct. 
23,  1896. 

CRISPI,  FRANCESCO,  an  Italian 
statesman;  bom  in  Ribera,  Sicily,  Oct. 
4,  1819.  He  studied  law  at  the  iJniver- 
sity  of  Palermo  and  settled  at  Naples  in 
1846.  Since  tihen  he  has  been  an  im- 
•  portant  factor  in  Italian  history.  He 
took  part  in  the  conspiracies  that  led  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  after 
which  he  fled  to  France  for  a  time; 
served  as  a  major  under  Garibaldi  in 
1860,  and  in  1861  was  returned  by  Pa- 
lermo to  the  first  Italian  Parliament,  and 
became  President  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1876.  He  was  made  Min- 
ister of  the  Interior  in  1877,  Prime  Min- 
ister in  1887  and  again  in  1893.  He  was 
a  warm  friend  of  Bismarck.  He  became 
unpopular  with  tlie  people  on  account  of 
taxation  and  two  attempts  were  made  to 
assassinate  him.    He  died  Aug.  11,  1901. 

CRISPIN,  saint  and  martyr ;  about  the 
middle  of  the  3d  century,  under  the  reign 
of  Diocletian,  fled,  along  with  his  brother 
Crispinian,  from  Rome,  into  Gaul,  where 
he  worked  as  a  shoemaker  in  the  town 
which  is  now  called  Soissons,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  exertions  for  the 
spread  of  Christianity,  as  well  as  by  his 
works  of  charity.  In  A.  D.  287  he  and  his 
brother  suff'ered  martyrdom  by  being 
thrown  into  a  caldron  of  molten  lead. 
Both    are    commemorated    on    Oct,    25. 


Crispin    is    the    universally    recognked 
patron  saint  of  shoemakers. 

CRITIAS,  one  of  the  30  tyrants  set 
over  Athens  by  the  Spartans.  He  was 
of  good  family,  and  a  man  of  consider- 
able talents,  but  of  dangerous  principles. 
He  cultivated  eloquence  and  Cicero  citea 
him  among  the  public  speakers  of  that 
day.  He  also  had  a  talent  for  poetry, 
some  fragments  of  which  have  reached 
us.  Critias  turned  his  attention  likewise 
to  philosophical  studies,  and  was  one  of 
the  disciples  of  Socrates.  Banished  from 
Athens  for  some  cause  that  is  not  known, 
he  retired  to  Thessaly,  where  he  incited 
an  insurrection  among  the  Penestae  or 
serfs.  Subsequent  to  this  he  visited 
Sparta,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  laws 
and  institutions  of  that  republic.  Re- 
turning to  Athens  alon^  with  Lysander, 
404  B.  c,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
30,  his  pride  of  birth  and  hatred  of 
demagogues  fitting  him  for  that  office. 
After  a  cruel  and  oppressive  use  of  the 
power  thus  conferred  upon  him,  he  fell 
in  battle  against  Thrasybulus  and  his 
followers. 

CRITTENDEN,  THOMAS  LEONI- 
DAS,  an  American  military  officer;  born 
in  Russellville,  Ky„  May  15,  1819.  He 
was  educated  for  the  law,  and  in  1842 
became  State  attorney  for  Kentucky.  He 
served  as  an  officer  in  the  Mexican  War, 
and  in  1849  was  appointed  consul  at  Liv- 
erpool. On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  became  Brigadier-General  of  vol- 
unteers, and  in  1862  was  promoted  to 
Major-General.  He  distinguished  him- 
self at  Shiloh,  Stone  River,  and  Chicka- 
mauga.  He  was  placed  on  the  retired 
list  in  1881.  He  died  in  Annandale,  N. 
Y.,  Oct.  23,  1893. 

CROATIA-SLAVONIA,  formerly  a 
province  or  administrative  division  in 
the  S.  W.  of  the  Austrian  dominions  in 
the  Hungarian  portion  of  the  monarchy, 
partly  bounded  by  the  Adriatic.  Since 
the  World  War  a  province  of  Greater 
Serbia  (Jugoslavia).  Area,  16,417 
square  miles.  Its  surface  is  irregular, 
the  Alps  extending  into  it,  and  culminat- 
ing at  the  height  of  4,400  feet.  The 
Drave  and  the  Save  divide  between  them 
the  whole  drainage  system.  In  the  N. 
on  low  sunny  slopes,  the  vine  is  success- 
fully cultivated ;  the  olive,  mulberry,  and 
fig  thrive  well  on  the  coast.  The  S.  is 
generally  unfertile,  and  in  many  parts 
almost  sterile.  The  principal  crops  are 
barley  and  oats;  but  the  whole  country 
is  more  pastoral  than  arable.  The  in- 
habitants are  Croats  and  Serbs,  with  a 
mixture  of  Germans,  Hungarians,  Jews, 
and  Gypsies.  About  three-fourths  of  the 
ponulation  are  Catholics,  the  rest  belong 
chiefly  to  the   Greek   Church,     Capital, 


CROCKETT 


201 


CB(EST7S 


Zagrab.  Pop.  2,650,000.  In  a.  d.  640 
the  Croats,  a  tribe  from  the  Carpathians, 
settled  in  Croatia,  and  gave  their  name  to 
the  country.  It  long  maintained  a  sort 
of  independent  existence,  but  in  1309  it 
was  incorporated  with  Hungary.  See 
Jugoslavia. 

CROCKETT,    DAVID,    an    American 

Eioneer  hunter,  politician  and  humorist; 
om  in  Limestone,  Tenn.,  Aug.  17,  1786. 


DAVID  CROCKETT 

He  was  member  of  Congress  from  Ten- 
nessee and  served  in  the  Texan  War. 
He  vsrrote  his  "Autobiography"  (1834); 
"Tour  to  the  North  and  Down  East" 
(1835) ;  "Sketches  and  Eccentricities" 
(1847);  etc.  He  was  killed  at  Fort 
Alamo,  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  March  16, 
1836. 

CROCKETT,  SAMUEL  RUTHER- 
FORD, a  Scotch  novelist;  born  in  Little 
Duchrae,  Galloway,  in  1860.  He  was  a 
tutor  and  university  pupil-teacher  at  an 
early  age;  but  a  volume  of  verse,  "Dulce 
Cor,"  and  "The  Stickit  Minister,"  vol- 
ume of  prose  stories,  showed  literature  to 
be  his  vocation.  "The  Raiders,"  "Mad 
Sir  Ughtred  of  the  Hills,"  "The  Lilac 
Sun-Bonnet,"  "The  Men  of  the  Moss 
Hags,"  "Sweetheart  Travelers,"  "Cleg 
Kelly,  Arab  of  the  City,"  "The  Grey 
Man,"    "The    Moss    Troopers"     (1912), 


"Sandy's  Love  Affair"  (1913) ,  are  among 
his  books.    He  died  April  18,  1918. 

CROCODILE,  a  huge  reptile,  in  general 
contour  most  resembling  a  great  lizard, 
found  in  or  near  the  Nile  ana  some  other 
rivers.  It  is  the  LaceHa  crocodilus  of 
Linnaeus,  the  Crocodiltcs  vulgaris  of 
Cuvier.  Its  jaws  project  moderately; 
there  are  six  cervical  plates;  the  dorsal 
shields  or  scutcheons  are  quadrangular 
and  surrounded  by  six  rows  of  slightly 
elevated  carinsB.  The  hinder  feet  are 
palmated,  their  posterior  border  with  a 
festooned  crest.  It  is  about  25  feet  long. 
At  least  four  varieties  of  it  exist.  It  was 
held  sacred  among  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians. The  Nile  was  and  is  its  best 
known  habitat. 

The  leviathan  of  Job  is  almost  cer- 
tainly the  crocodile,  but  in  other  parts  of 
the  Scripture  different  animals  are  desig- 
nated by  the  same  word. 

CROCUS,  a  genus  of  iridacese.  The 
perianth,  which  is  single,  is  colored.  The 
tube  is  long  and  the  limb  cut  into  six 
equal  segments.  The  root  a  corm,  the 
leaves  grassy.  The  appropriate  habitat 
of  the  crocuses  is  in  the  S.  and  E.  of 
Europe  and  in  Asia  Minor.  Some  are 
vernal,  others  flower  in  autumn.  C. 
luteus  is  the  common  or  large  yellow 
crocus.  It  was  carried  from  Turkey  to 
various  pai'ts  of  Europe  in  A.  D.  1629. 
C.  m-cesiaciis,  imported  from  Greece  in 
the  same  year,  may  not  be  distinct;  nor 
may  C.  airretis,  the  small  yellow  crocus, 
also  from  Greece.  C.  lagenoeflorous,  an- 
other Greek  species,  has  red-yellow,  pale- 
yellow,  and  more  typical  yellow  varieties. 
C.  vet-nus  is  the  common  purple  or  white 
spring  crocus.    C.  sativus  is  an  autumnal 

f)lant,  brought  from  the  East.  It  has 
ong  been  cultivated  for  its  long  reddish- 
orange  drooping  stigmas,  which  when 
driea  become  the  saffron  of  the  shops. 
According  to  Gussone  C.  odonis  fur- 
nishes Sicilian  saffron. 

CRCESUS,  the  fifth  and  last  king  of 
Lydia,  He  succeeded  his  father  Aly- 
attes,  560  B.  C.  He  was  so  successful  in 
all  his  enterprises  that  he  soon  became 
one  of  the  richest  monarchs  of  that 
time.  He  asked  the  philosopher  Solon 
what  he  thought  of  his  good  fortune,  "I 
pronounce  no  man  fortunate  until  his 
death,"  was  the  reply.  Croesus  was  made 
prisoner  by  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia. 
When  bound  to  the  stake  and  about  to 
be  burned  to  death,  he  recalled  the  words 
of  Solon,  and  thrice  repeated  his  name. 
Cyrus  demanded  an  explanation.  Croesus 
gave  it,  and  Cyrus  not  only  spared  his 
life,  but  also  took  him  into  his  favor.  At 
the  death  of  Cyrus  he  recommended 
Croesus  to  the  favor  of  Cambyses,  who 


CROFTERS 


202 


CROMER 


treated  him  with  great  cruelty,  and  or- 
dered him  to  be  put  to  death. 

CROFTEE-S,  pt;tty  farmers  renting  a 
few  acres  of  land,  with  sometimes  the 
right  of  grazing  their  cattle  in  common 
on  a  piece  of  rough  pasture.  Crofters 
are  numerous  in  the  Highlands,  and  in 
the  western  islands  of  Scotland,  as  well 
as  in  some  other  localities.  From  many 
districts  they  have  been  removed  owing 
to  their  holdings  being  absorbed  in  sheep 
farms  or  deer  forests,  and  they  are  now 
mainly  congregated  on  the  seashore, 
where  they  may  partly  maintain  them- 
selves by  fishing.  Tne  Crofters'  Act, 
passed  in  1886j  provides  for  security  of 
tenure,  the  fixmg  of  a  reasonable  rent, 
compensation  for  improvements,  enlarge- 
ment of  buildings,  etc. 


in  New  York  City  in  1841.  From  1860 
for  many  years  she  was  editor  of  "Dem- 
orest's  Magazine,"  and  of  other  peiiod- 
icals.  She  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
"Sorosis"  and  its  president  for  14  years, 
and  one  of  the  most  active  promoters  of 
the  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs.  She 
has  published:  "Talks  on  Women's  Top- 
ics" (1863):  "For  Better  or  Worse" 
(1875)  ;  "Three  Manuals  for  Work" 
(1885-1889);  "History  of  the  Woman's 
Club  Movement  in  America"  (1900),  etc. 
She  died  in  New  York  City,  Dec.  23, 
1901. 

CROME,  JOHN,  an  English  artist; 
born  in  Norwich,  in  1769.  During  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  he  was  a  teacher 
of  drawing.  In  1805  he  founded  the  Nor- 
wich Society  of  Artists,  of  which  he  be- 


CROCODILB 


CROZER,  RICHARD,  an  American 
politician;  born  in  Black  Rock,  Ireland, 
Nov.  24,  1843 ;  came  to  the  United  States 
in  early  life.  He  was  Alderman  of  New 
York  three  times,  and  in  1889-1890  was 
City  Chamberlain.  He  became  promi- 
nent in  politics  during  the  scandal  of 
the  Tweed  ring,  whose  schemes  he  vigor- 
ously opposed;  was  from  1884  to  1903  at 
the  head  of  Tammany  Hall;  and  was 
long  the  Democratic  dictator  of  New 
York  State  and  City,  and  conspicuous  in 
the  National  affairs  of  his  party.  In 
1903  he  retired  to  a  country  estate  in 
Ireland.  In  1908  he  was  made  a  freeman 
of  Dublin. 

CROLY,  HERBERT,  an  American  au- 
thor, born  in  New  York  in  1869.  He 
studied  at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York  and  at  Harvard  University.  From 
1900  to  1906  he  was  editor  of  the  "Archi- 
tectural Record,"  and  from  1914  was  edi- 
tor of  the  "New  Republic."  He  was  a 
member  of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts 
and  Letters.  He  wrote  "Promise  of 
American  Life"  (1909)  •  "Life  of  Marcus 
Alonzo  Hanna"  (1912);  and  "Progres- 
sive Democracy"   (1914). 

CROLY,  JANE  (CUNNINGHAM), 
Widely  knovm  by  her  pen-name  of 
"Jennie  June,"  an  American  writer,  wife 
of  D.  G.  Croly;  born  in  Market  Har- 
borough,  England,  Dec.  19,  1831;  settled 


came  president  as  v.'fell  as  chief  contrib- 
utor to  its  annual  exhioitions.  His  high 
place  among  British  landscape  painters 
is  now  universally  acknowledged.  He 
died  in  1821.  He  is  sometimes  called 
"Old  Crome,"  to  distinguish  him  from 
his  son,  Bemay  Crome,  also  an  artist. 

CROMER,  EVELYN  BARING,  1st 
EARL,  a  British  statesman,  bom  in 
Cromer  Hall,  Norfolk,  in  1841.  He  was 
educated  at  Woolwich  Academy  and 
entered  the  Royal  Artillery  at  the  age 
of  17.  After  filling  several  posts,  he 
visited  the  United  States  during  the  Civil 
War,  where  he  made  a  study  of  military 
operations.  From  1872  to  1876  he  was 
private  secretary  of  the  Earl  of  North- 
brook,  who  was  then  Governor-General 
of  India.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  Com- 
missioner of  the  Egyptian  Public  Debt. 
His  efficient  service  on  this  board  at- 
tracted wide  attention  and  on  the  abdica- 
tion of  Ismail,  the  Khedive  of  Egypt,  he 
was  made  Controller-General.  After 
three  years  spent  in  India  (1880-1883), 
he  returned  to  Egypt  as  agent  and  con- 
sul-general. On  his  arrival  in  Egypt  he 
found  political  conditions  in  a  deplorable 
state.  He  proceeded  to  organize  tlie 
government,  placing  internal  conditions 
on  a  sound  basis.  He  also  reorganized 
the  army.  Through  his  skill  in  diplo- 
macy, he  was  of  great  assistance  to  Lord 


CROMLECH 


203 


CBOMWELL 


Kitchener  in  the  conquest  of  Sudan.  He 
was  made  a  baron  in  1892  and  an  earl 
in  1901.  In  his  later  years  he  was  a 
minister  in  the  diplomatic  service.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  neg'otiations 
leading  up  to  the  Anglo-French  Declara- 
tion of  April  8,  1904,  by  which  France 


EARL    CROMER 

acceded  to  the  recognition  of  England's 
control  of  Egypt.  Before  his  death  he 
was  chairman  of  a  commission  appointed 
to  investigate  the  Dardanelles  campaign. 
His  published  writings  include  ^'Staff 
College  Essays,"  "The  War  Game," 
"Modem  Egypt,"  "Ancient  and  Modem 
Imperialism,"  and  "Political  and  Literary 
Essays,"  the  third  series  of  which  was 
published  in  1916.    He  died  in  1917. 

CBOMLECH,  an  erection  consisting 
of  two  or  more  stones  standing  like 
pillars,  with  a  large  flat,  or  rather  a 
slightly  inclined  one,  placed  upon  the  top, 
so  as  to  make  the  whole  present  a  rude 
resemblance  to  a  table.  Two  fine  crom- 
lechs exist  at  Plas  Newydd  in  Anglesea; 
others,  less  notable,  are  scattered  through 
Wales;  they  exist  also  in  Scotland, 
Jersey,  Brittany,  and  throughout  the 
Celtic  area.  Formerly  they  were  gen- 
erally held  to  be  old  altars  for  sacrifices. 
Modem  opinion  holds  them  to  have  been 
sepulchers.  A  cromlech  is  called  also  a 
dolmen.    Somewhat  similar  erections  are 


seen  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  in 
Arabia,  in  India,  and  North  and  Soirth 
America. 

CROMWELL,  BARTLETT  JEFFER- 
SON, an  American  naval  officer.  Born 
in  Georgia  in  1840,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1857,  graduating  in  the  year  the  Civil 
War  opened.  He  steadily  rose  in  rank 
until  in  1889  he  attained  the  rank  of 
captain.  In  1901  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  South  Atlantic 
Squadron  with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 
The  following  year  he  commanded  the 
American  fleet  in  European  waters. 
Placed  on  the  retir^  list  in  1902,  he 
died  June  24,  1917. 

CROMWELL,  OLIVER,  LORD  PRO- 
TECTOR OF  ENGLAND,  born  in  Hun- 
tingdon, England,  April  25,  1599.  His 
father  was  Robert  Crornwell,  of  a  family 
possessed  of  a  baronetcy,  and  his  mother 
being  a  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Stewart. 
When  21  years  old  he  married  Elizabeth, 
the  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Bourchier, 
and  thus,  both  by  descent  and  alliance, 
he  was  a  member  of  the  higher  class  of 
country  gentlemen.  Though  he  had  been 
elected  to  the  brief  Parliament  of  1628, 
it  was  not  till  1640  that  he  was  known 
in  the  House  of  Commons. 

He  had  been  for  some  years  establish- 
ing an  influence  with  the  Puritan  party, 
who  frequented  his  house  and  bowed  to 
his  strong  judgment.  He  showed  his 
great  business  capacities  in  the  struggle 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  Parliament  raised  a  military 
force,  to  which  he  brought  a  troop  of 
horse,  that  his  powers  of  organization 
and  command  were  fully  developed.  He 
speedily  rose  to  authority  as  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  horse:  and  when  he  was 
specially  exempted  from  the  self-deny- 
ing ordinance,  so  that  he  could  both  de- 
liberate in  Parliament  and  hold  command, 
he  became  the  most  powerful  man  in  the 
country.  He  showed  his  eminent  sagac- 
ity in  constructing  the  army,  and  in- 
fusing into  it  high  spirit  along  with  stern 
discipline.  At  the  oattJe  of  Naseby,  in 
1645,  it  was  seen  in  the  signal  destruc- 
tion brought  on  the  well-officered  royal 
army  how  effectually  he  could  strike  with 
the  weapon  he  had  constructed.  His  mili- 
tary policy  throughout  was  to  despise 
secondary  means  and  ends,  but  to  invest 
himself  with  overwhelming  power  and 
crush  his  enemy.  He  saw  the  large  share 
which  artillery  must  bear  in  warfare,  and 
anticipated  modem  generals  in  fostering 
that  destructive  arm.  His  repeated 
victories  over  the  Royalists,  his  establish- 
ment of  the  predominance  of  the  army 
over  Parliament,  and  of  the  Independents 
over   the    Presbyterians;    his    relentless 


CBOMWELL 


204 


CRONJE 


exertions  to  bring  Chai'les  I.  to  the  block, 
and  his  dismissal  of  the  Parliament,  are 
all  great  events  in  the  history  of  the  day, 
which  cannot  be  narrated  with  sufficient 
distinctness  without  much  detail. 

In  1649  he  conducted  an  exterminating 
war  in  Ireland,  instigated  by  the  fero- 
cious principle  that  whatever  human  be- 
ing opposed  him  should  be  put  to  death. 
In  Scotland,  where  he  saw  there  were 
more  suitable  materials  for  the  sort  of 
government  he  desired,  he  was  rather  a 
pacificator  than  an  oppressor.  It  was  on 
Dec.  16,  1653,  that  he  took  the  title  of 
Lord  Protector,  and  became  virtually 
King  of  Britain,  and  a  king  who  sub- 
mitted to  very  little  constitutional  re- 
straint. How  far  he  was  sincere  in  the 
religrious  convictions  by  which  he  pro- 
fessed to  be  led,  has  been  matter  of  end- 
less debate.  That  he  was  under  power- 
ful religious  impulses  cannot  be  doubted — 


OLIVER  CROMWELL 

the  question  arises  as  to  the  extent  to 
which  he  really  believed  that  by  their 
power  alone,  and  by  no  promptings  of 
worldliness,  he  was  driven  on  in  his 
ambitious  career.  He  was  an  enlightened 
internal  reformer,  showed  himself  equal 
to  the  hard  task  he  had  undertaken,  and, 
by  a  m.agnanimous  foreign  policy,  left 
England  greater  and  more  honored  than 
he  had  found  her.  He  did  not  succeed 
with  his  Parliaments,  and  had  to  rule 
mostly  without  them.  At  last  care, 
anxiety,  and  growing  perplexities  wore 
him  out;  he  became  gloomy  and  sus- 
picious; was  overwhelmed  by  sorrow  at 


the  death  of  his  favorite  daughter,  Eliza- 
beth, Lady  Claypole;  fell  sick,  and  died 
about  a  month  after  her,  Sept.  3,  1658. 

CROMWELL,  RICHARD,  third  son  of 
Oliver;  born  Oct.  4,  1626.  By  the  deaths 
of  his  two  elder  brothers,  Robert  and  Oli- 
ver, he  became  his  father's  heir.  He  was 
an  amiable  and  popular  but  weak  man,  de- 
voted to  field  sports  and  fond  of  pleasure. 
He  lived  for  some  time  in  comparative 
privacy,  but  when  the  Protector  had 
been  empowered  to  nominate  his  succes- 
sor, Richard  was  brought  to  the  front, 
and  an  effort  was  made  to  train  him  to 
the  work  of  government,  but  in  vain. 
Scarcely  had  he  entered  on  his  office, 
when  the  lorces  of  anarchy,  both  parlia- 
mentary and  military,  broke  loose,  and 
he  found  himself  utterably  unable  to  re- 
strain them.  It  was  probably  with  little 
reluctance  that  he  quitted  Whitehall  and 
retired  into  private  life.  After  the 
Restoration  he  lived  for  a  time  abroad 
under  a  feigned  name;  but  he  returned 
to  England  about  1680,  and  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life  at  Cheshunt,  where 
he  died  July  12,  1712,  and  was  buried  in 
the  church  at  Hursley,  Hampshire. 

CROMWELL,  THOMAS,  EARL  OF 
ESSEX,  chief  minister  to  Henry  VIII.; 
born  about  1490.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
blacksmith,  appears  to  have  served  in 
the  Italian  wars  for  a  time,  and  on  his 
return  to  England  entered  the  service  of 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  won  his  esteem,  and 
was  faithful  to  him  in  his  disgrace.  He 
then  entered  the  king's  service,  and  ob- 
tained, with  his  favor;  many  of  the  high- 
est offices  of  state.  He  was  privy-coun- 
cillor, principal  secretax-y  of  state,  and, 
about  1536,  vicar-general,  and  vice-regent 
in  all  matters  of  religion.  Cromwell  was 
the  friend  of  Cranmer,  and  contributed 
by  various  measures  to  the  establishment 
of  the  reformed  doctrines  and  worship. 
In  1539  he  was  created  Earl  of  Essex, 
but  he  soon  lost  the  favor  of  the  king. 
In  1540  he  was  imprisoned,  attainted  on 
charges  of  treason,  heresy,  and  extor- 
tion, was  not  allowed  to  make  any  de- 
fense, and  was  executed  on  Tower  Hill, 
July  28,  1540. 

CRONJE,  PIET  (kron'ye),  a  Boer 
military  commander;  born  near  Pretoria 
in  1835.  He  has  been  prominent  in  all 
the  history  of  the  South  African  Re- 
public. Bred  to  farm  life,  he  entered 
politics,  refused  office  under  British  an- 
nexation in  1877,  commanded  a  brigade 
in  the  war  of  1880-1881,  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Transvaal  executive  govern- 
ment, and  captured  Sir  John  Willoughby 
and  his  force  after  the  Jameson  raid  in 
1896.  During  the  war  with  England  in 
1899-1900,  Cronje  rose  to  the  military 
leaderiihip  of  the  Boers,  and  held  out 


CRONKHITE 


205 


CBOOKES 


heroically  with  an  inferior  force  till 
forced  to  surrender  to  Lord  Roberts  at 
Klip  River,  near  Paardeberg,  Oiange 
Free  State.  He  was  exiled  to  St.  Helena 
in  May,  1900.  He  visited  the  United 
Sta  es  in  1905.    He  died  in  1911. 

CRONKHITE,  ADELBERT,  an  Amer- 
ican soldier,  born  in  New  York  City  in 
1861.  He  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1882  and 
from  the  Artillery  School  in  1886,  rose 
through  the  various  grades,  and  became 
a  colon'-]  in  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps  in 
1911  and  brigadier-general  in  1917.  On 
April  5  of  that  year  he  was  appointed 
major-general.  He  served  in  the  opera- 
tions against  the  Indians  in  1891  and  in 
Cuba  and  the  Philippines  in  1898.  He 
was  commander  of  the  coast  defenses  of 
eastern  New  York  from  1911  to  1914  and 
of  the  coast  defenses  of  Panama  and  the 
Panama  Canal  Department  from  1914  to 
1917.  From  September,  1917,  to  May  28, 
1919,  he  was  commander  of  the  80th 
Division  of  the  National  Army.  He  saw 
service  on  the  western  front  at  St.  Mihiel 
and  in  the  Meuse-Argonne.  He  held  the 
rank  of  major-general  during  this  period. 

CRONSTADT     or      KRONSTADT,     a 

maritime  fortress  of  Russia,  about  20 
miles  V/.  of  Petrograd,  in  the  narrow- 
est part  of  the  gulf  of  Finland,  op- 
posite to  the  mouth  of  the  Neva,  on  a 
long,  narrow,  rocky  island,  forming,  both 
by  its  position  and  the  strength  of  its 
fortifications,  the  bulwark  of  the  capital, 
and  being  also  the  most  important  naval 
station  of  the  empire.  It  was  founded 
by  Peter  the  Great  in  1710,  and  has  spa- 
cious regular  streets  with  many  hand- 
some houses  and  chvirches,  very  large 
marine  establishments,  a  naval  arsenal, 
a  cannon-foundry,  building  yard,  docks, 
etc.  The  harbor  consists  of  three  sepa- 
rate basins — a  merchant  haven,  capable 
of  containing  1,000  ships;  a  central 
haven  for  the  repair  of  ships  of  war; 
and  the  war  haven,  all  of  which  are  de- 
fended by  strong  fortifications.  Cron- 
stadt  used  to  be  the  commercial  port  of 
Petrograd,  It  was  here  in  1917  that  the 
revolt  of  the  Russian  fleet  began.  A 
Committee  of  Workers  and  Soldiers 
Delegates  assumed  power  in  June  of 
that  year,  defying  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment at  Petrogi-ad.  Preparations  to 
;rush  the  revolt  ceased  with  the  fall  of 
Kerensky.  Cronstadt  then  became  a 
naval  base  for  the  Soviet  government. 

CROOK,  GEORGE,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer;  bom  near  Dayton,  0.,  Sept, 
8,  1828.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1852, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  Major-General. 
In  the  Civil  War  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself  at   South   Mountain,   Antietam, 


Chickamauga,  and  Appomattox.  After 
the  war  he  achieved  celebrity  in  cam- 
paigns against  the  Indians  as  com- 
mander of  the  districts  of  Idaho  and  Ari- 
zona. From  1888  until  his  death,  ho 
commanded  the  Military  Division  of  the 
Missouri.  He  died  in  Chicago,  March  1, 
1890. 

CROOKES,  SIR  WILLIAM,  an  Eng- 
lish physicist  and  chemist;  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1832;  studied  at  the  Royal  College 
of  Chemistry  under  Hofmann,  and  after 
1851  dev'jted  himself  to  original  re- 
searches in  science.  He  invented  the 
radiometer  in  1875,  and  the  otheoscope 
in  1877,  and  announced  in  1879  his  dis- 
covery of  the  fourth  or  ultra-gaseous 
state  of  matter.  In  1880  the  French 
Academie  des  Sciences  bestowed  on  him 
an  extraordinary  prize  of  3,000  francs 
and  a  gold  medal  in  recognition  of  his 
discoveries  in  molecular  physics  and  ra- 


SIR    WILLIAM    CROOKES 

diant  matter.  In  1881  he  acted  as  Juror  at 
the  International  Exhibition  of  Electric- 
ity in  Paris.  In  this  official  position  he 
was  not  entitled  to  a  medal,  but  in  the 
official  report  his  fellow  jurors,  after 
discussing  the  merits  of  four  systems  of 
incandescent  lamps,  declared — "None  of 
li — Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


CROQUET 


206 


CROSS 


them  would  have  succeeded  had  it  not 
been  for  these  extreme  vacua  which  Mr. 
Crookes  has  taught  us  to  manage."  It 
is  stated  that  he  was  the  first  to  apply 
photography  to  the  investigation  of  the 
solar  spectrum.  He  is  the  author  of 
''Select  Methods  in  Chemical  Analysis," 
"Manufacture  of  Beet-root  Sugar  in 
England,"  "Handbook  of  Dyeing  and 
Calico-Printing,"  "Manual  of  Dyeing 
and  Tissue-Printing,"  etc.  He  is  also 
joint  author  of  the  English  adaptation 
of  Kerl's  "Treatise  on  Metallurgy."  He 
has  edited  the  last  three  editions  of 
Mitchell's  "Manual  of  Practical  Assay- 
ing," and  has  translated  into  English 
and  edited  Reimann's  "Aniline  and  its 
Derivatives,"  Wagner's  "Chemical  Tech- 
nology," Auerbach's  "Anthracen  and  its 
Derivatives,"  and  Ville's  "Artificial  Ma- 
nures." He  is  an  authority  on  sanitary 
questions,  especially  the  disposal  of 
town-sewage.  In  1907  he  shared  the 
Nobel  prize  for  Chemistry  with  E.  Buch- 
iier,  and  in  1910  was  awarded  the  Order 
of  Merit.    He  died  on  April  4,  1919. 

CBOQITET,  to  the  most  scientific  form 
of  which  the  name  ROQUE  is  given,  is  an 
open-air  game  played  with  balls,  mallets, 
and  arches,  either  upon  a  closely  mowed 
lawn  or  a  specially  prepared  court.  The 
game  is  substantially  a  revival  of  the  old 
game  of  Pall  Mall,  which  gave  its  name 
to  the  well  known  London  street.  France 
introduced  this  game  into  Ireland  and 
then  into  England  early  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  during  the  18th  century  it  was 
largely  neglected,  but  came  again  into 
favor  about  1850  and  was  later  super- 
seded in  popularity  by  tennis. 

CROSBY,  ERNEST  HOWARD,  Amer- 
ican author;  born  at  New  York,  Nov.  4, 
1856;  son  of  Howard  Crosby.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  New  York, 
and  practiced  law  in  New  York  from 
1878-1889.  He  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Harrison  in  1889  Judge  of  the  In- 
ternational Court  at  Alexandria,  Egypt, 
where  he  remained  till  1894.  On  his  re- 
turn he  visited  Count  Tolstoy,  and 
adopted  that  writer's  ideas  in  regard  to 
social  reform.  He  was  the  first  Presi- 
dent of  the  Social  Reform  Club,  and 
Chairman  of  the  New  York  Friends  of 
Russian  Freedom.  He  published :  "Plain 
Talk  in  Psalm  and  Parable"  (1899) ; 
"Captain  Jinks,  Hero"  (1902) ;  "Swords 
and  Ploughshares"  (1902) ;  "Tolstoy 
and  his  Message";  and  "William  Lloyd 
Garrison"   (1905).     He  died  in  1906. 

CROSIER,  the  pastoral  staff  of  an 
archbishop,  surmounted  by  a  cross;  or 
of  a  bishop  or  abbot,  terminating  in  a 
curve  or  crook.  It  is  generally  elabo- 
rately carved  and  ornamented  with 
jewels,  etc. 


CROSMAN,  HENRIETTA,  an  Ameri- 
can actress.  Born  in  West  Virginia  in 
1870,  she  first  went  on  the  stage  when 
nineteen  years  of  age,  playing  in  Camp- 
bell's "White  Slave."  From  1892-1894 
she  was  Charles  Frohman's  leading  lady. 
In  1900  she  began  her  career  as  a  star 
in  a  play  entitled  "One  of  Our  Girls." 
In  the  same  year  she  brought  out  "Mis- 
tress Nell"  at  the  Bijou  Theatre  in  Nev/ 
York.  In  1911  she  took  the  role  of  Jess 
Loraine  in  the  play  "The  Real  Thing," 
playing  later  many  other  important  roles 
in  New  York  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  States. 

CROSS,  a  gibbet,  consisting  of  two 
pieces  of  timber  placed  across  each  other 
in  a  variety  of  forms.  The  cross  was 
used  as  a  very  general  instrument  of 
punishment  from  the  earliest  times. 
Among  the  Syrians,  Jews,  Egyptians, 
Persians,  and  especially  the  Carthagin- 
ians, it  appears  to  have  been  the  usual 
military  punishment;  but  in  no  part  of 
the  ancient  world  was  this  punishment 
so  generally  resorted  to  as  in  the  Roman 
empire,  where  it  was  regarded  as  the 
most  infamous  of  deaths,  and,  except  in 
cases  of  sedition,  was  inflicted  only  on 
slaves  or  the  vilest  malefactors.  By  the 
Jewish  law,  it  was  ordained  that  the  body 
of  the  culprit  should  be  removed  from  the 
cross  on  the  day  of  his  execution ;  but  the 
Romans  frequently  allowed  it  to  hang  till 
it  dropped  piecemeal  to  the  ground. 

By  the  death  of  Christ,  the  cross,  from 
being  an  object  of  horror,  became  the 
symbol  of  the  Christian  world,  and,  from 
respect  for  this  symbol,  Constantine 
abolished  the  punishment  of  crucifixion 
throughout  the  Roman  world.  The  cross 
is  still  regarded  with  the  utmost  venera- 
tion by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  in 
which  certain  festivals  are  observed  in 
memory  of  circumstances  connected  with 
the  cross. 

The  cross  on  which  our  Lord  suffered 
is  commonly  considered  to  have  been  the 
crux  capitata  or  Latin  cross,  but  the 
cross  with  equal  limbs  (  +  )  or  Greek 
cross,  has  been  the  model  followed  in  the 
architecture  of  Eastern  churches.  The 
large  cross  over  the  entrance  to  the  chan- 
cel of  a  church  was  called  the  Rood  or 
Holy  Rood.  Monumental  crosses  were 
and  are  still  often  raised  in  Catholic 
countries,  to  mark  a  boundary,  the 
entrance  of  a  sanctuary,  or  as  record  of 
some  event. 

CROSS,  MARY  ANN  EVANS.  See 
Eliot,  George. 

CROSS,  WILBUR  LUCIUS,  an  Amer- 
ican educator  and  editor,  born  in  Mans- 
field, Conn.,  in  1862.  He  graduated  from 
Yale     in     1885     and   took   post-graduate 


CROTHERS 


207 


CROUP 


studies  at  that  university.  In  1902,  after 
having  occupied  several  positions  on  the 
faculty  of  Yale,  he  became  professor  of 
English  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School. 
In  1916  he  was  appointed  dean  of  the 
Graduate  School  at  Yale.  He  was  editor 
of  the  "Yale  Review"  and  in  1903  was 
lecturer  at  Columbia.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and 
Letters.  His  writings  include  "Develop- 
ment of  the  English  Novel"  1899);  and 
"HistoiT  of  Henry  Fielding"  (1918).  He 
also  edited  the  works  of  many  English 
writers,  contributed  articles  on  literature 
to  several  encyclopaedias,  and  was  a  well- 
known  contributor  to  magazines. 

CROTHERS,  SAMUEL  McCHORD, 
an  American  clergyman  of  the  Unitarian 
church  and  author.  Born  in  Illinois  in 
1857,  he  graduated  from  Princeton  in 
1874  and  received  his  theological  educa- 
tion at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New 
York.  After  serving  pastorates  in  Cali- 
fornia, Nevada,  and  Vermont,  he  became 
in  1894  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  Church 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.  A  few  years  later 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  preachers 
at  Harvard  University.  His  writings  are 
mostly  of  the  familiar  essay  type  and  are 
classics  in  English  style.  Most  of  them 
were  originally  written  for  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly."  Among  his  best  known  works 
are  "The  Pardoner's  Wallet"  (1905); 
"The  Gentle  Reader"  (1903);  "By  the 
Christmas  Fire"  (1908);  "Am  .ng 
Friends"  (1910)  ;  "Humanly  Speakiuo^^ 
(1912) ;  "Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  and 
His  Fellow  Boarders"  (1909) ;  "Three 
Lords  of  Destiny"  (1913). 

CROTON,  a  genus  of  EuphorbiacesB 
the  typical  one  of  the  tribe  Crotonese. 
Some  are  trees,  others  bushes,  and  yet 
others  herbaceous  plants;  the  leaves  and 
inflorescence  are  also  variable.  They 
occur  in  the  warmer  parts  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. Some  are  purgative.  A  decoc- 
tion of  C.  perdicipes  is  used  in  Brazil  as  a 
cure  for  syphilis  and  as  a  diuretic.  The 
purgative  root  of  C.  campestns,  and  the 
leaves  and  bark  of  C.  origanifolius,  are 
diaphoretic  and  antispastic.  The  wood  of 
C.  Tialium  is  sudorific,  and  used  against 
syphilis;  the  seeds  are  purgative.  The 
oil  of  C.  Tiglium  and  Pava-iia,  two  East 
Indian  trees,  is  so  acrid  as  to  blister  the 
skin.  They  are  used  as  diuretics  and 
purgatives.  Many  are  balsamic.  C  hal- 
samifer  is  used  in  Martinique  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  liquid  called  eau  de  man- 
tes. Frankincense  is  extracted  from  C. 
thurifer  and  C.  adipatus,  which  grow  on 
the  Amazon.  C.  hutnilis,  found  in  the 
West  Indies,  has  aromatic  qualities,  and 
is  used  in  medicating  baths.  C.  gratis- 
sitmus  is  fragrant,  and  is  used  as  a  per- 


fume by  the  Koras  in  south  Africa.  The 
balsam  of  C  origanifolius  is  emnloyted  as 
a  substitute  for  copaiva.  C.  casca/rilla  is 
aromatic.  Yet  others  have  a  coloring 
matter.  C.  Draco  and  C.  sanguiferum 
furnish  a  red  substance  like  gum-lac.  C. 
cascarllla,  a  Jamaica  bush,  was  thought 
to  furnish  the  cascarilla  of  commerce, 
which  is  now  known  to  be  derived  from 
C.  Eleuteria,  a  Bahama  shrub;  that  of 
Mexico  comes  from  C.  pseudo-China;  and 
C.  nitens,  C.  cascarilloides,  viicans,  and 
suberosus  might  also  be  made  to  yield 
cascarilla. 

CROTON,  a  river  in  New  York  which 
joins  the  Hudson,  32  miles  N.  of  New 
York  City.  It  supplies  the  city  with 
water  through  the  Croton  Aqueduct, 
which  was  first  opened  in  1842.  A  new 
aqueduct  was  completed  in  1906, 

CROTON  AQUEDUCT,  the  aqueduct 
which  carries  a  portion  of  the  water 
supply  of  New  York  City  from  the  Cro- 
ton basin,  an  area  of  about  375  square 
miles,  situated  about  30  miles  from  the 
city.  The  old  aqueduct  was  constructed 
between  1837  and  1842;  it  is  38  miles 
long,  with  a  declivity  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  course  of  13  V^  inches  to  the 
mile,  the  water  channel  averaging  8  feet 
5  inches  in  height  and  7  feet  8  inches 
in  greatest  breadth.  New  York  needs 
demanding  a  greater  supply,  a  new 
aqueduct  was  begun  in  1883.  This  de- 
livers to  the  city  about  336.000,000  gal- 
lons daily.  With  the  completion  of  the 
Catskill  aqueduct  in  1917  the  Croton 
aqueduct  furnishes  only  about  half  the 
water  supply  of  New  York  City. 

CROUP,  a  term  used  in  Scotland  from 
an  early  period  to  describe  a  certain  train 
of  laryngeal  symptoms,  was  first  applied 
by  Dr.  Francis  Home,  in  1765,  to  an 
acute  inflammatory  and  non-contagious 
affection  of  the  larynx,  in  which  there  is 
the  formation  of  a  false  membrane  or 
fibrinous  deposit  on  the  mucous  surface 
of  the  windpipe.  The  invasion  of  the  dis- 
ease resembles  that  of  simple  catarrh,  and 
may  be  very  insidious.  If  the  patient  is 
not  relieved  by  coughing  or  vomiting  up 
some  membranous  shreds  and  glairy  mu- 
cus, a  state  of  greater  dyspnoea  ensues. 
A  period  of  extreme  restlessness  and 
suffering  is  (unless  relieved  by  im- 
mediate treatment)  soon  followed  by 
death  from  increasing  coma,  syncope,  or 
exhaustion. 

Croup  seems  to  be  caused  by  a  damp 
atmosphere  of  low  temperature,  espe- 
cially in  exposed  situations.  It  is  most 
frequently  met  with  between  the  years  of 
two  and  ten,  though  all  ages  are  liable 
to  suffer  from  it.  It  is  commoner  in  boys 
than  girls, 


CROW 


208 


CROWN 


CROW,  the  crow  family  (Corvidse), 
order  Insessores,  comprises  birds  that 
have  a  strong  bill,  compressed  toward 
the  points,  and  covered  at  the  base  with 
stiff,  bristly  feathers,  which  advance  so 
far  as  to  conceal  the  nostrils.  The  plum- 
age is  dense,  soft,  and  lustrous,  gener- 
ally dark,  but  sometimes  of  gay  colors. 
They  are  very  omnivorous,  and  remark- 
able for  their  intelligence.  The  family, 
widely  diffused  over  the  world,  includes 
the  common  crow,  type  of  the  Corvidse, 
and  the  above,  which  will  be  described 
here;  and  the  raven,  the  fish-crow,  the 
rook,  the  jay,  and  the  magpie.  The  com- 
mon crow  of  North  America,  Corvus 
Americanus  (Audubon),  is  about  20 
inches  long,  and  the  wings  about  13 
inches.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  grega- 
rious and  predatory  habits.  The  bill  is 
straight,  convex,  and  compressed.  The 
nostrils  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  bill, 
and  are  pantalous;  the  tongue  short,  and 
bifid  at  the  tip;  the  toes  are  separated 
almost  to  the  base,  and  the  middle  one  is 
the  longest. 

CROW-BLACKBIRD,  the  name  of 
certain  American  birds  of  the  genus 
Quiscalus,  family  Stumidse  or  starlings. 
The  great  crow-blackbird,  Q.  major, 
found  in  the  Southern  States,  Mexico,  and 
the  West  Indies,  is  16  inches  long,  and 
of  a  glossy  black  plumage.  The  female 
is  of  a  light  brown  above  and  whitish 
beneath.  The  purple  grackle,  lesser  or 
common  crow-blackbird,  Q.  versicolor,  is 
similar  in  color  to  the  preceding,  but 
smaller.  They  reach  the  Middle  States 
of  the  United  States  from  the  S.  in  flocks 
in  the  latter  part  of  March,  and  build  in 
April  in  the  tall  pines  or  cedars.  In 
their  first  arrival  they  feed  upon  insects, 
but  afterward  commit  great  ravages  upon 
the  young  com.  In  November  they  fly  S. 
again. 

CROWDER,   ENOCH  HERBERT,   an 

American  soldier,  bom  in  Missouri  in 
1859.  He  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1881  and  was 
commissioned  2d  lieutenant  of  the  8th 
Cavalry  in  the  same  year.  He  became 
major  and  judge-advocate  in  1895  and 
lieutenant-colonel  and  judge-advocate  of 
volunteers  in  1898.  He  was  honorably 
discharged  from  volunteer  service  in  1901 
and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  and 
judge-advocate  of  the  United  States 
Army.  He  was  promoted  to  be  colonel 
and  judge-advocate-general  in  1903; 
brigadier-general  and  judge-advocate- 
general  in  1911;  and  major-general  and 
judge-advocate-general  in  1917.  He  saw 
service  in  the  Philippine  Islands;  in  Man- 
churia with  the  Japanese  Army;  and  in 
Cuba,  where  he  was  Secretarv  of  State 
and  of  Justice  from  1906  to  1908.     From 


May,  1917,  to  July,  1919,  he  was  provost- 
marshal-general  of  the  United  States 
Army.  In  this  capacity  he  had  general 
charge  of  the  carrying  out  of  the  draft 
laws  and  in  this  work  performed  distin- 
guished service.  In  March,  1919,  he  acted 
as  advisor  to  the  Cuban  Government  on 
the  subject  of  changes  in  the  election 
legislation.  He  was  awarded  the  Dis- 
tinguished Service  Medal  "for  especially 
meritorious  and  conspicious  service"  as 
provost-marshal-general  during  the  war. 

CROWE,  EYRE,  an  English  historical 
and  genre  painter;  born  in  London,  in 
October,  1824;  studied  painting  in  the 
atelier  of  Paul  Delaroche  in  Paris.  He 
went  with  that  artist  to  Rome  in  1844, 
Acting  as  amanuensis  to  William  M. 
Thackeray,  he  visited  the  United  States 
in  1852-1853.  He  was  elected  an  Asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1876. 
Among  his  paintings  are  "Goldsmith's 
Mourners"  (1863);  "Friends"  (1871); 
"French  Savants  in  Egypt"  (1875); 
"The  Rehearsal"  (1876);  "Marat:  13 
July,  1793,"  "The  Blind  Beggar,"  and 
"The  Queen  of  the  May,"  in  1879; 
"Queen  Eleanor's  Tomb"  and  "For- 
feits," in  1880;  and  "Sir  Roger  de  Cov- 
erley  and  the  Spectator  at  Westminster 
Abbey"  (1881)  ;  "'How  Happy  Could 
I  be  with  Either!"  and  "The  Defense  of 
London  in  1643"  (1882);  "Old  Porch, 
Evesham,"  in  1884,  etc.  He  wrote  "With 
Thackeray  in  America"  (1893) ;  "Haunts 
and  Homes  of  Thackeray"  (1897).  He 
died  in  1910. 

CROWFOOT,  a  troublesome  weed 
found  in  gardens  and  pastures.  Many 
varieties,  such  as  the  spearwort,  abound 
in  moist  places,  bearing  white  flowers 
and  spreading  over  ditches  and  ponds. 
The  weed  when  eaten  by  cattle  imparts 
a  strong  flavor  to  dairy  products. 

CROWN,  a  wreath  or  garland  for  the 
head,  given  as  the  reward  of  victory  or 
of  some  noble  deed.  Among  the  Roman.« 
they  were  of  several  kinds :  Castrensis,  or 
vallaris,  given  to  the  individual  who  first 
scaled  the  rampart  in  assaulting  the 
camp  of  an  enemy;  muralis,  to  him  who 
first  mounted  the  breach  in  storming  a 
town;  navalis,  to  him  who  first  boarded 
an  enemy's  ship;  obsidionalis,  given  by 
soldiers  who  had  been  beleaguered  to  the 
commander  by  whom  they  had  been  re- 
lieved; and  civica  (the  most  honorable 
of  all),  bestowed  on  him  who  had  saved 
the  life  of  a  citizen. 

The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  orns- 
ment  of  the  head,  worn  as  a  badge  of 
sovereignty  by  emperors,  kings  and 
princes.  Those  worn  by  the  nobility  are 
called  coronets.  That  worn  by  the  Pope 
is  more  commojily  called  a  tiara.     The 


CROYDON 


209 


CRUELTY  TO   CHILDREH" 


monarchical  practice  of  wearing  crowns 
on  state  occasions  is  of  considerable  an- 
tiquity. Tarquinius  Priscus,  616  B.  c. 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Roman 
sovereign  who  wore  one.  Constantine, 
who  began  to  reign  in  A.  D,  306,  wore  a 
crown.  From  him,  it  is  said,  the  several 
European  kings,  from  the  4th  to  the  8th 
centuries,  borrowed  the  practice. 

CROYDON,  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  England,  in  Courkty 
Surrey,  10  miles  S.  of  London,  of  which 
it  is  practically  a  suburb;  near  the 
sources  of  the  Wandle,  and  near  the  Ban- 
stead  Downs.  The  town,  which  is  a 
favorite  residence  of  merchants  and  busi- 
ness men,  retired  tradesmen,  etc.,  is  sur- 
rounded by  fine  villas,  mansions,  and 
pleasure-grounds.  It  is  a  place  of  ancient 
origin,  but  from  its  recent  rapid  increase 
is  almost  entirely  new.  Of  special  in- 
terest are  the  remains  of  the  ancient  pal- 
ace, long  a  residence  of  the  archbishops 
of  Canterbury.     Pop.  (1919)  184,239. 

CROZET  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  four 
uninhabited  islands  in  the  South  Indian 
Ocean,  between  Kerguelen  and  Prince 
Edward  Islands.  They  are  all  of  vol- 
canic origrin,  and  the  most  easterly  of 
them.  East  Island,  has  peaks  exceeding 
4,000  feet.  The  largest,  Possession 
Island,  is  about  20  miles  long  by  10 
broad. 

CROZIER,  WILLIAM,  an  American 
military  officer,  bom  in  Ohio,  Feb.  19, 
1855,  and  graduated  from  West  Point  in 
1876.  After  rising  to  the  rank  of  major 
in  the  regular  army  he  was  offered  a  pro- 
fessorship in  the  West  Point  Academy, 
but  declined  the  appointment  to  become 
brigadier-general,  chief  of  ordnance,  in 
1901.  In  July,  1918  he  was  made  a 
major-general  and  retired  from  active 
service  at  the  close  of  that  year.  General 
Cvozier  served  in  several  campaigns 
aga'nst  the  Indians  and  was  with  General 
Buffirarton,  the  inventor  of  the  disappear- 
ing guii  carriage.  In  addition  to  his  re- 
gular duties  as  an  army  officer  he  was 
military  adviser  to  the  American  delega- 
tion to  the  Hague  Conference  and  Presi- 
dent of  the  Army  War  College  during 
1901  and  1902. 

CRUCIBLE,  a  melting  of  earthenware, 
porcelain,  or  of  refractory  metal,  _  or 
of  plumbago,  adapted  to  withstand  high 
temperatures,  without  sensibly  softening, 
to  stand  sudden  and  great  alterations  of 
temperature  without  cracking,  to  resist 
the  corrosive  action  of  the  substance 
fused  in  them  and  the  action  of  the  fuel. 
They  are  mentioned  by  the  Greek  authors, 
are  shown  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  paint- 
ings, and  were  made  by  the  old  alchemists 


for  their  own  use.    Metallic  crucibles  are 
of  platinum,  silver,  or  iron. 

CRUCIFER.ffi,  an  order  of  hypogynous 
exogens,  alliance  cistales. 

CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS,  PREVEN- 
TION OF.  In  the  common  law  animals 
were  considered  merely  as  property  and 
cruelty  to  them  was  punishable  only 
when  it  became  a  nuisance.  The  general 
humanitarian  movement  in  England 
which  took  many  phases  tending  to  rem- 
edy abuses  did  not  fail  to  make  the  a;t- 
tempt  here.  In  1824  a  society  was  or- 
ganized and  after  some  years  secured 
the  passage  of  a  statute  fining  anyone 
who  "shall  cruelly  beat,  ill-treat,  over- 
drive, abuse,  or  torture"  animals  men- 
tioned in  the  statute.  Henry  Bergh  was 
the  leader  in  securing  similar  acts  of  the 
State  legislat;;res  in  the  United  States, 
and  before  the  end  of  the  century  nearly 
all  the  States  had  made  cruelty  to  ani- 
mals a  punishable  offense.  One  of  the 
most  effective  societies  for  the  prevention 
of  cruelty  to  animals  is  that  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Its  aim  is  the  education  of  the 
owners  of  animals  rather  than  by  threat- 
ening them  with  the  law.  It  has  agi- 
tated to  secure  the  use  of  proper  harness, 
the  abolition  of  the  check  rein,  and  the 
discontinuance  of  the  practice  of  dock- 
ing horses'  tails.  In  1874  they  provided 
the  first  ambulance  for  the  removal  of 
disabled  animals  and  devised  a  derrick 
for  hoisting  them  out  of  holes.  Some 
States  have  societies  providing  homes 
for  stray  cats  and  dogs  and  places  where 
they  can  be  put  to  death  without  pain. 
King  Edward  VII.,  when  Prince  of 
Wales,  was  much  interested  in  the  move- 
ment to  prevent  cruelty  to  horses  and  his 
precept  and  example  greatly  aided  the 
work  of  the  societies  in  England. 

CRUELTY  TO  CHILDREN,  PRE- 
VENTION OF.  The  influence  of  the 
Roman  law  in  conferring  such  absolute 
power  over  children  in  the  parents  oper- 
ated to  restrain  any  attempts  to  inter- 
fere on  the  part  of  outsiders.  It  was  not 
until  1875  that  the  first  Society  for  the 
Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children,  that  * 
of  Nov/  York,  was  founded.  By  1920 
societies  having  for  their  object  the  pre- 
vention of  cruelty  to  children  numbered 
more  than  350.  Their  work  is  to  discover 
cases  of  cruelty  and  present  the  facts  to 
the  courts  for  action.  The  main  object 
of  the  societies  is  to  see  that  the  acts 
passed  by  the  legislature  are  enforced, 
and  in  this  respect  also  they  perform  an 
invaluable  service.  In  general  the  so- 
cieties are  maintained  by  private  sub- 
scriptions, but  in  some  States,  such  as 
Colorado,  the  State  makes  a  semi-annual 
appropriation,  and  in  1901  the  Legisla-  l^ 
ture  of  that  State  made  the  society  the       -? 


CBUIESHANE 


210 


CRYOLITE 


"State    Bureau   of   Child   and   Animal 
Protection." 

CRUtKSHANK,  GEORGE,  an  Eng- 
lish pictorial  satirist;  born  in  London, 
Sept.  27,  1792.  A  publication,  "The 
Scourge"  (1811-1816),  afforded  scope 
for  the  display  of  his  satiric  genius,  and 
from  that  time  forth  he  continued  to  pur- 
sue with  remarkable  success  this  his  true 
vein.  His  illustrations  for  Hone's  polit- 
ical squibs  and  pamphlets,  and  especially 
those  dealing  with  the  Queen  Caroline 
trial,  attracted  much  attention;  but  in 
the  exquisite  series  of  colored  etchings 
contributed  to  the  "Humorist"  (1819- 
1821),  and  in  the  etchings  to  the  "Points 
of  Humour"  (1823-1824),  did  his  true 
artistic  power  begin  to  be  visible.  This 
second,  and  in  many  ways  finest,  period 
of  his  art,  represented  by  these  works, 
culminated  in  the  etchings  to  "Peter 
Schlemihl"  (1823),  and  to  Grimm's  "Ger- 
man Popular  Stories"  (1824-1826),  His 
numerous  plates  in  "Bentley's  Miscel- 
lany" mark  a  third  period  of  his  art,  in 
which  he  aimed  at  greater  elaboration 
and  completeness.  The  finest  of  these 
are  the  series  to  Dickens*  "Oliver 
Twist,"  to  Ainsworth's  "Jack  Sheppard," 
and  in  "The  Tower  of  London"  and 
"Windsor  Castle."  As  a  water-colorist 
he  left  work  marked  by  considerable  skill 
and  delicacy.  In  his  late  years  he  de- 
voted himself  to  oil-painting.  His  most 
important  picture  was  "Worship  of 
Bacchus"  (1862).    He  died  Feb.  1,  1878. 

CRUISER,  one  who  cruises  about; 
specifically,  an  armed  vessel  which 
cruises  about,  either  to  protect  the  com- 
merce of  its  own  country  or  to  inflict 
damage  on  that  of  another.  The  cruiser 
rates  just  below  the  battleship  and  just 
above  the  gunboat.  An  armored  cruiser 
has  side  or  vertical  armor  and  horizontal 
or  deck  armor.  A  protected  cruiser  has 
horizontal  or  deck  armor  only.  An  un- 
protected cruiser  has  no  armor.  See 
Navy. 

CRUSADE,  a  military  expedition 
under  the  banner  of  the  cross,  as  that 
against  the  infidels  of  the  Holy  Land; 
also  any  war  or  expedition  undertaken 
on  pretense  of  defending  the  cause  of 
religion;  a  romantic  or  enthusiastic  en- 
terprise; as,  a  crusade  against  vice.  In 
the  European  history  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  crusades  were  wars  undertaken 
by  confederacies  of  chiefs  and  soldiers, 
with  a  religious  object.  Those  which 
were  engaged  in  by  a  great  part  of  the 
nations  of  Europe  for  the  recovery  of 
Palestine  from  the  infidels,  are  now  fre- 
quently denoted  by  this  peculiar  name. 
The  term  crusade  is  derived  from  the 
sacred  symbol  of  the  cross,  which  was 
borne  by  the  warriors  engaged  in  it  over 


their  arms;  the  color  of  the  cross  often 
served  to  designate  the  nation  of  the 
soldier;  as  the  white  cross  on  a  red 
ground,  France;  the  red  cross  on  a  white 
ground,  England. 

The  principal  crusades  for  the  con- 
quest of  Palestine  were:  1.  The  first, 
A.  D.  1096,  excited  by  the  preaching  of 
Peter  the  Hermit  and  the  encouragement 
of  Pope  Urban  II.,  in  which  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon  headed  the  Christians,  who 
made  themselves  masters  of  Jerusalem 
and  a  great  part  of  Palestine.  2.  The 
second,  a.  d.  1142,  in  which  Conrad  III. 
of  Germany  and  Louis  VII.  of  France 
led  armies  to  complete  the  conquest  of 
Palestine,  but  without  success.  3.  The 
third,  A.  D.  1189,  was  occasioned  by  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Sultan  Saladin ; 
Frederick  (Barbarossa)  of  Germany, 
Philip  Augustus  of  France,  and  Richard 
Goeur  de  Lion  of  England,  were  the  chief 
among  the  confederate  monarchs;  the 
capture  of  Acre  was  almost  the  only 
fruit  of  this  great  expedition.  4,  The 
fourth  crusade  was  conducted  by  the 
King  of  Hungary,  Andrew  II.,  in  1217. 
5.  The  fifth  (1228)  was  conducted  by 
Frederick  II.  (grandson  of  Barbarossa), 
who  recovered  Jerusalem,  but  for  a  short 
time.  6.  The  sixth,  a.  d.  1248,  by  Saint 
Louis,  King  of  France,  against  Egypt, 
but  without  success. 

Among  other  wars  which  have  been  at 
various  times  denoted  by  the  name  of 
crusade,  that  against  Raymond,  Count 
of  Toulouse,  and  his  heretical  vassals, 
the  Albigeois,  of  which  the  first  leader 
was  the  famous  Simon  de  Montfort,  is 
the  most  memorable. 

CRUSTACEANS,  a  class  of  articulated 
animals,  agreeing  with  insects,  arachni- 
da,  and  myriopoda,  in  having  articulated 
limbs,  but  differing  from  them  in  im- 
portant respects,  and  particularly  from 
all  of  them  in  the  adaptation  of  the 
organs  of  respiration  to  an  aquatic  life, 
even  those  of  them  which  live  on  land 
being  generally  inhabitants  of  damp 
places,  and  breathing  by  a  kind  of  gills. 
Some  of  the  lowest  and  minute  aquatic 
crustaceans,  indeed,  are  not  provided 
with  gills;  but  with  the  aeration  of  the 
blood  is  supposed  to  take  place  through 
the  surface  of  the  body.  The  crusta- 
ceans derive  their  name  from  the  hard 
armor  which  in  most  of  them  covers 
their  whole  body. 

CRYOLITE,  a  mineral  composed  of 
aluminum,  sodium,  and  fluorine.  It  is 
found  in  large  quantities  in  Greenland. 
The  name,  which  signifies  ice  or  frost 
stone,  was  given  it  by  Abildgaard,  who 
discovered  it  in  1800.  It  also  occurs  m 
the  Ural  Mountains,  but  not  abundantly. 
The  mines  at  Ivigtut,  Greenland,  have 


CRYPT 


211 


CRYSTAL 


been  worked  since  1857,  and  are  appar- 
ently inexhaustible.  None  of  the  finest 
specimens,  however,  reach  the  United 
States,  as  the  mines  are  owned  by  the 
Danish  government  and  the  best  of  their 
product  is  taken  to  Copenhagen.  Among 
the  resulting  products  are  soap,  baking 
soda,  washing  soda,  aluminum  sulphate, 
and  a  kind  of  glass  which  resembles 
porcelain. 

CRYPT,  originally  a  subterranean 
cell  or  cave,  especially  one  constructed 
for  sepulture.  From  the  usage  of  these 
by  the  early  Christians  crypt  came  to 
signify  a  church  underground  or  the 
lower  story  of  a  cathedral  or  church.  It 
is  usually  set  apart  for  monumental  pur- 
poses, and  is  sometimes  used  as  a  chapel. 
The  crypt  is  a  common  feature  of  cathe- 
drals, being  always  at  the  east  end, 
under  the  chancel  or  apse.  The  largest 
in  England  is  that  of  Canterbury  Cathe- 
dral. 

CRYPTOGRAPHY,  the  art  of  writing 
in  secret  characters  or  cipher,  or  with 
sympathetic  ink.  The  simplest  method 
consists  in  choosing  for  every  letter  of 
the  alphabet  some  sign,  or  another  letter 
or  group  of  letters.  Even  the  more 
complex,  however,  present,  as  a  rule, 
only  temporary  difficulty  to  an  expert. 
The  fact  that  the  most  frequently  recur- 
ring letter  in  the  English  language  is 
the  letter  e,  that  the  most  common  double 
vowels  are  ea  and  ou,  that  r,  8,  and  t  are 
the  most  frequent  terminal  letters,  etc., 
are  of  no  small  assistance  in  forming  a 
key  to  any  given  cryptogram.  See 
Cipher  Writing. 

CRYPTOPROCTA,  a  fierce  carnivorous 
animal  of  Madagascar,  forming  a  genus 
and  species  by  itself.  It  is  plantigrade^ 
but  resembles  a  weasel,  three  feet  long, 
and  attacks  the  largest  animals  with 
great  ferocity. 

CRYSTAL  (ice),  in  chemistry  and 
mineralogy,  a  clear  transparent  body, 
which,  by  the  mutual  attracti'^n  of  its 
particles,  has  assumed  the  form  of  some 
one  of  the  regular  geometric  solids,  being 
bounded  by  a  certain  number  of  plane 
surfaces.  A  crystal  consists  of  three 
parts.  First,  plane  surfaces,  called 
faces,  which  are  said  to  be  similar  when 
they  are  equal  to  each  other  and  are 
similarly  situated;  dissimilar,  when  they 
are  unequal  or  have  a  different  position. 
Second,  edges,  formed  by  the  meeting  of 
two  faces.  They  are  said  to  be  similar 
■when  formed  by  similar  faces;  dissimi- 
lar, by  dissimilar  faces.  Equal  edges 
are  formed  when  the  faces  are  inclined 
at  the  same  angle  to  one  another;  un- 
equal, when  they  are  inclined  at  different 


angles.  Third,  solid  angles,  formed  by 
the  meeting  of  three  or  more  faces;  and 
in  this  case  also  they  are  similar  and  dis- 
similar, equal  and  unequal  angled  edges. 
The  chemist  procures  crystals  either  by 
fusing  the  bodies  by  heat  and  then  allow- 
ing them  gradually  to  cool,  or  by  dis- 
solving them  in  a  fluid  and  then  ab- 
stracting the  fluid  by  slow  evaporation. 
The  method  of  describing  and  classifying 
crystals  (now  universally  adopted)  is 
based  upon  certain  imaginary  lines 
drawn  through  the  crystal,  and  called  its 
axes.  There  are  seven  of  these  systems, 
six  of  which  refer  to  three  axes  and  one 
to  four,  and  they  are  subdivided  accord- 
ing as  the  axes  are  at  right  angles 
(orchometric)  or  not  (chinometric). 
When  the  axes  are  equal  and  at  right 
angles  the  system  is  called  isometric. 
When  the  angles  are  right  angles,  but 
only  two  are  equal,  the  system  is  called 
tetragonal.  When  the  three  axes  are  at 
right  angles  but  all  unequal,  the  system 
is  called  orthorhombic.  The  classes  are 
as  follows:  First,  the  monometric,  regu- 
lar, or  cubic  system,  in  which  the  axes 
are  equal  and  at  right  angles  to  one 
another;  second,  the  square  prismatic  or 
dimetric  system,  in  which  the  axes  are 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  while 
two  are  equal,  the  third  is  longer  or 
shorter;  third,  the  right  prismatic, 
rhombic,  or  trimetric  system,  in  which 
the  axes  are  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  but  all  are  of  different  lengths; 
fourth,  the  hexagonal  or  rhombohedral 
system,  which  has  four  axes,  three  in 
one  plane  inclined  to  each  other  at  60 
degrees,  the  fourth  perpendicular  to  this 
plane;  fifth,  the  monoclinic  or  oblique 
system,  in  which  two  axes  are  at  right 
ar.j-les  and  the  third  is  inclined  to  their 
plane;  sixth,  the  diclinic  or  doubly 
oblique  system,  in  which  two  axes  are  at 
right  angles,  the  third  oblique  to  both; 
seventh,  the  triclinic  system,  in  which 
the  three  axes  are  inclined  to  each  other 
at  any  an^'ie  other  than  a  right  angle. 

The  power  of  forming  crystals  is  pos- 
sessed by  a  great  majority  of  inorganic 
combinations  whether  natural  or  artifi- 
cial, and  also  by  a  large  number  of 
organic  chemical  bodies.  The  decree  of 
this  capacity  varies  greatly  in  different 
substances,  so  that  certain  chemical  com- 
binations are  found  only  in  crystals, 
others  rarely.  Bodies  which  entirely 
lack  the  power  of  forming  crystals  or 
crystalline  aggregates  are  called  amor- 
phic. The  size  of  crystals  also  varies 
greatly.  Some  are  very  large,  others  are 
only  aggregations  of  microscopic  crys- 
tals. The  infinitesimally  small  crystals 
are  called  microliths.  Crystals  grow  by 
the    deposit    of    new    horizontal    layers 


CRYSTALS 


212 


CBYSTALS 


CRYSTALS 
No.  1,  Octahedron;  No.  2,  Hexahedron:  No.  3,  Rhombic  Dodekahedron  ;  No.  4,  Tetra-Hexahedron*. 
No.  5,  Triakisicosahedron  ;  No.  6,  Icositetrahedron  ;  No.  7,  Hexoctahedron  ;  Nos.  8  and  9,  Combina- 
tion of  Hexa  and  Octahedron  ;  No.  10,  Combination  of  Hexahedron  and  Dodekahedron  ;  No.  11, 
Combination  of  Octahedron  and  Dodekahedron  ;  Nos.  12,  13,  14,  15  and  16,  Various  combinations 
of  regular  systems ;  No.  17,  Derivation  of  Tetrahedron  from  an  Octahedron  ;  No.  18,  Trigonal 
Dodekahedron;  No.  19,  Deltahedron  ;  No.  20,  Hexakisoctahedron  or  Hexoctahedron;  No.  21, 
Pentagonal  Dodekahedron  ;  No.  22,  Dyakisdodekahedron  or  Diploid ;  No.  23,  Tetragonal 
Protopyramid  ;  No.  24,  Tetragonal  Deuteropyramid  ;  No.  25,  Ditetragonal  Pyramid  ;  No.  26.  Tetrag- 
onal combinations. 


CRYSTALLINE  ROCKS 


213 


CTESIPHON 


on  their  surfaces,  always  keeping  the 
characteristic  angles  exactly  the  same. 
Even  when  the  growth  of  crystals  in  dif- 
ferent directions  takes  place,  with  un- 
equal rapidity,  and  distorted  forms  arise, 
as  is  often  the  case,  the  law  still  holds 
good,  the  inclination  of  the  adjacent 
planes  and  the  angles  which  they  enclose 
are  the  same.  Hence  the  importance 
and  the  value  of  crystallometry  and 
the  science  of  crystallography  or  crys- 
talology.  Crystals  occur  with  an  almost 
infinite  variety  of  forms — calcareous 
spar  having  alone  more  than  200  forms 
in  more  than  a  thousand  different  com- 
binations, and  some  crystals  have  as 
many  as  300  different  sides.  But  all 
crystals  may  be  grouped  in  accordance 
with  certain  systems. 

CRYSTALLINE  ROCKS,  a  name 
given  to  all  rocks  having  a  crystalline 
structure.  The  crystalline  texture  may 
either  be  original  or  superinduced.  Thus 
some  crystalline  rocks,  such  as  certain 
calcareous  masses,  owe  their  origin  to 
chemical  precipitation  fi'om  water,  while 
others  again,  such  as  lavas,  have  consoli- 
dated from  a  state  of  igneous  fusion. 
There  is  another  large  class  of  crystal- 
line rocks,  the  crystalline  granules  of 
which  present  a  remarkable  foliated 
character — that  is,  they  are  arranged  in 
more  or  less  parallel  layers.  This  pecu- 
liar schistose  structure  appears  to  have 
been  superinduced — the  original  rocks 
having  been  either  fragmental  or  crystal- 
line or  both — and  the  result  of  greal;  heat 
and  pressure.  Such  highly  altered  rocks 
occur  in  the  neighborhood  of  masses  of 
granite,  and  cover  wide  regions,  where 
there  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that 
the  strata  have  been  subjected  to  enor- 
mous compression.  It  is  therefore  be- 
lieved that  pressure  and  the  heat  engen- 
dered by  great  earth-movements,  and 
the  intrusion  of  plutonic  igneous  matter, 
are  among  the  most  potent  agencies  in 
the  production  of  schistose  structure. 

CRYSTALLITES,  minute  non-polariz- 
ing  bodies  (the  result  of  incipient  crys- 
tallization) occurring  in  the  vitreous 
portions  of  igneous  rocks. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,  the  science 
which  describes  or  delineates  the  form 
of  crystals.  In  A.  D.  1672,  Rome  de  Lisle 
published  his  "Essay  on  Crystallog- 
raphy," but  the  honor  of  being  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  science  is  given  to 
the  Abbe  Rene-Just  Haiiy.  He  was  born 
at  St.  Just,  in  what  is  now  called  the 
department  of  Oise,  and,  among  other 
works,  published  his  "Essay  on  the 
Structure  of  Crystals,"  in  1784,  as  also 
his  "Treatise  on  Mineralogy"  and  his 
"Treatise  on  Crystallography,"  both   in 


1822 — the  year  of  his  death.  His  view 
was  that  all  the  varieties  of  crystals 
which  a  particular  mineral  may  assume 
are  derivable  from  one  simple  form, 
which  is  the  type  of  the  mineral.  That 
form  he  attempted  to  ascertain  in  each 
individual  case.  Essentially  the  same 
view  is  still  held.  Imaginary  lines  may 
be  supposed  to  be  drawn  through  a  sim- 
ple crystal  longitudinally  from  end  to 
end,  transversely  from  side  to  side,  or  in 
either  of  those  ways,  or  obliquely  from 
angle  to  angle,  around  which  imaginary 
lines  all  the  particles  of  matter  compos- 
ing the  crystal  may  be  supposed  to  ar- 
range themselves.  Such  imaginary  lines 
are  called  the  axes  of  the  crystal.  If 
skillfully  chosen  they  become  somewhat 
more  than  imaginary  lines,  for  they  may 
coincide  with  the  optical  axes  of  the 
crystal  if  it  possess  double  refraction. 
According  to  the  number,  relative  length, 
position,  and  inclination  to  each  other  of 
these  lines  depends  the  outward  form  of 
the  ci'ystal. 

Dana  enimierates  the  following  "sys- 
tems of  crystallization": 

(1)  Having  the  axes  equal — ^the  Iso- 
metric system. 

(2)  Having  only  the  lateral  axes 
equal  —  the  Tetragonal  and  Hexagonal 
systems. 

(3)  Having  the  axes  unequal  —  the 
orthorhombic,  monoclinic,  and  triclinic 
systems.    See  Crystal. 

CTENOPHORA,  an  order  of  Actinozoa, 
consisting  of  marine  animals  which  swim 
by  means  of  ctenophores.  The  body, 
which  is  gelatinous  and  transparent,  is 
generally  more  or  less  oval  in  form. 
Most  of  the  species  have  a  pair  of  very 
extensible  filiform  tentacles.  There  are 
two  tribes,  eurystomata  and  stenostovw- 
ta,  the  first  containing  the  family 
heroidse,  and  the  second  the  families 
saccate,  lohatas,  and  tasniatas.  The 
ctenophora  are  found  in  all  seas. 

CTESIAS,  a  Greek  historian  of  about 
400  B.  C,  contemporary  with  Xenophon 
and  partly  with  Herodotus.  He  was  a 
physician,  and  lived  for  17  years  at  the 
court  of  Persia.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
Persia,"  of  which  little  remains. 

CTESIPHON,  a  city  of  Babylonia,  on 
the  E.  bank  of  the  Tigris  and  opposite 
Seleucia,  the  common  winter  residence 
of  the  Parthian  kings,  and  finally  the 
capital  of  the  Pai'thian  kingdom.  It  was 
conquered  by  the  Romans  in  A.  d.  115, 
and  destroyed  by  the  Arabs  under  Omar 
in  637.  Its  ruins  still  attest  its  former 
magnificence. 

CTESIPHON,  BATTLE  OF,  an  im- 
portant military  engagement,  fought  on 
Nov.  22,   1915,  between   Turkish  forces 


CUANDO 


214 


CUBA 


under  Nuredin  Pasha  and  the  British 
expedition,  under  General  Townshend, 
which  advanced  from  Amara.  in  Septem- 
bre,  1915,  along  the  Tigris,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  capturing  Bagdad.  At  no  time 
did  the  British  force  amount  to  more  than 
four  brigades,  two-thirds  of  which  were 
composed  of  East  Indians,  while  the 
Turks  consisted  of  at  least  four  divi- 
sions, with  a  strong  preponderance  in 
artillei-y.  Ctesiphon,  renowned  in  times 
of  antiquity,  was  at  this  time  only  a 
large  village  on  the  Tigris,  18  miles 
below  Bagdad.  Close  by  stand  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  palace  built  by  the  Persian 
emperors,  containing  the  greatest  vault- 
ed room  in  the  world.  Here  the  armies 
of  the  Prophet  had  also  achieved  one  of 
their  greatest  victories,  and  it  was  be- 
cause of  this  historic  significance  to  the 
followers  of  Mohammed  that  the  Turkish 
commander  decided  to  make  a  deter- 
mined stand  at  this  point.  As  a  military 
engagement,  however,  the  encounter  be- 
tween the  two  armies  was  a  victory  for 
the  British,  an  entire  Turkish  division 
being  destroyed  and  1,600  prisoners 
taken.  But  the  success  was  dearly  paid 
for;  the  British  lost  643  in  killed,  3,330 
in  wounded  and  over  500  not  accounted 
for,  out  of  a  total  of  only  25,000  men. 
In  spite  of  their  success,  the  British 
were  compelled  to  retire  to  Kut-el- 
Amara,  where  they  were  besieged  and 
finally  captured  by  the  Turks. 

CUANDO,  a  name  of  the  Chobe,  a 
tributary  of  the  Zambesi. 

CITBA,  the  largest  and  most  westerly 
of  the  West  Indies.  It  stretches  in  the 
form  of  a  narrow  crescent,  convex  on 
the  N.  side,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  which  it  divides  into  two 
channels,  the  N.  W.,  124  miles  wide,  and 
the  S.  W.,  97%  miles  at  its  narrowest 
part. 

Topography. — Cuba  is  775  miles  long 
from  Cape  Maysi  on  the  E.  to  Cape  An- 
tonio on  the  W.,  with  a  breadth  vary- 
ing from  30  miles  to  160  miles,  a  coast- 
line of  1,976  miles,  and  an  area  of  44,- 
215  square  miles.^  Only  about  one-third 
of  the  coast-line  is  accessible  to  vessels, 
the  remainder  being  beset  by  reefs  and 
banks.  _  The  shores,  low  and  flat,  are  lia- 
ble to  inundations,  but  there  are  numer- 
ous excellent  havens.  A  watershed 
running  lengthwise  through  the  island, 
rises  into  mountainous  heights  only  in 
the  S.  E.,  where  are  the  Sierra  de  Maes- 
tra,  shooting  up  in  the  Pico  de  Tar- 
quinto  to  8,400  feet,  and  the  Sierra  del 
Cobre  (copper).  The  mountains,  com.- 
posed  of  granite  overlaid  with  calca- 
reous rocks,  and  containing  minerals,  es- 
pecially copper  and  iron,  are  clothed  in 
almost  perennial  verdure,  wooded  to  the 


summits.  Carboniferous  strata  appear 
in  the  W.,  schistose  rocks  on  the  N. 
coast.  The  limestone  rocks  abound  in 
caverns,  with  magnificent  stalactites. 
Mineral  waters  are  plentiful.  The 
rivers  running  N.  and  S.,  are  navigable 
for  only  a  few  miles  by  small  boats,  but 
are  very  serviceable  for  irrigation  of  the 
plantations,  and  supply  excellent  drink- 
mg  water.  The  climate,  more  temper- 
ate than  in  the  other  West  Indian  is- 
lands, is  salubrious  in  the  elevated  in- 
terior, but  the  coasts  are  the  haunt  of 
fever  and  ague.  No  month  of  the  year 
is  free  from  rain,  the  greatest  rainfall 
being  in  May,  June,  and  July.  Earth- 
quakes are  frequent  in  the  E.  Hurri- 
canes, less  frequent  than  in  Jamaica, 
sometimes  cause  widespread  desolation. 
A  hurricane  in  1846  demolished  1,872 
houses  and  sank  216  vessels,  and  another 
in  1870  caused  the  loss  of  2,000  lives. 

Soil,  Productions,  Etr. — The  soil  of 
Cuba  is  a  marvel  of  richness,  and  a  large 
part  is  still  covered  with  virgin  forest 
containing  magnificent  mahogany,  cedar, 
ebony,  logwood,  lignum-vitae,  pine  and 
caiguaran.  The  vegetation  of  Cuba  also 
includes  tamarind,  palms,  ferns,  lianas, 
etc.  Among  the  cultivated  products  are 
sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  cacao,  rice,  maize, 
cotton,  esculent  roots  and  tropical  fruits. 
Among  the  animals  are  a  species  of  tail- 
less rat  peculiar  to  Cuba,  a  great  abun- 
dance of  birds,  including  the  mocking- 
bird, a  species  of  vulture  (valuable  as  a 
scavenger),  woodpecker,  partridge,  fla- 
mingo, and  albatross.  Of  noxious  ani- 
mals and  insects  there  are  the  crocodile, 
scorpion,  and  mosquitoes.  The  rivers 
and  seas  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  the 
turtle  abounding  in  the  shallows  and 
sandy  places  of  the  beach.  The  chief 
crops  of  the  country  are  sugar  and  to- 
bacco. The  abnormal  demand  for  sugar 
during  the  World  War,  especially  from 
the  date  of  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  it,  produced  conditions  in 
Cuba  which  resulted  in  great  prosperity 
among  the  sugar  planters  and,  in  fact, 
throughout  all  classes  on  the  island. 
The  sugar  crop  in  1918  was  4,048,480 
tons,  and  in  1919,  4,446,229  tons.  The 
total  area  planted  to  sugar  was  nearly 
1,400,000  acres,  and  there  were  over  200 
sugar  mills  in  operation.  The  vast  specu- 
lation in  sugar  in  1919  and  1920  resulted 
in  financial  conditions  which  made  it  ne- 
cessary to  take  stringent  measures  to 
prevent  complete  collapse  of  the  bank- 
ing systeni.  A  moratorium  was  de- 
clared which  lasted  for  the  greater  paii; 
of  1920  and  into  1921.  The  value  of  the 
tobacco  manufactured  in  1918  was 
$13,829,627.  Other  important  produc- 
tions were  rum,  alcohol,  live  stock,  lum- 


CUBA 


215 


CUBA 


■ber.  Rich  jnineral  resources,  especially 
in  the  province  of  Oriente,  iron,  copper, 
zinc,  lead,  gold,  and  petroleum,  are  found 
there  in  abundance.  In  other  districts 
in  the  island  there  were  also  valuable 
mineral  deposits.  In  1919  there  were 
about  4,000  workmen  employed  in  the 
iron  mines.  Iron  was  exported  to  the 
United  States  averaging  50,000  tons  a 
month.  In  1918-1919  the  sugar  crop 
was  4,446,220  tons. 

Cwnmerce. — The  total  imports  in  1919 
were  $315,587,167,  and  the  exports, 
$447,221,963.  The  exports  in  the  order 
of  their  importance  were  sugar,  un- 
manufactured tobacco,  iron,  gold,  cop- 
per ores,  manufactured  tobacco,  molas- 
ses, hides  and  skins.  The  total  imports 
from  the  United  States  in  the  fiscal 
year  1920  amounted  to  $896,565,049.  The 
total  exports  to  the  United  States 
amounted  to  $235,469,608. 

Transpo7'tati07i. — There  were  in  1920 
3,200  miles  of  railway  in  Cuba.  The 
roads  having  the  longest  mileage  were 
the  United  Railways  of  Havana,  705; 
Cuba  Railroad,  589;  Cuban  Central 
Railroad,  389;  and  the  Western  Rail- 
road of  Havana,  147.  All  the  important 
towns  and  seaports  are  connected  by 
rail.  Many  large  sugar  estates  have 
private  lines  connecting  them  with  the 
main  lines.  Nearly  2,500  vessels  enter 
the  port  of  Havana  annually.  There  are 
about  230  telegraph  offices,  and  9  wire- 
less stations,  operated  by  the  govern- 
ment. 

Finance. — The  total  revenue  for  1918- 
1919  was  £12,982,000  and  the  expendi- 
tures amounted  to  £10,878,973.  The  prin- 
cipal items  of  income  are  customs  revenue 
and  the  tax  on  sugar.  The  chief  items 
of  expenditure  were  war  and  marine, 
and  instruction.  The  foreign  debt  in 
1819  amounted  to  52,874,500  pesos,  and 
the  internal  debt  to  30,731,900  pesos,  or 
a  total  debt  of  83,606,400  pesos. 

Education.  —  Secondary  and  higher 
education  is  given  by  the  government  in 
accordance  with  the  constitution.  Six 
secondary  schools  are  maintained,  one  in 
each  of  the  six  provinces.  The  total 
number  of  students  in  these  schools  was 
2,087.  In  1919  there  were  334,671 
pupils  in  the  public  schools  and  5,877 
teachers.  University  instruction  is  given 
at  the  University  of  Havana,  which  has 
faculties  of  liberal  arts  and  science, 
medicine  and  pharmacy,  and  law. 

Population,  Etc. — The  total  popula- 
tion, in  1919,  was  2,898,905;  Havana, 
697,583. 

Government. — The  government  of  Cuba 
is  that  of  a  republic,  under  a  constitution 
adopted  February  21,  1901.  The  execu- 
tive officers  include  a  President  and  Vice- 


President,  and  the  legislative  branch  in- 
cludes a  Senate  and  a  House  of 
Representatives.  The  first  election 
took  place  in  1902  and  the  control  of 
the  island  was  formally  transferred  to 
the  National  Government  on  May  20  of 
that  year.  The  cabinet  consists  of  secre- 
taries of  State,  Justice,  War,  Marine,  In- 
terior, Finance,  Agricultui'e,  Commerce, 
Labor,  Public  Instruction,  Public  Works, 
Sanitation,  and  Charity.  The  Senate  in- 
cludes 24  members,  four  from  each  prov- 
ince, and  the  House  of  Representatives, 
114,  one  for  each  25,000  inhabitants. 

History.  —  Cuba,  spoken  of  as  the 
Queen  of  the  Antilles,  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  1492,  the  discoverer  call- 
ing it  "the  most  beautiful  land  that  eyes 
ever  beheld."  It  was  first  settled  by 
Spaniards  at  Baracoa  in  1511.  Havana, 
first  settled  in  1519,  was  reduced  to  ashes 
by  the  French  in  1538,  and  again  in  1554. 
For  about  one  and  a  half  centuries  Cuba 
was  in  constant  danger  from  French, 
Dutch,  English,  and  West  Indian  filibus- 
ters. In  1762  the  English,  under  Lord 
Albemarle,  took  Havana,  which,  however, 
was  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  next  year  re- 
stored to  Spain.  From  1789  to  1845  the 
island  was  a  vast  slave-trading  center. 
Negro  insurrections  occured  in  1845  and 
1848.  In  the  latter  year  the  United 
States  offered  $100,000,000  to  Spain  for 
the  island.  Rebellions  against  Spanish 
rule  broke  out  in  1849  and  1868.  They 
were  put  down  after  long  campaigns ;  but 
in  1895  another  insurrection  attained  by 
1898  formidable  propoi'tions.  The  United 
States  battleship  "Maine,"  while  on  a 
friendly  visit,  was  blown  up  in  Havana 
harbor.  Fob.  15,  1898,  and  on  April  19, 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
adopted  resolutions  declaring  Cuba  inde 
pendent.  War  with  Spain  began  at 
once.  Cervera's  Spanish  fleet  was  de- 
stroyed at  Santiago  de  Cuba,  July  3, 
and  Santiago  and  its  large  army  were 
surrendered  on  July  17.  The  leading 
military  events  of  the  war,  so  far  as 
Cuba  was  concerned,  were  the  fight  at 
El  Caney  and  San  Juan,  the  battle  at 
Santiago,  and  the  struggle  before  Las 
Guasimas.  Under  the  treaty  of  peace  the 
island  was  evacuated  Jan.  1,  1899,  the 
United  States  then  formally  assuming 
the  government,  till  the  Cubans  had 
adopted  a  written  constitution  and  in- 
stalled a  satisfactory  native  government. 

A  Constitutional  Convention  assem- 
bled in  Havana  in  Nov.,  1900,  when  a 
constitution  providing  for  a  republican 
form  of  government  was  adopted.  There- 
upon the  United  States  Congress  author- 
ized the  transfer  of  the  government,  un- 
der certain  conditions,  which  were  con- 
firmed in  permanent  treaty  between  Cuba 


CUBE 


218 


CUCKOO  FLOWER 


and  the  United  States  in  May,  1903.  The 
first  Congress  of  the  Cuban  Government 
met  in  Havana,  Ivlay  5,  1902.  Aug.  14, 
1902,  the  Cuban  Government  authorized 
a  loan  of  $35,000,000,  redeemable  in  30 
years,  the  object  being  to  assist  sugar- 
cane growers.  A  reciprocity  treaty  with 
the  United  States  was  signed  on  Dec. 
12,  1902. 

An  insurrection  broke  out  in  1906, 
which  necessitated  intervention  on  the 
part  of  the  United  States.  A  provisional 
government  was  established  in  August  of 
that  year,  which  continued  until  January 
24,  1909,  when  the  American  authorities 
again  evacuated  the  island,  turning  the 
administration  over  to  the  newly  elected 
president,  Jose  Miguel  Gomez. 

The  government  prospered  under  the 
administration  of  General  Gomez,  but  in 
1911  discontent  of  the  old  soldiers  who 
felt  that  they  had  not  been  sufficiently 
rewarded  for  their  services  led  to  upris- 
ings. There  was  a  threat  of  further 
American  intervention,  but  the  revolt 
was  quelled  by  the  authorities  and  order 
was  quickly  restored.  In  1912  Mario 
Menocal  was  elected  president.  He  at 
once  addressed  himself  for  financial  and 
economic  reforms,  and  in  1914  secured  a 
large  loan  from  the  United  States.  Pres- 
ident Menocal  was  re-elected  in  1916.  Up 
to  the  declaration  of  war  by  the  United 
States  against  Germany,  Cuba  remained 
neutral,  but  on  April  7,  1917,  acting  upon 
the  advice  of  President  Menocal,  the 
Cuban  Congress  declared  war  against 
Germany.  ^  On  the  following  day  the 
German  minister  was  given  his  pass- 
ports. Several  Cuban  vessels  in  German 
waters  were  seized.  War  was  declared 
against  Austria-Hungary  on  Dec.  16, 
1917.  On  April  3,  1918,  the  Cuban 
Congress  passed  a  law  authorizing  the 
creation  of  an  obligatory  military  serv- 
ice, applying  to  all  male  Cubans  not  ex- 
pressly exempted,  and  to  remain  in  force 
for  two  years,  and  for  one  year  after  the 
time  of  peace.  The  army  was  to  be  com- 
posed of  17,000  men  in  active  service. 
This  law  was  repealed  in  January,  1919. 
In  1920,  Dr.  Alfredo  Zayas  was  nomi- 
nated for  president,  by  coalition  of  the 
C;onservaive  and  Popular  parties.  He 
was  elected  by  the  returns,  but  the  elec- 
tion was  disputed,  and  it  was  necessary 
to  hold  by-elections  in  1921.  Gen.  Crow- 
der  as  representative  of  the  United 
States  visited  the  island  in  the  spring  of 
1921  in  order  to  supervise  the  elections 
and  otherwise  guard  the  interests  of  the 
United  States. 

CUBE,  in  geometry,  a  solid  figure  con- 
tained by  six  equal  squares,  a  regular 
hexahedron.  From  the  simplicity  of  its 
form  it  is  the  unit  for  measuring  the 


contents  of  the  other  solids.  Cubee  are 
to  each  other  as  the  third  power  of  any 
of  the  lines  inclosing  their  sides. 

In  arithmetic,  the  third  power  of  a 
number;  a  number  multiplied  by  itself, 
and  the  product  multiplied  again  by  the 
original  number;  thus,  125  is  the  cube  of 
5,  for  it  is  5x5x5. 

CUBEB,  the  small  spicy  berry  of  the 
plant  or  plants  described  under  Cubeba. 

CUBEBA,  a  genus  of  hypogenous  exo- 
gens,  order  Piperacese,  tribe  Piperidse. 
The  flowers  are  dioecious,  invested  by 
sessile  bracts;  the  fruits  contracted  at 
the  base  into  what  look  like  pedicels. 
They  are  found  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

CUBISTS,  painters,  belonging  to  the 
group  called  post-impressionists,  who 
claim  to  see  in  the  perspective  of  natural 
objects  a  series  of  cubical  forms  which 
they  endeavor  to  depict  in  their  art. 

CUBIT  (Lat.,  cubitus,  "fore-arm"), 
a  Roman  measure  of  length  supposed  to 
equal  the  length  of  the  fore-arm  from  the 
elDow  to  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger.  It 
was  IH  Roman  feet  {11  Vz  English 
inches).  The  English  cubit  is  1%  Eng- 
lish feet.  The  cubit  of  Scripture  is  gen- 
erally estimated  at  22  inches. 

CUBITT,  SIR  WILLIAM,  an  English 
v^.gineer;  born  in  Dilham,  Norfolk,  in 
1785,  was  a  miller,  cabinet-maker,  and 
millwright  until  1812,  when  he  became 
a  chief -engineer.  In  1823  he  joined  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  The  im- 
provement of  the  Severn  and  of  Bou- 
logne port,  the  Bute  docks  at  Cardiff, 
and  the  water-works  for  Berlin  are 
among  his  works.  He  also  invented  the 
treadmill,  and  constructed  the  South- 
E astern  railway;  and  for  his  services 
in  connection  with  the  erection  of  the 
Great  Exhibition  buildings  he  was 
knighted  in  1851.    He  died  Oct.  13,  1861. 

CUCKOO  {Cuculus  canorus'),  a  well 
known  bird.  The  head  and  upper  parts 
are  of^  dark  ash,  the  throat,  the  under 
side  of  the  neck  and  fore  part  of  the 
breast  of  a  paler  ash  or  brown,  the  rest 
of  the  breast  and  the  belly  white,  with 
transverse  undulating  black  lines,  the 
quill  feathers  with  white  on  their  inner 
webs,  the  tail  ash,  white,  and  black  com- 
mingled, feet  yellow;  length,  14  inches. 
The  cuckoo  forces  foster-parentage  on 
other  species  of  birds. 

CUCKOO  FLOWER  or  LADY'S^- 
SMOCK  (Cardamina  pratensis),  a  com- 
mon and  pretty  meadow  plant,  order 
Ci-uciferas,  with  pale  lilac  or  white  flow- 
ers. C.  pratensis  is  abundant  in  Great 
Britan  and  is  found  in  swamps  N.  of 
New  York. 


CUCUMBER 


217 


GUI 


CUCUMBER  (Cucumis  sativus) ,  an 
article  of  food,  having  yellow  unisexual 
male  and  female  flowers  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaf  stalks.  The  leaves  are  large, 
the  stems  weak  and  trailing.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  S.  of  Asia  and  of  Egypt.  It 
is  mentioned  by  Vergil.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  common  in  England  during  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  A.  D.  1327-1377. 
Having  gone  out  of  culture  during  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  it  was  re-introduced 
under  Henry  VIII.  from  the  Netherlands, 
between  1509  and  1547,  probably  about 
1538. 


CUCKOO 

CUCUTA,  SAN  JOSE  DE,  a  town  in 
the  Colombian  department  of  Santander, 
on  the  Rio  Zulia,  35  miles  S.  of  Puerto 
Villamizar.  It  is  the  third  commercial 
town  of  the  republic,  a  center  of  coffee 
and  cacao  cultivation.  It  was  destroyed 
by  earthquake  in  1875,  but  has  been  well 
rebuilt.  Pop.  about  20,000.  Rosario  de 
CucUTA,  to  the  S.  E.,  was  the  seat  of  the 
first  Colombian  congi'ess  in  1821,  and  the 
birthplace  of  the  patriot,  General  Santan- 
der (1792-1840).  It  has  large  planta- 
tions of  coffee  and  cacao. 

CUDDALORE,  or  KUDALUR,  an  im- 
portant tovm  in  South  Arcot,  Madras, 
India,  on  the  Gadelain  and  Pounaiyar 
ritrers,  about  125  miles  S.  of  Madras.  The 
river  admits  vessels  to  within  about  a 
mile  from  the  town's  limits  and  the  har- 
bor is  the  largest  in  South  Arcot.     The 


industries  are  cotton  and  carpet,  sugar, 
paper,  and  oil.  There  is  a  fort  and  tem- 
ple, and  the  environs  are  picturesque. 
Pop.  about  60,000. 

CUDDAPAH,  or  KADAPA,  a  district 
and  town  of  Hindustan,  presidency  of 
Madras.  The  district,  of  which  the  area 
is  8,745  square  miles,  is  traversed  N.  to 
S.  by  the  Eastern  Ghauts,  and  watered 
by  the  Pennar  and  its  affluents.  The 
forests  contain  much  valuable  timber,  anl 
the  minerals  include  iron  ore,  lead,  cop- 
per, diamonds,  etc.  Agriculture  is  in  a 
flourishing  condition,  grain,  cotton,  and 
indigo  being  largely  grown.  Pop.  about 
1,355,000.  The  town  lies  on  a  small  river 
of  same  name,  an  affluent  of  the  Pennar 
140  miles  N.  W.  Madras.  It  exports  in- 
digo and  cotton. 

CUENCA  (kwanTia),  a  city  of  Ecua- 
dor, on  the  Rio  Paute,  190  miles  S.  S. 
W.  of  Quito;  on  a  fertile  tableland,  8,469 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  enjoys  a  per- 
petual spring,  with  a  mean  temperature 
of  58°  F.  Its  streets  are  wide,  and  sev- 
eral canals  intersect  the  town;  the  prin- 
cipal buildings  are  the  cathedral  and  high 
school.  There  is  some  trade  in  cheese 
and  grain,  and  manufactures  of  hats, 
woolens,  earthenware,  and  candied  fruits. 
Pop.  about  30,000. 

CUERNAVACA  (kwar-na-va'ka),  cap- 
ital of  the  Mexican  State  Morelos,  lies  in 
a  lovely  and  fruitful  valley,  about  40 
miles  S.  of  Mexico  City.  It  has  a  church 
built  by  Cortes,  an  agricultural  school; 
and  refineries  of  sugar  and  brandy.  Pop. 
13,000.  Near  by  is  the  famed  teocaUi  of 
Xochicalco,  with  five  terraces. 

CUFIC,  pertaining  to  Cufa,  a  town 
founded  by  Omar  I.,  in  A.  D.  637.  the 
ruins  of  the  Parthian  capital  Ctesiphon 
having  been  largely  used  for  the  pur- 
pose; also  relating  to  inscriptions  and 
coins  bearing  the  kinji  or  Cufic  writing, 
or  old  Arabic. 

CUl,  CESAR  ANTONOVITCH.  a 
Russian  composer.  He  was  born  at  Vilna, 
Russia,  in  1835,  and  is  of  French  descent, 
his  father  having  been  one  of  Napoleon's 
officers,  left  behind  wounded  during  the 
retreat  from  Moscow,  He  was  educated 
at  the  High  School,  Vilna,  and  at  the 
School  of  Engineering,  Petrograd.  He 
became  a  teacher  and  taught  fortification 
in  the  three  military  academ.ies;  pub- 
lished two  manuals  and  many  article? 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  General  of  Engi- 
neering. In  1864  he  became  a  musical 
critic  and  wrote  for  many  Russian  and 
French  papers.  His  literary  works  in- 
clude: "La  Musique  en  Russia";  "La 
Romance  Russe";  "L'Anneau  des  Ni- 
belungen";  and  more  than  700  articles. 


CUIRASS 


218 


citllum: 


His  musical  works  include  the  operas: 
"The  Mandarin's  Son";  "William  Rat- 
cliffe";  "Angelo";  "Le  Filibustier";  "Le 
Sarrazin";  "Mademoiselle  Fifi";  "Le 
Prisonnier  du  Caucase";  "La  Fille  du 
Capitaine";  "Un  Festin  Pendant  la 
Peste";  "Le  Palladia  de  Neige";  "Matteo 
Falcone";  "Le  Petit  Chaperon  Rouge"; 
"Le  Chat  Botte";  and  many  smaller 
pieces.     He  died  on  March  14,   1918. 

CUIRASS,  a  breastplate;  a  covering 
for  the  breast;  originally,  as  the  name 
denotes,  of  leather,  also  of  quilted  linen, 
cloth,  etc.  The  cuirass  of  plate-armor  suc- 
ceeded the  hauberk,  hacqueton,  etc.,  of 
mail,  about  the  reign  of  Edward  IIL;  and 
from  that  period  the  surcoat,  jupon,  etc., 
which  were  usually  worn  over  the  coat  of 
mail,  began  to  be  laid  aside.  From  that 
time  too  the  cuirass  or  breastplate  con- 
tinued to  be  worn,  and  was  the  last  piece 
of  defensive  armor  laid  aside  in  actual 
warfare.  There  were  cuirassiers  in  the 
English  civil  wars,  and  in  the  French 
service  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury; after  this  period,  the  cuirass  was 
generally  laid  aside,  until  it  was  again 
employed  by  some  of  Napoleon's  regi- 
ments, and  it  is  now,  in  most  European 
services,  worn  by  some  regiments  of 
heavy  cavalry. 

CULBERSON,  CHARLES  ALLEN,  an 
American  public  official;  born  at  Dade- 
ville,  Tallapoosa  co.,  Ala.,  June  10,  1855. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Virginia,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1878.  His  ability  as  a  lawyer  was  soon 
recognized,  and  in  1880  he  was  elected 
County  Attorney  of  Marion  co.,  Tex. 
After  his  removal  to  Dallas  he  was  elect- 
ed Attorney-General  of  the  State  in  1890, 
and  re-elected  two  years  later.  In  1894, 
and  again  in  1896,  he  was  triumphantly 
chosen  Governor.  At  the  Democratic  Na- 
tional Conventions  of  1896  and  1904,  he 
served  as  chairman  of  the  Texas  delega- 
tion. In  1899  he  succeeded  Roger  Q. 
Mills  as  United  States  Senator,  and  was 
re-elected  in  1904,  1910,  and  1916. 

CULDEES,  a  religious  order  which  at 
an  early  period  had  establishments  in 
many  parts  of  Great  Britain  and  Ii'e- 
land,  but  are  especially  spoken  of  in 
Scotland.  The  name  is  of  uncertain  ety- 
mology; but  is  probably  from  Celtic 
words  meaning  "attendant  of  God."  It 
first  appears  in  the  8th  century,  and  the 
Culdees  distinctively  so  called  seem  to 
have  been  anchorites  living  under  their 
own  abbots,  and  for  long  remaining  inde- 
pendent of  Roms.  Otherwise  archaeol- 
ogists have  discovered  no  essential  point 
either  of  faith,  ritual,  or  constitution  in 
which  they  differed  from  the  other  clergy 
of  the  Western  Church. 


CULIACAN,  capital  of  the  State  of 
Sinaloa,  Mexico,  on  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  about  49  miles  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  A  wide  plain  surrounds  it,  and 
the  city  itself  has  notable  buildings,  in- 
cluding a  cathedral,  mint,  and  eccle- 
siastical college,  and  several  handsome 
plazas.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  the  vicinity, 
and  the  other  industries  include  textiles 
and  coffee.  It  is  an  important  commer- 
cial center,  and  the  river  navigation  is 
steadily  increasing.  The  foundation 
dates  back  to  the  16th  century,  when  the 
city  was  known  as  San  Miguel.  Pop. 
about  15,000. 

CULLODEN  MOOR,  a  heath  in  Scot-   ; 
land,  4  miles  E.  of  Inverness,  celebrated   [ 
for  the  victory  obtained  April  27,  1746, 
by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  over  Prince 
Charles  Edward  Stuart  (the  Pretender)   > 
and  his  adherents.     The  battle  was  the 
last  fought  on  British  soil,  and  the  ter-   i    . 
mination  of  the  attempts  of  the  Stuart 
family  to  recover  the  throne  of  England. 

CULLOM,      SHELBY      MOORE,      an 

American  public  official;  born  in  Ken- 
tucky in  1829.  When  he  was  a  year  old 
his  family  moved  to  Illinois,  where  he 
was  educated  at  Rock  River  Seminary, 
Mt.  Morris,  111.  In  1853,  he  moved  to 
Springfield,  111.,  to  study  law  and  re- 
sided there  until  his  death.  Until  1865 
he  continued  to  practice  law,  serving  for 
some  few  years  as  a  State  Legislator.  ^■ 
From  1865-1871  he  was  a  member  of 
Congress  and  served  on  im;portant  com- 
mittees of  that  body.  Taking  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  councils  of  the  Repub- 
lican party,  he  was  nominated  and 
elected  governor  of  Illinois  in  1876.  In 
1883  he  was  elected  United  States  Sena- 
tor, and  held  that  position  for  over 
thirty  years.  For  y*>ars  he  held  the  im- 
portant post  of  chairman  of  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Committee.  Almost  his 
last  work  in  the  Senate  was  to  secure 
the  appropriations  for  the  Lincoln  Me- 
morial, a  project  in  which  he  was  deeply 
interested.     He  died  in  1914.  i^^ 

CULLUM,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON, 
an  American  military  officer;  born  in 
New  York  City,  Feb.  25,  1809 ;  graduated 
from  West  Point  in  1833;  and  was  en- 
gaged for  the  next  28  years  in  engineer- 
ing labors  and  in  instructing  at  West 
Point  on  practical  military  engineer- 
ing. During  the  Civil  War  he  was  chief 
of  staff  to  the  general-in-chief  from  No- 
vember, 1861,  to  September,  1864,  and 
superintendent  of  the  military  academy 
from  September,  1804,  to  August,  1866. 
From  that  time  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Engineers  for  Fortifications, 
until  he  was  placed  on  the  retired  list  in 
1874.  At  the  time  of  his  retirement  he  ' 
was  colonel  and  brevet  Major-General  in 


GULP 


219 


CT7MBEELAND 


the  regular  army.  Besides  numerous 
military  memoirs  and  reports,  he  pub- 
lished "Military  Bridges  with  India- 
rubber  Pontoons,"  (1849);  "Register  of 
Officers  of  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
from  1802  to  1850"  (1850);  a  transla- 
tion of  Duparc's  "Elements  of  Military 
Art  and  History,"  with  Notes,  etc. 
(1863) ;  a  "Biographical  Register  of  the 
Officers  and  Graduates  of  the  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy"  (1868)  (revised  edition, 
1879)  ;  "Campaigns  of  the  War  of  1812 
Criticised"  (1880)  ;  and  contributed  a 
number  of  articles  to  Johnson's  "Univer- 
sal Cyclopaedia"  (1874-1877).  He  died 
in  New  York  City,  Feb.  28,  1892,  be- 
queathing $250,000  for  the  erection  of  a 
Memorial  Hall  on  the  grounds  of 
the  military  academy,  and  $40,000  for 
furnishing  it  with  military  busts,  paint- 
ings, and  other  appropriate  objects. 

GULP,  JULIA,  a  Dutch  contralto. 
Born  in  Holland  in  1881,  she  first  re- 
ceived instruction  on  the  violin,  and  as  a 
Httle  girl  appeared  in  the  various  cities 
of  Holland  in  recitals.  At  fifteen  years 
of  age  she  entered  the  conservatory  at 
Amsterdam  to  have  her  voice  trained, 
and  completed  her  studies  in  voice  cul- 
ture at  Berlin.  In  1901  she  made  her 
debut  as  a  singer  in  Magdeburg,  and 
later  gained  great  popularity  throughout 
Germany  by  her  singing  of  the  German 
and  Italian  folk-songs.  From  1902-1912 
she  toured  the  Continent  and  achieved  a 
striking  success  everywhere.  In  1913 
she  made  her  first  tour  of  America, 
which  was  later  followed  by  other  tours. 

CUM-ffi.  a  very  ancient  city  of  Italy 
in  Campania,  the  oldest  colony  of  the 
Greeks  in  Italy,  founded  about  1030  B.  C. 
by  colonists  from  Chalcis,  in  Eubcea,  and 
from  Cyme  in  Asia  Minor.  It  founded 
Naples  (Neapolis),  and  in  Sicily  Zancle 
or  Messina.  In  520  B.  c.  Cumaa  was 
taken  by  the  Campanians,  and  came  with 
them  under  the  power  of  Rome  (345 
B.  C).  It  was  destroyed  A.  D.  1207,  and 
a  few  ruins  only  now  exist. 

CUMANA,  a  town  of  the  Venezuelan 
state  of  Sucre,  on  the  Manzanares,  a 
mile  above  its  mouth,  where  the  port  of 
Puerto  Sucre  lies  on  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco. 
It  has  a  national  college,  and  some  ex- 
port trade,  but  is  chiefly  of  interest  as 
the  oldest  European  town  on  the  South 
American  mainland,  having  been  founded 
by  Christopher  Columbus's  son  Diego  as 
New  Toledo  in  1521.  It  has  suffered 
much  from  earthquakes,  and  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  in  1853.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

CUMBERLAND,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Allegany  co.,  Md. ;  on  the  Potomac 
river,   the    Chesapeake   and    Ohio   canal, 


and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  Cum- 
berland and  Pennsylvania,  the  Western 
Maryland  railroads;  150  miles  S.  E.  of 
Pittsburgh.  It  is  a  great  railroad  point 
and  the  trade  center  for  the  Cumberland 
and  George's  Creek  coal  district.  It  is  the 
second  city  in  population  and  importance 
in  the  State,  and  has  a  Catholic  academy 
and  convent,  a  house  of  Capuchins,  exten- 
sive paper  mills,  glass  works,  tanneries, 
steel  and  iron  mills,  flour  and  planing 
mills,  and  railroad  repair  shops.  There 
are  4  National  and  several  State  and 
savings  banks,  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers, numerous  churches,  a  Holly  sys- 
tem of  waterworks,  public  and  private 
schools,  high  school,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
21,839;    (1920)    29,837. 

GUMBERLAND,  a  city  of  Rhode  Is- 
land, in  Providence  co.  It  is  on  the 
Blackstone  river,  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroad.  In 
the  neighborhood  are  granite  quarries  of 
importance.  Its  manufactures  include 
horseshoes,  cotton,  silk,  and  worsted 
goods,  and  women's  clothing.  The  town 
contains  the  only  Cistercian  Trappist 
m.onastery  in  New  England:  Pop. 
(1910)   10,107;    (1920)   10,077. 

CUMBERLAND,  a  river  of  the  United 
States  which  runs  through  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  into  the  Ohio,  having  a  course 
of  about  600  miles,  navigable  for  steam- 
boats to  Nashville,  nearly  200  miles. 

CUMBERLAND,  RICHARD,  an  Eng- 
lish dramatist,  novelist,  essayist,  and 
poet,  grandson  of  Richard  Bentley;  born 
at  Cambridge,  Feb.  19,  1732.  Of  good 
family  and  the  highest  prospects,  he  was 
discredited  and  impoverished  in  public 
service,  and  made  literature  a  profession. 
His  comedies,  "The  West  Indian,"  "The 
Wheel  of  Fortune,"  "The  Jew,"  and 
"The  Fashionable  Lover,"  are  an  epit- 
ome of  the  culture  of  the  time;  as  are 
his  essays,  collected  under  the  title  of 
"The  Observer."  He  wrote  "Anecdotes 
of  Eminent  Painters  in  Spain,"  "Mem- 
oirs" (1806).  He  died  in  Tunbridge 
Wells,  May  7,  1811. 

CUMBERLAND,  WILLIAM  AUGUS- 
TUS, DUKE  OF,  third  son  of  George 
II.  of  England:  born  in  1721.  At  the 
battle  of  Dettingen  he  was  wounded 
when  fighting  at  the  side  of  his  father, 
and  though  unsuccessful  at  Fontenoy, 
where  he  had  the  command  of  the  allied 
army,  he  rose  in  reputation  by  somewhat 
brutally  subduing  the  insurrection  in 
Scotland  caused  by  the  landing  of 
Charles  Edward  Stuart  in  1745.  In  1747 
Cumberland  was  defeated  by  Marshal 
Saxe  at  Lafeld,  and  in  1757  he  lost  the 
battle  of  Hastenbeck,  against  D'Estrees, 
and  concluded  the  convention  at  Closter- 


CUMBERLAND  GAP 


220 


CUMMINS 


seven,  by  which  40,000  English  soldiers 
were  (fisarmed  and  disbanded,  and  Han- 
over placed  at  the  mercy  of  the  French. 
He  then  retired  in  disgrace  from  his 
public  office,  and  took  no  active  part  in 
affairs.    He  died  in  1765. 

CUMBEBLAND  GAP,  a  passage 
through  the  Cumberland  Mountains;  on 
the  line  between  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee and  at  the  W.  extremity  of  Vir- 
ginia. It  is  a  place  about  which  clusters 
many  a  Civil  War  incident.  It  was 
occupied  by  Zollicoffer  in  his  retreat  Nov. 
13,  1861.  On  March  22,  1862,  a  recon- 
noissance  in  force  was  made  from  Cum- 
berland Ford  to  this  place.  The  Con- 
federate pickets  were  driven  in,  and 
firing  began  early  in  the  morning,  which 
continued  all  day,  without  any  definite 
results.  The  Gap  was  occupied  by  the 
Union  forces  under  General  Morgan, 
June  18.  Skirmishing  was  of  almost 
daily  occurrence.  In  an  engagement 
Aug.  7,  the  Confederates  lost  in  killed 
and  wounded,  125  men;  Union  loss,  3 
killed,  15  wounded,  and  50  prisoners, 
large  quantities  of  forage,  tobacco, 
stores,  horses  and  mules.  General  Mor- 
gan destroyed  everything  of  value  as 
war  material,  and  evacuated  the  place 
Sept.  17,  and,  though  surrounded  by  the 
enemy,  he  succeeded  in  saving  his  com- 
mand, which  reached  Greenupsburg  on 
Oct.  3.  The  Gap  was  occupied  by  Gen- 
eral Bragg,  Oct.  22.  On  Sept.  8,  1863, 
the  place,  with  2,000  men  and  14  pieces 
of  artillery,  under  the  Confederate  Gen- 
eral Frazer,  surrendered,  without  firing 
a  ^un,  to  General  Shackelford;  40 
wagons,  200  mules  and  a  large  quantity 
of  commisary  stores  were  captured.  A 
three  hours'  skirmish  occurred  Jan.  29, 
1864,  on  the  Virg-inia  road,  13  miles  dis- 
tant. Colonel  Love,  with  1,600  cavalry, 
400  only  of  whom  were  mounted,  with 
no  artillery,  held  his  position  till  dark 
and  then  fell  back  three  miles  to  camp. 
On  April  28,  1865,  900  Confederates  sur- 
rendered, and  were  paroled  here. 

CUMBERLAND  ISLAND,  a  peninsula 
(so-called),  of  Baffin  Land,  extending 
into  Davis  Strait. 

CUMBERLAND  MOUNTAINS,  in 
Tennessee,  part  of  a  range  of  the  Ap- 
palachian system,  rarely  exceeding  2,000 
feet  in  height. 

CUMBERLAND    PRESBYTERIANS, 

a  religious  denomination  which  sprang 
up  in  1810  in  the  State  of  Kentucky,  in 
consequence  of  a  dispute  between  the 
presbytery  of  Cumberland  in  that  State, 
and  the  Kentucky  Synod  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  America,  concerning 
the  ordination  of  persons  who  had  not 
passed    through    the    usual    educational 


curriculum,  but  whose  serv'ies  the  pres- 
bytery regarded  as  demanded  for  the 
ministry  by  the  exigencies  of  the  time. 
In  1916  the  church  had  1,317  organiza- 
tions with  72,056  members;  969  Sunday 
Schools  with  6,618  teachers,  and  53,431 
pupils.  Their  form  of  government  is 
Presbyterian,  though  they  have  added  a 
system  of  itinerating  like  the  Methodists. 
In  doctrine  they  approach  Arminianism, 
denying  unconditional  election  and  pre- 
destination, and  they  believe  in  the  uni- 
versality of  the  atonement. 

CUMBERLAND  UNIVERSITY,  a  co- 
educational institution  in  Lebanon,  Tenn.; 
organized  in  1842,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church ;  re- 
ported at  the  end  of  1919 :  Professors  and 
instructors,  21;  students,  225;  number  of 
graduates,  4,386;  president,  Andrew  B^ 
Buchanan. 

CUMBRIA,  an  ancient  British  princi- 
pality, comprising,  besides  part  of  Cum- 
berland, the  Scotch  districts  Galloway, 
Kyle,  Carrick,  Cunningham,  and  Strath- 
clyde,  its  capital  being  Alcluyd  or  Dum- 
barton. It  was  possibly  at  one  time  the 
chief  seat  of  the  power  of  Arthur,  and 
in  the  6th  century  was  an  important  and 
powerful  kingdom.  It  speedily,  however, 
fell  under  Saxon  domination,  and  early 
in  the  11th  century  was  given  by  Edmund 
of  Wessex  to  Malcolm  of  Scotland  to  be 
held  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land. The  name  still  survives  in  Cum- 
berland. 

CUMBRIAN  MOUNTAINS,  a  range 
of  hills,  England,  occupying  part  of  the 
counties  of  Cumberland,  Westmoreland, 
and  North  Lancashire.  The  mountains 
rise  with  steep  acclivities,  inclosing  in 
some  part  narrow  but  well-cultivated  val- 
leys with  numerous  picturesque  lakes; 
this  being  the  English  "Lake  Country," 
so  much  frequented  by  tourists. 

CUMMINS,  ALBERT  BAIRD,  an 
American  public  official;  born  in  1850  in 
Pennsylvania.  He  was  educated  at 
Waynesburg  College  and  from  1875  to 
1878  practiced  law  in  Chicago.  Some 
years  later  he  moved  to  Des  Moines,  la., 
and  in  1902  was  elected  Governor  of  the 
State.  On  the  death  of  Senator  Allison, 
Governor  Cummins  was  selected  to  fill 
out  the  unexpired  term  and  in  1909  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  for  the  term  1909- 
1915.  Re-elected  in  the  latter  year,  he 
was  again  nominated  and  elected  by  the 
Republicans  of  his  State  for  the  term 
1921-1927.  Senator  Cummins  was  much 
in  sympathy  with  the  principles  of  the 
Progressive  party  of  1912,  and  while  he 
did  not  withdraw  from  the  Republican 
party  in  that  year  as  did  many  of  his 
fellow-progressives,  he  withheld  his  sup- 


CUMULATIVE  VOTING 


221 


CUNEIFORM   WRITING 


port  from  Taft.    He  is  an  acknowledged 
authority  on  the  railroads  and  wrote  the 


ALBERT   BAIRD   CUMMINS 

main    provisions    of   the    Cummins-Esch 
Railroad  Act  of  1920. 

CUMULATIVE  VOTING,  a  system  of 
voting  at  elections  by  which  the  voter  is 
allowed  to  cast  as  many  votes  as  there 
are  candidates  for  a  given  office,  dis- 
tributing his  votes  or  giving  all  of  them 
to  a  single  candidate.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  proportional  result  is  a  more  faithful 
reflex  of  the  will  of  a  community  than 
the  majority  method. 

CUNARD,  SIR  SAMUEL,  founder  of 
an  English  steamship  line;  born  in  Hali- 
fax, Nova  Scotia,  where  his  father,  a 
Philadelphia  merchant,  had  settled,  Nov. 
21,  1787.  Becoming  early  a  successful 
merchant  and  shipowner,  he  went  to 
England  in  1838,  joined  with  George 
Burns,  Glasgow,  and  David  M'lver,  Liver- 
pool, in  founding  (1839)  the  British  and 
North  American  Royal  Mail  Steam 
Packet  Company,  and  obtained  a  contract 
from  the  British  Government  for  the 
mail  service  between  Liverpool  and  Hali- 
fax, Boston,  and  Quebec.  The  first  pas- 
sage was  that  of  the  "Britannia"  in  1840, 
the  time  occupied  being  14  days  8  hours. 


Iron  steamers  were  first  used  in  1855, 
and  paddle-wheels  gave  way  entirely  to 
the  screw  after  1862.  From  its  small  but 
successful  beginning,  Cunard's  undertak- 
ing soon  developed  into  one  of  the  vaptest 
of  private  commercial  concerns.  In  1878 
it  was  made  into  a  joint  stock  company. 
Created  a  baronet  in  1859,  he  died  in 
London,  April  28,  1865. 

CUNEIFORM  WRITING,  the  name 
applied  to  the  wedge-shaped  characters 
of  tha  inscriptions  on  old  Babylonian  and 
Persian  monuments;  sometimes  also  de- 
scribed as  "arrow-headed"  or  "nail- 
headed"  characters.  They  appear  to  have 
been  originally  of  the  nature  of  hiero- 
glyphs, and  to  have  been  invented  by  the 
primitive  Akkadian  inhabitants  of  Chal- 
dea,  from  whom  they  were  borrowed  with 
considerable  modification  by  the  conquer- 
ing Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  who  were 
Semites  by  race  and  spoke  an  entirely 
different  language.  Cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions were  chiseled  upon  stone  and  iron, 
but  they  were  impressed  upon  soft  clay 
with  a  pointed  stylus  having  three  un- 
equal facets,  the  smallest  to  make  the 
fine  wedge  of  the  cuneiform  signs,  the 
middle  to  make  the  thicker  wedges,  and 
the  largest  to  make  the  outer  and  thick 
wedges  of  the  characters.  The  first  date 
that  can  be  assigned  to  the  use  of  cunei- 
form writing  is  about  3800  B.  c,  and  its 
use  was  continued  until  after  the  birth  of 
Christ.  The  earliest  inscription  at  pres- 
ent known  is  that  inscribed  upon  the 
porphyry  whorl  in  the  time  of  Sargon  of 
Agade ;  the  latest  is  a  tablet  perserved  at 
Munich,  which  may  have  been  written 
about  A.  D.  83. 

The  ruins  found  all  over  ancient  Persep- 
olis  attracted  the  attention  of  Eastern 
travelers,  yet  no  one  believed  that  those 
strange  wedges  which  completely  covered 
some  of  them  could  have  any  meaning. 
It  was  Garcia  de  Sylva  Figueroa,  am- 
bassador of  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  who, 
on  a  visit  to  Persepolis  in  1618,  first 
thought  that  these  sigris  must  be  inscrip- 
tions in  some  lost  wi'iting.  Among  sub- 
sequent travelers  whose  attention  was  at- 
tracted to  the  subject,  was  Chardin,  who 
after  his  return  to  Europe  in  1674,  pub- 
lished three  complete  groups  of  cunei- 
forms, copied  by  himself  at  Persepolis. 
He  likewise  declared  it  to  be  "writing 
and  no  hieroglyphs;  the  rest,  however, 
will  always  be  unknown."  Michaux,  a 
French  botanist,  sent  to  Paris,  in  1782,  a 
boundary  stone  covered  with  inscriptions, 
which  he  found  at  Bagdad. 

Niebuhr,  without  attempting  to  read 
the  character  itself,  first  established 
three  distinct  cuneiform  alphabets  in- 
stead of  one,  the  letters  of  which  seemed 
to  outnumber  those  of  all  other  languages 
15— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


CUNLIFFE 


222 


CUNNINGHAM 


together.  The  real  and  final  discovery  is 
due  to  Grotefend  of  Hanover,  and  dates 
from  1802.  On  Sept.  7  of  that  year  he 
laid  the  first  cuneiform  alphabet,  with  its 
equivalents,  before  the  Academy  of  Got- 
tingen.  Then  H.  Martin  found  the  gram- 
matical flexions  of  the  plural  and  geni- 
tive case.  The  last  and  greatest  of  in- 
vestigators of  this  first  alphabet  was 
Rawlinson,  who  not  only  first  copied,  but 
also  read,  the  gigantic  Behistun  inscrip- 
tion, containing  more  than  100  lines. 

Inscriptions  in  the  Persian  cuneiform 
character  are  mostly  found  in  three  par- 
allel columns,  and  are  then  translations 
of  each  other  in  different  alphabets  and 
languages    called    respectively    Persian, 


Cambridge.  He  engaged  in  finance  in  the 
city  of  London  and  became  a  member  of 
Cunliffe  Brothers.  He  became  director  of 
the  Bank  of  England  in  1895,  Deputy- 
Governor,  1911,  and  was  Governor  1913- 
1918.  He  was  Lieutenant  of  the  city  of 
London,  director  of  the  North  Eastern 
Railway  Co.,  and  patron  of  the  living  of 
Headley,  Surrey.  In  1915  he  received  the 
1st  Class,  Order  of  St.  Anne  (Russia)  ; 
in  1916,  the  Grand  Cross,  Order  of  the 
Crown  of  Italy;  Grand  Cross,  Order  of 
Redeemer,  Greece;  Grand  Cordon  Rising 
Sun,  Japan.  He  was  also  made  Com- 
mander of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  France, 
and  Commander  of  the  Order  of  Leopold, 
Belgium. 


PER.SI  AN 


BABYLON  I  AN 

o  <i  *  #  *r  ►+ 


SCYTHIC 


3  4  5 

CUNEIFORM   WRITING 


Median,  and  Babylonian;  the  Achaeme- 
nian  kings  being  obliged  to  make  their 
decrees  intelligible  to  the  three  principal 
nations  under  their  sway.  The  Persian 
consists  of  39  to  44  letters,  and  is  the 
most  recent,  the  most  ancient  being  the 
Babylonian. 

The  cuneiform  signs  were  originally 
pictures  of  objects  and  were  first  drawn 
in  outline  upon  some  vegetable  substance, 
called  in  the  native  documents  likhusi. 
Early  in  the  history  of  Babylonia,  clay 
was  adopted  as  the  substance  upon  which 
to  write.  On  papyrus  and  leather  it  is 
quite  easy  to  draw  in  outline  a  picture  of 
any  object;  but  it  became  more  difficult  to 
do  this  when  clay  was  used,  because  the 
outlines  of  the  object  represented  had  to 
be  pressed  into  it.  The  necessary  result 
of  this  was  that  the  shapes  of  the  objects 
became  altered,  and  reduced  to  their 
simplest  form. 

CUNLIFFE,     WALTER,     BARON,    a 

British  financier,  born  in  1855,  and  edu- 
cated   at    Harrow    and    Trinity    College, 


CUNNINGHAM,  ALLAN,  a  Scotch 
poet  and  miscellaneous  writer;  born  in 
Keir,  Dumfriesshire,  Dec.  7,  1784.  When 
a  youth  he  served  as  an  apprentice  to  a 
stone-mason;  but  later  became  a  reporter 
in  London,  and  wrote  "Sir  Marmaduke 
Maxwell,"  a  dramatic  poem,  and  "Lord 
Roldan"  and  "Paul  Jones,"  romances. 
His  "Critical  History  of  the  Literature  of 
the  Last  Fifty  Years,"  and  other  books, 
prompted  Sir  Walter  Scott  to  call  him  a 
genius.    He  died  in  London,  Oct.  30,  1842. 

CUNNINGHAM,  WILLIAM,  a  Scotch 
theologian;  born  in  Hamilton,  in  1805; 
educated  at  Duns  and  Edinburgh;  and 
ordained  minister  at  Greenock  in  1830. 
He  was  called  to  Trinity  College  Church, 
Edinburgh,  in  1834,  and  soon  became  one 
of  the  foremost  leaders,  alike  on  the  plat- 
form and  in  the  pamphlet,  on  the  "Non- 
intrusionist"  side  in  the  great  contro- 
versy that  preceded  the  Disruption  of 
1843.  He  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Theology  in  the  Free  Church  College  in 
1843,  of  Church  History  in  1845,  and  its 


CUPID 


223 


CURFEW 


principal  on  Chalmers's  death  in  1847. 
His  D.  D.  degree  was  ^ven  him  by 
Princeton  in  1842.  He  was  moderator  of 
the  Free  Assembly  in  1859,  when  he  re- 
ceived a  testimonial  amounting  to  over 
$35,000.     He  died  in  Edinburgh  in  1861. 

CUPID,  the  god  of  Love,  generally  rep- 
resented as  a  beautiful  naked  boy, 
winged,  blind,  and  armed  with  a  bow  and 
a  quiver  full  of  arrows,  with  which  he 
transfixed  the  hearts  of  lovers,  kindling 
desire  in  them.  He  was  equivalent  to,  but 
not  perfectly  identical  with,  the  Er5s  of 
the  Greeks.  He  was  supposed  to  be  the 
son  of  Mercury  and  Venus. 

CUPPING,  a  surgical  operation  con- 
sisting in  the  application  of  the  cupping- 
glass  in  cases  where  it  is  desirable  to  ab- 
stract blood  from,  or  draw  it  to,  a  par- 
ticular part.  When  blood  is  removed  the 
operation  is  simply  termed  cupping; 
when  no  blood  is  abstracted,  it  is  dry- 
cupping.  The  cupping-glass,  a  cup- 
shaped  glass  vessel,  is  first  held  over  the 
flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  by  which  means 
the  included  air  is  rarefied.  In  this  state 
it  is  applied  to  the  skin,  and  as  the  heated 
air  cools  it  contracts  and  produces  a  par- 
tial vacuum,  so  that  the  skin  and  integu- 
ments are  drawn  up  slightly  into  the 
glass  and  become  swollen.  If  blood  is  to 
be  dra-wn,  a  scarificator  or  spring-lancet 
is  generally  used. 

CUPRITE,  CUPROUS  OXIDE,  Cu^O, 
found  either  as  a  red  earth,  or  as  bril- 
liant, transparent  crystals  of  a  ruby-red 
color,  specific  gravity,  6.0.  It  contains 
88.8  per  cent,  coppei',  and  is  widely  dis- 
tributed, occurring  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States.  A  crystalline  variety  is 
known  as  chalcotrichite,  while  tile-ore  is 
the  name  given  to  one  of  the  earthy 
varieties. 

CUPULIFER.ffi,  diclinous  exogens, 
so  called  from  possessing  a  cupule  which 
takes  the  form  of  a  bony  or  coriaceous 
one-celled  nut,  more  or  less  inclosed  in  an 
involucre. 

CURA,  or  CIUDAD  DE  CURA.  a  city 
of  Venezuela,  formerly  capital  of  the 
state  of  Miranda,  near  Lake  Valereia,  56 
miles  W.  of  Caracas.  The  site  is  1,600  feet 
above  sea-level,  with  a  steep  hill  be- 
hind it  and  a  wide  valley  before  it.  Situ- 
ated near  the  llanos  of  the  Guarico,  it  has 
a  considerable  commerce  in  cotton,  sugar 
cane,  coffee,  cocoa,  indigo,  general  agri- 
cultural products,  and  cattle.  It  was 
founded  in  1730  and  was  the  scene  of 
several  battles  in  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence. In  1900  an  earthquake  did  con- 
siderable damage.    Pop.  about  13,000. 

CURACAO  (ko-ra-sa'o) ,  an  island  of 
the  Dutch  West  Indies  in  the  Caribbean 


Sea;  46  miles  N.  of  the  coast  of  Vene- 
zuela; area,  210  square  miles;  capital, 
Willemstad;  principal  harbor,  Santa 
Anna.  It  is  hilly,  wild,  and  barren,  with 
a  hot,  dry  climate.  Yellow  fever  visits  it 
every  sixth  or  seventh  year.  Fresh  water 
is  scarce,  and  serious  droughts  occur. 
The  tamarind,  cocoa-palm,  banana,  and 
other  useful  trees  are  reared;  among 
them  three  varieties  of  orange,  from  one 
of  which  the  Curagao  liqueur  is  made. 
Sugar,  tobacco,  cochineal,  and  maize  are 
also  produced,  but  the  staple  exports  are 
salt,  and  a  valuable  phosphate  of  lime 
used  as  a  manure  in  its  natural  state,  or 
made  to  yield  valuable  superphosphates. 
The  islands  of  Curasao,  Bonaire,  Oruba 
(or  Aruba),  St.  Martin,  St.  Eustache, 
and  Saba  form  a  Dutch  government,  the 
residence  of  the  governor  being  at  Wil- 
lemstad. From  the  16th  century  Curacao 
was  held  in  succession  by  the  Spaniards, 
Dutch,  and  British,  and  finally  ceded  to 
Holland  in  1814.  Pop.  (1918)  34,639,  of 
the  colony,  57,195. 

CURA9AO,  or  CURA9OA,  a  liqueur 
or  cordial  prepared  from  a  peculiar  kind 
of  bitter  oranges  growing  in  Curasao, 
which  have  a  persistent  aromatic  odor 
and  taste.  It  is  prepared  from  the  yellow 
part  of  the  rind. 

CURASSOW,  the  name  given  to  a  large 
gallinaceous  bird,  Crax  alector,  more 
fully  denominated  in  English  the  crested 
curassow.  The  upper  parts  are  deep 
black,  with  a  glow  of  gi'een  on  various 
parts;  the  lower  parts  dull  white,  a  color 
found  also  on  the  lower  tail  coverts.  The 
curassow  is  found  in  flocks  in  the  forests 
of  Mexico,  Guiana,  and  Brazil. 

CURATOR,  in  civil  law,  the  guardian 
of  a  minor  who  has  attained  the  age  of  14, 
of  persons  under  various  disabilities,  or 
of  the  estate  of  deceased  or  absent  per- 
sons and  insolvents.  In  learned  institu- 
tions the  person  who  has  charge  of  the 
library  or  collections  of  natural  history,  ^ 
etc.,  is  often  called  the  curator. 

CURE  (kii-ra'),  the  name  applied  in 
France  to  a  priest  with  a  cure  of  souls. 
Commonly  applied  to  any  pastor  with 
spiritual  functions, 

CURES,  an  ancient  town  of  the  Sa- 
bines,  25  miles  N.  E.  of  Rome,  whence 
the  Romans,  after  the  people  of  Cures 
united  with  them,  came  to  be  called  Qui- 

rites. 

CURFEW,  a  bell  rung  every  evening 
as  a  signal  to  the  people  to  extinguish  all 
fires  and  retire  to  rest.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  England  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, most  probably  as  a  safeguard 
against  fire,  but  it  was  regarded  by  the 
English   as   a   badge   of  servitude.     The 


CURFEW  LAWS 


224 


CURLING 


original  time  for  ringing  it  was  8  o'clock 
p.  M.  In  a  few  places  in  England  the 
custom  is  still  kept  up  of  ringing  a  bell 
at  9  o'clock  P.  M.,  and  the  old  name  is 
retained. 

CURFEW  LAWS,  in  the  United 
States,  laws  intended  to  keep  young 
people  off  the  streets  after  a  certain  hour 
at  night. 

CURIA,  anciently  one  of  the  30  di- 
visions of  the  Roman  people,  which  Rom- 
ulus is  said  to  have  established;  also  the 
place  of  assembly  for  each  of  these  divi- 
sions. The  comitia  curiata  was  the  as- 
sembly of  the  people  in  curias. 

CURIA,  PAPAL,  in  its  stricter  sense 
the  authorities  which  administer  the 
Papal  primacy;  in  its  common  wider  use 
all  the  authorities  and  functionaries 
forming  the  Papal  court.  The  different 
branches  of  the  curia  having  respect  to 
church  government  are  the  sacred  con- 
gregation of  cardinals,  the  secretariat  of 
state,  and  the  vicariate  of  Rome,  the 
machinery  employed  being  supplied  by 
the  chancery,  the  dataria,  and  the  camera 
apostolica.  As  "supreme  judge"  in  Chris- 
tendom the  Pope  acts  through  special 
congregations  and  delegated  judges,  or 
through  the  regular  tribunals  of  the  rota 
and  segnatura,  and  the  penitenziaria. 
The  institution  of  the  Papal  Chapel  and 
the  household  of  the  Pope  are  also 
classed  as  departments  of  the  curia;  and 
finally  the  functionaries  maintaining  the 
external  relations  of  the  Pope — legates, 
nuncios,  apostolic  delegates,  etc.  For- 
merly the  curia  included  besides  these 
the  mechanism  and  functions  of  secular 
administration. 

CURIE,    MARIE    SKLODOWSKA,    a 

French  scientist.  She  was  bom  at  War- 
saw, 1867,  and  was  educated  at  the  Lycee 
de  Varsovie,  and  later  at  the  Sor bonne. 
Faculty  des  Sciences,  Paris.  She  gradu- 
ated in  physical  science,  and  mathem.atics 
and  received  the  degree  of  Licenciee  in 
both  departments,  as  well  as  that  of  Doc- 
teur  des  Sciences.  In  1910  she  received 
the  Albert  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Arts.  She  has  been  professor  at  the 
Ecole  Normale  Sup^rieure  at  Sevres  and 
since  1919  has  been  professor  of  Radiol- 
ogy at  Warsaw.  During  1920  it  was  made 
known  that  she  had  made  further  discov- 
eries in  the  direction  of  the  use  of  radium 
in  the  treatment  of  disease.  Her  works 
include:  "Recherches  sur  les  proprietes 
magnetiques  des  aciers  trempes";  "Re- 
cherches  sur  les  substances  radioactives." 

CURIE,  PIERRE  a  French  scientist. 
He  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1859,  and  re- 
ceived his  education  in  the  schools  of  his 
native  city,  showing  an  early  bent  toward 


the  study  of  physics  in  which  he  experi- 
mented with  profitable  results.  When  36 
years  oU  he  became  professor  of  physics 
at  the  Ecole  municipale  de  chimie  et  de 
physique.  The  investigations  of  himself 
and  his  wife  (Curie,  Marie  Sklodow- 
SKA,  q.  V.)  in  1869  resulted  in  the  discov- 
ery first  of  polonium  and  then  of  radium. 
This  latter  discovery  brought  them  world- 
wide celebrity  and  they  received  many 
prizes  and  honors.  In  1904  M.  Curie 
became  professor  of  physics  at  the  Sor- 
bonne,  and  in  1905  was  elected  to  the  In- 
stitute de  France.  He  was  run  over  and 
killed  in  a  street  in  Paris  in  1906. 


MME.    CURIE 

CURLEW,  a  wading  bird,  Numenius- 
urquatus,  of  the  family  Scolopacidas 
(Snipes).  Male  of  a  bright  ash  color  on 
the  head  and  breast,  here  and  there 
clouded  with  red,  white  on  the  belly,  and 
spotted.  Female  more  ash-colored,  the 
red  less  pure.  It  is  found  in  most  parts 
of  the  world.  In  Scotland  it  is  called  the 
whaup.  It  lays  a  large  egg,  olive-green 
and  spotted  with  dark  green  and  brown. 
There  are  several  American  species. 

CURLING,  a  game  of  Scotch  origin, 
played  on  ice  with  various  shaped  stones, 
fitted  with  handles  or  grips.  Whei-ever 
Scotchmen  wander  they  take  their  "chan- 
nel-stanes"  with  them,  and  at  the  first 


CUREAN 


225 


CURRENT  METER 


opportunity  institute  the  "roarin'  game," 
as  it  has  been  very  appropriately  called. 
The  game  does  not  require  much  appara- 
tus. Given  a  smooth  sheet  of  ice  not  less 
than  60  yards  in  length,  a  set  of  stones, 
eight  keen  players  each  armed  with  a 
broom,  and  nothing  more  is  needed. 
Simple  as  it  may  seem  at  first  sight,  the 
game  is  one  demanding  great  dexterity 
and  skill,  not  to  mention  strength  and 
endurance,  on  the  part  of  those  who  as- 
pire to  be  first-class  players.  Four  play- 
ers, two  on  each  side,  stand  at  either  end, 
having  two  stones  apiece,  and  the  game 
consists  in  trying  which  can  lay  their 
stones  nearest  to  the  "tee,"  i.  e.,  the 
center  of  the  concentric  cii'cles  marked 
out  on  the  ice  at  the  far  end  of  the  rink. 
The  stones  used  are  made  of  granite  or 
whin,  and  must  not  exceed  50  pounds  in 
weight  nor  be  more  than  36  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. Iron  "stones"  are  also  much 
in  vogue,  because  of  it  being  possible  to 
make  much  more  scientific  play  with 
them. 


CURLEW 

CTJRRAN,  JOHN  PHILPOT,  an  Irish 
advocate  and  orator ;  born  in  Newmarket, 
County  Cork,  in  1750.  In  1783  he  ob- 
tained a  seat  in  the  Irish  Parliament  as 
member  for  Kilbeggan.  In  debate,  Cur- 
ran,  who  was  one  of  the  few  Liberal 
members  then  in  the  House,  was  usually 
charged  with  the  duty  of  replying  to  op- 
ponents; for  which  important  duty  his 
ready  speech  and  cutting  retort  admir- 
ably qualified  him.  In  1788,  he  was  in 
favor  of  the  formation  of  the  Irish  volun- 
teers; and,  in  subsequent  years,  he  was 
constant  and  eloquent  in  his  appeals  to 
government  to  adopt  a  different  policy 
toward  Ireland,  as  that  which  it  was  pur- 
suing was  likely  to  drive  the  people  into 
rebellion.  Government  gave  no  heed,  and 
the  rebellion  of  1798  was  the  consequence. 
Curran  had  retired  from  Parliament  be- 
fore the  Union,  of  which  he  was  a  warm 
opponent.     He  was  appointed  Master  of 


the  Rolls  in  Ireland  in  1806,  an  office  he 
held  till  1813,  when  he  resigned.  He 
died  in  London  in  1817. 

CURRANT,  a  delicious  fruit.  The 
dried  currants  of  the  stores  are  the  fruit 
of  a  small  grape  cultivated  in  what  was 
the  ancient  Ithaca  (the  island  of 
Ulysses),  at  Patras  in  the  Morea,  in 
Zante,  Cephalonia,  etc.  Currants  in  this 
sense  were  introduced  into  England  in 
the  16th  century,  under  the  name  of  cor- 
inthes.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a  num- 
ber of  shrubs,  placed  in  the  genus  Ribes, 
and  by  De  Candolle  in  the  sub-genus 
Ribesia.  About  40  so-called  species  are 
known. 

Red  currant  (Ribes  riibrum)  is  a  well- 
known  garden  shrub  in  various  respects 
resembling  its  ally  the  black  currant,  but 
having  red  fruit.  It  is  found  apparently 
wild  in  mountainous  districts  in  the  N. 
parts  of  the  United  States,  in  Scotland, 
and  the  N.  of  England,  as  well  as  in  the 
N.  of  Continental  Europe,  and  in  Siberia. 

Red-flowered  currant,  or  bloody  cur- 
rant, is  an  ornamental  species  with  large 
racemes  of  deep  rose-colored  flowers,  and 
bluish-black  berries.  It  is  indigenous  to 
the  N.  W.  coast  of  this  country. 

Hawthorn  currant-tree  (Ribes  oxya- 
canthoides)  is  indigenous  to  Canada  and 
the  Northern  States. 

Golden-flowered  currant  (Ribes  aurC' 
um)  is  another  American  species. 

Dark  purple-flowered  curi'ant  is  a 
species  of  currant  wild  on  the  Altai 
Mountains,  and  the  mountainous  regions 
near  the  Ural  river. 

Black  currant  (Ribes  nigrum)  has 
leaves  of  a  strong  smell.  The  black  cur- 
rant is  found  at  large,  but  probably  not 
really  wild,  in  Great  Britain,  besides 
which  it  is  found  in  Sweden  and  the  N. 
of  Russia,  and  in  the  S.  of  Europe, 
though  there  more  sparingly. 

CURRENCY,  the  current  money  or 
circulating  medium  of  a  country,  whether 
in  coin  or  in  paper.  The  metallic  cur- 
rency comprises  the  gold,  silver,  nickel, 
and  copper  coin  in  circulation  in  any 
country;  but  for  these  three  latter  aids  to 
circulation  the  metallic  currency  would 
fall  far  short  of  the  necessities  of  the 
country.  In  the  United  States,  England, 
and  France  bronze  coin  is  used  instead  of 
copper.  Nickel  minor  coins,  25  per  cent, 
nickel  and  75  per  cent,  copper,  are  used 
in  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and 
the  United  States.  Coins  of  platinum 
have  been  used  in  Russia.  Paper  cur- 
rency comprises  treasury  notes,  bank- 
notes, bills  of  exchange,  or  checks,  which 
circulate  as  substitutes  or  representatives 
of  coin. 

CURRENT  METER,  an  instrument 
for  measuring  the  rate  of  flow  of  water. 


CURRIE 


226 


CURTIS 


in  streams,  canals,  or  rivers.  The  veloc- 
ity of  a  stream  is  usually  measured  to 
determine  the  amount  of  flow.  The  mod- 
ern current  meter,  which  is  an  evolution 
of  the  type  introduced  in  1790  by  Wolt- 
mann,  a  German  hydraulic  engineer,  con- 
sists essentially  of  a  vertical  metal  rod, 
weighted  at  the  bottom.  A  tail  is  fast- 
ened to  this  rod,  which  keeps  the  appa- 
ratus in  the  proper  position.  Attached 
to  the  rod,  and  at  right  angles  to  it  is  a 
device  consisting  of  a  wheel  with  cupped 
vanes,  and  a  rudder  which  keeps  the 
wheel  facing  the  current.  This  wheel  is 
connected  with  a  device  which  records  its 
revolutions.  From  a  known  relation  be- 
tween the  number  of  revolutions  in  a 
given  time  and  the  speed  of  the  water, 
the  rate  of  flow  of  any  stream  can  be  de- 
termined. The  instrument  is  calibrated 
by  drawing  it  at  various  known  speeds 
through  still  water. 

CURRIE,  SIR  ARTHUR  WILLIAM, 
a  British  soldier.  He  was  born  in  1875 
and,  after  receiving  his  preliminary  edu- 
cation, entered  the  army.  After  a  period 
of  military  training  in  England  he  went 
to  Canada  and  was  gradually  promoted 
until  he  became  Inspector-General.  He 
served  in  the  World  War,  1914-1918. 
In  1915  he  was  made  C.  B.;  in  1917  K.  C. 
M.  G.;  in  1918  K.  C.  B.;  and  in  1919 
G.  C.  M.  G.  In  1917-1919  he  commanded 
a  Canadian  corps  in  France  and  was 
mentioned  in  dispatches.  He  also  re- 
ceived the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor, 
3d  class. 

CURTIN,  ANDREW  GREGG,  an 
American  politician;  born  in  Belief onte, 
Pa.,  April  22,  1815.  He  studied  law  at 
Dickinson  College,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1839.  Entering  politics,  he  be- 
came secretary  of  the  commonwealth  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1854,  governor  in  1860, 
and  again  in  1863,  being  one  of  the  most 
noted  "war  governors."  In  1869  he  was 
appointed  minister  to  Russia.  In  1873  he 
left  the  Republican  party,  and  from  1881 
to  1887  sat  in  Congress  as  a  Democrat. 
He  died  in  Bellefonte,  Pa.,  Oct.  7,  1894. 

^  CURTIN,  JEREMIAH,  an  American 
linguist  and  antiquarian;  bom  in  Mil- 
waukee, Wis.,  in  1838.  He  has  virritten: 
"Myths  and  Folk-Lore  of  Ireland"; 
"Tales  of  the  Fairies  and  the  Ghost 
World";  "Myths  and  Folk-Tales  of  the 
Russians,  Western  Slavs,  and  Magyars"; 
etc.  He  was  a  proficient  in  the  Slavic 
tongues;  made  addresses  in  Czech,  and 
translated  much  from  Russian  and  Polish, 
He  died  in  1906. 

CURTIS,  CHARLES,  an  American 
public  official,  born  in  1860  in  Topeka, 
Kan.,  of  an  Indian  family.  He  was  edu- 
•cated  in  the  public  schools,  and  admitted 


to  the  bar  in  1881,  served  two  terms  as 
district  attorney  of  Shawnee  county,  and 
from  1893  to  1897  represented  the  Fourth 
Kansas  district  in  Congress.  From  1897 
to  1907  he  represented  the  First  Kansas 
district  in  the  National  legislature. 
When  Senator  Burton  resigned  from  the 
Senate  in  1907,  Curtis  was  elected  to  fill 
out  his  unexpired  term.  Although  he 
was  again  a  candidate  on  the  Republican 
ticket  for  the  term  1913  to  1920,  he  was 
defeated  by  the  Democratic  sweep  of 
1912.  In  1915,  when  the  Republicans  re- 
gained control  of  the  State,  he  vi^as  elected 
to  the  Senate  for  the  term  1915  to  1921. 

CURTIS,  CYRUS  HERMANN  KOTZ- 
SCHMAR,  an  American  newspaper 
owner  and  publisher.  Born  in  Maine  in 
1850,  he  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  that  State.  In  the  Centennial 
year  he  moved  to  Philadelphia  where  he 
began  the  publication  of  a  magazine  en- 
titled "The  Tribune  and  Farmer."  A 
few  years  later  he  published  the  "Ladies' 
Home  Journal,"  which  became  one  of  the 
most  successful  magazines  in  the  United 
States.  The  Curtis  Publishing  Company, 
of  which  he  is  the  head,  publish  also  the 
"Country  Gentleman"  and  the  "Saturday 
Evening  Post."  In  1913  Mr.  Curtis  took 
over  the  Philadelphia  "Public  Ledger." 

CURTIS,     GEORGE     TICKNOR,     an 

American  lawyer;  born  in  Watertown, 
Mass.,  Nov.  28,  1912.  In  addition  to  his 
eminence  at  the  New  York  bar,  he  was 
noted  as  the  author  of  an  authoritative 
"History  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States";  he  published  likewise: 
"Digest  of  English  and  American  Admi- 
ralty Decisions,"  "American  Convey- 
ancer," "Life  of  James  Buchanan,"  "Life 
of  Daniel  Webster,"  "Creation  or  Evolu- 
tion," and  "John  Charaxes,"  a  novel.  H( 
died  in  New  York,  March  28,  1894. 

CURTIS,  GEORGE  WILLIAM,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Providence,  R. 
I.,  Feb.  24,  1824.  He  was  an  early  aboli- 
tionist, and  a  leader  in  the  Republican 
party  from  the  first;  for  many  years  the 
editor  of  "Harper's  Weekly,"  and  the 
writer  of  the  "Editor's  Easy  Chair"  in 
"Harper's  Monthly,"  besides  the  "Man- 
ners Upon  the  Road"  series  for  "Har- 
per's Bazar"  (1867-1873) ) .  He  was  also  a 
lecturer  of  great  popularity.  His  works 
include:  "Nile  Notes  of  a  Howadji" 
(1851)  ;  "The  Howadji  in  Syria"  (1852)  ; 
"Lotus  Eating"  (1852);  "Potiphar  Pa- 
pers" (1853)  ;  "Prue  and  I"  (1856) ; 
"Trumps"  (1862)  ;  and  others.  He  died 
on  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  31,  1892. 

CURTIS,  WILLIAM  ELEROY,  an 
American  journalist;  born  in  Akron,  O., 
Nov.  5,  1850.  He  has  written :  "Capitals 
of  Spanish  America"  (1888) ;  "The  Lan4 


CURTISS 


22^ 


CURVE 


of  the  Nihilist"  (1888) ;  "Japan  Sketch- 
es," "Venezuela,"  "Life  of  Zachariah 
Chandler,"  "The  Yankees  of  the  East," 
etc.  He  was  for  several  years  director 
of  the  Bureau  of  American  Republics, 
and  was  chief  of  the  Latin-American  de- 
partment and  historical  section  of  the 
World's  Columbian  exposition,  1891-1893. 
He  died  in  1911. 


GEORGE  WILLIAM   CURTIS 

GITRTISS,  GLENN  HAMMOND,  an 
American  aviator.  He  was  bom  at  Ham- 
mondsport,  N.  Y.,  in  1878,  beginning 
work  as  a  newsboy  and  later  developing 
into  a  mechanic  and  cycle  rider.  In  1906 
he  established  a  record  for  the  fastest 
mile  on  a  motor  cycle,  and  later  experi- 
mented with  flying  machines.  His  first 
international  cup  was  won  in  the  contest 
at  Rheims  in  1909,  and  he  also  won  the 
$10,000  prize  offered  by  the  New  York 
"World"  in  1910  for  the  New  York-Al- 
bany flight.  He  also  engaged  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  aeroplanes,  becoming  presi- 
dent of  the  Curtiss  Aeroplane  Co.  at 
Hammondsport,  and  treasurer  of  the 
Curtiss  Exhibition  Co.  During  the 
World  War  the  Curtiss  Engineering  Cor- 
poration produced  the  "NC-1,"  the  larg- 
est seaplane  in  the  world,  making  a  flight 
with  fifty  men  on  board,  a  record  which 
was  bettered  only  in  1920. 

CURTIUS,  ERNST  (k6r'tse-6s),  a 
German  archaeologist  and  historian;  born 
in  Liibeck,  Sept.  2,  1814.  His  studies 
were  all  directed  toward  Grecian  antiq- 
uity, and  he  visited  Greece  repeatedly 
on    scientific    missions.     "Peloponnesus" 


(1851)  is  a  history  of  that  peninsula. 
His  "Greek  History"  is  a  scholarly  work 
written  in  a  popular  style.  His  works 
on  "Olympia"  and  other  ancient  cities  are 
addressed  rather  to  scholars  than  to  the 
general  public.    He  died  July  11,  1896. 

CURTIUS,  MARCUS,  a  Roman  hfiro, 
who  devoted  himself  to  the  infernal  gods 
for  the  safety  of  his  country.  According 
to  the  legend,  a  wide  chasm  having  sud- 
denly appeared  in  the  Forum,  the  oracle 
declared  that  it  never  would  close  until 
Rome  threw  into  it  its  most  precious  pos- 
sessions. Thereupon  Curtius,  arming 
himself,  mounted  his  horse,  and  saying 
that  Rome  contained  nothing  more  pre- 
cious to  its  greatness  than  a  valiant  citi- 
zen fully  accoutered  for  battle,  he  sol- 
emnly threw  himself  into  the  abyss, 
which  instantly  closed  over  his  head,  B.  c. 
362. 

CURVE,  a  line  by  a  moving  point 
which  continually  changes  its  direction  in 
contradistinction  to  a  straight  line.  A 
curve  which  lies  wholly  in  a  plane  is 
called  a  plane  curve  or  curve  oi  simple 
curvature;  but  when  a  curve  lies  par- 
tially outside  of  a  plane  it  is  called  a 


GLENN   HAMMOND  CURTISS 

curve  of  double  curvature  or  a  skew,  tor- 
tuous or  twisted  curve.  Ordinary  curves 
can  be  defined  as  geometrical  loci,  by  a 


CURVE 


228 


CURZON  OF  KEDLESTON 


prescribed  kinematic  movement  of  a  point 
1  or  a  line,  according  to  the  methods  of  an- 
alytic geometry,  by  an  equation  between 
co-ordinates,  as  the  intersection  of  a  plane 
by  an  irregular  surface.  The  ellipse  for 
example  can  be  represented  in  all  four 
of  these  methods:  as  the  geometrical 
locus  of  all  points  for  which  the  sum  of 
the  distances  of  two  given  points — the 
foci — is  constant.  Kinematically  by  an 
ellipsograph  or  oval;  by  an  equation  of 
the  second  rank,  and  by  the  section  of  a 
cone  by  a  plane. 

The  consideration  of  curves  as  geomet- 
rical loci  is  based  on  the  principles  of  the 
geometry  of  Euclid  and  is  the  most  an- 
cient method  of  studying  curves  and  dis- 
covering new  kinds.  Far  more  fruitful 
and  speedy  in  their  results  are  the  meth- 
ods of  analytical  geometry,  the  science  of 
which  was  established  by  Descartes  in 
1637,  especially  through  the  use  of  the 
differential  and  integral  calculus.  In 
this  way  the  peculiarities  of  curves  may 
be  investigated  on  purely  mathematical 
methods,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  ana- 
lytical geometry  of  the  theory  of  func- 
tions offers  a  means  of  establishing  the 
functions  as  curves  and  thereby  giving  a 
clear  image  of  their  course.  According 
to  the  nature  of  the  equation  on  which 
they  are  based,  curves  are  called  alge- 
braic, containing  powers  of  x  and  y,  or 
transcendental,  where  they  involve  loga- 
rithmxS.  Algebraic  curves  are  distin- 
guished according  to  the  rank  or  order  of 
the  equation.  Thus,  we  have  curves  of 
the  2d  rank  or  conic  sections,  of  the  3d 
rank  or  cubic  curves,  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties,  including  Newton's  foli- 
ate or  41st  species,  and  the  4th  rank  or 
quartic,  and  so  on.  The  analytic  investi- 
gation of  a  curve  is  especially  directed 
toward  the  characteristics  of  its  tangents 
and  normals,  toward  its  point  of  oscula- 
tion as  well  as  toward  its  asymptotes  and 
its  peculiar  points  or  singularities. 
Curves  can  be  likewise  defined  according 
as  one  prescribes  their  tangents  or  nor- 
mals or  the  characteristics  of  their  cur- 
vation  from  which  the  equation  of  the 
curve  is  deduced.  A  frequently  recur- 
rent condition  of  curves  is  that  they  are 
regarded  as  inclusive  of  their  tangents 
whereby,  for  example,  the  caustic  curves, 
the  trajectories  and  tractories  are  found. 
Also  through  investigation  of  the  nadir- 
curves  and  the  evolutes  arise  many  forms 
of  curves  and  relations  among  well- 
known  kinds.  The  number  of  points  in 
which  a  curve  of  any  order  in  general  is 
drawn  is  called  its  rank;  the  number  of 
tangents  which  in  general  may  be  drawn 
from  any  given  point  to  a  curve  is  called 
its  class.  Between  rank,  class,  and  the 
number  of  their  distinguished  points  and 


tangents,  double  points,  return  points, 
double  tangents,  periodic  tangents,  come  a 
series  of  continuously  valid  relations,  the 
Pliicker's  Formulas.  For  example,  every 
curve  of  the  3d  rank  without  double 
point  is  of  the  6th  class,  with  double 
point  is  of  the  4th  class,  with  return 
point  of  the  3d  class.  Besides  the  an- 
alytical methods  for  the  investigation  of 
curves  there  are  the  synthetic  methods 
devised  especially  by  Poncelet,  Steiner, 
and  Staudt.  Projection  geometry  has 
proved  of  great  use  in  the  investigation 
of  cones.  For  description  and  illustra- 
tion of  the  principal  curves,  see  their 
respective  titles. 

CURWOOD,     JAMES     OLIVER,     an 

American  author,  born  at  Owosso,  Mich., 
in  1878.  He  studied  in  the  literary  de- 
partment of  the  University  of  Michigan, 
and  for  7  years  was  engaged  in  news- 
paper work.  Later  he  spent  much  time 
in  the  Canadian  Northland,  where  he 
traveled  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  coast. 
He  was  employed  by  the  Canadian  Gov- 
ernment as  an  explorer  and  descriptive 
writer.  Among  his  books  are  "The  Cour- 
age of  Captain  Plum"  (1908)  ;  "The 
Danger  Trail"  (1910);  "The  Valley  of 
Silent  Men"  (1911);  "Nomads  of  the 
North"  (1919) ;  and  "The  River's  End" 
(1919).  He  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  magazines. 

CURZOLA,  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
Dalmatian  islands,  in  the  Adriatic, 
stretching  W.  to  E.  about  25  miles,  with 
an  average  breadth  of  4  miles;  area,  85 
square  miles.  It  is  covered  in  many 
places  with  magnificent  timber.  The  fish- 
eries are  very  productive.  It  contains  a 
town  of  the  same  name. 

CURZON  OF  KEDLESTON,  GEORGE 
NATHANIEL,  EARL,  a  British  states- 
man; born  in  Kedleston,  England,  in 
1859.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Bal- 
liol  College,  Oxford,  In  1885  he  was  as- 
sistant private  secetary  to  the  Marquis  of 
Salisbury;  in  1891  and  1892,  Under-Sec- 
retary of  State  for  India;  and  from 
1895  to  1898,  Under-Secretary  of  State 
for  Foreign  Affairs.  From  1899  to  1905 
he  was  Viceroy  and  Governor-General  of 
India.  He  represented  the  Southport  di- 
vision of  southwest  Lancashire  in  Parlia- 
ment, from  1886  to  1898.  In  1908  he  was 
Irish  Representative  Peer,  and  since  1916 
Leader  of  the  House  of  Lords.  In  1915- 
1916  he  was  Lord  Privy  Seal;  in  1916 
President  of  the  Air  Board,  later  in  that 
year  becoming  Lord  President  of  the 
Council,  and  also  member  of  the  Im- 
perial War  Cabinet.  In  1920  he  was 
Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs. 
In  1895  he  married  Mary  Victoria, 
daughter   of   L.   Z.   Leiter,   Washington, 


GUSHING 


229 


CUSTER 


D.  C,  who  died  in  1906.  He  traveled  ex- 
tensively in  central  Asia,  Persia,  Afghan- 
istan, Siam,  Indo-China,  and  Korea,  and 
received  in  1895  the  Gold  Medal  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  of  which  so- 
ciety he  was  president  from  1911  to 
1914.  Among  the  many  other  honors 
which  have  been  bestowed  upon  him  were 
a  fellowship  in  the  British  Academy 
(1908);  a  fellowship  in  All  Souls'  Col- 
lege, Oxford  (1883)  ;  honorary  degrees 
from  the  universities  of  Oxford  (1904), 
Cambridge  (1907),  Manchester  (1908), 
Glasgow  (1911),  and  Durham  (1913). 
He  was  also  made  Romanes  Lecturer  at 
Oxford  University  in  1907,  Lord  Rector 
of  Glasgow  University  in  1908,  Honorary 
Fellow  of  Balliol  College  in  1907,  Rede 


EARL  CURZON 

Lecturer  of  Cambridge  University  in 
1913,  Lord  Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports 
1904  to  1905,  and  Trustee  of  the  National 
Gallery  in  1911.  He  wrote  "Russia  in 
Central  Asia"  (1889) ;  "Persia  and  the 
Persian  Question"  (1892) ;  "Problems  of 
the  Far  East"  (1894)  ;  "Lord  Curzon  in 
India"  (1906) ;  "Principles  and  Methods 
of  University  Reform"  (1909)  ;  "Modern 
Parliamentary  Eloquence"  (1913)  ;  "War 
Poems  and  Other  Translations"  (1915) ; 
"Subjects  of  the  Day"  (1915) ;  etc. 

GUSHING,     GAIiEB,     an     American 
jurist,  statesman,  and  diplomatist;  born 


in  Salisbury,  Mass.,  Jan.  17,  1800.  He 
was  United  States  commissioner  to  China 
(1843-1844);  Attorney-General  (1853- 
1857) ;  counsel  before  the  Geneva  Arbi- 
tration Tribunal  (1871-1872)  ;  minister  to 
Spain  (1874-1877).  He  published:  "Rem- 
iniscences of  Spain,"  "Life  of  William 
Henry  Harrison"  (1840);  "History  of 
Newburyport"  (1826)  ;  etc.  He  died  in 
Newburyport,  Mass.,  Jan.  2,  1879. 

GUSHING,  FRANK  HAMILTON,  an 
American  ethnologist;  born  in  Northeast, 
Pa.,  July  22,  1857.  At  first  a  farmer  boy, 
he  became  interested  in  Indian  relics,  and 
when  19  years  old  was  made  curator  of 
the  ethnological  exhibit  at  the  Centennial 
Exposition  in  Philadelphia.  Accompany- 
ing Powell's  New  Mexico  expedition,  he 
settled  among  the  Zuni  Indians  for  the 
purpose  of  study.  In  1881  he  conducted 
excavations  in  Arizona,  and  in  1895  dis- 
covered archaeological  remains  in  Florida. 
In  1897  he  became  connected  with  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Myths  of 
Creation,"  and  "The  Arrow."  He  died  in 
Washington,  April  10,  1900. 

GUSHING,  WILLIAM  BARKER,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  in  Delafield, 
Wis.,  Nov.  4,  1842.  He  entered  the  navy 
as  a  volunteer  officer  in  1861,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  a  number  of  bril- 
liant operations.  His  greatest  exploit 
was  in  October,  1864.  For  some  time 
previous  nothing  had  been  able  to  cope 
with  the  Confederate  ram  "Albemarle" 
in  the  sounds  of  North  Carolina.  She 
had  successfully  encountered  a  strong 
fleet  of  Federal  gunboats  and  fought  for 
several  hours  without  sustaining  material 
damage.  Gushing  volunteered  to  destroy 
the  ram,  and  on  the  night  of  Oct  27 
accomplished  the  feat.  For  this  he  re- 
ceived the  thanks  of  Congress,  and  was 
made  a  lieutenant-commander,  becoming 
a  commander  in  1872.  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  Dec.  17,  1874. 

GUSHMAN,  GHARLOTTE  SAUN- 
DERS, an  American  actress;  born  in 
Boston,  July  23,  1816;  appeared  first  in 
opera  in  1834,  and  as  Lady  Macbeth  m 
1835.  Miss  Cushman  played  sometimes 
in  high  comedy,  but  her  name  is  identi- 
fied with  tragic  parts.  In  1844  she  ac- 
companied Macready  on  a  tour  through 
the  Northern  States,  and  afterward  ap- 
peared in  London,  where  she  was  well  re- 
ceived in  a  range  of  characters  that  in- 
cluded Lady  Macbeth,  Rosalind,  Meg 
Merrilies,  and  Romeo — her  sister  Susan 
(1822-1859)  playing  Juliet.  Miss  Cush- 
man retired  from  the  stage  in  1875,  and 
died  in  Boston,  Feb.  18,  1876. 

CUSTER,  GEORGE  ARMSTRONG, 
an  American  soldier;  born  in  New  Rum- 


cusTia 


230 


CUTTY  STOOL 


ley,  O.,  Dec.  5,  1839;  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1861;  and  served  with  distinc- 
tion during  the  Civil  War,  retiring  with 
the  rank  of  Major-General.  He  after- 
ward had  various  cavalry  commands  in 
the  West,  and  several  times  defeated  hos- 
tile Indians.  On  June  25,  1876,  with  a 
force  of  1,100  men,  he  attacked  a  body  of 
Sioux,  afterward  found  to  number  some 
9,000,  encamped  on  the  Little  Big  Horn, 
in  Montana,  and  he  and  his  entire  com- 
mand were  destroyed. 

CUSTIS,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON 
PARKE,  an  American  writer;  born  in 
Mt.  Airy,  Md.,  April  30,  1781;  was  the 
adopted  son  of  George  Washington.  He 
wrote  "Recollections  of  George  Washing- 
ton" (1860),  and  several  plays  and  ora- 
tions. He  died  at  Arlington  House,  Fair- 
fax CO.,  Va.,  Oct.  10,  1857. 

CUSTOMS,  indirect  taxes  levied  on 
goods  imported  into,  or  exported  from,  a 
country.  In  the  United  States  export 
duties  are  forbidden  by  the  Constitution. 
The  import  duties  are  of  five  kinds, 
namely,  ad  valorem,  compound,  discrim- 
inating, minimum,  and  specific.  Ad  va- 
lorem duties  are  a  tax  of  a  certain  per- 
centage of  the  value  of  the  merchandise. 
Compound  duties  are  a  mixture  of 
specific  and  ad  valorem  duties  and  are 
applied  to  manufactured  articles,  the  raw 
materials  of  which  are  dutiable.  Dis- 
criminating duties  are  additions  to  the 
usual  rates  levied  _  on  goods  imported 
from  certain  countries  or  portions  of  the 
world,  or  imported  in  vessels  of  certain 
nations.  Specific  duties  are  a  tax  of  a 
certain  specified  sum  for  each  pound  or 
yard,  or  other  unit  of  measure  of  the 
merchandise;  usually  irrespective  of  its 
quality  or  value,  though  sometimes  it  is 
provided  that  they  shall  vary  with  varia- 
tions between  specified  limits  of  the 
quantity  or  value  of  the  goods. 

CUSTOZZA  (kos-tots'a),  a  village  10 
miles  S.  W.  of  Verona,  where  the  Italians 
have  twice  been  utterly  defeated  by  the 
Austrians.  On  July  23-25,  1848,  Charles 
Albert  was  routed  after  severe  fighting  by 
Radetzky  with  a  smaller  force,  and 
forced  to  retreat  behind  the  Mincio;  and 
on  June  24,  1866,  Victor  Emmanuel  with 
130,000  men  was  defeated  by  the  Arch- 
duke Albert  with  75,000  men. 

CUTCH,  a  state  in  the  W.  of  India, 
lying  to  the  S.  of  Sind;  under  British 
protection;  area,  6,500  square  miles. 
During  the  rainy  season  it  is  wholly  in- 
sulated by  water,  the  vast  salt  morass 
of  the  Rann  separating  it  on  the  N.  and 
E.  from  Sind  and  the  Guicowar's  do- 
minions. Its  S.  side  is  formed  by  the 
Gulf  of  Cutch,  and  on  the  W.  it  has  the 
Arabian  Sea.    The  country  is  subject  to 


violent  volcanic  action.  The  date  is  the 
only  fruit  which  thrives,  and  the  prin- 
cipal exports  are  cotton  and  horses.  The 
Rann  of  Cutch,  a  morass,  covers  about 
9,000  square  miles,  and  is  dry  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Pop.  of 
the  state  about  525,000. 

CUTHEERT,  ST.,  a  celebrated  father 
of  the  early  English  Church;  born,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  near  Melrose,  about 
635.  He  became  a  monk,  and  in  664  was 
appointed  prior  of  Melrose,  which  after 
some  years  he  quitted  to  take  a  similar 
charge  in  the  inonastery  of  Lindisfarne. 
Still  seeking  a  moic  ascetic  life,  Cuthbert 
then  retired  to  the  desolate  isle  of  Fame. 
Here  the  fame  of  his  holiness  attracted 
many  great  visitors,  and  he  was  at  last 
persuaded  to  accept  the  bishopric  of 
Hexham,  which  he,  however,  resigned 
two  years  after,  again  retiring  to  his 
hermitage  in  the  island  of  Fame,  where 
he  died  in  687.  The  anniversary  of  his 
death  was  a  great  festival  in  the  Eng- 
lish Church. 

CUTTING,  MARY  STEWART 
(DOUBLEDAY),  an  American  novelist 
and  short-story  writer;  born  in  New 
"">rk  City  in  1851.  While  still  a  girl, 
she  wrote  verse  for  "Lippincott's."  In 
1875  she  married  Charles  W.  Cutting. 
Her  most  important  novels  were :  "Little 
Stories  of  Married  Life"  (1902)  ;  "The 
Wayfarers"  (1908)  ;  "Just  for  Two" 
(1909)  ;  "The  Lovers  of  Sanna"  (1912); 
"Refractory  Husbands"  (1913). 

CUTTING,  R(OBERT)   FULTON,  an 

American  financier;  born  in  New  York 
City  in  1852.  He  graduated  from  Colum- 
bia in  the  class  of  1871,  and  later  en- 
tered the  field  of  municipal  reform  in 
New  York  City.  In  1892  he  became 
president  of  the  Association  for  Improv- 
ing the  Condition  of  the  Poor,  and  in 
1899  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
New  York  Trade  School  Association,  a 
position  he  still  holds.  He  has  also  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  support  of  the 
Bureau  of  Municipal  Research  in  New 
York  City. 

CUTTLEFISH,  a  genus  and  family  of 
cephalopodous  moUusks  of  the  order 
Dibranchiata .  The  body  is  oblong  and 
depressed,  sack-like,  with  two  nan-ow 
lateral  fins  of  similar  substance  with  the 
mantle;  the  whole  shell  is  light  and 
porous.  The  eyes  are  very  large,  and 
the  head  is  furnished  with  eight  arms, 
each  of  which  has  four  rows  of  suckers 
and  two  long  tentacles  expanded  and 
furnished  with  suckers  on  one  side  at 
the  extremity. 

CUTTY  STOOL,  a  low  stool,  the  stool 
of  repentance,  a  seat  formerly  set  apart 


CUVIER 


2S1 


CUYUNI 


in  Presbsrterian  churches  in  Scotland,  on 
which  offenders  against  chastity  were 
exhibited  before  the  congregation  and 
Bubmitted  to  the  minister's  rebukes  before 
they  were  readmitted  to  church  privi- 
leges. 

PUVIER,  GEORGES  CHRETIEN 
LEOPOLD  DAGOBERT,  BARON  (ku- 
ve-a'),  one  of  the  greatest  naturalists 
the  world  has  produced ;  born  in  Montbe- 
liard,  France,  Aug.  23,  1769.  After 
finishing  his  education  at  Stuttgart,  he 
accepted  the  situation  of  tutor  in  a  Prot- 
estant family  in  Normandy.  The  Abbe 
Texier,  whom  the  troubles  of  the  time 
had  driven  into  exile  from  the  capital, 
introduced  him  by  letter  to  MM.  Jussieu 
and  Geoffroy.  Several  memoirs,  written 
about  this  time,  and  transmitted  to  the 
latter,  established  his  reputation  and 
procured  his  admission  to  two  or  three 
of  the  learned  societies  in  Paris.  In  1800 
he  was  appointed  successor  to  Dauben- 
ton  as  Professor  of  Natural  History  at 
the  College  of  France,  and  in  1802  he 
succeeded  Mertrud  in  the  chair  of  Com- 
parative Anatomy  at  the  Garden  of 
Plants.  From  that  time  he  devoted  him- 
self steadily  to  the  studies  which  have 
immortalized  his  name.  His  "Lessons  in 
Comparative  Anatomy,"  and  the  "Ani- 
mal Kingdom,"  in  which  the  whole 
animal  kingdom  is  arranged  according 
to  the  organization  of  the  beings  of 
which  it  consists,  have  raised  him  to  the 
pinnacle  of  scientific  fame,  and  estab- 
lished him  as  perhaps  the  first  naturalist 
in  the  world  after  Linn^us. 

His  numerous  memoirs  and  works  on 
these  subjects  show  a  master-mind  in 
the  study  of  zoology;  and  extending  the 
principles  laid  down  in  his  comparative 
anatomy  to  the  study  of  paleontology, 
he  has  been  enabled  to  render  immense 
service  to  geology.  His  "Animal  King- 
dom" has  been  frequently  translated, 
and  forms  the  basis  of  all  arrangements 
followed  at  the  present  time.  Cuvier 
filled  many  offices  of  great  importance 
in  the  State ;  particularly  those  connected 
with  educational  institutions.  Napoleon 
treated  him  with  much  consideration; 
Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.  advanced 
him  to  honor;  and  Louis  Philippe  raised 
him  to  the  rank  of  a  peer  of  the  realm. 
He  died  in  Paris,  May  13,  1832. 

CUVILLIER,  CHARLES,  a  French 
compose!'.  He  received  his  musical  edu- 
cation at  the  Conservatoire  de  Paris 
tinder  Professor  Massenet.  After  hav- 
ing attained  his  degree  of  bachelor  he 
made  his  entry  into  the  Conservatoire 
and  his  training  under  Massenet  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  first  operetta,  "Avant-hier 
Matin,"  composed  in  collaboration  with 
Tristan  Bernard  in  1905.    It  was  played 


in  Paris  at  the  Capucines.  His  other 
works  include:  ''La  Carte  Forcee,"  "Son 
Petit  Frere,"  "Les  Rendez-vous  stras- 
bourgeois,"  "Afgar,"  "Les  Muscadines,'" 
"La  Reine  s'amuse,"  "Sappho,"  "Lilac 
Domino,"  "Florabelle,"  "La  Fausse  In- 
genue. 

CUYABA,  the  capital  of  the  Brazilian 
state  of  Matto  Grosso,  occupies  pretty 
nearly  the  center  of  South  America.  It 
stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cuyaba 
river,  980  miles  N.  W.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
Founded  by  gold-diggers  in  1719,  and 
wrecked  by  an  earthquake  in  1746,  it  is 
now  a  well-built  place,  with  a  cathedral 
and  14,.500  inhabitants  (1917).  It  can 
be  reached  by  the  rivers  Parana  and 
Paraguay,  a  voyage  o-"  2,500  miles  from 
Buenos  Aires. 

CTJYLER,  THEODORE  LEDYARD, 
an  American  clergyman ;  born  in  Aurora, 
N.  Y.,  Jan.  10,  1822.  He  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  College  in  1841  and  at 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1846. 
From  1860  he  was  pastor  of  Lafayette 
Avenue  Presbyterian  Church  in  Brook- 
lyn, resigning  to  devote  his  time  to  liter- 
ary and  reform  work.  He  has  written 
"Newly  Enlisted,"  "Christianity  in  the 
Home,"  etc.     He  died  Feb.  26,  1909. 

CTJYP,  or  KUYP,  JACOB  GERRITSZ, 

a  Dutch  painter;  commonly  called  the 
Old  Cuyp;  bom  in  Dordrecht,  Nether- 
lands, in  1575.  Jacob  Cuyp's  representa- 
tions of  cows  and  sheep,  battles  and  en- 
campments, are  clever,  but  his  fame  rests 
principally  on  his  excellent  portraits. 
His  coloring  is  warm  and  transparent; 
his  manner  free  and  spirited.  Cuyp 
was  one  of  the  four  founders  of  the 
Guild  of  St.  Luke  at  Dordrecht,  and  died 
after  1649.  Albert  Cuyp,  Jacob's  son, 
was  also  born  in  Dordrecht,  in  1620.  He 
excelled  in  the  painting  of  cattle  grazing 
or  reposing,  wintry  landscapes,  horse- 
markets,  hunts,  camps,  and  cavalry- 
fights;  and  in  rendering  effects  of  warm 
golden  sunlight  he  is  without  a  rival. 
During  his  lifetime  and  long  after,  Al- 
bert's pictures  were  held  in  little  esti- 
mation. England  is  particularlj'  rich  in 
his  works,  the  National  Gallery  possess- 
ing eight  of  his  subjects.  He  died  in 
Dordrecht,  in  1691.  Benjamin  Cuyp,  a 
nephew  of  Albert,  was  born  in  Dor- 
drecht, in  1608,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  guild  there  in  1631.  He  painted 
Biblical  pieces  of  country  life.  His  best 
v/orks  are  in  the  manner  of  Teniers. 

^  CUYUNI,  a  river  of  South  America, 
rises  in  Venezuela,  flows  first  N.,  then  E. 
through  British  Guiana,  and  joins  the 
Mazaruni  just  above  the  confluence  of 
the  latter  with  the  Essequibo.  It  has 
numerous  rapids  and  falls;  the  lowest  is 


cuzco 


232 


CYCLOMETER 


at  59*  3'  W.,  about  30  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  river. 

CUZCO  (koz'ka),  an  inland  city  of 
Peru,  capital  of  a  department  of  same 
name  (area,  156,270  square  miles;  pop. 
about  500,000),  and  formerly  capital  of 
the  eni;pire  of  the  Incas,  at  the  foot  of 
some  hills,  11,380  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  about  400  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
Lima.  According  to  tradition,  this  town 
was  founded  in  1043,  by  Manco  Capac, 
the  first  Inca  of  Peru.  The  grandeur 
and  magnificence  of  the  edifices,  of  its 
fortress,  and  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun, 
struck  the  Spaniards  with  astonishment 
in  1534,  when  the  city  was  taken  by 
Francis  Pizarro.  On  the  hill  toward  the 
north  are  yet  seen  the  ruins  of  a  fortress 
built  by  the  Incas.    Pop.  about  15,000. 

CYANAMID.  NC.NH2,  formed  by  the 
action  of  ammonia  on  cyanogen  chlo- 
ride. The  name  is  also  applied  to  the 
compound  calcium,  Cyanamid  NC.NCa, 
an  important  product  formed  in  the  fixa- 
tion of  atmospheric  niti'ogen  by  the  so- 
called  "cyanamid  process."  Calcium 
carbide  is  first  produced  by  heating  car- 
bon and  calcium  at  high  temperatures  in 
an  electric  furnace,  and  this  compound 
is  then  heated  under  pressure  with  nitro- 
gen obtained  from  the  air.  The  crude 
product,  known  also  as  Nitrolim,  is  used 
as  a  fertilizer  and  undergoes  decomposi- 
tion in  the  soil  with  the  production  of 
cyanamid.  The  latter  is  then  converted 
to  urea,  which  is  hydrolyzed  to  am- 
monium carbonate  by  organisms  in  the 
soil  (q.  V.  Nitrogen). 

CYANIDES,  chemical  compounds 
which  contain  the  monad  radical  (CN)', 
combined  with  a  metallic  element,  as 
K  (CN)',  potassium  cyanide,  or  with 
a  hydrocarbon  radical,  as  CH2 .  (CN) 
methyl  cyanide.  Cyanides  can  be  ob- 
tained synthetically  by  heating  a  mix- 
ture of  potassium  carbonate  and  char- 
coal to  redness  in  a  porcelain  tube,  and 
passing  nitrogen  gas  through  the  tube. 
Also  formed  when  an  organic  body  con- 
taining nitrogen  is  heated  in  a  tube  with 
metallic  sodium.  If  cyanides  are  dis- 
solved in  water  rendered  alkaline  by 
potash  or  soda,  then  a  mixture  of  fer- 
rous and  ferric  sulphates  is  added,  and 
the  mixture  is  rendered  acid  with  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  a  blue  color  of  ferro- 
cyanide  of  iron  being  formed.  If  the 
liquid  containing  a  cyanide  be  made  acid 
with  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  then  a  little  yellow  ammonium  sul- 
phide be  added,  and  the  liquid  gently 
evaporated  till  the  excess  of  sulphide  is 
volatilized,  the  residue  will  give  a  red 
color  when  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of 
iron  are  added.     Cyanides  give  a  curdy 


white  precipitate  with  silver  nitrate, 
which  is  insoluble  in  cold  nitric  acid,  the 
dry  precipitate,  Ag(CN)',  when  heated 
in  a  small  glass  tube,  giving  off  cyano- 
gen. Cyanides  may  be  formed  by  dis- 
solving metallic  oxides  or  hydroxides  in 
a  solution  of  hydrocyanic  acid,  H  .  CN, 
also  by  double  decomposition  of  metallic 
salts,  with  potassium  cyanide  if  the  re- 
sulting cyanide  is  insoluble. 

CYANOGEN,  dicyanogen,  (CN):,  or 
(N— O  — (C— N),  or  Cy..  Obtained  by 
heating  silver  or  mercuric  cyanide;  also 
by  dry  distillation  of  ammonium  oxalate. 
Cyanogen  is  a  colorless  poisonous  gas 
which  liquifies  at  — 25°,  or  under  a  pres- 
sure of  four  atmospheres  at  20°,  and  at 
— 34°  becomes  crystalline.  It  burns  with 
a  peach-blossom-colored  flame,  forming 
CO2  and  nitrogen;  water  dissolves  four 
volumes,  and  alcohol  23  volumes  of  the 
gas.  Cyanogen  is  very  poisonous,  and 
smells  like  prussic  acid.  Cyanogen  gas 
passed  into  strong  aqueous  hydrochloric 
acid  is  converted  into  oxamide.  Cyan- 
ogen dissolves  in  an  aqueous  solution  of 
potash,  forming  cyanide  and  isocyanate 
of  potassium.  Cyanogen  can  be  regarded 
as  the  nitril  of  oxalic  acid.  Dry  am- 
monia gas  and  cyanogen  combine,  form- 
ing hydrazulmin,  C4N6H6.  Small  quan- 
tities of  cyanogen  are  formed  during  the 
distillation  of  coal.  Potassium  burns  in 
cyanogen  gas,  forming  potassium  cya- 
nide. Cyanogen  was  discovered  by  Gay- 
Lussac  in  1815. 

CYCLADES  (sik'la-dez),  the  principal 
group  of  islands  in  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago now  belonging  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Greece,  so  named  from  lying  round  the 
sacred  island  of  Delos  in  a  circle.  The 
largest  islands  of  the  group  are  Andros, 
Pares,  Myconos,  Tenos,  Naxos,  Melos, 
and  Thera  or  Santorin.  They  are  of 
volcanic  formation  and  generally  moun- 
tainous. Some  are  very  fertile,  produc- 
ing wine,  olive-oil,  and  silk;  others 
almost  sterile.  The  inhabitants  are  ex- 
cellent sailors.    Pop.  about  130,400. 

CYCLAMEN,  sowbread,  a  genus  of 
primulacese,  family  p)Hmulidse.  The  root 
of  the  same  species  is  said  to  be  eatable 
when  dried  or  roasted. 

CYCLES.    See  Bicycle. 

CYCLOMETER,  an  invention  for 
measuring  and  recording  the  distance 
traveled  by  wheeled  vehicles,  extensively 
used  in  cycling.  Its  most  important  ap- 
plication is  in  railroading.  The  apparatus 
is  connected  with  the  wheels  of  a  car, 
and  by  recording  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions tells  on  a  sheet  of  paper  inside 
the  car  the  number  of  miles  traveled. 
It  is  purely  automatic,  and  in  addition, 


CYCLONE 


233 


CYCLOP-ffiDIA 


by  an  attachment  of  extreme  beauty  and 
ingenuity,  every  inequality  in  the  road- 
bed of  a  railroad  is  detected  and  located. 

CYCLONE,  a  circular  or  rotary  stoi-ni 
or  system  of  winds,  varying  from  50  to 
BOO  miles  in  diameter,  revolving  round  a 
center,  which  advances  at  a  rate  that 
may  be  as  high  as  40  miles  an  hour,  and 
toward  which  the  winds  tend.  Cyclones 
of  greatest  violence  occur  within  the 
tropics,  and  they  revolve  in  opposite  di- 
rections in  the  two  hemispheres — in  the 
southern  with,  and  in  the  northern 
against,  the  hands  of  a  watch — in  conse- 
quence of  which,  and  the  progression  of 
the  center,  the  strength  of  the  storm  in 
the  northern  hemisphere  is  greater  on 
the  S.  of  the  line  of  progression  and 
smaller  on  the  N.,  than  it  would  be  if  the 
center  were  stationary,  the  case  being 
reversed  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  An 
anticyclone  is  a  storm  of  opposite  char- 
acter, the  general  tendency  of  the  winds 
in  it  being  away  from  the  center,  while 
it  also  shifts  within  comparatively  small 
limits.  Cyclones  are  preceded  by  a 
singular  calm  and  a  great  fall  of  the 
barometer. 

CYCLOP-aiDIA,  or  ENCYCLOPEDIA, 
in  modern  usage  a  work  professing  to 
grive  information  in  regard  to  the  whole 
circle  of  human  knowledge,  or  in  regard 
to  everything  included  within  some  par- 
ticular scientific  or  conventional  division 
of  it.  The  character  of  such  works  has 
of  necessity  varied  from  generation  to 
generation,  with  changing  conceptions  of 
the  scope  and  value  of  our  knowledge 
and  of  the  mutual  relations  of  one  de- 
partment with  another. 

Though  several  of  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers of  Greece,  and  notably  Aristotle, 
carried  their  investigations  into  every  de- 
partment of  inquiry  within  their  intel- 
lectual horizon,  none  of  them  seems  to 
have  compiled  exactly  what  we  now  call 
a  cyclopaedia.  Speusippus,  indeed,  is 
credited  with  something  of  the  sort;  but 
his  works  exist  only  in  fragments.  The 
great  Latin  collections  of  Terentius  Var- 
ro,  dating  from  30  b.  c,  and  the  so-called 
•'Historia  Naturalis"  of  the  elder  Pliny 
(23-79  A.  D.),  may  thus  be  considered  as 
the  first  specimens  of  their  class.  The 
5th  century  saw  the  production  of  a 
curious  and  oddly  written  cyclopaedia  by 
Martianus  Capella;  in  the  7th,  Isidorus 
Hispalensis  compiled  his  "Originum  seu 
Etymologiarum  libri  xx,"  which  was 
afterward  abridged  and  recast  by  Hra- 
banus  Maurus.  Under  the  caliph  of 
Bagdad,  Alfarabius  or  Farabi,  in  the 
10th  century,  wrote  a  cyclopaedic  work, 
"Ihsa  Alulum" — remarkable  for  its  grasp 
and  completeness;  but  this  has  hitherto 
been  left  in  manuscript   (a  fine  copy  is 


preserved  in  the  Escurial).  Vincent  of 
Beauvais  ( Vincentius  Bellovacensis) ,  who 
probably  died  in  1264,  gathered  together, 
under  the  patronage  of  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  the  entire  knowledge  of  the 
Middle  Ages  in  three  comprehensive 
works — "Speculum  Historiale,"  "Specu- 
lum Naturale,"  and  "Speculum  Doctri- 
nale,"  to  which  an  unknown  hand  soon 
after  added  a  "Speculum  Morale."  About 
the  same  time  Brunetto  Latini  was  en- 
gaged on  his  "Livres  dou  Tresor" 
(printed  in  Italian  in  1474,  and  in  the 
original  French  in  "Documents  inedits" 
(1680).  The  "De  proprietatibus  rerum" 
of  Bartholomeus  de  Glanville  deserves 
mention  as  being  of  English  origin  and 
highly  successful  in  its  day. 

Written  about  1360,  this  became  ex- 
ceedingly popular  in  the  translation 
(1398)  by  John  Trevisa.  In  1541  the 
name  cyclopaedia  is  first  used  as  the  title 
of  a  book  by  Ringelberg  of  Basel,  and  in 
1559  Paul  Scalich  styles  his  work  "En- 
cyclopjedia  seu  orbis  Disciplinarum  tum 
Sacrarum  tum  Profanarium."  Among 
the  numerous  cyclopaedias  of  the  17th 
century  it  is  enough  to  mention  Antonio 
Zara's  (Venice,  1615),  and  Alsted's  (7 
vols,  fol.  Herborn,  1630),  both  in  Latin; 
Moreri's  "Grand  Dictionnaire  Historique" 
(Lyons,  1674),  which  reached  a  20th 
edition  in  1759;  Hofmann's  "Lexicon 
Universale"  (2  vols.,  fol.  Basel,  1677;  4 
vols.  fol.  Leyd.  1698),  which  was  the 
first  attempt  to  bring  the  whole  body  of 
science  and  art  under  the  lexicographic 
form;  Thomas  Corneille's  "Dictionnaire 
des  Arts  et  des  Sciences"  (2  vols.  Paris, 
1694)  ;  and  the  most  famous  of  all, 
Bayle's  "Dictionnaire  Historique  et  Criti- 
que" (4  vols.  Rotterdam  1697),  which 
was  mainly  designed  as  corrective  and 
supplementary  to  Moreri. 

It  was  in  the  course  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury that  the  cyclopedists  began  regularly 
to  employ  the  vulgar  tongues  for  their 
work,  and  to  arrange  their  material  al- 
phabetically for  convenience  of  consul- 
tation. Of  the  vast  "Bibliotheca  Univer- 
sale," planned  by  Coronelli  to  fill  45 
folio  volumes,  only  a  small  portion  saw 
the  light  (Venice,  1701-1706).  The  series 
of  great  cycolpaedic  works  in  modern 
English  practically  began  by  the  anony- 
mous "Universal,  Historical,  Geograph- 
ical, Chronological,  and  Classical  Dic- 
tionary" (2  vols.  1703),  and  the  "Lexicon 
Technicum"  of  Dr.  John  Harris  (Lond. 
1704).  Ephraim  Chambers  followed  in 
1728  with  his  "Cyclopjedia,  or  an  Uni- 
versal Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences" 
(2  vols,  fol.),  which  presents  a  distinct 
advance  in  the  construction  of  such 
works,  the  author  endeavoring  to  give  to 
his  alphabetically  arranged  materials 
something  of  the  interest  of  a  continuous 


CYCLOPEDIA 


234 


CYCLOPEDIA 


discourse  by  a  system  of  cross  references. 

It  was  a  French  translation  by  John 
Mills  of  Chambers'  "Cyclopaedia"  which 
originally  formed  the  basis  of  that  fam- 
ous "Encyclopedie"  which,  becoming  in 
the  hands  of  D'Alembert  and  Diderot  the 
organ  of  the  most  advanced  and  revolu- 
tionary opinions  of  the  time,  was  the 
object  of  the  most  violent  persecution  by 
the  conservative  party  in  Church  and 
State,  and  suffered  egregious  mutilations 
at  the  hands  not  only  of  hostile  censors 
but  of  timorous  printers.  Appearing  at 
Paris  in  28  vols,  between  1751  and  1772, 
it  was  followed  by  a  supplement  in  5 
vols.  (Amst.  1776-1777),  and  an  analy- 
tical index  in  2  vols.  (Paris,  1780).  Vol- 
taire's "Questions  sur  I'Encyclopedie" 
(1770)  was  a  kind  of  critical  appendix. 
La  Porte's  "Esprit  de  I'Encyclopedie" 
(Paris,  1768),  gave  a  resume  of  the  more 
important  articles,  and  under  the  same 
title  Hennequin  compiled  a  similar  epi- 
tome (Paris,  1822-1823).  Numerous 
editions  of  the  whole  work,  more  or  less 
expurgated  or  recast,  were  issued  outside 
of  France;  and  many  minor  encyclopae- 
dias, such  as  Macquer's  "Dictionnaire 
Portatif  des  Arts  et  Metiers  (1766), 
Barrow's  "New  and  Universal  Dictionary 
of  Arts  and  Sciences"  (1  vol.  fol.  1753), 
and  Croker,  Williams,  and  Clerk's  "Com- 
plete Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences" 
(3  vols.  fol.  1766),  were  to  a  considerable 
extent  quarried  out  of  their  massive  pre- 
decessor, or  molded  according  to  the 
method  expounded  by  D'Alembert  in  his 
preliminary  dissertation. 

Between  1768  and  1771  there  appeared 
at  Edinburgh  in  3  vols.  4to  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
which  was  from  the  beginning  a  kind  of 
compromise  between  the  alphabetical  and 
the  scientific  distribution  of  subjects.  Co- 
lin Macfarquhar,  Andrew  Bell,  and 
William  Smellie  share  the  credit  of  the 
plan.  Biographical  and  historical  art- 
icles were  first  introduced  in  the  2d  edi- 
tion (10  vols.  4to  1776-1784).  It  was  re- 
vised in  1907. 

During  the  period  that  the  "Encyclopae- 
dia Britannica"  has  been  growing  from 
edition  to  edition,  numerous  important 
encyclopaedias  have  appeared  in  English 
— the  "Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia"  (18 
vols.  1810-1830),  edited  by  Sir  David 
Brewster;  Wilkes's  "Encyclopaedia  Lon- 
dinensis  (24  vols.  4to.  Lond.  1810-1829) ; 
"Encyclopaedia  Perthensis"  (23  vols. 
Edin.  1816),  a  striking  proof  of  the  en- 
ergy of  its  compilers,  Aitchison  of  Edin- 
burgh and  Morison  of  Perth;  the  "En- 
cyclopaedia Metropolitana"(30  vols.  1818- 
1845),  arranged,  according  to  a  philoso- 
phic plan  by  Coleridge,  in  four  divisions: 
(1)  pure  sciences,  (2)  mixed  and  applied 
sciences,  (3)  biography  and  history,  and 


(4)  miscellaneous  and  lexicographic  ar- 
ticles; the  "Penny  Cyclopaedia"  edited  by 
Charles  Knight  for  the  Society  for  the 
Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  (29  vols., 
2  supplemental,  1833-1846) ;  and  the 
"English  Cyclopaedia"  (22  vols.  1853- 
1861;  a  synoptical  index,  1862;  four 
supp.  vols.  1869-1873),  founded  on  thf 
copyright  of  the  "Penny  Cyclopaedia? 
but  rearranged  in  four  divisions — viz, 
geography,  natural  history,  biography, 
and  arts  and  sciences. 

The  cyclopaedia  now  knov^m  as  Brock- 
haus'  "Conversations  -  Lexicon,"  which 
was  started  by  Lobel  at  Leipsic,  in  1796, 
and  passed  into  the  hands  of  F.  A. 
Brockhaus  in  1808,  gave  a  great  impetus 
to  the  production  of  similar  works.  It 
is  still  one  of  the  most  popular  of  Ger- 
man encyclopaedias.  Its  principal  rivals 
are  Pierer's,  and  Meyer's  "Konversa- 
tions-Lexikon."  The  former  (Altenburg, 
1822-1836,  26  vols,  with  14  supplemental 
vols.  1840-1856),  which  had  somewhat 
fallen  out  of  date,  reappeared  in  12  vols, 
in  1888-1893;  while  the  latter  has  become 
in  completeness  and  compression  the  best 
work  of  its  kind  (1st  ed.  15  vols.  Leop. 
1857-1860),  a  striking  characteristic  be- 
ing the  free  use  made  of  maps,  tabular 
conspectuses,  woodcuts,  and  lithographic 
illustrations.  The  Brockhaus  "Lexikon" 
became  the  basis,  m.ore  or  less  entirely, 
of  cyclopaedias  in  most  of  the  civilized 
languages  of  Europe — "Encyclopaedia 
Espaiiola"  (Madrid,  1848-1851) ;  "Nuova 
Enciclopedia  Popolare  Italiana"  (Turin, 
1841-1851)  ;  "Nordisk  Conversations-Lex- 
ikon  (5  vols.  Copenhagen,  1858-1863;  3d 
edition,  1883,  etc.).  Four  English  works 
were  professedly  founded  on  it — "Ency- 
clopjedia  Americana"  (14  vols.  Phila. 
1829-1846) ;  "New  American  Cyclopae- 
dia" (16  vols.  New  York,  1858-1864), 
edited  by  Ripley  and  Dana,  and  fre- 
quently quoted  as  "Appleton's"  from  the 
name  of  the  publisher;  the  "Popular  Cy- 
clopaedia" (7  vols.  Glasgow,  new  ed., 
1883) ;  and  "Chambers'  Encyclopaedia" 
(10  vols.  Edin.,  1860-1868,  edited  by  Dr. 
Andrew  Findlater;  new  ed.  10  vols., 
edited  by  David  Patrick,  1888-1892). 

Other  cyclopaedias  are:  "Zell's  Popular 
Encyclopaedia"  (3  vols.  8vo,  Philadelphia, 
1871) ;  Colange,  "National  Encyclopae- 
dia" (New  York,  1872,  etc.) ;  "American 
Dictionary  and  Cyclopedia"  (10  vols.  8vo, 
New  York  and  Chicago,  1900);  "John- 
son's Universal  Cyclopaedia"  (4  vols.  New 
York,  1874-1878;  new  ed.  8  vols.  1890- 
1895;  12  vols.,  1900) ;  New  International 
Encyclopaedia,  revised  in  1914  (22  vols.) ; 
"Imperial  Reference  Library"  (6  vols.  8vo, 
Philadelphia,  1898);  "Appleton's  Cyclo- 
psedia  of  American  Biography"  (6  vols. 
8vo,  New  York,  1885-1887);  Heck  and 
Baird,   "Iconographic   Encyclopaedia"  (4 


CYCLOPS 


235 


CYMRI 


vols.,  2  vols,  plates,  New  York,  1860) ; 
Brand  and  Cox,  "Diet,  of  Science,  Lit., 
and  Art"  (3  vols.  1865-1867;  new  ed., 
1875) ;  the  "National  Encyclopaedia" 
(Lond.,  1884,  etc.) ;  and  Blackie's  "Mod- 
ern Cyclopaedia"  (8vo,  Lond.,  1889,  etc.). 
Nor  should  we  omit  La.ousse,  "Grand 
Diet,  du  XIX.  siecle"  (4to,  Paris,  1878) ; 
Chevreuil,  "Grand  Diet,  illustre"  (4to, 
Paris,  1883) ;  and  Dreyfus,  "La  Grande 
Encyclopedic"  (4to,  1885,  etc.).  Parry's 
''Encyclopaedia  Cambrensis"  (1862-1863) 
is  of  interest. 

An  attempt  to  remedy  the  defect  of 
protracted  production  has  frequently  led 
to  the  issue  of  supplemental  volumes, 
planned  so  as  to  bring  up  the  earlier 
articles  to  the  same  level  as  the  later 
articles,  in  more  than  one  instance,  nota- 
bly that  of  Brockhaus'  and  Meyer's 
"Konversations-Lexikon"  and  the  New 
International  Year  Book. 

In  contrast  with  the  larger  cyclopaedias 
may  be  mentioned  the  modern  attempts 
to  boil  down  the  circles  of  the  sciences 
into  portable  form.  Thus  Brockhaus 
issued  a  "Kleineres  Conversations-Lexi- 
kon"  (3  vols.  Leip.,  1854-1856;  4th  ed.  2 
vols.  Leip,,  1885) ;  Meyer's  "Konversa- 
tions-Lexikon"  is  admirably  epitomized 
in  Meyer's  ''Handlexikon"  (5th  ed.  3 
vols.  Leip.,  1892-1893) ;  and  Spemann 
'  issues  a  pocket  encyclopaedia  (Kiisch- 
ner's)  which  is  a  model  of  compression. 
Similar  English  productions  are  Beeton's 
"Encyclopaedia"  (2  vols.  8vo,  Lond.,  n. 
d.) ;  Beeton's  "Dictionary  of  Science" 
(8vo,  Lond.,  n.  d.) ',  Champlin's  "Young 
Folks'  Cyclopaedia  of  Common  Things" 
(New  York,  1879),  with  the  English  re- 
issue known  as  Cox's  "Little  Encyclo- 
paedia of  Common  Things"  (8vo,  Lond., 
1882;  3d  ed.  1884);  Champlin's  "Young 
Folks'  Cyclopaedia  of  Persons  and  Places" 
(1880)  ;  "Hazell's  Annual"  is  a  yearly 
cyclopaedic  record  ;  Sampson  Low's 
"Pocket  Cyclopaedia"  (1889) ;  Phillip's 
"Million  of  Facts"  (8vo,  1836;  and  later 
without  date) ;  and  in  more  recent  years 
many  others. 

Special  Cyclopsedias. — This  class  has 
naturally  become  more  and  more  numer- 
ous; though  in  many  cases  the  works 
are  neither  designated  cyclopaedia  nor 
dictionary.  A  valuable  series  is  Meyer's 
"Fach-Lexika"  (general  history,  ancient 
history,  philosophy,  geography,  etc.), 
which  applies  the  method  of  the  "dic- 
tionary" to  the  treatment  of  individual 
subjects  in  separate  volumes,  thus  differ- 
ing from  Lardner's  "Cabinet  Cyclopae- 
dia," and  the  "Encyclopaedia  Meti'opoli- 
tana,"  which  were  practically  a  series  of 
treatises. 

CYCLOPS,  one  of  the  people  called  Cy- 
clopes, alleged  to  be  a  savage  race  of  one- 


eyed  giants  in  Sicily.  The  caverns  of 
.^tna  were  their  smithy,  and  blacksmiths 
were  looked  on  as  their  descendants. 

CYDNUS  (sid'nus),  a  river  in  Cilicia, 
rising  in  the  Taurus  Mountains,  ancient- 
ly celebrated  for  the  clearness  and  cool- 
ness of  its  waters. 

CYGNUS  (the  Swan) ,  a  large  North- 
ern constellation  in  the  Milky  Way,  one 
of  Ptolemy's  original  48.  It  is  surround- 
ed by  Draco,  Cepheus,  Lacerta,  Pegasus, 
Vulpacula,  and  Lyra.  One  of  its  small 
stars  of  about  the  5.5  magnitude,  61 
Cygni,  a  well-known  double  as  well,  is 
one  of  our  nearest  neighbors  among  the 
stars.  The  determinations  of  its  parallax 
are  somewhat  discordant,  ranging  from 
0.27"  to  0.56",  giving  in  light-years  a  dis- 
tance of  from  12  to  6  years. 

CYLINDER,  a  well-known  solid  whose 
cross-section  at  any  point  of  its  length 
gives  always  the  same  circle;  or,  mathe- 
matically, a  solid  generated  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  a  rectangle  about  one  of  its  sides, 
which  line  is  called  the  axis  of  the  cylin- 
der. That,  the  typical  cylinder,  is  fre- 
quently called  right,  and  if  cut  by  two 
parallel  planes  not  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  the  result  is  an  oblique  cylinder, 
with  elliptical  ends  or  sections.  The 
term  has  also  been  generalized  to  in- 
clude a  solid  generated  by  a  line  mov- 
ing parallel  to  a  fixed  direction  while 
tracing  any  fixed  closed  curve.  In  all 
cases  the  content  of  the  cylinder  is 
found  by  multiplying  the  number  of 
square  units  in  the  base  by  the  number 
of  linear  units  in  the  altitude,  which  is 
the  perpendicular  distance  between  the 
two  ends.  The  area  of  the  convex  sur- 
face is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  end,  and  the  length 
of  the  generating  line.  To  this  must  be 
added  the  areas  of  the  two  ends,  to  get 
the  whole  surface  of  the  cylinder. 

CYMBELINE,  an  ancient  King  of 
Great  Britain  in  a  very  well-known  play 
of  Shakespeare  called  by  his  name.  By 
his  first  wife  he  had  a  daughter,  Imogen, 
who  narried  Posthumus  Leonatus.  His 
5econd  wife  had,  by  a  former  husband,  a 
son  named  Cloten.  Shakespeare  bor- 
rowed the  name  from  the  half-historical 
Cunobelinus  in  Holinshed's  "Chronicle," 
of  whom  several  coins  are  extant. 

CYMRI  (kim'ri),  a  branch  of  the 
Celtic  family  of  nations  which  appears 
to  have  succeeded  the  Gaels  in  the  great 
migration  of  the  Celts  W.,  and  to  have 
driven  the  Gaelic  branch  to  the  W.  (into 
Ireland  and  the  Isle  of  Man)  and  to  the 
N.  (into  the  Highlands  of  Scotland), 
while  they  themselves  occupied  the  S. 
parts  of  Great  Britain.  At  a  later 
period  they  were  themselves  driven  out 


CYNANCHITM 


236 


CYPRUS 


of  the  Lowlands  of  Great  Britain  by  the 
invasions  of  the  Angles,  Saxons,  and 
Jutes,  and  compelled  to  take  refuge 
in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Wales, 
Cornwall,  and  the  N.  W.  of  England. 
Wales  may  now  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
seat  of  the  Cymri. 

CYNANCHXJM,  a  genus  of  asclepta- 
dacese,  of  which  some  species  have  been 
used  medicinally,  as  C.  monspeliacuvi, 
as  a  violent  purgative,  the  so-called 
montpellier  scammony,  and  C.  vincetori- 
cum,  formerly  in  repute  as  an  antidote 
to  other  poisons.  The  Indian  C.  exten- 
sum  yields  fiber,  and  C.  ovalifolium  of 
Penang,  caoutchouc. 

CYNEWULF  (kin'e-wulf),  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  or  early  English  poet,  whose 
name  we  only  know  from  its  being  given 
in  runes  in  the  poems  attributed  to  him, 
viz.,  "Elene"  (Helena),  the  legend  of 
the  discovery  of  the  true  cross;  "Juli- 
ana," the  story  of  the  martyr  of  that 
name;  and  "Crist"  (Christ),  a  long 
poem  incomplete  at  the  beginning.  The 
name  Cynewulf  also  occurs  as  the  solu- 
tion of  one  of  the  metrical  riddles  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  collection.  Cynewulf  prob- 
ably lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  8th 
century. 

CYNICS,  a  sect  of  philosophers  among 
the  Greeks,  so  called  from  their  snarling 
humor,  and  their  disregard  of  the  con- 
ventional usages  of  society;  the  name 
being  probably  derived  from  the  kyon,  a 
dog.  According  to  some  authorities, 
however,  cynic  is  formed  from  Cyne- 
sarges,  the  name  of  the  gymnasium  in 
which  the  founder  expounded  his  sys- 
tem. He  taught  that  the  true  dignity  of 
man  consists  in  wisdom,  and  wisdom  in  in- 
dependence of  mind ;  that  pain  and  labor, 
and  even  infamy,  are  benefits;  and  that 
pleasure,  on  the  contrary,  is  an  evil. 
His  doctrine  of  the  supreme  good  is  a 
life  according  to  virtue,  which  consists 
in  action.  He  condemned  all  civil  in- 
stitutions, despised  the  ties  of  kin  or 
country,  and  saw  in  wedlock  no  higher 
or  better  end  than  the  propagation  of 
the  species.  The  most  famous  of  the 
Cynics,  besides  their  founder,  were 
Diogenes  of  Sinope,  Crates  of  Thebes 
with  his  wife  Hipparchia,  and  Menip- 
pus.  At  length  the  sect  became  so  dis- 
gusting from  their  impudence,  dirty 
habits,  and  profligacy,  that  they  ceased 
to  be  regarded  with  any  respect,  and 
passed  into  obscurity.  The  great  merit 
of  this  system  is  that  it  paved  the  way 
forvfhe  establishment  of  Stoicism. 

CYPRESS,  a  tree,  Cupressns  semper- 
vtrens,  a  tall  evergreen  conifer,  indige- 
nous   to    Persia    and    the    Levant,    but 


planted  all  over  the  adjacent  regions. 
The  Greek  word  kyparissos  has  by  some 
been  derived  from  Kypros,  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  where  it  is  abundant.  It  is 
planted,  in  the  regions  where  it  grows, 
in  burial  grounds,  especially  in  those  of 
the  Mohammedans  and  of  the  Arme- 
nians. The  Greeks  made  their  coffins  of 
its  wood,  and  some  Egyptian  mummy 
chests  are  of  the  same  material.  It  is 
used  in  Candia,  Malta,  and  other  places 
for  building  purposes,  being  very  dur- 
able. The  doors  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome 
are  formed  of  it,  and  have  lasted  1,100 
years.  Cabinet-makers  and  turners  find 
it  suitable  for  their  respective  crafts. 
In  recent  years  it  has  gained  favor  in 
the  United  States  for  building  purposes. 

CYPRIAN,  ST.,  THAECIUS  C^CI- 
LIUS  (sip're-an).  Bishop  of  Carthage, 
and  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Church.  He 
was  probably  a  native  of  Carthage,  taught 
rhetoric  there,  and  about  246,  when 
nearly  50  years  of  age,  was  converted  to 
the  Christian  faith.  He  adopted  a  rigidly 
ascetic  manner  of  life,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Carthage  in  248. 
When  the  persecution  under  Decius  fell 
on  the  Churches,  Cyprian  ran  away  and 
concealed  himself  for  nearly  two  years. 
He  was_  then  received  as  bishop  again, 
but  during  the  next  persecution,  under 
Valerianus,  he  was  arrested  and  ban- 
ished. After  a  year  he  was  recalled,  but 
as  he  refused  to  make  the  required  sac- 
rifice to  the  gods,  he  was  put  to  death, 
258.  His  works,  consisting  of  letters 
and  sermons,  are  of  great  importance 
for  the  insight  they  give  into  the  be- 
liefs, modes  of  thought,  and  practices 
of  the  early  Churches. 

CYPRUS,  an  island  lying  on  the  S. 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  most  easterly  in 
the  Mediterranean.  Its  greatest  length 
is  145  miles,  maximum  breadth  about 
60  miles;  area,  3,584  square  miles.  The 
chief  features  of  its  surface  are  two 
mountain  ranges,  both  stretching  E.  and 
W.,  the  one  running  close  to  the  N. 
shore,  and  extending  through  the  long 
N.  E.  horn  or  prolongation  of  the  island, 
the  other  and  more  massive  (Mount 
Olympus)  occupying  a  great  part  of  the 
S.  of  the  island,  and  rising  m  Troodos 
to  6,590  feet.  Between  them  is  the  bare 
and  mostly  uncultivated  plain  called 
Messaria.  There  is  a  deficiency  of 
water.  The  climate  is  in  general  healthy. 
The  mountains  are  covered  with  forests 
of  excellent  timber  (now  under  govern- 
ment supervision),  and  the  island  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  richest  and  most  ^^^ 
fertile  in  the  Levant.  Wheat,  barley,  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  olives,  raisins,  and  carobs 
are  the  most^  important  vegetable  prod- 
ucts.    The  wine  is  famous.     Silk-worms 


CYRENAICS 


237 


CYRUS 


ore  reared,  and  a  coarse  kind  of  silk 
is  woven.  Salt  in  large  quantities  is 
produced.  The  minerals  are  valuable; 
the  copper  mines  were  of  great  impor- 
tance in  ancient  times  (the  name  copper 
is  derived  from  that  of  this  island),  and 
are  again  being  worked.  Large  num- 
bers of  sheep  and  goats  are  reared  on 
the  extensive  pasture  lands  of  the 
island.  The  principal  towns  are  Lefko- 
sia  or  Nicosia,  the  capital,  the  only  con- 
siderable inland  town,  and  the  seaports 
Larnaca  and  Limassol.  The  chief  e  - 
ports  are  carobs,  wine,  and  cotton,  with 
cheese,  raisins,  cocoons,  wool,  etc. 

After  belonging  successively  to  the 
Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Egypt,  Persia,  and 
again  Egypt,  Cyprus  in  57  B.  C.  became 
a  Roman  province,  and  passed  as  such 
to  the  E.  division  of  the  empire.  In 
1191  it  was  bestowed  by  Richard  of 
England  (who  had  conquered  it  when 
engaged  in  the  third  crusade)  on  Guy 
de  Lusignan,  and  after  his  line  was  ex- 
tinct, it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Vene- 
tians (1489),  with  whom  it  remained 
till  it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in 
1571  and  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire. In  1878  it  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  by  the  convention  of  Constanti- 
nople concluded  between  England  and 
Turkey.  The  island  has  become  much 
more  prosperous  under  British  adminis- 
tration, and  roads,  harbor-works,  etc., 
hav^e  been  constructed,  trees  planted, 
and  schools  opened.  The  head  of  the 
government  is  the  chief-commissioner, 
and  there  is  a  legislative  council.  Great 
Britain  annexed  the  island  in  November 
1914.  Over  three-fourths  are  Greeks,  the 
rest  Mohammedans.  Pop.  (1919)  311,108. 
Capital,  Nicosia  (pop.  16,632). 

CYRENAICS,  or  CYRENIANS,  a 
sect  of  ancient  philosophers,  whose 
founder,  like  that  of  the  Cynics,  had 
been  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  being 
Aristippus,  a  native  of  Cyrene,  in  Afri- 
ca, afxer  which  city  his  followers  were 
called.  His  great  maxim  was  that  a 
man  ought  to  control  circumstances,  and 
not  be  controlled  by  them.  According 
to  him,  the  sum  of  life  was  made  up  of 
pleasure  and  pain;  the  one  to  be  sought 
after  as  good,  the  other  to  be  avoided 
as  evil.  The  chief  good,  according  to 
him,  was  the  greatest  number  of  agree- 
able perceptions;  and  the  true  philoso- 
pher was  one  who  actively  and  success- 
fully pursued  pleasure.  The  chief  suc- 
cessors of  Aristippus  were  Theodorus, 
Heigesias,  and  Anniceris,  each  of  whom 
became  the  founder  of  a  sect  known  re- 
spectively as  the  Theodoran,  Hegesian, 
and  Annicerian  schools.  As  cynicism 
was  the  forerunner  of  stoicism,  so 
cyrenaicism    likewise     paved    the    way 


for  epicureanism,  which   constitutes   its 
chief  merit. 

CYRENE,  the  capital  of  Cyrenaica, 
was  founded  by  Battus  and  his  followers 
from  Thera,  631  B.  c.  Seven  kings  of 
this  race  succeeded,  anJ  about  450  B.  C. 
a  republic  was  established.  It  was 
afterward  made  subject  to  Egypt,  and 
passed  under  the  dominion  of  Rome,  74 
B.  c.  The  ruins  of  this  town,  called 
Ghrennah  by  the  Turks,  still  exist,  in  a 
beautiful  and  fertile  plain,  about  11 
miles  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
attest  its  former  magnificence.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  many  great  men, 
among  whom  were  Callimachus,  Eratos- 
thenes, Carneades,  and  Aristippus. 

CYRIL,  the  name  of  three  saints  or 
fathers  of  the  Christian  Church. 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  born  there  about 
A.  D.  315,  was  ordained  presbyter  in  345; 
and  in  350  or  351  became  Patriarch  of 
Jerusalem.  He  engaged  in  a  warm  con- 
troversy with  Acacius,  the  Arian  Bishop 
of  Caesarea,  by  whose  artifices  he  was 
more  than  once  deposed  from  his  epis- 
copal dignity.  He  died  in  386  or  388. 
There  are  extant  some  writings  com- 
posed by  him. 

Cyril  of  Alexandria  was  educated  by 
his  uncle  Theophilus,  Patriarch  of  Alex- 
andi-ia,  and  in  a.  d.  412  succeeded  him 
as  Patriarch.  In  this  position  his  am- 
bitious spirit  brought  the  Christians  into 
violent  quarrels.  At  the  head  of  the 
populace  he  assailed  the  Jews,  destroyed 
their  houses  and  drove  them  out  of  the 
city.  Orestes,  the  prefect,  having  com- 
plained of  such  violence,  was  attacked 
by  500  furious  monks.  The  assassina- 
tion of  Hypatia  took  place,  it  is  said,  at 
his  instigation.  His  quarrel  with  Nes- 
torius  and  with  John,  Patriarch  of  Anti- 
och,  regarding  the  two-fold  nature  of 
Christ,  convulsed  the  Church,  and  much 
blood  was  shed  between  the  rival  fac- 
tions at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431, 
the  emperor  having  at  last  to  send 
troops  to  disperse  them.  Cyril  closed 
his  restless  career  in  444. 

St.  Cyril,  "the  Apostle  of  the  Slavs," 
a  native  of  Thessalonica.  He  converted 
the  Chazars,  a  people  of  Hunnish  stock, 
and  the  Bulgarians,  about  A.  D.  860.  He 
died  about  868.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  the  Cyrillian  Letters,  which  took 
their  name  from  him,  and  is  probably 
the  author  of  the  Apologies  which  bear 
his  name. 

CYRUS,  surnamed  The  Elder,  founder 
of  the  Persian  monarchy,  was  son  of 
Cambyses,  a  Persian  noble,  and  of  Man- 
dane,  daughter  of  Astyages,  king  of 
Media.  The  principal  exploits  attributed 
to  him  are  the  incitement  to  a  revolt  of 
16 — Vol.  Ill — Cyc 


GYRUS 


238 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


the  Persians  and  consequent  defeat  of 
Astyages  and  the  Medes,  when  he  be- 
came king,  659  B.  C;  the  conquest  of 
Lydia  and  capture  of  Croesus;  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Babylon  in  538,  and  the 
invasion  of  Scj^hia,  where  he  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  Tomyris,  queen  of 
the  Massagetae,  529.  He  was  interred 
at  Psargardse. 

CYRUS,  surnamed  The  Younger,  was 
son  of  Darius  II.,  King  of  Persia,  and 
Parysatis.  In  407  B.  C.  he  was  made 
governor  of  the  western  provinces  of 
Asia  Minor.  He  was  of  ambitious  tem- 
per, and  was  sentenced  to  death  for 
plotting  against  his  brother  Artaxerxes 
on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  but  was 
pardoned.  Still  determined  to  be  king 
himself,  he  raised  an  army,  including 
a  large  body  of  Greek  mercenaries, 
crossed  the  Taurus,  marched  down  the 
Euphrates,  and  at  Cunaxa  encountered 
the  army  of  his  brother,  when  he  was 
defeated  and  slain,  401  B.  C.  Xenophon, 
who  had  served  as  a  volunteer  among 
the  Greeks,  conducted  their  retreat,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  the  expedition. 

CYST  (a  bladder),  a  word  sometimes 
used  in  the  original  sense  as  applied  to 
hollow  organs  with  thin  walls,  as  the 
urinary  bladder  and  gall-bladder;  but 
commonly  reserved  for  the  designation 
of  pathological  structures  or  new  forma- 
tions within  the  body  having  the  bladder 
form.  Cysts  may  arise  in  two  different 
ways:  (1)  either  by  the  accumulation 
of  products  within  cavities  normally 
present,  or  (2)  by  the  independent  for- 
mation of  a  cavity.  Of  the  first,  wens, 
collections  of  secretion  in  a  sebaceous 
gland  of  the  skin,  are  the  commonest 
example;  instances  of  the  second  are 
cystic  tumors  of  the  ovary,  and  the  sacs 
developed  in  connection  wdth  certain 
parasites.  They  are  either  simple  or 
compound,  unilocular  or  multilocular; 
they  are  sometimes  small;  in  other 
cases  they  grow  to  an  enonnous  size, 
and  are  very  complex. 

CYSTITIS,  inflammation  of  the  blad- 
der. 

CYSTOIDEA,  an  order  of  extinct 
echinoderms.  They  are  spherodial  ani- 
mals. They  have  a  mouth  above;  the 
arms  are  rudimentary.  Von  Buch  first 
elucidated  their  structure  and  affinities 
at  Berlin  in  1845,  and  gave  them  the 
name  of  cystidese  in  place  of  sphsero- 
nites;  their  original  appellation.  Now 
cystidese  has  become  cystoidea.  Thpy 
range  from  Upper  Cambrian  to  the 
Silurian,  being  especially  prominent  in 
the  Bala  Limestone. 

CYTHERE,  a  genus  of  entomostraca, 
order  Ostracoda,  family  cytheridse.    The 


eye  is  single,  the  inferior  antenna  setig- 
erous,  but  without  a  tuft  or  pencil  of 
tiny  filaments;  three  pairs  of  feet  in- 
closed within  the  shell.  No  heart 
present. 

CYTHEREA  (from  Cytherea,  a  name 
for  Venus,  so  called  because  she  is  said 
to  have  sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea 
near  Cythera,  now  Cerigo,  an  island  on 
the  S.  E.  of  the  Morea),  a  genus  of 
conchiferous  mollusks  belonging  to  the 
family  veneridse.  The  shell  is  like  that 
of  the  genus  Venus.  The  cythereas  are 
in  all  seas;  176  recent  species  are 
known,  and  200  fossil,  the  latter  rang- 
ing from  the  Oolite  till  now. 

CYTHERID-ffi,  a  family  of  entomos- 
tracous  crustaceans,  of  which  cythere  is 
the  type. 

CYTHERON,  a  shepherd  of  Boeotia, 
changed  by  Jupiter  into  a  mountain 
near  Thebes. 

CYTISUS,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  Legumi- 
sosss,  sub-order  Papilionacese.  The 
members  of  the  genus  are  shrubs  or 
small  trees,  sometimes  spiny,  with 
leaves  composed  of  three  leaflets,  and 
with  yellow,  purple,  or  white  flowers. 
They  belong  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  North 
Africa,  and  are  very  ornamental  plants. 
The  best  known  species  is  the  common 
laburnum  (C.  Lahuryium-;  see  Labur- 
num). Another  species  is  the  Alpine 
laburnum  (C  alpinus).  The  common 
broom  (C  Scoparius)  also  belongs  to 
this  genus. 

CYZICUS,  a  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor, 
70  miles  S.  W.  of  Constantinople.  It 
was  once  an  island,  and  the  site  of  an 
ancient  town  of  the  same  name. 

CZAR,  a  king;  formerly  the  title  of 
the  Emperor  of  Russia.  It  was  first 
assumed  by  Ivan  IV.,  in  1547. 

CZAREVNA,  the  title  of  the  wife  of 
the  former  czarowitz. 

CZARINA,  formerly  the  v/ii'e  of  an 
Emperor  of  Russia. 

CZAROWITZ,  CZAREVITCH,  or 
CZAREWITCH,  the  title  of  the  old- 
est son  of  the  former  Emperor  of  Russia. 

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA,  REPUBLIC  OF, 

composed  of  the  former  Austrian  states 
of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  the  larger  part  of 
Silesia,  and  Slovakia,  formerly  a  part  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Huneary.  Bohemia  has 
an  area  of  20,065  square  miles,  with  a 
population  of  about  6,700,000;  Moravia 
8,584  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
about  2.600.000;  Silesia  1,988  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  about  757.- 
000;    and    Slovakia   about   25,000   souare 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


289 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


miles,  with  a  population  estimated  in 
1919  at  between  3,000,000  and  4,000,000. 
In  all  these  countries  the  population  is 
of  the  Slavic  race,  though  in  Bohemia 
there  is  a  large  proportion  of  Germans. 
The  Czech,  or  Bohemians,  are  by  far  the 
most  important  of  these  various  peoples, 
both  in  numbers  and  culture,  and  are 
now  the  dominant  political  element.  The 
capital  of  the  Republic  is  in  the  Bo- 
hemian city  of  Prague,  whose  population 
is  about  550,000.  In  culture  and  the  edu- 
cational level  of  its  people  it  ranks  with 
the  most  progressive  cities  of  Europe, 
having  two  universities,  one  Bohemian, 
the  other  German.  In  the  whole  of  the 
Bohemian  population  the  percentage  of 
illiteracy  is  only  2  per  cent.  Another 
important  city  is  Pressburg,  in  Slovakia, 
also  the  site  of  a  modern  university. 
Slovakia,  of  a  much  lower  cultural  level, 
is  inhabited  by  an  agricultural  people, 
of  simple  manners  and  a  lower  standard 
of  living. 

The  frontiers  of  the  Republic,  though 
not  definitely  agreed  upon  in  the  begin- 
ning of  1920,  were  roughly  as  follows: 
Hungary  on  the  N.,  on  the  W.,  Hungary 
to  the  Danube,  along  the  Danube  to  the 
outlet  of  Eipel,  along  the  Eipel  to  Zom- 
bat,  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ung 
river,  along  the  Ung  to  the  Uzsok 
Heights, 

The  Czechs,  or  Bohemians,  had  behind 
them  a  history  as  a  free  people  to  inspire 
their  struggles  for  independence  in  mod- 
ern times.  Bohemia  had  been  an  independ- 
ent kingdom  in  the  Middle  Ages,  becoming 
a  part  of  the  Austrian  Empire  in  1526. 
The  Slovaks,  who,  in  the  9th  century, 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  great  Moravian 
kingdom,  were  subjugated  by  the  Mag- 
yars in  907,  after  the  bloody  Battle  of 
Pressburg,  and  have  been  very  much  op- 
pressed by  the  Hungarian  kings. 

In  recent  times  the  movement  for  in- 
dependence was  most  strongly  organized 
among  the  Czechs.  For  many  years 
there  existed  among  them  a  secret  revolu- 
tionary organization,  popularly  known 
as  the  Mafia,  the  name  being  taken  from 
the  well-known  Sicilian  order  of  the 
same  name.  At  the  head  of  this  under- 
ground movement  was  Dr.  Szamal,  and 
Dr.  Voita  Benes,  the  latter  now  a  promi- 
nent member  of  the  official  government. 
Little  is  known  of  the  activities  of  the 
Mafia  because  of  the  secrecy  with  which 
they  were  carried  on,  no  one  member 
knowing  more  than  two  of  his  comrades, 
but  it  was  famous  for  the  perfection  of 
its  intelligence  system,  its  spies  being  in- 
stalled even  in  the  imperial  household 
and  in  all  the  offices  of  the  Cabinet  min- 
isters. 

With  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War,  in  1914,  the  movement  for  Czech 


national  independence  began  to  manifest 
itself  in  the  open.  A  National  Council 
appeared  shortly  afterward  in  Paris  and 
sought  recogfnition  from  the  Entente 
nations  and  the  United  States.  That 
the  people  of  both  Bohemia  and  Slovakia 
stood  squarely  behind  the  movement  be- 
came only  too  evident  to  the  Austrian 
Government,  from  the  behavior  of  the 
Czech  and  Slovak  contingents  that  were 
sent  to  the  front.  At  first  they  were 
sent  to  the  eastern  front,  against  the 
Russians.  In  at  least  several  instances 
the  Austrian  defeats  were  due  to  the 
wholesale  defection  of  the  Czechs  and 
Slovaks.  On  one  occasion  a  whole  regi- 
ment marched  out  of  the  Austrian 
trenches,  with  the  regimental  band  play- 
ing a  revolutionary  march,  and  joined 
the  Russians.  So  common  became  these 
desertions  that  finally  the  Czech  and 
Slovak  contingents  were  sent  to  the 
Italian  front,  where  they  were  placed  in 
positions  entailing  heaviest  losses.  To 
these  losses  the  Austrian  Government 
afterward  pointed  as  proof  of  the  loyalty 
of  the  Czech  and  Slovak  troops.  But 
throughout  the  war  the  disloyalty  of 
these  elements  in  the  Austrian  forces 
was  a  continuous  source  of  military 
weakness,  and  accounted  for  their  vast 
inferiority  to  the  Germans. 

The  attention  of  the  public  of  the 
Allied  countries  was  first  attracted  to 
the  national  aspirations  of  the  Czecho- 
slovaks when,  after  the  Russian  dis- 
integration following  the  Revolution 
(March,  1917),  the  Czech  and  Slovak 
contingents  which  had  deserted  on  the 
eastern  front  suddenly  emerged  as  the 
only  remaining  cohesive  force  in  the 
Russian  Army.  They  formed  the  back- 
bone of  the  July  offensive,  which  repre- 
sented the  last  effort  of  the  Kerensky 
Government  to  carry  on  the  Russian 
operations  against  the  Central  Empires, 
but  were  not  strong  enough  to  make  a 
success  of  this  vast  effort.  Later,  after 
the  downfall  of  Kerensky's  moderate 
Socialist  Government,  the  Czecho-Slovaks 
refused  to  join  the  Bolsheviki  and  re- 
ceived permission  from  the  latter  to  make 
their  way  to  western  Europe  through 
Siberia.  Regretting  this  promise,  the 
Bolsheviki  endeavored  to  disarm  the 
Czeeho-Slovaks  en  route,  whereupon  the 
latter,  asserting  themselves,  turned  upon 
the  Bolsheviki  and  succeeded  in  driving 
them  out  of  a  gi-eater  part  of  Siberia, 
and  thus  formed  the  backbone  of  the 
subsequent  intei'vention  of  the  Allies 
in  Russia. 

The  brilliant  exploit  of  the  Czecho- 
slovaks in  Siberia  attracted  world-wide 
attention  to  them,  and  led  to  official 
recognition  of  their  movement  for  inde- 
pendence by  the  Allies  and  the   United 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


240 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


States.  On  Dec.  10,  1917,  Premier 
Clemenceau  of  France  authorized  the 
formation  of  a  distinct  Czecho-Slovak 
army  in  France,  to  co-operate  with  the 
Allies  on  the  western  front.  On  April 
23,  1918,  the  Italian  Government  for- 
mally recognized  the  belligerency  of  the 
Czecho-Slovak  nation;  British  recogni- 
tion followed,  on  Aug.  3,  1918,  that  of 
the  United  States  was  announced  on 
Sept.  2,  1918,  and  that  of  Japan  on  Sept. 
9,  1918.  But  already  on  May  29,  1918, 
Secretary  Lansing,  representing  the 
United  States,  announced  officially  that 
"the  national  aspirations  of  the  Czecho- 
slovaks and  Jugoslavs  for  freedom  have 
the  earnest  sympathy  of  the  United 
States."  In  the  following  June  the 
United  States  Government  officially  per- 
mitted the  Czecho-Slovak  representatives 
in  this  country  to  recruit  men  for  a 
Slavic  legion. 

Early  in  April,  1918,  after  the  dis- 
integration of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Empire  was  well  under  way,  popular 
demonstrations  for  independence  took 
place  in  Prague.  So  widespread  were 
these  disorders  that  a  state  of  siege  was 
proclaimed  by  the  Austrian  authorities 
and  many  of  the  popular  leaders  were 
executed.  On  Oct.  21,  1918,  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Czecho-Slovak  peoples 
was  officially  proclaimed  by  the  National 
Council;  a  general  uprising  took  place 
in  Prague  and  the  city  passed  almost 
bloodlessly  out  of  the  nerveless  hands  of 
its  Austrian  rulers.  On  Oct.  28,  a  week 
later,  a  provisional  government  was  or- 
ganized and  installed  in  Prague.  On 
Nov.  2,  1918,  the  leaders  of  the  revolu- 
tion met  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  and 
drafted  a  system  of  organic  laws  for  the 
new  republic,  which  included  equal  suf- 
frage for  the  sexes  and  referendvun  vot- 
ing for  all  important  legislation.  On 
Nov.  10  a  provisional  National  As- 
sembly met  in  Prague  and  elected  the 
first  President  of  the  Republic,  the  honor 
falling  to  the  prominent  Czech  scholar 
and  historian,  Thomas  Garrigue  Masa- 
ryk,  who  was  then  in  the  United  States 
on  a  diplomatic  mission.  On  Dec.  22, 
1918,  the  new  President  was  officially  in- 
augurated into  office  in  Prague,  together 
with  his  Cabinet,  the  Prime  Minister  of 
which  was  Dr.  Karl  Kramarz,  with  the 
prominent  revolutionary  leader,  Voita 
Benes,  as   Minister  of  Foreign   Affairs. 

The  new  government  was  based  on  con- 
stitutional provisions  as  liberal  as  those 
of  the  most  liberal  governments  of  the 
world,  being  largely  modeled  after  the 
principles  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  These  included  the  com- 
plete freedom  of  religious  worship,  free- 
dom of  the  press,  speech,  petition,  the 
right  of  assembly,  the  separation  of  state 


and  church;  universal  suffrage,  includ- 
ing women,  the  national  representation 
of  minorities  and  proportional  represen- 
tation. The  new  National  Assembly, 
which  was  to  remain  in  power  until 
proper  popular  elections  could  be  hold, 
was  composed  of  260  members.  The 
following  parties  were  represented: 
Agrarians,  the  peasants'  party,  54;  So- 
cial Democrats,  50;  Slovaks,  50;  State- 
Right  Democrats,  a  moderate  Liberal 
party,  44;  Socialists,  28;  Clericals,  28; 
and  Progressives,  representing  a  liberal 
middle  class  element,  6. 

The  newly  organized  government  of 
the  Czecho-Slovak  Republic  had  tre- 
mendous difficulties  to  face  from  the  very 
moment  it  took  up  its  task  of  adminis- 
tration. First  of  all  Austria  had  been 
the  heaviest  sufferer  from  the  war,  eco- 
nomically considered.  Supplies  of  food- 
stuffs were  almost  completely  depleted, 
not  only  in  Czecho-Slovakia,  but  in  the 
neighboring  countries  as  well.  The  de- 
terioration of  the  railroads  and  their 
rolling  stock  had  reached  a  point  where 
they  had  almost  ceased  to  operate,  nor 
did  the  new  state  have  any  opening  to 
the  sea.  Of  railroad  lines  there  were 
13,000  kilometers  in  the  countries,  includ- 
ing a  main  line  running  through  Prague 
from  northern  Europe  down  to  the 
Balkans  and  Constantinople.  Thus,  the 
possibilities  of  future  development  of 
transportation  were  given.  Further- 
more, the  territory  of  the  Republic  held 
within  it  excellent  resources.  Before  the 
war  its  cotton  output  had  been  85  per 
cent,  of  that  of  the  whole  Austrian  Em- 
pire; its  wool  production  had  been  95 
per  cent,  of  the  total;  its  metal  pro- 
duction 70  per  cent.,  and  50  per  cent,  of 
motor  transport  vehicles  in  the  Austrian 
Empire  had  been  manufactured  in  Bo- 
hemia. Thus  the  plants  for  production 
were  there,  and  had  only  to  be  worked, 
as  soon  as  the  raw  materials  could  be 
procured. 

As  in  all  countries  which  had  suffered 
severely,  there  was  in  Czecho-Slovakia 
a  strong  radical  sentiment  among  the 
working  classes.  In  the  neighboring 
state  of  Hungary  this  finally  culminated 
in  the  ascent  into  power  of  a  purely 
Bolshevist  government.  This  same  ele- 
ment was  a  powerful  tendency  toward 
disintegration  in  Czecho-Slovakia  as 
v/ell,  but  there  it  was  fought  more  suc- 
cessfully. On  Jan.  11,  1919,  an  attempt 
was  made  by  the  Bolsheviki,  or  Com- 
munists, to  assassinate  the  Premier,  Dr. 
Kramarz,  largely  on  account  of  his 
declaration  of  policy  in  favor  of  retain- 
ing the  big  landed  estates  intact.  The 
attempt  failed,  and  aroused  strong 
popular  sentiment  against  the  minor 
Communist    elements,    but    nevertheless 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


241 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


the  conservative  policy  of  the  Premier 
proved  unpopular  among  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  people  as  a  w^hole.  In 
July,  1919,  Kramarz  and  his  Cabinet 
resigned  in  favor  of  the  Socialists,  who 
established  a  new  government,  with 
Vlastimil  Tusar  as  Premier,  Dr.  Benes 
remaining  as  Foreign  Minister.  The 
Social  Democrats  and  the  Agrarians  re- 
mained the  dominating  parties,  the  first 
leading.  This  change  was  fully  ratified 
by  the  popular  elections,  which  took 
place  at  this  time  in  Bohemia.  On  Oct. 
28,  1919,  President  Masaryk  made  a 
memorable  speech  before  the  national 
Assembly,  in  which  he  formulated  the 
policies  of  the  Government.  He  ex- 
pressed himself  very  strongly  against 
Bolshevism,  considering  it  only  the 
frantic  remedy  of  a  desperate  people 
beset  by  economic  ills  that  had  become 
unbearable,  but  at  the  same  time,  he 
declared,  the  Government  would  counte- 
nance no  policy  of  intervention  either 
in  Russia  or  Hungary,  and  Czecho- 
slovakia would,  therefore,  not  join  in 
any  of  the  Allied  efforts  in  that  direc- 
tion. He  proclaimed  the  Government's 
policy  to  be  that  of  peaceful  evolution 
toward  high  ideals,  which  might  even- 
tually demand  many  radical  changes, 
but  these  must  be  brought  about  grad- 
ually and  without  bloodshed.  He  was 
convinced  that  the  ideals  of  the  Bol- 
sheviki  were  not  at  fault;  he  deplored 
only  their  methods.  For  his  Govern- 
ment also  had  as  its  ultimate  ideal  the 
socialization  of  the  big  industries.  He 
plainly  enunciated  a  moderate  socialist 
program,  a  startling  fact,  since  the 
President  had  never  before  been  asso- 
ciated with  Socialistic  principles.  "This 
policy,"  he  said,  finally,  "may  be  termed 
crass  materialism,  but  the  materialism 
of  the  hungry  is  worthy  of  more  con- 
sideration than  the  materialism  of  the 
overfed."  The  words  of  its  chief  execu- 
tive plainly  indicated  that  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia  had  joined  those  nations  which 
have  definitely  set  out  on  the  path 
toward  political  Socialism. 

During  the  first  year  the  Czecho- 
slovak Government  had  already  begun 
the  formation  of  a  strong  national 
army.  This  was  later  augmented  by  the 
seasoned  troops  which  arrived  in  small 
contingents  from  Siberia.  Already,  be- 
fore the  frontiers  of  the  Republic  had 
been  definitely  fixed  by  the  international 
boundary  commissions  of  the  Paris 
Peace  Conference  there  developed  diffi- 
culties with  the  neighboring  states  of 
Poland  and  Hungary,  which  on  several 
occasions  culminated  in  actual  hostilities 
and  military  operations.  In  January, 
1919,  there  had  been  serious  operations 
against   the    Poles    in    western    Galicia, 


over  the  Teschen  district,  which  was 
still  disputed  territory  important  on  ac- 
count of  its  valuable  coal  deposits 
and  the  sovereignty  of  which  was 
still  to  be  decided  by  plebiscite.  A 
month  later  the  Czecho-Slovak  troops 
advanced  against  the  forces  of  the  Hun- 
garian Communist  Government,  and 
open  warfare  continued  until  July,  when 
the  Czecho-Slovaks  were  badly  defeated, 
and  were  only  saved  from  disaster  by 
the  action  of  the  Peace  Conference,  in 
Paris,  which  intervened  in  their  behalf. 
Gi'eat  satisfaction  was  felt  throughout 
the  Republic  when  the  publication  of  the 
Peace  Treaty  between  the  Allies  and 
Germany  announced  the  provisions  in 
favor  of  Czecho-Slovakia.  By  its  terms 
it  was  assured  of  an  economic  outlet 
to  the  Adriatic,  special  rights  being 
granted  in  the  matter  of  railroad  trans- 
portation to  Fiume  and  Trieste.  Fur- 
thermore, Germany  was  also  bound  to 
lease  to  Czecho-Slovakia,  for  a  period 
of  99  years,  terminal  and  shipping  space 
in  Hamburg  and  Stettin,  the  details  of 
which  were  to  be  worked  out  by  a 
special  commission  on  which  Germany, 
Great  Britain,  and  Czecho-Slovakia 
were  to  be  equally  represented.  A 
favorable  outcome  of  the  Teschen  dis- 
pute with  Poland  was  also  obtained 
when,  in  August,  1920,  the  Council  of 
Ambassadors  in  Paris,  which  had  been 
arbitrating  the  difficulty,  awarded  Cze- 
cho-Slovakia the  western  district  of  the 
territory  in  question,  containing  the  coal 
mines,  Poland  being  awarded  the  city  of 
Teschen. 

In  July,  1920,  the  popularly  elected 
National  Assembly  was  installed,  the 
First  National  Assembly  being  dissolved 
in  April.  The  legislative  body  consisted 
of  tvv'o  chambers;  a  Senate,  of  150  mem- 
bers, and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  of 
300  members,  the  members  of  the  for- 
mer being  elected  for  eight  years  and 
the  members  of  the  latter  for  six  years. 
The  preponderance  of  power  is,  how- 
ever, with  the  lower  house,  the  Senate 
having  little  more  than  the  veto  power. 
At  the  same  time  President  Masaryk 
was  re-elected  to  office  for  a  term  of 
seven  years.  Following  this  there  was 
a  reorganization  of  the  Cabinet,  formal 
rather  than  real,  since  the  personnel  of 
the  Cabinet  remained  practically  the 
same,  the  Social  Democrats  and  Agra- 
rians retaining  their  power.  Signs  of 
future  stability  were  in  evidence,  for 
while  food  was  still  scarce  in  the  larger 
cities  in  1920,  on  account  of  poor  rail- 
road transportation,  the  crops  of  1919 
had  been  unusually  good,  and  those  of 
1920  promised  to  be  equally  abundant. 
In  his  speech  before  the  National  As- 
sembly, after  his  election,  the  President 


CZECHS 


242 


CZOLGOSZ 


again  emphasized  the  socialistic  ideals 
of  the  government  and  the  desire  to 
accomplish  this  peacefully,  not  only 
within  the  Republic,  but  through  peace- 
ful relations  with  all  other  nations. 

CZECHS  (chegs),  the  extreme  W. 
branch  of  the  great  Slavonic  family  of 
races.  The  Czechs  have  their  head- 
quarters in  Bohemia,  where  they  ar- 
rived in  the  5th  century.  The  origin  of 
the  name  is  unknown.  They  speak  a 
Slavonic  dialect  of  great  antiquity  and 
of  high  scientific  cultivation.  The  Czech 
language  is  distinguished  as  highly  in- 
flectional, with  great  facility  for  form- 
ing derivatives,  frequentatives,  incep- 
tives,  and  diminutives  of  all  kinds.  Like 
the  Greek  it  has  a  dual  number,  and  its 
manifold  declensions,  tenses,  and  parti- 
cipial formations,  with  their  subtle 
shades  of  distinction,  give  the  language 
a  complex  grammatical  structure.  The 
alphabet  consists  of  42  letters,  express- 
ing a  great  variety  of  sounds.  In  musi- 
cal value  the  Czech  comes  next  to 
Italian.      See    Czecho-Slovakia. 

CZPNSTOCHAU,  or  CZENSTO- 
CHOWA  (chens'to-gou),  a  town  of 
Poland,  148  miles  S.  W.  of  Warsaw  by 
rail.  A  Catholic  monastery,  founded 
here  about  1382,  is  visited  yearly  by 
50,000  to  60,000  pilgrims,  as  possessing 
the  famous  "Black  Virgin,"  a  murky 
painting  of  Byzantine  origin,  but  as- 
cribed by  legend  to  St.  Luke  himself. 
In  1655  Czenstochau  was  the  only  place 
in  Poland  which  offered  resistance  to 
Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden,  when  70 
monks  and  150  soldiers  for  38  days  held 
out  against  10,000  men.  The  inhabit- 
ants, about  18,000,  carry  on  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  sacred  pictures  and 
rosaries. 

CZENMAK,  JOHN  NEPITMUK,  a 
German  physiologist  and  physician; 
bom  in  Prague,  June  17,  1828;  Pro- 
fessor of  Physiology  at  Jena.  He  was 
the  inventor  and  introducer  of  the 
larjmgoscope  and  rhinoscope,  and  of  a 
new  method  for  the  therapeutical  and 
surgical  treatment  of  diseases  of  the 
epiglottis  and  throat.  His  work  on  the 
laryngoscope  has  been  translated  and 
published  in  several  languages.  He 
died  Sept.  16,  1873. 

CZERNIN  VON  CHUDENITZ,  COUNT 
OTTOKAR,  Austrian  state'^man,  was 
Austro-Hungarian  ambassador  to  Ru- 
mania in  1914,  when  the  World  War 
broke  out,  and  for  some  time  after.    The 


entry  of  Italy  into  the  war  on  the  side 
of  the  Allies  having  discredited  Burian, 
the  Foreign  Minister,  who  had  carried 
on  the  negotiations  with  Italy,  he  was 
forced  to  resign,  Dec.  23,  1916,  where- 
upon Count  Czemin  was  appointed  to 
his  place.  Czernin  represented  Austria- 
Hungary  in  the  negotiations  with  Bol- 
shevist Russia,  preceding  the  Brest- 
Litovsk  Treaty,  He  resigned  on  April 
15,  191S,  being  involved  in  the  scandal 
resulting  from  a  letter  written  by  the 
Emperor  himself  to  his  brother-in-law. 
Prince  Sixtus  of  Bourbon,  through 
whom  it  was  proposed  to  effect  a  peace 
with  the  Allies  at  Germany's  cost. 

CZERNOWITZ,  the  capital  of  the 
former  Austrian  province  of  Bukowina; 
stands  720  feet  above  sea-level,  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  Pruth,  165  miles  S.  E. 
of  Lemberg.  Among  its  buildings  are 
the  palace  of  a  Greek  archbishop  (1875) ; 
his  cathedral  (1864),  on  the  model  of  St. 
Isaac's  at  St.  Petersburg;  the  Armenian 
church  (1875) ;  the  synagogue  (1877) ; 
and  the  "Austria  Monument"  (1875). 
The  university  here  was  founded  in  1875. 
The  manufactures  and  trade  previous  to 
the  World  War,  during  which  the  town 
and  its  vicinity  saw  much  severe  fighting, 
were  steadily  developing.  Pop.  about 
90,000. 

CZERNY  (cher'ne),  GEORGE,  Hospo- 
dar  of  Servia;  born  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Belgrade  about  1770.  His  true  name 
was  George  Petrovitch,  but  he  was  called 
Czerny  or  Kara  George,  i.  e.,  Black 
George.  In  1801  he  organized  an  insur- 
rection of  his  countrymen  against  the 
Turks,  took  Belgrade,  and  forced  the 
Porte  to  recognize  him  as  Hospodar  of 
Servia.  In  1813,  however,  he  had  to  re- 
tire before  a  superior  force,  and  took 
refuge  in  Austria.  Returning  to  his 
country  in  1817,  he  was  taken  and  put  to 
death  in  July. 

CZOLGOSZ,  LEON,  an  American  as- 
sassin; bom  about  1874,  of  Polish-Ger- 
man ancestry;  worked  at  various  trades 
in  the  United  States  and  became  affiliated 
with  anarchists  through  the  teachings  of 
Emma  Goldman  {g.  v.).  On  Sept.  6, 
1901,  while  President  McKinley  was  hold- 
ing a  public  reception  at  the  Pan-Ameri- 
can Exposition  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Czol- 
gosz  treacherously  shot  him  twice.  On 
Sept.  14,  the  President  died;  on  Sept.  23 
Czolgosz  was  brought  to  trial ;  on  the  26th 
was  sentenced  to  death,  and  was  electro- 
cuted in  the  prison  of  Auburn,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  29,  1901. 


D 


D,  d,  the  fourth  letter  and  the  third 
consonant  in  the  English  alphabet.  It 
represents  a  dental  sound  formed  by 
placing  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the 
roots  of  the  upper  teeth,  and  then  pass- 
ing up  vocalized  breath  into  the  mouth. 
It  is  always  sounded  in  English  words, 
though  frequently  slurred  over  in  rapid 
speech  in  such  words  as  handkerchief. 
After  a  nonvocal  or  surd  consonnant  it 
takes  a  sharper  sound,  nearly  approach- 
ing that  of  t,  especially  in  the  past  tenses 
and  past  participles  of  verbs  in  -ed. 

D.  As  an  initial  is  used : 

1.  In  chronology,  for  Dofvriini,  genit, 
sing,  of  Lat.  Z)owmtts= Lord,  as  A.  D. 
=An'no  Doniini=:in  the  year  of  our 
Lord. 

2.  In  music,  as  an  abbreviation  for  Dis- 
cantus,  Desstis,  Destra,  etc.  . 

3.  In  university  degrees,  etc.,  for  Doc- 
tor, as  M.  D.  =  Doctor  of  Medicine; 
D.  D.  =  Doctor  of  Divinity,  etc. 

D.  As  a  sjrmbol  is  used: 

1.  In  numerals,  for  500.  Thus  DC  = 
600;  DL=550.  When  a  dash  or  stroke  is 
written  over  the  letter  its  value  is  in- 
creased tenfold,  i.  e.,  to  5,000. 

2.  In  chemistry,  for  the  element  didym- 
ium. 

3.  In  music. 

(1)  For  the  first  note  of  the  Phrygian, 
afterward  called  the  Dorian  mode. 

(2)  For  the  second  note  of  the  normal 
scale  of  C,  corresponding  to  the  Italian 
re. 

(3)  For  the  major  scale  having  two 
sharps  and  for  the  minor  scale  having 
one  flat  in  its  signature. 

(4)  For  a  string  tuned  to  D,  e.  g.,  the 
third  string  of  the  violin,  the  second  of 
the  viola  and  violoncello. 

(5)  For  a  clef  in  old  mensurable 
music,  D.  excellens. 

(6.)  D  is  used  for  doh  in  the  tonic  sol- 
fa  system. 

4.  In  commerce,  for  English  penny  or 
pence,  as  £  s.  d.=: pounds,  shillings,  and 
pence. 


D'ABERNON,  EDGAR  VINCENT, 
BARON.  He  was  born  in  1857,  and  was 
educated  at  Eton.  In  1877  he  passed  the 
examination  for  Student  Dragoman  at 
Constantinople ;  joined  Coldstream 
Guards  from  which  he  resigned,  as  lieu- 
tenant, in  1882.  He  became  secretary 
to  Lord  Fitzmaurice,  Commissioner  for 
Eastern  Rumelia,  in  1880;  assistant  to 
Commissioner  for  Evacuation  of  Territory 
ceded  to  Greece  by  Turkey,  1881;  repre- 
sentative on  Council  of  Ottoman  Public 
Debt,  Constantinople,  1882;  President  of 
Council  of  Ottoman  Public  Debt,  1883; 
Financial  Adviser  to  Egyptian  Govern- 
ment, 1883-1889;  governor  of  Imperial 
Ottoman  Bank,  1889-1897;  and  Conserv- 
ative member  of  Parliament  1899-1906. 
He  wrote:  "Alcohol — its  Action  on  the 
Human  Organism." 

DABNEY,  CHARLES  WILLIAM,  an 

American  consular  officer;  born  in  Alex- 
andria, Va.,  March  19,  1794.  He  was 
made  United  States  consul  in  the  Azores 
in  1826,  and  by  his  services  to  the  people 
of  the  islands  made  his  name  a  house- 
hold word  among  them.  He  died  in 
Fayal,  Azores,  March  12,  1871. 

DABNEY,  CHARLES  WILLIAM,  an 
American  scientist  and  educator;  born  in 
Hampden-Sidney,  Va.,  June  19,  1855.  He 
was  educated  at  Hampden-Sidney  College 
and  at  the  Universities  of  Virginia,  Ber- 
lin, and  Gottingen,  In  1877  he  became 
Professor  of  Chemistry  in  Henry  and 
Emory  College,  and  in  1880  was  ap- 
pointed state  chemist  of  North  Carolina. 
He  was  president  of  the  University  of 
Tennessee  1887-1904  and  became  presi- 
dent of  the  University  of  Cincinnati  in 
1904.  From  1893  to  1896  he  was  Assist- 
ant Secretary  of  Agriculture.  He  also 
served  on  many  boards  and  commissions, 
was  a  member  of  several  scientic  so- 
cieties, and  published  numerous  scientific 
works. 

DABO,  LEON,  an  American  mural 
and  landscape  painter.     Born  in  Detroit 


243 


DACCA 


244 


D^DALTJS 


in  1869,  he  studied  in  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy.  After  executing  some  mural 
paintings  for  churches  in  New  York  he 
turned  his  attention  to  landscape  paint- 
ing, in  which  field  he  did  nearly  all  his 
best  work.  His  favorite  subject  was  the 
Hudson,  and  the  shores  of  Staten  Island, 
Among  his  important  creations  were: 
"Nocturnal  Fetes  on  the  Hudson,"  "Dawn 
beyond  the  Hudson,"  and  "The  Rocket." 
His  work  is  represented  in  many  public 
and  private  galleries  both  in  the  United 
States  and  abroad. 

DACCA,  a  city  of  Bengal,  in  the  di- 
vision and  district  of  the  same  name,  150 
miles  N.  E.  of  Calcutta;  on  the  N.  bank 
of  the  Buriganga;  occupies  an  area  of  8 
square  miles,  and  consists  of  a  dull  es- 
planade and  one  long  street  meeting  at 
right  angles,  with  a  complementary  net- 
work of  narrow,  crooked  lanes.  Its  posi- 
tion commands  the  principal  waterways 
of  the  delta,  and  it  thus  enjoys  singular 
facilities  in  the  way  of  inland  navigation. 
On  this  account  it  v/as  chosen,  about 
1610,  as  the  seat  of  the  Mohammedan 
government  of  Bengal,  which  rank  it  re- 
tained, except  during  an  interval  of  20 
years,  until  1704.  The  suburbs  extended 
15  miles  N.,  where  mosques  and  brick 
buildings  are  still  found  buried  in  thick 
jungle.  In  the  18th  century  it  became 
widely  celebrated  for  the  delicate  texture 
of  ^  its  muslins,  and  in  connection  with 
this  manufacture  the  French  and  the 
Dutch,  as  well  as  the  English,  had  ex- 
tensive establishments  in  the  place. 
After  1817,  however,  the  annual  value  of 
the  trade  declined,  and  the  aspect  of  the 
city  changed  with  the  disastrous  decay 
of  its  staple  industry.  Since  1872  the 
fortunes  of  Dacca  have  somewhat  bright- 
ened; the  general  development  of  trade 
throughout  the  presidency  has  brought 
back  a  share  of  its  former  prosperity, 
and  the  opening  of  the  Dacca  and  Mai- 
mansingh  State  Railway  in  1886  notably 
increased  the  transit  trade.  Besides  the 
Dacca  College  (1835),  there  are  many 
good  schools,  and  a  fine  hospital;  in  1878 
a  system  of  water-works  was  opened,  and 
the  sanitary  condition  has  since  im- 
proved.   Pop.  about  125,000. 

DACHSHUND  (daks'hont),  a  name 
adopted  from  the  German,  signifying 
"badger-dog."  The  dachshund  has  been 
common  in  Germany  for  many  years,  but 
was  unknown  in  England  until  intro- 
duced by  the  late  Prince  Consort  toward 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century;  it  then 
became  very  fashionable  and  popular. 
The  dachshund  is  a  small  dog,  weighing 
about  20  pounds,  with  short  crooked  fore- 
legs, and  an  extremely  long  body,  its  head 
rather  resembling  that  of  a  miniature 
bloodhound.     Its  strong,  large  paws  en- 


able it  to  dig  rapidly.    Its  color  should  be 
black  and  tan,  or  brown. 

DACIA  (da'shya),  a  large  tract  of  the 
Roman  empire  beyond  the  Danube;  now 
comprising  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  and  por- 
tions of  Transylvania  and  Hungary. 
Prior  to  Constantine  the  Great,  the  whole 
tract  was  divided  into  Trojan  Dacia  and 
Aurelian  Dacia.  The  former,  or  Dacia 
proper,  was  situated  N.,  the  latter  S.,  of 
the  Danube.  The  country  was  inhabitec 
by  the  Daci  or  Dacae,  a  warlike  nation  o. 
German  origin,  who,  after  a  heroic  resist- 
ance, continued  for  upward  of  75  years, 
were  finally  conquered  by  Trajan  (a.  d. 
105)  whereupon  the  entire  region  became 
a  Roman  province.  In  270-275  the  Ro- 
mans abandoned  the  country  to  the  Goths. 
In  453,  Ardaric,  King  of  the  Gepidse, 
seized  the  country,  and  in  566  it  was 
conquered  by  a  colony  of  Scythians. 

DA  COSTA,  JACOB  MENDEZ,  an 
American  physician  and  educator;  born 
in  St.  Thomas,  W.  I.,  Feb.  7,  1833.  He 
was  graduated  at  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege in  1852,  practicing  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1863  he  became  Lecturer  in  Jefferson 
Medical  College,  in  1872  Professor  of  the 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine  there, 
and  in  1891  Professor  Emeritus.  In  1895 
he  was  chosen  president  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  Philadelphia. 
He  vsnrote  "Harvey  and  his  Discovery," 
"Medical  Diagnosis,"  etc.  He  died  in 
1900. 

D^DALTJS  (de'da-lus  or  ded'a-lus), 
a  figure  in  Greek  mythology  who  personi- 
fied the  beginning  of  the  arts  of  sculp- 
ture and  architecture.  He  was  of  the  old 
Athenian  royal  race  of  the  Erechtheidas. 
Having  killed  his  nephew  and  pupil  in 
envy  at  his  growing  skill,  he  had  to  flee 
to  Crete  where  he  made  the  well-known 
cow  for  Queen  Pasiphae,  and  afterward 
for  King  Minos  the  famous  labyrinth  to 
confine  the  Minotaur.  Minos  next  im- 
prisoned Daedalus,  but  he  escaped  with 
the  help  of  Pasiphae,  and  formed  wings 
for  himself  and  his  son  Icarus,  with 
which  to  fly  across  the  sea.  He  himself 
flew  safe  across  the  .^gean,  but  unhap- 
pily Icarus  flew  too  near  the  sun,  the 
heat  of  which  melted  the  wax  that  fast- 
ened his  wings  to  him,  so  that  he  dropped 
into  the  sea,  and  left  his  name  to  be 
borne  by  that  part  of  the  JEgean  into 
which  he  fell.  Daedalus  made  his  way  to 
Sicily.  Some  accounts  made  him  first 
alight  at  Cumse  in  Italy,  where  he  dedi- 
cated his  wings  to  Apollo.  Works  of  art 
were  freely  ascribed  to  Daedalus  in 
Greece,  Italy,  Libya,  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean islands.  The  name  Daedala  was  ap- 
plied to  the  earlier  painted  and  gilded 
wooden  statues  of  the  gods. 


DAFFODIL 


245 


DAHOMEY 


DAFFODIL,  the  popular  name  of  a 
European  plant  which  is  one  of  the  ear- 
liest ornaments  of  our  gardens,  being  fa- 
vorite objects  of  cultivation.  It  belongs 
to  the  order  Amay-ylliadaeese.  Many  va- 
rieties of  the  daffodil  are  in  cultivation, 
differing  chiefly  in  bulk  and  in  the  form 
of  the  flower,  which  is  of  a  bright  prim- 
rose-yellow color.  There  are  other  forms 
of  the  name  in  local  or  partial  use.  See 
Narcissus. 

DAGHESTAN  (dag-es-tan'),  a  prov- 
ince of  Transcaucasia,  Russia,  stretching 
along  the  W.  side  of  the  Caspian  Sea; 
area,  11,471  square  miles.  Its  fertile  and 
tolerably  cultivated  valleys  produce  good 
crops  of  grain,  and  also  silk,  cotton,  flax, 
tobacco,  etc.  The  inhabitants,  almost  all 
professed  Mohammedans,  consist  chiefly 
of  races  of  Tartar  origin  and  of  Circas- 
sians. Capital,  Derbend.  Pop.  about 
700,000. 

DAGNAN-BOUVERET,  PASCAL 
ADOLPHE  JEAN,  a  French  historical 
and  portrait  painter.  Born  in  Paris  in 
1852  and,  after  years  of  study,  won  suc- 
cess with  a  picture  entitled  "The  Conse- 
crated Bread"  (1886),  now  displayed  in 
the  Luxembourg.  Other  important  paint- 
ings of  his  are  "The  Conscripts"  (1891) ; 
"Spanish  Dancer"  (1909) ;  and  "Mar- 
guerite au  Sabat"  (1912).  In  1885  he 
was  made  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  and  in  1889  received  the  first 
medal  of  the  Salon  for  his  painting 
"Breton  Women  at  the  Pardon."  Speci- 
mens of  his  work  are  in  the  New  York 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  and  in 
many  European  galleries. 

DAGO,  an  island  formerly  belonging 
to  Russia,  now  part  of  the  Republic  of 
Esthonia,  to  the  S.  W.  of  the  entrance  of 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  with  productive  fish- 
eries. The  inhabitants,  almost  all 
Swedes,  are  about  17,500.  Area,  370 
square  miles. 

DAGOBEST  I.  (da-go-ber'),  (called 
the  Great  on  account  of  his  military  suc- 
cesses). King  of  the  Franks,  in  628  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Clothaire  II.  After  a 
successful  magnificent,  but  licentious 
reign,  he  died  at  Epinay  in  638. 

DAGON,  a  national  god  of  the  Philis- 
tines worshiped  at  Gaza  (Judges  xvi:21- 
30),  Ashdod  (I  Sam.  v:  5,  7,  and  I 
Chron.  x:  10),  and  elsewhere. 

DAGUERRE,  LOUIS  JACQUES 
MANDE  (da-gar'),  a  French  inventor; 
born  in  Cormeilles,  Seine-et-Oise,  in  1789. 
He  was  a  scene-painter  at  Paris,  and  as 
early  as  1814  had  his  attention  directed 
by  Nic^phore  Niepce  to  the  subject  of 
photographic  pictures  on  metal.  In  1829 
they  made  a  formal  agreement  to  work 


out  the  invention  together,  but  it  was  not 
till  after  Niepce's  death,  on  July  5,  1833, 
that  Daguerre  succeeded  in  perfecting 
the  process  since  called  daguerreotype. 
The  new  process  excited  the  greatest  in- 
terest. Daguerre  was  made  an  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  an  annuity  of 
6,000  francs  was  settled  on  him.  Da- 
guerre died  July  10,  1851. 

DAGUERREOTYPE     PROCESS,     the 

original  photographic  process,  consisting 
in  sensitizing  a  silver  plate  with  the 
vapor  of  iodine,  and  then  placing  it  in  a 
camera  obscura  previously  focused,  and 
afterward  developing  the  picture  by 
vapor  of  mercury.  It  is  then  fixed  by 
immersion  in  hyposulphate  of  sodium. 
After  thorough  washing  and  drying  the 
picture  is  covered  with  glass  to  prevent 
its  being  rubbed  off.  Daguerreotype  has 
now  been  superseded  by  the  collodion  and 
other  processes.    See  Photography. 

DAGUPAN,  a  town  on  the  Dagupan 
river,  near  the  Gulf  of  Lingayen  on  the 
island  of  Luzon,  in  the  Philippines,  in  the 
province  of  Pangasinan;  on  the  railroad 
from  Manila,  and  about  130  miles  N.  W. 
of  that  city.  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile 
region,  producing  chiefly  com,  sugar,  and 
tobacco.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

DAHLAK,  a  group  of  three  islands, 
with  many  smaller  rocks,  in  the  Red  Sea, 
off  the  Bay  of  Massowah.  They  were 
famous  in  Roman  times  for  their  pearl- 
fisheries,  but  the  beds  have  long  since 
been  exhausted  and  abandoned.  The 
islands  are  a  dependency  of  Italy.  Area, 
about  420  square  miles;  pop.  about  1,500. 

DAHLGREN,  JOHN  ADOLPH,  an 
American  naval  oflBcer;  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Nov.  13,  1809;  entered  the 
navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1826,  and  rose 
through  the  grades  to  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral.  He  rendered  efficient  service  in 
suppressing  blockade- running  during  the 
Civil  War.  He  was  an  authority  on  ord- 
nance and  invented  the  famous  Dahlgren 
gun.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
July  12,  1870. 

DAHLIA  (so  called  after  Andrew 
Dahl,  a  Swedish  botanist  and  a  pupil  of 
Linnaeus,  by  whom  this  beautiful  garden 
plant  was  first  brought  into  cultivation) , 
a  genus  of  composite  plants,  tribe  Aste- 
roidese,  sub-tribe  EcUptese.  Two  species 
are  cultivated  in  gardens,  D.  superflua, 
which  has  the  outer  involucre  reflexed, 
and  D.  frustravea,  in  which  it  is  spread- 
ing. D.  variabilis  is  a  cross  between  the 
two.     Both  are  from  Mexico. 

DAHOMEY  (native  name  of  the 
people,  Dauma  or  Dahome),  a  colony  of 
French  West  Africa  between  Laeos 
(British)    and    Togoland   and   extending 


DAHOMEY 


246 


DAIRY 


northward  to  the  French  Military  Terri- 
tories. The  long  lagoon  which,  shut  in 
from  the  ocean  by  a  protecting  bank  of 
sand,  affords  an  easy  route  along  nearly 
the  whole  of  this  coast,  extends  in  Da- 
homey, from  its  W.  frontier  almost  to  the 
Denham  lagoon,  in  the  E.  About  mid- 
way is  the  port  of  Whydah,  whence  a 
road  extends  inland  to  Abomey,  a  dis- 
tance of  65  miles.  Dense  forests  and  dis- 
mal swamps  cover  nearly  two-thirds  of 
this  distance,  but  from  the  Great  Swamp 
of  Agrime  vast  undulating  plains  rise  for 
many  miles,  in  the  direction  of  the  Kong 
Mountains.  The  Avon  and  Denham  la- 
goons receive  the  rivers  of  the  country, 
none  of  which  are  very  important.  The 
soil  is  a  rich,  red-colored  clay,  and  is 
extremely  fertile.  Groves  of  oil-palms 
encircle  each  town,  and  palm-oil  is  made 
in  large  quantities.  Maize,  beans,  and 
peas,  as  well  as  cassava,  yams,  sweet  po- 
tatoes, limes,  oranges,  pineapples,  and 
other  tropical  fruits,  grow  in  splendid 
luxuriance;  cotton,  sugar,  and  spices  of 
all  kinds  are  also  grown,  and  sheep, 
goats,  swine,  and  poultry  are  raised, 
thovigh  not  in  large  numbers.  Cotton  cloth 
is  made,  and  weapons  and  tools  are 
forged  from  native  iron.  The  imports  in 
1918  amounted  to  12,819,239  francs  and 
the  exports  to  13,690,478  francs. 

The  people  are  negroes,  of  the  Ewe 
group,  generally  of  small  stature,  but 
very  robust  and  active.  The  Dahoman 
kingdom  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century,  and  reached  its  zenith 
under  Gezo,  who  ruled  from  about  1818 
to  1858.  The  Amazons  (devoted  to  celi- 
bacy), who  are  distinguished  for  their 
bravery  and  ferocity,  may  perhaps  be 
limited  to  1,000.  Fetich-worship  prevails, 
taking  the  form  of  serpent- worship  along 
the  coast;  a  temple  with  over  a  hundred 
of  these  sacred  snakes  exists  in  Whydah. 
The  king  is  the  most  absolute  of  despots. 
Wholesale  murder  is  one  of  the  chief 
features  in  religious  and  state  cere- 
monies; but,  acording  to  Sir  Richard 
Burton,  who  visited  Dahomey  in  1863,  the 
number  of  the  victims  has  been  greatly 
exaggerated,  and  they  are  principally 
foreign  captives.  Still,  as  many  as  500 
human  victims  have  been  sacrificed  at 
one  of  the  grand  "customs"  which  take 
place  every  October.  The  revenue  for- 
merly depended  greatly  upon  the  sale  of 
slaves;  but  the  vigilance  of  the  cruisers 
employed  to  prevent  the  traffic  has  ruined 
the  trade.  Hence  the  monster  slave- 
hunts  which  periodically  took  place  are  a 
thing  of  the  past.  In  1876  the  coast  of 
Dahomey  was  placed  under  a  strict  block- 
ade by  Great  Britain,  on  account  of  an 
outrage  on  a  British  subject,  for  which 
the  King  of  Dahomey  refused  satisfac- 
tion. 


DAINGERFIELD,       ELLIOTT,        an 

American  artist,  born  at  Harper's  Ferry, 
Va.,  in  1859.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  and  privately,  studied  art 
at  the  Art  Students'  League  in  New 
York,  and  first  exhibited  at  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  in  1880.  After 
spending  several  years  in  Europe  in  the 
study  of  art,  he  became  a  public  lecturer 
on  art  subjects  and  head  of  the  Perma- 
nent Art  School  at  Blowing  Rock,  N.  C. 
He  received  medals  at  several  expositions 
and  numerous  prizes  for  excellence  in 
painting,  was  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  and  of  the  Fine  Arts  Federa- 
tion, wrote  monographs  on  George  In- 
ness  and  R.  A.  Blakelock,  and  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor  on  art  topics  to  news- 
papers and  magazines, 

DAIBEN,  or  DALNY,  a  port  on  the 
peninsula  of  Liao-tung,  Manchuria,  about 
19  miles  N.  of  Port  Arthur.  The  large 
harbor  is  ice-free  and  affords  anchorage 
for  ocean-going  vessels.  Considerable 
trade  passes  through  it  between  Russia, 
Japan,  and  China,  and  the  trade  contin- 
ually increases.  The  Japanese  occupied 
it  in  1904  and  it  was  included  in  the  lease 
to  Japan  of  the  Liao-tung  peninsula  in 
1904  (extended  in  1915  to  99  years)  be- 
coming in  1906  a  free  port.  The  port 
serves  as  the  eastern  terminus  to  the  Si- 
berian Railway,  and  is  connected  by  rail 
with  Mukden,  Harbin,  and  the  East 
China  railway  system.  Dalny  is  the  cus- 
toms port  for  all  leased  territory,  and  the 
seat  of  the  Japanese  governor-general 
and  administration.  Imports  (1918), 
83,521,131  haikwan  taels  (tael=about 
$1.00) ;  exports,  91,301,399  yen.  During 
1920  it  figured  in  the  Japanese  operations 
against  Russia.    Pop.  about  55,000. 

DAIRY,  the  department  of  a  farm 
which  is  concerned  with  the  production  of 
milk  and  its  manufacture  into  butter  and 
cheese.  As  a  rule,  the  soil  and  climate  of 
a  country,  and  the  nearness  of  suitable 
markets,  determine  in  a  great  measure 
the  choice  between  tillage  and  dairy  hus- 
bandry. For  milk  dairies  cows  that  yield 
abundantly  are  selected,  while  for  butter 
and  cheese  dairies  the  rich  quality  of  the 
milk  is  the  principal  point.  Regularity  in 
feeding  is  very  important,  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  food  given  has  a  great  effect 
on  the  quality  of  the  milk.  The  younger 
the  cow  is  the  richer  is  her  milk,  and  the 
second  and  third  years,  therefore,  are 
generally  the  most  profitable,  both  quan- 
tity and  quality  being  taken  into  account. 
In  general,  after  the  seventh  or  eighth 
year  it  is  not  considered  advisable  to  con- 
tinue the  cow  longer  in  milk,  as  her  milk 
is  fast  deteriorating  and  she  consumes 
more  food  than  a  young  one. 

In  the  United  States  the  cattle  erf  Ayr- 


DAISY 


247 


D'ALEMBERT 


shire  and  Jersey  hold  the  first  place  for 
dairy  purposes,  the  first  on  account  of 
the  large  yield  which  they  give  on  com- 
paratively poor  feeding,  the  second  for  the 
richness  of  their  milk.  In  the  manage- 
ment of  a  dairy  cleanliness  is  of  the  ut- 
most importance,  as  no  substance  more 
easily  receives  and  retains  the  odors  and 
taste  of  putrescent  matter  than  milk. 
No  food,  either  vegetable  or  animal, 
should  be  allowed  to  enter  the  milk -house. 
A  good  mode  of  purifying  the  atmosphere 
of  a  milk-house  is  to  dip  clothes  in  a  so- 
lution of  chloride  of  lime  and  then  hang 
them  up  on  cords  stretching  from  one 
corner  to  the  other.  In  a  similar  way, 
too,  the  temperature  of  the  room  may  be 
kept  low  during  hot  weather.  The  milk- 
room,  therefore,  should  be  built  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  most  easily  cleaned 
and  kept  clean.  The  floor  should  be  of 
smooth  flagstones  carefully  jointed  and 
dressed.  It  should  have  a  slight  slope 
toward  the  wall,  where  a  channel  is 
formed  to  convey  all  water  and  spilled 
liquid  to  a  drain. 

All  cornices  and  moldings,  or  any  pro- 
jections or  cavities  where  dust  or  dirt 
can  lodge,  should  be  as  far  as  possible 
avoided.  The  practice  of  making  a  larder 
of  a  portion  of  the  milk-house,  or  of  hav- 
ing a  number  of  cheeses  drying  on  the 
shelves,  is  much  to  be  reprehended. 
Spilled  milk  should  never  be  allowed  to 
remain  an  instant  longer  than  is  neces- 
sary for  its  removal.  The  liberal  use  of 
water  (cold  in  summer  and  warm  in 
winter)  is  always  to  be  commended;  a 
little  common  washing-soda  dissolved  in 
the  water  will  be  found  useful  in  destroy- 
ing any  taint  of  sourness  the  milk-dishes 
may  have  acquired.  The  best  dishes  for 
milk  are  made  either  of  glass,  tin,  tinned- 
iron,  or  well-glazed  earthenware.  Wood 
is  objectionable  because  it  is  difficult  to 
keep  the  dishes  clean,  and  lead  and  zinc 
are  liable  to  corrosion  or  decomposition 
from  the  acid  of  the  milk.  See  also  But- 
ter; Cheese. 

DAISY,  the  common  name  of  the  well- 
known  plants  and  flowers  of  the  genus 
Bellis,  especially  B.  perennis.  The 
French  call  the  daisy  "Marguerite,"  from 
the  Greek  word  inargarita=a  pearl. 
Though  daisies  are  very  common  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  they  are  not  univer- 
sally distributed;  for  instance,  the  trav- 
eler may  wander  over  hundreds  of  miles 
in  the  Indian  Empire  without  seing  one 
solitary  daisy. 

DAKIN'S  SOLUTION,  a  preparation 
of  sodium  hypochlorite,  containing  boric 
acid.  It  is  prepared  by  treating  a  solu- 
tion of  chlorinated  lime  with  sodium  car- 
bonate, permitting  the  precipitated  cal- 


cium carbonate  to  settle,  syphoning  oft 
the  clear  liquor  and  neutralizing  with 
boric  acid.  The  resulting  liquid  is  used 
as  an  antiseptic  and  came  into  promi- 
nence during  the  World  War,  when  it 
was  employed  in  the  French  military  hos- 
pitals for  irrigating  wounds.  The  prep- 
aration was  discovered  by  Berthollet  in 
1788,  but  was  not  commonly  used  until 
it  was  reintroduced  by  Doctor  D.  H. 
Dakin  of  New  York,  while  he  was  serv- 
ing as  bacteriologist  in  France.  The  anti- 
septic action  of  the  solution  is  one  of  oxi- 
dation, brought  about  either  by  the  de- 
composition of  the  hypochlorite  with 
formation  of  oxygen,  or  indirectly 
through  the  formation  of  chloroamide 
groups. 

DAKOTA.  See  North  Dakota;  South 
Dakota. 

DAKOTA,  or  DAKOTAH.  See  SlOUX. 

DAKOTA  WESLEYAN  UNIVER- 
SITY, an  institution  for  higher  educa- 
tion, founded  at  Mitchell,  S.  D.,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  It  includes  a  College  of  Liberal 
Arts,  and  schools  of  commerce,  education, 
elocution,  and  art.  In  1919  there  were 
32  instructors  and  538  students.  Presi- 
dent, W.  D.  Schermerhorn,  S.  T.  B. 

D'ALBERT,  EUGEN,  an  Anglo-G«r- 
man  pianist  and  composer;  born  in  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  April  10,  1864.  He 
studied  at  Weimar  under  Liszt  and  be- 
came famous  as  a  performer  when  only 
18  years  of  age.  He  made  numerous  suc- 
cessful concert  tours  in  the  United  States 
and  throughout  Europe,  and  was  espe- 
cially famous  for  his  interpretations  of 
Bach  and  Beethoven.  He  was  consid- 
ered one  of  the  finest  technicians  and  his 
intellectuality  and  fire  placed  him  in  the 
foremost  rank  of  pianists.  His  composi- 
tions included  many  pieces  for  the  piano, 
numerous  songs,  and  several  operas,  of 
which  latter  "Im  Tiefland"  was  per- 
formed in  New  York  in  1908. 

DALECARLIA,  or  DALARNE,  a  tract 
in  Sweden.  The  name,  meaning  "valley^ 
land,"  is  kept  alive  in  the  minds  of  the 
inhabitants  by  the  noble  struggles  which 
the  Dalecarlians,  its  inhabitants,  made  to 
establish  and  maintain  the  independence 
of  the  country. 

D'ALEMBERT,  JEAN  LE  ROND  (da- 
lon-bar'),  a  French  mathematician  and 
encyclopaedist;  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  16, 
1717;  was  the  natural  son  of  Madame  de 
Tencin  and  the  Chevalier  Destouches; 
and  was  brought  up  by  the  wife  of  a  poor 
glazier;  but  his  father,  without  publicly 
acknowledging  the  paternity,  secured  to 
him  an  allowance  of  1,200  francs  a  year. 
At  12  the  boy  entered  the  College  Ma- 


DALHOUSIE 


248 


DALLAS 


rarin,  where  he  soon  showed  his  lifelong 
passion  for  mathematical  studies.  His 
first  distinction  was  admission  at  23  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Two  years 
later  appeared  his  "Treatise  on  Dynam- 
ics," which  reduces  all  the  laws  of  motion 
to  the  consideration  of  equilibrium,  there- 
by marking  an  epoch  in  mechanical  phi- 
losophy. Later  works  were:  "General 
Cause  of  Winds,"  which  gained  the  prize 
of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  1746,  and 
which  contains  the  first  conception  and 
use  of  the  Calculus  of  Partial  Differ- 
ences; "Equilibrium  and  Movement  of 
Fluids"  (1744)  ;  "Precession  of  the  Equi- 
noxes and  Change  of  the  Axis  of  the 
Earth"  (1749)  ;  and  "The  Several  Im- 
portant Points  in  the  System  of  the 
World"  (1754).  His  "Mathematical 
Works"  (8  vols.  1761-1780)  contain  an 
immense  number  of  memoirs,  some  on 
new  subjects,  some  containing  develop- 
ments of  his  previous  works. 

D'Alembert  did  not  confine  himself  to 
physical  science.  For  the  great  "Ency- 
clopedia" planned  by  Diderot  he  wrote 
the  famous  "Preliminary  Discourse,"  a 
noble  tribute  to  literature  and  philos- 
ophy. Besides  numerous  articles  in  the 
^'Encyclopedia"  (the  mathematical  por- 
tion of  which  he  edited),  he  published 
books  on  philosophy,  literary  criticism, 
the  theory  of  music,  and  a  treatise  "On 
the  Destruction  of  the  Jesuits"  (1765), 
which  involved  him  in  controversy.  He 
became  secretary  to  the  Academy  in  1772, 
and  thereafter  he  wrote  the  lives  of  all 
the  members  deceased  between  1700  and 
that  year — one  of  the  most  pleasing  of 
his  works.  His  literary  works  have  been 
published  by  Bossange  (g  vols.,  1821). 
He  died  Oct.  29,  1783. 

DALHOUSIE,  JAMES  ANDREW 
BROWN  RAMSAY,  10th  EARL  and  1st 
MARQUIS  OF,  a  British  statesman; 
born  in  1812;  was  educated  at  Harrow 
and  at  Christchurch,  Oxford.  After  fill- 
ing the  ofl^ices  of  vice-president  (1843) 
and  president  of  the  board  of  trade 
(1844),  he  A^as  appointed  governor-gen- 
eral of  India  (1847).  In  this  post  he 
showed  high  administrative  talent,  estab- 
lishing railway  lines,  telegraphs,  irriga- 
tion works,  etc.,  on  a  vast  scale.  He 
greatly  extended  the  British  empire  in 
India,  annexing  the  Punjab,  Oude,  Berar, 
and  other  native  states,  as  well  as  Pegu 
in  Burma.  In  1849  he  was  made  a  mar- 
quis, and  obtained  the  thanks  of  both 
Houses  of  Parliament.  He  outstayed  his 
term  of  office  to  give  the  government  the 
aid  of  his  experience  in  the  annexation  of 
Oude;  and  when  he  returned  to  Europe 
in  1856  it  was  with  a  constitution  so 
completely  shattered  that  he  was  never 


able  to  appear  again  in  public  life,  and 
died  Dec.  19,  1860. 

DALLAS,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Dallas  CO.,  Tex.;  on  the  Trinity  River, 
and  the  Gulf,  Colorado  and  Santa  F6, 
the  Houston  and  Texas  Central,  the  Mis- 
souri, Kansas  and  Texas,  the  Texas 
and  Pacific,  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Gulf,  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern,  the  St. 
Louis  and  San  Francisco,  and  other  rail- 
roads; 32  miles  E.  of  Fort  Worth.  It  is 
the  metropolis  of  N.  Texas,  and  although 
comparatively  a  young  city,  is  well  laid 
out  and  substantially  built.  Area,  19 
square  miles. 

Business  Interests. — Dallas  is  in  the 
great  grain  belt  of  the  State,  and  has 
large  cotton,  mining,  manufacturing,  and 
commerical  interests.  It  is  the  leading 
manufacturing  city  of  the  State,  and  it 
is  also  the  largest  inland  cotton  market 
in  the  United  States,  handling  over  1,500 
bales  of  spot  cotton  yearly.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  were  cotton  machinery, 
leather  goods,  shoes,  dressed  meat,  cotton 
goods,  foundry  and  machine-shop  prcxi- 
ucts,  cement  and  clothing.  There  were  in 
1920  5  National  banks,  and  several  pri- 
vate banking  houses.  The  assessed  real 
and  personal  property  valuation  in  1919 
was  $103,587,650. 

Public  Interests. — In  1919  the  city  had 
342  miles  of  streets,  of  which  152  miles 
were  paved;  218  miles  of  water  mains; 
and  electric  light  and  water  plants,  the 
latter  owned  by  the  city.  Among  the 
prominent  buildings  are  the  Catholic  and 
Episcopal  churches,  the  United  States 
Court-house,  the  Texas  State  Fair  and 
Dallas  Exposition  buildings.  Cathedral 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  (R.  C),  Cathedral 
of  St.  Matthew  (P.  E.),  Ursuline  Convent, 
St.  Mary's  Orphanage,  St,  Paul's  Sani- 
tarium (all  R.  C),  and  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege (P.  E.).  Dallas  is  the  seat  of  the 
Southern  Methodist  University,  and  has 
hospitals,  and  a  park  system  of  nearly 
800  acres.  There  is  a  boulevard  system 
of  over  60  miles.  There  are  over  25,000 
pupils  in  the  public  schools,  and  the 
annual  cost  of  maintaining  the  school 
system  is  about  $850,000.  Pop.  (1910) 
92,104;    (1920)   158,976. 

DALLAS,  GEORGE  MIFFLIN,  an 
American  diplomatist;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  July  10,  1792.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  College  in  1810.  In 
1813  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
soon  after  entered  the  diplomatic  service. 
In  1831  he  was  elected  a  United  States 
Senator  from  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
United  States  minister  to  Russia  from 
1837  to  1839,  and  in  1844  was  elected 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  In 
1846  his  casting-vote  as  President  of  the 
Senate  repealed  the  protective  tariff  of 


DALLES 


249 


DALTON 


1842,  though  he  had  previously  been  con- 
sidered a  Protectionist.  His  course  on 
this  question  aroused  much  indignation 
in  Pennsylvania.  He  was  United  States 
minister  to  Great  Britain  from  1856  to 
1861.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Dec. 
31,  1864. 

DALLES  (dalz),  the  name  given  to 
various  rapids  and  cataracts  in  North 
America.  The  Great  Dalles  of  the  Co- 
lumbia are  about  200  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  that  river,  where  it  is  com- 
pressed by  lofty  basaltic  rocks  into  a  roar- 
ing torrent  about  58  yards  in  width;  the 
Dalles  of  the  St.  Louis  are  a  series  of 
cataracts  near  Duluth,  Minn. 

DALLES,  THE,  a  city  and  the  county- 
Beat  of  Wasco  CO.,  Ore.;  on  the  Colum- 
bia river,  and  on  the  Great  Southern  rail- 
road, and  on  the  line  of  the  Oregon- 
Washington  Railroad  and  Navigation 
Company;  85  miles  E.  of  Portland.  It  is 
named  after  the  rapids  of  the  Columbia 
river  near  here;  is  a  shipping  point  for 
grain,  stock,  and  wool ;  and  has  tanneries, 
foundries,  flour  mills,  canning  factories, 
etc.  There  is  a  Catholic  seminary  for 
girls,  an  academy,  a  Carnegie  library,  a 
hospital,  and  public  schools.  Pop.  (1910) 
4,880;   (1920)  5,807. 

DALLIN,  CYBUS  EDWIN,  an  Amer- 
ican sculptor,  born  in  Springville,  Utah, 
in  1861.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  and  studied  art  in  Paris.  In 
1888  he  received  the  gold  medal  of  the 
American  Art  Association  in  New  York. 
This  was  followed  by  many  medals  and 
prizes  at  exhibitions.  He  was  instructor 
in  sculpture  at  the  Massachusetts  State 
Normal  Art  School  in  Boston.  His  works 
are  found  in  nearly  every  important  art 
collection  in  the  United  States.  He  was 
an  associate  of  the  National  Academy 
and  a  member  of  many  societies  of  ar- 
tists and  sculptors. 

DALMATIA  (dal-mash'ya) ,  a  former 
province  of  Austria,  with  the  title  of 
kingdom,  the  most  S.  portion  of  the  for- 
mer Austrian  dominions.  It  consists  of 
a  long  narrow  triangular  tract  of  moun- 
tainous country  and  a  number  of  large 
islands  along  the  N.  E.  coast  of  the  Adri- 
atic Sea,  and  bounded  N.  by  Croatia,  and 
N.  E.  by  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  In 
breadth  it  is  very  limited,  not  exceeding 
40  miles  in  any  part;  its  whole  area  is 
4,940  English  square  miles.  The  inland 
parts  of  Dalmatia  are  diversified  by  un- 
dulatory  ground,  hills,  and  high  moun- 
tains; but  though  there  are  some  rich 
and  beautiful  valleys,  the  country  on  the 
whole  must  be  considered  poor  and  un- 
productive. The  Narenta,  the  Zermagna, 
the  Kerka,  and  the  Cettina  are  the  prin- 
cipal rivers,  .all  with  short  courses.    On 


some  of  these  the  scenery  is  singularly 
wild  and  picturesque.  The  interior  is  oc- 
cupied by  a  much-neglected  population, 
and  agriculture  is  in  a  very  baclcward 
state. 

Timber  is  scarce,  and  the  country  does 
not  produce  sufficient  grain  for  its  own 
wants.  Apples,  pears,  peaches,  apricots, 
oranges,  pomegranates,  etc.,  are  among 
the  fruits;  the  wines  are  sti'ong,  sweet, 
and  full-bodied.  On  the  coast  fish,  espe- 
cially the  tunny  and  the  sardine,  abound. 
The  trade  of  the  country  is  mostly  con- 
fined to  the  coast  towns,  where  the  popu- 
lation is  mainly  of  Italian  extraction. 
Chief  of  these  are  Zara  (the  capital),  Se- 
benico,  Cattaro,  Spalato,  and  Ragusa. 
Among  the  numerous  islands  sprinkled 
along  the  coast  many  are  valuable  for 
their  productions,  such  as  timber,  wine, 
oil,  cheese,  honey,  salt,  and  asphalt.  The 
population  is  divided  between  the  Italians 
of  the  coast  towns  and  the  peasants  of  the 
interior,  Slovenian  Slavs  speaking  a  dia- 
lect of  the  Slavonic.  The  majority  are 
Roman  Catholics.  After  passing  succes- 
sively through  the  hands  of  Hungarian 
and  Venetian  rulers,  and  of  the  first  Na- 
poleon, Dalmatia  finally,  in  1814,  fell 
under  Austrian  rule. 

Following  the  revolution  in  Austria- 
Hungary  in  1918,  Dalmatia  declared  it- 
self independent,  and  afterward  joined 
the  movement  which  resulted  in  the  for- 
mation of  Jugoslavia.  Italy,  at  the 
Peace  Conference,  put  forth  claims  for 
Dalmatia,  and  its  final  disposition  was 
not  decided  until  1920,  when,  as  a  result 
of  negotiations  in  relation  to  Fiume,  Dal- 
matia was  awarded  to  Jugoslavia.  Pop. 
about  650,000.    See  Fiume,  Jugoslavia. 

DALMORES,  CHARLES,  a  French 
tenor;  born  at  Nancy  in  1871,  he  early 
began  receiving  instruction  on  the  violin 
and  entered  the  conservatory  at  Nancy 
with  a  view  of  becoming  a  violinist.  This 
course  he  abandoned  after  he  had  broken 
his  arm;  he  next  took  up  the  horn.  He 
began  his  career  in  the  Colonne  orchestra, 
and  from  1888  to  1894  was  a  member  of 
the  Lamoureux  orchestra.  In  the  latter 
year  he  became  a  teacher  of  the  horn  at 
Lyons,  and  there  one  of  the  masters  be- 
gan training  his  voice.  In  1899  he  made 
his  debut  at  Rouen  as  a  tenor,  and  in 
1906  Oscar  Hammerstein  engaged  him  as 
one  of  the  leading  tenors  for  the  Man- 
hattan Opera  House  Company  of  New 
York.  In  1914  he  became  leading  tenor 
of  the  Chicago  Opera  Company. 

DALMY.     See  Dairen. 

DALTON,  a  city  in  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Whitfield  co.,  Ga.;  on  the  South- 
ern and  the  Western  and  Atlantic  rail- 
roads; 100  miles  N.  W.  of  Atlanta.     It 


DALTON 


250 


DAM 


is  a  winter  and  summer  health  resort, 
and  has  canning  factories,  cotton  com- 
presses, flour  mills,  foundries  and  ma- 
chine shops,  public  schools,  weekly  news- 
papers, a  National  bank,  etc.  It  was  a 
place  of  strategic  importance  and  was 
nearly  destroyed  during  the  Civil  War. 
Pop.   (1910)   5,324;   (1920)  5,222. 

DALTON,  JOHN,  an  English  chem- 
ist; born  in  Eaglesfield,  Sept.  6,  1766. 
After  teaching  for  12  years  at  Kendal, 
in  1793  his  reputation  as  a  mathemati- 
cian won  for  him  the  chair  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  New  College,  Manchester. 
Here  he  continued  to  reside  (though  the 
college  was  removed  in  1799),  publish- 
ing from  year  to  year  valuable  essays 
and  papers  on  scientific  subjects,  while 
he  also  lectured  in  London,  and  visited 
Paris.  In  1808  he  announced  ("New 
System  of  Chemical  Philosophy")  his 
atomic  theory  of  chemical  action,  the 
discovery  of  which  spread  his  fame  over 
Europe.  Various  academic  and  other 
honors  were  bestowed  upon  him,  and  in 
1833  he  received  a  pension.  He  died 
July  27,  1844. 

DALY,  ARNOLD,  an  American  actor, 
born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1875.  He  at- 
tained considerable  prominence  by  his 
productions  and  interpretations  of  George 
Bernard  Shaw's  plays,  appearing  in  1903 
in  "Candida,"  in  1904  in  "Mrs.  Warren's 
Profession,"  and  "You  Never  Can  Tell," 
in  1906  in  "Arms  and  the  Man"  and  the 
"Man  of  Destiny."  In  the  season  of  1911 
he  played  at  the  Criterion  Theatre,  Lon- 
don, and  in  1913-1914  played  in  "General 
John  Regan"  in  New  York. 

DALY,      (JOHN)      AUGUSTIN,      an 

American  dramatist  and  theatrical 
manager;  born  in  Plymouth,  N.  C,  July 
20,  1838.  Included  in  his  original  plays 
are:  "Divorce,"  "Pique,"  "Horizon," 
"Under  the  Gaslight,"  and  a  story  called 
"Peg  Woffington,  a  Tribute  to  the 
Actress  and  the  Woman."  At  various 
times  during  his  career  he  managed 
some  of  the  most  popular  and  successful 
actors  and  actresses  in  the  United 
States,  including  Fanny  Davenport, 
Clara  Morris,  Ada  Rehan,  etc.  He  died 
in  Paris,  June  7,  1899. 

DAM,  a  barrier  built  across  a  stream, 
valley,  or  other  depression,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  impounding  or  regulating  the 
flow  of  water  behind  it.  Dams  are  con- 
structed to  supply  water  and  water 
power  to  communities,  for  irrigation 
projects,  for  hydroelectric  development, 
to  make  streams  navigable,  and  for  sim- 
ilar purposes.  Dams  may  be  con- 
structed of  earth,  timber  and  loose 
stone,  stone  masonry,  steel,  or,  as  has 
been  the  most  general  practice  of  recent 


years,  re-enforced  concrete.  A  dam  must 
be  designed  to  prevent  failure  by  over- 
turning, by  sliding  at  the  base  or  at 
horizontal  joint,  by  crushing  (in  the 
case  of  masonry  dams),  by  fracture 
caused  by  tension,  and  by  erosion.  The 
head  or  height  of  the  water  behind  the 
dam  determines  the  pressure  that  the 
dam  has  to  withstand,  not  the  volume  of 
water  behind  it.  Every  well-designed 
dam  has  ample  provision  for  the  easy 
passage  of  flood  waters,  because  force 
exerted  by  an  extremely  large  volume 
of  water  passing  over  the  crest  of  the 
dam  would  possibly  cause  its  failure.  To 
guard  against  this  possibility  flood 
gates,  spillways,  or  tunnels  are  used. 

Earth  dams  are  made  by  packing  suc- 
cessive layers  of  earth.  The  earth  may 
be  drawn  in  carts  or  buckets,  and  packed 
by  rolling,  or  by  water,  or  the  earth  may 
be  both  transported  and  packed  by  hy- 
draulic means.  Usually,  in  an  earth 
dam,  the  upstream  face  of  the  dam  is 
paved  with  some  material  more  resistant 
to  seepage  than  earth,  or  the  dam  is 
provided  with  a  waterproof  lining  or 
corewall.  Earth  dams  vary  in  height 
from  a  few  feet  to  over  100  ft.,  and  in 
length  from  a  few  feet  to  miles. 

Masonry  dams  are  constructed  either 
of  stone  set  with  cement  mortar,  or  of 
re-enforced  concrete.  The  cross  section 
of  a  modern  masonry  dam  of  the  gravity 
type  resembles  in  general  a  right-angle 
triangle,  except  that  the  sides  are  some- 
what curved.  The  approximately  verti* 
cal  side  is  placed  upstream,  the  base  ig 
liable  to  be  rather  broad,  and  the  top 
rounded.  Some  engineers  favor  the  use 
of  the  arch  principle,  either  single  or 
multiple,  to  resist  the  force  of  the  water, 
and  it  is  said  that  a  considerable  saving 
of  material  may  be  gained  with  no  loss 
of  strength.  Another  recent  develop- 
ment in  dam  design  is  the  hollow  re- 
enforced  concrete  dam,  which  consists 
essentially  of  water-tight  concrete  slabs 
supported  on  piers. 

Rock-fill  dams  are  constructed  by  pil- 
ing large  stones  together,  and  facing  the 
upstream  side  with  planks,  concrete,  or 
other  waterproof  material. 

Steel  dams  never  had  a  great  vogue, 
and  timber  dams  are  seldom  constructed 
by  modern  engineers,  except  as  tempo- 
rary structures. 

Dams  which  are  built  to  aid  naviga- 
tion, are  usually  so  constructed  that 
they  may  be  raised  or  lowered. 

The  Gatun  Dam  across  the  Chagres 
river,  Panama  canal,  is  an  earth  dam. 
It  was  partly  constructed  by  the  hy- 
draulic method.  It  is  about  115  feet 
high  and  over  1%  miles  long.  The  base 
of  the  dam,  which  is  about  sea-level,  is 
2,020    feet    wide.      At    the    water    line, 


DAM 


251 


DAM 


which  is  located  85  feet  above  the  base, 
the  dam  is  390  feet  thick,  and  it  is  100 
feet  thick  at  its  top.  The  dam  is  built 
with  very  flat  slopes  to  provide  unusual 
stability.  The  dam  has  a  spillway  chan- 
nel 819  feet  wide.  Over  20,000,000  cubic 
yards  of  material  were  used  in  its  con- 
struction. 

The  San  Leandro  Dam  of  the  San 
Francisco  waterworks  is  an  earth  dam 
with  no  core-wall,  and  is  158  feet  high. 

The  Goose  Creek  Dam  of  the  Oakley 
Irrigation  project  is  an  earth  dam  built 
in  layers,  and  completed  in  1913.  It  is 
145  feet  high,  1,025  feet  long  and  750 
feet  wide  at  the  base. 


The  Shoshone  Dam  is  a  masonry  dam 
built  by  the  United  States  Reclamation 
Service  in  Wyoming  near  Cody.  It  is 
324  feet  high,  curved  upstream,  10  feet 
thick  at  the  crest,  and  108  feet  thick  at 
its  base,  which  thickness  is  continued 
up  to  the  level  of  the  river  bed.  The 
Roosevelt  Dam  was  also  constructed  by 
the  United  States  Reclamation  Service. 
It  is  located  in  Arizona,  has  a  maximum 
height  of  284  feet,  a  storage  capacity  of 
420,000,000,000,  and  was  completed  in 
1911.  The  Arrowrock,  near  Boise, 
Idaho,  construction  of  which  was  started 
in  1914  by  the  same  Government  agency, 
is  354  feet  high,  and  1,060  feet  long.     It 


NEW    CROTON    DAM,    NEW   YORK 


The  highest  earth  dam  ever  attempted 
is  the  Calaveras  Dam  of  the  Spring 
Valley  Water  Company  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. This  dam  is  240  feet  high,  the 
crest  length  is  1,300  feet,  the  base  is 
1,300  feet  wide,  the  upstream  slope  is 
3  to  1,  and  the  down  stream  slope  is  2% 
to  1.     It  is  a  hydraulic  fill  dam. 

The  new  Croton  Dam  of  the  New 
York  City  Water  Supply  System  was 
completed  in  1907,  and  provides  a  stor- 
age capacity  of  32,000,000,000  gallons  of 
water.  It  is  a  masonry  dam  with  a 
crest  length  of  2,168  feet,  and  a  height 
of  almost  300  feet.  There  is  a  roadway 
on  the  top  of  the  dam.  The  spillway  is 
1,000  feet  long,  and  varies  in  width  from 
50  to  125  feet. 


is  curved  upstream,  with  a  gravity  sec- 
tion, and  is  built  of  concrete. 

The  Keokuk  Dam,  which  crosses  the 
Mississippi  river  at  Keokuk,  la.,  is  a 
'ong,  low  concrete  dam.  Besides  the 
spillway  section,  4,278  feet  long,  there 
is  an  abutment  290  feet  long,  a  combina- 
tion, another  1,700  feet  long,  in  the  form 
of  a  power  house,  and  a  lock  section  of 
about  600  feet. 

The  Elephant  Butte  Dam,  located 
near  Engle,  N.  M.,  was  dedicated  on 
Oct.  19,  1916.  It  is  a  Reclamation  Serv- 
ice dam  of  rubble  concrete,  with  a 
gravity  section.  It  is  1,200  feet  long 
and  304.5  feet  high  from  base  to  top. 

The  hydro-electric  development  dam  of 
the  Yadkin  river,  N.  C,  contains  a  dam 


DAM 


252 


DAM 


built  of  concrete,  1,400  feet  long,  and  217 
feet  in  height. 

The  Noguera  Pallaresa  River  Dam  in 
Spain  was  built  and  designed  by  Ameri- 
can engineers.  It  is  330  feet  high,  700 
feet  long,  has  a  base  width  of  230  feet, 
and  is  built  of  concrete. 

The  deep  water  plans  for  the  Missis- 
sippi river  include  the  construction  of 
numerous  dams,  and  in  1917  Dam  No.  1, 
located  near  St.  Paul,  was  placed  in 
operation.  It  made  the  river  available 
for  navigation  for  13  miles. 


In  New  South  Wales  the  Murray 
River  Dam  has  been  planned  as  part  of 
an  irrigation  project.  It  will  be  3,600 
feet  long,  and  have  both  earth  and  con- 
crete sections. 

In  1864  a  poorly  constructed  earth 
dam  at  Sheffield,  England,  went  out  the 
first  time  it  was  put  to  use,  and  caused 
a  flood  which  cost  238  lives.  No  en- 
gineer was  employed  to  design  the  Mill 
River  Dam  at  Williamsburg,  Mass., 
which  went  out  in  1874,  with  a  loss  of 
143  lives,  and  $1,000,000  in  property.  The 


ROOSEVELT  DAM,  ARIZONA 


The  Hetch  Hetchy  Dam  of  the  San 
Francisco  water  system  will  be  one  of 
the  largest  masonry  dams  in  the  world. 
The  height  from  foundation  base  to 
crest  will  be  311  feet.  It  will  be  a 
masonry  dam  with  a  straight  gravity 
section  of  600  feet,  and  will  have  a 
siphon  spillway.  It  will  be  located  in 
the  Tuolumne  river  150  miles  E.  of 
San  Francisco. 


South  Fork  Dam,  owned  by  the  South 
Fork  Hunting  and  Fishing  Club  of 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  was  an  earth  dam  of 
70  feet  height.  It  was  designed  to  have 
a  spillway  of  150  feet,  but  this  was  not 
carried  out,  and  the  existing  spillway 
was  partially  blocked  with  screens, 
bridge  supports,  etc.,  when  in  May,  1889, 
excessive  rains  caused  the  water  to  go 
over  the  entire  length  of  the  dam.    The 


DAMAN 


253 


DAMASK 


dam  itself  was  carried  away,  and  flooded 
the  town  of  Johnstown,  Pa.,  with  a  loss 
of  over  2,000  lives  and  about  $4,000,000 
in  property.  The  Walnut  Grove  Dam  in 
Arizona  failed  on  Feb.  22,  1890.  This 
dam  was  a  rock-fill  structure,  and  the 
failure  was  caused  by  inadequate  spill- 
way. The  Colorado  River  Dam  at 
Austin,  Tex.,  failed  in  1900  because  of 
poor  foundations;  and  because  of  faulty 
construction,  the  concrete  dam  at  Austin, 
Pa.,  failed  on  Sept.  30,  1911,  and  cost 
35  lives.  Because  of  structural  weak- 
ness caused  by  improper  drying  of  the 
materials,  the  Lyman  Dam  across  the 
Little  Colorado  river  in  Arizona,  failed 
in  1915.  In  1916  an  old  dam  near  Gab- 
lonz,  Bohemia,  failed,  with  a  loss  of  over 
300  lives. 

DAMAN  (da-man'),  or  DAMAO,  a 
fortified  post  and  district  in  India,  be- 
longing to  Portugal  since  1558,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Cambay,  100  miles  N.  of 
Bombay.  The  climate  is  generally 
healthy,  the  soil  moist  and  fertile.  The 
chief  products  are  cereals,  rice,  tobacco, 
and  wheat,  and  there  are  also  important 
deep-sea  fisheries  and  salt  works.  Ad- 
ministratively the  district  belongs  to 
GOA  (q.  v.).  Area,  170  square  miles; 
Pop.  about  75,000. 

DAMARALAND  (da-ma'ra-) ,  a  terri- 
tory in  the  W.  of  south  Africa,  between 
Namaqualand  and  Ovampoland  proper, 
extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  about 
19°  45'  E.  Ion.  Behind  the  waterless 
coast  region  (100  miles)  rises  a  moun- 
tain district,  with  peaks  over  8,500  feet 
above  the  sea;  and  farther  inland 
stretch  wide  prairies.  The  mountains 
are  rich  in  minerals,  especially  copper; 
vegetation  is  confined  to  their  valleys, 
and  to  the  prairie  region,  which  in  the 
N.  enjoys  a  fine  rainfall.  The  produce 
of  the  interior  consists  of  ivory,  feathers, 
skins,  etc.  The  Damaras,  properly  He- 
rero,  a  Bantu  stem,  number  about  80,- 
000,  of  whom  50,000  live  in  the  moun- 
tain district;  they  are  nomads,  and  own 
large  flocks  and  herds.  The  Hawkoin, 
or  Hill  Damaras,  in  the  N.  E.,  however, 
who  are  a  much  lower  type,  now  speak 
Hottentot.  The  only  harbor  in  this  part 
of  the  coast  is  Walfish  Bay,  which  be- 
longs to  Great  Britain.  The  rest  of 
Damaraland  forms  part  of  the  former 
German  colony,  German  Southwest 
Africa  (q.  v.).  In  1884  the  desert  re- 
gion along  the  coast  was  made  a  German 
protectorate. 

DAMASCUS,  a  celebrated  city, 
formerly  capital  of  the  Turkish  vilayet 
of  Syria,  now  capital  of  the  independent 
state  of  Syria  (q.  v.).  It  is  beautifully 
situated  on  a  plain  which  is  covered  with 


gardens  and  orchards  and  watered  by 
the  Barrada.  The  appearance  of  the  city, 
as  it  first  opens  on  the  view,  has  been 
rapturously  spoken  of  by  all  travelers; 
but  the  streets  are  narrow,  crooked,  and 
in  parts  dilapidated,  and,  except  in  the 
wealthy  Moslem  quarter,  the  houses  are 
low,  with  flat-arched  doors  and  accumu- 
lations of  filth  before  the  entrance. 
Within,  however,  there  is  often  a  singu- 
lar contrast,  in  courts  paved  with  marble 
and  ornamented  with  trees  and  spouting 
fountains  the  rooms  adorned  with  ara- 
besques and  filled  with  splendid  furni- 
ture. Among  the  chief  buildings  are  the 
Great  Mosque  and  the  Citadel.  The 
bazaars  are  a  notable  feature  of  Damas- 
cus. They  are  simply  streets  or  lanes 
covered  in  with  high  wood-work  and  lined 
with  shops,  stalls,  cafes,  etc. 

In  the  midst  of  the  bazaars  stands  the 
Great  Khan,  it  and  30  inferior  khans 
being  used  as  exchanges  or  market 
places  by  the  merchants.  One  of  the 
most  important  and  busiest  streets  is 
"Straight  Street,"  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  conversion  of  the  Apostle 
Paul.  Damascus  is  an  important  em- 
porium of  trade  in  European  manufac- 
tures; it  is  also  a  place  of  considerable 
manufacturing  industry  in  silk,  damasks, 
cotton  and  other  fabrics,  tobacco,  glass, 
soap,  etc.  Saddles,  fine  cabinet-work, 
and  elegant  jewelry  are  well  made;  but 
the  manufacture  of  the  famous  Damas- 
cus blades  no  longer  exists.  It  has  rail- 
way connections  with  Aleppo,  Beirut, 
and  the  Hejas,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Mel- 
chite  Patriarch.  It  is  one  of  the  holy 
Moslem  cities,  and  continues  to  be  one 
of  the  most  thoroughly  Oriental  in  all 
its  features  of  any  city  in  existence.  Of 
its  origin  nothing  certain  is  known;  but 
it  is  of  great  antiquity,  being  mentioned 
as  a  jjlace  apparently  of  importance  in 
Gen.  xiv:  15.  After  passing  successively 
under  the  power  of  Israelites,  Persians, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  it  fell  at  last  in 
1516  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  On 
Oct.  1,  1918,  the  city  was  occupied  by 
British  troops.     Pop.  about  250,000. 

DAMASK,  a  rich  silk  stuff  originally 
made  at  Damascus,  and  thence  deriving 
its  name.  It  had  raised  figures  in  vari- 
ous patterns,  and  flowers  in  their  natural 
colors  embossed  upon  a  white  or  colored 
ground.  The  work  was  probably  of  the 
nature  of  embroidery  in  the  first  place, 
but  the  figures  were  afterward  exhibited 
on  the  surface  by  a  peculiar  arrange- 
ment of  the  loom,  which  brought  up  cer- 
tain of  the  colors  and  depressed  others, 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
pattern. 

Also  a  woven  fabric  of  linen,  extensive- 
ly  used  for   table-cloths,   fine  toweling, 
17— Vol.  Ill — Cyc 


DAMIEN 


254 


DAMOCLES 


napkins,  etc.  By  a  particular  manage- 
ment of  the  warp-threads  in  the  loom, 
figures,  fruits,  and  flowers  are  exhibited 
on  the  surface,  as  in  the  ancient  damask. 

DAMIEN,  FATHER  (da-myan'), 
(Joseph  Damien  de  Veuster),  a  Bel- 
gian priest;  bom  in  Louvain,  Jan.  3, 
1841;  in  1873  devoted  himself  to  the 
duties  of  spiritual  guide  to  the  lepers 
confined  to  the  Hawaiian  island  of  Molo- 
kai.  Sent  on  a  mission  to  Honolulu, 
where  he  heard  from  the  bishop  the  neg- 
lected state  of  the  lepers,  some  700  or 
800  in  number,  who  lived  on  that  small 
island,  he  volunteered  to  establish  him- 
self among  them;  and  from  1877  onward 
became    physician    of    their    souls    and 


but  it  still  carries  on  a  considerable  trade 
in  exporting  rice,  fish  (from  Lake  Men- 
zala),  coffee,  and  dates.  The  existing 
town  was  erected  after  1251,  but,  prior 
to  that,  a  city  of  the  same  name  (more 
anciently  Tamiathis)  stood  more  to  the 
S.  It  was  strongly  fortified  by  the  Sara- 
cens, and  formed  on  that  side  the  bul- 
wark of  Egypt  against  the  early  crusad- 
ers, who,  however,  succeeded  in  captur- 
ing it  more  than  once.  It  was  razed,  and 
rebuilt  farther  inland  on  the  site  it  now 
occupies,  by  the  Mameluke  Sultan  Bey- 
bars.     Pop.  about  30,000. 

DAMMAEIN,  a  resin  found  in  various 
species  of  dammar.  D.  orientalis  fur- 
nishes one  kind,  which,  mixed  with  chalk 


DAMASCUS 


bodies,  their  magistrate,  teacher,  carpen- 
ter, gardener,  cook,  and  even  gravedigger 
at  need.  For  long  he  worked  on  single- 
handed  at  his  noble  labors,  tut  was  ulti- 
mately joined  by  another  priest.  For  12 
years  he  escaped  all  contagion  of  the 
fatal  disease,  though  in  constant  con- 
tact with  the  sick  and  dying;  but  in 
1885  the  malady  appeared  in  him ;  yet  he 
continued  uaabated  his  heroic  labors  till 
near  his  death,  April  10,  1889. 

DAMIETTA  (dam-i-et'ta) ,  a  town  of 
Lower  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
chief  E.  mouth  of  the  Nile,  about  8  miles 
/rom  its  mouth.  It  is  irregularly  but 
well  built,  and  has  some  handsome 
mosques  and  marble  baths,  and  several 
bazaars.  Its  commerce  has  been  much 
injured  by  the  prosperity  of  Alexandria, 


and  ijulverized  bamboo-bark,  is  used  for 
caulking  ships.  Another  kind,  obtained 
from  the  D.  australis,  or  cowrie  pine  of 
New  Zealand,  is  dissolved  in  turpentine 
and  used  as  a  colorless  varnish.  It  is 
also  used  for  mounting  purposes  instead 
of  Canada  balsam.  The  best  form  of 
varnish  is  to  dissolve  one  ounce  of  dam- 
mar gum  in  a  fluid  ounce  of  turpentine; 
to  dissolve  one  ounce  of  mastic  in  two 
fluid  ounces  of  chloroform,  and  mix. 

DAMOCLES  (dam'6-klez) ,  a  sycophant 
at  the  court  of  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  in 
the  4th  century  B.  C  When  he  was  one 
day  extolling  the  happy  condition  of 
princes,  the  tyrant  invited  him  to  a 
sumptuous  entertainment,  but  caused  a 
naked  sword  to  be  suspended  over  his 
head  by  a  single  hair;  a  sufficiently  sig- 


DAMODAR 


255 


DAMSON 


nificant    sjrmbol    of   the    fear    in    which 
tyrants  may  live. 

DAMODAR,  a  river  of  Bengal,  vi^hich 
after  a  S.  E.  course,  falls  into  the  Hugli, 
just  above  the  James  and  Mary  Sands. 
A  little  below  the  mouth  of  its  chief 
tributary,  the  Barakhar,  which  it  re- 
ceives from  the  N  .  the  Damodar  be- 
comes navigable,  i'lie  valleys  of  these 
two  streams  contain  the  coal-fields  which 
produce  about  four-fifths  of  the  whole 
amount  of  coal  mined  in  British  India. 
Length  about  350  miles. 

DAMON,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher, 
niemorable  for  his  friendship  with  Pyth- 
ias, or  Phintias.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse 
having  condemned  Damon  to  death,  he  ob- 
tained leave  of  absence  to  go  home  and 
settle  his  affairs,  Pythias  pledging  him- 
self to  endure  the  punishment  in  his 
stead  if  he  did  not  return  at  the  ap- 
pointed time.  Damon  was  punctual;  and 
this  instance  of  friendship  so  pleased  the 
king,  that  he  pardoned  him,  and  begged, 
but  in  vain,  to  be  admitted  to  their 
friendship. 

DAMPIER,  the  name  of  several  places 
in  Australasia:  (1)  Dampier  Archi- 
pelago, a  cluster  of  about  20  small  rocky 
isli'nds  off  the  N.  W.  coast  of  Australia, 
in  21°  S.  lat..,  and  117°  E.  Ion.,  divided 
by  the  Mermaid  Strait  in  two  groups;  in 
the  E.  is  Rosemary,  the  largest  island. 
(2)  Dampier  Island,  off  the  N.  E.  coast 
of  New  Guinea,  with  a  volcano  about 
5,250  feet  high.  (3)  Dampier's  Land,  a 
peninsula  of  Western  Australia,  fertile 
and  well  watered,  lying  between  King 
Sound  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  (4)  Dam- 
pier Strait,  between  New  Guinea  and  the 
archipelago  of  New  Britain,  forming, 
with  Goshen  Strait  to  the  S.  E.,  the 
shortest  route  from  eastern  Australia  to 
China  by  some  300  miles.  (5)  Dampier 
Strait,  separating  the  island  of  Way- 
giou  from  the  N.  W.  extremity  of  New 
Guinea,  the  safest  and  easiest  passage 
between  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans. 

DAMPIER,  WILLIAM  (dam'per), 
an  English  navigator;  born  in  East 
Coker,  Somersetshire,  in  1652;  became  a 
mariner  at  an  early  age.  During  many 
years  of  active  service  in  privateers  and 
trading-vessels,  he  several  times  visited 
the  South  seas;  and  the  results  of  his 
obsei'vations  were  given  to  the  public  in 
a  work  entitled  "A  Voyage  Round  the 
World,"  which  for  accuracy  and  interest, 
as  well  a^  for  professional  knowledge, 
possesses  considerable  merit.  He  died 
about  1715. 

DAMROSCH.  FRANK  HEINO  (dam'- 
rosh),  an  American  musician;  bom  in 
Breslau,  Germany,  June  22,  1859.  He 
was    trained    by    his    father,    Leopold 


(q.v.),  and  in  1882  became  conductor  of 
the  Denver  Chorus  Club  and  supervisor 
of  music  in  the  public  schools  of  that 
city.  He  was  chorus  master  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York, 
from  1885  to  1891,  and  in  1892  organized 
the  People's  Singing  Class.  From  1897 
to  1905  he  was  director  of  music  in  the 
public  schools  of  New  York  City.  In 
1893  he  established  the  Musical  Art  So- 
ciety and  in  1898  the  SjTnphony  Con- 
certs for  Young  People.  Beginning  with 
1886,  he  was  director  of  various  choral 
and  orchestral  societies  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
Philadelphia,  and  New  York.  In  1905 
he  organized  the  Institute  of  Musical 
Art,  New  York. 

DAMROSCH,  LEOPOLD,  a  German 
musician;  bom  in  Posen,  Prussia,  Oct. 
22,  1832;  graduated  with  high  honors 
from  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  began 
the  practice  of  medicine;  but  his  love 
for  music  predominated,  and  in  1864  he 
gave  up  his  medical  profession  and 
started  on  a  tour  as  violinist.  He  met 
with  great  success  and  on  his  return  to 
Posen  was  appointed  musical  director  at 
the  Stadt-Theater.  He  subsequently  held 
a  similar  post  in  Breslau.  Coming  to  the 
United  States,  he  was  made  leader  of  the 
Arion  Society  in  New  York,  and  subse- 
quently founded  the  Oratorio  and  Sym- 
phony societies  of  that  city.  He  died 
Feb.  15,  1885. 

DAMROSCH,  WALTER  JOHANNES, 
an  American  musician;  born  in  Breslau, 
Prussia,  in  1862;  son  of  DR.  Leopold 
Damrosch  {q.  v.).  He  became  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  in  1871.  He  inherited 
the  musical  talent  of  his  father,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  in  his  enterprises.  He  was 
the  special  exponent  of  the  Wagnerian 
school  of  music,  and  conducted  operatic 
performances  in  all  the  large  cities, 
proving  himself  a  most  acceptable 
leader.  He  also  composed  an  opera 
founded  on  Hawthorne's  tale  of  "The 
Scarlet  Letter,"  besides  other  excellent 
music.  He  married  in  1890  Margaret, 
daughter  of  James  G.  Blaine.  In  1903 
he  reorganized  as  a  permanent  orchestra 
the  New  York  Symphony  Orchestra  to 
the  leadership  of  which  he  devoted  him- 
self exclusively  since  then  and  which  he 
put  in  the  forefront  of  symphony  orches- 
tras. The  entire  orchestra  made  a  highly 
succes.sful  tour  of  France  and  England 
in  1920.  During  the  World  War  he  re- 
jformed  the  military  bands  of  the  A.  E. 
F.  and  founded  a  school  for  bandmasters 
at  General  Headquarters,  Chaumont, 
France. 

DAMSON,  a  variety  of  the  common 
plum  (Pruniis  do^nestica).  The  fruit  is 
rather  small  and  oval,  and  its  numerous 
sub-varieties    are    of    different    colors: 


DAN- 


266 


DANBURY 


black,  bluish,  dark  purple,  yellow,  etc. 
The  damson  (corruption  of  Damascene), 
as  its  name  imports,  is  from  Damascus. 

DAN,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  by  his 
concubine  Bilhah.  At  the  time  of  the  exo- 
dus the  Danites  numbered  62,700  adult 
males,  being  then  the  second  tribe  in  point 
of  numbers.  Samson  was  a  member  of 
this  tribe. 

DANA,  CHARLES  ANDERSON,  an 
American  journalist;  born  in  Hinsdale, 
N.  H.,  Aug.  8,  1819.  He  entered  Harvard 
in  1839,  but  did  not  graduate.  In  1842 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Brook  Farm 
Community,  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  remain- 
ing there  only  two  years.  From  1844  to 
1847  he  edited  "The  Harbinger,"  his  as- 
sociates being  George  Ripley,  Parke  Good- 
win, and  John  S.  Dwight.  In  1847  he  be- 
came managing  editor  of  the  New  York 
"Tribune,"  with  which  he  remained  until 
1861.  In  1855,  in  connection  with  George 
Ripley,  he  projected  and  edited  Apple- 
ton's  "American  Encyclopaedia"  in  16 
volumes,  which  was  completed  in  1863, 
and  revised  in  1873-1877.  He  also  edited 
a  number  of  other  works.  From  1862  to 
1865  he  was  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States  Government,  during  the  last  two 
years  as  Assistant  Secretary  of  War 
under  President  Lincoln.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  1866  he  became  editor  of  the 
Chicago  "Republican,"  a  daily  paper.  In 
1868  he  purchased  an  interest  in  the  New 
York  "Sun,"  also  a  daily,  of  which  he 
was  editor  and  chief  proprietor  until  his 
death,  Oct.  17,  1897.  He  was  a  man  of 
forcible  character  and  impressed  his  per- 
sonality upon  his  paper. 

DANA,  JAMES  DWIGHT,  an  Ameri- 
can scientist;  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
12,  1813.  His  researches  into  geology 
made  him  famous,  and  his  professorship 
at  Yale  proved  epoch-making  in  the  his- 
tory of  that  seat  of  learning.  He  pub- 
lished: "System  of  Mineralogy";  "Man- 
ual of  Mineralogy";  "Text-Book  of  Geol- 
ogy"; "Corals  and  Coral  Islands";  "The 
Geological  Story  Briefly  Told";  etc.  He 
died  in  New  Haven,  April  14,  1895. 

DANA,  JOHN  COTTON,  an  American 
librarian  and  author.  He  was  born  in 
Woodstock,  Vt.,  in  1856,  was  educated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  New  York  Bar  in  1883.  He  did  not 
practice  law,  but  after  some  years  of 
land-surveying  in  Colorado  he  finally  be- 
came librarian  at  Denver  in  1889.  He 
then  made  library  organization  his  study 
and  greatly  improved  the  efficiency  of  the 
city  libraries  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  and 
Newark,  N.  J.  He  was  president  of  the 
American  Library  Association  in  1896 
and  his  works  on  library  subjects  in- 
clude:    "A  Library  Primer";  "Notes  on 


Book-Binding  for  Libraries" ;  and  several 
chapters  in  "Modem  American  Library 
Economy."  He  was  also  co-editor  of: 
"Literature  of  Libraries  in  the  Seven- 
teenth and  Eighteenth  Centuries"  (6 
vols.)  ;  "Horace,  the  Roman  Poet,  Pre- 
sented to  Modern  Readers";  "Copa:  the 
Hostess  of  the  Inn." 

DANA,  RICHARD  HENRY,  the 
Elder,  an  American  poet  and  essayist; 
born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Nov.  15,  1787, 
His  lectures  on  Shakespeare's  character  s. 
delivered  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  At- 
lantic coast  (1839-1840), awakened  a  deep 
public  interest.  His  principal  poems  are  : 
"The  Change  of  Home"  (1824);  "The 
Dying  Raven"  (1825)  ;  "The  Buccaneers" 
(1827) .  To  a  periodical  publication  "The 
Idle  Man"  (N.  Y.,  1821-1822),  of  which 
he  was  editor,  he  contributed  critical 
papers  and  several  short  stories;  among 
them  "Paul  Fenton"  and  "Edward  and 
Mary."    He  died  Feb.  2,  1879. 

DANA,  RICHARD  HENRY,  JR.,  an 
American  lawyer  and  author;  born  in 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  1,  1815.  He 
was  perhaps  best  known  as  a  writer 
through  his  book  "Two  Years  Before  the 
Mast,''  in  which  he  described  his  voyage 
to  California.  He  contributed  to  various 
papers  and  magazines  and  wrote  some 
other  books.  He  studied  law  under 
Judge  Story  and  Professor  Greenleaf, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1840.  He 
died  in  Rome,  Italy,  Jan.  6,  1882. 

DANAKIL  (da-na-kel'),  (singular 
Dankali),  the  Arabic  and  now  general 
name  for  the  numerous  nomad  and  fisher 
tribes  inhabiting  the  coast  of  N.  E. 
Africa,  from  Massowah  S.  to  Tajurrah 
Bay,  and  from  there  S.  W.  to  Shoa.  They 
belong  to  the  Ethiopic  Hamites,  and  are 
well  built  and  slender,  with  features  in- 
dicating an  intermixture  of  Arab  blood. 
In  a  country  of  waterless  plains,  they 
are  generally  nomads,  living  partly  by 
caravan  traffic  and  the  slave-trade,  but 
mostly  on  the  milk  of  their  flocks. 

DANBURY,  a  city  and  one  of  the 
county-seats  of  Fairfield  co..  Conn.;  on 
the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
railroad;  62  miles  N.  E.  of  New  York. 
It  is  the  greatest  hat-making  city  in  the 
United  States.  It  has  also  extensive 
manufactures  of  iron,  brass,  and  silver- 
plated  ware,  bicycles,  paper,  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products,  etc.  There  are 
a  court  house,  public  library,  State  nor- 
mal school,  high  school  public  parks, 
electric  street  railways  and  lights.  Sol- 
diers' Monument,  2  National  banks,  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers,  etc.  A  temporary 
settlement  was  made  here  in  1684,  a 
meeting-house  was  erected  in  1696,  and 
for  many  years  the  place  was  known  by 


DANBY 


257 


DANCING 


the  Indian  name  of  Paliquioque.  In  1776 
the  place  was  made  a  depository  for  army 
stores,  and  when  General  Tryon,  the 
British  governor  of  New  York,  was  in- 
fonned  of  the  fact  he  headed  a  force  of 
over  2,000  men,  landed  at  Norwalk, 
marched  immediately  upon  Danbury,  and 
set  fire  to  the  town  and  stores.  Pop. 
(1910)   20,234;    (1920)   18,943. 

DANBY,  FRANK  (MRS.  JULIA 
FRANKAU),  a  British  authoress;  born 
in  1864,  she  was  educated  largely  by 
the  daughter  of  Karl  Marx,  and  in  1883 
was  married  to  Arthur  Frankau.  Most 
of  her  writings  are  novels,  although 
she  has  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
"Saturday  Review."  Among  her  works 
are:  "The  Heart  of  a  Child"  (1908); 
"Sebastian"  (1909);  "The  Story  of 
Emma"  (1910) ;  "Joseph  in  Jeopardy" 
(1912);  "Concert  Pitch"  (1913);  "Full 
Swing"  (1914)..    She  died  in  1916. 

DANCING,  a  form  of  exercise  or 
amusement  in  which  one  or  more  persons 
make  a  series  of  graceful  movements  in 
measured  steps  in  accord  with  music. 
Aristotle  ranked  dancing  with  poetry  and 
Pindar  applies  the  name  of  "The  Dancer" 
even  to  Apollo.  Dancing  corresponds  to 
a  universal  primitive  instinct  in  man, 
and  is  practiced  by  the  South  Sea  Island- 
ers, the  Forest  Indians  of  Brazil,  the 
Zulus,  the  negroes  of  central  Africa,  and 
the  native  Australians,  exactly  as  it  was 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  every  civilized 
modern  race.  Ferocious  war  dances 
were  practiced  by  savage  warriors,  as 
the  North  American  Indian  braves,  who 
brought  on  a  frantic  mechanical  intox- 
ication capable  of  carrjdng  them  to  vic- 
tory. The  Zulu  war  dance  is  a  noble  ex- 
ercise for  warriors,  like  the  Pyrrhic 
dance  of  the  ancient  Spartans;  and  the 
dancing  and  spinning  dervishes  in  the 
East,  who  work  themselves  into  spasms 
of  physical  excitement,  are  still  highly 
esteemed  for  devoutness  and  piety.  The 
idea  of  magic  always  enters  into  savage 
dancing. 

The  art  of  dancing  dates  back  to  the 
early  Egyptians,  who  ascribe  that  inven- 
tion to  their  god  Thoth.  Among  the 
ancient  Jews,  Miriam  danced  to  a  sound 
of  trumpets,  itself  an  act  of  worship, 
and  David  danced  in  procession  before 
the  Ark  of  God.  Religious  processions 
went  with  song  and  dance  to  the  temples ; 
the  Cretan  chorus  moving  in  measured 
pace  sang  hymns  to  the  Greek  god 
Apollo,  and  one  of  the  Muses  (Terpsi- 
chore) was  the  especial  patroness  of  the 
art.  The  Spartans  practiced  dancing  as  a 
gymnastic  exercise  and  made  it  compul- 
sory on  all  children  from  the  age  of  five. 
The  Romans  in  general  considered  it  dis- 
graceful for  a  free  citizen  to  dance  ex- 


cept in  connection  with  religious  rites, 
but  willingly  witnessed  the  performances 
of  professional  dancers.  The  early 
Christians  practiced  choral  dances,  which 
came  into  discredit  with  the  love-feast  or 
Agapae.  A  survival  of  religious  dancing 
is  still  seen  even  within  the  pale  of 
Christendom,  where  during  the  Corpus 
Christi  octave  a  ballet  is  oanced  every 
evening  before  the  high  altar  of  Seville 
Cathedral  by  boys  from  12  to  17  years  of 
age,  in  plumed  hats  and  the  dress  of 
pages  of  Philip  III.'s  time. 

The  Puritan  ancestors  saw  deadly  sin 
in  promiscuous  dancing.  Many  of  the 
mediaeval  dances  were  solemn  and  stately 
in  character.  Dancing  reached  its 
height  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV., 
who  was  himself  an  enthusiastic  dancer 
in  the  court  ballets. 

The  minuet  was  a  favorite  in  France 
for  a  century;  and  then  came  the  qua- 
drille or  contre-danse,  often  connected  er- 
roneously with  the  English  country- 
dance;  the  Ecossaise  was  first  intro- 
duced in  1760;  the  galop  was  introduced 
from  Germany;  the  cotillion  was  fash- 
ionable under  Charles  X.;  polka  was  first 
danced  at  the  Odeon  in  1840  by  a  danc- 
ingmaster  from  Prague;  the  polka  trem- 
blante  or  schottisch,  was  of  Bohemian 
origin  and  was  first  brought  out  in  Paris 
in  1844;  the  lancers  was  intx'oduced  by 
Laborde  in  1861 ;  and  the  waltz,  originally 
Bavarian,  and  now  modified  from  its 
original  form,  promises  to  retain  its 
supremacy.  Though  the  French  provide 
the  world  with  fashions,  people  have  pre- 
served their  own  old  national  dances  and 
these  are  still  danced  universally.  In 
recent  years,  however,  a  notable  change 
has  taken  place  in  this  respect.  Many 
of  the  old  dances  have  fallen  into  disuse. 

Characteristic  of  particular  races  or 
merely  of  classes  of  people  are  such 
forms  of  the  dance  as  the  Scotch  reel, 
Highland  fling  and  strathspey,  the  Irish 
jig,  the  negro  break-downs,  sailors'  horn- 
pipe, step-dances,  the  can-can,  morris 
dances,  etc. 

A  ballet  is  a  theatrical  exhibition  com- 
posed of  dancing,  posturing,  and  panto- 
mimic action.  The  Roman  pantomimes 
bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  modern 
ballet  d'action.  In  an  entertainment  giv- 
en to  celebrate  the  victory  of  Actium,  the 
"Trachiniae"  of  Sophocles,  and  an  erotic 
interlude  founded  on  the  myth  of  Leda, 
were  performed  in  dumb  show,  the 
dancers  Pylades  ar  I  Bathyllus  taking  the 
leading  parts;  anii  the  whole  wound  up 
with  a  Pyrrhic  v/ar-dance.  Some  tra- 
dition of  this  form  of  entertainment, 
doubtless,  suggested  the  courtly  dances 
which  became  fashionable  in  the  early 
days  of  the  Renaissance.  The  fii'st  on 
record  was  that  given  by  Bergonzio  di 


DANCING 


268 


DANCOTTET 


Botta,  at  Tortona,  to  celebrate  the  mar- 
riage of  the  Duke  of  Milan  in  1489.  This 
was  famous  throughout  the  civilized 
world.  From  that  time  great  events, 
such  as  royal  marriages  and  births,  were 
celebrated  by  grand  productions  of  ballet 
on  which  enormous  sums  of  money  were 
lavished.  These  ballets  were  frequently 
historical  in  subject,  treating  of  the 
Siege  of  Troy,  the  Conquests  of  Alex- 
ander, and  similar  events.  There  were 
also  msrthological,  poetical,  moral,  and 
fantastic  ballets,  on  such  subjects  as  the 
Judgment  of  Paris,  the  Seasons,  Truth, 
the  Diversions  of  the  Carnival,  etc.  All 
these  were  in  five  acts,  each  of  which 
consisted  of  three,  six,  nine,  or  twelve  en- 
tries, and  in  all  of  them  singing  and  re- 
citation mingled  with  the  dancing. 

Catherine  de  Medici  introduced  the 
ballet  into  France,  and  encouraged 
dances  by  females  that  would  now  be 
deemed  highly  improper,  to  distract  the 
attention  of  her  son,  Henry  III.,  from 
state  affairs.  Henry  IV.  was  a  great 
supporter  of  the  ballet,  no  fewer  than  80 
grand  entertainments  being  given  by  him 
between  1589  and  1610.  Louis  XIII.  and 
Louis  XIV.  carried  their  love  of  ballet  to 
an  extreme  length,  and  themselves  danced 
publicly.  In  1661  the  latter  founded  an 
Academy  of  the  Dance,  with  Quinault  as 
director,  and  Lully  as  composer.  It  was 
not  until  1681  that  female  dancers  ap- 
peared in  public,  the  first  being  four 
ladies,  who  danced  "La  Triomphe  de 
I'Amour."  In  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century  the  names  of  professional 
dancers  begin  to  appear,  two  of  the  most 
famous  being  Miles.  Salle  and  Camargo, 
immortalized  by  Voltaire.  The  great 
male  dancer  of  this  time  was  Dupre,  the 
predecessor  of  the  universally  known 
Gaetano  Vestris. 

In  1697  De  la  Motte  introduced  more 
changes  into  the  ballet,  chiefly  in  the 
direction  of  more  interesting  subjects, 
and  about  the  same  time  comic  ballets 
were  invented  by  Danchet;  but  no  im- 
portant alterations  were  made  till  the 
advent  of  Jean  George  Noverre  in  1749. 
The  dancers  wore  masks,  huge  wigs  and 
headdresses,  and  hoops.  The  mask  finally 
disappeared  in  1773.  Hitherto  the  form 
of  the  ballet  had  remained  practically 
unchanged,  each  act  being  performed  by 
different  dancers,  and  generally  in  dif- 
ferent styles  of  dancing.  Noverre  in- 
vented the  ballet  d'action,  and  revived 
the  art  of  pantomime.  Dancing  now  had 
dramatic  meaning,  and  the  most  intricate 
plots  were  represented  by  pantomime 
alone.  The  principles  of  Noverre  were 
carried  to  great  perfection  by  Vincenzo 
Galleotti  in  Copenhagen,  and  bv  his  suc- 
cessor, Bournonville.  Under  the  Direc- 
tory a  form  of  grand  ballet  was  revived. 


in  which  patriotic  songs  were  a  dis- 
tinctive feature. 

The  history  of  the  ballet  since  No- 
verre's  time  is  a  history  of  dancers 
rather  than  of  dancing.  In  England, 
this  class  of  entertainment  was  never 
more  than  an  exotic,  and  has  practically 
no  history.  The  word  balette  is  first 
used  in  English  by  Dryden  (1667),  and 
the  earliest  attempt  at  a  descriptive  bal- 
let seems  to  have  been  "The  Tavern  Bil- 
kers," played  at  Drury  Lane  in  1702. 
Within  the  last  few  years  an  important 
revival  of  the  ballet  has  taken  place  in 
Italy,  where  the  famous  "Excelsior,"  by 
the  Chevalier  Luigi  Manzotti,  Messalina, 
Amor,  etc.,  have  furnished  magnificent 
examples  of  the  ballet  d'action. 

Skirt-dancing,  so-called  on  account  of 
the  voluminous  skirts  made  of  sheer  or 
flimsy  material,  which  are  worn  by  the 
dancers  and  play  so  important  a  part  in 
their  dances,  has  become  a  science  and  a 
popular  attraction  on  the  stage.  The 
dancers,  by  the  clever  manipulation  of 
their  draperies  and  assisted  by  light  ef- 
fects, assume  such  forms  as  flowers;  the 
rose,  calla  lily,  pansies,  pinks;  butterflies 
of  different  colors,  and  flags  of  various 
nationalities;  all  to  the  accompaniment 
of  music.  Among  the  most  noted  skirt 
dancers  were  Amelia  Glover,  Loie  Fuller, 
the  inventor  of  the  serpentine  dance,  Pa- 
pinta,  and  Anna  Held. 

The  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century 
saw  a  great  revival  in  the  popularity  of 
dancing,  both  in  spectacular  and  individ- 
ual dances.  Interpretive  dancing  also 
was  developed  by  many  foreign  and 
American  artists.  Russian  dances  be- 
came especially  popular  in  the  United 
States  and  elsewhere.  Among  the  most 
famous  of  the  Russian  dancers  were 
Mme.  Pavlowa  and  Michael  Fokine.  Mi\ 
and  Mrs.  Vernon  Castle  introduced  in 
the  United  States  a  variety  of  dances 
which  became  exceedingly  popular,  and 
for  a  time  dancing  became  well-nigh  an 
epidemic.  Various  dances,  some  of  them 
derived  from  the  barbaric  dances  of  sav- 
age tribes,  were  found  so  objectionable 
that  they  were  suppressed.  The  late  de- 
velopment of  the  dance  was  the  so-called 
jazz,  which  developed  in  a  large  variety 
of  forms. 

Dancing  became  one  of  the  courses  in 
the  public  schools  and  children  were  in- 
structed in  folk  and  interpretive  dances 
on  a  large  scale. 

DANCOtJBT  (don-kor') ,  properly 
Florent  Carton,  a  French  playwright 
and  dramatic  artist;  born  in  Fontaine- 
bleau  in  1661.  His  best  low  comedies  or 
farces  were:  "The  Fashionable  Cheva- 
lier"; "The  Winsome  Gardener."  He 
presented  village  life  with  perfect  truth, 


DANDELION 


259 


DANIELS 


and  was  master  of  villag^e  patois.  He 
died  in  1725.  Voltaire  ranked  him  next 
after  Moliere  for  low  comedy. 

DANDELION,  the  common  and  well- 
known  plant,  Taraxacum  Dens  Leonis  or 
officinale,  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Compositce.  It  yields  a  milky  juice, 
which  in  the  form  of  extract  is  used 
medicinally  as  a  diuretic  and  alterative. 
It  contains  a  bitter  crystalline  principle 
called  taraxacine.  Its  root  has  been 
used  to  adulterate  coffee  in  a  similar  way 
to  chicory.  It  has  a  naked,  hollow  stalk, 
with  a  single  bright  yellow  flower.  The 
blanched  leaves  are  used  as  a  winter 
salad,  and  the  roots  are  eaten  as  such 
by  the  French.  The  seed  is  furnished 
with  a  fine  white  pappus,  by  means  of 
which  it  is  carried  far  and  wide  by  the 
wind.  The  leaves  are  lanceolate  and 
sinuous,  rising  from  a  tap-root  in  the 
form  of  a  rosette. 

DANDOLO  (dan'do-16),  a  patrician 
family  of  Venice,  which  traced  its  origin 
to  the  Roman  era.  Its  most  illustrious 
member  was: 

Dandolo,  Enrico,  Doge  of  Venice,  to 
which  high  office  he  was  chosen  in  1192, 
when  in  his  87th  year.  He  carried  on 
the  war  with  the  Pisans  and  closed  it 
by  an  advantageous  peace.  In  1201  the 
Crusaders  applied  to  him  for  assistance, 
and  on  their  promise  to  reduce  the  town 
of  Zara,  which  had  revolted,  he  agreed 
to  help  them.  He  accordingly  undertook 
with  them,  in  1203,  the  siege  of  Con- 
stantinople, at  which  he  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself,  and  was  the  first 
who  leaped  on  shore.  It  is  said  that  he 
had  the  offer  of  the  imperial  crovsm,  and 
refused  it.  He  was  created  despot  of 
Rumania,  and  died  1205,  at  the  age  of 
97. 

DANEBROG  ("the  Danish  banner"), 
the  name  of  the  second  in  dignity  of  the 
Danish  orders  instituted  by  King  Walde- 
mar  in  1219. 

DANELAGH  (dan'la),  the  portion  of 
England  allotted  to  the  Danes  by  the 
Treaty  of  Wedmore  in  878  A.  D.  It  ex- 
tended from  the  E.  coast  to  a  line  which 
ran  from  the  Thames  a  little  below  Lon- 
don to  Chester  on  the  Dee. 

DANES.    See  Denmark. 

DANIEL,  the  prophet,  a  contemporary 
of  Ezekiel;  was  born  of  a  distinguished 
Hebrew  family.  In  his  youth,  605  B.  c, 
he  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon,  and 
educated  in  the  Babylonish  court  for  the 
service  of  King  Nebuchadnezzar.  Thrown 
into  the  lions'  den  for  conscientiously  re- 
fusing to  obey  the  king,  he  was  miracu- 
lously preserved,  and  finally  made  prime- 
minister  in  the  court  of  the  Persian  king 


Darius.  He  ranks  with  what  are  called 
the  "greater  prophets."  The  book  of 
the  Old  Testament  which  bears  his  name 
is  divided  into  a  historical  and  a  prohetic 
part.  Modern  criticism  generally  re- 
gards it  as  written  during  the  opprpssion 
of  the  Jews  under  Antiochus,  about  170 
B.  c.    It  is  partly  in  Chaldee. 

DANIELL.  MOSES  GRANT,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Boston  in  1836.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1863  and 
entered  the  field  of  secondary  education, 
in  which  he  held  a  prominent  part  for 
over  thirty  years.  He  first  served  with 
the  Everett  School  in  Dorchester,  and 
then  for  seventeen  years  was  instructor 
of  Latin  in  the  Roxbury  Latin  School. 
For  twelve  years  he  was  Headmaster  of 
the  Chauncy  Hall  School  in  Boston.  His 
textbook,  written  with  William  C.  Collier, 
is  widely  used  in  the  early  study  of 
Latin. 

DANIELS,  JOSEPHUS,  an  American 
public  official,  bom  in  1862  in  Washing- 
ton, N.  C.  He  became,  in  1880,  editor 
of  the  "Advance,"  a  newspaper  of  Wilson, 


JOSEPHUS  DANIELS 

N.  C.  Although  he  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  he  never  practiced 
that  profession,  preferring  newspaper 
work.  In  1885  he  became  editor  of  the 
"State  Chronicle"  of  Raleigh  and  in  1894 
united  this  newspaper  with  another  and 
published  it  as  the  "News  and  Observer." 
From  1887  to  1893  he  was  State  printer. 


DANIELS 


260 


DANTE  ALIGHIEBI 


From  1895  to  1912  he  was  prominent  in 
National  and  State  politics  as  a  Bryan 
Democrat  and  took  a  considerable  part 
in  the  election  of  Wilson  to  the  presi- 
dency in  1912.  In  March  of  the  next 
year  he  received  the  appointment  of 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  He  gained  prom- 
inence by  his  order  forbidding  officers  to 
have  liquor  aboard  their  vessels  and  by 
banning  the  use  of  liquor  by  the  officers 
and  men  of  the  navy.  He  also  advocated 
government  manufacture  of  armor  and 
munitions.  During  the  war  with  Ger- 
many the  navy  of  the  United  States  did 
its  work  effectively,  and  this  was  due 
largely  to  the  efforts  of  Secretary 
Daniels.  A  controversy  between  him  and 
Admiral  Sims,  as  a  result  of  the  latter's 
criticism  of  navy  administration  during 
the  war  was  followed  by  a  Senatorial  in- 
vestigation in  1920. 

DANIELS,  WINTHROP  MORE,  an 
American  official  and  economist,  born  in 
Dayton,  O.,  in  1867.  He  graduated  from 
Princeton  in  1888.  After  studying  in 
Germany,  he  became  professor  of  politi- 
cal economy  in  Princeton  in  1892,  serv- 
ing until  1911.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  Board  of 
Public  Utility  Commissioners  of  New 
Jersey.  He  served  in  this  capacity  until 
1914,  when  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  He 
was  a  chairman  of  the  Commission  in 
1918-1919.  He  was  the  author  of  "Ele- 
ments of  Public  Finance"  (1899) ;  and 
"Continuation  of  Alexander  Johnston's 
History  of  American  Politics"  (1902). 
He  was  a  contributor  to  magazines  on 
economic  subjects. 

DANITE,  a  member  of  a  former  Mor- 
mon secret  society  whose  purpose  it  was 
to  avenge  wrongs  committed  by  the 
"Gentiles"  on  the  "Saints."  They  are  said 
to  have  been  organized  about  1837.  They 
derive  their  name  from  Jacob's  blessing 
to  his  son  Dan  (Gen.  xlix:  17). 

DANNEMORA,  a  village  on  a  lake  of 
the  same  name,  24  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Upsala,  in  Sweden,  celebrated  for  its 
iron-mines,  the  second  richest  in  Sweden, 
which  have  been  worked  uninterruptedly 
for  upward  of  three  centuries. 

DANNEVIRKE  (Danes  work),  the 
rampart  built  by  the  Danes  about  808 
across  Sleswick,  gust  N.  of  the  Eider; 
the  scene  of  fighting  in  1849,  and  razed 
by  the  Germans  in  1850. 

D'ANNUNZIO,  GABRIELE  (dan- 
6n'tse-5),  an  Italian  novelist  and  poet; 
born  at  sea  in  1864.  He  studied  law  in 
Pisa,  but  in  1885  took  up  literature.  He 
wrote  "Italy"  and  other  poems,  besides 
novels  of  pessimist  tendency.  "The 
Triumph  of  Death,"  published  1895,  wont 


him  international  fame.  In  1899  he  was 
elected  to  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties. When  Italy  entered  the  World  War 
he  enlisted  in  the  Aviation  Corps,  was 
promoted  to  a  lieutenancy  and  received 
the  croix  de  guerre  for  bravery.  After 
the  Peace  of  1919,  dissatisfied  with  the 


GABRIELE  D'ANNUNZIO 


award  of  Fiume  to  Jugoslavia,  and  sup- 
ported by  some  military  and  naval  con- 
tingents, he  took  possession  of  the  city 
and  instituted  a  local  government.  On 
Sept.  9,  1920,  he  proclaimed  Fiume  an 
independent  state,  but  abandoned  the  city 
of  Fiume  in  December,  following  the 
agreement  of  Rapollo.  He  was  the  author 
of  many  successful  plays.  Notable  are 
"The  Dead  City)  (1898);  "La  Gioconda" 
(1898);  "Francesca  da  Rimini"  (1901); 
"Juno's  Daughter"  (1904);  "Fedra" 
(1909).  His  later  fiction  includes 
"Novella  della  Pescara"  (1902);  "Le 
Chevrefeuille"    (1913),  etc. 

DANTE,  ALIGHIERI  (dan'ta  a-le. 
ge-a're),  the  greatest  of  Italian  poets; 
born  in  Florence  about  the  end  of  May, 
1265,  of  a  family  belonging  to  the  lower 
nobility.  His  education  was  confided  to 
the  learned  Brunetto  Latini.  He  is  said 
also  to  have  studied  in  various  seats  of 
learning.  He  seems  to  have  been  quite 
a  boy,  no  more  than  9  years  of  age,  when 
he  first  saw  Beatrice  Portinari,  and  the 
love  she  awakened  in  him  he  has  de- 
scribed in  that  record  of  his  early  years, 
the  "New  Life,"  as  well  as  in  his  later 
great  work,  the  "Divine  Comedy."  Their 
lives  were  spent  far  apart,  Beatrice 
marrying  a  noble  Florentine,  Simone 
Bardi,  in  1287,  and  dying  three  years 
afterward;  while  the  year  following 
Dante  married  Gemma  dei  Donati,  by 
whom  he  had  seven  children. 


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THE    DANUBE    RIVER    AND    THE    BRIDGE    FROM    WACHAU   TO    KREMS 


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SORTING  RAW  COTTON  IN  A  COTTON  FACTORY 


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COLOR    MIXING    IN    A    COTTON    FACTORY 


DANTE   ALIGKIERI 


261 


DANTON 


At  this  time  the  Guelfic  party  in 
Florence  became  divided  into  the  rival 
factions  of  Bianchi  and  Neri  (Whites 
and  Blacks),  the  latter  being  an  extreme 
papal  party,  while  the  former  leaned  to 
reconciliation  with  the  Ghibellines. 
Dante's  sympathies  were  with  the  Bian- 
chi, and  being  a  prior  of  the  trades  and 
a  leading  citizen  in  Florence,  he  went 
on  an  embassy  to  Rome  to  influence  the 
Pope  on  behalf  of  the  Bianchi.  The 
rival  faction  of  the  Neri,  however,  had 
got  the  upper  hand  in  the  city,  and  in 
the  usual  fashion  of  the  time  were  burn- 
ing the  houses  of  their  rivals  and  slaying 
them  in  the  open  street.  In  Dante's 
absence  his  enemies  obtained  a  decree  of 


DANTE 

banishment  against  him,  coupled  with  a 
heavy  fine,  a  sentence  which  was  soon 
followed  by  another  condemning  him  to 
be  burned  alive  for  malversation  and 
peculation.  From  this  time  the  poet  be- 
came, and  to  the  end  of  his  life  remained, 
an  exile.  He  has  told  us  himself  how  he 
wandered  "through  almost  all  parts 
where  this  language  is  spoken,"  and  how 
hard  he  felt  it  "to  climb  the  stairs  and 
eat  the  bitter  bread  of  strangers."  Dur- 
ing this  period  he  is  said  to  have  visited 
many  cities,  Arezzo,  Bologna,  Sienna, 
etc.,  and  even  Paris.  In  1314  he  found 
shelter  with  Can  Grande  della  Scala  at 
Verona,  where  he  remained  till  1318.  In 
1320  we  find  him  staying  at  Ravenna 
with   his  friend  Guido  da  Polenta.     In 


September,  1321,  his  sufferings  and  wan- 
derings were  ended  by  death.  He  was 
buried  at  Ravenna,  where  his  bones  still 
lie. 

His  great  poem,  the  "Divine  Comedy," 
written  in  great  part,  if  not  altogether, 
during  his  exile,  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  entitled  "Hell,"  "Purgatory,"  and 
"Paradise."  The  poet  dreams  that  he 
has  wandered  into  a  dusky  forest,  when 
the  shade  of  Vergil  appears  and  offers 
to  conduct  him  through  hell  and  purga- 
tory. Farther  the  pagan  poet  may  not 
go,  but  Beatrice  herself  shall  lead  him 
through  paradise.  The  journey  through 
hell  is  first  described,  and  the  imagina- 
tive power  with  which  the  distorted  char- 
acters of  the  guilty  and  the  punishments 
laid  on  them  are  brought  before  us;  the 
impi'essive  pathos  of  these  short  his- 
tories— often  compressed  in  Dante's  se- 
vere style  into  a  couple  of  lines — of  Pope 
and  Ghibelline,  Italian  lord  and  lady; 
the  passionate  depth  of  characterization, 
the  subtle  insight  and  intense  faith,  make 
up  a  whole  which  for  significance  and 
completeness  has  perhaps  no  rival  in  the 
work  of  any  one  man.  From  hell  the 
poet  still  in  Vergil's  company  ascends 
to  purgatory.  There  are  scenes  of  sur- 
passing beauty  and  grandeur  when  with 
Beatrice  he  enters  the  celestial  paradise 
and  they  wander  through  the  nine 
spheres. 

There  are  English  versions  of  the 
great  poem  by  Gary,  Longfellow,  and 
Parsons  -  Norton  (1891-1892).  Dante's 
other  works  are:  'The  Banquet,"  a  series 
of  philosophical  commentaries  on  the 
author's  canzoni;  "The  Canzon  Writer's 
Art,"  a  collection  of  poems;  a  Latin 
treatise,  "Concerning  Monarchy,"  a  work 
intended  to  prove  the  supremacy  of  the 
head  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  a 
treatise  on  the  Italian  language,  entitled 
"On  Popular  Speech";  and  an  inquiry 
into  the  relative  altitude  of  the  water 
and  the  land,  "Land  and  Water." 

DANTON,  GEORGES  JACQUES,  a 
French  revolutionist;  born  in  Arcis-sur- 
Aube,  Oct.  26,  1759.  He  was  an  advocate 
by  profession,  but  became  one  of  the 
most  active  among  the  demagogues  of  the 
Revolutionary  period.  After  the  im- 
prisonment of  Louis  XVI,  at  Varennes, 
he  took  the  lead  in  the  meeting  of  Champ- 
de-Mars,  which  paved  the  way  to  the 
dethronement  of  the  king.  Danton's 
burly  figure,  stentorian  voice,  courage 
and  self-confidence  fitted  him  to  domi- 
nate the  revolutionists.  He  became  one 
of  the  executive  council  and  took  active 
measures  to  defend  Paris,  threatened  by 
the  Prussians  under  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick. He  was  afterward  a  member  of 
the  Convention  and  of  the  Committee  of 


DANUBE 


262 


DANVILLE 


Public  Safety,  and  was  a  chief  promoter 
of  all  the  sanguinary  acts  of  that  terrible 
period.  At  length  a  struggle  for  su- 
premacy took  place  between  him  and 
Robespierre,  in  which  the  latter  was  suc- 


DANTON 

cessful,   when   Danton  was  sent  to  the 
guillotine,  April  5,  1794. 

DANUBE,  a  celebrated  river  of  Eu- 
rope, originates  in  two  small  streams 
rising  in  the  Schwarzwald,  or  Black 
Forest,  in  Baden,  and  uniting  at 
Donaueschingen.  The  direct  distance 
from  source  to  mouth  of  the  Danube  is 
about  1,000  miles,  and  its  total  length, 
including  windings,  about  1,"25  mUes. 
From  its  source  the  Danube  flows  in  a 
N.  E.  direction  to  Ulm,  in  Wiirttemberg, 
where  it  becomes  navigable  for  vessels 
of  100  tons;  then  to  Ratisbon,  in  Ba- 
varia, where  it  becomes  navigable  for 
Steamers.  Here  it  turns  in  a  S.  E.  di- 
rection, entering  Austria  at  Passau,  pass- 
mg  Vienna  and  Budapest,  above  which 
latter  town  it  suddenly  turns  due  S., 
holding  this  direction  till  it  is  joined  by 
the  Drave,  after  which  it  runs  S.  S.  E. 
and  enters  Servia  at  Belgrade.  Continu- 
ing its  general  course  E.,  it  forms  for  a 
long  distance  the  boundary  line  between 
Rumania  and  Bulgaria.  At  Silistria  it 
once  more  turns  N.,  and  flowing  between 
Rumania  and  Bessarabia  falls  into  the 
Black  Sea  by  three  different  outlets.     In 


the  upper  part  of  its  course,  through 
Wiirttemburg  and  Bavaria,  the  Danube 
flows  through  some  of  the  most  fertile 
and  populous  districts  of  its  basin.  Its 
principal  affluents  here  are  the  Iser  and 
Lech. 

In  Austria  it  passes  through  a  suc- 
cession of  picturesque  scenery  till  past 
Vienna,  the  land  on  Doth  sides  being  well 
peopled  and  cultivated.  The  principal 
affluents  are  the  March,  or  Morawa,  and 
the  Enns.  After  passing  through  what 
is  called  the  Carpathian  Gate,  at  Press- 
burg,  where  it  enters  Hungary,  it  gives 
off  a  number  of  branches,  forming  a 
labyrinth  of  islands  known  as  Schiitten, 
but  on  emerging  it  flows  uninterruptedly 
S.  through  wide  plains  interspersed  with 
pools,  marshes,  and  sandy  wastes.  The 
principal  affluents  here  are  the  Save,  the 
Drave,  and  the  Theiss.  Sixty  miles  be- 
fore entering  Rumania  the  river  passes 
through  a  succession  of  rapids  or  cata- 
racts which  it  has  made  in  cutting  a 
passage  for  itself  through  the  cross  chain 
of  hills  which  connect  the  Carpathian 
Mountains  with  the  Alps.  The  last  of 
these  cataracts,  at  Old  Orsova,  is  called 
the  Iron  Gate.  The  lower  course  of  the 
Danube,  in  Rumania  and  Bulgaria,  is 
through  a  flat  and  marshy  tract,  fertile 
but  badly  cultivated  and  thinly  peopled. 
In  this  part  it  increases  its  width  from 
1,400  to  2,100  yards,  and  latterly  forms 
an  expanse  like  a  sea,  and  is  studded 
with  islands.  Of  the  three  outlets  the 
Sulina  Mouth  is  the  deepest,  and  is 
usually  chosen  by  ships  bound  up  the 
river.  The  Danube  is  navigable  for 
steamers  up  to  Regensburg  (Ratisbon), 
nearly  1,500  miles  from  its  mouth.  Some 
of  its  tributaries,  such  as  the  Save,  the 
Theiss,  and  the  Drave,  are  also  navigable, 
so  that  the  water  system  of  the  Danube 
may  be  estimated  as  admitting  of  about 
2.500  miles  of  steam  navigation. 

DANVEBS,  a  town  of  Essex  co., 
Mass.;  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  rail- 
road; five  miles  N.  W.  of  Salem.  It  was 
a  portion  of  Salem  till  1756,  and  em- 
braces the  Salem  village  parish  where 
the  witchcraft  excitement  broke  out.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Peabody  Institute,  founded 
by  George  Peabody,  a  resident  of  the 
place,  who  in  1852  donated  $200,000  for 
the  promotion  of  knowledge  and  morali- 
ty among  the  inhabitants.  It  is  also  the 
seat  of  Danvers  Insane  Asylum,  built 
at  a  cost  of  $2,000,000,  and  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  shoes,  bricks,  and  car- 
pets, foundries,  rolling  mills,  tanneries, 
churches,  high  school,  weekly  news- 
papers, public  library,  and  National 
bank.    Pop.  (1910)  9,407;  (1920)  11.108. 

DANVILLE,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Vermilion  co..  111.;  on  the  Vermilion 


DANVILLE 


263 


DAPHNIA 


river,  and  the  Wabash,  Chicago,  and 
Eastern  Illinois,  the  Chicago,  Indiana 
and  Southern  and  the  "Big  Four"  rail- 
roads; 125  miles  S.  of  Chicago.  It  has 
a  National  Soldiers'  Home  for  Disabled 
Veterans,  with  over  3,500  immates.  Its 
chief  industry  is  coal-mining,  which  is 
carried  on  extensively  on  the  bluffs  of 
the  river.  It  also  has  large  railroad  car 
and  machine  shops,  iron  foundries,  plan- 
ing mills,  carriage  and  wagon  factories, 
organ  and  furniture  factories,  churches, 
a  high  school,  5  National  banks,  and 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1910)   27,871;    (1920)   33,776. 

DANVILLE,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Boyle  co.,  Ky. ;  on  Dick's  river,  and 
the  Queen  and  Crescent  and  Southern 
railroads:  42  miles  S.  of  Frankfort.  It 
is  a  stock-raising  center,  and  the  seat 
of  several  educational  institutions,  among 
them  the  Danville  Theological  Seminary, 
the  Central  University  of  Kentucky, 
Kentucky  College  for  women  and  the 
State  Asylum  and  School  for  Deaf  Mutes. 
It  has  churches,  public  schools,  2  National 
banks  and  newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  5,- 
420;    (1920)  5,099. 

DANVILLE,  a  borough  and  county- 
seat  of  Montour  co.,  Pa.;  on  the  Sus- 
quehanna river,  and  the  Lackawanna, 
the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  and  the 
Pennsylvania  railroads,  154  miles  N.  W. 
of  Philadelphia.  Danville  is  in  a  district 
abounding  with  iron-ore,  limestone,  and 
anthracite  coal;  and  contains  the  first 
establishment  ei'ected  in  the  United 
States  for  the  manufacture  of  railroad 
iron,  and  still  ranks  among  the  most  ex- 
tensive in  the  country.  There  are  blast 
furnaces,  iron  foundries,  rolling  mills, 
churches,  2  National  banks,  a  State  asy- 
lum for  the  insane,  and  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  7,517;  (1920) 
6,952. 

DANVILLE,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Pittsylvania  co.,  Va. ;  on  the  Dan  river> 
and  the  Southern  railroad,  140  miles  S. 
W.  of  Richmond ;  is  the  seat  of  Randolph- 
Macon  College,  Roanoke  Institute,  and 
Danville  School  for  Boys.  It  has  good 
water-power,  cotton  mills,  flour  mills, 
grist  mills,  foundry,  and  tobacco  fac- 
tories. It  is  the  center  of  the  fine 
yellow  tobacco  '  section,  and  30,000,000 
pounds  of  leaf-tobacco  are  sold  annually. 
It  has  a  high  school,  water  works,  news- 
papers and  2  National  banks.  Pop. 
(1910)    19,020;    (1920)   21,539. 

DANZIG,  a  fortified  town  and  port, 
Prussia,  capital  of  the  province  of  West 
Prussia,  253  miles  N.  E.  of  Berlin,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  W.  arm  of  the  Vistula, 
about  three  miles  above  its  mouth  in  the 
Baltic,  and  intersected  by  the  Mottlau, 


which  here  divides  into  several  arms. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  important  seaports 
in  the  Prussian  republic.  The  more 
modern  parts  are  regularly  and  well 
built;  in  the  other  parts  the  streets  are 
narrow  and  the  houses  old  and  indiffer- 
ent. Among  the  principal  buildings  are 
the  Dom  or  Cathedral,  begun  in  1343,  the 
Church  of  St.  Catharine,  the  exchange, 
the  arsenal,  observatory,  three  monas- 
teries, two  synagogues,  two  theaters,  etc. 
The  industries  are  numerous,  but  ex- 
cepting those  connected  with  shipbuild- 
ing, artillery,  and  beer,  not  of  great  im- 
portance. The  prosperity  of  the  town 
is  founded  chiefly  on  its  transit  trade, 
particularly  in  wheat  from  Poland. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  trade  in 
amber.  The  proper  port  of  Danzig  is 
Neufahrwasser,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Vistula;  but  vessels  of  large  size  can 
now  come  up  to  and  enter  the  town. 
After  being  alternately  possessed  by 
the  Teutonic  knights  and  the  Poles,  Dan- 
zig, on  the  partition  of  Poland,  fell  to 
the  lot  of  Prussia.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles,  Danzig  was  made  with  the 
surrounding  territory  a  free  city  under 
the  protection  of  the  League  of  Nations, 
which  appoints  a  high  commissioner.  It 
has  a  legislative  Council,  and  universal 
suffrage.  Danzig  serves  as  a  corridor 
by  which  Poland  has  access  to  the  sea. 
Pop.    (1919)    162,468. 

DAPHNE,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  Thymelasacese.  Orifice  of  the 
calyx  without  appendages,  stamens  8  to 
10,  inclosed  within  the  calyx,  stigma 
simple,  fruit  succulent.  D.  laureola  is 
the  spurge  laurel.  It  is  an  evergreen. 
D.  mezereiim  has  deciduous  leaves  and 
very  fragrant  flowers.  They  are  all 
found  in  the  temperate  districts  of  Asia 
and  Europe.  The  bark  of  the  root,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  branches,  of  D. 
■mezereon  is  used  in  decoction  as  a 
diaphoretic  in  cutaneous  and  syphilitic 
affections.  In  large  doses  it  is  an  ir- 
ritant poison,  causing  hypercatharsis. 
Used  externally  it  acts  as  a  vesicant.  It 
contains  a  ventral  crystalline  principle, 
called  daphnein.  The  fruit  is  poisonous. 
The  barks  of  D.  gnidiiim,  D.  alpina,  D. 
cneoiinn,  D.  pontica.  and  D.  laureola 
have  similar  properties.  The  berries  of 
the  last  are  poisonous  to  all  animals  ex- 
cept birds.  The  inner  bark  of  D.  lagetta, 
when  cut  into  thin  pieces  after  macera- 
tion, assumes  a  beautiful  net-like  ap- 
pearance, whence  it  has  received  the 
name  of  lace-bark. 

DAPHNIA,  a  genus  of  Entomostraca 
order  Cladocera,  family  Daphniadse.  £>. 
pulex  is  the  common  water-flea.  The 
head  is  large,  rounded  above  and  in 
front;  superior  antennae  very  small;  the 


DARBHANGAH 


264 


DARFUR 


head  produced  into  a  more  or  less  prom- 
inent beak;  eye  spherical,  with  about  20 
lenses;  jaws  composed  of  a  strong  body 
ending  in  four  horny  spines,  three  of 
which  curve  inward.  The  antennae  act 
as  oars,  by  which  the  animals  project 
themselves  by  a  series  of  jerks  through 
the  water.  They  are  frequently  very- 
numerous  in  ponds  and  ditches,  which 
they  often  color,  especially  when  the 
water  is  stagnant,  with  an  appearance 
of  blood.  D.  pulex  is  a  favorite  and  in- 
teresting microscopic  object. 

DARBHANGAH  (dar-ban'ga) ,  the 
chief  town  of  Darbhangah  district,  in 
Behar  province,  India ;  on  the  Little 
Baghmati  river,  78  miles  N.  E,  of  Patna 
by  rail.  It  has  large  bazaars  and  a  hand- 
some market-place,  extensive  tanks,  a 
hospital  and  the  maharajah's  palace, 
with  fine  gardens,  menagerie,  and  aviary. 
There  is  an  active  trade  in  oil-seeds, 
food-grains,  timber,  salt,  iron,  lime,  etc. 
Pop.    (1901)   66,244. 

DARBY,  a  borough  in  Pennsylvania, 
in  Delaware  co.,  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  and  the  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
and  Washington  railroads,  and  on  the 
Darby  river.  Its  industries  include 
woolen,  silk,  cotton  and  worsted  mills, 
and  there  are  manufactures  of  water 
filters,  wooden  tanks,  augurs,  and  bits. 
Pop.    (1910)   6,305;    (1920)    7,922. 

DARDANELLES  (dar-da-nelz') ,  (the 
ancient  Hellespont) ,  a  narrow  channel 
separating  Europe  from  Asia,  and  unit- 
ing the  Sea  of  Marmora  with  the  Arch- 
ipelago. The  name  is  derived  from  the 
ancient  city  of  Dardanus  in  the  Troad, 
on  the  S.  shore;  and  Dardanus  was 
named  from  the  Dardani,  an  ancient 
people  farther  inland.  The  strait  ex- 
tends from  N.  E.  to  S.  W,,  and  has  a 
length  of  about  40  miles,  and  a  breadth 
varying  from  1  to  4  miles.  From  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  a  strong  current  runs 
through  the  strait  to  the  Archipelago. 
Both  sides  are  strongly  fortified.  A 
treaty  concluded  between  the  five  great 
powers  and  Turkey  in  1841  arranged 
that  no  ship  of  war  belonging  to  any 
nation  save  Turkey  should  pass  the 
Dardanelles  without  the  express  con- 
sent of  Turkey;  all  merchant-ships  being 
also  required  to  show  their  papers  to  the 
Ottoman  authorities.  These  provisions 
were  confirmed  at  London  in  1871  and 
at  Berlin  in  1878,  in  February  of  which 
year  a  British  fleet  had  sailed  into  the 
Sea  of  Marmora.  The  Dardanelles  is 
celebrated  in  ancient  history  on  account 
of  Xerxes  and  Alexander  having  crossed 
it,  the  former  in  480  B.  c.  to  enter  Eu- 
rope; and  the  latter  in  334  B.  c.  to  enter 
Asia.  The  point  at  which  Xerxes  crossed, 
by   two   separate   bridges,    was   in   the 


neighborhood  of  Abydos,  on  the  Asiatic 
shore,  opposite  to  Sestos.  Alexander 
crossed  at  nearly  the  same  place;  and 
here  also  young  Leander  nightly  swam 
across  to  visit  Hero — a  feat  performed 
in  1810  by  Lord  Byron.  The  attempt  by 
British  and  French  fleets  to  force  the 
Dardanelles,  in  connection  with  the  at- 
tempted capture  of  the  Gallipoli  peninsu- 
la, constituted  one  of  the  most  important 
operations  of  the  first  two  years  of  the 
World  War.    See  World  War;  Turkey. 

DARDISTAN  (dar-dis-tan'),  the  name 
given  to  a  region  of  central  Asia,  border- 
ing on  Baltistan,  the  N.  W.  portion  of 
Cashmere.  The  country,  which  consists 
of  lofty  mountains  and  high-lying  val- 
leys, is  little  known,  and  its  limits  are 
variously  given;  but  its  interest  depends 
mainly  on  the  fact  that  its  inhabitants, 
the  Dards,  are  an  Aryan  people,  speaking 
a  Sanskritic  tongue  mixed  with  Persian 
words.  They  had  been  called  "Stray 
Aryans  in  Tibet,"  and  are  Moslems  con- 
verted from  Buddhism  at  a  compara- 
tively recent  period:  the  Rajah  of  Cash- 
mere is  constantly  endeavoring  to  sub- 
ject them  completely  to  his  authority. 
The  chief  districts  are  Hasora,  Gilghit, 
and  Tassin;  some  authorities  also  in- 
clude Chitral  in  Dardistan. 

DARFUR  (dar'for),  a  province  of 
central  Africa,  one  of  the  divisions  of 
the  Sudan  or  "Land  of  the  Blacks," 
situated  approximately  in  10°  to  16°  N. 
lat.,  and  in  22°  to  28°  E.  Ion.;  but  its 
limits  are  not  clearly  defined.  It  is  hilly 
in  parts,  and  traversed  by  a  mountainous 
ridge  called  Marra,  which  is  the  source 
of  numerous  streams.  Toward  the  N. 
it  is  level,  sandy,  and  almost  destitute 
of  water.  During  the  rainy  season 
(June — September)  it  exhibits  a  rich 
vegetation.  The  principal  products  are 
wheat,  millet,  rice,  maize,  and  sesame. 
Tobacco,  which  is  used  by  the  natives  in 
every  form,  abounds.  Watermelons,  also, 
are  abundant  during  the  rainy  season. 
Among  the  fruits  are  tamarinds  and 
dates.  The  chief  minerals  are  copper 
and  iron.  The  wealth  of  the  inhabitants 
consists  principally  in  cattle.  Horses, 
sheep,  camels,  and  game  abound.  Darfur 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with 
Egypt,  Mecca,  and  the  inland  countries 
of  Africa ;  it  was  a  notorious  center  of 
the  slave  trade.  The  Fulbes  are  an  in- 
telligent, well-built  race,  and  have  long 
been  Mohammedans;  their  numbers  ar© 
variously  estimated  at  from  3,000,000  to 
4,000,000.  Kobbe  is  the  chief  trading 
town.  In  1900  Darfur  and  Kordofan 
were  within  the  sphere  of  British  in- 
fluence, by  an  agreement  between  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  and  Italy.  See  Brit- 
ish East  Africa. 


D'AKGENSON 


265 


DABIEN,  ISTHMUS  OF 


D'ARGENSON,  MARC  PIERRE, 
COMTE  (dar-zhon-son'),  a  French 
statesman;  bom  in  1696;  the  younger 
son  of  the  Marquis  d'Argenson  (1652- 
1721),  who  created  the  secret  police  and 
established  the  lettres  de  cachet.    He  be- 


Militaire.  He  was  an  illustrious  patron 
of  literature.  In  1757  he  was  banished 
to  his  estate  by  the  machinations  of 
Madame  Pompadour;  but  on  her  death 
he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died  in 
1764. 


THE    DARDANELLES 


came  war  minister  in  1743,  at  a  time 
when  the  very  political  existence  of 
France  was  imperiled,  and  by  his  vigor 
iand  lucky  choice  of  generals  changed  the 
fortunes  of  the  war.  After  the  peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748),  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  improvement  of  the  military 
system,  and  in  1751  established  the  Ecole 


DARIEN,  GULF  OF,  a  gulf  of  the 
Carribbean  Sea  at  the  N.  extremity  of 
South  America,  between  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  and  the  mainland. 

DARIEN,  ISTHMUS  OF,  often  used 
as  synonymous  with  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,    but   more   strictly   applied    to 


DARIUS  THE  MEDE 


266 


DARLING 


the  neck  of  land   between  the   Gulf  of 
Darien  and  the  Pacific. 

DARIUS  THE  MEDE  (da-ri'us),  son 
of  Astyages,  King  of  the  Medes,  and 
brother  of  Mandane,  mother  of  Cyrus, 
and  of  Amyit  the  mother  of  Evil- 
merodach  and  grandmother  of  Belshaz- 
zar;  thus,  he  was  uncle,  by  the  mother's 
side,  to  Evil-merodach  and  to  Cyrus.  The 
Hebrew  generally  calls  him  Darius;  the 
Septuagint,  Artaxerxes;  and  Xenophon, 
Cyaxares.  Darius  dethroned  Belshazzar, 
King  of  the  Chaldeans,  and  occupied  the 
throne  till  his  death,  two  years  after, 
when  it  reverted  to  the  illustrious  Cyrus. 

DARIUS  I.,  King  of  Persia,  was  the 
son  of  Hystaspes.  He  entered  into  a 
conspiracy,  with  six  others,  against  the 
usurper  Smerdis,  and  having  slain  him, 
they  agreed  that  he  should  have  the 
crown  whose  horse  would  neigh  first  in 
the  morning.  By  a  well-concerted  plan 
of  his  groom,  the  horse  of  Darius  neighed 
immediately  after  he  came  to  the  spot 
where  they  were  to  meet,  in  consequence 
of  which  he  was  saluted  king.  He  took 
Babylon  after  a  siege  of  20  months,  gave 
permission  for  the  rebuilding  of  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  sent  the  cap- 
tive Jews  to  their  own  country.  The  re- 
volt of  the  Greek  cities  in  Ionia  was  the 
occasion  of  the  famous  Persian  war.  The 
army  of  Darius,  under  the  command  of 
Mardonius,  invaded  Greece,  but  accom- 
plished nothing.  A  second  invasion  was 
undertaken,  and  the  Persians  were  de- 
feated by  the  Greeks  at  Marathon;  on 
which  he  resolved  to  carry  on  the  war  in 
person,  but  died  in  the  midst  of  his  prep- 
aration, 485  B.  C. 

DARIUS  II.,  surnamed  Ochus,  or 
Nothus  (bastard) ,  was  an  illegitimate 
son  of  Artaxerxes.  He  ascended  the 
throne  of  Persia  after  the  assassination 
of  Xerxes,  and  married  Parysatis,  his 
sister,  a  licentious  and  cruel  woman,  by 
whom  he  had  Artaxerxes,  Mnemon, 
Amistris,  and  Cyrus  the  Younger.  He 
died  in  405  B.  C. 

DARIUS  III.,  surnamed  Codomanus, 
the  last  King  of  Persia.  His  kingdom  be- 
ing invaded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  he 
met  him  in  person  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  600,000  men.  At  the  battle  of 
Granicus  the  Persians  were  defeated,  but 
met  the  Greeks  again  near  Issus,  where 
they  were  totally  routed.  Upward  of 
100,000  Persians  were  killed,  and  Alex- 
ander took,  among  the  prisoners  of  war, 
the  mother,  wife,  and  children  of  Darius. 
Darius  himself  escaped  in  disguise  and 
under  cover  of  the  night.  Not  discour- 
aged by  his  reverses,  he  ventured  another 
battle  at  Arbela,  but  was  again  defeated, 
•and  fled  toward  Media.    Bessus,  the  gov- 


ernor of  Bactriana,  coveting  his  throne, 
attempted  his  life,  and  Darius  was  found 
by  the  Macedonians,  in  his  chariot,  cov- 
ered with  wounds  and  expiring.  He  died 
in  330  B.  c. 

DARJEELING,  or  DARJILING,  a 
district  of  India,  in  the  extreme  N.  of  the 
lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal;  divi- 
sion of  Cooch-Behar;  area,  1,234  square 
miles.  Tea,  coffee,  cinchona,  and  cotton 
are  cultivated  more  or  less,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  the  tea-plant  and  the  making  of 
tea  is  now  the  staple  industry.  Pop. 
about  250,000.  Darjeeling,  the  chief 
town  in  the  district,  is  a  sanatory  station 
for  British  troops,  and  though  little  more 
than  36  miles  from  the  plains  stands  at 
an  elevation  of  7,400  feet  above  sea-level, 
on  a  ridge  with  deep  valleys  on  either 
side,  in  a  bleak  but  healthy  situation. 
There  is  a  residence  of  the  lieutenant- 
governor,  barracks,  a  sanitarium,  etc. 
Pop.  about  17,000,  much  increased  in  the 
hot  weather. 

DARK  AGES,  THE,  a  period  supposed 
to  extend  from  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire,  A.  D.  475,  to  the  revival  of  liter- 
ature on  the  discovery  of  the  Pandects  at 
Amalfi  in  1137.  Not  to  draw  the  limits 
too  finely,  say  700  years  (450  to  1150). 
The  Middle  Ages  may  be  extended  to 
about  1550,  covering  from  10  to  11  cen- 
turies. 

DARLEY,  FELIX  OCTAVIUS  CARR, 

an  American  artist;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, June  23,  1822.  His  illustrations  of 
literary  masterpieces  gave  pleasure  to 
thousands  and  made  him  famous.  His 
best  work  comprises  his  dravdngs  to  ac- 
company the  text  of  "Rip  Van  Winkle"; 
"Sleepy  Hollow";  "Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish";  "Scarlet  Letter";  "Evan- 
geline"; the  novels  of  Cooper,  Dickens, 
and  others,  besides  many  special  pictures. 
His  book  "Sketches  Abroad  with  Pen  and 
Pencil"  (1868)  is  well  known.  He  died 
in  Claymont,  Del.,  March  27,  1888. 

DARLING,  GRACE,  an  English  hero- 
ine; born  in  the  Longstone  Lighthouse 
(Fame  Islands,  coast  of  Northumber- 
land), of  which  her  father  was  keeper, 
Nov.  24,  1815.  In  1838  the  steamer 
"Forfarshire,"  with  41  passengers  on 
board  besides  her  crew,  became  disabled 
off  the  Fame  Islands  during  a  storm,  and 
was  thrown  on  a  rock,  where  she  broke 
in  two,  part  of  the  crew  and  passengers 
being  left  clinging  to  the  wreck.  Next 
morning  William  Darling  descried  them 
from  Longstone,  about  a  mile  distant,  but 
he  shrank  from  attempting  to  reach  the 
wreck.  His  daughter  Grace  persuaded 
him  to  make  the  attempt  and  to  allow  her 
to  accompany  him.  Father  and  daughter 
rowed  to  the  wreck  and  rescued  nine  per- 


DARUNGTON 


267 


PARTER 


sons.  Grace  Darling's  heroism  was 
widely  praised  and  a  purse  of  $3,500  pub- 
licly subscribed  was  presented  to  her. 
She  died  Oct.  20,  1842. 

DARLINGTON,  JAMES  HENRY,  an 
American  Protestant  EpisQopal  bishop, 
bom  in  Brooklyn  in  1856.  He  graduated 
from  New  York  University  in  1877  and 
from  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
in  1880.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1882. 
From  1883  to  1905  he  was  rector  of 
Christ  Church  of  Brooklyn.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  consecrated  first 
bishop  of  Harrisburg.  He  served  as  lec- 
turer in  New  York  University  and  as 
chaplain  of  the  47th  Regiment  of  the 
New  York  National  Guard.  During  the 
World  War  he  was  a  member  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Public  Safety  in  Pennsylvania 
and  was  head  of  the  Serbian  Relief  Fund 
in  the  United  States.  He  received  sev- 
eral decorations  from  foreign  countries 
for  work  done  during  the  war.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  learned  and  patriotic 
societies.  He  wrote  "Pastor  and  People" 
(1902)  and  published  several  volumes  of 
sermons. 

DARLINGTONIA,  a  genus  of  pitcher- 
plants,  belonging  to  the  order  Sarracenia- 
cese  (sarraceniads).  The  D.  calif ornica 
grows  in  the  N.  part  of  California, 
chiefly  in  the  district  around  Mount 
Shasta.  It  is  found  in  boggy  places,  on 
the  slopes  of  mountains.  It  entraps  in- 
sects, which  are  attracted  to  the  curious 
pitcher  or  hood  at  the  extremity  of  the 
tubular  leaves;  and,  once  inside,  are  pre- 
vented by  the  fine  hairs  which  point 
downward  from  again  returning.  The 
larva  of  a  small  moth,  Xanthoptem  semi- 
crocea,  preys  on  the  plant,  and  that  of  a 
dipterous  insect,  Sarcophaga  sarracenise, 
feeds  on  the  dead  insects  which  it  in- 
closes. 

DARMSTADT  (darm'stat) ,  a  town  in 
Germany;  capital  of  the  republic  of 
Hesse,  in  a  sandy  plain,  on  the  Darm,  15 
miles  S.  of  Frankfort.  It  consists  of  an 
old  and  a  new  town.  The  former,  which 
is  the  business  part  of  the  town,  is  very 
poorly  built;  the  houses  are  old,  and  the 
streets  narrow  and  gloomy.  The  new 
town  is  laid  out  with  great  regularity, 
and  has  handsome  squares  and  houses. 
Among  the  remarkable  buildings  are  the 
old  palace  (with  a  library  of  500,000  vol- 
umes and  4,000  MSS.,  a  picture  gallery, 
and  a  rich  museum  of  natural  history) , 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  the  Rat- 
haus  or  town-hall  built  in  1580.  Darm- 
stadt before  the  World  War  had  iron 
foundries,  breweries,  etc.  Pop.  about 
90,000. 

DARNEL,  the  popular  name  for 
Lolium  tenulentum,  which  some  suppose 


to  be  the  Infelix  lolium  of  Vergil  and  the 
zizania  or  tares  of  Scripture.  It  was  be- 
lieved by  the  ancients  to  be  poisonous  and 
narcotic.  It  is  common  in  cornfields.  It 
has  culms  one  to  two  feet  high,  the  spike 
being  like  that  of  Triticum  repens,  the 
wheat-grass  or  couch-grass. 

DARNLEY,  HENRY  STUART, 
LORD,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Lennox  and 
Lady  Margaret  Douglas,  a  niece  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  by  her  first  marriage 
queen  of  James  IV.;  born  1541.  In  1565 
he  was  married  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
It  was  an  unfortunate  match.  Dislike 
developed  open  hatred,  which  the  murder 
of  Rizzio,  to  which  Darnley  was  a  party, 
served  to  increase.  After  Mary  gave 
birth  to  a  son,  subsequently  James  VI, 
Darnley  was  seized  at  Glasgow  with 
smallpox,  from  which  he  had  barely  re- 
covered when  Mary  visited  him,  and  had 
him  conveyed  to  an  isolated  house  called 
Kirk  of  Field,  close  to  the  Edinburgh  city 
walls.  This  dwelling,  which  belonged  to 
a  retainer  of  Bothwell's,  the  rapidly  ris- 
ing favorite,  was  blown  into  the  air  with 
gunpowder,  Feb.  10,  1567.  The  dead 
bodies  of  the  king  and  his  page  were 
found  in  a  field  at  a  distance  of  80  yards 
from  the  house,  quite  free  from  any  mark 
which  such  an  explosion  would  cause. 
Strong  circumstantial  evidence  points  to 
Bothwell  as  the  murderer,  and  to  Mary 
as  an  accomplice  in  the  crime. 

DARROW,  CLARENCE  S.,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer,  born  in  Kinsman,  O.,  in 
1857.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Ohio  and  after  studying  law 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1875.  He  was 
for  some  time  attorney  Of  the  North- 
western railroad,  but  was  chiefly  identi- 
fied with  cases  against  monopolies  in 
which  he  took  the  part  of  the  people 
against  the  trusts.  He  was  chief  counsel 
of  the  anthracite  miners  in  the  anthracite 
coal  strike  arbitration  in  1902-1903.  He 
was  also  counsel  in  the  Debs  strike  case 
and  in  a  large  number  of  labor  injunc- 
tion and  labor  conspiracy  cases,  taking 
the  side  of  labor.  He  served  in  the  Illi- 
nois State  Legislature  in  1902.  He  won 
special  prominence  as  counsel  for  the 
McNamara  brothers  in  the  Los  Angeles 
"Times"  dynamite  case  in  1911.  He 
was  counsel  for  Eugene  V.  Debs  for  con- 
spiring to  hinder  the  operation  of  the 
draft  law  in  1917.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  volume  of  essays  and  many  pamphlets 
on  social  and  economic  questions. 

DARTER.  (1)  an  order  in  McGil- 
livray's  classification  of  birds,  containing 
the  kingfishers,  bee-eaters,  and  jacamars, 
so  called  from  their  habit  of  darting  onto 
their  prey. 

(2)  A  s:enus  of  web-fobtea  swimming 


DARTFOBD 


268 


DARWIN 


birds  belonging  to  the  Pelicanidm.  The 
neck  in  all  is  exceedingly  long.  Plotus 
vielanog aster  is  the  snake-bird,  so  called 
from  the  serpent-like  form  of  the  neck 
and  head.  The  darters  are  natives  of 
tropical  America  and  Africa,  and  of  Aus- 
tralia. 

DARTFORD,  a  thriving  market-town 
of  Kent,  England;  in  the  narrow  valley 
of  the  Darent,  2  miles  above  its  influx  to 
the  Thames,  and  17  E.  S.  E.  of  London. 
Edward  III.  here  founded  an  Augustin- 
ian  nunnery  (1355);  St.  Edmund's 
chantry  was  a  great  place  of  pilgrimage ; 
and  at  Dartford  Wat  Tyler  began  his  re- 
bellion (1381).    Pop.,  about  40,000. 

DARTMOUTH,  a  town  of  Massa- 
chusetts, in  Bristol  co.  It  is  on  the 
Paskamansett  river.  Its  chief  industries 
are  poultry  raising  and  dairying.  There 
are  also  manufactures  of  box  boards. 
There  are  three  public  libraries  and  other 
public  buildings.  The  surrounding  coun- 
try is  a  well-known  summer  resort.  Pop. 
(1910)   4,378;    (1920)   6,493. 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE,  an  educa- 
tional (non-sect.)  institution  in  Hanover, 
N.  H.;  founded  in  1769;  reported  at  the 
«nd  of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors, 
121;  students,  1,673;  volumes  in  the  li- 
brary, 150,000;  productive  funds,  $4,500,- 
000;  income,  $450,000;  president,  Ernest 
Mark  Hopkins,  Litt.D.,  LL.D. 

DARU,  PIERRE  ANTOINE  NOEL 
BRUNO,  COMTE  (da-rii'),  a  French 
statesman,  born  in  Montpellier,  Jan.  12, 
1767.  At  the  age  of  16  he  entered  the 
army,  and  at  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Revolution  adopted  its  principles.  He  at- 
tracted the  notice  of  the  First  Consul, 
and,  in  1802,  became  a  member  of  the 
Tribunate.  In  1805  he  was  made  a  coun- 
cillor <f  state,  and  general  intendant  of 
the  imperial  household.  He  subsequently 
became  the  confidential  friend  of  the 
emperor,  and  his  prime  minister.  In 
1812  he  opposed  the  expedition  to  Rus- 
sia. On  the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  he 
retired  from  public  life,  and,  although 
exiled  by  the  first  government  of  the  re- 
stored Bourbons,  was  recalled  in  1819, 
and  made  a  peer  of  France.  He  after- 
ward wrote  a  "Life  of  Sully"  and  a  "His- 
tory of  Venice."    He  died  Sept.  5,  1829. 

D'ARUSMONT.  MADAME  FRANCES 
(da-riis-mon'),  maiden  name  Fanny 
Wright,  an  American  philanthropist  and 
author;  born  in  Dundee,  Scotland,  Sept. 
6,  1795.  She  visited  this  country  several 
times,  and  in  1825  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  establish  a  settlement  for  the 
elevation  of  the  negro  at  Memphis,  Tenn. 
In  later  years  she  lectured  on  social,  re- 
ligious, and  political  questions.  Among 
her  works  are:  "Views  on   Society  and 


Manners  in  America";  "Altorf,"  a  trag- 
edy (1819)  ;  "Lectures  on  Free  Inquiry" 
(1836).  She  died  in  Cincinnati,  O.,  Dec. 
2,  1852. 

DARWIN,  CHARLES  ROBERT,  an 

English  naturalist;  born  in  Shrewsbury, 
Feb.  12,  1809;  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Robert 
Darwin  and  grandson  of  Dr.  Erasmus 
Darwin.  He  was  educated  at  Shrews- 
bury School,  and  at  the  universities  of 
Edinburgh  and  Cambridge.  He  early  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  natural  his- 
tory, and  in  1831  he  was  appointed  natu- 


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CHARLES  ROBERT  DARWIN 


ralist  to  the  surveying  voyage  of  H.  M.  S. 
"Beagle,"  commanded  by  Captain  (after- 
ward Admiral)  Fitzroy.  The  vessel 
sailed  in  December,  1831,  and  did  not  re- 
turn till  October,  1836,  after  having  cir- 
cumnavigated the  globe.  In  1839  he 
married  his  cousin,  Emma  Wedgwood, 
and  henceforth  spent  the  life  of  a  quiet 
country  gentleman,  engrossed  in  scientific 
pursuits. 

In  1839  he  published  his  "Journal  of 
Researches  During  a  Voyage  Round  the 
World";  in  1842,  "Structure  and  Distri- 
bution of  Coral  Reefs";  in  1844,  "Geolog-  \ 
ical  Observations  on  Volcanic  Islands, 
Etc.";  in  1846,  "Geological  Observations 
in  South  America";  in  1851  and  1854,  his 
"Monograph  of  the  Cirrhipedia,"  and 
soon  after  the  "Fossil  Lepadridae  and 
Balaenidae  of  Great  Britain."  In  1859  his 
name  attained  its  great  celebrity  by  the 
publication  of  "The  Origin  of  Species  by 
Means  of  Natural  Selection."  This 
work,  scouted  and  derided  though  it  was 


DARWINIAN  THEORY 


269 


DARWINIAN  THEORY 


at  first,  worked  nothing  less  than  a  revo- 
lution in  biological  science.  In  it  for  the 
first  time  was  given  a  full  exposition  of 
the  theory  of  evolution  as  applied  to 
plants  and  animals,  the  origin  of  species 
being  explained  on  the  hypothesis  of  na- 
tural selection. 

The  rest  of  his  works  are  largely  based 
on  the  material  he  had  accumulated  for 
the  elaboration  of  this  great  theory.  The 
principal  are  a  treatise  on  the  "Fertiliza- 
tion of  Orchids"  (1862);  "Domesticated 
Animals  and  Cultivated  Plants;  or  The 
Principle  of  Variation,  etc..  Under  Do- 
mestication" (1867)  ;  "Descent  of  Man 
and  Variation  in  Relation  to  Sex" 
(1871);  "The  Expression  of  the  Emo- 
tions in  Man  and  Animals"  (1872)  ;  "In- 
sectivorous Plants"  (1875)  ;  "Cross  and 
Self  Fertilization"  (1876)  ;  "The  Power 
of  Movement  in  Plants"  (1880);  "The 
Formation  of  Vegetable  Mold"  (1881). 
He  died  April  19,  1882,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

DARWINIAN  THEORY,  the  explana- 
tion of  the  working  of  natural  selection 
in  effecting  specific  changes  in  plants  and 
animals.  "Darwinism"  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  "Evolution."  Darwinism  is 
restricted  to  one  particular  interpretation 
of  the  mechanism  of  the  universe,  and  is 
essentially  stated  in  Darvdn's  great  work, 
"The  Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of  Nat- 
ural Selection." 

Outline  of  Origin  of  Species. — To  gain 
insight  into  the  means  of  modification, 
Darwin  begins  with  a  study  of  the  varia- 
tion of  plants  and  animals  under  domes- 
tication. Those  who  admit  the  unity  of 
domestic  races  should  be  cautious  in 
denying  the  unity  of  the  wild  ones.  Do- 
mestic races  all  exhibit  adaptations  to 
man's  use  or  fancy,  rather  than  to  their 
own  good.  The  key  to  this  is  man's 
power  of  selection.  Nature  gives  succes- 
sive variations,  man  accumulates  these, 
so  making  for  himself  useful  breeds,  and 
often  (e.  g.,  in  sheep,  cattle,  roses,  dah- 
lias) profoundly  modifies  their  character 
even  in  a  single  human  lifetime;  so  that 
in  all  characters  to  which  he  attends, 
they  may  differ  more  than  the  distinct 
species  of  the  same  genera.  Unconscious 
selection,  which  results  from  everyone 
trying  to  possess  and  breed  the  best  ani- 
mals, is  even  more  important  than  con- 
scious selection.  Two  flocks  of  Leicester 
sheep  kept  equally  pure  appear  of  quite 
different  varieties  after  50  years.  Such 
slowly  accumulated  change  explains  why 
we  know  so  little  of  the  origin  of  do- 
mestic races;  and  its  absence  in  regions 
inhabited  by  uncivilized  man  explains 
why  these  yield  no  plants  worth  immedi- 
ate culture.  Human  selection  is  facil- 
itated    (1)     by    the    keeping    of    large 


numbers,  since  variations  will  be  more 
frequent;  and  (2)  by  preventing  free 
intercrossing.  Some  species  vary  more 
than  others. 

Variation  Under  Nature. — No  two 
blades  of  grass  are  alike,  and  far  more 
marked  differences  often  occur,  several 
strains  or  varieties  sometimes  existing  in 
the  same  species.  Between  these  strains, 
and  much  more  frequently  between  forms 
which  systematic  botanists  and  zoologists 
rank  as  true  species,  perfectly  intermedi- 
ate forms  may  occur.  No  agreement  about 
the  definition  of  species  (the  amount  of 
difference  necessary  to  give  any  two 
forms  specific  rank)  has  ever  been 
reached.  Individual  differences  are  of 
the  highest  importance,  as  the  first  steps 
toward  the  slightest  varieties  worth  re- 
cording; these  in  turn  toward  more  dis- 
tinct and  permanent  varieties;  these  vari- 
eties again  toward  sub-species,  and  in  the 
next  stage  to  species,  though  extinction 
may  often  arrest  the  process.  The  species 
which  present  most  varieties  are  those 
which  have  the  greatest  geographical 
range,  or  the  widest  diffusion  in  their 
owTi  territory,  or  which  possess  the  great- 
est number  of  individuals. 

Struggle  for  Existence. — All  organic 
beings  tend  to  increase  with  extreme 
rapidity,  so  that  if  they  were  not  kept 
down,  the  earth  would  soon  be  covered 
by  the  progeny  of  a  single  pair.  Since 
organisms  are  reproducing  themselves  so 
rapidly,  and  not  all  their  offspring  can 
escape  their  enemies,  get  food  and  live, 
much  less  leave  progeny  in  turn,  there 
must  in  every  case  be  a  struggle  for  ex- 
istence, either  of  one  individual  with  an- 
other of  the  same  species,  with  the  indi- 
viduals of  distinct  species  or  with  the 
physical  conditions  of  life;  often  with  all 
these  at  once,  and  that  more  or  less  in- 
tensely throughout  the  whole  duration  of 
life.  The  checks  which  prevent  increase 
are  more  obscure,  and  vary  in  each  case. 
In  all  cases  the  amount  of  food  gives  tlve 
limit.  The  youngest  organisms  generally 
suffer  most.  The  struggle  for  life  is  most 
severe  among  individuals  and  varieties 
of  the  same  species,  and  among  the  spe- 
cies of  the  same  genus,  since  these  tend 
to  fill  the  same  place  in  the  economy  of 
nature.  The  structure  of  every  being  is 
related  to  that  of  the  others  with  which 
it  competes,  or  from  which  it  seeks  to 
escape,  or  on  which  it  preys. 

Natural  Selection. — The  preservation 
of  favorable  variations,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  injurious  ones,  is  termed  by  Dar- 
win "Natural  Selection,"  or  less"  figur- 
atively by  Spencer,  the  "Sui-vival  of 
the  Fittest."  Human  selection  acts  only 
for  man's  own  good,  on  mere  external 
and  visible  characters,  and  irregularly 
throughout  a  short  period;  natural  selec- 
18— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


DARWINIAN  THEORY 


270 


SASKAM 


tion  acts  for  the  good  of  the  being  itself, 
on  the  whole  machinery  of  its  whole  life, 
and  incessantly  on  the  species,  through- 
out almost  infinite  time.  The  circum- 
stances favorable  to  the  production  of 
new  forms  are  great  variability;  large 
numbers  of  individuals;  the  complex  ef- 
fects of  intercrossing;  isolation  in  small 
areas;  also  extension  over  continental 
ones,  especially  if  these  vary  in  altitude; 
and  considerable  lapse  of  time.  Rare 
species  are  shown  to  be  in  process  of  ex- 
tinction. The  divergence  of  character  in 
domestic  breeds,  largely  due  to  the  fact 
that  "fanciers  do  not,  and  will  not,  ad- 
mire a  medium  standard,  but  like  ex- 
tremes," applies  throughout  nature  from 
the  circumstance  that  the  more  diversi- 
fied the  descendants  from  any  one  species 
become  in  structure,  constitution  and 
habits,  by  so  much  will  they  be  better  en- 
abled to  seize  on  many  and  widely  diver- 
sified places  in  nature,  and  so  to  increase 
in  numbers.  A  carnivorous  animal  which 
has  reached  the  maximum  numbers  its 
territory  can  support,  can  succeed  in  in- 
creasing only  by  its  varying  descendants 
seizing  places  hitherto  occupied  by  other 
animals.  This  must  hold  equally  of  all 
species,  and  is  separately  demonstrated 
for  plants. 

Sexual  Selection. — Not  merely  do  indi- 
viduals struggle  for  existence,  but  the 
males  struggle  for  the  'females,  and  the 
most  vigorous  tend  to  leave  most  prog- 
eny. Several  weapons,  offensive  and  de- 
fensive, like  the  cock's  spurs,  the  stag's 
horns,  or  the  lion's  mane,  are  used  in  this 
struggle,  and  the  most  useful  variations 
are  those  which  are  transmitted. 

Laws  of  Variation. — The  same  laws 
appear  to  have  acted  in  producing  the 
lesser  differences  between  varieties  of  the 
same  species  and  the  greater  differences 
between  species  of  the  same  genus.  Spe- 
cific characters  are  more  variable  than 
generic,  and  varietal  than  either.  Rudi- 
mentary organs  and  secondary  sexual 
characters  are  variable.  Zebra-like 
stripes  on  horses,  or  wood-pigeon's  mark- 
ings on  fantails,  tumblers,  etc.,  may  be 
explained  as  reversions  toward  their 
ancient  progenitors. 

Geological  Succession  of  Organic  Be- 
ings.— The  most  ancient  forms  differ 
widely  from  those  now  living,  yet  fre- 
quently present  characters  intermediate 
between  groups  now  widely  divergent, 
and  resemble  the  embryos  of  the  more 
recent  and  more  highly  specialized  ani- 
mals belonging  to  the  same  classes.  Dar- 
vin's  belief  that  the  distinctness  of  birds 
from  all  other  vertebrates  was  to  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  extinction  of  a  long 
line  of  progenitors  connecting  them  with 
reptiles,  was  in  1859  a  mere  assumption; 


but  in  1862  the  long-tailed  and  intensely 
reptilian  bird  Archaeopteryx  was  discov- 
ered, while  in  1875  the  researches  of 
Marsh  brought  to  light  certain  cretaceous 
birds,  and  the  hypothesis  of  Darwin  is 
thus  admirably  verified. 

Geographical  Distribution.  —  Neither 
the  similarity  nor  the  dissimilarity  of  the 
inhabitants  of  various  regions,  whether 
of  land  or  of  sea,  can  be  accounted  for  by 
identity  or  differences  of  climate,  or  other 
physical  conditions;  but  both  are  related 
in  the  most  striking  degree  to  the  absence 
or  presence  of  barriers  to  migration  be- 
tween those  regions. 

Morphological  Arguments. — The  physi- 
ological and  distributional  lines  of  argu- 
ment furnished  by  morphology  are 
mainly  four,  and  are  derived  from  (a) 
Classification,  (b)  Homologies,  (c)  Em- 
bryology, (d)  Rudimentary  Organs.  The 
great  fact  of  classification  is  that  organic 
beings,  throughout  all  time,  are  arranged 
in  groups  subordinated  under  other 
groups,  individuals  under  varieties,  and 
these  again  under  species;  species  under 
genera;  genera  under  sub-families,  fam- 
ilies, and  orders;  and  all  under  a  few 
grand  classes.  The  element  of  descent  is 
already  used  in  linking  all  the  sexes, 
ages,  forms,  and  varieties  of  the  same 
species,  widely  though  these  may  differ 
from  each  other  in  structure. 

The  members  of  the  same  class,  inde- 
pendently of  their  habits  of  life,  resemble 
one  another  in  their  general  plan  of  or- 
ganization. Thus  the  hand  of  man,  the 
digging-paw  of  the  mole,  the  leg  of  the 
horse,  the  paddle  of  the  porpoise,  and  the 
wing  of  the  bat,  are  all  constructed  on 
the  same  pattern,  bone  corresponding  to 
bone. 

Serial  Homology  is  that  unity  of  type 
which  is  found  on  comparing  the  differ- 
ent parts  and  organs  in  the  same  individ- 
ual. The  complex  and  varied  jaws  and 
legs  of  a  lobster,  or  the  different  leaves, 
sepals,  petals,  stamens,  and  pistils  of  a 
flower,  are  all  found  to  be  modifications 
of  a  simple  limb,  and  a  simple  leaf-organ 
respectively.  The  process  of  development 
goes  from  the  general  to  the  special ;  thus 
there  is  generally  an  advance  in  organ- 
ization. In  peculiar  conditions  degenera- 
tion may  occur.  All  these  facts  are  ex- 
plained on  the  principle  of  successive 
slight  variations  not  necessarily  or  gen- 
erally supervening  very  early  in  life,  and 
inherited  at  a  corresponding  period; 
hence  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable 
that  most  embryonic  stages  show  us  more 
or  less  completely  the  progenitor  of  the 
groups  in  its  adult  state ;  and  embryology 
thus  rises  greatly  in  interest. 

DASKAM,  JOSEPHINE  DODGE 
(MRS.  SELDEN  BACON)  an  American 


DASYPROCTA 


271 


DATHOLITE 


novelist,  born  in  Stamford,  Conn.,  in 
1876,  and  graduated  from  Smith  College 
in  1898.  She  first  attained  prominence 
by  her  novel  "The  Madness  of  Philip," 
published  in  1902,  in  which  she  com- 
mented upon  some  aspects  of  primary 
education.  Her  works  include:  "The 
Biography  of  a  Boy"  (1910)  ;  "The  In- 
heritance" (1912);  "The  Luck  o'  Lady 
Joan"  (1913);  "Today's  Daughter" 
(1914),  etc. 

DASYPROCTA,  a  genus  of  mammals, 
the  typical  one  of  the  family  Dasyproc- 
tidag,  or  in  some  classifications  a  genus  of 
Cavidse.     It  contains  the  agoutis. 

DASYURE,  the  b  ash-tailed  opossums, 
a  genus  of  marsupial  animals,  sub-order 
Sarcophaga.  They  are  natives  of  Aus- 
tralia. The  name  is  derived  from  the 
tails  being  hairy,  in  which  they  differ 
from  the  opossums  of  America. 

DATE,  any  given,  fixed,  or  settled 
time ;  the  time  when  any  event  happened ; 
period;  era;  age;  epoch;  as,  the  date  of 
the  Christian  Era,  the  date  of  a  historical 
occurrence,  etc.  Also,  that  addition  to  a 
writing  which  specifies  the  year,  month, 
and  day  when  it  was  given  or  executed; 
the  number  which  marks  the  time  when 
any  writing,  instrument,  coin,  picture, 
etc.,  was  executed.  A  deed  may  be  good, 
though  it  mentions  no  date,  or  has  a  false 
date,  or  even  if  it  has  an  impossible  date, 
as  the  30th  of  February,  provided  the 
real  day  of  its  being  dated  or  given,  that 
is  delivered,  can  be  proved.  See  Chron- 
ology. 

DATE  PALM,  a  genus  of  palms,  the 
most  important  species  of  which  is  the 
common  date  palm,  the  palm  tree  of 
Scripture  (Phoenix  dactyUfera) ,  a  native 
of  the  N.  half  of  Africa,  the  S.  W.  of 
Asia,  and  some  parts  of  India.  Some 
parts  of  China  produce  large  crops.  The 
stem,  which  is  straight  and  simple, 
reaches  a  height  of  30  to  60  feet,  and 
bears  a  head  of  40  to  80  glaucous  pin- 
nated leaves,  of  8  to  10  feet  long,  and  a 
number  of  branching  spadices,  each  of 
which  on  the  female  tree  bears  180  to 
200  fruits.  A  bunch  of  dates  weighs  20 
or  25  pounds,  so  that  an  average  year's 
crop  may  be  reckoned  at  300  to  600 
pounds  per  tree.  From  the  earliest  times 
fertilization  has  been  artificially  aided  by 
cutting  off  the  male  inflorescences  just 
before  the  stamens  ripen,  and  suspend- 
ing them  among  those  of  the  female 
tree;  so  avoiding  the  risks  and  losses  of 
ordinary  wind-fertilization.  In  a  palm 
grove  there  may  be  but  one  male  stem  to 
40  or  50  fruit-bearing  ones. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  and 
useful  of  all  the  palms.  In  Egjrpt,  and 
generally  in  north   Africa,  Persia,  and 


Arabia,  dates  form  the  principal  food, 
and  date  palms  the  principal  wealth  of 
the  people.  The  fruit  is  eaten  either 
fresh  or  dried,  and  in  the  latter  state 
becomes  an  article  of  commerce.  A 
sweet  juice  (date-honey)  can  be  ex- 
pressod  from  the  fruits,  from  which  a 
kind  of  wine  is  obtained  by  fermenta- 
tion; also  a  sort  of  vinegar;  an  ardent 
spirit  is  of  course  also  distilled  from  the 
fermented  juice.  Palm-wine  is  also 
made  from  the  sap  after  the  terminal 
bud  is  removed.  The  bud  is  eaten  as 
palm-cabbage,  similarly  also  the  unde- 
veloped panicles  of  flowers.  The  date 
"stones"  or  seeds  are  roasted  in  north 
Africa  as  a  substitute  for  coffee,  and 
have  also  been  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  for  the  same  purpose.  They  are 
also  ground  and  pressed  for  oil  and  the 
residue  used  for  feeding  cattle.  From 
leaf-stalks  of  the  common  date  palm,  all 
kinds  of  basket  and  wicker  work  are  also 
made,  and  walking-sticks,  fans,  etc.  The 
leaves  themselves  are  made  into  bags, 
mats,  and  other  articles ;  the  fibers  of  the 
web-like  integuments  at  the  base  of  their 
stalks  into  cordage.  The  wood  is  used 
for  buildings,  fences,  etc. 

Some  derive  the  origin  of  the  colon- 
nade pillar  in  architecture  to  the  regular 
mode  of  the  planting  of  the  palm  tree 
and  the  use  of  its  stem  in  building.  The 
symbol  of  beauty  and  of  victory  alike  to 
Hebrews  and  Hellenes  from  the  earliest 
times,  it  passed  readily  to  the  suggestion 
of  victory  over  death  and  glorious  im- 
mortality; hence  the  habit  of  represent- 
ing angels  and  the  blessed  with  palms 
in  their  hands.  It  was  largely  used  also 
for  decoration  of  festivals,  and  for 
strewing  in  processions.  Christ's  tri- 
umphal entry  into  Jerusalem  is  still 
commemorated  on  Palm  Sunday. 

DATE  PLITM,  the  name  given  to  sev- 
eral species  of  Diospyros,  a  genus  of 
trees  of  the  ebony  family.  The  Euro- 
pean date  plum  is  the  D.  lotus,  a  low- 
growing  tree,  native  of  the  S.  of  Europe, 
It  produces  a  small  fruit,  the  supposed 
lotus  of  the  ancients.  The  American 
date  plum,^  or  persimmon  (D.  virgin- 
iana),  attains  a  height  of  50  or  60  feet; 
the  fruit  is  nearly  round,  about  an  inch 
in  diameter,  is  very  austere,  but  edible 
after  being  frosted.  The  Chinese  date 
plum  {D.  kaki)  is  cultivated  for  the  sake 
of  its  fruit,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a 
small  apple,  and  is  made  into  a  preserve. 

DATHOLITE,  a  monoclinic  mineral, 
of  colors,  varying  from  white  to  olive- 
green.  It  is  of  a  vitreous  luster,  and 
translucent.  Specific  gravity,  2.8-3; 
hardness,  5-5.5.  It  is  found  in  various 
localities  in  North  America,  Scotland, 
Sweden,  etc.    Composition:  Silica,  36.08- 


DATISCACE^ 


272 


DAUDET 


38.51;     boric     acid,     19.34-22.40;     lime, 
34.68-35-67;  water,  4.60-8.63. 

DATISCACE.ffi,  datiscads,  an  order  of 
diclinous  exogens,  alliance  Cucurbitales. 
The  species  are  either  branched  herbs  or 
trees  of  some  size.  Lindley  enumerated 
three  genera,  and  estimated  the  known 
species  at  four.  They  are  scattered  over 
North  America,  Asia,  and  the  S.  E.  of 
Europe. 

DATURA  (da-tu'ra),  a  genus  of 
solanacese,  tribe  Datureae.  The  calyx 
and  corolla  are  infundibulate,  the  latter 
much  the  larger  of  the  two,  both  five- 
lobed;  capsule  four-celled.  D.  stramo- 
nium is  the  thorn  apple,  better  known  in 
this  country  as  the  Jamestown  weed,  the 
name  arising  from  a  poisoning  among 
the  Virginian  settlers  by  its  use.  It  is 
found  on  dung-hills,  in  waste  places,  etc. 
When  taken  internally  it  is  a  powerful 
narcotic;  medically  it  is  used  in  mania, 
convulsions,  epilepsy,  ticdoloureux,  etc. 
When  smoked  it  palliates  the  symptoms 
i^  asthma.  D.  tatula  and  metel  are 
similarly  used.  The  seeds  of  these  two 
latter  species  are  said  to  have  been  used 
to  produce  the  frenzied  ravings  of  the 
priests  in  the  Delphic  and  some  other 
temples.  The  Peruvians  use  for  the 
same'  purpose  D.  sanguinea^  and  they 
also  manufacture  from  it  an  mtoxicating 
beverage. 

D'AUBIGNE  (do-ben-ya)  THEO- 
DOBE  AGRIPPA,  a  French  scholar; 
born  near  Pons,  in  Saintonge,  Feb.  8, 
1552,  of  a  noble  family,  he  early  entered 
the  military  profession,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  services  to  the  Huguenot 
cause.  He  was  subsequently  rewarded 
bjr  Henry  IV.,  who  made  him  Vice-Ad- 
miral  of  Guienne  and  Brittany.  His 
severe  and  inflexible  character  fre- 
quently embroiled  him  with  the  court; 
and  after  Henry's  assassination  (1610), 
he  betook  himself  to  Geneva,  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  liter- 
ary studies.  His  best  known  work  is  a 
"Universal  History."  He  died  April  29, 
1630. 

DAUBIGNY,  CHARLES  FRANCOIS 
(do-ben-ye'),  a  French  landscape  painter 
and  etcher;  born  in  Paris,  in  1817; 
studied  under  his  father,  who  was  a 
miniature  painter,  Paul  Delaroche,  and 
others;  and  from  1838  exhibited  in  the 
Salon,  though  his  full  recognition  only 
came  after  he  was  50.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  close  and  sympathetic  study  from 
nature,  working  much  on  the  Seine  in  a 
houseboat.  In  1853  he  gained  a  first- 
class  medal  with  his  "Pool  of  Gylien." 
In  1857  he  produced  his  "Springtime"; 
in  1861,  "The  Banks  of  the  Oise";  in 
1872;  "Windmills  at  Dordrecht";  and  in 


1877,  "Rising  Moon."  His  "Sluices  in 
the  Valley  of  Optevos"  (1855)  and  his 
"Vintage"  (1863)  are  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg Gallery.  He  is  also  known  as  a 
book-illustrator  and  as  a  vigorous  etcher. 
He  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  19,  1878. 

DAUDET,  ALPHONSE  (do-da'),  a 
French  novelist;  born  in  Nimes,  May  13, 
1840.  He  sought  fortune  in  Paris  in 
1857;  two  booklets  of  poems  were  fail- 
ures; two  plays — "The  Last  Idol" 
(1862)  and  "The  White  Daisy"  (1865)  — 
had  more  success.  His  charming  little 
stories,  "The  Little  Thing"  (1868)  ; 
"Letters  from  My  Mill"  (1869)  ;  "Mon- 
day Tales"  (1873),  established  his  repu- 
tation; and  his  next  novel — "Fremont 
Jr.  and  Risler  Sr."   (1874) — was  trans- 


ALPHONSE   DAUDET 

lated  into  all  the  European  languages. 
Not  less  celebrated  are:  "The  Nabob" 
(1878);  "Kings  in  Exile"  (1880); 
'^Numa  Roumestan"  (1882) ;  "Sappho" 
(1884).  He  struck  a  humorous  vein  in 
the  "Tartarin"  series:  "Prodigious  Ad- 
ventures of  Tartarin";  "Tartarin  in  the 
Alps";  "Port  Tarascon."  He  wrote  two 
volumes  of  reminiscences.  "Thirty  Years 
of  Paris"  (1888),  and  "Recollections  of  a 
Man  of  Letters"  (1889).  He  died  in 
Paris,  Dec.  16,  1897. 

DAUDET,  ERNEST,  a  French  novel- 
ist; brother  of  Alphonse  Daudet;  bom 
in  Nimes,  May  31,  1837.  His  most  not- 
able novels  are:  "The  Venus  of  Gordes"; 
"The  Bloom  of  Sin";  "Martha."  He  is 
author  of  an  autobiographical  sketch, 
"My  Brother  and  Myself"    (1882);  and 


DAUDET 


273 


DAVENPORT 


has  written  some  historical  sketches,  as 
a  "History  of  the  Royalist  Conspiracies 
in  the  South  During  the  Revolution"; 
"History  of  the  Emigration."  "The  Trag- 
edies and  Comedies  of  History"   (1912). 

DAUDET,  L^ON",  a  French  author, 
lorn  in  1867  and  was  educated  at  the 
Lycee  Louis  le  Gi'and.  He  studied  medi- 
cine for  ten  years,  and  in  1894  took  up 
literature,  since  writing  many  novels  and 
articles,  these  last  chiefly  in  the  "Fi- 
garo," "Gaulois,"  "Soleil"  "Le  Libre 
Parole."  In  1908  he  founded  with  some 
friends  the  royalist  journal,  "I'Action 
Frangaise."  He  is  a  member  of  the 
Academie  Goncourt.  His  works  include: 
"Hoeres";  "Les  Idees  en  marche";  "Le 
Voyage  de  Shakspeare";  "Suzanne"; 
"L'Avant  guerre";  ''Hors  du  Joug  AUe- 
mand";  "Le  Coeur  et  I'absence." 

DAUGHERTY,  HARRY  M.,  an  Amer- 
ican public  official,  born  at  Washington 
Court  House,  Ohio,  in  1860.  He  attended 
public  schools  and  graduated  from  the 
law  department  of  the  University  of 
Michigan.  For  a  short  time  he  was  en- 
gaged in  newspaper  work.  His  chief  in- 
terest, however,  was  in  politics,  and  he 
soon  became  prominent  in  the  political 
circles  of  Ohio.  He  served  in  the  Ohio 
State  Legislature  for  several  terms.  He 
was  a  wari<i  friend  of  Warren  G.  Hard- 
ing, and  became  the  latter's  campaigii 
manager  and  adviser  in  many  of  the 
campaigns  in  which  he  was  engaged,  in- 
cluding the  pre-convention  campaign  and 
the  campaign  for  election  in  1920.  He 
was  appointed  Attorney  General  by  Pres- 
ident Harding  and  assumed  office  on 
March  4,  1921. 

DAUGHTERS  OF  THE  REVOLU- 
TION, a  patriotic  society  of  women  in 
the  United  States,  organized  in  1891. 
Eligibility  to  membership  is  restricted  to 
"women  who  are  lineal  descendants  of  an 
ancestor  who  was  a  military  or  naval  or 
marine  officer,  soldier,  sailor,  or  marine, 
in  actual  service  under  the  authority  of 
any  of  the  13  Colonies  or  States,  or  of 
the  Continental  Congress,  and  remained 
always  loyal  to  such  authority,  or  de- 
scendants of  one  who  signed  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  or  of  one  who 
as  a  member  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress or  of  the  Congi'ess  of  any  of  the 
Colonies  or  States,  or  as  an  official  ap- 
pointed by  or  under  the  authority  of  any 
such  representative  bodies,  actually  as- 
sisted in  the  est*tt»lishment  of  American 
independence  by  service  rendered  during 
the  War  of  the  Revolution,  becoming 
thereby  liable  to  conviction  of  treason 
against  the  government  of  Great  Britain, 
but  remaining  always  loyal  to  the  au- 
thority of  the  Colonies  or  States."  There 


are  numerous  subordinate  State  organi- 
zations. 

DAVENANT,  WILLIAM,  an  Eng- 
lish poet  and  playwright;  born  at  Oxford 
in  February,  1606.  A  story  was  current 
in  his  lifetime  that  he  was  an  illegiti- 
mate son  of  Shakespeare.  He  wrote 
many  plays  and  poems,  but  none  possess- 
ing any  distinguished  merit;  he  succeed- 
ed Ben  Jf/iison  as  poet-laureate  of 
England,  however.  He  attempted  epic 
composition  in  "Gondibert"  and  an  opera, 
"The  Siege  of  Rhodes."  He  died  April 
7,  1668. 

DAVENPORT,  a  city  and  co'.nty-seat 
of  Scott  CO.,  la.;  on  the  Mississippi  river 
and  the  Rock  Island,  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul,  the  Burlington  and 
Northern,  the  Davenport,  Rock  Island 
and  Northwestern,  and  other  railroads, 
and  the  Hennepin  canal;  18-3  miles  S.  W. 
of  Chicago.  It  is  connected  with  Rock 
Island,  111.,  by  a  railroad  and  carriage 
bridge  built  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment at  a  cost  of  $1,200,000.  Daven- 
port is  the  great  grain  depot  of  the 
upper  Mississippi.    Area,  8  square  miles. 

Davenport  is  an  important  manufac- 
turing center,  and  is  situated  in  the  heart 
of  extensive  bituminous  coal  fields.  The 
chief  articles  of  manufacture  are  carpets, 
locomotives,  steel  cars,  carriages,  agricul- 
tural implements,  flour,  lumber,  cigars 
and  cigarettes,  and  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products.  The  Government  arsenal 
at  Rock  Island  is  opposite  the  city.  The 
city  is  connected  by  passenger  and 
freight  steamers  with  all  important  lake 
ports.  In  1919  there  were  2  National 
banks. 

The  city  is  built  at  the  foot  of  a  semi- 
circular range  of  hills,  is  well  laid  out,  and 
is  handsome  architecturally.  The  streets 
are  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity  and  the 
principal  ones  are  traversed  by  electric 
cars.  The  notable  buildings  include  the 
county  buildings.  City  Hall,  Iowa  Or- 
phans' Home,  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Science,  Mercy  and  St.  Luke's  Hospitals, 
and  the  Iowa  Soldiers'  Orphans',  Old 
Ladies',  and  Old  Men's  Homes.  The  city 
has  an  excellent  school  system,  the  im- 
maculate Conception  Academy,  St.  Am^ 
brose  Academy,  Griswold  College,  and 
St.  Katherine's  Hall.  . 

History. — Davenport  was  founded  m 
1835  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1851. 
Pop.   (1910)  43,028;   (1920)   56,727. 

DAVENPORT,  EDWARD  LOOMIS, 
an  American  actor;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  181B.  He  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance at  the  Lion  Theater,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  when  22  years  old.  After 
a  season  at  the  Bowery  Theater,  New 
York,  he  appeared  at  the  Walnut  Street 


DAVENPORT 


274 


DAVID  II. 


Theater,  Philadelphia,  in  1838,  and  then 
confined  himself  to  Boston  till  1847, 
when  he  accompanied  Mrs.  Mowatt  to 
England  and  played  "Claude  Melnotte" 
to  her  "Pauline"  in  the  large  cities,  and 
supported  Macready  two  seasons.  In 
1854  he  returned  to  the  United  States; 
in  1859  became  manager  of  the  Howard 
Athenaeum,  Boston;  and  in  1869  of  the 
Chestnut  Street  Theater,  Philadelphia. 
He  died  in  Canton,  Pa.,  Sept.  1,  1877. 

DAVENPORT,  FANNY  LILY  GYP- 
SY, an  American  actress;  bom  in  Lon- 
don, April  10,  1850.  Her  first  appear- 
ance on  the  stage  was  at  the  Howard 
Athenaeum  in  Boston,  then  under  the 
management  of  her  father,  E.  L.  Daven- 
port. She  played  during  her  career  in 
the  theaters  of  all  the  large  cities  in  the 
United  States.  Her  most  noted  roles 
were  in  "La  Tosca,"  "Giaconda,"  "Fe- 
dora," and  "Cleopatra."  She  was  mar- 
ried in  1879  to  Edwin  H.  Price,  but  was 
divorced  and  subsequently  married  Mel- 
bourne McDowell,  an  actor  of  leading 
roles  in  her  company.  She  died  near 
Duxbury,  Mass.,  Sept.  26,  1898. 

DAVENPORT,  HOMER  CALVIN,  an 

American  cartoonist;  born  in  Silverton, 
Ore.,  March  8,  1867.  He  was  bred  on  a 
farm  in  Oregon,  having  neither  common 
School  nor  art  education.  After  serving 
as  a  jockey,  a  fireman  and  a  circus 
clown,  he  became  a  cartoonist  for  the 
San  Francisco  "Examiner"  in  1892.  In 
1896  he  began  drawing  cartoons  for  the 
New  York  "Journal,"  and  since  1900  for 
the  Chicago  "American"  as  well.  In 
1906  Mr.  Davenport  visited  Arabia  and 
drew  a  portrait  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey. 
He  wrote  "Belle  of  Silverton"  (1900)  and 
"The  Diary  of  a  Country  Boy"  (1910). 
He  died  on  March  2,  1912. 

DAVID,  the  capital  of  Chiriqui,  in 
Panama,  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the  Rio 
David,  which  enters  the  Pacific  8  miles 
to  the  S.  Stock-raising  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  tobacco  are  extensively  engaged 
in,  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade. 
Pop.  9,000. 

DAVID,  King  and  Prophet  of  Israel; 
born  in  Bethlehem,  1085  B.  C;  was  the 
eighth  youngest  son  of  Jesse  of  Bethle- 
hem. He  was  keeping  his  father's  flocks 
when  he  was  selected  and  anointed  by 
the  prophet  Samuel,  at  the  age  of  15, 
to  succeed  Saul.  Brought  to  the  court 
of  Saul  to  soothe  the  melancholy  of  the 
king  by  his  harp,  he  first  signalized  him- 
self by  slaying  Goliath  of  Gath,  a  gigan- 
tic Philistine.  He  won  the  friendship  of 
Jonathan,  and  the  love  of  his  daughter 
Michal,  but  drew  upon  himself  the  jeal- 
ousy, and  finally  the  fury  of  the  unhappy 
kingj  who  repeatedly  attempted  to  kill 


him.  David  fled  into  the  wilderness.  At 
the  head  of  a  band  of  outlaws  and  mal- 
contents he  baffled  every  attempt  of  Saul 
to  capture  him.  When  Saul  fell,  David 
was  acknowledged  king  by  the  tribe  of 
Judah;  but  the  other  tribes,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Abner,  placed  Ishbosheth, 
the  younger  son  of  Saul,  on  the  throne, 
thus  occasioning  a  civil  war.  On  the 
death  of  Ishbosheth,  however,  the  con- 
tending parties  submitted  to  David,  who 
reigned  for  30  years.  He  took  Jerusa- 
lem from  the  Jebusites,  and  gained  con- 
siderable victories  over  the  Philistmes 
and  other  neighboring  nations;  but  tar- 


DAVID,    KING  OF   ISRAEL 

nished  his  glory  by  taking  Bathsheba 
from  Uriah,  her  husband,  and  putting 
him  to  death.  A  rebellion  was  excited 
against  him  by  his  son  Absalom,  which 
was  quelled,  and  Absalom  slain.  At  the 
close  of  his  life,  he  abdicated  in  favor  oi 
his  son  Solomon.  He  died  1015  B.  c.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  Book  of 
Psalms  was  composed  by  him. 

DAVID  I.  (often  called  St.  David), 
King  of  Scotland;  born  in  1084;  sue 
ceeded  his  brother,  Alexander  the  Fierce, 
in  1124.  He  married  Maud,  grandniece 
of  William  the  Conqueror;  and  was  earl 
of  Northumberland  and  Huntingdon 
when  called  to  the  Scottish  throne.  On 
the  death  of  Henry  I.,  King  of  England, 
he  maintained  the  claim  of  his  daughtei 
Maud  against  King  Stephen  and  seized 
Carlisle,  but  was  defeated  at  the  battle 
of  Northallerton  in  1138.  He  died  in 
1153. 

DAVID  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  son  of 
Robert  Bruce;  born  in  1324;  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  1329.  On  the  death  of 
his  father  he  was  acknowledged  by  the 


DAVID 


275 


DAVIES 


grreat  part  of  the  nation.  Edward  Baliol, 
however,  the  son  of  John  Baliol,  formed 
a^  party  for  the  purpose  of  supporting 
his  pretensions  to  the  crown;  he  was 
backed  by  Edward  III.  of  England. 
Battles  were  frequent,  and  at  first  Baliol 
was  successful;  but  eventually  David 
succeeded  in  driving  him  from  Scotland. 
The  war  was  carried  on  with  England 
with  increasing  rancor,  till  David  was 
made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Neville's 
Cross  (1346).  After  11  years  of  cap- 
tivity he  was  ransomed  for  100,000 
marks.    He  died  in  1370. 

DAVID,  PIERRE  JEAN,  a  French 
sculptor;  born  in  Angers,  March  12, 
1789  (hence  commonly  called  David 
d'Angers).  He  went  when  very  young 
to  Paris,  became  the  pupil  of  J.  L.  David, 
and  in  1809  a  prize  obtained  from  the 
Academy  enabled  him  to  pursue  his  stu- 
dies at  Rome,  where  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Canova.  On  his  return  to 
Paris  he  executed  a  colossal  statue  of  the 
great  Conde  which  brought  him  fame. 
Visiting  Geimany  in  1828  and  1834  he 
executed  busts  of  Goethe,  Schelling,  Tieck, 
and  Humboldt.  His  most  important  work 
was  the  sculptures  of  the  Pantheon  1831- 
1837.  He  executed  a  great  number  of 
medallions,  busts,  and  statues  of  cele- 
brated persons  of  all  countries,  notably 
those  of  Walter  Scott,  Canning,  Wash- 
ington, Lafayette,  Gutenberg,  Cuvier, 
Victor  Hugo,  Beranger,  Paganini,  and 
Madame  de  Stael.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Jan.  5,  1856. 

DAVTD  COMNENUS  (kom-ng'nus), 
the  last  Emperor  of  Trebizond,  usurped 
the  throne  upon  the  death  of  his  brother 
John.  In  1458  he  ceded  his  empire  to 
Mohammed  II.,  on  condition  that  the 
latter  should  marry  his  daughter.  This 
condition  the  Sultan  observed,  but  caused 
David  to  be  put  to  death,  with  seven  of 
his  sons,  1462. 

DAVIDS.  THOMAS  WILLIAM 
RHYS,  an  English  publicist,  lawyer, 
and  scholar;  born  in  Colchester,  May  12, 
1843.  He  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Breslau;  from  1866  on,  filled  ju- 
dicial places  in  Ceylon  and  acted  as 
Archaeological  Commissioner.  In  1877 
he  was  called  to  the  London  bar,  and 
subsequently  became  Professor  of  Pali 
and  Buddhist  Literature  in  University 
College,  London.  Among  his  works  are: 
"Buddhism"  (1878);  translations  of 
"Buddhist  Birth  Stories"  (1880) ;  "Bud- 
dhist Suttas"  and  "Vinaya  Texts" 
(1881)  ;  published  in  "The  Sacred  Books 
of  the  East";  "Buddhist  India"  (1912); 
"Early  Buddhism"  (1908). 

DAVIDSON,  GEORGE,  an  American 
astronomer;    born   in  Nottingham,  Eng- 


land, May  9,  1825;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1832;  graduated  at  the  Central 
High  School,  Philadelphia,  in  1845;  and 
joined  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 
While  in  this  service  he  was  chief 
engineer  of  a  party  which  surveyed  a 
ship-canal  route  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien.  He  also  made  a  geographical 
survey  of  the  coast  of  Alaska  in  1867. 
In  1874  he  had  charge  of  the  party 
which  went  from  the  United  States  to 
Japan  to  make  observations  on  the 
transit  of  Venus.  He  traveled  extensive- 
ly in  Egypt,  China,  India,  and  Europe, 
for  purposes  of  scientific  study.  From 
1877-1884  he  was  Regent  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  California,  and  for  many 
years  was  President  of  the  California 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  retired  from 
the  Coast  Survey,  after  50  years  of  dis- 
tinguished service,  in  1895,  and  became 
Professor  of  Geography  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  California.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  works  on  irrigation,  harbor 
and  river  improvements,  "Francis 
Drake"  (1908),  etc.    He  died  in  1911. 

DAVIDSON,  RANDALL  THOMAS, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  was  born 
in  1848,  and  was  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Trinity  College,  Oxford.  He  was 
curate  of  Dartford,  Kent,  1874-1877; 
chaplain  and  private  secretary  to  Arch- 
bishop Tait  of  Canterbury,  1877-1882; 
to  Archbishop  Berson,  1882-1883;  exam- 
ining chaplain  to  Bishop  Lightfoot  of 
Durham,  1881-1883;  sub -almoner  to 
Queen  Victoria,  1882;  one  of  the  six 
preachers  of  Canterbury  Cathedral, 
1880-1883;  Dean  of  Windsor  and  do- 
mestic chaplain  to  Queen  Victoria  1883- 
1891;  Clerk  of  the  Closet  to  Queen  Vic- 
toria, 1891-1901,  and  to  King  Edward, 
1901-1903.  In  1891  he  became  bishop  of 
Rochester  and  continued  in  that  position 
till  1895.  He  was  bishop  of  Winchester, 
1895-1903.  In  this  last  year  he  became 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  has  been 
trustee  of  the  British  Museum  from 
1884  and  was  prelate  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter,  1895-1903.  He  was  created  G. 
C.  V.  O.  1904,  and  received  Royal  Vic- 
torian Chain,  1911.  In  1918  he  received 
the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Royal  Order  of 
the  Saviour  (Greece)  ;  and  in  1919  the 
Grand  Cordon  de  I'ordre  de  la  Couronne 
r Belgium);  also  the  First  Class  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Sava  (Serbia). 

DAVIDSON  COLLEGE,  an  educational 
institution  in  Davidson,  N.  C;  founded 
in  1837,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church;  reported  at  the  end 
of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  16; 
students,  379 ;  president,  Wm.  J.  Martin, 
LL.D. 

DAVIES,  ARTHUR  B.,  an  American 
painter,  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  in   1862. 


DAVIES 


276 


DAVIS 


He  began  his  work  as  an  illustrator  of 
magazines.  He  first  achieved  fame  as  a 
painter  at  an  exhibition  held  in  New 
York  in  1899.  His  best  paintings  are 
found  in  the  Brooklyn  Museum.  Among 
these  is  the  "Children  of  Yesteryear," 
considered  by  many  to  be  his  best  work. 
Among  his  other  masterpieces  are  "The 
Girdle  of  Ares,"  (1914) ;  "Visions  of  the 
Sea"  (1911) ;  "The  Hunter  of  the  Star 
Lands".  His  recent  paintings  show  a 
decided  cubist  tendency. 

DAVIES,     SIB     LOUIS    HENRY,     a 

Canadian  lawyer.  He  was  born  on 
Prince  Edward  Island,  Canada,  1845; 
and  was  educated  at  Prince  of  Wales 
College.  He  became  a  barrister  in  1867; 
Solicitor-General,  1869  and  1871-1872; 
Leader  of  the  Opposition,  1873-1876; 
Premier  and  Attorney-General,  Prince 
Edward  Island,  1876-1879;  and  Q.  C, 
1880.  In  1882  he  was  elected  to  the 
Dominion  House  of  Commons,  and  was 
re-elected  until  his  appointment  to  Ap- 
peal Court.  He  was  counsel  for  Great 
Britain  before  the  International  Fish- 
eries Arbitration  at  Halifax  in  1877  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  He  became  P.  C,  Canada,  in 
1896 ;  Joint  Delegate  to  Washington  with 
Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier,  1897,  on  Behring 
Sea  seal  question;  one  of  Joint  High 
Commissioners  in  1898  for  settlement  of 
differences  between  United  States  and 
Canada;  Minister  of  Marine  and  Fish- 
eries, Canada,  1896-1901.  From  1918  he 
was  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Canada  (Appeal). 

DAVIES,  BANDALL,  an  English 
author,  born  in  1866,  and  educated  at 
Bradfield  (Founder's  Boy)  and  Scoones'. 
He  was  for  a  time  Art  Critic  to  the 
''Academy",  "Westminster  Gazette", 
"New  Statesman,"  and  "Queen,"  and 
also  reviewed  for  the  "Burlington," 
"Athenaeum,"  "Saturday  Review"  and 
other  periodicals.  He  qualified  as  a 
Solicitor  in  1898,  and  later  came  to  the 
United  States  where  he  was  for  some 
years  Confidential  Secretary  to  Joseph 
Pulitzer,  of  the  New  York  "World."  His 
works  include:  "Chelsea  Old  Church"; 
"Portfolio  Monograph";  "Six  Centuries 
of  Painting";  "Stories  of  the  English 
Artists";  "The  Greatest  House  at 
Chelsea";  "A  Lyttel  Booke  of  Non- 
sense"; "Monographs  on  Velasquez, 
Reynolds,  and  Romney." 

DA  VINCI,    See  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

DAVIS,  CHARLES  HENRY,  an 
American  mathematician;  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Jan.  16,  1807.  He  entered  the 
United  States  navy  in  1823,  and  was 
commissioned  commander  in  1854.  He 
made    several    coast-surveys,    partly    in 


conjunction  with  Prof.  A.  D.  Bache,  and 
partly  with  others.  He  wrote  "Memoir 
upon  the  Geological  Action  of  the  Tidal 
and  other  Currents  of  the  Ocean,"  and 
"The  Law  of  Deposit  of  the  Flood  Tide." 
He  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
"American  Nautical  Almanac."  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  18,  1877. 

DAVIS,  CHARLES  HENRY,  an 
American  rear-admiral,  born  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  in  1845.  He  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1864  and  became  an  ensign  in  1866. 
He  rose  through  the  grades,  becoming 
commander  in  1885;  captain  in  1898; 
and  rear-admiral  in  1904.  He  served  on 
various  stations  and  duties  and  was  con- 
nected with  several  expeditions  for  the 
determination  of  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude by  means  of  submarine  telegraph 
cables.  In  1897-1898  he  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  Naval  Observatory.  He 
served  during  the  Spanish-American 
War  as  commander  of  the  auxiliary 
cruiser,  "Dixie."  In  1904-1905  he  served 
as  a  mem.ber  of  the  International  Com- 
mission of  Inquiry  on  the  North  Sea 
incident.  He  was  retired  by  the  opera- 
tion of  law  on  Aug.  28,  1907.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  books  on  the  de- 
termination of  longitude.  He  wrote 
"Life  of  Rear-Admiral  Davis"  (1899). 

DAVIS,  CUSHMAN  KELLOGG,  an 
American  legislator;  born  in  Henderson, 
N.  Y.,  June  16,  1838.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1857; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  enlisted  in 
the  Union  army  in  1861.  He  began  the 
practice  of  law  in  St.  Paul  in  1865; 
was  chosen  to  the  Minnesota  Legislature 
in  1867;  became  United  States  district 
attorney  in  1868;  governor  in  1874;  and 
United  States  Senator  in  1887,  1893  and 
1899.  He  was  a  Republican,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Peace  Commission,  which  ne- 
gotiated the  treaty  between  Spain  and  the 
United  States  in  1898.  He  was  for  sev- 
eral years  chairman  of  the  Senate  Com- 
mittee on  Foreign  Relations,  and  re- 
ported the  resolution  which  practically 
declared  war  against  Spain.  He  died  at 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Nov.  27,  1900. 

DAVIS,  DAVID,  an  American  jurist; 
born  in  Cecil  co,,  Md.,  March  9,  1815. 
He  was  graduated  at  Kenyon  College  in 
1832,  and  settled  in  Illinois  as  a  lawyer 
in  1835.  He  was  elected  to  the  Legisla- 
ture in  1844  and  served  as  a  State  Cir- 
cuit Judge  from  1848  to  1862.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  appointed  an  Asso- 
ciate Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States.  He  voted  in  favor 
of  the  Legal  Tender  act.  He  resigned 
in  1877  to  enter  the  United  States 
Senate,   of   which   he   became   president 


DAVIS 


277 


DAVIS 


pro  tern,  in  1881,  and  retired  in  1883. 
He  died  in  Bloomington,  111.,  June  26, 
1886. 

DAVIS,  JAMES  J.,  an  American 
public  official,  born  in  Pittsburgh,  in  1876. 
He  attended  public  school,  but  when  still 
a  youth,  went  to  Elwood,  Ind.,  where  he 
worked  in  a  tin-plate  mill.  Two  years 
later  he  was  elected  city  clerk  of  Elwood, 
and  later  became  county  recorder.  After 
some  time  spent  in  gold  mining  in  the 
West,  he  undertook  to  reorganization  of 
the  Loyal  Order  of  Moose.  He  was  so 
successful  in  this  endeavor  that  he  was 
elected  supreme  dictator  and  reorganizer. 
Through  his  efforts  about  1,500,000  men 
were  brought  into  the  organization.  He 
engaged  also  in  the  manufacture  of  jew- 
elry and  other  lines  of  business,  and 
was  actively  identified  with  union  labor. 
He  founded  the  Orphan's  Home  of  Moose 
at  Mooseheart,  HI.  He  engaged  in  the 
banking  business  in  Pittsburgh.  Mr. 
Davis  was  appointed  Secretary  of  Labor 
by  President  Harding  and  assumed  office 
on  March  4,  1921. 

DAVIS,  JEFFERSON,  an  American 
statesman-  born  in  Abbeville,  Christian 
CO.,  Ky.,  June  3,  1808.  When  he  was 
three  years  old,  his  father  removed  with 
his  family  to  Wilkinson  co.,  Miss.  He 
received  an  academical  education  and 
entered  Transylvania  University,  Lex- 
ington, Ky.,  in  1822,  which  he  left  in 
1824  to  enter  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  from  which  he  was  graduated 
in  1828.  He  was  appointed  a  second 
lieutenant  of  infantry,  and  served  on  the 
Northwestern  frontier  during  the  Black 
Hawk  War  of  1831-1832.  In  1831  he 
was  promoted  to  first  lieutenant  of  dra- 
goons for  gallantry  in  action,  and  was 
employed  in  operations  against  the  Paw- 
nees, Comanches,  and  other  Indian 
tribes.  In  June,  1835,  he  resigned  his 
commission,  and  retired  to  a  cotton 
plantation  in  Mississippi.  In  1843  he 
began  to  take  an  interest  in  politics  upon 
the  Democratic  side;  and  in  1844  was 
chosen  a  presidential  elector.  In  1845 
he  was  elected  a  Representative  to  Con- 
gress; but  resigned  in  1846,  having  been 
elected  colonel  of  the  First  Mississippi 
Volunteer  Regiment  of  rifles,  and  served 
in  the  Mexican  War,  greatly  distinguish- 
ing himself  at  Monterey  and  Buena 
Vista,  and  being  severely  wounded  in 
the  latter  battle.  He  was  appointed  a 
Brigadier-General  of  volunteers  by 
President  Polk  in  1847,  but  declined  the 
commission  on  the  grounds  that,  by  the 
Constitution,  the  militia  appointments 
were  reserved  to  the  States,  and  that 
such  appointments  by  the  President  were 
in  violation  of  State  rights. 

The  same  year  he  was  chosen  to  fill  a 


vacancy  in  the  United  States  Senate,  and 
was  re-elected  by  acclamation  in  1850  for 
a  full  term.  In  1853  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War  by  President  Pierce, 
and  in  1857  was  again  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  when  he  took  a 
prominent  place  among  the  Southern 
leaders,  and  was  among  the  most  deter- 
mined  of  them  all  in  his  assertions  of  the 
rights  of  the  States  under  the  Constitu- 


JEFFERSON  DAVIS 

tion,  and  also  of  the  right  of  secession. 
On  Jan.  21,  1861,  he  took  his  leave  of  the 
Senate  in  a  speech  in  which  he  gave  his 
opinion  that,  by  the  secession  of  his 
State,  his  connection  with  that  body  was 
terminated,  and  reaffirmed  the  doctrine 
of  the  right  of  secession.  The  Confeder- 
ate Congress,  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  chose 
him  President,  under  the  Provisional 
Constitution,  on  Feb.  9,  1861,  and  he  ac- 
cepted the  office  on  the  16th. 

On  April  17,  two  days  after  the  first 
proclamation  of  President  Lincoln,  he 
responded  by  a  proclamation  authorizing 
privateering;  and  on  Aug.  14  issued  a 
second  one,  warning  all  persons  of  14 
years  and  upward,  owirig  allegiance  to 
the  United  States,  to  leave  the  Con- 
federacy within  40  days,  or  be  treated 
as  alien  enemies.  On  Nov.  6  he  was 
chosen  permanent  President,  and  was  in- 


DAVIS 


278 


DAVIS 


augrurated  Feb.  22,  1862.  Mr.  Davis 
continued  to  be  President  of  the  South- 
ern Confederacy  until  his  capture  at 
Ii winsville,  Ga.,  May  10,  1865,  having 
left  Richmond  a  few  hours  before  Gen- 
eral Lee  withdrew  his  troops,  and  after 
General  Lee's  surrender,  when  he  was 
endeavoring  to  reach  the  Army  of  the 
West,  He  was  conveyed  to  Fort  Monroe, 
and  indicted  by  the  Grand  Jury  of  the 
District  of  Columbia  for  treason.  He  was 
never  brought  to  trial;  never  asked  par- 
don, and  only  asked  a  trial;  but,  after 
two  years'  imprisonment,  was  released, 
at  the  instance  of  the  Government,  on 
bail,  Horace  Greeley  becoming  one  of  his 
sureties.  He  was  included  in  the  General 
Amnesty  Act  of  Congress  (Dec.  25, 
1868).  The  last  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  at  Beauvoir,  Miss.  He  died  in  New 
Orleans,  La.,  Dec.  6,  1889,  and  in  1893, 
amid  imposing  ceremonies,  his  remains 
were  removed  to  Richmond,  Va.,  and  re- 
interred  in  Hollywood  Cemetery.  He 
wrote  a  narrative  of  the  events  of  1861- 
1865.  "The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Con- 
federate Government"  (1881). 

DAVIS,  JOHN  WILLIAM,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  public  official,  born  in 
Clarksburg,  W.  Va.,  in  1873.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Washington  and  Lee  Univer- 
sity in  1892  and  afterward  took  a  course 
in  law  at  that  institution.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1895  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  served  as  assistant  professor 
of  law  in  Washington  and  Lee  Univer- 
sity. From  1897  he  was  engaged  in  the 
practice  of  law  as  a  member  of  the  law 
firm  of  Davis  &  Davis  at  Clarksburg, 
W.  Va.  He  was  a  member  of  the  State 
House  of  Delegates  in  1899  and  served 
as  delegate  to  the  Democratic  National 
Convention  in  1904.  In  1911  he  was 
elected  to  the  62d  Congress  and  was  re- 
elected on  the  expiration  of  his  term  to 
the  63d  Congress.  He  resigned  in  1913 
to  accept  the  post  of  solicitor-general  of 
the  United  States.  He  served  until  No- 
vember, 1918,  when  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  Great  Britain  by  Presi- 
dent Wilson.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
American  delegation  for  conferring  with 
the  Germans  on  the  treatment  and  ex- 
change of  prisoners  of  war,  in  1918.  Mr. 
Davis  was  prominently  mentioned  as  a 
candidate  of  the  Democratic  nomination 
for  president  in  1920. 

DAVIS,  KATHERINE  BEMENT,  an 
American  public  official.  She  was  born 
in  Buffalo  in  1860,  and  graduated  from 
Vassar  College  in  1892  and  later  received 
the  degree  of  Ph.D.,  from  the  University 
of  Chicago.  From  1892-1897  she  was  in 
Philadelphia  in  charge  of  the  college  set- 
tlement work.  In  1901  she  became  super- 
intendent of  the  Bedford  Reformatory  for 


girls,  a  position  which  she  retained  for 
12  years.  During  her  work  as  a  penol- 
ogist she  applied  scientific  laboratory 
work  ill  endeavoring  to  arrive  at  a  right 
method  in  reforming  delinquent  girls  and 
women.  In  1914  Mayor  Mitchel  ap- 
pointed her  Commissioner  of  Correction, 
she  being  the  first  woman  commissioner 
ever  appointed  in  New  York  City.  She  re- 
signed in  1915  and  was  appointed  chair- 
man of  the  Parole  Board  of  New  York 
City,  1918. 

DAVIS,  OSCAR  KING,  an  American 
journalist,  born  in  Baldwinsville,  N.  Y., 
in  1866.  He  graduated  from  Colgate 
University  in  1888.  He  served  as  special 
correspondent  on  the  New  York  "Sun" 
and  other  papers  during  the  Spanish- 
American  War  and  the  Philippine  Insur- 
rection. He  also  served  as  correspondent 
in  the  Boxer  troubles  in  China  in  1900 
and  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  Progressive  National 
Committee  in  1912.  He  wrote  "Our  Con- 
quests in  the  Pacific";  "Dewey's  Capture 
of  Manila";  "The  Storm  Birds," "etc,      ' 

DAVIS,    REBECCA    HARDING,    an 

American  novelist;  bom  in  Washington, 
Pa.,  June  24,  1831.  She  contributed 
many  short  stories  and  sketches  to  peri- 
odicals, and  has  written  several  novels, 
including:  "Life  in  the  Iron  Mills" 
(1861);  "A  Story  of  Today"  (1861). 
published  later  under  the  title  "Margaret 
Howth";  and  "A  Law  Unto  Herself" 
(1878).  Her  later  works  include:  "Wait- 
ing for  the  Verdict";  "Dallas  Gal- 
braith";  "Natasqua,"  and  "Frances  Wal- 
deaux."    She  died  Sept.  29,  1910. 

DAVIS,    RICHARD    HARDING,    an 

American  novelist  and  contributor  to 
periodical  literature;  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, April  18,  1864.  He  graduated  at 
Lehigh  University,  and  entered  journal- 
ism in  Philadelphia.  His  first  purely  lit- 
erary success  was  the  story  of  "Gal- 
legher,"  based  upon  his  newspaper  expe- 
riences, and  published  with  other  stories 
in  a  volume  (1891).  Among  his  works 
are:  "Stories  for  Boys"  (1891);  "Van 
Bibber  and  Others"  (1892) ;  "The  Rulers 
of  the  Mediterranean"  (1894) ;  "The 
Princess  Aline"  (1895) ;  "About  Paris" 
(1895) ;  "Three  Gringoes  in  Venezuela 
and  Central  America"  (1896) ;  "Soldiers 
of  Fortune"  (1897);  "The  Lost  Road" 
(1913),  etc.  In  1898  he  was  a  war  cor- 
respondent in  Cuba  and  in  1900  he  acted 
in  the  same  capacity  in  South  Africa 
and  in  the  World  War.  He  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  successful  plays,  among  them  "The 
Galloper,"  "The  Yankee  Tourist,"  and 
"Vera,  the  Medium."  He  served  as  war 
correspondent  during  the  first  years  of 
the  World  War.    He  died  in  1916. 


DAVIS 


279 


DAVIT 


DAVIS,  VARINA  ANNE  JEFFER- 
SON, "the  Daughter  of  the  Confeder- 
acy"; born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  June  27, 
1864.  Her  father  was  Jefferson  Davis, 
the  President  of  the  Confederate  States, 
and  she  was  born  in  the  Executive  Man- 
sion. Her  education  was  obtained  partly 
in  the  United  States  and  partly  in  Ger- 
many and  France,  and  she  wrote  "The 
Veiled  Doctor,"  a  novel,  and  numerous 
essays  and  tales.  She  died  at  Narragan- 
sett  Pier,  R.  I.,  Sept  18,  1898. 


RICHARD    HARDING   DAVIS 

DAVIS,  WILLIAM  MORRIS,  an 
American  geographer  and  geologist,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1850.  He  graduated 
from  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  in 
1869  and  took  post-graduate  studies  in 
several  foreign  universities.  He  was  as- 
sistant in  the  Argentine  National  Observ- 
Atory  from  1870  to  1873.  In  1878  he  be- 
came instructor  of  physical  geography  at 
Harvard  University  and  was  successively 
assistant  professor  and  professor  of  this 
subject.  In  1899  he  was  appointed 
Sturgis-Hooper  professor  of  geology  and 
continued  to  occupy  this  chair  until  1912, 
when  he  became  professor  emeritus.  He 
took  part  in  many  important  geograph- 
ical expeditions  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  Aus- 
tralia.    He  was  an  honorary  member  of 


many  foreign  geographical  societies.  His 
works  include  "Physical  Geography" 
(1898);  "Geographical  Essays"  (1909); 
and  numerous  scientific  essays.  He  was 
associate  editor  of  the  "American  Journal 
of  Science." 

DAVIS,  WILLIAM  STEARNS,  an 
American  author  and  university  pro- 
fessor, born  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  in  1877. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1900  and 
took  his  doctor's  degree  in  1905.  In  1907 
he  became  associate  professor  of  me- 
diaeval and  modern  history  at  Oberlin 
College,  and  in  1909  professor  of  history 
at  the  University  of  Minnesota.  His 
writings  include  historical  works  and  also 
some  historical  romances.  Most  impor- 
tant of  these  are :  "A  Victor  of  Salamis" 
(1907)  ;  "The  Influence  of  Wealth  in 
Imperial  Rome"  (1910);  "The  Friar  of 
Wittenberg"  (1912) ;  "A  History  of  Me- 
diaeval and  Modern  Europe"   (1914). 

DAVISON,  HENRY  POMEROY,  an 
American  financier,  born  in  Troy,  Pa., 
in  1867,  and  educated  privately  at  South 
Williamstown,  Mass.  In  1891  he  became 
teller  of  the  Astor  Place  National  Bank 
in  New  York  City  and  rose  gradually  in 
the  financial  world  until  in  1899  he  be- 
came president  of  the  Liberty  National 
Bank  of  New  York.  A  year  or  two  later 
he  became  Vice-President  of  the  First 
National  Bank.  Later  he  entered  the 
firm  of  J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.  and  became 
an  active  partner  in  that  concern.  In 
1917  he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
war  council  of  the  American  Red  Cross 
and  during  the  World  War  he  largely 
directed  the  huge  undertakings  of  this 
society.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he 
devoted  himself  to  reconstruction  prob- 
lems in  Europe. 

DAVIS  STRAIT,  a  strait  that  washes 
the  W.  coast  of  Greenland,  and  connects 
Baffin  Bay  vdth  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  At 
its  narrowest  point,  immediately  N.  of 
the  Arctic  circle,  it  measures  about  200 
miles  across.  In  1888  the  identity  be- 
tween Ginnunga  Gap,  referred  to  in  the 
Sagas,  and  the  present  Davis  Strait  was 
demonstrated. 

DAVIT.  1,  A  beam  projecting  from  a 
ship's  bow,  for  the  attachment  of  the 
tackle  whereby  the  anchor-fluke  is  lifted 
without  dragging  against  the  side  of  the 
vessel.  The  operation  is  nautically 
called  fishing  the  anchor. 

2.  One  of  a  pair  of  cranes  on  the  gun- 
wale of  a  ship,  from  which  are  suspended 
the  quarter  or  other  boats.  The  boat- 
tackles  are  attached  to  rings  in  the  bow 
and  stern  of  the  boat  respectively,  and 
the  fall  is  belayed  on  deck.  When  the 
boat  is  lowered  the  hooks  of  the  fall- 
blocks    are    cast    off    simultaneously,    or 


DAVITT 


280 


DAWES 


great  danger  results  when  the  ship  is 
under  way. 

DAVITT,  MICHAEL,  founder  of  the 
Irish  Land  League;  born  near  Straid, 
County  Mayo,  in  1846.  Evicted  from 
their  small  holding,  the  family  emigrated 
to  Haslingden  in  Lancashire  (1851)  ;  and 
here  six  years  later  the  boy  lost  his  right 
arm  in  a  cotton  machine.  In  1866  he 
joined  the  Fenian  movement,  the  result 
being  that  he  was  sentenced  in  1870  to 

15  years'  penal  servitude.  He  was  re- 
leased in  1877;  and  began  some  two  years 
later  an  anti-landlord  crusade  in  Ireland, 
which  culminated  in  the  foundation  of 
the  Irish  Land  League  (Oct.  21,  1879). 
Davitt  was  thenceforward  in  frequent 
collision  with  the  government,  and  from 
February,  1881,  to  May,  1882,  was  im- 
prisoned in  Portland  for  breaking  his 
ticket-of-leave.  His  "Leaves  from  a 
Prison  Diary"  were  published  in  1885. 
Though  a  strong  Home  Ruler,  on  the 
question  of  land  nationalization  he  found 
himself  in  opposition  to  the  Pamellites. 
He  opposed  the  continued  leadership  of 
Mr.  Parnell,  and  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1892  as  an  anti-Parnellite,  but 
unseated  on  petition.  He  was  returned 
unopposed  for  South  Mayo  in  1895.  He 
died  May  31,  1906. 

DAVOS  (da'vos),  a  small  valley  lying 
among  the  Alps  of  the  eastern  Orisons, 

16  miles  S.  E.  of  Coire.  The  village  of 
Davos-Platz  stands  5,105  feet  above  sea- 
level;  but  the  valley,  inclosed  by  lofty 
hills,  has  become  famous  as  a  health- 
resort  in  winter,  especially  for  such  as 
suffer  from  chest  disease.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  the  valley,  which  till  1848  was 
one  of  the  26  independent  republics  of 
the  Orisons,  are  mostly  Oerman  Protes- 
tants. 

DAVOUT,  LOiriS  NICOLAS  (da-v6'), 
a  marshal  of  France;  born  in  An- 
noux,  May  10,  1770.  He  studied  with 
Napoleon  at  Brienne,  and  entered  the 
army  in  1785.  He  took  sides  with  the 
revolutionists,  fought  several  battles 
under  Dumouriez,  and  was  made  a  Brig- 
adier-General in  1793.  He  accompanied 
Napoleon  in  his  Italian  campaigns  and 
in  his  expedition  to  Egypt.  In  1804  he 
was  made  a  marshal  of  the  empire.  The 
vicories  of  Ulm  and  Austerlitz  were 
mainly  due  to  him,  as  also  those  of  Eck- 
miihl  and  Wagram.  For  these  meritori- 
ous services  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Auerstadt  and  Prince  of  Eckmiihl.  He 
joined  the  Russian  expedition,  and  was 
wounded  at  Borodino.  After  the  retreat 
from  Moscow  he  defended  Hamlburg 
against  all  the  forces  of  the  allies,  and 
surrendered  only  after  the  peace  of  1814. 
When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  Da- 
vout  was  appointed  his  minister  of  war. 


After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he  lived  in 
retirement  until  1819,  when  he  took  his 
seat  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  He  died 
in  Paris,  June  1,  1823. 

DAVY,  SIR  HUMPHBY,  BART.,  an 
English  chemist;  born  in  Penzance,  Dec. 
17,  1778.  After  having  received  the  rudi- 
ments of  a  classical  education  he  was 
placed  with  a  surgeon  and  apothecary, 
and  early  developed  a  taste  for  scientific 
experiments.  He  was  appointed  Profes- 
sor of  Chemistry  in  the  Royal  Institution 
at  the  age  of  24.  In  1803  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Society.  His  dis- 
coveries with  the  galvanic  battery,  his 
decomposition  of  the  earths  and  alkalies 
and  ascertaining  their  metallic  bases,  his 
demonstration  of  the  simple  nature  of 
the  oxy-muriatic  acid  (to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  chlorine),  etc.,  obtained  him 
an  extensive  reputation;  and  in  1810  he 
received  the  prize  of  the  French  Insti- 
tute. In  1814  he  was  elected  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  that  body.  Having 
been  elected  Professor  of  Chemistry  to 
the  Board  of  Agriculture  he  delivered 
lectures  on  agricultural  chemistry  during 
10  successive  years. 

The  numerous  accidents  arising  from 
fire-damp  in  mines  led  him  to  invent 
his  safety-lamp.  He  was  knighted  in 
1812  and  created  a  baronet  in  1818. 
In  1820  he  succeeded  Sir  J.  Banks  as 
president  of  the  Royal  Society.  His  most 
important  works  are:  "Philosophical 
Researches,"  "Elements  of  Agricultur- 
al Chemistry,"  "Electro-Chemical  Re- 
searches," "Elements  of  Chemical  Phil- 
osophy." He  also  contributed  some 
valuable  papers  to  the  "Philosophical 
Transactions,"  and  was  author  of  "Sal- 
monia,  or  Days  of  Fly-fishing,"  and 
"Consolations  in  Travel,  or  the  Last 
Days  of  a  Philosopher."  He  died  in 
Oeneva,  May  29,  1829. 

DAVY  LAMP,  the  safety-lamp  of  Sir 
Humphry  Davy,  in  which  a  wire-gauze 
envelope  covers  the  flame-chamber  and 
prevents  the  passage  of  flame  outward 
to  the  explosive  atmosphere  of  the  mine, 
while  it  allows  circulation  of  air. 

DAWES,  CHARLES  GATES,  an  Amer- 
ican financier  and  public  official;  born  in 
Marietta,  C,  in  1865.  He  graduated 
from  Marietta  College  in  1884  and 
studied  law  at  the  Cincinnati  Law 
School.  After  his  admission  to  the  bar 
in  1886  he  practiced  law  in  Lincoln,  Neb. 
In  1894  he  left  law  to  engage  in  business, 
He  was  active  in  politics  and  was  a 
member  of  the  executive  committee 
of  the  Republican  National  Committee 
in  the  campaign  of  1896.  From  1897 
to  1902  he  was  Comptroller  of  the 
Currency.  He  served  in  the  World  War 
in  the  Engineers,  rising  to  the  rank  of 


DAWES 


281 


DAY 


brigadier-general.  He  served  in  France 
on  the  administrative  staff  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  American  Ex- 
peditionary Force  as  chairman  of  the 
General  Purchasing  Board  and  general 
purchasing  agent.  He  was  also  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Allied  Purchasing  Board  and 
the  Liquidation  Commission  of  the  Al- 
lies. For  his  services  he  was  awarded 
the  Distinguished  Service  Medal  and  the 
Order  of  Leopold,  King  of  Belgium.  He 
wrote  "The  Banking  System  of  the 
United  States"  (1892) ;  and  "Essays  and 
Speeches"  (1915). 

DAWES,  HENRY  LAURENS,  an 
American  legislator;  born  in  Cumming- 
ton,  Mass.,  Oct.  30,  1816.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  in  1839.  Becoming  a 
lawyer,  he  entered  the  State  Senate  as 
a  Republican  and  in  1857  was  elected 
to  Congress,  serving  in  the  House  until 
1873.  He  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1875,  and  was  re-elected 
in  1881  and  1887.  The  condition  of  the 
Indian  tribes  especially  claimed  his  at- 
tention, and  after  1893  he  was  head  of 
the  Commission  to  the  Five  Civilized 
Tribes.  He  died  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Feb. 
5,  1903. 

DAWES'  HOLES,  minute  circular 
spots  on  the  nucleus  of  a  sun-spot, 
darker  than  the  rest  of  the  nucleus,  and 
supposed  to  be  the  months  of  tubular 
orifices  penetrating  to  unknown  depths. 
They  were  first  observed  by  the  astrono- 
mer whose  name  they  bear. 

DAWSON,  capital  of  Yukon  territory, 
Canada;  in  the  gold  re^on  of  the  Klon- 
dike. It  is  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Yukon 
river,  575  miles  from  Juneau.  It  was 
founded  by  Joseph  Ladue,  a  miner,  who 
built  the  first  house  here,  Sept.  1,  1896. 
Dawson  is  the  center  oi  the  Klondike 
gold  region,  and  has  grovm  from  a  min- 
ing camp  into  a  prosperous  town,  with 
important  commercial  interests.  It  is  a 
port  of  call  for  steamships  from  June 
to  October.    Pop.  (1911)  3,015. 

DAWSON,  CONINGSBY  (WILL- 
IAM), an  American  author,  bom  at 
High  Wycombe,  England,  in  1883,  the 
son  of  William  James  Dawson.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Merton  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1905,  and  in  the  same  year  came  to 
America,  where  he  traveled  as  special 
correspondent  for  several  English  news- 

f)apers.  He  was  literary  adviser  to  pub- 
ishers  from  1910  to  1913.  In  1916  he 
joined  the  Canadian  1st  Division  at  the 
front  as  lieutenant  of  the  Field  Artillery 
and  served  until  the  end  of  the  war.  In 
1917  he  was  wounded.  After  serving 
with  the  British  Ministry  of  Information 
he  rejoined  the  Canadian  forces  in  the 
spring  of  1918.     He  was  again  wounded 


in  September  of  that  year.  He  delivered 
lectures  in  the  United  States  under  the 
auspices  of  the  British  Mission  in  Novem- 
ber and  December,  1918,  and  in  1919- 
1920  he  lectured  throughout  the  United 
States  on  the  results  of  the  war.  He 
was  the  author  of  "The  Worker  and 
Other  Poems"  (1906);  "The  Garden 
Without  Walls"  (1913);  "The  Raft" 
(1914)  ;  "Carry  On"  (1917)  ;  "The  Glory 
of  the  Trenches"  (1918)  ;  and  "The  Test 
of  Scarlet"  (1919).  He  also  wrote  sev- 
eral volumes  of  poems. 

DAWSON  (FRANCIS)  WARRING- 
TON, an  American  writer  and  lecturer, 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1878. 
He  was  educated  in  France  and  in 
the  Charleston  College.  He  engaged 
in  newspaper  work  and  acted  as  spe- 
cial correspondent  in  Spain,  Russia, 
and  other  countries  of  Europe.  He  was 
American  war  correspondent  with  the 
French  Armies  from  1914  to  1916.  In 
1917  he  was  appointed  attache  of  the 
American  Embassy  at  Paris  and  served 
as  special  assistant  in  that  post  until 
1919.  He  was  well  known  as  a  lecturer 
in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  first  neutral  com- 
mission sent  by  the  French  Ministry  of 
War  to  investigate  the  use  of  asphyxiat- 
ing gases  by  the  German  army  on  the 
Anglo-French  front  in  April,  1915.  He 
was  the  author  of  "The  Scar"  (1906); 
"The  Scourge"  (1908);  and  "The  True 
Dimension"  (1916). 

DAWSON,  WILLIAM  JAMES,  a 
clergyman  and  writer,  born  at  Tow- 
cester,  England,  in  1854.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Didsbury  College,  Manchester. 
In  1875  he  was  ordained  Wesleyan  min- 
ister. He  served  in  several  pastorates 
in  England  until  1905,  when  he  moved 
to  the  United  States,  becoming  pastor 
of  the  1st  Presbyterian  Church.  He 
lectured  widely  on  literary  and  histori- 
cal subjects.  He  wrote  "Makers  of  Eng- 
lish Poetry"  (1890)  ;  "Makers  of  English 
Prose"  (1899)  ;  "Quest  of  the  Simple 
Life"  (1903) ;  "A  Soldier  of  the  Future" 
(1908)  ;  "The  Book  of  Courage"  (1911)  ; 
"The  Father  of  a  Soldier"  (1917)  ;  and 
"Chalmers  Comes  Back"  (1919).  He 
also  wrote  several  volumes  of  poems. 

DAY,  the  time  taken  by  the  earth  to 
revolve  once  on  its  axis.  This  varies 
according  to  the  method  adopted  in  mak- 
ing the  calculation.  A  solar  day  is  the 
interval  between  the  time  of  the  sun's 
coming  to  the  meridian  and  returning 
to  it  again.  Similarly  a  sidereal  day  is 
the  interval  between  the  time  of  a  star's 
coming  to  the  meridian  and  again  return- 
ing to  it  on  the  immediately^  subsequent 
night.  A  mean  solar  day  is  24  hours 
long.     A  mean  sidereal  day  is  about  23 


DAY 


282 


DAYLIGHT  SAVING 


hours,  56  minutes,  and  4  seconds.  The 
reason  of  the  difference  is  that  the  sun 
appears  to  go  slowly  to  the  E.  through 
the  stars,  which  makes  them  reach  the 
meridian  in  a  shorter  time  than  he  does, 
if  the  estimate  be  made  by  sun-time.  An 
apparent  day  is  the  interval  which  exists 
between  two  successive  transits  of  the 
sun  across  the  meridian.  An  astronomi- 
cal day  is  a  day  beginning  at  1  P.  M.  and 
continuing  to  the  next.  It  is  divided  into 
24  hours,  not  into  two  periods  of  12  hours 
each. 

A  day,  in  law,  includes  the  whole  24 
hours  from  midnight  to  midnight.  In 
reckoning  periods  of  time  from  a  certain 
event,  the  day  on  which  the  event  oc- 
curred is  excluded.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
it  be  required  to  prove  survival  for  a  cer- 
tain number  of  days,  it  will  suffice  if  the 
person  be  alive  for  any  portion,  however 
small,  of  the  last  day.  While  an  obliga- 
tion to  pay  on  a  certain  day  would  there- 
fore be  theoretically  discharged  by  pay- 
ment before  midnight,  the  law  requires 
that  reasonable  hours  be  observed — e.  g., 
if  the  payment  (as  a  bill)  is  at  a  bank 
or  place  of  business,  it  must  be  within 
business  hours. 

Days  of  Grace. — The  time  at  which  a 
bill  is  actually  due  and  payable,  except 
in  the  case  of  bills  payable  on  de- 
mand or  at  sight,  is  three  days  after 
the  time  expressed  on  the  face  of  it, 
and  these  three  additional  days  are  called 
days  of  grace.  In  England,  if  the  third 
day  of  grace  fall  on  a  Sunday,  Christ- 
mas day,  Good  Friday,  or  a  national 
fast  or  thanksgiving  day,  the  bill  is 
payable  the  day  before.  If  it  fall  on  any 
of  the  other  bank  holidays,  or  if  the 
last  day  of  grace  is  a  Sunday  and  the 
second  a  bank  holiday,  the  bill  is  payable 
on  the  succeeding  business  day.  Days 
of  grace  have  now  been  abolished  in 
many  countries,  but  there  are  still  three 
allowed  in  some  of  the  United  States, 
and  10  in  Russia.  In  the  United  States 
a  bill  or  note,  becoming  due  on  a  Sunday 
or  a  holiday,  is  payable  on  the  first  busi- 
ness day  thereafter. 

DAY,  HOLJVIAN  FRANCIS,  an  Amer- 
ican writer,  born  in  Vassalboro,  Me.,  in 
1865.  He  graduated  from  Colby  College 
in  1887,  and  for  many  years  was  on- 
gaged  in  newspaper  work  in  New  Eng- 
land. He  was  a  frequent  contributor, 
both  of  prose  and  poetry,  to  magazines, 
and  wrote  many  novels,  including  "Rainy 
Day  Railroad  War"  (1906)  ;  "Old  King 
Spruce"  (1910)  ;  "Blow  the  Man  Down" 
(1916)  ;  "The  Rider  of  the  King  Log" 
(1919).  He  also  wrote  several  plays 
and  published  volumes  of  verse. 

DAY,  WILLIAM  RTJFUS,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist;  born  in  Ravenna,  0.,  April 


17,  1849.  He  was  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  1870,  and  at 
the  law  school  of  the  same  institution 
in  1872.  He  immediately  opened  a  law 
office  in  Canton,  O.  In  1886  he  was 
elected  judge  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  and  in  1889  was  appointed  judge 
of  the  United  States  Circuit  Court  for 
the  Northern  District  of  Ohio,  but  de- 
clined. In  1897  he  was  appointed  As- 
sistant Secretary  of  State  by  President 
McKinley,  and  in  1898  became  Secretary 
of  State,  conducting  all  the  negotiations 
of  the  Spanish  War.  He  was  also  made 
a  member  of  the  commission  which 
framed  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain 
in  Paris.  In  1899  he  was  appointed  a 
U,  S.  Circuit  judge,  and  in  1903  to  the 
Supreme  bench. 

DAYLIGHT  SAVING.  The  benefits 
to  be  derived  from  a  change  in  the  hours 
of  general  activity,  having  for  its  object 
more  daylight  leisure  and  the  lessening 
of  work  performed  by  artificial  light,  had 
long  been  a  subject  of  theory  before 
the  World  War.  Germany  and  Austria 
were  the  first  to  put  it  into  practice  in 
May,  1916,  by  the  simple  expedient  of 
advancing  the  clocks  by  an  hour  and 
following  the  new  schedule  during  the 
summer  months.  The  expedient  was  im- 
mediately adopted  also  in  England,  Den- 
mark, Holland,  France,  Italy,  and  other 
countries.  The  movement  spread  to  the 
United  States,  and  a  bill  to  effect  day- 
light saving  was  passed  by  the  Senate  to 
take  effect  Jan.  1,  1918,  but  remained  in 
committee  during  the  year  in  the  House 
of  Representatives.  Following  the  entry 
of  the  United  States  into  the  World 
War  an  act  was  passed  by  Congress  in 
March,  1918,  as  a  result  of  which  the 
standard  time  of  the  United  States  was 
advanced  one  hour  on  March  31,  so  to 
continue  to  October  27.  In  1919  the  law 
again  became  effective  on  the  last  Sun- 
day in  March,  in  accordance  with  a  re- 
port submitted  to  the  Director-General  of 
Railroads  by  the  Committee  on  Trans- 
portation of  the  American  Railway 
Association.  The  General  Order  No.  61, 
issued  by  the  Director-General  of  Rail- 
roads, provided  that  all  clocks  and 
watches  in  train  despatchers'  offices  and 
in  all  other  offices  open  at  2  A.  M.  should 
be  advanced  one  hour  to  indicate  3  A.  M. 
It  was  further  provided  that  at  2  A.  M. 
of  the  last  Sunday  in  October  all  clocks 
and  watches  in  train  despatchers'  offices, 
and  in  other  offices  open  at  the  time, 
should  be  turned  back  one  hour,  to  indi- 
cate 1  A.  M.,  the  trains  conforming  to  the 
new  schedule  after  the  change  of  time. 

The  Daylight  Saving  Law  did  not  re- 
ceive general  acceptance  and,  in  1919.  an 
active  movement  was  in  progress  to  re- 


DAY  LILY 


283 


DEACON 


peal  it,  particularly  among  people  liv- 
ing in  the  country  and  engaged  in  farm- 
ing occupations.  As  a  result  an  act  for 
the  repeal  of  the  Daylight  Saving  Law 
was  passed  by  both  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives and  the  Senate,  but  was  vetoed 
by  the  President.  The  bill  was  passed, 
however,  in  both  Houses  over  the  Presi- 
dent's veto.  In  New  York  City  the 
Board  of  Aldermen  unanimously  passed 
an  ordinance  providing  for  the  local  use 
of  the  daylight  saving  scheme,  which  was 
put  into  effect  during  the  summer  of  1920. 
It  thus  came  about  that  the  people  in  the 
city  of  New  York  regulated  their  hours 
according  to  local  time,  while  the  clocks 
at  the  great  railroad  termini  stood  at  an 
hour  behind  that  of  the  other  clocks  in 
the  city. 

DAY  LILY,  the  popular  name  for  a 
genus  of  lilies  (Hemerocallis) ,  a  native  of 
temperate  Asia  and  eastern  Europe,  two 
species  of  which  (H.  flava  and  H.  fulva) 
are  grown  in  gardens.  They  have  long 
radical  leaves,  and  a  branched  few-flow- 
ered scape,  with  large,  handsome  blos- 
soms, the  segments  of  which  are  united 
into  a  tube. 

DAYTON,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  in 
Campbell  co.  It  is  on  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  railroad  and  on  the  Ohio  river. 
There  are  manufactures  of  watch  cases 
and  pianos.  The  city  contains  the 
Speers  Memorial  Hospital,  and  other 
public  buildings.  Pop.  (1910)  6,979; 
(1920)  7,646. 

DAYTON,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Montgomery  co.,  0.;  on  the  Great  Miami 
river  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mad  river;  the 
Miami  canal,  and  the  Erie,  the  Chicago, 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis,  the 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  and  other  rail- 
roads; 60  miles  N.  E.  of  Cincinnati.^ 

Business  Interests. — The  Miami  river 
furnishes  abundant  water  power  for  the 
various  important  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments. The  water  is  carried  to  the 
factories  by  means  of  canals.  Dayton  is 
one  of  the  most  important  manufacturing 
cities  in  the  country.  The  principal  ar- 
ticles manufactured  are  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products,  paper,  glucose, 
bicycles,  farming  implements,  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  engines,  cash  registers, 
automobiles,  sewing  machines,  railway 
cars,  and  other  machinery.  There  are 
numerous  marble  and  limestone  quar- 
ries in  the  vicinity.  In  1919  there  were 
7  National  banks  and  many  private  bank- 
ing houses. 

Public  Interests. — The  city  is  well  laid 
out,  and  is  noted  for  its  costly  public 
buildings,  the  most  notable  of  which  are 
the  old  and  new  county  court  houses,  con- 
nected by  corridors,  the  former  of  marble, 
and  the  latter  of  limestone.    The  princi- 


pal charitable  institutions  include  the 
County  Orphan  Asylum,  the  Widows' 
Home,  the  Southern  Lunatic  Asylum  of 
Ohio,  and  the  Central  National  Soldiers' 
Home.  Other  public  institutions  are  St. 
Elizabeth's  Hospital  and  the  Court 
House.  There  are  over  50  churches  in 
the  city.  The  public  school  system  is  of 
a  high  order.  For  secondary  and  higher 
instruction  there  are  the  Academy  of 
Notre  Dame,  the  English  and  Clas- 
sical Training  School,  and  St.  Mary's 
Institute. 

History. — Dayton  was  settled  in  1796; 
incorporated  in  1805 ;  and  chartered  as 
a  city  in  1841.  Pop.  (1900)  85,333; 
(1910)   116,577;   (1920)   152,559. 

DAYTONA,  a  city  of  Florida,  in 
Volusia  CO.  It  is  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
the  Halifax  river,  the  Jacksonville-Mi- 
ami canal,  and  the  Florida  East  Coast 
railroad.  It  is  also  on  the  line  of  the 
Florida  Coastal  Island  Navigation  Com- 
pany. In  recent  years  it  has  become  a 
popular  summer  and  winter  resort.  It 
has  excellent  hotels,  a  library,  and  an 
Elks'  Home.  The  principal  industries 
are  the  growing  of  oranges  and  straw- 
berries, and  fishing.  Pop.  (1910)  3,082; 
(1920)  5,445. 

D'AZEGLIO,    See  Azeglio. 

DEACON  [Lat.  diacomis,  all  from  Gr. 
diakonos—  (as  subst.)  (1)  a  servant,  a 
waiting  man;  (2)  a  minister  of  the 
Church,  especially  a  deacon,  a  deacon- 
ess; (as  adj.)  serving,  serviceable;  prob- 
ably from  aioko  —  to  cause  to  run,  to 
pursue.] 

In  Scripture. — Omitting  the  passages 
in  which  diakonos  has  a  general  mean- 
ing, three  portions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment refer  to  the  ecclesiastical  officers 
so  denominated.  In  Phil,  i :  1,  they  are 
mentioned  in  conjunction  with  the  "bish- 
ops," and  were  evidently  of  inferior 
authority  to  them,  for  they  are  men- 
tioned last.  In  I  Tim.  iii:  6-13,  the 
proper  qualifications  requisite  for  their 
office,  as  well  as  the  character  which 
their  wives  should  possess,  are  pointed 
out,  but  no  mention  is  made  of  the  pre- 
cise duties  which  they  had  to  discharge. 
In  Rom.  xvi:  1,  Phebe  is  described  as  a 
servant  or  deaconess  of  the  Church  at 
Cenchrea,  and  in  commendation  of  her 
it  is  stated  that  she  had  been  a  succorer 
of  many,  the  Apostle  Paul  himself  being 
among  the  number.  There  is  a  very 
general  opinion  that  the  first  institution 
of  the  order  of  deacons  is  narrated  in 
Acts  vi.  If  the  officers  whose  election  is 
described  in  Acts  vi.  were  deacons,  then 
the  special  duty  of  that  order  of  men 
was  the  distribution  of  the  Church  alms 
to  the  poor.  A  "daily  ministration"  took 
place    in    the    early    apostolic    times    to 


DEACONESS 


284 


DEAD-NETTLE 


widows  who  could  not  support  them- 
selves unaided.  The  majority  of  these 
could  speak  only  Aramaic;  a  minority, 
Jewish  by  descent  like  the  former,  were 
Grecians,  i.  e.,  spoke  Greek,  or  at  least 
their  husbands  had  done  so.  The  ma- 
jority monopolized  all  the  attention  of 
the  almsgivers,  and  the  representatives 
of  the  minority  had  to  complain  of  neg- 
lect. The  apostles,  being  appealed  to, 
felt  that  it  would  interfere  with  the  suc- 
cess of  their  spiritual  work  if  they  be- 
came mixed  up  with  disputes  about  the 
apportionment  of  money;  they  advised 
or  commanded  that  seven  men  of  honest 
report,  i.  e.,  of  honorable  reputation,  full 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  wisdom,  should 
be  sought  and  appointed  almsmen  to  the 
Church. 

In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Churches. 
— The  junior  order  of  the  priesthood, 
the  novitiate  being  first  ordained  a  dea- 
con, and  then  after  a  time,  if  satisfactory 
conditions  have  been  fulfilled — such  as 
progress  in  grace  and  gifts,  and  ilie  pro- 
bation of  character — e^pvated  to  the  full 
priesthood  or  eldership. 

In  the  Churches  of  Rome  and  England. 
— A  deacon  is  a  spiritual  officer  ranking 
beneath  the  bishops  and  priests  or  pres- 
bjrters.  The  diaconate  may  be  held  at 
23  years  of  age,  the  priesthood  not  till  24. 

In  the  Presbyterian  Churches — The 
orders  here  are  teaching  eiders,  or  minis- 
ters, ruling  elders,  generally  called  sim- 
ply elders  (these  two  orders  looking  over 
the  spiritual  affairs  of  the  congrega- 
tion) ;  and  deacons  (now  gradually  being 
displaced  in  many  places  by  managers), 
to  attend  to  the  more  secular  matters. 

In  the  Congregational,  Baptist,  and 
other  Ch^irches. — Deacons  are  spiritual 
officers  ranking  immediately  under  the 
minister,  and  looking  after  both  the 
spiritual  and  the  temporal  concerns  of 
the  congregations. 

DEACONESS,  a  female  deacon  in  the 
early  Christian  Church.  The  term  is 
sometimes  applied  to  a  sister  of  mercy, 
or  those  ladies  who  live  in  community 
and  follow  the  rule  of  the  Lutheran  dea- 
conesses. Deaconesses  existed  in  the  1st 
century.  The  office  has  been  revived  in 
the  United  States,  in  Germany,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  in  England. 

DEAD,  BOOK  OF  THE,  the  great 
funerary  work  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
who  themselves  entitled  it  "Per-em-Hru," 
"to  go  forth  from  (or  by)  day."  It  is 
a  collection  of  prayers  and  exorcisms 
composed  at  various  periods  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Pilgrim-soul  in  his  journey 
through  Amenti  (the  Egyptian  Hades)  ; 
and  it  was  in  order  to  provide  him  with 
a  safe  conduct  through  the  perils  of  that 
terrible  valley  that  copies  of  the  work, 


or  portions  of  it,  were  buried  with  the 
mummy  in  his  tomb.  Such  copies  con- 
stitute fully  one-half  of  the  thousands  of 
extant  papyri.  A  pure  text  has  been 
published  by  Edouard  Naville  in  "The 
Egyptian  Deadbook  of  the  18th  and  20th 
Dynasties"  (Berlin,  1886).  Dr.  Birch's 
English  translation  ("Egypt's  Place  in 
Universal  History,"  vol.  v.  1867),  is 
based  on  Lepsius'  imperfect  Turin  text 
(1842). 

DEADLY  NIGHTSHADE,  a  plant 
botanically  known  as  belladonna,  yield- 
ing an  extract  of  much  utility  in  ophthal- 
mic investigation.  The  "beauty"  implied 
by  the  name  is  in  the  berries,  which  are 
shining  black,  but  are  poisonous.  The 
best  known  antidote  to  them  is  vinegar. 
"The  leaves  of  the  plant  are  usefulas  a 
medicine,  being  given  in  intermittent 
fevers,  palsy,  pertussis,  amaurosis,  ca- 
chexia, epilepsy,  and  ticdouloureux.  A 
remedy  much  used  in  homoeopathic  phar- 
macy. The  name  is  also  given  to  a  sub- 
division of  the  genus  Amaryllis,  contain- 
ing the  belladonna  lily,  a  fine  flower 
found  in  the  West  Indies. 

DEAD  MAN'S  HILL,  an  elevatioi 
near  Verdun,  on  the  Meuse,  called  Lfe 
Mort  Homme,  which  was  the  scene  of 
fierce  fighting  during  the  German  effort, 
from  Febrnary  to  July,  1916,  to  take 
Verdun.  During  the  entire  attack  the 
French  held  with  extraordinary  bravery 
to  the  northern  slopes  of  the  hill,  to 
which  on  the  first  surprise  they  had  been 
driven.  Three  hundred  thousand  Ger- 
mans are  held  to  have  been  killed  or 
wounded  as  the  price  of  the  gains  made 
in  the  vicinity.  Positions  did  not  change 
much  during  the  greater  part  of  1917, 
though  there  was  much  fighting.  In 
August,  however,  the  French  by  a  quick 
thrust  took  Le  Mort  Homme  (Dead 
Man's  Hill),  Avocourt  Wood,  Corbeaux 
and  Cumieres  Woods  and  other  territory 
with  19,000  prisoners.  By  the  middle  of 
September  the  French  had  recovered  100 
of  the  120  square  miles  around  the  hill, 
seized  by  the  Germans  in  1916, 

DEAD-MEN'S  FINGERS,  a  popular 
name  for  the  Alcyonium,  a  genus  of 
polypes,  the  typical  one  of  the  family 
alcyonidse.  It  contains  many  well-known 
species,  such  as  A.  digitatum,  or  sea- 
finger,  and  A.  glomeratum. 

DEAD-NETTLE,  the  common  name  of 
the  species  of  plants  of  the  genus  La- 
mium,  natural  order  Lahiatx,  from  the 
resemblance  of  their  leaves  to  those  of 
the  nettle,  though  they  have  no  stinging 
property.  There  are  several  species 
found  in  Great  Britain  (and  now  also  in 
North    America),    as    the    white    dead- 


DEAD  SEA 


286 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


nettle    (L.  album),  the  red    (L.  purpur- 
eum),  and  the  yellow   (L.  Galeobdolon) . 

DEAD  SEA,  the  usual  name,  dating 
from  the  time  of  Jerome,  for  a  most  re- 
markable lake  in  the  S.  E.  of  Palestine, 
called  in  the  Old  Testament  The  Salt 
Sea,  Sea  of  the  Plain,  or  East  Sea;  by 
Josephus,  Lacus  Asphaltites;  and  by  the 
Arabs  now,  Bahr-Lut,  "Sea  of  Lot."  It 
is  46  miles  long,  with  a  breadth  of  from 
5  to  9  miles.  Its  surface,  which  is  lower 
than  that  of  any  water  known,  is  1,292 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. The  depth  of  the  greater  part, 
the  N.  section,  is  about  1,300  feet.  The 
shape  is  that  of  an  elongated  oval,  in- 
terrupted by  a  promontory  which  pro- 
jects into  it  from  the  S.  E.  The  Dead 
Sea  is  fed  by  the  Jordan  from  the  N. 
and  by  many  other  streams,  but  has  no 
apparent  outlet.  Along  the  E.  and  W. 
borders  of  the  Dead  Sea  there  are  lines 
of  bold,  and  in  some  cases  perpendicular, 
cliffs.  These  cliffs  are  chiefly  composed 
of  limestone,  and  are  destitute  of  vegeta- 
tion except  in  the  ravines  traversed  by 
fresh  water  streamlets.  The  N.  shores 
of  the  lako  form  an  extensive  and  deso- 
late muddy  fiat,  marked  by  the  blackened 
trunks  of  trees,  with  salt.  The  S.  shore 
is  low,  level,  and  marshy,  desolate,  and 
dreary.  On  this  shore  is  the  remarkable 
ridge  of  rock-salt,  7  miles  long  and  300 
feet  high,  called  Khashm  Usdom  (Ridge 
of  Sodom).  Lava-beds,  pumice-stone, 
warm  springs,  sulphur,  and  volcanic  slag 
prove  the  presence  here  of  volcanic  agen- 
cies at  some  period.  The  salinity  of  the 
waters  is  adverse  to  life,  though  some 
lower  organizations  are  found  in  them. 

The  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  charac- 
terized by  the  presence  of  a  large  quan- 
tity of  magnesian  and  soda  salts.  Its 
specific  gravity  ranges  from  1172  to 
1227  (pure  water  being  1000).  The  pro- 
portion of  saline  matter  is  so  great,  that 
while  sea-water  contains  only  3.5  per 
cent,  of  salts,  the  water  of  the  Dead  Sea 
contains  upward  of  26  per  cent.  The 
evaporation  is  great,  as  the  heat  is  in- 
tense, and  the  sea  rather  contracts  than 
increases.  Rain  hardly  ever  falls;  the 
water  is  nearly  as  blue  and  clear  as  that 
of  the  Mediterranean.  Owing  to  the 
great  specific  gravity  of  the  water,  it  is 
almost  impossible  for  the  bather  to  sink 
in  it,  strive  as  he  may.  Several  of  those 
who  have  navigated  and  explored  the 
sea  have  fallen  victims  to  a  fatal  fever. 
For  the  story  of  the  "Cities  of  the  Plain," 
see  Gen.  xix.;  but  according  to  Captain 
Conder,  "it  is  now  generally  agreed  that 
the  Dead  Sea  and  Jordan  were  formed 
by  a  great  fault  or  crack  in  the  earth's 
surface  long  before  the  creation  of  man. 


It  is  vain,  therefore,  to  suppose  that  the 
'cities  of  the  plain'  were  beneath  the 
present  sea." 

DEADWOOD,  a  city  of  South  Dakota, 
the  county-seat  of  Lawrence  co.  It  is 
on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  and 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  rail- 
roads. It  is  the  financial  and  commercial 
center  for  the  mining  region  of  the 
Black  Hills.  There  are  smelting  and 
reduction  works,  planing  mills,  foundry, 
lime  works,  etc.  The  city  contains  a 
United  States  assay  office,  a  public  li- 
brary, and  a  museum. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB,  or  DEAF- 
MUTES,  persons  both  deaf  and  dumb, 
the  dumbness  resulting  from  the  deaf- 
ness which  has  either  existed  from  birth 
or  from  a  very  early  period  of  life.  Such 
persons  are  unable  to  speak  because  they 
have  not  the  guidance  of  the  sense  of 
hearing  to  enable  them  to  imitate  sounds. 
Among  the  causes  assigned  for  congeni- 
tal deafness  are  consanguineous  mar- 
riages, hereditary  transmission,  scrofula, 
certain  local  or  climatic  conditions,  ill 
health  of  the  mother  during  pregnancy, 
etc.  Acquired  or  accidental  deafness, 
which  occurs  at  all  ages,  is  frequently 
due  to  such  diseases  as  smallpox,  measles, 
typhus,  paralysis,  hydrocephalus  and 
other  cerebral  affections,  but  more  par- 
ticularly to  scarlet  fever,  which  is  some- 
what apt  to  leave  the  patient  deaf,  ow- 
ing to  the  inflammatory  state  of  the 
throat  extending  to  the  internal  ear,  and 
thus  causing  suppuration  and  destruction 
of  the  extremely  delicate  parts  of  the 
auditory  apparatus.  In  the  greater  pro- 
portion of  deaf-mutes  no  defect  is  visible 
or  can  be  detected  by  anatomical  exami- 
nation, and  no  applications  yet  discovered 
appear  to  be  useful. 

In  ancient  times  Aristotle  and  others, 
and  also  in  the  Christian  ages,  Augus- 
tinu^  and  his  contemporaries  considered 
that  a.'^f-mutes  were  incapable  of  edu- 
cation. Tn  ancient  days  and  also  in  the 
Middle  Ages  there  were  a  few  cases 
known  in  which  spiritual  culture  was  at- 
tained by  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In  ancient 
Rome  two  dumb  painters  attracted  at- 
tention. The  most  famous  of  the  more 
ancient  instructors  of  deaf-mutes  was 
the  Spanish  monk  Pedro  de  Ponce  at 
Sahagun,  in  Leon,  who  taught  four  deaf 
and  dumb  people  to  speak.  In  Germany 
about  the  same  time  the  court  preacher 
of  Brandenburg,  Joachim  Pascha,  suc- 
ceeded in  teaching  his  deaf  and  dumb 
daughter  to  speak. 

In  1648  John  Bulwer  published  the 
earliest  work  in  England  on  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  This  was 
followed  by  Dalgarno's  "Ars  Signorum" 
(Art  of  Signs)   in  1661  and  Dr.  W.  D. 

19 — Vol.  in — Cyc 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


286 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


Holder's  "Elements  of  Speech."  Dr. 
John  Wallis,  Savilian  Professor  of 
Mathematics  at  Oxford,  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  first  Englishman 
to  instruct  deaf-mutes.  In  1743  Pereira, 
a  Spaniard,  publicly  demonstrated  this 
new  art  before  the  French  Academy  of 


was  established  at  Leipzig,  for  the  edu- 
cation of  deaf-mutes,  a  public  institution 
which  is  still  retained  at  Vienna  and 
throughout  Germany.  About  20  years 
previously  Thomas  Braidwood  had  es- 
tablished near  Edinburgh,  in  1760,  a 
deaf  and  dumb  school  on  the  articulat- 


HI 


DEAF-MUTE   ALPHABET 


Scienc©6,  which  gave  its  testimony  to 
the  success  of  the  method.  About  the 
same  time  the  Abbe  de  I'Epee,  introduced 
a  system  for  the  instruction  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  which  was  taught  with  great 
success  in  the  Royal  Parisian  Institu- 
tion. In  1779,  through  the  labors  of 
Samuel  Heinicke,  the  great  upholder  of 
the  vocal  or  articulatory  system,  there 


ing  system.  This  was  visited  by  Dr. 
Johnson  during  his  tour  in  Scotland. 
The  first  public  institution  in  Great 
Britain  for  the  gratuitous  education  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb  was  founded  at  Ber- 
mondsey  in  1792  by  the  Rev.  Messrs. 
Townsend  and  Macon.  In  1817,  the 
first  American  asylum  for  the  deaf-mute 
was  founded  at  Hartford  under  the  su- 


DEAK 


287 


DEAX 


perintendence  of  Mr.  Gallaudet,  who  was 
the  promoter  of  a  system  of  teaching 
styled  the  "American  System,"  which 
widely  differs  from  those  followed  in  Eu- 
ropean schools.  From  this  sprung  up,  in 
1818,  the  New  York  Asylum,  now  known 
as  the  New  York  Institution  for  the  In- 
struction of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  one  of 
the  largest  in  the  world;  in  1820,  the 
Asylum  of  Philadelphia;  and,  since  that 
time,  many  others  in  most  of  the  States, 
which,  throughout  the  country,  make 
easily  accessible  to  the  deaf-mute  the 
inestimable    blessings    of   education. 

The  two  chief  methods  of  conveying 
instruction  to  the  deaf  and  dumb  are  by 
the  means  of  the  manual  alphabet,  and 
by  training  them  to  watch  the  lips  of 
the  teacher  during  articulation.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  m.anual  alphabet,  the 
double-handed  alphabet,  where  the  letters 
are  expressed  by  the  disposition  of  the 
fingers  of  both  hands;  and  the  single- 
handed,  in  which  the  letters  are  formed 
with  the  fingers  of  one  hand.  The  meth- 
od of  teaching  by  articulation,  the  pupil 
learning  to  recognize  words  and  in  time 
to  utter  them,  by  closely  watching  the 
motions  of  the  lips  and  tongue  in  speech, 
and  by  being  instructed  through  dia- 
grams as  to  the  different  positions  of 
the  vocal  organs,  has  given  excellent  re- 
sults. A  new  meth  iT  of  teaching  ar- 
ticulation, was  devisea  by  Prof.  Melville 
Bell  called  "visible  speech."  The  char- 
acters of  the  alphabet  on  which  this 
system  is  founded  are  intended  to  re- 
veal to  the  eye  the  position  of  the  vocal 
organs  in  the  formation  of  any  sound 
which  the  human  mouth  can  utter.  The 
proportion  of  deaf-mutes  in  the  popula- 
tion varies  with  relation  to  economic  and 
social  conditions.  It  varies  from  1  to 
760  in  India,  1  to  1,200  in  France,  1  to 
1,970  in  England,  to  1  in  2,400  in  the 
United  States. 

DEAK,  FRANCIS  (da-ak'),  a  Hun- 
garian politician;  born  in  Kehida,  in 
1803.  He  practiced  as  an  advocate,  un- 
til elected  to  the  national  diet  in  1832. 
Here  he  soon  took  his  place  as  leader  of 
the  Liberal  opposition,  and  effected  rec- 
onciliations between  Hungary  and  the 
Austrian  emperor  as  her  king — tempo- 
rarily in  1840,  and  more  permanently 
in  1867.  After  the  revolution  of  March, 
1848,  he  became  Minister  of  Justice  in 
the  cabinet  of  Count  Batthyanyi,  and 
made  every  effort  to  ward  off  the  inevi- 
table war.  On  Kossuth's  coming  into 
power  (September,  1848),  Deak  re- 
signed his  portfolio,  and  after  futile 
attempts  at  negotiation  retired  from 
public  affairs.  He  refused  to  return  to 
public  life  till  1860  when  a  constitution 
was  granted  to  his  country. 


Returned  by  Pest  to  the  diet  in  1861, 
he  again  became  the  leader  of  the  Mod- 
erate party,  while  the  Extreme  party 
collected  round  Count  Teleki.  The  death 
of  the  latter  (May  8)  destroyed  the  only 
influence  which  could  counterbalance  that 
of  Deak;  and  the  diet  appointed  him  to 
draw  up  the  address  to  the  emperor  de- 
manding the  constitution  of  1848,  a  Hun 
garian  ministry  resident  in  Pest,  th- 
return,  without  restriction,  of  the  exiles 
and  the  restitution  of  their  property. 
The  emperor  answered  it  by  a  hostile  re- 
script, against  which  Deak  protested 
strongly.  Out  of  the  humiliation  of 
Austria  in  1866  came  the  triumph  of 
peak's  policy.  His  wise  and  statesman- 
like moderation  effected  a  satisfactory 
constitutional  relation  between  Austria 
and  Hungary  in  the  dual  system  of  mon- 
archy. He  died  in  Budapest,  Jan.  29, 
1876. 

DEAKIN,  ALFRED,  an  Australian 
statesman;  born  in  Melbourne  in  1856. 
After  studying  at  the  University  of  Mel- 
bourne he  was  elected  to  the  Parliament 
of  Victoria  in  1879,  and  in  1883  he  was 
Minister  of  Public  Works.  In  1887 
he  represented  Victoria  at  the  Im- 
perial Conference  in  London.  After  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia  was  found- 
ed, Deakin  was  Attorney-General  and 
later  Premier,  when  the  Protectionist 
party  was  in  control  of  the  Government. 
He  served  as  Premier  from  1905-1908, 
and  again  during  1909  and  1910.  Fol- 
lowing that  date,  he  was  leader  of  the 
opposition  until  his  retirement  from 
public  life  in  1913.     He  died  in  1919. 

DEAL,  a  municipal  borough  and  sea- 
bathing place  of  England,  in  the  E.  of 
Kent,  on  a  bold  open  beach.  It  has  been 
one  of  the  Cinque  Ports  since  the  13th 
century.  Of  the  three  castles  built  by 
Henry  VIII.  in  1539,  Deal  Castle  is  the 
residence  of  its  "captain";  Sandown 
Castle,  to  the  N.,  has  been  blown  up  as 
dangerous  through  the  encroachment  of 
the  sea;  and  to  the  S.,  Walmer  Castle  is 
now  the  residence  of  the  Warden  of  the 
Cinque  Ports.  Some  maintain  that  it 
was  near  Deal  that  Julius  Caesar  landed 
in  55  B.  C.  Pop.  (1891)  8,898;  (1901) 
10,557. 

DEAL,  in  the  United  States,  a  plank 
12  feet  long,  11  inches  wide,  and  2V2 
inches  thick.  Deals  are  sawed  of  other 
sizes,  but  are  reduced  to  that  cubic  di- 
mension in  computing  them. 

In  England,  lumber  not  exceeding  3 
inches  in  thickness  and  9  inches  wide. 
The  word  is  applied  especially  to  the 
wood  of  the  fir.  If  the  planks  are  7 
inches  or  less  in  width,  they  are  called 
battens,  and  if  less  than  6  feet  long, 
4eal-ends.    Fifty  cubic  feet  of  deals  are 


DEALFiSH 


288 


DEATH 


a  load,   and   100   feet  superficial   are  a 
square. 

DEALFISH,  a  genus  of  deep-sea  bony 
fishes,  in  the  ribbon-fish  sub-order  of 
Acanthopteri.  Some  eight  species  are 
known,  on  European  coasts  and  from  the 
W.  of  South  America.  They  rarely  come 
to  the  surface.  One  form  (T.  arcticus  or 
bqgmarus,  the  vaagmaer  of  Icelanders 
and  Norwegians)  is  occasionally  found 
on  North  British  coasts.  It  is  a  large 
fish,  4  to  6  feet  in  length,  and  of  a  sil- 
very color.  The  dorsal  and  caudal  fins 
are  red.  A  smaller  species  (T.  tcenia) 
occurs  along  with  others  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

DE       AMICIS,       EDMONDO.  See 

Amicis. 

DEAN  (literally,  a  head  or  chief  of  10 
men),  in  the  Church  of  England,  an 
ecclesiastical  dignitary  in  cathedral  and 
collegiate  churches,  and  the  head  of  a 
chapter,  originally  said  to  consist  of  10 
canons  or  prebendaries;  whence  the  ori- 
gin of  the  term.  The  presiding  head  of 
the  faculty  in  some  of  the  English  and 
Scottish  universities.  In  the  Univer- 
sities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  an 
oflScer  deputed  to  compel  the  attend- 
ance of  students  at  prayers  in  the 
chapels  of  the  colleges,  and  generally, 
to  supervise  their  conduct  at  religious 
service.  In  the  United  States  the  sev- 
eral schools  of  medicine,  law,  etc.,  con- 
nected with  the  universities  frequently 
appoint  a  dean,  whose  functions  vary  with 
the  requirements  of  his  particular  in- 
stitution. The  dean  of  a  faculty  is  its 
registrar  or  secretary. 

DEAN,  BASHFORD,  an  American 
zoologist;  born  in  New  York  City  in 
1867.  He  graduated  from  the  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York  in  1886  and  after- 
ward took  post-graduate  courses  at  Co- 
lumbia. He  served  as  tutor  of  natural 
history  at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York  from  1886  to  1890.  In  1891  he  was 
appointed  instructor  of  biology  at  Co- 
lumbia University  and  became  succes- 
sively adjunct  professor  of  zoology  and 
professor  of  vertebrate  zoology  at  that 
university.  He  was  assistant  of  the 
New  York  State  Fish  Commission  from 
1886  to  1888.  and  served  as  special  in- 
vestigator 01  the  United  States  Fish 
Commission.  He  was  for  a  time  director 
of  the  Biological  Laboratory  of  Cold 
Spring  Harbor,  New  York.  From  1903 
he  was  curator  of  herpetology  and  ich- 
thyology at  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History.  He  was  also  curator 
of  arms  and  armor  at  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art.  He  was  a  member  of 
many  learned  societies.  During  the 
Woald  War  he  served  as  major  of  ord- 


nance in  the  United  States  Army,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Mission  to  France, 
Belgium,  and  England  in  1917.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  works  on  biological 
subjects. 

DEATH,  the  cessation  of  life;  the 
state  of  any  being,  animal,  or  plant,  in 
which  the  vital  functions  have  totally 
and  permanently  ceased  to  act.  Every 
blow  we  strike,  every  thought  we  think,  is 
accompanied  by  the  death  and  disintegra- 
tion of  a  certain  amount  of  muscular  or 
nervous  fiber  as  its  necessary  condition; 
thus  every  action  of  our  corporeal  life, 
from  its  beginning  to  its  close,  takes 
place  at  the  expense  of  the  vitality  of  a 
certain  amount  of  organized  structure. 
This  is  termed  molecular  death,  and, 
within  its  proper  limits,  is  obviously  es- 
sential to  the  life  and  well-being  of  the 
organism.  The  cessation  of  the  circu- 
lation and  respiration  may  be  regarded 
as  constituting  somatic  death,  or  the 
death  of  the  entire  organism,  which  must 
obviously  be  shortly  followed  by  the  mo- 
lecular death  of  every  portion  of  the 
body.  Death  happens  either  from  the 
natural  decay  of  the  organism,  as  in  old 
age,  or  from  some  of  those  derangements 
or  lesions  of  the  vital  organs  which  oc- 
cur in  diseases  and  injuries.  For  techni- 
cal reasons  a  discrimination  should  be 
made  between  death,  decease,  and  demise. 
The  three  principal  modes  of  dying  begin 
at  the  heart,  the  brain,  or  the  lungs. 

At  the  approach  of  death,  the  mind 
may  be  affected  in  various  ways,  includ- 
ing dullness  of  the  senses,  vacancy  of  the 
intellect,  extinction  of  the  sentiments,  as 
in  natural  death  from  old  age,  or  a  pe- 
culiar delirium  closely  resembling  dream- 
ing, which  is  usually  of  a  pleasing  and 
cheerful  character.  In  most  diseases  of 
long  standing  the  cessation  of  the  heart's 
action  is  gradual,  the  rate  of  the  pul- 
sation being  much  increased,  but  their 
energy  being  much  impaired.  In  some 
acute  aflTections  the  failure  is  shown  by 
the  irregularity  of  the  pulse,  while  the 
force  is  little  altered.  In  other  cases,  es- 
pecially in  cerebral  diseases,  the  heart, 
before  finally  ceasing  to  beat,  contracts 
violently  and  suddenly  stops.  The  respi- 
ration is  sometimes  hurried  and  panting 
till  just  before  death,  while  in  other  cases 
it  is  slow,  laborious,  and  stertorous. 
There  is  also  a  loss  of  animal  heat,  begin- 
ning at  the  extremities. 

The  signs  of  actual  death  ai'e  (1)  the 
heart's  arrest  and  the  gradual  extinction 
of  the  vital  functions;  (2)  changes  in  the 
tissues;  (3)  change  in  the  external  ap- 
pearance of  the  body. 

(1)  The  arrest  of  the  circulation  and 
respiration  at  first  sight  appears  to  af- 
ford decisive  evidence  of  death,  but  these 


DEATH-HEAD  MOTH 


289 


DEBORAH 


functions  may  be  reduced  to  so  low  a 
condition  that  it  is  by  no  means  easy 
to  decide  whether  or  not  they  are  com- 
pletely annihilated.  In  cases  of  apparent 
drowning,  chloroform  poisoning,  and  in 
newly-born  infants,  they  are  frequently 
suspended  and  again  restored,  and  cases 
occasionally  occur  in  which  the  patient 
has  the  power  of  voluntarily  suspending 
them  for  a  considerable  period.  The 
gradual  loss  of  animal  heat  is  an  impor- 
tant sign,  but  in  exceptional  cases  a  rise 
of  temperature  may  take  place  after 
death. 

(2)  The  most  important  among  the 
changes  in  the  tissues  is  the  "rigor 
mortis,"  or  rigidity  of  the  muscles,  which 
ensues  at  a  varying  period  after  death. 
It  may  appear  within  half  an  hour,  or 
it  may  be  delayed  20  or  30  hours,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  disease;  its 
mean  duration  is  from  24  to  36  hoixrs.  It 
begins  in  the  neck  and  trunk;  then  ap- 
pears, according  to  most  observers,  in  the 
upper,  and  lastly  in  the  lower,  extremi- 
ties; and  disappears  in  the  same  order. 

(3)  The  most  important  change  in  the 
external  appearance  of  the  body  is  un- 
questionably the  altered  color  of  the  sur- 
face. Livid  spots  of  various  sizes  may 
occur  from  local  congestions  during  life; 
but  the  appearance  of  a  g^reen  tint  on  the 
skin  of  the  abdomen,  accompanied  by  a 
separation  of  the  epidermis,  is  a  certain 
sign  that  life  is  extinct. 

Death,  in  a  legal  point  of  view,  is  either 
natural  or  civil;  the  former  being  the 
cessation  of  both  physical  life  and  of  the 
legal  rights  which  attach  to  it,  the  latter 
the  cessation  of  the  legal  rights  while 
the  physical  life  remains.  The  doctrine 
of  civil  death  is  now  abolished  except  as 
to  cases  of  outlawry,  in  which  it  seems 
still  to  be  applicable. 

DEATH-HEAD  MOTH,  the  largest 
species  of  lepidopterous  insect  found  in 
Great  Britain,  and  systematically  known 
by  the  name  of  Acherontia  atropos.  The 
markings  on  the  back  of  the  thorax  very 
closely  resemble  a  skull,  or  death's-head; 
hence  the  English  name.  It  measures 
from  4  to  5  inches  in  expanse.  It  emits 
peculiar  sounds,  somewhat  resembling  the 
squeaking  of  a  mouse.  It  attacks  bee- 
hives, pillages  the  honey,  and  disperses 
the  inhabitants. 

DEATH-TICK,  a  beetle  of  the  genus 
Anobium,  an  inmate  of  human  dwellings, 
which  makes  a  ticking  sound.  The  most 
common  form  of  this  very  prevalent  su- 
perstition is  the  belief  that  when  the 
death-tick  is  heard  some  member  of  the 
household  will  die  within  12  months. 

DEATH  VALLEY,  a  narrow  valley 
between  the  Panamint  and  Funeral  Moun- 
tains, in  California.     It  is  traversed  by 


the  Amargosa  river,  which  is  usually  a 
dry  channel,  though  probably  it  was  for- 
merly full  of  water.  The  level  of  the 
valley  is  covered  with  salt,  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  by  the  torrents  from 
the  surrounding  desert  and  left  on  the 
evaporation  of  the  water.  Death  Valley 
is  considered  to  be  the  hottest  and  dryest 
place  in  the  United  States.  A  tempera- 
ture of  122°  F.  has  been  observed  here. 
In  1849  a  party  of  emigrants  perished 
here;  hence  the  name.  The  region  is  rich 
in  borax,  and  extensive  works  have  been 
established  to  prepare  it  for  the  market. 
Gold  quartz  is  also  found  in  considerable 
quantities. 

A 

DEBACLE  (da-ba'kl),  a  sudden  break- 
ing up  of  ice  in  a  river;  used  by  geol- 
ogists for  any  sudden  outbreak  of  water, 
hurling  before  it  and  dispersing  stones 
and  other  debris. 

DEBENTURE,  in  finance,  a  certificate 
or  document  signned  by  a  legally  author- 
ized officer,  as  an  acknowledgment  of  a 
debt  due  to  some  person;  a  deed  or  bond 
of  mortgage  on  certain  property  for  the 
repayment  to  a  certain  person  of  a  cer- 
tain sum  of  money  advanced  by  such 
person,  together  with  interest  thereon  at 
a  certain  stated  rate. 

In  customs,  a  certificate  entitling  the 
person  to  whom  it  is  granted  i )  a  draw- 
back on  certain  goods  exported,  the  du- 
ties on  which  have  been  paid. 

In  public  offices,  in  some  government 
departments  a  term  used  to  denote  a  bond 
or  bill  by  which  the  government  is 
charged  to  pay  a  creditor  or  his  assigns 
the  money  due  on  auditing  his  account. 

DEBIR,  a  city  of  southern  Judah,  be- 
tween Hebron  and  Beersheba,  but  nearer 
the  former,  often  mentioned  in  Scripture 
and  even  there  identified  with  Kirjath- 
sepher  and  Kirjath-sannah  (Joshua  xv: 
15,  49).  It  is  now  a  poor  village  called 
Ed-Dahariyeh.  It  must  have  been  very 
important  at  the  time  of  the  Judges  in 
Israel,  for  it  is  even  mentioned  as  "Debir 
with  her  suburbs."  But  there  must  have 
been  another  Debir,  for  in  Joshua  xiii: 
26,  it  is  mentioned  as  if  on  the  borders  of 
Gad,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Jordan, 
actually  in  the  opposite  direction  from 
Jerusalem.  Elsewhere  the  word  is  used 
(Joshua  x:3)  as  the  name  of  an  Amorite 
king  of  Eglon  (now  Ajlan  or  its  vicinity) 
slain  by  Joshua  about  1450  B.  C.  This 
Eglon  is  not  far  from  Ed-Dahariyeh,  and 
probably  Debir  was  a  capital  of  the  Amo- 
rites,  and  may  have  been  a  predecessor 
of  Jerusalem,  for  they  were  all  in  the 
heart  of  later  Judah. 

DEBORAH,  a  Hebrew  seer  or  proph- 
etess who  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Judges, 
and  by  the  aid  of  Barak  delivered  the  N. 


DEBOT 


290 


DEBT 


tribes  from  the  oppression  of  Jabin  and 
secured  a  peace  of  40  years*  duration. 
The  triumphal  ode  (Judges  v)  attributed 
to  her  is  a  remarkable  specimen  of  He- 
brew poetry. 

DEBOT,  a  village  community  on  both 
banks  of  the  Nile,  Upper  Egypt,  about 
six  miles  above  the  first  cataract  and  not 
far  from  ancient  Philae.  The  ruins  of 
the  temple  of  Debet  are  of  great  interest. 
It  was  built  by  the  Nubian  king,  Ezekher- 
Amon,  of  the  time  of  the  earlier  Ptole- 
mies and  was  enlarged  by  Ptolemy 
Philometor.  The  second  of  the  three 
doorways  at  entering  has  a  Greek  in- 
scription to  this  Ptolemy  and  his  wife 
Cleopatra.  The  first  hall  has  reliefs  of 
Ezekher-Amon,  and  over  the  door  is  an 
inscription  of  his.  In  the  sanctuary 
further  along  is  a  granite  naos,  broken 
in  two  and  dating  from  Ptolemy  Ener- 
getes,  second  successor  of  Philometor, 
both  dating  from  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  before  Christ.  Near  by 
are  the  remains  of  one  of  the  permanent 
Roman  camps,  mentioned  in  the  Itiner- 
arium  Antonini.  It  was  called  Parem- 
bole. 

DEBBECZIN  (de-bri'sin),  a  town  of 
Hungary,  on  the  edge  of  the  great  cen- 
tral plain,  113  miles  E.  of  Budapest.  Its 
houses  are  mostly  of  a  single  story;  the 
streets  broad  and  unpaved.  Among  the 
principal  edifices  are  the  Protestant 
church  and  college.  Chief  manufactures 
are  coarse  woolens,  leather,  soap,  tobac- 
co-pipes, casks,  etc.,  and  a  large  trade  is 
done  in  cattle.  Debreczin  is  considered 
the  headquarters  of  Hungarian  Protest- 
antism.    Pop.  about  85,000. 

DEBRTJISED,  in  heraldry,  an  epithet 
applied  to  a  bend  or  other  ordinary 
placed  over  some  animal,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  appear  to  restrain  its  freedom 
of  action. 

DEBS,  EUGENE  VICTOR,  an  Amer- 
ican socialist;  born  in  Terre  Haute,  Ind., 
Nov.  5,  1855.  He  received  a  common 
school  education  and  became  a  locomo- 
tive fireman.  He  was  elected  to  the  In- 
diana Legislature  in  1885  and  was  later 
an  official  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Locomo- 
tive Firemen,  and,  from  1893  to  1897, 
president  of  the  American  Railway 
Union.  He  conducted  the  strike  of  1893 
in  Chicago,  and  was  later  sent  to  jail 
for  contempt,  because  of  his  manage- 
ment of  the  same,  though  he  pleaded  in- 
nocence of  any  crime  and  requested  to 
be  tried  by  a  jury  and  be  allowed  to  sum- 
mon witnesses  in  his  defense.  Since 
1897  he  has  been  prominent  in  the  So- 
cialist movement,  and  in  1900  was  the 
candidate  of  the  Social  Democratic  party, 
and     in     1904,     1908,     1912,    and     1920 


of  the  Socialists,  for  President  of  the 
United  States.  In  1915  he  was  appointed 
Chancellor  of  the  People's  College,  a 
working-class  institution  at  Fort  Scott, 
Kan.  He  was  convicted  of  violating  the 
Espionage  Law  by  opposing  the  draft 
laws  in  1917,  and  was  sentenced  to  im- 


EUGENE  V.  DEBS 

prisonment  for  20  years.  In  spite  of  this 
he  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  by 
the  Socialist  party  in  1920. 

DEBT,  that  which  is  due  from  one 
person  to  another;  that  which  one  per- 
son is  bound  to  pay  or  perform  to  an- 
other; due;  obligation;  liability.  That 
which  any  one  is  obliged  to  do  or  to 
suffer. 

Debt  in  law  is  a  species  of  contract 
whereby  a  chose  in  action,  or  right  to  a 
certain  sum  of  money,  is  mutually  ac- 
quired and  lost;  usually  divided  into 
debts  of  record,  debts  by  special  contract, 
and  debts  by  simple  contract.  A  debt  of 
record  is  a  sum  which  apears  to  be  due 
by  the  evidence  of  a  court  of  record; 
such  as  debt  of  judgment  or  recogni- 
zance. Debt  by  specialty  is  where  a  sum 
is  acknowledged  to  be  due,  or  becomes 
due,  by  instrument  under  seal ;  such  as  a 
covenant,  bond,  etc.  Both  these  species 
of  debts,  being  contracted  by  a  man  for 
himself  and  his  heirs,  attach  on  his  lands 
and  tenements,  and  bind  them  in  the 
hands  of  his  heir  or  devisee.  Debt  by 
simple    contract    is    either    by    parol    or 


DEBT,  NATIONAL 


291 


DEBUSSY 


by  written  obligation  unsealed;  within 
which  class  fall  bills  of  exchange,  and 
promissory  notes.  Debt  is  also  a  per- 
sonal action  of  contract,  in  which  the 
plaintiff  seeks  the  recovery  of  a  debt, 
i.  e.,  a  liquidated  or  certain  sum  of  money 
alleged  to  be  due  to  him. 

In  the  United  States  originally  im- 
prisonment of  debtors  was  adopted  as  a 
part  of  the  common  law,  but  at  the  pres- 
ent time  imprisonment  for  debt,  except 
in  case  of  fraud,  or  of  an  absconding 
debtor,  does  not  legally  exist  in  any  of 
the  States.  Congress,  empowered  by  the 
United  States  Constitution  to  make  a 
uniform  bankrupt  law,  exercised  this 
power,  and  subsequently  repealed  the 
law  of  imprisonment;  and  now,  by  Re- 
vised Statutes  990  and  991,  no  person 
can  be  imprisoned  for  debt  by  any  pro- 
cess issuing  out  of  the  courts  of  the 
United  States,  in  any  State  where  by  the 
laws  of  the  State  imprisonment  for  debt 
has  been  abolished.  Most  of  the  States, 
by  constitutional  provision,  have  pro- 
hibited arrest  or  imprisonment  for  debt, 
while  the  other  States,  either  by  direct 
statutes  prohibiting  imprisonment  for 
debt,  or  by  poor  debtors'  laws,  or  by  in- 
solvent laws,  secure  the  same  result. 

In  all  the  States  a  just  and  legal  debt 
may  be  enforced  and  put  in  position  for 
collection  through  attachment  of  prop- 
erty by  means  of  a  judgment  issued  by 
a  court  of  competent  jurisdiction.  In 
all  States,  however,  statute-  specify  a 
limitation,  or  definite  term  o'  years,  for 
both  debts  and  judgments,  alter  which 
collection  may  not  be  enforced.  The  debt 
or  judgment  is  then  said  to  be  "out- 
lawed." 

Such  statutes  also  define  the  legal 
rates  of  interest  which  may  be  required 
on  debts,  either  with  or  without  judg- 
ment. 

In  general  the  law  holds  that  a  debt 
is  an  obligation  based  upon  an  agree- 
ment, which,  if  not  expressed  in  a  con- 
tract, verbal  or  otherwise^  is  definitely 
implied  in  a  given  transaction.  This  def- 
inition does  not  apply  to  taxes,  which 
are  held  to  be  imposts  levied  by  authority 
apart  from  all  agreement;  nor  yet  to 
fines  incurred  for  misdemeanors,  vio- 
lations of  duty,  etc.  Thus,  while  real 
property  may  be  sold  for  non-payment 
of  taxes,  it  may  be  redeemed  at  any  time 
subsequently  by  payment  of  the  princi- 
pal and  interest  on  the  taxes  due.  This 
constitutes  the  gravest  objection  to  ac- 
quiring a  "tax  title." 

DEBT.  NATIONAL.  See  under  Fi- 
nance in  Articles  on  Countries. 

DEBTOR.  In  ancient  times  a  debtor 
who  could  not  pay  became,  with  his 
family    and    his    personal    servants,   the 


property  of  the  creditor.  In  Jewish 
times  children  were  often  given  up  as 
pledges  for  debt,  and  finally  handed  over 
to  slavery  in  payment  of  debt.  Jesus 
speaks  of  this,  in  Matthew  xviii:  25,  as 
so  customary  a  thing  that  it  was  a  part 
of  his  folk  teaching  in  a  parable.  And 
yet  the  Mosaic  law  was  so  far  from  con- 
templating anything  of  the  sort  that  it 
did  not  even  permit  interest  to  be  taken 
from  an  Israelite  by  an  Israelite,  and 
even  manumitted  the  whole  debt  on  the 
expiry  of  the  Sabbathical  year. 

The  Jewish  law  also  specified  various 
articles  of  use  and  necessity  as  immune 
from  attachment;  in  this  particular,  as 
in  others,  striving  to  safeguard  all  per- 
sonal and  property  rights,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  preserving  social  harmony 
and  adherence  to  high  morality.  That 
these  laws  were  subsequently  perverted 
and  misinterpreted,  so  as  to  permit  of 
the  injustices  mentioned  at  the  time  of 
Christ,  is  hardly  remarkable.  They  are 
in  accord  with  the  general  trend  of  de- 
velopment among  other  nations.  Among 
the  ancient  Romans  the  practice  of  en- 
slavement for  debt  was  an  early  and 
long-continued  practice. 

Imprisonment  for  debt  was  less  com- 
mon under  the  military  regime  of  me- 
diaeval Europe  than  in  later  times,  but 
was  for  centuries  a  much-abused  custom 
in  England.  Modern  jurisprudence  al- 
lows the  attachment  of  property  of  all 
kinds,  except,  in  general,  the  tools  and 
instruments  of  livelihood,  but  discour- 
ages the  imprisonment  of  the  debtor, 
except  in  exceptional  cases,  as  for  the 
non-payment  of  alimony,  or  under  other 
unusual  cases,  generally  invohnng  fraud. 

A  debtor,  on  being  declared  bankrupt, 
makes  assignment  for  the  benefit  of 
creditors,  which  often  represents  a  small 
percentage  of  his  indebtedness. 

DEBUSCOPE  (from  the  inventor,  M. 
Debus,  a  French  optician;  and  Gr.  sko- 
ped  =  I  see,  a  modification  of  the  ka- 
leidoscope. It  consists  of  two  highly 
polished  silvered  plates,  set  at  an  angle 
of  70°  with  each  other.  When  placed 
before  a  picture  or  design,  an  assemblage 
of  flower  petals,  or  other  small,  colored 
objects,  beautiful  designs  are  formed  by 
their  reflected  images.  The  instrument  is 
held  stationary  while  these  are  copied, 
and  by  successively  moving  it  over  the 
object,  different  combinations  of  figures 
are  shown,  which  may  be  added  to  the 
first.  It  is  particularly  intended  for  the 
use  of  draftsmen  who  are  required  to 
design  ornamental  patterns  for  fabrics. 

DEBUSSY.  CLAUDE  ACHILLE, 
French  composer,  horn  at  St.  Germain- 
en-Laye,  Aug.  22,  1862.  Educated  at  the 
Paris   Conservatoire,  winning  the  grand 


DECADE 


292 


DE  CANDOLLE 


prix  de  Rome  in  1884  with  a  cantata, 
"L'Enfant  Prodigue."  From  Rome  he 
sent  a  setting  of  Rossetti's  Blessed  Da- 
tnozel,  which  was  refused  by  the  Institut 
because  of  its  excessive  modernity  of 
style.  The  rebuff  only  made  him  the 
more  determined  to  adhere  to  his  convic- 
tions. His  most  important  compositions 
are:  a  "prelude  symphonique"  to  Mal- 
larme's  Afternoon  of  a  Faun;  orchestral 
pieces,  "Clouds,"  "Fetes,"  and  "Sirens"; 
settings  for  poems  of  Verlaine  and  Bau- 
delaire; a  piano  suite,  "Images";  and  his 
chief  work,  a  lyric  drama  on  Maeter- 
linck's Pelleas  et  Melisande,  given  at 
Paris,  April  30, 1902,  and  performed  with 
remarkable  success  at  the  Manhattan 
Opera  House,  New  York,  Feb.  19,  1908. 
Among  his  other  compositions  may  be 
mentioned  "The  Sea,"  "Spring,"  "Three 
Nocturnes,"  "Prose  Lyrics,"  etc.  He  died 
in  1918. 

DECADE  (dek'ad)  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  number  10  or  for  an  aggre- 
gate of  10.  The  books  of  Livy's  Roman 
History  are  divided  into  decades.  In  the 
French  Revolution,  decades,  each  consist- 
ing of  10  days,  took  the  place  of  weeks  in 
the  division  of  the  year.  The  term  is  now 
usually  applied  to  an  aggregate  of  10 
years. 

DECADENCE,  a  favorite  modern  term 
to  express  the  idea  that  the  successors  in 
some  degree  are  not  as  strong  as  the  pre- 
decessors in  the  particular  department 
about  which  an  inquiry  is  made.  It  is 
the  falling  tide  from  some  high-water 
mark.  The  word  is  intentionally  of- 
fensive, but  its  use  in  the  history  of  art 
is  the  least  objectionable  of  all.  Thus 
Grecian  art  attained  its  highest  point  of 
grandeur  about  400  B.  c,  and  all  Grecian 
art  of  later  date,  some  of  it  most  ex- 
quisite in  its  genius,  belongs  to  the  deca- 
dent side  of  Grecian  art.  There  are 
several  periods  of  decadent  art  that  may 
be  found  mentioned  in  the  histories,  but 
the  one  most  discussed  of  late  years  is 
that  of  the  French  romancists  of  all 
schools.  Those  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
last  century  are  called  decadents  because 
they  are  thought  less  able,  and  more  sen- 
sational than  their  predecessors. 

DECAGON,  a  plane  geometrical  figure 
of  10  sides.  When  the  sides  are  equal, 
the  figure  is  called  a  regular  decagon. 

DECALCOMANIE,  a  transferable  pic- 
ture or  pattern,  used  generally  for  dec- 
oration, as  on  chinaware.  The  designs 
are  printed  lithographically  on  thin 
paper  or  foil,  which  is  afterward  at- 
tached face  down  to  a  thick  porus  paper, 
which  serves  to  support  it.  It  is  applied 
to  the  surface  to  be  decorated  by  moist- 
ening the  film  of  gum  or  cement  on  the 


back  of  the  design,  after  which  the 
paper  carrier  is  thoroughly  wetted  and 
peeled  off,  leaving  the  design  behind. 

DECALOGUE,  the  Ten  Command- 
ments given  by  God  to  Moses  on  Mount 
Sinai.  They  were  first  introduced  into 
the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  in 
the  prayerbook  of  Edward  VI.,  in  1552. 

DECAMERON  (de-kam'e-ron) ,  any- 
thing of  10  days'  occurrence;  also  the 
title  given  to  a  collection  of  tales  by 
Boccaccio,  written  in  10  parts,  each  part 
containing  10  stories,  and  being  supposed 
to  occupy  one  day  in  the  narration.  Boc- 
caccio represents  the  stories  as  being 
told  by  seven  ladies  and  three  gentlemen, 
who  had  fled  from  Florence  into  the 
country  to  escape  the  fearful  plague  of 
1348,  and  who  had  no  other  means  of 
passing  the  time. 

DE  CANDOLLE,  AUGUSTIN  PY- 
RAME  (de-kon-dolO,  a  Swiss  botanist, 
descended  from  an  ancient  noble  family 
of  Provence;  born  in  Geneva,  Feb.  4, 
1778.  In  1796-1797  he  studied  chemis- 
try, physics,  and  botany  in  Paris,  where 
in  1797  his  earliest  work,  on  lichens,  was 
published.  Other  works  quickly  fol- 
lowed, including  his  "Astragalogia" 
(1802),  and  "Essays  on  the  Medicinal 
Properties  of  Plants"  (1804).  In  1802 
he  was  elected  to  an  honorary  professor- 
ship in  the  Academy  of  Geneva,  and  de- 
livered his  first  botanical  lectures  in  the 
College  de  France  in  1804.  His  "French 
Flora"  appeared  in  1805.  Employed  by 
the  government,  he  visited  all  parts  of 
France  and  Italy  in  1806-1812,  inves- 
tigating their  botany  and  agriculture. 
He  was  appointed  in  1807  to  a  chair 
at  Montpellier,  where  he  lived  from  1810 
to  1816;  he  then  retired  to  Geneva 
where  a  Professorship  of  Botany  was 
founded  for  him,  and  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  died  Sept. 
9,  1841.  Among  his  greatest  works  is 
"Natural  System  of  the  Vegetable  King- 
dom" (vols.  i.  and  ii.,  1818-1821).  It 
was  commenced  on  too  grand  a  scale, 
but  continued  within  more  reasona- 
ble limits  in  the  "Preliminary  View 
of  the  National  System  of  the  Vegetable 
Kingdom"  (17  vols.  1824-1873,  the  last 
10  by  his  son  and  others).  De  Candolle 
died  in  1841,  bequeathing  his  collections 
— including  a  herbarium  of  more  than 
70,000  species  of  plants — to  his  son, 
Alphonse  De  Candolle  (bom  1806). 
That  son,  himself  a  botanist  of  wide 
fame,  also  published  several  works  of 
note,  the  most  important  being  "Geo- 
graphical Botany"  (2  vols.  1855),  and 
"Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants"  (1883). 
He  also  edited  the  "Memoirs"  of  his 
father   (1862).     He  died  April  9,  1893. 


DECAPODA 


293 


DECAZES 


DECAPODA.  (1)  The  highest  order 
of  crustaceans,  so  called  from  having 
five  pairs  of  legs.  They  are  sub-divided 
into  brachyiira,  the  snort-tailed  deca- 
pods or  crabs;  macrura,  or  long-tailed, 
including  the  shrimp,  lobster,  prawn, 
crayfish,  etc.;  and  anomura,  of  which 
the  hermit-crab  is  an  example.  (2)  One 
of  the  two  divisions  of  the  dibranchiate 
cuttlefishes  (the  other  being  the  octo- 
poda).  They  have  two  arms  longer  than 
the  other  eight,  and  bear  the  suctorial 
disks  only  at  the  extremities. 

DECAPOLIS  (de-kap'6-lis),  a  country 
in  Palestine,  which  contains  10  princi- 
pal cities,  on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan. 
According  to  Pliny,  they  were  Scythopo- 
lis,  Philadelphia,  Raphanae,  Gadara, 
Hippos,  Dios,  Pella,  Gerasa,  Canatha, 
and  Damascus.  Josephus  inserts  Otopos 
instead  of  Canatha. 

DECATUR,  town  and  county-seat  of 
De  Kalb  co.,  Ga.;  on  the  Georgia  rail- 
road; 6  miles  E.  of  Atlanta.  It  is  a 
noted  summer  and  winter  resort  on  ac- 
count of  its  fine  climate;  is  the  seat  of 
the  Agnes  Scott  Institute  for  Young 
Ladies,  and  has  newspapers,  electric 
lights,  and  railway  to  Atlanta,  and  a 
National  bank.  A  battle  was  fought 
here,  July  20,  1864,  between  a  portion  of 
Sherman's  army,  under  General  Thomas, 
and  the  Confederates  under  General 
Hood,  the  latter  retreating  at  night- 
fall. The  Union  loss  was  1,500  in  killed 
and  wounded.  The  Confederate  loss 
was  estimated  by  General  Sherman  at 
not  less  than  5,000.  Pop.  (1910)  2,466; 
(1920)  6,150. 

DECATUR,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Macon  co.,  111.;  on  the  Sangamon  river, 
and  the  Wabash,  the  Illinois  Central, 
and  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  and  Day- 
ton railroads;  173  miles  S.  W.  of  Chi- 
cago. Decatur  is  in  the  midst  of  the 
famous  Illinois  corn  belt,  and  is  the  trade 
center  of  several  counties.  It  has  rail- 
road car  shops,  iron  works,  flour  mills, 
planing  mills,  and  manufactories  of 
farming  implements,  carriages,  engines, 
boilers,  water  works  equipment,  electric 
light  fixtures  and  soda  fountains,  and 
linseed  oil.  There  are  many  churches. 
National  and  other  banks,  several  news- 
papers, a  library,  James  Millikin  Uni- 
versity, a  hospital,  parks,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)   31,140;    (1920)    43,818. 

DECATUR,  STEPHEN,  an  American 
naval  officer;  born  in  Sinnepuxent,  Md., 
Jan.  5,  1779.  He  was  of  French  des- 
cent, and  obtained  a  midshipman's  war- 
rant in  1798.  He  saw  some  service 
against  the  French,  and  was  commis- 
sioned lieutenant  in  the  following  year; 
and  at  the  close  of  the  French  war  in 


1801  he  was  one  of  the  36  officers  of 
that  rank  retained  in  the  reduced 
strength  of  the  navy.  In  the  war  with 
Tripoli  (1801-1805),  his  brilliant  achieve- 
ment of  boarding  and  burning  the  cap- 
tured "Philadelphia"  in  the  harbor  of 
Tripoli,  and  then  escaping  under  the 
fire  of  141  ^uns.  Nelson  pronounced 
"the  most  darmg  act  of  the  age."  P'or 
this  he  received  his  commission  as  cap- 
tain in  1804;  in  1810  he  was  appointed 
commodore.  In  the  war  with  Eng- 
land in  1812  he  captured  the  frigate 
"Macedonian,"  but  in  1814  he  was 
obliged  to  surrender,  after  a  resistance 


STEPHEN   DECATUR 

that  cost  him  a  fourth  of  his  crew,  to 
four  British  frigates.  In  1815  he  chas- 
tised the  Algerines  for  their  piracy,  and 
obtained  indemnities  from  the  Bey  of 
Tunis  and  the  Pasha  of  Tripoli.  He 
was  appointed  a  Navy  Commissioner  in 
1816,  and  was  killed  in  a  duel  by  Com- 
modore James  Barron,  near  Bladens- 
burg,  Md.,  March  22,  1820. 

DECAZES  (de-kaz'),  ELIE,  DUKE, 
French  minister,  born  Sept.  28,  1780, 
in  St.  Martin  de  Laye,  Gironde,  an  advo- 
cate in  Libourne;  became  in  1805  judge 
in  the  Seine  Tribunal,  and  in  1806  was 
called  by  King  Louis  to  the  Hague,  Hol- 
land. Later  he  returned  to  France  and 
was  adviser  for  Bonaparte's  mother, 
and  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  French 
Empire.  When  Bonaparte  fell  he  turned 
his  allegiance  to  the  Bourbons.  He  be- 
came the  Prefect  of  Police  for  Paris, 
and  in  1815  Minister  of  Police  in  the 
Cabinet,  and  was  made  Count.  He  mar- 
ried the  rich  heiress  of   Sainte-Aulaire 


DECCAN 


294 


DECIMAL  FBACTI03T 


and  was  made  at  that  time  Duke  of 
Gliicksbjerg  by  the  King  of  Denmark. 
He  turned  Louis  XVIII.  into  more 
liberal  courses  and  was  the  active 
member  of  Dessoles'  moderate-Liberal 
Ministry  of  1918,  having  himself  the 
Ministry  of  the  Interior.  The  ultra- 
royalists  accused  him  of  complicity  in 
the  murder  of  the  Duke  de  Berry,  and 
forced  his  dismissal  in  1820.  The  King 
made  him  Duke,  however,  and  he  retired 
to  found  the  great  coal  and  iron  works 
of  Decazeville.     He  died  Oct.  24,  1860. 

DECCAN,  a  term,  rather  of  historical 
interest  than  of  actual  use,  applied 
sometimes  to  the  whole  peninsula  of 
Hindustan  to  the  S.  of  the  Vindhya  Moun- 
tains, which  separate  it  from  the  basin 
of  the  Ganges;  and  sometimes  restricted 
to  that  portion  of  the  same  which  is 
rather  vaguely  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  Nerbudda,  which  falls  into  the  Gulf 
of  Cambay,  and  on  the  S.  by  the  Kistna 
or  Krishna,  a  tributary  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal. 

DECEBALUS  (de-seb'a-lus),  the  name 
of  several  Dacian  kings,  or  perhaps  a 
general  title  of  honor  borne  by  them. 
One  of  them  distinguished  himself  by 
his  opposition  to  the  Roman  arms  dur- 
ing the  reigns  of  Domitian  and  Trajan. 
He  entered  the  province  of  Moesia,  de- 
feated and  killed  Appius  Sabinus,  the 
Roman  governor,  and  captured  many 
important  towns  and  fortresses.  Domi- 
tian agreed  to  pay  him  a  yearly  tribute, 
which  was  continued  by  Nerva,  but  re- 
fused by  Trajan,  who  subdued  Dacia, 
and  Decebalus,  to  escape  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  victors,  committed  suicide. 

DECEMBEB,  the  last  month  of  the 
year  in  the  old  Roman  calendar,  before 
the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  the  year  began 
with  March,  and  that  which  is  now  the 
12th  was  then  the  10th  month;  hence 
the  name  (decern  "10").  Our  Saxon 
ancesters  called  it  Mindwinter  -  month 
and  Yule-month. 

DECEMVIR  (de-sem'ver),  one  of  a 
body  of  10  magistrates,  in  whom  was 
vested  the  sole  government  of  Rome  for 
a  period  of  two  years,  from  449  B.  c.  to 
447  B.  c.  The  brutal  and  licentious  con- 
duct of  one  of  the  number,  Appius  Clau- 
dius, caused  their  downfall  in  the  latter 
year. 

DECEPTION  ISLAND,  a  volcanic  is- 
land belonging  to  the  South  Shetland 
group  m  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  directly 
S.  of  Cape  Horn.  Amid  its  ice-covered 
rocks  lies  a  crater-lake,  five  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, surrounded  by  hot  springs. 

DECHENITE  (named  after  the  Ger- 
man  geologist.   Von   Dechen),  a   red   or 


yellow  greasy  mineral,  occurring  mas- 
sive, botryoidal,  nodular,  stalactitic,  and 
at  times  slightly  columnar.  Found  in 
Germany. 

DECIDUOUS  TREES,  those  which  an- 
nually lose  and  renew  their  leaves.  In 
cold  and  temperate  countries  the  fall  of 
the  leaf  in  autumn,  and  the  restoration 
of  verdure  to  the  woods  in  spring,  are 
among  the  most  familiar  phenomena  of 
nature.  The  greater  part  of  the  trees 
and  shrubs  of  temperate  regions  are  de- 
ciduous; but  within  the  tropics  the  for- 
est retains  always  its  luxuriance  of 
foliage,  except  in  countries  where  the 
dry  season  is  extremely  marked.  Trees 
not  deciduous  are  called  evergreen. 

DECIMAL  ARITHMETIC,  the  com- 
mon system  of  arithmetic,  in  which  the 
figures  represent  a  different  value,  pro- 
gressing or  decreasing  by  tens;  the 
value  increasing  tenfold  for  each  place 
nearer  to  the  left  hand,  and  decreasing 
tenfold  for  each  place  nearer  the  right 
hand.  Also  that  part  of  the  science  of 
numerical  calculation  which  treats  of 
decimal  fractions. 

DECIMAL  FRACTION,  a  fraction 
whose    denominator    is    a    decimal     or 

1234 
power  of  10.     Thus  ■  is  a  decimal 


fraction, 
the  sum 
1000 

100 


100 
It   may   be   decomposed   into 


200 

+     + 


100 


=  10     + 


30 

100 
3 


+ 


100 

4 

2     -f-     -f     


10 


100 


By  an  obvious  extension  of  the  method 
of  local  values,  where  each  digit  has  10 
times  the  value  of  the  like  digit  which 
immediately  succeeds  it,  the  above  deci- 
mal fraction  may  clearly  be  written 
more  concisely  in  the  form  12.34,  where 
the  decimal  rioint  after  the  two  merely 
serves  to  indiciite  which  digit  represents 
units.  In  this  abbreviated  form  a  deci- 
mal fraction  is  termed  a  decimal.  For 
the  purpose  of  indicating  the  unit's 
place,  other  and  less  objectionable  meth- 
ods have  been  proposed.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton's  method,  however,  of  using  a 
point,  placed  for  distinction  near  the  top 
of  the  figures,  is  the  one  most  comrnonly 
employed.  The  operations  of  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  and  .  divi- 
sion may  be  applied  to  decimals  in  ex- 
actly the  same  manner  as  to  integers; 
hence  their  great  utility.  They  present, 
nevertheless,  this  disadvantage,  that 
comparatively  few  fractional  quantities 
or  i-emainders  can  be  exactly  expressed 
by  them;  in  other  words,  the  greater 
number  of  common  fractions  cannot  be 


DECIMAL  SYSTEM 


295 


DECLABATION  OF  TNDEP'E 


reduced,  as  it  is  called,  to  decimal  frac- 
tions, without  leaving  a  remainder. 
Common  fractions,  such  as  1-2,  2-3,  1-4, 
3-7,  and  9-25,  for  instance,  can  be  re- 
duced to  decimal  fractions  only  by  mul- 
tiplying the  numerator  and  denominator 
of  each  by  such  a  number  as  will  convert 
the  denominator  into  10,  or  100,  1,000, 
etc.  (The  common  process  is  merely  an 
abridgement  of  this.)  But  that  is  pos- 
sible only  when  the  denominator  divides 
10,  or  iOO,  without  remainder.  Thus, 
of  the  above  denominators,  2  is  con- 
tained in  10,  5  times;  4  in  100,  25 
times;  and  25  in  100,  4  times;  therefore, 

1  1x5  5  1         1x25 

2  ~  2x5  "~    10  ~   "    '     4  ~    4x25 
25  9  9x4  36 

=  =   .25;     —  =  =  .36 

100  25         25x4         100 

But  neither  3  nor  7  will  divide  10,  or 
any  power  of  10;  and  therefore  these 
numbers  cannot  produce  powers  of  10 
by  multiplication.  In  such  cases  we  can 
only  approximate  to  the  value  of  the 
fraction. 

DECIMAL  SYSTEM,  the  name  given 
to  any  system  of  weights,  measures,  or 
money  in  which  the  unit  is  always  multi- 
plied by  10  or  some  power  of  10  to  give 
a  higher  denomination,  and  divided  by 
10  or  a  power  of  10  for  a  lower  denom- 
ination. This  system  has  been  rigidly 
carried  out  in  France,  and  the  principle 
is  observed  in  the  coinage  of  Belgium, 
Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  the  United 
States,  and  other  countries.  To  express 
the  higher  denominations,  that  is  to  say, 
the  unit  multiplied  by  10,  100,  1,000, 
10,000,  the  French  make  use  of  the  pre- 
ifixes  deca,  hecta,  kilo,  myria,  derived 
from  the  Greek;  thus  the  meter  being 
the  unit  of  length,  decameter  is  10 
meters,  hectometer  100  meters,  kilo- 
meter 1,000  meters.  To  express  lower 
denominations,  that  is,  tenths,  hun- 
dredths, etc.,  the  Latin  prefixes  deci, 
centi,  nnUli  are  used  in  the  same  way; 
thus  a  centiliter  is  the  hundredth  part 
of  a  liter,  deciliter  the  tenth  part  of  a 
liter.  The  basis  of  the  whole  system  is 
the  linear  measure,  the  unit  of  which  is 
the  meter,  supposed  to  be  the  ten-mil- 
lionth part  of  a  quadrant  of  the  earth's 
meridian  (39.37  inches).  The  square  of 
10  meters,  or  square  decameter,  called 
an  are,  is  the  unit  of  surface  measure. 
The  cube  of  the  tenth  part  of  the  meter, 
or  cubic  decimeter,  called  liter,  is  the 
U.nit  of  liquid  capacity.  The  cube  of  the 
ineter,  called  a  stere,  is  the  unit  of  solid 
measure.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  centi- 
meter of  distilled  water  at  39.2°  F. 
(4°  C),  called  a  gramme,  is  the  unit 
of   weight.     The   unit   of   money   is   the 


franc,  which  is  divided  into  decimes  and 
centimes. 

DECIUS  (de'shus),  a  Roman  emperor; 
born  in  Pannonia,  and  succeeded  Philip- 
pus,  whom  he  defeated,  in  249.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  an  expedition 
against  the  Goths,  and  by  persecuting 
the  Christians.  In  his  march  against 
the  Goths  he  entered  a  morass,  where 
he  and  his  army  perished  in  an  attack 
of  the  enemy,  A.  D.  251. 

DECK,  a  horizontal  platform  or  floor 
extending  from  side  to  side  of  a  ship, 
and  formed  of  planking  supported  by 
the  beams.  In  ships  of  large  size  there 
are  several  decks  one  over  the  other. 
The  quarter-deck  is  that  above  the  up- 
per-deck, reaching  forward  from  the 
stern  to  the  gangway. 

DECKER,  THOMAS.  See  Dekker. 
Thomas. 

DECLARATION.  (1)  That  part  of  the 
process  or  pleadings  in  which  a  state- 
ment of  the  plaintiff's  complaint  against 
the  defendant  is  set  forth,  with  the  ad- 
ditional circumstances  of  time  and  place, 
when  and  where  the  injury  was  com- 
mitted where  these  are  requisite.  (2) 
A  simple  affirmation  allowed  in  certain 
cases  to  be  taken  instead  of  an  oath  or 
solemn  affirmation.  (3)  The  statement 
made  by  a  prisoner  on  being  arrested  on 
suspicion  of  a  crime,  which  is  taken 
down  in  writing. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPEND- 
ENCE, a  document  drawn  up  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  American  Congress,  con- 
sisting of  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Vir- 
ginia; John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts; 
Roger  Sherman,  of  Connecticut;  Robert 
R.  Livingston,  of  New  York;  and  Benja- 
min Franklin,  of  Pennsylvania.  A 
draft  was  reported  by  this  committee  on 
June  28.  On  July  2  a  resolution  was 
adopted  declaring  the  colonies  free  and 
independent  States,  and  on  July  4,  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  agreed 
to,  engrossed  on  paper,  and  signed  by 
John  Hancock,  President.  It  was  after- 
wai'd  engrossed  on  parchment  and 
signed  by  the  representatives  of  the 
States  as  below.  The  independence  of 
the  United  States  was  acknowledged  by 
France,  Jan.  16,  1778,  and  by  Holland, 
April  19,  1782;  and  provisional  articles 
of  peace  were  signed  by  England,  Sept. 
3,  1782. 

The  Declaration,  as  agreed  to,  fol- 
lows: 

A     DECLARATION 

BY  THE  BEPEESENTATIVES   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 
OF    AMERICA,    IN    CONGRESS    ASSEMBLED 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  be- 
comes necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the 
political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with 
another,   and   to   assume,    among  the   powers    of 


DECLABATION  OF  INDEP'E 


296 


DECXARATION  OF  INDEP'E 


the  earth,  the  separate,  and  equal  station  to 
which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God 
entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of 
mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the 
3euses  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that 
all  men  are  created  equal ;  that  they  are  en- 
dowed by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable 
rights  ;  that  among  these,  are  life,  liberty,  and 
the  pursuit  of  happiness.  That  to  secure  these 
rights,  governments  are  instituted  among  men, 
deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of 
the  governed  ;  that,  whenever  any  form  of  gov- 
ernment becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  Is 
the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it, 
and  to  institute  a  new  government,  laying  its 
foundation  on  such  principles,  and  organizing 
its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem 
most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happiness. 
Prudence,  Indeed,  will  dictate  that  governments 
long  established  should  not  be  changed  for  light 
and  transient  causes;  and,  accordingly,  all  ex- 
perience hath  shown,  that  mankind  are  more 
disposed  to  suffer,  while  evils  are  sufferable, 
than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms 
to  which  they  are  accustomed.  But,  when  a 
long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing 
invariably  the  same  object,  evinces  a  design  to 
reduce  them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their 
right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  govern- 
ment, and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their  fu- 
ture security.  Such  has  been  the  patient  suffer- 
ance of  these  colonies,  and  such  is  now  the  ne- 
cessity which  constrains  them  to  alter  their 
former  systems  of  government.  The  history  of 
the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history 
of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having, 
in  direct  object,  the  establishment  of  an  abso- 
lute tyranny  over  these  States.  To  prove  this, 
let  facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid  world  : 

He  has  refused  to  assent  to  laws  the  most 
wholesome  and  necessary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws 
of  immediate  and  pressing  Importance,  unless 
suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  assent 
should  be  obtained  ;  and,  when  so  suspended,  he 
has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  large  districts  of  people,  unless 
those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  rep- 
resentation in  the  legislature ;  a  right  inesti- 
mable to  them,   and   formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at 
places  unusual,  uncomfortable,  and  distant  from 
the  dfpository  of  their  public  records,  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance 
with   'is   measures. 

He  iias  dissolved  representative  houses  re- 
peatedly, for  opposing,  with  manly  firmness,  his 
invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such 
dissolutiors,  to  cause  others  to  be  elected ; 
whereby  tiic  legislative  powers,  incapable  of  an- 
nihilation, hnve  returned  to  the  people  at  large 
for  their  exercise ;  the  State  remaining,  in  the 
meantime,  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  inva- 
sion from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population 
of  these  States ;  for  that  purpose,  obstructing 
the  laws  for  naturalization  of  foreigners  ;  refus- 
ing to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migration 
hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  appro- 
priations of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  Jus- 
tice, by  refusing  his  assent  to  laws  for  establish- 
ing judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will 
alone,  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices,  and  the 
amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and 
sent  hither  swarms  of  ofilcers  to  harass  our 
people,  and  eat  out  of  their  aubstance. 

He  has  kept  among  us.  In  times  of  peace, 
standing  armies  without  the  consent  of  our  leg- 
islatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  inde- 
pendent of,   and   superior  to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined,  with  others,  to  subject  us 
to  a  Jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  constitution,  and 


unacknowledged  by  our  laws ;  giving  his  assent 
to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation  : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops 
among  us  : 

For  protecting  them  by  a  mock  trial  from 
punishment,  for  any  murders  which  they  should 
commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these   States  : 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the 
world  : 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent : 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  bene- 
fit of  trial   by  jury  : 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas  to  be  tried 
for  pretended  offenses  : 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English 
laws  in  a  neighboring  province,  establishing 
therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging 
its  boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an 
example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the 
same  absolute  rule  into  these  colonies  : 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our 
most  valuable  laws,  and  altering,  fundamentally, 
the   powers   of  our   governments : 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  de- 
claring themselves  Invested  with  power  to  leg- 
islate for  us  in  all  cases  whatsover  : 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  de- 
claring us  out  of  his  protection,  and  waging 
war   against   us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our 
coasts,  burnt  our  towns,  and  destroyed  the  lives 
of  our  people. 

He  is,  at  this  time,  transporting  large  armies 
of  foreign  mercenaries  to  complete  the  works  of 
death,  desolation,  and  tyranny,  already  begun, 
with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and  perfidy 
scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages, 
and  totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized 
nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken 
captive  on  the  high  seas,  to  bear  arms  against 
their  country,  to  become  the  executioners  of 
their  friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves 
by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst 
us,  and  has  endeavored  to  bring  on  the  inhab- 
itants of  our  frontiers,  the  merciless  Indl^in 
savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an 
undistinguished  destruction,  of  all  ages,  sexes, 
and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions,  we  have 
petitioned  for  redress.  In  the  most  humble 
terms ;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  an- 
swered only  by  repeated  injury.  A  prince, 
whose  character  Is  thus  naarked  by  every  act 
which  may  define  a  tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the 
ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our 
British  brethren.  We  have  warned  them,  from 
time  to  time,  of  attempts  made  by  their  legis- 
lature to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction 
over  us.  'We  have  reminded  them  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  our  emigration  and  settlement 
here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice 
and  magnanimity,  and  we  have  conjured  them, 
by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred,  to  disavow 
these  usurpations,  which  would  Inevitably  inter- 
rupt our  connections  and  correspondence.  They, 
too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and 
consanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in 
the  necessity,  which  denounces  our  separation, 
and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  Ihe  rest  of  mankind, 
enemies  in  war — in  peace,  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  in  General  Congress 
assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  ot 
the  World  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions, 
do,  in  the  name,  and  by  the  authority  of  the 
good  people  of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish 
and  declare.  That  these  United  Colonies  are,  and 
of  right  ought  to  be.  Free  and  Independent 
States;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  alle- 
giance to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  polit- 
ical connection  between  them  and  the  State  Of 
Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be.  totally  dis- 
solved :  and  that  as  free  and  independent  States, 
they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude 
peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce, 
and  to  do  all  other  acta  and  things  which  Inde- 


DECLARATION  OF  RIGHTS 


297 


DECORATION  DAY 


pendent  States  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the 
Bupport  of  this  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance 
on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mu- 
tually pledge  to  each  other,  our  lives,  our  for- 
tunes, and  our  sacred  honor. 

JOHN    HANCOCK. 

New  Hampshire.— Josiah  Bartlett, 
Wm.  Whipple,  Matthew  Thornton. 

Massachusetts  Bay. — Saml.  Adams, 
John  Adams,  Robt.  Treat  Paine,  El- 
bridge  Gerry. 

Rhode  Island,  Etc. — Steph.  Hop- 
kins,  William  Ellery. 

Connecticut. — Roger  Sherman,  Sam'l 
Huntington,  Wm.  Williams,  Oliver  Wol- 
cott. 

New  York. — Wm.  Floyd,  Phil.  Liv- 
ingston, Frans.  Lewis,  Lewis  Morris. 

New  Jersey. — Richd.  Stockton,  Jno. 
Witherspoon,  Frans.  Hopkinson,  John 
Hart,  Abra.  Clark. 

Pennsylvania. — Robt.  Morris,  Ben- 
jamin Rush,  Benja.  Franklin,  John 
Morton,  Geo.  Clymer,  Jas.  Smith,  Geo. 
Taylor,  James  Wilson,  Geo.  Ross. 

Delaware. — Caesar  Rodney,  Geo.  Read, 
Tho.  M'Kean. 

Maryland. — Samuel  Chase,  Wm.  Paca, 
Thos.  Stone,  Charles  Carroll  of  Carroll- 
ton. 

Virginia. — George  Wythe,  Richard 
Henry  Lee,  Thos.  Jefferson,  Benja. 
Harrison,  Thos.  Nelson,  Jr.,  Francis 
Lightfoot  Lee,  Carter  Braxton. 

North  Carolina.  —  Wm.  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes,  John  Penn. 

South  Carolina. — Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Heyward,  Jr.,  Thomas  Lynch, 
Jr.,  Arthur  Middleton. 

Georgia. — Button  Gwinnett,  Lyman 
Hall,  Geo.  Walton. 

DECLARATION  OF  RIGHTS,  a  dec- 
laration drawn  up  by  Parliament,  and 
presented  to  William  III.  and  Mary  on 
their  acceptance  of  the  Crown  of  Eng- 
land, 1689.  In  it  Parliament  claimed 
the  right  of  Englishmen  to  keep  arms  for 
their  own  defense;  that  the  election  of 
members  of  Parliament  ought  to  be 
free;  that  no  excessive  fines  or  unusual 
punishments  should  be  inflicted;  that 
money  should  not  be  raised  without  the 
consent  of  Parliament;  that  a  standing 
army  must  not  be  raised  or  kept  up  in 
times  of  peace  without  the  consent  of 
Parliament,  etc.  These  articles  were 
afterward  embodied  in  the  Bill  of  Rights. 

DECLENSION,  in  grammar,  the  ag- 
gregate of  the  inflections  or  changes  of 
form  which  nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjec- 
tives receive  in  certain  languages  ac- 
cording to  their  meaning  or  relation  to 
other  words  in  a  sentence,  such  varia- 
tions being  comprehended  under  the 
three  heads  of  number,  gender,  and  case, 
the  latter  beinjc  the  most  numerous. 


DECLINATION,  in  astronomy,  the 
distance  of  a  heavenly  body  from  the 
celestial  equator  (equinoctial),  meas- 
ured on  a  great  circle  passing  through 
the  pole  and  also  through  the  body.  It 
is  said  to  be  N.  or  S.  according  as  the 
body  is  N.  or  S.  of  the  equator.  Great 
circles  passing  through  the  poles,  and 
cutting  the  equator  at  right  angles,  are 
called  circles  of  declination.  Twenty- 
four  circles  of  declination,  dividing  the 
equator  into  24  arcs  of  15°  each,  are 
called  hour  circles  or  horary  circles. 
Declination  of  the  compass  or  needle, 
or  magnetic  declination,  is  the  variation 
of  the  magnetic  needle  from  the  true 
meridian  of  a  place.  This  is  different 
at  different  places,  and  at  the  same  place 
at  different  times. 

DECLINOMETER  (dek-li-nom'e-ter), 
an  instrument  for  determining  the  mag- 
netic declination,  and  for  observing  its 
variations.  In  magnetic  observatories 
there  are  permanent  instruments  of  this 
kind,  and  they  are  now  commonly  made 
self -registering.  Such  instruments  reg- 
ister the  small  hourly  and  annual  vari- 
ations in  declination,  and  also  the 
variations  due  to  magnetic  storms. 

DECOCTION,  the  term  applied  in 
pharmacy  to  the  solution  procured  by 
boiling  an  organic  substance  with  water. 

DECOLORIMETER  (de-kol-6-rim'€- 
ter),  an  instrument  for  determining  the 
power  of  portions  of  bone-black  or  ani- 
mal charcoal  to  abstract  coloring  matter. 

DECOMPOSITION,  the  rather  com- 
prehensive term  applied  to  the  breaking 
up  of  complex  substances  or  substances 
of  delicate  stability,  into  others  which 
are  less  complex  or  more  stable.  The 
term  decomposition  is  constantly  applied 
in  chemistry  to  the  changes  which  com- 
pounds undergo  in  the  most  varied  cir- 
cumstances when  subjected  to  change  of 
conditions. 

DE  COPPET,  CAMILLE,  a  Swiss 
statesman  and  former  president  of  the 
Republic.  He  was  born  in  the  canton 
of  Vaud,  1862,  and  received  his  educa- 
tion in  the  cantonal  schools.  As  a 
young  man  he  engaged  in  politics,  at- 
taching himself  to  the  Radical  Democrat 
party.  He  soon  distinguished  himself 
by  his  political  ability  and  took  a  fore- 
most position  at  the  head  of  his  party. 
In  1912  he  became  member  of  the  Fed- 
eral Council;  later  he  became  head  of 
the  War  Department.  Finally  be  was 
elected  President  of  the  Federal  Council 
of  Switzerland  for  1916. 

DECORATION  DAY,  a  day  set  apart 
for  decorating  the  graves  of  soldiers  and 
sailors  who  fell  in  the  American   Civil 


DECOBATIONS 


298 


DECREE 


War  (1861-1865)  and  in  other  wars.  The 
practice  of  setting  aside  a  day  to  visit 
the  graves  of  the  fallen  soldiers  recall 
the  memory  of  their  noble  deeds,  and 
strew  their  tombs  with  flowers,  took  its 
rise  early  in  the  Civil  War;  first  in  par- 
ticular places,  here  a  city,  there  a  vil- 
lage, or  it  might  be  a  county.  In  time, 
many  State  Legislatures  were  induced 
to  make  a  given  day  a  legal  holiday  for 
this  purpose,  and  the  President  and  gov- 
ernors were  led  to  unite  in  recommending 
the  observance  of  the  same  day  (May 
30),  now  known  as  "Decoration  Day," 
in  every  State  of  the  Union.  In  the 
Southern  States  various  days  in  April 
are  set  apart  for  decorating  the  graves 
of  the  Confederate  dead,  and  the  name 
"Memorial  Day"  is  more  commonly  used 
there  than  Decoration  Day. 

DECORATIONS,  the  badges,  medals, 
and  ribbons  of  any  order  of  nobility  or 
merit.  The  most  noted  are  those  of  the 
Order  of  the  Garter,  of  the  Leg^ion  of 
Honor,  of  the  Loyal  Legion,  and  the  sev- 
eral European  decorations  bestowed  by 
sovereigns.  American  citizens  holding 
office  under  the  United  States  govern- 
ment are  not  permitted  to  accept  deco- 
rations from  foreign  rulers  without  the 
consent  of  Congress.  See  Service 
Medals  and  Decorations. 

DECORATIVE  ART,  that  form  of  art 
that  has  for  its  purpose  the  appropriate 
adornment  of  some  utilitarian  object, 
thereby  adding  to  its  beauty,  but  not  to 
its  usefulness.  It  differs  from  the 
painter's  art  by  being  subordinate  to  the 
article  to  which  it  is  applied.  It  may  be 
divided  into  (1)  architectural  decoration 
and  (2)  design.  Architectural  decora- 
tion applied  to  the  adornment  of  special 
buildings  or  to  the  symmetrical  combina- 
tion of  buildings  in  cities  is  either  plas- 
tic or  chromatic.  Plastic  decoration 
may  be  (1)  purely  architectural,  as  for 
instance,  buttresses,  cornices,  and  col- 
umns and  their  capitals,  which,  while 
being  necessary  parts  of  the  building, 
are  carved  or  molded  into  beautiful 
forms;  (2)  purely  ornamental,  like 
flower  or  scroll  work  applied  to  sur- 
faces; or  (3)  purely  plastic  like  cary- 
atids, or  figures  of  men  or  animals  used 
in  special  niches.  Chromatic  decoration 
may  be  done  by  means  of  painting  in 
oils  or  distemper,  of  mosaics  in  stone, 
glass  or  brick,  or  of  bronze,  or  other 
metals.  Interior  mural  painting  is  also 
an  important  form  of  decoration. 

Design  is  applied  to  objects  of  com- 
mon use,  such  as  fabrics,  wall  paper, 
furniture,  household  utensils,  books  and 
the  like,  there  being  few  things  so  utili- 
tarian as  to  show  no  trace  of  it.  It  is 
expressed  in  both  form  and  color. 


This  is  the  earliest  form  of  art,  as 
the  work  of  prehistoric  man  on  bone  and 
weapon  shows,  beginning  as  a  pictorial 
representation  of  their  exploits ;  and  also 
made  manifest  as  an  instinct  of  the  race 
by  the  way  savages  tattoo  their  bodies, 
carve  their  totem  poles  or  weapons,  weave 
patterns  into  their  blankets,  and  deco- 
rate their  utensils  and  wigwams. 

The  Greeks  reached  a  high  degree  of 
perfection  in  decorative  art,  but  their 
efforts  were  especially  applied  to  their 
temples  and  public  buildings,  and  purely 
architectural.  The  Romans,  especially 
in  later  times,  showed  great  skill  in 
frescoing  the  walls  of  palaces  and  pri- 
vate houses  with  beautiful  or  grotesque 
designs,  as  well  as  in  applied  design. 

In  modern  times  the  French  may  be 
called  the  masters  of  decorative  art,  but 
since  the  beginning  of  the  20th  century 
a  group  of  men  and  women  in  England 
and  in  the  United  States  have  attained 
supremacy  in  applied  design.  Mural 
painting  has  again  come  to  the  front 
in  France,  while  the  United  States 
shows  some  of  the  finest  examples  of 
modern  architectural  design  and  deco- 
ration in  such  buildings  as  the  Boston 
Public  Library  and  the  Congressional 
Library  in  Washington. 

DE  COSTA,  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN, 
an  American  clergyman  and  writer; 
born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  July  10, 
1831.  Included  in  his  many  publications 
are:  "The  Pre-Columbian  Discovery  of 
Aaierica  by  the  Northmen"  (1869)  ; 
"The  Moabite  Stone"  (1870)  ;  and  "The 
Rector  of  Roxburgh,"  a  novel  under  the 
pen-name  of  "William  Hickling"  (1873). 
He  became  president  (1884)  of  the  first 
branch  of  the  "White  Cross  Society,"  of 
which  he  was  the  organizer.  He  died  in 
1904. 

DECOY,  a  place  into  which  wild  fowls 
are  decoyed  in  order  to  be  caught.  A 
decoy  pond  is  kept  only  in  a  secluded 
situation.  Several  channels  or  pipes  of 
a  curved  form,  covered  with  light  hooped 
net-work,  lead  from  the  pond  in  various 
directions.  The  wild  fowl  are  enticed  to 
enter  the  wide  mouth  of  the  channel  by 
tamed  ducks,  also  called  decoys,  trained 
for  the  purpose,  or  by  grain  scattered  on 
the  water.  When  they  have  got  well 
into  the  covered  channel  they  are  sur- 
prised by  the  decoy-man  and  his  dog, 
and  driven  up  into  the  funnel  net  at  the 
far  end,  where  they  are  easily  caught. 
The  details  differ  in  different  cases,  but 
this  is  the  general  principle  of  the  con- 
trivance. 

DECREE,  in  general,  an  order,  edict, 
or  law  made  by  a  superior  as  a  rul-^  to 
govern  inferiors.  In  law  it  is  a  judicial 
decision  or  determination  of  a  litigated 


DECRESCENT 


299 


DEED 


cause.  Formerly,  in  England,  the  term 
■was  specially  used  for  the  judgment  of 
a  court  of  equity,  but  the  word  judgment 
is  now  used  in  reference  to  the  decisions 
of  all  the  divisions  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  The  word  is  still  used  in  Scot- 
land for  the  final  judgment  of  a  court, 
frequently  in  the  form  decreet. 

DECRESCENT,  a  heraldic  term  by 
which  the  wane  of  the  moon  is  indicated. 
A  moon  decrescent  is  a  half-moon  with 
her  horns  turned  to  the  (heraldic)  sin- 
ister— i.  e.,  the  right  of  the  spectator. 

DECRETALS,  a  general  name  for  the 
Papal  decrees,  comprehending  the  re- 
scripts (answers  to  inquiries  and  peti- 
tions), decrees  (judicial  decisions  by  the 
Rota  Romana) ,  mandates  (official  in- 
structions for  ecclesiastical  officers, 
courts,  etc.),  edicts  (Papal  ordinances 
in  general),  and  general  resolutions  of 
the  councils.  The  decretals  form  a  most 
important  portion  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic canon  law,  the  authoritative  collec- 
tion of  them  being  that  made  by  the  or- 
ders of  Gregory  IX.  and  published  in 
1234. 

DEDHAM,  a  town  of  Massachusetts, 
the  county-seat  of  Norfolk  co.  It  in- 
cludes three  villages  and  is  on  the 
Charles  river,  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroad. 
Though  it  is  chiefly  a  residential  sub- 
urb of  Boston,  it  has  important  indus- 
tries, including  manufacturies  of  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  carpets,  handker- 
chiefs, and  pottery.  The  notable  build- 
ings include  a  memorial  hall,  a  public 
library,  and  the  Historical  Society  build- 
ing. It  also  contains  a  county  court 
house,  a  jail,  and  a  house  of  correction. 
The  town  was  settled  in  1636  and  was 
incorporated  in  the  same  year.  The  first 
free  school  in  America  was  established 
herein  1645.  Pop.  (1910)  9,284;  (1920) 
10,792. 

DEDUCTION,  in  logic,  as  opposed  to 
induction,  is  the  method  of  reasoning 
from  generals  to  particulars,  as  the  lat- 
ter is  from  particulars  to  generals.  In- 
duction is  the  mode  by  which  all  the 
materials  of  knowledge  are  brought  to 
the  mind  and  analyzed ;  deductions,  the 
process  by  which  the  knowledge  thus 
acquired  is  utilized,  and  by  which  new 
and  more  complicated  inductions  are 
rendered  possible.  Thus  every  step  in 
a  deduction  is  also  an  induction. 

DEE,  the  name  of  several  British 
rivers.  (1)  A  river  of  Scotland,  partly 
in  Kincardineshire,  but  chiefly  in  Aber- 
deenshire, one  of  the  most  finely  wooded 
and  one  of  the  best  salmon  rivers  in 
Great  Britain.  It  rises  on  the  S.  W. 
border  of  Aberdeenshire,  and  flows  sren- 


erally  E.  87  miles  to  the  Gei'man  ocean, 
having  Aberdeen  at  its  mouth.  (2)  A 
river  of  north  Wales  and  Cheshire;  rises 
in  Lake  Bala,  Merionethshire;  flows  N. 
E.,  N.,  and  N.  W.  to  the  Irish  Sea  20 
miles  below  Chester;  length,  about  80 
miles.  The  ancient  Britons  held  its  waters 
sacred.  (3)  A  river  of  Scotland,  county 
of  Kirkcudbright,  rises  in  Loch  Dee,  a 
lonely  lake,  7  furlongs  long  and  from 
IJ/j  to  4  furlongs  wide,  situated  among 
the  western  hills.  It  flows  S.  E.  and  S., 
and  falls  into  Kirkcudbright  Bay; 
length,  38  miles. 

DEED,  an  instrument  in  writing  or  in 
print,  or  partly  in  each,  comprehending 
the  term  of  a  contract  or  agreement,  and 
the  evidence  of  its  due  execution  be- 
tween parties  legally  capable  of  entering 
into  a  contract  or  agreement. 

In  the  United  States,  the  formalities 
required  for  the  transfer  of  real  estate 
are  governed  by  local  laws.  Generally 
throughout  the  States,  signing,  sealing, 
attestation,  acknowledgment,  and  de- 
livery are  the  essential  requisites  of  a 
valid  deed  of  conveyance.  The  usual  form 
of  attestation  being  "signed,  sealed,  ac- 
knowledged, and  delivered  in  the  pres- 
ence of  us  witnesses,"  then  follow  the 
names  of  the  subscribing  witnesses.  The 
grantor  must  himself  sign  the  deed,  or  if 
it  is  signed  by  his  agent  he  must  adopt 
the  signature  as  his  own  in  the  presence 
of  the  subscribing  witnesses  and  the 
commissioner  or  other  qualified  officer. 
In  the  United  States,  a  "deed,"  techni- 
cally speaking,  is  an  instrument  under 
seal;  hence  a  seal,  although  a  mere  for- 
mality, is  essential,  except  in  those 
States  in  v/hich  seals  have  been  abol- 
shed  by  statute.  Neither  wax  nor  wafer 
s  necessary  for  a  seal,  although  a  wafer 
s  generally  used.  A  scroll  with  a  pen 
nclosing  the  letters  "L.  S."  is  a  seal 
within  the  meaning  of  the  law,  if  it  is 
the  intention  of  the  party  appending  it 
to  adopt  it  as  his  seal,  and  by  its  use  a 
specialty  is  created,  the  same  as  by  the 
use  of  wax  or  wafer.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  refer  to  the  fact  of  sealing  in  the 
attestation  clause.  The  number  of  wit- 
nesses required  is  governed  by  statutes 
in  most  of  the  States.  Generally  two  are 
required,  but  in  some  of  the  States  only 
one  witness  is  necessary  if  the  grantor 
can  read.  It  has  been  held  that  inde- 
pendent of  any  statute,  a  deed  signed, 
sealed,  and  delivered,  without  being  ac- 
knowledged or  recorded,  is  valid  as  be- 
tween the  parties  and  their  privies,  but 
the  provisions  of  a  local  statute  as  to  the 
execution  of  a  deed  must  be  strictly  fol- 
lowed, or  the  deed  is  inoperative. 

Delivery,  although  essential  to  the 
validity  of  a  deed,  need  not  be  formally 
made  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  but 


DEEP-SEA  EXPLORATION 


300 


DEEP-SEA  EXPLORATION 


may  be  a  matter  of  circumstance.  A 
deed  takes  effect  from  the  date  of  actual 
delivery,  or  the  date  of  record.  Every- 
where in  the  United  States  it  is  the  lavsr 
that  deeds  of  conveyance  must  be  re- 
corded either  in  the  proper  office  of  the 
county  in  which  the  land  lies — or  if  the 
conveyance  be  by  grant  or  letters  patent 
from  the  State  or  United  States,  the  rec- 
ord must  be  made  in  the  land  office  of 
the  State  or  United  States.  The  record- 
ing of  a  deed  has  the  force  of  seisin  and 
possession  under  the  English  law.  Any 
estate  less  than  a  fee  may  be  conveyed 
by  deed  with  single  acknowledgment, 
but  if  the  estate  sought  to  be  conveyed 
is  a  fee,  the  husband  and  wife  must  join 
in  the  deed  and  acknowledge  it  sepa- 
rately. Deeds  of  conveyance  of  lands 
sold  at  judicial  sale,  or  for  taxes  for 
several  successive  years  and  unredeemed 
made  by  the  sheriff  of  the  county,  and 
deeds  made  in  pursuance  of  a  decree  of 
court  by  the  officer  appointed  for  that 
purpose,  are  as  effectual  as  if  made  by 
the  grantor  and  his  heirs,  and  must  be 
executed  with  the  same  formalities  and 
recorded  within  15  days;  neither  is  it 
necessary  to  set  forth  in  the  deed  as  a 
part  of  the  title  the  proceedings  which 
culminate  in  the  decree  of  sale.  Federal 
decisions  as  to  the  formalities  necessary 
to  the  execution  of  a  deed  are  appa- 
rently conflicting.  This  arises  from  the 
application  of  the  principle  that  land 
or  property  must  be  governed  by  the 
law  of  the  place  in  which  it  is  situated, 
and  the  lack  of  uniformity  of  State  laws 
upon  this  subject.  The  United  States 
laws  are  applicable  only  to  lands  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States  and  those  lo- 
cated within  the  territories. 

DEEP-SEA  EXPLORATION,  that 
branch  of  thalassography  which  investi- 
gates the  depths  of  oceans,  seas  or  lakes, 
determines  the  nature  and  distribution 
of  the  organic  life  there  to  be  found,  the 
temperature,  constitution  and  specific 
gravity  of  the  water  at  varying  distances 
from  the  surface,  the  causes  and  char- 
acteristics of  ocean  currents,  the  geologi- 
cal changes  in  the  way  of  gradual  or 
rapid  upheaval  or  subsidence  caused  by 
volcanic  action  and  the  formation  of 
atolls   and   other   islands. 

Measurements  by  means  of  a  weighted 
line  were  used  by  the  earliest  navigators. 
It  is  said  that  in  the  Middle  Ages  depths 
of  8,000  meters  were  attained,  but  the 
accuracy  of  such  soundings  must  be 
questioned.  Sir  John  Ross  in  1818 
brought  up  a  considerable  amount  of  ice- 
cold  slime  from  a  depth  of  978  fathoms. 
On  the  strength  of  these  measurements 
it  was  believed  that  the  greatest  depth 
of  the  ocean  was  to  be  reckoned  as  about 
1,000  fathoms;  but  shortly  after,  Capt. 


Sir  James  Clark  Ross,  during  a  voyage 
to  the  South  Seas  claimed  to  have 
found  between  Brazil  and  St.  Helena,  on 
June  3,  1843,  a  depth  of  more  that  4,- 
800  fathoms.  In  1S47  Captain  Stanley, 
of  the  British  Navy,  reported  soundings 
at  15,000  feet  between  the  coasts  of 
Africa  and  South  America. 

Copper  wire  was  used  instead  of  rope 
for  soundings  as  early  as  1838,  but  it 
proved  to  be  too  weak.  In  1854  J.  M. 
Brooke,  of  the  United  States  Navy,  in- 
vented a  detaching  apparatus  which 
worked  a  revolution  in  deep-sea  opera- 
tions. Since  then  systematic  attempts 
have  been  made  with  improved  sound- 
ing apparatus  and  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  laying  of  cables  to  dis- 
cover the  exact  lay  of  the  submarine 
bottom. 

After  the  "Challenger"  expedition  of 
1872-1876,  two  systems  of  apparatus 
were  invented,  one  by  W.  E.  Hoyle,  as- 
sistant editor  of  the  "Challenger"  re- 
ports; the  other  by  the  Prince  of  Monaco. 
The  latter  machine  goes  down  closed.  It 
opens  automatically  at  the  bottom  by 
means  of  a  spring  shutter  and  is  again 
closed  by  a  "messenger"  before  it  be- 
gins its  ascent. 

No  previous  ship  had  been  so  well 
equipped  for  natural  history  research  as 
the  "Challenger"  which  added  thousands 
of  new  specimens  to  zoQlogy. 

About  the  same  time  with  the  "Chal- 
lenger," the  German  ship  "Gazelle," 
under  Baron  von  Schleinitz,  and  the 
United  States  steamship  "Tuscarora" 
accomplished  a  great  deal  toward  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  deep-sea.  Other  expedi- 
tions were  made  between  1878  and  1882 
by  the  .ship  "Faraday,"  and  by  the  war- 
ship "Gettysburg"  in  1876,  by  the 
"Alaska"  in  1878,  by  the  "Essex"  in 
1877-1878,  by  the  "Saratoga"  in  1879,  and 
by  the  "Wachusett"  in  1879.,  Still  more 
important  results  were  obtained  by  the 
scientific  men  in  charge  of  the  three 
cruises  of  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  steamer  "  Blake"  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States  in  1877-1880. 

Besides  these  specific  explorations  the 
South  Atlantic  Ocean  was  explored  by 
the  steamship  "Seine"  in  1889.  In  the 
Indian  Ocean  the  United  States  warships 
"Enterprise"  and  "Essex"  in  1886  made 
explorations.  The  English  ship  "Egeria" 
in  1887-1889,  made  extensive  measure- 
ments of  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  Indian 
Ocean. 

In  August,  1899,  the  United  States 
ship  "Albatross"  left  San  Francisco 
fully  equipped  with  a  staff  of  scientists, 
for  the  purpose  of  deep-sea  exploration, 
examination    of     coral     reefs,     etc.,     in 


DEER 


301 


DEERFIELD 


Oceanica.  The  first  sounding  was  made 
near  the  Marquesas  at  a  depth  of  1,955 
fathoms.  It  seemed  to  prove  that  this 
group  of  islands  rises  from  a  plateau 
2,000  fathoms  deep  and  50  miles  wide. 
Numerous  soundings  were  taken  in  the 
North  Pacific  by  vessels  of  the  United 
States  Navy  in  1900  for  the  purpose  of 
developing  feasible  cable  routes  between 
the  Hawaiian  and  Philippine  Islands. 
A  soimding  of  5,269  fathoms,  about  70 
miles  to  the  S.  E.  of  Guam  Island  by  the 
"Nero,"  in  1899,  was  taken  in  a  locality 
near  where  the  "Challenger"  in  1875 
took  its  greatest  sounding  (4,475 
fathoms).  This  was  surpassed  by  the 
German  survey  ship  "Planet"  in  1913, 
which  made  a  sounding  of  5,348  fathoms 
4  miles  E.  of  the  north  of  Mindanao. 

The  best  sounding-rod  (as  these  de- 
vices are  termed)  of  to-day  is  doubtless 
the  Brooke  devise  as  modified  by  Ad- 
miral Sigsbee.  Sigsbee's  modification 
may  be  described  as  follows:  the  sinker 
is  an  8-inch  cannon-shot  weighing  60 
pounds.  A  hole  runs  through  it  large 
enough  to  admit  the  sounding  rod.  Upon 
the  shot  are  cast  two  ears,  like  the  ears 
«)n  a  pail,  to  which  a  wire  bai),  like  a 
pail-handle,  is  attached.  The  sounding- 
line  is  fastened  to  the  ring  shown  near 
the  top  of  the  cuts.  The  sounding-rod  is  a 
brass  tube  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
thick,  quite  sharp  on  the  lower  edge.  It 
operates  thus :  The  shot  is  placed  upon 
the  sounding-rod.  As  long  as  the  weight 
of  the  shot  is  borne  by  the  sounding-line 
the  hook  will  sustain  the  shot.  But  the 
moment  that  strain  is  relieved  by  the 
shot  striking  the  bottom  the  hook  doubles 
under  and  releases  the  wire  handle  of 
the  shot.  At  the  same  time  the  weight  of 
the  shot  buries  the  sharp  lower  edge  of 
the  sounding-rod  in  the  bottom.  This 
forces  up  a  valve  and  a  portion  of  the 
bottom  enters.  At  the  first  movement 
toward  reeling  in  the  line  the  shot  slips 
off  the  sounding-rod  and  remains  behind, 
and  the  valve  at  the  bottom  of  the  sound- 
ing-rod closes,  imprisoning  a  sample  of 
the  bottom.  This  device  has  been  tried 
many  hundreds  of  times  in  great  depths, 
and  it  has  rarely  failed  to  detach  the 
shot  as  well  as  bring  up  a  liberal  sample 
of  the  bottom. 

DEER,  a  family  of  the  ruminants  dis- 
tinguished chiefly  by  the  nature  of  the 
horns  or  antlers,  which,  with  the  single 
exception  of  the  reindeer,  are  borne  by 
the  males  only.  They  are  bony  through- 
out, are  annually  shed  and  reproduced 
at  the  breeding  season  increasing  each 
time  in  size  and  the  number  of  branches 
till,  in  the  old  males  of  some  species, 
they  attain  an  enormous  size.  The  ant- 
lers  are   carried   on   the   frontal    bone, 


and  are  produced  by  a  process  not  un- 
like that  by  which  injuries  of  osseous 
structures  are  made  good  in  man.  At 
first  they  are  covered  with  a  sensitive 
skin  or  "velvet";  but  as  development  pro- 
ceeds this  skin  dries  up  and  peels  oft; 
a  bony  ridge  or  "burr"  being  formed  on 
the  antler  just  above  its  base  of  attach- 
ment to  the  frontal  bone.  When  fully 
developed  the  antlers  consist  of  a  main 
stem  or  "beam,"  carrying  one  or  more 
branches  or  "tynes."  When  first  pro- 
duced, in  the  second  year  after  birth, 
the  antler  consists  only  of  the  "beam," 
the  animal  being  then  termed  a  "brocket." 
The  next  year  a  basal  branch  or  "brow- 
tyne"  is  developed;  it  is  then  termed  a 
"spayed";  and  in  the  following  year  a 
second  branch  or  *'tres-tyne,"  directed 
forward,  appears  above  the  former,  the 
hinder  portion  of  the  beam  constituting 
the  "royal."  Should  the  antler  develop 
further,  it  is  by  the  more  or  less  com- 
plete branching  of  these  tynes;  the 
"royal-tyne"  in  particular,  being  very 
liable  to  become  sub-divided  in  succes- 
sive years.  The  musk-deer  and  the 
water-deer  of  China  have  no  horns.   Deer 


FALLOW   DEER 

are  very  generally  distributed,  but  none 
have  yet  been  discovered  in  either  Aus- 
tralia or  South  Africa.  The  largest  liv- 
ing form  is  the  true  elk  (Alces  palmatHs') 
or  moose,  while  the  Indian  muntjacs  are 
among  the  smallest,  the  chevroatins  be- 
ing now  placed  in  a  group  by  themselves. 
Except  tne  reindeer  {Cervus  farandus), 
no  member  of  the  group  has  been  com- 
pletely domesticated.  In  the  fossil  state 
deer  are  not  found  earlier  than  in  the 
Pliocene  period,  while  the  best  known 
extinct  form,  the  Irish  deer,  or  Irish 
elk,  occurs  in  peat  bogs  or  cave  deposits. 

DEERFIELD,  a  town  of  Franklin  co., 

Mass.;  on  the  Connecticut  river,  and  the 

Boston   and   Maine   and   the   New   York, 

New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroads;   33 

20 — Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


DEERGRASS 


302 


DEFLUXION 


•miles  N.  of  Springfield.  It  is  principally 
engaged  in  agriculture  and  the  manu- 
facture of  pocket-books,  and  has  a  high 
school  and  public  library.  The  town  con- 
tains the  village  of  South  Deerfield,  and 
was  the  scene  of  several  contests  with  the 
Indians  in  colonial  times.  Among  them 
were  the  "Bloody  Brook  Massacre" 
(1675)  and  the  burning  of  the  village  by 
the  French  and  Indians  under  De  Rou- 
ville  (1703).  Old  Deerfield  has  a  beau- 
tiful Soldiers'  Monument,  and  there  is 
at  South  Deerfield  a  marble  monument 
commemorative  of  the  Bloody  Brook 
disaster.    Pop.  (1920)  2,803. 

DEERGRASS,  or  MEADOW  BEAU- 
TY, a  genus  of  an  Asiatic  plant  of  the 
order  Melastomaceae,  found  chiefly  in 
New  England.  It  is  noted  for  the  beauty 
of  its  flowers,  which  have  bright  purple 
petals,  and  thrives  best  on  meadow  land. 
It  is  said  that  there  are  but  eight  species 
of  the  order  in  the  United  States. 

DEERMOUSE,  a  small  rodent  belong- 
ing to  the  family  Muridse,  which  is  found 
in  abundance  in  this  counti'y.  Its  fur 
shows  various  brownish  or  grayish  tints 
above,  while  the  lower  surface  and  feet, 
up  to  the  wrists  and  ankles,  are  snow- 
•yvhite.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body 
is  about  three  inches.  Its  habits  are  noc- 
turnal, and  it  feeds  on  corn,  of  which, 
with  acorns  and  nuts,  it  lays  up  stores 
for  winter  use. 

DEFAMATION,  the  act  of  defaming 
or  slandering;  the  false  and  malicious 
uttering  of  slanderous  words  with  a  view 
to  damage  the  character,  reputation,  or 
business  of  another;  slander,  calumny, 
libel.  Defamation  of  character  is  action- 
able either  by  indictment  or  by  action; 
but  to  support  an  action  it  is  necessary 
that  the  plaintiflf  should  aver  some  par- 
ticular damage  to  have  happened  to  him. 

DEFAULT,  a  failure  to  appear  in  any 
court  on  the  day  assigned;  especially  ap- 
plied to  a  defendant  when  he  fails  or 
neglects  to  plead  or  put  in  his  answer  in 
the  time  limited.  In  such  cases  the 
plaintiff  is  entitled  to  sign  judgment 
against  him,  which  is  called  judgment  by 
default,  and  the  defendant  is  said  to 
suffer  judgment  by  default. 

DEFENDANT,  in  law,  the  party 
against  whom  a  complaint,  demand,  or 
charge  is  brought;  one  who  is  summoned 
into  court,  and  defends,  denies,  or  opposes 
the  demand  or  charge,  and  maintains  his 
own  right.  The  term  is  applied  even  if 
the  party  admits  the  claim. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH  {Fidei 
Def elisor) ,  a  title  belonging  to  the  King 
of  England,  as  Catholicus  to  the  King  of 
Spain,   Christianissimus  to  the  King  of 


France,  etc.  Leo  X.  bestowed  the  title  of 
Defender  of  the  Faith  on  Henry  VIII.  in 
1521,  on  account  of  his  book  against 
Luther,  and  the  title  has  been  used  by  the 
sovereigns  of  England  ever  since. 

DEFENDERS,  a  Catholic  association 
in  Ireland  (1784-1798),  the  opponents  of 
the  Peep  o'  Day  Boys. 

DEFIANCE,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Defiance  co.,  0.;  on  the  Maumee  river, 
the  Wabash  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
railroads,  and  the  Miami  and  Erie  canal; 
50  miles  S.  of  Toledo.  It  is  a  trade  center 
and  has  woolen  mills,  flour  mills,  ma- 
chine and  carriage  shops,  2  National 
banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1910)  7,327;   (1920)  8,876. 

DEFIANCE  COLLEGE,  a  coeduca- 
tional (non-sect.)  institution  in  Defiance, 
0.;  founded  in  1884;  reported  at  the  end 
of  1919 :  Professors  and  instructors,  25^ 
students,  497;  president  A.  G.  Caris. 

DEFILADING,  that  branch  of  the 
science  of  fortification,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  determine,  when  the  intended 
work  would  be  commanded  by  eminences 
within  range,  the  directions  or  heights  of 
the  lines  of  rampart  or  parapet,  so  that 
the  interior  of  the  work  may  not  be  in- 
commoded by  a  fire  directed  to  it  from 
such  heights. 

DEFINITE  PROPORTIONS,  LAWS 
OF.     See  Atomic  Theory. 

DEFINITION,  the  process  by  which 
we  determine  the  common  qualities  of 
the  objects  belonging  to  any  given  class, 
so  as  to  distinguish  effectively  that  class 
from  other  classes.  Regarding  the  class 
as  a  species,  we  give  the  proximate  genus 
and  the  difference;  genus  here  denoting 
the  distinctive  qualities  belonging  to  all 
of  the  genus,  while  the  difference  marks 
out  the  part  of  the  genus  in  question. 

DEFLAGRATION,  the  term  applied 
to  the  rapid  combustion  of  ignited  char- 
coal when  a  nitrate  (such  as  nitrate  of 
potash)  or  a  chlorate  (such  as  chlorate 
of  potash)  is  thrown  thereon.  As  chlo- 
rates do  not  occur  naturally,  it  follows 
that  deflagration  with  a  natural  salt 
indicates  a  nitrate;  and  if  the  deflagi-a- 
tion  be  accompanied  by  a  violent  flame,  it 
is  characteristic  of  nitrate  of  potash  (or- 
dinary niter  or  saltpeter)  ;  and  if  by  a 
strong  yellow  flame,  it  is  indicative  of 
nitrate  of  soda   (cubical  niter). 

DEFLECTION,  in  navigation,  the  de- 
parture of  a  ship  from  her  true  course; 
in  optics,  a  deviation  of  the  rays  of  light 
toward  the  surface  of  an  opaque  body. 

DEFLUXION,  a  discharge  from  a  mu- 
cous membrane,  especially  of  the  air-paa- 
sages.  a*"  '.n  catarrh. 


DE'FO^ 


303 


DEFORMITIES 


DEFOE,  DANIEL  (de-fo) ,  an  Enf?- 
lish  writer;  born  in  London  in  1661.  In 
1685  he  joined  the  insurrection  of  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  and  had  the  good 
fortune  to  escape;  after  which  he  made 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  at  busi- 
ness, and  at  last  turned  his  attention  to 
literature.  In  1701  appeared  his  satire 
in  verse,  "The  Trueborn  Englishman," 
in  favor  of  William  III.  As  a  zealous 
Whig  and  Dissenter  he  was  frequently  in 
trouble.  For  publishing  "The  Shortest 
Way  with  the  Dissenters"  (1702),  he  was 
pilloried  and  imprisoned  in  Newgate. 
While  in  Newgate,  in  1704,  he  began  the 
"Review,"  a  literary  and  political  period- 
ical which  lasted  for  nine  years.  In  1705 
he  wrote  a  short  account  of  the  "Appari- 
tion of  One  Mrs.  Veal,"  a  fictitious  narra- 
tive. In  1706  he  published  his  longest 
poem,  entitled  "Jure  Divino,"  a  satire  on 
the  doctrine  of  divine  right.  In  1719 
appeared  the  most  popular  of  all  his  per- 

My 


DANIEL   DEFOE 

formances,  "The  Life  and  Surprising 
Adventures  of  Robinson  Crusoe,"  the  fa- 
vorable reception  of  which  was  imme- 
diate and  universal.  The  success  of  De- 
foe in  this  performance  induced  him  to 
write  a  number  of  other  lives  and  adven- 
tures in  character,  as  "Moll  Flanders," 
"Captain  Singleton,"  "Roxana,"  "Dun- 
can," "Campbell,"  "The  Memoirs  of  a 
Cavalier,"  "Journal  of  the  Plague,"  etc. 
After  the  accession  of  George  I.  he  was 
employed  by  the  government  in  some  un- 
derhand work  connected  with  the  obnox- 


ious Jacobite  press.    He  died  in  Loudon, 
April  26,  1731. 

DE  FOREST,  LEE,  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  at  Council  Bluffs,  la.,  1873. 
He  received  his  technical  education  at  the 
Sheffield  Scientific  School  (Yale),  from 
which  he  graduated  in  1896,  then  devoted 
three  years  to  post-graduate  work  at 
Yale.  He  was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  the 
development  of  wireless  telegraphy  in 
this  country.  In  1919  he  had  taken  out 
120  patents  on  radio  telegraphy  and  tele- 
phony, the  most  important  one  of  which 
is  the  Audion,  a  detector  and  amplifier, 
which  made  transcontinental  telephone 
service  possible.  In  1907  he  became  vice- 
president  of  the  Radio  Telephone  Co.  and 
of  the  De  Forest  Radio  Telephone  Co. 

DE  FOREST,  ROBERT  WEEKS,  an 
American  lawyer  and  philanthropist, 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1848.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  in  1870  and  from 
the  Columbia  Law  School  in  1872.  After 
studying  abroad  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1871  and  engaged  in  the  practice 
of  law,  first  with  his  father  and  after- 
ward with  his  sons.  He  was  a  director 
in  many  financial  institutions  and  was 
prominently  identified  with  charitable 
work  in  New  York  City.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 
in  1913.  In  1900  he  was  chairman  of  the 
New  York  State  Tenement  House  Com- 
mission and  in  1903  was  president  of  the 
National  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Correction  of  Atlanta.  He  was  vice- 
president  of  the  American  Red  Cross, 

DEFORMITIES,  variations  in  the 
form  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  or  in  one  or 
more  of  its  parts,  constituting  a  depar- 
ture from  the  normal  conditions  of  struc- 
ture, and  usually  implying  a  correspond- 
ing divergence  from  natural  and  healthy 
functions.  They  may  be  divided  into 
three  groups,  with  reference  to  their  ori- 
gin— the  hereditary,  the  congenital,  and 
the  acquired.  The  first  group  is  charac- 
terized by  a  marked  tendency  to  recur- 
rence in  the  line  of  direct  descent  from 
generation  to  generation,  as  in  those 
cases  where  the  presence  of  extra  fingers 
or  toes  has  become  characteristic  of  many 
members  of  one  family. 

The  chief  varieties  of  malformation, 
coming  under  the  heading  of  congenital 
deformities,  are  the  following:  (1)  As 
regards  the  number  of  parts.  In  the  Si- 
ren, two  lower  extremities  are  fused  into 
one  mass,  but  dissection  shows  that  all 
the  constituent  bones  of  the  limb  may  be 
present,  though  much  distorted,  in  the 
combined  structure.  In  the  Cyclops,  the 
eyes  are  similarly  fused  into  one  irregu- 
lar structure  occupying  the  center  of  the 
face.      (2)   As  regards  the  size  of  parts. 


DEFREGGER 


304 


DEGREE 


This  may  involve  the  v^^hole  body,  as  in 
dwarfs,  of  whom  there  have  been  some 
remarkable  peripatetic  specimens:  the 
Corsican  fairy  was  only  2  feet  7%  inches 
high.  Deformities  the  opposite  of  this 
exist,  such  as  giants,  or  instances  of 
premature  or  excessive  local  growth. 
O'Byrne,  the  Irish  giant,  measured  8  feet 
4  inches  when  he  died  at  the  age  of  22. 
Such  individuals  are  generally  subject  to 
premature  decay.  (3)  As  regards  the 
shape  and  continuity  of  parts.  Distor- 
tion may  occur  from  partial  paralysis  or 
irregular  muscular  action  at  an  early 
stage  of  development,  giving  rise  to 
club-foot,  club-hand,  etc.;  or  natural 
fissures  or  apertures  which  should  close 
in  the  course  of  development  may  remain 
open,  as  in  harelip,  cleft  palate,  and  spina 
bifida. 

Acquired  deformities  arise  in  various 
ways  as  the  result  of  injury  or  disease  at 
any  period  after  birth.  Another  group 
of  these  affections,  known  as  "trade"  de- 
forniities,  are  directly  traceable  to  the 
special  work  done  by  the  person  suffering 
from  them.    See  Darwinian  Theory. 

DEFREGGER,  FRANZ  (def-reg'er) , 
a  German  genre  painter  of  deserved 
popularity;  born  in  Stronach,  in  1835. 
The  subjects  of  almost  all  his  pictures 
are  dravra  from  the  Tyrolese  peasant 
life,  his  few  religious  pictures  having 
been  in  the  main  unsuccessful. 

DEGENERATION,  a  biological  term 
used  to  describe  those  not  unfrequent 
cases  where  an  entire  organism  falls  be- 
low the  structural  level  of  its  young 
stages,  or  where  an  organ  in  the  same 
way  loses  its  fullness  of  function,  and 
becomes  more  or  less  atrophied,  abortive, 
and  simplified.  Thus  many  parasitic 
worms,  crustaceans,  etc.,  are  emphati- 
cally sim^^ler  than  their  free-swimming 
larvae,  and  the  sensile  adult  Ascidian 
shows  only  traces  of  the  vertebrate 
characters  which  are  plain  enough  in  the 
active  young.  Thus,  too,  a  crustacean 
which  starts  with  a  well-developed  eye, 
may  exhibit  the  gradual  loss  of  this  on 
assuming  a  dark  habitat.  The  term  is 
best  confined  to  cases  where  a  level  of 
structure  exhibited  during  early  life  is 
more  or  less  lost  in  the  adult.  Degener- 
ation must  be  distinguished  (a)  from 
occasional  abortion,  (6)  from  reversion 
to  an  ancestral  type,  and  (c)  from  the 
occurrence  of  rudimentary  and  unde- 
veloped organs  where  a  character  pos- 
sessed by  ancestral  types  remains  more 
or  less  undeveloped,  or  shows  itself  only 
in  embryonic  life.  Degeneration  may 
be  due  to  the  environment,  or  to  r-^ssa- 
tion  of  function,  or  to  some  more  subtle 
constitutional  cause.  The  theory  of  the 
degeneration  of  man  from  a  high  state 


has  been  superseded  by  the  belief  in  a 

development  from  low  savagery. 

DEGGENDORF  (deg'en-dorf ) ,  a  town 
of  lower  Bavaria,  on  the  Danube,  which 
is  here  crossed  by  two  bridges,  39  miles 
N.  W.  of  Passau,  with  manufactures  of 
paper,  linen,  woolens,  stoneware,  and 
matches.  Its  church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher  is  often  visited  by  more  than  30,000 
pilgrims  annually.    Pop.  (1905)  7,211. 

DE  GIOSA,  NICOLA  (de  vje-6'sa) ,  an 
Italian  musician;  born  in  Bari,  May  5, 
1820.  His  opera,  "Don  Checco,"  is  very 
popular  in  Italy.  His  400  songs  were 
widelv  sung.  He  died  in  Bari,  July  7, 
1885.* 

DE  GOGORZA,  EMILIO  EDOUARDO, 

an  American  singer,  born  in  BrookljTi, 
N.  Y.,  in  1874.  He  was  educated  in  Paris 
and  in  England.  His  musical  career  was 
begun  as  a  boy  soprano  in  England  and 
in  1897  he  appeared  in  New  York  City 
vdth  Mme.  Sembrich's  Company  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House.  He  appeared 
as  a  soloist  with  leading  orchestras  and 
at  musical  festivals,  and  made  many 
tours  throughout  the  United  States  as  a 
concert  singer.  He  married  in  1911 
Mme.  Emma  Eames,  the  operatic  so- 
prano. 

DEGRADED,  furnished  with  steps; 
an  epithet  in  blazoning  for  a  cross  that 
has  steps  at  each  end,  diminishing  as 
they  ascend  toward  the  center. 

DEGREE,  the  360th  part  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  circle.  A  degree  of 
latitude  is  the  length  along  a  meri- 
dian, such  that  the  difference  of  lati- 
tude between  its  N.  and  S.  ends  is  one 
degree — i.  e.,  from  the  two  positions 
tne  altitude  of  the  same  star  is  seen  to 
differ  by  one  degree.  Another  definition 
is  that  two  points  on  the  earth's  surface 
differ  in  latitude  by  one  degree,  when  the 
verticals  at  these  points  make  angles 
with  the  plane  of  the  equator,  differing 
by  one  degree.  Were  the  earth  perfectly 
spherical  in  shape,  this  distance  along  a 
meridian  would  be  exactly  equal  to  1-360 
of  the  whole  meridian,  and  would  be  the 
same  at  all  parts  of  the  earth's  surface; 
but  owing  to  its  oblately  spheroidal  shape 
it  increases  from  the  equator,  where  the 
curvature  is  greater,  to  the  poles,  where 
it  is  less  curved.  From  geodetical  meas- 
urements made,  it  is  found  that  at  the 
equator  the  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude 
is  362,746.4  feet;  while  at  the  poles  it  is 
366,479.8  feet.  The  differences  between 
the  length  of  the  degi'ee  of  latitude  in 
different  latitudes,  thus  ascertained  by 
actual  measurement,  is  one  of  the  proofs 
that  the  figure  of  the  earth  is  not  that 
of  a  sphere  but  that  of  an  oblate  ellip- 
soid. 


DEGREE 


305 


DEICIDE 


A  degree  of  longitude  is  the  length  be- 
tween two  meridians  that  make  an  angle 
of  one  degree  at  the  poles,  measured  by 
the  arc  of  a  circle  parallel  to  the  equator 
passing  between  them.  It  is  clear  that 
this  space  is  greatest  at  the  equator,  and 
vanishes  at  the  poles;  and  it  can  be 
shown  that  it  varies  with  the  cosine  of 
the  angle  of  latitude.  The  annexed  table 
shows  the  lengths  of  a  degree  of  longi- 
tude for  places  at  every  degree  of  lati- 
tude from  0°  to  90°.  It  is  computed  on 
the  supposition  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere. 


Deg. 

Eng. 

Deg. 

Eng. 

Deg. 

Eng. 

lat. 

miles. 

lat. 

miles. 

lat. 

miles. 

0 

69.07 

31 

59.13 

61 

33.45 

1 

69.06 

32 

58.51 

62 

32.40 

2 

69.03 

33 

57.87 

63 

31.33 

3 

68.97 

34 

57.20 

64 

30.24 

4 

68.90 

35 

56.51 

65 

29.15 

5 

68.81 

36 

55.81 

66 

28.06 

6 

68.62 

37 

55.10 

67 

26.96 

7 

68.48 

38 

54.37 

68 

25.85 

8 

68.31 

39 

53.62 

69 

24.73 

9 

68.15 

40 

52.85 

70 

23.60 

10 

67.95 

41 

52.07 

71 

22.47 

11 

67.73 

42 

51.27 

72 

21.32 

12 

67.48 

43 

50.46 

73 

20.17 

13 

67.21 

44 

49.63 

74 

19.02 

14 

66.95 

45 

48.78 

75 

17.S6 

15 

66.65 

46 

47.93 

76 

16.70 

16 

66.31 

47 

47.06 

77 

15.52 

17 

65.98 

48 

46.16 

78 

14.-55 

18 

65.62 

49 

45.26 

79 

13.17 

19 

65.24 

50 

44.35 

80 

11.98 

20 

64.84 

51 

43.42 

81 

10.79 

21 

64.42 

52 

42.48 

82 

9.59 

22 

63.97 

53 

41.53 

83 

8.41 

23 

63.51 

54 

40.56 

84 

7.21 

24 

63.03 

55 

39.58 

85 

6.00 

25 

62.53 

56 

38.58 

86 

4.81 

26 

62.02 

57 

37.58 

87 

3.61 

27 

61.48 

58 

36.57 

88 

2.41 

28 

60.93 

59 

35.54 

89 

1.21 

29 

60.35 

60 

34.50 

90 

0.00 

30 

59.75 

DEGREE,  in  music,  a  step  in  the  tone- 
ladder.  It  may  consist  of  a  semi-tone, 
a  tone,  or  (in  the  minor  scale)  of  an  aug- 
mented tone.  When  the  notes  are  on  the 
same  line  or  space  they  are  in  the  same 
degree.  The  interval  of  a  second  is  one 
degree,  the  interval  of  a  third  two  de- 
grees, and  so  on,  irrespective  of  the  steps 
being  tones  or  semi-tones.  Hence,  also, 
notes  are  in  the  same  degree  when  they 
are  natural,  flat,  or  sh^rp,  of  the  same 
note,  as  C  and  C  sharp,  E  and  E  flat;  and 
they  are  in  diff'erent  degrees  when, 
though  the  same  note  on  an  instrument 
of  fixed  intonation,  they  are  called  by 
different  names,  as  F  sharp  and  G  flat, 
C  sharp  and  D  flat. 

DEGREE,  in  universities,  a  mark  of 
distinction  conferred  on  students,  mem- 
bers, or  distinguished  strangers,  as  a 
testimony  of  their  proficiency  in  the  arts 
or  sciences,  or  as  a  mark  of  respect,  the 
former  known  as  ordinary,  the  latter  as 
honorary     degrees.      The     degrees     are 


bachelor,  master,  and  doctor,  and  are  con- 
ferred in  arts,  science,  medicine,  divinity, 
and  music. 

DEGREE,  in  algebra,  a  term  used  in 
speaking  of  equations,  to  express  what  is 
the  highest  power  of  the  unknown  quan- 
tity. Thus  if  the  index  of  that  power  be 
3  or  4  (.r\  y*) ,  the  equation  is  respec- 
tively of  the  third  or  fourth  degree. 

DEHISCENCE,  a  gaping,  an  opening, 
a  yawning.  The  opening  of  capsules  and 
of' the  cells  of  anthers  for  the  discharge 
of  their  contents.  This  takes  place  either 
by  clefts,  by  hinges,  or  by  pores.  When 
the  anther-lobes  are  erect,  the  cleft  takes 
place  lengthwise  along  the  line  of  the 
suture,  constituting  longitudinal  dehis- 
cence. At  other  times  the  slit  takes 
place  in  a  horizontal  manner,  from  the 
connective  to  the  side,  as  in  Alchemilla 
arvensis  and  in  Lenina,  where  the  dehis- 
cence is  transverse.  When  the  dehis- 
cence takes  place  by  the  ventral  and 
dorsal  sutures,  as  in  the  legume  of  the 
pea  and  bean,  it  is  called  sutural.  When 
composed  of  several  united  carpels,  the 
valves  may  separate  through  the  dis- 
sepiments, so  that  the  fruit  will  be  re- 
solved into  its  original  carpels,  as  rhodo- 
dendron, colchicum,  etc.  This  dehiscence, 
in  consequence  of  taking  place  thi'ough 
the  lamellae  of  the  septum,  is  called  septi- 
cidal.  Loculicidal  dehiscence  is  where  the 
union  between  the  edges  of  the  earpels  is 
persistent,  and  they  dehisce  by  •le  dorsal 
suture,  or  through  the  back  of  the  locula- 
ments,  as  in  the  lily  and  iris.  Sometimes 
the  fruit  opens  by  the  dorsal  suture,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  valves  or  walls  of 
the  ovaries  separate  from  the  septa,  leav- 
ing them  attached  to  the  center,  as  in  da- 
tura. This  is  called  septifragal  dehis- 
cence, and  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
modification  of  the  loculicidal. 

DEHRA  DOON  (da'ra),  a  beautiful 
and  fertile  valley  in  the  Meerut  division 
of  the  Northwestern  Provinces,  Hindu- 
stan, at  the  S.  W.  base  of  the  lowest  and 
outermost  ridge  of  the  Himalaya.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Jumna,  N.  E. 
by  the  mountains  of  Gurwhal,  from  7,000 
to  8,000  feet  high,  S.  E.  by  the  Ganges, 
S.  W.  bv  the  Sewalik  range,  3,000  to 
3,500  feet  high.  Its  length  from  S.  E.  to 
N.  W.  is  about  45  miles;  breadth,  from 
15  to  20  miles.  The  chief  town  in  the 
valley  is  Dehra. 

DEIAMBA,  Congo  tobacco,  a  plant 
growing  wild  in  the  marshy  districts  of 
Congo,  the  flowers  of  which  produce  a 
narcotic  effect  when  smoked, 

DEICIDE.  the  putting  to  death  of  God 
in  the  person  of  our  Lord;  also  one  con- 
cerned in  putting  our  Lord  to  death. 


DEIDAMIA 


306 


DELACROIX 


DEIDAMIA  (de-dam'ya),  daughter  of 
Lycomedes,  King  of  Scyros.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Neoptolemos  by  Achilles,  ac- 
cording to  the  legend. 

DEISM,  the  doctrines  or  tenets  of  a 
deist;  the  system  of  belief  which  admits 
the  being  of  a  God,  and  acknowledges 
several  of  His  perfections,  but  denies 
not  only  the  existence  but  the  necessity  of 
a  divine  revelation. 

DEIST,  one  v/ho  admits  the  being  of  a 
God,  but  denies  the  existence  or  even 
necessity  of  a  divine  revelation,  believing 
that  the  light  of  nature  and  reason  are 
sufficient  guides  in  doctrine  and  prac- 
tice; a  believer  in  natural  religion  only; 
a  freethinker. 

DEISTIC,  or  DEISTICAL,  pertaining 
to  deism  or  the  deists;  containing  the  doc- 
trines of  deism. 

Also  a  term  applied  to  a  controversy 
which  arose  in  England  in  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries,  between  those  who  be- 
lieved and  those  who  disbelieved  in  revela- 
tion; the  latter,  however,  not  occupying 
the  atheistic  standpoint,  but  accepting  as 
a  settled  point  the  being  of  a  God.  The 
first,  in  point  of  time,  of  the  celebrated 
English  deists  was  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury,  the  publication  of  whose  work,  "De 
Veritate"  (1624),  began  the  controversy. 
There  followed,  on  the  same  side, 
Hobbes,  Tindal,  Morgan,  Toland,  Boling- 
broke,  Paine,  and  others. 

DE  KALE,  a  city  of  Illinois  in  De 
Kalb  CO.  It  is  on  the  Chicago,  Aurora 
and  De  Kalb,  the  Chicago  Great  Western, 
and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Gary 
railroads.  The  city  has  manufactures  of 
barbed  wire,  agricultural  implements, 
pianos,  shoes,  etc.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Northern  Illinois  State  Normal  School. 
Pop.  (1910)  8,102;   (1920)  7,871. 

DE  KALB,  JOHN,  BARON,  a  French 
officer;  born  in  Bavaria,  about  1732.  He 
accompanied  Lafayette  to  America  in 
1777;  was  appointed  the  same  year 
Major-General  in  the  American  army; 
and  joined  the  main  force  under  Wash- 
ington. In  the  battle  of  Camden,  Aug. 
16,  1780,  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  Mary- 
land and  Delaware  troops,  who  main- 
tained their  ground  till  Cornwallis  con- 
centrated his  whole  force  upon  them.  He 
fell,  pierced  with  11  wounds,  in  the 
charge  upon  his  regiment  before  they 
gave  way.  He  died  three  days  after  at 
Cam.den,  where  a  monument,  of  which 
Lafayette  placed  the  corner-stone,  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  1825. 

DE  KAY,  CHARLES,  an  American 
poet,  grandson  of  Joseph  Rodman  Drake ; 
born  in  Washington,  D.  C,  July  25,  1848. 
His  poems  are  mostly  founded  on  themes 


from  Oriental,  classical,  and  literary  Ws- 
story.  Among  his  works  are:  "Hesperus 
and  Other  Poems"  (1880)  ;  "The  Vision 
of  Nimrod"  (1881);  "The  Vision  of 
Esther"  (1882) ;  "The  Love  Poems  of 
Louis  Barnaval,  Edited  (and  written)  by 
Charles  De  Kay"  (1883).  His  prose  in- 
cludes: "Life  and  Works  of  Antoine 
Louis  Barye,  Sculptor"  (1889) ;  and  "The 
Family  Life  of  Heinrich  Heine"  (1892), 
a  translation.  He  was  literary  and  art 
editor  of  New  York  "Times,"  1876-1906; 
art  editor  "Evening  Post,"  1907.  From 
1915  he  was  associate  editor  of  the 
"American  Art  World."  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  American  Institute  of  Arts 
and  Letters. 

DEKKER,  THOMAS,  an  English 
dramatist;  born  in  London,  about  1570; 
died  some  time  after  1637.  He  wrote 
a  great  number  of  plays,  but  only 
a  few  of  them  were  published,  among 
them  the  two  comedies,  "The  Shoemak- 
er's Holiday,"  and  "Old  Fortunatus"; 
they  are  both  specimens  of  whatever  is 
best  and  most  genuine  in  English  humor, 
and  the  second  in  particular  abounds  in 
passages  of  consummate  poetic  beauty. 
Of  other  writings  of  his  we  have  "The 
Wonderful  Year,"  a  pamphlet  describing 
graphically  the  horrors  of  the  plague;  an 
amusing  tract,  "The  Bachelor's  Banquet," 
a  satire  on  henpecked  husbands;  and 
many  other  fugitive  pieces  lashing  the 
vices  and  follies  of  the  age.  He  also  col- 
laborated with  other  dramatists. 

DE  KOVEN  (HENRY  LOUIS)  REGI- 
NALD, an  American  composer  born  in 
Middletown,  Conn.,  April  3,  1859.  He 
was  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1879  and 
studied  music  in  the  leading  cities  of 
Europe.  His  operettas  have  had  great 
success,  notably  "The  Begum,"  "Don 
Quixote,"  "Robin  Hood,"  "The  Fencing 
Master,"  "The  Three  Dragoons,"  "Maid 
Marian,"  "Student  King,"  etc.  He  com- 
posed some  popular  songs,  as  "Oh,  Prom- 
ise Me,"  and  "Recessional."     Died  1915. 

DELACROIX,  EUGENE  (-krwii'),  a 
French  painter,  chief  of  the  romantic 
school;  born  near  Paris,  April  26,  1799. 
At  the  age  of  18  he  entered  the  atelier  of 
Pierre  Guerin,  and  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  his  fellow-pupil,  Gericault.  In 
1822  he  exhibited  his  first  work,  "Dante 
and  Vergil,"  the  novel  force  of  which  at- 
tracted much  attention.  In  1824,  Dela- 
croix, now  at  the  head  of  the  new  school 
of  young  painters,  produced  the  "Massa- 
cre of  Scio,"  which  was  entirely  repainted 
after  the  artist  had  studied  a  work  of 
Constable's.  The  July  revolution  left  its 
impress  on  Delacroix,  and  in  1831  ap- 
peared his  "Liberty  Directing  the  People 
on  the  Barricades."     In  1832  he  made  a 


DELAGOA  BAY 


307 


DELANO 


voyage  to  Morocco.  From  this  period. 
Delacroix  continued  to  send  forth  picture 
after  picture,  besides  decorating  many- 
public  buildings  and  churches.  He  also 
executed  a  number  of  lithographs,  includ- 
ing a  series  illustrating  "Hamlet,"  and 
one  dealing  with  "Faust".  In  1857  he 
was  chosen  by  the  Institute  to  fill  the 
place  of  Delaroche.  He  died  Aug.  13, 
1863. 

DELAGOA  BAY  (del-a-go'a) ,  in 
southeast  Africa,  a  large  sheet  of  water 
separated  from  the  Indian  Ocean  by  the 
peninsula  and  island  of  Inyack.  The  bay 
stretches  N.  and  S.  upward  of  40  miles, 
with  a  bi'eadth  of  from  16  to  20  miles, 
and  forms  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Portuguese  settlement  of  Mozambique. 
It  is  available  for  vessels  of  large  ton- 
nage, though  the  presence  of  shoals, 
banks,  and  flats,  renders  the  navigation 
of  the  bay  somewhat  intricate.  The  Oli- 
fants  or  Krokodil  river,  flowing  into  it, 
is  navigable  for  steam  launches  for  a 
considerable  distance;  but  there  are 
swamps  around  the  coast,  and  some  ma- 
larial fever  is  prevalent.  The  Trans- 
vaal border  begins  52  miles  inland.  In 
the  course  of  the  negotiations  between 
Great  Britain  and  Portugal  as  to  the 
action  of  the  latter  power  in  East  Africa, 
the  claims  of  the  Delagoa  Bay  Railway 
Company  for  compensation  for  the  seiz- 
ure of  the  line  by  Portugal  on  June  29, 
1889,  were  brought  foward.  This  was 
decided  against  Portugal  (as  announced 
March  29,  1900),  damages  of  over  $3,- 
100,000  being  awarded  with  interest  from 
1889.  In  September,  1900,  a  compromise 
of  these  claims  was  finally  agreed  to,  the 
American  claimants  getting  an  aggregate 
of  $500,000,  out  of  which  they  wc^e  or- 
dered to  pay  the  costs  of  the  United 
States  Government.  The  extension  of  the 
line  from  the  Portugiiese  frontier  at 
Komati  (which  is  60  miles  from  the  jort 
of  Lorenzo  Marques)  to  Pretoria  (Tran.  - 
vaal)  was  formally  opened  on  July  8, 
1895.  The  extension  is  the  property  of 
the  Netherlands  South  African  Railway 
Company,  and  places  Pretoria  by  rail  350 
miles  from  the  coast,  and  Johannesburg 
400  miles.  The  distance  from  the  latter 
city  to  Cape  Town  by  rail  is  1,013  miles. 

DELAND,  ELLEN  DOUGLAS,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Lake  Maho- 
pac,  N.  Y.,  in  1860.  She  was  educated 
privately.  Her  writings  include  many 
novels,  among  them  "A  Successful  Ven- 
ture"; "Alan  Ransford";  "Miss  Bettv  of 
New  York";  "The  Waring  Girls" 
(1917) ;  "Clyde  Corners"  (1918). 

DELAND.  MARGARETTA  WADE 
(CAMPBELL)  (de-land'),  an  American 
poet  and  novelist;  born  in  Allegheny,  Pa., 


Feb.  23,  1857.  Her  most  famous  books 
are  "John  Ward,  Preacher"  and  "Dr. 
Lavendar's  People."  Among  her  other 
well-known  works  are:  "The  Story  of  a 
Child,"  "Mr.  Tommy  Dove  and  Other 
Stories,"  "Philip  and  His  Wife,"  "Florida 
Days,"  a  collection  of  sketches  of  travel; 
"Sydney."  "The  Awakening  of  Hele- 
na Richie"    (1906)  ;  "The  Iron  Woman" 


MARGARETTA  DELAND 

(1911);  "Hands  of  Esau"  (1914); 
"Around  Old  Chester"  (1915).  Her  most 
popular  poems  are  contained  in  the 
volume  entitled  "The  Old  Garden  and 
Other  Verses." 

DELANE,     JOHN     THADDEUS,     an 

English  journalist;  born  in  London,  Oct. 
11,  1817.  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford 
in  1839,  and  became  editor  of  the 
"Times"  in  1841,  retaining  that  post  till 
1877,  during  which  time  that  paper  at- 
tained an  almost  unparalleled  influence 
and  a  great  circulation.  He  died  Nov. 
22.  1879. 

DELANO.    FREDERIC  ADRIAN,   an 

American  financier  and  public  official, 
born  at  Hong  Kong,  China,  in  1863.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1885  and  be- 
gan his  business  career  with  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  and  Quincy  railroad.  He 
served  in  various  capacities  in  the  same 
company  and  was  appointed  general  man- 
ager in  1901.    In  1905  he  left  this  service 


DE  LA  RAMEE 


308 


DELAWARE 


to  become  consulting  engineer  to  the  War 
Department  in  relation  to  railroads  in 
the  Philippine  Islands.  He  was  after- 
ward president  and  director  of  many  im- 
portant railroad  systems.  In  1913  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Taft,  and  again 
by  President  Wilson  in  1914,  as  a  member 
of  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  and  was 
designated  vice-governor  for  two  years. 
He  resigned  to  enter  the  army  in  June, 
1918.  As  a  major  and  lieutenant-colonel 
he  performed  service  in  the  Engineering 
Corps,  and  as  deputy  director  of  trans- 
portation in  France.  He  was  promoted 
to  be  colonel  of  the  Transport  Corps  in 
1919  and  was  honorably  discharged  in 
October  of  that  year.  He  was  a  member 
of  many  scientific  societies. 

DS  LA  RAMEE,  LOUISE.  See  OuiDA. 

DELAROCHE,  HIPPOLYTE  (famili- 
arly styled  Paul),  (de-la-rosh),  a  French 
painter;  born  in  Paris,  July  16,  1797.  He 
studied  landscape  painting  for  a  short 
time  but  applied  himself  afterward  to 
historical  painting,  and  rapidly  rose  to 
eminence.  Notable  among  his  works  are: 
"St.  Vincent  de  Paul  preaching  before 
Louis  XIII.  on  behalf  of  Deserted  Chil- 
dren," "Joan  of  Arc  Interrogated  in 
Prison  by  Cardinal  Beaufort,"  the 
"Death  of  Queen  Elizabeth,"  "The  Chil- 
dren of  Edward  IV.  in  the  Tower," 
"Cardinal  Richelieu  Conducting  Cinq 
Mars  and  De  Thou  up  the  Rhone  to  Ex- 
ecution," "Charles  I.  Mocked  by  His 
Guards,"  the  "Execution  of  Ladv  Jane 
Grey,"  the  "Death  of  the  Duke  of  Guise," 
and  the  "Hemicycle,"  an  immense  jvork 
painted  in  oil  on  the  wall  of  The  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris.  It  represents  an 
assemblage  of  the  great  painters,  sculp- 
tors, and  architects  from  the  days  of 
Giotto  to  those  of  Lesueur.  He  held  a 
middle  place  between  the  classical  and 
the  romantic  schools,  and  was  regarded 
as  the  leader  of  the  so-called  "eclectic 
school."     He  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  4,  1856. 

DELAVIGNE,  JEAN  FRANCOIS 
CASIMIR  (de-la-ven'),  a  French  poet 
and  dramatist;  born  in  Havre,  April  4, 
1793.  He  produced  in  1819  his  tragedy 
of  "The  Sicilian  Vespers";  "The  Come- 
dians" appeared  in  1820,  and  the  tragedy 
of  "The  Paria"  in  1821.  Of  his  other 
plays  which  followed  these  may  be  men- 
tioned: "The  School  of  Old  Meii";  "Mari- 
no Faliero";  and  the  dramas  of  Louis 
VI. — founded  on  Commines'  "Memoirs" 
and  "Quentin  Durward" — and  "Don  John 
of  Austria."  His  hymns,  "The  Pari- 
sienne"  and  "The  Varsovienne,"  and  the 
ballad  "The  Toilette  of  Constance,"  are 
among  his  more  popular  poetical  pieces. 
He  became  in  1825  a  member  of  the 
Academy.  He  died  at  Lyons,  France, 
Dec.  11,  1843. 


DELAWARE,  a  State  in  the  South 
Atlantic  Division  of  the  North  American 
Union;  bounded  by  Pennsylvania,  Dela- 
ware river  and  bay,  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  Maryland;  area,  2,050  square  miles; 
one  of  the  original  13  States;  number  of 
counties,  3;  pop.  (1890)  168,493;  (1900) 
184,735;  (1910)  202,322;  (1920)  223,003; 
capital,  Dover. 

Topography. — Delaware  lies  on  a  level 
plain,  the  highest  elevation  being  less 
than  300  feet  above  the  sea.  The  N.  part 
is  hilly,  with  a  rolling  surface,  but  below 
Newcastle  the  ground  is  flat  and  sandy 
and  in  some  parts  swampy.  A  ridge 
about  70  feet  in  altitude  extends  along 
the  W.  boundary  of  the  State  and  is  th«» 
watershed  for  the  affluents  of  the  Dela- 
ware in  the  E.  and  of  several  streams 
falling  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  prin- 
cipal streams  are  the  Christiana  and  the 
Brandywine  rivers.  The  Christiana  is 
navigable  for  large  steamers  as  far  as 
Wilmington.  The  coast  of  Delaware  Bay 
is  marshy;  the  Atlantic  coast  has  many 
sand  beaches,  inclosing  shallow  lagoons. 
The  largest  of  these  are  Rehoboth  Bay, 
Indian  River  Bay,  and  a  portion  of  St. 
Martin's  Bay.  The  only  harbors  of  con- 
sequence are  Wilmington,  Lewes,  and 
Newcastle. 

Mineralogy  and  Geology. — Geologically, 
the  State  is  divided  into  three  divisions, 
the  cretaceous  in  the  N. ;  tertiary  in  the 
Central,  and  post-tertiary  or  alluvial  in 
the  S.  Bog  iron  ore,  found  in  all  the 
swamps,  shell  marl  in  the  greensand 
region,  and  kaolin  or  porcelain  clay,  are 
abundant. 

Soil. — For  eight  or  ten  miles  inland 
from  Delaware  Bay  the  soil  is  for  the 
most  part  a  rich  clayey  loom;  but  W.  of 
this  it  is  light  and  sandy,  and  productive 
when  well  fertilized.  The  swamps  where 
reclaimed  are  also  very  productive.  In 
them  are  extensive  forests  of  cypresses 
and  other  evergreen  trees,  and  shrubs  of 
a  semi-tropical  character,  as  well  as  bog- 
oak,  hackmatack,  etc.  The  remainder  of 
the  State  has  been  cleared  of  its  forests 
and  is  under  cultivation. 

Agriculture. — The  State  is  highly  agri- 
cultural, ten-thirteenths  of  its  entire  area 
being  under  cultivation.  It  is  pre-emi- 
nently a  fruit-growing  region,  peaches, 
apples,  pears,  quinces  and  other  small 
fruits  are  extensively  raised,  and  the  an- 
nual peach  crop  alone  averages  4,000,000 
baskets.  The  acreage,  production,  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  in  1919  was 
as  follows:  corn,  230,000  acres,  produc- 
tion 6,900,000  bushels,  valued  at  $10,005,- 
000;  wheat,  145,000  acres,  production 
1,740,000  bushels,  valued  at  $3,706,000; 
potatoes,  11,000  acres,  production  915,000 
bushels,  valued  at  $1,141,000;  sweet  po- 
tatoes,   7,000    acres,   production    966,00(? 


DELAWARE 


309 


DELAWARE  BAT 


bushels,  valued  at  $1,063,000;  hay,  82,000 
acres,  production  105,000  tons,  valued  at 
$2,730,000. 

Manufactures.  —  Delaware  has  exten- 
sive manufactures.  In  1914  there  were 
808  manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
State.  The  average  number  of  wage 
earners  was  22,105,  and  the  capital  in- 
vested amounted  to  $69,320,000.  There 
was  paid  in  wages  $11,382,000.  The 
value  of  the  materials  used  was  $31,649,- 
000,  with  the  finished  product  valued  at 
$56,035,000. 

Banking. — In  1919  there  were  19  Na- 
tional banks  in  operation,  having  $1,429,- 
000  capital,  $885,256  in  outstanding  cir- 
culation, and  $1,327,750  in  reserve. 
There  were  also  5  State  banks,  with 
$620,000  capital,  $8,833,000  in  deposits 
and  $10,847,000  in  resources. 

Education, — The  total  enrolment  in  the 
public  schools  in  1919  was  37,440,  with 
an  average  enrolment  of  30,024,  and  an 
average  attendance  of  28,216.  There 
were  about  1,120  teachers  employed,  re- 
ceiving an  average  annual  salary  of 
$662.10.  The  educational  conditions  in 
the  State  have  for  many  years  been  un- 
satisfactory, but  in  1919  there  was 
passed  and  approved  an  elaborate  school 
code  providing  for  county  and  district  ad- 
ministrative machinery,  and  making  rad- 
ical reforms  and  changes  in  the  conduct 
of  the  schools.  This  code  resulted  from 
a  study  of  a  school  survey  commission 
appointed  in  1917. 

Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions numerically  in  the  State  are  the 
Methodist  Episcopal,  Roman  Catholic, 
Protestant  Episcopal,  Lutheran,  Baptist, 
and  Presbyterian. 

Railways. — The  roads  having  the  long- 
est mileage  in  the  State  are  the  Wilming- 
ton, Philadelphia  Traction  Company,  the 
Wilmington,  Newcastle,  and  Delaware 
City,  and  the  People's  Railway  Company. 
The  total  railway  mileage  operated  in  or 
through  the  State  is  about  350  miles. 

Finance. — The  receipts  for  the  fiscal 
year  1918  amounted  to  $1,428,848,  and 
the  expenditure  to  $1,311,404.  There 
was  a  balance  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal 
year  of  $571,195.  The  State  had  an  out- 
standing indebtedness  in  1919  of  $1,581,- 
785. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  Legisla- 
tive sessions  are  held  biennially.  The  Leg- 
islature has  35  members  in  the  House  and 
17  in  the  Senate,  members  of  the  House 
are  elected  for  a  term  of  two  years,  and 
members  of  the  Senate  for  four  years, 
each  receiving  a  salary  of  $5  per  day  for 
60  days.  Delaware  sends  one  Represen- 
tative to  Congress. 

Charities  and  Corrections. — The  chari- 


table and  correctional  institutions  of 
the  State  include  the  State  Hospital 
for  the  Insane  at  Farnhurst,  Delaware 
Hospital  at  Wilmington,  Physicians'  and 
Surgeons'  Hospital  at  Wilmington,  Hope 
Farm  Sanitarium  at  Marshallton,  State 
Penitentiary  at  Wilmington,  Ferris  In- 
dustrial School  at  Marshallton,  and  the 
Industrial  Schools  for  Girls  at  Wilming- 
ton. 

History. — Delaware  was  named  after 
Lord  Delaware,  governor  of  Virginia, 
who  sailed  up  the  bay  in  1610.  The  first 
settlement  was  made  by  the  Dutch  in 
1681,  and  in  1638  a  colony  of  Swedes  and 
Finns  built  a  fort  on  Christiana  creek 
and  called  the  country  New  Sweden. 
There  was  constant  friction  between  the 
Dutch  and  Swedes  until  1664,  when  all 
the  Dutch  settlements  came  under  Eng- 
lish rule.  For  over  20  years  Delaware 
was  part  of  Pennsylvania,  known  as  the 
"three  lower  counties  on  the  Delaware." 
The  State  became  independent  during  the 
Revolution,  and  her  soldiers,  known  as 
the  "Blue  Hen's  Chickens,"  did  admirable 
service  during  the  war.  Delaware  was 
the  first  State  to  ratify  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution, Dec.  7,  1787.  Although  a  slave- 
holding  State,  Delaware  did  not  secede  in 
1861,  but  sti'ongly  supported  the  Union 
cause  and  furnished  nearly  14,000  troops. 

DELAWARE,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Delaware  co.,  O. ;  on  the  Olentangy 
river,  and  the  "Big  Four,"  Pennsylvania 
Company  and  several  other  railroads;  24 
miles  N.  of  Columbus.  It  is  the  trade 
center  of  Delaware  and  surrounding 
counties,  and  has  manufactures  of  iron, 
flour,  woolen,  lumber,  furniture,  agTi- 
cultural  implements,  etc.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Ohio  Wesleyan  University.  There  are 
sulphur,  magnesia,  and  other  mineral 
springs  near  by,  and  the  city  has  large 
railroad  repair  shops,  hotels,  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers  and  2  National  banks. 
Pop.  (1920)  9,076;  (1920)  8,756. 

DELAWARE,  a  river  of  the  United 
States  which  rises  in  the  Catskill  Moun- 
tains in  New  York;  separates  Pennsyl- 
vania from  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
and  New  Jersey  from  Delaware;  and 
empties  into  Delaware  Bay.  It  has  a 
course  of  about  300  miles,  and  is  navi- 
gable for  large  vessels  to  Philadelphia, 
and  for  smaller  craft  to  the  head  of  tide- 
water at  Trenton  (155  miles). 

DELAWARE  BAY,  an  estuary  or  arm 
of  the  sea  between  the  States  of  Dela- 
ware and  New  Jersey.  At  the  entrance, 
near  Cape  Henlopen,  is  situated  the  Dela- 
ware Breakwater,  which  affords  vessels  a 
shelter  within  the  cape.  It  was  erected 
bv  the  Federal  government,  and  cost 
about  $3,000,000. 


DELAWARE  COLLEGE 


310 


DELHI 


DELAWARE  COLLEGE,  an  institu- 
tion for  hip;her  education  at  Newark,  Del., 
founded  in  1833.  In  1919  there  were  in 
attendance  296  students.  The  faculty 
numbered  52.  President,  S.  C.  Mitchell, 
Ph.  D. 

DELAWARE     INDIANS.     See    Len- 

APES. 

DELAWARE,  or  DELAWARR, 
THOMAS  WEST,  an  American  colonial 
governor,  born  in  England.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  third  Lord  Delaware 
in  1602  and  some  years  later  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Virginia.  He  ar- 
rived at  his  post  in  June,  1610,  but  was 
prostrated  by  sickness  the  following  year. 
He  died  at  sea,  June  7,  1618. 

DELBRUCK,  MARTIN  FRIEDRICH 
RUDOLF  VON,  a  Prussian  statesman, 
born  in  1817.  After  serving  for  15  years 
with  the  Prussian  Bureau  of  Commerce, 
he  became,  in  1859,  Director  of  the  De- 
partment of  Commerce  and  Industry,  in 
which  capacity  he  consolidated  German 
industry  and  negotiated  important  trea- 
ties with  France,  England,  Belgium,  and 
other  countries.  In  1867  he  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  Chancery  of  the 
North-German  Confederation,  and  in  the 
following  year  was  appointed  a  Prussian 
minister  of  state.  He  was  strongly  under 
the  influence  of  Bismarck  and  was  in 
reality  a  representative  of  that  states- 
man. He  carried  out  several  important 
missions  to  foreign  courts.  He  had  much 
to  do  with  the  conclusion  of  the  treaties 
of  Versailles  in  November,  1870.  Until 
1876  he  was  President  of  the  Imperial 
Chancellery,  when  he  came  in  conflict 
with  Bismarck  over  the  policy  of  state 
railway  ownership.  In  1881  he  retired  to 
private  life  and  died  in  1903. 

DELEB  PALM,  the  Borassus  ^thi- 
ofnim,  a  native  of  the  interior  and  W.  of 
Africa,  allied  to  he  Palmyra  palm.  Its 
leaves  and  fruits  are  used  by  the  Afri- 
cans for  the  same  purposes  as  those  of 
the  Palmyra  by  the  Asiatics,  and  the 
tender  roots  produced  by  the  young  plant 
are  extensively  used  as  an  article  of  food. 

DELEGATE,  a  person  appointed  and 
sent  by  another  or  by  others,  with  po%/ers 
to  transact  business  as  his  or  their  repre- 
sentative. The  title  was  given  to  mem- 
bers of  the  first  Continental  Congress  in 
America,  1774.  Representatives  from 
United  States  territories  are  so  desig- 
nated. 

DELENDA,  things  to  be  erased  or  ex- 
punged. Delenda  est  CartJutgo  is  the 
celebrated  sentence  with  which  Cato  the 
elder  was  accustomed  to  conclude  all  his 
speeches  in  the  Roman  Senate.  His 
hatred  of  Carthage  arose  from  a  jealousy 


of  its  flourishing  state,  and  the  conse- 
quent danger  to  Rome,  and  eventually 
led  to  its  destruction  in  146  B.  C. 


(named  after  M.  Ben- 
a    French    patron    of 

of  florideous  algae,  the 
sub-order  Delesseriex. 
a  flat  membranaceous 

.  The  one  best  known 
Its    fruit    ripens    in 


DELESSERIA 

jarain  Delessert, 
botany) ,  a  genus 
typical  one  of  the 
The  species  have 
rose-colored  frond 
is  D.  sanguinea. 
winter. 

i'ELESSERIEJE,  a  sub-order  of  algse, 
order  Ceramiaceae  (rose-tangles).  The 
frond  is  cellular,  the  coccidia  inclosing 
closely-packed  oblong  granules  arising 
from  the  base,  v/ithin  a  spherical  cellular 
envelope  which  finally  bursts;  tetraspores 
in  definite  heaps  or  collected  in  sporo- 
phylls. 

DELET,  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns 
of  South  Holland,  on  the  Schie,  8  miles 
N.  W.  of  Rotterdam;  is  intersected  by 
numerous  canals.  Delft  was  noted  from 
the  16th  to  the  18th  century  for  its  delft- 
ware,  but  has  now  entirely  lost  its  high 
reputation  for  this  manufacture,  and  not 
more  than  a  few  dozen  persons  are  en- 
gaged in  making  earthenware.  Of  sev- 
eral interesting  buildings,  one,  the  town- 
hall  (1618)  is  a  picturesque  and  richly 
adorned  edifice.  The  New  Church  (1476) 
contains  a  monument,  more  ornr'c  than 
tasteful,  to  the  memory  of  William  I. 
of  Orange,  who  was  assassinated  here, 
July  10,  1584.  It  also  contains  the 
tomb  of  Grotius,  and  the  burial-vaults 
of  the  present  royal  family  of  Holland. 
The  Old  Church,  a  building  of  some 
note,  contains  the  tomb  of  the  naturalist, 
Leeuwenhoek,  and  of  the  great  admiral, 
Van  Tromp.  Delft  has  also  a  State 
arsenal,  an  East  Indian  college,  a  poly- 
technic, and  several  hospitals.  There 
are  some  manufactures  of  fine  carpets, 
casks,  baskets.     Pop.  about  35,000. 

DELFTWARE.  a  kind  of  pottery  orig- 
inally manufactured  at  Delft,  in  Holland, 
in  the  14th  century.  It  was  among  the 
best  of  its  day,  being  considered  equal  to 
the  Italian  in  quality,  but  somewhat  in- 
ferior in  its  ornamentation. 

DELHI  (del'i),  a  city  of  Hindustan, 
in  the  Punjab,  anciently  capital  of  the 
Patan  and  Mogul  Empires,  about  954 
miles  N.  W.  of  Calcutta.  It  was  at  one 
time  the  largest  city  in  Hindustan,  cover- 
ing a  space  of  20  square  miles,  and  hav- 
ing a  population  of  2,000,000.  A  vast 
tract  covered  with  the  ruins  of  palaces, 
pavilions,  baths,  gardens,  mausoleums, 
etc.,  marks  the  extent  of  the  ancient 
metropolis.  The  present  city  abuts  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  and  is 
surrounded    on    three    sides    by    a    lofty 


DELIBES 


311 


BELLA  CRUSCANS 


stone  wall  5%  miles  long,  strengthened 
by  the  British  at  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century  with  a  ditch  and  glacis. 
The  palace  or  residence  of  the  Great 
Mogul,  built  by  Shah  Jehan,  begun  in 
1631,  and  now  known  as  "the  fort,"  is 
situated  in  the  E.  of  the  city,  and  abuts 
directly  on  the  river.  It  is  surrounded 
on  three  sides  by  an  embattled  wall  of 
reddish  sandstone  nearly  60  feet  high, 
with  round  towers  at  intervals,  and  a 
gateway  on  the  W.  and  S.  Since  the 
mutiny  in  1857,  a  great  portion  has  been 
demolished  in  order  to  make  room  for 
military  barracks.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable objects  in  the  city  is  the 
Jamma  Musjid  or  Great  Mosque,  a  mag- 
nificent structure  in  the  Byzantine-Ara- 
bic  style,   built   by   the    Emperor    Shah 


TOMB    OF    THE    BANGLE-MAKER 
DELHI,   INDIA 

Jehan  in  the  17th  century.  Among  mod- 
ern buildings  are  the  government  college, 
founded  in  1792  (abolished  as  a  college)  ; 
the  Residency,  and  a  Protestant  church. 
The  East  Indian  Railway  enters  the  city 
by  a  bridge  over  the  Jumna.  The  S.  W, 
quarter  of  the  town  is  densely  occupied 
by  the  shops  and  dwellings  of  the  native 
population;  the  streets  are  narrow  and 
tortuous,  but  some  of  the  main  thor- 
oughfares of  the  city  are  splendid  streets, 
the  chief  being  the  Chandni  Chauk,  or 
"Silver  Street."  During  the  mutiny 
Delhi  was  seized  by  the  Sepoys,  who  held 
possession  for  four  months,  during  which 
many  atrocities  were  committed.  Pop. 
about  235,000. 

DELIBES,  LEON  (de-leb),  a  French 
composer;  born  in  St.  Germain  du  Val, 
Feb.  21,  1836;  entered  the  Paris  Conser- 
vatoire in  1848,  and  in  1855  produced  an 
operetta,  "Two  Bags  of  Charcoal."  At 
the  Grand  Opera,  his  music  for  the  ballet 
"The  Fountain"  (1866)  met  with  great 
success.  The  ballet-music  for  "Copp^lia" 
(1870),  is  his  finest  work.  He  wrote 
music  for  a  third  ballet  and  for  three 
comic  operas.  "The  King  Said  So" 
(1873),  became  very  popular.     In   1880 


he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Con- 
servatoire.    He  died  Jan.  16,  1891. 

DELILAH,  a  woman  of  the  Philistines, 
beloved  of  Samson.  She  persuaded  him 
to  reveal  to  her  the  secret  of  his  great 
strength,  and  when  she  learned  that  it 
lay  in  his  long  and  thick  hair,  cut  off  his 
locks  while  he  was  asleep  and  then 
treacherously  delivered  the  helpless  man 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies. 

DELIQUESCENCE,  the  property 
which  certain  very  soluble  salts  and  other 
bodies  possess  of  absorbing  moisture 
from  the  atmosphere.  This  property  is 
made  use  of  in  drying  salts,  etc.,  the  sub- 
stance being  placed  over  another  sub- 
stance which  absorbs  water  from  the 
air,  as  sulphuric  acid,  chloride  of  cal- 
cium, quicklime,  etc.,  in  an  air-tight  ves- 
sel called  a  desiccator. 

DELIRIUM,  increased  ideation  rang- 
ing fi'om  simple  confusion  of  thought  to 
fixed  delusion,  accompanied  by  incoher- 
ence, restlessness,  and  frequently  com- 
bined with  some  amount  of  unconscious- 
ness, deepening  at  times  into  coma.  It 
often  occurs  in  the  course  of  general 
specific  diseases,  in  pneumonia,  erysipe- 
las, gout,  acute  mania,  alcoholic  poison- 
ing as  delirium  tremens,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence of  nervous  exhaustion  from 
mental  overwork. 

DE  LISLE.     See  Leconte  de  Lisle. 

DELIVERY,  in  law  (1)  the  delivery 
of  a  deed,  or  the  handing  of  it  over  to 
the  grantee,  which  is  expressed  in  the 
attestation,  "sealed  and  delivered,"  is  one 
of  the  requisites  to  a  good  deed.  A  deed 
takes  effect  only  from  this  delivery;  for 
if  the  date  be  false  or  impossible,  the  de- 
livery ascertains  the  time  of  it.  A 
delivery  may  be  either  absolute,  that  is, 
to  the  grantee  himself  or  to  a  third  per- 
son to  hold  till  some  conditions  be  per- 
formed on  the  part  of  the  grantee.  In 
certain  cases  as  wills,  bonds  made  by  a 
parent  in  favor  of  his  children,  or  deeds 
in  which  the  grantee  has  himself  an  in- 
terest, or  where  there  is  a  mutual  obli- 
gation between  the  parties,  delivery  is 
not  required.     See  Deed. 

(2)  An  expression  peculiar  to  Eng- 
land, also  called  jail  delivery,  a  term 
applied  to  the  Sessions  at  the  Old  Bailey, 
London,  or  the  Assizes,  when  the  jail  is 
delivered  or  cleared  of  the  prisoners. 

DELLA  CRUSCANS,  a  coterie  of 
English  poetasters  resident  for  some  time 
in  Florence,  who  printed  inferior  senti- 
mental poetry  and  prose  in  1785.  Re- 
moving to  England,  their  work  was  pub- 
lished chiefly  in  the  "World"  and 
"Oracle."  Mrs.  Piozzi,  Boswell,  Merry, 
Cobb   Holcrf^ft,  Mrs.  H.  Cowley,  and  Mrs. 


BELLA  ROBBIA 


312 


DELPPIINUS 


Robinson,  were  the  leaders.  They  took 
the  name  from  the  Accademia  Delia 
Crusca  in  Florence. 

DELLA  ROBBIA,  LUCA,  an  Italian 
sculptor;  born  in  1400,  in  Florence,  died 
in  1482.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
work  both  in  marble  and  bronze,  and  also 
for  his  reliefs  in  terra-cotta  coated  with 
enamel,  a  kind  of  work  named  after  him. 
Other  members  of  the  family,  distin- 
guished themselves  in  the  same  line, 
especially  Andrea  (1435-1525),  nephew 
and  pupil  of  Luca. 

DSLORME,  MARION,  a  famous 
trench  woman;  born  Oct.  31,  1613,  in 
or  near  the  town  of  Blois.  She  went 
early  in  life  to  Paris,  where  her  great 
beauty  and  brilliant  wit  soon  gathered 
a  group  of  wealthy  and  high-born  lovers 
round  her.  Cardinal  Richelieu  revenged 
himself  for  her  contempt  by  causing  her 
to  be  separated  from  the  ill-fated  young 
Cinq-Mars,  her  love  for  whom  was  the 
one  ennobling  passion  of  her  life.  Among 
her  lovers  were,  in  succession,  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham,  Saint-Evremond,  the 
Due  de  Brjssac,  the  Chevalier  de  Gram- 
mont,  and  Emery,  the  Superintendent  of 
Finance.  During  the  first  disturbances 
of  the  Frondeurs,  her  house  was  the 
rallying-point  of  the  chiefs  of  that  party, 
and  in  consequence  Mazar'i  A^as  about 
to  fling  her  into  prison,  when  she  sud- 
denly died  in  1650. 

DELOS,     CYNTHUS,     or     ORTYGIA 

(now  called  Sailles,  Saylli,  Delo,  or 
Deli),  is  the  smallest  of  the  Cyclades, 
at  the  N.  of  Naxos,  and  was  famous 
throughout  antiquity  as  having  been  the 
birthplace  of  Apollo  and  Diana.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend  it  was  a  floating  island, 
but  was  rendered  immovable  in  order 
that  Latona  might  give  birth  in  security 
to  these  two  divinities.  It  was  conse- 
crated to  the  worship  of  Apollo  and 
peopled  by  lonians;  and,  in  Homer's 
time,  was  the  central  seat  of  their  politi- 
cal and  religious  union.  Like  all  ancient 
temples  of  celebrity,  that  of  Apollo  at 
Delos  was  one  of  the  great  emporia  for 
trade;  and,  after  the  fall  of  Corinth,  the 
Delians,  by  wisely  declaring  their  port 
free,  secured  that  vast  commerce  be- 
tween the  East  and  West  of  which  that 
noble  city  had  been  the  channel.  Its  com- 
mercial importance  was  further  insured 
by  the  peculiar  sanctity  which  attached  to 
the  island.  Even  hostile  fleets  rode  quietly 
at  anchor  in  its  sacred  harbor.  The  altar 
in  the  temple  of  Apollo  is  said  to  have 
been  a  perfect  cube,  and  the  doubling  of 
it  was  a  noted  mathematical  problem  with 
the  ancients,  which  went  under  the  name 
of  the  problema  Deliacum.  The  decline 
of  Delos  dates  from  the  Mithridatic  War, 


when  it  was  laid  waste  by  one  of  the 
generals  of  Mithridates. 

DELPHI,  or  DELPHOS  (now  Castri). 
a  small  town  of  ancient  Phocis,  in  a 
valley  to  the  W.  of  Mount  Parnassus, 
was  the  seat  of  the  most  famous  of  all 
the  oracles  of  Apollo.  At  this  place 
certain  exhalations,  issuing  from  a 
cavern,  threw  all  who  approached  it  into 
convulsions.  The  responses  were  de- 
livered by  a  priestess,  called  Pythia,  who 
sat  upon  a  tripod  placed  over  the  mouth 
of  this  cavern,  and  after  having  inhaled 
the  vapor,  gave  utterance  to  the  wished- 
for  predictions,  which  were  then  inter- 
preted by  the  priests.  From  its  favorable 
position  this  oracle  came  to  be  consulted, 
not  only  by  the  Greeks,  but  even  by  the 
neighboring  nations.  The  oracle  con- 
tinued to  utter  its  responses  long  after 
the  seat  of  empire  had  been  transferred 
from  Greece  to  Rome;  and  it  was  only 
when  Constantine  the  Great  removed  the 
sacred  tripods  to  adorn  the  hippodrome 
to  his  new  city  that  the  responses  ceased 
to  be  delivered. 

DELPHIN  CLASSICS,  a  collection  of 
the  Latin  classic  authors  made  for  the 
dauphin  (Lat.  ad  tisum  Delphini),  son 
of  Louis  XIV.,  under  the  editorship  of 
Bossuet  and  Huet,  with  notes  and  in- 
terpretations. A  similar  series  based  on 
these  was  published  in  London. 

DELPHINIDiE,  one  of  the  families 
into  which  the  order  Cetacea  is  divided. 
It  comprises  such  forms  as  the  true 
dolphins,  the  fresh-water  dolphins  of  the 
Ganges  and  Amazon,  the  porpoises,  the 
beluga,  the  orca,  and,  according  to  some 
authors,  the  narwhal.  The  members  of 
this  group  possess  considerable  diversity 
in  outward  form,  in  skeletal  characters, 
and  dentition;  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  narwhal  they  agree  in  having 
numerous  conical  teeth  in  both  jaws.  The 
delpMnidse  are  found  fossil  in  deposits 
of  Miocene  and  later  date. 

DELPHINIUM,    or    LARKSPURS,    a 

genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Rayiunculaceae.  They  are  widely 
spread  over  the  northern  temperate  zone. 
They  are  erect,  branching,  annual  or 
perennial  shrubs,  with  blue  or  violet, 
rarely  white,  racemose  flowers;  calyx 
deciduous,  petal-like,  and  irregular.  D. 
staphisagria,  staves-acre,  has  seeds  which 
are  irritant  and  narcotic,  and  yield  the 
alkaloid  delphinia.  D.  Cmisolida  is  a 
simple  astringent. 

DELPHINUS  (del-fi'nus),  (the  Dol- 
phin), one  of  Ptolemy's  original  48  con- 
stellations, situated  between  Vulpecula, 
Pegasus,  Equuleus,  Aquarius,  and 
Aquila.     It  has  no   stars   brighter  than 


DELPHOS 


313 


DEMAGOGUE 


the  third  magnitude.  The  names  as- 
signed to  its  stars  Alpha  and  Beta, 
Sualocin  and  Rotanev,  are  merely  re- 
versals of  the  name  ("Nicolaus  Vena- 
tor") of  an  astronomer's  assistant  who 
wished  to  commemorate  himself. 

DELPHOS,  a  city  of  Ohio,  in  Allen  and 
Van  Wert  cos.  It  is  on  the  Miami  and 
Erie  canal,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania 
Company,  the  Toledo,  St.  Louis,  and 
Western,  the  Northern  Ohio,  the  Cin- 
cinnati, Hamilton  and  Dayton,  and  the 
Ohio  Electric  railroads.  There  are  rail- 
road repair  shops,  granite  works,  flour 
and  paper  mills,  and  manufactures  of 
iron  products,  printing  presses,  furniture, 
etc.     Pop.    (1910)    5,038;    (1920)   5,745. 

DEL  mo,  a  city  of  Texas,  the  county- 
seat  of  Val  Verde  co.  It  is  on  the  Gal- 
veston, Harrisburg  and  San  Antonio 
railroad.  Its  notable  buildings  include 
a  hospital,  two  convents,  and  a  Federal 
building.  It  contains  the  well-known 
San  Felipe  springs.  It  has  cotton  gins 
and  other  industrial  establishments  and 
is  the  center  of  an  agricultural  and  cattle 
raising  region.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1910.     Pop.   (1920)   10,589. 

DELSARTE,  FRAN9OIS  ALEXAN- 
DRE NICOLAS  CHERI  (del-sarf),  a 
French  educator;  born  in  Solesmes,  Dec. 
19,  1811.  His  father,  a  physician,  sent 
him  to  Paris  to  study  with  a  painter  on 
china  1822,  but  he  entered  the  Conserva- 
tory 1825.  He  attained  distinction  as  a 
tenor  singer  in  the  Opera  Comique,  sud- 
denly lost  his  voice,  and  thereafter  ap- 
plied himself  to  musical  and  dramatic  in- 
struction, having  among  his  pupils  many 
who  afterward  achieved  operatic  and 
dramatic  celebrity.  His  chief  work  was 
the  elaboration  of  a  system  of  dramatic 
expression.  He  aimed  to  make  elocution 
a  science.  He  died  in  Paris,  July  19, 
1871. 

DELTA,  the  name  of  the  fourth  Greek 
letter,  corresponding  with  the  English 
d.  As  a  capital  it  is  formed  in  the  shape 
of  an  equilateral  triangle.  Originally 
applied  to  the  triangle-shaped  island 
formed  by  deposits  between  the  two 
mouths  of  the  Nile;  afterward  applied 
to  other  similarly  shaped  tracts  formed 
at  the  mouths  of  large  rivers  by  two  or 
more  diverging  branches.  The  deltas  of 
many  rivers,  as  the  Ganges,  Niger,  Mis- 
sissippi, etc.,  are  geologically  most  in- 
structive, exhibiting,  as  they  do,  perfect 
analogues  of  many  of  the  older  forma- 
,tions  in  magnitude,  variety  of  composi- 
tion, alternation  of  beds,  and  entombment 
of  plants  and  animals. 

E^LTA  METAL,  an  alloy  consisting 
of  copper  and  zinc — in  other  words, 
brass — to    which    some    manganese    has 


been  added  in  the  form  of  ferro-mari- 
ganese,  or  spiegeleisen,  which  contains 
manganese.  A  Tittle  silicon  is  also  used, 
but  enough  of  this  is  usually  present  in 
ferro- manganese.  Delta  metal  has  sim- 
ilar properties  to  phosphor-bronze,  if, 
indeed,  some  of  it  is  not  simply  man- 
ganese-bronze. It  is  used  for  parts  of 
machinery  and  for  ornamental  work. 

DELUGE,  a  general  overflowing  of 
water,  or  inundation;  specifically,  the 
general  inundation  or  flood  in  the  time 
of  Noah,  Three  schools  of  thought  or 
opinion  exist  with  respect  to  the  deluge. 

(1)  The  common  one  that  it  was  uni- 
versal not  merely  as  regards  the  human 
race,  but  with  respect  to  the  world,  every 
part  of  which,  the  highest  peak  of  the 
Himalayas  not  excepted,  was  submerged. 

(2)  That  while  drowning  all  mankind 
except  the  eight  persons  in  the  ark,  it 
was  partial,  being  limited  to  central 
Asia.  The  ordinary  mind  will  consider 
ths  view  absurd,  and  say  that  the  water 
standing  high  in  Central  Asia  would  run 
over  the  world,  becoming  shallower  as 
it  went;  but  the  geologist  knows  that 
in  such  a  vast  flood  what  appears  to  the 
eye  the  rising  of  the  waters  is  really  the 
sinking  of  the  land.  If  the  land  subsided 
in  central  Asia,  cracks  extending  to  the 
Caspian,  the  Persian  Gulf,  etc.,  a  deluge 
would  be  produced,  while  a  like  upheaval 
of  the  land  would  bring  it  to  a  termina- 
tion. (3)  Bishop  Colenso  considers  the 
deluge  unhistorical. 

The  deluge  predicted  by  Noah  is  de- 
scribed in  Gen.  vi.  vii.  viii. ;  dated  by 
Usher  and  the  English  Bible  2348  b.  c. 
Traditions  of  such  an  event  are  found 
among  many  races. 

The  old  view  that  the  fossils  collected 
by  the  geologists  were  deposited  during 
the  Noachian  deluge  is  now  held  only  by 
the  unenlightened. 

DELUNDUNG,  the  weasel-cat  (Prio- 
nodon  gracilis),  a  small  quadruped  in- 
habiting the  vast  forests  of  the  E.  ex- 
tremities of  Java  and  Malacca.  It  is 
of  pale  yellowish-white  color,  with 
elegantly-marked  stripes  and  bands  of  a 
deep  brown.  It  is  allied  to  the  civets, 
but  is  destitute  of  a  scent-pouch. 

DEMADES  (de-ma'dez),  an  Athenian 
orator,  who,  from  a  fishmonger,  rose  to 
high  places  in  the  republic.  He  was 
captured  by  Philip  of  Macedon  in  the 
battle  of  Chseronea,  but  soon  set  at 
liberty.  He  afterward  exerted  his  in- 
fluence in  favor  of  the  Macedonian  party 
at  Athens,  but,  betraying  Antipater,  he 
was  put  to  death  by  Cassander,  the  son 
of  the  latter,  318  b.  C. 

DEMAGOGUE,  a  ringleader  of  a 
faction,  or  of  the  rabble;  a  popular  or 


DEMAND  AND   SUPPLY 


314 


DEMETRIUS 


factious  oi'ator;  a  party  leader;  a 
teacher  of  sedition. — In  its  original  ac- 
ceptation, this  word  ^  was  considered  an 
honorable  designation;  but  it  is  now 
almost  invariably  used  in  a  bad  sense. 

DEMAND  AND  SUPPLY,  in  political 
economy,  demand  has  reference  to  the 
quantity  of  goods  asked  for  in  the 
market,  and  supply  has  reference  to  the 
quantity  of  goods  offered.  The  laws  of 
demand  and  supply  may  be  thus  stated: 
when  the  demand  exceeds  the  supply, 
competition  grows  stronger  among  the 
buyers,  and  prices  rise,  and  when  the 
demand  falls  short  of  the  supply,  com- 
petition grows  stronger  among  the  sell- 
ers, and  prices  fall;  or  thus,  falling 
prices  tend  to  lessen  the  supply  and  in- 
crease the  demand,  while  rising  prices 
tend  to  increase  the  supply  and  lessen 
the  demand.  A  rise  in  prices  tends  to 
encourage  production,  while  a  fall  in 
prices  tends  to  discourage  it.  Conversely, 
consumption  is  promoted  by  falling  and 
lessened  by  rising  prices. 

DEMAREST,  WILLIAM  HENRY 
STEELE,  an  American  educator,  born  in 
Hudson,  N.  Y.,  in  1863.  He  graduated 
from  Rutgers  College  in  1883  and  from 
the  New  Brunswick  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  1888.  He  was  ordained  minister 
to  the  Reform  Church  of  America  in  the 
same  year.  After  serving  as  pastor  in 
several  churches  in  New  York,  he  be- 
came professor  of  church  history  at  the 
New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  in 
1901.  In  1906  he  was  chosen  president 
of  Rutgers  College. 

DEMAVEND  (dem-a-vend') ,  a  vol- 
canic mountain  of  Persia,  and  the  highest 
peak  of  the  Elbruz  chain,  45  miles  S.  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  about  40  miles  N. 
E.  of  Teheran.  Its  height  is  about  19,400 
feet,  and  it  bears  evidence  of  having 
been  active  during  the  latest  geological 
(if  not  within  the  historic)  period. 

DEMBEA,  or  TSANA,  a  lake  of  Abys- 
sinia, in  a  province  of  the  same  name  in 
the  W.  part  of  that  country.  It  is  of 
irregular  form,  about  140  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, has  an  elevation  of  6,100 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  forms  the  reser- 
voir of  the  Blue  Nile. 

DEMEMBRE,  or  DISMEMBERED,  a 

heraldic  term  to  signify  that  the  members 
of  an  animal  are  cut  from  its  body. 

DEMENTIA,  in  common  parlance,  and 
even  in  legal  language,  a  word  synony- 
mous with  insanity.  Medically  it  is  ap- 
plied to  those  cases  of  unsound  mind 
which  are  characterized  by  a  total  loss 
of  the  faculty  of  thought,  or  by  such  an 
imbecility  of  intellect  that  the  ideas  are 
extremely  incoherent. 


DEMERARA,  (dem-e-ra'ra) ,  or  DEM- 
ARARA  (dem-a-ra'ra) ,  a  division  of 
British  Guiana,  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  river  Demarara  or  Demerara. 
It  extends  about  100  miles  along  the 
coast,  lying  on  the  E.  of  Essequibo,  and 
on  the  W.  of  Berbice.  The  soil  is  very 
fertile,  producing  abundant  crops  of 
sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  rice.  Chief  town, 
Georgetown.  Pop.  of  province  about 
125,000.  The  river,  after  a  course  of 
about  120  miles,  flows  into  the  Atlantic 

DEMESNE,  or  DOMAIN  (de-man'), 
in  law,  a  manor-house  and  the  land 
adjacent  or  near,  which  a  lord  keeps  in 
his  own  hands  or  immediate  occupation, 
for  the  use  of  his  family,  as  distinguished 
from  his  tenemental  lands,  distributed 
among  his  tenants.    See  Domain,  Public. 

DEMETRIUS  I.,  a  king  of  Syria,  sur- 
ndmed  Soter,  son  of  Seleucus  Philopater, 
born  185  B.  c.  He  was  sent  as  hostage 
to  Rome  by  his  father,  on  whose  death 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  after  him  his 
son,  Antiochus  Eupator,  usurped  the 
throne  of  Syria.  The  Roman  Senate 
denied  him  assistance,  but  the  Syrians 
recognized  him  for  their  lawful  prince, 
and  he  obtained  the  throne,  162  B.  c.  He 
then  declared  war  against  the  Jews,  and 
in  this  war  Judas  Maccabseus  lost  his 
life.  A  confederacy  of  the  neighboring 
kings  was  formed  against  Demetrius, 
who  was  slain  about  150  B.  C. 

DEMETRIUS  II.,  called  Nicator 
(conqueror),  was  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. Ptolemy  Philometer,  King  of 
Egypt,  placed  him  on  the  throne  of  his 
fal;hcr,  after  expelling  the  usurper, 
Alexander  Balas,  146  B.  c.  He  married 
Cleopatra,  the  wife  of  the  same  Alex- 
ander, and  daughter  of  Ptolemy.  He 
was  siibsequently  taken  prisoner  by  the 
King  of  Parthia,  who  gave  him  his 
daughter  in  marriage,  which  so  incensed 
Cleopatra;  that  she  married  Antiochus 
Sidetes,  htr  brother-in-law.  Sidetes, 
however,  fell  in  battle,  and  Demetrius 
recovered  his  throne;  but  he  did  not  re- 
tain it  long,  for  he  was  once  more  ex- 
pelled by  Alexander  Zebina,  and  was 
killed  by  the  Governor  of  Tyre,  126  B.  C. 

DEMETRIUS,  surnamed  Poliorcetes, 
King  of  Macedonia,  was  the  son  of  Antig- 
onus.  At  the  age  of  22  his  father  in- 
trusted him  with  an  army  against  Ptol- 
emy, by  whom  he  was  deifcated  near 
Gaza.  But  he  soon  repaired  the  loss,  and 
with  a  fleet  of  150  ships  sailed  to  Athens, 
which  he  delivered  from  Demetrius  Pha- 
lereus.  He  next  took  part  in  the  war 
against  Ptolemy,  whose  fleet  he  de- 
stroyed. In  305  B.  C.  Demetrius  under- 
took the  siege  of  Rhodes,  but  after  per- 
severing  for   a   year   was    compelled   to 


DEMETRIUS 


315 


DEMOCRACY 


relinquish  the  attempt.  He  afterward 
defeated  Cassander  at  Thermopylae;  but 
was  called  to  aid  Antigonus  against 
Seleucus  and  Lysimachus,  in  Asia.  The 
two  armies  met  at  Ipsus,  299  B.  C ;  and 
after  an  obstinate  battle,  the  army  of 
Demetrius  was  defeated,  and  his  father 
slain,  but  he  himself  fled  to  Ephesus. 
He,  however,  mustered  a  new  army,  and 
in  295  B.  C.  relieved  Athens  from  tyranny. 
He  then  slew  Alexander,  the  son  of  Cas- 
sander, and  seated  himself  on  the  throne 
of  Macedonia.  At  the  end  of  seven  years 
of  constant  war  he  was  forced  to  retire 
into  Asia,  where  he  was  reduced  to  dis- 
tress. He  went  to  the  court  of  Seleucus, 
his  son-in-law;  but  a  difference  breaking 
out  between  them,  war  ensued,  and  De- 
metrius was  defeated.  Deserted  by  his 
soldiers,  he  surrendered  himself  at  length 
to  his  son-in-law,  who  exiled  him  to 
Pella,  in  Syria,  where  he  died  283  e.  C. 

DEMETRIUS,  Czar  of  Russia,  com- 
monly called  the  false  Demetrius,  was  a 
native  of  Jaroslav,  and  a  novice  in  a 
monastery,  where  he  was  tutored  by  a 
monk  to  personate  Demetrius,  son  of  the 
Czar  John  Vasilowitz,  who  had  been 
murdered  by  Boris  Gudenow.  Having 
learned  his  tale,  he  went  into  Lithuania, 
embraced  the  Roman  Catholic  religion, 
and  married  the  daughter  of  the  palatine 
Sandomir.  In  1604  Demetrius  entered 
Russia  at  the  head  of  a  small  army,  was 
joined  by  a  number  of  Russians  and  Cos- 
sacks, and  defeated  an  army  sent  against 
him.  On  the  death  of  Boris,  the  people 
strangled  his  son,  and  placed  Demetrius 
on  the  throne,  but  his  partiality  to  the 
Poles,  and  contempt  of  the  Greek  reli- 
gion, occasioned  an  insurrection,  and  he 
was  assassinated  in  1606,  after  reigning 
about  11  months. 

DEMI-BASTION,  in  fortification,  dif- 
fers from  a  bastion  in  having  only  one 
flank  instead  of  two  and  no  curtain. 

DEMIDOV,  or  DEMIDOFF,  a  wealthy 
and  influential  Russian  family,  whose 
head  was  an  armory-founder  at  Toula. 
This  Demidoff  was  intrusted  by  Peter 
the  Great  with  the  business  of  casting 
the  cannon  for  that  prince's  numerous 
warlike  expeditions.  In  1725  he  discov- 
ered the  mines  of  Kolyvan,  the  working 
of  which  speedily  enriched  him.  He  left 
a  son,  NiKlTA,  and  several  grandsons, 
who  distinguished  themselves  in  the  same 
career  as  their  pi'ogenitor,  and  amassed 
colossal  fortunes.  The  best  known  of 
these  are  Prokop  Demidoff,  who  v/orked 
with  great  profit  the  iron,  copper,  and 
gold  mines  of  the  Ural  Mountains;  born 
at  Moscow  about  1730;  Nikolay  Ni- 
KITICH,  a  zealous  philanthropist,  who 
founded  establishments  of  public  utility, 


and  carried  to  a  great  state  of  perfection 
the  working  of  mines.  His  last  years 
he  passed  in  France  and  Italy,  enjoying 
the  society  of  learned  men.  Born  near 
St.  Petersburg,  1773;  died  in  Florence, 
1828.  He  left  two  sons,  Paul  and  Ana- 
TOLE,  who,  as  well  as  inheriting  his  for- 
tune, had  also  the  same  high  taste,  and 
benevolence.  Of  these.  Count  Anatole 
allied  himself  to  the  Bonaparte  family, 
by  marrying,  in  1840,  one  of  Napoleon's 
nieces,  the  Princess  Mathilde,  daughter 
of  Jerome,  and  sister  of  Prince  Napoleon. 
Russia,  as  well  as  other  countries,  owe 
to  him  the  foundation  of  many  valuable 
charitable  institutions.     He  died  in  1858. 

DE  MILLE,  WILLIAM  CHURCHILL, 
an  American  playwright,  born  in  Wash- 
ington, N.  C,  in  1878.  He  studied  at 
the  American  Academy  of  Dramatic  Arts 
and  in  1900  became  a  writer  of  plays. 
Among  those  successfully  produced  were 
"Strongheart,"  "The  Warrens  of  Vir- 
ginia," "The  Land  of  the  Free,"  and 
"The  Woman."  He  also  prepared  and 
directed  many  successful  moving  picture 
plays. 

DEMI-LUNE,  in  fortification,  practi- 
cally the  same  as  a  ravelin. 

DEMI-RELIEF,    or    DEMI-RILIEVO 

(demai-ril-i-a'v6) ,  a  term  applied  to 
sculpture  projecting  moderately  from  the 
face  of  a  wall;  half  raised,  as  if  cut  in 
two,  and  half  only  fixed  to  the  plane. 
Mezzo-rilievo  is  a  degree  between  alto 
and  basso-rilievo. 

DEMISE,  (a  laying  dovvTi),  in  law  a 
grant  by  lease;  is  applied  to  an  estate 
either  in  fee-simple,  fee-tail,  or  for  a 
term  of  life  or  years.  As  applied  to  the 
crown  of  England,  demise  signifies  its 
transmission  to  the  next  heir  on  being 
laid  down  by  the  sovereign  at  death. 

DEMISEMIQUAVER,  in  music,  half 
a  semi-quaver,  or  the  32d  part  of  a  semi- 
breve. 

DEMIURGE,  in  some  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  states  the  name  of  a  magistrate, 
probably  corresponding  to  the  tribunes 
of  Rome.  It  is  also  a  name  given  by 
the  Platonian  philosophei's  to  an  exalted 
and  mysterious  agent,  by  whom  God  was 
supposed  to  have  created  the  universe. 
He  corresponds  to  the  Logos  or  Word  of 
St.  John  and  the  Platonizing  Christians 
of  the  Early  Church. 

DEMOCRACY,  that  form  of  govern- 
ment in  which  the  sovereign  power  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  people  collectively, 
and  is  exercised  by  them  either  directly 
or  indirectly  through  elected  representa- 
tives or  delegates.  The  third  book  of 
Herodotus  describes  it  as  it  existed  in 


DEMOCRATIC  PARTY 


316 


DEMOCRATIC  PARTY 


ancient  Greece,  the  first  country  perhaps 
where  it  was  ever  allowed  scope  for  de- 
velopment. Aristotle  also  treated  of  the 
subject. 

DEMOCRATIC  PARTY,  one  of  the 
two  chief  divisions  into  which  the  voters 
of  the  United  States  are  politically  as- 
sociated, first  opposed  to  the  Whigs,  then 
to  the  Republicans. 

The  complete  evolution  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  may  be  said  to  date  from 
the  accession  of  Andrev/  Jackson  to  the 
presidency,  though  its  fundamental 
principles  were  enunciated  by  Thomas 
Jefferson.  The  political  features  of  Jack- 
son's administration  were  the  opposition 
to  the  United  States  Bank,  the  denial 
of  the  right  of  any  State  to  nullify  the 
laws  of  Congress,  and  the  excitement 
over  the  tariff  question.  In  1836 
through  the  influence  of  Jackson,  Martin 
Van  Buren  was  elected  President,  and 
during  his  administration  the  prestige 
of  the  Democratic  party  began  to  wane. 
In  1837  the  country  went  through  a 
severe  commercial  panic.  Credit,  specu- 
lation and  banking  had  been  carried  to 
extreme  limits  and  disaster  followed. 
For  this  state  of  affairs  the  administra- 
tion was  held  responsible.  The  election 
of  1840  was  a  revolution  and  in  the 
choice  of  General  Harrison  by  the  elec- 
toral vote  of  234  to  60  the  Democratic 
party,  after  an  ascendency  of  its  princi- 
ples entailing  40  years  of  power,  was 
forced  to  retire.  But  the  Whig  triumph 
was  short-lived.  General  Harrison  died 
one  month  after  his  inauguration  and 
John  Tyler,  who  had  been  nominated 
for  Vice-President  to  conciliate  Virginia, 
succeeded  to  the  presidential  chair.  All 
his  life  he  had  held  and  advocated  Demo- 
cratic d  ■'ctrines,  especially  the  opposition 
to  the  United  States  Bank,  a  protective 
tariff,  and  internal  improvements  by  the 
general  government.  On  his  accession 
he  continued  the  cabinet  of  his  predeces- 
sor, Daniel  Webster  being  Secretary  of 
State;  but  after  two  successive  vetoes  of 
the  "Fiscal  Bank  of  the  United  States" 
bill,  his  cabinet  left  him,  Mr.  Webster 
remaining  only  till  the  conclusion  of  the 
Webster-Ashburton  treaty,  and  his  ad- 
ministration became  essentially  Demo- 
cratic. 

In  1844  James  K.  Polk  was  elected 
President,  after  a  bitter  and  exciting 
contest,  over  Henry  Clay.  The  annexa- 
tion of  Texas,  which  was  urged  by  the 
Democratic  party,  was  the  great  question 
in  determining  this  election,  and  was  ac- 
complished March  1,  1845,  three  days 
before  the  inauguration  of  Mr.  Polk. 
This  led  to  a  war  with  Mexico  which  was 
declared  May  12,  1846.  At  its  successful 
conclusion  not  orly  was  the  Rio  Grande 


established  as  the  boundary  of  Texas, 
but  all  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California 
were  relinquished  to  the  United  States. 
In  March,  1820,  an  act  known  as  the 
Missouri  Compromise,  had  been  passed, 
foi'bidding  the  introduction  of  slavery 
in  any  of  the  States  formed  from  the 
Louisiana  Cession  N.  of  36°  30'.  On 
Aug.  8,  1846,  the  rejection  of  the  so- 
called  Wilmot  Proviso  by  the  Senate, 
which  provided  "That  as  an  express  and 
fundamental  condition  to  the  acquisition 
of  any  territory  from  the  Republic  of 
Mexico  by  the  United  States.  . .  .neither 
slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  shall 
ever  exist  in  any  part  of  said  territory," 
became  the  starting  point  of  the  Free 
Soil  party  in  1848.  Mr.  Wilmot,  the 
mover,  was  a  Democrat.  The  popularity 
of  General  Taylor  caused  the  defeat  of 
Lewis  Cass  in  the  election  of  1848,  and 
the  Democratic  party  went  out  of  power 
till  1853,  when  Franklin  Pierce  became 
President.  In  1856  it  elected  James 
Buchanan  President  and  John  C.  Breck- 
enridge  Vice-President.  At  the  conven- 
tion held  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  April, 
1860,  the  slavery  issue  caused  a  disrup- 
tion of  the  party,  the  slave  section  nomi- 
nating John  C.  Breckenridge,  and  the 
free,  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  and,  on  Mr. 
Lincoln's  election,  it  lost  the  supremacy 
which  it  had  held  with  little  interruption 
for  60  years.  It  had,  however,  a  vigorous 
life,  and  contested  hotly  every  presi- 
dential election,  its  unsuccessful  candi- 
dates being  George  B.  McClellan,  1864; 
Horatio  Seymour,  1868;  Horace  Greeley, 
1872;  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  1876;  and  Win- 
field  S.  Hancock,  1880.  In  1884  the  party 
elected  its  candidate  for  the  presidency, 
Grover  Cleveland.  In  1888,  Mr.  Cleve- 
land, having  been  renominated,  the  party 
was  defeated.  In  1892  Mr.  Cleveland 
again  became  the  nominee  of  the  party 
against  the  sharp  and  critical  opposition 
of  the  Democratic  organization  of  his 
own  State   (New  York). 

In  the  first  year  of  his  second  adminis- 
tration, Mr.  Cleveland  called  a  special 
session  of  Congress  for  the  purpose  of 
repealing  the  law  compelling  the  monthly 
purchase  of  silver  by  the  government; 
and  this  was  accomplished  against  the 
determined  opposition  of  many  prom- 
inent Democrats.  Dissension  soon  there- 
fore arose  in  the  party  over  the  tariff, 
centering  around  the  so-called  Wilson 
Bill.  The  opponents  of  the  administra- 
tion, led  by  Gorman  of  Maryland,  Brice 
of  Ohio,  and  others,  succeeded  in  amend- 
ing the  bill  to  an  extent  deemed  so  un- 
democratic that  the  President  could  give 
it  but  a  qualified  approval,  and  it 
became  a  law  without  his  signature.  The 
necessity  of  issuing  bonds  for  the  pur- 
pose of"  maintaining    the    gold    reserve, 


DEMOCRITUS 


317 


DEMONOLOGY 


thus  increasing  the  public  debt,  and  the 
adoption  of  silver  free  coinage  in  the  plat- 
form of  1896  overthrew  the  party,  its 
presidential  candidate,  William  J.  Bryan, 
being  defeated  by  William  McKinley,  for 
whom  many  Democrats  in  favor  of  sound 
money  and  the  gold  standard  voted. 

In  1904  Alton  B.  Parker,  a  conserva- 
tive democrat,  was  nominated.  Theodore 
Roosevelt  was  chosen  by  the  Republicans 
and  elected,  having  obtained  336  elec- 
toral votes  to  Judge  Parker's  140.  In 
1908  William  J.  Bryan  and  William  H. 
Taft  were  the  contestants.  Taft  won,  re- 
ceiving 321  Electoral  votes  to  Bryan's 
162.  Taft  was  again  chosen  by  the  Re- 
publicans in  -1912.  The  Democratic  con- 
vention held  at  Baltimore,  June  25,  after 
several  days'  balloting  nominated  Wood- 
row  Wilson,  Governor  of  New  Jersey. 
The  new  Progressive  party,  in  conven- 
tion assembled  at  Chicago,  August  5, 
nominated  Theodore  Roosevelt.  The  re- 
sult of  the  election  showed,  Wilson  435, 
Roosevelt  88,  and  Taft  8.  At  the  Demo- 
cratic convention  held  at  St.  Louis,  June, 
1916,  Woodrow  Wilson  and  Thomas 
Marshall  were  nominated  by  acclama- 
tion. Charles  E.  Hughes  of  New  York 
and  C.  W.  Fairbanks  of  Indiana  were 
nominated  by  the  Republicans.  The  re- 
sult of  the  election  was  a  plurality  vote 
for  Woodrow  Wilson  of  581,941.  In  1920 
the  Democrats  nominated  J.  M.  Cox,  Gov- 
ernor of  Ohio,  T^'ho  was  defeated  by  War- 
ren G.  Harding,  the  Republican  nominee, 
by  a  vote  of  16,132,914  to  9,142,438. 

DEMOCRITUS  (de-mok'ri-tus) ,  a 
Greek  philosopher  of  the  new  Eleatic 
school,  a  native  of  Abdera,  who  was  born 
between  470  and  460  B.  c.  He  traveled 
to  Egypt,  where  he  studied  geometry. 
Among  the  Greek  philosophers  he  en- 
joyed the  instruction  of  Leucippus.  He 
afterward  returned  to  his  native  city, 
where  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  pub- 
lic affairs.  Indignant  at  the  follies  of 
the  Abderites,  he  resigned  his  office  and 
retired  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to 
philosophical    studies. 

He  explained  the  origin  of  the  world 
by  the  eternal  motion  of  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  invisible  and  indivisible  bodies 
or  atoms,  which  differ  from  one  another 
in  form,  position,  and  aiTangement,  and 
which  have  a  primary  motion,  which 
brings  them  into  contact,  and  forms  in- 
numerable combinations,  the  result  of 
which  is  seen  in  the  productions  and 
phenomena    of   nature. 

In  this  way  the  universe  was  formed, 
fortuitously,  without  the  interposition 
of  a  First  Cause.  He  applied  his  atom- 
ical  theory,  also,  to  natural  philoso- 
phy and  astronomy.  Even  the  gods  he 
considered  to  have  arisen  from  atoms. 


and  to  be  perishable  like  the  rest  of 
things  existing.  He  is  said  to  have 
written  a  great  deal;  but  nothing  has 
come  to  us  except  a  few  fragments.  He 
died  370  B.  c,  at  an  advanced  age.  His 
school  was  supplanted  by  that  of  Epi- 
curus. 

DEMODEX,  a  genus  of  arachnida, 
usually  placed  in  the  family  acarina.  D. 
folliculorum  inhabits  the  sebaceous  fol- 
licles of  the  face  of  many  persons,  es- 
pecially in  the  vicinity  of  the  nose. 

DEMOISELLE,  a  species  of  crane 
(Anthropoides  virgo).  It  is  of  a  slaty- 
gray  color,  with  the  outer  portion  of  the 
quill-feathers  dingy  black;  a  tuft  of 
feathers  from  the  breast  blackish.  It 
is  found  all  over  Africa,  whence  it  finds 
its  way  occasionally  to  Europe  and  India. 
It  is  called  also  the  Numidian  crane. 

DEMOIVRE,  ABRAHAM  (de-mwa' 
vr),  a  French  mathematician;  born  in 
Vitry,  May  26,  1667.  He  settled  in  Lon- 
don after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes.  His  chief  works  are:  "Mis- 
cellanea Analjrtica";  "The  Doctrine  of 
Chances,  or  a  Method  of  Calculating  the 
Probabilities  of  Events  at  Play";  and  a 
work  on  "Annuities,"  besides  "Papers" 
in  the  "Transactions"  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, of  which  he  was  a  fellow.  He  died 
in   London,   Nov.    27,    1754. 

DEMON,  a  name  given  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  to  beings  equivalent  to  thosf 
spiritual  existences  termed  angels  in  tht 
Bible.  The  word  in  Scripture  is  trans- 
lated devil,  but  it  meant  properly  a 
spirit  generally,  whether  good  or  evil. 

DEMONOLOGY,  the  doctrine  that  re- 
lates to  demons,  a  body  of  spiritual  be- 
ings inferior  in  rank  to  deities  proper, 
but  yet  capable  of  influencing  human 
affairs.  The  earlier  and  more  widely 
spread  conception  of  the  demon  was 
merely  that  of  a  more  or  less  powerful 
and  intermediate  agent  between  gods 
and  men  at  one  time  resolving  himself 
into  a  kind  of  special  guardian  or  pa- 
cron-spirit,  at  another  acting  p.s  the 
minister  of  the  divine  displeasure. 

To  primitive  man  the  demon  was  but 
one  of  the  thousand  spiritual  beings  who 
controlled  every  one  of  the  causes  of 
nature,  and  whose  favor  must  be  pi'r- 
chased  by  constant  tributes  of  respect 
and  worship.  It  was  perfectly  consist- 
ent with  primitive  philosophy  that  the 
manes  or  ghosts  of  the  dead  should  con- 
tinue after  death  the  influence  they  on- 
joyed  in  life,  and  thus  should  pass  into 
the  higher  class  of  deities.  It  is  not 
merely  family  affection,  but  actual  fear 
and  considerations  of  prudence,  that 
lead  to  the  worship  of  ancestors  and  oi 
21— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


DEMOSTHENES 


318 


DEMULCENTS 


the  dead;  and  the  good  or  bad  fortune 
of  living  men  is  attributed  to  the  direct 
interference  of  the  invisible  spirits  with 
which  the  whole  air  around  is  swarming. 
These  spirits  may  not  only  affect  the 
fortune  of  the  individual,  but  may  even 
enter  into  his  body,  and  cause  internal 
diseases  and  such  other  inexplicable 
phenomena  as  frenzy,  wild  ravings,  hys- 
terical epilepsy,  and  the  like. 

The  very  etymology  of  such  words  as 
catalepsy  and  ecstasy  points  plainly  to 
a  time  when  there  was  no  metaphor  in 
their  meaning.  Such  is  the  explanation 
of  disease  offered  at  the  present  day  by 
savage  man  all  over  the  world,  and  such 
was  also  the  belief  of  the  semi-civilized 
ancient  Egyptians  and  Babylonians.  In- 
deed, it  disappeared  but  slowly  before 
the  progress  of  scientific  medicine,  and 
continued  to  reappear  in  survivals 
strangely  perplexing  on  any  other  ex- 
planation. Hence  the  function  of  the 
exorcist  arises  naturally  as  a  means  of 
effecting  a  cure  by  expelling  the  demon, 
and  we  find  him  daily  exercising  his 
skill  in  Africa,  and  even  in  China  and 
India.  ^  In  early  Christian  times  those 
demoniacally  possessed,  or  energumens, 
were  grouped  into  a  class  under  the  care 
of  a  special  order  of  clerical  exorcists, 
and  after  the  time  of  St.  Augustine  the 
rite  of  exorcism  came  to  be  applied  to 
all  infants  before  baptism. 

DEMOSTHENES  (de-mos'the-nez),  an 
illustrious  orator  of  ancient  Greece, 
born  in  383  or  384  B.  C.  In  359,  to 
assist  in  his  own  support,  he  began  pre- 
paring speeches  to  be  used  in  public 
suits.  In  351  he  began  a  long  and  mem- 
orable conflict  against  Philip  the  Mace- 
donian. His  speeches,  intended  to 
arouse  the  Greek  nation  to  military  zeal, 
called  "Philippics,"  are  among  the  finest 
specimens  of  ancient  oratory.  In  346 
he  was  one  of  the  peace  ambassadors 
who  treated  with  Philip.  During  the 
period  from  346  to  340  he  was  engaged 
in  forming  an  anti-Macedonian  party, 
and  in  his  attacks  upon  -^schines  for 
betraying  Athens  in  the  peace  negotia- 
tions with  Philip.  In  340  war  again 
broke  out,  ending  in  the  great  defeat  of 
the  Greeks  at  Chaeronea.  It  having  been 
proposed  by  the  citizens  to  present  De- 
mosthenes with  a  crown,  in  honor  of  his 
services  to  the  State,  his  enemies  seized 
on  the  opportunity  to  accuse  him.  He 
defended  himself  on  his  trial,  in  a  mem- 
orable oration  "On  the  Crown,"  one  of 
his    greatest    productions. 

In  324  Harpalus,  the  State  treasurer 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded Philip  in  Macedonia,  fled  to 
Athens    with    a    great    sum    of    money. 


which  was  placed  in  the  Athenian  public 
treasury  under  the  charge  of  Demos- 
thenes. A  portion  of  it  disappeared, 
and  Demosthenes  was  accused  of  the 
embezzlement,  and  condemned  and  sen- 
tenced to  prison,  but,  escaping,  went  in- 
to exile.  On  the  death  of  Alexander, 
323  B.  C,  he  was  recalled,  and  led  an  un- 


DEMOSTHENES 

successful  attempt  to  throw  off  the  Mace- 
donian yoke.  After  the  defeat  of  the 
revolting  army  at  Crannon,  he  fled  to 
Calauria,  where  he  was  captured  by  the 
Macedonians,  and  poisoned  himself,  in 
322  B.   C. 

DEMOTIC,  or  ENCHORIAL  ALPHA- 
BET, a  simplification  of  the  hieratic, 
which  again  was  a  contraction  of  the 
hieroglyphic   characters. 

DEMULCENTS,  medicines  which  tend 
to  soothe  or  protect  the  mucous  mem- 
branes against  irritants.    They  are  gen- 


DEMURRAGE 


319 


DENDERAH 


erally  composed  of  starch,  gum,  albumi- 
nous or  oily  substances  largely  diluted. 

DEMURRAGE,  in  maritime  law,  (1) 
the  time  during  which  a  vessel  is  de- 
tained by  the  freighter  beyond  what  is 
nanrwsd  in  the  charter-party  in  loading 
or  unloading,  A  vessel  thus  detained  is 
said  to  be  on  demurrage.  (2)  The  com- 
pensation or  allowance  made  by  the 
freighter  of  a  vessel  for  such  delay  or 
detention.  Demurrage  must  be  paid  in 
evei-y  case  except  when  the  delay  is 
caused  by  tempestuous  weather,  any 
fault  of  the  owner,  captain,  or  crew  of 
the  vessel,  or  detention  by  an  enemy. 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  a  similar 
compensation  or  allowance  payable  for 
delay  in  loading  or  unloading  railway 
cars  beyond  a  certain  specified  period 
allowed  for  the  purpose.  In  the  Bank 
of  England,  demun*age  is  the  allowance 
of  l^d.  per  ounce  made  to  the  bank  in 
exchanging  coins  or  notes  for  bullion. 
The  metallic  value  of  standard  gold  is 
£3  17s.  lO^d.  per  ounce;  at  the  Bank  of 
England  £3  17s.  9d.  is  given  for  it  with- 
out any  delay.  If  it  were  taken  to  the 
mint  there  would  be  a  delay  of  some 
days  before  it  could  be  converted  into 
coin.  The  difference  of  l%d.  per  ounce, 
by  which  this  delay  is  avoided,  is  called 
demurrage. 

DEMURRER,  in  law,  a  stop  at  some 
point  in  the  pleadingfs,  and  a  resting  of 
the  decision  of  the  cause  on  that  point; 
an  issue  on  matter  of  law.  A  demurrer 
confesses  the  fact  or  facts  to  be  true,  but 
denies  the  sufficiency  of  the  facts  in 
point  of  law  to  support  the  claim  or  de- 
fense. 

DEMY,  a  size  of  paper  intervening  be- 
tween royal  and  crown.  Printing  demy 
measures  generally  22  inches  by  17^, 
writing  20  inches  by  15%,  drawing  22 
inches  by  17. 

DFNAIN  (de-nan'),  a  town  of  north- 
em  France,  in  the  department  of  Nord, 
6  miles  from  Valenciennes.  It  stands  in 
the  center  of  a  coal  field,  and  has  iron 
works,  etc.  A  great  victory  was  gained 
here  in  1712  by  the  French  under  Vil- 
lars  over  the  allies  under  Eugene  and 
Albemarle.     Pop.   (1906)   23,950. 

DENATURED  ALCOHOL,  Ethyl  Al- 
cohol,  containing  substances  "which  de- 
stroy_  its  character  as  a  beverage  or  ren- 
der it  unfit  for  liquid  medicinal  pur- 
poses." (Act  of  Congress,  June  7,  1906; 
amended  March  2,  1907;  Act,  Oct.  3, 
]913).  There  are  two  classes  of  de- 
natured alcohol,  one  known  as  "special- 
ly denatured,"  the  other  as  "completely 
denatured."     The  use  of  the  former  is 


restricted  to  certain  industries  in  which 
the  completely  denatured  article  would 
produce  harmful  effects,  such,  for  in- 
stance, as  the  manufacture  of  ether, 
chloral  hydrate  and  numerous  synthet- 
ics. The  most  common  formula  pre- 
viously used  for  completely  denaturing 
alcohol  was  the  addition  of  10  per  cent, 
of  methyl  alcohol  and  1  per  cent,  of  ben- 
zine. In  view,  however,  of  the  large 
number  of  deaths  and  cases  of  total 
blindness  occurring  after  the  Eighteenth 
Amendment  took  effect,  this  formula 
was  revoked  in  December,  1919,  and 
hereafter  no  completely  denatured  alco- 
hol containing  more  than  2  per  cent, 
methyl  alcohol  will  be  allowed  on  the 
market.  Alcohol  is  now  commonly  de- 
natured with   pyridin. 

DENBIGHSHIRE,  a  county  of  north 
Wales,  with  an  area  of  662  square  miles. 
In  the  northern  part  the  surface  is 
mountainous,  about  two-thirds  being  un- 
der cultivation.  The  chief  industries 
are  agriculture,  including  the  raising  of 
corn,  the  making  of  cheese  and  butter, 
and  the  raising  of  live  stock.  There  are 
important  coal  mines  in  the  county.  The 
chief  towns  are  Denbigh,  the  capital, 
Rexham,  Ruthin,  and  Llangollen.  Pop- 
ulation, about  150,000. 

DENBY,  EDWIN,  an  American  public 
official,  born  at  Evansville,  Ind.,  in  1870. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Evansville  High 
School.  In  1885  he  accompanied  his 
father  to  China,  where  the  latter  was 
United  States  Minister.  He  served  in 
the  Chinese  Imperial  Maritime  Custc«n 
Service  from  1887  to  1897,  returning, 
however,  to  the  United  States  for  a  time 
in  1894.  He  graduated  from  the  Law 
School  of  the  University  of  Michigan  in 
1896,  and  in  the  same  year  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  engaging  in  the  practice  of 
law  in  Detroit.  During  the  Spanish- 
American  War  he  served  as  gunner's 
mate  on  the  U.  S.  S.  Yosemite.  On  the 
declaration  of  war  between  the  United 
States  and  Germany  he  enlisted  in  the 
United  States  Marine  Corps  and  was 
made  a  sergeant  in  1917.  He  served 
throughout  the  war,  retiring  as  a  major. 
In  1902-1903  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Michigan  House  of  Representatives,  and 
from  1905  to  1911  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  the  First  Michigan  District. 
He  was  selected  by  President  Harding  as 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  assumed 
office  on  March  4,  1921. 

DENDERAH  (den'der-a)  (the  Ten- 
tyra  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans),  an 
Arab  village  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Nile,  28  miles  N.  of 
Thebes,  celebrated  for  its  temple  dedi- 
cated   to    Athor,    the    Egyptian    Venus. 


DENDEBMONDE 


320 


DEIiTMABK 


DENDEBMONDE,     or    TEBMONDE, 

a  town  of  Belgium,  province  of  East 
Flanders,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Den- 
der  with  the  Scheldt,  12  miles  N.  W. 
from  Brussels,  It  is  strongly  fortfied. 
Manufactures  woolens,  linens,  tobacco, 
etc.  The  town  was  taken  by  Marlborough 
in  1706. 

DENDBITE,  a  stone  or  mineral  on  or 
in  which  are  the  figures  of  shrubs, 
mosses,  or  other  vegetable  growth;  an 
arborescent  or  dendritic  mineral.  The 
colors  are  due  to  the  traces  of  organic 
matter,  or  of  oxides  of  iron,  manganese, 
or  titanium. 

DENDBOPHIS,  a  genus  of  snakes, 
family  Dendrophidse,  with  smooth  scales, 
which  are  much  larger  along  the  back 
than  on  the  sides;  the  sides  of  the  ab- 
domen are  slightly  keeled.  This  genus 
occurs  in  India,  the  East  Indies,  and 
Australia,  and  its  members  are  not  ven- 
omous. 

D'ENGHIEN.  See  Enghien, 

DENGUE  (den'ga),  said  to  be  a  mis- 
take for  English  dandy;  the  disease, 
when  it  first  made  its  appearance  in  the 
British  West  India  Islands,  being  called 
the  dandy-fever,  from  stiffness  and  con- 
straint caused  to  the  limbs.  This  the 
Spaniards  mistook  for  their  word  den- 
gue =  prudery,  a  continued  fever  com- 
mon in  the  United  States  and  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  and  Africa.  The 
chief  symptoms  are  severe  pains  in  fore- 
head, limbs,  back,  and  joints,  with  an 
eruption  like  measles,  or  rather  erysipe- 
las, with  painful   swellings. 

DENIS,  or  DENYS,  ST.  (den-e') ,  first 
Bishop  of  Paris,  in  the  3d  century.  He 
was  sent  from  Rome,  about  A.  D.  250,  to 
convert  the  pagans  of  Gaul.  He  built 
many  churches,  and  selected  Paris  as 
the  seat  of  his  bishopric.  During  the 
persecution  of  the  Christians  under  Au- 
relian,  he  was  condemned  to  death  by 
the  Roman  governor  Pescennius,  and 
beheaded   in   272. 

DENIS,  ST.,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seine,  6  miles  N.  of 
Paris.  A  chapel  in  honor  of  St.  Denis 
was  founded  at  this  place,  in  250.  Dago- 
bert  was  buried  here  in  580.  Dagobert 
I.  founded  the  abbey  in  636,  and  it  has 
ever  since  been  the  place  of  sepulcher 
for  the  French  monarchs.  The  first 
church  was  finished  in  775,  and  the 
present  edifice,  commenced  in  1130,  was 
completed  in  1281.  A  battle  between 
the  Roman  Catholics  and  the  Huguenots 
was  fought  in  its  vicinity,  Nov.  10,  1567, 
when  the  latter  were  victorious,  De 
Montmorenci,  the  Roman  Catholic  lead- 
er, being  mortally  wounded.     By  a  de- 


cree of  the  Convention,  Aug.  6,  1793, 
the  royal  tombs  were  opened,  but  they 
were  restored  by  Napoleon  I.  in  1806. 
The  abbey  was  suppressed  in  1792.  Pop. 
(1906)    64,790. 

DENIS,  or  DENNIS,  a  name  much  af- 
fected by  the  faithful  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  particularly 
among  the  Irish.  The  appellation  has 
acquired  a  similar  position  in  the  United 
States  with  the  name  Jonah,  for  an  an- 
alogous reason.  "Your  name  is  Dennis," 
means  you  are  doomed  to  disappoint- 
ment. 

DENISON,  a  city  in  Grayson  co.. 
Tex.;  on  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and 
Texas,  the  Missouri,  Oklahoma  and 
Gulf,  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  and  other 
railroads;  106  miles  N.  of  Dallas.  It  is 
a  noted  cattle-shipping  place;  the  farm- 
ing trade  center  of  the  surrounding 
country,  and  an  important  railroad 
point.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton, 
cotton-seed  oil,  creosote,  grain  elevators, 
iron,  and  machinery,  daily  and  weekly 
papers,  high  school,  electric  lights, 
water  works,  and  2  National  banks.  Pop. 
(1910)    13,632;    (1920)    17,065. 

DENNISON  UNIVEBSITY,  an  edu- 
cational institution  in  Granville,  O.; 
founded  in  1831,  under  the  auspices  of 
Baptist  Church;  reported  at  the  end  of 
1899:  Professors  and  instructors,  46, 
students,  900;  president,  C.  W.  Cham- 
berlain, D.  D. 

DENMABK,  a  kingdom  in  northern 
Europe,  consisting  of  a  peninsular  por- 
tion called  Jutland,  and  an  extensive  ar- 
chipelago lying  E.  of  it  and  comprising 
the  islands  of  Seeland  (or  Sjalland), 
Funen  (or  Fyen),  Laaland  (orLolland), 
Falster,  Langeland,  Moen,  Samso,  Laso, 
Arro,  Bornholm,  and  many  smaller  ones. 
Besides  these  there  are  the  outlying  pos- 
sessions of  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the 
Faroe  islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Denmark  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by  Ger- 
many and  the  Baltic;  on  the  W.  by  the 
North  Sea;  on  the  N.  it  is  separated 
from  Norway  by  the  Skagerrack;  and  on 
the  E.  it  is  separated  from  Sweden  by 
the  Kattegat  and  the  Sound.  Area, 
15,289  square  miles;  pop.  (1901)  2,464,- 
770;  capital,  Copenhagen. 

Topography. — The  surface  of  Den- 
mark is  very  much  alike  in  every  part  of 
the  kingdom,  uniformly  low,  reaching  its 
highest  point  in  Eirs-Bavnehoj,  in  S.  E. 
Jutland,  which  is  only  564  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  country  presents  little 
variety,  except  in  its  low  isolated  hills, 
but  does  not  leave  an  impression  of 
monotony;  in  the  islands  and  in  the  S. 
E.  of  Jutland  the  landscape  is  broken  by 
forests,  meadows,  and  fields;   and  even 


DENMARK 


321 


DENMARK 


in  the  W.  and  N.  of  the  mainland  the 
stretches  of  moorland  are  clothed  with 
heather,  and  have  a  solemn  beauty.  The 
coast  seldom  rises  even  to  low  cliffs; 
generally  it  is  flat,  skirted  by  sand- 
ridges  and  shallow  lagoons,  especially 
along  the  W.  side,  where  the  dunes 
cover  an  area  of  nearly  225  square 
miles.  The  E.  coast  is  much  indented 
by  bays,  useful  for  navigation  and  valu- 
able for  their  fisheries:  here  and  in  the 
islands  are  many  good  harbors.  Both 
the  continental  portion  and  the  islands 
are  penetrated  deeply  by  numerous 
fjords,  the  largest  being  Limfjord,  which 
intersects  Jutland  and  has  insulated  the 
N.  extremity  of  the  peninsula  since  1825, 
when  it  broke  through  the  narrow  isth- 
mus which  had  separated  it  from  the 
North  Sea.  From  its  formation,  the 
kingdom  can  have  no  rivers,  properly  so 
called;  its  streams,  called  Aa,  are  mostly 
large  brooks.  There  are  several  impor- 
tant canals,  however,  including  in  Jut- 
land works  for  the  canalization  of  the 
Guden-Aa,  its  largest  stream,  and  of  the 
Limfjord.  Lakes  abound  in  all  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  the  most  considerable 
being  found  in  Seeland. 

Climate,  Commerce,  aiid  Productions. 
— Owing  to  the  lowness  of  the  land  and 
its  proximity  to  the  sea  on  all  sides,  the 
climate  is  remarkably  temperate  for  so 
northerly  a  region,  though  the  thermom- 
eter in  winter  may  sink  to  22°  below 
zero,  and  in  summer  rise  to  89".  Vio- 
lents  winds  are  frequent,  and  rains  and 
fogs  prevalent,  but  the  climate  is  favor- 
able to  vegetation.  The  soils  of  Jutland 
are  generally  light,  but  those  in  the  S. 
E.  part  and  in  the  islands  are  stronger; 
about  80  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  Den- 
mark is  productive,  and  of  the  remainder 
about  one-sixth  is  in  peat-bogs.  Nearly 
half  of  the  population  is  engaged  in 
agriculture;  the  land  for  the  most  part 
is  parceled  out  into  small  holdings,  and 
this  is  encouraged  by  the  laws,  which 
since  1849  have  prohibited  the  throwing 
of  small  farms  into  large  estates.  The 
center  and  W.  of  Jutland  is  nearly  bare 
of  wood,  but  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
peninsula  the  forests  cover  about  215,- 
000  acres,  and  in  the  islands  over  291,- 
000  acres.  The  beech,  which  flourishes 
more  luxuriantly  in  Denmark  than  in 
any  other  land,  is  almost  universally 
predominant,  though  three  centuries  ago 
the  oak,  now  comparatively  rare,  was 
the  characteristic  Danish  tree.  Peat, 
which  is  obtained  in  abundance  from  the 
bogs,  brown  coal  or  lignite,  and  seaweed, 
generally  take  the  place  of  wood  as  fuel. 
Porcelain  clay  and  some  coal  are  found 
in  Bornholm;  fuller's  efai'th,  potterls 
clay,  saltpeter,  chalk,  and  a  poor  marble 


occur  in  several  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
while  some  amber  is  collected  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Jutland. 

In  1919  there  were  produced  of  the 
principal  crops  the  following  amounts 
m  tons:  wheat,  161,200;  rye,  378,700; 
barley,  533,900;  oats,  690,700;  mixed 
grain,  397,000;  and  potatoes,  1,440,800. 
There  were  in  1919  558,471  horses;  2,- 
188,142  head  of  cattle;  509,466  sheep; 
715,909  swine;  and  12,134,521  poultry. 

In  1914  there  were  82,442  industrial 
establishments,  employing  346,000  per- 
sons. Among  the  most  important  pro- 
ductions are  distilled  liquors  and  beet 
sugar.  There  were,  in  1919,  21  distiller- 
ies, which  produced  2,390,000  liters  of 
brandy.  In  the  same  year  the  produc- 
tion of  beet  sugar  was  141,300  tons. 

Fisheries  are  important,  and  the  value 
of  the  catch  in  1918  was  £2,318,866. 
Over  20,000  persons  are  engaged  in  the 
fisheries  and  over  15,000  boats  are  em- 
ployed. 

The  imports  in  1919  were  valued  at 
£139,390,000,  and  the  exports  at  £51,- 
042,000.  These  figures  may  be  com- 
pared with  those  of  1914,  in  which  year 
the  imports  amounted  to  £44,182,666, 
and  the  exports  to  £48,191,444.  The  ex- 
ports of  home  produce  in  1919  amounted 
to  £41,299,000.  The  principal  imports 
are  food  substances,  fuel,  raw  products, 
and  industrial  products.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  butter,  eggs,  bacon,  and  other 
agricultural  and  dairy  products. 

Denmark  is  one  of  the  most  important 
countries  engaged  in  mercantile  marine. 
There  were  in  1919  3,366  vessels,  with 
470,989  tons,  engaged  in  foreign  com- 
merce. In  the  same  year  18,965  vessels 
entered  Danish  ports  from  foreign  coun- 
tries and  19,224  vessels  cleared  from 
Danish  ports. 

Fhiances. — The  total  revenue  for  1919 
and  1920  was  £23,957,514  from  current 
revenue,  and  £8,662,203  from  the  state 
capital.  The  expenditures  amounted  to 
£26,205,779  for  current  expenditure, 
and  £4,358,072  for  the  increase  of  state 
capital.  A  reserve  fund  of  a  compara- 
tively large  amount  is  maintained.  This 
in  1919  amounted  to  £623,189.  The  pub- 
lic debt  in  1919  amounted  to  £43,361,483. 
The  total  foreign  debt  amounted  to 
£14,296,273. 

Railways. — There  were  in  1919  about 
2,700  miles  of  railway,  of  which  about 
1,275  belonged  to  the  state. 

Government. — Denmark  was  original- 
ly an  elective  monarchy.  In  1661  it  be- 
came a  hereditary  and  absolute  mon- 
archy, and  in  1849  a  hereditary  consti- 
tutional monarchy,  the  legislative  power 
being  in  the  king  and  Diet  jointly.  The- 
present   government  is  founded   on   the 


DENMABK 


322 


DENMABE 


charter  of  1915.  The  Diet  or  Rigsdag 
consists  of  two  chambers,  the  Lands- 
thing  or  Upper  House,  the  Folkething 
or  Lower  House.  The  former  is  a 
Senate  of  72  members.  The  members 
of  the  Folkething  are  140  in  number, 
directly  elected  by  universal  suffrage, 
and  hold  their  seats  for  four  years.  The 
Rigsdag  meets  every  October,  and  all 
money  bills  must  be  submitted  to  the 
Lower  House. 

Education. — At  the  head  of  the  educa- 
tional institutions  stand  the  University 
of  Copenhagen  and  the  Holberg  Acade- 
my at  Soroe.  The  provinces  are  well 
supplied  with  gymnasia  and  middle 
schools,  and  primary  instruction  is 
given  at  the  public  expense  in  the  paro- 
chial schools.  The  public  schools,  with 
a  few  exceptions,  are  free.  There  were 
in  1919  3,46G  public  elementary  schools, 
with  406,000  pupils.  In  addition  to  the 
elementary  schools  there  are  13  govern- 
ment grammar  schools.  These,  together 
with  140  private  schools,  had  an  attend- 
ance of  about  60,000  pupils.  Between 
the  ages  of  7  and  14  elementary  educa- 
tion is  free  and  compulsory.  The 
schools  are  maintained  by  communal 
taxes.  For  higher  instruction  there 
are,  besides  the  institutions  mentioned, 
a  veterinary  and  agricultural  college  at 
Copenhagen,  agricultural  schools,  tech- 
nical and  commercial  schools,  and  high 
and  Latin  schools. 

Army  and  Navy. — The  army  of  Den- 
mark is  a  national  militia,  resembling  in 
some  points  the  Swiss  system.  Every 
able-bodied  man  is  liable  to  service  in  the 
army  and  navy,  except  the  inhabitants 
of  Greenland,  Iceland  and  the  Faroe 
Islands.  The  total  peace  strength  of  the 
army  is  78,000  men,  with  an  additional 
force  available  on  mobilization  of  105,- 
000.  About  13,000  recruits  are  trained 
annually.  The  military  budget  for  1919- 
1920  was  16,969,613  kroner,  with  50,000 
kroner  additional  for  the  Flying  Corps. 
The  navy  of  Denmark  is  maintained 
only  for  the  purpose  of  coast  defense. 
It  consists  of  monitors,  2  small  cruisers, 
2  mine  layers,  23  first-class  torpedo  boats, 
and  12  submarines. 

Religion. — The  established  religion  is 
the  Lutheran  which  was  introduced  in 
1536.  The  affairs  of  the  national  Church 
are  under  the  superintendence  of  seven 
bishops.  Complete  religious  toleration 
is  extended  to  every  sect,  and  no  civil 
disabilities  attach  to  dissenters. 

History.— The  oldest  inhabitants  of 
Denmark  were  the  Cimbri,  who  dwelt  in 
the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  the  Chersonesus 
Cimbrica  of  the  Romans.  They  first 
struck  terror  into  the  Romans  by  their 
incursion,  with  the  Teutons,  into  the 
rich   provinces   of  Gaul    (113-101   B.C.). 


After  this,  led  by  the  mysterious  Odin, 
the  Goths  broke  into  Scandinavia,  and 
appointed  chiefs  from  their  own  nation 
over  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden. 
For  a  considerable  time  Denmark  was 
divided  into  a  number  of  small  states, 
whose  inhabitants  lived  mostly  by  piracy 
along  the  neighboring  coasts.  In  787 
they  began  to  make  their  descents  on 
the  E.  coast  of  England,  and  along  with 
other  inhabitants  of  Scandinavia  they 
conquered  Normandy  in  876-877.  Under 
Gorm  the  Old  all  the  small  Danish  states 
were  united  in  920,  and  his  grandson 
Sweyn,  now  the  head  of  a  powerful  king- 
dom, began  the  conquest  of  Norway  and 
of  England,  which  was  ultimately  com- 
pleted by  his  son  Canute.  Canute  died 
in  1035,  leaving  a  powerful  kingdom  to 
his  successors,  who,  in  1042,  lost  Eng- 
land, and  in  1047  Norway.  In  1C47 
Sweyn  Magnus  Estridsen  ascended  the 
throne,  but  with  the  exception  of  the 
great  Waldemar  the  new  dynasty  fur- 
nished no  worthy  ruler,  and  the  power 
of  the  kingdom  decayed  considerably  till 
the  accession  of  the  politic  Queen  Mar- 
garet in  1387,  who  established  the  union 
of  Calmar  in  1397,  uniting  under  her 
rule  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway.  In 
1448  Christian  I.,  Count  of  Oldenburg, 
was  elected  to  the  throne,  thus  founding 
the  royal  family  of  Oldenburg,  which 
kept  possession  of  the  throne  till  1863. 
Under  the  rule  of  Christian,  Noiway, 
Sweden,  Schleswig,  and  Holstein  were 
connected  with  the  crown  of  Denmark, 
but  under  his  successor,  Christian  II., 
Sweden  established  its  independence. 
Under  Frederick  L  (1523-1533)  the  Re- 
formation was  introduced.  Christian  IV. 
of  Denmark  ascended  the  throne  in  1588, 
took  part  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and 
engaged  twice  in  a  war  with  Sweden, 
with  most  unfortunate  results.  Fred- 
erick III.,  again  engaging  in  war  with 
Sweden  in  1657,  was  equally  unsuccess- 
ful. Christian  V.  and  Frederick  IV.  were 
conquered  in  the  war  with  Charles  XII. 
Denmark,  however,  after  the  fall  of 
Charles  XII.,  gained,  by  the  peace  of 
1720,  the  toll  on  the  Sound,  and  main- 
tained possession  of  Schleswig.  After 
this  Denmark  enjoyed  a  long  repose.  In 
1800,  having  joined  the  Northern  Con- 
federacy, the  kingdom  was  involved  in 
a  war  with  Great  Britain,  in  which  the 
Danish  fleet  was  defeated  at  Copen- 
hagen, April  2,  1801.  In  1807,  there 
being  reason  to  think  that  Denmark 
would  join  the  alliance  with  France,  a 
British  fleet  was  sent  up  the  Sound  to 
demand  a  defensive  alliance  or  the  sur- 
render of  the  Danish  fleet  as  a  pledge 
of  neutrality.  Both  were  denied,  till  the 
Danish  capital  was  bombarded  and 
forced  to  capitulate,  the  whole  fleet  being 


DENMARK 


323 


DENMARK 


delivered  up  to  the  British.  The  war, 
however,  was  continued,  Denmark 
forming  new  alliances  with  Napoleon 
till  1814,  when  a  peace  was  concluded  by 
which  she  ceded  Heligoland  to  England 
in  exchange  for  the  Danish  West  India 
Islands,  and  Norway  to  Sweden  in  ex- 
change for  Swedish  Pomerania  and  Rii- 
gen,  which,  however,  she  shortly  after 
surrendered  to  Prussia,  receiving  in  re- 
turn Lauenburg  and  a  pecuniary  com- 
pensation. In  June,  1815,  the  king  en- 
tered into  the  German  Confederacy  as 
representing  Holstein  and  Lauenburg. 
In  1848  Schleswig  and  Holstein  revolted 
and  were  not  finally  subdued  till  1852. 
In  1857  the  Sound  dues  were  abolished. 
Frederick  VII.  died  in  1863  and  with 
him  the  Oldenburg  line  became  extinct. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Christian  IX. 
(Prince  of  Sonderburg-Gliicksburg) .  At 
the  beginning  of  1864  the  Danish  terri- 
tory was  politically  distributed  into  four 
parts,  viz.,  Denmark  proper  (consisting 
of  the  Danish  islands  and  North  Jut- 
land), the  duchy  of  Schleswig  or  South 
Jutland,  with  a  population  more  than 
one-half  Danish,  the  remainder  Frisian 
and    German;    the    duchy   of    Holstein, 

gurely  German;  the  duchy  of  Lauen- 
urg,  also  German.  The  measures  of 
the  Danish  government  compelling  the 
use  of  the  Danish  language  in  state 
schools  having  giver*  preat  umbrage  to 
the  German  populatioii  of  the  duchies, 
the  disputes  resulted  in  the  intervention 
of  the  German  Confederation,  and  ulti- 
mately Holstein  was  occupied  by  the 
troops  of  Austria  and  Prussia  (1864). 
After  a  short  campaign  the  Prussians 
captured  Alsen,  overran  the  greater  part 
of  Jutland,  and  forced  the  Danes  to 
accept  peace  (Aug.  1),  by  which  they 
renounced  their  right  to  the  duchies  of 
Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg.  A 
difference  now  arose  between  Austria 
and  Prussia  as  to  what  should  be  done 
with  the  duchies,  and  Prussia  showing 
an  evident  intention  of  annexing  them, 
the  result  was  a  war  between  the  two 
powers,  which  ended  in  the  total  defeat 
of  Austria  at  Sadowa,  or  Koniggratz, 
July  3,  1866.  By  the  treaty  which  fol- 
lowed Austria  relinquished  all  claim  to 
the  duchies,  which  thus  fell  to  Prussia. 
Christian  IX.  died  January  29,  1906. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederick 
VIII.  The  latter  proved  to  be  a  popular 
sovereign,  but  his  reign  was  short-lived, 
as  he  died  suddenly  on  May  14,  1912, 
while  on  a  visit  to  Hamburg.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son.  Christian  X.  Im- 
portant amendments  were  made  to  the 
constitution  in  1914  and  1915.  Among 
these  provisions  was  the  abolition  of  the 
property  classification  which  hitherto 
prevented  the  poorer  classes  from  voting 


for  the  Landsthing.  Another  amend- 
ment was  passed  for  universal  suffrage, 
including  suffrage  for  women. 

The  outbi'eak  of  the  World  War  raised 
vital  problems  in  Denmark.  On  ac- 
count of  the  bitter  feeling  toward  Prus- 
sia as  the  result  of  the  seizure  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein,  there  was  an  overwhelm- 
ing pro-Ally  sentiment  in  the  kingdom. 
The  government,  however,  remained 
neutral  thi'oughout  the  war.  Denmark 
suffered  severely  from  the  blockade  es- 
tablished against  Germany  and  in  the 
loss  of  ships  in  the  submarine  warfare. 
This  was  to  »  large  extent,  however,  off- 
set by  the  p'  osperity  of  the  agricultural 
classes  a?  a  result  of  the  demand  for 
their  products  both  in  Germany  and  in 
the  Allied  countries.  Germany  secured 
enormous  quantities  of  foodstuffs  both 
by  the  regular  method  of  trade  and 
through  smuggling  across  the  border. 
By  1917,  however,  economic  conditions 
in  Denmark  had  become  exceedingly 
difficult  and  it  was  found  necessary  to 
ration  both  bread  and  coal.  The  import 
of  coal  had  stopped  with  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  to  such  an  extent  that  it  be- 
came necessary  to  curtail  its  consump- 
tion. Trade  in  wheat,  butter,  sugar,  and 
other  foodstuffs  was  strictly  regulated. 
With  the  end  of  the  war,  conditions 
quickly  improved.  At  the  meeting  of  the 
Peace  Conference  in  Paris,  Denmark 
made  known  her  desire  to  have  restored 
to  her  the  strictly  Danish  parts  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein,  and  demanded  that  those 
parts  in  which  the  population  was  parti- 
ally Danish  and  partially  German  snould 
be  allowed  to  decide  for  themselves  their 
future  political  status.  These  articles 
were  acceded  to  and  provision  was  made 
by  the  Treaty  that  within  10  days  after 
it  had  been  put  into  operation  the  people 
in  the  zones  of  Schleswig  would  be  al- 
lowed to  decide  for  Danish  or  German 
nationality  by  a  popular  vote.  The  coun- 
try was  divided  into  three  zones,  in  the 
first  of  which,  the  farthest  removed  from 
Germany,  the  people  would  vote  for  or 
against  reunion  of  Denmark  en  bloc;  in 
the  second  zone  the  voting  was  to  be 
done  by  municipalities,  not  later  than  5 
weeks  after  the  vote  in  the  first  zone ;  in 
the  third  zone  no  vote  was  to  be  taken. 

The  plebiscite  was  held  in  February, 
1920.  The  northern  zone,  or  North 
Schleswig,  voted  by  a  large  majority  to 
join  with  Denmark;  the  southern  zone, 
or  southern  Schleswig,  voted  to  adhere 
to  Prussia.  North  Schleswig,  therefore, 
was  incorporated  into  the  kingdom  of 
Denmark,  on  July  9,  1920.  The  occa- 
sion was  celebrated  all  over  the  country. 
The  king  and  queen  made  a  progress 
into  North  Schleswig  and  were  received 
with  jubilation  by  the  people.     On  Sept. 


DENNEWITZ 


324 


DENTEX 


8,  1920,  an  amendment  to  the  Danish 
constitution,  incorporating  North  Schles- 
vfig  into  Denmark  was  ratified  in  a 
general  referendum,  613,471  voting 
"yes,"  against  19,490  voting  "no."  The 
constitution  required  that  an  amend- 
ment must  be  ratified  by  at  least  45% 
of  the  total  number  of  persons  entitled 
to  vote. 

The  islands  comprising  the  Danish 
West  Indies  were  sold  to  the  United 
States  for  $25,000,000.  A  treaty  pro- 
viding for  the  transfer  was  ratified  by 
Denmark  on  Dec,  22,  1916,  and  by  the 
United  States  on  Jan.  16,  1917.  See 
Virgin  Island. 

DENNEWITZ  (denVvits),  a  small 
Prussian  village  in  the  circle  of  Potsdam, 
province  of  Brandenburg,  famous  for  the 
battle  between  the  French  and  Prussians, 
Sept.  6,  1813,  in  which  the  latter,  aided 
toward  the  end  by  Russian  and  Swedish 
armies,  were  victorious. 

DENNET,    JOSEPH    VILLIEBS,    an 

American  educator,  born  at  Aurora,  111., 
in  1862.  He  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  in  1885  and  studied 
law  in  the  law  department  of  the  same 
institution.  After  carrying  on  post-grad- 
uate studies  in  Germany  and  France  he 
engaged  in  journalism  for  two  years. 
He  was  then  engaged  in  teaching  in  the 
high  schools  until  1891,  when  he  was 
appointed  assistant  professor  of  rhetoric 
at  the  Ohio  State  University.  He  became 
successively  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
English  literature,  and  dean  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Arts,  Philosophy,  and  Science  at 
that  institution.  He  was  a  member  of 
several  learned  societies  and  was  the 
editor  of  many  well-known  works  in 
English  language  and  literature. 

DENNISON,  a  village  of  Ohio,  in 
Tuscarawas  co.  It  is  on  the  Pittsburgh, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  Rail- 
road and  on  the  Panhandle  Ohio  Canal. 
The  notable  buildings  include  a  hospital 
and  a  public  library,  and  its  industries 
include  railway  workshops  and  sewer- 
pipe  works.  Pop.  (1910)  4,008;  (1920) 
5,524. 

DENNY,  COLLINS,  an  American 
Methodist  Episcopal  bishop  and  educator, 
bom  in  Winchester,  Va.,  in  1854.  He 
graduated  from  Princeton  University  in 
1876  and  after  studying  law  began  prac- 
ticing in  Baltimore  in  1877.  In  1880  he 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  South  and  was 
engaged  in  missions  with  that  denomi- 
nation for  several  years,  and  from  1891 
to  1910  he  was  professor  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  at  the  Vanderbilt  Uni- 
versity. In  the  latter  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed  bishop   of  the    Methodist   Epis- 


copal Church  of  the  South.  From  1910 
he  was  secretary  of  the  College  of  Bish- 
ops. He  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
Council  of  National  Defense  in  1917. 
He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
War  History  Commission.  He  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  denominational 
magazines. 

DENNY,  GEOBGE  HUTCHESON,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Hanover 
county,  Va.,  in  1870.  He  graduated  from 
Hampden-Sidney  College  in  1891  and 
afterward  took  post-graduate  studies  in 
several  universities,  becoming  a  tutor  in 
Hampton-Sidney  College.  From  1896  to 
1899  he  was  professor  of  Latin,  acting 
president,  and  president  of  Washington 
and  Lee  University,  and  in  1912  was 
elected  president  of  the  University  of 
Alabama.  He  was  a  member  of  many 
educational  societies  and  in  1912  was 
president  of  the  Alabama  State  Board  of 
Arbitration.  He  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral books  on  educational  subjects. 

DENSITY,  that  quality  of  a  body 
which  depends  upon  the  denseness  or 
close  cohesion  of  its  constituent  particles. 
It  is  estimated  by  the  proportion  which 
the  bulk  bears  to  the  weight.  Thus,  if 
there  be  two  bodies  of  equal  bulk,  but  of 
different  weights,  then  the  body  of 
greater  weight  is  of  greater  density. 
Thus  the  density  is  seen  to  be  directly 
proportional  to  the  quantity  of  matter, 
and  indirectly  proportional  to  the  bulk. 

DENTALITIM,  a  genus  of  gaster- 
opodous  mollusks,  the  shell  of  which  con- 
sists of  a  tubular  arcuated  cone  open  at 
both  ends,  and  resembling  the  tusk  of  an 
elephant  in  miniature.  There  are  many 
species  known  by  the  common  name  of 
tooth-shells. 

DENTABIA,  coral-root,  a  genus  of 
plants,  natural  order  Cruciferse.  There 
are  about  20  species,  natives  of  temper- 
ate countries.  They  are  ornamental 
herbs,  with  creeping  singularly  toothed 
root-stocks,  from  which  they  receive  the 
names  of  coral-root  and  toothwort.  The 
stem-leaves  are  opposite  or  in  whorls  of 
three,  and  the  flowers  are  large  and  pur- 
ple. D.  bulbifera,  the  only  British  spe- 
cies, is  a  rare  plant  in  the  S.  E.  of  Eng- 
land. D.  diphylla,  or  pepperwort,  a 
North  American  species,  has  roots  that 
are  used  as  mustard. 

DENTEX,  a  genus  of  acanthoptery- 
gious  fishes,  belonging  to  the  family 
sparidas.  In  each  jaw  there  is  a  row  of 
strong,  conic  teeth.  The  dorsal  fin  is 
slightly  emarginate.  D.  vulgaris,  also 
called  the  four -toothed  sparus,  is  a  large 
fish.  It  is  a  native  of  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers  in  Dalmatia  and  the  Levant. 


DENTIN 


325 


DENVER 


DENTIN,  or  DENTINE,  that  tissue 
which  forms  the  body  of  the  tooth,  the 
others  being  cement,  which  forms  the 
outer  crust;  and  enamel,  which  (when 
present)  is  situated  between  the  dentin 
and  the  cement.  It  is  composed  of  an 
organized  animal  basis,  arranged  in  the 
form  of  minute  tubes  and  cells  of  earthy 
particles. 

DENTIROSTRES,  a  tribe  of  birds  of 
the  order  Insessores,  or  perchers;  so 
named  from  having  a  notch  near  the  tip 
of  the  beak  in  the  upper  mandible.  They 
include  the  shrikes,  butcher-birds,  etc. 
The  tribe  is  divided  into  the  following 
families:  (1)  Laniidas  (shrikes),  (2) 
Ampelidse  (chatterers),  (3)  Muscicapxdse 
(fly-catchers),  (4)  Turdidae  {thrushes), 
and  (5)  Sylvidse  (warblers). 

DENTISTRY,  the  art  of  cleaning  and 
extracting  teeth,  of  repairing  them  when 
diseased,  and  replacing  them  when  neces- 
sary by  artificial  ones.  There  are  two 
very  distinct  branches  of  the  art  now  rec- 
ognized, one  being  dental  surgery,  the 
other  mechanical  dentistry.  The  first  re- 
quires an  extended  medical  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  the  practitioner,  as,  for  in- 
stance, a  knowledge  of  diseases  the  ef- 
fects of  which  may  reach  the  teeth,  of  the 
connection  between  the  welfare  of  the 
teeth  and  the  general  system,  etc.,  as 
well  as  ability  to  discern  latent  oral  dis- 
eases, calculate  the  effects  of  opera- 
tions, etc. 

The  second  department,  mechanical 
dentistry,  is  concerned  with  the  construc- 
tion of  artificial  substitutes  for  lost  teeth, 
and  requires  much  mechanical  science,  it 
being  a  very  delicate  work  to  give  arti- 
ficial teeth  a  perfectly  natural  appear- 
ance in  shape  and  color.  In  the  United 
States  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental 
Surgery  is  the  oldest,  its  charter  being 
dated  1839;  the  Ohio  College  of  Dental 
Surgery  followed  in  1845;  the  Philadel- 
phia College  of  Surgery  in  1850;  the 
Philadelphia  Dental  College  in  1863;  the 
New  York  College  of  Dentistry  in  1865, 
and  various  others.  The  "American 
Journal  and  Library  of  Dental  Science" 
was  established  in  Baltimore  in  1839. 
Every  State  has  now  its  State  Dental 
Society;  besides  national  organizations, 
of  which  the  American  Dental  Associa- 
tion is  among  the  most  important. 

DENTON,  a  city  of  Texas,  the  county- 
seat  of  Denton  co.  It  is  on  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Texas,  and  the  Texas  and 
Pacific  railroads.  It  is  an  important 
trading  point  for  cotton,  wheat,  corn,  and 
cattle.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  the  North 
Texas  State  Normal  College,  and  the  Col- 
lege of  Industrial  Arts.  Pop.  (1910) 
4,732;   (1920)  7,626. 


D'ENTRECASTEAUX      ISLANDS 

(don-tr-kas-to'),  since  1884  part  of  the 
British  protectorate  of  New  Guinea,  lie 
N.  of  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  New  Guinea. 
With  an  area  of  1,083  square  miles,  they 
comprise  three  chief  islands  separated  by 
narrow  channels.  They  are  named  after 
the  French  admiral  and  explorer,  Bruni 
D'Entrecasteaux  (1739-1793),  who  vis- 
ited these  waters  in  1792.  His  name  is 
also  preserved  in  D'Entrecasteaux  Point 
on  the  S.  W.  coast  of  Western  Australia; 
and  in  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel,  sepa- 
rating the  S.  of  Tasmania  from  Brune 
Island. 

DENUDATION,  the  act  of  making 
naked  or  bare;  a  stripping  or  denuding. 
In  geology,  the  laying  bare  by  removal  of 
superficial  matter  so  as  to  disclose  the 
subjacent  strata;  so  also  is  the  removal 
by  water  of  any  formation  or  part  of  a 
formation.  Thus  we  hear  of  denuded 
rocks  or  of  a  strata  removed  by  denuda- 
tion. 

In  medicine,  the  word  is  applied  to  the 
condition  of  a  part  deprived  of  its  natu- 
ral coverings,  whether  by  wound,  gan- 
grene, or  abscess.  It  is  particularly  ap- 
plied to  the  bones  when  deprived  of  their 
periosteum,  and  to  the  teeth  when  they 
lose  their  enamel  or  dental  substance. 

A  valley  of  denudation  is  a  valley 
formed  by  the  denudation  of  the  strata 
in  which  it  is  hollowed  out. 

DENVER,  the  capital  of  Colorado, 
the  county-seat  of  Denver  co.  It  is  at  the 
junction  of  the  South  Platte  river  and 
Cherry  creek,  and  on  the  Santa  Fe,  the 
Colorado  and  Southern,  the  Burlington, 
the  Denver  and  Salt  Lake,  the  Rock 
Island,  and  the  Union  Pacific  railroads. 
Denver  is  the  logical  distributing  point 
for  territory  extending  over  1,700  miles 
east  and  west  and  over  1,600  miles  north 
and  south  and  containing  a  population  of 
approximately  21,000,000  people.  The 
city  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  one  mile 
above  sea-level  and  it  is  within  15  miles 
of  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. On  account  of  the  remarkable 
clearness  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  mild- 
ness of  the  climate,  Denver  makes  an 
especially  desirable  residence  for  persons 
suffering  with  pulmonary  complaints.  It 
has  an  area  of  over  60  square  miles.  Al- 
though the  city  is  distinctly  residential, 
it  is  also  an  important  industrial  center. 
It  has  a  manufacturing  output  of  over 
$100,000,000  annually.  Its  proximity  to 
the  important  great  mining  regions  of 
Colorado  makes  it  the  central  distribut- 
ing point  for  this  region.  Mining  ma- 
chinery is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale. 
There  are  large  stock  yards  comprising 
pi^re  than  150  acres  and  representing  an 
=-•- >stment  of  nearly  $15,000,000.     It  is 


DENVER  XTNIVERSITY 


326 


IJE  PERE 


an  important  jobbing  center  for  the  sur- 
rounding country.  It  is  the  center  of  a 
retail  trade  for  territory  extending  600 
miles  in  every  direction.  Denver  is  the 
financial  center  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region.  It  has  a  branch  of  the  Federal 
Reserve  Bank  of  the  10th  District. 
The  clearings  of  the  banks  of  the  city 
in  1919  amounted  to  $1,574,992,155. 
There  are  5  National  banks.  Within 
the  city  are  35  park:^  with  a  total  area  of 
1,321  acres.  This  includes  the  city  park 
with  an  area  of  480  acres.  There  are 
over  230  miles  of  surface  streets  and  57 
miles  of  paved  streets.  All  down-town 
streets  have  ornamental  lighting  systems. 
Among  the  notable  public  buildings  are 
the  postofiice,  costing,  with  its  site,  $2,- 
500,000;  the  State  capitol  costing  $2,800,- 
000;  the  Municipal  Auditorium,  costing 
$750,000,  and  having  a  seating  capacity 
of  12,000;  the  Colorado  Museum  of  Natu- 
ral History;  St.  John's  Cathedral;  and 
many  handsome  business  buildings. 
There  is  a  civic  center,  13  acres  in  extent, 
which  cost  $1,500,000  for  the  land  alone. 
This  contains  a  Greek  open  air  theatre. 
There  is  an  excellent  school  system,  with 
a  total  enrolment  of  over  40,000  pupils, 
with  a  teaching  staff  of  approximately 
1,300.  There  are  60  grade  schools,  5  high 
schools,  1  evening  school,  1  opportunity 
school,  and  5  junior  high  schools.  Within 
the  city  limits  are  the  University  of  Den- 
ver, the  Wolcott  School  for  Girls,  the 
Loretta  Heights  Academy,  the  Colorado 
Women's  College,  and  the  Sacred  Heart 
College  for  Boys.  There  is  a  public  li- 
brary erected  at  a  cost  of  $300,000,  with 
6  branch  libraries. 

Denver  was  founded  in  1858  and  in  the 
following  year  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
and  was  named  in  honor  of  General  J.  W. 
Denver,  then  Governor  of  Kansas.  It  was 
re-incorporated  in  1861  and  in  1867  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  territory.  It  was 
first  connected  by  rail  with  the  East  and 
South  in  1870,  on  completion  of  the  Den- 
ver Pacific  and  Kansas  Pacific  railroads. 
Pop.  (1900)  133,859;  (1910)  213,381; 
(1920)  256,491. 

DENVER,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a  co- 
educational institution  in  Denver,  Colo.; 
founded  in  1864  under  the  auspices  of  the 
IMethodist  Episcopal  Church;  reported  at 
the  close  of  1900:  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 131;  students,  1,450;  chan- 
cellor, H.  A.  Bucktel,  D.  D. 

DENYS.  See  Denis. 

DEODAND,  a  personal  chattel,  which 
had  been  the  immediate  cause  of  the 
death  of  any  person,  as  if  a  horse  struck 
his  keeper  and  so  killed  him,  or  if  a  tree 
fell  and  killed  a  passer-by.  In  these  and 
such  cases  that  which  caused  ■'■^"  --^"ath 
was  to  be  given  to  God — that  is,  fo-fe'ted 


to  the  crown — to  be  sold  or  otherwise  dis- 
posed of,  and  the  proceeds  applied  to  re- 
ligious uses  or  charity.  No  deodand  was 
due  where  an  infant  under  the  age  of  dis- 
cretion was  killed  by  a  fall  from  a  cart, 
or  horse,  or  the  like.  The  right  to  deo- 
dands  within  certain  limits  was  fre- 
quently granted  by  the  crown  to  individ- 
uals.    Deodands  were  abolished  in  1846. 

DEODAR  (Cedru3  deodara),  a  large 
tree,  attaining  to  the  height  of  100  feet,  a 
native  of  the  Himalayas,  and  similar  in 
habit  of  growth  to  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon, 
of  which  it  is  thoug-ht  by  some  to  be 
only  a  variety.  Its  timber  is  much  val- 
ued and  used  in  India.  The  name  deodar 
is  also  locally  applied  to  other  trees,  espe- 
cially Coniferse,  in  India,  as  at  Simla,  to 
the  Cupressus  torulosa.  The  C  deodara 
yields  by  exudation,  and  partly  by  heat, 
a  kind  of  turpentine,  resin,  and  pitch. 

DEODORIZER,  one  who  or  that  which 
deodorizes;  specifically,  any  substance 
which  has  the  power  or  quality  of  de- 
stroying any  fetid,  infectious,  or  noxious 
effluvia,  such  as  chloride  of  lime,  carbolic 
acid,  etc.  A  drug  or  pastille  applied  to, 
or  burned  in  the  presence  of,  putrescent, 
purulent,  infectious,  or  fetid  matter. 

DEONTOLOGY,  the  science  of  duty; 
a  term  used  by  certain  philosophic 
schools  (Bentham,  Spencer,  and  others) 
to  denote  their  doctrine  of  ethics. 

DEPARTMENT,  a  term  used  to  denote 
a  territorial  division  in  France.  Previous 
to  the  Revolution,  France  was  divided 
into  provinces;  but  in  1790  a  decree  of 
the  Assembly  ordered  the  abolition  of  the 
old  provincial  divisions  (34  in  number), 
and  the  redistribution  of  the  land  into  83 
departments.  During  the  year  8  of  the 
Revolution,  these  were  increased  to  98; 
in  1814  the  empire  consisted  of  130;  and 
the  war  of  1870-1871  reduced  it  from  89 
to  87,  including  the  sadly  diminished  de- 
partment of  Haut-Rhin.  The  depart- 
ments, each  presided  over  by  a  prefect, 
are  again  subdivided  into  arrondisse- 
r/vnts. 

DE  PAUW  UNIVERSITY,  a  coedu- 
cational institution  in  Greencastle,  Ind.; 
founded  in  1837,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  re- 
ported at  the  end  of  1899 :  Professors  and 
instructors,  53;  students,  853;  volumes  in 
the  library,  48,000;  productive  funds, 
$2,115,794;  income,  $161,379;  president, 
George  Richmond  Grose,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

DE  PERE,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  in 
Brown  co.  It  is  on  the  Fox  river,  and  on 
the  Chicago  aad  Northwestern,  and  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  rail- 
roads, and  is  a  port  of  call  of  lake  steam- 
ers.   Its  industries  include  the  manufac- 


DEPEW 


327 


DE  PROFTJNDIS 


ture  of  bricks,  pottery,  writing  paper, 
boilers,  gasoline  engines,  yachts,  woolen 
goods,  etc.  It  is  the  seat  of  St.  Norbert's 
College.  In  the  neighborhood  are  im- 
portant limestone  quarries.  There  is  a 
considerable  trade  in  cattle,  grain,  and 
hay.  The  river  is  spanned  by  a  bridge 
1,600  feet  long.  Pop.  (1910)  4,447; 
(1920)  5,165. 

DEPEW,  CHAUNCEY  MITCHELL, 
an  American  lawyer;  born  in  Peekskill, 
N.  Y.,  April  23,  1834,  of  Huguenot  and 
Puritan  ancestry;  was  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1856,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1858.  In  1860  he  worked  for  the 
election  of  Lincoln;  1861-1862,  was  a 
member  of  the  New  York  Assembly,  and 
served  some  time  as  chairman  of  the 
Committee  of  Ways  and  Means,  and  as 
acting  speaker;  1863,  elected  Secretary  of 
State  of  New  York;  1865,  declined  a  re- 
nomination,  and  1866  was  commissioned 
collector  of  the  port  of  New  York  by 
President  Johnson,  who  afterward  tore 
up  the  commission  in  a  quarrel.  He  was 
appointed  United  States  Minister  to 
Japan,  and  after  holding  the  commission 
a  month  declined,  and  began  his  career  as 
a  railroad  official  as  attorney  for  the 
New  York  and  Harlem  Railroad.  He  was 
made  attorney  and  director  of  the  consoli- 
dated Hudson  River  and  New  York  Cen- 
tral Railroads  in  1869;  general  counsel 
of  the  whole  Vanderbilt  system  in  1875; 
second  vice-president  of  the  reorganized 
New  York  Central  Railroad  in  1882,  and 
president  in  1885.  His  political  career 
since  1866  embraces  his  unsuccessful  can- 
didacy as  lieutenant-governor  on  the  Lib- 
eral Republican  ticket  in  1872;  his  elec- 
tion by  the  Legislature  as  a  regent  of  the 
State  University  in  1874;  his  candidacy 
for  United  States  Senator  to  succeed 
Thomas  C.  Piatt,  in  which  he  withdrew 
his  name  after  82  days  of  balloting  in 
1881 ;  his  declination  of  the  United  States 
senatorship  tendered  by  the  Republicans 
of  the  Legislature  in  1884;  his  candidacy 
for  the  presidential  nomination  in  the  na- 
tional convention  in  1888;  and  his  elec- 
tion to  the  United  States  Senate  1899 — 
1911. 

In  1905  he  was  involved  in  the  investi- 
gation of  the  New  York  life  insurance 
companies  and  repaid  a  loan  obtained 
from  the  Equitable,  for  a  concern  in 
which  he  was  interested.  At  the  same 
time  he  resigned  his  directorship  in  the 
Equitable.  Two  volumes  of  his  orations 
and  after-dinner  speeches  have  been  pub- 
lished. 

DE  PEYSTER,  JOHANNES,  a  New 
York  merchant;  bom  in  Haarlem,  Hol- 
land, in  1600;  was  one  of  the  early  set- 
tlers of  New  York;  and  became  promi- 
nent in  public  affair^  during  the  Dutch 


possession;  was  one  of  the  last  to  swear 
allegiance  to  the  crown  after  the  English 
succeeded  to  the  government;  served  sev- 
eral times  as  alderman  and  deputy 
mayor.  One  son,  Abraham,  became  chief- 
justice,  president  of  the  king's  council, 
and  acting  governor;  another,  Johannes, 
mayor;  a  third,  Isaac,  member  of  the 
Legislature;  and  a  fourth,  Cornelius,  first 
chamberlain  of  New  York.  He  died  in 
New  York  about  1685. 

DEPHLOGISTICATED    AIR,    an    old 

name  for  oxygen,  which  chemists  re- 
garded as  common  air  deprived  of  phlo- 
giston. 

DEPILATORIES  (I  pull  out  the  hair) , 
chemical  agents  employed  for  removing 
superfluous  hair  from  the  skin. 

DEPONENT,  a  term  in  Latin  grammar 
applied  to  verbs  having  a  passive  form 
but  an  active  signification.  They  are  so 
called  because  they,  as  it  were,  lay  down 
(Lat.  depono)  or  dispense  with  the  signi- 
fication proper  to  their  form.  Deponent 
is  also  used  in  law  for  a  person  who  . 
makes  a  deposition. 

DEPOSIT,  in  law,  something  given 
or  intrusted  to  another  as  security  for 
the  performance  of  a  contract,  as  a  sum 
of  money  or  a  deed.  In  commerce,  a  de- 
posit is  generally  either  money  received 
by  banking  or  commercial  companies  with 
a  view  to  employ  it  in  their  business,  or 
documents,  bonds,  etc.,  lodged  in  security 
for  loans. 

DEPOSIT,  in  geology,  a  layer  of  mat- 
ter formed  by  the  settling  down  of  mud, 
gravel,  stoues,  detritus,  organic  remains, 
etc.,  which  had  been  held  in  suspension  in 
water. 

DEPOSITION,  the  evidence  or  state- 
ment of  a  witness  on  oath  or  afllirmation, 
signed  by  the  justice  or  other  duly  au- 
thorized official  before  whom  it  is  given; 
an  affidavit. 

DEPOT  (da'po  or  dep'o),  a  French 
word  in  general  use  as  a  term  for  a  place 
where  goods  are  received  and  stored ; 
hence,  in  military  matters,  a  magazine 
where  arms,  ammunition,  etc.,  are  kept. 
The  term  is  now  usually  applied  to  those 
companies  of  a  regiment  which  remain  at 
home  when  the  rest  are  away  on  foreign 
service.  In  the  United  States  it  is  the 
common  term  for  a  railway  station. 

DEPRIVATION,  the  removing  of  a 
clergyman  from  his  benefice  on  account 
of  heresy,  misconduct,  etc.  It  entails,  of 
course,  loss  of  all  emoluments,  but  not  the 
loss  of  clerical  character. 

D-R  PROFUNDIS.  in  the  liturgy  of 
the  Roman  Catholie  Church,  one  of  the 


DEPUTY 


328 


DERBY 


seven  penitential  psalms,  the  130th  of  the 
Psalms  of  David,  which  in  the  Vulgate 
begins  with  these  words,  signifying,  "Out 
of  the  depths."  It  is  sung  when  the 
bodies  of  the  dead  are  committed  to  the 
grave. 

DEPUTY,  one  who  exercises  an  office 
as  representing  another.  Chamber  of 
Deputies :  the  lower  of  the  two  legislative 
chambers  in  France  and  in  Italy,  elected 
by  popular  suffrage,  and  corresponding 
in  some  respects  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  Great  Britain. 

DE  QUINCEY,  THOMAS,  an  Eng- 
lish author;  born  in  Manchester,  Aug.  15, 
1785.  He  received  a  classical  education 
at  the  grammar-school  of  Bath,  and  en- 
tered the  University  of  Oxford  in  1803, 
where  he  remained  till  1808.  While  there 
he  contracted  the  habit  of  eating  opium. 
In  1809,  after  leaving  Oxford,  he  resided 
at  Grasmere  for  27  years.  Here  he  cul- 
tivated the  friendship  of  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  Southey,  and  other  distin- 
guished authors.  He  made  German  lit- 
erature and  philosophy  his  special  study, 
and  translated  some  of  the  works  or 
Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  Lessing,  and 
Richter.  At  first  he  took  opium  only  once 
a  week,  but  gradually  the  evil  habit  grew 
upon  him,  and  at  last  he  took  it  daily. 
The  consequences  he  describes  in  his  prin- 
cipal work,  "The  Confessions  of  an  Eng- 
lish Opium-eater."  In  1823  he  went  to 
London,  where  he  published  his  "Suspi- 
ria  de  Profundis,"  his  "Templar's  Dia- 
logues," etc.  His  published  works  include : 
"Letters  to  a  Young  Man  Whose  Educa- 
tion has  been  Neglected"  (1823) ;  "Logic 
of  Political  Economy"  (1844) ;  "Kloster- 
heim"  (1839)  ;  etc.  He  died  in  Lasswade, 
near  Edinburgh,  Dec.  8,  1859. 

DERAJAT  (der-a-jaf),  the  fluvial 
portion  of  Daman,  itself  a  comparatively 
narrow  strip  in  the  Punjab,  India,  be- 
tween the  Suliman  Mountains  and  the 
Indus,  and  which,  when  duly  irrigated,  is 
singularly  fertile.  It  is  divided  into  four 
districts  and  has  an  area  of  20,300  square 
miles,  and  a  population  (1891)  of  1,643,- 
600.  Dera  Ghazi  Khan,  the  capital  of 
one  of  the  districts,  is  about  2  miles  W. 
of  the  Indus.  Pop.  27,886.  Dera  Ismail 
Khan,  capital  of  another  district,  is  4V2 
miles  W.  of  the  Indus.     Pop.  26,884. 

DERBEND  (der-bend'),  or  DER- 
BENT  (der-benf)  ("gateway"),  a  port 
and  capital  of  the  former  Russian  dis- 
trict of  Daghestan,  on  the  W.  shore  of 
the  Casnian,  140  miles  N.  W.  of  Baku.  It 
is  charminofly  situated  among  vineyards 
and  orchards  and  fields  of  maize  and 
madder,  on  the  declivity  of  a  branch  of 
the  Caucasus,  which  here  approaches 
very  close  to  the  water's  edge.    Derbend 


is  surrounded  by  ancient  walls.  The  up- 
per city  forms  the  citadel,  and  contains 
the  splendid  palace  of  the  ancient  khans, 
now  the  residence  of  the  Russian  gov- 
ernor. The  harbor  is  inaccessible  to  all 
but  small  vessels;  but  a  considerable 
trade  is  done  at  the  four  large  markets 
held  here  yearly.  Silk  and  cotton  fabrics 
earthenware  and  weapons  are  manufac- 
tured, and  saffron  is  cultivated.  Derbend 
was  long  considered  the  key  of  Persia  on 
the  N.  W.  side.  It  was  captured  by  the 
Arabs  in  728,  by  the  Mongols  in  1220, 
and  frequently  changed  hands  before  it 
was  formally  incorporated  with  Russian 
Caucasia  in  1813.  In  1920  Daghestan 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Bolshevik  gov- 
ernment of  Russia.    Pop.  about  15,000. 

DERBY,  a  city  in  New  Haven  co., 
Conn.;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Nauga- 
tuck  and  Housatonic  rivers,  and  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
railroad;  9  miles  W.  of  New  Haven.  In 
1893  the  towns  of  Birmingham  and  Derby 
were  consoli.lated  and  incorporated  as  the 
city  of  Derby.  It  is  a  manufacturing 
city  of  much  importance  and  has  abun- 
dant water  power  from  the  two  rivers. 
There  are  extensive  manufactures  of 
brass  and  iron  goods,  paper,  pins,  type- 
writers, pianos,  hosiery,  guns,  and  am- 
munition, and  at  one  time  the  old  town 
had  a  large  West  India  trade  and  noted 
shipbuilding  yards.  A  bridge  across  the 
Naugatuck  river  connects  Derby  with 
the  thrifty  manufacturing  city  of  An- 
sonia.  It  has  several  parks,  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers  and  a  National  bank. 
Pop.    (1910)    8,991;    (1920)    11,238. 

DERBY,  a  municipal  and  parliamen- 
tary borough  in  England,  capital  of 
Derbyshire,  on  the  Derwent,  here  crossed 
by  an  elegant  bridge  of  three  arches,  115 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  London.  It  is  pleas- 
antly situated  in  a  wide  and  fertile  valley 
open  to  the  S.,  and  is  well  and  regularly 
built  in  the  modern  quarter.  It  has  some 
fine  public  buildings,  among  which  are 
the  churches  of  All  Saints,  St.  Alkmund, 
and  St.  Werburgh,  the  county  hall,  school 
of  art,  infirmary,  etc.  There  is  also  a 
very  handsome  free  library  and  museum. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  silk,  cot- 
ton, paper,  articles  in  Derbyshire  spar, 
castings,  and  porcelain,  etc.  Derby  is  one 
of  the  oldest  toAvns  in  the  kingdom,  and 
is  supposed  to  owe  its  origin  to  a  Roman 
station,  Derventio,  situated  at  Little 
Chester,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 
Under  the  Danes  it  took  the  name  of 
Deoraby.  Richardson,  the  novelist,  was 
a  native  of  the  town.  Pop.  (1919)  123,- 
930. 

DERBY,  EARL  OF,  a  title  conferred 
in  1485  on  Thomas,  second  Lord  Stanley, 


DERBY 


329 


DE  BESZEE 


after  Bosworth  Field,  where  he  and  his 
family  had  greatly  contributed  to  Rich- 
mond's victory.  James,  seventh  Earl  of 
Derby  (1606-1651),  fought  on  the  royal- 
ist side  throughout  the  Great  Rebellion, 
and,  taken  prisoner  after  Worcester,  was 
beheaded  at  Bolton;  his  countess,  Char- 
lotte de  la  Tremouille,  is  famous  for  her 
heroic  defense  of  Lathom  House  (1644) 
and  of  the  Isle  of  Man  (1651). 

DERBY,  EDWARD  GEOFFREY 
SMITH  STANLEY,  14th  EARL  OF,  an 
English  statesman;  born  in  Knowsley 
Park,  Lancashire,  March  29,  1799.  In 
1820  he  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons as  member  for  Stockbridge.  At 
first  inclining  to  the  Whig  party  he 
joined  Canning's  ministry  in  1827  and  in 
1830  became  chief  secretary  for  Ireland 
in  Lord  Grey's  government,  greatly  dis- 
tinguishing himself  by  his  speeches  in 
favor  of  the  Reform  Bill  in  1831-1832. 
The  opposition  led  by  O'Connell  in  the 
House  of  Commons  was  powerful  and 
violent,  but  Stanley  was  successful  in 
totally  defeating  the  agitation  for  the  re- 
peal of  the  Union.  He  warmly  advocated 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  passed  the 
act  for  this  purpose  in  1833;  but  in  the 
following  year  a  difference  of  opinion 
with  his  party  as  to  the  diversion  of  the 
surplus  revenues  of  the  Irish  Church  led 
him  to  join  the  Tories.  In  1841  he  be- 
came colonial  secretary  under  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  but  resigned  on  Peel's  motion  for 
repeal  of  the  corn-laws.  In  1861  and 
1858  he  formed  ministries,  and  agfain  in 
1866.  Early  in  1868  he  resigned  office. 
He  died  Oct.  23,  1869.  Edward  Henry 
Stanley,  15th  Earl  of  Derby,  was  born 
in  1826;  educated  at  Rugby,  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1852  he  was 
under-secretary  of  foreign  affairs;  after- 
ward secretary  of  state  for  India.  Under 
his  superintendence  the  management  of 
the  British  India  Empire  was  transferred 
from  the  East  India  Company  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  Great  Britain.  In  1866  and 
also  in  1874  he  was  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs.  Lord  Derby  became  a 
Liberal  in  1879,  and  was  secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies  under  Mr.  Glad- 
stone from  1882  to  1885.  He,  however, 
took  a  stand  against  Irish  Home  Rule  in 
1886,  and  afterward  ranked  among  Mr. 
Gladstone's  opponents.  He  died  April  21, 
1893. 

DERBY,  EDWARD  GEORGE  VIL- 
LIERS  STANLEY,  EARL  OF,  a  British 
statesman  and  diplomat.  He  was  born  in 
London  in  1865,  and  was  educated  at 
Wellington  College.  During  1885-1895  he 
was  lieutenant  in  the  Grenadier  Guards, 
acting,  1889-1891,  as  A.  D.  C.  to  the  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Canada.  From  1899  to 
1901,  during  the  war  with  South  Africa, 


he  served,  first  as  Chief  Press  Censor, 
afterward  as  private  secretary  to  Lord 
Roberts  (being  twice  mentioned  in  des- 
patches). He  was  one  of  the  Lords  of 
the  Treasury  during  1895-1900  and  from 
1900  to  1903  was  Financial  Secretary  to 
the  War  Office.  From  1903  to  1905  he 
was  Postmaster-General.  In  1892  he 
stood  for  parliament  and  was  elected 
member  for  West  Houghton  Division  of 
Lancashire,  continuing  to  represent  that 
constituency  till  1906.  After  the  World 
War  broke  out  he  became,  in  1915, 
Director-General  of  Recruiting.  In  1916 
he  became  Under-Secretary  for  War  and 
during  1916-1918  was  Secretary  of  State 
for  War.  In  1918  he  became  Ambassador 
to  France. 

DERBY  DAY,  the  name  given  to  two 
days  of  the  racing  season  among  Eng- 
lish-speaking peoples:  (1)  The  day  on 
which  the  English  Derby  is  run.  (2) 
The  grand  inauguration  day  of  the  sum- 
mer season  at  Washington  Park,  Chi- 
cago, on  which  day  the  American  Derby 
is  run. 

DERBYSHIRE  NECK,  a  name  given 
to  bronchocele,  from  its  being  prevalent 
in  some  hilly  parts  of  Derby  co.,  England. 

DERBYSHIRE  SPAR,  also  called 
fluorite,  fluor-spar,  and  bluejohn;  is 
abundant  in  Derbyshire,  and  also  in 
Cornwall,  England.  In  the  N.  of  Eng- 
land it  is  the  gangue  of  the  lead  mines. 
It  is  found  in  almost  every  variety  of 
color,  red  being  the  rarest. 

DERCETO,  the  Greek  name  of  a 
Syrian  goddess,  supposed  to  be  the 
Dagon  of  the  Philistines. 

DERELICT,  a  vessel  or  anything  re- 
linquished or  abandoned  at  sea,  but  most 
commonly  applied  to  a  ship  abandoned 
by  the  crew  and  left  floating  about. 

DE  RESZKE,  EDOUARD,  a  Polish 
opera  singer,  bom  in  1855  at  Warsaw. 
In  the  early  years  of  his  life  he  studied 
scientific  agriculture  and  for  some  time 
took  care  of  the  family  estates  in  Silesia. 
About  1875  at  the  suggestion  of  his 
older  brother  he  studied  voice  culture 
under  the  eminent  masters  of  his  day, 
and  in  1876  made  his  debut  in  Paris  as 
a  basso.  During  the  last  decade  of  the 
19th  century  he  was  one  of  the  most 
popular  singers  in  the  operas  given  in 
New  York  and  London.  He  died  in  1917. 

DE  RESZKE,  JEAN,  a  dramatic  tenor, 
bom  in  Poland  in  1850.  His  voice  at- 
tracted attention  while  he  was  yet  a  boy. 
He  studied  law  and  obtained  his  degree, 
but  chose  a  singing  career  in  preference 
to  a  legal  one.  After  some  years  of 
training  he  made  his  first  appearance  at 


DERG 


330 


DERWENT 


Venice  in  1874,  but  was  physically  un- 
equal to  the  strain  of  continued  singing. 
For  a  while  he  gave  up  the  career  he  had 
preferred,  but  gaining  in  strength  later, 
he  re-entered  the  profession  and  for  a 
quarter  of  a  century  was  one  of  the  most 
successful  and  accomplished  singers  on 
either  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

DEBG,  LOUGH,  the  largest  lake  ex- 
pansion of  the  river  Shannon,  between 
Tipperary  and  Galway  and  Clare,  in 
Ireland;  is  24  miles  long,  with  an  aver- 
age width  of  two  miles;  greatest  depth, 
80  feet.  Its  surface  is  about  100  feet 
above  the  sea.  Another  Lough  Derg,  in 
the  S.  of  Donegal  co.,  is  3  miles  by  2^, 
has  many  small  isles  and  rocks,  and 
v/ild,  dreary  shores.  Saint's  Isle  con- 
tains the  remains  of  a  priory.  Station 
Island,  the  reputed  entrance  to  St.  Pat- 
rick's Purgatory,  was  long  the  most 
celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage  in  Ire- 
land. 

DERMATOLOGY,  that  branch  of 
science  v.hich  treats  of  the  skin  and  its 
diseases.  Dr.  Aitken  g:ives  the  following 
as  the  more  common  diseases  of  the 
skin:  Erythema,  urticaria,  nettlerash, 
lichen,  psoriasis,  herpes,  pemphigus  or 
pompholyx,  eczema,  ecthyma,  acne.  The 
parasitic  diseases  are  ringworm,  or  tinea 
tonsurans,  favus,  and  itch  or  scabies. 
Many  of  these  may  appear  in  combina- 
tion, or  as  symptoms  of  general,  con- 
stitutional, or  febrile  diseases;  and,  in 
addition  to  these,  having  various  forms 
of  cutaneous  manifestation,  are  syphilis, 
purpura,  leprosy,  scurvy,  and  the  like, 
with  bronzed-skin  or  Addison's  Disease 
(q.  v.). 

DERMATOPHYTE,  a  parasitic  plant 
infesting  the  cuticle  and  epidermis  of 
men   and    animals,   and   giving   rise   to 

arious  forms  of  skin  disease,  as  ring- 

/Orm,  etc. 

DERMESTES,  a  common  genus  of 
beetles  in  the  section  Pentamera,  includ- 
ing several  species  of  formidable  vorac- 
ity. The  most  familiar  of  these  is  D. 
lardarius,  often  called  the  bacon  beetle. 
In  the  open  air  it  lives  on  dead  animals; 
but  within  doors  it  attacks  bacon,  cheese, 
dried  meats,  furs,  etc.  The  brovni  larvae 
are  equally  voracious.  Many  other 
species  are  knovm  on  hides  and  the  like. 

DERNBTJRG,  BERNHARD,  a  Ger- 
man diplomat.  By  gradual  promotions 
he  reached  the  post  of  Colonial  Minister 
in  the  Chancellorship  of  Biilow.  The 
opening  of  the  World  War  in  1914 
found  him  in  the  United  States  where  he 
entered  upon  a  propaganda  designed  to 
arouse  sympathy  for  Germany.  In  this 
he  was  fairly  successful  until  the  sink- 


ing of  the  Lusitania  in  May  of  1915. 
He  finally  became  so  unpopular  that  he 
voluntarily  left  the  United  States  and 
returned  to  Germany.  There  he  exerted 
his  influence  to  prevent  war  between  the 
two  nations,  but  the  failure  of  his  mis- 
sion in  the  United  States  made  his  in- 
fluence on  the  German  Government  of  no 
importance.  After  the  Revolution  of 
1919,  Dernburg  became  a  prominent 
leader  of  those  voters  in  Germany  who 
wished  to  prevent  the  complete  capture 
of  the  German  Government  by  the  So- 
cialists, and  yet  did  not  wish  for  a  re- 
turn of  the  former  Imperial  regime. 
Whether  true  or  not,  it  was  alleged  that 
he  and  his  party,  the  German  People's 
party,  were  not  hostile  to  a  return  to 
monarchy. 

DEROULEDE,  PAUL  (da-ro-lad'),  a 
French  poet;  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  2, 
1846.  His  "Soldier  Songs"  (1872)  and 
"Military  Refrains"  (1888)  were  im- 
mensely popular,  and  won  him  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Patriotic  League,  an  as- 
sociation intensely  hostile  to  Germans. 
In  1900  he  was  sentenced  to  10  years 
banishment  for  conspiring  against  he 
Republic.  The  Amnesty  Act  of  1905  re- 
duced the  sentence  to  five  years.  He 
wrote  a  drama  on  patriotism,  "The  Het- 
man,"  and  the  semi-religious  drama, 
"The  Moabitess."    He  died  in  1914. 

DERRICK,  a  lifting  apparatus  con- 
sisting of  a  single  post  or  pole,  sup- 
ported by  stays  and  guys,  to  which  a 
boom  with  a  pulley  or  pulleys  is  at- 
tached, used  in  loading  and  unloading 
vessels,  etc.  Floating  derricks  of  the 
strongest  construction,  with  an  immense 
boom  and  numerous  blocks,  are  also 
used. 

DERRICK  CRANE,  a  kind  of  crane 
combining  the  advantages  of  the  com- 
mon derrick  and  those  of  the  ordinary 
crane.  The  jib  of  this  crane  is  fitted 
with  a  joint  at  the  foot,  and  has  a  chain 
instead  of  a  tension-bar  attached  to  it  at 
the  top,  so  that  the  inclination,  and  con- 
sequently the  sweep,  of  the  crane  can  be 
altered  at  pleasure. 

DERVISH,  a  Mohammedan  monk  or 
religious  fanatic,  who  makes  a  vow  of 
poverty  and  austerity  of  life.  There  are 
several  orders,  some  living  in  monas- 
teries, some  as  hermits,  and  some  as 
wandering  mendicants.  Some,  called 
dancing  dervishes,  are  accustomed  to 
spin  or  whirl  themselves  round  for  hours 
at  a  time,  till  they  work  themselves  into 
a  state  of  frenzy,  when  they  are  believed 
to  be  inspired. 

DERWENT,  the  name  of  four  rivers 
in   England,   in    Derbyshire,   Yorkshire, 


DERWENTWATER 


331 


DESCARTES 


Durham,  and  Cumberland,  respectively, 
the  last  draining  Derwentwater  lake. 
Also  a  river  in  Tasmania. 

DERWENTWATER,  or  KESWICK 
LAKE,  a  beautiful  lake  in  Cumberland, 
England,  in  the  vale  of  Keswick.  It  is 
about  3  miles  in  leng-th  and  1%  in 
breadth,  and  stretches  from  Skiddaw  on 
the  N.  to  the  hills  of  Borrowdale.  Near 
the  N.  E,  corner  is  the  celebrated  cas- 
cade of  Lodore.  Its  waters  are  carried 
to  the  sea  by  the  Derwent. 

DESAGUADERO  ("channel"  or  "out- 
let"), the  name  of  various  waters  in 
South  America,  of  which  the  principal  is 
the  Rio  Desaguadero  in  Bolivia,  empty- 
ing its  waters  into  Lake  Aullagas.  Also 
a  river  in  the  Argentine  Confederation 
flowing  into  Lake  Bevedero  Grande,  and 
separating  the  provinces  of  San  Luis 
and  Mendoza. 

DESAIX  DE  VEYGOUX,  LOUIS 
CHARLES  ANTOINE  (deza'  de  va-go), 
a  French  general;  born  in  Auvergne, 
Aug.  17,  1768.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
Revolution  he  became  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Custine,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Lauterberg, 
but  kept  the  field.  Named  successively 
general  of  brigade  and  of  division,  he 
contributed  greatly,  by  his  talents,  to  the 
success  of  the  famous  retreat  of  Moreau 
from  Germany.  He  afterward  defended 
the  bridge  and  fort  of  Kehl  for  two 
months  against  the  Austrian  army  with 
great  bravery,  and  was  wounded.  He 
served  with  Bonaparte  in  Egypt,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  greatly,  and 
was  appointed  governor  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  country.  He  completely  sub- 
dued Upper  Egypt,  and  received,  as  a 
testimony  of  admiration,  from  Bona- 
parte, a  sword.  He  was  obliged,  how- 
ever, in  1800,  to  sign  the  unfavorable 
treaty  of  El  Arish  with  the  Turks  and 
English,  and  on  his  way  to  France,  was 
captured  by  Lord  Keith  as  a  prisoner  of 
war.  He  afterward  obtained  his  parole, 
and  went  to  France.  He  once  more 
fought  under  the  banner  of  Bonaparte 
in  Italy,  but  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  June  14,  1800. 

DESCANT,  the  addition  of  a  part  or 
parts  to  a  tenor  or  subject.  This  art, 
the  forerunner  of  modern  counterpoint 
and  harmony,  grew  out  of  the  still  ear- 
lier art  of  diaphony  or  the  organum.  It 
may  be  said  to  have  come  into  existence 
at  the  end  of  the  11th  or  beginning  of 
the  12th  century.  Originally,  as  had 
been  previously  the  case  with  diaphony, 
it  consisted  of  two  parts  only,  but  later 
in  its  life  developed  into  motetts  and 
various  other  forms  of  composition.  The 
real    difference    between    diaphony   and 


descant  seems  to  have  been  that  the  for- 
mer was  rarely,  if  ever,  more  compli- 
cated than  note  against  note,  whereas 
descant  made  use  of  the  various  pro- 
portionate values  of  notes.  Double  des- 
cant is  where  the  parts  are  contrived  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  treble  may  be 
made  the  bass,  and  the  bass  the  treble. 

DESCARTES,  RENE  (da-karf),  a 
French  philosopher  and  mathematician^ 
with  whom  the  modern  or  new  philoso- 
phy is  often  considered  as  beginning; 
born  in  La  Haye,  in  Touraine,  March  31, 
1596.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit 
College  of  La  Fleche,  where  he  showed 
great  talent.  He  entered  the  military 
profession  and  cerved  in  Holland  and  in 
Bavaria.     In  1621  he  left  the  army,  and 


RENB  DESCARTES 

after  a  variety  of  travels  finally  settled 
in  Holland,  and  devoted  himself  to  phil- 
osophical inquiries.  Descartes,  seeing 
the  errors  and  inconsistencies  in  which 
other  philosophers  had  involved  them- 
selves, determined  to  build  up  a  system 
anew  for  himself,  and  resolving  to  ac- 
cept as  true  only  what  could  stand  the 
test  of  reason.  There  was  one  thing 
that  he  could  not  doubt  or  divest  himself 
of  the  belief  of,  and  that  was  the  exist- 
ence of  himself  as  a  thinking  being,  and 
this  ultimate  certainty  he  expressed  in 
the  celebrated  phrase,  "Cogito,  ergo 
sum"  (I  think,  therefore  I  am).  Start- 
ing from  this  point,  Descartes  found  the 
same  kind  of  certainty  in  such  propo- 
sitions as  these:  that  the  thinking  being 


DESCENT 


332 


DESERT 


or  soul  differs  from  the  body  (whose 
existence  consists  in  space  and  exten- 
sion) by  its  simplicity  and  immateriality 
and  by  the  freedom  that  pertains  to  it; 
that  every  perception  of  the  soul  is  not  dis- 
tinct; that  it  is  so  far  an  imperfect  finite 
being;  that  this  imperfection  of  its  own 
leads  it  to  the  idea  of  an  absolutely  per- 
fect being;  and  from  this  last  idea  he 
deduces  all  further  knowledge  of  the 
truth.  Descartes  also  contributed  great- 
ly to  the  advancement  of  mathematics  and 
physics.  His  system  of  the  universe  at- 
tracted great  attention  in  his  time, 
though  long  since  exploded.  His  works 
effected  a  great  revolution  in  the  princi- 
ples and  methods  of  philosophizing.  In 
1647  the  French  court  granted  him  a 
pension  and  two  years  later,  on  the  in- 
vitation of  Christina  of  Sweden,  he  went 
to  Stockholm,  where  he  died,  Feb.  11, 
1650. 

DESCENT,  in  law,  a  passing  from  an 
ancestor  to  an  heir;  a  transmission  by 
succession  or  Inheritance.  Lineal  de- 
scent is  where  property  descends  di- 
rectly from  father  to  son,  and  from  son 
to  grandson;  where  property  descends 
directly  from  a  man  to  a  brother, 
nephew,  or  other  collateral  representa- 
tive. 

DESCENT  OP  MAN.  See  Darwinian 
Theory. 

deschanel,  paul  eugene 
LOUIS,  former  President  of  the  French 
Republic.  He  was  born  in  1856  and  was 
educated  at  the  College  St.  Barbe  and 
the  Lycee  Condorcet,  graduating  as 
Licenci^  es  lettres  et  en  droit.  In  1878 
he  became  sub-prefect  of  Dreux  and  in 
the  following  year  general  secretary  of 
Seine-et-Mame  and  sub-prefect  of  Brest. 
In  1881  he  became  sub-prefect  of  Mea«x. 
In  1885  he  was  elected  deputy  to  repre- 
sent Eure-et-Loir  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  and  continued  as  a  member  of 
the  Chamber,  becominp:  its  Vice-Presi- 
dent in  1898  and  holding  that  position 
till  1902.  During  1905-1912  he  was 
President  of  the  Commission  of  Foreign 
and  Colonial  Affairs,  and  during  1906- 
1912  was  Rapporteur  of  the  Budget  of 
Foreign  Affairs.  In  1919  he  was  elected 
President  of  the  Republic,  but  had  to 
resign,  owing  to  ill  health  in  1920,  being 
succeeded  by  Alexandre  Millerand.  M. 
Deschanel  has  won  for  himself  a  place  in 
the  literary  world  almost  as  conspicuous 
as  the  place  held  by  him  in  the  public 
life  of  France.  His  works  include:  "La 
Politique  fran^aise  en  Oceanie;"  "Les 
Interets  frangais  dans  I'ocean  Paci- 
fique;"  "Figures  de  femmes;"  Figures 
litt^raires;  "La  Republique  Nouveile;" 
"Paroles  francaises;"  "Madame  de  Se- 


vigne;"  M.  Deschanel  was  a  member  of 
the  Academic  Fran^aise  and  the 
Academic  des  Sciences  morales  et 
politiques. 

DESEADA,  or  DESIRADE,  one  of  tke 
Leeward  Islands,  belonging  to  France, 
in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  about  10  mfles 
long  and  hardly  5  broad.  The  soil  is  in 
some  places  black  and  good,  in  others 
sandy  and  unproductive. 

DESERET,  the  name  first  adopted  by 
the  Mormons  for  what  is  now  Utah,  See 
Mormons:  Utah. 

DESERT,  a  term  generally  used  to 
designate  an  uninhabited  place  or  soli- 
tude. In  this  sense  it  is  equally  appli- 
cable to  the  fertile  plains  watered  by  the 
Maraiion,  and  to  the  wastes  of  Libya; 
but  it  is  applied  more  particularly  to  the 
vast  sandy  and  stony  plains  of  Africa 
and  Asia.  The  most  striking  feature  of 
north  Africa  consists  of  its  immense 
deserts.  Of  these  the  chief  is  the  Sahara, 
or  the  Desert,  so  called  by  way  of  pre- 
eminence. In  many  parts  the  dreary 
waste  of  loose  and  hardened  sand  is 
broken  by  low  hills  of  naked  sandstone, 
or  by  tracts  of  arid  clay,  and  occasional- 
ly it  is  enlivened  by  verdant  isles,  or 
oases,  which  serve  as  resting-places  for 
the  caravans  that  traverse  these  dismal 
regions.  But  for  these  oases,  indeed,  the 
Sahara  would  be  wholly  impassable.  The 
great  deserts  of  Africa  are  separated 
from  those  of  Asia  only  by  the  valley  of 
the  River  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  Soon 
after  quitting  the  Nile,  the  traveler  by 
the  route  of  Suez  encounters  sand,  which 
is  continued  into  the  center  of  Arabia, 
where  it  forms  the  desert  of  Nejd,  ex- 
tending to  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates. 
The  sandy  zone  then  inclines  N.,  enters 
Persia,  and  forms  the  saline  deserts  of 
Adjemi,  Kerman,  and  Mekran:  it  is 
turned  N.  E.  by  the  valley  of  the  Indus, 
passes  through  Cabul  and  Little  Bok- 
hara, till  it  joins  the  vast  deserts  of 
Gobi  and  Shamo,  which  occupy  so  large 
a  portion  of  central  Asia  between  the 
Altaian  and  Mustai  chains,  and  reach 
to  the  confines  of  China.  The  sandy 
zone,  thus  traced  throughout  the  breadth 
of  the  ancient  continent  from  western 
Africa  to  120"  E.  longitude,  has  been' 
computed  to  cover  an  area  of  6,500,000 
square  miles;  but  the  Asiatic  portion  of 
this  tract  includes  many  chains  of  moun- 
tains, and  fertile  valleys.  Except  the 
Nile,  the  Euphrates,  the  Indus,  and  the 
Oxus,  there  are  no  large  rivers  in  a 
iregion  which  embraces  almost  a  fourth 
part  of  both  Africa  and  Asia.  This  por- 
tion of  central  Asia  forms  a  series  of 
elevated  plains  6,000  miles  in  length 
from  E.  to  W.     In  the  Old  Testament 


DESERTAS  333 


DESMIDIACEii; 


the  term  desert  bears  a  wholly  different 
interpretation  from  that  usually  attached 
to  it  in  other  writings, 

DESEBTAS,  a  group  of  three  rocky 
islets  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  to  the  S. 
E.  of  Madeira,  visited  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year  by  fishermen  and  herds- 
men. 

DESICCATION,  the  evaporation  or 
drying  off  of  the  aqueous  portion  of 
bodies.  It  is  practiced  with  fruit,  meat, 
milk,  vegetable  extracts,  and  many 
other  matters.  It  is  usually  done  by  a 
current  of  heated  dry  air,  and  as  such 
may  be  considered  as  distinguished  from 
evaporators,  so  called,  to  which  furnace 
heat  or  steam  heat  is  applied. 

DESIGN,  SCHOOLS  OF.  Prior  to 
mediaeval  times  every  master  of  a  craft 
and  every  artist  or  decorator  had  in  his 
employ  a  number  of  persons  who  by 
working  on  his  tasks  for  small  wages 
learned  the  secret  of  his  skill.  This  indi- 
vidual method  of  instructing  beginners 
disappeared  with  the  use  of  the  craft 
guilds  which  laid  down  the  terms  for 
apprenticeship  to  a  trade  in  very  exact 
measures  and  from  which  no  master 
craftsman  was  allowed  to  deviate.  From 
900  to  about  1600  this  was  the  only 
method  of  instructing  beginners  in  the 
methods  of  design.  Instruction  was,  of 
course,  subsidiary  to  the  main  purpose 
of  these  regulations  which  was  to  en- 
hance and  protect  the  profits  of  the  guild 
members.  When  about  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries  great  artists  such  as  Raphael 
and  Da  Vinci  drew  about  them  numerous 
assistants  who  wished  to  learn  of  them, 
the  guild  regulations  began  to  be  less 
effective,  and  in  the  case  of  artists  dis- 
appeared entirely.  But  it  was  not  until 
the  founding  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1648  that  the 
modern  conception  of  schools  of  design 
was  embodied.  In  this  school  regular  in- 
struction was  offered  to  students  and 
prizes  offered  for  the  best  work  in  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  engraving,  architecture, 
and  work  in  precious  stones  and  metals. 
The  studio  work  in  the  Royal  Academy 
remained  on  the  old  apprenticeship  basis 
and  in  painting  and  sculpture  this  still 
remains  both  in  America  and  in  England. 
Exceptions  to  the  use  of  this  method  in 
the  latter  two  countries  are  some  of  the 
professional  schools  in  America  and  the 
South  Kensington  Schools  in  ■  ondon. 
In  architecture  the  apprenticeship  system 
has  been  replaced  in  America  by  the 
architectural  schools. 

The  founding  of  schools  of  design  was 
not  frequent  in  Europe  until  after  the 
expositions  of  1851,  1855,  and  1865  had 
shown  the  superiority  of  the  work  of  the 


French  artists  over  those  of  England  and 
Germany.  Then  from  1855  to  1880  in 
England  and  Germany  many  schools  of 
design  were  founded  in  the  great  indus- 
trial centers,  and  museums  of  industrial 
art  were  opened  which  have  served  to 
stimulate  the  work  of  artists.  The 
United  States  was  slower  to  accept  the 
lessons  taught  by  the  great  expositions, 
for  it  was  not  until  after  the  Centennial 
of  1876  that  schools  of  design  were 
opened.  Characteristically  their  founda- 
tion in  the  States  was  not  due  to  govern- 
ments, national.  State  or  municipal,  but 
largely  to  the  benefactions  of  wealthy  pa- 
trons. Not  until  the  opening  of  the  20th 
century  did  the  governments  in  the 
United  States  take  a  part  in  encouraging 
artists  and  schools  of  design,  and  to  a 
large  extent  such  schools  and  museums 
of  art  are  in  private  hands.  Architecture 
has  received  the  most  encouragement  of 
any  of  the  fine  arts  in  America,  the 
schools  established  by  Cornell,  Columbia, 
Harvard,  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology  compare  favorably  with 
the  European  schools.  Technical  instruc- 
tion in  industrial  art  is  very  general  in 
America,  but  as  yet  schools  for  those  in- 
terested in  painting  and  sculpture  can- 
not compare  vnth  their  European  models. 
Some  of  the  more  famous  of  the  schools 
are  the  ©cole  des  Beaux-Arts,  National 
Academy  of  Design,  National  Art  Schools 
of  South  Kensington,  Berlin  Bau-Aka- 
demie,  and  the  Vienna  Imperial  Art 
Institue. 

DESMAN,  an  insectivorous  mammal 
of  the  shrew  family.  It  is  7  inches  in 
length,  tail,  8  inches;  the  feet  are 
webbed,  and  the  flattened  tail  is  covered 
with  scales;  the  nose  is  lengthened  into 
a  flexible  proboscis.  It  is  found  in  south- 
eastern Russia,  making  borrows  in  river 
banks,  beginning  under  water,  and  as- 
cending above  the  level  of  the  highest 
floods.  The  food  consists  of  small  fishes, 
frogs,  leeches,  and  larvee  of  aquatic  in- 
sects. The  Mygale  Pyrenaica  is  not 
much  more  than  half  the  size  of  the 
Russian  species;  it  is  found  in  France. 

DESMIDIACEJE,  a  family  of  con- 
fervoid  algsp,  consisting  entirely  of  mi- 
croscopic 'flexible  organisms  inhabiting 
fresh  water,  scarcely  a  specimen  of 
which  can  be  found  that  does  not  con- 
tain some  of  them.  Sometimes  they 
adhere  in  large  quantities  to  aquatic 
plants,  forming  green  films  investing 
these;  at  others  they  rest  as  a  thick 
coating  at  the  bottom  of  water,  or  lie 
intermingled  with  confervas,  etc.  The 
most  distinctive  feature  in  their  appear- 
ance is  the  bilateral  symmetry,  indica- 
tive of  the  tendency  to  divide  into  two 
valves  or  segments.  Many  of  the  gen- 
22 — Vol.  Ill — Cyc . 


DESMODIUM  334  DE  SOTO 

era  have  the  power  of  fixing  themselves  In  the  last  year  it  was  made  the  State 

to  external  objects,  and  possess  a  feeble  capital.     Pop.     (1910)     86,368;      (1920) 

power    of    locomotion.     Reproduction    is  126,468. 

effected  by   (1)   cell-division,  where  each         ^ES  MOINES  COLLEGE,  a  coeduca- 

pustule   divides   into  two;    (2)    by  zoo-  ti^n^l    institution    in    Des    Moines,    la.; 

spores;    (3)   by  conjugation.     There  are  founded  in  1855;  under  the  auspices  of 

five  tribes,  containing  22  genera.  the  Baptist  Church;  reported  at  the  end 

DESMODITJM,    a    genus    of    papilio-  of  1919:    Professors  and  instructors,  22; 

naceous     plants,     sub-tribe     Hedysareae.  students,  550;  president,  J.  A.  Earl,  D.  D. 
The  leaves  have  generally  three  leaflets;         dES    MOINES    RIVER,    the    largest 

more  rarely  they  are  simple.     The  flow-  river  in  Iowa ;  formed  by  the  E.  and  W. 

ers  are  in  racemes  or  panicles;  the  leg-  forks  in  southwest  Minnesota;  flows  S. 

umes    jointed,    each     joint     one-seeded,  s.  E.  to  the  capital  city,  then  S.  E.  to 

About    100    species    are    known,    chiefly  a    point   about   4   miles   below    Keokuk, 

from  South  America  or  from  India.    D.  where   it   empties   into    the    Mississippi 

gyrans,  an  Indian  species,  is  the  mov-  river;    estimated  length,   500   miles.     It 

ing-plant,   so   called   from   the   rotatory  drains    10,000    square    miles    in    Iowa; 

movement   of  the  leaflets.     It   is   some-  flows  through  a  region  rich  in  agricul- 

times  cultivated  in  greenhouses.  D.  dif-  tural   and  grazing  grounds,   bituminous 

fusum  is  a  fodder-plant.  coal,  and  timber;  receives  the  waters  of 

DES  MOINES,  a  city,  capital  of  the  Raccoon,     North,     Middle,     South,    and 

State  of  Iowa,  and  county-seat  of  Polk  ^oone  rivers;  and  with  a  fall  of  8  feet 

CO.;  at  the  junction  of  the  Des  Moines  supplies  a  large  number  of  valuable  mill 

and   Raccoon   rivers,   and   on  the   Rock  ^"^^   along   its   banks. 
Island,  the   Northwestern,   the   Burling-         DESMOLOGY       (a     ligament),     that 

ton  Route,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  branch  of  anatomy  which  treats  of  the 

St.    Paul,   and    several    other   railroads,  ligaments   and  sinews. 
It  is  built  on  a  plateau  from  15  to  20        dESMOULINS,    BENOIT    CAMILLE 

feet  above  the  tidewater  and  is   inter-  (da-molan),     a     French     revolutionist; 

sected  by  both  rivers,  which  are  spanned  ^om  in  Guise,  Picardy,  March  2,  1760. 

by  eight  bridges.     The  business  portion  jj^  ^^g  ^^^ng  the  most  notable  of  the 

lies  near  the  rivers,  and  the  residences  pamphleteers  and  orators  who  urged  the 

are  on  the  higher  grounds  beyond.  multitude  forward  in  the  path  of  revo- 

_  Pxihhc     Parks     and     Bmld'ings.— The  lution.     He,  along  with  others,  prepared 

city    has    an    extensive    park     system,  the  plan  for  the  taking  of  the  Bastille 

Among    the    notable    buildings    are    the  (July,  1789),  was  one  of  the  founders  of 

Capitol,  erected  at  a  cost  of  $3,000,090;  the  club  of  Cordeliers,  and  the  promoter 

the  United   States  Building,  containing  of  the  assembly  in  the  Champ  de  Mars, 

the  Postoffice   and   Federal   Courts;   the  in  1793  he  gave  his  vote  for  the  death 

State     Library;     the     State     Historical  of  the  king.  Having  become  closely  con- 

Buildmg,    and    Auditorium;    Hospitals;  sected  with   Danton   and  the   party   of 

C?urt  House;  the  Grand  Opera  House;  opposition  to  Robespierre,  and  inveigh- 

City  Hall;  State  Arsenal;  and  about  75  ing    against    the    reign    of    blood    and 

churches.  terror,  he  was  arrested  on  the  order  of 

Business    hiterests.— The    city    is    lo-  the  latter  on   March  30,   1794,  tried   on 

cated  in  the  center  of  a  rich  coal  min-  April  2,  and  executed  on  the  5th. 
ing   district.     The   principal    industries,        TN-n^-nTA  •        •    -n       •        ^.'  i.    • 

besides   coal-mining,   include   pork-pack-  .    ^.^SNA,  a  river  m  Russia,  which  rises 

ing    and    the    manufacture    of    starch,  '^  ^^^.^ZT'f!^-^ ''^r^f^^'ir^^Zl^^n^^^ 

o-ioao    -ni-na    Ur-i^^j-  ^-yyA  +,-i«    4f^,  „j_         J  ^-    of    the    town    01     bmolensk,    flows 

Sine  "^h'op  products    engfnLboile?s  ^^^^^^^   '^'   governments   of   Orel   and 

Snvp  «LrP?JSft«   f,?;Jf£r!U^^^^^^^^^  Tchemigov  till  it  joins  the  Dnieper  near 

?ood/  tS'  iqTq  tw  T.^^^^^^^^  Kiev.      It   is    500    miles    in   length   and 

baSks.  National  navigable  nearly  throughout. 

Education. — The      school     system     is        DE  SOTO,  a  city  of  Missouri,  in  Jeffer- 

maintained    at   a   high    standard.      The  son   co.     It   is   on   the    St.    Louis,   Iron 

annual  expenditure  for  education  is  over  Mountain,  and  Southern  railroad.  In  the 

$1,000,000.     For  higher  instruction  there  neighborhood    are    iirfportant    lead    and 

were    5    public    high    schools,    a    private  zi"c  mines.     The  city  has  a  large  trade 

one,    Des    Moines    College,    Drake    Uni-  i"  grain,  flour,  produce,  and  live  stock, 

versity,     Highland     Park     College    and  Its    industries    include    a    shoe   factory, 

Grand  View  College.  flour  mills,  and  railroad  machine  shops. 

History.— Des    Moines   was   first   sur-  Pop.   (1910)   4,721;   (1920)   5,003. 
veyed  in   1846;   incorporated  as  a  town         DE    SOTO,    FERNANDO,    a    Spanish 

jn  1853 ;  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1857.  discoverer ;  born  at  Jeres  de  los  Caval- 


DESPENSEB 


335 


D'ESTOURNELLES 


leros,  in  Estremadura,  about  1496,  of  a 
good  but  impoverished  family;  accom- 
panied Pedrarias  Davila  to  Darien  in 
1519;  served  on  the  expedition  to  Nicara- 
gua in  1527;  and  afterward  assisted 
Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of  Peru,  return- 
ing to  Spain  with  a  fortune.  Charles  V. 
now  gave  him  permission  to  conquer  Flor- 
ida at  his  own  expense,  and  appointed  him 
governor  of  Cuba;  and  in  1538  he  sailed 
from  San  Lucar  with  a  richly  equipped 
company.  The  fleet  anchored  in  the  bay 
of  Espiritu  Santo  (now  Tampa  Bay)  on 
May  25,  1539;  the  ships  were  sent  back 
to  Cuba,  and  the  long  search  for  gold 
was  begun.  For  three  years,  harassed 
by  Indians  and  enduring  every  privation, 
the  company  continued  the  quest.  In 
1541  the  Mississippi  was  reached  and 
crossed,  and  the  third  winter  was  spent 
on  Washita  river.  Returning  to  the 
Mississippi  in  the  spring,  De  Soto,  worn 
out  by  disappointments,  died  of  a  fever 
on  its  banks,  in  June,  1542;  and  that  his 
death  might  be  concealed  from  the  In- 
dians, was  lowered  at  midnight  into  the 
waters  of  the  great  stream  he  had  dis- 
covered. In  the  following  year  his  com- 
panions, reduced  to  half  their  original 
number,  sailed  down  the  river,  and 
finally  reached  the  town  of  Panuco,  in 
Mexico. 

DESPENSEB,  HUGH  LE  (de-spen' 
ser),  an  English  jurist;  born  about  1210. 
He  was  justiciar  of  England  in  1261  and 
during  the  war  of  the  barons  with 
Henry  III.  joined  the  former.  He  was 
killed  at  Evesham,  Dec.  4,  1265. 

DESPENSEB,,  HUGH  LE,  an  English 
courtier,  grandson  of  the  preceding; 
born  about  1262.  He  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  soldier  and  diplomat  in  the 
service  of  Edward  II.  and  became  Earl 
of  Winchester  in  1322.  His  tyranny  as 
the  royal  favorite  led  to  a  revolt  of  the 
barons  and  his  own  downfall.  He  was 
beheaded  in  1326. 

DESPENSEB,  HUGH  LE,  an  Eng- 
lish courtier,  son  of  the  preceding;  bom 
about  1290.  He  deserted  the  baronial 
party  for  that  of  Edward  II.,  and  became 
a  royal  favorite.  He  and  his  father  were 
involved  in  the  misfortunes  following  the 
flight  of  King  Edward  from  London.  He 
was  beheaded  in  November,  1326. 

DESPOBLADO  (daz-po-bla'do)  (des- 
ert), a  treeless,  uninhabited  plateau, 
nearly  10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the 
Bolivian  and  Argentine  frontier,  N.  E.  of 
Antofagasta. 

DESPOTO  DAGH  (des-po'to  dah),  a 
mountain  chain  of  European  Turkey,  ex- 
tending from  30  miles  to  the  E.  of  the 
Balkan  to  the  bank  of  the  Maritza. 


DESSALINES,  JEAN  JACQUES 
(da-sa-len),  an  emperor  of  Haiti;  born 
in  Africa  in  1758.  He  was  a  slave  in 
1791,  when  the  insurrection  of  the  blacks 
occurred  in  that  island,  but  was  set  free 
along  with  the  other  slaves  in  St.  Do- 
mingo in  1794.  After  the  deportation  of 
Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  and  the  subse- 
quent evacuation  of  the  island  by  the 
French,  Dessalines  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor-general for  life  Avith  absolute 
power;  and  the  year  following  (1804) 
was  declared  emperor  with  the  title  of 
Jacques  I.  His  rule  was  savage  and  op- 
pressive, and  both  the  troops  and  the 
people  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against 
him,  and,  Oct.  17,  1806,  he  was  slain  by 
one  of  his  soldiers. 

DESSAU  (des'sou),  a  town  of  north 
Germany;  capital  of  the  former  Duchy  of 
Anhalt;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mulde, 
not  far  from  its  junction  with  the  Elbe, 
70  miles  S.  W.  of  Berlin.  It  is  in  gen- 
eral well  built.  Among  the  principal 
buildings  are  the  ducal  palace,  a  notable 
structure,  built  in  1748,  and  improved  in 
1875,  with  a  valuable  picture-gallery  and 
library;  a  town-hall,  an  elegant  theater, 
and  several  churches.  The  Philanthro- 
pinum  of  Basedow  was  here.  The  manu- 
factures are  sugar,  woolen  cloth,  machin- 
ery, carpets,  and  there  is  a  large  trade  in 
grain.  Moses  Mendelssohn  was  a  native. 
Leopold,  Prince  of  Anhalt-Dessau  (1676- 
1747),  a  famous  soldier  in  the  wars  of 
the  18th  century,  is  popularly  known  as 
der  alte  Dessauer  (the  old  Dessauer) ; 
his  statue  adorns  the  market-place.  Pop. 
(1890)  34,658;  (1905)  55,134. 

DESTEBBO  (daz-ter'ro).  a  seaport  of 
Brazil,  capital  of  the  province  of  Santa 
Catharina.  The  harbor  is,  next  to  that 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  best  on  the  Brazil- 
ian coast. 

DESTINN,  or  DESTINOVA,  EMMY. 
She  was  born  at  Prague  in  1878,  the 
daughter  of  Emanuel  Kittel.  She 
studied  under  Madame  Loewe  Destinn, 
whose  name  she  assumed  when  slie  went 
on  the  stage.  She  sang  in  various  coun- 
tries of  Europe  until  in  1898  she  was  eai- 
gaged  at  the  Royal  Opera  House,  Berlin. 
The  roles  in  which  she  has  gained  distinc- 
tion include  "Senta,"  "Mignon,"  "Car- 
men," "Santuzza."  She  has  sung  in  New 
York  and  the  principal  cities  of  North 
and  South  Ameilca.  She  has  also 
written  several  volumes  of  poems. 

D'ESTOUBNELLES  DE  CONSTANT, 
BABON  (PAUL  HENBI  BENJATLIN), 
a  French  diplomat.  He  was  boru  at  La 
Fleche,  Sarthe,  in  1852,  and  was  educated 
in  French  schools.  He  entered  politics 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies.    He  represented  France 


DESUETUDE 


336 


DETROIT 


at  the  two  Hague  Conferences  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Hague  Court.  For  eight 
years  he  was  diplomat  at  the  French  Em- 
bassy, London,  and  later  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Senate.  He  wrote 
books  on  politics,  economic  science,  arbi- 
tration, limitation  of  armaments,  and 
organization  of  peace.  His  works  in- 
clude: "Pygmalion,"  "La  politique  Fran- 
?aise  en  Tunisie"  (crowned  by  the 
French  Academy),  and  "Les  Etats-Unis 
d'Amerique." 

DESUETUDE,  in  Scots  law,  that  re- 
peal or  revocation  of  a  legal  enactment 
which  is  effected  not  by  a  subsequent  con- 
trary enactment,  but  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  contrary  use,  sanctioned  by  the 
lapse  of  time  and  the  consent  of  the 
community. 

DETERMINANT,  in  logic,  a  mark  or 
attribute  added  to  the  subject  or  predi- 
cate, which  narrows  the  extent  of  both, 
but  renders  them  more  definite,  or  better 
determined.  In  mathematics,  a  name 
given  to  the  sum  of  a  series  of  products 
of  several  numbers,  these  products  being 
formed  according  to  certain  specified 
laws.  Thus  the  determinant  of  the  nine 
numbers : 

a,   b,    c 

a',  V,  c' 

a",  b",  c" 
la   ab'c" — ab"c'-|-a'b'''c — a'bc"-|-a"bc' — a"b'c. 

DETERMINISM,  a  name  applied  by 
Sir  W.  Hamilton  to  that  system  of  philos- 
ophy which  holds  that  the  will  is  not  a 
free  agent,  but  is  irresistibly  determined 
by  providential  motives,  that  is,  by  mo- 
tives furnished  by  Providence,  which 
turn  the  balance  in  our  mental  delibera- 
tions in  accordance  with  its  views. 

DETMOLD,  capital  of  the  former  Ger- 
man Principality  of  Lippe,  on  the  Werre, 
47  miles  S.  W.  of  Hanover.  The  chief 
buildings  are  the  old  castle,  the  modern 
palace,  and  the  theater.  Detmold  has 
also  a  museum,  a  public  library,  a  hos- 
pital, a  gymnasium,  and  several  other 
schools.  There  are  manufactures  of  to- 
bacco, cards,  and  carved  work  in  wood 
and  stone,  as  well  as  several  breweries. 
On  a  hill  two  miles  from  Detmold  is  a 
colossal  statue  of  Arminius. 

DETONATING  POWDERS,  certain 
chemical  compounds,  which,  on  being  ex- 
posed to  heat  or  suddenly  struck,  explode 
with  a  loud  report,  owing  to  one  or  more 
of  the  constituent  parts  suddenly  assum- 
ing the  gaseous  state.  The  chloride  and 
iodide  of  nitrogen  are  very  powerful  de- 
tonating substances. 

DETONATING  TUBE,  a  species  of 
eudiometer,  being  a  stout  glass  tube  used 
in  chemical  analysis  for  detonating  gas- 


eous bodies.  It  is  generally  graduated  into 
centesimal  parts,  and  perforated  by  two 
opposed  wires  for  the  purpose  of  passing 
an  electric  spark  through  the  gases  which 
are  introduced  into  it,  and  which  are  con- 
fined within  it  over  mercury  and  water. 

DETRITUS,  applied  in  geology  to  ac- 
cumulations formed  by  the  disintegration 
of  rocks,  may  consist  of  angular  and  sub- 
angular  debris,  or  of  more  or  less  water- 
worn  materials,  such  as  gravel,  sand,  or 
clay,  or  an  admixture  of  these. 

DETROIT,  the  largest  city  of  Michi- 
gan, and  the  county-seat  of  Wayne  co. 
It  is  on  the  Detroit  river,  along  which 
it  extends  for  about  12  miles.  It  is  also 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  St.  Clair.  The 
city  has  an  area  of  about  94  square 
miles,  and  is  beautifully  situated  on 
ground  which  rises  from  the  river.  The 
great  bodies  of  water  adjacent  to  the 
city  tend  to  moderate  climatic  conditions, 
and  its  elevation  of  576  feet  above  sea- 
level  has  much  to  do  with  the  very  high 
average  of  health  conditions  in  the  city 
and  its  surroundingfs.  The  city,  both 
commercially  and  industrially,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  on  the  lines  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific,  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Lake  Shore 
and  Michigan  Southern,  the  Pere  Mar- 
quette, the  Wabash,  the  Michigan  Cen- 
tral, and  other  railroads.  Its  indus- 
tries are  widely  diversified.  There  were 
in  1920  over  3,100  different  classes 
hundreds  of  commodities  of  world-wide 
uses.  It  stands  prominently  among  the 
cities  of  the  United  States  in  the  pro- 
duction of  automobiles,  adding  machines, 
soda  and  alkali  products,  stoves,  steam- 
ships, gas  engines,  aeroplanes,  hydraulic 
hoists,  automobile  parts,  varnishes, 
paints,  and  oils,  drugs,  and  pharmaceuti- 
cal products.  Wholesale  and  jobbing  in- 
terests also  play  an  important  part  in 
the  business  life  of  the  city.  The  Detroit 
river  carries  an  immense  freight  traffic. 
Nearly  40,000  vessels  yearly,  carrying  a 
total  tonnage  of  approximately  100,000,- 
000  tons,  valued  at  more  than  a  billion 
and  a  quarter  dollars,  pass  before  the 
city. 

Detroit  had  in  1920  14  State  banks, 
5  National  banks,  6  trust  companies,  and 
a  Federal  Reserve  bank,  with  aggre- 
gate resources  in  the  neighborhood  of  a 
half  billion  dollars.  The  total  capital, 
surplus  and  undivided  profits  of  the 
banks  aggregated  $50,000,000,  and  the 
total  deposits  amounted  to  nearly  $425,- 
000,000.  The  exchanges  in  the  clearing 
house  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1919, 
amounted  to  $4,032,443,000.  Several  of 
the  largest  manufacturers  of  automobiles 
have  their  plants  in  Detroit.  These  in- 
clude the  Ford  Company,  Packard  Motor 


DETROIT 


337 


DEUTERONOMY 


Car  Company,  the  Hudson  Company,  the 
Paige-Detroit  Company,  and  others.  Dur- 
ing ttie  war  the  city  developed  a  great 
shipbuilding  industry  which  has  been 
continued  and  vessels  are  made  not  only 
for  inland  waters  but  for  ocean  travel. 

There  are  over  700  miles  of  streets, 
the  greater  part  of  which  are  paved. 
The  principal  streets  are  laid  with  brick 
or  asphalt.  The  streets  in  general  cross 
at  right  angles,  but  these  are  intersected 
by  several  broad  avenues  radiating  from 
the  Grand  Circus,  a  semi-circular  park 
of  5^/^  acres  in  the  center  of  the  city. 
Woodward  Avenue,  extending  througn 
this,  divides  the  city  into  nearly  equal 
portions.  There  is  an  attractive  system 
of  parks,  including  an  island  park  known 
as  Belle  Isle.  This  contains  707  acres, 
and  lies  in  the  center  of  the  Detroit 
river,  about  3  miles  from  the  heart  of 
the  city.  There  are  many  handsome 
public  buildings,  including  the  Wayne 
County  Court  House,  the  City  Hall,  Post- 
ofRce,  and  Detroit  Athletic  Club  House, 
and  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  and  several 
hospitals.  Many  of  the  churches  are 
also  notable  for  the  beauty  of  their 
architecture.  The  Museum  of  Art  con- 
tains a  library  and  valuable  collections 
of  classical  art,  modern  paintings,  furni- 
ture, etc. 

The  educational  system  is  maintained 
according  to  the  highest  modern  stand- 
ards. There  are  160  public  and  75 
private  schools^  including  10  high  schools, 
and  4  junior  high  schools.  In  connection 
with  the  school  system  are  operated  three 
college  units,  including  a  medical  school, 
a  normal  school,  and  a  junior  college. 
These  eventually  will  comprise  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  City  of  Detroit.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  public  schools  there  are  60 
parochial  schools  and  numerous  private 
institutions.  The  city  spends  approxi- 
mately $6,000,000  to  maintain  this  school 
system. 

The  city  is  notable  for  a  large  number 
of  handsome  business  buildings,  hotels 
and  theaters. 

Detroit  was  founded  by  the  French 
explorer  Cadillac,  in  1701.  After  the 
site  was  chosen,  a  palisade  inclosure 
was  erected  and  called  Fort  Pontchar- 
train.  The  name  Detroit  is  after  the 
French  "d'etroit"  meaning  the  strait,  and 
was  so  called  because  of  its  situation  on 
the  narrow  strait  now  known  as  Detroit 
river,  connecting  Lake  St.  Clair  with 
Lake  Erie.  The  French  ruled  the  region 
until  1760,  when  they  were  superseded 
by  the  English,  who  in  turn  held  it  until 
1796,  when  it  was  conquered  by  General 
Wayne.  The  English  again  assumed 
control  in  1813,  but  Commodore  Perry's 
victory  of  Lake  Erie  gave  the  entire 
territory    to    the    United    States.      The 


city  has  shown  a  remarkable  increase  in 
population  in  recent  years.  The  figures 
are  as  follows:  (1900)  285,705;  (1910) 
465,766;   (1920)  993,678. 

DETROIT  RIVER,  or  STRAIT  of  ST. 
CLAIR,  a  river  or  strait  of  North  Amer- 
ica, which  runs  from  Lake  St.  Clair  to 
Lake  Erie.  It  is  28  miles  long,  and  of 
sufficient  depth  for  the  navigation  of 
large  vessels.  It  is  about  three-fourths 
of  a  mile  wide  opposite  Detroit  and  en- 
larges as  it  descends. 

DETTINGEN  (det'ting-en) ,  a  village 
of  Bavaria,  on  the  Main,  10  miles  N.  W. 
of  AschafFenburg;  is  noted  as  the  scene 
of  a  battle  during  the  war  of  the  Aus- 
trian Succession,  when,  on  June  27, 
1743,  George  II.  of  England,  command- 
ing English,  Hanoverians,  and  Austrians, 
defeated  the  larger  French  army  under 
the  Due  de  Noailles.  This  was  the  last 
time  a  king  of  England  took  the  field  in 
person. 

DEUCALION  (dii-ka'li-un),  the  son  of 
Prometheus  and  Clymere.  Zeus  having 
resolved  to  destroy  the  human  race  by  a 
deluge,  Deucalion  built  a  ship,  in  which 
he  and  his  wife,  Pyrrha,  escaped.  When 
the  ship  finally  rested  on  Mount  ^Etna, 
they  resolved  to  offer  up  sacrifices  to  the 
gods  for  the  repeopling  of  the  world; 
thereupon,  they  went  to  the  sanctuary 
of  Themis  for  this  purpose,  and  were 
told  by  the  goddess  that  they  must  throw 
behind  them  the  bones  of  their  mother 
as  they  departed  from  the  temple.  Un- 
derstanding by  the  "bones  of  their 
mother"  the  stones  of  the  earth,  they 
obeyed  the  injunction,  and  from  those 
thrown  by  Deucalion  sprang  up  men, 
and  from  those  by  Pyrrha  women.  Deu- 
calion built  his  first  dwelling  place  at 
Opus,  or  Cynus.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
founded  the  sanctuary  of  Olympian  Jove 
at  Athens,  and  in  later  ages  his  tomb  in 
the  vicinity  was  long  pointed  out.  Deu- 
calion had  by  Pyrrha  several  children, 
Hellen,  Amphictyon,  Protogeneia,  and 
others. 

DEUTERONOMY  (Gr.  deiiteronomion, 
the  "second"  or  "repeated  law"),  the 
Greek  name  of  the  fifth  book  of  the 
Pentateuch.  It  presents  the  third  and 
latest  phase  of  the  development  of  the 
Mosaic  legislation.  Its  great  aim  is  to 
check  the  encroachments  of  idolatry,  and 
to  concentrate  the  national  worship  in 
the  great  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  es- 
pecially at  the  three  annual  festivals. 
It  is  instinct  with  the  prophetic  spirit, 
and  lays  stress  on  the  great  command- 
ment to  love  and  fear  God  with  the 
whole  heart  as  the  sum  of  the  whole 
law. 


DEUTZIA 


338 


DEVIL 


DETJTZIA  (named  after  John  Deutz, 
a  Dutch  naturalist),  a  genus  of  shrubs, 
natives  of  the  East  Indies,  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Philadelphacex,  or 
syringas.  The  leaves  are  used  in  Japan 
for  polishing  purposes,  and  their  inner 
bark  for  poultices. 

DE  VALERA,  EAMON,  President  of 
the  "Irish  Republic."  He  was  born  in 
New  York  in  1882,  the  son  of  a  Spanish 
artist  (Vivion  De  Valera),  and  an  Irish 
mother  (Catherine  Coll).  His  father 
died  before  the  son  was  three  years  old 
and  the  boy  was  taken  to  Ireland  to  be 
cared  for  by  his  maternal  grandmother. 
He  received  his  education  in  the  school 
of  Bruree,  Limerick.  He  entered  Black- 
rock  College,  Dublin,  and  after  receiving 
his  degree,  taught  mathematics  at  Rock- 
well College,  Cashel.  He  taught  at  May- 
nooth  Seminary  and  at  Carysport  Normal 
College,  Dublin.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Gaelic  League,  and  participated  in 
the  Gaelic  revival.  De  Valera  was 
prominent  among  the  organizers  of  the 
Irish  Volunteers  in  1913,  and  when  the 
insurrection  against  British  rule  broke 
out  in  Ireland  during  Easter  week,  1916, 
he  commanded,  with  Padraic  Pearse,  the 
battalion  which  held  the  Dublin  post- 
office  and  was  the  last  to  lay  down  his 
arms.  On  the  proclamation  of  the  Irish 
Republic  by  the  members  of  the  Dail 
Eireann,  assembled  in  Dublin,  De  Valera 
was  elected  President  to  succeed  Padraic 
Pearse,  who  had  been  executed.  He  was 
imprisoned  several  times  and  was  sen- 
tenced to  death  in  1916.  In  1919  he 
escaped  from  his  prison  in  England  and 
came  to  America,  where  during  1919 
and  1920  he  toured  the  country,  making 
speeches.  In  September,  1920,  he  re- 
plied to  Lord  Grey's  proposal  of  do- 
minion home  rule  by  declaring  that  the 
Irish  people  had  established  a  republic 
and  would  be  content  with  nothing  short 
of  absolute  independence. 

DEVA'S  VALE,  the  valley  of  the  Dee 
(or  Deva)  in  Cheshire,  England. 

"He  chose  a  farm  in  Deva's  vale. 
Where  his  long  alleys  peeped  upon  the  main." 
— Thomson's   "Castle   of   Indolence." 

DEVELOPMENT,  the  gradual  ad- 
vance, stage  by  stage,  of  animal  or  vege- 
table bodies  from  the  embryonic  to  the 
perfect  state. 

DEVENTER,  a  city  of  Holland,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Schepbeek  and  Yssel 
rivers.  There  are  several  important  and 
interesting  mediaeval  buildings,  includ- 
ing an  early  Gothic  church,  a  town  hall, 
and  a  court  house.  The  industries  in- 
clude carpet  and  rug  factories.  There 
are   also   manufactures   of   iron,   cigars. 


rope,  and  cotton.  The  city  has  a  large 
trade  in  grain  and  live  stock.  Pop. 
about  30,000. 

DE  VERE,  SIR  AUBREY,  an  Irish 
poet;  born  in  Currah  Chase,  Aug.  28, 
1788.  His  works  are:  "Julian  the 
Apostate;  a  Dramatic  Poem"  (1822); 
"The  Duke  of  Mercia :  a  Historical 
Drama,"  the  volume  containing  also 
"The  Lamentations  of  Ireland"  (1823)  ; 
"The  Song  of  Faith,"  (1842)  ;  and 
"Mary  Tudor:  a  Historical  Drama" 
(1847).  His  sonnets  Wordsworth  de- 
clared to  be  "the  most  perfect  of  our 
age."     He  died  July  5,  1846. 

DEVI  (da've),  in  Hindu  mythology, 
"the  goddess,"  or  Mahadevi  "the  great 
goddess,"  wife  of  the  god  Shiva  and 
daughter  of  Himavit  (that  is,  the  Hima- 
laya Mountains)  She  is  represented  as 
being  of  two  characters,  one  gentle,  the 
other  fierce,  and  it  is  under  the  latter 
aspect  that  she  is  generally  worshipped. 

DEVIL,  or  SATAN,  names  applied  in 
the  New  Testament  and  in  Christian 
theology  to  the  supreme  impersonation 
of  evil,  considered  as  possessing  an  ob- 
jective existence  outside  of  man,  and 
placed  at  the  head  of  a  host  of  inferior 
evil  spirits,  whose  continual  occupation 
is  to  thwart  the  good  purpose  of  God  and 
the  progress  of  His  kingdom  in  the 
hearte  of  men.  It  seems  certain  that  this 
conception  was  foreign  to  the  early  Jew- 
ish mind,  with  its  strong  grasp  of  the 
monotheistic  idea  in  the  person  of  the  su- 
preme Jehovah,  It  is  Jehovah  Himself 
who  hardens  Pharaoh's  heart,  and  sends 
a  lying  spirit  among  the  prophets  of 
Ahab,  and  it  is  He  who  is  considered  as 
the  sole  source  of  all  power,  the  sender 
of  pestilence  and  death  as  well  as  bless- 
ings. In  the  exegesis  of  later  days  the 
serpent  that  tempted  Eve  in  Eden,  and 
the  "Old  Serpent"  of  the  Apocalypse, 
were  alike  identified  with  Satan,  though 
this  interpretation  certainly  gains  no 
support  from  the  story  in  Genesis,  where 
the  tempter  is  as  yet  hardly  more  than  a 
mere  animal,  though  one  of  a  family 
almost  everywhere  specially  associated 
with  evil. 

It  is  significant  that  the  name  Satan 
occurs  but  five  times  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment: thrice  in  Job,  where  he  represents 
himself  among  the  "sons  of  God"  (Beni 
Elohim)  before  the  Lord, 

The  Jews  had  also  their  demonology 
like  all  primitive  peoples,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  seirim  (satyrs,  lit,  "he-goats") 
and  the  shedim,  both  rendered  by 
"devils"  in  the  authorized  version,  and 
perhaps  also  in  the  Azazel  of  Leviticus 
xvi. ;  but  it  was  not  till  later  that  a 
special  angel  became  differentiated  from 


DEVIL 


339 


DEVIL 


his  brethren  in  the  heavenly  court,  with 
the  special  function  of  the  accuser  of 
men,  like  the  personification  of  a  guilty 
conscience.  In  the  vision  of  Zechariah 
we  find  him  considered  formally  as  the 
accuser  of  Israel.  Undoubtedly  also  this 
conception  had  already  become  greatly 
modified  during  the  period  of  exile  by 
contact  with  Persian  aualism.  Of  course 
such  a  conception  as  Ahriman,  the 
mighty  author  of  evil  and  the  antagonist 
almost  on  equal  terms  of  Ormuzd,  was 
completely  foreign  to  Jewish  monothe- 
ism, yet  the  Jewish  Satan  grew  greatly 
both  in  definiteness  and  in  power  under 
his  shadow,  and  henceforth  it  is  from 
him  directly  that  moral  and  physical 
harm  toward  men  proceeds. 

Persian  influence  appears  most  plainly 
in  the  apocryphal  books  of  Tobit  and 
Baruch,  but  the  gro^vth  of  the  conception 
of  the  devil  is  seen  also  in  the  transla- 
tion of  the  LXX.,  which  renders  his  name 
by  diabolos,  thus  emphasizing  and  per- 
petuating his  special  function  as  the  ac- 
cuser. Now  also  he  becomes  located  in 
his  gloomy  kingdom  of  hell,  and  is  at- 
tended by  troops  of  inferior  fiends.  He 
wages  warfare  on  mankind  by  inflicting 
physical  and  moral  evil,  and  is  consid- 
ered as  the  agent  by  whose  means  man 
fell  from  his  original  state  of  innocence. 

In  the  New  Testament  the  conception 
of  the  personality  of  the  devil  and  of  a 
kingdom  of  demons  holds  its  ground,  but 
the  whole  subject  is  here  treated  with  a 
kind  of  spiritual  reserve,  in  a  teaching 
that  emphasizes  our  own  hearts  and  their 
inward  temptations  as  the  source  of  our 
evil  thoughts  and  deeds,  and  connects 
moral  evil  inseparably  with  the  earthly 
nature  of  man.  The  passages  which 
speak  of  a  fall  of  angelic  beings  (II 
Peter  ii:  4;  Jude  6)  occur  in  scriptures 
of  subordinate  canonical  rank:  Jesus  no- 
where defines  concretely  the  function  of 
the  devil;  and  the  few  positive  state- 
ments about  him — that  "he  was  a  mur- 
derer from  the  beginning,  and  stood  not 
in  the  truth,"  that  "he  is  a  liar"  (John 
viii:  44),  and  "sinneth  from  the  begin- 
ning" (John  iii:  8),  scarcely  furnish  a 
sufficient  foundation  for  a  complete  doc- 
trine on  this  subject.  Yet  the  impressive 
manner  in  which  it  is  dwelt  on  by  our 
Lord  and  His  apostles  shows  that  it  is 
a  necessary  part  of  Christian  teaching. 

The  early  theologians  were  more  lit- 
eral and  less  spiritual  in  their  concep- 
tions, and  in  their  horror  of  heathen 
institutions  came  to  identify  the  king- 
dom of  the  devil  in  a  particular  manner 
with  polytheism  and  the  persecution 
they  suflTered  under  the  Roman  empire. 
Thus  the  devil  again  became  a  kind  of 
rival   ol   God,   wholly   unequal   but   yet 


formidable.  The  early  Christians  con- 
sidered the  gods  of  heathenism  as  in- 
deed conquered  by  Christ,  but  yet  not 
rendered  wholly  powerless,  for  as  de- 
graded demons  and  with  intent  to  de- 
ceive they  uttered  oracles,  and  were 
present  at  sacrifices,  inhaling  the  sacrifi- 
cial incense — an  idea  in  perfect  harmony 
with  the  growing  materialistic  concep- 
tion of  the  devils,  and  of  hell  their  res- 
idence, a  place  blazing  with  eternal  fire, 
and  filled  with  every  horror  the  imagina- 
tion could  suggest. 

Exaggerated  ideas  of  the  devil's  dan- 
gerous power  prevailed  throughout  the 
Dark  and  Middle  Ages,  whose  deep, 
melancholy  faith  and  fantastic  theory 
of  the  universe  generated  saints  natu- 
rally on  the  one  nand  and  witches  and 
sorcerers  as  naturally  on  the  other.  It 
was  an  involuntary  exercise  of  the  poetic 
faculty,  through  which  the  thoughts  o€ 
their  own  hearts  and  of  their  own  time 
became  spirits,  which  they  saw  around 
them.  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the 
devil  was  an  absorbing  idea,  and  the 
constant  familiarity  with  him  often 
brought  with  it  a  penalty  of  contempt. 
In  the  old  religious  plays  a  principal 
part  was  usually  assigned  to  him,  and 
indeed  he  principally  represented  the 
comic  element,  as  may  still  be  seen  in  the 
pastorales  of  the  Basques. 

The  decadence  of  belief  in  the  active 
external  power  of  the  devil  was  mainly 
due  to  the  indirect  effect  of  the  Re- 
formation and  the  progress  of  science. 
To  no  man  was  the  devil  ever  more 
present  than  to  Luther,  but  neverthe- 
less it  was  mainly  the  movement  he  in- 
augurated that  has  driven  the  enemy 
back  into  the  sphere  of  the  abstract  and 
the  ideal.  In  later  generations  the  sense 
of  the  supernatural  has  steadily  de- 
cayed, and  with  it  almost  all  the  ter- 
rors of  the  devil;  but  it  cannot  be  said 
that  with  it  has  also  disappeared  a 
genuine  religious  spirit.  The  Christian 
man  in  the  conscious  weakness  of  his 
struggle  against  indwelling  sin  feels  that 
he  has  no  need  to  conjure  up  for  him- 
self an  external  suggester  of  tempta- 
tion— he  has  devil  enough  in  the  treach- 
erous inclinations  of  his  own  heart. 

Kant  (in  1793)  defined  the  devil  as  the 
personification  oi  "radical  evil."  Schleier- 
macher  held  that  ssnr^bolic  reference  to 
the  devil  might  fitly  have  a  place  in 
Christian  discourse,  but  denied  the  pos- 
sibility of  his  real  existence,  and  in  this 
he  has  been  followed  by  Schenkel,  Bieder- 
mann,  Lipsius,  Pfleiderer,  and  others. 
On  the  other  hand  the  orthodox  view 
is  maintained  more  or  less  definitely  by 
Liicke.  Von  Hofmann,  Luthardt,  Rothe, 
Julius  Miiller,  Martensen,  and  Domer, 
who  hold  that  though  the  doctrine  can- 


DEVILFISH 


S40 


DEVONIAN  SYSTEM 


not  be  completely  constructed,  it  yet 
forms  part  of  a  consistent  whole,  and 
is  of  importance  for  the  Christian  as 
distinguished  from  the  heathen  and 
Jewish  conception  of  evil,  as  well  as  for 
the  Christian  life. 

DEVILFISH,  the  popular  name  of 
various  fishes,  one  of  them  being  the 
angler.  Among  others  the  name  is  given 
to  several  large  species  of  ray  occasion- 
ally captured  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts  of  America,  and  much  dreaded 
by  divers,  whom  they  are  said  to  devour 
after  enveloping  them  in  their  vast 
wings. 

DEVIL'S  ISLAND  (Isle  du  Diable), 
a  small  rock  formation  off  the  coast  of 
French  Guiana,  belonging  to  France. 
The  area  is  about  16  square  miles,  and 
the  island  itself  is  sandy,  dry,  and  torrid. 
Here  Capt.  Alfred  Dreyfus  (q.  v.)  was 
imprisoned  for  alleged  treason. 

DEVIL'S  LAKE,  a  city  of  North 
Dakota,  the  county-seat  of  Ramsey  co. 
It  is  on  the  Great  Northern  and  the 
Farmers'  Grain  and  Shipping  Company's 
railroads,  and  on  Devil's  Lake.  The  in- 
dustries include  creameries  and  flour 
mills.  The  city  has  a  school  for  the  deaf, 
a  public  park,  St.  Mary's  Academy,  and 
a  general  hospital.  Pop.  (1910)  5,157; 
(1920)  5,140. 

DEVIL'S  PUNCH-BOWL,  a  small  lake 
of  Ireland,  near  the  lakes  of  Killarney, 
between  2,000  and  3,000  feet  above  the 
sea,  supposed  to  be  the  crater  of  an  an- 
cient volcano. 

DEVIL'S  WALL,  in  the  S.  of  GJer- 
many,  a  structure  which  was  originally  a 
Roman  rampart,  intended  to  protect  the 
Roman  settlements  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Danube  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  against  the  inroads  of  the  Teu- 
tonic and  other  tribes.  Remains  of  it 
are  found  from  the  Danube,  in  Bavaria, 
to  Bonn  on  the  Rhine. 

DEVINE,  EDWARD  THOMAS,  an 
American  author  and  lecturer;  born  in 
Union,  la.,  in  1867.  He  graduated  from 
Cornell  College,  Iowa,  in  1887,  and  took 
post-graduate  courses  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Germany.  He  was  prin- 
cipal of  schools  in  Iowa  for  several  years, 
and  from  1891  to  1896  was  staff  lecturer 
on  economics  for  the  American  Society 
for  the  Extension  of  University  Teach- 
ing. He  was  secretary  of  the  same  or- 
ganization from  1894  to  1896,  and  from 
1896  to  1912  was  general  secretary  of  the 
Charity  Organization  Society  of  New 
York.  He  was  editor  of  the  "Survey" 
from  1897  to  1912.  From  1905  to 
1919  he  was  professor  of  social  econ- 
omy  at   Columbia   University  and  was 


director  of  the  New  York  School 
of  Philanthropy  from  1904  to  1907. 
In  1917  and  1918  he  was  chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Refugees  and  Home  Re- 
lief under  the  American  Red  Cross  Com- 
mission in  France.  He  represented  and 
directed  several  Red  Cross  relief  expedi- 
tions, including  San  Francisco  in  1906 
and  Dayton,  O.,  in  1913.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  many  economic  and  educational 
societies.  He  wrote  "Economics"  (1899)  ; 
"The  Practice  of  Charity"  (1901)-  "So- 
cial Forces"  (1909) ;  "The  Normal  Life" 
(1915)  ;  "Disabled  Soldiers  and  Sailors" 
(1919). 

DE  VINNE,  THEODORE  LOW,  an 
American  printer;  born  in  Stamford, 
Conn.,  Dec.  25,  1828.  He  learned  the 
printer's  trade  and  became  an  employe 
and  later  partner  of  Francis  Hart,  upon 
whose  death  he  founded  the  firm  of  Theo- 
dore L.  De  Vinne  &  Co.  in  New  York 
City.  He  wrote  "The  Practice  of  Typog- 
raphy" (1900);  "Title  Pages"  (1902); 
"Notable  Printers  of  Italy  in  the  15th 
Century"  (1910).    He  died  in  1914. 

DEVONIAN  SYSTEM,  a  name  in 
geology  originally  given  to  the  rocks  of 
Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  England.  This 
name  was  proposed  by  Murchison  and 
Sedgwick  to  replace  the  more  character- 
istic and  older  term  of  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone (a  fresh  water  deposit),  because 
the  slaty  and  calciferous  strata  in  Devon- 
shire contain  a  much  more  copious  and 
rich  fossil  fauna  than  the  red  arenaceous 
rocks  of  Scotland,  Wales,  and  Hereford- 
shire, with  which  they  are  believed  to  be 
contemporaneous.  The  fossils  of  the  la- 
custrine Old  Red  Sandstone  are  chiefly 
fishes  which  have  been  classed  as  Ganoids. 
Professor  Huxley  approximates  them  to 
the  Siluridx;  but  investigations  in  prog- 
ress in  1900,  it  is  believed,  will  assign 
many  of  them  to  the  lung  fishes,  repre- 
sented in  modem  waters  by  Ceratodus 
and  Lepidosiren,  and  others  not  repre- 
sented in  the  waters  of  the  modem 
world.  The  fossils  of  the  marine  De- 
vonians are  largely  corals  such  as  Favo- 
sites  and  Cyathophyllum,  with  brachio- 
pod  shells  and  skeletal  parts  of  other 
organisms. 

The  physical  condition  under  which  the 
marine  sediments  in  Devonshire  were  de- 
posited differed  greatly  from  that  which 
marked  the  accumulation  of  the  Old  Red 
Sandstone  and  has  caused  some  doubts 
as  to  the  correlation  of  the  two  sets  of 
strata.  British  geologists  retain  both 
names,  the  Devonian  System  and  Old  Red 
Sandstone  System;  in  the  United  States 
the  term  Devonian  is  used  almost  ex- 
clusively. The  strata  intermediate  be- 
tween the  Silurian  and  Carboniferous 
consist  of  sandstones  of  different  colors. 


DEVONPORT 


341 


DEWAR 


calcareous  slates,  limestones,  etc.  They 
are  divided  into  the  Lower,  Middle,  and 
Upper  Groups,  all  containing  fossils;  but 
in  the  middle  division,  corresponding 
practically  to  the  Hamilton  of  New  York, 
organic  remains  are  especially  abundant 
and  include  corals,  crinoids,  brachiopods, 
mollusks,  and  crustaceans. 

Devonian  rocks  occupy  a  large  area  in 
central  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States,  eastern  Canada,  and  Nova  Scotia. 
In  the  United  States  they  are  found  in 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  and  include 
sand  and  limestone,  used  as  building  ma- 
terial, and  are  classed  under  the  names 
of  Oriskany,  the  oldest  term,  Corniferous 
or  Upper  Helderberg,  Hamilton,  and 
Chemung.  Devonian  rocks  appear  in 
some  regions  of  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains. In  the  middle  part  of  Michigan 
they  surround  the  coal  basin;  and  they 
are  also  found  in  Kentucky,  Indiana, 
Ohio,  Illinois,  eastern  Iowa,  and  Nevada. 
In  Maine  they  are  in  a  metamorphic  con- 
dition. In  the  Upper  Groups  of  the  De- 
vonian System  there  are  carbonaceous 
shales,  which  by  mutual  distillation  give 
much  of  the  petroleum  and  natural  gas 
found  in  the  sandstones  of  Pennsylvania 
and  eastern  Ohio. 

DEVONPORT  (before  1824  called 
Plymouth  Dock),  a  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough,  maritime  town,  and 
naval  arsenal,  in  the  S.  W.  of  Devonshire, 
England;  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  estuary 
of  the  Tamar,  two  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Plymouth.  It  stands  on  high  ground,  and 
is  separated  from  its  suburbs  of  Stoke 
and  Morice  Town  by  the  glacis  of  its 
fortifications,  once  important,  but  now 
dismantled.  The  streets  are  regular,  and 
the  footpaths  of  marble.  Devonport  is 
supplied  with  water  from  Dartmoor  by 
a  circuitous  route  of  30  miles.  It  owes 
its  existence  to  the  dockyard  established 
here  by  William  III.  in  1689,  and  is  one 
of  the  chief  naval  arsenals  in  Great 
Britain,    Pop.  about  85,000. 

DEVONSHIRE,  a  county  of  England 
in  the  S.  W.  part.  It  has  an  area  of 
2,604.9  square  miles,  of  which  three- 
fourths  are  pasture  land,  or  cultivated 
area.  The  north  coast  is  steep  and  rocky. 
The  south  coast  is  lined  with  cliffs  and 
indented  with  several  bays.  The  general 
surface  of  the  county  is  hilly.  There  are 
important  agricultural  industries  and 
also  considerable  mining,  manufacturing, 
and  fishing.  The  chief  cities  are  Exeter, 
the  county  town,  Plymouth  and  Barnsta- 
ple.    Population,  about  460,000. 

DE  VRIES,  HUGO,  a  Dutch  botanist, 
born  in  1848  at  Harlem.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Leyden  and  German  universi- 
ties, and  in  1871  joined  the  staff  of  the 


University  of  Amsterdam  as  a  lecturer. 
He  afterward  became  professor  of  botany 
at  that  institution.  He  devoted  special 
attention  to  the  development  of  the 
theory  of  mutation  and  made  important 
contributions  to  that  branch  of  evolution- 
ary science.  His  researches  resulted  in  a 
change  of  the  method  of  studying  evolu- 
tion from  observation  to  experimental 
work.  He  wrote  several  books,  including 
"Plant  Breeding"  (1907). 

DEW,  a  deposition  of  water  from  the 
atmosphere  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 
in  the  form  of  minute  globules.  During 
the  day  the  earth  both  absorbs  and  emits 
heat,  but  after  sunset  its  supply  of 
warmth  is  cut  off,  while  it  still  continues 
to  radiate  heat  into  the  surrounding 
space.  Grass,  flowers,  and  foliage  being 
good  radiators,  lose  after  sunset  the  heat 
which  has  previously  been  absorbed 
by  them,  without  receiving  any  in  return, 
and  their  temperature  consequently  falls 
considerably  below  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere. From  the  proximity  of  these  cold 
substances  the  particles  of  vapor  in  the 
adjoining  air  are  condensed  and  deposited 
on  their  surfaces  in  the  form  of  dew, 
or  of  hoar-frost  where  the  temperature 
of  the  earth  is  below  32°.  When  the  sky 
is  clouded  the  heat  abstracted  from  the 
earth's  surface  by  radiation  is  restored 
by  the  clouds,  which,  being  good  radia- 
tors, send  back  an  amount  of  heat  equal 
to  what  they  receive;  and  a  balance  of 
temperature  being  thus  maintained  be- 
tween the  earth  and  the  surrounding  at- 
mosphere, no  dew  is  formed. 

Horizontal  surfaces,  and  those  which 
are  exposed  to  a  wide  expanse  of  sky,  re- 
ceive a  greater  supply  of  dew  than  shel- 
tered or  oblique  surfaces,  where  circum- 
stances diminish  the  amount  of  radia- 
tion. The  radiation  from  the  earth's  sur- 
face is  one  of  these  happy  provisions  for 
the  necessities  of  living  beings  with 
which  nature  everywhere  abounds.  The 
heavy  dews  which  fall  in  tropical  regions 
are  in  the  highest  degree  beneficial  to 
vegetation,  which,  but  for  this  supply  of 
moisture,  would,  in  countries  where 
scarcely  any  rain  falls  for  months,  be 
soon  scorched  and  withered.  In  cold 
climates  the  earth,  being  cold  and  suf- 
ficiently moist,  requires  little  dew;  ac- 
cordingly the  clouds,  which  are  so  com- 
mon in  damp  and  chilly  regions,  prevent 
the  radiation  of  heat;  the  surface  is  thus 
preserved  warm,  and  the  deposition  of 
dew  is,  in  a  great  measure,  prevented. 

DEWAR.  SIR  JAMES,  a  British 
scientist.  He  was  bom  in  Scotland  in 
1842,  and  was  educated  at  Dollar  Acad- 
emy and  Edinburgh  University.  He 
became  assistant  to  Lord  Playfair  when 
Professor    of    Chemistry    at    Edinburgh 


DEWAS 


342 


DEWEY 


University  and  became  president  of  the 
Chemical  Society  in  1897.  He  has  made 
many  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  has 
been  a  member  of  the  Government  Explo- 
sive Committee.  He  was  awarded  the  Rum- 
ford  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society,  1894, 
and  has  received  medals  from  scientific 
societies  in  many  countries.  He  is 
F.R.S.;  M.A.;  LL.D.,  and  president  of  the 
British  Association.  His  literary  works 
include:  "Collected  Paperr.  on  Spectros- 
copy," numerous  papers  contributed  to 
the  proceedings  of  the  Royal  Societies 
of  London  and  Edinburgh,  the  Royal 
Institution,  the  British  Association,  the 
Chemical  Society,  etc. 

DEWAS,  a  native  state  of  central 
India  under  British  protection,  held  con- 
jointly by  two  Rajput  chiefs.  Area 
under  both  chiefs,  290  square  miles ;  pop. 
152,100.  The  capital,  Dewas.  20  miles 
N.  E.  of  Indore,  is  a  straggling  town, 
with  a  population  of  about  12,000. 

DEWBERRY  (Rubus  csesius) ,  a  plant 
distinguished  from  the  common  bramble 
by  its  weaker  and  more  prostrate  glau- 
cous stem,  with  scattered  prickles,  but 
without  bristles,  also  by  the  few  large 
drupes,  which  make  up  its  fruit,  and 
which  have  a  characteristic  dew-like 
bloom,  whence  the  name  arises.  The 
fruit  Is  very  sweet  and  agreeable,  and 
makes  an  excellent  wine.  The  dewberry 
of  North  America  {R.  procumbens) , 
abundant  in  the  forests  of  Canada,  is  a 
delicious  fruit. 

DS  WET,  CHRISTIAN,  9  Boer  mili- 
tary officer;  bom  in  Smithfield,  Orange 
Free  State  (now  Orange  River  State),  in 
October,  1859.  He  was  bred  a  farmer  and 
made  a  small  fortune.  He  became  a 
rnember  of  the  Volksraad.  Though  prac- 
tically without  military  experience,  he 
served  ably  in  the  Boer-British  War  of 
1899-1900^  attaining  the  rank  of  general 
and  outwitting  the  pursuit  of  Kitchener 
and  Roberts  in  the  summer  of  1900,  and 
of  the  former  in  the  early  part  of  1901. 
His  stand  at  Sanna's  Post  was  highly 
praised  by  military  experts.  In  1907  he 
was  a  member  of  the  first  Parliament  of 
the  Orange  River  Colony  and  Minister 
of  Agriculture.  In  October,  1914,  he  led 
an  insurrection  and  surrendered  to  Gen- 
eral Louis  Botha  on  Dec.  2,  1914.  He 
was  sentenced  to  six  years'  imprison- 
ment and  to  pay  a  fine  of  $10,000,  but 
within  a  short  time  was  pardoned.  He 
published  "Three  Years  of  War"  <1902). 

DEWEY,  GEORGE,  an  Aa -rican 
naval  officer;  bom  in  Montpeh^^r,  Vt., 
Dec.  26,  1837.  He  came  of  New  England 
stock,  his  father  being  Dr.  Julius  Y. 
Dewey,  one  of  the  first  authorities  on 
life  insurance  in  his  day.     At  the  age  of 


17,  after  a  preparatory  course  in  the 
Northfield  Military  School,  young  Dewey 
was  appointed  a  cadet  at  Annapolis,  in 
the  class  which  graduated  in  1858.  A 
practice  cruise  on  the  "Wabash"  fol- 
lowed, and  he  was  resting  at  home  when 
the  Civil  War  broke  out.  At  once  he  was 
commissioned  a  lieutenant  and  assigned 
to  the  "Mississippi,"  a  17-gun  steam- 
sloop  of  the  old  side-wheel  type,  under 
Commander  Melanchthon  Smith.  His 
first  serious  taste  of  war  was  when  the 
West  Gulf  squadron,  early  in  1862, 
forced  a  passage  up  the  Mississippi  river 
ahead  of  Farragut.  A  later  enterprise 
resulted  in  the  grounding  of  the  "Mis- 
sissippi," in  the  middle  of  the  night, 
while  attempting  to  run  the  batteries  of 
Port  Hudson.    Here  she  was  riddled  with 


ADMIRAL  DEWEY 

shot  and  set  afire  by  the  enemy's  bat- 
teries, so  that  officers  and  crew  had  to 
abandon  her. 

Other  notable  engagements  in  which 
Dewey  figured  during  the  Civil  War  were 
at  Donaldsonville  in  1863,  where  he  was 
on  one  of  the  gunboats,  and  at  Forf 
Fisher  in  the  winter  of  1864-1865,  as  an 
officer  of  the  "Agawam."  Receiving  his 
commission  as  lieutenant-commander  in 
March,  1865,  he  served  for  two  years 
on  the  "Kearsarge"  and  the  "Colorado," 
and    was    then    attached    to   the    Naval 


DEWEY 


343 


DEXTRIN 


Academy  for  two  years  more.  In  1870 
he  was  given  command  of  the  "Narragan- 
sett,"  and  during  his  five  years'  charge 
of  her  rose  to  be  a  commander.  He  was 
then  attached  to  the  Lighthouse  Board, 
and  in  1882  took  his  next  sea  duty  in 
command  of  the  "Juniata,"  of  the  Asiatic 
squadron.  On  reaching  his  captaincy,  in 
1884,  he  took  charge  of  the  "Dolphin," 
one  of  the  first  vessels  of  the  "new  navy." 
From  1885  to  1888  he  commanded  the 
"Pensacola,"  then  flagship  of  the  Euro- 
pean squadron.  Ashore  he  served  as 
chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  at  the 
Navy  Department,  and  afterward  on 
the  Lighthouse  Board  for  a  second  time. 
In  1896  he  was  promoted  to  commodore, 
and  made  head  of  the  inspection  board; 
and  at  the  beginning  of  1898  was  given 
command  of  the  Asiatic  squadron. 

With  his  squadron  he  left  Mirs  Bay, 
China,  April  27,  1898,  with  orders  to 
"capture  or  destroy  the  Spanish  squad- 
ron," which  was  then  supposed  to  be  in 
Manila  Bay,  under  command  of  Admiral 
Montojo.  The  squadron  entered  the 
channel  of  Manila  at  11:30  p.  M.,  Satur- 
day, April  30,  and  early  on  Sunday  morn- 
ing, May  1,  sank,  burned  or  captured  all 
the  ships  of  the  Spanish  squadron  in  the 
bay,  silenced  and  destroyed  three  land 
batteries,  obtained  complete  control  of 
the  bay,  without  losing  a  single  man.  In 
recognition  of  this  achievement.  Commo- 
dore Dewey  received  the  thanks  of  Con- 
gress, which  awarded  to  him  a  magnifi- 
cent sword,  and  medals  to  his  men.  On 
May  7,  1898,  he  was  promoted  to  be  a 
rear-admiral,  and  subsequently  (March 
3,  1899)  was  made  Admiral  of  the  Navy 
under  an  act  of  Congress,  approved 
March  2,  1899,  restoring  that  rank.  In 
1901  he  was  president  of  the  Court  of 
Inquiry  which  was  appointed  at  the  re- 
quest of  Rear- Admiral  Schley,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  appointed  President  of 
the  Navy  Board,  which  position  he  held 
until  his  death,  Jan.  16,  1917. 

DEWEY,  JOHN,  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  in  Burlington,  Vt.,  in  1859. 
He  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Vermont  in  1879  and  took  post-graduate 
studies  at  Johns  Hopkins  University.  He 
was  on  the  faculty  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota  as  professor  of  philosophy  in 
1888-1889,  and  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  from  1889  to  1894.  From  1894 
to  1904  he  was  professor  and  head  of 
the  department  of  philosophy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  and  was  director  of 
the  School  of  Education  at  that  institu- 
tion from  1902  to  1904.  From  1904  he 
was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Columbia 
University,  at  the  same  time  acting  as 
lecturer  on  psychology.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Psychological  As- 


sociation, and  the  American  Philosophi- 
cal Society.  He  wrote  many  works  on 
philosophy  and  psychology,  including 
"School  and  Society"  (1899)  ;  "Studies 
in  Logical  Theory"  (1903);  "How  t. 
Think"  (1909)  ;  "German  Philosophy  and 
Politics"  (1915)  ;  and  "Democracy  and 
Education"   (1916). 

DEWEY,  MELVIL,  an  American  li- 
brarian, born  at  Adams  Center,  N.  Y., 
in  1851.  He  graduated  from  Amherst 
College  in  1874.  After  serving  as  li- 
brarian at  Amherst  College,  he  became 
chief  librarian  and  professor  of  library 
economy  at  Columbia  University.  From 
1889  to  1906  he  was  director  of  the 
New  York  State  Library,  and  from 
1891  to  1906  he  was  director  of  the 
Home  Education  Department.  He  was 
secretary  and  executive  officer  of  the 
University  of  the  State  of  New  York 
from  1889  to  1900,  and  from  1904  to 
1906  was  State  director  of  libraries  in 
New  York.  He  was  one  of  the  chief 
advocates  of  spelling  reform,  and  was 
editor  of  the  "A.  L.  A.  Catalog"  (1904) ; 
and  "The  Library";  and  of  various 
journals  and  reports.  He  was  a  member 
and  officer  of  many  educational  societies. 

DEWING,  THOMAS  WILMER,  an 
American  artist,  born  in  Boston  in  1851. 
He  studied  art  in  Paris  and  in  1879 
began  the  practice  of  his  profession  in 
New  York  City,  painting  chiefly  por- 
traits and  figure  compositions.  He  was 
awarded  the  Clarke  prize  in  1887,  and 
the  first  medal  at  the  Carnegie  Institute 
in  1908.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design. 

DEXTER,  in  heraldry  the  right;  sit- 
uated on  the  right;  as  the  dexter  side  of  a 
shield  is  that  opposite  the  left  hand  of 
the  spectator. 

DEXTER,  HENRY  an  American 
news  agent;  born  in  West  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  March  14,  1813.  He  was  educated 
in  the  common  schools,  and,  after  obtain- 
ing employment  in  various  publishing 
houses,  started  for  himself  in  1842  as  a 
news  agent.  In  1864  he  organized  the 
American  News  Co.  He  died  July 
11,   1910. 

DEXTRIN,  or  DEXTRINE,  in  chem- 
istry, C,:H;o06,  starch  gum,  British  gum; 
obtained  by  the  action  of  boiling  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  on  starch,  and  afterward 
neutralizing  with  chalk;  if  boiled  for  a 
longer  time  the  dextrin  is  converted  into 
dextrose.  Dextrin  can  also  be  formed  by 
heating  starch  to  between  170°  to  200°  C. 
It  is  a  gummy  amorphous  mass,  soluble 
in  water,  and  precipitated  by  alcohol.  It 
is  called  dextrin  on  account  of  its 
dextro-rotary  action  on  polarized  light. 
Dextrin  is  formed  in  germinating  seed* 


DEXTROSE 


344 


DIABETES 


by  the  action  of  an  azotized  substance 
called  diastase.  Dextrin  is  used  as  a 
substitute  for  gxim. 

DEXTROSE,  grape  sugar,  dextro- 
glucose,  CeHisOe  or  CeHTOfOHK.  Dex- 
trose occurs  along  with  levulose  in  grapes 
and  other  sweet  fruits,  also  in  honey  and 
in  the  urine  of  diabetic  patients.  It  can 
be  produced  by  the  action  of  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  on  cane  sugar,  starch,  cellu- 
lose, etc.  It  can  be  best  obtained  by  boil- 
ing for  several  hours  50  parts  of  starch 
mth  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (100  parts  of 
water  to  five  parts  of  H2SO4).  The  solu- 
tion is  then  neutralized  with  chalk,  fil- 
tered, boiled  with  animal  charcoal  to  re- 
move traces  of  color,  and  then  evaporated 
carefully  to  dryness,  forming  an  amor- 
phous mass  which  contains  about  60  per 
cent,  of  dextrose,  the  remainder  bemg 
chiefly  dextrin.  Pure  dextrose  can  be  ob- 
tained by  crystallization  from  alcohol. 
It  turns  polarized  light  to  the  right,  and 
dissolves  lime,  baryta,  oxide  01  lead,  etc. 

Dextrose  reduces  an  alkaline  solution 
of  cupric  sulphate,  giving  a  red  precipi- 
tate of  CU2O  on  heating.  It  reduces  fer- 
ric salts  to  ferrous  salts.  Dextrose  tastes 
much  less  sweet  than  ordinary  cane 
sugar.  By  the  action  of  sodium  amalgam 
on  dextrose  it  is  converted  into  mannite, 

CeHwOe. 

DEY,  a  title  formerly  assumed  by  the 
rulers  (under  the  Turkish  Sultan)  of  Al- 
giers, Tripoli,  and  Tunis.  The  name  was 
also  formerly  given  to  elderly  people,  es- 
pecially among  the  Janizaries;  hence 
came  to  be  commonly  applied  at  Algiers 
to  the  commanding  officers  of  that  corps, 
who  frequently  became  afterward  a 
pasha  or  regent  of  that  province. 

DHALAK  (dha-lak'),  an  archipelago 
of  the  Red  Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Abyssinia. 
It  contains  nearly  100  rocks  and  islets, 
mostly  uninhabited,  clustering  round  the 
island  of  Dhalak  el-Kebir,  which  is  about 
35  miles  long  by  30  broad.  This  island 
possesses  a  pearl  fishery. 

DHAR,  a  tovm  of  central  India,  lying 
at  an  elevation  of  1,908  feet  above  the 
sea,  33  miles  W.  of  Mhov.  It  has  over 
20,000  inhabitants,  and  preserves,  in  two 
large  mosques  of  red  stone  and  a  fort 
defended  by  a  high  rampart  and  26 
towers,  traces  of  bygone  magnificence. 
It  is  the  capital  of  a  protected  state  of 
the  same  name,  with  an  area  of  1,775 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about 
145,000. 

DHAR  WAR,  a  town  and  district  in 
the  southern  Mahratta  country,  in  Bom- 
bay presidency,  separated  by  the  river 
Tungabhadra  from  Madras.  The  town 
has  no  manufactures  of  importance,  but 
a  good  deal  of  trade.    Pop.  30,000.    The 


district  has  an  area  of  4,600  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  1,100,000, 
mostly  Hindus.  The  most  interesting 
feature  of  the  country  is  its  suitableness 
for  the  growth  of  American  cotton,  which 
now  occupies  a  third  of  the  total  acreage 
devoted  to  cotton.  Cotton  and  silk  cloth 
are  manufactured  in  the  district.  The 
prevalent  language  is  Canarese. 

DHOLPORE,  a  native  state  of  Rajpu- 
tana,  in  central  India,  on  the  N.  bank  of 
the  Chumbul,  with  an  area  of  1,200 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  280,- 
000,  mostly  Hindus.  Capital,  Dholpore, 
on  the  Chumbul,  34  miles  S.  of  Agra.  A 
large  15  days'  fair  is  held  every  year  at 
Machkund,  a  lake  3  miles  to  the  W.,  with 
no  fewer  than  114  temples  on  its  banks. 

DHOW  (dou),  an  Arab  sea-going  ves- 
sel, ranging  from  a  comparatively  small 
size  up  to  250  tons  burden,  with  one  mast 
and  a  large,  square  sail.  It  is  used  for 
merchandise  and  is  often  employed  in 
carrying  slaves  from  the  E.  coast  of 
Africa  to  Arabia. 

DHURRA,  or  DOURAH,  Indian  mil- 
let, the  seed  of  Sorghum  vulffare,  after 
wheat  the  chief  cereal  crop  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  and  largely  used  in 
those  countries  by  the  laboring  classes 
for  food.  Varieties  are  g^rown  in  many 
parts  of  Africa,  one  of  them  known  as 
Kaffir  corn. 

DHWALAGIRI  (dwa-la-ge're),  once 
supposed  to  be  the  highest  peak  of  the 
Himalayas,  but  now  ascertained  to  be  at 
most  only  the  third  in  point  of  altitude, 
has  a  height  of  26,826  feet  above  the  sea. 
It  is  in  Nepal,  in  lat.  29°  N.,  and  Ion.  , 
82°   30'   E. 

DIABASE,  a  fine-grained,  compact, 
crystalline-granular  rock,  tough  and 
heavy. 

DIABASE  APHANITE,  a  very  fine- 
grained or  compact  variety  of  quartz- 
diabase,  in  which  the  constituents  are 
not  to  be  recognized  without  the  aid  of 
the  lens  or  the  microscope, 

DIABETES,  a  constitutional  disease 
produced  by  malassimilation  in  the 
stomach,  liver,  kidneys,  or  in  the  blood, 
specially  marked  by  a  very  excessive  dis- 
cnartj  ^  of  urine,  which  is  always  sacchar- 
ine, excessive  thirst,  and  great  bodily 
emaciation.  Dr.  Thomas  Willis,  in  the 
time  of  Charles  II.,  first  observed  the  con- 
stant presence  of  sugar  in  the  urine.  The 
quantity  of  urine  passed  may  vary  from 
10  to  30  or  more  pints  in  the  day,  with 
intense  thirst,  the  patient  often  drinking 
many  quarts,  or  even  gallons,  daily.  The 
density  of  the  urine  is  usually  increased, 
and  from  400  to  900  grains  of  sugar 


DIABLEBETS 


345 


DIALOauE 


•will  be  passed  in  each  pint  of  urine. 
Though  life  may  be  prolonged,  yet  the 
disease  is  very  intractable. 

DIABLEBETS  (dya-ble-ra'),  a  re- 
markable mountain  of  the  Bernese  Alps, 
Switzerland,  on  the  frontiers  of  Bern 
and  Valais,  with  a  height  of  10,651  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  Diablerets,  with 
their  four  main  peaks,  are  composed  of 
limestone  strata,  the  lower  beds  of  which 
are  so  soft  and  shaly  that  they  are  easily 
disintegrated,  and  masses  from  above 
tumble  over  into  the  valley,  occasioning 
the  most  terrible  catastrophes,  as  in 
1714  and  1749. 

SIABOLO,  a  game  played  by  spinning 
a  top  and  catching  it  by  means  of  a 
cord  fastened  on  two  sticks.  The  game 
originated  in  China,  became  popular  in 
France  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century,  and  later  spread  into  England. 
It  was  revived  in  1907,  and  for  a  time 
the  game  was  again  the  rage  all  through 
the  Continent. 

DIACHYLUM,       or       DIACHYLON, 

formerly  a  plaster  made  of  the  juices 
of  several  plants;  now  a  plaster  made  by 
boiling  hydrated  oxide  of  lead  with  olive 
oil.     It  is  used  for  curing  ulcers. 

DIAGNOSIS,  in  medicine  (1)  The 
sign  or  symptom  by  which  a  disease  is 
known  or  distinguished  from  others; 
(2)  (PI.)  That  branch  of  medical  sci- 
ence which  deals  with  the  study  of  the 
symptoms  by  which  diseases  are  diag- 
nosed or  discriminated;  symptomatolo- 
gy. Diagnostics  are  of  two  kinds:  (1) 
The  special  or  pathognomonic,  which 
are  peculiar  to  a  certain  disease,  and 
serve  to  distinguish  it  from  all  other 
diseases;  and  (2)  the  adjunct,  or  such 
as  are  common  to  many  diseases. 

DIAL,  an  instrument  for  showing  the 
time  of  day  by  the  sun's  shadow.  It  is 
evident  that  the  dial  having  a  gnomon 
which  makes  with  the  horizontal  plane 
an  angle  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the 
place  is  the  invention  of  the  Asiatics. 
Dials  are  of -various  construction,  accord- 
ing to  the  presentation  of  the  plane  of 
the  dial. 

A  dial  in  telegraphy  is  an  insulated, 
stationary  wheel  having  alternating  con- 
ducting and  non-conducting  portions, 
against  which  the  point  of  a  spring  key 
is  in  fricWonal  contact. 

DIAL,  NATHANIEL  BABKSDALE, 
a  United  States  Senator  from  South 
Carolina,  born  in  Laurens  co.,  S.  C,  in 
1862.  He  was  educated  at  Richmond 
College,  Vanderbilt  University,  and  the 
law  department  of  the  University  of 
Virginia.     He  began  the  practice  of  law 


in  1883,  and  also  engaged  in  business, 
becoming  an  officer  and  director  in  many 
important  industrial  and  financial  in- 
stitutions. He  was  defeated  as  a  can- 
didate for  the  Senate  in  1912,  but  was 
elected  November,  1918,  for  the  term 
ending  1925. 

DIALECT,  discourse;  conversation; 
speech;  language;  arg^ument;  phraseolo- 
gy; manner  of  speaking  or  expression. 
In  the  philosophical  sense  of  the  word, 
a  language  which  resembles  another  in 
its  general  features,  but  differs  from  it 
in  detail.  The  two  most  widely  spread 
families  of  language  in  the  world  are 
the  Indian-Gothic,  and  the  Semitic.  In 
the  former  are  included  the  Sanskrit, 
Zend,  Armenian,  Greek,  Latin,  Lithuan- 
ian, Slavonic,  Teutonic,  and  Celtic  dia- 
lects. In  all  these,  the  resemblance, 
though  often  far  distant,  is  able  to  be 
traced.  The  Semitic  embraces  the  He- 
brew, Syriac,  Arabic,  and  other  dialects 
not  so  well  known. 

DIALECTICS,  the  old  name  for  logic, 
or  the  art  of  reasoning  and  disput- 
ing justly.  There  were  several  sys- 
tems of  dialectics  among  the  ancients. 
The  dialectics  of  Plato  are  a  kind  of  an- 
alyses to  direct  the  human  mind  by  di- 
viding, defining,  and  bringing  things  to 
the  first  truth;  which  having  reached, 
it  applies  itself  to  explain  sensible 
things,  but  with  a  view  to  return  to  the 
first  truth,  where  alone  it  can  rest.  The 
dialectics  of  Aristotle  comprise  the  doc- 
trine of  simple  words,  delivered  in  his 
book  of  "Predicaments";  the  doctrine  of 
propositions,  contained  in  his  book  "De 
Interpretatione" ;  and  that  of  the  several 
kinds  of  syllogism,  in  his  books  of  "An- 
alytics," "Topics,"  and  "Elenchuses."  In 
modern  times  various  systems  of  dia- 
lectics have  been  propounded  in  different 
countries. 

DIALLAGE,  a  silico-magnesian  min- 
eral of  a  lamellar  or  foliated  structure. 
Its  sub-species  are  green  diallage,  hy- 
persthene,  and  bronzite.  The  metalloidal 
sub-species  is  called  schilleistein,  or 
Schiller  spar.  It  forms  diallage  rock, 
and  enters  into  serpentine. 

DIALLING,  the  art  of  making  sun- 
dials; also  the  art  and  practice  of  mine- 
surveying,  in  which  the  theodolite,  mag- 
netic needle,  etc.,  are  employed. 

DIALOGUE,  a  conversation  or  dis- 
course between  two  or  more  persons. 
The  word  is  used  more  particularly  for 
a  formal  conversation  in  theatrical  per- 
formances, and  for  a  written  conversa- 
tion or  composition,  in  which  two  or 
more  persons  carry  on  a  discourse.  This 
form  was  much  in  favor  among  the  an- 


DIALYSIS 


346 


DIAMOND 


cient  philosophers  as  a  medium  for  ex- 
pressing their  thoughts  on  subjects.  The 
"Dialogues  of  Plato"  are  the  finest  ex- 
ample. 

DIALYSIS,  a  phenomenon  observed  by 
Thomas  Graham  in  the  middle  of  last 
century,  consisting  in  the  passage 
through  an  animal  membrane  or  parch- 
ment of  solutions  of  crystalloids,  such  as 
salt  or  sugar.  He  carried  out  his  ex- 
periments by  placing  the  dialyzer  (i.  e., 
a  vessel  having  a  bottom  made  of  parch- 
ment) in  a  larger  vessel  filled  with 
water.  He  then  found  that  when  a  crys- 
talloidal  solution  was  poured  into  the 
dialyzer,  the  substance  in  solution  would 
pass  through  the  diaphragrm  into  the 
water  in  the  outer  vessel.  Colloidal 
solutions,  however,  would  not  pass 
through  such  diaphragms  and  so  Gra- 
ham was  able  to  separate  colloidal  from 
crystalloidal  substances  by  this  means. 

DIAMAGNETISM,  the  moving  of 
bodies  such  as  iron,  when  placed  in  a 


Geraes.  It  is  the  center  of  a  rich  dia- 
mond district;  has  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton and  goldware,  and  is  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  bishop.    Pop.  13,000. 

DIAMETER,  in  geometry,  a  line 
drawn  passing  throu^  the  center  of  a 
circle  or  other  curvilinear  figure,  and 
terminating  each  way  in  the  circumfer- 
ence. That  point  which  bisects  all  lines 
drawn  through  a  figure  from  side  to  side 
is  called  a  center,  and  every  line  drawn 
through  a  center  and  terminating  in  the 
circumference  or  opposite  boundaries  is 
a  diameter.  Every  circle  has  an  infinite 
number  of  diameters.  A  diameter  which 
is  perpendicular  to  the  chords  which  it 
bisects  is  called  an  axis.  A  circle  has  an 
infinite  number  of  axis,  every  diameter 
being  an  axis.  The  parabola  has  one 
axis  and  each  of  the  other  conic  sections 
two  axes. 

DIAMOND,  a  natural  form  of  carbon, 
highly  valued  as  a  precious  stone  when 
transparent  and  of  the  crystalline  form. 


1.  Top  of  rose  cutting 

2.  Side  of  rose  cutting 

3.  Briolette  cutting 


DIAMOND  CUTTING 

4.   Brilliant   cutting- 


field  of  magnetic  force,  from  places  of 
weaker  to  places  of  stronger  force.  The 
opposite  is  true  of  bismuth  and  other 
substances.  Such  substances  are  said 
to  be  diamagnetic. 

DIAMANTINA     (de-a-man-te'na) ,    a 
town  in  the  Brazilian  province  of  Minas 


top 

5.  Brilliant  cutting — side 

6.  Brilliant  cutting — back   view 

A  diamond  crystallizes  in  the  cubic  or 
monometric  system,  its  common  form 
bein^  the  regular  octahedron  or  a  modi- 
fication of  it.  The  bases  are  often 
curved  and  the  general  form  of  the  crys- 
tal is  more  or  less  rounded.  The  surface 
of  the  diamond  frequently  exhibits  striae 
and  triangular  impressions,  while  the  in- 


DIAMOND 


347 


DIAMOND 


terior  may  contain  microscopic  cavities 
and  various  inclusions,  often  black  car- 
bon. It  is  the  hardest  substance  known; 
but  in  spite  of  this  hardness  it  is  very 
brittle  and  cleavable;  specific  gravity, 
3.52.  It  is  generally  colorless,  but  some- 
times tinged  pink,  red,  orange,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  brown,  or  black.  Blue,  red, 
and  green  are  exceedingly  rare  colors. 
Light  yellow,  straw,  and  brown  are  the 
most  common  colors;  rich  yellow  and 
browns  are  also  highly  prized.  Some 
bluish-white  Brazilian  diamonds  are 
phosphorescent  in  the  dark  after  ex- 
posure to  the  sunlight.  Originally  dia- 
monds were  preserved  in  their  natural 
form,  but  in  1456  Louis  de  Berguin  of 
Bruges  discovered  the  art  of  polishing 
them  on  rotating  disks  with  diamond 
dust.  These  circular  disks,  about  10 
meters  in  diameter,  are  at  the  present 
time  of  soft  steel  covered  with  diamond 
dust  and  oil,  and  made  to  revolve  at 
3,000  revolutions  a  minute.  This  gives 
the  diamonds  the  artistic  smooth  sur- 
faces and  sharply  defined  edges.  The 
process  is  slow  and  tedious,  and  requires 
great  skill  to  produce  fine  results.  Until 
a  few  years  ago  Amsterdam  was  the 
great  diamond-cutting  center  of  the 
world,  but  the  finest  cutting  is  now  done 
in  the  United  States,  and  in  a  great 
measure  by  machinery.  As  to  the  cut- 
ting process:  Diamonds  are,  first, 
cleaved;  that  is,  along  the  line  of  cleav- 
age of  the  stone  a  tiny  cut  is  made 
by  rubbing  the  stone  with  another  dia- 
mond at  the  point  where  it  is  desired  to 
cleave  it,  then  a  dull  knife-edge  is  placed 
in  the  cut,  and  a  sharp  blow  will  sepa- 
rate the  stone  on  a  cleavage  plane. 
Secondly,  diamonds  are  cut  by  rubbing 
two  diamonds  together,  the  .stones  being 
cemented  with  shellac  to  two  pieces  of 
wood  or  handles  which  are  held  in  the 
hands,  and  rubbed  together  till  they  are 
of  the  desired  form.  This  also  has  been 
superseded  partly  by  an  American  ma- 
chine. 

Diamonds  of  from  1  to  22  carats  each 
have  been  found  in  24  localities  in  the 
United  States,  mapped  by  Kunz  for  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey.  The 
combustibility  of  diamonds  was  proved 
in  1694  by  Averani  and  Targioni  with 
the  aid  of  burning  glasses.  That  dia- 
monds turned  to  carbonic  acid  when 
burned  was  proved  by  Lavoisier  in  1772. 
In  1867,  in  the  S.  of  Africa,  John 
O'Reilly,  a  trader  and  hunter,  reached 
the  junction  of  two  rivers,  and  stopped 
for  the  night  at  the  house  of  a  farmer 
named  Van  Niekerk.  Children  were  play- 
ing with  some  pebbles  they  had  found 
in  the  river.  O'Reilly  took  one  of  these 
pebbles  to  Dr.  Atherstone,  at  Cape  Town, 
who  said  that  it  was  a  diamond  of  22 1^ 


carats.  It  was  sold  for  $3,000.  Niekerk 
remembered  that  he  had  seen  an  im- 
mense stone  in  the  hands  of  a  Kaffir 
witch-doctor,  who  used  it  in  his  incan- 
tations. He  found  the  man,  gave  him 
500  sheep,  horses,  and  nearly  all  he  pos- 
sessed for  the  stone,  and  sold  it  for 
$56,000.  This  was  the  famous  "Star" 
of  South  Africa.  It  weighed  84 1/^ 
carats  in  the  rough,  and  was  found  to 
be  a  gem  quite  the  rival  of  an  Indian 
stone  in  purity  and  brilliancy.  After 
it  had  been  cut  it  was  bought  by  the 
Earl  of  Dudley,  and  is  now  known  as  the 
Dudley  diamond.  By  1869,  parties  in 
ox-wagons  had  worked  their  way  over 
the  plains  to  the  Vaal  river.  Soon  a 
tented  city  of  12,000  or  more  foreigners 
grew  at  Pniel  and  Klipdrift,  on  the  op- 
posite banks  of  the  stream,  where  dia- 
monds were  found  plentifully.  The 
mines  at  Kimberley,  600  miles  from 
Cape  Town,  are  the  richest  in  the  world. 
The  output  of  a  single  mine,  the  "Kim- 
berley," is  $4,000,000  annually,  and 
within  10  years  this  district  has  yielded 
about  $58,000,000  in  dividends.  Ninety- 
five  per  cent,  of  all  the  diamonds  pro- 
duced in  the  past  20  years  came  from 
South  Africa. 

Most  of  the  miners  are  natives,  who 
are  kept  in  compounds  for  periods  of 
from  three  to  six  months;  this  system 
has  broken  up  the  illicit  diamond  buyers* 
("I.  D.  B.")  system,  which  seriously 
threatened  the  successful  working  of  the 
mines.  The  life  chairman  of  this  sjmdi- 
cate  was  the  Rt.  Hon.  Cecil  J.  Rhodes 
(q.  v.),  who  by  his  genius  and  will 
created  the  corporation  apparently  out 
of  chaos.  The  buying  and  selling  of  the 
gems   is   controlled   by  the   government. 

The  total  value  of  all  the  diamonds 
known  to  exist  in  the  world  to-day  is  at 
least  $1,000,000,000.  It  may  safely  be 
said  that  one-third  of  all  the  diamonds 
known  are  owned  in  the  United  States. 

Most  of  the  great  diamonds  distin- 
guished for  beauty  and  size  have  very 
interesting  histories.  One  of  the  most 
famous  is  the  Koh-i-Nur,  or  Koohinoor, 
"Mountain  of  Light."  The  legend  is  that 
it  was  carried  5,000  years  ago  by  the 
hero  Kama,  whose  deeds  are  celebrated 
in  the  "Mahabharata."  It  made  its  first 
appearance  in  history  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury, when  Ala-ed-din  brought  it  to  Delhi. 
At  that  time  it  was  supposed  to  weigh 
793  carats.  When  in  1673  the  Grand 
Mogul  sold  it  to  Tavernier,  it  weighed 
only  279  carats,  having  been  injured  by 
the  lack  of  skill  of  a  Venetian  lapidary. 
It  was  brought  in  1739  at  the  sack  of 
Delhi  to  Afghanistan.  Thence  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  East  India 
Company,  which  presented  it  in  1850  to 
the  English   Crown.     It  was  re-cut  in 


DIAMOND 


348 


DIAMOND 


FAMOUS  DIAMONDS 


1.  Southern   Star 

2.  Southern  Star 

3.  Great    Mogul 

4.  Florentina 


5.  Koh-i-Nur 

6.  Koh-i-Nur    (new    cutting) 

7.  Regent  or  Pitt 

8.  Orloff 


DIAMOND 


349 


DIANA 


1852  and  now  weighs  100  1-16  carats. 
What  was  at  the  time  said  to  be  the 
largest  stone  in  the  world  was  sent  to 
London  from  the  Jagersfontein  mines 
in  South  Africa  in  1893.  It  weighed 
971  carats,  or  nearly  half  a  pound. 
Another  weighed  640  carats.  Another 
important  diamond  was  set  in  the  poi  t 
of  the  scepter  of  the  Russian  empire, 
known  as  the  Orloff,  which  weighs  194% 
carats.  One  time  it  formed  the  eye  of 
an  idol  in  the  temple  of  Seringham  in 
Mysore,  whence  it  was  stolen.  It  was 
in  the  throne  of  Nadir  Shah,  and  after 
his  murder  it  was  bought  by  an  Arme- 
nian merchant  in  1772  at  the  price  of 
450,000  silver  rubles  and  the  title  of 
nobility.  By  the  gift  of  Prince  Orloff, 
a  favorite  of  Catherine  II.,  from  whom 
it  derived  its  name,  it  came  into  her  pos- 
session. The  supposed  great  diamond  of 
the  King  of  Portugal,  1,770  carats,  is 
mythical;  or  rather  is  a  rolled  oval  peb- 
ble of  white  topaz. 

The  Regent  or  Pitt  diamond  weighs 
136.75  carats,  and  is  of  the  purest  water 
and  most  perfect  shape.  It  decorated  the 
sword  hilt  of  Napoleon  I.,  and  is  now 
in  the  Galerie  d'ApoUon  in  the  Louvre. 

One  of  the  finest  of  diamonds  is  the 
Sancy  diamond,  53  V^  carats,  of  exquisite 
shape  and  perfect  water.  It  has  been 
traced  back  to  Charles  the  Bold,  who  lest 
it  in  1477  at  the  battle  of  Nancy.  It 
came  through  many  private  hands  to 
the  Huguenot  nobleman  Sancy.  When 
Sancy  was  sent  as  an  ambassador  to 
Solothum,  he  received  from  Henri  III. 
the  command  to  send  to  him  that  dia- 
mond as  a  pledge.  The  servant  to  whom 
it  was  intrusted  was  attacked  and  mur- 
dered, but  instead  of  giving  up  the 
diamond  he  swallowed  it.  Sancy  had 
the  body  opened  and  found  the  precious 
diamond  in  his  stomach.  James  II.  pro- 
cured it  when  he  came  to  France  in 
1688.  Later  it  came  into  the  possession 
of  Louis  XIV.  and  was  worn  by  Louis 
XV.  at  his  coronation. 

One  of  the  most  superb  diamonds 
known  is  the  sapphire-blue  brilliant 
Hope  diamond,  valued  at  about  $100,000. 
It  is  believed  to  have  been  cut  from  a 
blue  diamond  weighing  in  the  rough 
112%  carats,  sold  by  Tavemier  to  Louis 
XIV.,  and  which  disappeared  in  the 
troubles  of  1792.  The  largest  diamond 
ever  found  in  Brazil  weighed  254% 
carats,  and  was  discovered  in  1853  by  a 
negress  in  the  river  Bogageno;  it  is 
known  as  the  "Star  of  the  South."  It 
was  sold  to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda  for 
$450,000. 

The  largest  and  finest  diamond  in  the 
world  to-day  was  cut  from  the  Cullinan 
crystal  found  in  the  Transvaal  in  1905, 
which  weighefl  in  the  rough  3,106  metric 


carats.  The  largest  stone  cut  from  it 
"The  Star  of  South  Africa"  weighs  530.2 
carats  and  was  presented  to  King  Ed- 
ward VII.  by  the  Union  of  South  Africa. 
The  diamond  weighing  method  was 
changed  in  1910.  The  standard  "metric 
carat"  is  of  200  milligrams  divided  into 
hundredths,  conforming  with  the  metric 
system.  The  United  States  adopted  the 
new  carat  July,  1913. 

DIAMOND  BEETLE  {Entimtis  inir- 
perialis),  splendid  coleopterous  insect  be- 
longing to  the  family  Curculionidx.  It 
it  a  native  of  South  America. 

DIANA  (di-an'a),  the  Roman  goddess 
of  chastity  and  hunting,  the  daugnter  of 
Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  the  sister  of 
Apollo  or  Phoebus,  from  which  circima- 
stance  she  is  occasionally  called  Phebe, 
her  usual  name  in  heaven,  as  Diana  was 


DIANA 


on  earth.  This  goddess  was  worshiped 
under  many  forms,  which  were  almost 
as  numerous  as  the  attributes  ascribed 
to  her.  She  was  also  called  Triceps  and 
Tergimina,  from  her  three  special 
spheres  of  rule;  worshiped  as  Luna  in 
heaven,  Diana  on  earth,  and  Hecate  be- 
neath the  earth,  or  the  Infernal  Shades. 
23— Vol.  in—Crc 


DIANA  MONKEY 


360 


DIABBHCEA 


As  Triceps  she  was  painted  with  three 
heads,  one  of  a  horse,  another  of  a  dog, 
and  the  third  of  a  virgin.  As  Diana  she 
was  esteemed  the  patron  goddess  of 
hunting  and  female  chastity,  and  under 
a  title  she  sometimes  shared  with  Juno, 
that  of  Lucina,  her  aid  was  considered 
propitiatory  to  women  in  labor.  Diana 
had  a  temperament  quite  as  fervid  as 
that  of  the  other  members  of  her  august 
synod,  as  her  amours  with  Pan,  the 
Carian  Shepherd,  Endymion,  and  Orion, 
fully  substantiate.  She  is  represented 
with  a  quiver,  sometimes  attended  with 
dogs,  and  sometimes  drawn  in  a  chariot 
by  two  white  stags.  She  is  supposed  to 
be  the  same  as  the  "Isis"  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, whose  worship  was  introduced  into 
Greece  under  the  name  of  Artemis,  with 
that  of  "Osiris"  under  the  name  of 
Apollo.  The  most  famous  of  her  temples 
was  that  of  Ephesus. 

DIANA  MONKEY  (Cercojnthecus 
Diana),  the  Simia  Diaaui  of  Linnaeus,  or 
Palatine-monkey  of  Pennant,  an  African 
species  of  monkey,  so  named  from  the 
crescent-shaped  band,  resembling  that 
which  poets  and  mythologists  assign  to 
the  goddess  Diana. 

DIANA  OF  POITIERS  (de-a-na  of 
pwa-tya),  a  favorite  of  Henry  II.  of 
France;  bom  in  1499,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Jean  de  Poitiers.  Married  at  13,  she 
became  a  widow  at  32,  and  ere  long  at- 
tached the  affections  of  the  19  years 
younger  dauphin  strongly  to  herself. 
On  his  accession  as  Henry  II.  (1547) 
Diana  enjoyed  great  influence  and  did 
much  to  reform  the  court.  She  was  made 
Duchess  of  Valentinois  in  1548,  retired 
from  court  to  her  castle  Chateau  d'Anet 
on  the  king's  death  in  1559,  and  died  in 
1566. 

DIANTHXJS,  a  genus  of  Caryophyl- 
lacese,  sub-order  Sileness. 

DIAPER,  a  kind  of  textile  fabric 
much  used  for  towels  and  napkins,  and 
formed  either  of  linen  or  cotton,  or  a 
mixture  of  the  two,  on  the  surface  of 
which  a  flowered  or  figured  pattern  is 
produced  by  a  peculiar  mode  of  twilling. 

DIAPHORETICS,  agents  used  in  med- 
ical practice  for  producing  a  greater  de- 
gree of  perspiration  than  is  natural,  but 
less  than  in  sweating.  The  Turkish  bath 
and  a  large  part  of  hydropathic  treat- 
ment, diluent  drinks,  etc.,  are  employed 
for  this  purpose. 

DIAPHRAGM,  an  inspiratory  muscle, 
and  the  sole  agent  in  tranquil  respiration. 
It  is  the  muscular  septum  between  the 
thorax  and  abdomen,  and  is  composed  of 
two  portions,  a  greater  muscle  arising 
from  the  ensiform  cartilage,  and  a  lesser 


arising  from  the  bodies  of  the  lumbar 
vertebras  by  two  tendons.  There  are 
three  openings  in  the  diaphragm,  one  for 
the  passage  of  the  inferior  vena  cava, 
one  for  the  passage  of  the  oesophagus 
and  pneumo-gastric  nerves  and  the  aortic, 
through  which  passes  the  aorta,  the  right 
vena  azygos,  and  thoracic  duct  It  as- 
sists the  abdominal  muscles,  which  are 
expiratory,  powerfully  in  expulsion,  each 
act  of  that  kind  being  accompanied  or 
preceded  by  a  deep  inspiration. 

In  optics,  an  annular  disk  in  a  camera 
or  telescope  or  other  optical  instrument, 
to  exclude  some  of  the  marginal  rays  of 
a  beam  of  light. 

DIARBEKIR  (de-ar-be-ker'),  a  town 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  crpital  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name;  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tigris;  390  miles  N.  W.  of 
Bagdad.  The  town  is  surrounded  by 
high  strong  walls,  and  commanded  by  a 
citadel  built  on  a  high  basalt  rock, 
against  which  the  flat-roofed  houses  rise 
above  each  other  in  terraces.  The  popu- 
lation has  dwindled  to  40,000,  mostly 
Kurds  and  Armenians.  The  city  is  the 
residence  of  a  pasha,  and  the  seat  of  a 
Greek  bishop,  as  also  usually  of  the 
Jacobite  patriarch  of  Antioch. 

DIARRHCEA,  a  common  disease,  which 
consists  in  an  increased  discharge  from 
the  alimentary  canal,  the  evacuations  be- 
ing but  little  aff'ected,  except  in  their  as- 
suming a  more  liquid  consistence.  This 
is  generally  preceded  or  accompanied  by 
flatulence  and  a  griping  pain  in  the 
bowels,  and  frequently  by  nausea  and 
vomiting.  Most  cases  of  diarrhoea  are 
caused  by  the  eating  of  indigestible  food, 
especially  unripe  or  overripe  fruit,  by 
overloading  the  stomach,  by  cold  attack- 
ing the  bowels  or  even  the  feet,  by  sudden 
arrest  of  perspiration,  by  unwholesome 
drinking  water,  and  also  by  impressions 
on  the  nervous  system.  It  is  often  also 
the  symptom  of  some  other  disease.  It  is 
noticed  that  where  drainage  is  imperfect 
and  drinking  water  impure,  diarrhoeal 
diseases  are  specially  apt  to  occur  (see 
Cholera)  ;  the  classes  of  the  population 
most  apt  to  be  affected  being  those  who 
occupy  low  levels  or  who  are  otherwise 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  this  aqueous 
or  gaseous  poison.  Infants  are  espe- 
cially apt  to  suffer  from  diarrhoea,  and 
a  large  number  of  the  infantile  deaths  is 
caused  either  directly  or  indirectly  by 
this  diease. 

Besides  these  epidemic  diarrhoeas,  iso- 
lated cases  of  simpler  and  more  obvious 
origin  are  very  frequent.  In  some  persons 
diarrhoea  is  the  usual  result  of  catching 
colds,  i.  e.,  they  suffer  from  catanrh  of  the 
digestive,  instead  of,  as  is  most  usual,  the 
respiratory  organs;  but  far  more  fre-s 


DIARY 


3S1 


DIAK 


quently  diarrhoea  results  from  unwhole- 
some or  indigestible  food  or  drink,  or 
from,  excessive  indulgence  even  in  what 
would  otherwise  not  be  hurtful.  In  all 
such  cases  the  diarrhoea  is  to  be  regarded 
as  beneficial;  in  fact,  it  is  the  natural 
effort  of  the  intestines  to  rid  themselves 
of  their  objectionable  contents,  and  till 
this  is  accomplished  should  be  encour- 
aged rather  than  arrested. 

Treatment. — In  the  treatment  of  diar- 
rhoea all  irritating  contents  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal  should  first  be  removed  by  a 
gentle  laxative,  such  as  castor  oil.  This 
simple  remedy  is  safe  and  efficient,  and, 
when  well  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  glycerine  and  a  few  drops  of  oil  of 
checkerberry,  can  be  taken  very  easily 
even  by  children.  One  teaspoonful  of 
such  a  mixture  is  often  quite  sufficient  in 
itself  to  effect  a  cure.  Castor  oil  and 
aromatic  syrup  of  rhubarb  in  equal  parts 
can  be  given  to  infants  in  teaspoonful 
doses  at  the  outset  of  an  attack  of  diar- 
rhoea \vith  advantage.  A  teaspoonful  or 
two  of  Epsom  salts  taken  in  plain  soda  is 
also  very  useful  in  adults  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  all  attacks  of  diarrhoea  quiet 
and  rest  in  a  horizontal  position  is  very 
desirable,  with  warmth  to  the  feet  and 
also  to  the  abdomen.  The  simplest  pos- 
sible diet  is  desirable.  Warm  milk  ster- 
ilized or  boiled  and  perhaps  thickened 
with  flour,  with  stale  bread  toasted,  is 
usually  the  best  diet  till  the  diarrhoea  is 
entirely  well.  Other  gruels  made  with 
milk,  like  arrowroot  or  barley,  may  be 
safely  used. 

DIABY,  a  daily  record  of  events  or 
observations  made  by  an  individual. 

Diaries  have  often  furnished  the  his- 
torian with  invaluable  material,  supply- 
ing the  absence  of  public  records,  and 
furnishing  minute  and  intimate  details  of 
manners  and  of  motives  that  do  far  more 
to  help  us  to  understand  the  past  than 
more  formal  records.  Such  documents  as 
Robert  Baillie's  "Journals,"  the  "Diaries" 
of  Pepys  and  Evelyn,  and  the  "Journals" 
of  Greville  are  among  the  most  valuable 
sources  of  real  history. 

DIAS.    See  Diaz. 

DIASTASE,  a  substance  existing  in 
barley,  oats,  and  potatoes,  but  only  after 
germination.  When  in  solution  it  pos- 
sesses the  property  of  causing  fecula  or 
starch  to  break  up  at  the  temperature  of 
150°  P.,  transforming  it  first  into  dex- 
trine and  then  into  sugar.  It  is  obtained 
by  digesting  in  a  mixture  of  three  parts 
of  water  and  one  of  alcohol,  at  a  temper- 
ature of  113°  F.,  a  certain  quantity  of 
germinated  barley  ground  and  dried  in 
the  open  air,  and  then  putting  the  whole 
under  pressure  and  filtering  it.  Dia- 
stase is  solid,  white,  and  soluble  in  water 


and    diluted    alcohol,    but    insoluble    in 
strong  alcohol. 

DIATHESIS,  in  medicine,  a  certain 
general  habit  or  constitution  of  body  as 
predisposing  to  certain  diseases. 

DIATOMS,  an  order  of  microscopic 
plants  usually  referred  to  the  class  Algae. 
There  are  more  than  4,000  distinct  spe- 
cies scattered  over  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  walls  of  the  cells  are  rendered  hard 
by  silica  and  they  are  reproduced  by 
fission,  the  splitting  taking  place  parallel 
to  the  longer  axis.  When  the  protoplasm 
escapes  the  cell  walls  retain  their  shapes 
and  delicate  markings.  Enormous  quan- 
tities of  them  are  found  as  fossils  in  the 
beds  of  the  Tertiary  formation.  Often 
the  protoplasm  of  two  diatoms  will  es- 
cape and  unite  to  foi'm  a  zygospore, 
which  after  a  time  will  divide  into  two, 
eaA  forming  a  new  cell  larger  than  be- 
fore. Some  diatoms  are  free  and  move 
rapidly  through  the  water ;  others  secrete 
a  mucilaginous  substance  whereby  they 
attach  themselves  to  various  objects.  In 
some  cases  the  diatoms,  after  splitting, 
remain  attached  to  one  another,  forming 
bands  or  ribbons.  They  are  classified, 
according  to  the  structure  of  the  cell 
walls,  three  main  families  being  recog- 
nized, according  as  they  have  on  the  prin- 
cipal face  of  the  wall  a  distinct  ridge 
(Raphidiea;) ,  an  indistinct  or  false  ridge 
(Pseudoraphidiex) ,  or  no  ridge  at  all 
(Araphidiese  or  (Jryptoraphidiese) . 

DIATONIC,  a  term  used  in  the  science 
of  music,  orignally  from  the  Greek, 
meaning  "by-tones,"  or  "from  tone  to 
tone."  The  diatonic  species  of  the  an- 
cient Greeks — as  distinguished  from  their 
chromatic  and  enharmonic  species  — 
formed  the  foundation  of  their  whole 
syst':^m  of  music,  and  was  arranged  in 
tetra-chords  (embryo  scales)  composed 
of  one  semi-tone  and  two  whole  tones. 
In  modern  music,  the  term  is  applied  to 
(1)  the  natural  or  normal  scale,  major  or 
minor,  which  proceeds  mainly  by  whole 
tones;  (2)  the  different  species  of  intrr- 
vals  (usually  reckoned  as  14  in  number) 
occurring  between  the  various  notes  of 
that  scale;  and  (3)  music  written  wholly 
or  for  the  most  part  in  that  scale. 

DIAZ,  AMANDO,  an  Italian  general. 
He  was  born  in  1861,  and  was  educated 
at  the  Military  College,  Turin.  He 
served  in  the  Libyan  War  and  won  dis- 
tinction in  the  World  War.  Follow- 
ing the  great  Italian  retreat  from  the 
Isonzo  river  in  October  and  November, 
1917,  General  Diaz  was  appointed  to 
succeed  as  commander-in-chief  General 
Cadorna  who,  after  being  removed,  was 
made  one  of  the  members  of  the  general 
staff     created     by     tlie     Supreme  War 


DIAZ 


862 


mCENTEA 


Council.  Diaz  commanded  the  operations 
that  stopped  the  Austro-Germans  at  the 
Piave,  after  they  had  taken  300,000  pris- 
oners and  occupied  4,000  square  miles  of 
Italian  territory.  General  Diaz  con- 
tinued as  commander-in-chief  to  the  end 
of  the  war, 

DIAZ,  or  DIAS,  BARTOLOMETJ,  a 
Portuguese  navigator  of  noble  birth  who 
flourished  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
15th  century-  In  August,  1486,  the  king 
gave  him  the  command  of  two  vessels 
with  a  view  to  following  up  the  discover- 
ies already  made  by  Portuguese  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Africa.  Diaz  soon  reached 
the  limit  which  had  been  attained 
in  South  Atlantic  navigation,  and  first 
touched  land  in  26°  S.  lat.  Driven  by  a 
violent  storm,  he  sailed  round  the  S.  ex- 
tremity of  Africa  without  immediately 
realizing  the  fact,  and  discovered  Algoa 
Bay.  The  discontent  of  his  crew  com- 
pelled him  to  return;  and  arriving  in 
Lisbon,  December,  1487,  he  was  at  first 
greeted  with  enthusiasm,  but  soon  saw 
Vasco  da  Gama  preferred  before  him, 
and  was  compelled  to  act  under  the  latter 
in  the  expedition  of  1497.  Three  years 
after,  he  joined  the  expedition  of  Cabral, 
the  discoverer  of  Brazil,  but  was  lost  in  a 
storm  May  29,  1500. 

DIAZ,  POBFimO  (de'ath),  a  Mexi- 
can statesman;  born  in  Oaxaca,  Sept.  15, 


PORFIRIO   DIAZ 

1830;  received  a  classical  education  at 
the  Oaxaca  Institute,  and  had  begun 
studying  law   when    the    war    with    the 


United  States  broke  out;  served  through 
that  struggle  in  the  National  Guard,  and 
on  the  conclusion  of  peace  made  a  study 
of  military  science.  On  Santa  Ana's 
accession  to  the  dictatorship,  he  left  the 
army  and  practiced  law,  but  returned  and 
bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  revolution 
of  1854;  took  the  field  to  oppose  the 
French  troops  and  was  taken  prisoner, 
but  made  his  escape;  harassed  Maximil- 
ian's troops  till  forced  to  surrender  a  sec- 
ond time  at  Oaxaca  in  1865;  besieged  and 
captured  Puebla  in  1867,  and  immediately 
marched  on  Mexico  City,  which  surren- 
dered to  him  June  21.  On  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  republic  he  was  an  unsuccess- 
ful candidate  for  president.  In  1872  and 
1876  he  led  revolutions  against  the  gov- 
ernment, and  occupied  the  capital  in  the 
latter  year.  In  1877  he  was  elected  pres- 
ident. According  to  the  "plan  of  Tuxte- 
pec,"  which  he  had  proclaimed,  he  was 
ineligible  to  succeed  himself.  His  sec- 
retary, General  Gonzales,  was  elected 
president,  and  General  Diaz  was  ap- 
pointed Chief-Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  elected  governor  of  Oaxaca. 
In  1884  he  was  re-elected  president;  in 
1886  his  partisans  secured  the  abolition 
of  the  law  prohibiting  a  second  consec- 
utive presidential  term,  and  he  was  there- 
after continuously  re-elected  for  seven 
consecutive  terms.  He  abdicated  May  22, 
1911,  and  died  in  July  1915. 

DIAZ  DEL  CASTILLO,  BERNAL 
(de'ath  del  kas-te  yo),  a  Spanish  chron- 
icler of  the  conquest  of  Mexico;  born 
about  1498;  died  in  Mexico  about  1593. 
His  "True  History  of  the  Discovery  and 
Conquest  of  New  Spain"  was  published 
at  Madrid  in  1632. 

DIBRANCHIATA,  an  order  of  cephal- 
opods  characterized  by  the  possession  of 
two  gills  only,  and  by  the  fact  that  the 
shell,  if  external,  as  is  rarely  the  case, 
is  never  chambered.  It  includes  the  cut- 
tlefishes, squids,  and  paper  nautilus.  The 
order  contains  two  sections,  octopoda  and 
decapoda. 

DICE  (plural  of  die) ,  small  cubes  of 
ivory  marked  on  their  sides  with  black 
dots,  from  one  to  six.  The  points  on  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  dice  should  always 
sum  seven — i.  e.,  ace  should  be  opposite 
to  six  (pronounced  size) ;  deuce  to  cinque 
(pronounced  sanke)  ;  and  trey  to  quatre 
(pronounced  kater).  The  invention  of 
dice  is  attributed  to  Palamedes  (circa 
1244  B.  C). 

DICENTRA,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
Funiarmceae,  tribe  Fumariex.  Cucul- 
laria  has  been  employed  as  a  medicine  to 
expel  intestinal  worms,  and  as  an  emmen- 
agogue.  It  is  a  tree  growing  in  Brazil 
and  Guiana.  ,    ,  . 


DICHLAMYDEOUS 


35S 


DICKINSON 


DICHLAMYDEOUS,  a  term  in  botany 
applied  by  De  Candolle  to  distin^ish 
those  dicotyledonous  flowers  possessed 
of  both  calyx  and  corolla  from  his  Mono- 
chlamydese,  in  which  not  more  than  one 
floral  envelope  is  present. 

DICHOGAMY,  a  provision  in  herma- 
phrodite flowers  to  prevent  self-fertili- 
zation, the  stamens  and  pistils  within 
the  same  flower  not  being  matured  at  the 
same  time. 

DICHOTOMY,  in  lo^c,  a  distribution 
or  separation  of  ideas  by  pairs;  the  di- 
vieion  of  a  class  into  two  sub-classes 
opposed  to  each  other  by  contradiction. 
In  botany,  a  term  applied  to  that  kind  of 
branching  by  a  constant  furcation  or 
division  into  two  parts,  as  where  the  stem 
of  a  plant  branches  into  two  branchlets, 
each  of  which  in  its  turn  divides  into 
others,  and  so  on.  Example,  the  mistle- 
toe. The  veins  of  various  ferns  thus 
branch  dichotomously.  In  astronomy, 
that  phase  of  the  moon  whei'e  it  appears 
bisected  or  is  only  half  illuminated,  as  at 
the  quadratures. 

DICHROISM,  the  property  by  which 
a  crystallized  body  assumes  two  or  more 
colors,  according  to  the  direction  by 
which  light  is  transmitted  through  it. 
Examples,  iolite,  mica,  muriate  of  pal- 
ladium, etc.  Dichroism  depends  upon  the 
absorption  of  some  of  the  colored  rays  of 
the  polarized  light  in  its  passage  through 
the  crystal,  this  absorption  varying  with 
the  different  relative  positions  of  the 
planes  of  primitive  polarization  of  these 
rays  to  the  axis  of  double  refraction  of 
the  crystals,  so  that  the  two  pencils 
formed  by  double  refraction  are  differ- 
ently colored. 

DICHROITE.     See  Cordierite. 

DICKENS,  CHARLES,  an  English 
novelist;  bom  in  Landport,  Portsea,  Feb. 
7,  1812.  Early  in  life  the  law  was 
selected  as  his  future  profession,  but  the 
drudgery  of  an  attorney's  office  worried 
him,  and  removing  to  London  he  became 
a  reporter  of  Parliamentary  debates  for 
the  "Morning  Chronicle"  newspaper. 
To  this  journal  he  presently  contributed 
a  series  of  papers  sketching  off  the  social 
characteristics  of  English  middle  and  low 
class  life.  In  1836,  under  the  title  of 
"Tales  and  Sketches  by  Boz"  the  papers 
were  published  in  two  volumes.  The 
production  of  the  celebrated  "Pickwick 
Papers,"  in  the  year  following  (1837), 
conclusively  stamped  him  as  an  author 
of  a  peculiarly  original  cast  of  genius. 
A  long  and  brilliant  series  of  successes 
followed.  His  works  include:  "Sketches 
by  Boz"  (1835-1836) ;  "Pickwick  Papers" 
(1837);    "Oliver    Twist"     (1838-1839); 


"Nicholas  Nickleby"  (1839);  "Master 
Humphrey's  Clock"  (1840-1841),  a 
weekly  issue  in  periodical  form,  com- 
prising among  others  the  installments 
of  "Old  Curiosity  Shop"  and  "Barna- 
by  Rudge";  "American  Notes"  (1842); 
"A  Christmas  Carol"  (1843)  ;  "Mar- 
tin  Chuzzlewit"  (1844);  "The  Chimes" 
(1844);  "The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth" 
(1845);  "Pictures  from  Italy"  (1846); 
"The  Battle  of  Life"  (1846)  ;  "Dom- 
bey  and  Son"  (1848);  "The  Haunted 
Man"  (1848);  "David  Copperfield" 
(1850);  "Bleak  House"  (1853);  "A 
Child's  History  of  England"  (1854); 
"Hard   Times"    (1854);    "Little    Dorrit" 


CHARLES  DICKENS 

(1857) ;  "A  Tale  of  Two  Cities"  (1859) ; 
"Great  Expectations"  (1861) ;  "Our  Mu- 
tual Friend"  (1865)  ;  "The  Mystery  of 
Edwin  Drood"  (1870),  unfinished;  and 
many  short  pieces  and  humorous  essays, 
stories,  and  sketches.  He  died  in  Gad's 
Hill  Place,  near  Rochester  (England), 
June  9,  1870. 

DICKINSON,  EMILY,  an  American 
poet;  born  in  Amherst,  Mass.,  Dec.  10, 
1830.  Living  the  life  of  a  recluse,  she 
wrote  much  verse  in  forms  peculiar  to 
herself.  In  1892  a  collection  of  her 
poems  was  issued  which  received  warm 
praise  from  competent  critics.  In  all, 
three  volumes  of  her  verse  and  prose 
have  appeared.  She  died  in  Amherst, 
May  15,  1886. 

DICKINSON,  GOLDS  WORTHY 
LOWES,  an  English  writer  and  scholar. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse 
School  and  at  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  became  a  lecturer.  He  studied 
also  at  the  London  School  of  Economics 


DICKINSON 


354 


DICTATOR 


and  Political  Science.  His  published 
writings  include  "The  Greek  View  of 
Life"  (1890);  "The  Trag-edy  of  the 
Puritan  Revolution"  (1891)  ;  "The  De- 
velopment of  Parliament  During  the 
Nineteenth  Century"  (1895)  ;  "Letters 
From  a  Chinese  Official"  (1903);  "Re- 
ligion and  Immor-tality"  (1911)  ;  "The 
European  Anarchy"  (1916)  ;  "The 
Choice  Before  Us"  (1917). 

DICKINSON,    JACOB    MC   GAVOCK, 

an  American  public  official,  born  in  Co- 
lumbus, Miss.,  in  1851.  He  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Nashville  in  1871 
and  studied  law  at  the  Columbia  Univer- 
sity and  at  foreign  universities.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1874  and  from 
that  date  until  1899  practiced  law  in 
Nashville,  Tenn,  From  1899  to  1909  he 
was  engaged  in  practice  in  Chicago.  He 
was  appointed  assistant  attorney  general 
of  the  United  States  in  1895,  serving 
until  1897.  In  1903  he  was  counsel  for 
the  United  States  before  the  Alaskan 
Boundary  Tribunal.  He  was  on  the 
legal  staff  of  the  Illinois  Central  Rail- 
road Company  from  1889  to  1909.  He 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  War  by 
President  Taft  in  1909,  serving  until 
1911,  when  he  resigned.  In  1907  and 
1908  he  was  president  of  the  American 
Bar  Association,  During  the  World  War 
he  was  honorary  president  of  the  Chi- 
cago Branch  of  the  National  Security 
League. 

DICKINSON  COLLEGE,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  Carlisle,  Pa.; 
founded  in  1783,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  re- 
ported at  the  end  of  1919:  Professors 
and  instructors,  15;  students,  375. 

DICKMAN,     JOSEPH     THEODORE, 

an  American  soldier,  born  in  Dajrton,  O., 
in  1857.  He  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1881  and 
was  commissioned  2d  lieutenant  in  the 
8d  Cavalry.  He  rose  through  the  vari- 
ous grades,  becoming  lieutenant-colonel 
in  1899.  He  served  during  the  Spanish- 
American  War  and  was  honorably  mus- 
tered out  of  the  volunteer  service  in 
1901.  In  1906  he  was  appointed  major 
of  the  13th  United  States  Cavalry,  and 
in  1909  became  inspector-general.  He 
was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  in  the 
cavalry  in  1912,  and  in  1914  was  pro- 
moted to  be  colonel.  He  became  briga- 
dier-general in  1917,  and  in  the  same 
year  v/as  appointed  major-general  in  the 
National  Army.  In  July,  1918,  he  was 
given  command  of  the  Third  Division  of 
the  American  Expeditionary  Force,  and 
he  commanded  the  American  Army  of 
Occupation  in  Germany  following  the 
armistice. 


DICKSON,  HARRIS,  an  American 
lawyer  and  writer,  born  in  Yazoo  City, 
Miss.,  in  1868.  He  was  educated  in  the 
common  schools  and  studied  law  at  Co- 
lumbia University.  From  1896  he  en- 
gaged in  practice  in  Vicksburg,  Miss., 
and  from  1905  to  1907  was  judge  of  the 
Municipal  Court  of  that  city.  He  was 
the  author  of  "The  Black  Wolf's  Breed" 
(1899)  ;  "The  Ravanel-  (1905)  ;  "Old 
Reliable"  (1912);  "The  House  of  Luck" 
(1917);  "Unpopular  History  of  the 
United  States"  (1917).  He  contributed 
numerous  articles  and  fiction  to  maga- 
zines. In  1917  he  acted  as  war  corre- 
spondent in  France  for  Collier's  Weekly. 

DICKSON  CITY,  a  borough  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  Lackawanna  co.  It  is  on 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Company,  and 
the  New  York,  Ontario  and  Western  rail- 
roads. It  is  the  center  of  an  important 
coal  mining  region  and  has  foundries, 
silk  mills,  and  machine  shops.  Pop. 
(1910)  9,331;   (1920)  11,049. 

DICOTYLEDON,  in  the  singular,  a 
plant  having  two  cotyledons  or  seed- 
leaves,  that  is,  primordial  leaves,  con- 
tained in  the  embryo.  The  majority  of 
flowering  plants  have  this  structure. 
When  therefore  seed  is  sown,  in  most 
cases  the  future  plant  first  appears 
above  the  ground  as  a  tiny  two-leaved 
existence,  and  in  certain  cases  the  next 
pair  of  leaves  which  appear,  and  all  the 
future  ones,  are  of  a  different  structure 
from  the  first.  The  primordial  pair  of 
leaves  are  the  two  cotyledons.  Their  use 
in  the  economy  of  nature  is  to  shelter  the 
ordinary  leaves  situated  inside.  In  the 
plural  the  highest  class  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  containing  orders  of  plants 
with  the  structure  of  seed  just  described. 

DICRANACE^,  a  family  of  apocar- 
pous operculate  mosses,  branching  by  in- 
novations or  with  the  tops  of  the  fertile 
branches  several  times  divided.  The 
leaves  are  lanceolate  or  subulate;  cells 
prosenchymatous,  rarely  papillose;  cap- 
sule oval  or  cylindrical,  arched  or 
straight. 

DICRANUM,  a  genus  of  mosses,  the 
typical  one  of  the  family  Dicranaceaz. 

DICTAMNUS,  a  genus  of  plants,  be- 
longing to  the  order  Rutacese,  and  found 
in  southern  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  etc  D. 
Fraxinella,  false  dittany,  abounds  in 
volatile  oil  to  such  a  degree  that  the  at- 
mosphere around  it  becomes  inflammable 
in  hot,  dry,  and  calm  weather. 

DICTATOR,  a  magistrate  of  ancient 
Rome,  created  in  times  of  great  emer- 
gency, distress,  or  danger  and  invested, 
during  the  term  of  his  office,  with  abso- 
lute   and    unlimited    power.      The    name 


DICTIONARY 


365 


DIDACTIC 


given  to  this  magistrate  was  originally 
Magister  Populi,  but  subsequently  he 
was  styled  dictator,  a  name  already 
familiar  to  the  Latin  states.  The  office 
was  probably  first  created  in  B.  C.  501, 
and  the  first  dictator  was  Titus  Larcius. 
The  dictator  was  nominated  by  one  of 
the  consuls  in  pursuance  of  a  decree  of 
the  Senate,  whence  the  name,  from  the 
technical  phrase,  Dicere  dictatorem.  The 
nominator  performed  his  duty  at  dead 
of  night.  Originally  only  one  who  had 
held  the  office  of  consul  could  be  named 
dictator,  but  subsequently  the  office  was 
thrown  open  to  all,  the  first  plebeian  dic- 
tator being  C.  Marcius  Rutilus,  in  B.  C. 
356.  The  dictator  was  named  for  six 
njonths  only,  but  he  seldom  retained  the 
office  after  the  object  for  which  he  had 
been  appointed  was  fulfilled.  The  office 
was  abolished  by  law  after  the  death  of 
Caesar. 

DICTIONARY  (from  the  Latin  dictio, 
a  saying,  expression,  word),  a  book  con- 
taining the  words,  or  subjects,  which  it 
treats,  arranged  in  alphabetical  order. 
It  may  be  either  a  vocabulary,  or  a  col- 
lection of  the  words  in  a  language,  with 
their  definitions,  or  a  special  work 
on  one  or  more  branches  of  science  or 
art  prepared  on  the  principle  of  alpha- 
betical arrangement,  such  as  dictionaries 
of  biography,  law,  music,  medicine,  etc. 
Among  the  dictionaries  of  the  English 
language,  the  earliest  seem  to  have  been 
those  of  Barett  (1573),  and  of  BuUo- 
kar  (1616).  That  of  Dr.  Johnson  pub- 
lished in  1755  made  an  epoch  in  this 
department  of  literature.  The  first  im- 
portant dictionary  of  the  English  lan- 
guage is  that  by  Noah  Webster  (1828). 
It  has  been  frequently  republished,  and 
in  subsequent  editions  has  almost  entire- 
ly altered  its  character.  The  large 
American  dictionary  by  Dr.  Worcester 
was  once  a  rival  of  Webster's.  Dr. 
Ogilvie's  English  dictionary  (based  on 
Webster,  and  first  published  in  1847- 
1850)  was  published  in  a  remodeled  and 
enlarged  form  (4  vols.  1881-1882,  Chas. 
Annadale,  LL.D.,  editor).  Cassell's 
"Encyclopaedic  Dictionary"  is  another 
extensive  and  useful  work  (1879-1888). 
An  English  dictionary  "on  historical 
principles,"  edited  by  J.  A.  H.  Murray, 
LL.  D.,  with  the  assistance  of  many  schol- 
ars, is  published  at  the  Clarendon  Press 
(London).  The  "Century  Dictionary" 
(New  York,  1889-1891)  in  six  volumes, 
v/ith  a  supplementary  "Cyclopaedia  of 
Names,"  is  a  comprehensive  and  useful 
work.  In  1885  appeared  the  "Standard 
Dictionary"  (New  York),  which  adopts 
the  spelling  reform  system  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philological  Association.  A  revised 
edition    appeared    in    1915.      The    chief 


etymological  dictionary  of  English 
words  is  that  by  Professor  Skeat 
(1882);  the  chief  French  is  that  of 
Littre;  German,  that  of  Grimm. 

DICTOPHONE.  An  instrument  made 
up  of  an  ordinary  telephone  circuit  to 
which  is  attached  a  granular  carbon 
transmitter  of  a  sensitiveness  adequate 
to  take  up  the  words  of  persons  convers- 
ing in  a  room  so  that  they  can  be  heard 
and  recorded  over  the  telephone.  The 
transmitter  is  usually  made  small 
enough  to  be  capable  of  concealment  and 
the  instrument  has  been  in  the  main  em- 
ployed by  detectives  for  the  gathering  of 
evidence  relating  to  persons  under  sus- 
picion. It  is  also  coming  into  use  for 
the  reproduction  of  sounds  in  various 
parts  of  a  hall  and  has  also  been  in- 
stalled in  the  waiting  room  of  railway 
stations,  the  announcer  having  his  voice 
megaphoned  by  telephone  receivers  lo- 
cated in  different  parts  of  the  building. 

DICTYNNA,  a  nymph  of  Crete,  and 
one  of  the  attendants  of  Diana. 

DICTYOGEN,  a  member  of  the  sub- 
class Dictyogenae. 

DICTYOGEN.ffi,  sub-class  of  mono- 
cotyledonous  plants  with  leaves  reticu- 
lated, often  articulated  with  the  stem; 
branches  with  the  usual  structure  of 
endogens,  but  the  rhizomes  or  under- 
ground stems  have  the  woody  matter  dis- 
posed in  a  compact  circle,  or  in  wedges 
containing  central  cellular  tissue,  and 
often  showing  medullary  processes.  It 
comprises  thi'ee  orders,  Dioscoreacese,  or 
yam  tribe ;  Similacese,  or  the  sarsaparilla 
lamily;  and  Trilliaeeag,  or  the  trilliura 
family. 

DICYEMIDiE,  a  family  of  very  lowly 
multicellular  organisms,  parasitic  in 
habit.  They  are  found  in  cuttlefishes, 
while  related  organisms  known  as  Ortlio- 
nectida  occur  in  a  brittle-star  and  in  a 
Nemertean  worm.  The  largest  species 
of  the  genus  Dicyenia  measures  5-7  milli- 
meters ;  the  smallest  is  10  times  less. 

DICYNODON,  a  genus  of  fossil  rep- 
tiles occurring  in  a  sandstone,  supposed 
to  be  of  Triassic  age,  in  southern  Africa 
and  India.  The  principal  remains  yet 
found,  the  bones  of  the  head,  indicate  a 
gigantic  type  between  the  lizards  and 
turtles.    Order,  Ano77iodontia. 

DIDACTIC,  or  DIDACTICAL,  a  term 

applied  to  every  species  of  writing, 
whether  in  verse  or  prose,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  teach  or  explain  the  rules 
or  principles  of  any  art  or  science.  Thus, 
to  this  class  of  literature  belong  the 
writings  of  Aristotle  on  grammar, 
poetry  and  rhetoric;   Longrlnus's  "Trea- 


DIDELPHIA 


356 


DIDYMIUM 


tise  on  the  Sublime";  the  "Institutiones 
of  Quintilian,"  etc.;  but  the  term  is  more 
exclusively  applied  to  all  poetical  writ- 
ings devoted  to  the  communication  of  in- 
struction on  a  particular  subject,  or  of 
a  reflective  or  ethical  character,  thence 
called  didactic  poetry.  Among  the  most 
celebrated  poems  of  this  species  may  be 
reckoned  in  ancient  times,  that  of  Lu- 
cretius, ''De  Rerum  Natura;"  Vergil's 
"Georgics";  and  Horace's  "Art  of 
Poetry";  in  more  recent  times,  Pope's 
"Essay  on  Criticism,"  and  "Essay  on 
Man";  Du  Fresnoy's  "Art  of  Painting"; 
Vida  and  Boileau's  "Art  of  Poetry." 

DIDELPHIA,  one  of  the  three  primary 
divisions  into  which  the  class  Mavimalia 
is  divided,  when  the  structure  of  the 
reproductive  organs  is  taken  as  a  basis 
for  classification;  the  other  two  being 
the  OrmthodeJphia  (Monotremata)  and 
the  Monodelphia.  Didelphia  comprises 
the  Marsupialia  or  those  non-placental 
mammals  in  which  the  uterine  dilations 
of  the  oviducts  continue  distinct  through- 
out life,  opening  into  two  separate 
vaginse,  which  in  turn  open  into  a  uro- 
genital canal,  distinct  from  the  rectum, 
though  embraced  by  the  same  sphincter 
muscle.  The  young  of  this  subclass  are 
born  imperfect,  or,  as  it  were,  prema- 
turely, and  are  carried  in  the  pouch  or 
second  womb  till  perfect. 

DIDEROT,  DENIS  (de-dro') ,  a 
French  philosopher,  foremost  of  the 
"Encyclopaedists";  born  in  Langres,  Oct. 
5,  1713.  "Philosophic  Reflections"— 
burned  by  the  hangman  and  therefore 
widely  circulated — and  "A  Skeptic's 
Walk"  (1747),  were  part  of  a  warfare 
against  the  church.  In  the  compilation 
of  the  "Encyclopjedia"  Diderot  bore  the 
main  burden.  He  wrote  all  the  articles 
on  technology  and  industries,  on  points 
of  philosophy,  and  even  on  physics  and 
chemistry.  He  wrote  admirable  reports 
(1765-1767)  of  the  art  expositions  at  the 
Paris  Academy,  and  some  plays.  His 
novel,  "The  Nun,"  and  his  dramatic  dia- 
logue, "Rameau's  Nephew,"  are  won- 
derfully effective  pictures  of  the  cor- 
rupt society  of  the  time.  His  little 
sketches  "Little  Papers"  show  kindly 
humor  and  wit.     He  died  July  31,  1784. 

DIDIER,  CHABLES  (ded-ya'),  a 
French  poet  and  novelist  (1805-1864); 
born  in  Geneva.  He  wrote  some  novels 
designed  to  awaken  patriotic  sentiment 
in  Italy,  and  to  make  known  the  strug- 
gles of  the  carbonari  and  other  revolu- 
tionists against  Austrian  and  papal 
dominion.  Among  these  novels  were: 
"Underground  Rome"  (2  vols.  1833)  ; 
"The  Roman  Campagna"  (1842)  ;  and 
"Fifty  Years  in  the  Wilderness"  (1857). 


His  lyric  poems,  "Melodies"   (1827),  are 
unimportant. 

DIDIER,  EUGENE  LEMOINE,  an 
American  prose-writer;  born  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,  Dec.  22,  1838.  Many  of  his 
wrritings  have  appeared  over  the  signa- 
ture "Lemoine"  and  "Timon."  He  pub- 
lished the  "Life  of  Edgar  A.  Poe" 
(1876);  "Life  and  Letters  of  Madame 
Bonaparte"  (1879),  republished  in  Lon- 
don and  translated  into  French  and 
Italian;  a  "Primer  of  Criticism"  1883); 
etc. 

D  I  D  I  TJ  S  SALVIUS  JULIANTJS, 
MARCUS,  a  Roman  emperor,  bom  about 
A.  D.  133.  Having  filled  the  offices  of 
questor,  asdile,  and  praetor,  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  a  legion  in  Ger- 
many, and  subsequently  governor  of 
Belgica.  For  his  services  against  the 
Catti,  he  was  made  governor  of  Dal- 
matica,  and  next  of  lower  Germany. 
Having  distinguished  himself  in  Africa 
and  Asia  Minor,  he  returned  to  Rome, 
and,  on  the  assassination  of  Pertinax, 
made  himself  emperor  by  bribing  the 
praetorian  guards.  He  now  assumed  the 
name  of  Marcus  Didius  Commodus  Sev- 
erus  Julianus;  but,  after  a  short  reign 
of  two  months,  was  killed  in  his  palace 
by  a  common  soldier,  a.  d.  193. 

DIDO,  or  ELISSA,  the  reputed  founder 
of  Carthage.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a 
king  of  Tyre,  and  after  her  father's 
death  her  brother  Pygmalion  murdered 
her  husband  Sicharbas,  or  as  Vergil  calls 
him  Sichaeus,  with  the  view  of  obtaining 
his  wealth;  but  Dido,  accompanied  by 
many  Tyrians  of  her  party,  fled  with  all 
the  treasure  over  sea,  and  landing  on  the 
coast  of  Africa  founded  Carthage  about 
860  B.  C.  The  story  is  told  by  Vergil 
with  many  inventions  of  his  own  in  the 
"jEneid"  (books  i  and  ii). 

DIDONCEPHALUS,  a  monster  with  a 
double  range  of  teeth,  or  a  double  jaw. 

DIDUNCULID.ffi,  a  family  of  Colum- 
bacei  (pigeons),  which  some  authorities 
connect  with  the  extinct  dodo. 

DIDUNCULUS,  the  typical  genus  of 
the  family  Didunculidse.  D.  stHffirostris 
inhabits  the  Navigator  Islands. 

DIDYMIUM,  a  metallic  triad  element, 
symbol  Di'",  atomic  weight  144.  It 
occurs  along  with  cerium  and  lantha- 
num in  the  mineral  cerite.  It  is  sepa- 
rated from  cerium  by  igniting  the  oxa- 
late, and  treating  the  resulting  oxides 
with  very  dilute  nitric  acid,  which  does 
not  dissolve  the  cerium  oxide.  The  fil- 
tered solution  is  mixed  with  sulphuric 
acid,  concentrated  by  evaporation,  and  , 
then  a  hot  solution  of  potassium  sul- 
phate' is  added,   which  precipitates   the 


DIE 


357 


DIEPPE 


lanthanum  and  didymium  as  double  sul- 
phates. Didymium  can  be  separated 
from  lanthanum  by  precipitating  half 
the  oxide  with  ammonia,  and  leaving  the 
precipitate  in  contact  with  the  solution; 
the  lanthanum,  being  the  stronger  base, 
then  passes  into  solution  in  predominant 
quantity.  By  repeating  the  process,  the 
oxides  being  again  dissolved  and  precipi- 
tated, the  didymium  oxide  is  obtained 
nearly  pure.  Didymium  is  a  white  met- 
al with  a  tinge  of  yellow;  specific  gravi- 
ty, 6.5.  It  tarnishes  in  dry  air;  it  burns 
with  great  brilliancy  when  thrown  into  a 
flame.  Its  oxide,  DisOs,  is  a  dirty  bluish 
color;  the  nitrate  is  obtained  in  large 
violet  crystals  by  dissolving  the  oxide  in 
nitric  acid.  The  sulphate,  Di2(S04)8 
6HjO,  forms  rose-red  crystals.  The  ox- 
alate is  a  crystalline  powder.  The  spec- 
trum of  a  solution  of  a  salt  of  didymium 
contains  characteristic  dark  bands. 

In  botany,  the  word  is  applied  to  a 
genus  of  gasteromycetous  fungi,  consist- 
ing of  minute  plants  growing  upon 
leaves,  bark,  rotten  wood,  etc.,  distin- 
guished by  its  double  peridium. 

DIE,  a  word  with  various  applications. 
(1)  In  punching-machines,  a  bed-piece 
which  has  an  opening  the  size  of  the 
punch,  and  through  which  the  piece  is 
driven.  This  piece  may  be  a  planchet 
or  blank,  or  it  may  be  merely  a  plug 
driven  out  of  the  object  to  form  a  bolt 
or  rivet  hole.  In  nut-machines  the  nut- 
blanks  may  be  made  by  one  die  and 
punched  by  another.  (2)  In  forging, 
a  device  consisting  of  two  parts  which 
co-act  to  give  to  the  piece  swaged  be- 
tween them  the  desired  form.  (3)  In 
sheet-metal  work,  a  former  and  punch 
or  a  cameo  and  intaglio  die  between 
which  a  piece  of  sheet-metal  is  pressed 
into  shape  by  a  blow  or  simple  pressure. 
In  coining,  both  dies  are  intaglio,  so  as 
to  make  a  cameo  or  raised  impression 
upon  each  face  of  the  planchet.  The 
upper  die  has  the  obverse,  the  face, 
which  is  often  the  bust  of  the  sovereign 
or  national  emblem.  The  lower  die  has 
the  reverse,  with  an  effigy,  legend,  value, 
escutcheon,  as  the  case  may  be.  Owing 
to  the  random  way  in  which  ornaments 
are  disposed  on  coins,  any  general  defi- 
nition will  no  longer  meet  all  cases.  A 
die  will  sometimes  deliver  250,000  im- 
pressions before  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
move it  from  the  coining-press;  and 
sometimes  a  die  will  crack  at  the  first 
impression. 

DIEGO  GARCIA  (dya'go  gar-the'a), 
an  island  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  in  lat.  7° 
S.,  and  Ion.  72° — 73°  E.,  extends  in  an 
irregular  horseshoe  shape,  and  is  30 
miles   long,   embracing  between   its   ex- 


tremities three  minor  islets  (the  Chagos 
Islands).  It  contains  a  spacious  bay, 
and  is  very  convenient  for  coaling  pur- 
poses. The  group  has  about  700  inhab- 
itants, and  is  a  dependency  of  Mauritius. 

DIELMAN,  FREDERICK,  an  Amer- 
ican painter;  born  in  Hanover,  Ger- 
many, Dec.  25,  1847;  removed  to  the 
United  States  in  childhood,  and  grad- 
uated at  Calvert  College.  He  was  a 
topographer  and  draughtsman  in  the 
United  States  Engineer  Department  in 
1866-1872.  He  studied  art  under  Diaz 
at  Munich,  and  established  a  studio  in 
New  York  in  1876.  He  is  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  and  other  art 
organizations;  was  the  designer  of  the 
Mosaic  panels,  "Law"  and  "History" 
in  the  new  Congressional  Library  at 
Washington,  D.  C. ;  and  was  president 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Design 
(1889-1902),  Professor  of  Drawing,  Col- 
lege of  the  City  of  New  York  (1903- 
1918)  and  director  of  the  Art  School  of 
Cooper    Union. 

DIELYTRA,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  FinnaH- 
acess,  or  Fumitories.  The  best  known  is 
D.  spectabilis,  a  native  of  northern 
China  and  Siberia,  now  common  in 
European  and  other  gardens.  It  blos- 
soms in  April  and  May,  and  its  long 
drooping  racemes  of  purplish-red  blos- 
soms present  a  very  graceful  appear- 
ance. It  grows  freely  in  the  open  air. 
It  is  sometimes  called  pendent  heart  or 
virgin's  heart,  but  is  more  commonly 
known  as  bleeding  heart. 

DIEMEN,  ANTON  VAN.  a  Dutch  ad- 
ministrator; bom  in  1593.  Having  gone 
to  India,  he  speedily  rose  to  the  highest 
dignities,  and  was  at  length,  in  1636, 
made  governor-general.  He  administered 
the  government  with  much  ability,  and 
contributed  much  to  the  establishment 
of  Dutch  commerce  in  India.  Abel  Tas- 
man,  whom  he  sent  with  a  vessel  to  the 
South  Seas  in  1642,  gave  the  name  of 
Van  Diemen's  Land  to  the  island  now 
called  Tasmania.  Van  Diemen  died  in 
1645. 

DIEPPE  (de-ep'),  a  seaport  town  of 
France,  department  of  Seine-Inferieure, 
on  the  English  Channel,  at  the  embouch- 
ure of  the  Arques,  93  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Paris.  Almost  the  only  public  edifices 
worth  special  notice  are  the  two  Gothic 
churches,  St.  Jacques,  begun  in  the  13th 
century,  and  St.  Remi,  founded  in  1522, 
and  the  old  castle  (1433),  now  a  bar- 
rack. To  the  W.  of  Dieppe  proper  is 
the  suburb  La  Barre ;  and  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  harbor  La  Pollet,  inhabited 
chiefly  by   sailors   and   fishermen.     The 


DIESEL 


358 


DIESEL  ENGINE 


port  is  spacious,  admitting  vessels  of 
1,200  tons  burden;  but  it  cannot  be  en- 
tered at  low  water.  Dieppe  is  one  of 
the  chief  watering  places  of  France,  and 
is  much  frequented  by  visitors  in  sum- 
mer and  autumn.  The  great  bathing 
establishment  forms  a  luxurious  retreat 
for  bathers  and  invalids,  and  includes 
a  ball-room  and  other  attractions.  The 
manufactures  include  works  in  ivory, 
the  most  famed  in  Europe;  works  in 
horn  and  bone,  lace-making,  sugar-refin- 
ing, ship-building,  etc.  There  is  a  busy 
fishery,  and  the  foreign  trade  is  still 
considerable.  There  is  constant  steam 
intercourse  between  this  port  and  New- 
haven.  In  early  times  Dieppe  was  the 
chief  port  of  France,  but  its  prosperity 
diminished  after  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  (1685).  Pop.  about 
25,000. 

DIESEL,  RUDOLF,  a  German  in- 
ventor, born  in  Paris  in  1858.  He 
studied  in  England  and  at  the  Poly- 
technic School  in  Munich.  After  his 
graduation  he  lived  in  Paris  for  a  few 


RUDOLF  DIESEL 

years,  acting  as  manager  of  a  refrig- 
erating company.  He  finally  settled  in 
Munich  in  1895.  After  some  years  of 
experiment  he  successfully  solved  the 
problem  of  the  internal  combustion  en- 
gine and  patented  his  Diesel  Engine 
(q.  v.).  In  1912  he  delivered  a  series  of 
lectures  in  the  United  States.  Called 
the  next  year  by  the  British  Admiralty 
to  consult  with  them  in  reference  to  his 
engine,  his  career  was  brought  to  an  un- 


timely end  by  drowning  in  the  English 
Channel.  His  monograph  on  the  Diesel 
Engine  has  been  translated  as  "Theory 
and  Construction  of  a  Rational  Heat 
Motor". 

DIESEL  ENGINE,  a  special  type  of 
internal  combustion  engine.  The  prin- 
ciple on  which  it  works  differs  from  that 
of  the  ordinary  gas  engine,  in  which  an 
explosive  effect  is  produced  by  drawing 
the  combustible  charge  into  the  cylinder 
and  igniting  instantaneously.  In  the 
Diesel  engine,  air  is  drawn  into  the  cyl- 
inder and  compressed,  and  then  oil  is 
injected  as  a  fine  spray  and  burned 
gradually.  The  engine  is  made  in  two 
types,  the  four-stroke  and  the  two- 
stroke.  In  the  four-stroke  engine,  air  is 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  on  the  first 
stroke,  and  is  compressed  on  the  second 
stroke  to  a  pressure  of  450  pounds  per 
square  inch.  This  sudden  increase  in 
pressure  causes  a  rise  in  temperature  to 
about  550  degrees  C,  and  during  part 
of  the  third  stroke,  oil  is  injected,  and, 
owing  to  the  high  temperature,  ignites. 
The  gases  thus  produced  expand,  and 
during  the  fourth  stroke  of  the  piston 
the  products  of  combustion  are  expelled. 
In  the  two-stroke  engine,  the  general 
procedure  is  the  same,  but  differs  in  de- 
tails. Air,  instead  of  being  drawn  into 
the  engine  by  the  stroke  of  the  piston, 
is  forced  in  under  slight  pressure,  and 
is  then  further  compressed  to  the  same 
pressure  as  in  the  case  of  the  four-stroke 
engine.  Fuel  is  injected,  and  ignites, 
the  gases  expand,  and  are  finally  ex- 
pelled by  the  incoming  charge  of  air. 

Among  the  advantages  claimed  for 
the  Diesel  engine  are:  firstly,  the  fact 
that  it  will  burn  any  class  of  oil,  refined 
or  crude;  secondly,  the  facility  with 
which  it  can  be  started;  thirdly,  its  low 
fuel  consumption,  and  finally  the  small 
space  occupied  by  it.  The  makers  claim 
for  it  a  mechanical  efficiency  of  upward 
of  70  per  cent.,  and  provided  the  fuel 
has  a  calorific  value  of  not  less  than 
18,000  B.  T.  U's  per  pound  they  guaran- 
tee that  the  consumption  at  full  load  will 
not  exceed  0.4  lbs.  per  b.  h.  p.  hour  in 
the  larger  sizes  and  0.5  lbs.  per  b.  h.  p. 
hour  in  the  smaller  sizes.  Moreover,  the 
engine  runs  quietly  and  as  the  flash- 
point of  the  oil  fuel  is  high  there  is  no 
danger  of  explosion. 

These  many  advantageous  features 
render  the  engine  of  value  for  marine 
service,  and  during  recent  years  it  has 
been  installed  on  a  number  of  passenger 
and  war  vessels,  particularly  in  ships 
of  the  British  navy.  The  first  passen- 
ger vessel  propelled  by  Diesel  engines 
was    the    "Selandia"    belonging    to   the 


DIESEL  ENGINE 


369 


DIET 


East  Asiatic  Company,  plying  between 
Copenhagen  and  Bangkok.  Its  gi-oss 
tonnage  was  4,964,  its  length  370  feet, 
and  beam  53  feet.  It  had  twin  screws, 
each  driven  at  140  revolutions  per  min- 
ute by  an  eight-cylindei',  four-cycle  Die- 
sel engine.  Its  speed  was  12  knots  and 
its  indicated  horse  power  2,500.  A  feat- 
ure of  the  boat  was  that  it  had  no  fun- 
nels, the  exhaust  gases  being  carried 
away  up  the  mizzen   mast. 

The  great  advantage  of  the  Diesel  en- 
gine over  the  steam  turbine  for  marine 
service  is  the  tremendous  reduction 
which  can  be  effected  in  the  weight  of 
fuel.  It  is  estimated  that  this  amounts 
to  only  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  of  that 
consumed  by  a  vessel  equipped  with 
steam  turbines.  It  follows  from  this 
that  there  is  an  actual  saving  in  the 
cost  of  the  fuel  where  the  price  of  oil 
is  not  more  than  four  times  that  of  coal, 
but  it  must  also  be  remembered  that  a 
vessel  equipped  with  Diesel  engines  has 
a  cruising  radius  at  least  four  times  as 
great  as  a  steamship  having  the  same 
bunker  capacity.  The  latter  point  is  of 
particular  value  when  considered  in  con- 
nection with  war  vessels.  In  the  case 
of  passenger  and  cargo  boats,  the  re- 
duced space  occupied  by  the  machinery 
and  its  smaller  weight  are  equally  im- 
portant. Allowing  for  the  same  bunker 
space,  with  its  consequent  increased 
cruising  radius,  a  vessel  equipped  with 
Diesel  engines  has  15  per  cent,  more 
cargo  space  than  a  boat  fitted  with  a 
steam  engine,  and  with  the  same  cruis- 
ing radius  the  reduction  in  bunker  space 
renders  still  more  room  available  for 
cargo.  Stokers,  moreover,  are  entirely 
dispensed  with,  and  the  number  of  men 
required  in  the  engine  room  is  usually 
about  two-thirds  of  the  number  needed 
in  the  engine  room  of  a  steam  vessel. 

Although  the  principles  underlying 
the  Diesel  engine  are  simple,  its  design 
and  construction  demand  the  highest  en- 
gineering skill  and  its  present  state  of 
perfection  has  been  reached  only  after 
many  years  of  experiment  and  investi- 
gation. It  follows  that  the  engine,  al- 
though economical  to  run,  is  costly  to 
install,  and  as  a  result,  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  produce  a  modified  form 
of  the  engine  which  should  be  equal  to 
the  original  as  regards  fuel  economy,  but 
which  should  be  easier,  and  cheaper  to 
construct.  Most  of  these  modifications 
seek  to  avoid  the  high  compression  and 
high  pressure  air  blast  which  are  needed 
in  the  Diesel  engine,  and  several  very 
successful  types  have  been  designed. 
These  engines  are  commonly  knoA'/n  as 
"semi-Diesels".  Since  the  compression 
of  the  charge  is  comparatively  low  (vary- 


ing from  125  to  250  lbs.  per  square  inch), 
some  auxiliary  igniting  device  is  neces- 
sary. The  one  most  commonly  adopted 
is  the  so-called  "hot  bulb."  This  con- 
sists of  a  bulb-shaped  chamber,  com- 
municating with  the  combustion  cham- 
ber. A  portion  of  the  oil  fuel  is  sprayed 
into  this  bulb,  the  rest  being  delivered 
into  the  combustion  chamber.  The  oil 
in  the  bulb  is  heated,  at  starting,  by  a 
lamp,  and  is  thus  ignited.  The  flame 
produced  impinges  upon  and  ignites  the 
oil  spray  in  the  main  combustion  cham- 
ber. Once  the  engine  is  running,  the 
lamp  is  no  longer  needed,  as  the  ignition 
bulb  is  kept  hot  by  the  combustion  of  the 
fuel  within  it. 

DIE-SINKING,  the  art  of  making 
dies  for  coins,  medals,  etc.  It  is  a 
branch  of  engraving,  but  involves  turn- 
ing, tempering,  and  the  use  of  other 
tools  besides  the  graver. 

DIET,  a  meeting  or  assembly  of  dele- 
gates or  dignitaries  convened  and  held 
from  day  to  day  for  legislative,  ecclesi- 
astical, political,  or  administrative  pur- 
poses; specifically,  the  legislative  assem- 
blies of  the  former  German  Empire,  pro- 
vincial assemblies  of  Austria-Hungary, 
the  Cantons  of  Switzerland,  etc.  The 
Diet  of  the  German  Empire  was  com- 
posed of  three  colleges:  one  of  electors, 
one  of  princes,  and  one  of  imperial 
towns,  and  began  with  the  edict  of 
Charles  IV.  in  1356.  The  best  known 
meetings  were  those  at  Nuremberrr, 
1467,  Worms,  1521  (at  which  Luther 
was  excommunicated),  Spires,  1529,  and 
Augsburg,  1530. 

DIET,  a  course  of  eating  and  drink- 
ing, especially  when  followed  with  ref- 
erence to  hygienic  effect.  The  ideal 
diet  is  that  which,  without  burdening 
the  viscera  uselessly,  furnishes  all  neces- 
sary nutritive  elements,  with  due  con- 
sideration for  special  physiological  con- 
ditions in  any  given  case.  No  single 
substance  contains  all  the  elements,  in 
their  requisite  proportions,  needed  to 
replace  the  waste  of  nitrogenous  and 
non-nitrogenous  matter  in  the  daily 
functions  of  life,  and  a  mixed  diet  is 
therefore  necessary. 

The  nature  of  the  food  most  suitable 
for  a  healthy  man  is  dependent  in  part 
on  general  conditions,  such  as  climate 
and  season,  and  in  part  upon  special 
conditions  of  individual  habit.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  Arctic  regions  need 
large  quantities  of  oleaginous  food; 
those  of  the  tropics  live  chiefly  on 
starchy  products.  With  increased  ac- 
tivity and  exertion,  as  in  training,  an 
increase  in  the  nitrogenous  foods  be- 
comes necessary.     In  a  state  of  health 


DIFFERENTIAL   CALCUBUa 


360 


DIGBY 


the  quantity  rather  than  the  quality  of 
food  is  the  main  consideration.  Stewed 
and  boiled  meats  are  more  difficult  to 
digest  than  meat  cooked  by  fire  alone. 
The  flesh  of  young  animals  seems  to  be 
more  difficult  of  digestion  than  that  of 
old;  and  the  flesh  of  tame  than  that  of 
wild  animals.  All  sorts  of  fat  m^at 
must  be  taken  in  smaller  quantities. 
Hence,  also,  ham,  bacon,  and  salted 
meats  cannot  be  eaten  in  such  quantities 
as  the  tender  flesh  of  poultry.  Fish  has 
the  advantage  of  being  easily  soluble. 
All  boiled  vegetables  are  in  general  easy 
of  digestion;  raw  vegetables  and  salads 
are  more  difficult.  Fruit  should  be  taken 
in  the  forenoon  rather  than  after  a 
hearty  meal. 

In  all  diseases  attended  with  fever  the 
stomach  loathes  animal  food,  and  there 
is  generally  an  increase  of  thirst,  to 
quench  which  cool  water,  or  tepid,  or 
rendered  acid,  may  be  freely  indulged. 
Infusions,  too,  of  barley,  sage,  balm,  etc., 
may  be  taken.  In  chronic  diseases  at- 
tended with  hectic  fever,  milk  is  the  prop- 
er diet.  The  best  food  for  infants  is, 
of  course,  their  mother's  milk;  but  when 
they  begin  to  cut  teeth  a  little  animal 
food,  such  as  soft-boiled  eggs,  or  chicken 
minced  very  fine,  may  be  given. 

DIFFERENTIAL  CALCULUS,  that 
branch  of  mathematics  which  has  for  its 
object  the  explanation  of  the  method  of 
deriving  one  determinate  function  from 
another  by  the  process  of  differentiation. 
If  in  any  determinate  function  of  one 
variable  we  give  to  the  variable  a  con- 
stant increment,  and  find  the  correspond- 
ing increment  of  the  function,  and  then 
divide  the  increment  of  the  function  by 
the  increment  of  the  variable,  we  shall 
find  a  ratio  which  will  in  general  be  de- 
pendent upon  the  increment  of  the  vari- 
able. If  now  we  pass  to  the  limit  of  this 
ratio,  by  making  the  increment  of  the 
variable  equal  to  0,  we  shall  in  general 
obtain  a  function  of  the  original  vari- 
able, which  is  called  the  differential  co- 
efficient of  the  function.  If  this  be 
multiplied  by  the  differential  of  the  vari- 
able, the  result  is  called  the  differential 
of  the  function.  Any  function  of  a 
single  variable  will  have  one,  and  only 
one,  differential  coefficient,  and  conse- 
quently it  will  have  but  one  differential  of 
the  same  order.  The  differential  cal- 
culus consists  of  two  parts.  The  first 
embraces  the  science  of  the  differential 
calculus,  and  explains  the  methods  of 
finding  the  differentials  and  successive 
differentials  of  all  determinate  functions. 
The  second  treats  of  the  application  of 
the  differential  calculus  to  the  other 
branches  of  mathematics,  as  algebra, 
analytical  geometry,  etc.    See  Calculus. 


DIFFERENTIAL  THERMOMETER, 

an  instrument  for  determining  very  mi- 
nute differences  of  temperature.  Leslie's 
differential  thermometer  consists  of  two 
glass  bulbs  containing  air  connected  by 
a  bent  tube  containing  some  sulphuric 
acid,  the  movement  of  which  (as  the  air 
expands  and  contracts)  serves  to  indicate 
any  slight  difference  of  temperature  be- 
tween the  two  bulbs. 

DIFFRACTION,  a  term  applied  to 
certain  phenomena  connected  with  the 
modification  that  rays  of  light  undergo 
in  passing  close  to  the  edge  of  an  opaque 
body.  Thus  when  a  beam  of  direct  sun- 
light is  admitted  into  a  dark  room 
through  a  narrow  slit,  and  falls  upon  a 
screen  placed  to  receive  it,  there  appears 
a  line  of  white  light  bordered  by  colored 
fringes;  these  fringes  are  produced  by 
diffraction. 

DIFFUSION,  a  word  having  several 
applications.  (1)  The  act  of  diffusing  or 
spreading  about  of  a  liquid,  fluid,  etc.; 
(2)  a  spreading  or  diffusing  abroad  of  a 
matter;  (3)  the  state  of  being  spread  or 
dispersed  widely;  (4)  the  act  of  spread- 
ing, extending  or  propagating  widely,  as 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge;  (5)  copious- 
ness, exuberance  of  style,  prolixity,  ver- 
bosity. 

Diffusion  of  gases  is  the  passing  of 
one  gas  into  the  space  occupied  by  an- 
other. The  name  given  to  that  phenom- 
enon by  which  the  composition  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  kept  uniform,  or  nearly  so. 
Gases  diffuse  into  one  another  according 
to  a  fixed  law,  that  is,  inversely  as  the 
square  root  of  their  densities. 

Diffusion  of  heat  is  a  term  applied  to 
those  modes  by  which  the  equilibrium  of 
heat  is  effected — viz.,  conduction,  radia- 
tion, and  convention. 

Diffusion  of  liquids:  When  two  liquids 
that  are  capable  of  mixing  are  put  in 
contact  they  gradually  diffuse  one  into 
the  other,  notwithstanding  the  action  of 
gravity. 

DIGAMMA,  the  name  given  to  a  letter 
in  the  oldest  Greek  alphabet,  which  early 
fell  into  disuse,  being  retained  longest  in 
the  ^olian  dialect.  It  is  considered  to 
have  had  the  power  of  the  English  w  or 
V,  and  is  frequently  represented  in  Latin 
by  u  (v)  :  thus,  Gr.  oikos  =  hat.  vi<nis, 
Eng.  wick;  Gr.  omos  =  Lat.  vinum,  Eng. 
wine.     See  Alphabet. 

DIGBY,  a  small  seaport  of  Nova 
Scotia,  on  St.  Mary's  Bay,  reputed  for 
its  curing  of  a  variety  of  small  herrings 
or  pilchards   ("Nova  Scotia  sprats"). 

DIGBY,  SIR  KENELM.  an  English 
natural  philospher;  bom  in  Gayhurst, 
near   Newport   Pagnell,   July    11,    1603. 


DIGBY 


361 


DIGESTION 


His  father,  Sir  Everard  Digby  (1581- 
1606)  in  1592  came  into  a  large  estate, 
but  seven  yeai-s  later  turned  Catholic, 
and  was  hanged  as  a  Gunpowder  conspir- 
ator. A  "Life"  of  him  appeared  in  1896. 
Kenelm  himself  was  bred  a  Catholic,  but 
in  1618.  after  a  half-year  in  Spain,  en- 
tered Gloucester  Hall.  Oxford  (now  Wor- 
cester College).  At  Madrid  he  fell  in 
with  Prince  Charles,  and,  following  him 
back  to  England  was  knighted,  and  en- 
tered his  service.  In  1625  he  secretly 
maiTied  "that  celebrated  beautie  and 
courtezane,"  Venetia  Stanley  (1600- 
1633).  With  two  privateers  he  sailed  in 
1628  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  June 
11  vanquished  a  French  and  Venetian 
squadron  on  Scanderoon.  On  his  beloved 
wife's  death  he  withdrew  to  Gresham 
College,  and  thei'e  passed  two  hermit- 
like years,  diverting  himself  with  chem- 
istry. Meanwhile  he  had  turned  Prot- 
estant, but,  in  1636  he  announced  to  Laud 
his  reconversion;  and  his  tortuous  con- 
duct during  the  Great  Rebellion  was 
dictated,  it  seems,  by  his  zeal  for  Cathol- 
icism. He  was  imprisoned  by  the  Par- 
liament (1642-1643),  and  had  his  estate 
confiscated;  was  at  Rome  (1645-1647), 
and  thrice  revisited  England  (1649-1651- 
1654),  entering  into  close  relations  with 
Cromwell.  At  the  Restoration,  however, 
he  retained  his  office  of  chancellor  to 
Queen  Henrietta  Maria.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  members  of  the  Royal  Society 
(1663),  and  died  June  11,  1665. 

DIGBY,  KENELM  HENRY,  an  Eng- 
lish antiquarian ;  bom  in  1800,  the  young- 
est son  of  the  dean  of  Clonfert,  gradu- 
ated from  Trinity,  Cambridge,  in  1819, 
and  in  1822  published  "The  Broad  Stone 
of  Honour"  "that  noble  manual  for  gen- 
tlemen," as  Julius  Hare  called  it.  It 
was  much  altered  in  the  1828  and  subse- 
quent editions,  its  author  having  mean- 
while turned  Catholic.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, March  22,  1880.  Of  14  other  works 
(32  vols.  1831-1874)  eight  were  poetry. 

DIGESTION,  the  change  which  food 
undergoes  in  order  to  prepare  it  for  the 
nutrition  of  the  animal  frame.  It  is 
carried  on  in  the  higher  animals  in  the 
digestive  system.  In  some  of  the  lowest 
forms  of  animal  life  (amoebae)  which  have 
no  special  organs,  particles  of  food  are 
drawn  into  the  body  and  digested.  In 
higher  organisms  there  is  a  simple  pouch 
which  leads  inward  from  the  center  of 
the  cluster  of  tentacles;  into  this  fish  and 
other  food  are  drawn  and  digested,  while 
the  undigested  parts  are  afterward  voided 
through  the  same  aperture  by  which  they 
entered.  In  still  higher  organisms,  man 
himself  included,  this  simple  pouch  is 
changed  into  a  complex  and  greatly  elon- 
gated tube,  which  is  provided  with  one 


aperture  (the  mouth)  by  which  food 
enters,  and  another  aperture  (the  anus) 
through  which  undigested  matter  leaves 
the  body.     The  mouth  in  most  animals  is 


HUMAN  ALIMBNTAKY  CANAL 


CEsophagus 
Stomach 
Cardiac  orifice 
Pylorus 

Small  intestine 
Biliary  duct 


g.  Pancreatic  duct 
h.  Ascending  colon 
1.  Transverse  colon 
j.  Descending  colon 
k.  Rectum 


provided  with  hard  tissues — teeth,  beaks 
for  the  subdivision  of  food  before  it  is 
swallowed.  Vegetable  feeders,  eating 
tough  grains,  roots  and  fibers,  have  large 
molar  or  grinding  teeth,  while  the  carniv- 
ora  have  these  same  teeth  modified  so  as 


DIGESTION 


362 


DIGESTION 


to  present  a  cutting  edge,  with  which  and 
their  pointed  canines  meat  is  torn  and  cut 
into  pieces,  which  are  then  swallowed. 
Below,  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  passes  in- 
to the  gullet  or  oesophagus,  and  in  front  of 
this  tube  runs  the  windpipe.  Food  will 
pass  through  the  pharynx,  or  the  in- 
terior of  the  throat,  into  the  gullet;  and 
air,  during  respiration,  passes  through 
the  pharynx  on  into  the  larynx  and  wind- 
pipe; a  valve  called  the  epiglottis  partly 
closes  the  aperture  of  the  larynx. 

The  gullet  or  oesophagus  is  a  long  tube 
passing  from  the  pharynx  to  the  stomach. 
Its  mucous  coat  is  loaded  with  very  large 
glands  which  secrete  a  quantity  of  very 
viscid  mucus.  The  stomach  itself  is  a 
greatly  dilated  part  of  the  digestive 
system.  It  may  be  said  to  consist  of  two 
parts,  even  in  the  human  subject;  a  more 
complex  arrangement  is  found  in  many 
animals,  such  as  the  ruminants.  The 
large  dilated  portion  into  which  the  gullet 
opens  is  termed  cardiac,  and  the  opening 
the  cardiac  or  oesophalageal  opening.  The 
whole  is  lined  vdth  mucous  membrane, 
which,  in  the  empty  stomach,  is  thrown 
into  projecting  folds  or  rugae,  but  these 
folds  are  effaced  when  the  organ  is  dis- 
tended with  food.  In  the  membrane 
are  innumerable  glands  which  secrete 
the  digestive  juices  of  the  stomach.  The 
gastric  juice  is  acid,  and  the  chief  acid 
secreted  is  hydrochloric  acid.  The  sub- 
stance called  pepsin  which  is  necessary 
for  digestion,  is  secreted  by  the  whole  of 
the  glands. 

The  food  now  called  the  chyme  passes 
into  the  small  intestine,  a  tube  about  20 
feet  long.  This  tube,  besides  the  mus- 
cular and  mucous  coats,  possesses  an  ex- 
ternal coat  of  loose  fibi'ous  tissue,  covered 
by  a  single  layer  of  flat  cells.  This  coat 
is  prolonged  into,  and  helps  to  form  the 
mesentery,  a  membrane  connecting  the 
intestine  with  the  abdominal  walls.  This 
membrane  is  called  the  peritoneum.  The 
small  intestine  is  somewhat  arbitrarily 
divided  into  three  portions — the  upper 
(duodenum),  the  middle  (jejunum),  and 
the  lower  (ileum).  The  mucous  coat 
contains  glands  very  like  the  pyloric 
glands  of  the  stomach,  called  Lieber- 
kiihn's  follicles.  They  secrete  the  in- 
testinal juice.  In  the  duodenum  one 
finds  in  addition  highly  branded  glands 
called  Brunner's.  In  both  the  mucous 
and  submucous  coats,  and  generally  in- 
volving both  layers,  are  found  masses  of 
tiasue — lymphoid — similar  to  that  found 
in  a  Ijrmphatic  gland.  Their  func- 
tion is  probably  connected  with  the 
blood  and  the  blood  corpuscles.  Col- 
lections of  these  solitary  glands,  form- 
ing oblong  patches  about  two  inches 
long,  are  called  Peyer's  patches.  In 
addition  to  the  follicles   of   Lieberkuhn 


and  the  glands  of  Brunner,  there  are  two 
very  important  glandular  structures,  the 
liver  and  the  pancreas,  which  pour  their 
digestive  juices  into  the  small  intestine. 
The  bile,  which  is  the  secretion  of  the 
liver,  is  formed  continually  by  that  or- 
gan, but  the  amount  thus  formed  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  kind  and  quantity  of  food 
taken.  The  bile  is  to  be  looked  upon  not 
only  as  a  digestive  juice,  but  as  a  drain 
or  channel  of  excretion,  whereby  effete 
and  useless  matter  is  removed  from  the 
body.  The  pancreas  is  very  similar  in 
stinicture  to  a  salivary  gland.  It  se- 
cretes the  pancreatic  juice  which  pours 
with  the  bile  into  the  digestive  system. 
The  mucous  membrane,  of  the  small  in- 
testine contains,  in  addition  to  the  struc- 
tures already  mentioned,  little  projections 
called  villi.  These  are  important  absorb- 
ents. This  property  they  share  with 
the  whole  of  the  digestive  system  through 
any  part  of  which,  and  especially  through 
the  walls  of  the  stomach  and  small  in- 
testine, digested  matter  passes  into  the 
numerous  blood-capillaries  which  form 
everywhere  a  dense  network.  The  villi 
are  peculiar,  for  each  one  contains  in 
addition  to  blood-vessels  a  small  lymph- 
vessel  or  lacteal.  Nearly  all  the  fat 
absorbed  by  the  digestive  system  is  taken 
up  by  the  little  cells  of  the  villi,  and 
passes  on  into  the  lacteals  and  thence  to 
the  blood. 

The  unabsorbed  food,  mixed  with  the 
various  secretions  we  have  mentioned, 
now  passes  into  the  large  intestine, 
where  both  digestion  and  absorption  go 
on,  though  to  a  less  extent. 

When  food  is  taken  into  the  mouth  it 
is  at  once  swallowed,  unless  it  is  in  a 
solid  form.  In  this  case  it  is  chewed 
into  a  convenient  size  for  swallowing, 
for  which  purpose  it  is,  in  addition, 
mixed  viath  the  viscid  saliva  and  juices 
of  the  mouth.  Many  animals  can  hardly 
be  said  to  masticate;  such  are  the  car- 
nivora  (dog,  cat,  etc.),  and  they  are  not 
provided  with  grinding  teeth. 

As  a  result  of  mastication,  the  food 
is  gathered  in  the  form  of  a  round  moist 
bolus  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue. 
\t  is  now  ready  to  be  swallowed.  In  the 
llrst  place,  it  is  pushed  backward  by  the 
tongue  and  seized  by  muscles,  many  of 
which  are  attached  to  the  hyoid  bone. 

There  is  a  possibility  that  during 
swallowing  the  food  may  go  the  wrong 
way — i.  e.,  it  may  pass  into  the  larynx 
and  windpipe.  It  is  prevented  from 
passing  into  it  by  the  elevation  of  the 
larynx  which  pushes  its  aperture  against 
and  under  the  back  of  the  tongue,  which 
at  the  same  time  is  pushed  backward. 
In  addition,  there  is  a  valve  called  the 
epiglottis,  which  is  pushed  down  over  the 
larynx  by  the  movement  just  described 


DIGESTION 


363 


DIGESTION 


and  by  muscular  fibers,  which  act  upon 
it  for  that  especial  purpose.  The  walls 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines  are,  like 
the  gullet,  provided  with  muscular  fiber. 
An  external  layer  passes  in  the  length  of 
the  gut,  and  within  this  is  a  circular 
layer.  These  muscles  contract  slowly  on 
stimulation,  and  are  outside  the  domain 
of  voluntary  action.  During  the  diges- 
tion they  contract  peristaltically,  urging 
the  food  toward  the  rectum. 

In  many  animals,  such  as  the  sheep, 
ox,  and  camel,  the  stomach  consists  of 
several  cavities  communicating  with  one 
another.  In  the  ox  and  sheep  the  cardiac 
and  the  pyloric  portions  are  each  sub- 
divided into  two  compartments.  The 
cardiac  part  consists  of  a  very  dilated 
cavity,  the  paunch  (rumen),  into  which 
the  food  is  passed  as  soon  as  swallowed. 
In  addition  there  is  a  smaller  part,  the 
reticulum  (honeycomb)  so  called  from 
the  folds  of  lining  mucous  membrane 
which  intersects,  forming  a  reticulum. 
Thepyloric  half  is  divided  into  two  parts. 
The  psaltcrium  (maniplies),  so  called 
from  the  lamellated  appearance  of  its 
mucous  membi'ane,  communicates  with 
the  last  division,  the  rennet  stomach 
(abomasum).  Fluid  passes  either  into 
the  first,  second,  or  third  parts  of  the 
stomach,  and  thence  on  into  the  fourth. 
Solid  matter,  such  as  grass,  roots,  etc., 
passes  either  into  the  paunch  or  retic- 
ulum. This  is  mixed  with  the  saliva 
swallowed  with  it,  and  in  addition  it  is 
mixed  with  juices  formed  by  the  mucous 
membrane  of  these  cavities.  When  the 
animal  has  finished  feeding,  it  lies  down 
and  rumination  commences.  Due  in  part 
to  the  contraction  of  the  abdominal  mus- 
cles and  diaphragm,  the  food  is  propelled 
in  the  form  of  rounded  pellets  from  the 
paunch  and  reticulum  up  into  the  mouth. 
The  pellets  are  there  thoroughly  masti- 
cated, and  are  returned  in  a  pulpy  con- 
dition to  the  stomach.  Now,  however, 
the  food  passes  into  the  psalterium,  and 
into  the  rennet  stomach. 

The  most  essential  change  which  food 
undergoes  in  digestion  is  one  of  solution. 
Albumen,  starch,  fat,  and  other  food- 
stuffs are  insoluble  in  the  circulating 
fluids  of  the  body,  and  injected  into  the 
blood  they  would  block  up  the  smaller 
blood-vessels.  During  digestion  these 
pass  either  into  nearly  allied  chemical 
substances  which  are  readily  dissolved  in 
water,  or  in  the  case  of  fat  partly  into 
a  soluble  soap  and  partly  into  a  state  of 
microscopically  minute  subdivision. 

The  digestion  of  food  is  brought 
about  by  the  action  of  the  saliva,  the  gas- 
tric, pancreatic,  intestinal  and  other 
juices.  These  are  mixed  with  the  finely 
divided  food  by  the  movements  of  the 
alimentary  canal.     The  digestive  juices 


are  in  all  cases  secreted  by  the  micro- 
scopic cells  which  line  the  various  glands 
opening  into  the  digestive  system.  The 
digestive  fennents  are  not  whole  cells, 
they  are  the  products  of  cells. 

When  food  is  passed  into  the  stomach, 
secretion  occurs.  This  too  may  result 
from  mechanical  irritation,  as  when 
through  an  opening  (fistula)  the  mucous 
membrane  is  brushed  with  a  feather.  In 
all  cases  the  stomach,  pale  before,  be- 
comes suffused  with  blood,  and  the  gas- 
tric juice  is  poured  out.  The  flow  of  the 
intestinal  juice,  the  pancreatic  juice,  and 
bile  all  follow  the  stimulation  of  the  mu- 
cous membrane,  and  in  all  cases  the 
blood-vessels  enlarge  so  as  to  give  the 
cells  a  good  supply  of  food,  though,  as 
we  have  seen,  they  themselves  actually 
pass  into  a  condition  of  activity  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  influence  of  special  secreting 
nerves.     Foods   belong  to   four  classes: 

(1)  Proteids  —  albumens,  globulins, 
etc.;  e.  g.,  the  white  of  eg^,  the  chief 
constituent  of  meat,  the  gluten  of  bread. 

(2)  Carbohydrates  —  starches,  sugars, 
gums;  e.  g.,  potato-starch,  cane  or  grape 
sugar.  (3)  Fats  and  oils;  e.  g.,  suet, 
marrow,  olive  oil.  (4)  Minerals;  e.  g., 
water,  table  salt,  iron,  phosphates. 

Some  few  substances  are  absorbed 
without  being  digested  at  all;  they  do 
not  need  to  be.  Such  are  water  and  the 
minerals,  though  even  many  of  these  un- 
dergo some  change.  Grape-sugar  is  ab- 
sorbed and  probably  proteids  too  are  of- 
ten absorbed  to  some  extent  at  least.  Fat 
is  profoundly  modified  during  digestion, 
though  not  as  the  result  of  any  digest- 
ing ferment.  The  saliva,  of  which  about 
30  ounces  are  secreted  during  the  24 
hours,  contains  a  ferment  termed  ptya- 
lin,  which  is  capable  of  turning  a  starch 
into  a  soluble  sugar  called  grape-sugar, 
or,  according  to  other  observers,  into 
another  soluble  sugar  termed  maltose. 
When  the  food  has  reached  the  stomach 
and  the  acid  gastric  juice  has  mixed 
with  it,  the  saliva  is  unable  to  act  and 
is  probably  killed.  Any  digested  starch 
is  subsequently  converted  into  sugar 
when  the  food  reaches  the  small  intes- 
tines by  the  panci*eatic  juice. 

When  the  food  reaches  the  stomach  it 
causes  a  reflex  secretion  of  gastric  juice. 
This  is  but  slowly  produced  when  insipid 
heavy  food,  such  as  coagulated  white  of 
egg,  boiled  meat,  sago,  etc.,  is  eaten,  but 
flows  readily  when  soups,  broths,  and 
fluids  containing  salts  and  extractions  in 
abundance  are  taken.  The  gastric  juic-  . 
several  pounds  of  which  are  secreted 
daily,  is  acid  in  reaction  containing  free 
hydrochloric  acid.  In  addition  lactic  and 
butyric  acids  are  formed  during  the 
progress  of  digestion. 


DIGIT 


364 


DIKE 


Within  the  small  intestines  most  of  the 
food  undigested  by  the  stomach  is  ren- 
dered fit  for  absorption.  This  takes 
place  through  the  issue  of  the  mucous 
membrane;  much  of  the  sugar  and  pep- 
tones find  their  way  into  capillary  blood- 
vessels. Absorbed  pi'oducts  and  notably 
fat  globules,  pass  into  the  lactea^s,  and 
thence  into  the  blood,  circulating  through 
the  veins  at  the  root  of  the  neck. 

DIGIT  (a  finger),  a  term  applied  to 
the  10  symbols  of  number,  0,  1,  2,  etc., 
to  9;  thus  305  is  said  to  be  a  number  of 
three  digits.  Numbers  v^ere  originally 
indicated  by  the  fingers,  and  hence  the 
name.  Astronomers  use  digit  to  signify 
a  twelfth-part  of  the  diameter  of  the  sun 
or  moon,  and  speak  of  an  eclipse  of  seven 
digits,  meaning  that  seven-twelfths  of 
the  diameter  is  covered.    See  Notation. 

DIGITALIN,  CssHo^Oh,  a  glucoside 
found  in  the  leaves  of  Digitalis  purpurea 
(foxglove).  It  occurs  as  a  white,  amor- 
phous powder,  or  in  granular  masses, 
almost  insoluble  in  cold  water,  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol.  Used  in  medicine  as 
a  heart  stimulant,  and  in  Bright's  dis- 
ease. It  is  claimed  that  the  drug  is  not 
cumulative  in  its  action,  thereby  differ- 
ing from  various  preparations  of  digi- 
talis leaves.  In  large  doses  it  is  poison- 
ous, and  in  case  of  poisoning  emetics 
should  be  given,  followed  by  alcoholic 
stimulants  or  camphor. 

DIGITALIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  Scrophulariacese. 
They  are  natives  of  Europe  and  western 
Asia.  There  are  numerous  species,  all 
of  them  tall  herbs.  D.  jmrpurea  is  the 
common  foxglove.  The  dried  leaves  of 
the  foxglove  are  used  in  medicine,  as 
powder,  infusion,  or  tincture,  or  in  the 
form  of  the  active  principle,  digitalin. 
D.  purpurea  belongs  to  the  order  Soro- 
phulariacese,  and  is  very  useful  in  cases 
of  heart  disease.  The  powdered  leaves 
or  an  extract  of  D.  purpurea,  ochroleuca, 
laevigata,  fermginea,  and  other  species, 
in  overdoses  produce  vomiting,  vertigo, 
and  other  symptoms,  followed  even  by 
death. 

DIGITARIA,  finger-grass,  a  genus  of 
grasses  so  named  from  the  digitate 
spikes.  There  are  two  species:  D.  san- 
guinalis,  or  cock's-^foot  finger-grass,  and 
D.  Immifusa,  smooth  finger-grass. 

DIGITIGRADA.  a  section  of  the  order 
Carnivora,  comprising  the  lions,  tigers, 
cats,  dogs,  etc.,  in  which  the  heel  is 
raised  above  the  ground,  so  that  the  ani- 
mals walk  more  or  less  on  the  tips  of  the 
toes.  The  other  two  sections  are  the 
Pinrrigrada  and  the  Plantigrada.  The 
section  Digitigrada  is  divided   into  the 


families  Mustelidae,  Viverridm,  Camdx 
Hyssnidae,  and  Felidse.  The  first  two  are 
aberrant,  being  semiplantigrade. 

DIJON  (de-zhonO,  the  chief  town  in 
the  French  department  of  Cote-d'Or, 
formerly  capital  of  the  old  duchy  of 
Burgundy,  lies,  spread  out  on  a  fertile 
plain  at  the  foot  of  Mont  Afrique  (1,916 
feet),  at  the  junction  of  the  Ouche  and 
Suzon,  and  on  the  Canal  de  Bourgogne, 
196  miles  S.  E.  of  Paris  by  rail.  Its  im- 
portance as  a  railway  center  has  ren- 
dered it  of  consequence  in  the  inner  line 
of  French  defenses.  On  the  death  of 
Charles  the  Bold  it  came  with  Burgundy 
into  the  possession  of  France  in  1477. 
In  October,  1870,  after  a  sharp  engage- 
ment before  the  city,  Dijon  capitulated 
to  a  German  force.  There  was  again 
severe  fighting  here  in  January,  1871. 
Pop.  about  75,000. 

DIKE,  or  DYKE,  a  word  variously 
used  to  represent  a  ditch  or  trench,  and 
also  an  embankment,  rampart,  or  wall. 
It  is  specially  applied  to  an  embankment 
raised  to  oppose  the  incursions  of  the 
sea  or  of  a  river,  the  dikes  of  Holland 
being  notable  examples  of  works  of  this 
kind.  Laws  concerning  dikes  are  found 
in  the  old  Saxon  and  Swabian  codes.  The 
ancient  ordinances  concerning  dikes  rest 
for  the  most  part  on  the  unwritten  la-:v 
or  autonomy.  The  most  important  and 
complete  code  of  regulations  is  the  ordi- 
nance of  the  Duchy  of  Bremen  of  1743. 
Of  later  ordinances  the  Prussian  law  of 
Jan.  28,  1848,  and  the  so-called  "Deich- 
ordnung"  for  the  Duchy  of  Oldenburg, 
June  8,  1855,  are  notable.  Owing  to  the 
possibility  of  great  loss  of  property  and 
of  life,  the  punishment  of  all  neglect  or 
for  malicious  mischief  to  dikes  is  ex- 
tremely severe.  The  dikes  which  protect 
the  Netherlands  and  the  German  coasts 
of  the  North  Sea  go  back  to  the  old 
Roman  times.  Apparently  even  _  before 
the  Romans  appeared  the  Batavians  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  protected  them- 
selves by  dikes.  Drusus  after  the  con- 
quest of  Holland,  10  b.  C,  built  an  elab- 
orate system  of  artificial  canals  and 
dikes.  Pliny  the  Elder  gives  interesting 
descriptions*  of  the  artificial  hills,  which 
were  erected  at  places  of  refuge  during 
the  floods.  In  the  10th  and  11th  cen- 
turies the  archbishops  in  Bremen  sum- 
moned the  native  inhabitants  to  the 
building  of  dikes  to  protect  the  marshes 
of  Bremen. 

Among  the  provinces  in  north  and 
south  Holland  which  have  been  protected 
bv  dikes  may  be  mentioned  the  province 
of  Hanover,  618  miles,  protecting  770,000 
acres  of  marsh  land.  On  the  left  bank 
of  the  Oder  river  there  is  a  dike  which 


DILKE 


365 


DILLON 


protects  more  than  170,000  acres  of  land. 
The  dike  at  the  delta  of  the  Vistula  pro- 
tects 134,000  acres  of  land.  On  the  lower 
Rhine,  between  the  Wesel  and  Holland 
are  115,000  acres  protected  by  dikes. 
Along  the  Loire  river  are  280  miles  pro- 
tecting 230,000  acres.  Along  the  Po 
there  are  310  miles  protecting  850,000 
acres.  In  England  there  are  1,750,000 
acres  protected  by  dikes. 

In  the  United  States  the  term  dike  is 
almost  wholly  restricted  to  the  structures 
of  more  or  less  permanence  built  in  va- 
rious ways  in  the  bed  of  a  stream  to 
regulate  its  flow,  narrow  the  low  water 
cross  section,  concentrate  the  current,  in- 
crease its  local  scouring  effect  and  there- 
by deepen  the  river  channel.  The  earthen 
embankments  designed  to  restrain  the 
flood  waters  are  called  levees.  The  most 
notable  examples  are  found  along  the 
Mississippi  river  where  it  winds  its  way 
through  the  alluvial  plain  which  it  has 
built  up  below  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio 
river.  These  levees  are  placed  some  lit- 
tle distance  back  from  the  river,  and 
according  to  the  local  conditions  vary  in 
height  from  two  or  three  feet  to  over  20 
feet.  In  1850  the  General  Government 
granted  to  some  of  the  States  certain 
public  swamp  lands,  the  revenue  from 
which  was  to  be  used  in  levee  building. 
With  the  exception  of  this  aid  from  the 
United  States,  all  levees  up  to  1882  were 
built  by  funds  raised  by  local  taxation  of 
the  lands  to  be  benefited  and  adminis- 
tered by  levee  boards  organized  under 
State  laws.  Since  1882  the  General  Gov- 
ernment has  pursued  the  policy  of  aid- 
ing the  local  levee  boards  in  raising  and 
strengthening  their  levees. 

DILKE,  SIR  CHAHLES  WENT- 
WORTH,  an  English  publicist  and  criti- 
cal and  political  writer;  born  in  London, 
Sept.  4,  1843.  A  brilliant  but  checkered 
political  career  has  been  varied  by  liter- 
ary work:  "Greater  Britain"  (1868),  a 
record  of  travel  in  the  English  colonies; 
"Problems  of  Greater  Britain"  (1890), 
political  and  economic  studies;  and  vari- 
ous essays  on  current  topics,  worthy  in 
conception  and  charming  in  style.  He 
died  in  1911. 

DILL  {Anethum  graveolens) ,  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Umbel- 
liferse  or  Apiacex.  The  seeds,  or  rather 
fruits,  which  are  imported  from  the  mid- 
dle or  S.  of  Europe,  are  oval,  flat,  and 
about  a  line  and  a  half  in  length,  with 
a  pale  membranous  margin.  They  are 
stimulant  and  carminative,  and  furnish 
a  pale-yellow  aromatic  oil.  Dill-water  is 
used  as  a  remedy  in  flatulence  and  gripes 
of  children,  and  the  fruit  to  flavor  pickles. 

DILLENIACE^,  an  order  of  plants 
found  chiefly  in  Australia,  Asia,  and  the 


warm  parts  of  America.  They  are  nearly 
related  to  the  Ranunctdaceiv.  The  species 
are  trees,  shrubs,  or  under-shrubs.  The 
Indian  species  are  remarkable  for  their 
beauty,  the  grandeur  of  their  foliage,  and 
the  magnificence  of  their  flowers.  They 
have  astringent  properties,  and  some  of 
the  species  aff^ord  excellent  timber.  Lind- 
ley  enumerated  26  genera,  comprising  200 
species. 

DILLON,  JOHN,  an  Irish  politician; 
son  of  John  Blake  Dillon  (1816-1866), 
who  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Young  Ireland  party,  and  member  of  the 


JOHN  DILLON 

British  Parliament  for  County  Tipperary 
in  1865-1866;  born  in  New  York,  in  1851; 
was  educated  at  the  Catholic  University 
of  Dublin,  after  which  he  became  a  doc- 
tor. He  early  identified  himself  with  the 
Parnellite  movement,  and  in  1880  was 
elected  to  Parliament  for  County  Tip- 
perary. In  the  House  of  Commons  Dil- 
lon soon  became  prominent  for  the 
violence  of  his  language,  while  speeches 
delivered  by  him  in  Ireland  led  to  his 
imprisonment  in  1881,  1881-1882.  and 
1888.  From  1883  to  1885  he  was  absent 
24 — Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


DIMENSION 


366 


DINORNIS 


from  political  life  on  account  of  ill- 
health;  but  in  the  latter  year  he  re- 
appeared, and  was  elected  for  East  Mayo. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  pro- 
moters of  the  "Plan  of  Campaign."  In 
1896  he  succeeded  Justin  McCarthy  as 
chairman  of  the  main  section  of  the  Na- 
tionalist party.  In  1901  he  accepted  the 
leadership  of  John  Redmond  in  the  recon- 
stituted nationalist  party,  and  worked 
actively  as  his  lieutenant. 

DIMENSION,  in  algebra,  a  literal 
factor  of  a  product  or  term;  also  called 
a  degree;  thus  a'b  is  an  expression  of 
three  dimensions.  A  simple  equation  is 
said  to  be  of  one  dimension.  A  quadratic 
of  two,  a  cubic  of  three,  and  so  on.  In 
geometry,  extension  in  a  single  line  or 
direction.  A  line  is  extended  in  one 
direction,  or  has  one  dimension,  that  is 
length;  a  surface  is  extended  in  two 
directions,  or  has  two  dimensions,  length 
and  breadth;  a  solid  is  extended  in  three 
directions,  or  has  three  dimensions, 
length,  breadth,  and  height  or  thickness. 

DIMORPHISM,  the  power  of  assum- 
ing or  crystallizing  in  two  distinct  forms. 
Sulphur,  for  instance,  which  usually  crys- 
tallizes in  the  rhombic  system^  when 
melted,  may  form  monoclinohedric  crys- 
tals. The  same  chemical  substance  may 
form  two  or  even  more  distinct  bodies  or 
mineral  species.  Thus  carbon  in  one 
form  is  the  diamond,  in  another  graphite; 
and  carbonate  of  lime  appears  as  calc- 
spar  or  as  arragonite. 

DINAN,  a  town  in  the  department  of 
C6tes-du-Nord,  France,  situated  on  the 
Ranee,  15  miles  S.  of  Saint-Malo.  It 
has  an  old  castle,  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Sauveur,  and  a  valuable  museum.  The 
manufactures  include  agricultural  imple- 
ments, linen,  wooden  goods,  barges,  cider 
and  sugar.  The  town  has  relics  going 
back  to  the  Romans.    Pop.  about  12,000. 

DINANT,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the 
province  of  Namur.  It  is  on  the  Meuse 
river.  Prior  to  the  World  War  it  had 
many  noteworthy  buildings,  including 
the  church  of  Notre-Dame,  and  the  city 
hall,  which  was  once  the  palace  of  the 
princes  of  Liege.  There  were  important 
manufactures,  including  paper  mills, 
carpet  factories,  breweries,  tanneries, 
etc.  The  city  was  notable  for  its  pro- 
duction of  metal  ware  and  glass  work. 
Dinant  suffered  severely  during  the  Ger- 
man invasion  of  Belgium  in  1914.  Pop. 
about  8,000. 

DINARIC  ALPS,  the  name  applied  to 
the  mountains  connecting  the  Julian  Alps 
with  the  Balkan  system.  The  main  range 
stretches  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  separating 
Dalmatia  from  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Narenta;  and 


a  minor  chain  extends  through  the  Dal- 
matian coast  country.  The  mountains 
are  principally  calcareous;  the  highest 
summits  are  Orjen  (6,225)  and  Dinara 
(5,940),  and  the  mean  height  is  2,300 
feet. 

D'INDY  (PAUL  MARIE  THEO- 
DORE), VINCENT,  a  French  composer, 
He  was  born  at  Paris,  1851,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  Paris  schools,  becoming  a  pupil 
of  Cesar  Franck  for  musical  composition, 
and  chief  of  the  choirs  of  the  Concerts 
Colonne,  1874.  He  received  the  Grand 
Post  for  musical  composition  in  1885  and 
was  the  founder,  with  Charles  Bordes, 
of  tLs  Schola  Cantorum,  of  which  he 
continued  director  after  Bordes'  death. 
He  was  professor  at  the  Conservatoire 
and  a  member  of  the  Commission  de  I'En- 
seignment  musical  of  Paris.  His  publica- 
tions include:  "Franck,"  "Beethoven"; 
musical)  "La  Legende  de  Saint  Chris- 
tophe,"  a  sacred  drama,  "Le  Chant  de  la 
Cloche";  3  symphonies;  and  other  works. 

DINGLEY,  NELSON,  an  American 
legislator;  born  in  Durham,  Me.,  Feb. 
15,  1832.  He  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1855;  was  elected  to 
the  State  Legislature  six  times;  was  gov- 
ernor of  Maine  in  1874-1875 ;  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1881,  and  was  re-elected 
for  seven  terms.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  Dingley  Tariff  Bill  of  1897,  and  a 
member  of  the  Anglo-American  Com- 
mission of  1898.  He  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  Jan.  13,  1899. 

DINKA,  a  powerful  tribe  of  Negritos 
who  lived  on  both  sides  of  the  White 
Nile  between  lat.  6°  and  12°  N.  Their 
territory  covers  60,000  square  miles. 
They  are  intelligent,  have  some  skill  in 
making  articles  for  household  use,  and 
also  follow  agriculture.  Each  village  is 
governed  by  its  own  chief. 

DINOCERATA,  an  order  of  mammalia 
having  on  each  of  the  four  feet  five  well- 
developed  toes,  each  terminated  by  a 
hoof.  Three  horn  cores.  No  upper  in- 
cisors; upper  canines  assuming  the  form 
of  long  tusks  directed  downward.  The 
species  are  large  mammals  from  the 
Eocene  of  North  America.  Professor 
Cope  ranks  the  Dinocerata  as  an  aberrant 
group  of  Ungidata,  while  Professor 
Marsh  considers  them  a  distinct  order  in- 
termediate between  the  PerissofLactyle 
Ungnlata  and  the  Proboscidea. 

DINORNIS.  or  DEINORNIS,  a  genus 
of  fossil  birds,  founded  by  Professor 
Owen,  and  published  by  him  in  1839. 
Subsequent  discoveries  have  brought  to 
light  several  species  of  Dinornis,  and 
some  allied  genera.  D.  giganteus  was 
from  10  to  11  or  12  feet  high;  D. 
stuthioides  was  7  feet,  or  €h§  height  of 


DINOSATTRIA 


367 


DIOCLETIAN 


an  ostrich  of  moderate  size ;  D.  dromioides 
5  feet,  or  that  of  the  emu;  and  D.  didi- 
formis  4  feet,  or  between  the  cassowary 
and  the  dodo. 

DINOSAUBIA,  a  tribe  or  sub-order  of 
reptiles  established  by  Herman  von 
Meyer  in  1832,  and  subsequently  called 
jy  him  Pachypodes,  or  Pachypoda.  In 
1841  Professor  Owen  gave  them  the  name 
which  they  still  retain,  Dinosauria.  Hux- 
ley places  them  as  one  of  two  sub-orders 
under  his  order  Oi'nithoscelida,  and  thus 
defines  them:  Cervical  vertebrae  short, 
femur  as  long  as  or  longer  than  the  tibia. 
Huxley  divides  them  into  three  families : 
the  Megalosauridse,  the  Sceiidosauridse, 
and  the  Iguanodontidse. 


Ohio  Valley  and  the  erection  of  forts  to 
secure  the  W.  frontier  against  the 
French.  He  was  one  of  the  most  earnest 
supporters  of  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  which  began  about  1753  and  lasted 
10  years.  He  died  in  Clifton,  England, 
Aug.  1,  1770. 

DIOCESE,  the  territorial  district  or 
portion  of  the  Church  forming  the 
spiritual  jurisdiction  of  a  bishop.  Even 
as  early  as  the  New  Testament  history 
we  find  some  plain  indications  of  the 
rise  of  the  diocesan  system,  in  the  cases 
respectively  of  James,  Bishop  of  Jerusa- 
lem; Timothy,  Bishop  of  Ephesus;  Titus, 
of  Crete;  to  whom  may  be  added  the 
angels  or  bishops  of  the  Seven  Churches 


DINOSAUR 


DINOTHERIUM,  or  DINOTHERE,  a 
genus  of  fossil  mammals  belonging  to  the 
order  Proboscidea  (Kaup,  Huxley,  and 
others),  or  to  the  order  Cetacea,  and  the 
sub-order  Sirenia  (Blainville,  Pictet, 
Carpenter,  Dallas,  and  others) ,  The  D. 
giganteum,  of  which  the  entire  skull  and 
lower  jaws  were  found  in  Miocene  sand 
at  Eppelsheim  on  the  Rhine  by  Klip- 
stein,  and  were  described  by  Kaup,  was 
apparently  larger  than  the  elephant.  Its 
tusks,  which  projected  from  the  lower 
jaw,  curved  downward,  and  were  used 
by  the  animal,  which  was  semi-aquatic, 
to  support  its  head  on  the  shore.  It  is 
believed  that  it  had  a  short,  flexible 
trunk. 

DINWIDDIE,  ROBERT,  a  British 
official  and  ieutenant-governor  of  Vir- 
ginia in  1752-1758;  born  in  Scotland, 
about  1690.  During  his  official  career 
he  recommended  the  annexation  of  the 


in  Asia.  The  name  of  diocese  was  not 
given  till  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury. Previous  to  that  period  they  were 
denominated  parochia. 

DIOCLETIAN  C.  VALERIUS  DIO- 
CLETIANUS  (surnamed  Jovius),  a  man 
of  mean  birth,  a  native  of  Dalmatia, 
proclaimed  Emperor  of  Rome  by  the 
army  in  284  A  D.  He  defeated  Carinus 
in  Moesia  (286),  conquered  the  Al- 
lemanni,  and  was  generally  beloved  for 
the  goodness  of  his  disposition;  but  was 
compelled  by  the  dangers  threatening 
Rome  to  share  the  government  with  M. 
Aurelius  Valerius  Maximian.  In  292  C. 
Galerius  and  Constantius  Chlorus  were 
also  raised  to  a  share  in  the  empire, 
which  was  thus  divided  into  four  parts. 
Diocletian  administered  Thrace,  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  Asia.  As  the  result  of  his 
reconstitution  of  the  empire  the  barbari- 
ans   were    driven    back    from    all    the 


DIOCLETIAN,  BATHS  OF 


368 


DIOMEDES 


frontiers,  and  Roman  power  restored 
from  Britain  to  Egypt.  In  305,  in  con- 
junction with  Maximian,  he  resigned  the 
imperial  dignity  at  Nicomedia,  and  re- 
tired to  Salona  in  Dalmatia,  where  he 
died  in  313.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign  he  was  induced  to  sanction  a  per- 
secution of  the  Christians. 

DIOCLETIAN,  BATHS  OF.  See 
Baths  of  Diocletian. 

DIODON,  a  genus  of  toleostean  fish, 
family  Gyyn-nodontes,  order  Plectognathi, 
deriving  their  name  from  the  fact  that 
the  ivory-clad  terminations  of  the  jaws 
show  no  suture,  and  the  fish  thus  appear 
to  possess  but  two  teeth.  The  body,  as 
in  other  members  of  the  family,  can  be 
inflated  with  air  till  the  creature  floats 
on  the  surface  of  the  water  under  side 
uppermost;  it  is  likewise  covered  with 
ossifications  in  the  skin.  The  rotundity 
of  these  fish  has  earned  for  them  the 
name  of  globe-fish,  or  prickly  globe-fish, 
and  sea  hedgehog.  The  four  species  of 
diodon  are  found  in  all  the  seas  between 
the  tropics,  and  range  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  largest  species  (D. 
hystrix)  attains  the  length  of  two  feet 
six  inches. 


dividual  (female)  and  the  spermatozoid 
by  another  (male).  It  is  opposed  to 
monoecious. 

DIOGENES  (di-oj'e-nez),  a  celebrated 
Greek  cynic;  was  a  native  of  Sinope,  in 
Pontus,  where  he  was  born  413  B.  C 
He  was  banished  from  his  country  for 
coining  false  money,  and  repaired  to 
Athens,  where  he  studied  philosophy 
under  Antisthenes.  He  walked  about 
the  streets  with  a  tub  on  his  head,  in 
which  it  is  said  he  lodged  at  night.  Being 
on  a  voyage,  he  was  taken  by  pirates 
and  sold  into  slavery  at  Corinth,  where 
he  became  tutor  to  the  sons  of  a  rich 
citizen,  but  died  in  the  greatest  misery, 
324  B.  C.  The  inhabitants  of  Sinope 
raised  statues  to  his  memory,  and  the 
marble  figure  of  a  dog  was  placed  on  a 
high  column  erected  on  his  tomb. 

DIOMEDEA  (after  Diomedes,  one  of 
the  Greek  warriors  before  Troy),  a 
genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the  Procel- 
laridse,  or  petrels.  D.  exulans  is  the 
albatross. 

DIOMEDE  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  three 
small  islands  in  Bering's  Strait,  and  mid- 
way between  Asia  and  America. 


'"^^K 


^^^tS.^7?^^ 


DINOTHERIUM 


DIODORUS  SICTJLUS,  a  native  of 
Agyrium,  in  Sicily,  who  wrote  a  "Uni- 
versal History"  in  40  books,  of  which 
only  15  books  and  a  few  fragments  re- 
main.    He  flourished  about  B.  C.  10. 

DICECIOUS  (di-e'shus) ,  in  botany,  a 
term  applied  to  unisexual  plants,  such 
as  the  willow  and  the  hemp,  in  which  the 
staminiferous  and  pistilliferous  flowers 
are  on  separate  individuals.  In  zoology, 
a  term  applied  to  those  animals  in  which 
the  sexes  are  distinct;  that  is,  those  in 
Vrhich  the  ovum  is  produced  by  one  in- 


DIOMEDES  (di-o-me'dez),  in  Greek 
mythology,  (1)  a  king  of  the  Bistones, 
who  fed  his  horses  on  human  flesh,  and 
used  to  throw  all  strangers  who  entered 
his  territories  to  those  animals  to  be 
devoured.  He  was  killed  by  Hercules, 
who  carried  off  the  horses.  (2)  One  of 
the  heroes  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  the  son 
of  Tydeus  and  Deipyle,  and  King  of 
Argos,  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen.  After 
she  was  carried  off  Diomedes  engaged 
in  the  expedition  against  Troy,  in  which 
his  courage  and  the  protection  of  Pal- 


DION^A 


369 


DIOSCOREACE^ 


las  rendered  him  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished heroes.  He  wounded  Aphro- 
dite and  Ares,  and  thrice  assailed  Apollo; 
and  by  carrying  off  the  horses  of 
Rhoesus  from  the  enemies'  tents,  and  aid- 
ing Ulysses  in  the  removal  of  Philoctetes 
from  Lemnos,  he  fulfilled  two  of  the  con- 
ditions on  which  alone  Troy  could  be  con- 
quered. Finally  he  was  one  of  the  heroes 
concealed  in  the  wooden  horse  by  whom 
the  capture  of  Troy  was  at  length  ac- 
complished. Different  accounts  were 
given  of  his  after-life.  He  is  often  called 
Diomede. 


DIOGENES 

DION.aiA  (Gr.  Dione,  one  of  the  names 
of  Venus),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Droseracese.  It 
consists  of  a  single  species,  D.  muscipida, 
commonly  called  Venus'  fly-trap.  The 
lamina  is  articulated  to  the  pedicle,  and 
consists  of  two  portions  united  together 
by  a  joint  along  the  midrib.  On  the  upper 
side  of  each  part  of  the  lamina  are  situ- 
ated three  irritable  hairs,  which,  on  being 
touched,  cause  the  folding  of  the  divisions 
from  below  upward,  so  as  to  inclose  any 
object.  The  food  thus  captured  is  di- 
gested by  the  action  of  a  fluid  resembling 
gastric  juice.  Venus'  fly-trap  is  a 
native  of  the  United  States. 

DIONYSIUS,  a  historian  and  critic  of 
Plalicamassus,  in  Caria,  who  was  invited 
to  Rome  about  30  B.  c,  and  there  wrote 
his  "Roman  Antiquities."    Other  works 


are  "De  Compositione  Verborum,"  and 
the  "Structure  of  Language."  Lived  in 
the  1st  century,  dying  about  7  B.  c. 

DIONYSIUS  I.,  the  Elder,  tryant  of 
Syracuse;  was  born  430  B.  c.  He  served 
in  the  war  with  the  Carthaginians,  got 
himself  appointed  general,  and,  in  405, 
sole  emperor  and  head  of  the  republic. 
He  formed  a  powerful  bodyguard,  con- 
quered other  cities  of  Sicily,  carried  on 
war  with  the  Carthaginians,  and  after 
making  peace  with  them  in  392,  invaded 
Italy  and  subdued  several  of  the  Greek 
cities  of  the  south.  He  was  afterward 
again  at  war  with  Carthage.  Dionysius, 
like  some  other  tyrants,  was  a  patron 
of  literary  men  and  artists,  aspired  to 
literary  fame,  and  contended  for  the 
prize  at  the  Olympic  games.  He  erected 
many  fine  temples.     He  died  in  367. 

DIONYSIUS  II.,  the  Younger,  tyrant 
of  Syracuse,  was  son  of  the  preceding, 
and  succeeded  him,  367  B.  c.  Idly 
brought  up,  he  was  for  a  time  restrained 
from  excesses  by  the  influence  of  Dion 
and  Plato.  His  subsequent  treatment  of 
Dion  and  his  family  led  to  his  own  over- 
throw in  356.  He  went  to  Italy  and  ob- 
tained the  chief  power  at  Locri,  and 
after  10  years'  absence  returned  and  re- 
gained his  throne  at  Syracuse.  A  final 
end  was  put  to  his  tyi'anny  by  the  noble 
Greek  Timoleon,  343,  and  he  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  exile  at  Corinth. 

DIONYSUS,  or  DIONYSOS  (di-5-nr 
sus),  the  Greek  god  of  wine,  son  of  Zeus 
and  Semele.  Zeus  appearing  to  Semele 
in  thunder  and  lightning  so  affrighted 
her  as  to  cause  the  premature  birth  of 
Dionysus.  Zeus  carried  the  babe  in  his 
thigh,  and  when  it  came  to  maturity 
placed  it  in  Ino's  care.  Dionysus  wan- 
dered over  the  world  teaching  the  culti- 
vation of  the  vine.  One  of  his  surnames 
was  Bacchus. 

DIOPTRICS,  that  branch  of  geometri- 
cal optics  which  treats  of  the  transmis- 
sion of  rays  of  light  from  one  medium 
into  another  differing  in  kind.  It  con- 
sists of  the  results  of  the  application 
of  geometry  to  ascertam  in  particular 
cases  the  action  of  what  are  called  the 
laws  of  refraction. 

DIORITE,  a  granite-like  rock,  con- 
sisting of  hornblende  and  albite.  It  is 
grayish-white  to  nearly  black  in  color. 
It  derives  its  name  from  being  unmistak- 
ably or  clearly  defined,  as  distinguished 
from  dolerite. 

DIOSCOREACE^,  a  natural  order  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  class  Dictyogcns, 
consisting  of  twining  shrubs.  Lindley 
enumerates  six  genera  and  110  species, 
Testudinaria  Elephantipes  is  the  tortoise 


DIOSCUBl 


370 


DIPHTHEBIA 


plant  of  the  Cape,  or  elephant's-foot. 
Tamus  communis,  black  bryony,  is  com- 
mon in  hedge-rows. 

DIOSCURI  (di-os'ku-ri),  the  classical 
name  for  Castor  and  Pollux,  twin  broth- 
ers (Pollux  being  the  son  of  Zeus)  and 
tutelary  deities  of  wrestlers,  horsemen, 
and  navigators.  Their  transplantation 
to  the  sky  as  one  of  the  12  constellations 
of  the  zodiac  (the  Twins)  is  a  celebrated 
allegory  of  mythology.  They  are  some- 
times styled  Tyndaridae,  because  Tynda- 
rus  was  the  nominal  father  of  both, 

DIOSMA,  a  genus  of  plants,  belonging 
to  the  Rutaceaz  or  rue  family.  They  are 
small  shrubs  with  white  or  red  flowers; 
leaves  alternate  or  opposite,  simple.  They 
are  remarkable  for  their  overpowering 
and  penetrating  odor,  arising  from  the 
presence  of  a  yellowish  volatile  oil.  They 
are  the  Bucku  plants  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  plant  has  been  employed  in 
chronic  affections  of  the  bladder  and  uri- 
nary organs  in  general,  and  has  also  been 
administered  in  cholera. 

DIOSPYROS,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  Ebenaeese. 
They  consist  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with 
white  or  pale  yellow  flowers.  D.  lotos  is 
the  Indian  date  plum,  and  is  supposed  by 
some  to  be  the  lotus  of  the  ancients.  The 
trees  of  several  of  the  species  furnish 
ebony  wood.  The  fruit  of  D.  kaki  is  oc- 
casionally brought  from  China  as  a  dry 
sweetmeat,  and  D.  virginiana  is  the  date 
plum,  the  bark  of  which  is  employed  as  a 
febrifuge,  along  the  Mississippi,  in  cases 
of  cholera  infantum  and  diarrhoea.  A 
kind  of  cider  has  been  made  from  this 
fruit,  and  a  spirituous  liquor  distilled 
from  its  fermented  infusion. 

DIP,  the  inclination  or  angle  at  which 
strata  slope  or  dip  downward  into  the 
earth.  This  angle  is  measured  from  the 
plane  of  the  horizon  or  level,  and  may  be 
readily  ascertained  by  the  clinometer. 
The  opposite  of  dip  is  rise,  and  either  ex- 
pression may  be  used,  according  to  the 
position  of  the  observer. 

DIPHTHERIA,  a  contagious  and  (in 
its  severe  forms)  malignant  disease, 
caused  by  a  specific  bacillus  and  gen- 
erally characterized  by  the  formation  of 
a  fibrinous  false  membrane  in  the  throat. 
Although  previously  observed,  it  was  first 
clearly  described  in  1826  by  M.  Breton- 
neau  of  Tours  under  the  name  of  "diph- 
terite,"  as  a  form  of  very  fatal  sore 
throat  occurring  chiefly  in  children.  It 
is  now  known  that  most  cases  of  mem- 
branous croup  are  identical  with  diph- 
theria. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  usually 
from  two  to  seven  days.  The  disease  be- 
gins by  malaise,  feeling  of  chilliness,  loss 


of  appetite,  headache  and  more  or  less 
fever;  soon  the  throat  feels  hot  and  pain- 
ful and  the  neck  is  stiff  and  tender.  If 
seen  early,  the  throat  is  red  and  swollen, 
but  a  false  membrane  of  yellowish  or 
grayish  color  quickly  appears  in  spread- 
ing patches,  usually  first  on  the  tonsils, 
whence  it  often  spreads  to  the  pillars  of 
the  fauces,  uvula  and  back  of  the  throat, 
and  may  even  extend  down  the  oesopha- 
gus or  gullet;  extension  of  the  membrar.e 
into  the  nasal  cavities  is  a  grave  symp- 
tom. There  is  usually  enlargement  of 
the  glands  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  and 
albuminuria  generally  occurs  at  some 
stage  of  the  disease.  Diphtheritic  mem- 
brane may  be  formed  on  any  mucous  sur- 
face, or  even  on  a  wound;  if  it  extends 
into  the  larynx  it  gives  rise  to  cough  and 
difficulty  in  breathing.  The  throat  af- 
fection is  often  accompanied  by  a  low 
and  very  dangerous  form  of  fever,  vdth 
quick,  feeble  pulse  and  great  and  rapid 
loss  of  the  patient's  strength,  which  is 
still  further  reduced  by  the  inability  to 
take  food;  in  other  cases,  the  disease  is 
fatal  by  paralysis  of  the  heart  or  by  suf- 
focation, due  to  invasion  of  the  larynx. 
Invasion  of  the  larynx  may  necessitate 
intubation  or  tracheotomy.  After  the 
acute  disease  is  over,  the  recovery  may 
be  delayed  by  paraljrtic  symptoms  of  vari- 
ous kinds;  or  simply  by  extreme  debility 
with  exhaustion  and  loss  of  appetite.  In 
the  early  stages  of  convalescence  there 
is  danger  of  sudden  heart  failure  upon 
exertion. 

Diphtheria  is  contagious.  It  may  occur 
as  a  complication  of  scarlet  fever,  mea- 
sles, and  other  infectious  diseases.  All 
gradations  in  the  intensity  of  xhe  disease 
from  mild  sore  throat  to  septic  and  gan- 
grenous forms  occur.  Damp  and  tem- 
perate climates  seem  to  favor  its  develop- 
ment. Insanitary  conditions  favor  its  oc- 
currence, but  the  disease  may  appear 
under  the  most  favorable  hygienic  sur- 
roundings. 

True  diphtheria  is  now  known  to  be 
caused  by  a  specific  bacillus  called  bacil- 
lus diphthericB,  or  the  Klebs-Loffler  ba- 
cillus. Thif  bacillus  was  first  recognized 
by  Klebs  in  1883  by  microscopical  exami- 
nation of  diphtheritic  membranes,  but  it 
was  first  successfully  cultivated  by  Loffler 
in  1884.  Its  causal  relation  to  the  dis- 
ease was  not  thoroughly  established  till 
the  investigations  of  Roux  and  Yersin  in 
1888,  who  demonstrated  the  existence  of 
a  peculiar  and  intensely  poisonous  sub- 
stance known  as  the  diphtheria  toxin.  It 
is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  Klebs- 
Loffler  bacillus  is  the  cause  of  true  diph- 
theria. The  diphtheria  bacillus  is  a 
slender  rod  characterized  especially  by  ir- 
regularities in  shape  and  staining  with 
aniline  dyes. 


DIPHTHONG 


371 


DIPNOI 


The  ways  in  which  diphtheria  bacilli 
may  be  conveyed  from  sick  to  healthy 
persons  are  almost  countless.  In  ordi- 
nary breathing  the  expired  breath  con- 
tains no  germs,  but  in  speaking  and 
especially  in  coughing,  a  fine  spray  is 
emitted  which  may  contain  the  bacilli  and 
thus  convey  the  disease.  All  sorts  of 
articles,  such  as  handkerchiefs,  toys, 
drinking  utensils,  furniture,  clothing,  bed- 
linen  and  the  like,  may  become  contami- 
nated with  the  bacilli  and  be  the  means 
of  spreading  the  disease.  Hence,  pre- 
ventive measures,  consisting  in  isolation 
of  the  patient  till  the  bacilli  have 
disappeared  from  the  throat  and  in 
thorough  disinfection,  are  of  the  first 
importance  in  checking  the  spread  of 
diphtheria. 

The  discovery  of  the  diphtheria  bacillus 
has  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  new  and 
most  successful  method  of  treatment  of 
the  disease,  known  as  serum-therapy  or 
the  antitoxin  treatment.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  principles  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  this  treatment  are  due  especially 
to  Behring  of  Germany  and  Roux  in 
Paris.  The  underlying  principle  of  the 
treatment  is  based  on  the  fact  that,  if  a 
susceptible  animal  is  inoculated  first  with 
small  and  then  with  increasing  doses  of 
the  toxin  produced  by  the  bacillus,  the 
blood  of  the  animal  is  found  to  contain 
a  substance  called  antitoxin,  which  has 
the  power  of  neutralizing  or  rendering 
harmless  the  toxin.  In  order  to  obtain 
large  quantities  of  the  healing  serum  a 
horse  is  generally  selected  for  the  process 
of  immunization.  By  proper  methods 
very  powerful  antitoxins  can  be  obtained. 
The  antitoxin  is  used  not  only  to  cure  the 
disease,  but  also  to  render  persons  in- 
susceptible for  a  time  to  the  disease.  Dr. 
William  H.  Welch,  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  in  1895,  in  an  analysis  of 
over  7,000  cases  of  diphtheria  treated  by 
antitoxin  found  that  the  fatality  was  re- 
duced by  this  treatment  by  over  50  per 
cent  of  the  previous  death-rates.  Since 
his  report  this  conclusion  has  been  con- 
firmed and  even  more  favorable  results 
have  been  obtained. 

DIPHTHONG,  two  vowel  sounds,  fol- 
lowing one  another  so  closely  as  to  form 
but  one  syllable,  as  in  out,  where  the  sound 
is  really  composed  of  a  and  u.  Many 
double  vowels  in  English  are  not  real 
diphthongs,  there  being  only  one  sound 
heard,  whereas  some  single  vowels  have 
a  diphthongal  sound.  The  only  real 
English  diphthongs  are  i  as  in  high;  i  in 
aye;  oi  in  boil;  ow  in  how;  and  ew  in 
mew. 

DIPLODOCUS  (dip-lod'6-kus),  accord- 
ing to  Marsh,  a  saurian-footed,  herbivor- 
ous   dinosaur    found    in    the    American 


Jurassic  deposits.  The  length  of  skuU 
of  this  species  was  about  21  inches,  of 
brain  about  3  inches,  and  of  body  50  feet. 
The  animal  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
hippopotamus-like  wader,  and  to  have 
lived  on  vegetation  in  the  water. 

DIPLOMA,  a  writing  or  document 
conferring  some  power,  authority,  privi- 
lege, or  honor,  usually  under  seal  and 
signed  by  a  duly  authorized  official.  Di- 
plomas are  griven  to  graduates  of  a  uni- 
versity on  their  taking  their  degrees;  to 
clergymen  who  are  licensed  to  officiate; 
to  physicians,  civil  engineers,  etc.,  au- 
thorizing them  to  practice  their  profes- 
sions. 

DIPLOMACY,  the  science  or  art  of 
conducting  negotiations,  arranging  trea- 
ties^ and  carrying  on  other  important 
busmess,  between  nations;  the  branch 
of  knowledge  which  deals  with  the  re- 
lations of  independent  states  to  one  an- 
other, the  agency  or  management  of 
envoys  accredited  to  a  foreign  court;  the 
forms  of  international  negotiations.  The 
Cardinal  de  Richelieu  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  the  founder  of  that  regular 
and  uninterrupted  intercourse  between 
governments  which  exists  at  present  be- 
tween almost  all  the  Christian  powers. 
Diplomatic  agents  are  of  several  degrees : 
(1)  ambassadors;  (2)  envoys  extraordi- 
nary and  ministers  plenipotentiary;  (3) 
ministers  resident;  (4)  charges  d'af- 
faires; (5)  secretaries  of  legation  and 
attaches.  Their  rank  was  regulated  in 
Europe  in  the  above  order,  by  the  Con- 
gress assembled  at  Vienna  in  1814. 

DIPLOPIA,  an  affection  of  the  sight, 
in  which  objects  are  seen  double.  It 
arises  from  derangement  of  the  visual 
axis. 

DIPLOPTERUS,  a  genus  of  fossil 
ganoid  fishes,  of  four  species,  belonging 
to  the  Old  Red  Sandstone. 

DIPLOZOON,  a  parasitic  trematode 
worm  which  infests  the  gills  of  the 
bream,  and  which  appears  to  be  formed 
of  two  distinct  bodies  united  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  resembling  an  x  or  St.  An- 
drew's cross,  two  sexually  mature  indi- 
viduals being  thus  united. 

DIPNOI,  an  order  of  fishes,  small  in 
number,  but  of  great  importance  as  ex- 
hibiting a  distinct  transition  between  the 
fishes  and  amphibia.  So  many  are  the 
points  of  resemblance  between  the  two, 
that  until  recently  the  Lepidosiren  was 
always  made  to  constitute  the  lowest 
class  of  amphibia.  The  highest  authori- 
ties, however,  now  concur  in  placing  it 
among  the  fishes.  The  order  Dipnoi  is 
thus  defined:  the  body  is  fish-like  in 
shape;    there    is    a    skull    with    distinct 


DIPPEL 


372 


DIPTERA 


cranial  bones  and  a  lower  jaw,  but  the 
notochord  is  persistent,  and  there  are  no 
vertebral  centra,  nor  an  occipital  condyle. 
The  exo-skeleton  consists  of  horny,  over- 
lapping scales,  having  the  cycloid  char- 
acter. The  pectoral  and  ventral  limbs 
are  both  present,  but  have  (in  Lepido- 
siren)  the  form  of  awl-shaped,  filiform, 
many-jointed  organs  of  which  the  former 
only  have  a  membranous  fringe  inferi- 
orly.  Until  recently  the  only  two  mem- 
bers of  the  order  were  the  Lepidosiren 
paradoxa  of  South  America,  and  the  L. 
annectens  of  Africa, 

DIPPEIi,  (JOHANN)  ANDREAS,  an 
operatic  singer  and  manager,  born  in 
Cassel,  Germany,  in  1866.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools  and  for  some 
time  was  engaged  in  business.  He  after- 
ward studied  music  in  Berlin,  Milan,  and 
Vienna.  His  first  appearance  was  made 
in  Bremen  in  1887.  After  a  successful 
career  in  Europe,  he  appeared  in  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House  in  1890.  He 
later  made  concert  tours  throughout  the 
United  States.  He  sang  at  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  House  from  1898  to  1910, 
at  the  same  time  acting  as  administrator 
and  manager  of  the  Chicago  Grand 
Opera  Company.  He  was  the  general 
manager  of  this  company  from  1910  to 
1913  and  was  also  manager  of  the  same 
company  in  the  years  following.  He  died 
in  1919. 

DIPPER,  a  genus  of  birds  in  the 
thrush  family  (Turdidse),  distinguished 
by  an  almost  straight,  compressed  sharp- 
pointed  bill,  by  the  possession  of  a  nostril 
valve,  and  still  more  by  their  peculiar 
manners  and  habits.  They  frequent 
clear,  pebbly  streams  and  lakes,  feeding 
chiefly  on  mollusks  and  equatic  insects 
and  their  larvae.  The  dipper  carries  its 
rather  short  tail  elevated  after  the  man- 
ner of  virrens,  which  it  also  resembles  in 
the  dipping  of  the  head. 

DIPPER,  a  name  given  to  the  seven 
stars  in  the  constellation  of  the  Great 
Bear,  from  their  being  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  dipper,  or  ladle. 

DIPPING  NEEDLE,  a  magnetized 
needle,  moving  in  a  vertical  plane,  on 
an  axis  which  passes  at  right  angles 
exactly  through  the  center  of  gravity. 
When  thus  mounted  it  will,  if  placed 
anywhere  not  in  the  magnetic  equator, 
dip  or  point  downward.  The  position  of 
the  magnetic  pole  can  thus  be  determined 
from  the  intersection  of  two  or  more 
lines  formed  by  making  experiments  with 
the  dipping  needle  at  various  places. 
The  inclination  or  dip  of  the  magnetized 
needle  was  not  known  to  the  Chinese, 
who  had  discovered  its  variation  during 
the  12th  century.     This  element  of  ter- 


restrial magnetism  appears  to  have  been 
discovered  by  Robert  Norman,  a  com- 
pass-maker of  Ratcliff,  London,  who  de- 
tected the  dip,  and  published  the  fact  in 
1576.  He  contrived  the  dipping  needle, 
and  found  the  dip  at  London  to  be  71° 
50'.  Sir  James  Ross  reached  the  mag- 
netic pole,  lat  70°  5'  17"  N.,  and  Ion.  96° 
46'  45"  W.,  on  June  1,  1831.  The  amount 
of  dip  was  89°  59'. 

DIPROTODON,  a  gigantic  pachyder- 
moid  marsupal  mammal,  resembling  in 
most  essential  respects  the  kangaroo,  the 
dentition  especially  showing  many  points 
of  affinity.  It  is  found  in  the  Pleisto- 
cene or  Upper  Tertiary  beds  of  Aus- 
tralia. 

DIPSACE^,  the  Teazel  family,  a 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  con- 
sisting of  herbs  or  undershrubs.  They 
are  found  in  the  S.  of  Europe,  the  Le- 
vant, and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Lind- 
ley  enumerates  6  genera  and  160  species. 

DIPSAS,  a  genus  of  non-venomous 
serpents  of  the  family  Colubri formes. 
They  are  nocturnal,  arboreal  animals, 
feeding  chiefly  on  lizards,  frogs  and  small 
birds,  and  are  most  abundant  in  neo- 
tropical and  Oriental  regions. 

DIPSOMANIA,  a  term  denoting  an 
insane  craving  for  intoxicating  liquors, 
when  occurring  in  a  confirmed  or  habit- 
ual form.  It  is  often  of  hereditary 
origin,  but  may  result  from  sunstroke, 
from  some  injury  to  the  brain,  or  from 
disease.  The  only  remedy  appears  to  be 
seclusion,  with  enforced  abstinence  and 
healthy  occupation.  Homes  for  this  pur- 
pose have  been  established  in  Great 
Britain  under  the  Habitual  Drunkards 
Act  of  1879.  A  number  of  correspond- 
ing institutions  have  long  existed  in  the 
United  States. 

DIPTERA,  an  order  of  two-winged  in- 
sects, of  which  the  common  house-fly 
and  blue-bottle  are  familiar  examples. 
They  are  characterized  by  a  body  with 
slight  coriaceous  coverings,  a  trunk  open 
beneath,  and  containing  a  sucker  com- 
posed of  two,  four,  or  six  lancet-shaped 
elongated  scales,  two  palpi,  antennae  al- 
most always  composed  of  three  joints, 
large  eyes,  an  abdomen  of  four  to  seven 
distinct  segments,  tarsi  with  five  joints, 
and  two  short  clubbed  appendages  called 
halteres,  or  balancers,  which  seem  to  be 
the  rudiments  of  the  posterior  pair  in 
four-winged  insects,  and  are  kept  in  con- 
tinual motion.  All  undergo  complete 
metamorphosis,  and  all  are  oviparous 
except  the  Sarcophaga,  which  issue  from 
their  mother  in  shape  of  larvae;  and 
the  Pupipara,  which  first  make  their 
appearance  as  nymphs. 


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DIPTERACE^ 


373 


DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST 


DIPTERACE-ffi,     or     DIPTEROCAR- 

PE^,  an  important  order  of  Asiatic  ex- 
ogenous poljrpetalous  trees,  allied  to  the 
mallows  (malvaceie).  The  different 
species  produce  a  number  of  resinous, 
oily,  and  other  substances;  one,  a  sort 
of  camphor;  another,  a  fragrant  resin 
used  in  temples;  and  others,  varnishes; 
while  some  of  the  commonest  produce 
pitches,  and  sal,  valuable  timber. 

DIPTYCH  (dip'tik),  originally  signi- 
fied the  same  as  diploma,  something 
folded;  the  double  tablets  of  metal,  ivory, 
etc.,  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Diptychs  became  important  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  in  them  being  written  the 
names  of  Popes,  and  other  distinguished 
persons,  who  had  deserved  well  of  the 
Church,  to  be  mentioned  in  the  Church 
prayers.  Diptychs  also  often  contained 
pictures  of  Biblical  scenes. 

DIPTJS,  the  jerboas,  a  genus  of  ro- 
dents, the  type  of  the  family  Dipodidse. 
It  includes  about  20  species.  D.  xgyp- 
ticus  is  a  native  of  northeastern  Africa, 
Arabia,  and  southwestern  Asia.  It 
lives  in  burrows,  and  is  generally  gre- 
garious. It  is  about  six  inches  long, 
with  a  tail  eight  inches  long,  exclusive 
of  the  tuft  at  the  end.  Its  upper  surface 
is  of  a  grayish  sand  color,  the  lower  sur- 
face white,  the  tail  pale  yellowish  above, 
and  white  beneath;  the  tip  white,  with 
an  arrow-shaped  black  mark  on  the 
upper  surface. 

DIRECTORY,  the  name  given  to  a 
body  of  five  officers  to  whom  the  executive 
authority  in  France  was  committed  by 
the  constitution  of  the  year  III  (1795). 
The  two  legislative  bodies,  called  the 
councils,  elected  the  members  of  the 
directory.  By  the  revolution  of  the  18th 
Brumaire  the  directory  and  the  consti- 
tution of  the  year  III  were  abolished. 
It  was  succeeded  by  the  consulate. 

DIRECTRIX,  in  mathematics,  a  line 
governing  the  direction  of  another  line. 
If  a  point  so  move  that  the  distance  from 
a  given  fixed  point  is  to  its  perpendicular 
distance  from  a  fixed  straight  line  in  a 
constant  ratio,  it  describes  a  conic  section 
of  which  the  fixed  straight  line  is  termed 
the  directrix,  and  the  fixed  point  the 
focus.  The  constant  ratio  referred  to  is 
termed  the  eccentricity,  and  its  magni- 
tude determines  the  nature  of  the  conic. 

DIRGE,  funeral  music  or  hymn  ex- 
pressing grief  or  lamentation,  usually 
played  or  sung  at  funerals  or  at  serv- 
ices in  memory  of  the  dead.  The  word 
"dirge"  derives  its  name  from  a  Latin 
hymn  beginning  with  "Dirige,  Domine, 
DeusmeuSjin  conspectu  tuo  viam  meum." 
(Direct,  O  Lord,  my  God,  my  ways  in 


thy  sight.)     John  Milton's  poem,  entitled 
"Lycidus,"  is  a  well-known  dirge. 

DIRHEM,  a  modification  of  the  Greek 
drachma,  the  name  under  the  caliphs  for 
a  weight  of  silver  equivalent  to  about  45 
grains,  and  was  also  used  for  precious 
stones  and  medicine  in  Abrabia,  Persia, 
Eygpt,  and  Turkey.  As  a  coin  the  value 
varied,  but  may  be  given  at  S^/^d.  under 
the  caliphs.  In  Turkey,  the  name  dirhem 
has  been  given  to  the  much  smaller 
weight,  the  French  gramme. 

DIRK,  a  kind  of  dagger  formerly 
used  as  a  weapon  of  offense  by  the  High- 
landers of  Scotland.  Dirks  are  worn  by 
midshipmen  and  cadets  of  the  royal  navy, 
and  still  form  part  of  the  full  Highland 
costume. 

DIRK-HARTOG  ISLAND,  on  the  W. 

coast  of  Australia,  45  miles  long  N.  to  S. 
and  10  miles  broad. 

DIRT-BEDS,  a  name  given  to  certain 
dark-colored  loam-like  beds,  which  occur 
interstratified  with  Oolitic  limestones  and 
sandstones  of  Portland,  England.  They 
contain  not  only  Cycadese,  but  also  stumps 
of  trees  in  an  erect  position,  with  their 
roots  extending  beneath  them.  Stems  of 
trees  are  also  found  prostrate.  Dirt-beds 
occur  also  in  parts  of  the  Mississippi 
basin. 

DIS,  the  Roman  equivalent  of  the 
Greek  Pluto.  It  is  akin  to  divus,  and  origi- 
nally denoted  merely  godhead  or  deity. 

DISC,  an  organ  consisting  of  cer- 
tain bodies  or  projections  situated  be- 
tween the  base  of  the  stamens  and  that 
of  the  ovary,  but  constituting  no  part  of 
either.  The  most  common  form  is  that 
of  a  fleshy  ring,  either  entire  or  variously 
lobed,  surrounding  the  base  of  the  ovary, 
as  in  lamium,  orobanche,  etc.  Sometimes 
it  is  a  cup,  as  in  paeonia. 

DISCIPLE,  literally,  one  who  learns 
anything  from  another;  and  hence,  the 
followers  of  any  teacher,  philosopher,  or 
head  of  a  sect.  In  this  sense  the  word  is 
sometimes  used  in  Scripture,  as  when  we 
read  of  the  disciples  of  Moses,  of  John, 
of  Christ.  Generally,  however,  it  is  used 
with  reference  to  the  last  of  these — the 
followers  of  Jesus.  Sometimes  all  who 
received  the  doctrines  of  Christ  are  called 
disciples.  It  is  used  as  synonymous  with 
apostle,  and  is  applied  to  the  Twelve. 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST,  a  denomf- 
nation  of  Christians  in  the  United  States 
commonly  known  as  the  Christian  Church, 
or  Church  of  Christ,  and  sometimes  called 
Campbellites.  In     September,      1809, 

Thomas  Campbell,  a   Scotch  minister  of 
the  seceders'  branch  of  the  Presbyterian 


DISCO 


374 


DISEASE 


Church,  then  living  in  western  Penn- 
sylvania, issued  a  "Declaration  and 
Address"  deploring  the  divided  state  of 
the  Church,  and  urging  as  the  only 
remedy  a  complete  restoration  of  apos- 
tolic Christianity  and  the  rejection  of  all 
human  creeds  and  confessions  of  faith. 
The  Christian  Association  of  Washington, 
Pa.,  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
moting the  principles  set  forth  in  this 
"declaration."  Mr.  Campbell's  son,  Alex- 
ander, led  the  new  movement.  It  was 
not  the  intention  of  the  Campbells  to 
form  a  distinct  religious  body,  but  to 
effect  the  proposed  reforms  in  the 
Churches.  Opposition  forced  them  to  act 
independently  and  the  first  Church  was 
organized  at  Brush  Run  on  May  4,  1811. 
The  Disciples  accept  the  Bible  as  their 
only  rule  of  faith  and  practice.  They  re- 
ject infant  baptism  and  adopt  believers* 
immersion  only.  They  observe  the  Lord's 
Supper  each  first  day  of  the  week,  and 
practically  accept  and  exalt  the  doctrine 
of  the  divinity  of  Christ.  Their  Church 
polity  is  congregational,  though  they  fre- 
quently hold  conventions  in  the  interest 
of  world-wide  missions,  but  not  for  leg- 
islative purposes.  They  maintain  college 
and  numerous  benevolent  and  educational 
organizations.  They  support  mission- 
aries in  India,  China,  Japan,  Africa,  the 
Philippines,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Mexico, 
Scandinavia,  and  Turkey. 

In  1919,  the  Disciples  of  Christ 
throughout  the  world  numbered  about 
1,400,000. 

DISCO,  an  island  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Greenland,  under  the  parallel  of  70°  N. 
It  is  mountainous,  reaching  a  height  of 
3,000  feet;  has  a  total  length  of  about  90 
miles;  and  contains  much  excellent  coal. 
The  harbor  of  Godhavn  is  on  the  S.  coast. 

DISCOBOLUS,  in  classical  antiquity, 
a  thrower  of  a  discus,  or  quoit;  a  quoit- 
player;  specifically:  the  name  given  to 
the  famous  Greek  statue  of  the  quoit- 
thrower,  preserved  among  the  Townley 
Marbles  in  the  British  Museum.  In  ich- 
thyology a  name  given  by  Cuvier  to 
his  third  family  of  soft-finned  teleostean 
fishes,  having  the  ventral  fins  under  the 
pectoral.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
ventral  fins  forming  a  disk  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  body,  by  which  the  fishes 
are  enabled  to  catch  hold  on  the  points  of 
rocks. 

DISCORD,  in  music,  a  combination  of 
notes  which  produces  a  certain  restless 
craving  in  the  mind  for  some  further 
combination  upon  which  it  can  rest  with 
satisfaction.  Discords   comprise   such 

chords  as  contain  notes  which  are  next  to 
each  other  in  alphabetical  order,  and  such 
as  have  augmented  or  diminished  inter- 


vals, with  the  exception  in  the  latter  case 
of  the  chord  of  the  sixth  and  third  on  the 
second  note  of  any  key.  The  changed 
combination  which  must  follow  them,  in 
order  to  relieve  the  sense  of  pain  they 
produce,  is  called  the  resolution.  In 
fine  arts,  a  term  applied  to  paintings 
when  there  is  a  disagreement  of  the  parts 
or  coloring. 

DISCOUNT,  a  deduction  made  in  the 
payment  of  a  bill  or  settlement  of  an 
account  for  ready  or  prompt  pasnnent; 
a  sum  deducted  at  a  certain  rate  per  cent, 
from  the  credit  price  of  any  article  in 
consideration  of  prompt  payment.  The 
term  discount  is  applied  both  to  the 
amount  deducted  and  the  rate  per  cent, 
at  which  the  deduction  is  calculated  or 
allowed.  Discount  in  banking  is  a  charge 
made  at  a  certain  rate  per  cent,  for  the 
interest  of  money  advanced  on  a  bill  or 
other  document  due  at  some  future  time. 
This  charge  the  discounter  deducts  from 
the  amount  of  the  bill,  handing  over  the 
balance  to  the  borrower;  a  deduction 
from  the  present  value  of  a  security,  the 
payment  of  which  is  postponed.  The 
rate  of  discount  depends  on,  and  is  regu- 
lated by,  the  market  value  of  money. 

DISCUS,  DISC,  or  DISK,  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  a  quoit  of  stone  or 
metal,  convex  on  both  its  sides,  some- 
times perforated  in  the  middle.  The 
players  aimed  at  no  mark,  but  simply 
tried  to  throw  the  quoit  to  the  greatest 
possible  distance.  It  was  sometimes 
furnished  with  a  thong  of  leather  to  as- 
sist in  the  throwing.  The  throwing  of 
the  discus  was  a  notable  feature  of  the 
revival  of  the  Olympian  Games  at  Athens 
in  1896.  In  these  games  the  discus- 
throwing  event  was  Avon  by  Robert 
Garrett,  of  Princeton  University,  who 
far  outclassed  all  the  foreign  competitors. 

DISEASE,  any  alteration  of  the  nor- 
mal vital  processes  of  the  body  under  the 
influence  of  some  unnatural  or  hurtful 
condition,  called  the  morbific  cause.  If 
accompanied  by  change  of  structure,  it  is 
called  organic  or  structurel;  if  not,  it  is 
said  to  be  functional.  The  history  of 
disease  includes:  (1)  Symptomatology,  or 
semeiology,  the  morbid  phenomena  or 
symptoms;  (2)  etiology,  or  causes  of 
disease,  the  specific  agents  or  causes  gen- 
erating or  producing  disease;  (3)  the 
special  locality  or  seat  of  structural  dis- 
ease: (4)  the  nature  and  extent  of  mor- 
bid alterations,  or  lesions,  or  the  stamps, 
anatomical  signs,  or  evidence  of  its  ex- 
istence, in  connection  with  its  symptoms, 
causes,  and  course  during  life —  morbid 
anatomy;  and  (5)  morbid  histology,  or 
the  elementary  constituents  of  disease- 
products.  Th^re    are    usually   three 


DISEASE,  GERM  THEORY  OF 


375 


DISHONOR 


periods:  development,  expression,  and  a 
series  of  intervals  either  tending  to  im- 
provement, or  confirmed  conditions  of 
ill-health,  according  usually  as  the  dis- 
ease is  of  the  acute  or  of  the  chronic 
form.  The  form  of  disease  may  be  neu- 
rotic, dynamic,  adynamic,  constitutional, 
malignant,  hereditary,  cutaneous,  etc. 
The  usual  tendency  of  disease,  from  the 
vis  medicatrix  naturse,  is  toward  re- 
covery. 

DISEASE,  GERM  THEORY  OF,  the 
theory  that  certain  enthetic  diseases  have 
their  origin  in  vegetable  germs  that 
have  found  their  way  into  the  body  and 
there  undergo  processes  of  growth  which 
lead  to  chemical  changes.  The  theory 
has  been  held  with  more  or  less  dis- 
tinctness for  at  least  three  centuries.  To 
animalcules  and  micro-organisms  were 
attributed  diseases  such  as  pleurisy, 
epilepsy,  smallpox,  the  measles,  syphilis, 
and  malaria.  The  researches  up  to  this 
time  were,  in  1762,  summed  up  by  Plenciz, 
a  doctor  of  medicine  in  Vienna,  who 
traced  infectious  maladies  back  to  micro- 
organisms in  the  form  of  animate  vege- 
table and  animal  forms.  Decomposition 
was  shown  by  him  to  be  the  result  cf  the 
development  of  living  organisms,  which, 
it  was  suggested,  had  been  transmitted 
through  the  air.  Before  Plenciz  had  made 
the  results  of  his  researches  public, 
Needham  had  promulgated  his  theory  of 
spontaneous  generation,  following  which 
a  line  of  physicians,  as  a  result  of  investi- 
gation with  instruments  of  ever-increas- 
ing accuracy,  established  the  principle 
that  life  could  only  be  engendered  by 
previous  life  and  that  the  germ  theory 
alone  was  capable  of  explaining  the 
general  phenomena  of  certain  diseases. 
These  investigations  disclosed  that  all 
germs  were  not  harmful,  and  that  they 
infected  the  air  in  infinite  variety,  en- 
tering the  body  through  every  available 
channel,  the  mouth,  nose,  throat,  and 
gastro-intestinal  canal.  However,  the  body 
is  provided  with  a  strong  defense  against 
its  numberless  enemies  in  its  covering  of 
skin,  the  mucous  membrane,  the  lym- 
phatic glands,  the  phagocytes  of  certain 
cells,  and  the  antitoxins  in  the  fluids  of 
the  blood. 

Observation  of  the  action  of  certain 
germs  shows  that  in  diphtheria  parts  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  throat  are 
destroyed,  while  in  typhoid  fever  the  in- 
testinal ulcers  are  caused  by  the  action 
of  the  typhoid  bacillus.  Other  groups 
of  bacteria  result  in  the  production  of 
certain  poisons  which  are  distributed 
through  the  body  by  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  resulting  in  prostration  and 
fever.  While  in  regard  to  certain  mal- 
adies the  germ  theory  of  their  origin  still 


remains  only  a  theory,  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  the  relation  has  been  established 
in  respect  to  an  ever-enlarging  group,  in- 
cluding puch  diseases  as  erysipelas,  gonor- 
rhoea, diphtheria,  influenza,  anthrax, 
actinomycosis,  cholera,  typhoid,  tuber- 
culosis, infantile  spinal  paralysis,  tetanus, 
leprosy,  malaria,  pneumonia,  syphilis, 
and   relapsing  fever. 

Culture,  cover-glass  preparation  and 
animal  inoculation  are  the  methods  em- 
ployed in  modern  bacterial  examination, 
coagulated  blood  serum,  Litmus  milk, 
glucose  agar-agar,  potato  agar-agar,  and 
glucose  gelatin  are  employed  as  culture 
media.  In  the  technique  employed  in 
cover-glass  preparation  the  pathological 
material  is  obtained  during  life  and 
streaked  over  cover-glass,  and  after 
certain  processes  of  heating  to  fix  it,  is 
placed  under  the  microscope  and  exam- 
ined. In  animal  inoculations  the  ma- 
terial is  inserted  or  injected  under  the 
skin  of  a  mouse  or  guinea  pig,  the 
progi'ess  of  the  malady  is  watched;  and 
after  death  autopses  of  the  organs  are 
made.  The  presence  of  tuberculosis  is 
ascertained  by  examination  of  the 
sputum  by  cover-glass  preparation,  and 
by  parallel  methods  the  bacillus  of  diph- 
theria, the  Plasmodium  of  malaria,  and 
the  germs  of  other  diseases  are  indicated. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  EAR.  See  Ear. 

DISESTABLISHMENT,  the  act  of 
causing  to  cease  to  be  established; 
specifically  a  depriving  a  Church  of  its 
rights,  position,  or  privileges  as  an  es- 
tablished Church;  to  withdraw  a  Church 
from  its  connection  with  the  state.  A 
bill  for  the  purpose  described  was  in- 
troduced into  the  British  House  of  Com- 
mons by  Mr.  Gladstone  on  March  1, 
1869.  The  second  reading  was  carried 
on  the  24th  by  368  to  250  votes,  and  the 
third  on  May  31,  by  361  to  247.  The 
first  reading  took  place  in  the  House 
of  Lords  on  the  motion  of  Earl  Gran- 
ville, on  June  1,  1869,  and  after  several 
vicissitudes  and  some  modifications  the 
bill  was  accorded  by  the  Commons.  It 
received  the  royal  assent  on  July  26, 
1869,  but  it  was  provided  that  it  should 
not  take  effect  till  Jan.  1,  1871,  which, 
therefore,  is  the  proper  date  of  the  dis- 
establishment of  the  Irish  Church.  In 
1914  an  act  providing  for  the  dis- 
establishment and  disendowTnent  of 
the  Church  of  England  in  Wales  was 
passed  by  Parliament,  but  its  enforce- 
ment was  postponed  until  after  the 
World    W^ar. 

DISHONOR,  in  commerce  and  bank- 
ing, a  default  of  payment.  If,  when  a 
bill  is  presented  for  acceptance,  the  per- 
son   on    whom    it    is    drawn    refuses    to 


DISINFECTION 


376 


DISMAL  SWAMP 


accept  it,  or  if,  when  presented  for  pay- 
ment, the  acceptor  refuses  to  pay  it, 
or  if  a  promissory  note  is  not  paid 
when  it  falls  due,  such  default  is  termed 
dishonor;  and  the  holder  of  the  bill  or 
note  is  bound  to  give  notice  to  the 
parties  who  drew  the  bill  or  note  or  to 
those  who  have  negotiated  it.  This  no- 
tice is  called  notice  of  dishonor  or  pro- 
test, and  if  the  holder  fails  to  give 
notice  of  the  same,  the  parties  who 
would  otherwise  have  been  responsible 
are  discharged  from  their  liability. 

DISINFECTION,  the  act  of  purifying 
from  infectious  and  contagious  matter. 
Agents  which  can  destroy  the  specific 
poisons  of  infectious  diseases  and  pre- 
vent them  from  spreading  are  called 
disinfectants.  The  action  of  disinfect- 
ants is  therefore  analogous  to  that  of 
antiseptics,  and  conists  of  the  destruction 
of  low  forms  of  life. 

Thermal  and  chemical  means  are  used 
in  disinfection.  Hot  air  and  steam  are 
included  in  thermal  disinfection,  while 
chemical  disinfection  destroys  the  infec- 
tive particles  by  applying  substances  of 
a  chemical  nature.  Heat,  and  especially 
fire,  is  the  best  disinfectant.  Clothing 
which  can  be  boiled  without  injury  is 
thereby  deprived  of  infectious  germs. 
When  heat  cannot  be  applied,  gaseous 
or  liquid  disinfectants  are  used.  Cold 
is  a  natural  disinfectant.  The  first 
frost  kills  an  epidemic  of  yellow  fever; 
but  a  temperature  of  zero  does  not  kill 
the  infection  of  anthrax,  typhoid,  tuber- 
culosis, or  smallpox. 

Most  large  European  cities  have  dis- 
infecting stations  under  the  direction  of 
the  health  authorities.  Disinfecting 
ovens  are  now  replaced  by  cylinders  or 
chambers,  into  which  steam  at  a  tem- 
perature of  220°  to  230°  F.  with  a  pres- 
sure sufficient  to  prevent  any  disposi- 
tion to  moisture  in  the  chamber  should 
be  so  admitted  as  to  drive  out  all  air 
from  the  interstices  of  the  infected  arti- 
cles, as  well  as  from  the  chamber,  thus 
insuring  penetration  into  the  interior. 
Among  the  most  important  disinfect- 
ants for  practical  purposes  are  chlorine, 
carbolic  acid,  sulphurous  acid,  Condy's 
green  and  red  fluids,  containing  respec- 
tively manganate  and  permanganate  of 
potash,  and  Burnett's  fluid,  containing 
chloride  of  zinc.  Carbolic  acid  is  one 
of  the  most  effective,  needing,  however, 
some  care  in  the  handling,  as  it  some- 
times causes  severe  burns.  As  a  deodor- 
izer carbolic  acid  is  not  so  energetic 
as  chlorine  and  permanganate  of  pot- 
ash; but  there  is  this  great  diff'erence, 
that  while  the  acid  destroys  organic 
substances  which  give  rise  to  offensive 
odor,  the  others  mainly  attack  the  odor 


itself  and  therefore  require  to  be  ap- 
plied frequently  if  perfect  sweetness  is 
desired.  The  vapor  of  carbolic  acid  is 
not  a  disinfectant  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, as  bacilli  are  not  destroyed,  even 
when  exposed  to  it  for  six  weeks.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that  the  mere  expo- 
sure of  that  substance  in  vessels  is  of 
no  service  in  disinfecting  a  room.  Sul- 
phurous acid  has  long  been  in  repute, 
both  in  the  form  of  solution  and  in  the 
gaseous  state.  Recent  experiments  on 
cultivated  bacilli  seem  to  prove  that, 
while  in  the  liquid  state  it  is  a  powerful 
dsinfectant,  it  has  little  action  either 
as  dry  gas  or  along  with  watery  vapor. 
Of  all  the  long  list  of  popular  disin- 
fectants, chlorine,  bromine,  iodine, 
osmic  acid,  potassium  permanganate 
(Condy's  fluid),  and  corrosive  subli- 
mate seem  to  be  the  most  certain  and 
rapid  in  their  action,  but  all  of  these  are 
more  or  less  open  to  objection.  For 
application  to  the  skin  Condy's  fluid 
is  one  of  the  readiest  preparations.  In 
cases  of  contagious  or  infectious  dis- 
ease, disinfectants  such  as  chlorinated 
lime  or  caidbolic  acid  should  be  used  at 
once,  being  placed  about  the  house,  es- 
pecially in  the  sick  room  and  in  the  pas- 
sages and  landing  outside  of  it.  Every 
article  of  clothing  and  furniture  should 
be  carefully  treated,  as  the  germs  may 
lurk  in  them  and  break  out  after  a  lapse 
of  months  or  years. 

DISLOCATION,  a  surgical  term  ap- 
plied to  cases  in  which  the  articulating 
surfaces  of  the  bones  have  been  forced 
out  of  their  proper  places.  The  particu- 
lar dislocation  takes  its  name  either 
from  the  joint  itself  or  its  farthest  bone, 
and  is  called  compound  when  accom- 
panied with  an  external  wound.  The 
most  common  dislocations  are  those  of 
the  hip,  shoulder,  elbow,  knee,  and 
ankle,  and  the  chief  obstacle  to  their 
reduction  is  the  spasmodic  and  violent 
contraction  of  the  muscles  consequent 
upon  them,  the  application  of  consider- 
able force  being  often  necessary  to  set 
the  joint.  Chloroform  is  of  great  use, 
not  only  in  preventing  pain  but  in  re- 
laxing the  muscles.  The  most  danger- 
ous dislocations  are  those  of  the  bones 
of  the  spine.  In  geology  it  signifies  the 
displacement  of  parts  of  rocks  or  por- 
tions of  strata  from  the  situations  they 
originally  occupied. 

D'ISLY,  DUKE,  real  name  T.  R.  Bu- 
geaud,  a  marshal  of  France;  born  1784. 

DISMAL  SWAMP,  a  large  tract  of 
marshy  land,  beginning  a  little  S.  of 
Norfolk,  Va.,  and  extending  into  North 
Carolina;  containing  150,000  acres;  30 
miles  long,  from  N.  to  S.,  and  10  broad. 


DISMAS,  ST. 


377 


DISTAFF 


This  tract  was  entirely  covered  with 
trees,  with  almost  impervious  brush- 
wood between  them,  but  it  has  now  in 
part  been  cleared  and  drained.  In  the 
midst  of  the  swamp  is  Drummond's 
Lake,  seven  miles  in  length,  the  scene 
of  Thomas  Moore's  "Lake  of  the  Dismal 
Swamp."  In  1899,  the  Dismal  Swamp 
canal,  connecting  Chesapeake  Bay  with 
Albemarle  Sound,  which  from  about  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  to  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War  was  a  famous 
historic  waterway,  was  reopened  for 
navigation.  It  extends  from  the  village 
of  Deep  Creek,  Va.,  to  South  Mills,  N. 
C,  a  distance  of  22  miles;  and  is  one 
of  the  most  important  links  in  the  chain 
of  inland  waterways  extending  along 
the  coast  from  New  York  to  Florida. 
A  marked  advantage  of  the  restored 
canal  is  that  it  enables  shipping  to 
avoid  the  dangers  of  Cape  Hatteras; 
another  is  that  it  furnishes  the  means 
of  inland  and  protected  navigation  for 
the  smaller  vessels  of  the  navy  and  the 
revenue  service.  Although  only  22 
miles  long  it  opens  up  2,500  miles  of  in- 
land navigation. 

DISMAS,  ST.,  the  name  of  the  penitent 
thief  according  to  mediaeval  legends. 

DISPENSATION,  the  act  by  which  an 
exception  is  made  to  the  rigor  of  the 
law  in  favor  of  some  person.  The  Pope 
may  release  from  all  oaths  or  vows,  and 
may  sanction  a  marriage  within  the 
prohibited  degrees  of  the  Mosaic  law, 
or  exempt  from  obedience  to  the  disci- 
plinary enactments  of  the  canon  law. 
In  England  the  monarch  claimed,  in 
former  times,  a  similar  dispensing 
power  in  civil  law,  but  the  prerogative 
Was  so  much  abused  by  James  II.  that 
it  was  abolished  by  the  Bill  of  Rights. 
The  power  of  commuting  sentences  in 
capital  cases  is  the  only  form  in  which 
the  dispensing  power  still  exists.  In 
ecclesiastical  matters  a  bishop  may 
grant  a  dispensation  allowing  a  clergy- 
man to  hold  more  than  one  benefice,  or 
to  absent  himself  from  his  parish.  Dis- 
pensations were  first  granted  by  Pope 
Innocent  III.  in  1200,  and,  being  paid 
for,  became  a  source  of  considerable 
revenue  to  the  Holy  See.  Appeal  to 
them  on  the  part  of  English  subjects 
was  rendered  illegal  by  25  Henry  VIII., 
c.  21,  passed  in  1533.  A  certain  dis- 
pensing power  was  continued  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  an  ordi- 
nary bishop  can  still  dispense  with  the 
law  of  the  Church  in  many  cases. 

DISPERSION,  the  decomposition  of 
light,  passing  through  a  prism  or  any- 
thing similar,  into  the  rainbow  colors; 
or  the   angle   of   separation   of  two  se- 


lected rays,  say  the  red  and  the   violet 
produced  by   a  prism. 

DISBAELI,  BENJAMIN.  See  Bea- 
CONSFIELD. 

D'ISRAELI,  ISAAC  (diz-ra'li),  an 
English  essayist,  compiler,  and  histo- 
rian; father  of  Benjamin;  born  in  En- 
field in  Middlesex,  May,  1766.  He  was 
of  Spanish-Jew  stock,  but  left  the  Jew- 
ish communion.  Rejecting  a  career  or 
trade,  he  frequented  the  British  Mu- 
seum and  compiled  the  "Curiosities  of 
Literature,"  in  1791.  The  author  pre- 
sented the  copyright  to  the  publisher, 
but  bought  it  back  a  few  years  later  on 
its  remarkable  success;  it  is  still  re- 
published. A  series  of  like  collec- 
tions followed,  with  the  same  success: 
"Calamities  of  Authors,"  "Quarrels  of 
Authors,"  "Miscellanies,  or  Literary 
Recollections."  He  wrote  some  unsuccess- 
ful romances;  among  them  is  "Mej- 
noun  and  Leila,"  probably  the  earliest 
Oriental  romance  in  the  language.  His 
"Commentaries  on  the  Life  and  Reign 
of  Charles  I."  marked  a  distinct  ad- 
vance in  the  methods  of  historical  re- 
search.    He  died  Jan.  9,  1848. 

DISRUPTION,  the  name  commonly 
applied  in  Scotland  to  the  act  by  which, 
in  1843,  474  ministers  and  professors  of 
the  Established  Church  gave  up  their 
livings  to  vindicate  principles  which 
they  held  to  be  essential  to  the  purity  of 
the  Church,  and  in  harmony  with  its 
earlier  history. 

DISSECTION,  the  act  or  science  of 
cutting  up  or  dissecting  an  animal  or 
vegetable  body  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
amining the  structure  and  use  of  its 
several  organs  and  tissues;  the  dissec- 
tion of  the  human  body  for  purposes  of 
science  was  ordered  by  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus  in  the  college  of  Alexandria.  He 
even  authorized  the  vivisection  of  crim- 
inals condemned  to  death.  Herophilus 
of  Cos  was  among  the  first  of  the  pro- 
fessors in  this  great  school  of  medicine. 

DISSENTERS,  the  common  name  by 
which  in  Great  Britain  all  Christian 
denominations,  excepting  that  of  the 
Established  Churches,  are  usually 
designated,  though  in  acts  of  Parlia- 
ment it  generally  includes  only  Protes- 
tant dissenters,  Roman  Catholics  being 
referred  to  under  their  specific  name. 
The  Nonconformists  were  dissenters 
from  the  English  Church. 

DISTAFF,  a  cleft  stick  about  3  feet 
long,  on  which  wool  or  carded  cotton 
was  wound  in  the  ancient  mode  of  spin- 
ning. The  distaff  was  held  under  the 
left  arm,  and  the  fibers  of  cotton  drawn 
from   it   were   twisted    spirally    by   the 


DISTICH 


378       DISTRICT,  CONGRESSIONAL 


forefinger  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand 
The  thread,  as  it  was  spun,  was  wound 
on  a  reel,  which  was  suspended  from 
and  revolved  with  the  thread  during 
spinning. 

DISTICH  (dis'tik),  a  couplet  of 
verses,  especially  one  consisting  of  a 
Latin  or  Greek  hexameter  and  pentam- 
eter, making  complete  sense. 

DISTILLATION,  an  important  proc- 
ess in  the  arts;  consisting  essentially 
in  converting  a  liquid  into  vapor  in  a 
closed  vessel,  by  means  of  heat,  and  then 
conveying  the  vapor  into  another  cool 
vessel,  where  it  is  condensed  again  into 
a  liquid.  When  applied  to  a  solid  the 
process  is  called  sublimation.  The  ob- 
ject of  distillation  is  to  separate  one 
substance  from  others  with  which  it 
may  be  mixed.  In  distillation  proper 
no  chemical  decomposition  takes  place; 
when  any  of  the  substances  are  decom- 
posed it  is  called  destructive  distillation. 
Destructive  distillation  is  the  term  ap- 
plied to  the  process  of  heating  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  substances  in  retorts  or 
similarly  closed  vessels  at  a  tempera- 
ture sufficient  to  decompose  the  original 
substance,  and  to  obtain  therefrom 
products  possessing  different  properties 
from  the  material  which  yielded  them. 
Examples  of  this  process  are  the  heat- 
ing of  coal  in  gas-works  at  a  red  heat, 
wfien  it  resolves  itself  into  coke,  which 
is  left  in  the  retort,  and  coal-gas,  naph- 
tha, tar,  etc.,  which  distill  over  into 
suitable  receivers. 

DISTILLED  WATER,  pure  water  ob- 
tained by  distillation,  H2O.  The  water, 
if  it  contains  suspended  impurities, 
should  be  first  filtered.  The  soluble  im- 
purities are  either  volatile  or  fixed.  Of 
the  water  which  comes  over  first  about 
one-tenth  should  be  rejected,  as  it  con- 
tains nearly  all  the  volatile  impurities. 
The  worm  should  be  of  block  tin,  silver, 
or  platinum,  as  steam  acts  on  glass,  dis- 
solving out  alkaline  silicates.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  mechani- 
cal spurting  of  the  liquid;  one-tenth  of 
the  water  should  be  left  in  the  retort; 
the  solid  impurities  are  also  left.  It 
should  be  redistilled  to  get  rid  of  traces 
of  organic  matter,  after  it  has  been 
treated  with  a  little  caustic  potash  and 
permanganate  of  potassium,  to  oxidize 
the  organic  impurities.  If  it  still  con- 
tains traces  of  ammonia  it  should  be 
again  redistilled  over  KHSO4  to  fix  the 
ammonia.  Distilled  water  is  used  in 
chemical  analysis,  and  ought  always  to 
be  used  in  preparing  medicines. 

DISTINGinSHED  SERVICE  ORDER, 

an  order  instituted  by  Queen  Victoria 
on  Sept.  6,  1886,  for  the  reward  of  na- 


val and  military  service.  Foreign  offi- 
cers who  have  been  associated  in  naval 
and  military  operations  with  British 
forces  are  eligible  to  be  honorary  mem- 
bers, and  the  order  ranks  next  to  that 
of  the  Indian  Empire.  The  badge  is  a 
gold  cross  enameled  white,  edged  gold, 
with  the  imperial  crown  on  one  side  and 
the  cipher  V.  R.  I.  on  the  other,  each 
inclosed  in  a  laurel  wreath. 

DISTRIBUTION,  in  political  economy, 
the  method  in  which  the  products  of 
industry  are  shared  among  the  people 
concerned.  The  methods  of  distribution 
have  varied  and  do  vary  in  accordance 
with  the  state  of  social  development. 
They  depend  on  legal  as  well  as  on 
economic  conditions.  They  depend  main- 
ly on  the  ideas  and  institutions  whijch 
prevail  with  reference  to  property  in  the 
three  requisites  of  production — viz.,  land, 
labor,  and  capital.  In  countries  where 
slavery  prevailed,  the  slaveholder,  as  the 
owner  alike  of  land,  labor,  and  capital, 
disposed  at  his  pleasure  of  the  entire 
product  of  industry.  Under  the  feudal 
system,  by  which  the  cultivator  was  at- 
tached to  the  soil  and  had  a  fixed  inter- 
est in  it,  he  was  obliged  to  render  to  his 
superiors  dues  in  labor,  in  kind,  and 
latterly  in  money,  which  were  fixed  by 
custom  or  authority. 

Whatever  the  arrangements  regard- 
ing property  and  the  distribution  of  the 
fruits  of  industry  may  be,  account  must 
be  taken  of  the  share  claimed  by  the 
government  in  the  form  of  taxes,  for 
the  maintenance  of  army  and  navy  and 
other  means  of  defense,  for  justice  and 
police,  and  for  education,  etc.  Some 
sections  of  the  so-called  professional 
classes  are  from  this  source  paid  for 
services  rendered  to  the  state.  But  the 
clerical  and  teaching  professions  derive 
their  income  more  or  less  from  corpo- 
rate property,  while  the  legal  and  medi- 
cal professions  obtain  their  share  of  the 
distribution  mostly  from  the  services 
they  render  to  private  individuals. 

DISTRICT,      CONGRESSIONAL,      in 

the  United  States,  a  division  of  a  State 
according  to  its  population,  sufficient  in 
size  to  entitle  it  to  a  representative  in 
Congress.  The  ratio  of  representation 
is  established  by  Congress  every  10 
years,  and  is  based  on  the  total  popu- 
lation as  reported  by  the  last  preceding 
census.  This  is  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  United  States  Consti- 
tution (Art,  1,  Sec.  2),  which  further 
declares  that  the  number  of  representa- 
tives shall  not  exceed  one  for  every 
30,000;  and,  lest  some  State  nright  have 
less  than  the  required  population,  that 
each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  repre- 
sentative.    The    action   of   the    Federal 


IHSTRICT  COURT  379  DIU 

Government   ceases   with   the    fixing   of  the     President    and     22     elected)     was 

the  rate,  and  each  State  establishes  the  created.     This  form  of  government  was 

boundaries  of  its  own  districts  by  an  act  continued    till    1878,    when    the    govem- 

of  its  Legislature.     There  is,  therefore,  ment  was  invested  in  the  present  three 

a  decennial  change   in  the  number  and  commissioners,  one  of  whom  must  be  an 

often  in  the  boundaries  of  the  districts.  army  officer,  and   all   of  whom   are   ap- 

The    ratio    of    representation    in    the  pointed  by  the  President  and  confirmed 

United  States  House  of  Representatives  by  the  Senate.     Congress  makes  all  laws 

based  on  the  different  censuses  was  as  for  the   District.     Citizens   of   the   Dis- 

foUows:  trict  have  no  vote  for  National  officers. 

^^T^o^'^^^  *^^1?^  ^^ ''^  ^'^^  «     r.^  There    is    but   one    government   for   the 

FrYm^i79r?o\"8oTba-Bedon  ^^'^^^  Entire   District,  with   which   the   city   of 

the  u.  s.  Census  of 1790        30,000  WASHINGTON  (q.  V.)  is  now  coextensive. 

From  1803  to  1813  based  on 

the  u.  s.  Census  of 1800        33,000         DITCH,     in     agriculture,     a     trench 

"^h'e  \j'\%eilll  ^^.^^'.°°     1810        35.000  ufually  made  along  the  sides  of  fields,  so 

From  1823  to  1833  baaed  on  that  all  the  drains  may  be  led  mto  it, 

the  u.  s.  Census  of 1820        40.000  or  along  the  top  of  a  field  to  divert  sur- 

"^X  ]!'VZelltl  o'f.'^'.°°     1830        47.700  ^^'^  ^,^t^^-     I"  ^^^\}^  1^"^^'  since,  the 

From  1843  to  1853  based  on  general   use   of   Small   and   large   pipes, 

the  u.  s.  Census  of 1340        70.680  ditches   have    in   many   cases   been   con- 

From  1853  to  1863   based  on  vpr+pH    intn    iinrlpro-rnnnH    rlrnint! 

the  u.  s.  Census  of 1850        93,425  ^^"^^1  mto  unoergrouno  arams. 

From  1863  to  1873  based  on  -rixm-M- a  •»> c        t>  a -o-mpz-vnT-rw      t -en? 

the  U.   S.  Census  of 1860       127.381  DITMARS,      RAYMOND      LEE,      an 

From  1873  to  1883  based  on  American  scientist,  born  in  Newark,  N. 

wl^^  ys•8f•t^^°lQl  w;;,;;      ^^'^      ^^^'"^^  J.,   in   1876.     He   graduated   from    Bar- 

From  1883  to   1893  based  on  '     ,  »«-.i.,  •        j  •      ion-,       tt 

the  u.  s.  Census  of 1880      151,912  nard  Military  Academy  in  1891.    He  was 

From  1893  to  1903  based  on  for   5    years   assistant  curator  of   ento- 

T.^**®  Fq  J- .*^^?IVq  K^- •;,■•■      ^^^^      173,901  niology    at    the    American    Museum    of 

From   1903  to   1913  based  on  xt   j.         ■>     tt  i.  j     •        -i  orio     v 

u.  S.  Census  of 1900       194.182  Natural    History    and    m    1899    became 

From   1913   based   on   u.   s.  Curator    of    reptiles    at   the    New    York 

Census  of 1910      212,407  Zoological  Park.     He  was  in  charge  of 

DISTRICT  COURT,  a  court  having  the  department  of  mammals  at  this 
cognizance  of  cases  arising  within  a  cer-  park  from  1910.  He  was  the  author  of 
tain  defined  district,  more  specifically  "The  Reptile  Book"  (1907)  ;  "Reptiles 
as  described  below.  In  1920  the  United  of  the  World"  (1909).  He  also  contrib- 
States  was  divided  into  106  districts  for  uted  numerous  articles  on  entomology- 
judicial  purposes,  each  State  in  the  and  kindred  subjects  to  magazines. 
Union  containing  at  least  one  district,  .^.,„.„ ,  ,,„  ^,  ,  r  4.1, 
and  some  of  them  more.  For  each  dis-  ^^^^TTANY,  the  popular  name  of  the 
trict  there  are  a  judge,  a  district  at-  plants  of  the  genus  DuJtamnws  an  herb 
torney,  a  marshal,  and  deputy  marshals,  f  the  rue  faniily,  found  in  the  Medi- 
They  constitute  the  officers  of  the  dis-  terranean  region.  The  leaves  are  pin- 
trict  courts.  These  tribunals  have  2^*^'  *^^  ^^^^^  '^^•^^  °''  rose-colored 
charge  of  the  initial  administration  of  Ao^f^s  are  m  terminal  racemes.  The 
justice  in  cases  of  offense  against  the  whole  plant  is  covered  with  oily  glands, 
Federal  Government,  and  form  a  link  ^"d  the  secreted  oil  is  so  volatile  that  in 
in  the  judicial  succession  that  culminates  ^o*  weather  the  air  round  the.  Plfnt  be- 
in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  comes  mflammable.  D.  FraxineUa  and 
States,  being  as  it  were  the  Federal  P"  "^^«f  ^^^^  ^^HH '5  ^c/ /"^' •  ^  ,^  L' 
courts  of  coSimon  pleas.  *?,"y.  ^^    the    United    States    ^iCnnda 

Mariana,  a  labiate  plant.    The  dittany  of 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA,  the  Fed-  Crete  is   Origanum  Dictamnus,  and  the 
eral  district  of  the   United   States,  con-  bastard   dittany  is  a  species   of  3/a  at- 
taining   the    National    capital.      Named  5i„„j    (horehound),  both  labiates. 
for  Columbus.     Fixed  as  seat  of  United 

States  Government  in  1790  by  an  act  of         DIU  (de'ii) ,  a  seaport  situated  at  the 

Congress.      Formed   out   of   Washington  E.  extremity  of  a  Portuguese  island  (7  by 

CO.,  Md.   (64  square  miles),  a  portion  of  2  miles)    of  the   same  name,  off  the   S. 

Virginian  territory  offered  the  Govern-  coast  of  Kathiawar;  180  miles  N.  W.  of 

ment    being    not    now    included.      The  Bombay.      Once    an    important    city    of 

United    States    Government   removed   to  50,000   inhabitants,   it   has   sunk   in   im- 

the  District  in  1800.     The  city  of  Wash-  portance  till  now  the  whole  island   has 

ington   was   captured  by  the   British   in  but  15,000  inhabitants,  mostly  fishermen. 

1814,    and    the    Capitol    and    Executive  Some    magnificent   buildings    still   attest 

Mansion  were  burned.  The  District  was  its  ancient  splendor,  such  as  the  Jesuit 

governed  by  Congress  till  1871,  when  a  College    (1601),  now  a   cathedral.     The 

legislative  body  of  33   (11  appointed  by  place  has  been  in  possession  of  the  Por- 


DIURETICS  380 


DIVING  APPARATUS 


tuguese  since  1535,  and  stood  a  famous 
siege  in  1545. 

DIURETICS,  medicines  which  cause 
an  increase  of  the  function  of  the  kid- 
neys, and  consequently  augment  the 
quantity  of  the  urine.  They  are  divided 
by  Garrod  into  sedative,  as  squills,  sco- 
parium,  tobacco,  colchicum;  and  stimu- 
lant, as  juniper,  turpentine,  copaiba, 
cantharides,  nitrite  of  ethyl,  alcohol, 
and  water.  Indirect  diuretics,  or  hy- 
dragogue  purgatives,  as  elaterium, 
^ream  of  tartar,  digitalis,  gamboge. 
Lithontriptics,  or  remedies  which  alter 
the  quality  of  the  urine  and  prevent  the 
crystallization  and  deposition  of  the  in- 
gredients which  form  gravel  and  cal- 
culi, as  carbonates  of  lithium,  potas- 
sium, sodium,  and  alkaline  mineral 
waters,  etc.  Diuretics  are  given  (1)  to 
cause  an  increased  flow  of  urine  when 
the  renal  secretion  is  deficient;  (2)  to 
eliminate  poisons  and  matters  formed  in 
disease  from  the  blood;  (3)  to  produce 
a  larger  flow  of  urine,  to  hold  in  solu- 
tion substances  which  would  be  de- 
posited, and  form  calculi. 

DIURETIN,  theobromine  sodio-salicy- 
late,  Na2Ci4Hi2N405.  A  whitish,  amor- 
phous powder,  odorless,  and  possessing 
a  sweet  taste.  Soluble  in  water  and  al- 
cohol, insoluble  in  ether  or  chloroform. 
Used  in  medicine  as  a  diuretic  in  car- 
diac dropsy  and  Bright's  disease.  Often 
administered  in  conjunction  with  digi- 
talis, which  prolongs  its  diuretic  action. 

DIVER,  one  of  a  family  of  birds,  re- 
markable for  their  power  and  habit  of 
diving.  The  neck  is  long,  the  tail  is 
very  short  and  rounded;  the  wings 
short;  the  bill  straight,  strong,  and 
pointed.  They  are  confined  to  N.  lati- 
tudes, whence  they  migrate  further  S. 
in  the  winter  season.  The  largest  of 
the  three  European  species  is  the  great 
northern  diver,  but  the  other  two — the 
red-throated  diver,  and  the  black- 
throated  diver — are  perhaps  better 
known,  as  they  are  found  in  abundance 
in  this  country.  They  live  on  fish,  which 
they  follow  under  the  water,  propelling 
themselves  along  with  their  wings  as 
well  as  their  feet. 

DIVES  (rich),  the  name  popularly 
adopted  for  the  "rich  man"  in  the  par- 
able of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  from 
the  Vulgate  translation. 

DIVIDEND,  in  arithmetic,  a  number 
which  has  to  be  divided  by  another; 
thus,  if  we  have  to  divide  20  by  4,  20  is 
the  dividend,  and  4  the  divisor.  In  bank- 
ruptcy, the  fractional  part  of  the  assets 
of  a  bankrupt  which  is  paid  to  the  cred- 
itor in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the 


debt  which  he  has  proved  against  the 
estate  of  the  debtor.  In  commerce,  the 
sum  periodically  payable  as  interest  on 
loans,  debentures,  etc.,  or  that  periodi- 
cally distributed  as  profit  on  the  capital 
of  a  railway  or  other  company. 

DIVIDING  ENGINE,  a  machine  for 
marking  the  divisions  on  the  scales  of 
scientific,  mathematical,  or  other  instru- 
ments. 

DIVIDING     RANGE,     GREAT,     an 

Australian  chain  of  mountains,  forming 
the  watershed  between  the  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Pacific  and  those  running  to  the 
W.  It  is  situated  at  an  average  dis- 
tance of  30  miles  from  the  sea,  though 
in  some  places  it  recedes  as  much  as  60 
miles,  and  stretches  from  Cape  York 
on  the  N.  to  Wilson's  Promontory  on 
the  S.  Culminating  point.  Mount  Town- 
shend  (7,353  feet). 

DIVIDIVI,  the  very  astringent  husks 
of  Csesalpinia  coriaria,  imported  from 
South  America,  in  the  form  of  dark 
brown  rolls  containing  a  few  flat  seeds. 
The  outer  rind  of  the  husks  contains  a 
large  quantity  of  tannin,  together  with 
ready-formed  gallic  acid.  Dividivi  is 
used  in  tanning. 

DIVINATION,  the  art  or  act  of  fore- 
telling future  events,  or  discovering 
things  secret  or  obscure,  by  the  aid  of 
superior  beings,  or  by  other  than  hu- 
man means;  prescience;  presage;  pre- 
diction. At  an  early  time  divination 
formed  a  regular  science,  intimately 
allied  with  religion,  and  furnished  with 
rules  and  regulations.  Of  all  the  na- 
tions of  antiquity,  few  cultivated  the 
science  of  divination  with  such  enthu- 
siasm as  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
different  systems  of  divination  em- 
ployed by  the  ancients  were  of  several 
kinds;  by  water,  fire,  air,  earth;  by  the 
flight  of  birds,  and  their  singing;  by 
lots,  dreams,  arrows,  etc.  The  Israel- 
ites were  prohibited  from  practicing  divi- 
nation of  any  kind  by  the  law  of  Moses. 

DIVING  APPARATUS,  contrivances 
by  means  of  which  divers  are  enabled 
to  remain  a  considerable  time  under 
water.  As  the  most  skilled  divers  are 
unable  to  remain  under  water  more  than 
two  or  three  minutes  without  artificial 
respiration,  means  have  been  devised  by 
hermetically  sealed  helmets,  diving 
bells,  and  diving  dresses,  so  that  they 
can  stay  for  several  hours  at  a  time  at 
considerable  depths  of  water  and  at  the 
same  time  carry  on  their  work.  The  div- 
ing bell  was  mentioned  by  the  classic 
writers.  Aristotle  speaks  of  a  diving 
bell  or  a  reversed  kettle  or  bell  which 
was   put   over   the   head    of    the   diver. 


DIVING  APPARATUS 


381 


DIVISIBILITY 


Sinclair  in  his  work  on  gravitation 
(1669),  mentions  the  diving-bell  which 
was  used  in  1588,  1665,  and  1687  to  res- 
cue the  treasures  of  the  Spanish  Arma- 
da. The  diving  bell  then  used  was 
similar  to  those  used  at  the  present 
time,  though  of  much  more  clumsy  con- 


OUTFIT   FOR   DEEP-SEA   DIVING 

struction.  Dr.  Smeaton  was  the  first  to 
use  an  air  pump  for  the  supply  of  air, 
about  1788.  He  constructed  a  cast  iron 
diving-bell  which  sank  by  its  own 
weight  and  afforded  room  for  two  men. 
Diving-dress,  water-proof  dress,  or 
armor,  was  described  as  early  as  1664 


The  diving-dress  used  at  the  present 
time  may  be  independent  of  any  connec- 
tion with  persons  above.  The  most 
common  one  is  a  rubber  cloth  dress, 
with  a  copper  helmet,  having  air-tight 
connections,  and  supplied  by  a  reser- 
voir, attached  to  the  back  and  contain- 
ing air,  compressed  to  a  number  of 
atmospheres,  which  is  supplied  to  the 
diver  by  means  of  a  proper  apparatus. 
Among  the  best  known  diving  appara- 
tus are  those  called  by  the  name  of 
Skaphander  and  those  of  Rouquairol- 
Denayrouze;  in  the  United  States,  the 
Morse  and  the  Schroder.  By  means  of 
this  apparatus  the  diver  can  remain 
from  four  to  five  hours  under  water 
with  perfect  freedom  of  motion.  The 
diving  apparatus  most  generally  used 
in  the  United  States  is  the  rubber  suit, 
copper  helmet,  with  face  plates  of  glass, 
and  air  pump.  The  diver  is  connected 
by  rubber  hose  with  the  air  pump  which 
is  constantly  worked  by  an  experienced 
man.  Another  man  called  the  "tender" 
holds  the  air  hose  and  a  life  line  by 
which  the  diver  signals  his  require- 
ments. When  the  diver  has  to  go  into 
dark  places,  where  the  sunlight  cannot 
reach,  he  is  equipped  with  an  incandes- 
cent electric  light. 

DIVINING  ROD,  a  forked  rod  or 
branch,  generally,  but  not  necessarily, 
of  hazel,  by  means  of  which  it  is  pre- 
tended to  the  foolish  and  superstitious 
that  the  presence  of  water,  minerals, 
etc.,  underground  can  be  detected.  When 
used,  the  rod,  which  is  carried  slowly 
along  in  suspension,  will,  as  is  affirmed, 
dip  and  point  toward  the  ground  when 
brought  over  the  spot  where  the  con- 
cealed water  or  mineral  is  to  be  found. 

DIVISIBILITY,  that  general  property 
of  bodies  by  which  their  parts  or 
component  particles  are  capable  of  sep- 
aration. Numerous  examples  of  the 
division  of  matter,  to  a  degree  almost 
exceeding  belief,  may  be  easily  in- 
stanced. Thus  glass  test-plates  for  mi- 
croscopes have  been  ruled  so  fine  as  to 
have  225,000  spaces  to  the  inch.  Cotton 
yarn  has  been  spun  so  fine  that  one 
pound  of  it  extended  upward  of  1,000 
miles,  and  a  Manchester  spinner  is  said 
to  have  attained  such  a  marvelous 
fineness  that  one  pound  would  extend 
4,770  miles.  One  grain  of  gold  has  been 
beaten  out  to  a  surface  of  52  square 
inches,  and  leaves  have  been  made 
367,500  of  which  would  go  to  the  inch 
of  thickness.  Iron  has  been  reduced  to 
wonderfully  thin  sheets.  Fine  tissue 
paper  is  about  the  1,200th  part  of  an  inch 
m  thickness,  but  sheets  of  iron  have 
been  rolled  mu  h  thinner  than  this,  and 
"s  fine  as  one  4,800th  part  of  an  inch 
25— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


DIVISION 


382 


MVOEcE 


in  thickness.  Wires  of  platinum  have 
been  drawn  out  so  fine  as  to  be  only  the 
30,000th  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Human  hair  varies  in  thickness  from 
the  250th  to  the  600th  part  of  an  inch. 
The  fiber  of  the  coarsest  wool  is  about 
the  500th  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  that  of  the  finest  only  the  1,500th 
part.  The  silk  line,  as  spun  by  the 
worm,  is  about  the  5,000th  part  of  an 
inch  thick;  but  a  spider's  line  is  only 
the  30,000th  part  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter; insomuch  that  a  single  pound  of 
this  attenuated  substance  might  be  suf- 
ficient to  encompass  our  glob^.  A  single 
grain  of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  or  blue 
vitriol,  will  communicate  a  fine  azure 
tint  to  five  gallons  of  water.  In  this 
case  the  sulphate  must  be  attenuated  at 
least  10,000,000  times.  Odors  are  ca- 
pable of  a  much  wider  diffusion.  A 
single  grain  of  musk  has  been  known  to 
perfume  a  large  room  for  the  space  of 
20  years. 

DIVISIOIT,  in  arithmetic,  the  divid- 
ing of  a  number  or  quantity  into  any 
parts  assigned;  one  of  the  four  funda- 
mental rules,  the  object  of  which  is  to 
find  how  often  one  number  is  contained 
in  another.  The  number  to  be  divided 
is  the  dividend,  the  number  which  di- 
vides is  the  divisor,  and  the  result  of 
the  division  is  the  quotient.  Division  is 
the  converse  of  multiplication. 

DIVISION",  in  military  matters,  a 
portion  of  an  army  consisting  of  two  or 
more  brigades,  composed  of  the  various 
arms  of  the  service,  and  commanded  by 
a  general  officer.  In  the  navy,  a  select 
number  of  ships  in  a  fleet  or  squadron 
of  men-of-war. 

DIVISION,  the  mode  of  determining 
a  question  at  the  end  of  a  debate  in  a 
legislative  body.  In  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives at  Washington,  a  division 
has  no  traditional  formalities,  being  de- 
termined by  the  rules  of  the  body  itself. 
In  the  Senate,  a  division  is  accom- 
plished by  a  roll  call.  In  the  British 
House  of  Commons  the  Speaker  puts 
the  question,  and  declares  whether  in 
his  opinion  the  "ayes"  or  the  "noes" 
have  it.  Should  his  opinion  not  be  ac- 
quiesced in  by  the  minority,  the  house 
is  cleared,  and  the  "ayes"  directed  to  go 
into  the  right  lobby  and  the  "noes"  into 
the  left,  where  they  are  counted  by  two 
tellers  appointed  for  each  party.  In 
the_  House  of  Lords  the  two  sides  in  a 
division  are  called  "contents"  and  "not- 
contents." 

DIVISION    OF    LABOR,    in    biology, 

a    conception   borrowed    from    economics 

\nd   introduced    into   biology   by   Milne- 

Udwards,  to   describe  the   difference  of 


function  exhibited  by  the  individual 
niembers  of  an  animal  colony,  or  by  the 
different  organs,  tissues,  and  cells  of  a 
single  organism.  The  figure  of  a  hy- 
droid  colony,  Hydractinia,  shows  how 
members,  primarily  and  fundamentally 
the  same  in  structure,  become  set  apart 
as  nutritive,  reproductive,  sensitive,  and 
protective.  The  same  division  of  labor 
or  predominance  of  special  functions  in 
different  individuals  is  beautifully  illus 
trated  in  the  Siphonophora. 

DIVISION  OF  LABOR,  in  economics, 
a  theory  based  on  the  principle  that  in- 
dustry can  be  best  carried  on  when  each 
man  has  a  special  work  to  do.  Constant 
practice  in  doing  the  same  thing  leads 
to  a  perfection  which  could  not  other- 
wise be  attained. 

DIVORCE,  the  disruption,  by  the  act 
of  law,  of  the  conjugal  tie  made  by  a 
competent  court  on  due  cause  shown. 
In  the  United  States,  jurisdiction  in  di- 
vorce cases  is  usually  conferred  on  the 
law  courts  by  the  statutes  in  the  differ- 
ent States,  there  being  no  ecclesiastical 
courts  in  the  English  sense  of  that  term; 
The  causes  of  divorce  enumerated  in 
these  statutes  are  by  no  means  uniform 
in  relation  to  the  various  States,  though 
more  numerous  in  the  Western  States  than 
in  the  Eastern.  In  most  of  the  States  di- 
vorce may  be  granted  on  either  of  the 
following  grounds:  Adultery,  conviction 
of  felony,  cruel  and  inhuman  treatment, 
wilful  desertion  for  periods  varying  from 
one  to  three  years,  habitual  drunkenness, 
impotency,  or  neglect  to  support  the  wife. 
In  New  York  alone  adultery  is  the  only 
cause  of  absolute  divorce;  but  in  South 
Carolina  the  courts  have  no  power  to 
grant  divorce,  strictly  speaking,  the  Leg- 
islature being  the  only  authority  for  that 
purpose.  In  both  of  these  States,  as  in 
others,  the  courts  may  declare  an  alleged 
marriage  invalid  on  grounds  which  ren- 
dered the  parties  or  either  of  them  inca- 
pable of  contracting  it,  such  as  idiocy, 
lunacy,  former  husband  or  wife  living, 
etc.  Separation  from  bed  and  board, 
commonly  called  limited  divorce,  is 
granted  on  the  ground  of  cruel  and  in- 
human treatment;  or  desertion  and  re- 
fusal to  support  by  the  huband  may  be 
a  ground  for  a  decree  setting  the  wife 
free  from  the  interference  and  control  of 
her  husband,  though  it  may  not  sunder 
the  marriage  tie. 

A  person  applying  for  a  divorce  will 
not  be  allowed  to  obtain  judgment, 
should  it  appear  that  he  or  she  has  been 
guilty  of  the  same  offense,  or  that  there 
is  collusion  between  the  persons  con- 
cerned in  order  to  procure  a  divorce;  for 
the  s?me  reason  the  plaintiff  is  always 
required   to   prove   the   existence  of  the 


DIVORCE 


383 


DIX 


grounds  of  divorce  by  satisfactory  evi- 
dence, even  though  no  contest  is  made  on 
the  othfer  side.  Parties  also  who  have 
condoned  the  offense,  i,  e.,  who,  after  it 
has  been  discovered,  have  consented  again 
to  live  as  husband  and  wife,  are  not  al- 
lowed to  obtain  a  divorce,  but  a  second 
act  of  the  same  nature  revives  the  right 
of  action  on  the  original  offense. 

The  want  of  harmony  in  the  legislation 
of  the  different  States  on  this  subject  has 
led  to  very  great  confusion  and  conflict 
in  regard  to  the  rights  and  liabilities 
growing  out  of  divorce  against  non- 
residents of  the  State  where  granted,  and 
some  uniform  system  of  laws  on  the 
subject  is  greatly  needed. 

The  Law  of  England. — The  divorce 
court  is  composed  of  a  judge  ordinary, 
the  three  chiefs  in  the  courts  of  common 
law,  and  three  puisne  judges.  It  is 
provided  that  either  spouse  may  obtain  a 
divorce  on  the  ground  of  adultery,  but  in 
case  the  wife  is  petitioner  the  adultery 
must  be  accompanied  by  cruelty  or  de- 
sertion. By  another  act  the  power  to  pro- 
nounce a  decree  of  divorce,  which  was  at 
first  reposed  in  the  whole  court,  is  given 
to  the  judge  ordinary  sitting  alone;  but 
in  this  case  the  decree  so  pronounced  is 
a  decree  nisi  and  cannot  become  final  for 
at  least  six  months.  After  a  decree  of 
divoi'ce  the  offending  person  is  free  to 
marry  again,  even  with  the  paramour. 
But  it  is  also  enacted  that  no  clergyman 
shall  be  compelled  to  solemnize  the  mar- 
riage of  any  person  who  has  been  di- 
vorced. He  must,  however,  allow  an- 
other clergyman,  if  willing  to  do  so,  to 
perform  the  marriage.  The  same  gen- 
eral rules  as  to  collusion,  condonation,  the 
conduct  of  the  parties',  etc.,  which  obtain 
in  the  United  States  are  law  also  in  Eng- 
land. In  order  to  guard  against  fraud  by 
parties  conniving  to  procure  a  divorce, 
power  is  given  to  the  queen's  proctor  to 
interpose,  in  case  he  have  reasonable 
grounds  to  suspect  collusion  or  recrimi- 
nation, in  order  to  oppose  a  petition  for 
divorce.  By  these  acts  parties  are  also 
entitled  to  obtain  a  judicial  separation  on 
the  ground  of  adultery,  cruelty  or  de- 
sertion. Judicial  separation  is  declared 
to  be  in  place  of  a  separation  "a  mensa  et 
thoro."  A  married  woman,  having  ob- 
tained decree  of  judicial  separation,  is 
declared  to  be  in  all  respects  as  a  "feme 
sole"  in  regard  to  any  property  that  she 
has  or  may  acquire.  Even  before  obtain- 
ing a  separation  a  woman  deserted  by  her 
husband  may  obtain  from  the  court  a 
protection  for  any  property  that  she  has 
or  may  actjuire  by  her  own  industry. 

Divorce  in  European  Countries. — Since 
the  year  1884  French  law  has  recognized 
three  grounds  of  divorce:  (1)  adultery; 
(2)  outrage,  cruelty,  or  grievous  injury; 


(3)  conviction  of  an  infamous  crimeu 
These  causes  of  action  are  equally  avail- 
able to  husband  or  wife;  but  it  is  pro- 
vided that  the  wife  shall  not  marry  again 
till  after  the  expiration  of  10  months 
from  the  date  of  the  dissolution  of  the 
previous  marriage.  It  is  further  pro- 
vided that,  in  cases  where  divorce  is 
sought  on  the  ground  of  outrage,  cruelty 
or  grievous  injury,  immediate  divorce 
shall  not  be  granted,  but  the  parties  may 
be  granted  separation  for  a  year,  with 
due  provision  for  the  wife's  support  dur- 
ing that  time,  at  the  end  of  which  a  final 
divorce  may  be  granted,  if  they  have  not 
been  reunited  in  the  meantime.  Sub- 
stantially the  same  rules  as  to  condo- 
nation prevail  as  in  the  United  States. 
All  the  proceedings  necessary  in  such 
cases  are  carefully  provided  for  by  the 
code  civil,  as  well  as  the  consequences  to 
the  parties  personal  or  proprietary.  In 
Germany,  the  question  of  divorce  gave 
rise  to  a  long  contest.  The  General 
Prussian  Code  permitted  divorce  on  the 
ground  of  mutual  consent  and  deep-seated 
aversion,  but  on  account  of  the  newly 
awakened  religious  life  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury there  was  a  strong  opposition  to  this 
freedom  of  divorce;  this  under  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  IV.  arose  to  an  overwhelming 
power.  Many  attempts  were  made  to 
establish  the  laws  of  divorce  on  a  reason- 
able basis,  but  on  account  of  the  personal 
antagonism  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV. 
they    .  emained    without    result.  The 

Austrian  code  of  common  law  allows  to 
non-Catholic  Christians  separation  from 
the  bonds  of  matrimony  on  account  of 
adultery,  malicious  desertion,  five  years* 
imprisonment,  or  on  account  of  danger- 
ous diseases  and  repeated  cruelty  of 
treatment  and  invincible  aversion. 

DIX,  DOROTHEA  LYNDE,  an  Amer- 
ican philanthropist;  bom  in  Worcester, 
Mass.,  in  1805.  In  her  youth  she  sup- 
ported herself  by  teaching,  but  in  1830 
fell  heir  to  some  property,  after  which 
she  devoted  her  life  to  the  relief  and 
betterment  of  lunatics,  paupers,  and 
criminals.  She  published  several  chil- 
dren's books,  and,  in  1845,  "Prisons  and 
Prison  Discipline."  She  died  in  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  July  19,  1887. 

DIX,  JOHN  ADAMS,  an  American 
statesman  and  soldier;  bom  in  Boscawen, 
N.  H.,  July  24,  1798.  He  was  educated 
at  Salisbury,  Phillips  Exeter  Academy, 
the  College  of  Montreal,  and  St.  Mary's 
College.  In  1812  he  was  appointed  a 
cadet  in  the  United  States  Army,  and  in 
1813,  ensign.  He  took  part  in  the  oper- 
ations on  the  Canadian  frontier  during 
the  War  of  1812;  afterward  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Washing- 
ton.    In  1826  he  was  sent  as  a  special 


DIX 


384 


DIZFUL 


inessenger  to  the  court  of  Denmark.  He 
resigned  from  the  army  in  1828,  and  be- 
gan practicing  law  in  Cooperstown,  N.  Y. 
Later  he  was  Secretary  of  State  and  Ad- 
jutant-General of  New  York,  and  was 
prominently  associated  with  the  "Albany 
Regency,"  the  controlling  power  of  the 
Democratic  party.  In  1841  he  was 
elected  to  the  State  Assembly,  and  in 
1845-1849  was  a  United  States  Senator. 
In  1861  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  by  President  Buchanan,  and 
his  appointment  led  to  the  breaking  of  a 
financial  deadlock  in  the  affairs  of  the 
government.  When  he  became  secretary 
there  were  two  revenue  cutters  at  New 
Orleans,  and  he  ordered  them  to  New 
York.  The  captain  of  one  refused  to 
obey  his  order,  and  Dix  telegraphed  to 
put  him  under  arrest,  adding  the  state- 
ment which  has  made  him  famous,  "If 
any  one  attempts  to  haul  down  the  Amer- 
ican flag,  shoot  him  on  the  spot."  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Union  Defense 
Committee,  and  organized  17  regiments. 
He  was  commissioned  a  Major-General  of 
volunteers,  and  through  his  active  meas- 
ures saved  Maryland  to  the  Union  cause. 
He  was  elected  governor  of  New  York  in 
1872,  but  was  defeated  on  a  renomination 
in  1874.  He  died  in  New  York  City, 
April  21,  1879. 

DIX,  JOHN  ALDEN,  an  American 
public  official,  born  in  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y., 
in  1860.  He  graduated  from  Cornell 
University  in  1883.  He  engaged  in  busi- 
ness and  became  identified  with  a  number 
of  important  financial  and  industrial 
organizations.  He  was  also  active  in 
politics  and  in  1908  was  Democratic 
nominee  for  lieutenant-governor  of  New 
York.  He  was  defeated,  but  was  elected 
governor  for  the  term  1910-1912. 

DIX,  MORGAN,  an  American  clergy- 
man; born  in  New  York,  Nov.  1,  182^, 
son  of  Gen.  John  A.  Dix.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  in  1848  and  at  the  Gen- 
eral Theological  Seminary  in  1852,  being 
ordained  priest  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  in  1853.  After  1862  he 
was  rector  of  Trinity  Parish,  New  York 
City.  He  published  "The  Seven  Deadly 
Sins";  "Sermons";  "Gospel  and  Phi- 
losophy," etc.    He  died  April  29,  1908. 

DIXMUDE,  a  small  town  in  the  north 
of  Belgium,  about  ten  miles  S.  of  Ostend 
and  equally  distant,  in  a  northerly  di- 
rection, from  Ypres.  It  was  the  center 
of  that  little  portion  of  the  western  edge 
of  Belgium  which  the  Belgian  army  was 
able  to  hold  after  the  invasion  of 
their  country  by  the  Germans,  in  the 
latter  part  of  1914,  and  was  the  center  of 
a  continuous  struggle  that  lasted  during 


the  entire  war.  The  Belgians  were  firmly 
intrenched  here,  and  Dixmude  was  the 
center  of  the  heaviest  of  the  German 
artillery  and  infantry  attacks.  One  of 
the  biggest  engagements  fought  on  this 
sector  was  that  which  began  on  July  31, 
1917,  when  the  British  and  French  forces 
launched  their  offensive  against  the  Ger- 
mans on  a  twenty-mile  front,  extending 
from  Dixmude  to  Warneton,  to  the  south, 
and  which  resulted  in  a  notable  victory, 
ten  towns  and  5,000  prisoners  being  cap- 
tured during  the  first  day. 

DIXON,  a  city  of  Illinois,  the  county- 
seat  of  Lee  CO.  It  is  on  the  Rock  river, 
and  on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
and  the  Illinois  Central  railroads.  Its 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
condensed  milk,  shoes,  plows,  wagons, 
wire,  cloth,  furniture,  Portland  cement, 
etc.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Northern  Illi- 
nois Normal  School  and  the  Rock  River 
Military  Academy,  and  has  a  handsome 
court  house  and  a  public  library.  Pop. 
(1910)  7,216;  (1920)  8,191. 

DIXON,  WILLIAM  HEPWORTH,  an 

English  author;  born  in  Manchester, 
June  30,  1821.  In  1849  he  published  a 
memoir  of  Howard  the  philanthropist, 
which  was  followed  by  the  "Life  of 
William  Penn"  (1851),  and  by  a  work  on 
Admiral  Blake  (1852).  In  1853,  after 
having  been  a  contributor,  he  became 
chief  editor  of  the  "Athenaeum,"  a  post 
which  he  retained  till  1869.  During 
this  period  he  published  several  very  pop- 
ular works,  including  the  "Personal 
History  of  Lord  Bacon,"  "The  Holy 
Land,"  "New  America,"  and  "Spiritual 
Wives."  After  his  retirement  from 
the  "Athenaeum,"  he  published  about 
25  volumes  of  history,  travel,  and 
fiction,  among  others,  "Free  Russia"; 
"Her  Majesty's  Tower";  "The  Switzers"; 
"History  of  Two  Queens,  Catherine  of 
Aragon  and  Anne  Boleyn";  etc.  He 
died  in  London,  Dec.  27,  1879. 

DIXON  ENTRANCE,  a  strait  on  the 
W.  coast  of  North  America,  separating 
Queen  Charlotte  Islands  from  the  Prince 
of  Wales  Archipelago,  and  so  dividing 
Britsh  territory  from  a  part  of  Alaska. 

DIXY,  HENRY,  an  American  actor, 
born  in  Boston  in  1859.  In  1868  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  stock  company  of 
the  Howard  Athenseum  of  Boston.  He 
afterward  appeared  in  various  com- 
panies. He  made  a  great  success  in 
"Adonis,"  acting  as  a  comedian  in  many 
plays  in  England  and  the  United  States. 

DIZFUL  (dez-folO,  a  town  in  the  Per- 
sian province  of  Khuzistan,  about  190 
miles  W.  of  Ispahan,  on  the  river  Diz, 
here  crossed  by  a  handsome  bridge  of  20 
arches.     It  has  over  35  sacred  tombs,  and 


DJEMAL  PASHA  385 

nearly  as  many  mosques;  but  half  the 
town  consists  of  subterranean  excava- 
tions in  the  rock,  on  account  of  the  heat. 

DJEMAL  PASHA,  Minister  of  Marine 
in  the  Turkish  Government  at  the  time 
Turkey  definitely  decided  to  throw  in  her 
lot  with  the  Central  Powers,  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War,  in  the  fall  of 
1914.  Djemal  Pasha,  though  strongly 
pro-German,  as  were  most  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Young  Turk  party,  then  in  power, 
was  nevertheless  supposed  to  be  the  re- 
straining influence  which  caused  the 
Turkish  Government  to  hesitate  for  some 
months  after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities. 
After  the  arrival  of  the  German  cruisers, 
the  "Goeben"  and  the  "Breslau,"  in  Con- 
stantinople, with  several  hundred  tech- 
nical experts  and  marines  to  strengthen 
the  Turkish  Navy,  he  was  finally  won 
over  and  joined  his  colleagues  against  the 
Allied  Powers. 

'  DNIEPER  (ne'per) ,  a  river  of  Russia 
which  rises  in  the  government  of  Smo- 
lensk, flows  first  S.  W.,  then  S.  E.,  and 
latterly  again  S.  W.  to  the  Black  Sea. 
It  begins  to  be  navigable  a  little  above 
Smolensk,  and  has  a  total  length,  includ- 
ing windings,  of  1,230  miles.  Among 
its  tributaries  are  the  Beresina,  the  Pri- 
pet,  the  Desna,  and  the  Psiol.  In  its 
lower  course  there  are  important  fisheries 

DNIESTER  (nes'ter),  a  river  of 
Europe,  which  has  its  source  in  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains,  in  Galicia,  enters 
Bessarabia  at  Chotin,  and  empties  itself 
into  the  Black  Sea,  after  a  course  of 
about  750  miles.  Its  navigation  is  dif- 
ficult on  account  of  frequent  shallows  and 
rapids. 

DOANE,  WILLIAM  CROSWELL,  an 

American  Protestant  Episcopal  Bishop, 
son  of  George  Washington  Doane;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  2,  1832.  He  was 
ordained  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
priesthood  in  1856.  Having  served  from 
1863  to  1867  as  rector  of  St.  John's 
Church,  Hartford  Conn.,  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Albany  in  1869.  Chancellor  of 
the  Regents  of  University  of  New  York 
(1902).  Publications:  "Life  of  Bishop  G. 
W.  Doane,"  "Mosaics;  or  the  Harmony  of 
Collects,  Epistles  and  Gospels"  (1881)  ; 
"Rhymes  of  the  Times"  (1901),  etc.  He 
died  May  17,  1913. 

DOBELL.  SYDNEY  THOMPSON,  an 
English  poet;  born  in  Cranbrook,  in  Kent, 
April  5,  1824.  A  passionate  interest  in 
Italian  freedom  inspired  his  dramatic 
poem  "The  Roman," (1850).  His  services 
to  the  cause  of  free  institutions  were 
heartily  acknowledged  by  Kossuth  and 
Mazzini.  A  later  poem,  "Balder,"  had 
less  vogue.  In  1856  he  published  a  vol- 
ume of  dramatic  and  descriptive  verses 


DOCETiE 

relating  mostly  to  the  Crimean  War, 
"England  in  Time  of  War."  After  his 
death  a  volume  of  essays  was  published 
"Thoughts  on  Art,  Philosophy,  and  Re- 
ligion." He  died  in  the  Cotswold  Hills, 
Aug.  22,  1874. 

DOBEREINER'S  LAMP,  a  contri- 
vance for  producing  an  instantaneous 
light,  invented  by  Professor  Dobereiner, 
of  Jena,  in  1824.  The  light  is  produced 
by  throwing  a  jet  of  hydrogen  gas  upon 
recently-prepared  spongy  platinum,  when 
the  metal  instantly  becomes  red  hot,  and 
then  sets  fire  to  the  gas. 

DOBRUDJA,  THE  (do-brod'sha),  a 
territory  forming  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Rumania,  included  between  the  Danube, 
which  forms  its  boundary  on  the  W.  and 
N.,  the  Black  Sea  on  the  E.,  and  on  the  S. 
by  a  line  stretching  from  Silistria  to  a 
point  a  few  miles  S.  of  Mangalia.  There 
are  some  fertile  spots,  but  on  the  whole  it 
is  marshy  and  unhealthy.  The  popu- 
lation is  of  various  nationalities,  Ru- 
manians, Bulgars,  Greeks,  Turks,  and 
Jews.  The  inhabitants  support  themselves 
by  rearing  sheep  and  bufi"aloes.  The 
principal  town  is  Babadagh.  Pop.  about 
400,000.  The  territory  was  the  scene  of 
repeated  fighting  during  the  World  War, 
and  was  invaded  in  turn  by  Rumanian, 
Austrian,  and  German  armies.  (See 
World  War.)  It  was  awarded  to  Ru- 
mania by  the  Peace  Conference  in  1919. 

DOBSON,  AUSTIN,  an  English  poet; 
born  in  Plymouth,  Jan.  18,  1840.  In- 
tended for  a  civil  engineer,  and  educated 
abroad,  he  accepted  a  place  under  the 
Board  of  Trade.  His  poems  are  inim- 
itable in  their  artistic  finish  and  grace  of 
fr.ncy.  They  are  contained  in  the  vol- 
umes: "Vignettes  in  Rhyme  and  Vers  de 
Societe"  (1873);  "Proverbs  in  Porcelain" 
(1877);  "Old-World  Idyls"  (1883); 
"Eighteenth  Century  Vignettes"  (1892) ; 
"Old  Kensington  Palace"  (1910)  ;  "Ros- 
alba's  Journal"  (1915);  "Prior  Park" 
(1917).  He  has  written  biographies  of 
Hogarth,  Fielding,  Steele,  Goldsmith,  and 
other  literary  notables,  and  contributed 
many  articles  to  the  English  "Dictionary 
of  National  Biography." 

DOCETiE  (do-se'tl),  a  name  applied 
to  those  heretics  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
Church  who  maintained  that  Christ,  dur- 
ing His  life  on  earth,  had  not  a  real  or 
natural,  but  only  an  apparent  or  phan- 
tom-like body.  The  bolder  docetae  as- 
sumed the  position  that  Christ  was  born 
without  any  participation  of  matter;  they 
denied  accordingly  the  resurrection  and 
the  ascent  into  heaven.  The  milder 
school  of  docetae  attributed  to  Christ  an 
ethereal  and  heavenly,  instead  of  a  truly 
human  body. 


DOCK 


386 


UOC]^ 


DOCK,  a  name  applied  to  different 
plants  of  the  genus  Rumex,  belonging  to 
the  rhubarb  family.  These  are  large 
herbaceous  plants,  with  stout  roots,  and 
bearing  panicles  of  small  greenish  flowers. 
The  roots  of  some  of  them  are  used  me- 
dicinally as  astringents. 

DOCK,  an  inclosure  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  shipping.  Docks  may  be  divided 
into  two  principal  classes,  viz.,  wet  docks 
and  dry  docks  (or  graving  docks). 

Wet  docks  are  used  almost  exclusively 
for  purposes  of  marine  commerce.  Where 
the  range  of  tide  is  more  than  10  to  12 
feet,  docked  vessels  are  kept  alongside  of 
the  quay  or  dock  at  as  nearly  a  uniform 
elevation  as  practicable  by  means  of  in- 
closing requisite  water  areas  and  pre- 
venting by  suitable  means  the  outflow  of 
water  during  ebb  tides.     Such  docks  are 


the  side  walls  of  the  lock  chamber,  or 
under  the  floor  of  the  latter,  through 
which  water  may  flow  from  the  dock 
into  the  lock  chamber  till  the  elevation 
of  water  in  the  latter  is  the  same  as 
that  in  the  dock.  When  the  lock  is 
filled  with  water  the  gates  between  it 
and  the  dock  are  opened.  After  the 
ships  have  been  admitted  the  gates  are 
closed  and  the  water  is  allowed  to  flow 
from  the  lock  through  sluices  like  those 
already  described  leading  into  the 
lower  water  of  the  basin  or  outer  har- 
bor. When  the  lock  water  in  which  the 
ship  is  floating  has  fallen  nearly  to  the 
level  of  the  water  of  the  tidal  basin 
or  harbor,  the  gates  at  the  exit  end  of 
the  lock  are  opened,  enabling  the  ship  or 
ships  to  pass  freely  outward.  The  simple 
reversal  of  the  latter  operation  enables 
a    ship   to  enter  the  wet   dock   at   any 


CONCRETE  DRY  DOCK 


frequently  approached  through  what  is 
called  a  tidal  basin,  or  sometimes  a  half- 
tide  basin,  the  latter  expression  indicat- 
ing the  fact  that  ships  may  freely  enter 
or  leave  such  basins  during  the  upper 
half  of  the  tidal  range. 

In  order  that  ships  may  enter  or 
leave  wet  docks  at  any  stage  of  tide, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  entrances  be 
fitted  with  locks.  A  lock  in  a  wet  dock 
is  a  long  narrow  chamber  with  its  sides 
constructed  of  masonry  or  timber,  with 
what  are  called  gates  at  each  end.  Each 
of  these  gates  usually  consists  of  two 
parts  or  leaves,  each  precisely  like  the 
other.  These  leaves  or  half  gates  swing 
about  vertical  axes,  and  then  close 
against  each  other,  forming  an  obtuse 
angle  like  the  two  sides  of  a  short  and 
bi>oad  letter  "A,"  pointing  inward  to 
the  dock  where  the  highest  water  is  to 
be  found.  Such  gates  are  called  miter 
gates;  the  pressure  of  water  against 
them  tends  to  hold  them  shut  till  the 
height  of  water  is  equalized  on  both 
sides.  Sluices  fitted  with  proper  valves 
are   made,  either  in  the  lock  gates,  in 


stage  of  the  tide.  The  comparatively 
small  range  of  the  tides  on  the  coast 
of  the  United  States  makes  it  unneces- 
sary to  construct  closed  docks  in  Ameri- 
can ports;  hence  American  docks,  which 
correspond  to  the  wet  docks  in  Great 
Britain  or  other  foreign  countries,  are 
simply  open  oblong  spaces  of  water  be- 
tween substantially  constructed  timber 
or  masonry  piers. 

Tidal-basin  or  half-tide  docks  are  in- 
closures  between  wet  docks  and  the 
open  harbor.  The  gates  or  lock  through 
which  vessels  enter  or  leave  them  are 
kept  open  during  the  upper  half  of  the 
tidal  range,  so  that  ships  may  freely 
enter  or  leave  during  that  period  of 
time.  The  gates  are  closed,  however, 
when  the  tide  has  half  ebbed;  from  that 
time  to  the  next  mid-tide  ships  must 
enter  and  leave  the  tidal  basin,  if  at  all, 
in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  that 
of  entering  or  leaving  the  wet  dock. 
The  tidal  basins  are  useful  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  ships  prior  to  entering 
the  wet  dock,  or  on  coming  from  the  lat- 
ter, having  received  their  cargo.  . 


DOCK 


387 


DOCK 


Tidal  docks  are  basins  surrounded  by 
quay  walls,  and  having  open  entrances 
permitting  the  free  flow  and  ebb  of  the 
tide  I  they  have  the  advantage  of  re- 
quiring no  opening  or  shutting  of  gates. 
With  small  tides  they  answer  very  well; 
they  are  sometimes  made  deep  enough 
to  keep  vessels  afloat  at  low  water.  They 
are  much  more  liable  to  silt  up  than 
wet  docks. 

Dry  docks  are  inclosures  with  one  end 
movable.  Like  wet  docks,  they  are  built 
of  both  masonry  and  timber,  the  former 
material   being  the  more   substantial. 

Dry  docks  of  the  floating  type  are 
built  of  both  steel  and  timber,  the  for- 
mer material  being  better  adapted  to 
structures  of  large  capacity  and  now 
generally  used. 

The  ordinary  dry  dock,  whether  built 
of  timber  or  of  masonry,  is  preferably 
located  where  a  foundation  of  very  firm 


enter  it  At  one  end  of  this  floor  is 
placed  a  sill,  against  which  and  the  cor- 
responding surfaces  on  the  two  vertical 
sides  of  the  entrance  the  caisson  rests 
in  order  to  make  the  closed  chamber. 
The  sides  and  one  end  of  the  dry  dock 
are  formed  of  substantially  built  steps 
called  altars,  the  approximate  outline 
of  which  is  more  or  less  nearly  parallel 
to  the  sides  of  the  ships  as  they  lie  in 
the  dock. 

Floating  dry  docks  are  composed  of 
one  or  more  large  pontoons,  so  con- 
structed and  arranged  as  to  carry  along 
each  side  pumps  and  other  appliances 
on  suitable  stiff  frames.  When  the  pon- 
toons are  filled  with  water  they  sink, 
and  when  water  is  pumped  out  of  them 
they  rise  to  a  height  corresponding  to 
the  amount  of  water  taken  out. 

In  1919  considerable  progress  was 
made  in  the  construction  of  dry  docks  of 


FLOATING  DRY  DOCK 


material  is  available.  The  top  surface 
is  a  few  feet  only  above  high  water; 
the  bottom  is  placed  at  such  depths  as 
will  accommodate  the  ships  of  greatest 
draught  which  are  to  use  them.  The 
movable  end  of  the  dock,  if  small,  may 
be  formed  of  a  pair  of  gates  like  those 
of  wet  docks;  but  for  structures  of  the 
dimensions  requisite  to  accommodate 
large  ships  it  is  usually  formed  by  a 
caisson,  i.  e.,  a  floating  vessel  usually  of 
steel,  and  deep  enough  to  close  the 
opening  to  the  dock,  and  wide  and  stiff 
enough  to  sustain  the  water  pressure 
at  its  full  height  on  the  outside,  with  no 
water  on  the  other  or  dock  side. 

The  interior  of  the  dry  dock  consists 
of  a  floor  constructed  with  sufficiently 
strong  foundations  to  sustain  the 
weight  of  the  heaviest  ship  which  is  to 


the  navy  and  merchant  marine.  In  Nor- 
folk, a  navy  yard  dry  dock  measuring 
1,011  feet  long,  144  feet  wide,  and  40 
feet  deep,  built  at  a  cost  of  $4,500,000, 
was  opened  April,  1919.  There  was  at 
the  same  time  under  construction  in 
Boston  a  dry  dock,  1,106  feet  long  and 
149  feet  wide.  This  dock  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Government  and  was  used 
to  provide  accommodations  for  the  larg- 
est naval  and  commercial  ships.  A  dock 
of  practically  the  same  size  as  the  Nor- 
folk dock  was  constructed  at  the  Phila- 
delphia Navy  Yard,  and  in  1920  the 
construction  of  a  similar  dock  at  the 
Charleston  Navy  Yard  v/as  begun.  A 
dock  of  over  1,000  feet  long  and  150  feet 
wide  was  also  constructed  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. 
In  August,  1919,  the  great  dry  dock  at 


DOCKET 


388 


DODGE 


Pearl  Harbor,  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
was  completed  and  flooded.  This  dock  is 
1,022  feet  long,  138  feet  wide,  and  391/2 
feet  in  depth. 

DOCKET,  or  DOCQUET,  in  law,  a 
term  variously  used,  as  for  a  summary 
of  a  larger  writing;  a  small  piece  of 
paper  or  parchment  containing  the  heads 
of  a  writing;  an  alphabetical  list  of 
cases  in  a  court,  or  a  catalogue  of  the 
names  of  the  parties  who  have  suits  de- 
pending in  a  court. 

DOCK  WARRANTS,  orders  for  goods 
kept  in  the  warehouses  connected  with 
a  dock.  They  are  granted  by  the  proper 
officer  at  the  dock  to  the  importer  in 
favor  of  any  one  that  he  may  name. 
These  warrants  are  held  to  be  negoti- 
able, so  that  they  may  pass  from  one 
holder  to  another,  the  property  of  them 
being  always  vested  in  the  holder. 

DOCK  YARD.    See  Navy  Yards. 

DOCTOR,  properly,  a  teacher  or  in- 
structor; one  so  skilled  in  some  particu- 
lar art  or  science  as  to  be  able  to  commu- 
nicate to  others.  It  is  generally  believed 
to  have  been  first  adopted  as  a  distinc- 
tive title  in  the  12th  century,  and  to  have 
originated  with  the  University  of  Bo- 
logna. The  University  of  Paris  followed 
immediately  after,  and,  in  1145,  con- 
ferred the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity 
on  Peter  Lombard.  In  England  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  was  not  introduced  in  the 
universities  till  the  reign  of  John,  or 
Henry  III.  In  modern  times,  the  title 
of  doctor  forms  generally  the  highest 
degree  in  the  faculties  of  theology,  law, 
and  medicine.  In  Germany,  the  title  01 
doctor  in  philosophy  has  been  substi- 
tuted for  the  older  title  of  master,  which 
is  still  retained  in  England.  In  the 
European  universities,  before  receiving 
the  degree  of  doctor,  a  student  has  to 
prepare  one  or  more  theses.  In  this 
country  the  title  is  conferred  upon  those 
of  eminent  learning  or  ability  in  their 
profession,  without  demanding  from 
them  any  trial ;  excepting  in  the  medical 
profession,  where  it  is  bestowed  at  the 
end  of  a  course  of  study. 

In  scripture,  a  doctor  of  the  law  may 
perhaps  be  distinguished  from  scribe,  as 
rather  teaching  orally  than  giving  writ- 
ten opinions  (Luke  ii  :  46).  Doctors  of 
the  law  were  mostly  of  the  sect  of  the 
Pharisees,  but  are  distinguished  from 
that  sect  in  Luke  v  :  17,  where  it  ap- 
pears that  the  novelty  of  Jesus'  teach- 
ing drew  together  a  great  company  both 
of  Pharisees  and  doctors  of  the  law.  The 
Jewish  were  invested  with  the  dignity 
of  doctor,  by  receiving  into  their  hands 
a  key  and  a  tablet-book. 

Doctor  of  music.    In  England,  a  musi- 


cian upon  whom  the  degree  of  doctor  has 
been  conferred  by  some  university.  The 
candidates  are  required  to  submit  for 
the  inspection  of  the  musical  profession 
a  composition  in  eight  vocal  parts,  with 
instrumental  accompaniments. 

DODDER,  the  common  name  for  plants 
of  the  genus  Cuscuta.  There  are  several 
species;  they  are  slender,  thread-like, 
twining,  leafless  parasites,  involving  and 
destroying  the  whole  plants  on  which 
they  grow.  Two  species  are  natives  of 
England:  C.  epithymum,  which  grows 
abundantly  on  ericas,  and  C.  europsea, 
upon  thistles  and  nettles  or  other  soft 
plants  within  its  reach,  bringing  them 
to  final  destruction.  Within  a  few  dec- 
ades two  other  species  have  accidentally 
been  introduced:  viz.,  flax  dodder  and 
clover  dodder.  The  first  destroys  whole 
fields  of  flax,  and  the  latter  preys  to  a 
great  extent  on  clover,  both  plants  being 
the  cause  of  great  losses  to  the  agricul- 
turist. In  India,  some  species  are  very 
large  and  powerful,  involving  trees  of 
considerable  size  in  their  grasp. 

DODDRIDGE,  PHILIP,  an  English 
Nonconformist  clergyman  and  author; 
born  in  London,  June  26,  1702.  The 
Duchess  of  Bedford  offered  him  an  edu- 
cation at  either  university  and  provision 
in  the  Church;  but  he  determined  to  en- 
ter the  Nonconformist  ministry.  He  was 
educated  at  a  theological  academy  at 
Kibworth,  in  Leicestershire.  In  1723 
Doddridge  became  pastor  of  the  dissent- 
ing congregation  at  Kibworth.  He  set- 
tled in  1729  at  Northampton  as  minister 
and  president  of  a  theological  academy. 
Here  he  continued  to  preach  and  train 
young  students  for  the  ministry  till 
shortly  before  his  death,  which  occurred 
Oct.  26,  1751,  in  Lisbon. 

Doddridge  was  at  once  liberal  and 
evangelical.  His  principal  work  is  "The 
Rise  and  Progress  of  Religion  in  the 
Soul"  (1745),  which  has  been  translated 
into  Dutch,  German,  Danish,  French, 
and  even  Syriac  and  Tamil.  Besides 
this,  may  be  mentioned  "The  Family 
Expositor"  (6  vols.  1739-1756).  His 
hymns  have  carried  his  name  over  the 
English-speaking  religious  world,  per- 
haps the  best  known  being  "Hark,  the 
glad  sound,  the  Saviour  comes,"  and  "O 
God  of  Bethel,  by  Avhose  hand."  His 
works  fill  10  volumes  (Leeds,  1802-1805). 
His  "Correspondence  and  Diai-y"  was 
edited  by  his  great-grandson  (5  vols. 
1829-1831). 

DODGE,  GRENVILLE  MELLEN,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in  Dan- 
vers,  Mass.,  April  12,  1831;  educated  at 
Partridge's  Military  Academy  and  Nor- 
wich University:  and  was  employed  as  an 


DODGE 


389 


DODO 


engineer  in  the  construction  of  the  Il- 
linois Central  and  Rock  Island  railroads. 
He  entered  the  Civil  War  as  colonel  of 
the  4th  Iowa  Infantry;  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Pea  Ridge  in  March,  1862, 
and  became  a  Major-General  of  United 
States  volunteers  in  June,  1864.  He  com- 
manded a  corps  of  General  Sherman's 
army  in  the  campaign  against  Atlanta 
(1864),  and  succeeded  Rosecrans  as  com- 
mander of  the  Department  of  Missouri 
in  December  of  that  year.  After  the 
war  he  was  chief  engineer  of  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad  and  superintended  its 
construction,  and  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  Iowa  in  1867-1869.  He  suc- 
ceeded General  Sherman  as  president  of 
the  Association  of  the  Army  of  the  Ten- 
nessee in  1894,  and  was  also  president  of 
the  New  York  Commandery  of  the  Loyal 
Legion.  In  1898  he  was  made  chairman 
of  the  President's  Commission  to  in- 
quire into  the  management  of  the  War 
Department  in  the  war  with  Spain.  He 
died  Jan.  3,  1916. 

DODGE,  MARY  ABIGAIL,  an  Amer- 
ican journalist  and  author;  born  in 
Hamilton,  Mass.,  in  1838.  For  several 
years  she  was  instructor  in  the  High 
School  at  Hartford,  Conn.  From  1865  to 
1867  she  was  one  of  the  editors  of  "Our 
Young  Folks."  Besides  numerous  con- 
tributions to  current  literature,  she  has 
written,  under  the  pseudonym  of  "Gail 
Hamilton":  "Gala  Davs"  (1863); 
"Woman's  Wrongs"  (1868)  ;  "The  Battle 
of  the  Books"  (1870)  ;  "Woman's  Worth 
and  Worthlessness"  (1871)  ;  "The  Insup- 
pressible  Book"  (1885)  ;  "Red-Letter 
Days";  "Country  Living  and  Country 
Thinking";  "Twelve  Miles  from  a 
Lemon";  and  "Biography  of  James  G. 
Blaine."  She  died  in  Hamilton,  Mass., 
Aug.  17,  1896. 

DODGE,  MARY  ELIZABETH 
MAPES,  an  American  editor,  author, 
and  poet;  born  in  New  York  City  in  1838. 
Since  1873  she  has  been  the  editor  of 
"St.  Nicholas"  (magazine).  New  York. 
Her  best-known  work  is  "Hans  Brinker, 
or  the  Silver  Skates"  (1876),  which  has 
been  translated  into  five  foreign 
languages.  Among  her  other  works,  are: 
"Irvington  Stories"  (1864);  "Theo- 
philus,  and  Others"  (1876)  ;  "Along  the 
Way"  (1879)  ;  "Donald  and  Dorothy" 
(1883)  ;  "The  Land  of  Pluck."  She  died 
Aug.  22,  1905. 

DODGE,  THEODORE  AYRAULT,  an 

American  military  officer  and  writer; 
born  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  May  28,  1842; 
received  his  military  education  abroad. 
Returning  to  the  United  States,  he  en- 
listed (1861)  in  the  Union  service  as  a 
private,  attaining  the  rank  of  colonel, 
Dec.  2,  1865.    He  published;  "The  Cam- 


paign of  Chancellorsville"  (1881);  a 
"Bird's-Eye  View  of  the  Civil  War^' 
(1883)  ;  "A  Chat  in  the  Saddle"  (1885)  ; 
and  a  series  of  studies  called  "Great 
Captains,"  comprising  volumes  on  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  Hannibal,  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  etc.     He  died  Oct.  26,  1909. 

DODGE,  WILLIAM  EARL,  an  Amer- 
ican capitalist;  born  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
Sept.  4,  1805.  He  received  a  common 
school  education,  entered  the  wholesale 
dry-goods  business,  and  in  1833  became 
a  member  of  the  firm  of  Phelps,  Dodge 
&  Co.,  retiring  in  1879  with  a  large  for- 
tune. He  was  director  of  the  Erie  rail- 
road, president  of  the  New  York  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  trustee  of  Union  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  a  founder  of  the  Union 
League  of  New  York,  and  an  ardent 
friend  of  the  freedman.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  Feb.  9,  1883. 

DODGE  CITY,  a  city  of  Kansas,  the 
county-seat  of  Ford  co.  It  is  on  the 
Arkansas  river,  and  on  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe'  and  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific  railroads.  It 
is  the  center  of  an  important  stock-rais- 
ing and  wheat-growing  district.  In  the 
seventies  it  was  the  chief  shipping  point 
for  cattle.  The  division  oflfices  and  ma- 
chine shops  of  the  Santa  Fe  railroad  are 
located  here.  It  is  the  seat  of  St.  Mary's 
of  the  Plains  Academy,  and  has  a  public 
library  and  a  United  States  Land  Office 
and  Weather  Bureau  building.  Pop. 
(1910)    3,214;    (1920)    5,061. 

DODGSON,  CHARLES  LUTWIDGE, 
an  English  humorist  (better  known  by 
his  pen-name  of  Lewis  Carroll)  ;  was 
born  in  1832.  He  entered  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  graduated  in  1854.  He  was 
elected  a  student  of  his  college,  took 
orders  in  1861,  and  from  1855  to  1881 
was  mathematical  lecturer.  Under  the 
name  of  Lewis  Carroll  he  issued  in  1865 
"Alice's  Adventures  in  Wonderland," 
which,  with  its  continuation  "Through 
the  Looking-Glass"  (1872),  has  become 
a  nursery  classic.  He  also  published 
some  poems  and  parodies  entitled 
"Phantasmagoria"  (1869);  "Hunting  of 
the  Snark"  (1876);  "Doublets"  (1879); 
"Rhyme?  and  Reason?"  (1883);  "Euclid 
and  His  Modern  Rivals"  (1879);  "A 
"Tangled  Tale"  (1886)  ;  "Game  of  Logic" 
(1887)  ;  and  "Mathematica  Curiosa" 
(1888),  the  last  a  valuable  contribution 
to  mathematics.     He  died  Jan.  14,  1898. 

DODO,  a  large  bird,  belonging  to  the 
order  Columhidse,  or  pigeons,  that  in- 
habited Mauritius  in  great  numbers  when 
that  island  was  colonized  in  1644  by  the 
Dutch,  but  which  was  totally  exter- 
minated within  50  years  from  that  date. 
The  dodo  was  a  heavy  bird,  bigger  than 


DODONA 


390 


DOG  DAYS 


a  turkey,  and  incapable  of  flight.  The 
wings  were  rudimentary,  the  legs  short 
and  stout,  and  the  tail  a  tuft  of  soft 
plumes.     The  beak  was  strongly  arched 


C- 


DODO 

toward  the  end,  and  the  upper  mandible 
had  a  hooked  point  like  that  of  a  bird  of 
prey. 

DODONA  (do-do'na),  a  town  of 
Thesprotia  in  Epirus  (or  Thessaly),  in 
the  midst  of  vast  forests.  It  was  the 
sanctuary  of  the  Pelagic  worship,  and 
possessed  an  oracle  of  Jupiter,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  and  most  ancient  of 
Greece.  The  oracles  were  given  by  an 
oak,  called  the  prophetic  tree;  the 
priestess  interpreted  sometimes  the  rust- 
ling of  the  branches,  sometimes  the  sound 
given  out  by  copper  vases  suspended  to 
the  sacred  tree;  and,  at  others,  the  sing- 
ing of  doves  hidden  in  its  foliage  or  the 
murmur  of  a  neighboring  spring. 

DODSLEY,  ROBERT,  an  English  poet 
and  dramatist;  born  at  Mansfield,  Notts., 
in  1703.  He  was  a  noted  bookseller  and 
publisher  in  London,  and  had  close  re- 
lations with  the  authors  of  the  time: 
Pope,  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  Burke,  etc. 
His  first  volume  of  verses,  "The  Muse 
in  Livery,"  was  received  with  great 
favor,  as  was  his  satiric  drama,  "The 
Toy  Shop,"  brought  out  at  Covent 
Garden.  He  wrote  the  popular  comedies : 
"The  King  and  the  Miller  of  Mansfield"; 
"Sir  John  Cockle  at  Court";  and  the 
tragedy  "Cleone."  He  died  in  Durham, 
^ec.  25,  1764. 

DOE,    JOHN,    and    RICHARD    ROE, 

cwo  fictitious  personages  of  the  English 
law  who  formerly  appeared  in  a  suit  of 
ejectment.  This  fictitious  form  of  pro- 
cedure was  abolished  in  1852.  In  the 
United  States  John  Doe  and  Jane  Doe 


are  used  in  many  parts  of  legal  pro- 
ceedings where  the  real  names  of  of- 
fenders cannot  be  ascertained,  or  where 
there  are  reasons  for  concealing  them. 

DOG,  a  digitigrade,  carnivorous  ani- 
mal, forming  the  type  of  the  genus  Canis, 
which  includes  also  the  wolf,  the  jackal, 
and,  as  a  sub-genus,  the  fox.  The  origin 
of  the  dog  is  a  much  debated  question, 
some  considering  the  breed  derived  from 
the  wolf,  an  opinion  which  is  based  on 
resemblances  of  structure,  the  fact  of  the 
two  animals  breeding  together  and  pro- 
ducing fertile  young,  and  the  equality  in 
the  period  of  gestation.  It  is  generally 
agreed  that  no  trace  of  the  dog  is  to  be 
found  in  a  primitive  state,  the  dhole  of 
India,  and  dingo  of  Australia  being  be- 
Meved  to  be  wild  descendants  from  do- 
mesticated ancestors.  Several  attempts 
to  make  a  systematic  classification  of 
the  varieties  of  dogs  have  been  made, 
but  without  much  success.  Hamilton 
Smith  divides  dogs  into  six  groups,  as 
follows:  (1)  Wolf-dogs,  including  the 
Newfoundland,  Eskimo,  St.  Bernard, 
shepherd's  dog,  etc.;  (2)  Watch-dogs  and 
cattle-dogs,  including  the  German  boar- 
hound,  the  Danish  dog,  the  matin  dog, 
etc.;  (3)  Greyhounds,  the  lurcher,  Irish 
hound,  etc.;  (4)  Hounds,  the  bloodhound, 
staghound,  foxhound,  setter,  pointer, 
spaniel,  cocker,  poodle,  etc.:  (5)  Cur- 
dogs,  including  the  terrier  and  its  allies; 
(6)  Mastiffs,  including  the  different 
kinds  of  mastiffs,  bull-dog,  pug-dog,  etc. 
Dogs  have  in  the  upper  jaw  six  incisors, 
two  strong,  curved  canines,  and  six 
molars  on  each  side,  the  first  three,  which 
are  small  and  have  cutting  edges,  being 
called  false  molars ;  in  the  lower  jaw  are 
six  incisors,  two  canines,  and  on  each 
side  seven  molars.  The  female  has  six 
to  ten  mammae;  she  goes  with  young 
nine  weeks  as  a  rule.  The  young  are 
born  blind,  their  eyes  opening  in  10  to 
12  days;  their  growth  ceases  at  two 
years  of  age.  The  dog  commonly  lives 
about  10  or  12  years.  By  English  law 
it  is  prohibited  to  use  dogs  for  purposes 
of  draught. 

DOGBANE,  an  American  plant  found 
from  Canada  to  the  Carolinas,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  of  Apocy^iacese. 
The  whole  plant  is  milky;  the  root  is 
intensely  bitter  and  nauseous,  and  is 
employed  in  the  United  States  instead 
of  ipecacuanha.  Another  species  yields 
a  useful  fiber,  and  is  knovim  as  Canada 
or  Indian  hemp. 

DOG  DAYS,  the  name  applied  by  the 
ancients  to  a  period  of  about  40  days,  the 
hottest  season  of  the  year,  at  the  time  of 
the  heliacal  rising  of  Sirius,  the  do^-star. 
The  time  of  the  rising  is  now,  owmg  to 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  different 


DOGE 


391 


DOGMATICS 


from  what  it  was  to  the  ancients,  July  1 ; 
and  the  dog  days  are  now  counted  from 
July  3  to  August  11,  that  is,  20  days  be- 
fore and  20  days  after  the  heliacal  rising. 

DOGE  (doj),  the  title  borne  by  the 
chief  magistrate  in  the  former  Italian 
republics  of  Venice  and  Genoa.  The 
dogate,  or  office  and  dignity  of  doge,  was 
elective;  the  doge  of  Genoa  being  elected 
for  two  years,  and  at  Venice  for  life. 
The  office  was  originated  in  the  latter 
city  in  the  year  697.  When  the  seven 
tribunes,  by  whom  state  affairs  had  been 
previously  administered,  were  found  un- 
equal to  their  posts,  the  Venetians  re- 
solved to  replace  them  by  a  single  chief 
magistrate,  who  should  hold  office  for 
life.  The  doge  was  chief  of  the  council, 
first  minister,  and  personal  representa- 
tive of  the  republic ;  but,  though  invested 
with  almost  regal  authority,  he  was  not 
a  sovereign.  He  could  convoke  assem- 
blies, declare  war,  or  conclude  treaties, 
command  the  armies  of  the  state,  ap- 
point the  military  tribunes  and  the 
judges,  correct  citizens,  hear  appeals,  de- 
cide disputes  between  the  clergy,  award 
ecclesiastical  punishments,  invest  bish- 
ops, and  install  them  in  their  churches. 

Notwithstanding  these  vast  powers,  a 
perusal  of  the  history  of  Venice  will 
prove,  that  though  the  Venetians  allowed 
four  centuries  to  elapse  before  they  fixed 
the  bounds  or  controlled  the  exercise  of 
the  power  of  their  chief  magistrate — 
after  that  time  the  doge  was  merely  the 
representative  of  an  authority  which  was 
actually  reserved  to  the  republic.  In 
fact  he  was  a  state  pageant  who  lent  the 
weight  of  his  name  to  the  acts  of  the 
senate.  Dispatches  were  directed  to  him 
by  ambassadors,  but  he  could  not  open 
them,  except  in  presence  of  the  council- 
lors; and  although  money  was  struck  in 
his  name  it  did  not  bear  his  stamp  or 
arms.  He  could  not  go  beyond  Venice 
without  permission  of  the  council.  He 
could  not  divest  himself  of  his  dignity  at 
will;  and  at  his  death  three  inquisitors 
and  five  correctors  examined  into  his 
conduct  with  the  most  searching  rigor. 
The  office,  after  an  existence  of  1,100 
years,  yielded,  with  but  slight  resistance, 
to  the  power  of  the  republic  of  France. 

DOGFISH,  the  name  given  to  any 
species  of  the  genus  Scylium,  the  type 
of  the  family  ScyllUdse.  Dogfish  are  like 
small  sharks.  They  are,  moreover,  ovip- 
arous. Of  the  known  species,  which  are 
about  11,  the  small-spotted  dogfish,  the 
large-spotted  dogfish,  and  the  black- 
mouthed  dogfish  are  the  best  known. 
The  egg  cases  are  curious  bodies,  like 
purses.^  They  are  popularly  known  as 
mermaid's  purses,  sea  purses,  etc. 


DOGGER  BANK,  an  extensive  sand 
bank  of  the  Gorman  Ocean,  celebrated 
for  its  codfishery.  It  begins  about  36 
miles  E.  of  Flamborough  Head  and  ex- 
tends E.  N.  E.  to  within  60  miles  of  Jut- 
land, in  some  places  attaining  a  breadth 
of  about  60  miles,  though  it  terminates 
merely  in  a  point.  Where  shallowest  the 
water  over  it  is  nine  fathoms.  Here  on 
the  night  of  Oct.  21  1904,  the  Russian 
Baltic  fleet  under  Admiral  Rozhdestven- 
ski,  en  route  for  Japan,  mistook  Hull 
fishing  boats  for  hostile  ships  and  sank  a 
trawler,  causing  the  death  of  two  men. 

DOG  LICHEN,  the  popular  name  of  a 
plant,  Peltidea  canina,  common  on  damp 
ground,  stones,  and  trunks  of  trees.  It 
was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  specific 
for  hydrophobia.  It  is  also  known  as 
ash-colored   ground  liverwort. 

DOGMA,  in  the  Septuagint  and  New 
Testament,  signified  a  decree  or  precept; 
by  classical  Greek  writers  it  is  used  in 
the  sense  of  a  philosophical  tenet.  It? 
general  meaning  is  a  principle  or  maxim 
laid  down  in  the  form  of  a  positive  as- 
sertion, and  hence  "the  Dogmatic  Meth- 
od" is  the  method  pursued  in  such  a 
science  as  mathematics,  which  start? 
from  axioms  and  postulates,  and  deduces 
everything  from  these  by  means  of 
proofs.  But  where  the  fundamental 
principles  are  either  unknown  or  much 
contested,  the  dogmatist  is  one  who  as- 
sumes certain  principles  without  proof 
as  the-  foundation  of  his  system.  The 
word  dogma  is  especially  used  to  signify 
the  whole  (or  any  one)  of  the  doctrinal 
forms  in  which  the  religious  experience 
of  the  Christian  Church  has  from  time 
to  time  authoritatively  expressed  itself, 
as  distinguished  from  the  opinions  held 
by  Church-teachers  individually. 

DOGMATIC,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
one  belonging  to  one  of  the  three  orders 
of  theologians  before  the  Reformation. 
These  orders  were  thus  classed:  (1) 
The  Dogmatics,  so  called  because  they 
based  their  systems  or  dogmas  on  the 
authority  of  Scripture,  and  the  judg- 
ment of  the  fathers.  (2)  The  Mystics, 
who,  in  disparagement  of  Scripture, 
framed  their  opinions  according  to  the 
dictates  of  spiritual  intuition.  (3)  the 
Scholastics,  who  paid  an  almost  sacred 
deference  to  the  Aristotelian  philosophy. 

The  word  was  also  applied  to  one  of  a 
sect  of  physicians  founded  by  Hippo- 
crates who  based  their  rules  of  practice 
on  general  principles  or  conclusions  de- 
duced from  theoretical  influences.  They 
were  opposed  to  the  Empirics  and  Meth- 
odists. 

DOGMATICS,  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  the  aiiiicles  of  Christian  faith 


DOG  ROSE 


392 


DOLCI 


(dogmas),  or  the  branch  of  theology 
that  deals  with  them.  The  first  attempt 
to  furnish  a  complete  and  coherent  sys- 
tem of  Christian  dogmas  was  made  by 
Origen  in  the  3d  century. 

DOG  ROSE,  a  common  plant  in  hedges 
and  thickets;  also  called  the  wild  brier. 
The  fruit  is  known  as  the  hep  or  hip. 
The  ripe  fruit  is  used  to  prepare  con- 
fection or  conserve  of  hips,  which  is 
used  in  the  preparation  of  certain  kinds 
of  pills. 

DOG-STAR,  a  name  for  Sirius,  the 
star  that  gives  its  name  to  the  dog  days. 

DOG'S-TAIL  GRASS,  a  small  genus 
of  meadow  grasses,  of  which  the  crested 
species  is  esteemed  alike  for  pastures 
and  lawns. 

DOGTOOTH,  in  architecture,  an  orna- 
ment or  molding  used  from  late  Norman 
to  early  decorated,  in  the  form  of  a 
four-leaved  flower,  with  the  center  pro- 
jecting. 

DOG-TOOTH  VIOLET,  a  liliaceous 
plant  which  owes  its  name  partly  to  the 
color  of  its  flowers,  partly  to  the  tooth- 
like bulb,  a  frequent  inmate  of  the  rock 
garden  or  herbaceous  border,  present- 
ing a  characteristic  appearance,  not  only 
in  March  and  April,  from  its  large, 
abundant  flowers,  but  on  account  of  its 
peculiarly  blotched  leaves.  In  Tartary 
its  bulbs  yield  starch,  and  in  Russia 
they  are  used  medicinally. 

DOGWATCH,  on  shipboard,  a  name 
given  to  each  of  two  watches  of  two 
hours  each  instead  of  four,  adopted  for 
the  purpose  of  varying  the  hours  of 
watches  kept  by  each  part  of  the  crew 
during  the  24  hours,  otherwise  the  same 
watch  would  invariably  fall  to  the  same 
men.  In  order  to  obviate  this  the  watches 
are  arranged  thus:  8  to  12  P.  M.  (a); 
12  to  4  A.  M.  (6)  ;  4  to  8  A.  M.  (a)  ;  8  to 
12  A.  M.  (b) ;  12  to  4  P.  M.  (a) ;  4  to  6 
p.  M.  (b),  dogwatch;  6  to  8  P.  M.  (a), 
dogwatch;  8  to  12  P.  M.  (b)  and  so  on. 

DOGWOOD,  a  common  name  for  plants 
of  the  genus  Cornus,  but  more  especially 
applied  to  C.  sanguinea.  The  wood  is 
hard,  and  is  sometimes  used  for  butchers* 
skewers,  toothpicks,  etc.  The  fruit  is 
black,  about  the  size  of  a  currant,  very 
bitter,  and  yields  an  oil  used  in  France 
for  burning  in  lamps  and  for  soapmak- 
ing.  The  following  are  the  best  known 
varieties : 

1.  Cornus  floHda  is  a  common  Ameri- 
can shrub,  growing  6-10  feet  in  height, 
and  bearing  beautiful  white  clusters  of 
flowers,  enlivening  the  hedges  and  bush 
of  the  warmer  portion  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  productive  of  a  bark  much 
valued  as  an  antiperiodic  in  ague,  etc., 


and  its  wood,  which  is  hard,  white,  and 
close  grained,  is  useful  in  various  ways. 
One  unique  use  of  its  small  branches  is 
to  form  tooth-brushes  with  which 
women  in  some  of  the  Southern  States 
"dip"  snuff. 

2.  Euonymus  europssus.  Loudon  says, 
"It  is  called  dogwood  because  a  decoction 
of  its  leaves  was  used  to  wash  dogs  to 
free  them  from  vermin";  and  this  deri- 
vation receives  some  support  from  an- 
other of  its  synonyms,  louse-berry  tree. 

DOHRN,  ANTON  (d5rn),  a  German 
zoologist;  born  in  Stettin,  Dec.  29, 
1849;  studied  at  Konigsberg,  Bonn, 
Jena,  and  Berlin,  lectured  for  a  time  on 
zoology  at  Jena,  and  in  1870  founded 
the  great  zoological  station  at  Naples. 
As  an  embryologist  he  devoted  himself 
mainly  to  the  development  of  insects 
and  crustaceans;  and  besides  reports, 
published  works  on  the  origin  of  the 
vertebrates.     He  died  Sept.  29,  1909. 

DOIT,  a  small  copper  coin  current  in 
Scotland  during  the  reigns  of  the 
Stuarts.  It  was  a  Dutch  coin,  in  value 
equal  to  the  eighth  of  an  English  penny, 
or  half  a  farthing. 

DOLABELLA.  PUBLIUS  CORNE- 
LIITS  (dol-a-bel'la),  the  son-in-law  of 
Cicero,  who  took  sides  with  Julius 
Caesar  in  the  civil  war,  served  under 
him  at  Pharsalia,  Thapsus,  and  Munda, 
and  was  made  by  him  consul  and  gov- 
ernor of  Syria.  He  was  deprived  of  his 
government  by  Cassius,  and  revenged 
himself  by  putting  to  death  Trebonius, 
governor  of  Asia  Minor,  and  one  of  the 
assassins  of  the  dictator.  Declared  an 
enemy  of  the  republic  for  this  act,  he 
took  refuge  in  Laodicea,  where  he  was 
besieged  by  Cassius  and  compelled  to 
commit  suicide,  43  B.  C. 

DOLBEAR,  AMOS  EMERSON,  an 
American  physicist  and  inventor;  born 
in  Norwich,  Conn.,  Nov.  10,  1887;  was  a 
valuable  contributor  to  science.  Among 
his  publications  are:  "The  Art  of  Pro- 
jecting" (1876);  "The  Speaking  Tele- 
phone" (1877);  "Sound  and  Its  Phe- 
nomena," and  "Matter,  Ether,  and  Mo- 
tion." He  patented  the  magneto-electric 
telephone  and  the  static  telephone  in 
1879.     He  died  in  1910. 

DOLCI,  CARLO  or  CARLINO  (doP 
che),  a  painter  of  the  Florentine  school; 
born  in  Florence  in  1616.  He  received 
his  first  instruction  in  art  from  Jacopo 
Vignali,  a  pupil  of  Roselli.  His  works 
consist  chiefly  of  madonnas  and  saints. 
The  faces  are  full  of  a  pleasing  and  ten- 
der softness,  which,  however,  is  often 
carried  so  far  as  to  rob  them  of  all  char- 
acter.     His    works    are    numerous    and 


DOLCINITES 


393 


DOLERITE 


scattered  over  all  Europe.  Besides  his 
madonnas  the  most  famous  are  his  "St. 
Cecilia,"  "Christ  Blessing  the  Bread  and 
Wine,"  and  "Herodias  with  the  Head  of 
John  the  Baptist,"  in  Dresden.  He  died 
Jan.  17,  1686. 

DOLCINITES  (from  Dolcino,  their 
founder),  a  Christian  sect  which  arose 
in  Piedmont  in  1304,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Dolcino,  who  was  opposed  to  the 
papacy,  and  otherwise  held  tenets  like 
those  of  the  spiritual  Franciscans  and 
the  Paterines  of  Lombardy.  At  the  in- 
stance of  the  Inquisition  troops  were 
sent  against  them  in  1307.  After  mak- 
ing a  brave  resistance  Dolcino  and  a 
number  of  his  followers  were  captured. 
They  were  first  tortured  and  then  burned 
alive. 

DOLDRUMS,  among  seamen,  the  parts 
of  the  ocean  near  the  equator  that 
abound  in  calms,  squalls,  and  light  baf- 
fling winds;  otherwise  known  as  the 
horse-latitudes. 

DOLE,  a  tov/n  in  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Jura,  on  the  Doubs,  29  miles  S. 
E.  of  Dijon  by  rail.  It  contains  a  Gothic 
cathedral,  a  college,  and  a  library;  and 
it  has  quarries,  foundries,  manufactures 
of  metal  wares,  and  a  trade  in  wine  and 
cheese.  Pop.  about  16,000.  Dole,  the 
birthplace  of  Pasteur,  is  the  Dola  Sequa- 
norum  of  the  Romans,  of  whom  many 
traces  remain.  It  was  in  the  15th,  16th, 
and  17th  centuries  a  strong  and  oft-dis- 
puted fortress,  and  the  capital  of  the 
Franche-Comte  with  a  university  and  a 
parliament 

DOLE,    CHARLES    FLETCHER,    an 

American  clergyman  and  writer,  born  in 
Brewer,  Me.,  in  1845.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  University  in  1868  and 
from  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
in  1872.*  He  served  as  minister  in  Port- 
land and  in  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  from 
1879  to  1016.  Among  his  writings  are 
♦The  Citizen  and  the  Neighbor"  (1884)  ; 
"The  Golden  Rule  in  Business"  (1895); 
"The  Theology  of  Civilization"  (1899); 
"The  Spirit  of  Democracy"  (1906)  ; 
"The  Ethics  of  Progress"  (1909)  ;  "The 
Burden  of  Poverty"  (1912). 

DOLE,  NATHAN  HASKELL,  an 
American  literarian;  born  in  Chelsea, 
Mass.,  Aug.  31,  1852.  He  was  graduated 
from  Harvard  University  in  1874,  and 
after  several  years  of  teaching,  engaged 
in  literary  work  in  Boston  and  New 
York.  He  was  literary  and  musical  edi- 
tor of  the  Philadelphia  "Press"  until 
1887,  when  he  became  literary  adviser 
to  the  firm  of  T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co.  His 
principal  original  works  are:  "Young 
Folks'   History  of  Russia"    (1881);   "A 


Score  of  Famous  Composers";  "The 
Hawthorn  Tree"  (1895) ;  "The  Mistakes 
We  Make"  (1898),  and  "Omar,  the 
Tent-Maker"  (1898).  In  1899  he  edited 
the  complete  works  of  Count  L.  N.  Tol- 
stoi, whose  novels,  "Anna  Karenina," 
"War  and  Peace,"  and  many  others  he 
had  already  translated.  He  has  also 
translated  "Maria  y  Maria,"  "Maxi- 
mina,"  and  "Sister  St.  Sulpice,"  from 
the  Spanish  of  Valdes;  "The  Letters  of 
Victor  Hugo,"  novels  from  the  French; 
and  a  multitude  of  songs  for  music, 
operas,  etc.  In  1896  he  edited  a  multi- 
variorum  edition  of  the  "Rubaiyat  of 
Omar  Khayyam,"  containing  many 
translations  in  English,  French,  Ger- 
man, Italian,  Hungarian,  and  Danish. 
Among  his  more  recent  works  are  "Life 
of  Tolstoi"  (1911),  "Spell  of  Switzer- 
land" (1913).  He  has  lectured  widely 
before  women's  clubs  and  other  institu- 
tions. In  1882  he  married  Helen  James 
Bennett,  well  known  for  translations 
from  the  French  and  German. 

DOLE,  SANFORD  BALLARD,  an 
American  statesman;  born  in  Honolulu, 
Hawaii,  April  23,  1844,  his  parents  being 
missionaries  on  the  island.  Dole  received 
his  early  education  in  Oahu  College, 
Honolulu,  and  completed  his  studies  at 
Williams  College,  Williamstown,  Mass. 
He  studied  law  in  Boston  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1873,  returning  in 
the  same  year  to  Hawaii.  In  1884  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Legislature 
and  a^ain  in  1889.  He  had  been  in  the 
meantime,  in  1887,  appointed  an  Asso- 
ciate Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court,  under 
the  monarchy,  which  post  he  resigned  to 
accept  the  leadership  of  the  revolution 
that  overturned  the  monarchy  in  Janu- 
ary, 1893,  and  established  a  provisional 
government  on  the  17th  of  that  month. 
The  proposition  for  annexation  of  the  is- 
lands being  rejected  by  President  Cleve- 
land, a  constitutional  convention  was 
held  in  Honolulu,  and  on  July  4,  1893,  a 
republic  was  formally  proclaimed,  of 
which  Judge  Dole  was  elected  president. 
After  the  annexation  of  Hawaii  in  1898, 
he  was  one  of  the  five  commissioners  ap- 
pointed by  President  McKinley  to  rec- 
ommend to  Congress  such  legislation 
concerning  the  Hawaiian  Islands  as  they 
should  deem  best,  and  was  subsequently 
appointed  governor  of  the  islands.  He 
retired  in  1915. 

DOLERITE,  a  variety  of  trap-rock, 
consisting  of  labradorite  and  pyroxene, 
with  generally  some  magnetite.  It  may 
be  either  light  colored  crystalline,  or 
granitoid,  or  dark-colored,  compact,  mas- 
sive; either  porphyrite  or  not,  sometimes 
crypto-crystalline,    and    also    a    cellular 


DOLET 


394 


DOLLIVEB 


lava.     It  includes  much  of  the  so-called 
trap,  greenstone,  and  amygdaloid. 

DOLET,  ETIENNE  (d5-la'),  "the 
martyr  of  the  Renaissance";  bom  in  Or- 
leans, France,  in  1509.  At  the  age  of  12 
Dolet  went  to  the  University  of  Paris, 
where  his  attention  was  directed  to  the 
study  which  became  the  chief  interest  of 
his  life — the  writings  of  Cicero.  In  1534 
Dolet  left  Toulouse  for  Lyons  where  he 
killed  a  person  of  the  name  of  Compaing. 
Having  received  the  royal  pardon,  he 
continued  to  reside  in  Lyons,  always  un- 
der strong  suspicion  of  heresy.  At 
length,  in  1544,  he  was  found  guilty  of 
heresy  on  a  charge  mainly  based  on  an 
alleged  mistranslation  of  Plato,  in  which 
he  was  accused  of  denying  the  immortal- 
ity of  the  soul.  After  two  years'  impri- 
sonment, Dolet  was  burned  in  the  Palace 
Maubert,  Paris,  Aug.  3,  154G. 

DOLICHOCEPHALIC,  long-headed; 
an  epithet  applied  to  those  human  skulls 
in  which  the  transverse  diameter  or 
width  from  side  to  side  bears  a  less  pro- 
portion to  the  longitudinal  diameter,  or 
width  from  front  to  back  than  8  to  10. 
Such  are  the  skulls  of  the  west  African 
negroes. 

DOLICHOS,  a  genus  of  papilionaceous 
plants,  tribe  Phaeseolex  sub-tribe  Eu- 
phaseoleas.  As  founded  by  Linnaeus  it 
included  many  species  now  transferred 
to  other  genera;  it  is  now  limited  to 
those  which  have  a  linear  legume,  with 
incomplete  cellular  dissepiments,  and 
ovate  seeds  with  a  small  oval  hilum. 
Even  when  thus  restricted  it  contains 
about  70  known  species,  which  are  from 
the  tropics  of  both  hemispheres.  The 
legumes  of  D.  sesquipedalis  are  eaten 
in  the  S.  of  Europe.  D.  ligyiosus  is  one 
of  the  most  common  kidney  beans  in  In- 
dia. D.  nnifloris  is  the  horse  gram  of 
the  same  country.  The  tuberous  root  of 
D.  tuberosns  is  eaten  in  Martinique.  The 
legumes  of  various  species  now  removed 
to  other  genera  are  eaten. 

DOLICHOSOMA,  an  amphibian  of  the 
Carboniferous  period.  It  is  divided  by 
Cope  into  the  genera  of  Phlegethontia 
iand  Molgophis.  Fossils  have  been  found 
in  Ohio  and  Nova  Scotia.  The  Ohio 
specimens  were  imbedded  in  cannel  coal 
formations  indicating  lake-like  condi- 
tions during  the  life  of  the  species. 

DOLIUM,  the  tun,  a  genus  of  gaster- 
opodous  moUusca,  family  Buccini<^.  The 
shell  is  ventricose,  spirally  furrowed, 
with  a  small  spire  and  very  large  aper- 
ture, the  outer-lip  cremated,  and  no 
operculum-  known  species,  14  recent, 
from  the  Mediterranean,  the  India  and 
China    seas,    and    the    Pacific.      Fossil 


species  from  the  Tertiary,  if  not  even 
commencing  with  the  chalk. 

DOLLAR  [an  adaptation  of  the  Ger- 
nian  thaler,  which  is  itself  an  "abbrevia- 
tion of  Joachimsthaler,  a  coin  so  called 
because  first  coined  from  silver  obtained 
from  mines  in  Joachimsthal  (i.  e.,  Jo- 
achim's dale),  in  Bohemia,  about  1518; 
they  were  sometimes  called  Schlicken- 
thaler,  because  first  coined  by  the  counts 
of  Schlick,  a  favorite  coin,  found  under 
different  names  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  globe.]  The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal dollars  in  circulation: 

(1)  A  gold  coin  of  the  United  States; 
weight,  25.8  grains;  fineness,  .900;  now 
no  longer  coined  in  pieces  of  one  dollar 
but  in  multiples  of  the  standard. 

(2)  A  silver  coin  of  the  United  States. 

(3)  A  silver  coin  current  in  Mexico; 
fineness,  .900;  weight,  27.067  grammes, 
or  417.7  grains. 

(4)  The  unit  of  value  in  Canada,  rep- 
resented by  paper  only,  Canada  having 
no  coinage  of  its  own. 

(5)  The  English  name  of  a  silver  coin 
in  circulation  in  many  other  countries, 
as  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  etc.  In 
many  cases  the  name  is  different,  thus, 
the  Spanish  dollar  is  also  called  piastre, 
or  duro;  that  of  Peru,  the  sol;  that  of 
Chile,  the  peso,  etc. 

The  value  of  a  dollar  is  the  unit  em- 
ployed in  reckoning  money  in  the  United 
States. 

The  sign  $,  now  generally  used  to 
signify  a  dollar,  is  commonly  supposed 
to  date  from  the  time  of  the  celebrated 
Pillar  dollar  of  Spain.  This  dollar  was 
known  as  the  Piece  of  Eight  (meaning 
eight  reals),  and  the  curved  portion  of 
the  sign  is  a  rude  representation  of  the 
figure  8.  The  two  vertical  strokes  are 
thought  to  be  emblematical  of  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules,  which  were  stamped  upon 
the  coin  itself. 

DOLLART,  THE,  a  gulf  of  the  Ger- 
man Ocean,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Ems,  between  Hanover  and  Holland.  It 
is  8  miles  long  by  7  broad,  and  was 
formed  by  inundations  of  the  sea  (1277- 
1362),  which  submerged  50  villages  and 
several  towns.  In  recent  times  much 
territory,  especially  on  the  flat  German 
coast,  has  been  won  back  from  the  sea. 

DOLLIVER,  JONATHAN,  PREN- 
TISS, United  States  Senator  from  Iowa, 
born  in  Preston  county,  W.  Va.,  in  1858. 
He  graduated  from  the  University  of 
West  Virginia  in  1875  and  after  study- 
ing law  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1878. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  politics  and 
became  well  known  as  an  orator.  From 
1899  to  1900  he  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress and  in  1901  was  appointed  United 


DOLOMITE 


395 


DOME 


States  Senator  to  fill  an  unexpired 
term.  He  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
from  1901  to  1907,  and  from  1907  to 
1913.  He  was  one  of  the  most  powerful 
and  aggressive  of  the  progressive  group 
of  Senators  which  opposed  the  conserva- 
tive or  reactionary  policies  of  the  Repub- 
lican party.  His  efforts  against  the 
Payne-Aldrich  Tariff  Bill  in  the  Senate 
in  1910  hastened  his  death  which  oc- 
curred in  the  same  year. 

DOLOMITE  (named  after  D.  Dolomieu, 
a  French  mineralogist) ,  a  brittle  sub- 
transparent  or  translucent  mineral,  of  a 
white,  reddish,  or  greenish-white,  brown, 
gray,  or  black  color,  with  a  vitreous  lus- 
ter. There  are  numerous  varieties. 
Dolomite  constitutes  extensive  strata, 
with  limestone  strata,  in  various  regions, 
M.  Dolomieu  in  1791  announced  its 
marked  characteristics,  its  not  efferves- 
cing with  acids  while  burning  like  lime- 
stone, and  soluble  after  heating  in  acids. 

DOLOMITE  MOUNTAINS,  or  DOLO- 
MITE ALPS,  a  group  of  European 
mountains  belonging  partly  to  Tyrol, 
partly  to  north  Italy,  and  having  the 
Piave  and  Rienz  on  the  E.,  the  Adige 
and  Eisack  on  the  W.  They  are  named 
from  the  prevalence  of  the  mineral  dolo- 
mite. The  highest  summits  are  Palle  di 
San  Martino  (10,968  feet)  ;  Sorapiss 
(10,798),  and  Monte  Tofana  (10,715). 

DOLPHIN,  a  cetaceous  animal,  form- 
ing the  type  of  a  family  {Delphinidae) 
which  includes  also  the  porpoises  and 
narwhal.  Dolphins  are  cosmopolite  ani- 
mals inhabiting  every  sea  from  the  equa- 
tor to  the  poles;  they  are  gregarious, 
and  swim  with  extraordinary  velocity. 
The  common  dolphin  measures  from  6 
to  10  feet  in  length,  has  a  long  sharp 
snout  with  numerous  nearly  conical 
teeth  in  both  jaws;  its  flesh  is  coarse, 
rank,  and  disagreeable,  but  is  used  by 
the  Laplanders  as  food.  It  lives  on  fish, 
mollusca,  etc.  The  animal  has  to  come 
to  the  surface  at  short  intervals  to 
breathe.  The  blow-hole  is  of  a  semi- 
lunar form,  with  a  kind  of  a  valvular  ap- 
paratus, and  opens  on  the  vertex,  nearly 
over  the  eyes.  The  structure  of  the  ear 
renders  the  sense  of  hearing  very  acute. 
One  or  two  young  are  produced  by  the 
female,  who  suckles  and  watches  them 
with  great  care.  The  name  is  also  com- 
monly but  improperly  given  to  a  fish, 
Coryphsena  hippiiris,  a  member  of  the 
mackerel  family,  the  beauty  of  whose 
colors  when  dying  has  been  much  cele- 
brated by  poets.  They  abound  within 
the  tropics. 

DOLPHIN,  BLACK,  a  species  of 
Aphis,  or  plant-louse,  which  infests  the 
bean,  and  often  does  considerable  injury 


to  crops,  sucking  the  juices  of  the  plants 
and  preventing  the  development  of 
flower-buds.  It  is  of  a  dull  black  or  dark- 
green  color,  the  young  spotted  with  sil- 
very white. 

DOMAIN,  PUBLIC,  in  the  United 
States,  the  vacant  public  land.  The 
following  gives  an  approximate  estimate 
of  the  quantity  of  these  lands,  together 
with  the  area  reserved  and  appropriated, 
in  the  several  land  districts  at  the  close 
of  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1920. 


Area    In    acres 

State 

Surveyed. 

Unsur- 
veyed. 

Total. 

Alabama.  . . 

37,200 

6,643,509 

276,595 

15,237,248 

7,364,231 

120,077 

5,628,945 

4,346 

14,240 

73,523 

256,297 

33,360 

18 

3,964,156 

66,844 

31,457,972 

14,915,870 

81,044 

7,404 

13,259,365 

259,073 

13,316,198 

784,571 

5,154 

18,017,735 

37,200 

18,268,909 

276  595 

Arizona.  .  .  . 
Arkansas. . . 

11,625,400 

California.  . 
Colorado.  .  . 
Florida.  .  .  . 

Idaho 

Kansas.  .  .  . 

4,348,553 
1,576,954 

"  3, '176,167 

19.585,801 

8,941,185 

120,077 

8,805,112 

4,346 

14,240 

75,523 

256,297 

33.360 

18 

Louisiana.  . 

Michigan .  . . 

Minnesota.  . 

Mississippi . 

Missouri.  .  . 

Montana.  .  . 
Nebraska. . . 
Nevada. . .  . 
N.  Mexico.  . 
N   Dakota.  . 

2,009,585 

22,8bV,263 
3,533,008 

5,973,741 

66,844 

54,267.175 

18,448,878 

81.044 

7,404 

14,000.757 

288,472 

29,991,715 

1,086,686 

5,154 

Oklahoma. . 

Oregon 

S.  Dakota.  .  . 

Utah 

Washington, 

74V,392 

29,399 

16,675,517 

302,115 

Wyoming.  .  . 

1,661,860 

19,679,595 

Grand  total 

131,824.975 

68,495,153 

200,320,128 

DOMBOC  (book  of  dooms  or  sen- 
tences) ,  the  code  of  laws  compelled  by 
King  Alfred,  begins  with  extracts  from 
the  Bible.  Then  follov/  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, the  part  of  the  Mosaic  law 
relating  to  criminal  offenses,  and  pas- 
sages from  the  New  Testament,  includ- 
ing the  golden  rule.  The  code  was  rati- 
fied by  the  Witan.  Thorpe  gives  it  in 
his  "Diplomatarium  Anglicanum  aevi 
Saxonici"  (English  Diplomatarium  of 
the  Saxon  Era)    (1865). 

DOME,  though  often  used  synonymous- 
ly with  cupola,  a  dome,  in  the  stricter 
sense,  signifies  the  external  part  of  the 
spherical  or  polygonal  roof,  of  which  the 
cupola  is  the  internal  part.  In  Italian 
usage,  however,  it  has  a  wider  significa- 
tion, being  used  to  denote  the  cathedral 
or  chief  church  of  a  town,  the  house 
(domus)  par  excellence,  or  house  of  God. 
The  cause  of  the  name  of  the  building 
being  thus  applied  to  the  form  of  the 
roof  which  covered  it  arose  from  the  fact 
that  the  chief  churches  of  Italy  were  at 
one  period  almost  universally  so  roofed.  It 


DOMENICHINO 


396        DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE 


•was  at  Constantinople  and  in  the  Byzan- 
tine provinces  that  the  dome  was  first 
employed  in  ecclesiastical  structures. 
But  it  was  the  Romans  who,  in  reality, 
were  the  inventors  of  the  dome,  as  of  all 
the  other  applications  of  the  semi-cir- 
cular arch.  Of  their  success  in  applying 
it  to  large  buildings  we  have  abundant 
proof  in  the  ancient  domes  still  to  be 
seen  in  Rome  and  its  neighborhood.  The 
dome  of  the  Pantheon  is  still  probably 
the  most  magnificent  dome  in  existence. 
The  dome  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome;  of  St. 
Paul's,   London;   of  the   Capitol,   Wash- 


lem.  It  stands  on  Mount  Moriah,  on  tire 
site  once  occupied  by  the  Temple  of 
Solomon.  Immediately  under  its  dome 
an  irregular-shaped  rock  projects  above 
the  pavement.  This  rock  was  the  scene 
of  many  scriptural  events,  and  has  been 
greatly  revered  for  ages. 

DOMESDAY  BOOK,  one  of  the  most 
ancient  and  valuable  records  of  England, 
framed  by  order  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, to  serve  as  the  register  from 
which  judgment  was  to  be  given  upon 
the  value,  tenure,  and  service  of  lands 
therein    described.     According   to    some 


DOLPHIN 


ington;    and    of   the    old    Boston    State 
House,  are  notable  examples  also. 

The  following  are  the  dimensions  of 
some  of  the  most  important  existing 
domes: 

Feet  diam.   Feet  high. 

Pantheon    at   Rome 142  143 

Baths  of  Caracalla,   Rome.  .  .    112  116 
St.    Sophia,    Constantinople..    115  201 
St.    Maria    delle    Fiore,    Flor- 
ence         139  310 

St.    Peter's,    Rome 139  330 

St.  Paul's,  London    112  215 

Capitol,   Washington    96  220 

St.    Genevieve,   Paris 67  190 

DOMENICHINO  (do-men-e-ke'no),  a 
celebrated  Italian  painter,  whose  real 
name  was  DOMENico  Zampieri;  born  in 
Bologna,  1581.  He  studied  first  under 
Denis  Calvert,  and  then  in  the  school  of 
the  Caracci.  At  about  the  age  of  20  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  acquired  a  great 
reputation,  especially  by  his  fresco  of 
the  "Flagellation  of  St.  Andrew."  He 
spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  at 
Naples.  His  chef-d'oeuvre  is  the  "Com- 
munion of  St.  Jerome  in  the  Church  at 
Bethlehem,"  now  placed  in  the  Vatican, 
opposite  "The  Transfiguration"  of  Ra- 
phael. "The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Agnes," 
"Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian,"  and  his 
scenes  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  are 
among  his  finest  works.  Domenichino 
was  one  of  the  victims  of  the  malignant 
persecuting  triumvirate  of  painters  at 
Naples,  where  he  died  April  15,  1641. 

DOME  OF  THE  ROCK,  a  name  con- 
ferred on  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  Jerusa- 


historians,  the  survey  was  begun  in  1080 
or  1083 ;  according  to  others,  at  the  close 
of  1085.  The  book  itself  records  its 
completion  in  1086.  The  work  appears 
to  have  been  known  by  the  other  names 
of  "Rotulus  Wintoniae  (Roll  of  Win- 
chester) ;  "Liber  de  Wintonia"  (Book  of 
Winchester,  in  consequence  of  its  being 
at  one  period  preserved  in  that  city)  ; 
the  "Liber  Censualis  Anglise"  (Rate- 
book of  England)  ;  "Scriptum  Thesauri 
Regis"  (Record  of  the  King's  Treasury). 

DOMESTIC   ARCHITECTURE,   a 

branch  of  the  building  art  which  has 
special  reference  to  houses,  villas,  and 
edifices  designed  primarily  for  dwelling 
purposes. 

Ancient  Greek  and  Roman. — In  gen- 
eral all  the  rooms  were  grouped  on  the 
ground  floor,  round  an  atrium  or  court, 
and  a  peristyle  or  hall,  which  two  por- 
tions of  the  house  had  he  most  impor- 
tance attached  to  them,  because  they  con- 
stituted the  favorite  spot  in  summer  on 
account  of  the  breeze,  and  in  winter  on 
account  of  the  sun.  Both  the  Romap 
and  Greek  houses  consisted  of  two  divi- 
sions, but  the  meaning  and  employment 
of  these  divisions  did  not  coincide;  for 
whereas  in  Greek  houses  the  front  part 
constituted  the  andronitis  or  men's 
apartments,  in  Roman  houses  it  formed 
the  public  part  of  the  building,  in  which 
clients  used  to  wait  upon  their  patrons. 
The  back  part,  on  the  contrary,  was  in- 
tended for  the  residence  and  real  dwell- 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTUBE        397 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE 


ing-rooms  of  the  family;  while  in  the 
Greek  houses  the  back  was  the  gynai- 
konitis,  or  apartments  for  the  women 
and  domestics.  The  atrium,  or  court, 
formed  the  central  part  of  the  front  of 
the  house  and  the  peristyle,  or  hall,  the 
central  part  of  the  back,  both  being 
open  to  the  air.  Round  these  the  rooms 
were  grouped,  and  from  these  princi- 
pally they  derived  their  light.  Behind 
the  peristyle  were  the  cubicula,  or 
sleeping-rooms,  and  the  triclinium,  or 
dining-room,  which  was  quite  open  to 
the  peristyle. 

Norman. — The  towns  and  ordinary 
houses  of  the  Normans  were  entirely 
built  of  wood.  Their  castles,  having  but 
one  destination,  that  of  defense,  aimed 
at  nothing  but  strength  in  their  plan  or 
construction.  The  principal  feature  was 
always  the  keep  or  donjon,  which  con- 
tained the  apartments  of  the  lord  of  the 
castle,  and  was  also  meant  to  be  the  last 
refuge  of  the  garrison  if  the  outer  works 
were  forced.  The  keep  was  usually 
raised  on  an  artificial  mound,  or  placed 
on  the  edge  of  a  precipice.  The  win- 
dows were  few,  and  little  more  than 
chinks,  unless  very  high  up,  or  turned 
to  the  court.  The  whole  fortress  was 
defended  by  a  moat. 

English. — Like  the  Saxons  the  Nor- 
mans had  built  almost  entirely  in  wood 
or  timber  frame-work,  houses  of  stone 
being  the  exception.  The  troubled  state 
of  the  country,  however,  led  to  the  erec- 
tion of  numerous  strong  stone  buildings 
or  fortresses.  Gradually,  as  civilization 
improved,  the  necessity  for  defense  de- 
creased, and  the  efforts  of  Edward  I. 
to  introduce  and  encourage  the  arts  in 
England  by  bringing  over  choice  work- 
men and  artists  from  France  led  to  a 
marked  change  in  the  style  of  architec- 
ture. The  close  of  the  17th  century 
brought  with  it  a  taste  for  a  return  to 
classical  models,  and  an  attempt  was 
made  to  work  out  a  national  style  com- 
bining to  some  extent  the  characteristics 
of  the  Tudor  and  the  Classical.  This  is 
commonly  known  as  "Queen  Anne"  style. 
The  buildings  are  generally  of  brick, 
solid  and  heavy.  The  domestic  archi- 
tecture of  the  Georgian  era  is  a  very  de- 
based imitation  of  the  Classical.  In  the 
present  day  there  is  no  essentially  char- 
acteristic architectural  style. 

American. — As  a  matter  of  course,  in 
the  earlier  years  of  the  existence  of  the 
Republic  the  architectural  styles  were 
drawn  almost  exclusively  from  English 
sources,  and  up  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  except  in  very  few  instances, 
the  country  did  not  contain  any  archi- 
tecture of  distinctive  features.  But  with 
the  return  of  peace  and  prosperity  the 
arts  began  to  flourish,  and  great  atten- 


tion was  bestowed  upon  the  construction 
and  ornamentation  of  domestic  build- 
ings. Numerous  styles  have  appeared, 
had  their  day,  and  then  given  way  in 
rapid  succession  to  others, 

DOMESTIC  SERVICE.  Work  done 
in  the  house  by  servants  hired  to  per- 
form duties  assigned  to  them.  It  is  gen- 
erally held  to  include  cooks,  house- 
keepers, waiting-maids,  butlers,  chauf- 
feurs, nurses,  etc.  The  earliest  servants 
in  the  United  States  were  the  negro 
slaves  and  those  who  paid  for  their 
transportation  to  the  Colonies  by  becom- 
ing for  a  certain  number  of  years  serv- 
ants to  the  people  who  paid  their 
passage  money.  These  latter  were 
known  as  redemptioners.  In  the  North 
after  the  Revolution  this  class  was  re- 
placed by  the  free  laborers,  in  the  South 
by  the  negro  slaves.  Up  until  the  Civil 
War  the  relation  of  the  household  serv- 
ant to  his  or  her  employer  was  a  very 
democratic  one.  Except  in  the  larger 
cities  the  "help"  sat  at  the  same  table, 
and  were  generally  treated  as  the  social 
equals  of  the  family  employing  them. 
No  badges  of  service  such  as  a  cap  or 
livery  were  worn  and  the  personal  ele- 
ment entered  into  the  service  veiy 
largely.  When,  however,  large  numbers 
of  unskilled  laborers  from  foreign  lands 
began  to  arrive  in  the  United  States  thia 
state  of  affairs  was  altered.  From  1845- 
1860  Irish,  German,  and  a  little  later 
Chinese  unskilled  laborers  immigrated 
into  the  States,  and  household  service 
was  taken  up  by  a  great  many  of  them. 
Obviously  the  same  conditions  of  famili- 
arity between  the  family  and  the  serv- 
ants could  not  continue,  at  least  not  in 
the  Eastern  States  where  the  bulk  of  the 
immigrants  stayed.  In  the  Western 
section  this  democratic  relationship  still 
obtained,  and  does  so  to  this  day  in  the 
extreme  frontier  regions.  Another  fac- 
tor to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  East  was 
the  opportunity  offered  increasingly  to 
household  servants  of  working  in  fac- 
tories and  establishments  where  there  are 
fixed  hours  of  labor  and  no  curtailments 
of  their  personal  freedom.  An  increasing 
distance  between  the  family  and  the  serv- 
ants was  maintained  by  the  wealthy 
and  badges  of  service  again  came  into 
use,  a  feature  largely  unknown  in  the 
period  before  the  Civil  War.  The  work- 
ing of  factors  above  mentioned  was 
stimulated  by  conditions  brought  about 
by  the  World  War.  An  unprecedented 
demand  for  all  sorts  of  labor  was  made 
by  the  Government  and  industrial  estab- 
lishments, and  wages,  until  then  un- 
heard of,  were  offered.  Large  numl>ers 
of  household  servants  accepted  these 
offers,  and  those  who  did  not  stayed 
26 — Vol.  Ill — Cyc 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE 


398 


DOMINIAN 


only  on  very  remunerative  terms.  The 
unrest  which  succeeded  the  war  did 
nothing  to  solve  the  problem,  if  indeed 
it  did  not  augment  it.  The  present  con- 
dition of  the  domestic  servants  in  the 
United  States  as  compared  with  other 
classes  of  labor  is  certainly  good.  The 
wages  of  a  girl  or  woman  doing  the  work 
of  general  housekeeping  averages  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  dollars  a  week,  and  in 
addition  she  secures  room  and  board. 
The  only  unsatisfactory  part  to  the  serv- 
ant is  the  social  inferiority  which  such 
a  position  carries  with  it  and  the  some- 
what longer  hours.  To  remedy  this  last 
abuse  the  "shift"  system — allowing  each 
servant  to  work  but  eight  hours— has 
been  suggested  and  in  some  localities 
been  put  in  force  by  the  very  wealthy. 
Co-operative  housekeeping  has  been  at- 
tempted by  those  whose  means  are 
limited,  to  cope  with  the  problem  of  se- 
curing help.  "Community  kitchens"  sup- 
ply the  food,  control  heating  plants,  do 
away  with  the  necessity  of  janitor  serv- 
ice, while  modern  electric  equipment 
vastly  reduces  the  time  consumed  in 
housework. 

In  England  and  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe  the  conditions  of  labor  of  the 
household  servant  are  not  nearly  so 
good.  In  most  of  these  countries  there 
is  a  class  bred  to  service,  and  members 
of  that  class  seldom  aspire  to  a  higher 
social  status.  This  is  more  especially 
the  case  the  farther  eastward  one  goes 
in  Europe,  reaching  its  climax  in  nations 
such  as  Poland,  Rumania,  and  Hungary, 
where  the  personal  restrictions  on  the 
liberty  of  the  servant  remind  one  of  the 
feudal  serf.  Prior  to  the  Revolution  in 
Russia  much  the  same  condition  ob- 
tained there.  Even  in  France  or  Ger- 
many the  household  servants  are  rather 
pleased  to  wear  the  white  caps  belong- 
ing to  their  order,  while  in  America  it 
remains  one  of  the  distasteful  features 
of  domestic  service.  In  Germany  at  the 
termination  of  a  servant's  employment 
in  the  household  the  employer  is  obliged 
to  enter  a  comment  in  a  police  book, 
stating  how  satisfactory  that  servant 
has  been.  In  England  domestic  servants 
are  hired  by  the  year  and  the  employer 
is  free  to  discharge  immediately  and 
without  any  notice  on  the  discovery  of 
theft,  immorality,  extreme  incompe- 
tence or  disobedience.  This  practically 
leaves  the  servant  at  the  mercy  of  the 
employer  and  this  feature  is  one  which 
is  characteristic  even  in  the  United 
States.  Wages  in  England  and  the  Con- 
tinent are  considerably  below  those  paid 
in  the  States.  Seven  and  eight  dollars 
a  week  secure  the  same  amount  of  serv- 
ice in  England  which  twice  that  amount 
could  scarcely  command  in  America. 


DOMETT,  ALFRED,  an  English  poet; 
born  in  Surrey,  England,  May  20,  1811; 
said  to  have  been  the  original  of  Brown- 
ing's "Waring."  He  was  a  colonial 
statesman  of  eminence.  His  verse  at- 
tracted much  attention,  the  best  spec- 
imens being  in  the  volumes  "Ranolf  and 
Amohia"  (1872),  and  "Flotsam  and  Jet- 
sam: Rhymes  Old  and  New"  (1877).  He 
died  in  London,  Nov.  12,  1887. 

DOMICILE.  1.  The  place  of  residence 
of  an  individual  or  a  family;  the  place 
where  one  habitually  resides,  and  which 
he  looks  upon  as  his  home,  as  distin- 
guished from  places  where  one  resides 
temporarily  or  occasionally.  Domicile  is 
of  three  sorts:  (1)  Domicile  of  origin  or 
nativity,  which  is  that  of  the  parents  at 
the  time  of  the  birth;  (2)  Domicile  of 
choice,  which  is  that  place  which  a 
person  voluntarily  chooses  as  his  resi- 
dence and  home;  (3)  Domicile  by  opera- 
tion of  law,  as  that  of  a  wife  acquired  by 
marriage. 

2.  The  length  of  time  during  which  a 
party  must  have  resided  in  a  State  in 
order  to  give  jurisdiction  in  civil  causes, 
the  period  varying  in  the  different  States. 

The  domicile  of  origin  remains  until 
another  has  been  acquired.  In  order  to 
change  such  domicile  there  must  be  an 
actual  removal  with  an  intention  to  re- 
side in  the  place  to  which  the  party  re- 
moves. When  he  changes  it,  he  acquires 
a  domicile  in  the  place  of  his  new  resi- 
dence, and  loses  his  original  domicil" 
Oflficers  of  the  government  whose  pu^l; 
duties  require  a  temporary  residence  e\pe- 
where,  retain  their  domiciles.  Officer - 
soldiers,  and  marines,  in  the  service  c 
the  United  States,  do  not  lose  their 
domiciles  while  thus  employed. 

DOMINANT,  in  music,  the  fifth  tone 
of  the  diatonic  scale,  and  which  assumes 
the  character  of  a  keynote  itself  when 
there  is  a  modulation  into  the  first  sharp 
remove.  Thus,  G  is  the  dominant  of  the 
scale  C,  and  D  the  dominant  of  the  scale 
of  G. 

Dominant  chord,  in  music,  that  which 
is  formed  by  grouping  three  tones,  rising 
gradually  by  intervals  of  a  third  from  the 
dominant  or  fifth  tone  of  the  scale.  It 
occurs  almost  invariably  immediately  be- 
fore the  tonic  chord  which  closes  the  per- 
fect cadence. 

DOMINGO,  SANTO.  See  SANTO 
Domingo. 

DOMINIAN,  LEON,;  an  American 
geographer,  born  in  Constantinople,  Tur- 
key, in  1880.  He  graduated  from  Robert 
College,  Constantinople,  in  1898,  and 
afterward  took  special  courses  in  geol- 
ogy at  the  University  of  Liege.  After 
traveling    in    Turkey,    he    became    field 


DOMINIC,  SAINT 


399 


DOMINICAN 


assistant  of  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  in  1903,  and  in  1905- 
1907  was  engaged  in  travel  and  explora- 
tion in  southwrestern  United  States  and 
in  Mexico.  From  1912  to  1917  he  was 
geographer  and  editorial  writer  for  the 
American  Geographical  Society.  In  1918 
he  carried  on  special  investigations  on 
boundary  problems  for  the  Department 
of  State.  He  served  at  the  American 
Peace  Commission  in  Paris  in  1919.  He 
was  a  member  of  many  geographical  so- 
cieties and  was  the  author  of  "The 
Frontiers  of  Language  and  Nationality 
in  Europe"    (1917). 

DOMINIC,  SAINT,  the  founder  of  the 
order  of  the  Dominicans;  born  in  Cala- 
horra,  in  Old  Castile,  in  1170.  He  early 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  for  the 
reform  of  canonical  life  and  by  his  suc- 
cess as  a  missionary  among  the  Moham- 
medans. His  attention  having  been  di- 
rected to  the  Albigenses  in  the  S.  of 
France,  he  organized  a  mission  of 
preachers  against  heresy  in  Languedoc. 
In  1215  he  went  to  Rome  to  obtain  the 
sanction  of  Pope  Innocent  III.  to  erect  the 
mission  into  a  new  order  of  preaching 
friars.  His  request  was  only  partiallly 
granted,  and  it  was  the  succeeding  Pope, 
Honorius  III.,  who  conferred  full  privi- 
leges on  the  Dominicans.  He  also  ap- 
pointed Dominic  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  or  court  preacher  to  the  Vatican, 
an  office  which  is  still  held  by  one  of  the 
order.  Dominic  died  in  Bologna  in  1221, 
and  was  canonized  in  1234  by  Pope 
Gregory  IX.  St.  Dominic  is  usually  con- 
sidered the  founder  of  the  Inquisition, 
but  this  claim  is  denied  on  the  ground 
that  two  Cistercian  monks  were  ap- 
pointed inquisitors  in  1198. 

DOMINICA,  the  largest  and  extreme 
S.  British  island  in  the  Leeward  group 
of  the  Lesser  Antilles;  midway  between 
the  French  islands  of  Martinique  and 
Guadeloupe;  area,  291  square  miles;  pop. 
about  37,000,  mostly  negro.  The  Caribs 
have  become  so  intermixed  with  the 
negroes  that  the  pure  Carib,  the  "Franc 
Caribs,"  will  soon  be  non-existent.  They 
are  very  peaceable  and  retiring,  and  live 
on  fish,  and  vegetables  and  fruits  which 
they  cultivate.  Dominica  is  of  volcanic 
origin,  with  many  hot  and  sulphurous 
springs.  The  temperature  is  cool  and 
even  chilly  in  the  mountains,  but  sultry 
on  the  coast.  Rain  falls  nearly  every 
month,  and  the  annual  rainfall  is  83 
inches.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  surface 
consists  of  wooded  mountains  and  deep 
ravinee,  and  at  one  point  the  surface  at- 
tains an  elevation  of  6,234  feet. 

The  rugged,  broken,  and  precipitous 
character  of  Dominica  is  very  disadvan- 
tageous to  the  settler,  and  has  confined 


agriculture  to  a  narrow  strip  along  th« 
coast.  The  principal  product  is  sugar, 
but  fruit,  cocoa,  and  timber  also  are  ex- 
ported, and  the  fi.sheries  are  valuable. 

The  capital  of  the  island  is  Roseau,  a 
port  on  the  W.  coast,  with  a  population 
of  about  5,000.  Dominica  is  a  member 
of  the  Leeward  Islands  colony,  and  sends 
representatives  to  the  general  legislative 
council;  but  it  has  its  own  president, 
treasury,  and  local  legislature.  The 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Roman 
Catholics;  religious  equality  now  pre- 
vails. Dominica  was  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus, on  his  second  voyage,  on  Sunday 
(whence  its  name  Dominica — i.  e.,  "the 
Lord's  Day"),  Nov.  3,  1493.  It  was  a 
source  of  strife  to  French  and  English 
till  1648,  when  it  was  formally  declared 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  a  neu- 
tral island;  but  in  1759  it  was  captured 
by  England,  and  in  1763  ceded  by  France, 
who,  however,  held  it  again  in  1778-1783, 
and  in  1802-1814,  when  it  was  finally  re- 
stored to  England. 

DOMINICAN.  (1)  One  of  a  religious 
order  called  in  some  places  Praedicantes 
or  Preaching  Friars,  and  in  France  Jaco- 
bins, from  their  first  convent  in  Paris 
being  in  the  Rue  St.  Jacobin.  They  took 
their  ordinary  name  from  their  founder, 
Dominic  de  Guzman  (afterward  canon- 
ized under  the  name  of  St.  Dominic) . 
The  new  order  was  approved  of  in  1215 
by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  and  confirmed  in 
1216  by  a  bull  of  Pope  Honorius  III.,  un- 
der the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  a  rule  to 
which  they  have  adhered,  though  they 
subsequently  adopted  a  white  habit  re- 
sembling that  of  the  Carthusians,  in  place 
of  their  original  black  dress.  They  were 
under  a  vow  of  absolute  poverty.  In 
England  they  were  called  Black  Friars, 
and  in  1276  the  Corporation  of  London 
gave  them  two  streets  near  the  Thames, 
where  they  erected  a  large  convent, 
whence  that  part  is  still  called  Black- 
friars.  The  Dominicans  always  took  a 
principal  part  in  the  Inquisition.  The 
Dominicans  were  the  chief  supporters  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception. 

(2)  One  of  an  order  of  nuns  founded 
by  St.  Dominic  under  the  same  rules  as 
the  friars,  but  devoted  to  industry. 

(3)  One  of  an  order  of  knights  founded 
by  St.  Dominic,  for  the  purpose  of  put- 
ting down  heresy  by  force  of  arms. 

Tertiaries  of  St.  Dominic.  —  To  the 
friars,  nuns,  and  knights  mentioned 
above,  St.  Dominic  added,  in  1221,  the 
Tertiaries — persons  who,  without  forsak- 
ing secular  life  or  even  the  marriage 
tie,  connected  themselves  with  the  order 
by  undertaking  certain  obligations,  such 
as   to   dress   plainly,   to  live   soberly,  to 


DOMINION  OF  CANADA 


400 


DON 


carry  no  weapon  of  offense,  and  to  per- 
form stated  devotions.  Similar  orders 
existed  in  connection  with  the  Francis- 
cans and  the  Praemonstratensians.  The 
members  were  entitled  to  be  buried  in  the 
habit  of  the  order. 

DOMINION  OF  CANADA.  See  CAN- 
ADA. 

DOMINIS  (dom'e-nes),  MARCO  AN- 
TONIO, DE,  a  Dalmatian  priest  and 
scientist;  born  in  the  island  of  Arbe  in 
1566.  He  became  in  turn  a  physician,  a 
Jesuit  and  Archbishop  of  Spalatro.  He 
was  the  first  to  explain  the  rainbow.  He 
denied  the  Pope's  supremacy  and  later 
accepted  it.  He  died  in  prison  in  Rome 
in  1624. 

DOMINIUM,  in  Roman  law,  the  right 
by  which  any  one  exercised  control  over 
property,  and  by  which  he  was  entitled  to 
retain  or  alienate  it  at  pleasure,  as  op- 
posed to  a  mere  life  Interest,  or  posses- 
sory or  equitable  right.  Dominium  di- 
rection, in  feudal  law,  is  the  interest  or 
superiority  vested  in  the  superior;  and 
dominum  utile  is  the  interest  or  prop- 
erty vested  in  the  vassal,  as  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  lord. 

DOMINO,  the  name  formerly  given  to 
the  hood  or  cape  worn  in  winter  by 
priests  while  officiating  in  cold  edifices. 
It  is  now  used  to  signify  a  masquerade 
costume,  consisting  of  an  ample  cloak 
with  wide  sleeves  and  a  hood. 

DOMINOES,  a  game  played  with  small 
flat  rectangular  pieces  of  ivory,  about 
twice  as  long  as  they  are  broad.  They 
are  marked  with  spots  varying  in  number. 
When  one  player  leads  by  lajnng  down  a 
domino,  the  next  must  follow  by  placing 
alongside  of  it  another  which  has  the 
same  number  of  spots  on  one  of  its  sides. 
Thus,  if  the  first  player  lays  down  6-4,  the 
second  may  reply  with  4-8,  or  6-7,  etc.; 
m  the  former  case  he  must  turn  in  the  4, 
placing  it  beside  the  4  of  the  first  domino, 
so  that  the  numbers  remaining  out  will 
be  6-8 ;  in  the  latter  case  he  must  turn  in 
the  6  to  the  6  in  like  manner,  leaving  4-7, 
to  which  his  opponent  must  now  respond. 
The  player  who  cannot  follow  suit  loses 
his  turn,  and  the  object  of  the  game  is  to 
get  rid  of  all  the  dominoes  in  hand,  or  to 
i  fewer  spots  than  your  opponent 
when  the  game  is  exhausted  by  neither 
being  able  to  play.  The  game  was  in- 
vented in  the  18th  century. 

DOMINUS,  the  Latin  word  which  we 
commonly  render  by  "lord,"  but  which 
more  properly  signifies  the  master  of  a 
house,  and  his  eldest  son,  as  opposed  to 
slave  (servus).  The  term  is  applied  by 
Christians  to  God  and  to  Jesus  as  Him- 
self God.  The  Scottish  "dominie,"  in  the 
sens-  of  schoolmaster,  is  of  course  taken 


from  it,  as  is  the  same  term  in  America, 
where  in  some  places  it  is  the  title  of  a 
minister  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church, 
and  in  others  is  applied  to  Protestant 
clergymen  generally. 

DOMITIA  (do-mish'ya),  a  Roman  ent- 
press;  born  in  Gaul  about  56  A.  D.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Domitius  Corbulo,  a 
general  of  Nero's  reign.  She  was  mar- 
ried first  to  ^lius  Lamia,  but  the  Em- 
peror Domitian  took  her  lor  his  wife. 
Finding  that  her  new  husband  intended 
to  have  her  executed  she  caused  his  as- 
sassination in  96  A.  D.  Her  subsequent 
career  is  uncertain,  although  she  is  said 
to  have  died  in  Rome  about  100  A.  D. 

DOMITIAN,  TITUS  FLAVIUS  AU- 
GUSTUS (do-mish'yan),  the  last  of  the 
"Twelve  Caesars,"  and  youngest  son  of 
the  Emperor  Vespasian;  born  in  51  A.  D. 
He  early  displayed  the  licentiousness  and 
cruelty  of  his  disposition,  and  was  kept — 
both  by  his  father  and  by  his  brother, 
the  noble  Titus,  who  succeeded  Vespasian 
— entirely  apart  from  public  life.  When 
proclaimed  emperor,  on  the  death  of 
Titus,  which  he  is  suspected  of  having 
accelerated,  if  not  procured,  he  proved 
the  wisdom  of  the  restraint  which  had 
been  put  upon  him  by  the  ferocity  of  his 
conduct.  Aspiring  to  military  fame  he 
was  unsuccessful  in  his  undertakings, 
and  after  his  defeat  by  the  Dacians,  who 
compelled  him  to  make  a  humiliating 
peace,  his  natural  disposition,  suspicious, 
savage,  gloomy  and  morose,  manifested 
itself  in  all  its  naked  deformity.  To  be 
honorable  and  virtuous  was  to  be  a  mark 
for  destruction,  the  mere  suspicion  of 
patriotism  a  warrant  for  death.  His 
bloody  reign  furnishes  some  of  the  most 
thrilling  pages  of  Tacitus;  and  points 
with  its  keenest  shafts  the  withering 
irony  of  the  satirist  Juvenal.  After  escap- 
ing from  many  conspiracies,  the  monster 
fell,  on  Sept.  18,  96,  the  victim  of  a  plot 
in  which  his  wife,  Domicia,  bore  a  promi- 
nent part. 

DON  (ancient,  Tana'is),  a  river  of 
Russia,  which  issues  from  Lake  Ivan- 
Ozero,  in  the  government  of  Tula;  and 
flows  S.  E.  through  governments  Riazan, 
Tambov,  Voronej,  and  Don  Cossacks,  to 
within  37  miles  of  the  Volga,  where  it 
turns  abruptly  S.  W.  for  236  miles,  and 
falls  into  the  Sea  of  Azof;  whole  course 
nearly  900  miles.  The  chief  tributaries 
are:  Right  bank,  the  Donetz  and  Voronej ; 
left,  the  Khoper  and  Manitsch.  Al- 
though not  admitting  vessels  of  much 
draught,  the  Don  carries  a  large  traffic 
especially  during  the  spring  floods,  and  a 
canal  connects  it  with  the  Volga  system 
of  navigation.  It  has  also  very  extensive 
and  productive  fisheries. 


DON 


401 


DONATIST 


DON.  a  river  of  Scotland,  county  of 
Aberdeen,  rising  near  the  Banffshire  bor- 
der. It  flows  tortuously  E.  through  the 
whole  breadth  of  Aberdeenshire,  and  falls 
into  the  North  Sea  a  little  to  the  N.  of 
Aberdeen,  after  a  total  course  of  82  miles. 
Its  salmon  fisheries  are  of  considerable 
value.  Also,  a  river  of  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, which  rises  near  Cheshire,  and 
joins  the  Ouse  after  a  course  of  about 
70  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  small  craft 
to  Sheffield. 

DON,  or  DOM  (lord) ,  a  title  originally 
assumed  by  the  popes,  from  whom  it  de- 
scended to  bishops  and  other  dignitaries, 
and  finally  to  monks.  In  France,  the 
title  dom  was  conferred  on  the  Carlo- 
yingian  kings;  in  Portugal  and  Brazil  it 
is  now  the  universal  title  of  the  higher 
classes.  The  Spanish  don  was  originally 
confined  to  the  nobility,  but  is  now  be- 
stowed by  courtesy  as  indiscriminately  as 
the  English  Mr.  or  Esq.  The  feminine 
is  dona  (Ital.  dotiTia).  The  Dan  in  "Dan 
Chaucer"  is  a  form  of  the  same  word, 
and  we  still  speak  of  "college  dons.' 

DONA  FRANCISCA.  a  German  colony 
in  the  Brazilian  state  of  Santa  Catharina, 
lying  between  the  Serra  do  Mar  and  the 
ocean,  14  miles  inland  from  the  port  of 
S.I0  Francisco.  Area,  550  square  miles; 
pop.  about  26,000.     Chief  town,  Joinville. 

DONALD,  the  name  borne  by  a  line 
of  Scotch  kings  who  lived  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  Christian  era,  and  whose  an- 
nals are  stained  with  murder,  treachery, 
and  revolting  vices.  Donald  I.  began  his 
reign  in  216;  and  the  Vlllth,  called  the 
"Bane,"  was  dethroned  by  Edgar  Athel- 
ing  in  1098. 

DONALDSONVILLE,  a  town  of 
Louisiana,  the  county-seat  of  Ascension 
parish.  It  is  on  the  Mississippi  river, 
and  on  the  Texas  and  Pacific  railroad.  It 
is  the  center  of  an  important  agricul- 
tural region,  with  extensive  sugar,  lum- 
ber, cotton,  and  rice  interests. 

DONATELLO  (properly,  DONATO  DI 
Betto  Bardi),  one  of  the  revivers  of  the 
art  of  sculpture  in  Italy;  born  in  Flor- 
ence between  1382  and  1387.  His  first 
great  works  in  marble  were  statues  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Mark,  in  the  church  of  St. 
Michael  in  his  native  town,  in  an  outside 
niche  of  which  is  also  his  famous  statue 
of  St.  George.  Along  with  his  friend 
Brunelleschi  he  made  a  journey  to  Rome 
to  study  its  art  treasures.  On  his  return 
he  executed  for  his  patrons,  Cosmo  and 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  a  marble  monument 
to  their  father  and  mother,  which  is  of 
high  merit.  Statues  of  St.  John,  of  Ju- 
dith, David,  and  St.  Cecilia  are  among  his 
leading  works.  He  died  in  Florence  in 
1466. 


DONATI,  GIAMBATTISTA  (do-na' 
te),  an  Italian  astronomer;  born  in  Pisa, 
in  1826;  was  appointed  in  1852  assistant 
at  the  observatory  in  Florence,  of  which 
he  became  director  in  1864.  Here  he  dis- 
covered, inter  alia,  the  brilliant  comet  of 
1858,  which  is  known  as  Donati's  comet. 
He  afterward  was  instrumental  in  erect- 
ing the  fine  observatory  at  Arcetri,  near 
Florence,  and  constructed  a  spectroscope 
of  25  prisms.     He  died  Sept.  20,  1873. 


DONATELLO 

DONATIST,  one  of  a  sect  of  schis- 
matics in  Africa,  the  followers  of  Dona- 
tus.  Bishop  of  Casa  Nigra,  in  Numidia. 
The  sect  arose  in  A.  D.  311,  when  Caecili- 
anus  was  elected  Bishop  of  Carthage,  and 
consecrated  by  the  African  bishops  alone, 
without  the  concurrence  of  those  of  Nu- 
midia. The  people,  resenting  this,  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  Caecilianus,  and  set 
up  Majorinus,  who  was  then  consecrated 
by  Donatus.  The  Donatists  held  that 
Christ,  though  of  the  same  substance 
with  the  Father,  yet  was  less  than  the 
Father;  they  also  denied  the  infallibility 
of  the  Church,  which  they  said  had  fallen 
away  in  many  particulars.  They  were 
condemned  in  a  council  held  at  Rome  A.  D. 
313,  also  in  another  at  Aries  in  the  fol- 
lowing year;  and  a  third  time,  in  A.  D. 
316,  at  Milan,  before  Constantine  the 
Great.  At  the  end  of  the  4th  century 
they  had  a  large  number  of  churches, 
but  soon  after  began  to  decline,  owing  to 
a   schism   among  themselves,   occasioned 


DONATUS 


402 


DONIZETTI 


by  the  election  of  two  bishops  in  the  room 
of  JParmenian,  the  successor  of  Donatus, 
and  also  throiigh  the  zealous  opposition 
of  St.  Augustine,  Bishop  of  Hippo.  They 
were  finally  suppressed  in  the  6th  century 
by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great. 

DONATUS,  ^LIUS  (do-na'tus),  a 
Roman  grammarian  and  commentator; 
born  A.  D.  333.  He  was  the  preceptor  of 
St.  Jerome,  wrote  notes  on  Vergil  and 
Terence,  and  a  grammar  of  the  Latin 
language  so  universally  used  in  the 
Middle  Ages  that  "Donat"  became  a 
common  term  for  grammar  or  primer  of 
instruction.  From  him  must  be  distin- 
guished a  later  grammarian,  Tiberius 
Claudius  Donatus  (about  400),  from 
whom  we  have  a  worthless  life  of  Vergil, 
prefixed  to  many  editions  of  that  poet, 
and  fragments  of  a  commentary  on  the 
"^neid." 

DONAUWORTH  (do-nou-vert) ,  an 
ancient  town  of  Bavaria;  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Wornitz  and  the  Danube,  25 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Augsburg.  It  was 
formerly  a  free  imperial  city  of  consider- 
able importance;  but  has  now  sunk  into 
an  insignificant  place  of  about  6,000  in- 
habitants. In  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it 
was  twice  stormed,  by  the  Swedes  and 
by  the  Bavarians.  It  is  likewise  associ- 
ated with  the  name  of  Marlborough,  who 
carried  the  intrenched  camp  of  the 
French  and  Bavarians  near  here  in  1704; 
and,  on  Oct.  6,  1805,  the  French,  under 
Soult,  obtained  a  victory  here  over  the 
Austrians,  under  Mack. 

DON  CARLOS.     See  CARLOS. 

DONCASTER,  a  municipal  borough  in 
the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
and  an  important  railway  junction,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Don.  It  has  long 
been  famous  for  its  annual  races,  begun 
in  1703,  and  held  a  mile  S.  E.  of  the 
town  in  the  second  week  of  September. 
Colonel  St.  Leger,  in  1776,  founded  stakes 
which  have  been  yearly  run  for  by  the 
best  horses  in  England.  On  an  eminence 
5  miles  W.  S.  W,  of  Doncaster  are  the 
ruins  of  Conisborough  Castle,  the  strong- 
hold of  Athelstan  in  Scott's  "Ivanhoe." 
A  Norman-Saxon  round  tower,  it  is  37 
feet  in  diameter  and  86  feet  high,  with 
walls  15  feet  thick.  Pop.  (1919)  51,592. 

DONEGAL,  a  town  of  Ireland,  on  the 
Eske  river.  It  is  in  a  rich  agricultural 
region.  It  is  surrounded  on  three  sides 
by  hills.  Near  the  town  are  the  ruins  of 
Donegal  Castle.  The  town  is  one  of  the 
most  historic  in  Ireland.  Pop.  about 
3,000. 

DONGAN,  THOMAS,  Earl  of  Lime- 
rick; born  in  Castleton,  Ireland,  in  1634. 
After  sei-ving  in  the  British  and  French 
armies  and  attaining  the  rank  of  colonel. 


he  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor  of 
Tangiers  by  Charles  II.  and  colonial  gov- 
ernor of  New  York  by  the  Duke  of  York 
in  1682.  He  gave  the  city  of  New  York 
its  first  charter  in  1686  and  being  accused 
of  ignoring  his  pacific  instructions  re- 
garding the  French  and  Indians,  and  of 
inciting  the  Five  Nations  to  war,  re- 
sigfned  his  commission  in  1688,  returned 
to  England  in  1691,  and  inherited  the 
earldom  of  Limerick  in  1698.  He  died 
in  London,  Dec.  14,  1715. 

DONGOLA,  a  province  of  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Soudan,  within  the  region  for- 
merly known  as  Nubia.  Its  surface  is 
generally  level  and  fertile  and  large  quan- 
tities of  wheat  and  dates  are  grown  for 
export.  The  capital  of  the  province  is  New 
Dongola  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile. 
Old  Dongola  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile, 
about  75  miles  above,  was  formerly  an 
important  town,  but  is  now  no  more  than 
a  village.  The  province  has  railroad  con- 
nection with  Egypt,  Khartum,  and  the 
Red  Sea  by  a  line  opened  in  1906.  Pop. 
about  60,000. 

DONIPHAN,  ALEXANDER  WILL- 
IAM, an  American  military  officer;  bom 
in  Mason  co.,  Ky.,  July  9,  1808;  gradu- 
ated at  Augusta  College  and  began  the 
practice  of  law  in  1830  in  Lexington,  Mo. 
He  was  three  times  elected  to  the  Mis- 
souri Legislature.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  War,  in  which  he  made  a  bril- 
liant record,  capturing  Chihuahua,  after 
an  unexpected  encounter  with  an  army  of 
4,000  men.  He  was  one  of  the  Peace 
Commissioners  at  the  convention  which 
met  at  Washington  previous  to  the  Civil 
War,  which  it  vainly  sought  to  avert.  He 
died  in  Richmond,  Mo.,  Aug.  8,  1887. 

DONIZETTI,  GAETANO  (do-ne-dzef 
te),  an  Italian  composer;  born  in  Ber- 
gamo in  1798.  He  studied  music  at  Bolo- 
gna under  the  distinguished  Abbe  Mattei. 
His  first  opera,  "Enrico  di  Borgogna," 
was  represented  at  Venice  in  1818.  In 
1822  his  "Zoraide  di  Granata"  gained 
him  the  honor  of  being  crowned  on  the 
Capitol.  In  1830  appeared  his  "Anna 
Bolena,"  which  first,  along  with  "Lucre- 
zia  Borgia"  and  "Lucia  di  Lammermoor," 
the  latter  his  masterpiece,  acquired  for 
him  a  European  fame.  In  1835  Doni- 
zetti was  appointed  Professor  of  Counter- 
point at  the  Royal  College  of  Naples, 
but  removed  in  1840  to  Paris,  bring- 
ing with  him  three  new  operas,  "Les 
Martyrs,"  "La  Favorita,"  and  "La  Fille 
du  Regiment,"  of  which  the  last  two  are 
among  his  most  popular  productions. 
Of  his  other  operas  none  except  "Linda 
di  Chamouni"  (1842)  and  "Don  Pas- 
quale"  (1843)  achieved  any  special  tri- 
umph.    He  died  April  8,  184.8. 


DONJON 


403 


DOOBGA 


DONJON,  the  grand  central  tower  of 
a  Norman  or  mediaeval  castle,  frequently 
raised  on  an  artificial  elevation.  It  was 
the  strongest  portion  of  the  building,  a 
high  square  tower  with  walls  of  enor- 
mous thickness,  usually  detached  from 
the  surrounding  buildings  by  an  open 
space  walled,  called  the  Inner  Bailey,  and 
another  beyond  called  the  Outer  Bailey. 
Here,  in  case  of  the  outward  defenses 
being  gained,  the  garrison  retreated  to 
make  their  last  stand.  The  donjon  con- 
tained the  great  hall,  and  principal  rooms 
of  state  for  solemn  occasions,  and  also  the 
prison  fortress;  from  which  last  circum- 
stance we  derive  the  modern  and  re- 
stricted use  of  the  word  dungeon.  Ex- 
amples are  seen  in  the  White  Tower,  in 
the  Tower  of  London,  Rochester  Castle, 
and  in  the  Castle  at  Newcastle.  It  was 
also  called  the  donjon-keep. 

DON  JUAN  (whan)  the  hero  of  a 
Spanish  legend  which  seems  to  have  had 
some  historical  basis  in  the  history  of  a 
member  of  the  noble  family  of  Tenorio 
at  Seville.  The  legend  has  furnished  the 
subject  for  many  dramas  and  operas. 
The  most  famous  of  the  latter  is  Mozart's 
"Don  Giovanni."  Among  the  former 
are  "Don  Juan  ou  Le  Festin  de  Pierre," 
by  Moliere  and  "The  Libertine,"  bv 
Shadwell.  The  "Don  Juan"  of  Byron 
bears  no  relation  to  the  old  story. 

DONKEY  ENGINE,  a  small  engine 
used  in  various  operations  where  no  great 
power  is  required.  Thus  a  donkey  en- 
gine is  often  stationed  on  the  deck  of  a 
ship  to  work  a  crane  for  loading  and  un- 
loading. 

DONNE,  JOHN,  a  celebrated  English 
poet  and  clergyman;  born  in  London  in 
1573.  He  studied  both  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  In  his  19th  year  he  abjured 
the  Catholic  religion,  and  became  secre- 
tary to  the  Lord-Chancellor  Ellesmere, 
but  finally  lost  his  office  by  a  clandestine 
marriage  with  his  patron's  niece.  By 
the  desire  of  King  James,  Donne  took  or- 
ders, and,  settling  in  London,  was  made 
preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1621  he 
was  appointed  Dean  of  St.  Paul's.  He 
was  chosen  prolocutor  to  the  convocation 
in  1623-1625.  As  a  poet,  and  the  pre- 
cursor of  Cowley,  Donne  may  be  deemed 
the  founder  of  what  Dr.  Johnson  calls 
the  metaphysical  class  of  poets.  He 
wrote  "Letters,"  "Sermons,"  "Essays  on 
Divinity,"  and  other  pieces.  He  died  in 
March.  ^631,  and  was  interred  in  St. 
Paul's. 

DONNELLY.  IGNATIUS,  an  Ameri- 
can prose-writer;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Nov.  3,  1831.  Among  his  writings  are: 
An  "Essay  on  the  Sonnets  of  Shakes- 
peare";    "Atlantis,     the     Antediluvian 


World"  (1882)  ;  and  "Ragnarok"  (1883). 
In  "The  Great  Cryptogram"  he  endeavors 
to  prove  that  Francis  Bacon  was  the 
author  of  Shakespeare's  plays.  His  best 
known  novel  is  "Caesar's  Column."  He 
died  in  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  Jan.  2,  1901. 

DONNYBROOK,  a  former  village  and 
parish,  now  mostly  embraced  in  the  bor- 
ough of  Dublin,  at  one  time  celebrated 
for  a  fair  (notorious  for  fighting)  which 
was  granted  by  King  John,  and  abolished 
in  1855. 

DONORA.  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania, 
in  Washington  co.  It  is  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Pittsburgh  and  Lake  Erie 
railroads,  and  on  the  Monongahela  river. 
It  is  the  center  of  an  important  coal  min- 
ing and  agricultural  region,  and  has  man- 
ufactures of  steel  wire,  chemicals,  gas 
mantles,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  8,174;  (1920) 
14,131. 

DON  QUIXOTE  (ke-ho'ta),  the  title 
of  a  famous  romance  by  Cervantes.  The 
name  of  the  hero,  Don  Quixote,  is  used 
as  a  synonym  for  foolish  knight-errantry 
or  extravagant   generosity. 

DOOM,  the  old  name  for  the  "Last 
Judgment,"  which  impressive  subject  is 
usually  painted  over  the  chancel  arch 
in  parochial  churches.  Dooms  were  exe- 
cuted in  distemper.  One  of  the  finest  at 
present  existing  in  England  is  in  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  in  Coventry. 

DOON.  a  river  in  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
which  after  a  course  of  30  miles  falls 
into  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  It  is  celebrated 
in  the  poems  of  Burns. 

DOOR,  a  wooden  or  metal,  or  partly 
wood  and  partly  metal  frame,  constructed 
so  as  to  open  and  shut  on  hinges  and 
close  the  entrance  to  a  building,  rooms, 
etc.  The  doors  of  ancient  Egypt  and  con- 
temporary nations  swung  upon  vertical 
pintles  which  projected  from  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  door  into  sockets  in  the 
lintel  and  threshold  respectively.  The 
commonest  form  of  door  had  the  pintle 
in  the  middle  of  the  width;  so  that,  as  it 
opened,  a  way  was  afforded  on  each  side 
of  it  for  ingress  or  egress.  Double-mar- 
gin doors  are  made  in  imitation  of  fold- 
ing-doors, the  middle  style  being  made 
double  with  an  intervening  bead.  Slid- 
ing-doors  are  an  improvement  on  folding; 
they  slip  into  grooves  in  the  partition.  A 
proper-ledged  door  is  one  made  of  boards 
placed  side  by  side  with  battens  called 
ledges  at  the  back.  With  a  diagonal 
piece  at  the  back,  in  addition,  it  is  said  to 
be  framed  and  ledged. 

DOORGA.  the  appellation  of  a  giant 
slain  by  Doorga,  to  whom,  consequently, 
his  name  was  transferred.  In  Hindu 
mythology  the  principal  wife  as  well  as 


DOORNBCOM 


404 


DOBIA 


the  mother  of  Siva,  one  of  the  gods  be- 
longing to  the  Hindu  triad.  The  name 
Doorga  is  her  appropriate  appellation  in 
Bengal,  but  in  southern  and  western 
bidia  she  is  generally  Purwutee,  or  Par- 
vati.  Her  great  exploit  was  slaying  the 
giant  Doorga. 

DOORNBOOM  (thorn-tree) ,  a  common 
tree  in  the  wastes  of  south  Africa.  The 
name  given  to  it  by  the  Dutch  colonists 
and  the  botanical  specific  name  (Acacia 
horrid)  are  due  to  the  number  and 
sharpness  of  its  spines.  It  seldom  much 
exceeds  30  feet  in  height,  but  its  timber 
is  hard  and  tough,  and  is  much  used  for 
hou  se-carpentry. 

DOPPIiERITE  (named  after  B.  Dop- 
pler,  the  first  to  bring  it  to  notice),  an 
amorphous  mineral  occurring  in  elastic 
or  partly  jelly-like  masses  found  in  peat- 
beds  in  Styria  and  Switzerland.  When 
fresh  it  is  brov\mish-black,  with  a  dull 
brown  streak  and  greasy  subvitreous 
luster,  insoluble  in  alcohol  or  ether.  Dop- 
plerite  is  also  the  name  of  a  variety  of 
hircite,  grayish,  earthy,  and  plastic  in  the 
fingers   when   fresh. 

DOB,  or  MONT  DORE  (often  writ- 
ten less  properly  Mont  d'Or),  a  chain  of 
mountains  in  France  comprised  in  the 
great  group  of  the  Auvergne  Mountains 
in  the  department  of  Puy-de-D6me.  They 
are  clearly  of  volcanic  formation,  and  rise 
in  the  Puy-de-Sancy,  which  is  the  highest 
peak  of  central  France,  to  the  height  of 
6,190  feet. 

DOR,  a  negro  people  of  central  Africa, 
also  called  Bongo,  between  6°  and  8°  N. 
lat.,  and  bordering  on  the  Dinka  and 
Niam-Niam  stocks. 

DOR,  or  DORR,  a  species  of  beetle, 
belonging  to  the  family  Geotnipidx,  or 
earthborers.  It  is  of  a  glossy  violet, 
black,  or  deep  greenish-black.  The  club 
of  the  antennas  is  yellowish,  the  elytra 
smooth,  but  slightly  punctuated,  as  is  the 
thorax.  It  may  often  be  seen  flying 
about  in  the  summer  evenings.  Its  size 
and  weight  render  it  very  unwieldy  on 
the  wing.  The  female  lays  its  eggs  in 
patches  of  cow-dung.  It  is  about  an  inch 
long.  It  is  also  called  dor  or  dorr-beetle, 
dor-fly,  and  buzzard-fly. 

DORCHESTER,  a  municipal  borough, 
the  county  town  of  Dorsetshire,  England. 
In  March,  1645,  Cromwell  held  the  town 
as  his  headquarters  with  4,000  men,  and 
in  1685  Judge  Jeffreys  held  his  "bloody 
assize"  here,  when  292  received  sentence 
of  death  as  being  implicated  in  Mon- 
mouth's rebellion.       Pop.  about  10,000. 

DORDOGNE  (dor-don')  .  a  department 
of  France  which  includes  the  greater  part 
of  the  ancient  province  of  Perigord,  and 


small  portions  of  Limousin,  Angounn,! ., 
and  Saintonge.  Area,  3,546  square  miles. 
The  chief  minerals  are  iron,  which  is 
abundant,  slate,  limestone,  marble,  and 
other  stone.  Mining,  iron  manufacture, 
etc.,  are  carried  on  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, and  there  are  a  number  of  vine- 
yards. The  climate  is  mild  but  somewhat 
changeable.  Pop.  about  440,000.  The 
river  Dordogne,  principal  river  of  the 
department,  rises  on  the  flanks  of  the 
Puy-de-Sancy,  flows  W.  S.  W.,  and  after 
a  course  of  290  miles  unites  with  the 
Garonne  in  forming  the  Gironde. 

DORDRECHT.     See  DORT. 

DORE  (do-ra),  PAUL  GUSTAVE.  a 
French  draughtsman  and  painter;  born 
in  Strassburg,  Jan.  6,  1833.  He  studied 
at  Paris,  contributing,  when  only  16 
years  of  age,  comic  sketches  to  the  "Jour- 
nal pour  Eire."  He  distinguished  him- 
self greatly  as  an  illustrator  of  books. 
His  illustrations  of  "Rabelais,"  of  Per- 
rault's  "Tales,"  Sue's  "Wandering  Jew," 
Dante's  "Divina  Commedia,"  and  Cer- 
vantes's  "Don  Quixote,"  displayed  a 
great  fertility  of  invention.  His  illus- 
trations of  the  Bible,  of  Ariosto's  "Or- 
lando Furioso,"  and  Milton's  "Paradise 
Lost,"  are  also  of  high  excellence.  As  a 
painter  he  had  grandeur  of  conception 
and  a  bold  expressive  style.  Among  his 
chief  works  are  "Christ  leaving  the  Prse- 
torium,"  "Paolo  and  Francesca  di  Ri- 
mini," "The  Flight  into  Egypt,"  etc.  In 
later  years  Dor^  also  won  fame  as  a 
sculptor.     He  died  Jan.  23,  1883. 

DOREMUS,  ROBERT  OGDEN,  an 

American  chemist;  born  in  New  York 
City,  Jan.  11,  1824.  He  was  graduated 
at  New  York  University  in  1842,  and 
from  its  medical  department  in  1850,  hav- 
ing established  his  chemical  laboratory  in 
New  York  in  1848.  He  has  filled  the 
chair  of  chemistry  at  Bellevue  Hospital 
Medical  College  and  at  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York.  He  patented  noted 
chemical  processes  and  fire  extinguishers 
and  was  a  noted  expert  in  toxicology. 
He  died  March  22,  1906. 

DORIA,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
families  of  Genoa,  became  distinguished 
about  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century, 
and  shared  with  three  other  leading 
families,  the  Fieschi,  Grimaldi,  and 
Spinola,  the  early  government  of  the 
republic.  Among  the  older  heroes  of 
this  family  are  Oberto  Doria,  who  in 
1284  commanded  the  Genoese  fleet,  which 
at  Meloria  annihilated  the  power  of  Pisa ; 
Lamba  Doria,  who  in  1298  defeated  the 
Venetian  Dandolo  at  the  naval  battle  of 
Curzola;  Paganino  Doria,  who  in  the 
middle  of  the  14th  century  distinguished 
himself  by  great  victories  over  the  Vene-<-  - 


DORIANS 


406 


DORKING 


t"I  :,tr.r<  But  the  greatest  name  of  the 
Doi'ias  is  that  of  Andrea,  born  in  One- 
glia  in  1468,  of  a  younger  branch  of  the 
fanaily.  After  serving  some  time  as  a 
condottiere  with  the  princes  of  southern 
Italy,  he  was  intrusted  by  the  Genoese 
with  the  reconstruction  of  their  fleet. 
Disagreement  with  the  Genoese  factions 
drove  him  to  take  service  with  Francis 
I.,  of  France,  in  which  he  highly  dis- 
tinguished himself,  and  in  1527  he  took 
Genoa  in  the  name  of  the  French  king. 
But  being  displeased  with  the  projects  of 
Francis  for  reducing  Genoa  to  a  place 
of  secondary  importance  he  went  over 
to  the  service  of  Charles  V.  (1529), 
carrying  with  him  the  whole  influence 
and  resources  of  Genoa.  He  re-estab- 
lished order  in  Genoa,  reorganized  the 
government,  and  though  refusing  the 
title  of  doge  practically  controlled  its 
affairs  to  the  end  of  his  life.  As  imperial 
admiral  he  performed  many  services  for 
Charles,  clearing  the  seas  of  Moorish 
pirates  and  assisting  the  emperor  in  his 
expeditions  to  .  Tunis  and  Algiers.  In 
1547  his  authority  was  threatened  by  the 
conspiracy  of  Fieschi,  and  he  narrowly 
escaped  assassination  in  the  tumult.  He 
died  in  1560. 

DORIANS,  one  of  the  great  Hellenic 
races  who  took  their  name  from  the 
mythical  Dorus,  the  son  of  Hellen,  who 
settled  in  Doris;  but  Herodotus  says  that 
in  the  time  of  King  Deucalion  they  in- 
habited the  district  Phthiotis;  and  in  the 
time  of  Dorus,  the  son  of  Hellen,  the 
country  called  Histiasotis,  at  the  foot  of 
Ossa  and  Olympus.  But  the  statement 
of  ApoUodorus  is  more  probable,  accord- 
ing to  which  they  would  appear  to  have 
occupied  the  whole  country  along  the  N. 
shore  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  Indeed, 
Doris  proper  was  far  too  small  and  in- 
significant a  district  to  furnish  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  men  for  a  victorious 
invasion  of  the  Peloponnesus.  In  this 
remarkable  achievement  they  were  eon- 
joined  with  the  Heracleidae,  and  ruled 
in  Sparta.  Doric  colonies  were  then 
founded  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Asia  Minor. 

DORIAN   MODE,    or   DORIC    MOOD, 

the  first  of  the  authentic  church  tones 
or  modes,  from  D  to  D,  with  its  domi- 
nant A. 

DORIC  LAND,  Greece,  Doris  being  an 

important  part  of  it. 

DORIC  ORDER,  in  architecture,  the 
second  of  the  five  orders,  being  that  be- 
tween the  Tuscan  and  Ionic. 

Grecian  Doric. — The  earliest  and  most 
simple  form  of  columnar  edifice.  The 
Doric  column  was  first  adapted  to  edi- 
fices having  the  proportions,  strength, 
and  beauty  of  the  body  of  a  man.     A 


man  was  found  to  be  six  times  the  length 
of  his  foot,  hence  the  plain  doric  columns 
were  made  six  diameters  in  height.  The 
Greeks  composed  their  beautiful  temples 
on  this  idea,  and  their  simplicity  and 
harmony  are  remarkable. 

Roman  Done— An  imitation  of  the 
Grecian,  but  in  some  of  the  best  exam- 
ples the  column  is  eight  times  the  diam- 
eter in  height;  the  shaft  is  quite  plain 
except  fillets  above  and  below  with  es- 
cape and  corvetto,  and  it  diminishes  one- 
fifth  of  its  diameter.  The  capital  is 
four-sevenths  of  a  diameter  high,  and  is 
composed  of  a  torus  which  forms  the 
hypotrachelium,  and  with  the  necking 
occupies  one-third  of  the  whole  height; 
three  deep  fillets  with  a  quarter-round 
molding  are  intended  to  represent  the 
ovula  and  annulets  of  the  Greek  capital. 
The  doric  order,  says  Palladio,  was  in- 
vented by  the  Dorians  and  named  from 
them,  being  a  Grecian  people  which 
dwelt  in  Asia. 

The  ancients  employed  the  doric  in 
temples  dedicated  to  Minerva,  to  Mars, 
and  to  Hercules,  whose  grave  and  manly 
dispositions  suited  well  with  the  charac- 
ter of  this  order.  Serlio  says  it  is 
proper  for  churches  dedicated  to  Jesus 
Christ,  to  St.  Paul,  St.  Peter,  or  any 
saints  remarkable  for  their  fortitude  in 
exposing  their  lives  and  suffering  for  the 
Christian  faith.  The  height  of  the  doric 
column,  including  its  capital  and  base, 
is  16  modules;  and  the  height  of  the 
entablature,  4  modules;  the  latter  of 
which  being  divided  into  eight  parts,  two 
of  them  are  given  to  the  architrave, 
three  to  the  frieze,  and  the  remaining 
three  to  the  cornice. 

DORIS,  a  word  of  several  applications, 
(1)  The  name  of  a  country  in  Greece, 
S.  of  Thessaly,  from  which  it  was  sepa- 
rated by  Mount  CEta.  Also  a  colony  of 
the  Dorians  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  coast 
of  Caria.  (2)  A  goddess  of  the  sea, 
daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  and 
wife  of  Nei-eus,  by  whom  she  had  50 
daughters,  called  Nereids.  (3)  An  as- 
teroid, the  48th  found.  It  was  discovered 
by  Goldschmidt,  on  the  date  on  which 
Pales  was  first  seen  by  the  same  distin- 
guished astronomer.  (4)  A  genus  of 
gasteropodous  mollusks,  the  typical  one 
of  the  family  Doridse.  About  100  species 
are  known. 

DORKING,  a  town  in  Surrey,  Eng- 
land, 22  miles  S.  W.  of  London,  noted  for 
its  breed  of  fowls.  It  is  the  scene  of  the 
fictitious  "Battle  of  Dorking,"  an  imagi- 
nary narrative  of  invasions  and  con- 
quest of  England  by  a  foreign  army, 
written  by  Gen.  Sir  George  T.  Chesney 
in  1871. 


DORMANT 


406 


DORT 


DORMANT,  in  heraldry,  in  a  sleeping 
posture. 

DORMER  WINDOW,  a  window  pierc- 
ing a  sloping  roof,  and  having  a  vertical 
frame  and  gable  of  its  own.  The  gable 
is  sometimes  in  the  plane  of  the  wall,  or 
is  founded  on  the  rafters;  sometimes  a 
succession  of  stories  on  the  roof  are  pro- 
vided with  dormers. 

DORMOUSE,  a  small  European  mam- 
mal, which  has  been  elevated  into  the 
type  of  a  family,  Myoxidse,  having  a 
greater  affinity  to  the  Scinridse  (squir- 
rels) than  to  the  Muridse,  and  some  place 
them  under  the  former  family.  The 
name  dormouse  refers  to  the  torpid 
state  in  which  it  passes  the  severe  part 
of  the  winter,  hence  it  has  even  been 
called  the  Sleeper. 

DORNICK,  a  species  of  figured  linen, 
named  from  Tournay  or  Doomik  in 
Flanders.  The  "mystery,"  introduced 
into  England,  was  long  confined  by  law 
to  inhabitants  of  Norwich  and  Pulham. 

DORPAT,  or  DERPT,  a  town  of 
Esthonia.  The  university,  founded  in 
1632,  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  was  re-es- 
tablished by  Alexander  I.  in  1802,  and 
since  May,  1887,  has  been  thoroughly 
Russianized,  the  final  reorganization  of 
the  law  faculty  taking  effect  in  1889. 
Dorpat  was  a  Hanse  town  in  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries,  and  was  alternately 
captured  by  the  Swedes,  Poles,  and  Rus- 
sians till  1704.  Now  called  Yuriev.  Pop. 
about  45,000. 

DORRANCETON,  a  borough  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  Luzerne  co.  It  is  opposite 
Wilkes-Barre,  and  on  the  Susquehanna 
river,  and  on  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna 
and  Western  railroad.  It  is  entirely  a 
residential  city.  Pop.  (1910)  4,016: 
(1920)  6,334. 

DORSANES,  the  Indian  Hercules. 

D'ORSAY,      ALFRED,      COMTE.      a 

French  leader  of  fashion;  born  in  Paris, 
Sept.  4,  1801.  He  entered  the  army  at 
an  early  age,  and  was  quartered  at 
Valence  in  1822,  when  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Lord  and  Lady  Blessing- 
ton,  and  renounced  his  military  career 
for  their  society.  In  1827  he  married 
Lord  Blessington's  only  daughter  by  a 
first  marriage,  but  a  separation  followed, 
and  Lord  Blessington  having  died  in 
Paris  in  1829,  D'Orsay  returned  to  Eng- 
land with  Lady  Blessington,  where  they 
became  the  center  of  a  highly  distin- 
guished circle.  He  displayed  consider- 
able artistic  talent  and  taste,  both  as  a 
fainter  and  sculptor.  Having  shown 
indness  and  hospitality  to  Louis  Napo- 
leon when  an  exile  in  London,  D'Orsay 
after  the  coup  d'etat  of  1852  was  nomi- 


nated  Directeur  des  Beaux  Arts,  but  he 
did  not  live  to  enjoy  it.  He  died  in 
Paris,  Aug.  4,  1852. 

DORSE  {Morrhua  CallaHus) .  a  fish 
of  the  cod  genus,  called  also  Baltic  cod. 

DORSET,       or      DORSETSHIRE,       a 

county  of  England,  in  the  southern  part. 
It  is  situated  on  the  English  Channel, 
between  Devonshire  and  Hampshire,  and 
has  an  area  of  987.9  square  miles.  The 
chief  industries  are  agriculture  and 
stock-raising.  Along  the  coast  are  many 
of  the  most  popular  watering  places  of 
England,  including  Lyme  Regis,  Brid- 
port,  and  Lulworth.  The  capital  is 
Dorchester.  Population  of  the  county, 
about  225,000. 

DORSET,  EARLS  OF.  See  Sack- 
VILLE. 

DORSETIAN  DOWNS,  THE,  the  up- 
lands of  Dorsetshire,  England. 

DORSTENIA  (named  after  Dr.  T. 
Dorsten,  a  German  botanist),  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Urticacex.  The  receptacle  is  slightly 
concave  and  broad,  bearing  numerous 
naked  flowers.  D.  contrayerva,  D.  hous- 
toni,  and  D.  brasiliensis  furnish  the  con- 
trayerva root  of  commerce.  They  are 
natives  of  tropical  America.  The  rhi- 
zome is  used  as  a  stimulant  tonic,  and 
diaphoretic. 

DORT,  or  DORDRECHT,  a  town  of 
the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  South 
Holland;  on  an  island  formed  by  the 
Maas,  10  miles  S.  E.  of  Rotterdam.  An 
inundation  in  1421,  in  which  upward  of 
70  villages  were  de^hroyed  and  100,000 
people  drowned,  separated  the  site  on 
which  Dort  stands  fiom  the  mainland. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldtst,  as  in  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  the  richest  of  the  trading 
towns  of  Holland;  and  its  trade  is  still 
considerable.  Among  its  chief  buildings 
are  a  Gothic  cathedral  (1363)  and  a 
handsome  town  hall  (1339).  The  town 
is  traversed  by  canals,  and  the  largest 
ships  are  accommodated  in  its  roomy 
harbor.  Close  by  are  a  large  number  of 
shipyards,  corn  and  saw  mills,  and  manu- 
factories of  oil,  sugar,  ironwares,  and 
machinery.  Dort  was  founded  in  1013. 
Here,  in  1572,  the  states  of  Holland, 
after  the  revolt  from  Spain,  held  their 
first  assembly;  and  sat  from  Nov.  13, 
1618,  to  May  19,  1619,  the  conclave  of 
Protestant  divines  known  as  the  Synod 
of  Dort,  which  condemned  the  doctrines 
of  Arminius  as  heretical,  and  affirmed 
those  of  Calvin.  Dort  is  the  birthplace 
of  the  brothers  De  Witt,  of  Cuyp,  and 
Ary  Scheffer;  to  the  last  a  statue  was 
erected  in  the  market-place  in  1862.  Pop. 
(1918)   53.828. 


DORTMUND 


407 


DOXTAY  BIBLE 


DORTMUND  (dort'mont),  a  city  of 
Prussia,  province  of  Westphalia;  on  the 
Ems,  47  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Cologne.  Its 
prosperity  is  due  to  its  becoming  the 
center  of  several  important  railway 
systems,  to  the  extensive  coal  mines  in 
the  vicinity,  and  to  the  active  manu- 
factures of  iron,  steel,  machinery,  rail- 
way plant,  etc.  There  are  also  a  number 
of  breweries,  potteries,  tobacco  factories, 
chemical  works,  etc.  It  was  once  a  free 
imperial  Hanseatic  town,  and  the  seat  of 
the  chief  tribunal  of  the  Vehme.  Pop. 
about  215,000. 

DORUS,  the  eponymous  ancestor  of 
the  Dorians. 

DORY,  a  popular  name  for  Zeus 
Faber,  an  acanthopterygious  fish,  the 
typical  one  of  the  family  Zeidee.  It  is 
found  at  times  on  the  North  Atlantic 
coasts  and  is  much  esteemed  for  eating. 
It  is  very  commonly  called  John  Dory, 
which  is  a  corruption  of  the  French 
Jaune-doree  =  golden-yellow.  Also  a  small 
two-oared  boat  used  by  fishermen  and 
'longshoremen. 

DOSITHEANS  (from  their  founder, 
Dositheus),  a  sect  founded  by  Dosi- 
theus,  whose  life  and  labors  were  in 
Samaria.  The  popular  belief  is  that  he 
was  the  first  Christian  "heretic."  He  is 
said  to  have  been  very  rigid  in  his  Sab- 
batarianism. His  other  opinions  were 
partly  Samaritan,  partly  Sadducean. 

DOSTOEVSKY,  FEODOR  MICHAIL- 
OVITCH  (dos-to-yev'ske),  a  Russian 
novelist;  born  in  Moscow,  Nov.  11,  1821. 
His  first  book,  "Poor  Folk"  (1846)  is  an 
example  of  his  talent  for  psychological 
analysis.  He  was  condemned  to  the  Si- 
berian mines  in  1849  for  a  socialist  con- 
spiracy, but  in  1859  returned  to  St. 
Petersburg  and  resumed  literary  work. 
The  thrilling  "Memoirs  of  a  Dead 
House,"  describes  penal  life  in  Siberia. 
His  most  celebrated  novel  is  "Crime  and 
Punishment"  dramatized  in  France  and 
the  United  States.  "Complete  Works," 
14  volumes.  There  are  translations  of 
all  of  his  works.  He  died  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, Feb.  8,  1881. 

DOTHAN,  a  city  of  Alabama,  the 
county-seat  of  Houston  co.  It  is  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the  Central  of 
Georgia,  and  the  Atlanta  and  St.  An- 
drews Bay  railroads.  It  has  important 
compressed  cotton  and  fertilizer  inter- 
ests and  manufactures  of  sashes  and 
doors,  ice,  cotton-oil,  and  lumber.  There 
are  a  library  and  other  public  buildings. 
Pop.   (1910)   7,016;   (1920)   10,034. 

DOTO,  one  of  the  Nereids. 

DOTTERED.  a  species  of  plover  which 
breeds  in  the  N.  of  Europe,  and  returns 


to  the  S.  for  the  winter.  In  Scotland 
it  appears  in  April  and  leaves  in  August, 
the  young  being  hatched  in  July.  It  is 
found  all  over  Europe  and  northern 
Asia.  Several  species  are  represented  in 
the  United  States,  including  the  golden- 
plover,  the  kill-deer,   and   piping-plover. 

DOUAUMONT,  FORT,  one  of  the  out- 
lying strongholds  of  Verdun,  to  whoso 
capture  the  Germans  devoted  their  main 
efforts  during  1916  and  1917,  their  final 
failure  signalizing  their  loss  of  the  war. 
Fort  Douaumont  was  termed  by  the  Ger- 
mans "the  main  pillar  of  the  Verdun  de- 
fenses," and  had  been  captured  by  them 
in  the  last  week  of  February,  1916.  The 
fort  was  retaken  by  the  Allied  troops 
on  May  22,  1916,  only  to  be  lost  again 
two  days  later.  On  Oct.  24,  1916,  the 
French  recaptured  it,  after  a  furious 
engagement  lasting  several  days. 


FEODOR    DOSTOEVSKY 

DOUAY  or  DOUAI,  an  ancient  French 
town,  department  of  Le  Nord,  108  miles 
N.  by  E.  from  Paris.  Douay  is  the  seat 
of  a  univei'sity,  and  possesses  a  good 
public  library,  containing  upward  of  36,- 
000  volumes.     Pop.  about  36,000. 

DOUAY  BIBLE,  the  English  version 
of  the  Bible  translated  by  the  students 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  college  at  Douay, 
under  the  auspices  of  Cardinal  Allen,  the 
founder  of  that  seat  of  education.  The 
work  was  published  at  Douay  in  1609, 
about  two  years  before  the  appearance 
of    King   James'   authorized    Protestant 


DOUBLE    BASS 


408 


DOTJBS 


Bible.  The  Douay  version  contains  the 
Old  Testament  only,  a  translation  of  the 
New  having  been  sent  forth  from  the 
press  at  Rheims  as  early  as  a.  d.  1582. 
The  Douay  version  is  the  only  English 
one  which  has  obtained  the  sanction  of 
the  Pope. 

DOUBLE  BASS,  or  BASE,  the  largest 
of  the  stringed  instruments  played  with 
a  bow.  Its  invention  is  attributed  to 
Caspar  di  Salo,  1580.  It  is  made  with 
three  or  four  strings.  The  strings  are 
usually  tuned  a  fourth  apart  to  the  notes 
F,  B,  E,  when  three  strings  are  em- 
ployed, with  the  addition  of  the  lower  E, 
when  there  are  four  strings. 

DOUBLE  BASSOON,  the  deepest-toned 
instrument  of  the  bassoon  family;  also 
called  contra-fagotto.  It  stands  in  the 
same  relation  to  a  bassoon  as  the  double- 
bass  does  to  the  violoncello;  that  is  to 
say,  its  sounds  are  actually  an  octave 
below  those  indicated.  Its  compass  is 
from  B  flat  below  CCC  to  tenor  F.  The 
great  masters  have  written  for  it  largely. 
Haydn  gives  it  an  important  part  in  sev- 
eral of  his  works,  as  do  also  Spohr,  Bee- 
thoven, and  Mendelssohn. 

DOUBLE  CONSCIOUSNESS,  a  men- 
tal condition  in  which  two  personalities 
entirely  separate  from  one  another  are 
developed  in  one  person.  This  morbid 
condition  is  shown  to  extreme  in  Steven- 
son's classic,  "Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde." 
While  such  antithesis  of  character  is  sel- 
dom met  with  in  one  person,  yet  psychol- 
ogists have  noted  that  when  two  person- 
alities are  in  one  body  the  two  are  in 
frequent  contradiction  to  each  other.  The 
memory  of  what  one  personality  has  done 
is  non-existent  in  the  other.  Dr.  Prince 
of  Boston  found  a  woman  who  possessed 
three  developed  personalities,  besides 
four  which  were  but  partially  developed 
His  explanation  is  that  the  subconscious 
life  holds  several  potential  personalities 
which  are  destroyed  or  developed  in  our 
conscious  existence.  Other  psychologists 
are  disposed  to  explain  it  as  a  physical 
condition  existing  in  the  nervous  sys- 
tem or  exaggerated  motor  automatism. 

POUBLEDAY,  ABNER,  an  American 
military  officer;  bom  in  Ballston  Spa, 
N.  Y.,  June  26,  1819.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1842,  rising  to  the  rank  of  colonel  in 
1870  (brevet  lieutenant-colonel  in  1865). 
He  was  second  in  command  at  Fort 
Sumter  in  1861,  firing  the  first  ^n  in  its 
defense,  and  ne  greatly  distinguished 
himself  at  Gettysburg.  He  died  at  Mend- 
ham,  N.  J.,  Jan.  26,  1893. 

DOUBLE  STANDARD,  in  economics 
the  phrase  double  standard  is  used  to 


signify  a  double  standard  of  monetary 
value.  It  implies  the  existence  of  what 
is  known  as  the  gold  standard  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  silver  standard  on  the 
other.  Wherever  the  double  standard 
in  its  integrity  is  in  use  a  creditor  is 
bound  to  accept  payment  of  any  sum  in 
coins  of  either  of  the  metals,  gold  or 
silver,  which  the  debtor  may  choose  to 
tender.     See  Bimetallism. 

DOUBLE  STARS  and  MULTIPLE 
STARS,  stars  which  appear  single  to  the 
naked  eye,  but  in  the  telescope  are  re- 
solved into  two  or  more  close  together. 
There  is  no  limit  to  the  distance  be- 
tween these,  but  those  whose  components 
are  more  than  15"  or  20"  apart  are  not 
generally  included  in  catalogues  of 
double  stars,  and  those  whose  distance  is 
much  less  than  1"  require  telescopes  of 
large  aperture  to  separate  them  dis- 
tinctly. The  discovery  and  measurement 
of  the  position-angles  and  distances  of 
the  components  of  these  objects  form 
almost  a  distinct  department  of  astro- 
nomical observation,  to  which  many  able 
astronomers  have  given  nearly  all  their 
lives.  These  measurements  have  shown 
that  many  of  these  doubles  are  true 
binary  systems,  the  two  components  re- 
volving round  their  common  center  of 
gravity  in  periods  that  range  from  10  to 
12  years,  to  unknown  thousands  and 
obeying,  so  far  as  these  motions  can 
show,  the  same  law  of  gravitation  that 
regulates  the  motion  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem. Sir  William  Herschel  was  the 
great  pioneer  in  the  field  of  discovery 
of  these  objects,  but  his  measures  were 
of  comparatively  little  accuracy,  and  the 
elder  Struve  may  be  considered  as  the 
first  astronomer  to  lay  the  foundation 
of  this  branch  of  research.  The  field  of 
first  discovery  of  these  double  stars  has 
thus  far  been  principally  covered  by  five 
astronomers,  and  most  of  the  known 
doubles  are  usually  called  by  the  cata- 
logue number  of  the  works  or  discovery 
lists  of  these  five  men,  with  a  distinguish- 
ing letter  for  each,  although  it  is  very 
generally  the  custom  to  call  the  star  by 
the  catalogue  number  of  the  elder  Struve 
if  it  is  contained  in  the  "Mensura; 
Micrometricae."  These  five  astronomers, 
with  their  distinguishing  letters,  are  as 
follows : 

Herschel,   Sir  William H. 

Struve,  F.  G.  W S. 

Herschel,  Sir  John h. 

Struve,  Otto , OS. 

Burnham,  S.  W /S.. 

DOUBS  (do) ,  a  department  of  France, 
having  Switzerland  on  its  E.  frontier. 
Its  surface  is  traversed  by  four  chains 
of  the  Jura.  The  land  is  arable,  but 
much  the  greater  part  is  covered  with 


DOUGHEBTY 


409 


DOUGLAS 


forests.  Maize,  potatoes,  hemp,  flax,  are 
the  principal  crops.  Much  dairy  produce 
is  made  into  Gruyere  cheese.  The  min- 
erals include  iron,  lead,  and  marble.  Pop. 
about  290,000.  The  river  Doubs  rises 
in  the  department  to  which  it  gives  its 
name,  flows  first  N.  E.,  then  N.  W.,  till 
it  joins  the  Saone  at  Verdun-sur-Saone; 
length,  250   miles. 

DOTJG-HEBTY,  DENNIS  J.,  an  Amer- 
ican Roman  Catholic  prelate.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Charles  Seminary,  Over- 
brook,  Pa.,  and  in  1903  was  appointed 
first  American  bishop  of  Neuva  Segovia, 
Philippine  Islands.  He  became  bishop  of 
Jaro,  P.  I.,  in  1908.  He  rendered  re- 
markable service  in  the  Philippines 
among  the  native  troops.  He  remained 
there  until  1915,  when  he  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Buffalo,  and  in  July,  1918,  was 
appointed  archbishop  of  the  See  of  Phila- 
delphia and  the  Province  of  Philadelphia. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of 
Roman  Catholic  Church  men,  and  in 
March,  1921,  was  appointed  cardinal  by 
Pope  Benedict. 

DOUGLAS,  a  city  of  Arizona,  in 
Cochise  co.  It  is  on  the  El  Paso  and 
Southwestern  railroad,  and  the  terminus 
of  the  Nacozari  railroad  of  Mexico. 
There  are  large  copper  smelters,  and 
gypsum,  cement,  and  plaster  works. 
Pop.    (1910)   6,437;    (1920)    9,916. 

DOUGLAS  (dug'las),  a  family  distin- 
guished in  the  annals  of  Scotland.  Their 
origin  is  unknown.  They  were  already 
territorial  magnates  at  the  time  when 
Bruce  and  Baliol  were  competitors  for 
the  crown.  As  their  estates  lay  on  the 
borders  they  early  became  guardians  of 
the  kingdom  against  the  encroachments 
of  the  English. 

The  most  distinguished  members  of 
the  family  are:  James,  son  of  the 
William  Douglas  who  had  been  a  com- 
panion of  Wallace,  and  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Good  Sir  James,  early 
joined  Bruce,  and  was  one  of  his  chief 
supporters  throughout  his  career,  and 
ene  of  the  most  distinguished  leaders  at 
the  battle  of  Bannockburn.  He  fell  in 
battle  with  the  Moors  while  on  his  way 
to  the  Holy  Land  with  the  heart  of  his 
master,  in  1331. 

Archibald,  youngest  brother  of  Sir 
James,  succeeded  to  the  regency  of  Scot- 
land in  the  infancy  of  David.  He  was 
defeated  and  killed  at  Halidon  Hill  by 
Edward  III.  in  1333. 

William,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
created  first  earl  in  1357.  He  recovered 
DoTiglasdale  from  the  English,  and  was 
frequently  engaged  in  wars  with  them. 
He  died  in  1384. 

James,  the  second  earl,  who,  like  his 
ancestor,    was    constantly    engaged    in 


border  warfare,  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Otterburn  in  1388.  After  his  death 
the  earldom  passed  to  an  illegitimate  son 
of  the  Good  Sir  James,  Archibald  the 
Grim,  Lord  of  Galloway. 

Archibald,  son  of  Archibald  the  Grim 
and  fourth  earl,  was  the  Douglas  who 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  bj 
Percy  (Hotspur)  at  Homildon,  Sept.  14, 
1402.  He  was  also  taken  prisoner  at 
Shrewsbury,  July  23,  1403,  and  did  not 
recover  his  liberty  till  1407.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Verneuil,  in  Nor- 
mandy, in  1427.  Charles  VII.  created 
him  Duke  of  Touraine,  which  title  de- 
scended to  his  successors. 

William,  sixth  earl,  born  1422,  to- 
gether with  his  only  brother  David  was 
assassinated  by  Crichton  and  Living- 
stone at  a  banquet  to  which  he  had  been 
invited  in  the  name  of  the  king,  in  Edin- 
burgh Castle,  on  Nov.  24,  1440. 

William,  the  eighth  earl,  a  descendant 
of  the  third  earl,  restored  the  power  of 
the  Douglases  by  a  marriage  with  his 
cousin,  heiress  of  another  branch  of  the 
family;  was  appointed  lord-lieutenant  of 
the  kingdom,  and  defeated  the  English 
at  Sark.  Latterly  having  entered  into  a 
treasonous  league,  he  was  invited  by 
James  II.  to  Stirling  and  there  murdered 
by  the  king's  own  hand,  Feb.  22,  1452. 

James,  the  ninth  and  last  earl,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  took  up  arms  with  his 
allies  to  avenge  his  death,  but  was 
finally  driven  to  England,  where  he  con- 
tinued an  exile  for  nearly  30  years.  Hav- 
ing entered  Scotland  on  a  raid  in  1484 
he  was  taken  prisoner  and  confined  in 
the  abbey  of  Lindores,  where  he  died  in 
1488.  His  estates,  which  had  been  for- 
feited in  1455,  were  bestowed  on  the 
fourth  Earl  of  Angus,  the  "Red  Douglas," 
the  representative  of  a  younger  branch 
of  the  Douglas  family,  which  continued 
long  after  to  flourish.  The  fifth  Earl 
of  Angus,  Archibald  Douglas,  was  the 
celebrated  "  Bell-the-Cat,"  one  of  whose 
sons  was  Gawin  Douglas  the  poet.  He 
died  in  a  monastery  in  1514.  Archibald, 
the  sixth  earl,  married  Queen  Margaret, 
widow  of  James  IV.,  attained  the  dignity 
of  regent  of  the  kingdom,  and  after 
various  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  having  at 
one  time  been  attainted  and  forced  to  flee 
from  the  kingdom,  died  about  1560.  He 
left  no  son,  and  the  title  of  Earl  of 
Angus  passed  to  his  nephew,  David. 
James  Douglas,  brother  of  David,  mar- 
ried the  heiress  of  the  Earl  of  Mor- 
ton, which  title  he  received  on  the  death 
of  his  father-in-law.  His  nephew  Archi- 
bald, eighth  Earl  of  Angus  and  Earl  of 
Morton,  died  childless,  and  the  earldom 
of  Angus  then  passed  to  Sir  William 
Douglas  of  Glenbervie,  his  cousin,  whose 
son  William  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 


DOUGLAS 


410 


DOUMERGITE 


Marquis  of  Douglas.  Archibald,  the 
great-grandson  of  William,  was  raised 
in  1703  to  the  dignity  of  Duke  of  Doug- 
las, but  died  unmarried  in  1761,  when  the 
ducal  title  became  extinct,  and  the 
marquisate  passed  to  the  Duke  of  Hamil- 
ton, the  descendant  of  a  younger  son  of 
the  first  marquis.  The  line  of  Angus 
or  the  Red  Douglas  is  now  represented 
by  the  houses  of  Hamilton  and  Home, 
who  both  claim  the  title  of  Earl  of 
Angus. 

DOUGLAS,   STEPHEN  ARNOLD,   an 

American  politician;  born  in  Brandon, 
Vt.,  April  23,  1813.  In  1834  he  began 
the  practice  of  law  at  Jacksonville,  111.; 
was  elected  attorney-general  of  the  State 
in  the  same  year,  member  of  the  Legis- 
lature in  1835,  Secretary  of  State  in 
1840,  and  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
in  1841.    He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 


STEPHEN  A.   DOUGLAS 

1843,  1844,  and  1846,  and  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1847,  1852,  and  1858. 
In  the  Lower  House  he  advocated  the 
annexation  of  Texas  p  id  of  Oregon  up 
to  54°  40'  N.  lat.,  anr  lavored  the  war 
with  Mexico,  and  in  i-he  Senate  he  op- 
posed the  ratification  of  the  Clayton- 
Bulwer  Treaty,  and  declared  himself  in 
favor  of  the  acquisition  of  Cuba.   On  the 

Siestion  of  slavery  he  maintained  that 
e  people  of  each  territory  should  decide 
whether  it  should  be  a  free  State  or  a 


slave  State.  In  1860  he  received  the 
regular  Democratic  nomination  for  the 
presidency,  the  seceding  delegates  nomi- 
nating John  C.  Breckinridge.  Douglas 
obtained  12  electoral  and  1,375,157  popu- 
lar votes,  as  against  180  electoral  and 
1,866,352  popular  votes  cast  for  Lincoln, 
to  whom,  in  the  early  days  of  the  Civil 
War,  he  gave  an  unfaltering  support. 
He  died  June  3,  1861,  in  Chicago. 

DOUGLASS,  FREDERICK,  an  Ameri- 
can lecturer  and  journalist;  the  son  of 
a  negro  slave;  born  in  Tuckahoe,  Md.,  in 
February,  1817.  Though  his  father  was 
a  white  man,  he  was,  according  to  the 
law,  reared  as  a  slave.  In  1832  he  was 
purchased  by  a  Baltimore  ship-builder, 
but  made  his  escape  in  1838.  As  he  had 
taught  himself  to  read  and  write,  and 
showed  talent  as  an  orator,  he  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Anti-slavery  Society  as  one 
of  their  lecturers.  In  1845  he  published 
his  autobiography,  and  afterward  made 
a  successful  lecturing  tour  in  England. 
In  1870  he  started  a  journal  entitled 
"The  New  National  Era";  in  1871  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  commis- 
sion to  Santo  Domingo;  in  1872,  presi- 
dential elector;  and  in  1877  marshal  for 
the  District  of  Columbia.  He  was  com- 
missioner 01  deeds  for  that  district,  1881- 
1886;  and  United  States  Minister  to 
Haiti  ii.  1890.  He  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  Feb.  20,  1895. 

DOUKHOBORS,  a  Russian  sect  of  re- 
ligious fanatics,  which  originated  among 
the  peasants  of  the  Kharkov  government, 
in  1733.  The  Russian  Orthodox  Church 
being  very  intolerant  of  any  departure 
from  its  creed,  the  Doukhobors  suffered 
a  great  deal  of  persecution,  and  were 
finally  forced  to  colonize  in  Taurida.  In 
1890  the  persecutions  became  so  acute 
that  great  numbers  of  them  fled  abroad, 
the  bulk  of  the  refugees,  nine  thousand 
in  number,  finding  refuge  in  Canada. 
Here  they  colonized  in  Manitoba,  and 
caused  the  Canadian  Government  much 
trouble  because  of  their  unwillingness  to 
conform  to  certain  laws.  The  Doukho- 
bors deny  the  divinity  of  Christ,  the  ex- 
istence of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  tolerate 
neither  priests  nor  church.  They  are 
unalterably  opposed  to  war,  and  even  to 
the  killing  of  animals,  so  that  they  re- 
fuse to  wear  shoes  made  of  leather. 
Gentle  and  harmless  when  allowed  to 
lead  their  own  manner  of  life,  they  have 
shown  remarkable  stubbornness  w^hen  ef- 
forts have  been  made  to  force  them  to 
conform  to  general  usage. 

DOUMERGUE,  GASTON,  a  French 
statesman.  He  was  born  at  Aigues-Vives 
(Card),  in  1863,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Lyc^e  de  Nimes,  and  the  Faculte  de  Droit 
of   Paris.     In   1885  he  became  advocate 


DOUM  PALM 


411 


DOVER 


at  the  Cour  d'Appel  of  Nimes,  and  was 
magistrate  in  Indo-China  during  1890- 
1892.  In  1893  he  became  magistrate  in 
Algiers;  deputy  of  Gard  in  1893;  and 
secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
1895.  During  1902-1905  he  was  Minister 
of  the  Colonies;  1905-1906  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies;  1906- 
1908,  Minister  of  Commerce,  Industry, 
and  Labor;  and  1908-1910,  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction.  In  1910  he  became 
senator  of  Gard.  During  1913-1914  he 
was  President  of  the  Council  and  Minis- 
ter of  Forei^  Affairs.  Since  1914  he 
has  been  Minister  of  the  Colonies. 

DOUM  PALM,  or  DOOM  PALM,  a 
species  of  palm,  a  native  of  Egypt,  re- 
markable for  the  manner  in  which  its 
trunk  divides  dichotomously,  the  branches 
terminating  in  tufts  of  large  fan-shaped 
leaves.  The  pericarp  is  about  the  size 
of  an  apple,  and  is  used  as  food  by  the 
poorer  classes.  It  has  a  taste  resembling 
that  of  gingerbread,  whence  the  tree  it- 
self is  sometimes  called  the  gingerbread- 
tree.  The  fibers  of  the  leaf-stalks  are 
made  into  ropes,  and  small  ornaments 
are  made  of  the  seeds.  An  infusion  of 
the  rind  is  used  in  fevers,  and  as  an 
aperient. 

DOTJRO,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  rises  in  the  Pico 
de  Urbion  (7,369  feet),  in  Old  Castile, 
about  30  miles  N.  W.  of  Soria  (3,445 
feet  above  sea-level).  From  its  source  it 
flows  S.  E.  to  Soria,  then  winds  toward 
the  W.  and  pursues  a  general  W.  direc- 
tion till  it  reaches  the  Portuguese 
border,  when  it  flows  S.  W.  for  about 
60  miles,  forming  the  boundary  be- 
tween Spain  and  Portugal,  and  then 
flows  W.  through  Portugal,  entering  the 
Atlantic  below  Oporto.  Its  Portuguese 
tributaries  are  comparatively  small.  The 
total  length  of  the  river  is  about  490 
miles;  it  is  navigable  to  Torro  de  Mon- 
corvo,  90  miles. 

DOVE,  a  river  rising  4  miles  S.  W. 
of  Buxton,  England,  and  flowing  S.  and 
S.  E.  along  the  borders  of  Derbyshire 
and  Staffordshire  to  the  Trent,  which  it 
enters  at  Newton  Solney,  after  a  course 
of  45  miles.  It  was  the  favorite  fishing 
stream  of  Izaak  Walton,  who  lived  here 
with  his  friend,  Charles  Cotton ;  and  it  is 
still  beloved  of  anglers. 

DOVE,  the  English  appellation  of  the 
genus  Columbus,  or  Columha.  Thus  the 
stock-dove  is  Columbus  or  Columba  senas, 
the  ring-dove  C.  palnmbus,  the  rock-dove 
C.  livia,  and  the  turtle-dove  C.  turtur. 
No  very  clear  distinction  is  drawn  be- 
tween the  words  dove  and  pigeon,  thus 
C  livia  is  often  called  the  rock-pigeon 
instead  of  the  rock-dove;  yet  Ectopistes 


migratorms  is  never  called  the  migra- 
torjr  doye,  but  only  the  migratory  pigeon. 

PL:  The  order  Columhie.  Sometimes 
it  is  made  a  sub-order  of  Rasores,  in 
which  case  it  is  called  Columbacei  or 
Gcmitores. 

The  dove  in  Christian  art  is  the  synv- 
bol  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Matt,  iii  :  IG): 
as  such,  it  is  represented  in  its  natural 
form,  the  body  of  a  snowy  whiteness,  the 
beak  and  claws  red,  which  is  the  color 
natural  to  those  parts  in  white  doves. 
The  nimbus  which  always  surrounds  its 
head  should  be  of  a  gold  color,  and  di- 
vided by  a  cross,  which  is  either  red  or 
black.  A  radiance  of  light  invests  and 
proceeds  from  the  person  of  the  dove, 
and  is  emblematical  of  the  Divinity. 
It  is  also  sometimes  represented,  in 
stained  glass,  with  seven  rays,  termi- 
nating in  stars,  significant  of  the  seven 
gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  dove  is  the 
emblem  of  love,  simplicity,  innocence, 
purity,  mildness,  compunction;  holding 
an  olive-branch,  it  is  an  emblem  of  peace. 
Doves  were  used  in  churches  to  serve 
three  purposes:  (1)  Suspended  over 
altars  to  serve  as  a  pyx.  (2)  As  a  type 
or  figure  of  the  Holy  Spirit  over  altars, 
baptisteries,  and  fonts.  (3)  As  sym- 
bolical ornaments.  The  dove  is  also  an 
emblem  of  the  human  soul,  and  as  such 
is  seen  issuing  from  the  lips  of  dying 
martyrs  and  devout  persons. 

DOVER,  a  Cinque  port  and  parlia«. 
mentary  and  municipal  borough  in  the 
E.  of  Kent,  England,  QQ,  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
London.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
Southeastern  District  of  the  British 
army.  The  fortifications  comprise  Dover 
Castle,  which  occupies  a  commanding 
position  on  the  chalk  cliffs,  375  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  still  includes 
some  of  the  old  Saxon  and  Norman 
work;  Fort  Burgoyne  on  the  N.  side  of 
the  town,  Archcliffe  Fort  to  the  W.,  and 
the  batteries  on  the  Western  Heights, 
where  large  barracks  are  situated.  Dover 
holds  a  distinguished  place  in  English 
history.  Three  submarine  cables  connect 
it  with  the  Continent,  and  here  an  en- 
trance was  made  to  the  proposed  Chan- 
nel Tunnel.     Pop.   (1919)   39,282. 

DOVER,  a  city,  capital  of  the  State 
of  Delaware,  and  county-seat  of  Kent 
CO. ;  on  Jones  creek,  and  the  Philadelphia^, 
Washington,  and  Baltimore  railroad,  75 
miles  S.  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Wilmington  Conference  Academy  and 
has  a  handsome  monument  ei*ected  to  the 
memory  of  Cassar  Rodney,  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. It  is  the  cent-er  of  a  great  fruit- 
growing region;  is  on  high  ground:  is 
laid  out  with  wide,  straight  streets  that 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles;  and  is 


DOVEB 


412 


BOWDEN 


built  up  chiefly  with  brick.  Among  its 
noteworthy  buildings  are  a  handsome 
State  house,  large  court  house,  and  new 
United  States  Government  building.  Con- 
nected with  the  State  house  is  a  State 
library  with  upward  of  80,000  volumes. 
There  are  several  churches,  a  National 
and  a  State  bank,  fruit  evaporating  and 
packing-  establishments,  steam  flour  mill, 
foundry,  machine  shop,  and  sash,  fruit 
crate,  glass,  and  carriage  factories. 

DOVER,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Strafford  co.,  N.  H.;  at  the  head  of  navi- 
gation on  Cocheco  river,  and  on  the  Bos- 
ton and  Maine  railroad;  168  miles  N.  N. 
E.  of  Boston.  It  is  situated  on  hilly 
ground,  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  has 
many  handsome  buildings  and  residences. 
The  river  at  this  point  has  a  depth  of  11 
feet,  affording  good  shipping  accommo- 
dations. The  falls  of  Cocheco,  within  the 
city  limits,  are  the  source  of  abundant 
water  power.  Dover's  industries  include 
several  large  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  an 
extensive  print  works,  manufactories  of 
boots  and  shoes,  oil  cloth,  hats  and  caps, 
and  several  tanneries,  brass  and  iron 
foundries,  and  machine  shops.  There 
are  several  churches,  high  school,  St.  Jo- 
seph's Hill  School,  Franklin  Academy, 
National  banks,  several  savings  banks, 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  There  are 
monuments  to  persons  distinguished  in 
Revolutionary  history.  It  is  the  oldest 
city  in  the  State;  settled  in  1623;  nearly 
destroyed  by  the  Indians  in  1689;  and 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1855.  Pop.  (1910) 
13,247;   (1920)  13,029. 

DOVER,  a  city  in  Morris  co.,  N.  J.; 
on  the  Rockaway  river,  the  Lackawanna 
and  the  New  Jersey  Central  railroads, 
and  the  Morris  and  Essex  canal;  28 
miles  W.  of  Newark.  It  has  extensive 
iron  interests,  railroad  shops,  machine 
shops,  furnace  and  stove  factories,  and 
silk  and  hosiery  mills.  Five  miles  dis- 
tant is  a  government  powder  magazine. 
Nearby  are  Lake  Hopatcong,  Mt.  Ar- 
lington, Budd's  Lake,  and  Schooley's 
Mountain,  all  noted  summer  resorts.  The 
city  has  a  high  school,  several  churches, 
business  college,  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers, electric  lights,  and  National 
bank.     Pop.   (1910)   7,468;   (1920)  9,803. 

DOVER,  a  city  of  Ohio,  in  Tuscarawas 
CO.  It  was  formerly  known  as  Canal 
Dover.  The  city  is  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  other  rail- 
roads. It  is  an  important  industrial  cen- 
ter and  has  a  large  plant  of  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation  and  several  im- 
portant coke  and  coal  companies.  It  has 
also  important  plants  for  manufacturing 
electrical  devices.  Pop.  (1910)  6.621; 
(1920)  8,101. 


DOVER,  STRAITS  OF,  the  narrow 
channel  between  Dover  and  Calais  which 
separates  Great  Britain  from  the  French 
coast.  At  the  narrowest  part  it  is  only 
21  miles  wide. 

DOVER'S  POWDER,  a  powder  com- 
pounded of  10  parts  each  of  ipecacuanha 
and  powdered  opium,  and  80  parts  of  sul- 
phate of  potash.  It  is  employed  as  a 
sudorific  and  sedative. 

DOW,  ABTHUR  WESLEY,  an  Amer- 
ican artist;  born  at  Ipswich,  Mass.  He 
was  educated  in  Boston  and  Paris.  He 
exhibited  in  the  Paris  Salon  in  1886- 
1887.  He  was  for  some  time  curator  of 
Japanese  art  in  the  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts  in  Boston,  and  from  1895  to  1304 
he  was  instructor  in  art  at  the  Pratt 
Institute,  Brooklyn,  and  instructor  in 
composition  at  the  Art  Students'  League 
from  1897  to  1903.  From  1904  h?  was 
professor  of  fine  arts  in  the  Teachers' 
College,  Columbia  University.  He  wrote 
"Compositions"  (1898),  and  published 
several  books  of  color  prints  of  especially 
high  merit. 

DOW,  or  DOUW  (properly  Dou), 
OERARD,  a  Dutch  painter,  the  son  of 
a  glazier;  bom  in  Leyden,  April  7,  1613. 
He  studied  under  Rembrandt,  and  united 
his  master's  manner  in  chiaroscuro  with 
the  most  minute  finish  and  delicacy.  His 
pictures  are  generally  of  small  size  and 
mostly  scenes  of  family  life.  Dow  died 
in  Leyden  in  1675. 

DOW,  NEAL,  an  American  temper- 
ance reformer;  born  in  Portland,  Me., 
March  20,  1804.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  bill  which  prohibited  the  manufac- 
ture and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  in 
the  State  of  Maine,  widelv  known  as 
the  "Maine  Law."  During  the  Civil  War 
he  was  colonel  of  a  Maine  regiment  and 
a  Brigadier-General  of  volunteers.  He 
died  Oct.  2,  1897. 

DOWAGIAC,  a  city  of  Michigan,  in 
Cass  CO.  It  is  on  the  Michigan  Central 
railroad.  It  is  the  center  of  an  impor- 
tant farming  region,  and  its  industries 
include  flour  and  lumber  mills,  a  can- 
ning factory,  and  a  gas  factory.  It  has 
a  public  library  and  manufactures  of 
stoves,  gloves,  furnaces,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)   5,088;   (1920)   5,440. 

DOWDEN,  EDWARD,  an  Irish  poet 
and  historian;  born  in  Cork,  May  3, 
1843.  He  was  Professor  of  English 
Literature  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
He  published  a  volume  of  "Poems' 
(1876);  his  other  writing  are  biological 
and  critical,  e.  g.,  "Shakespeare,  his 
Mind  and  Art"  (1872),  a  work  of  high 
arthority,  which  reached  a  fifth  edition 
(1887)     and    has    been    translat/^d    into 


DOWER 


413 


DOYLE 


German;  "Southey"  (1879);  ''Life  of 
Percy  Bysshe  Shelley"  (1886);  "Studies 
in  Literature"  (3d  ed.  1887)  ;  "Introduc- 
tion to  Shakespeare"  (1893);  "Primer  of 
French  Literature"  (1897) ;  "Life  of 
Browning"  (1904);  "Montayne"  (1903); 
"Essays"  (1910).  He  visited  the  United 
States  in  1896,  delivered  a  notable  series 
of  lectures  at  Princeton.  He  died  April 
4,  1913. 

DOWER,  the  estate  for  life  which  a 
widow  acquires  in  a  certain  portion  of 
her  husband's  real  property  after  his 
death.  Dower,  by  the  common  law, 
which  in  this  matter  is  the  general  law 
in  the  United  States,  entitles  the  widow 
to  a  third  part  of  all  the  lands  and  tene- 
ments of  which  the  husband  was  seized 
in  fee-simple,  or  fee-tail,  at  any  time 
during  the  coverture ;  but  the  rule  varies 
widely  on  many  pai-ticulars  in  the  differ- 
ent States.  Tenancy  in  dower  is  where 
a  widow  takes  a  third  of  such  lands  and 
tenements  as  her  husband  died  entitled 
to,  for  seizin  is  not  here  necessary,  and 
in  which  her  title  to  dower  has  not  been 
previously  barred.  This  mode  of  pro- 
viding for  a  widow  seems  to  have  been 
unknown  in  the  early  part  of  the  Saxon 
constitution  of  England,  from  which 
country  our  laws  are  derived;  for,  in  the 
laws  of  King  Edmund,  the  wife  is  di- 
rected to  be  supported  wholly  out  of  the 
personal  estate.  Afterward,  as  may  be 
seen  in  gavelkind  tenure,  the  widow  be- 
came entitled  to  an  estate  in  one-half  of 
the  lands,  provided  she  remained  chaste 
and  unmarried;  as  is  usual  also  in  copy- 
hold dowers,  or  freebench. 

DOWIE,  JOHN  ALEXANDER,  ad- 
venturer ;  born  in  Scotland.  At  one  time 
a  pastor  in  Australia,  he  afterward  went 
to  Chicago,  111.,  and  became  a  "healer," 
real-estate  operator,  newspaper  proprie- 
tor, and  manufacturer.  He  founded  a 
lace-making  industry  near  Waukegan, 
111.;  the  place  was  called  "Zion"  and  his 
folowers  "Zionites."  He  announced 
that  he  was  the  prophet  Elijah  returned 
•  to  earth,  and  surrounded  himself  with 
armed  guards  under  a  pretense  that  his 
life  was  in  danger. 

In  October,  1903,  Dowie  and  3,500  of 
his  followers  journeyed  to  New  York. 
The  object  was  to  prain  recruits  for  the 
Dowie  Church,  and  to  induce  New  York- 
ers to  invest  money  in  the  Zion  ^  City 
enterprises.  The  crusade  was  a  failure. 
He  died  March  9,  1907. 

DOWLAS,  a  kind  of  coarse  linen,  very 
commonly  worn  by  the  lower  classes  in 
the  16th  century;  also  a  strong  calico 
made  in  imitation  of  the  linen  fabric. 

DOWNING  STREET,  a  short  street 
in   Whitehall    (named  after   Sir   George 


Downing,  Secretary  to  the  Treasury  in 
1667),  London,  England,  where  are  the 
Colonial  and  Foreign  Offices,  with  the 
official  residence  since  1735  of  the  First 
Lord  of  the  Treasury.  Here  cabinet 
councils  are  held,  hence  the  term  is  some- 
times employed  for  the  government  in 
office. 

DOWNS,  a  term  given  to  undulating 
grassy  hills  or  uplands,  specially  apj)lic'rl 
to  two  ranges  of  undulating  chalk  hills 
in  England,  extending  through  Surrey, 
Kent,  and  Hampshire,  known  as  the 
North  and  South  Downs.  The  word  is 
sometimes  used  as  equivalent  to  dunes  or 
sand-hills. 

DOWNS,  THE,  an  important  road- 
stead or  shelter  for  shipping,  off  the  S. 
E.  coast  of  Kent,  England,  opposite 
Ramsgate  and  Deal,  between  North  and 
South  Foreland,  and  protected  externally 
by  the  Goodwin  Sands;  a  natural  break' 
water  with  1  to  4  fathoms  water,  and 
often  partly  dry  at  low  tide.  This  large 
natural  harbor  of  refuge  is  8  miles  by 
6,  with  an  anchorage  of  4  to  12  fathoms. 
It  is  resorted  to  temporarily  by  outward 
and  homeward  bound  vessels  and  squad- 
rons of  ships  of  war,  and  is  unsafe  only 
in  S.  winds.  It  is  defended  by  Deal, 
Dover,  and  Sandown  Castles. 

DOYEN,  CHARLES  A.,  an  Anaerican 

soldier;  born  in  New  Hampshire,  in 
1859.  He  graduated  from  the  Naval 
Academy  at  Annapolis  in  1883.  He  was 
appointed  2d  lieutenant  in  the  marine 
corps.  After  serving  in  the  Spanish- 
American  War  he  became  fleet  marine 
officer  of  the  fleet.  In  1904  he  held  a 
command  in  the  Philippines  and  in  the 
following  year  was  appointed  command- 
er of  the  first  brigade  of  the  marines  in 
the  islands.  He  was  appointed  colonel  in 
1909  and  in  1915  was  in  command  of  the 
Marine  Barracks  in  Washington,  D.  C. 
He  was  appointed  brigadier-general  in 
1917  and  for  a  time  saw  service  in 
France.  He  was  transferred  to  com- 
mand the  Marine  Corps  Training  Camp 
at  Quantico,  Va.,  where  he  died  in  1918. 
He  commanded  the  first  regiment  of 
marines  sent  to  France  in  1917.  He  was 
well-known  as  an  expert  in  machine 
gunnery. 

DOYLE.  SIR  ARTHUR  CONAN.  a 
Scotch  story  and  romance  writer;  born  in 
Edinburgh,  May  22,  1859.  He  was  care- 
fully trained  for  a  physician,  but  went  to 
London  at  20  and  adopted  litei-ature  as  a 
profession.  His  gi-eatest  success  was 
won  with  the  series  of  detective  tales 
known  as  the  Sherlock  Holmes  stories: 
"The  Adventures  of  Sherlock  Holmes," 
etc.  He  also  wrote  :  "The  Adventures  of 
Brigadier  Gerard"  (1895),  a  Napoleonic 

27— Vol.  Ill— €yo 


DBAC^NA 


414 


DRACONTIUM 


romance:  "The  Stark  Munro  Letters" 
(1895);  "Uncle  Bernac"  (1897);  "The 
Tragedy  of  the  Korosko"  (1898)  ;  "Songs 
of  Action"  (1898);  "Sir  Nigel"  (1906); 
"Songs  of  the  Road"    (1911);   "A  Lost 


SIR  ARTHUR  CONAN  DOYLE 

World"  (1912);  "Valley  of  Fear" 
(1915) ;  "His  Last  Bow"  (1918) ;  "His- 
tory of  the  Great  War"  (1918-1919) ,  etc. 

DRAC^NA,  a  genus  of  Liliacex, 
tribe  Asparagess.  Formerly,  the  genus 
was  so  defined  as  to  include  nearly  or 
quite  30  species.  The  well-known  D. 
draco,  or  dragon-tree,  requires  to  be 
studied  in  its  native  country,  the  Canary 
Islands.  Commencing  as  an  unbranched 
endogen  with  linear  entire  evergreen 
sheathing  leaves,  which  leave  annular 
scars  as  they  fall  annually,  it  continues 
to  advance  slowly  to  maturity,  the  proc- 
ess, it  is  said,  taking  25  to  30  years. 
Then  the  leaf  scars  are  gradually  oblit- 
erated, and  branches  begin  to  be  put 
forth.  Next  a  glorious  panicle  of  in- 
florescence appears  at  the  apex  of  the 
stem,  the  individual  flowers  of  which, 
however,  are  small  and  greenish  white. 
At  an  indefinitely  long  period  it  begins 
to  decay.  The  celebrated  dragon-tree  of 
Teneriffe  was  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  Bethencourt  in  1402  or  1406  de- 
scribed it  as  old  and  hollow.  It  had 
changed  but  little  from  that  time  till  its 
destruction  in  1867.  It  was  between  70 
and  75  feet  high,  with  a  circumference 
at    the    base    of    about    46 1/^    feet.      D. 


draco  furnishes  one  of  the  resins  called 
dragon's-blood.  The  tree  called  D  Termi- 
nalis,  mentioned  by  Lindley  and  others  as 
furnishing  the  Ti  plant  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  was  next  named  Cordyline  ter- 
minalis,  and  is  now  denominated  Calo-- 
dracon  terminalis. 

DRACHENFELS  (dra'chenfels) 
(Dragon's  Rock),  a  peak  of  the  range 
called  the  Siebengebirge,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  8  miles  S.  E.  of  Bonn, 
Prussia.  It  has  an  elevation  of  1,056 
feet. 

DRACHMA  (drak'ma),  DRACHM 
(dram),  or  DRAM,  a  silver  coin,  the 
unit  of  the  money  system  in  ancient 
Greece.  It  varied  in  value  in  different 
parts  of  Greece  and  at  different  times, 
but  always  remained  the  6000th  part  of 
the  talent,  and  100th  part  of  the  mina^ 
and  was  divided  into  six  obols.  The 
Attic  drachma  is  estimated  as  equivalent 
to  a  French  franc,  or  19.3c  in  United 
States  gold.  The  drachma  (originally  "a 
handful")  was  also  the  name  of  a  weight, 
and  100  drachmas  made  a  mina  (nearly 
one  pound)  in  weight,  as  in  money. 

DRACHM  ANN,  HOLGER  (drach' 
man),  a  Danish  poet,  painter,  and  novel- 
ist; born  in  Copenhagen,  Oct.  9,  1846. 
His  works  show  a  lively  fancy  and  excel 
in  descriptions  of  the  life  of  the  common 
people,  especially  fishermen  and  mari- 
ners. His  "Poems"  appeared  in  1872.  His 
novels  include  "Condemned,"  "Once  Up- 
on a  Time,"  and  "Sea  Tales."  His  best 
known  painting  is  "From  Hamburg 
Harbor,"  which  was  presented  by  the 
Danes  in  Hamburg  to  the  King  and 
Queen  of  Denmark.  Drachmann  visited 
the  United  States  in  1898.  He  died  Jan. 
13,  1908. 

DRACO  (dra'ko),  an  Athenian  legis- 
lator, the  extraordinary  and  indiscrimi- 
nate severity  of  whose  laws  has  rendered 
his  name  odious  to  humanity.  During 
the  period  of  his  archonship,  about  623 
B.  c.,  he  enacted  a  criminal  code  in  which 
slight  offenses  were  punished  as  severely 
as  murder  or  sacrilege.  Hence  it  was 
said  to  be  "written  in  blood."  The 
laws  of  Draco,  the  first  written  laws  of 
Athens,  were  for  the  most  part  super- 
seded by  the  legislation  of  Solon.  Draco 
is  said  to  have  been  accidentally  killed 
in  a  theater  at  .^Egina. 

DRACO,  a  constellation  in  the  N. 
hemisphere.  The  star  Draconis,  a  bright 
star  nearly  in  the  solstitial  colure,  was 
used  in  determining  the  co-efficient  of 
aberration  of  the  fixed  stars, 

DRACONTIUM.  a  genus  of  Orontia- 
cese.  D.  polyphyllum  is  an  antispasmodic 
and  an  expectorant.     It  grows  in  India,. 


DRACUT 


416 


DRAGON,  GREEN 


Japan,  etc.  The  American  skunk  cab- 
bage was  formerly  referred  to  this 
genus;  it  is  now  called  Symplocarpus 
foetidus. 

DRACUT,  a  town  of  Massachusetts, 
in  Middlesex  co.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
important  agricultural  region  and  its  in- 
dustries include  woolen  mills.  Pop. 
(1910)  3,461;   (1920)   5,280. 

DRAFT,  a  written  order  for  the  pay- 
ment of  a  sum  of  money  addressed  to 
some  person  who  holds  money  in  trust, 
or  who  acts  in  the  capacity  of  agent  or 
servant  of  the  drawer.  Documents  of 
this  kind  often  pass  between  one  depart- 
ment of  a  bank  or  mercantile  house  and 
some  other  department,  and  are  distin- 
guished from  bills  of  exchange  and 
checks,  in  not  being  drawn  upon  a 
debtor. 

DRAGO,  LUIS  MARIA,  an  Argentine 
lawyer.  He  was  born  at  Buenos  Aires, 
1859,  and  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  that  city.  He  practiced  law  and  be- 
came a  judge  at  Buenos  Aires,  after- 
ward being  elected  to  Congress.  He  was 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  under  Pres- 
ident Roca,  and  while  in  that  position 
sent  to  the  Argentine  Minister  in  Wash- 
ington the  instructions  known  as  the 
Drago  Doctrine  (1902).  He  was  Argen- 
tine delegate  to  the  Second  Peace  Con- 
ference and  was  one  of  the  arbitrators 
nominated  by  agreement  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  for  the 
hearing  of  differences  regarding  fish- 
eries off  the  Nort?i  Atlantic  coast.  His 
works  include:  "La  Literatura  del 
Slang";  "La  idea  del  Derecho";  "Cobro 
Coercitivo  de  Deudas  Publicas,"  etc. 

DRAGON,  a  fabulous  animal,  found 
in  the  mythology  of  nearly  all  nations, 
generally  as  an  enormous  serpent  of  ab- 
normal form.  Ancient  legends  represent 
the  dragon  as  a  huge  hydra,  watching 
as  sentinel  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides, 
or  guarding  the  tree  on  which  was  hung 
the  Golden  Fleece  at  Colchis.  In  other 
places  he  appears  as  a  monster,  making 
the  neighborhood  around  his  cave  un- 
safe, and  desolating  the  land;  his  death 
being  ascribed  to  a  hero  or  god  made  for 
the  task,  which  was  a  service  to  all 
mankind. 

In  Christian  art  the  dragon  is  the 
usual  emblem  of  sin;  is  met  with  in  pic- 
tures of  St.  Michael  and  St.  Margaret, 
when  it  typifies  the  conquest  over  sin; 
it  also  appears  under  the  feet  of  the  Sa- 
viour, and  under  those  of  the  Virgin. 
The  dragon  also  typifies  idolatry.  In 
pictures  of  St.  George  and  St.  Sylvester 
it  serves  to  exhibit  the  triumph  of  Chris- 
tianity over  paganism.  As  a  symbol  of 
Satan  we  find  the  dragon  nearly  always  in 


the  form  of  the  fossil  Ichthyo.saurus.  The 
dragon  appears  on  the  shield  of  the  most 
famous  of  the  early  Grecian  heroes,  as 
well  as  on  the  helmets  of  kings  and  gen- 
erals. It  is  found  on  English  shields  aft- 
er the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror.  In 
modern  heraldry  it  appears  on  the  shield 
and  helmet;  and  as  supporter  it  is  called 
a  lindworm  when  it  has  no  wings,  and 
serpent  when  it  has  no  feet;  when  it 
hangs  by  the  head  and  wings  it  means  a 
conquered  dragon. 

DRAGON,  the  lizard,  genus  Draco, 
It  has  the  first  six  ribs  extended  in  a 
nearly  straight  line,  and  supporting  an 
expansion  of  the  skin  on  each  side  which 
acts  like  a  pair  of  parachutes.  This  en- 
ables these  animals  to  take  long  leaps, 
if  need  be,  about  30  paces  from  branch 
to  branch,  but  there  is  no  beating  of  the 
air,  and  consequently  no  flying,  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  There  are 
various  species  in  the  United  States, 
Africa,  Java,  etc. 

DRAGONET,  a  genus  of  spiny-rayed 
bony  fishes  near  the  Goby,  remarkable 
for  having  the  gill  openings  reduced  to 
a  small  hole  on  each  side  of  the  nape, 
and  the  ventral  fins  placed  und?r  the 
throat,  separate,  and  larger  than  the 
pectorals.  The  species  are  numerous, 
widely  distributed  in  the  temperate  seas 
of  the  Old  World,  and  generally  finely 
colored.  The  gemmeous  dragonet  (C. 
lyra)  of  the  British  coasts — called  gow- 
die  (gowd,  ''gold")  in  Scotland — is  a  fish 
about  10  or  12  inches  long,  and  of  a  pre- 
vailing yellow  color  varied  with  spots  of 
brown.  At  the  reproductive  season  the 
male  becomes  very  gorgeously  adorned 
with  blue  and  violet  spots  and  stripes. 
This  fish  is  also  called  skulpin  or  sculpin 
— a  name  given  in  the  United  States  to 
a  marine  bullhead  or  cottus. 

DRAGON  FLY,  a  popular  name  given 
to  the  family  Libellulidse,  the  second 
family  of  the  tribe  Snbuliconiia,  in 
which  the  hind  wings  are  approximately 
of  the  same  size  as  the  anterior,  a  char- 
acter which  serves  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  Ephemerids;.  Some  1,400  spe- 
cies have  been  described  from  all  parts 
of  the  world.  They  are  divided  into 
three  groups  —  AgHonides,  ^schnidx, 
and  Libellulides,  ^schnc  grandis,  the 
great  dragon  fly,  is  nearly  three  inches 
long.  Libelhda  depressa  is  the  horse 
stinger,  an  insect  nearly  two  inches  long 
and  of  a  yellowish-brown  color. 

DRAGON,  GREEN,  an  araceous  plant, 
with  spotted  petioles  and  handsome  lobed 
leaves,  and  dark-colored  fetid  flowers,  is 
common  in  Greece  and  other  countries 
of  southern  Europe,  and  is  occasionally 
to  be  seen  in  gardens. 


DRAGON  MOUNTAINS 


416 


DRAINAGE 


DRAGON  MOUNTAINS.  See  DrakeN- 
BERGE. 

DRAGON'S  BLOOD,  in  botany  a  wing- 
leaved,  slender-stemmed  palm,  similar  in 
habit  to  that  which  furnishes  the  chair 
canes.  It  is  a  native  of  Sumatra  and 
other  Malayan  islands.  The  fruits, 
which  grow  in  bunches,  are  about  the 
size  of  a  cherry,  and  are  covered  with 
imbricating  scales  of  a  red  color,  coated 
with  a  resinous  substance,  which  is  col- 
lected by  placing  the  fruits  in  a  bag  and 
shaking  them;  the  friction  loosens  the 
resin,  which  is  then  formed  into  sticks 
or  cakes,  and  constitutes  the  best  drag- 
on's blood  of  commerce. 

In  commerce,  sanguis  draconis,  a 
resin,  so  called  on  account  of  its  red 
color.  It  exudes  from  various  trees, 
either  spontaneously  or  from  incisions. 
There  are  three  kinds  in  commerce:  (1) 
East  Indian  dragon's-blood,  which  is 
found  on  the  ripe  fruits  and  leaves  of 
several  palms  of  the  genus  Calamus — 
viz.,  C.  rotang,  C.  draco  and  C.  Petroeus; 
(2)  American,  obtained  from  incisions 
in  Pterocarpus  draco,  indigenous  to  the 
West  Indies;  and  (3)  Canary  dragon's- 
blood  from  Dracoena  draco.  Dragon's- 
blood  is  dark-red  brown,  opaque,  taste- 
less, scentless,  and  brittle.  When  pure 
it  dissolves  with  a  fine  red  color  in  al- 
cohol and  in  ether,  and  in  oils  both  fixed 
and  volatile;  alkalies  also  dissolve  it 
more  or  less  completely.  Nitric  acid 
oxidizes  dragon's-blood,  forming  oxalic 
acid,  but  dilute  nitric  acid  heated  with 
the  resin,  yields  nitrobenzoic  acid.  Drag- 
on's-blood is  used  for  coloring  varnishes, 
for  preparing  gold  lacquers,  for  tooth 
tinctures,  and  for  giving  a  fine  red  color 
to  marble. 

D  R  A  G  0  N'S  HEAD,  a  genus  of 
Labiatx,  common  in  gardens,  so  called 
from  the  form  of  its  corolla. 

DRAGON'S  MOUTH,  a  popular  name 
for  antirrhinum,  generally  replaced  in 
common  usage  by  that  of  snap-dragon. 

DRAGON  TREE.     See  Drac^na. 

DRAGOON,  a  kind  of  mounted  soldier, 
so  called  originally  from  his  musket 
(dragon)  having  on  the  muzzle  of  it  the 
head  of  a  dragon.  At  one  time  dragoons 
served  both  as  mounted  and  foot  sol- 
diers, but  now  only  as  the  foi'mer.  In 
the  British  army  there  are  heavy  and 
light  dragoons.  The  first  dragoon  regi- 
ment, the  Scots  Greys,  was  formed  in 
1681. 

DRAGOON  BIRD,  same  as  umbrella 
bird. 

DRAINAGE,  a  process  by  which  wet 
and  unhealthy  soils  are  rendered  arable 
and  healthy. 


Benefits  of  Drainage. — 1.  Removal  of 
superfluous  water.  Not  only  is  the 
standing  water  at  the  surface  carried 
off,  but  the  water-table  is  lowered,  in- 
creasing the  depth  of  soil. 

2.  Improves  soil  texture.  Drained 
soils  are  more  friable,  less  lumpy,  offer 
less  resistance  to  plant  roots,  and  are  of 
better  texture  in  every  way,  than  un- 
drained  soils. 

3.  Increases  root  pasturage.  Agricul- 
tural literature  is  full  of  testimony  to 
the  benefits  of  deep  tillage.  The  deeper 
the  soil  is  stirred  the  greater  its  produc- 
tiveness. 

4.  Increases  soil  fertility.  It  prevents 
loss  of  fertility  by  water  passing  over  the 
surface.  It  adds  to  the  fertility  by  send- 
ing summer  showers  down  through  the 
soil,  instead  of  over  them,  enabling  the 
crop  to  use  the  nitric  acid  and  ammonia 
brought  down.  It  increases  the  effect  of 
manures  by  bringing  them  more  quickly 
into  solution  and  into  more  intimate  con- 
tact with  plant  roots. 

5.  Makes  tillage  easier.  Waste  land  is 
reduced,  and  the  better  texture  of  soil,  its 
finer  tilth  and  greater  friability  decrease 
draft  and  increase  the  effectiveness  of 
tillage  implements. 

6.  Lengthens  the  g^rowing  season  for 
crops.  Frost  comes  out  earlier  in  the 
spring  and  the  land  becomes  earlier 
warmed.  Evaporation  lowers  tempera- 
ture, but  drainage  removes  water  without 
evaporation. 

7.  Assists  disintegration.  Frosts  pene- 
trate deeper  in  winter  in  drained  soils,  as- 
sisting in  unlocking  the  stores  of  mineral 
plant  food. 

8.  Favors  nitrification  and  bacterial  ac- 
tion. Plants  are  largely  dependent  on  the 
decomposition  of  organic  matter  in  the 
soil  for  their  supply  of  nitrogen.  This 
change  is  brought  about  by  the  action  of 
ferments  or  bacteria  which  thrive  only 
under  certain  conditions  of  temperature 
and  moisture.  Drainage  supplies  the  most 
favorable  condition  for  their  develop- 
ment. 

9.  Prevents  heaving.  The  effect  of 
stool-ice  in  throwing  out  young  plants  in 
winter  is  often  to  diminish  seriously  and 
even  destroy  the  crop.  Drainage  dries 
up  the  surface  soil  and  prevents  the  for- 
mation of  stool-ice. 

10.  Lessens  washing  and  diminishes 
violence  of  floods.  By  increasing  the  ab- 
sorptive power  of  the  soil  less  water  is 
left  to  pass  over  the  surface  in  a  rainy 
season. 

11.  Improves  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  crops.  That  the  yield  of  crops  is  much 
greater  on  drained  soils  hardly  needs  to 
be  substantiated.  Rust,  mildew,  blight, 
etc.,  are  much  less  prevalent  in  crops  on 
drained  soils. 


DRAINAGE 


417 


DRAKE 


12.  Diminishes  the  effect  of  drought. 
By  making  the  season  earlier  tillage  can 
begin  sooner  and  save  moisture  from 
wasting. 

13.  Healthfulness  improved.  So  well 
known  is  this  fact  that  large  towns  have 
undertaken  the  drainage  of  adjacent 
swamps  to  render  the  region  more 
healthful. 

Kinds  of  Draiyis. — Cobble-stone  or  so- 
called  blind  drains  are  undoubtedly  the 
most  ancient  covered  drains  ever  made. 
They  are  trenches  partly  filled  with  boul- 
ders picked  up  neai'by  and  covered  over 
with  the  earth  thro\\Ti  out. 

Cobble  duct.  Two  rows  of  boulders  are 
laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  three  or 
four  inches  apart,  a  third  row  is  laid  be- 
tween on  top,  and  these  are  covered  with 
smaller  stones  and  finally  covered  with 
the  earth  thrown  out. 

Brush  drains  are  made  by  filling  a 
trench  with  wide  bottom  full  of  brush 
laid  in  with  stem  ends  downstream, 
treading  them  down,  covering  with  sod, 
leaves  or  strav,  and  filling  in.  They  are 
prone  to  cave  in  as  the  brush  settles 
and  decays,  and  are  treacherous  to 
animals. 

French  brush  differ  from  common 
brush  drains  in  having  stakes  driven 
X-wise  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  to 
raise  the  brush  a  few  inches. 

Box  drains  consist  of  two  boards  nailed 
together  forming  a  V,  laid  in  the  bottom 
of  trench  with  the  apex  up,  and  covered; 
or,  of  three  boards,  two  set  on  edge  three 
or  four  inches  apart,  with  the  third 
nailed  across  the  top,  placed  in  the  trench 
open  side  down. 

Plug  drains  are  made  by  means  of  a 
plug,  five  or  six  feet  long,  consisting  of 
four  or  five  sections  of  wood  with  uni- 
form elliptical  cross  sections,  three  or 
four  inches  in  diameter,  linked  together 
by  a  short  chain  and  bar  for  dra\\'ing 
the  plug  along  the  trench.  Beginning  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  drain  the  plug  is 
laid  chain  end  downstream,  in  the  bottom 
of  the  trench.  A  few  inches  of  earth 
is  tamped  solidly  over  the  plug;  it  is 
then  drawn  on  by  means  of  bar  and 
chain,  two-thirds  of  its  length,  and  cov- 
ered again,  etc. 

Mole  drains  are  made  with  a  mole 
plow,  an  implement  constructed  to  draw 
an  iron  plug  through  the  ground  about 
three  feet  below  the  sui'face.  This  plow 
is  usually  drawn  by  a  capstan  with  horses 
or  oxen  on  the  sweep. 

Tile  Dra'.nage. — Drain  tiles  were  in 
use  at  a  very  early  date,  probably  during 
th*^  Roman  period.  At  first  three  bricks 
of  com.mon  or  special  shape  were  used  for 
the  conduit,  consisting  of  two  set  up 
edgewise  a  few  inches  apart,  with  a 
third  across  the  top.    Later  a  single  brick 


was  molded  into  the  shape  of  the  three 
as  above  laid.  These  were  superseded  by 
V-shaped  tiles  with  broad  soles  on  which 
to  rest,  and  perforations  along  the  back 
to  admit  the  water.  Plain  cylindrical 
tiles  are  now  generally  used. 

Outlets. — One  of  the  weakest  parts  of 
a  drain  is  the  point  of  discharge.  For 
this  reason  it  is  best  not  to  have  a  sep- 
arate outlet  for  each  line  of  ti^es,  but 
rather  to  collect  all  into  a  system  with  a 
single  outlet. 

Minors  or  Laterals. — The  smaller  sub- 
sidiary lines  are  so  called  in  distinction 
from  the  main  drain,  which  follows  the 
lower  part  of  the  field  and  receives  *he 
discharge  from  the  smaller  drains. 

Before  construction,  a  drainage  system 
should  be  carefully  studied,  surveyed  and 
mapped  out,  both  for  greater  accuracy 
of  work  and  for  location  of  drains  after- 
ward. Steam-power  ditchers  have  been 
perfected,  which  have  demonstrated  their 
practicability  where  land  is  free  from  ob- 
structions and  the  grade  fairly  even. 

DRAINAGE  TUBES,  in  surgery,  are 
an  important  addition  to  the  surgical  ap- 
pliances for  which  this  profession  is  in- 
debted to  a  distinguished  French  surgeon, 
M.  Chassaignac.  They  are  composed  of 
india-rubber,  from  one-eighth  to  three- 
eighths  inch  in  diameter,  perforated  with 
numerous  holes,  and  of  various  lengths. 
The;,  are  especially  useful  in  chronic  ab- 
scesses, but  also  in  large  wounds. 

DRAKE.  SIR  FRANCIS,  an  English 
navigator,  born  in  Tavistock,  in  Devon- 
shire, England,  in  1539.  or  according  to 
some  authorities  in  1545.  He  served  as 
a  sailor  in  a  coasting  vessel,  and  after- 
ward joined  Sir  John  Hawkins  in  his 
last  expedition  against  the  Spaniards 
(1567),  losing  nearly  all  he  possessed  in 
that  unfortunate  enterprise.  Having 
gathered  a  number  of  adventurers,  he 
fitted  out  a  vessel  in  which  he  made 
two  successful  cruises  to  the  West  Indies 
in  1570  and  1571.  Next  year,  with  two 
small  ships,  he  again  sailed  for  the  Span- 
ish Main,  captured  the  cities  of  Nonibre 
de  Dios  and  Vera  Cruz,  and  took  a  rich 
booty  which  he  brought  safely  home.  In 
1577  Drake  made  another  expedition  to 
the  Spanish  Main,  having  this  time  com- 
mand of  five  ships.  On  this  the  most  v' 
famous  of  his  voyages  Drake  passed  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  plundered  all  along 
the  coasts  of  Chile  and  Peru,  sacked  sev- 
eral ports,  and  captured  a  galleon  laden 
with  silver,  gold,  jewels,  etc.,  to  the 
value  of  perhaps  $1,000,000. 

He  then  ran  N.  as  far  as  lat.  48^  N., 
seeking  a  passage  to  the  Atlantic,  but 
was  compelled  to  return  to  Port  San 
Francisco  on  account  of  the  cold.  He 
then  steered  for  the  Moluccas,  and  hold- 


DBASE 


418 


BBAMA 


ing  straight  across  the  Indian  Ocean 
doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  ar- 
rived at  Plymouth  Nov.  3,  1580,  being 
thus  the  first  of  the  English  circum- 
navigators. The  queen  showed  her  favor 
to  Drake  by  knighting  him  on  board  his 
own  ship.  Five  years  afterward  Drake 
was  again  attacking  the  Spaniards  in 
the  Cape  Verde  Islands  and  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  in  1588  particularly  distin- 
guished himself  as  vice-admiral  in  the 
conflict  with  the  Spanish  Armada.  In 
1593  he  represented  Plymouth  in  Farlia- 


SIR  FRANCIS   DRAKE 

ment.  His  later  expeditions,  that  in 
1595  against  the  Spanish  West  Indies 
and  that  to  Panama,  were  not  so  suc- 
cessful, and  his  death,  on  Jan.  28,  1596, 
at  sea  off  Porto  Bello,  was  hastened  by 
disappointment. 

DRAKE,  FRANKLIN  JEREMIAH, 
an  Ahierican  naval  officer,  born  at 
Yates,  N.  Y.,  in  1846.  He  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1868.  He  rose  through  the  various 
grades,  becoming  lieutenant-commander 
in  1893,  commander  in  1899,  and  captain 
in  1903.  In  1906  he  was  retired  as  rear- 
admiral.  He  served  during  the  Civil 
War  and  filled  many  posts  on  shore 
cind  at  sea  as  a  commander  of  vessels 
and  on  special  duty.  He  was  executive 
officer  of  the  Oregon  in  1896-1897.  From 
1913  to  1915  he  was  technical  expert  at 


the  Hague  Tribunal,  and  was  expert  of 
the  revision  of  regulations  of  the  United 
States  Navy  in  1918-1919-1920. 

DRAKE,      JOSEPH      RODMAN,      an 

American  poet;  born  in  New  York,  Aug. 
7,  1795.  The  poems  for  which  he  is 
gratefully  remembered  are  "The  Culprit 
Fay"  (1819),  and  "The  American  Flag" 
(1819).  With  Fitz-Greene  Ilalleck,  under 
the  signature,  "The  Croakers,"  he  pub- 
lished in  a  New  York  journal  in  1819  a 
series  of  short  lyrics,  mostly  of  a  humor- 
ous kind,  on  the  political  affairs  of  the 
time.     He  died  Sept.  21,  1820. 

DRAKE,  SAMUEL  ADAMS,  an  Amer- 
ican journalist  and  writer;  born  in 
Boston,  Dec.  20,  1833.  He  entered 
journalism  in  1858  as  correspondent  of 
the  Louisville  "Journal"  and  St.  Louis 
"Republican."  In  1861  he  joined  the 
army  and  served  throughout  the  war,  be- 
coming Brigadier-General  in  1863.  He 
returned  to  Boston  in  1871  and  resumed 
literary  work.  His  most  important  pub- 
lications are:  "Old  Landmarks  of  Bos- 
ton" (1872);  "New  England  Legends" 
(1883)  ;  "The  Making  of  New  England" 
(1886)  ;  "The  Pine  Tree  Coast"  (1891)  ; 
"Our  Colonial  Homes"  (1894),  etc.  He 
died  Dec.  4,  1905. 

DRAKENBERGE  (dra'ken-ber-ge) 
(Dragon  Mountains),  the  general  name 
given  by  the  Dutch  colonists  to  the 
range  of  mountains  in  the  E.  of  south 
Africa,  between  Cape  Colony  and  the 
Vaal  river.  From  about  29°  S.  lat,  the 
three  chains  which  form  the  S.  portion 
unite  and  extend  N.  E.  in  one  mass, 
whose  highest  points  are  the  Mont  f^nx 
Sources  and  Catkin  Peak  (10,360  feet). 
The  range  is  crossed  by  Van  Reenen 
(5,415)   and  De  Beers   (5,635)   passes. 

DRAKE  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  Des  Moines,  la.; 
founded  in  1891,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Christian  Church;  reported  at  the 
end  of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors, 
60:  students,  1,460;  president,  Arthur 
Holmes. 

DRAMA  (I  act),  a  class  of  writings 
which  almost  entirely  consist  of  dia- 
logue, persons  being  represented  as  act- 
ing and  speaking,  and  the  pieces  being 
usually  intended  to  be  acted  on  a  stage 
by  parties  assuming  the  characters  of 
the  respective  persons.  Its  two  great 
branches  are  tragedy  and  comedy,  the 
former,  roughly  speaking,  melancholy 
in  character,  the  latter  cheerful.  The 
origin  of  the  drama  must  be  sought  for 
in  the  love  of  imitation,  and  dramatic 
performances  of  some  kind  are  to  be 
met  with  probably  among  all  nations. 
Dramatic  compositions  are  found  in  the 


DRAMA 


419 


DRAMA 


Old  Testament,  for  example,  in  Job  and 
the  Song  of  Solomon;  and  ancient  India 
and  China  both  developed  a  dramatic 
literature  of  their  own.  The  European 
drama  had  its  origin  in  Greece.  Both 
forms,  tragic  and  comic,  took  their  rise 
in  the  celebration  of  the  Greek  festivals 
of  Dionysus  (Bacchus),  at  which  hymns 
and  chants  were  sung  by  choruses  in 
honor  of  the  god,  and  the  chorus  con- 
tinued to  be  a  prominent  feature  of  the 
old  Greek  drama.  Greek  comedy  began 
about  580-560  B.  c.  with  Susarion,  but 
it  was  long  in  attaining  regular  form. 
Of  the  old  Greek  comedy  the  chief  repre- 
sentatives were  Cratinus,  Eupolis,  Phe- 
recrates,  and  Aristophanes — the  last  the 
greatest. 

The  invention  of  tragedy  is  generally 
ascribed  to  Thespis  about  530  B.  c.,  who 
was  followed  by  Phrynichus;  but  the 
true  creator  of  tragedy  was  ^schylus, 
in  whose  works  and  those  of  Sophocles 
and  Euripides  it  found  its  most  perfect 
expression.  Thespis  had  only  one  actoi*, 
who  from  time  to  time  relieved  the 
chorus  by  declamation.  ^schylus 
changed  this  representation  into  real 
action  by  making  use  of  two  actors  in 
addition  to  the  chorus.  jEschylus  also 
introduced  masks;  and  by  means  of  a 
long  gown  and  the  cothurnus,  or  buskin, 
the  lofty  stature  of  the  heroes  was  imi- 
tated. A  third  actor  was  first  intro- 
duced by  Sophocles.  The  regular  drama 
among  the  Romans  was  borrowed  from 
the  Greeks.  Plautus  and  Terence  were 
imitators  of  the  Greek  comedy,  Livius 
Andronicus  (240  B.  C.)  of  the  Greek 
tragedy.  Of  the  Roman  tragedy,  the 
dramas  of  Seneca  are  the  only  speci- 
mens extant. 

In  most  modern  European  countries 
the  regular  drama  took  its  rise  in  the 
mysteries,  miracle-plays,  and  moralities 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  Italy,  however, 
it  began  with  a  reproduction  in  Latin 
of  classical  models.  The  earliest  tra- 
gedy in  Italian  is  Trissino's  "Sofonisba" 
(1502).  Regular  comedies  in  Italian 
were  written  by  Ariosto,  Aretino,  Ma- 
chiavelli,  and  others;  and  to  the  same 
period  (15th  and  16th  centuries)  be- 
longs the  Italian  Pastoral  drama,  which 
sprang  from  the  ancient  idylls,  and 
aimed  at  a  fanciful  delineation  of  Arca- 
dian and  mythological  scenes.  Among 
the  pastoral  dramatists  of  this  period 
are  Poliziano,  Tasso,  and  Guarini.  The 
pastorals  gave  birth  to  the  opera,  early 
masters  of  which,  so  far  as  it  may  be 
included  in  the  poetic  drama,  are  Zeno 
and  Metastasio.  The  Italian  drama 
waned  in  the  17th  century,  but  in  the 
18th  genuine  comedy  and  classic  tragedy 
were  restored,  the  former  by  Goldoni, 
the  latter  by  Alfieri.     Monti,   Manzoni, 


Niccolini,  Giacometti  and  D'Annunzio 
are  among  the  later  writers  of  tragedy. 

The  other  European  nations  culti- 
vated the  dramatic  art  much  later  than 
the  Italians.  The  English  and  Span- 
iards devoted  their  attention  to  it  almost 
at  the  same  time;  the  former  reaching 
their  acme  in  Shakespeare,  the  latter  in 
Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon.  The  his- 
tory of  the  English  theater  and  the 
drama  is  naturally  divided  into  two 
parts,  the  first  of  which  begins  with  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  and  ends  with  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  The  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  drama  during  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  was  entirely  unhampered  by 
foreign  influence.  Lyly,  Peele,  Greene, 
Marlowe,  Shakespeare,  Ben  Jonson, 
Beaumont,  and  Fletcher,  Chapman, 
Webster,  Middleton,  Marston,  Ford,  and 
Massinger  are  among  the  chief  names 
connected  with  the  brilliant  period  of 
Che  English  drania.  During  the  Com- 
monwealth the  Puritans  prohibited  all 
kinds  of  plays,  and  the  thealers  were 
shut  up  for  13  yearv.  With  Charles  II. 
the  drama  reappeared,  and  exhibited  a 
licentiousness  hardly  equaled  by  that  of 
any  other  Christian  nation.  Among  the 
chief  names  belonging  to  this  period  are 
Dryden,  Otway,  Lee,  Shadwell,  Wycherly 
and  Etherege.  From  the  close  of  the 
17th  to  that  of  the  18th  century  British 
comedy  was  cultivated  with  much  suc- 
cess by  Gibber,  Farquhar,  Congreve, 
Sheridan,  and  others.  During  the  19th 
century  many  writers  were  conspicuous 
by  their  dramas.  Among  the  chief  of 
these  may  be  noted  Byron,  Coleridge, 
Landor,  Shelley,  Maturin,  Talfourd,  Mil- 
man,  Sir  Henry  Taylor,  the  first  Lord 
Ljrtton,  Knowles,  R.  H.  Home,  Arnold, 
Browning,  Swinburne,  and  Tennyson. 
Among  other  19th  century  writers 
for  the  stage,  who,  however,  may  be 
called  playwrights  rather  than  drama- 
tists, may  be  named  Douglas  Jerrold, 
Tom  Taylor,  Charles  Reade,  Thomas 
Robertson,  W.  G.  Wills,  Henry  Byron, 
Robert  Buchanan,  Dion  Boucicault,  W. 
S.  Gilbert,  Stephen  Phillips,  Henry 
Arthur  Jones,  Arthur  W.  Pinero;  and 
among  Americans  Bronson  Howard,  Au- 
gustus Thomas,  William  Gillette,  Clyde 
Fitch,  Edward  Knoblock,  Avary  Hop- 
wood,  etc. 

The  French  drama  was  in  a  miserable 
state  before  Corneille  (1606-1684),  who 
indeed  is  looked  on  as  the  founder  of  the 
drama  in  Finance.  Racine,  Moliere,  Vol- 
taire, and  in  later  times  Hugo,  are  some 
of  the  other  distinguished  French  dra- 
matists. Since  about  1820  a  new  dramat- 
ic school  was  formed  in  France,  which, 
departing  from  the  ancient  strictness  of 
what  is  called  the  classic,  approaches 
more  and  more  to  the  German  or  British, 


DRAMA   LEAGTJE 


420 


DRAWING 


or  what  is  called  the  romantic  school,  the 
leader  in  the  movement  being  Victor 
Hugo.  C.  Delavigne  marks  the  transi- 
tion from  the  classical  to  the  beginnings 
©f  the  romantic  school,  and  among  the 
modern  dramatists  may  be  mentioned  A. 
de  Vigny,  George  Sand,  Alfred  de  Mus- 
set,  Merimee,  Ponsard,  Augier,  Scribe, 
Dumas  the  Younger,  Sardou,  Francois 
Coppde,  Jean  Richepin,  Edmond  Ros- 
tand, Bernstein,  Lernative,  Mirbeau,  and 
Becq. 

The  German  drama  is  of  later  birth 
than  any  we  have  mentioned,  and  for  a 
long  time  the  Germans  contented  them- 
selves with  translations  and  adaptations 
from  the  French.  Lessing  was  the  first 
who,  by  word  and  deed,  broke  the 
French  sway  (1755),  and  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Schiller  and  Goethe,  who  rank 
as  the  greatest  of  the  more  modern  dra- 
matists. Prominent  names  in  the  Ger- 
man drama  are  Kotzebue,  Korner, 
Schlegel,  Tieck,  Brentano,  Grillparzer, 
Hebbel,  Ludwig,  Gutzkow,  Freytag, 
Laube,  Fulda,  Hauptmann,  Von  Moser. 
The  Dutch  drama  begins  with  the  classi- 
cal tragedies  of  Koster  in  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century,  and  reached  its 
highest  in  Vondel  (1587-1659).  Hol- 
berg,  Heiberg,  Oehlenschlager,  Ibsen, 
and  Bjornson  are  the  chief  names  con- 
nected with  the  Scandinavian  drama. 

DRAMA  LEAGUE  OF  AMERICA,  an 

organization  founded  in  1910  at  Evans- 
ton,  111.  The  purpose  of  the  Leag:ue  is 
to  encourage  the  production  of  ^  high- 
class  drama  by  educating  the  public  and 
by  pledging  the  support  of  its  members 
to  plays  approved  by  the  organization. 
This  latter  takes  the  form  of  assuring 
the  author  support  for  the  first  ten  days 
of  the  showing.  The  idea  being  that  of 
giving  the  play  a  good  introduction  to 
the  public.  In  addition  to  these  steps 
the  League  issues  a  bulletin  which  it 
sends  to  all  of  its  members,  listing  the 
good  plays  which  are  playing  in  their 
city  and  giving  some  idea  of  their  gen- 
eral nature.  The  poor  plays  are  not  at- 
tacked, they  are  just  ignored.  The  or- 
ganization has  had  a  rapid  development 
and  now  has  members  in  most  of  the 
cities  in  the  United  States. 

DRAPER,     ANDREW     SLOAN,     an 

American  educator;  born  in  Westford, 
N.  Y.,  June  21,  1848.  He  served  in  the 
New  York  Legislature;  was  appointed 
by  President  Arthur  one  of  the  judges 
of  the  Court  of  Alabama  Claims;  was 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion in  New  York  in  1866-1892,  superin- 
tendent of  schools  in  Cleveland,  O.,  in 
1892-1894;  and  in  1894  became  president 
of  the  University  of  Illinois,  which 
position  he  held  for  10  years.     In  1903 


he  was  elected  president  of  the  National 
Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Sec- 
ondary Schools.  He  was  chosen  Com- 
missioner of  Education  of  the  State  of 
New  York  in  1904.  He  was  author  of 
numerous  educational  works  including 
"Conserving  Childhood"  (1909),  and 
"Holiday  Papers"  (1912);  Editor  of 
"Self  Culture  for  Young  People"  (10 
vols.),  1906,  etc.     He  died  in  1913. 

DRAPER,  JOHN  WILLIAM,  an 
American  physiologist,  chemist,  and 
writer;  born  near  Liverpool,  England, 
May  5,  1811.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1833,  and  took  his  degree  as 
M.  D.  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1836.  He  became  Professor  of  Chem- 
istry in  the  University  of  New  York  in 
1841,  and  in  1850  Professor  of  Physi- 
ology. Among  his  works  are:  ''Human 
Physiology"  (1856);  "History  of  the 
Intellectual  Development  of  Europe" 
(1862),  "History  of  the  American  Civil 
War"  (1867-1870)  ;  "History  of  the  Con- 
flict between  Religion  and  Science" 
(1875),  which  was  translated  into 
nearly  all  the  languages  of  Europe.  He 
died  in  Hastings-on-the-Hudson,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  4,  1882. 

DRAVE,  or  DRAU  (dra've),  a  Eu- 
ropean river  which  rises  in  Tyrol,  flows 
E.  S.  E.  across  the  N.  of  Illyria  and  the 
S.  of  Styria,  and  between  Hungary  on 
the  left  and  Croatia  and  Slavonia  on  the 
right,  and  after  a  course  of  nearly  400 
miles  joins  the  Danube  14  miles  E.  of 
Essek.  It  is  navigable  for  about  200 
miles. 

DRA VIDIAN,  a  term  applied  to  the 
vernacular  tongues  of  the  great  major- 
ity of  the  inhabitants  of  southern  India, 
and  to  the  people  themselves  who  must 
have  inhabited  India  previous  to  the 
advent  of  the  Aryans.  The  Dravidian 
languages  are  generally  considered  to 
belong  to  the  Turanian  class,  and  the 
family  consists  of  the  Tamil,  Telugu, 
Canarese,  Malayalam,  Tulu,  Tuda,  Gond, 
Rajmahal,  Oraon,  etc.  Only  the  first 
four  mentioned  have  a  literature,  that 
of  the  Tamil  being  the  oldest  and  the 
most  important. 

DRAWBRIDGE.      See    BRIDGE. 

DRAWING,  the  art  of  representing 
upon  a  flat  surface  the  forms  of  objects, 
and  their  positions  and  relations  to  each 
other.  The  idea  of  nearness  or  distance 
is  given  by  the  aid  of  perspective,  fore- 
shortening, and  graduation.  The  term 
drawing,  in  its  strict  sense,  is  only  ap- 
plicable to  the  representing  of  the  forms 
of  objects  in  outline,  with  the  shading 
necessary  to  develop  roundness  or  model- 
ling.     In    art,    however,    the    term    has 


DRAWING  AND  QUARTERING      421 


DREAMS 


a  wider  significance.  Highly  finished 
paintings  in  water-color  are  called 
drawings,  as  are  also  sketches  or  studies 
in  oils.  Drawing,  in  its  restricted  sense, 
may  be  divided  into  these  kinds:  (1)  pen 
drawing;  (2)  chalk  drawing,  which  may 
include  lead-pencil  drawing;  (3)  crayon 
drawing;  (4)  drawing  shaded  with  the 
brush  or  hair-pencil;  (5)  architectural 
or  mechanical  drawing. 

Architectural  and  mechanical  draw- 
ings are  those  in  which  the  proportions 
of  a  building,  or  machine,  are  accurately 
set  out  for  the  guidance  of  the  construc- 
tor; objects  are  in  general  delineated  by 
geometric  or  orthographic  projection. 
The  great  schools  of  painting  differ 
from  one  another  as  much  in  their  draw- 
ing as  in  their  painting.  In  Italy  the 
Roman  school,  through  Raphael's  fine 
sense  for  the  beautiful  and  expressive 
in  form,  and  through  his  study  of 
the  antique,  became  the  true  teacher 
of  beautiful  drawing.  The  Florentine 
school  tried  to  surpass  the  Roman  pre- 
cisely in  this  particular,  but  it  lost  by 
exag^ration  what  it  had  gained  by 
learnmg  and  a  close  study  of  anatomy. 
In  the  Lombard  school  a  tender  style  of 
drawing  is  seen  through  harmonious 
coloring,  and  in  the  Venetian  school  the 
drawing  is  often  veiled  in  the  richness 
of  the  color.  The  Dutch  school  excels  in 
a  careful  and  minute  style  of  natural- 
istic drawing,  combined  with  great  ex- 
cellence in  coloring.  The  French  school 
in  the  time  of  Poussin  was  very  accurate 
in  its  drawing;  at  a  later  period  its  style 
betrayed  a  great  amount  of  mannerism. 
David  introduced  again  a  purer  taste  in 
drawing  and  a  close  study  of  the  an- 
tique, and  these  are  qualities  which  dis- 
tinguished his  school  (the  so-called 
classical  school)  from  the  romantic  and 
eclectic  schools  of  a  later  period.  The 
drawing  of  the  British  school  is  natural- 
istic rather  than  academic.  It  has  of 
late  years  much  improved  in  accuracy 
and  expressiveness. 

DRAWING  AND  QUARTERING,  the 
punishment  for  treason  in  Great  Britain 
in  force  till  1870. 

DRAYTON,  MICHAEL,  an  English 
poet;  bom  near  Atherstone  in  Warwick- 
shire in  1563.  His  most  celebrated  com- 
position is  "Polyolbion."  He  wrote  also 
several  dramas,  among  them  "Sir  John 
Oldcastle";  and  "Poems  Lyrick  and 
Pastorall"  (1605),  including  the  cele- 
brated "Ballad  of  Agincourt."  He  died 
Dec.  23,  1631. 

DRAYTON,  THOMAS  FENWICK,  an 
American  military  oflicer;  born  in  South 
Carolina  about  1807.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1828,  and  resigned  from  the  army  in 


1836.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army 
upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  He 
played  a  prominent  part  during  the  at- 
tack on  Port  Royal,  commanding  a  force 
in  Fort  Walker  which  he  was  forced  to 
evacuate.  He  died  in  Florence,  S.  C, 
Feb.   18,  1891. 

DREAMS,  subjective  phenomena  de- 
pendent on  natural  causes,  or  trains  of 
ideas  which  present  themselves  to  the 
mind  during  sleep.  The  principal  fea- 
ture of  the  state  of  dreaming  is  the  ab- 
sence of  voluntary  control  over  the  cur- 
rent of  thought,  so  that  the  principle  of 
suggestion  has  unlimited  sway.  The  ut- 
ter want  of  coherency  in  the  images  that 
appear  before  the  mental  eye  excites  no 
surprise  in  the  dreamer. 

We  dream  because  our  brain  is  in  a 
condition  of  partial  activity.  Some 
maintain  that  no  sleep  is  ever  so  pro- 
found as  to  be  perfectly  dreamless.  With 
an  over-congested  brain,  there  is  a  tend- 
ency to  a  rapid  succession  of  vivid 
dreaming,  interrupted  by  intervals  of 
wakefulness.  The  brain  cells  are  too 
excited  by  the  excess  of  blood  to  pass 
into  a  condition  of  repose,  and  their  ac- 
tivity tends  to  keep  up  the  congestion  of 
the  organ.  The  onset  of  acute  disease 
(especially  when  affecting  the  nervous 
system)  is  not  infrequently  heralded  by 
continued  dreaming  or  continued  sleep- 
lessness. Depressing  dreams  should  al- 
ways be  regarded  as  an  indication  of 
need  for  attention  to  health,  or  to  relax- 
ation from  work,  more  especially,  per- 
haps, by  those  engaged  in  professional 
pursuits. 

The  special  character  of  many  dreams 
is  determined  by  the  conditions  of  the 
organs  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen,  and 
of  the  muscular  system.  For  example, 
the  presence  of  indigestible  food  in  the 
stomach,  by  embarrassing  the  breathing 
and  the  action  of  the  heart,  suggests  the 
ideas  of  the  various  forms  of  nightmare, 
the  monster,  or  the  crushing  weight, 
from  which  there  is  no  escape,  which 
are  closely  akin  to  the  sensations  in- 
duced by  similar  effects  on  the  heart 
during  the  day.  An  uncomfortable  posi- 
tion in  bed,  a  strained  condition  of 
the  muscular  system,  will  cause  dreams 
of  falling  over  precipices  or  of  strug- 
gling. Certain  drugs  give  a  specific 
character  to  dreams.  The  magnificent 
visions  of  the  opium  stupor  have  been 
made  familiar  by  the  classical  account 
of  De  Quincey.  Excessive  indulgence 
in  alcohol  gives  rise  to  delirious  dreams 
characterized  by  unfounded  dread  and 
suspicion.  Occasionally  intellectual  ef- 
forts are  made  during  sleep  which  it 
would  be  difl!icult  to  surpass  in  the  wak- 
ing state. 


DREBBEL 


422 


DREDGINa 


Among  the  peoples  of  antiquity, 
dreams  were  regarded  as  direct  mes- 
sages from  the  spiritual  world,  of  -either 
divine  or  diabolical  origin;  their  inter- 
pretation was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a 
science.  At  the  royal  courts  of  Babylon 
and  Egypt  the  interpretation  of  dreams 
was  part  of  the  duties  of  soothsayers. 

Pseudo-psychologists  believed  that 
dreams  are  caused  by  the  flight  of  the 
soul  to  other  regions,  and  that  on  its  re- 
turn to  the  body  it  remembered  what  it 
had  actually  seen.  Some  persons  have 
thought  dreams  the  proof  of  the  soul's 
immortality.  This  hypothesis  formed  the 
basis  of  the  religion  of  Comenius  and 
of  Emanuel  Swedenborg.  Swedenborg 
strengthened  the  Church  which  he 
founded  by  his  claim  to  have  visited 
Paradise  and  his  report  of  his  experi- 
ences there.     The  North  American   In- 


thermometer  which  was  named  for  him, 
and  is  sometimes  erroneously  said  to  be 
the  discoverer  of  the  telescope  and  mi- 
croscope.   He  died  in  London  in  1634. 

DREDGING,  the  operation  of  remov- 
ing mud,  silt  and  other  deposits  from 
the  bottom  of  harbors,  canals,  rivers, 
docks,  etc.,  by  mechanical  means.  The 
steam-dredging  machine  now  in  common 
use  is  said  to  have  been  first  applied  by 
Boulton  and  Watt  for  use  on  the  Weil 
at  Sunderland,  England,  in  1796.  It  haa 
a  succession  of  strong  iron  buckets  on 
an  endless  chain  running  on  a  frama 
the  lower  end  of  which  is  vertically  ad- 
justable so  as  to  regulate  the  depth  at 
which  it  works.  The  buckets  tear  up 
the  matter  at  the  bottom,  raise  it,  and 
discharge  it  into  barges  or  hoppers  sta- 
tioned close  to  the  dredging  vessel.    The 


OSGOOD  DIPPER  DREDGE 


dians  regarded  dreams  as  prophetic  and 
often  took  them  as  solemn  injunctions. 
Among  more  enlightened  people  there 
may  be  an  inducement  to  action  from 
the  impression  of  a  dream;  here  also, 
the  consequence  is  the  fulfilment  of  the 
prophecy.  Such  were  the  dreams  of 
Judas  Maccabseus,  of  Sulla,  of  Ger- 
manicus.  It  is  said  that  the  city  of 
Carthage  was  rebuilt  by  Augustus 
Caesar  in  consequence  of  the  dream  of 
his  uncle  Julius.  Of  such  a  nature,  too, 
were  the  dreams  of  the  Emperor  Julian 
and  of  Calpurnia;  and  such  was  the 
dream  of  Cromwell  that  he  should  be  the 
greatest  man  in  England.  In  all  these, 
and  a  thousand  more,  the  mere  constant 
thinking  excited  the  dream.     See  Freud, 

SiGMUND;   PSYCHOANALYSIS. 

DREBBEL  (dreb'bel),  CORNELIUS, 
a  fciutch  philosopher;  born  in  Alkmaar, 
Netherlands,  in  1572.     He  invented  the 


Suez  Canal  was  excavated  by  means  of  a 
ladder  dredge  with  a  long  chute  and 
supporting  girder.  The  material  exca- 
vated was  carried  in  boxes  on  a  sort  of 
tramway  and  tipped  out  on  the  bank. 
The  excavating  buckets  are  sometimes 
placed  on  the  perimeter  of  a  large  wheel 
instead  of  on  an  endless  chain.  The 
so-called  clamshell  bucket  consists  of 
two  parts  hinged  together  v/hich  de- 
scend through  the  water  open  and  re- 
turn closed  with  its  clutch  of  material 
amounting  sometimes  to  five  cubic  yards. 
In  order  to  work  in  clay  or  hard  sand 
it  is  provided  with  teeth.  In  some  cases 
the  current  of  river  or  tides  has  been 
utilized  in  dredging  channels.  In  bot- 
toms of  mud  or  loose  sand  the  steam 
pump  or  hydraulic  dredger  may  be  used. 
Great  improvements  have  been  made  in 
hydraulic  dredges,  and  some  built  in  re- 
cent  years   for   use   in   the    Mississippi 


DRED  SCOTT  CASE 


423 


DRESDEN 


Sriver  have  a  capacity  of  over  1,000  cubic 
yards  per  hour. 

Dredging-  is  also  the  operation  of 
dragging  the  bottom  of  the  sea  in  order 
to  bring  up  oysters,  or  to  procure  shells, 
plants,  and  other  objects  for  scientific 
observation.  The  oyster  dredge  is  a 
light  iron  frame  with  a  scraper  like  a 
narrow  hoe  on  one  side,  and  a  suspend- 
ing apparatus  on  the  other.  To  the 
frame  is  attached  a  bag  made  of  some 
kind  of  netting  to  receive  the  oysters. 
The  dredges  used  by  naturalists  are 
mostly  modifications  of  or  somewhat 
similar  to  the  oyster  dredge. 


embellished  by  Augustus  the  Strong 
(1694-1736),  and  rapidly  increased  dur- 
ing the  19th  century.  Among  the  chief 
edifices  besides  several  of  the  churches 
are  the  museum  containing  a  famous 
picture-gallery  and  other  treasures;  the 
Japanese  Palace  (Augusteum),  contain- 
ing the  royal  library  of  from  300,000  to 
400,000  volumes,  besides  a  rich  collection 
of  manuscripts;  the  Johanneum,  contain- 
ing the  collection  of  porcelain  and  the 
historical  museum,  a  valuable  collection 
of  arms,  armor,  domestic  utensils,  etc., 
belonging  to  the  Middle  Ages.  The  royal 
palace   contains    (in  what  is  called  the 


BUCKET   AND   SUCTION    DREDGE 


DRED  SCOTT  CASE,  a  notable  case 
before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  in  1856.  A  negro  called  Dred 
Scott,  with  his  wife  and  two  children, 
had  been  held  as  slaves  by  a  Mr.  Emer- 
son in  Missouri.  After  Dr.  Emerson's 
death,  Scott  and  his  family  claimed  to 
be  free,  as  having  resided  with  their 
owner  in  a  free  territory.  The  decision 
was  hostile  to  their  claim,  and  they  were 
held  to  be  still  slaves. 

DREISER,  THEODORE,  an  Ameri- 
can author  and  journalist;  born  in  Terre 
Haute,  Ind.,  1871.  After  a  common 
school  education  he  began  newspaper 
work  in  Chicago,  in  1892.  After  1898 
he  did  special  work  for  magazines.  In 
1905  he  became  editor  of  "Smith's  Maga- 
zine," then,  subsequently  edited  the 
''Broadway  Magazine" (1906-1907).  From 
1907  till  1910  he  was  editor-in-chief  of 
the  Butterick  publications.  Among  his 
best  known  books  are:  "Sister  Carrie" 
(1900) ;  "The  Genius"  (1915)  ;  "A 
Hoosier  Holiday"  (1916),  and  "The  Hand 
of  the  Palter,"  a  tragedy  (1919). 

DRESDEN  (drez'den),  the  capital  of 
Saxony,  formerly  a  kingdom,  but  now  a 
state  in  the  German  Republic;  situated 
in  a  beautiful  valley  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Elbe.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  his- 
tory in  1206,  was  greatly  extended  and 


Green  Vault)  a  valuable  collection  of 
curiosities,  jewels,  trinkets,  and  works  of 
art. 

The  city  is  distinguished  for  its  excel- 
lent educational,  literary,  and  artistic 
institutions,  among  which  are  the  Poly- 
technic School,  much  on  the  plan  and 
scale  of  a  university;  the  Conservatory 
and  School  of  Music;  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  etc.  The  manufactures  are 
various  in  character;  the  china,  however, 
for  which  the  city  is  famed  is  made 
chiefly  at  Meissen,  14  miles  distant.  The 
commerce  is  considerable.  The  chief 
glory  of  Dresden  is  the  gallery  of  pic- 
tures, one  of  the  finest  in  the  world, 
which  first  became  of  importance  under 
Augustus  II.,  King  of  Poland,  and  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony,  but  owes  its  most  valuable 
treasures  to  Augustus  III.,  who  pur- 
chased the  greater  portion  of  the  gallery 
of  the  Duke  of  Modena  for  $900,000.  The 
pictures  number  about  25,000,  and  in 
particular  comprise  many  fine  specimens 
of  the  Italian.  Dutch,  and  Flemish 
schools.  Besides  this  fine  collection  the 
museum  contains  also  engravings  and 
drawings  amounting  to  upward  of  350- 
000.  There  is  here  also  a  rich  collection 
of  casts  exemplifying  the  progress  of 
sculpture  from  the  earliest  times,  and 
including  copies  of  all  the  m.ost  important 
antiques.       It  suffered   severely   in  the 


DRESDEN,  BATTLE  OP 


424 


DREYFUS 


Thirty  Years'  War,  and  also  in  1813, 
when  it  was  the  headquarters  of  Napo- 
leon's army.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Prussians  in  1866,  but  was  evacuated  in 
the  following  spring.   Pop.  about  550,000. 

DRESDEN,  BATTLE  OF,  a  battle 
fought  in  1813  between  the  French  under 
Napoleon  and  the  allies  under  Schwarzen- 
berg.  Napoleon  had  come  to  the  relief 
of  the  city,  which  was  occupied  by  the 
French.  The  allies  assaulted  and  bom- 
barded the  city,  and  soon  after  a  great 
pitched  battle  was  fought  (Aug.  27),  in 
which  the  allies  were  defeated. 

DRESDEN  CHINA,  a  delicate,  semi- 
transparent,  highly-finished  china  made 
at  Meissen,  near  Dresden.  The  manu- 
facture resulted  from  an  accidental  dis- 
covery made  by  Bottger,  a  young  chemist, 
in  1710. 

DRESSER,    HORATIO    WILLIS,    an 

American  writer,  born  at  Yarmouth,  Me., 
in  1866.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  in  1895.  He  served  for  sev- 
eral years  as  a  telegraph  operator  and 
railroad  agent.  He  was  also  engaged  in 
publishing  and  as  the  editor  of  the 
"Journal  of  Practical  Metaphysics."  He 
served  as  instructor  in  philosophy  and 
church  history  in  the  New  Church  Theo- 
logical School  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in 
1913-1914,  and  from  1893  to  1912  was  a 
lecturer  on  practical  philosophy.  He 
wrote  many  books  on  this  subject,  in- 
cluding "The  Power  of  Silence"  (1895) ; 
"Voices  of  Hope"  (1898) ;  "Handbook  of 
the  New  Thought"  (1917) ;  "The  Victori- 
ous Faith"  (1917).  He  also  edited  sev- 
eral works  on  the  New  Thought  Move- 
ment. 

DREW,  DANIEL,  an  American  cap- 
italist; born  in  Carmel,  N.  Y.,  in  1788. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  Drew  Ladies' 
Seminary  at  Carmel,  and  the  Drew  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Madison,  N.  J.  He 
also  gave  large  sums  of  money  to  various 
Methodist  colleges  and  schools.  He  died 
in  New  York  City,  Sept.  19,  1879. 

DREW,  JOHN,  an  American  come- 
dian; born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  Sept.  3, 
1825.  He  made  his  first  appearance  at 
the  Bowery  Theater,  New  York,  in  1845, 
and  later  became  manager,  in  connec- 
tion with  William  Wheatley,  of  the 
Arch  Street  Theater  in  Philadelphia.  He 
acted  in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States  and  also  in  England  and 
Australia.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
May  21,  1862.  His  wife,  Louisa  Drew, 
born  in  London,  England,  Jan.  10,  1820, 
for  a  whole  generation  stood  at  the  head 
of  comedy  actresses.  Her  greatest  success 
was  as  Mrs.  Malaprop  in  "The  Rivals," 
After  her  husband's  death  Mrs.  Drew 
managed  the  Arch  Street  Theater  for  a 


number  of  years.  She  died  in  Larch- 
mont,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  31,  1897.  Their  son, 
John  Drew,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Nov. 
13,  1853,  first  appeared  at  his  father's 
theater  in  that  city,  and  for  a  short 
season  played  there  with  Edwin  Booth. 
He  visited  Europe  in  1892  with  Daly's 
company.  He  began  his  starring  tours 
in  the  autumn  of  1892,  playing  in  "The 
Masked  Ball."  In  1901,  he  reduplicated 
some  of  his  earlier  successes  in  "The  Sec- 
ond in  Command."  He  has  since  toured 
the  country  in  comedies  by  French 
and  English  dramatists  with  continued 
success. 

DREW  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 
a  theological  seminary,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
founded  at  Madison,  N.  J.,  in  1866.  It 
was  named  for  Daniel  Drew,  who  gave 
grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $275,000. 
The  courses  are  for  three  years,  and  give 
not  only  professional  training  but  train- 
ing in  liberal  culture.  No  tuition  fees 
are  charged.  The  seminary  buildings 
include  Mead  Hall,  Asbury  Hall,  Embury 
Hall,  the  Administration  Building  and 
chapel,  the  J.  B.  Cornell  Library,  the 
Bowne  Gymnasium,  and  the  Samuel  W. 
Bowne  Hall.  The  library  contains  about 
130,000  volumes.  The  enrolment  is  about 
200. 

DREXEL,    ANTHONY    JOSEPH,    an 

American  banker;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  in  1826.  He  became  the  head  of  the 
well-known  firm  of  Drexel  &  Co.,  Phila- 
delphia, having  been  identified  with  it 
from  the  age  of  13.  He  was  zealous  in 
promoting  science  and  art,  especially 
music,  and  contributed  largely  to  philan- 
thropic and  educational  interests.  The 
Drexel  Institute  of  Art,  Science  and  In- 
dustry, Philadelphia,  dedicated  Dec.  18, 
1891,  was  established  by  him.  His  name, 
is  associated  with  that  of  his  friend, 
George  W.  Childs,  in  the  inception  of  the 
Childs-Drexel  Home  for  Union  Printers, 
Colorado  Springs,  Col.     He  died  in  1893. 

DREXEL  INSTITUTE  OF  ART, 
SCIENCE  AND  INDUSTRY,  an  insti- 
tution founded  in  1891  in  Philadelphia, 
by  Anthony  J.  Drexel.  Its  purpose  is  to 
instruct  men  in  engineering;  women  in 
the  domestic  arts  and  science;  and  both 
men  and  women  in  clerical  and  secre- 
tarial work.  The  Institute  includes  the 
Engineering  School,  the  School  of  Do- 
mestic Science  and  Art,  and  the  Secre- 
tarial School.  Special  courses  are  also 
offered  in  chemistry,  architecture,  and 
English.  In  1919  there  were  499  students 
and  51  members  of  the  faculty.  Presi- 
dent, Hollis  Godfrey,  Sc.  D„  F.  R.  G.  S. 

DREYFUS.  ALFRED,  a  French  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Alsace  in  1859.     He 


DBEYSE 


425 


DRILL 


entered  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Paris 
in  1878  and  four  years  later  was  made 
a  lieutenant  of  artillery.  In  1889  he  be- 
came a  captain.  He  was  arrested  in 
1894  charged  with  selling  military  secrets 
to  Germany  and  Italy.  He  was  convicted 
and  on  Jan.  5,  1895,  publicly  degraded 
from  his  rank  in  the  presence  of  5,000 
troops.  His  sentence  included  life  im- 
prisonment on  the  Isle  du  Diable,  off  the 
coast  of  French  Guiana,  where  he  was 
rigidly  confined  till  1899  when  the  French 
Senate  voted  for  revision  of  the  Dreyfus 


ALFRED  DREYFUS 


case.  He  was  accordingly  brought  back 
to  France,  retried  by  court-martial  and 
again  convicted.  The  French  Govern- 
ment granted  him  a  pardon  almost  imme- 
diately. He  published  "Five  Years  of 
My  Life"  (1901).  Dreyfus  was  restored 
to  the  army,  and  served  during  the 
World  War. 

DREYSE,        JOHANN        NIKOLAUS 

VON(dri'ze) ,  a  German  inventor;  born  in 
Sommerda,  near  Erfurt,  in  Prussia,  in 
1787.  He  worked  as  a  locksmith  in  Ger- 
many, and  in  a  musket  factory  in  Paris 
from  1809  to  1814.  He  then  founded  an 
ironware  factory  in  Sommerda,  and  be- 
gan the  manufacture  of  percussion-caps 
under  a  patent  in  1824.  In  1827  he  in- 
vented a  muzzle-loading,  and  in  1836  a 
breech-loading  needle-gun,  which  was 
adopted  in  the  Prussian  army  in  1840. 
In  1864  Dreyse  was  ennobled.  He  died 
Dec.  9,  1867. 

DRIFT,  a  word  of  several  applications. 
1.   Architecture:    The   push,   shoot,   or 


horizontal  thrust  of  an  arch  or  vault  on 
the  abutments. 

2.  Geology:  A  loose  aggregation  or  ac- 
cumulation of  transported  matter,  con- 
sisting of  sand  and  clay,  with  a  mixture 
of  angular  and  rounded  fragments  of 
rock,  some  of  large  size  having  occasion- 
ally one  or  more  of  their  sides  flattened 
or  smoothed,  or  even  highly  polished.  The 
smoothed  surfaces  usually  exhibit  many 
scratches  parallel  to  each  other,  one  set 
often  crossing  an  older  one.  The  drift 
is  generally  unstratified,  in  which  case  it 
is  called  till.  This  may  be  in  places  50 
or  even  100  feet  thick. 

3.  Ordnance:  A  priming-iron  to  clean 
the  vent  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  from 
burning   particles  after   each   discharge. 

4.  Machinery:  A  round  piece  of  steel, 
made  slightly  tapering  and  used  for  en- 
larging a  hole  in  a  metallic  plate  by  be- 
ing driven  through  it.  The  drift  may 
have  a  cutting  edge  merely  on  its  advance 
face,  or  it  may  have  spirally  cut  grooves 
which  give  the  sides  of  the  drift  a  ca- 
pacity for  cutting. 

DRIFT  PERIOD,  the  period  during 
which  the  drift  described  above  was  de- 
posited. Though  there  is  no  reason  why 
it  should  not  have  recurred  time  after 
time  during  bygone  geological  ages,  yet 
the  term  "drift-period"  as  a  measure  of 
duration  is  limited  to  the  time  commenc- 
ing during  the  Newer  Pliocene  or  Pleisto- 
cene, and  terminating  with  the  Post  Plio- 
cene or  Post  Pleistocene,  during  which 
drift  was  deposited  in  the  latitudes  in 
which  we  find  it  now.  That  it  is  essen- 
tially a  glacial  phenomenon  is  apparent 
from  the  fact  that  while  becoming  more 
marked  in  its  character  on  this  side  the 
equator,  the  farther  N.  one  goes,  it  dies 
out  about  lat.  50°  N.  in  Europe  and  40° 
in  North  America.  Hence  it  is  often 
called  Northern  Drift.  A  corresponding 
development  of  it,  however,  exists  in  the 
S.  hemisphere.  This  becomes  more 
marked  as  one  approaches  the  S.  pole, 
and  disappears,  between  40°  and  50°  S. 
lat.  Where  it  exists  nearer  the  equator  it 
is  deposited  ai'ound  some  giant  mountain, 
the  scratches  and  striations  on  the  boul- 
ders and  pebbles  radiating  from  the 
mountain  on  every  side.  The  drift  is 
now  universally  attributed,  as  Agassiz 
long  ago  suggested,  to  the  action  of  ice, 
the  only  controversy  remaining  being 
whether  land  ice  or  floating  icebergs  took 
the  chief  part  in  its  distribution.  Hence 
it  is  often  called,  as  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell, 
Glacial  Drift. 

DRILL,  a  metallic  tool  for  boring  a 
hole  in  metal  or  hard  material  such  as 
stone.  Its  form  varies  with  the  material 
in  which  it  works.  The  action  in  metal  is 
usually  rotative,  and  the  tool  has  two  or 


DRIMYS 


426 


DBOPSY 


more  cutting  edges.  In  stone  drills  the 
action  is  rotative  or  reciprocating;  in  the 
latter  case  the  tool  is  alternately  lifted 
and  dropped. 

In  agriculture,  a  machine  for  sowing 
grain  in  rows;  in  fabrics,  a  heavy  cotton 
twilled  goods,  used  especially  for  lining; 
drilling:  in  military  and  naval  language, 
the  act  or  process  of  training  soldiers  or 
sailors  to  military  or  naval  warfare,  as 
in  the  manual  of  arms,  the  execution  of 
evolutions,  etc. 

DRIMYS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  order  Magnoliacag.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  bitter,  tonic,  and  aro- 
matic qualities.  D.  winteri,  or  aroma- 
tica,  carried  to  Europe  by  Captain  Winter 
from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  in  1579, 
yields  Winter's  bark,  which  has  been  em- 
ployed medically  as  an  aromatic  stimu- 
lant. It  somewhat  resembles  canella 
bark.  The  bark  of  D.  granatensis  is  used 
in  Brazil  against  the  colic.  It  is  tonic, 
aromatic,  and  stimulant.  That  of  D. 
axillaris,  a  native  of  New  Zealand,  has 
similar  qualities. 

DRINKER,  HENRY  STURGIS,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Hong  Kong, 
China,  in  1850.  He  graduated  from  Le- 
high University  in  1871.  For  several 
years  he  was  engaged  in  the  practice  of 
engineering.  He  then  studied  law  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1878.  From 
1885  to  1905  he  was  general  solicitor  of 
the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Le- 
high University.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Tunneling,  Explosive  Compounds  and 
Rock  Drills"  (1878),  and  was  the  author 
of  several  works  on  law  relating  to  rail- 
roads. From  1913  to  1916  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Reserve  Corps,  and 
from  1916  to  1919  he  was  chairman  of 
the  board  of  Military  Training  Camps 
Association. 

DRINKWATER,  JOHN,  an  English 
poet  and  critic,  born  in  1882.  He  was 
educated  in  the  Oxford  High  School  and 
spent  12  years  In  business.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  The  Pilgrim  Players 
and  for  several  years  managed  that  com- 
pany at  the  Birmingham  Repertory  The- 
ater. He  wrote  many  plays,  some  of 
which  were  extremely  successful.  These 
included:  "Rebellion"  (1914);  "Swords 
and  Ploughshares"  (1915) ;  "Abraham 
Lincoln"  (1919).  The  latter  play  was 
very  successful  both  in  England  and  in 
the  United  States.  In  addition  to  his 
plays  he  wrote  several  books  on  biog- 
raphy and  contributed  verse  and  prose 
to  periodicals. 

DRIP  STONE,  corona  or  projecting 
tablet  or  molding  over  the  heads  of  door- 
ways,   windows,    archways,    niches,    etc. 


Called  also  a  label,  weather-molding, 
water-table,  and  hood-molding.  The  term 
label  is  usually  applied  to  a  straight 
molding. 

DRISHEEN  CITY,  Cork,  Ireland.  The 
name  arises  from  a  favorite  dish,  native 
to  the  place,  composed  of  cows'  milk  and 
the  blood  serum  of  sheep  in  equal  quanti- 
ties, flavored  with  pepper,  salt,  and  tansy, 
served  hot,  and  eaten  at  breakfast. 

DROGHEDA  (droch'e-da) ,  a  seaport 
town,  and  county  of  itself,  in  the  S.  E.  of 
County  Louth,  Ireland,  built  mostly  on 
the  N.  bank  of  the  river  Boyne,  4  miles 
from  its  mouth,  32  N.  of  Dublin  by  rail, 
and  81  S.  of  Belfast.  The  Boyne  is 
crossed  here  by  a  railway  viaduct  95  feet 
high.  In  1649  Cromwell  stormed  the 
town  after  a  desperate  struggle,  and  for 
a  stern  lesson  to  the  Irish,  put  its  stub- 
born garrison  to  the  sword.  Poyning's 
laws  were  enacted  here  in  1494,  and  about 
the  same  time  a  mint  was  set  up.  Drog- 
heda  surrendered  to  William  III.  the  day 
after  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  Pop.  about 
13,000. 

DROME,  S.  E.  department  of  France, 
covered  almost  throughout  by  ramifica- 
tions of  the  Alps,  the  average  height  of 
which,  however,  does  nut  exceed  4,000 
feet;  area,  2,518  square  miles,  of  which 
about  one-fourth  is  waste,  one-third  un- 
der wood,  and  a  great  part  of  the  re- 
mainder under  tillage  and  pasture.  A 
considerable  extent  of  the  area  is  occupied 
by  vineyards,  and  several  of  the  wines 
produced  have  a  high  reputation,  especi- 
ally Hermitage.  Olives,  chestnuts,  and 
silks  are  staple  productions.  Valence  is 
the  capital.     Pop.  about  290,000. 

DROMEDARY,  a  swift  variety  of  the 
one-humped  camel,  bearing  the  same  re- 
lation to  it  as  race  horse  to  cart  horse. 
Its  usual  pace  is  a  trot,  which  can  be 
maintained  often  at  the  rate  of  nine  miles 
an  hour  for  many  hours  on  a  stretch. 
After  running  for  24  hours,  when  in  good 
condition,  the  dromedary  is  refreshed 
with  a  frugal  meal  of  barley  and  pow- 
dered dates,  along  with  a  little  water  or 
camel's  milk,  and  is  then  ready  for  an- 
other day  of  it.  Though  now  distinctive 
of  north  Africa,  the  dromedary  seems  to 
have  been  unknown  to  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians. 

DRONE.     See  Bee. 

DROUTHEIM.      See    Trondhjem. 

DROPSY,  a  class  of  diseases  always 
of  serious  import,  though  not  often,  per- 
haps, directly  fatal.  Dropsy  is  rather 
a  symptom  than  a  disease;  it  consists  of 
the  effusion  of  watery  fluid  from  the 
blood  into  the  skin  and  subjacent  tex< 


DROP-WORT 


427 


DRUG 


tures,  or  into  the  cavities  of  the  body. 
When  the  effusion  is  chiefly  in  the  super- 
ficial parts,  the  dropsy  is  called  ana- 
sarca {ana,  upon,  sarx,  the  flesh)  ;  when 
it  is  in  the  abdomen,  it  is  termed  ascites; 
when  in  the  space  around  the  lungs, 
hydrothorax.  Dropsy  most  commonly 
depends  on  disease  of  the  heart  or  kid- 
neys; in  cases  of  ascites,  the  liver  and 
spleen  are  often  at  fault.  The  treatment 
of  dropsy  is  chiefly  by  diuretics  and  other 
evacuant  remedies,  which  remove  the 
fluid  from  the  textures  by  unloading  the 
blood  of  its  excess  of  serum.  Mechanical 
means  are  also  frequently  used  to  relieve 
the  patient  of  the  fluid — in  the  case  of 
the  cavities  of  the  body,  tapping;  in  the 
cellular  tissue  either  free  incisions,  or 
small  tubes  inserted  through  the  skin. 

DROP- WORT  (from  the  small  tubers 
on  the  fibrous  roots),  Spiras  filipendnla, 
natural  order  Rosaceas,  a  British  plant 
of  the  same  genus  as  queen-of-the-mead- 
ow,  found  in  dry  pastures.  The  hemlock 
drop-wort,  or  water  drop-wort,  is  (Enan- 
i/ig  fistuloaa. 

DROSERACF.i'E,  sundews,  an  order 
of  hypogynous  exogens,  alliance  Berber- 
ales.  It  consists  of  delicate  herbaceous 
plants,  often  covered  with  glands.  Found 
all  over  the  world. 

DROSKY,  DROSHKY,  or  DROSCH- 
KE,  a  Russian  and  Prussian  four- 
wheeled  vehicle  in  which  the  passengers 
ride  astride  a  bench,  their  feet  resting  on 
bars  near  the  ground.     It  has  no  top. 

DROSOMETER,  an  instrument  for  as- 
certaining the  quantity  of  dew  which 
falls.  It  consists  of  a  balance,  one  end 
of  which  is  furnished  with  a  plate  fitted 
to  receive  the  dew,  the  other  containing 
a  weight  protected  from  it. 

DROWN,  THOMAS  MESSINGER,  an 

American  scientist;  bom  in  Philadelphia, 
March  19,  1842.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1862, 
studying  later  at  Yale,  Harvard,  and 
Heidelberg.  He  was  Professor  of  Chem- 
istry at  Lafayette  College,  1874-81; 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
1885-95;  was  president  of  Lehigh  Uni- 
versity, 1895-1904.   He  died  Nov.  16, 1904. 

DROWNING,  death  by  suffocation, 
owing  to  the  mouth  and  nostrils  being 
immersed  in  a  liquid.  Complete  insensi- 
bility arises  in  from  one  to  two  minutes 
after  submersion,  recovery  being  still 
possible ;  death  occurs  in  from  two  to  five 
minutes.  As  long  as  the  heart  continues 
to  beat,  recovery  is  possible;  after  it  has 
ceased,  it  is  impossible.  Newly  bom 
children  and  young  puppies  stand  sub- 
mersion longer  than  the  more  fully 
grov  n.     Various  methods  have  been  de- 


vised for  the  restoration  of  the  appar- 
ently drowned.  That  of  Dr.  Sylvester, 
recommended  by  the  English  Humane 
Society,  produces  deeper  inspiration  than 
any  other  known  method.  That  known 
as  the  "direct  method,"  introduced  by  Dr. 
Benjamin  Howard,  of  New  York,  effects 
the  most  complete  expiration. 

These  instructions  will  be  found  use- 
ful when  no  assistance  can  be  had : 

Arcrnse  the  Patient. — Do  not  move  the 
patient  unless  in  danger  of  freez- 
ing; instantly  expose  the  face  to  the 
air,  toward  the  wind  if  there  be  any; 
wipe  dry  the  mouth  and  nostrils ;  rip  the 
clothing  so  as  to  expose  the  chest  and 
waist;  give  two  or  three  quick,  smarting 
slaps  on  the  chest  with  the  open  hand. 

If  the  patient  does  not  revive,  proceed 
immediately  as  follows : 

To  Expel  Water  from  the  Stomach  aiid 
Chest. — Separate  the  jaws  and  keep 
them  apart  by  placing  between  the  teeth 
a  cork  or  small  bit  of  wood;  turn  the 
patient  on  his  face,  a  large  bundle  of 
tightly  rolled  clothing  being  placed  be- 
neath the  stomach;  press  heavily  on  the 
back  over  it  for  half  a  minute,  or  as 
long  as  fluids  flow  freely  from  the  mouth. 

To  Produce  Respiration. — If  no  assist- 
ance is  at  hand  and  one  person  must 
work  alone,  place  the  patient  on  his  back 
with  the  shoulders  slightly  raised  on  a 
folded  article  of  clothing;  draw  forward 
the  tongue  and  keep  it  projecting  just 
beyond  the  lips;  if  the  lower  jaw  be  lifted 
the  teeth  may  be  made  to  hold  the  tongue 
in  place;  it  may  be  necessary  to  retain 
the  tongue  by  passing  a  handkerchief 
under  the  chin  and  tying  it  over  the 
head. 

Grasp  the  arms  just  below  the  elbows 
and  draw  them  steadily  upward  by  the 
sides  of  the  patient's  head  to  the  ground, 
the  hands  nearly  meeting. 

Next  lower  the  arms  to  the  side  and 
press  firmly  downward  and  inward  on 
the  sides  and  front  of  the  chest  over  the 
lower  ribs,  drawing  toward  the  patient's 
head. 

Repeat  these  movements  12  to  15  times 
every  minute,  etc. 

DROZ  (dro),  FRAN9OIS  XAVIER 
JOSEPH,  a  French  moralist  and  his- 
torian; born  in  Besangon  in  1773.  In 
1806  he  published  "An  Essay  on  the  Art 
of  Being  Happy,"  which  was  very 
popular;  and  in  1823  "Moral  Philosophy, 
or  Different  Systems  of  the  Science  of 
Life,"  which  procured  his  admission  into 
the  Academy.  His  reputation  is,  how- 
ever, founded  chiefly  on  his  "Histoire  du 
Tegne  de  Louis  Xyi."    He  died  in  1850. 

DRUG,  a  name  applied  to  all  articles 
used  for  medicinal  purposes,  though  the 
term  should,  perhaps,  be  strictly  confined 


DRUG  ADDICTION 


428 


DRUM 


to  what  are  called  simples,  balsams, 
gums,  resins,  and  exotic  products  used 
as  medicaments  in  a  dry  state. 

DRUG  ADDICTION.  Drugs  result- 
ing in  formation  of  habits  are  numerous, 
but  the  main  ones  are  usually  morphine 
and  other  products  of  opium,  cocaine, 
and  alcohol.  The  latter  is  rarely  in- 
cluded under  this  head.  The  practice  of 
injecting  drugs  did  not  come  into  use  in 
Europe  until  after  the  invention  of  the 
hypodermic  needle  in  1845.  After  that 
time  it  spread  through  Europe  and 
America  with  great  rapidity  until  it  was 
estimated  in  1893,  there  were  100,000 
cases  of  morphinomaniacs  in  Paris  alone. 
'  Its  use  in  the  United  States  was  wide- 
spread largely  because  of  the  increasing 
Cfhinese  population  and  the  ease  with 
which  opium  was  imported.  The  cocaine 
habit  is  of  more  recent  growth,  but 
when  it  started,  hardly  forty  years  ago, 
its  progress  was  amazingly  rapid.  For 
a  time  it  was  spread  by  its  excessi"e 
use  in  patent  medicines,  and  doctors*  pre- 
scriptions. Caffeine,  a  drug  which  in  its 
effects  resembles  closely  cocaine,  is  pres- 
ent in  tea  and  coffee  and  makes  their 
excessive  use  harmful  to  the  nervous 
system.  The  effect  of  the  use  of  tobacco 
is  a  more  disputed  point,  but  there  seems 
to  be  agreement  that  its  use  tends  to 
promote  hardening  of  the  arteries  and 
increased  blood  pressure.  Drugs,  such 
as  chloral  and  veronal,  are  used  to  in- 
duce sleep  and  are  almost  equally  injuri- 
ous as  morphine  in  their  effects  upon  the 
nervous  system.  Acetanilid  and  anti- 
pyrin  are  drugs  used  in  the  preparation 
of  many  patented  headache  relievers  and 
their  continued  use  is  certain  to  produce 
anaemia  and  weakness  of  the  heart. 

Attempts  to  remedy  this  spread  of  the 
use  of  drugs  have  been  earnest  and  in 
some  measure  effective.  Most  important 
of  all  has  been  the  outlawry  of  the 
opium  trade  by  an  agreement  between 
nearly  all  the  civilized  nations  of  the 
world.  In  the  United  States  a  federal 
law  placing  a  prohibitive  tax  upon  all 
narcotics  imported  into  the  United 
States,  over  and  above  that  which  is 
needed  for  medical  purposes,  has  been 
passed.  Many  State  laws,  some,  espe- 
cially that  of  New  York,  very  stringent 
in  their  provisions,  have  been  enacted. 
Drug  stores  are  compelled  to  make  affi- 
davit to  the  amount  of  narcotics  in  their 
possession  and  to  i'-.sue  them  only  upon 
doctors'  prescriptions.  The  latter  are 
also  carefully  watched  in  this  particular 
and  any  widespread  and  continuous  pre- 
scriptions of  morphine  may  lead  to  a  re- 
vocation of  the  doctor's  license  to  prac- 
tice. Nothwithstanding  these  measures, 
Dr.  Copeland,  Health  Commissioner  of 
New  York,  estimated  that  in  the  winter 


of  1918-1919,  there  were  in  the  City  of 
New  York  not  less  than  60,000  persons 
addicted  in  a  serious  way  to  the  use  of 
drugs.  The  United  States  was  still  im- 
porting 500,000  pounds  of  opium  legally 
and  illegally,  which  was  ten  times  as 
much  in  proportion  as  that  imported  by 
other  countries.  The  business  of  secur- 
ing and  distributing  opium  and  its  prog- 
ress is  found  almost  entirely  among 
people  who  are  criminals  in  other  re- 
spects, as  it  is  found  that  drugs  lead  to 
crime  much  more  frequently  than  crimes 
to  drugs.  The  United  States  Health 
Service  in  1919  reported  an  increase  in 
the  use  of  narcotics  in  twenty  States. 

DRUGGET,  a  coarse  and  flimsy 
woolen  texture,  chiefly  used  for  covering 
carpets.  It  was  formerly  extensively 
employed  as  an  article  of  clothing  by 
the  poorer  classes,  more  especially  of 
females. 

DRUIDS,  the  priests  of  the  Celts  of 
Gaul  and  Britain.  According  to  Julius 
Caesar,  they  possessed  the  greatest  au- 
thority among  the  Celtic  nations.  They 
had  some  knowledge  of  geometry,  natural 
philosophy,  etc.,  superintended  the  af- 
fairs of  religion  and  morality,  and  per- 
formed the  office  of  judges.  They  ven- 
erated the  mistletoe  when  growing  on  the 
oak,  a  tree  which  they  likewise  esteemed 
sacred.  They  had.  a  common  superior, 
who  was  elected  by  a  majority  of  votes 
from  their  own  number,  and  who  en- 
joyed his  dignity  for  life.  Of  their  re- 
ligious doctrines  little  is  known.  Human 
sacrifice  was  one  of  their  characteristic 
rites,  the  victims  being  usually  prisoners 
of  war. 

DRUID  STONES,  a  name  given  in 
the  S.  of  England  and  other  parts  of  the 
country  to  those  weather-worn,  rough 
pillars  of  gray  sandstone  which  are  scat- 
tered over  the  surface  of  the  chalk-downs 
in  England,  in  Scotland,  and  its  islands, 
and  which  exist  in  great  numbers  in 
others  countries;  generally  in  the  form 
of  circles,  or  in  detached  pillars. 

DRUM,  a  musical  instrument  formed 
by  stretching  parchment  over  the  heads 
of  a  cylinder  of  wood  or  over  a  bowl- 
shaped  metallic  vessel.  The  skin  of  the 
ass  is  a  very  superior  article  for  the  pur- 
pose.    There  are  three  kinds  of  drums: 

(1)  The  long  drum  or  bass  drum  with 
two  heads,  held  laterally  and  played  on 
both  ends  with  stuffed-knob  drumsticks. 

(2)  The  side-drum,  having  two  heads,  the 
upper  one  only  being  played  on  by  two 
sticks  of  wood;  the  lower  head  has 
occasionally  strings  of  catgut  stretched 
across  its  surface,  and  then  it  is  called 
a  snare  drum.  (3)  The  kettle-drum 
always  employed  in  pairs.    Of  these  (1) 


DRUMFISH 


429 


DBUMMOND  ISLAND 


is  the  ordinary  drum  used  by  an  infantry 
or  marching  band.  It  is  employed  main- 
ly to  mark  the  time,  and  also  to  increase 
the  fortes.  The  big  drum,  or  grosse 
caisse,  of  the  modern  orchestra,  is  a 
modification  of  the  ordinary  drum,  with 
the  diameter  greatly  increased,  and  the 
length  of  the  cylinder  lessened.  It  is 
struck  on  one  side  only.  (2)  Is  the  side- 
drum  of  the  fife  and  drum  bands.  It  is 
occasionally  employed  in  the  orchestra 
for  special  effects.  (3)  Are  either  the 
small  kettle-drums  of  the  cavalry  band, 
played  on  horseback;  or  the  proper  or- 
chestral drums,  larger  in  size,  but  simi- 
/ar  in  construction. 

The  tambourine  is  a  species  of  drum, 
consisting  of  a  single  skin  on  a  frame 
or  vessel  open  at  bottom.  The  heads  are 
tightened  by  cords  and  braces,  or  by  rods 
and  screws. 

The  drum  was  a  martial  instrument 
among  the  ancient  Egjrptians,  as  the 
sculptures  of  Thebes  testify.  Their  long 
drum  was  like  the  Indian  tam-tam,  and 
was  beaten  by  the  hand.  The  invention 
of  the  drum  is  ascribed  to  Bacchus,  who, 
according  to  Polygcenus,  gave  his  signal 
of  battle  by  cymbal  and  drum. 

DRUMFISH,  or  DRUM.  Pogonias 
chromis,  and  other  species  of  the  same 
genus,  fishes  found  on  the  Atlantic  coasts 
of  North  America,  and  so  named  from 
the  deep,  drumming  sound  they  make  in 
the  water.  They  usually  weigh  about 
20  pounds. 

DRITMMOND,  SIR  GEORGE  GOR- 
DON, an  English  soldier;  born  in  1771. 
He  entered  the  British  army  as  ensign 
in  1789;  became  lieutenant-colonel,  1794; 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Holland 
campaign,  1794-1795,  and  in  Egypt, 
1800;  was  staff-officer  at  Jamaica  several 
years;  on  duty  in  Canada,  1808-1811; 
promoted  lieutenant-general,  1811;  again 
ordered  to  Canada  as  second  in  com- 
mand under  Sir  George  Prevost,  1813; 
planned  and  effected  the  capture  of  Fort 
Niagara,  and  planned  the  successful  at- 
tack on  Black  Rock  and  Buffalo;  led  a 
combined  military  and  naval  force 
against  Oswego  and  destroyed  the 
Am.erican  works  and  stores,  May,  1814; 
was  in  command  of  the  British  forces  at 
the  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  July  25,  and 
in  August  invested,  but  failed  to  capture, 
Fort  Erie.  In  1815  he  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  Canada,  resigned 
and  returned  to  England,  and  in  1817 
received  the  grand  cross  of  the  Order  of 
the  Bath.     He  died  in  1854. 

DRUMMOND.  HENRY,  a  Scotch  ge- 
ologist <and  religious  writer;  born  in 
Stirling  in  1851.  He  studied  theology  at 
Edinburgh  University.  In  1877  he  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Natural  Science 


in  the  Free  Church  College,  Glasgow. 
"Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World" 
(1883),  and  its  successor  "The  Ascent 
of  Man,"  applications  of  modern  scien- 
tific methods  to  the  immaterial  universe, 
made  his  popular  fame.  He  traveled  in 
central  Africa  (1883-1884)  studying  its 
botany  and  geology,  and  later  wi'ote 
"Tropical  Africa"  (1888).  Other  semi- 
religious  writings  of  his  are:  "Pax 
Vobiscum"  (1890)  ;  "The  Greatest  Thing 
in  the  World"  (1890);  "The  Programme 
of  Christianity"  (1892).  He  died  in 
Tunbridge  Wells,  England,  March  11, 
1897. 

DRUMMOND,  THOMAS,  a  Scotch 
scientist;  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1797. 
During  his  professional  training  at 
Woolwich  and  Chatham  he  showed  high 
mathematical  and  mechanical  abilities^ 
with  aptitude  for  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  scientific  principles.  In  1920  he 
was  an  assistant  in  the  trigonometrical 
survey  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  in- 
candescence of  lime  having  been  brought 
under  his  notice  at  a  lecture  on  chem- 
istry, he  made  experiments,  and  the  re- 
sult was  the  Drummond  Light,  noticed 
in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions" 
(1826).  He  invented  a  heliostat  or  re- 
flecting mirror,  described  in  the  same 
paper.  Experiments  for  adapting  his 
light  to  lighthouses  are  detailed  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions"  (1830).  In 
1835  he  went  to  Dublin  with  Lord  Mul- 
grave  as  under-secretary  for  Ireland. 
He  died  in  Dublin,  April  15,  1840. 

DRUMMOND,  WILLIAM,  a  Scotch 
poet;  born  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  13,  1585. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  after  which  he  spent  four 
years  in  foreign  travels.  On  his  return 
to  Scotland  he  retired  to  Hawthornden. 
He  entertained  Ben  Jonson,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  a  visit  which  the  English  drama- 
tist made  to  Scotland  in  the  winter  of 
1618-1619,  and  took  notes  of  Jonson's 
conversation,  which  were  first  published 
in  1711.  He  was  the  first  Scotch  writer 
to  abandon  the  native  dialect  for  the 
language  raised  to  supremacy  by  the 
Elizabethan  writers.  His  chief  produc- 
tions are:  "The  Cypress  Grove,"  in 
prose,  containing  reflections  upon  death; 
"Flowers  of  Zion,  or  Spiritual  Poems"; 
"Tears  on  the  Death  of  Moeliades"; 
"Poems,  Amorous,  Funeral,  Divine,  Pas- 
toral, in  Sonnets,  Songs,  Sextains,  Mad- 
rigals"; "The  River  Forth  Feasting" 
and  "History  of  the  Lives  and  Reigns  of 
the  Five  Jameses,  Kings  of  Scotland." 
He  died  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  4,  1649. 

DRUMMOND  ISLAND,  the  extreme 
W.  of  the  Manitoulin  chain,  in  Lake 
Huron,  belongs  to  Chippewa  co.,  Mich. 
It  measures  20  by  10  miles. 

28— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


DRUPE 


430 


DRYDEN 


DRUPE,  fruit  composed  of  a  single 
monospermous  carpel,  and  of  which  the 
carpellary  leaf  becomes  fleshy  at  its  ex- 
ternal division,  and  ligneous  in  its  in- 
ternal division,  as  in  the  peach,  cherry, 
plum,  etc.  The  stone  which  incloses  the 
kernel  is  the  endocarp ;  the  pulpy,  or  suc- 
culent part,  the  mesocarp. 

DRURY'S  BLUFF,  an  eminence  on 
the  James  river,  near  Fort  Darling,  8 
miles  S.  of  Richmond,  Va.  It  was  the 
scene  of  a  battle,  May  16,  1864,  in  which 
the  Confederates  under  Beauregard  de- 
feated the  Union  troops  under  Butler, 
with  a  loss  to  the  Confederates  of  2,500 
and  to  the  Union  army  of  3,012. 

DRUSE,  DRUZE,  DERUZ,  or 
DOROUZ,  a  politico-religious  sect  of 
Mohammedan  origin,  but  deemed  by 
orthodox  Moslems  heretical.  El-Hakim 
Biamr-Allah,  the  sixth  Fatimite  Caliph 
of  Egypt,  a  cruel  and  fanatical  man,  who 
lived  in  the  11th  century,  proclaimed 
himself  an  incarnation  of  God,  and  estab- 
lished a  secret  society.  When  walking 
in  the  vicinity  of  Cairo,  his  capital,  he 
disappeared  from  his  subjects'  view,  the 
most  natural  explanation  being  that  he 
was  assassinated  and  his  body  hidden 
somewhere.  His  followers  believed  in  his 
return  to  this  earth  to  reign  over  it,  and 
propagated  their  faith  in  the  adjacent 
lands.  Two  of  the  most  notable  mission- 
aries were  the  Persian  messengers,  Ham- 
zah  and  Mohammed  ben  Ismail  ed  Derazi. 
The  latter  proclaimed  the  Druse  tenets 
with  such  zeal  in  Lebanon  that  the  con- 
verts to  belief  in  El-Hakim  were  called 
not  Hakimites  but  Druses.  The  Druses 
believe  in  the  unity  of  God,  who  they 
think  was  manifest  in  the  person  of  sev- 
eral individuals,  the  last  of  them  Hakim. 
They  believe  in  the  constant  existence  of 
five  superior  spiritual  ministers,  the 
greatest  of  them  being  Hamzah  and 
Jesus,  and  hold  the  transmigration  of 
souls.  They  are  divided  into  the  'Okkal 
or  Initiated,  and  the  Juhhal,  or  Ignorant. 
Their  day  of  worship  is  Thursday. 
Ethnologically  they  are  Arabs  who  came 
from  the  E.  parts  of  Syria  and  settled  in 
Lebanon  and  Antilebanon  in  the  11th 
century.  Their  territory  on  the  Lebanon 
is  S.  of  the  Maronites.  They  extend 
thence  to  the  Hauran  and  to  Damascus. 
In  1860  they  attacked  the  Maronites, 
about  12,000  of  whom  they  cruelly  mas- 
sacred, not  sparing  even  women  or  male 
children  in  their  fury.  The  arrival  of 
Turkish  and  French  troops,  in  August 
and  September,  1860,  and  the  execution 
of  167  Druses,  restored  at  least  the 
semblance  of  tranquillity. 

DRUSUS,  the  name  of  several  distin- 
guished Romans,  among  whom  were: 
Marcus   Livius,   orator   and   politician; 


became  tribune  of  the  people  in  122 
B.  c.  He  opposed  the  policy  of  Caius 
Gracchus,  and  became  popular  by  plant- 
ing colonies.  Marcus  Livius,  son  of  the 
above,  was  early  a  strong  champion  of 
the  senate  or  artistocratic  party,  but 
showed  great  skill  in  manipulating  the 
mob.  He  rose  to  be  tribune  of  the  people, 
and  was  assassinated  91  b.  c.  Nero 
Claudius,  brother  of  the  Emperor 
Tiberius,  born  38  B.  C.  By  a  series  of 
brilliant  campaigns  he  extended  the  Ro- 
man empire  to  the  German  Ocean  and 
the  river  Elbe,  and  was  hence  called 
Germanicus.  By  his  wife  Antonia, 
daughter  of  Mark  Antony,  he  had  a 
daughter,  Livia,  and  two  sons,  Ger- 
manicus and  Claudius,  the  latter  of 
whom  afterward  became  emperor.  He 
died  in  9  b.  c. 

DRYAS,  a  famous  Spartan,  slain  by 
Diana  in  the  Theban  war. 

DRYDEN,  JOHN,  an  English  poet; 
descended  from  an  ancient  family,  his 
grandfather  being  Sir  Erasmus  Dryden 
of  Canons  Ashby,  Northamptonshire;  he 
was  born  near  Aldwinkle,  Northampton- 
shire, in  1631,  and  was  admitted  a  king's 
scholar  at  Westminster,  whence  he  went 
to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  being 
here  elected  to  a  scholarship.  After 
leaving  the  university  he  went  to  London, 
where  he  acted  as  secretary  to  his 
cousin.  Sir  Gilbert  Pickering,  a  favorite 
of  Cromwell;  and  on  the  death  of  the 
Protector  he  wrote  his  heroic  stanzas  on 
that  event.  At  the  Restoration,  how- 
ever, he  hailed  the  return  of  Charles  II. 
in  "Astrsea  Redux,"  and  from  that  time 
his  devotion  to  the  Stuarts  knew  no  de- 
cay. In  1661  he  produced  his  first  play. 
"The  Duke  of  Guise";  but  the  first  that 
was  performed  was  "The  Wild  Gallant," 
which  appeared  in  1663  and  was  not  a 
success.  This  was  followed  by  "The 
Rival  Ladies,"  and  "The  Indian  Queen," 
a  tragedy  on  Montezuma  in  heroic  verse, 
written  in  collaboration  with  Sir  Robert 
Howard,  whose  sister,  Lady  Elizabeth 
Howard,  Dryden  married  in  1663.  He 
followed  up  "The  Indian  Queen"  with 
"The  Indian  Emperor,"  which  at  once 
raised  Dryden  to  the  highest  pitch  of 
public  estimation. 

The  great  fire  of  London  put  a  stop 
for  some  time  to  theatrical  exhibitions. 
In  the  interval  Dryden  published  the 
"Annus  Mirabilis,"  a  historical  account 
of  the  events  of  the  year  1666.  In  1668 
he  also  published  his  celebrated  "Essay 
on  Dramatic  Poesy" — the  first  attempt 
to  regulate  dramatic  vn"iting.  In  1668 
the  "Maiden  Queen,"  a  tragi-comedy, 
was  represented.  This  was  followed  in 
1670  by  the  "Tempest,"  an  alteration 
from  Shakespeare,  in  which  he  was  as- 


DRYDEN 


431 


DUBNO 


sisted  by  Sir  William  Davenant.  It  was 
received  with  general  applause.  Dryden 
was  shortly  afterward  appointed  to  the 
offices  of  royal  historiographer  and  poet- 
laureate,  with  a  salary  of  $1,000  a  year. 
He  now  became  professionally  a  writer 
for  the  stage,  and  produced  many  pieces, 
some  of  which  have  been  strongly  cen- 
sured for  their  licentiousness  and  want 
of  good  taste.  The  first  of  his  political 
and  poetical  satires,  "Absalon  and 
Achitophel"     (Monmouth    and    Shaftes- 


JOHN  DRYDEN 

bury),  was  produced  in  1681,  and  was 
followed  by  "The  Medal,"  a  satire 
against  sedition;  and  "Mac  Flecknoe,"  a 
satire  on  the  poet  Shadwell.  On  the 
accession  of  James  in  1685  Dryden  be- 
came a  Roman  Catholic.  He  defended 
his  new  religion  at  the  expense  of  the 
old  one  in  a  poem,  "The  Hind  and  the 
Panther."  Among  his  other  services  to 
the  new  king  were  a  savage  reply  to  an 
attack  by  Stillingfleet,  and  panegyrics  on 
Charles  and  James  under  the  title  of 
"Britannia  Rediviva." 

At  the  Revolution  Dryden  was  de- 
prived of  the  offices  of  poet-laureate  and 
historiographer.  During  the  remaining 
10  years  of  his  life  he  produced  some  of 
his  best  work,  including  his  admirable 
translations  from  the  classics.  He  pub- 
lished, in  conjunction  with  Congreve, 
Creech,  and  others,  a  translation  of 
Juvenal,  and  one  of  Persius  entirely  by 
himself.  His  poetic  translation  of  Ver- 
gil  appeared   in   1697,  and,  soon   after, 


that  masterpiece  of  lyric  poetry,  "Alex- 
ander's Feast,"  "His  Fables,"  etc.  His 
poetry  as  a  whole  is  more  remarkable  for 
vigor  and  energy  than  beauty,  but  he 
did  much  to  improve  English  verse.  He 
was  also  an  admirable  prose  writer.  He 
died  May  1,  1700,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

DTJBLIN",  a  city  of  Georgia,  the 
county-seat  of  Laurens  co.  It  is  on  the 
Macon,  Dublin  and  Savannah,  the  Cen- 
tral of  Georgia,  and  the  Wrightsville  and 
Tennille  railroads,  and  on  the  Oconee 
river.  There  are  cotton  and  oil  mills, 
fertilizer  works,  and  manufactures  of 
hardwood  products,  cigars,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)  5,795;   (1920)   7,707. 

DUBLIN  (Irish  Dubh-linn,  black 
pool),  the  capital  of  Ireland;  on  the  river 
Lifl'ey,  where  it  disembogues  into  Dublin 
Bay.  Much  of  the  city  is  built  on  land  re- 
claimed from  the  sea,  and  the  ground  is 
generally  flat,  with  a  very  few  undula- 
tions, scarcely  deserving  the  name  of  hill. 
The  river,  running  from  E.  to  W.,  divides 
the  city  into  two  almost  equal  portions. 
The  aristocratic  parts  are  the  S.  E.  and 
N.  E.,  containing  many  beautiful  squares, 
with  splendid  streets  and  terraces.  The 
center  and  the  N.  W.  quarter  are  the 
great  emporiums  of  trade  and  the  resi- 
dence of  the  middle  classes,  many  of 
whom,  however,  have  their  private  houses 
in  the  suburbs.  The  S.  W.  division,  part 
of  which  is  called  the  "Liberties,"  was 
once  the  seat  of  the  silk  trade.  The 
streets  in  this  quarter  are  narrow, 
crooked,  and  irregular,  while  in  the  fash- 
ionable quarter  they  possess  a  totally 
opposite  character.  The  city  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  "Circular  Road,"  of  nearly 
9  miles  in  length,  forming  a  favorite 
drive  and  promenade.  Dublin  was  the 
center  of  the  fighting  during  the  Irish 
rebellion  on  Easter  Monday,  1916,  when 
the  postoffice  and  other  public  buildings 
as  well  as  many  business  houses  were 
wrecked.     Pop.  (1919)  399,000. 

DUBLIN.  UNIVERSITY  OF,  an  in- 
stitute for  higher  learning,  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  better  known  as  Trinity  College. 
It  received  a  charter  from  Queen  Eliza- 
beth in  1591,  and  the  ground  upon  which 
it  was  built  was  donated  by  the  Corpora- 
tion of  Dublin.  The  first  chancellor  was 
William  Cecil,  Lord  Burghley.  There 
were  in  1919  1,350  students  and  88  in- 
structors. 

DUBNO.    FORTRESS    OF.    one    of    a 

triangle  of  three  strongholds  built  by  the 
Russians  in  Galicia  (the  other  two  being 
Lutsk  and  Rovno)  and  which  were  the 
object  of  heavy  fighting  during  the  opera- 
tions on  the  eastern  front  during  the 
World    War.      These    fortifications    en- 


DU  BOIS 


432 


DUDLEY 


abled  the  Russians  to  maintain  their 
lines  of  communication  with  the  interior 
and  made  possible  the  transfer  of  forces 
through  the  protection  they  gave  to  the 
various  railroad  lines  necessary  for  such 
a  transfer.  The  fortress  was  captured 
and  recaptured  several  times  by  the 
contending  forces  during  the  war.  Dur- 
ing the  operations  between  the  Russian 
Soviet  Government  and  the  Polish  forces, 
in  the  summer  of  1920,  Dubno  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Poles  and  was  by  them  held 
for  a  short  period. 

DU  BOIS,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania, 
in  Clearfield  co.  It  is  on  the  Buffalo  and 
Susquehanna,  the  Buffalo,  Rochester  and 
Pittsburgh,  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern,  and  the  Pennsylvania  rail- 
roads. The  most  important  industry  is 
the  mining  of  bituminous  coal.  There 
are  also  glass  and  clay  works,  blast  fur- 
naces, railroad  shops,  machine  shops,  etc. 
There  is  a  hospital  and  a  public  library. 
Pop.  (1910)  12,623;   (1920)  13,681. 

DUCATO,  CAPE  (do-ka'to)  (ancient 
Leukate),  an  abrupt  headland  at  the  S. 
W.  extremity  of  Leukes  or  Santa  Maura, 
one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  dreaded  by 
sailors  for  the  fierce  currents  around  it. 
On  the  summit  are  remains  of  a  temple 
of  Apollo,  and  from  here  criminals  were 
anciently  cast  into  the  sea.  Here,  too, 
tradition  fixes  the  scene  of  Sappho's  fatal 
leap,  and  that  of  Artemisia  of  Halicar- 
nassus. 

DUCATOON,  formerly  a  Dutch  silver 
coin  worth  3  gulden,  3  stivers,  or  $1.30. 
There  were  coins  of  the  same  name  in 
Italy.  In  Tuscany  its  value  was  about 
$1.35,  in  Savoy  slightly  more,  and  in 
Venice  about  $1.18. 

DU  CHAILLU,  PAUL  BELLONI  (dxi- 
shi-yii'),  a  French-American  explorer  and 
writer;  born  in  Paris,  July  31,  1835. 
His  travels  in  Africa,  in  which  he  dis- 
covered the  gorilla  and  the  pigmies,  are 
detailed  in  "A  Journey  to  Ashango  Land" 
(1867),  and  "My  Apingi  Kingdom" 
(1870).  "The  Land  of  the  Midnight 
Sun"  (1881)  deals  with  Norway.  "The 
Viking  Age"  (1887),  is  a  more  ambitious 
work,  intended  to  recreate  the  old  Norse 
civilization.  Among  his  other  works  are : 
"Ivar  the  Viking";  "The  Land  of  the 
Long  Night"  (1899);  "The  World  of 
the  Great  Forest"  (1900),  and  many 
books  for  the  young.  He  died  April  30, 
1903. 

DUCK,  the  popular  name  given  to 
various  Anatidse,  and  especially  to  those 
of  the  two  sub-families  Anatinx  and  Fuli- 
gulinse.  The  former  are  called  by  Swain- 
son,  river  ducks,  or  sometimes  also  true 
ducks,  and  the  latter  sea  ducks.  A  sim- 
ilar distinction  into  sea  ducks  and  pond 


ducks  had  long  ago  been  made  by  Wil- 
lughby.  The  Anatinse  have  the  bill  broad 
and  lengthened,  the  nostrils  basal,  the 
legs  very  short,  and  the  hinder  toe 
slightly  lobed.     The  Fuligulinss  have  the 


DUCKS 

1.  Ring  Necked  Duck     3.   American   Widgeon 

2.  Surf   Scoter  4.   Mandarin   Duck 

hinder  toe  very  broad.  The  Anatinse,  or 
true  ducks,  are  migratory  birds,  coming 
and  going  in  large  flocks. 

DUCK,  a  species  of  coarse  cloth  made 
of  flax,  lighter  and  finer  than  canvas. 

DUCKING  STOOL,  a  chair  in  which 
scolding  and  vixenish  vdves  were  for- 
merly securely  fastened,  to  receive  the 
punishment  of  being  ducked  in  water. 
The  woman  was  placed  in  the  chair  with 
her  arms  drawn  backward;  a  bar  was 
placed  across  her  back  and  inside  her 
elbows,  while  another  bar  held  her  up- 
right; in  this  uncomfortable  position  she 
was  securely  tied  with  cords.  The  per- 
sons appointed  to  carry  out  the  punish- 
ment, by  raising  their  end  of  the  beam, 
caused  the  unfortunate  culprit  to  go 
overhead  into  the  water.  The  practice  of 
using  the  ducking  stool  began  in  the  15th 
century,  but  had  almost  died  out  by  the 
close  of  the  18th. 

DUDEVANT,   MADAME.      See   SaND. 

George. 

DUDLEY,    LORD    GUILDFOBD,    son 

of  John,  Duke  of  Northumberland,  was 
married  in  1553  to  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
whose  claim  to  the  throne  the  duke  in- 
tended to  assert  on  the  death  of  Edward 
VI.  On  the  failure  of  the  plot  Lord 
Guildford  was  condemned  to  death,  but 
the  sentence  was  not  carried  into  effect 
till   the   inf^urrection  of   Wyatt  induced 


DUDLEY 


433 


DUFFY 


Mary  to  order  his  immediate  execution 
(1554). 

DUDLEY,  JOHN,  Duke  of  North- 
umberland, son  of  Sir  Edmund  Dudley, 
minister  of  Henry  VII.;  born  in  1502.  He 
was  left  by  Henry  VIII.  one  of  the  ex- 
ecutors named  in  his  will,  as  a  kind  of 
Toint-regent  during  the  minority  of 
Edward  VI.  Under  that  prince  he  mani- 
fested the  most  insatiable  ambition  and 
obtained  vast  accessions  of  honors,  power- 
and  emoluments.  The  illness  of  the 
king,  over  whom  he  had  gained  complete 
ascendency,  aroused  his  fears,  and  he 
endeavored  to  strengthen  his  interest  by 
marrying  his  son.  Lord  Guildford  Dudley, 
to  Lady  Jane  Grey,  descended  from  the 
younger  sister  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  per- 
suaded Edward  to  settle  the  crown  on  his 
kinswoman  by  will,  to  the  exclusion  of 
his  two  sisters,  the  Princesses  Mary  and 
Elizabeth.  The  death  of  the  king,  the 
abortive  attempts  to  place  Lady  Jane 
Grey  on  the  throne,  and  the  ruin  of  all 
those  concerned  in  the  scheme  are  among 
the  most  familiar  events  in  the  annals 
of  England.     He  was  beheaded  in  1553. 

DUDLEY,  ROBERT,  Earl  of  Leicester. 
See  Leicester. 

DUEL,  a  premeditated  and  prearranged 
combat  between  two  persons  with  deadly 
weapons,  for  the  purpose  of  deciding 
some  private  difference  or  quarrel.  The 
combat  generally  takes  place  in  the  pres- 
ence of  witnesses,  called  seconds,  who 
make  arrangements  as  to  the  mode  of 
righting,  place  the  weapons  in  the  hands 
of  the  combatants,  and  see  that  the  laws 
they  have  laid  down  are  carried  out. 
The  origin  of  the  practice  of  duelling  is 
referred  to  the  trial  by  "wager  of  battle" 
which  obtained  in  early  ages.  This  form 
of  duel  arose  among  the  Germanic  peo- 
ples, and  a  judicial  combat  of  the  kind 
was  authorized  by  Gundebald,  King  of  the 
Burgundians,  as  early  as  501  A.  d.  When 
the  judicial  combat  declined  the  modern 
duel  arose,  being  probably  to  some  extent 
an  independent  outcome  of  the  spirit  and 
institutions  of  chivalry.  France  was  the 
country  in  which  it  arose,  the  16th  cen- 
tury being  the  time  at  which  it  first  be- 
came common.  6,000  persons  fell  in  duels 
during  10  years  of  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV.  In  1602  the  king  issued  a  decree 
against  dueling,  declaring  it  punishable 
with  death,  but  the  practice  continued. 

The  practice  of  dueling  was  introduced 
into  England  from  France  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.;  but  it  was  never  so  common  as 
in  the  latter  country.  Cromwell  was  an 
enemy  of  the  duel,  and  during  the  Pro- 
tectorate there  was  a  cessation  of  the 
practice.  It  came  again  into  vogue,  how- 
lever,  after  the  Restoration,  thanks  chief- 


ly to  the  French  ideas  that  then  inun- 
dated the  court.  As  society  became  more 
polished  duels  became  more  frequent, 
and  they  were  never  more  numerous  than 
in  the  reign  of  George  III.  Among  the 
principals  in  the  fatal  duels  of  this  pe- 
riod were  Charles  James  Fox,  Sheridan, 
Pitt,  Canning,  Castlereagh,  the  Duke  of 
York,  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  and  Lord 
Camelford.  The  last  mentioned  was  the 
most  notorious  duelist  of  his  time,  and 
was  himself  killed  in  a  duel  in  1804.  A  duel 
was  fought  between  the  Duke  of  Well- 
ington and  Lord  Winchelsea  in  1829,  but 
the  practice  was  dying  out.  It  lasted 
longest  in  the  army.  By  English  law 
fatal  duelling  is  considered  murder,  and 
the  seconds  are  liable  to  the  same  penalty 
as  the  principals.  An  officer  in  the  army 
having  anything  to  do  with  a  duel  ren- 
ders himself  liable  to  be  cashiered.  In 
France  duelling  still  prevails  to  a  certain 
extent;  but  the  combats  are  usually  very 
bloodless.  In  the  German  army  it  is  com- 
mon, and  is  recogrnized  by  law. 

In  the  United  States  duels  are  nearly 
everywhere  prohibited  by  State  laws.  In 
some  of  the  States  the  killing  of  a  man 
in  a  duel  is  punishable  by  death  or  by 
forfeiture  of  political  rights,  and  in  a 
large  number  the  sending  of  a  challenge 
is  a  felony.  In  the  army  and  navy  it 
is  forbidden.  During  the  Revolution 
there  were  a  number  of  duels.  Alexan- 
der Hamilton  was  slain  by  Aaron  Burr. 
Decatur  was  killed  and  Barron  wounded 
fighting  a  duel.  Andrew  Jackson  killed 
Dickinson,  and  fought  several  other  duels. 
Henry  Clay  and  John  Randolph  fought 
in  1826.     De  Witt  Clinton  was  a  duelist. 

DUFFERIN,  FREDERICK  TEMPLE 
HAMILTON-BLACKWOOD,  MARQUIS 
OF,  a  British  statesman  and  author,  son 
of  the  4th  Baron  Dufferin;  born  in 
Florence  in  1826.  He  began  his  public 
services  in  1855,  when  he  was  atteched 
to  Earl  Russell's  mission  to  Vienna.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  sent  as  commissioner  to 
Syria  in  connection  with  the  massacre  of 
the  Christians  (1860) ;  was  under  Indian 
secretary  (1864-1866)  ;  under  secretary 
for  war  (1866)  ;  chancellor  of  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster  (1868-1872)  ;  Governor-gen- 
eral of  Canada  (1872-1878)  ;  ambassador 
■at  St.  Petersburg  (1879-1881);  at  Con- 
stantinople (1882)  ;  sent  to  Cairo  to  settle 
the  affairs  of  the  country  after  Arabi 
Pasha's  rebellion  (1882-1883) ;  Viceroy 
of  India  (1884-1888) ;  ambassador  to 
Italy  (1889),  and  to  France  (1891),  He 
died  Feb.  12,  1902. 

DUFFY,  SIR  CHARLES  GAVIN,  an 
Irish  patriot;  born  in  County  Monaghan 
in  1816;  early  devoted  himself  to  jour- 
nalism in  Dublin  and  Belfast,  returning 
to  the  former  in  1842  to  start  along  with 


DU  GUESCLIN 


434 


DULCIMER 


Thomas  Davis  and  John  Dillon  the  "Na- 
tion" as  the  organ  of  the  Young  Ireland 
party.  Tried  and  convicted  for  sedition 
with  O'Connell  in  1844,  but  saved  by  the 
House  of  Lords  quashing  the  conviction, 
he  aided  his  great  chief  in  the  agitation 
for  repeal  and  next  helped  him  to  found 
the  Irish  Confederation.  He  had  an  ac- 
tive share  in  promoting  the  Tenant 
League  and  the  Independent  Irish  party, 
and  on  the  break-up  of  the  latter  emi- 
grated to  Australia  in  1856.  After  some 
time  of  practice  at  the  Melbourne  bar, 
following  the  establishment  of  the  Vic- 
torian constitution,  he  rose  in  1857  to  be 
Minister  of  Public  Works,  of  Lands  in 
1858  and  1862,  and  Prime  Minister  in 
1871.  He  was  defeated  next  year,  was 
):nighted  in  1873,  and  in  1877  elected 
Speaker  of  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
His  little  work,  "The  Ballad  Poetry  of 
Ireland"  had  been  for  30  years  a  house- 
hold book  in  his  native  country,  when  in 
1880  he  published  "Young  Ireland;  a 
Fragment  of  Irish  History,  1840-1850," 
and  in  1883  its  sequel,  "Four  Years  of 
Irish  History,  1845-1849."  He  died  Feb. 
9,  1903. 

DU  GUESCLIN,  BEBTRAND  (dii- 
ga-klan).  Constable  of  France;  born 
about  1314.  Mainly  to  him  must  be  at- 
tributed the  expulsion  of  the  English 
from  Normandy,  Guienne,  and  Poitou. 
He  was  captured  by  Chandos  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Auray  in  1364,  and  ransomed  for 
100,000  francs.  While  serving  in  Spain 
against  Peter  the  Cruel  he  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  English  Black  Prince; 
but  was  soon  liberated.  For  his  services 
in  Spain  he  was  made  Constable  of  Cas- 
tile, Count  of  Trastamare,  and  Duke  of 
Molinas;  and  in  1370  he  was  made  Con- 
stable of  France.     He  died  in  1380. 

DUKE,  in  Great  Britain,  the  highest 
rank  in  the  peerage.  The  first  heredi- 
tary duke  in  England  was  the  Black 
Prince,  created  by  his  father,  Edward 
IIL,  in  1336.  The  Duchy  of  Cornwall 
was  bestowed  upon  him,  and  was  thence- 
forward attached  to  the  eldest  son  of  the 
king,  who  is  considered  a  duke  by  birth. 
The  Duchy  of  Lancaster  was  soon  after 
conferred  on  Edward's  third  son,  John 
of  Gaunt,  and  hence  arose  the  special 
privileges  which  these  two  duchies 
still  in  part  retain.  A  duke  in  the 
British  peerage,  not  of  royal  rank, 
is  styled  "your  grace,"  and  is  "most 
noble";  his  wife  is  a  duchess.  The  coro- 
net consists  of  a  richly  chased  gold  cir- 
cle, having  on  its  upper  edge  eight 
golden  leaves  of  a  conventional  type 
called  strawberry  leaves;  the  cap  of 
crimson  velvet  is  closed  at  the  top  with 
a  gold  tassel,  lined  ^\^th  sarsnet,  and 
turned    up    with    ermine.      At    various 


periods  and  in  different  continental  coun- 
tries the  title  duke  (Herzog  in  Germany 
until  the  close  of  the  World  War)  has 
been  given  to  the  actual  sovereigns  of 
small  states. 

DUKHONIN,  GENERAL,  a  Russian 
soldier,  on  the  General  Staff  during  the 
World  War,  who  succeeded  General 
Kornilov  in  command  of  the  Russian 
army  when  the  latter  was  arrested  by 
the  Provisional  Government  for  his  at- 
tempt to  assume  dictatorial  powers  in 
the  summer  of  1917.  General  Dukhonin 
was  in  command  at  the  front  when  the 
Bolsheviki  precipitated  their  revolution 
and  came  into  power,  during  the  second 
week  of  November,  1917.  When  com- 
manded by  the  Soviet  Government  to 
send  a  flag  of  truce  through  the  lines  to 
open  negotiations  with  the  Germans,  for 
the  purpose  of  discussing  peace  terms. 
General  Dukhonin  refused,  whereupon 
he  was  displaced  by  Abram  Krylenko. 
A  few  days  later  he  was  thrown  off  a 
moving  train  by  his  own  soldiers  and 
killed. 

DUKLA  PASS,  the  largest  and  most 
accessible  pass  through  the  Carpathian 
Mountains.  Through  this  the  Austrians 
conducted  their  main  operations  against 
the  Russians  in  the  southernmost  part 
of  the  eastern  front,  during  the  first 
six  months  of  the  World  War.  On  Dec. 
25,  1914,  the  Russians  began  a  strong 
offensive  into  the  Carpathians  which  re- 
sulted in  their  capture  of  all  the  passes 
through  the  mountains,  including  Dukla. 
In  the  spring  campaign  of  1915  the  Aus- 
trians attempted  to  recapture  the  Car- 
pathian passes,  and  sanguinary  battles 
were  fought  in  this  region,  especially  in 
Dukla,  where  the  Russians  retained  their 
positions,  being  dislodged  from  all  the 
others,  with  one  exception,  Lupkow  Pass. 
The  final  Russian  retirement  from  the 
Carpathian  passes  was  caused  by  lack 
of  munitions  and  other  war  supplies 
rather  than  by  the  assaults  of  the 
enemy. 

DULCIMER,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
musical  instruments,  used  by  various  na- 
tions in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and,  in  shape  and  construction,  having 
probably  undergone  fewer  changes  than 
any  other  instrument.  In  its  earliest  and 
simplest  form,  it  consisted  of  a  flat  piece 
of  wood,  on  which  were  fastened  two 
converging  strips  of  wood,  across  which 
strings  were  stretched  tuned  to  the  nat- 
ural scale.  The  only  improvements  since 
made  on  this  type  are  the  addition  of  a 
series  of  pegs,  or  pins,  to  regulate  the 
tension  of  the  strings,  and  the  use  of 
two  flat  pieces  of  wood  formed  into  a 
resonance-box,  for  the  body.  The  Ger- 
man name,  Hackbrett    (chopping-board) 


DU  LHUT 


435 


DUMAS 


points  to  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
played,  the  wires  being  struck  by  two 
hammers,  one  held  in  each  hand  of  the 
performer.  The  fact  which  makes  the 
dulcimer  of  the  greatest  interest  to  musi- 
cians is  that  it  is  the  undoubted  fore- 
father of  our  pianoforte. 

Dir  LHUT  (dii  lot),  DANIEL  GREY- 
SOLON,  an  American  pioneer;  born  in 
France  about  1645;  went  to  Canada 
about  1670,  and  became  a  trader  and  a 
leader  of  bushrangers.  He  chose  the 
sites  of  Detroit  and  Fort  William,  fought 
in  the  Canadian  war  with  the  Senecas  in 
1687,  and  against  the  Iroquois  in  1689, 
and  was  commander  of  Fort  Frontenac 
in  1695,  The  city  of  Duluth  is  named 
after  him. 

DULUTH,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
county-seat  of  St.  Louis  co.,  Minn.;  at 
the  head  of  Lake  Superior  and  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  Louis  river.  It  is  the  terminus 
of  several  important  railway  systems, 
including  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Chi- 
cago and  Northwestern,  and  the  Great 
Northern.  It  has  a  splendid  harbor  on 
St.  Louis  bay,  extending  nine  miles  into 
the  lake  and  inclosed  by  natural  break- 
waters. 

The  public  buildings  are  noticeable  for 
their  beauty  and  costliness.  The  Federal 
buildings  are  among  the  finest  in  the 
West.  Other  notable  structures  are  the 
High  School,  City  Hall,  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  Lyceum  Theater,  Public  Li- 
brary, State  Normal  School,  U.  S.  Fish- 
eries buildings.  Besides  these  there  are 
over  60  churches,  many  of  which  are 
very  ornate  in  construction  and  equip- 
ment. 

The  port  is  connected  by  steamer  lines 
with  all  important  points  on  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  has  a  very  large  commerce 
in  coal,  iron,  grain,  and  lumber.  Trade 
is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  canal,  whose  traffic  now  exceeds 
that  of  the  Suez  canal.  The  imports  in 
the  fiscal  year  1920  amounted  to  $17,- 
082,468  and  the  exports  to  $34,360,373. 

Although  pre-emmently  a  commercial 
city,  Duluth  has  important  manufactures. 
The  principal  articles  of  manufacture 
were  lumber,  iron  and  steel.  Other  im- 
portant industrial  plants  were  blast  fur- 
naces, stove  factories,  and  railroad  car 
shops.  There  are  valuable  quarries  of 
granite,  trap,  slate,  and  sandstone  near 
by,  and  the  fisheries  of  the  vicinity  are 
quite  important. 

In  1919  Duluth  had  4  National  banks 
with  a  capital  of  $500,000,  and  several 
State  and  private  banks,  besides  a  con- 
siderable number  of  loan  and  trust  com- 
panies, and  building  and  loan  associa- 
tions. 

History. — In  May,  1869.  the  site  of  the 


city  was  a  forest;  the  old  Duluth,  at 
that  time  situated  on  Minnesota  Point, 
consisted  of  a  few  cabins.  The  place  is 
named  after  Captain  Du  Lhut,  a  French 
traveler,  who  visited  it  and  built  a  hut 
in  1670.  It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1869,  and  was  later  enlarged  by  the 
annexation  of  the  suburbs,  Lake  Side 
and  West  Duluth.  Pop.  (1910)  78,466; 
(1920)  98,917. 

DUMAS  (du-ma'),  ALEXANDRE,  the 
Elder,  a  celebrated  French  romancist 
and  dramatist;  born  in  Villers-Cotterets, 
Aisne,  July  24,  1802.  He  was  grandson 
of  a  French  marquis  and  a  San  Domin- 
go negress.  In  1823  he  went  to  Paris 
and  obtained  an  assistant-secretaryship 
from  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  afterward 
Louis  Philippe.  In  1829  he  scored  his 
first  success  with  his  drama  "Henry 
III."  The  same  year  appeared  his 
"Christine,"     and     in     quick     succession 


^^^-v, 


»^'£\ 


ALEXANDRE   DUMAS,    THE    ELDER 

"Antony,"  "Richard  d'Arlington/'  "Te- 
resa," "Le  Tour  de  Nesle,"  "Catharine 
Howard,"  etc.  Dumas  had  now  become 
a  noted  Parisian  character.  The  critics 
fought  over  the  merits  of  his  pieces,  and 
the  scandalmongers  over  his  prodigality 
and  galanteries.  Turning  his  attention 
to  romance,  he  produced  a  series  of  his- 
torical romances. 

A  few  of  the  great  multitude  of  his 
famous  romances  are:  "The  Count  of 
Monte  Cristo"  (1844)  ;  "The  Three  Mus- 


DUMAS 


436 


DUMFBIESSHIBE 


keteers"  (1844) ;  "Twenty  Years  After" 
(1845);  "The  Knight  of  Maison-Rouge" 
(1846);  "Viscount  de  Bragelonne" 
(1847);  "Queen  Margot"  (1847).  Many 
of  his  stories  were  of  great  length,  6  to  12 
volumes.  Besides  pure  fiction  he  wrote 
a  number  of  historical  romances,  as 
"Joan  of  Arc"  (1842);  "Michelangelo 
and  Raffaelle"  1846)  ;  "Louis  XIV.  and 
His  Age"  (1847).  His  plays,  which  had 
extraordinary  success,  include:  "Henri 
III.  and  His  Court"  (1829);  "Antony" 
(1831);  "Charles  VII.  with  His  Gra  d 
Vassals"  (1831),  "Mile,  de  Belle- 
Isle"  (1839)  ;  "Marriage  Under  Louis 
XV."  (1841);  "The  Misses  St.  Cyr" 
(1843).  Nearly  all  his  novels  were  put 
on  the  stage  also.  He  wrote  entertaining 
narratives  of  his  travels  in  Switzerland, 
Italy,  Germany,  Spain,  north  Africa, 
Egypt,_  Syria,  etc.  The  works  which 
bear  his  name  amount  to  some  1,200  vol- 
umes, including  about  60  dramas.  He 
died  near  Dieppe,  Dec.  5,  1870. 

DUMAS,  ALEXANDRE,  the  Younger, 
a  French  dramatist  and  romancist,  son 
of  the  preceding;  born  in  Paris,  July  27 
or  28,  1824.  He  published  his  first  ro- 
mance: "Story  of  Four  Women  and  a 
Parrot"  (6  vols.  1847),  which  found  little 
favor.  Among  his  romances  are:  "A 
Woman's  Romance";  "Cesarine";  "Ca- 
milla" (La  Dame  aux  Camelias) ;  all  in 
1848.  His  dramas  include:  ''Diana  de 
Lys"  (1853),  and  "The  Demi-Monde" 
(1855).  He  also  wrote  the  romance, 
"The  Clemenceau  Case"  (1864),  drama- 
tized under  the  same  name;  and  the 
dramatic  pieces:  "The  Natural  Son" 
(1858);  "The  Friend  of  Women" 
(1864);  "Claude's  Wife"  (1873);  "The 
Danicheffs"  (1876)  ;         "Francillon" 

(1887) ;  and  others.     He  died  in  Paris, 
Nov.  28,  1895. 

DU  MAUBIER,  GEORGE  LOUIS 
PALMELLA  BUSSOi:  (dii-mo-rya'),  a 
famous  delineator  of  English  society  in 
"Punch,"  and  in  later  years  a  novelist; 
born  in  Paris,  March  6,  1834.  In  his 
childhood  his  parents  settled  in  London. 
He  began  in  1850  to  study  art  in  London, 
Paris,  and  Antwerp;  returning  to  Lon- 
don he  was  employed  on  the  illustrated 
periodicals,  and  from  1864  to  his  death 
was  of  the  regular  staff  of  "Punch."  He 
wrote  and  illustrated  three  stories: 
"Peter  Ibbetson"  (1891);  "Trilby" 
(1894) ;  "The  Martian"  (1897).  He  died 
in  London,  Oct.  8,  1896. 

DUMBA,  KONSTANTIN  THEODOR, 
Austro-Hungarian  Ambassador  to  the 
United  States  in  1914,  at  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War.  The  United 
States  was  at  this  time  holding  a 
neutral     attitude    toward    the    war    in 


Europe.  On  Aug.  30,  1915,  an  American 
correspondent  was  arrested  in  Falmouth, 
England,  as  he  was  landing  from  a  trans- 
Atlantic  liner  and  among  his  papers, 
which  were  seized,  was  found  a  message 
from  Dr.  Dumba  to  Baron  Burian,  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Foreign  Minister.  In 
this  letter  the  Austrian  Ambassador  sug- 
gested the  blowing  up  of  a  number  of 
American  munition  factories,  which 
were  supplying  Great  Britain  and  her 
allies  with  war  supplies.  For  this  pur- 
pose, and  general  propaganda,  funds 
were  requested.  The  United  States  Gov- 
ernment thereupon  forced  the  official 
recall  of  Dr.  Dumba. 

DUMBARTONSHIRE,  a  county  of 
Scotland,  with  an  area  of  267  square 
miles.  The  northern  and  southern  parts 
are  mountainous,  with  an  elevation  of 
from  2,000  to  3,000  feet.  Within  the 
county  are  included  many  beautiful 
lakes,  including  Loch  Lomond.  The  chief 
industries  are  dyeing,  the  printing  of 
calicoes,  engine  and  ship-building,  brew- 
ing and  distilling,  and  the  mining  of  coal 
and  iron.  Pop.  about  140,000.  The 
capital  is  Dumbarton. 

DUM-D  JM  BULLETS,  a  bullet  so 
named  after  the  place  near  Calcutta 
where  it  was  first  made.  It  is  one  which 
instead  of  having  its  greatest  strength 
at  the  point  is  weakest  there,  so  that  in 
striking  a  bone  it  will  flatten  out  and 
shatter  it,  and  not,  like  the  modern  steel- 
coated,  sharp-pointed  bullet,  make  a 
small  hole  and  pass  through  without  any 
other  effect.  The  loading  of  rifles  with 
two  bullets,  with  jagged  bullets,  or  with 
bullets  mixed  with  glass  or  lime  has  long 
been  forbidden  in  civilized  warfare.  At 
Santiago  the  Spaniards  were  charged 
with  cutting  off  the  brass  tips  of  their 
bullets  so  that  they  had  the  same  effect 
in  inflicting  jagged  wounds  as  the  regu- 
lar dum-dum  bullets.  Dum-dum  bullets 
are  now  used  to  some  extent  by  big  game 
hunters.  The  Hague  Peace  Congress 
agreed  that  dum-dum  bullets  should  not 
be  used  in  war. 

The  same  charge  was  brought  against 
the  British  by  the  Germans  in  the  World 
War,  but  was  never  proven  officially. 

DUMFRIES  (dum-fres') ,  a  river  port, 
railway  center  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough, capital  of  the  county  of  same  name, 
and  the  chief  place  in  the  S.  of  Scotland; 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nith,  about  6 
miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Solway 
Firth.  It  is  connected  with  the  suburb 
Maxwelltown  (in  Kirkcudbright)  by 
three  bridges,  one  dating  from  the  13th 
century.     Pop.  about  19,000. 

DUMFRIESSHIRE,  a  county  of  Scot- 
land in  the  southern  division.    It  has  an. 


DU  MOND 


437 


DUNDEE 


area  of  1,072  square  miles.  It  is  moun- 
tainous in  the  northern  part.  There  are 
mines  of  coal,  limestone,  lead,  silver,  and 
zinc.  The  chief  industries  are  agricul- 
ture and  cattle  and  sheep  raising.  In  the 
numerous  rivers  are  abundant  salmon. 
Pop.,  about  75,000.  The  capital  is  Dum- 
fries. 

DU  MOND,  FRANK  VINCENT,  an 
American  artist,  born  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  in  1865.  He  was  educated  in  Paris 
and  was  awarded  a  medal  at  the  Paris 
Salon  in  1890.  He  also  received  medals 
at  the  Boston  Exposition  of  1892,  the 
Atlanta  Exposition  of  1895,  the  Buffalo 
Exposition  of  1901,  and  the  St.  Louis 
Exposition  of  1904.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  National  Academy  and  of  other 
art  and  architectural  societies. 

DUNAJEC,  BATTLE  OF,  named  after 
the  Dunajec  river,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant engagements  between  the  Rus- 
sians and  the  forces  of  the  Central  Em- 
pires fought  during  the  early  part  of  the 
World  War.  The  object  was  to  drive 
back  the  Russians,  who  had  invaded 
eastern  Galicia  and  the  Bukowina,  and 
large  forces  numbering  nearly  2,000,000 
were  massed  in  this  region  and  placed 
under  the  command  of  General  von  Mack- 
ensen.  The  fighting  began  on  April  28, 
1915,  and  lasted  well  into  May,  the  Rus- 
sian center  being  broken  and  the  whole 
Russian  front  being  driven  back. 

DUNBAR,  a  town  of  Scotland;  a  royal 
and  municipal  borough  and  seaport  in 
Haddingtonshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Firth  of  ^orth.  It  is  a  place  of  great 
antiquity,  having  originated  in  a  castle 
once  of  great  strength  and  importance 
which  underwent  several  memorable 
siea:es,  on  one  occasion  being  successfully 
defended  against  the  English  for  19 
weeks  by  Black  Agnes,  Countess  of  Dun- 
bar. In  1650  Cromwell  totally  defeated 
the  Scottish  army  under  David  Leslie 
near  the  town.  The^  town  is  an  im- 
portant fishing  station.  Pop.  about 
3,500. 

DUNBAR,     PAUL    LAURENCE,    an 

American  author ;  born  of  negro  parents 
in  Dayton,  O.,  June  27,  1872.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  Dayton  High  School  in 
1891,  and  since  then  has  devoted  him- 
self to  literature  and  journalism.  Since 
1898  he  has  been  on  the  staff  of  the  Li- 
brarian of  Congress.  He  has  written 
"Oak  and  Ivy"  (poems) ;  "Lyrics  of 
Lowly  Life"  (poems),  and  "The  Un- 
called" (  a  novel).    He  died  Feb.  9,  1906. 

DUNCAN,  GEORGE  BRAND,  an 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Lexington, 
Ky.,  in  1861.  He  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1886 
and  was  commissioned  2d  lieutenant  of 


the  9th  Infantry  in  the  same  year.  He 
acted  as  captain  and  assistant  adjutant- 
general  of  volunteers  during  the  Spanish- 
American  War.  In  1899  he  was  honor- 
ably discharged  from  the  volunteer  serv- 
ice and  was  commissioned  a  captain  in 
the  regular  army.  He  rose  through  the 
various  grades,  becoming  colonel  in  1916 
In  1917  he  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  of  the  National  Army  and  in 
1918  became  major-general.  He  served 
in  France  with  the  American  Expedition- 
ary Force  from  June,  1917,  to  June 
1919.  He  was  commander  in  turn  of  the 
26th  Infantry  of  the  1st  Division,  and  of 
the  1st  Brigade  of  the  1st  Division.  He 
was  the  first  American  general  who  com- 
manded a  sector  on  the  battle  front, 
north  of  Toul.  From  May  to  August, 
1918,  he  commanded  the  77th  Division, 
and  during  the  Meuse-Argonne  offensive 
he  commanded  the  82d  Division.  He 
continued  to  command  this  Division  until 
its  demobilization  in  March,  1919.  He 
was  awarded  decorations  by  the  French 
and  English  Governments  and  received 
the  Distinguished  Service  Cross  from  the 
United   States   Government. 

DUNCIAD,  THE,  a  celebrated  satiri- 
cal poem  by  Pope,  in  which  he  gibbets 
his  critics  and  foes.  The  first  three 
books  were  published  in  1728;  the  fourth 
book,  or  "New  Dunciad,"  appeared  in 
1742,  with  illustrations  by  Scriblerus 
and  notes  variorum.  Cibber  was  latterly 
substituted  for  Theobald  as  the  hero,  and 
among  others  who  figured  in  the  satire 
were  Ambrose  Philips,  Blackmore,  Bent- 
ley,  Defoe,  Dennis,  Shadwell  and  Settle. 

DUNDAS.  (1)  A  baronial  castle  dat- 
ing from  the  11th  to  15th  centuries,  with 
modern  additions,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  near  South  Queensferry, 
the  seat  from  about  1124  till  1875  of  the 
family  of  Dundas.  (2)  A  town  of  Went- 
worth  CO.,  Ontario,  at  the  head  of  Bur- 
lington Bay,  at  the  W.  of  Lake  Ontario, 
with  a  number  of  mills  and  manufac- 
tories. (3)  An  island  of  British  Columbia, 
40  miles  N.  E.  of  Queen  Charlotte  Is- 
land and  separated  by  Chatham  Sound 
from  tb«.  most  southerly  of  the  Alaskan 
islands.  (4)  A  group  of  nearly  500 
islets  (also  called  the  Juba  Islands),  all 
of  coralline  formation,  lying  off  the  E. 
coast  of  Africa,  in  about  1°  S.  lat.,  with 
only  one  secure  harbor.  (5)  A  strait 
in  north  Australia,  separating  Melville 
Island  from  Coburg  Peninsula,  about 
18  miles  broad. 

DUNDEE,  a  flourishing  borough  and 
seaport  of  Scotland  in  County  Forfar, 
on  the  Tay,  8  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
37%  miles  N.  E.  of  Edinburgh.  It  has 
a  fine  harbor,  and  splendid  docks,  and 
manufactures  osnaburgs  and  other  coarse 


DUNEDIN 


438 


DUNNE 


linens,  canvas  and  bagging  for  export, 
and  colored  threads  and  gloves.  Dundee 
possesses  many  shipyards,  sugar  refin- 
eries, tanneries,  and  machine  shops.  Its 
linen  trade  is  the  largest  in  Great 
Britain.     Pop.   (1918)    181,777. 

DUNEDIN  (dun-e'din),  capital  of  Ota- 
go,  New  Zealand;  the  most  important 
commercial  town  in  the  colony;  at  the 
upper  extremity  of  an  arm  of  the  sea, 
about  9  miles  from  its  port,  Port  Chal- 
mers, with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail- 
way. Though  founded  in  1848,  its  more 
rapid  progress  dates  only  from  1861, 
whsn  extensive  gold  fields  discovered  in 
Otago  attracted  a  large  influx  of  popu- 
lation. It  is  well  paved,  lighted  with  gas, 
and  has  a  good  supply  of  water.  There 
are  many  handsome  buildings,  both  pub- 
lic and  private.  Wool  is  the  staple 
export.  Several  woolen  and  other  manu- 
factories are  now  in  existence.  There  is 
a  regular  line  of  steamers  between  this 
port  and  Melbourne,  and  communication 
is  frequent  with  all  parts  of  New  Zea- 
land. Pop.,  including  suburbs,  about 
70,000. 

DUNFERMLINE,  a  tovra  In  Fife, 
Scotland,  16  miles  N.  W.  of  Edinburgh; 
on  a  long  swelling  ridge,  3  miles  from 
and  300  feet  above  the  Forth,  and  backed 
by  the  Cleish  Hills  (1,240  feet),  presents 
a  striking  aspect  from  the  S.  It  is  a 
place  of  antiquity,  from  1057  till  1650  a 
frequent  residence  of  Scotland's  kings, 
and  for  more  than  two  centuries  their 
place  of  sepulture.  It  was  here  that 
Charles  II.  signed  the  Covenant  in  1650. 
In  1911  the  boundaries  of  the  burgh  were 
extended  to  the  Firth  of  Forth.  Con- 
siderable trade  is  done  in  linen  manu- 
factured here.     Pop.  about  28,000. 

DUNKERQUE,  or  DUNQUERQUE,  a 

fortified  seaport  town  of  France,  de- 
partment of  Le  Nord,  40  miles  from 
Lille.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  several 
churches,  a  theater,  concert  hall,  hospi- 
tals, a  college,  public  library,  and  mili- 
tary prison,  and  is  defended  by  a  citadel. 
The  churches  are  less  remarkable  for 
architecture  than  for  the  paintings  they 
contain.  Large  sums  were  expended  by 
the  French  Government  on  its  harbor 
and  docks;  these  it  was  agreed  to  de- 
molish at  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  but  their 
destruction  was  never  completed,  and  at 
the  peace  of  1783  they  were  restored.  In 
1388  this  town  was  burned  by  the  Eng- 
lish; after  which  its  possession  was  re- 
peatedly contested  by  the  French  and 
Snanish.  In  1658  it  was  given  up  to  the 
English  by  Turenne;  and  in  1662,  sold  by 
Charles  II.  to  Louis  XIV.,  for  $1,000,000. 
It  was  made  a  free  port  in  1826.  In  Sep- 
tember and  October  of  1917  during  the 
World   War,   the   town  was    dfily   bom- 


barded from  sea  and  land,  causing  great 
wreckage  and  considerable  loss  of  life. 
Population  before  the  war  about  40,000. 

DUNKERS,  or  DUNKARDS,  a  sect  of 
German  Baptists,  founded  by  Alexander 
Mack,  about  A.  D.  1708.  Persecution 
drove  them  in  1723  to  the  United  States, 
where  they  are  now  divided  into  four 
branches. 

DUNKIRK,  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on  Lake  Erie, 
and  the  Erie,  the  Nickel  Plate,  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  the 
Western  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  Dunkirk,  Allegheny  Valley  and 
Pittsburg  railroads;  40  miles  S.  W.  of 
Buffalo.  It  is  an  important  shipping 
port,  having  a  good  harbor  and  facilities 
for  freight  handling.  Its  industries  in- 
clude a  plant  for  the  manufacture  of 
locomotives,  foundry,  planing  mills,  grain 
mills,  grain  and  coal  elevators,  and 
various  other  factories.  It  is  a  popular 
summer  resort,  with  a  beautiful  park 
overlooking  Lake  Erie,  and  has  a  public 
library,  orphan  asylum,  public  schools, 
and  national  banks.  Pop.  (1910)  17,221; 
(1920)   19,336. 

DUNMORE,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Lackawanna  co.  It  is  on  the 
Erie  and  the  Lackawanna  railroads,  and 
adjoins  Scranton.  The  borough  is  an  im- 
portant anthracite  coal  region  and  there 
are  manufactures  of  brick,  stone,  and 
silk.  It  is  the  seat  of  St.  Mary's  Aca- 
demy, and  several  homes  for  children 
and  for  the  aged.  Pop.  (1910)  17,615; 
(1920)  20,250. 

DUNNE,  EDWARD  FITZSIMONS, 
an  American  public  official;  born  in 
Waterville,  Conn.,  in  1853.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  High  School  of  Peoria,  111., 
and  for  3  years  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin.  He  studied  law  at  the 
Union  College  of  Law,  graduating  in 
1887.  In  the  same  year  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  From  1892  to  1905  he  was 
judge  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  Cook 
County,  111.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  mayor  of  Chicago,  serving  until 
1907,  when  he  again  engaged  in  the  prac- 
tice of  law.  From  1913  to  1917  he  was 
governor  of  Illinois.  He  was  ^  a  prom- 
inent figure  in  Democratic  politics.  In 
1906-1907  he  was  president  of  the  League 
of  American  Mnicipalities,  and  in^  1919 
he  was  a  member  of  the  commission 
from  Irish  societies  of  the  United  States 
to  present  claims  of  Ireland  for  self- 
determination  at  the  Peace  Conference 
in  Paris. 

DUNNE,     EDWARD     JOSEPH,     an 

American  clergyman;  born  in  Tipperary, 
Ireland,  in  1848.     He  came  to  the  United 


DUNNE 


459 


DU  PONT 


States  when  he  was  a  year  old,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Theological  Seminary  in 
Baltimore,  and  ordained  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic priest  in  1871.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Dallas,  Texas,  in  1893. 

DUNNE,  FINLEY  PETER,  an  Amer- 
ican writer,  born  in  Chicago  in  1867. 
He  was  educated  in  the  common  schools 
and  served  on  the  staffs  of  several  news- 
papers in  Chicago  from  1885  to  1900. 
He  first  attracted  attention  by  the  publi- 
cation in  the  Chicago  "Times-Herald"  of 
a  series  of  sketches  in  which  the  chief 
figure  was  one  Martin  Dooley.  Upon 
the  publication  of  these  sketches  in  a 
volume  entitled  "Mr.  Dooley  in  Peace 
and  in  War,"  his  reputation  was  estab- 
lished. This  was  followed  by  "Mr.  Doo- 
ley in  the  Hearts  of  his  Countrymen" 
(1898)  ;  "Mr.  Dooley's  Philosophy" 
(1900);  "Mr.  Doolev's  Opinions"  ( 1901 )  ; 
"Observations  by  Mr.  Dooley"  (1902)  ; 
and  "Mr.  Dooley  Says"  (1910).  He 
served  as  editor  for  several  publications 
and  in  1918-1919  was  editor  of  Collier's 
Weekly.  He  was  a  memiaer  of  the  Na- 
tional Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters. 

DUNOIS,  JEAN  (diin-wa'),  called  the 
Bastard  of  Orleans,  Count  of  Dunois  and 
Longueville,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  sol- 
diers that  France  ever  produced;  born  in 
Paris,  Nov.  23,  1402,  the  natural  son  of 
Louis  Duke  of  Orleans,  brother  of 
Charles  VL,  and  was  brought  up  in  the 
house  of  that  prince  along  with  his  legiti- 
mate children.  His  first  important  mili- 
tary achievement  was  the  overthrow  of 
the  English  at  Montargis  (1427).  He 
next  threw  himself  into  Orleans  with  a 
small  body  of  men,  and  bravely  defended 
the  place  till  the  arrival  of  the  famous 
Joan  of  Arc,  whose  religious  enthusiasm 
combined  with  the  valor  of  Dunois  re- 
stored the  drooping  spirits  of  the  French, 
and  compelled  the  English  to  raise  the 
siege.  This  was  the  turning  point  in  the 
fortunes  of  the  French  nation.  In  1429 
Dunois  and  the  Maid  of  Orleans  won  the 
battle  of  Patay,  after  which  he  marched, 
with  a  small  body  of  men,  through  the 
provinces  then  overrun  by  the  English 
and  took  the  fortified  towns.  The  cap- 
ture and  death  of  Joan  of  Arc  arrested 
for  a  moment  the  progress  of  the  French 
arms,  but  the  heroism  of  Dunois  was  ir- 
resistible. He  took  Chartres,  the  key  of 
Paris,  forced  Bedford  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Lagny,  chased  the  enemy  from  Paris, 
and  within  a  very  short  period  deprived 
them  of  all  their  French  conquests  except 
Normandy  and  Guienne.  In  1448-1450  he 
drove  the  English  from  Normandy,  and 
in  1455  he  had  swept  them  from  Guienne 
also,  and  permanently  secured  the  free- 
dom of  France  from  all  external  pres- 
sure.   For  his  participation  in  the  league 


of  the  nobles  against  Louis  XI.  he  was 
deprived  of  all  his  offices  and  possessions, 
which  were,  however,  restored  to  him 
under  the  treaty  of  Conflans  (1465).  He 
died  Nov.  24,  1468. 

DUNSANY,  EDWARD  JOHN  MORE- 
TON  DRAX  PLUNKETT,  BARON,  an 
English  poet  and  dramatist.  He  was 
born  in  1878  and  was  educated  at  Eton. 
He  was  a  captain  in  the  1st  Battalion 
Royal  Inniskilling  Fusiliers  and  was 
wounded  in  1916.  His  works  include: 
"Gods  of  Pegana";  "Tima  and  the  Gods"; 
"A  Dreamer's  Tales";  "Five  Plaj-s"; 
"Plays  of  God  and  Men";  "The  Glittering 
Gate";  "The  Gods  of  the  Mountain"; 
"The  Tents  of  the  Arabs";  "A  Night  at 
an  Inn";  "Tales  of  War,"  etc. 

DUNS  SCOTUS,  JOANNES  (duns  sko' 
tus),  a  Scotch  metaphysician,  head  of  the 
Schoolmen,  called  "the  subtle  doctor"; 
born  in  Ireland,  1265  or  1274.  His  oppo- 
sition to  the  Thomists  or  adherents  of 
Thomas  Aquinas  was  spirited.  He  wrote 
an  "Exposition  of  Aristotelian  Physics"; 
"Questions  on  Aristotle's  Work  on  the 
Soul";  and  similar  works.  He  died  in 
Cologne,  Nov.  8,  1308. 

DUNSTAN,  ST.,  an  Anglo-Saxon  ec- 
clesiastic; bom  in  Glastonbury  in  925. 
As  a  youth  he  was  remarkable  for  his 
learning  and  his  skill  in  music,  painting, 
carving,  and  working  in  metals.  He 
entered  the  Benedictine  order,  became  an 
anchorite  at  Glastonbury,  and  in  945  was 
made  abbot  by  King  Edmund.  After  the 
death  of  Edmund,  Edred,  the  next  king, 
made  him  his  prime  minister  and  princi- 
pal director  in  civil  and  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs. In  the  reign  of  Ed^^^'  he  was 
banished,  but  was  recalled  by  Edgar,  and 
made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  was 
again  deprived  of  power  on  the  accession 
of  Ethelred  in  978.  He  did  much  to  im- 
prove education  and  to  raise  the  stand- 
ing and  character  of  the  priesthood.  He 
died  in  Canterbury  in  988. 

DU  PONT,  SAMUEL  FRANCIS,  an 
American  naval  officer;  bom  in  Bergen 
Point,  N.  J.,  Sept.  27,  1803.  He  was 
commissioned  a  midshipman  when  12 
years  old.  During  the  Mexican  War, 
being  then  a  commander,  he  saw  much 
active  and  gallant  sei-\'ice  on  the  Cali- 
fornia coast.  In  1856  he  was  made  a 
captain,  and  the  following  year  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  steam  frigate 
"Minnesota,"  which  conveyed  Mr.  Reed, 
the  American  minister,  to  China.  In 
1862  he  was  put  in  command  of  the 
South  Atlantic  blockading  squadron.  He 
sailed  from  Fort  Monroe,  Oct.  29,  in  his 
flagship  the  "Wabash,"  accompanied  by 
a  fleet  of  50  sail;  reached  Port  Royal 
Nov,  5,  and  two  days  after  attacked  two 


DUQITESNB 


440 


DURANT 


strong  forts,  on  Hilton  Head  and  Bay 
Point,  which  were  evacuated  after  a  se- 
vere engagement  of  four  hours.  He  was 
promoted  to  rear-admiral  in  August, 
1862.  He  greatly  contributed  to  the 
organization  of  the  Naval  School  at 
Annapolis,  and  was  the  author  of  a  very 
remarkable  report  on  the  use  of  floating 
batteries  for  coast  defense.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  23,  1865. 

DUQUESNE,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Allegheny  co.  It  is  on  the 
Monongahela  river,  and  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania railroad.  The  city  has  large  steel 
works  and  blast  furnaces.  There  is  a 
public  library  and  an  institute.  Fop. 
(1910)  15,727;  (1920)  19,011. 

DUQUOIN,  a  city  of  Illinois,  in  Perry 
CO.  It  is  on  the  Illinois  Central  railroad. 
Its  industries  include  iron  works,  flour 
mills,  planing  mills,  etc.  There  are  im- 
portant coal  mines  in  the  neighborhood. 
Pop.   (1910)  5,454;   (1920)   7,285. 

DTJRAJSr,  CAROLUS,  CHARLES  AU- 
GUSTE-EMILE,  called  DURAND,  a 
French  painter;  born  in  Lille,  July  4, 
1837.  He  x'eceived  his  early  art  educa- 
tion at  the  municipal  school  in  his  native 
town,  and  in  1853  went  to  Paris  and 
spent  much  time  in  copying  again  and 
again  "La  Joconde,"  at  the  Louvre.  He 
gained  the  Wicar  traveling  scholarship 
and  went  to  Italy,  and  at  Rome  painted 
"La  Priere  du  Soir,"  exhibited  at  the 
Salon  in  1865.  For  "L'Assassine  (1866), 
he  was  awarded  his  first  medal.  M. 
Duran  resided  for  a  year  In  Spain,  and 
the  influence  of  Velasquez  is  clearly  seen 
in  his  "St.  Francis  of  Assissi,"  ex- 
hibited at  the  Paris  Salon  in  1868.  But 
the  fame  of  Carolus  Duran  rests  princi- 
pally on  his  portraits,  which  are  very 
numerous.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned Emile  de  Girardin,  those  of 
his  daughters,  the  equestrian  portrait 
of  Mile.  Croizette,  the  well-known 
actress,  and  a  portrait  of  Pasteur. 
He  was  a  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  and  of  the  Order  of  Leo- 
pold. In  1898  he  made  a  lecturing  tour 
to  the  United  States,  this  being  his  sec- 
ond visit.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  National  Society 
of  Fine  Arts.  Exhibited  at  St.  Louis 
Exposition  in  1904.  Member  of  French 
Institute  (1915),  and  Director  of  French 
Academy  at  Rome.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Feb.  18,  1917. 

DURANGO,  a  city  of  Colorado,  the 
county-seat  of  La  Plata  co.  It  is  on  the 
Las  Animas  river,  and  on  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  and  the  Rio  (irande 
Southern  railroads.  The  city  is  a  com- 
mercial center  for  southwestern  Colora- 
do and  northwestern  New  Mexico.  There 


are  smelting  and  reduction  works,  flour 
mills,  and  a  packing  plant.  The  city 
has  a  public  library  and  other  public 
buildings. 

DURANGO,  a  state  of  Mexico,  with 
an  area  of  38,009  square  miles.  It  is 
for  the  most  part  high  and  dry  plateau 
and  is  traversed  in  the  northern  part  by 
the  Sierra  Madre  mountains.  The  soil 
in  general  is  good  and  produces  wheat, 
vegetables,  sugar  cane,  and  cotton.  Corn, 
tobacco,  and  grapes  are  also  grown.  The 
principal  industry  of  the  state  is  mining, 
and  its  silver  mines  have  been  famous 
from  colonial  times.  Iron  and  steel  are 
also  mined  near  the  city  of  Durango. 
Manufacturing  has  made  some  progress 
in  recent  years.  There  are  soap  and 
candle  factories,  tanneries,  and  pottery 
works.  Pop.  about  500,000.  The  capital 
is  Durango. 

DURANGO  (also  called  Guadiana  and 
Ciudad  de  Victoria),  a  town  of  Mexico, 
on  a  dry  plateau,  6,700  feet  above  sea- 
level,  500  miles  N.  W.  of  the  City  of 
Mexico.  It  is  handsomely  built,  with  a 
cathedral,  a  former  Jesuit  college,  a 
theater,  and  a  mint,  and  the  town  now 
has  tramways  and  telephones.  Pop. 
about    33,000. 

DURANT,  a  city  of  Oklahoma,  the 
county-seat  of  Bryan  co.  It  is  on  the 
Missouri,  Oklahoma,  and  Gulf,  the  Mis- 
souri, Kansas,  and  Texas,  and  the  St. 
Louis  and  San  Francisco  railroads.  It 
is  the  center  of  an  important  agricul- 
tural industry.  There  are  flour  and  oil 
mills.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  Presby- 
terian college,  and  the  Southeastern 
State  Normal  School.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,330;    (1920)   7,340. 

DURANT,    E(DWARD)    DANA,    an 

American  statistician  and  public  official, 
born  in  Romeo,  Mich.,  in  1871.  He  grad- 
uated from  Oberlin  (College  in  1893,  and 
took  post-graduate  courses  at  Cornell 
University.  From  1895  to  1897  he  was 
legislative  librarian  of  the  New  York 
State  Library,  and  in  1898-1899  was  as- 
sistant professor  of  administration  and 
finance  at  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  Univer- 
sity. From  1900  to  1902  he  was  secre- 
tary of  the  United  States  Industrial 
Commission.  After  filling  several  posts 
in  the  government  service  he  was  deputy 
commissioner  of  corporations  from  1907 
to  1909.  From  the  latter  year  to  1913 
he  was  director  of  the  United  States 
Census.  He  was  professor  of  statistics 
and  agricultural  economics  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota  from  1913.  He 
wrote  extensively  on  financial  matters, 
and  his  published  writings  include  "Fi- 
nances of  New  York  City"  (1898)  ;  and 
"The  Trust  Problem"   (1915).     He  also 


DUBANT 


441 


DUREB 


contributed  many  articles  on  economical 
and  political  subjects  to  economic  jour- 
nals. From  1917  he  was  assistant  head 
of  the  Meat  Division  of  the  United  States 
Food  Administration,  at  Chicago. 

DUB  A  NT,  HENBY  FOWLE,  an 
American  philanthropist;  born  in  Han- 
over, N.  H.,  Feb.  20,  1822.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1842  and  be- 
came a  lawyer,  changing  his  name  from 
Henry  Welles  Smith  to  H.  F.  Durant. 
He  practiced  with  great  success  at  the 
bar,  but  on  the  death  of  his  only  son 
abandoned  his  profession  and  devoted 
his  energies  to  philanthropy.  He  founded 
Wellesley  College  (opened  in  1875),  and 
was  successful  as  a  lay  preacher.  He 
died  in  Wellesley,  Mass.,  Oct.  3,  1881. 

DUBAZZO  (do-rat'so),  a  port  of 
Albania,  built  on  the  rocky  peninsula  of 
Pelu,  in  the  Adriatic,  50  miles  S.  of 
Scutari.  It  is  a  decayed  place  with  a 
ruined  citadel;  but  the  harbor  is  the 
most  important  of  middle  Albania.  Du- 
razzo  is  the  ancient  Epidamnos,  founded 
about  625  B.  C.  by  Corcyraeans  and  Co- 
rinthians. It  became  a  great  and  popu- 
lous city,  but  was  much  harassed  by  the 
party  strifes,  which  ultimately  led  to  the 
Peloponnesian  War.  Under  the  Romans 
it  was  called  Dyrrachium  (whence  its 
modern  name),  and  became  the  principal 
landing-place  for  those  sailing  from 
Brundusium  in  Italy  to  Greece;  and  the 
great  military  road  to  the  Hellespont 
began  here.  The  town  was  captured  by 
the  Austrians  Feb.  28,  1916.  June  3, 
1917,  the  Italians  set  up  a  provisional 
government  here.     Pop.  about  5,000. 

DUBBAN,  the  seaport  of  the  colony 
of  Natal,  south  Africa:  on  the  N.  shore 
of  a  nearly  land-locked  tidal  bay.  The 
climate,  though  hot  in  one  or  two  sum- 
mer months,  is  healthy  and  suitable  for 
Europeans.  The  town  was  laid  out  by 
the  Dutch,  who  formed  a  republic  in 
Natal  before  the  British,  under  Sir  Ben- 
jamin D'Urban,  took  the  colony  in  1842. 
The  public  buildings  include  a  capacious 
town  hall,  museum,  library,  etc.  The 
Town  Gardens  form  a  conspicuous  open 
space  in  the  middle  of  the  town,  and  be- 
sides the  Botanical  Gardens,  there  are 
two  public  parks.  The  residences  of  the 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  situated  on  the 
Berea,  a  low  range  of  hills  overlooking 
the  town.  The  port,  which  has  a  light- 
house, is  the  entrepot  for  coal  from  sev- 
eral interior  parts  of  the  colony.  Great 
h'arbor  works  (1888-1895)  have  made 
the  inner  harbor  (4,700  acres)  accessible 
at  all  times  to  vessels  of  deep  draught. 
During  the  war  against  the  Boers  in 
1899-1900  the  British  made  Durban  a 
base  of  supplies.    Fop.  (1918)  48,413. 


DUBEB,  ALBEBT,  a  German  painter, 
designei',  sculptor,  and  engraver  on  wood 
and  metal;  born  in  Niirnberg  in  1471. 
His  father  was  a  skillful  goldsmith  of 
Hungary.  In  1486  he  left  his  father's 
trade  and  became  an  apprentice  of 
Michael  Wohlgemuth,  then  the  best 
painter  in  Niirnberg.  At  Niirnberg  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Hans  Frey,  a 
mechanic,  who  has  been  falsely  accused 
for  centuries  of  embittering  his  life  and 
bringing  him  to  his  grave.  In  1505  he 
went  to  Venice  to  improve  himself  in  his 
art.  He  painted  the  "Martyrdom  of 
Bartholomew"  for  St.  Mark's  Church, 
which  painting  was  purchased  by  the 
Emperor  Rudolph  and  removed  to 
Prague.  He  also  traveled  to  Bologna, 
to  improve  his  knowledge  of  perspective. 
On  his  return  to  Niirnberg  his  fame 
spread  far  and  wide.  Maximilian  I.  ap- 
pointed him  his  court  painter,  and 
Charles  V.  confirmed  him  in  this  office. 
He  was  the  first  in  Germany  who  taught 
the  rules  of  perspective,  and  of  the  pro- 


ALBERT  DURER 

portions  of  the  human  figure.  He  not 
only  made  use  of  the  burin,  like  his  pred- 
ecessors, but  was  also  among  the  first 
to  practice  etching.  He  invented  the 
method  of  printing  woodcuts  with  two 
colors.  Among  his  masterpieces  in  paint- 
ing are  a  "Crucifixion,"  "Adam  and 
Eve,"  an  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  the 
"Adoration  of  the  Trinity,"  in  the  Bel- 
vedere Gallery,  Vienna;  and  portraits  of 
Raphael,  Erasmus,  and  Melanchthon, 
who  were  his  friends.  Among  his  best 
engravings  on  copper  are  his  ''Fortune," 
"Melancholy,"  "Adam  and  Eve  in  Para- 
dise," "St.  Hubert,"  "St.  Jerome,"  and 
the  "Smaller  Passion"  (so  called),  in  16 
plates.  Among  his  best  engravings  on 
wood  are  the  "Greater  Passion"  (so 
called),  in  13  plates;  the  "Smaller  Pas- 
sion," with   the  frontispiece,  37  pieces; 


DUBESS 


442 


DUSE 


the  "Revelations  of  St.  John,"  with  the 
frontispiece,  15  plates;  the  "Life  of 
Mary,"  two  prints,  with  the  frontispiece. 
Diirer  has  also  much  merit  as  a  winter, 
and  published  works  on  ''Human  Pro- 
portion," "Fortification,"  and  the  "Use 
of  the  Compass  and  Square."  He  died 
in  Niirnberg  in  1528. 

DURESS,  in  law,  a  condition  that  may 
be  either  physical,  that  is,  by  actual  con- 
finement or  restraint  of  liberty,  or  moral, 
that  is,  by  threats  or  menaces,  duress  per 
minas;  in  either  case  the  overt  act  must 
be  to  compel  a  person  to  do  some  act,  as 
to  execute  a  deed  or  commit  an  offense: 
in  such  case  the  act  is  invalid  and  ex- 
cusable. Thus,  if  a  man  is  violently  as- 
saulted, and  has  no  other  possible  means 
of  escaping  death,  he  is  permitted  to  kill 
his  assailant;  for  here  the  law  of  nature 
and  self-defense,  its  primary  canon,  has 
made  him  his  own  protector. 

DURHAM,  a  city  in  Durham  co.,  N. 
C. ;  on  the  Southern  Air  Line,  the  South- 
ern, the  Durham  and  South  Carolina,  and 
the  Durham  and  Southern  railroads;  26 
miles  N.  W.  of  Raleigh.  It  is  a  tobacco 
and  cotton-growing  center,  and  the  seat 
of  Trinity  College  (M.  E.,  S.).  The 
manufacture  of  smoking  tobacco  is  the 
staple  industry  of  the  place.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  treaty  between  Generals 
Sherman  and  Johnston  at  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War.  It  has  2  National  banks 
and  two  newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  18,- 
241;    (1920)    21,719. 

DURHAM,  an  ancient  city  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  in  England,  capital  of 
the  county  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
river  Wear,  which  is  crossed  here  by 
four  bridges,  14  miles  S.  of  Newcastle. 
The  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
ancient  castle  (now  appropriated  to  the 
uses  of  the  university),  the  cathedral, 
and  other  churches,  the  town  hall,  county 
prison,  and  the  grammar  school.  The 
educational  institutions  comprise  the 
university,  the  grammar  school,  training 
school  for  school-mistresses,  and  other 
schools.  There  are  manufactures  of  car- 
peting and  mustard.  The  cathedral  oc- 
cupies a  height  overlooking  the  Wear. 
The  larger  portion  of  it  is  Norman  in 
style,  with  insertions  in  all  the  English 
styles.  Three  magnificent  and  elabo- 
rately ornamented  towers  spring  up  from 
the  body  of  the  building,  one  from  the 
center  212  feet  high,  and  two  together 
from  the  W.  end,  each  143  feet  high;  the 
entire  length  is  420  feet.  It  was  founded 
by  William  de  Carilephe  and  Malcolm, 
King  of  Scotland,  in  1093.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

DURHAM,  JOHN  GEORGE  LAMB- 
TON.  EARL  OF,  an  English  statesman; 


born  in  Lambton  Hall,  Durham,  April 
12,  1792.  Of  decided  liberal  sympathies, 
he  was  in  1813  elected  to  Parliament  for 
his  native  county,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  furthering  all  projects  of  a  re- 
forming tendency.  In  1828  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of 
Baron  Durham  of  the  city  of  Durham. 
LTnder  the  administration  of  Lord  Grey 
(1830)  he  held  the  office  of  Lord  Privy 
Seal,  and  was  one  of  the  four  persons 
who  drew  up  the  Reform  Bill,  and  sup- 
ported it  in  the  House  of  Lords.  He  re- 
signed ofl!ice  in  1833  and  was  made  an 
earl.  For  a  time  he  was  ambassador  at 
St.  Petersburg.  In  1838  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor-general  of  Canada, 
where,  owing  to  the  revolt  of  the  French 
in  lower  Canada,  the  constitution  had 
been  suspended.  Lord  Durham's  meas- 
ures were  statesmanlike,  but  dictatorial; 
and  the  House  of  Lords  voted  disap- 
proval of  some  of  his  acts.  Thereupon 
he  took  the  extraordinary  step  of  return- 
ing to  England  without  being  either  re- 
called or  obtaining  the  royal  consent. 
Lord  Durham's  famous  report  on  Canada 
(which,  however,  was  mainly  written  by 
his  secretary,  Charles  Buller)  antici- 
pated many  of  the  best  features  in  the 
present  Canadian  constitution.  He  died 
in  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  July  28,  1840. 

DiJRRENSTEIN  (diir'en-stm) ,  a  vil- 
lage in  lower  Austria,  on  the  Danube,  41 
miles  N.  W.  of  Vienna.  Here  are  the 
ruins  of  the  castle  in  which  Leopold, 
Duke  of  Austria,  imprisoned  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion  on  his  return  from  Pales- 
tine, in  1192. 

DURUY, VICTOR  (dii-rue'),  a  French 
historian;  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  11,  1811. 
He  assisted  Napoleon  III.  in  compiling 
"The  Life  of  Julius  Caesar,"  and  was 
made  minister  of  public  instruction  in 
1863.  Among  his  historical  works  are: 
"History  of  the  Romans"  (2  vols.  1843)  ; 
"State  of  the  Roman  World  Toward  the 
Time  of  the  Founding  of  the  Empire" 
(1853) ;  "General  Introduction  to  the 
History  of  France"  (1865)  ;  "History  of 
the  Greeks"  (5  vols.  1886).  He  also 
wrote  the  greater  part  of  a  "Universal 
History."    He  died  Nov.  25,  1894. 

DURYEA,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania, 
in  Luzerne  co.  It  is  on  the  Lackawanna 
river,  and  on  the  Erie,  the  Lehigh  Valley, 
and  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and 
Western  railroads.  Its  chief  industries 
are  the  mining  of  coal  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  silk.  Pop.  (1910)  7,487;  (1920) 
7,776. 

DUSE,     ELEONORA        (do'sa),      an 
Italian  actress ;  born  in  Vigevano,  Italy, 
in  1861.     She  inherited  histrionic  talent  • 
from   her   ancestors,   and   has   gained   a 


DUSSELDORF 


443 


PWIGHT 


great  reputation  in  emotional  roles.  She 
has  played  in  all  the  principal  countries 
of  Europe  and  visited  the  United  States 
in  1892-1893.  Though  her  genius  is  un- 
doubted, her  disposition  prevents  her 
from  becoming  a  popular  favorite.  She 
made  her  first  appearance  on  the  stage 
at  the  age  of  7.  At  20  she  married  the 
actor-journalist  Signor  Checci,  but  they 
soon  separated.  Her  name  was  long  as- 
sociated with  that  of  D'Annunzio,  who 
wrote  plays  for  her,  and  in  which  she 
continued  to  act  after  they  quarrelled 
in  1899.  Her  most  famous  roles  are: 
"Marguerite,"  "Paula,"  "Magda,"  "Le 
Femme  de  Claude,"  and  "Le  Locandiere." 
She  toured  the  United  States  in  1893, 
1896,  1902  and  1903. 

DUSSELDORF,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in 
the  Rhenish  province,  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  22 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Cologne,  one  of  the 
handsomest  towns  in  the  valley  of  the 
Rhine.  It  is  a  great  focus  of  railway 
and  steamboat  communication,  and  has  a 
number  of  handsome  public  buildings, 
and  several  remarkable  churches.  Among 
the  public  institutions  particular  notice 
is  due  to  the  Academy  of  Art,  founded, 
1767,  by  the  Elector  Theodore,  and  after- 
ward directed  by  Cornelius,  Schadow, 
Bendemann,  etc.  It  has  the  honor  of 
having  founded  a  school  of  painting, 
which  takes  the  name  of  Diisseldorf .  The 
industries  embrace  iron,  cotton,  leather, 
tobacco,  carpets  and  chemicals.  The 
city  was  occupied  by  French  troops  on 
March  7,  1921.     Pop.  about  365,000. 

DUVAL,  CLAUDE  (dii-val'),  an  Eng- 
lish highwayman;  born  in  Domfront, 
Normandy,  in  1643.  He  went  to  Eng- 
land at  the  Restoration,  in  the  train  of 
the  Duke  of  Richmond.  Taking  soon  to 
the  road,  he  robbed  many  gentlemen  of 
their  purses,  and  ladies  of  their  hearts, 
till,  having  been  captured  while  drunk, 
he  was  hanged  at  Tyburn,  Jan.  21,  1670, 
and  was  buried  in  the  mid  aisle  of  Con- 
vent Garden  Church. 

DUYCKINCK,  EVERT  AUGUSTUS 
(di'kingk),  an  American  author;  born 
in  New  York  City,  Nov.  23,  1816.  Grad- 
uating from  Columbia  College,  he  studied 
law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837. 
In  1847  he  edited  the  "Literary  World." 
In  1854,  with  his  brother,  George,  he 
prepared  the  "Cyclopaedia  of  American 
Literature"  (2  vols.  1855;  enlarged  eds. 
1865  and  1875).  His  last  work  was  the 
preparation,  with  William  Cullen  Bryant, 
of  an  edition  of  Shakespeare.  He  died  in 
New  York  City,  Aug.  13,  1878. 

DVORAK,  ANTONIN  (dvor'zhak),  a 
Bohemian  composer;  born  near  Miihl- 
hausen,  Sept.  8,  1841.     His  father  was 


an  innkeeper  and  butcher.  Attention 
was  first  called  to  him  by  what  remains 
his  best  work,  a  "Stabat  Mater."  He 
has  made  great  use  of  Bohemian  folk 
music.  His  "Bohemian  Dances"  (two 
sets) ,  30  variations  on  a  Bohemian  theme 
for  gi-and  orchestra,  "Hulsitska"  over- 
ture; cantata,  "The  Specter's  Bride," 
and  a  symphony  written  for  the  London 
Philharmonic  Society,  are  his  most  wide- 
ly known  works.  His  oratorio,  "St. 
Ludmilla,"  was  written  for  the  Leeds 
Festival  of  Oct.  15,  1887.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1892,  and  became 
director  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Music.  His  "New  World  Symphony" 
was  produced  in  1893.  He  died  May  1, 
1904. 

DWARF,  a  human  being  much  below 
the  ordinary  size  of  man.  Dwarfs  are 
described  by  several  ancient  classical 
writers.  Herodotus  gives  an  account  of 
a  race  of  dwarfs  living  in  Libya  and  the 
Syrtes,  to  which  Aristotle  and  Pliny  also 
refer.  Philetas  of  Cos,  distinguished 
about  330  B.  c.  as  a  poet  and  grammarian 
was  jocularly  said  to  have  carried 
weights  to  prevent  his  being  blown  away. 
He  was  preceptor  to  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus.  Julia,  niece  of  Augustus,  had  a 
dwarf  named  Coropas,  two  feet  and  a 
hand's  breadth  high;  and  Andromeda,  a 
freedmaid  of  Julia's,  was  of  the  same 
height.  The  best  known  of  modern 
dwarfs  was  Charles  S.  Stratton,  "Tom 
Thumb,"  born  in  Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Francis  Flynn,  "General  Mite"  was  21 
inches  high  at  16. 

DWARKA,  a  maritime  town  of 
Guzerat,  India,  on  the  W.  side  of  the 
peninsula  of  Kathiawar,  in  the  Domin- 
ion of  Baroda,  235  miles  S.  W.  of 
Ahmedabad.  On  an  eminence  overhang- 
ing the  seashore  stands  a  great  temple 
of  Krishna,  visited  annually  by  10,000 
pilgrims. 

DWIGHT,  HARRISON  GRAY  OTIS, 

an  American  missionary;  born  in  Con- 
way, Mass.,  Nov.  22,  1803;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Hamilton  College,  New  York,  in 
1825,  and  became  a  missionary  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions  in  1820  to  the  Arme- 
nians, making  Constantinople  the  center 
of  his  field  of  operations.  He  wrote 
"Researches  of  Smith  and  Dwight  in 
Armenia"  and  "Christianity  Revived  in 
the  East."     He  died  Jan.  25,  1862. 

DWIGHT,     THEODORE    WILLIAM, 

an  American  educator,  jurist,  and  ed- 
itor; born  in  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  July  18, 
1822;  was  educated  at  Hamilton  College, 
and  pursued  the  study  of  law  at  the 
Yale  Law  School ;  was  Professor  of  Law 
in  Hamilton  College  and  subsequently  in 


DWIGHT 


444 


DYEING 


Columbia  College,  in  each  of  which  he 
founded  a  law  school.  He  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from  both  Rut- 
gers and  Columbia  colleges,  and  was 
(non-resident)  Professor  of  Constitution- 
al Law  in  Cornell  University.  He  was 
also  interested  in  philanthropic  work, 
and  served  as  president  of  the  New  York 
Prison  Association,  vice-president  of  the 
New  York  Board  of  State  Commissioners 
of  Public  Charities,  and  as  a  member  of 
the  "Committee  of  Seventy,"  of  New  York 
City.  In  collaboration  with  Rev.  E.  C. 
Wines,  D.  D.,  he  published  "Prisons  and 
Reformatories  in  the  United  States," 
and  was  associate  editor  of  the  "Amer- 
ican Law  Register."  He  died  in  Clinton, 
N.  Y.,  June  28,  1892. 

DWIGHT,  TIMOTHY,  an  American 
Congregational  clergyman;  born  in 
Northampton,  Mass.,  May  14,  1752.  He 
was  president  of  Yale  College  from 
1795  to  1817,  and  was  a  very  conspic- 
uous figure  in  theology  and  education. 
His  "Theology  Explained  and  Defended" 
consists  of  a  course  of  173  sermons  which 
has  passed  through  as  many  as  100  edi- 
tions. In  addition  to  theological  works 
he  wrote  "Essay  on  Light";  "Observa- 
tions on  Language";  "Travels  in  New 
England  and  New  York,"  which  is  still 
widely  quoted.  He  also  wrote  verse;  an 
epic  called  "The  Conquest  of  Canaan"; 
"Greenfield  Hill,"  a  pastoral;  "The  Tri- 
umph of  Infidelity,"  a  satire.  He  died 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Jan.  11,  1817. 

DWINA  (dwe'na),  the  name  of  two 
important  rivers  of  Europe.  (1)  The 
Northern  Dwina  has  its  origin  in  the 
confluence  of  the  Suchona  and  the  Jug, 
two  streams  rising  in  the  S.  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Vologda,  and  uniting  in  60° 
46'  N.  lat.,  46°  20'  E.  Ion.  The  Dwina 
flows  generally  N.  W.  through  a  flat 
country  to  the  3ulf  of  Archangel,  which 
it  enters  by  three  principal  mouths,  of 
which  only  the  easternmost  is  useful  for 
navigation.  The  length  of  the  Dvdna  is 
about  450  miles  (with  the  Suchona,  760) ; 
its  basin  embraces  over  140,000  square 
miles.  Its  chief  tributaries  are,  on  the 
left,  the  Vaga  and  Emza,  and  on  the 
right  the  Pinega  and  the  Vytchegda,  the 
last  having  a  course  of  some  625  miles, 
500  being  navigable.  The  volume  of 
water  poured  down  by  this  main  tribu- 
tary increases  the  breadth  of  the  Dwina 
from  about  one-third  to  nearly  two-thirds 
of  a  mile;  near  Archangel  it  widens  to 
over  four  miles.  The  river  is  free  from 
ice  from  May  to  October,  and  is  a  valu- 
able channel  of  inland  trade.  Its  waters 
also  are  rich  in  fish.  (2)  The  Western 
Dwina  rises  in  the  government  of  Tver, 
not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Volga 
and  the  Dnieper,  and  flows  at  first  W.  S. 


W.  in  a  course  almost  parallel  to  the 
latter  stream.  From  Vitebsk  it  flows  W. 
N.  W.  to  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  which  it  en- 
ters after  a  course  of  about  580  miles, 
navigable  from  the  confluence  of  the 
Mezha  downward,  though  the  numerous 
shallows  and  rapids  greatly  impede 
traffic.  Its  basin  is  estimated  at  32,850 
square  miles;  its  average  depth  of  26 
feet  at  Riga  is  increased  to  about  40,  and 
its  breadth  of  1,400-2,400  feet  is  extended 
in  some  places  to  a  mile  during  the  heavy 
spring  floods  which  overflow  wide  tracts 
of  the  low-lying  lands  on  either  bank. 
The  Western  Dwina  is  connected  with 
the  Dnieper,  and  so  with  the  Black  Sea 
by  the  Beresina  canal,  and  by  other  canal 
systems  with  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  with 
the  Neva  and  Gulf  of  Finland,  etc.  The 
territory  bordering  on  the  Dwina  was 
the  scene  of  almost  incessant  fighting 
during  the  World  Wor.  In  1920  the 
Polish  and  Russian  Soviet  armies  carried 
on  operations  here,  and  the  river  be- 
came a  part  of  the  boundary  between 
Poland  and  the  Russian  republic.  See 
Poland. 

DYAKS,  or  DAYAKS,  the  Malay 
name  for  the  race  which  constitutes  the 
bulk  of  the  aboriginal  population  of  Bor- 
neo, divided  into  innumerable  tribes  dif- 
fering pretty  widely  in  language,  cus- 
toms, and  degrees  of  savageness.  Physi- 
cally they  closely  resemble  the  Malays, 
to  whom  they  are  doubtless  akin,  but  are 
somewhat  taller;  they  are  intelligent, 
hospitable,  and  unsuspicious,  and  greatly 
excel  the  Malays  in  truthfulness  and 
honesty.  Even  the  most  uncivilized 
tribes  have  many  ingenious  arts  and  in- 
dustries, weave  cloth,  make  excellent 
steel  weapons,  and  erect  most  serviceable 
suspension  bridges  with  bamboo  poles 
and  withes.  Their  chief  weapon  is  the 
blowpipe.  The  barbarous  custom  of  sys- 
tematic head-hunting  is  dying  out.  The 
Sea-Dyaks  were  long  famous  as  untam- 
able pirates. 

DYEING,  the  art  of  imparting  colors 
to  textile  and  other  material,  such  as 
cotton,  silk,  wool,  and  leather.  Dyeing 
has  been  practiced  from  time  immemo- 
rial. Dyeing  with  colors  obtained  from 
natural  products  had  reached  a  high 
state  of  perfection  when  Perkin,  in  1856, 
introduced  the  first  of  the  coal-tar  colors. 
Since  that  date  the  progress  of  artificial 
color-making  has  been  so  rapid,  and  the 
application  of  the  new  dyes  made  so 
simple,  that,  excepting  indigo,  logwood 
and  cutch,  the  old  colors  and  processes 
are  now  practically  driven  out  of  use. 

If  the  fiber  is  of  animal  origin,  such  as 
silk  or  wool,  a  simple  immersion  in  a 
bath  containing  the  color  will  usually 
dye  the  fabric;  but  color  so  applied  to  a 


DYEING 


445 


DYERSBUIIG 


vegetable  substance — as  cotton,  linen,  oi* 
jute,  is  easily  washed  off,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  "direct"  colors.  Vegetable 
substances  are  consequently  usually 
treated  with  mordants  (see  Calico). 
Mordants  are  substances  which  form  in- 
soluble precipitates  with  the  dyes  in  the 
body  of  the  fiber.  The  mordants  most 
largely  used  are  tannic  acid,  the  salts 
of  antimony,  aluminum,  and  chromium. 

Dyeing  of  Cotton. — The  following  is  a 
brief  outline  of  the  processes  in  use  for  a 
few  important  colors: 

Black  is  produced  by  mordanting  the 
goods  with  salt  of  iron  and  then  dyeing 
in  a  decoction  of  logwood  or  by  dyeing 
in  a  bath  containing  logwood,  bichromate 
of  potash,  and  mineral  acid.  Aniline 
salts  with  a  suitable  oxidizing  mixture 
yield  a  very  fast  and  valuable  black. 
Bichromates  and  chlorates  are  among  the 
substances  used  as  oxidizing  agents. 

Brown  is  obtained  by  working  in  a 
catechu  or  cutch  bath  and  then  in  a  bi- 
chromate bath.  Bismarck-brown  on  a 
tannin  mordant,  and  direct  browns,  are 
also  used. 

Purples  and  lilacs  are  obtained  from 
alizarin  on  an  iron  mordant,  with  basic 
colors,  as  methyl  or  Hofmann's  violet,  on 
a  tannin  mordant,  and  direct  dyes. 

Red.  The  fastest  red  dye  is  alizarin  or 
Turkey  red.  The  process  is  rather  com- 
plicated, involving  working  in  a  specially 
prepared  oil,  aluminum  mordant,  steam- 
ing, dyeing  with  alizarin,  and  dunging. 
Reds  are  produced  on  goods  impregnated 
with  an  alkaline  solution  of  B  naphthol 
by  passing  through  a  bath  of  diazotized 
para,  with  aniline  or  naphthylamine. 

Blue.  The  best  blue  in  respect  to  fast- 
ness is  indigo.  The  coloring  constituent 
of  indigo  is  indigotine. 

Dyeing^  of  WooL — All  the  coloring  mat- 
ters obtained  from  natural  products  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  cottoa  are  ap- 
plicable to  wool,  and  in  addition  rochineal 
is  considerably  used.  Cochineal  \vith  a 
tin  mordant  gives  a  very  brilliant  starlet. 
The  basic  colors  dye  wool  without  the  aid 
of  a  mordant.  Direct  colors  are  appli- 
cable to  wool.  Aniline  black  is  not 
applicable. 

Dyeing  of  Silk. — Black  is  the  most  im- 
portant color  dyed  on  silk.  In  dyeing 
the  object  is  usually  to  add  weight  to,  or 
"s*^ijff,"  the  fabric. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War,  the  manufacture  of  dyes  was 
practically  in  the  hands  of  Germany  or 
of  German  controlled  organizations.  The 
embai'go  on  the  importation  of  German 
goods,  therefore,  created  a  very  serious 
situation  in  the  United  States  and  Amer- 
ican chemists  at  once  set  themselves 
zealously  at  work  to  invent  and  prepare 
dyes    which    should    take    the    place    of 


these  formerly  obtained  in  Germany.  At 
first  the  results  were  unsatisfactory, 
but  by  1919  the  dyestuff  industry  had 
reached  such  a  successful  basis  that  it 
was  able  to  manufacture  practically  all 
essential  dyes.  In  that  year  not  less  than 
1,733  chemists  were  engaged  in  research 
and  the  industry  required  the  services  of 
over  20,000  employees.  The  total  output 
of  nearly  200  firms  was  over  50,000,000 
pounds,  with  a  value  of  nearly  $70,000,- 
000.  In  March,  1918,  the  American 
Dyestuff  Manufacturing  Association  was 
organized.  At  an  exhibition  held  in  New 
York  City  in  the  same  year,  samples  of 
dyeing  from  about  50  American  dyestuffs 
were  shown.  These  samples  were  .sub- 
jected to  most  severe  tests,  and  by  com- 
parison with  German  dyes,  established 
the  superiority  of  the  American  product. 
The  production  of  coal  tar  dyes  in  the 
United  States  in  1918  was  about  4ri,000,- 
000  pounds.  The  imports  in  1915 
amounted  to  practically  the  same  figure. 
There  were  exported  in  1918  American 
dyes  to  the  value  of  nearly  $12,000,000; 
in  1920  it  amounted  to  $25,792,565. 

DYER,    ALEXANDER   BRYDIE,    an 

American  soldier,  born  in  Fayetteville,^ 
N.  C,  in  1852.  He  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1873 
and  in  the  same  year  was  commissioned 
2d  lieutant  of  the  4th  Artillery.  He  rose 
through  the  various  grades,  becoming 
colonel  of  the  artillery  corps  in  1907.  In 
1913  he  retired  from  active  service.  He 
participated  in  campaigns  against  the 
Indians  and  in  the  Philippines.  He  also 
served  on  the  Mexican  border  in  1913. 
He  was  the  author  of  "Handbook  for 
Light  Artillery"  (1896). 

DYER,  MARY,  a  Quakeress  who  suf- 
fered persecution  under  the  laws  in  the 
early  days  of  Massachusetts,  when  mem- 
bers of  that  sect  were  excluded  from  the 
State  under  penalty  of  death.  She  was 
imprisoned,  tried,  and  condemned  to  be 
executed;  was  reprieved  on  the  scaffold, 
and  forcibly  taken  out  of  the  State.  Her 
religious  enthusiasm,  however,  was  so 
great  that  she  returned  and  was  hanged 
on  Boston  Common,  June  1,  1660. 

DYERSBURG,  a  city  of  Tennessee, 
the  county-seat  of  Dyer  co.  It  is  on 
the  Illinois  Central,  the  Birmingham  and 
Northwestern,  and  the  Chicago,  Mem- 
phis and  Gulf  railroads,  and  on  the 
Forked  Deer  river.  It  is  the  center  of 
an  important  agricultural  region  and  has 
an  important  trade  in  cotton,  wheat,  and 
corn.  Its  industries  include  a  cotton- 
seed-oil mill,  saw,  planing,  and  flour 
mills,  wagon  factories,  pressed  brick  fac- 
torv,  grain  elevator,  tobacco  factory,  etc. 
Pod.  (1910)   4,149;    (1920)  6,444. 

29— Vol.  Ill— Cyc 


DYNAMIC  THEORY 


446 


DYNAMO 


DYNAMIC  THEORY,  a  hypothesis 
broached  by  Kant  that  all  matter  origin- 
ated from  the  action  of  two  mutually  an- 
tagonistic forces — attraction  and  repul- 
sion. All  the  predicates  of  these  two 
forces  are  attributed  by  Kant  to  motion. 
As  applied  to  heat,  it  is  a  theory  or  hy- 
pothesis— that  now  is  generally  accepted 
as  the  correct  one — which  represents  a 
heated  body  as  being  simply  a  body  the 
particles  of  which  are  in  a  state  of  vi- 
bration. This  vibratory  movement  in- 
creases as  the  body  is  still  more  heated, 
and  diminishes  proportionately  as  it 
more  or  less  rapidly  cools.  It  is  called 
also  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat. 

DYNAMITE,  an  explosive  produced 
by  the  admixture  of  nitroglycerin  with  a 
siliqeous  infusorial  earth  known  under 
the  German  name  as  kieselguhr.  Nitro- 
glycerin, which  can  be  prepared  in  small 
quantities  by  dropping  glycerine  into  a 
mixture  of  strong  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids,  the  temperature  being  kept  as  low 
as  possible,  v/as  discovered  by  Sobrero  in 
1846,  but  it  was  not  till  nearly  20  years 
later  that  the  experiments  of  Alfred 
Nobel,  who  combined  it  with  the  absor- 
bent inert  earth  just  mentioned,  placed 
the  new  substance  on  a  basis  of  practical 
and  commercial  importance. 

Kieselguhr  is  the  mineral  remains  of  a 
species  of  algae ;  the  stem  consisted  chief- 
ly of  silica,  and  when  the  organic  por- 
tions of  the  moss  decayed,  the  tubular 
siliceous  stem  remained,  retaining  its 
shape.  Beds  of  kieselguhr,  underlying 
peat,  are  found  in  many  countries;  the 
principal  formations  in  Europe  being 
in  Great  Britian  (especially  Aberdeen- 
shire— that  of  Skye  not  being  sufficiently 
absorbent) ,  Germany,  and  Norway.  The 
raw  kieselguhr,  after  calcination  in  a 
specially  designed  kiln  to  remove  water 
and  organic  substance,  is  gi-ound  and 
sifted,  and  finally  contains  about  98  per 
cent,  pure  silica  with  traces  of  lime  and 
iron. 

Dynamite,  which  has  a  reddish-brown 
color,  consists  of  1  part  of  kieselguhr  to 
3  parts  of  nitroglycerin,  and  has  a  spe- 
cific gravity  varying  from  1.59  to  1.65. 
Djmamite  burns  with  a  yellowish  flame, 
and  in  small  quantities  without  danger; 
but  explodes  with  great  violence  when 
fired  by  a  detonating  fuse.  Dynamite  is 
much  employed  in  breaking  up  boulders 
and^  the  heavier  metal  castings,  also  in 
agricultural  operations  for  removing  the 
roots  of  trees. 

DYNAMO,  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC 
MACHINE,  or  GENERATOR,  a  ma- 
chine for  transforming  mechanical  into 
electrical  energy,  and  depending  for  its 
operation  on  the  electro-motive  force  de- 
veloped in  any  conductor  moved  trans- 


versely through  the  lines  of  force  in  a 
magnetic  field.  The  manner  in  which 
the  energy  transformation  is  effected 
distinguishes  the  dynamo  from  the  old 
frictional  electric  machine,  and  detei'- 
mines  its  general  plan  of  construction. 

Any  dynamo  must  consist  of  at  least 
two  parts,  the  field-magnets  which 
create  the  magnetic  field,  and  the  arma- 
ture which  comprises  the  conducting 
system  which  moves  relative  to  the  field. 
To  these  may  be  added  the  commutator, 
a  device  necessary  to  secure  uniform  di- 
rection in  the  case  of  direct  current  ma- 
chines. Dynamos  for  direct  current  are 
designed  invariably  with  moving  arma- 
ture and  fixed  fields.  In  the  case  of  ma- 
chines of  comparatively  small  capacity, 
th<;  field  magnet  may  be  bipolar,  i.  e., 
having  one  pair  of  poles,  as  in  the 
horseshoe  magnet.  In  fact,  permanent 
steel  magnets  of  this  form  constitute  the 
fields  of  the  little  machines  known  as 
magneto-electric  machines,  or  magnetos, 
such  as  are  used  in  automobiles,  in  tele- 
phony, etc.  Bipolar  machines  may  be 
either  of  the  overtype  or  undertype 
pattern,  according  as  the  space  between 
the  poles  is  arranged  above  or  below  the 
yoke,  which  corresponds  to  the  bend  of 
the  horseshoe.  The  former  arrange- 
ment is  practicable  only  with  smaller 
sizes,  as  it  necessitates  longer  pedestals 
for  supporting  the  bearings  of  the  ar- 
mature shaft,  leading  to  excessive  vi- 
bration. The  undertype  has  the  dis- 
advantage that  the  field  magnets  must 
be  supported  clear  of  the  iron  bed-plate 
by  brackets  of  non-magnetic  material, 
such  as  brass  or  gun-metal,  in  order  to 
prevent  passage  of  the  field  through  the 
bed-plate  in  preference  to  the  armature. 

In  any  dynamo,  the  current  passing 
through  the  moving  armature  causes  a 
distortion  and  weakening  of  the  mag- 
netic field.  This  effect  becomes  very 
apparent  in  bipolar  machines  at  high 
loads,  and  the  serious  disadvantage  may 
be  largely  avoided  by  increasing  the 
number  of  pairs  of  poles  in  the  field - 
magnet.  Multipolar  machines  for  con- 
tinuous current  may  have  as  many  as 
twelve  pairs  of  poles.  This  form  of 
construction  has,  moreover,  the  advan- 
tage of  enabling  material  to  be  more 
economically  arranged,  thus  securing 
relatively  lighter  weight;  and,  in  addi- 
tion, the  speed  of  rotation  may  be  re- 
duced in  inverse  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  pairs  of  poles  for  a  given  E.M.F. 
developed.  These  considerations  have 
established  the  practice  of  constructing 
all  machines  for  more  than  150  kilo- 
watt output  of  the  multipolar  type,  and 
machines  of  considerably  smaller  capa- 
city than  this  are  regularly  built  with 
three  or  four  pairs  of  poles. 


DYNAMO 


447 


DYNAMO 


In  all  cases  the  poles  of  the  field- 
magnet  are  fashioned  so  as  to  embrace 
as  large  a  portion  of  the  armature  cir- 
cumference, with  as  small  an  air-gap, 
as  may  be  practicable.  To  effect  this, 
soft-iron  cheeks  or  pole-pieces  are  com- 
monly fixed  to  the  shanks  which  carry 
the  magnetizing  coils.  Cross-magneti- 
zation of  the  poles  due  to  armature  re- 
action is  often  prevented  by  a  deep  nar- 
row slot  across  the  curved  face  of  each 
pole-piece,  paralleling  the  direction  of 
the  lines  of  force  in  the  field. 

There  are  several  methods  of  arrang- 
ing for  the  magnetization  of  the  fields, 
which  it  will  be  convenient  to  defer  until 
there  has  been  given  some  description  of 
the  armature  and  its  construction. 

The  principle  underlying  this  may 
best  be  understood  by  considering  what 
takes  place  when  a  single  rectangular 
frame  or  loop  conductor  is  revolved 
about  the  longer  diameter  in  a  magnetic 
field  of  parallel  lines  of  force.  We  may 
imagine  the  axis  or  shaft,  about  which 
the  rectangular  frame  is  rotated,  to  cross 
the  field  at  right  angles,  so  that  the  two 
long  sides  of  the  rectangle  parallel 
to  the  axis  are  continually  cutting 
lines  of  force  as  the  frame  revolves.  The 
two  short  sides  do  not  cross  the  lines 
of  force  at  all,  but  simply  slide  through 
them,  and  have,  therefore,  no  E.M.F. 
actually  induced  in  them.  They  serve 
only  to  complete  the  electrical  system, 
so  enabling  any  E.M.F.  induced  in  the 
active  (long)  sides  to  produce  a  cur- 
rent in  the  system.  The  conductor  must 
be  imagined  as  insulated  from  the  shaft. 
At  the  moment  when  the  frame  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  field, 
no  lines  of  force  are  being  cut,  and  the 
E.M.F.  induced  in  both  active  sides,  and 
consequently  the  current  in  the  system 
is  zero.  As,  during  the  course  of  a 
quarter  revolution  (90°)  the  plane  of 
the  frame  becomes  parallel  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  field,  more  and  more  lines  of 
force  are  cut,  and  an  E.M.F.  of  contin- 
ually increasing  magnitude  is  induced 
in  both  long  sides  of  the  frame. 

As  the^  motions  of  these  two  active 
sides  during  this,  and  each  subsequent 
90°  of  revolution,  are  in  opposite  direc- 
tions with  regard  to  the  field,  the  ab- 
solute direction  of  the  E.M.F.  induced 
in  one  side  will  be  opposite  to  that  in- 
duced in  the  other.  However,  it  will 
be  seen  that  both  induced  E.M.F. 's  are 
in  the  same  cyclic  direction  round  the 
closed  frame.  The  resultant  sum  of 
these  components  will  give,  therefore, 
a  total  E.M.F.  and  current  for  this  and 
each  90°  of  revolution,  in  a  definite 
direction,  depending  upon  the  direction 
of  rotation  relative  to  the  polarity  of  the 
field. 


The  maximum  value  of  the  induced 
E.M.F.  and  current  is  attained  when  the 
plane  of  the  frame  lies  parallel  to  the 
lines  of  force,  and  will  diminish  steadily 
while  remaining  in  the  same  direction 
round  the  frame  until  the  second  90°  is 
completed,  when  the  total  E.M.F.  and 
current  again  become  zero. 

During  the  next  two  successive  90° 
arcs  of  revolution  which  complete  the 
entire  revolution  of  360°,  the  actual  di- 
rection of  rotation  of  the  frame  of 
course  remains  the  same.  However, 
the  relative  position  of  the  active  sides 
is  now  reversed,  as  is  also  the  direction 
of  rotation  of  each  relative  to  the  field. 
In  consequence  of  this  the  direction  of 
the  resultant  induced  E.M.F.  and  cur- 
rent in  the  frame  during  the  second 
half  of  the  revolution  will  be  opposite 
to  that  during  the  first  half  revolution 
considered.  The  changes  in  magnitude 
from  zero  to  maximum  and  back  to  zero 
take  place  as  before. 

The  effect  of  continuous  rotation  of 
the  frame  is  therefore  to  create  surges 
of  current  in  alternate  directions  for 
each  revolution.  The  complete  change 
from  zero  to  the  maximum  in  one  direc- 
tion, back  to  zero,  and  again  through  a 
maximum  in  the  opposite  direction,  back 
to  zero,  is  known  as  a  cycle.  The  rate 
of  alternation  is  known  as  the  frequency 
or  periodicity,  and  is  measured  by  the 
number  of  cycles  per  second. 

Suppose  the  form  of  the  rectangular 
frame  conductor  to  be  modified,  by  leav- 
ing one  short  side  open  at  the  middle 
where  the  shaft  crosses.  Let  the  open 
ends  be  led  out  along  the  shaft,  and 
each  electrically  connected  to  one  of  two 
conducting  rings  mounted  side  by  side 
on  the  shaft  so  as  to  be  insulated  from 
it  and  from  each  other.  We  should  then 
have  a  very  elementary  form  of  alter- 
nating current  dynamo,  or  alternator, 
and  by  rotating  the  frame  and  u-ing 
collectmg  brushes  pressing  on  the  rin^is, 
could  lead  an  alternating  current  aw^y 
to  an  external  circuit. 

Instead  of  two  collecting  ring-^  vee 
can  arrange  one  ring  split  into  two 
halves,  each  segment  insulated  from  the 
other  and  from  the  shaft.  By  connect- 
ing the  open  ends  of  our  rectangular 
conductor  to  these  two  segments,  and  by 
using  a  pair  of  brushes  suitably  placed, 
we  can  arrange  to  reverse  the  segments 
under  each  brush  simultaneously  with 
the  reversal  in  the  direction  of  current 
in  the  conductor.  By  this  means  we  ob- 
tain an  elementary  direct  current  dy- 
namo, the  split  ring  constituting  the 
simplest  form  of  commutator. 

The  practical  construction  of  an  ar- 
mature is  based  upon  the  foregoing 
principle.      To    build    up    the    induced 


DYNAMO 


448 


DYNAMO 


E.M.F.,  insulated  conductors  are  wound 
in  coils  about  an  internal  coil  of  soft 
iron,  which  serves  to  concentrate  the 
lines  of  force  within  the  coils. 

To  avoid  the  loss  of  power  and  the 
heating-  effect  due  to  eddy-currents  in- 
duced by  the  field  in  the  core  itself,  this 
must  be  laminated,  or  built  up  on  the 
shaft  of  the  stampings,  insulated  from 
one  another  by  shellac.  In  large  ma- 
chines, the  sections  are  often  pierced 
in  addition,  so  as  to  form  channels,  and 
by  means  of  distance  pieces  left  on  the 
shaft  at  intervals  when  assembling, 
ventilation  and  dissipation  of  internal 
heat  are  secured. 

The  simplest  form  of  armature  so 
constructed  is  the  shuttle  or  Siemens* 
armature,  consisting  of  a  simple  coil  of 
many  turns.  This  form  has  its  prac- 
tical limitations,  the  principle  being  the 
fluctuation  of  voltage  during  each  revo- 
lution when  used  in  a  direct-current  ma- 
chine, and  the  tendency  to  self-induction 
which  increases  very  rapidly  with  the 
number  of  turns,  when  used  in  an  alter- 
nator, thus  limiting  the  voltage  capa- 
city of  the  machine, 

^  Both  these  defects  are  practically  ob- 
viated in  the  drum  armature.  The  core 
of  this  is  cylindrical,  being  built  of  thin 
insulated  discs  of  charcoal-iron  keyed 
to  the  shaft.  Slots  are  cut  at  intervals 
along,  the  curved  face  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  drum,  in  which  are  arranged 
the  insulated  conductors.  This  construc- 
tion allows  of  a  very  small  air-gap  be- 
tween armature  and  pole-pieces,  which 
has  the  effect  of  reducing  the  number 
of  conductors  necessary  for  a  given  ca- 
pacity. For  connecting  together  the 
straight  segments  in  the  slots,  special 
connecting  pieces  of  thin  sheet  copper, 
semi-circular  in  form,  and  suitably  in- 
sulated, are  laid  side  by  side  round  the 
shaft,  the  connecting  lugs  at  their  ends 
forming  thus  a  spiral  at  each  end  of  the 
commutator.  These  are  necessary  to 
economize  space  at  the  ends  of  the  drum, 
and  also  to  enable  individual  segments 
to  be  conveniently  withdrawn,  if  neces- 
sary, for  replacement.  Each  coil  is  ar- 
ranged diametrically  to  the  drum,  and 
the  whole  number  is  arranged  in  one 
series  round  the  armature. 

The  commutator  for  such  an  arma- 
ture consists  of  a  cylindrical  ring,  built 
up  of  bars  of  hard-drawn  copper  in- 
sulated from  one  another  by  means  of 
mica  spacing  pieces,  and  carried  on  a 
cast  iron  sleeve  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
mechanically  stable  and  insulated  from 
the  shaft.  The  section  and  length  of 
the  bars  is  determined  by  the  capacity 
of  the  machine,  and  the  maximum  cur- 
rent density  that  is  found  practicable 
in  leading  off  the  current  to  the  brushes. 


The  commutator  must  have  as  many 
segments  as  there  are  coils  in  the  arma- 
ture, and  connections  to  the  segments 
are  made  in  turn  at  successive  junction 
points  of  continuous  coils  in  the  series. 

Brushes  are  of  laminated  copper,  cop- 
per gauze  embedded  in  carbon,  or  car- 
bon alone.  They  are  carried  on  rocker 
arms  which  allow  of  some  adjustment 
in  position  round  the  commutator  cir- 
cle, this  being  necessaiy  to  avoid  spark- 
ing at  the  brushes  when  the  load  is 
varied.  The  holders  for  the  brushes  are 
designed  also  so  that  the  brushes  may 
be  fed  radially  to  the  commutator  as 
they  wear  away,  and  individual  units 
withdrawn  for  replacement. 

In  the  Gramme,  or  ring  armature,  the 
lamine  are  ring-shaped,  and  supported 
on  a  framework  of  brass  or  gun-metal, 
keyed  to  the  shaft.  Round  the  hollow 
cylinder  thus  formed,  the  coils  are 
wound,  the  return  winding  being  passed 
through  the  inside  of  the  cylinder,  all 
coils  being  in  series  and  connected  to 
the  commutator  segments  as  in  the 
drum  armature.  This  form  of  armature 
is  suitable  only  for  small  size  machines, 
being  weak  mechanically.  It  is,  more- 
over, harder  to  wind,  and  carries  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  inactive  con- 
ductor than  in  the  drum  pattern,  since 
only  those  segments  outside  the  cylinder 
contribute  to  the  total  E.M.F. 

The  same  general  principles  apply  on 
the  whole  as  to  direct-current  machines. 
The  manner  of  connecting  contiguous 
coils  on  the  armature  is  different,  and  of 
course  no  commutator  is  required,  its 
place  being  taken  by  collecting  rings. 
The  absence  of  the  commutator  simpli- 
fies matters  considerably,  and  in  par- 
ticular enables  high  voltages  to  be  devel- 
oped, a  matter  of  considerable  economic 
importance  in  connection  with  power 
transmission  over  long  distances.  The 
necessity  of  having  alternating  current 
of  minimum  periodicity  corresponding 
to  about  60  cycles  per  second  for  light- 
ing purposes  leads  to  the  adoption  of 
multipolar  fields,  thus  avoiding  high 
rotating  speeds.  It  is  quite  practicable, 
and  indeed  advantageous,  to  reverse  the 
relative  position  of  armature  and  field 
magnets,  having  the  former  stationary 
and  the  latter  revolving,  and  most  mod- 
ern alternating  machines  are  built  in 
this  way. 

Regarding  the  magnetization  of  the 
field  magnets,  alternators  are  dependent 
for  this  purpose  on  direct-current  ma- 
chines; in  some  cases  these  exciters  are 
built  on  the  shaft  of  the  alternator,  but 
it  is  more  convenient  to  have  them 
independent.  Direct  -  current  machines 
may  also  be  classified  as  separately  ex- 
cited,  in   cases   where   the   magnetizing 


DYNAMOMETER 


449 


DZIGGETAL 


coils  of  the  fields  derive  their  cun'ent 
from  a  source  external  to  the  machine. 

Another  method  is  to  lead  the  current 
in  the  external  circuit  round  the  field 
magnets.  Such  an  arrangement  con- 
stitutes a  series  dynamo,  and  in  such 
the  building  up  of  the  field  and  the  in- 
duced E.M.F.  depend  on  the  residual 
magnetism  in  the  field  ma^ets.  Series 
machines  are  not  practicable  except 
when  only  small  deviations  from  con- 
stant load  occur. 

A  shunt-round  machir.e  is  one  in 
•which  the  field  magets  are  wound  with 
coils  arranged  as  a  high  resistance 
shunt  in  parallel  with  the  external  cir- 
cuit. Machines  of  this  class  are  much 
less  affected  than  the  series  machines, 
by  variations  in  the  external  circuit. 

By  combining  both  the  series  and 
shunt  winding  on  the  one  machine  there 
is  obtained  the  compound-wound  ma- 
chine, which  is  practically  self-regula- 
ting as  regards  voltage,  with  all  changes 
in  the  external  load. 

DYNAMOMETER,  ?n  instrument  for 
measuring  the  force  used  in  overcoming 
resistance  and  producing  motion. 

DYSENTERY,  a  febrile,  infectious 
tropical  disease,  not  common  in  this 
country.  It  may  be  acute  or  chronic,  or 
again  complex,  and  is  very  intractable 
and  highly  dangerous.  It  is  seated  in 
the  large  intestine,  the  lower  part  of  the 
bowel,  but  sometimes  extends  upward 
into  the  small  intestine  above  the 
ileocaecal  valve.  Dysentery  is  accom- 
panied by  straining,  and  scanty  mucous 
and  bloody  stools,  containing  little  or  no 
faeces.  The  most  frequent  complication 
is  with  the  liver  and  disease  of  the  kid- 
ney. There  is  feverishness  throughout, 
dry  skin,  furred  tongue,  thirst,  sleep- 
lessness, quick  pulse,  despondency,  etc., 
slow  convalescence,  rarely  complete, 
leaving  the  patient  frequently  a  com- 
plete wreck.  Ipecacuanha  is  the  chief 
remedy,  especially  in  the  acute  cases. 
In  the  scorbutic  form,  the  Bael  fruit  is 
the  best  remedy.  Dysentery  usually 
commences  with  griping  diarrhoea,  and 
shooting  or  cutting  pains.  In  favorable 
cases  recovery  may  take  place  in  from 
three  to  four  weeks,  but  death  some- 
times occurs  in  10  or  12  days,  or  the 
case  may  extend  over  months  or  years. 

DYSPEPSIA,  difficulty  of  digestion. 
The  action  of  the  stomach  on  the  food 
is  that  usually  designated  as  digestion, 
and  it  is  the  derangement  of  this  pro- 
cess that  is  usually  expressed  by  the 
term    dyspepsia.      The    sub-acute    and 


chronic  forms  of  gastric  irritation  and  in- 
flammation are  the  most  common  forms 
of  dyspepsia,  and  are  often  caused  by 
too  highly  seasoned  or  too  abundant 
food  and  stimulant  drinks.  Another 
class  of  dyspeptic  diseases  is  connected 
with  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  duodenum,  causing  perversion  of 
secretions  and  disorder  of  functions.  A 
third  class  of  dyspeptic  diseases  depends 
on  the  nerves  connected  with  the  diges- 
tive viscera.  Hence  arises  an  order  of 
dyspeptic  symptoms  independent  of  any 
immediate  affection  of  the  stomach.  The 
most  common  causes  of  dyspepsia  are 
exces.ses  of  various  kinds,  especially  in 
the  quantity  of  food  eaten.  The  quality 
must  also  be  considered,  while  good 
cooking  is  also  a  preservative  against 
dyspepsia. 

DYTISCUS,  a  Linnsean  genus  of 
aquatic  coleopterous  insects  or  water 
beetles,  forming  the  tribe  or  family  Dy- 
tiscidse.  They  are  pentamerous  coleop- 
tera;  i.e.,  have  all  the  tarsi  five-jointed. 
Their  general  form  is  oval,  the  outline 
little  broken,  and  the  surface  very 
smooth.  The  respiratory  organs  of  the 
perfect  insect  are  not  adapted  to  the 
extraction  of  air  from  water,  and  it 
must  occasionally  come  to  the  surface 
to  breathe,  where  it  rests  for  a  short 
time  back  dr- .  •  ^ard,  and  with  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  abdomen  exposed  to  the 
air,  the  openings  of  the  air  tubes  being 
in  the  last  segment. 

DYVOUR  (to  owe),  in  the  old  legal 
language  of  Scotland,  a  bankrupt  who 
under  various  acts  from  1606  to  1696 
was  until  discharged  compelled  to  wear 
a  hideous  and  conspicuous  costume. 
Thus  an  act  of  1688  prescribes  as  the 
dyvour's  habit  "a  bonnet  partly  of 
brown  and  partly  of  a  yellow  color,  with 
uppermost  hose,  or  stockings,  on  his 
legs,  half  brown  and  half  yellow  colored, 
conform  to  a  pattern  delivered  to  the 
magistrates  of  Edinburgh."  The  bar- 
barous usage  had  fallen  into  desuetude 
long  ere  the  dy\'Our's  habit  was  abol- 
ished by  law  in  1836. 

DZIGGETAI,  a  species  of  wild  ass, 
more  horse-like  than  the  others.  It  is 
probably  the  hemionus  ("half -ass  )  of 
Herodotus  and  Pliny.  It  inhabits  the 
elevated  steppes  of  Tartary,  extending 
into  the  S.  of  Siberia  and  to  the  borders 
of  India.  The  dziggetai  lives  in  small 
herds.  The  Mongols  and  Tungus  hunt  it 
eagerly  on  account  of  its  flesh.  It  has 
been  partly  domesticated.  It  is  also 
known  by  the  names  of  kiang,  khur,  and 
goor. 


E 


3,  e,  the  fifth  letter  and  the  second 
vowel  in  the  English  language.  It  has 
three  principal  sounds,  the  first  long, 
and  corresponding  to  the  sound  of  i  in 
French  and  Italian,  as  in  me;  the  second 
short,  as  in  men,  set;  the  third  like  a 
or  the  French  e,  as  in  there.  There  is 
also  the  modification  caused  by  the  short 
or  long  being  followed  by  r,  as  in  her 
and  here,  and  the  u  or  dropped  sound  of 
it,  as  in  camel.  E  occurs  in  words  more 
frequently  than  any  other  letter  of  the 
English  alphabet,  this  being  in  a  great 
measure  due  to  the  fact  that  it  repre- 
sents in  many  instances  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  a,  e,  0,  and  u.  It  is  pronounced 
with  a  medium  opening  of  the  mouth, 
the  tongue  being  expanded  to  touch  the 
apper  molars,  and  the  voice  gently  ex- 
pirated.  E  is  largely  used  as  a  final 
vowel  to  lengthen  the  preceding  syllable, 
being  itself  silent;  as  man,  mane;  can, 
cane.  Sometimes,  however,  it  exercises 
no  influence  on  the  preceding  vowel,  as 
in  gone,  give.  It  is  also  used  after  c 
and  g  to  denote  the  softened  sound  of 
those  letters;  c  followed  by  e  being  pro- 
nounced as  s,  and  g  followed  by  e  as 
j.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  14th  century 
the  final  e  was  in  most  cases  pronounced, 
except  before  a  vowel,  or  letter  h;  thus 
the  first  line  of  Chaucer's  "Canter- 
bury's Tales"  was  pronounced  as  fol- 
lows: 

"Whan   that   Aprille  with   his    shoures   swote." 

When  the  letter  e  is  doubled  the  sound 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  long  single  e; 
as  in  deem,  seem,  etc.  The  digraph  ea 
is,  in  most  cases,  sounded  as  long  e,  but 
occasionally  as  short  e;  as  in  lead  (the 
metal),  tread,  etc.  The  combination  ei 
has  two  sounds:  the  first  the  same  as 
long  e,  as  in  receive,  deceive,  etc.;  the 
second  that  of  long  a,  or  French  e,  as  in 
reign,  feign,  etc.  The  digraph  ie  has 
the  sound  of  long  e,  as  in  siege,  believe, 
etc. 

E  as  an  initial  is  used  for  East,  as  in 
charts:     E.  by  S.  =  East  by  South. 


E  as  a  symbol  is  used: 

1.  In  numerals,  for  250. 

2.  In  chemistry,  for  the  element 
erbium. 

3.  In  music. 

(1)  For  the  note  hypate  in  Greek 
music. 

(2)  The  key-note  of  the  Church  mode, 
called  Phrygian. 

(3)  The  note  elami  in  the  system  of 
hexachords. 

(4)  The  third  note  of  the  diatonic 
scale,  corresponding  to  ini  of  the 
Italians. 

EADS,      JAMES      BUCHANAN,      an 

American  engineer;  born  in  Lawrence- 
burg,  Ind.,  May  23,  1820.  He  early 
designed  some  useful  boats  for  raising 
sunken  steamers,  and  in  1861,  when 
called  to  advise  the  National  Govern- 
ment, constructed  within  100  days  eight 
ironclad  steamers  for  use  on  the  Missis- 
sippi and  its  tributaries.  He  afterward 
built  a  number  of  other  ironclads  and 
mortar-boats.  His  steel  arch  bridge 
(1867-1874)  across  the  Mississippi  at 
St.  Louis,  with  its  central  arch  embrac- 
ing a  clear  span  of  520  feet,  ranks  de- 
servedly among  the  notable  bridges  of 
the  world;  his  works  for  improving  the 
South  Pass  of  the  Mississippi  delta  were 
successfully  completed  in  1875-1879; 
and  his  great  plan  for  deepening  the 
river  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio 
by  means  of  jetties,  has  been  demon- 
strated to  be  entirely  practicable.  In 
1884  he  received  the  Albert  Medal  of 
the  Society  of  Arts,  being  the  first 
American  citizen  so  honored.  He  died  in 
Nassau,  New  Providence,  March  8,  1887. 

EAGLE,  a  name  given  to  many  birds 
of  prey  in  the  family  Falconidx  and  the 
order  Accipitres.  The  golden  eagle, 
the  white-headed  eagle  and  the  sea 
eagles  are  characteristic  examples.  The 
falcon  family  includes  over  300  preda- 
ceous  birds,  feeding  for  the  most  part- 
on  living  animals,  huating  by  day,  and 
living  usually  on  exposed  rocky  places. 


450 


EAGLE  PASS 


451 


EAR 


They  are  cosmopolitan  in  distribution. 
The  bill  is  powerful,  but  rather  short, 
high  at  the  root,  and  slightly  curved; 
the  partition  between  the  nostrils  is 
complete;  the  upper  margin  of  the  eye- 


cartila^'nous  frame-work.  The  deop, 
capacious  cent!  a'  space  to  r/hich  several 
grooves  converge  is  termed  the  conclia, 
and  the  lowest  and  pendulous  portion 
of  the  ear  is  termed  the  lobe.  The  audi- 
tory canal  passes  from  the  concha  in- 
ward and  a  little  forward  for  rather 
more  than  an  inch.  It  is  narrower  at 
the  middle  than  at  either  extremity;  and 
on  this  account  there  is  often  consider- 
able difficulty  in  extracting  foreign 
bodies  which  have  been  insertej  into  it. 
The  membrane  of  the  tympanum  or 
drum  which  terminates  it  is  placed 
obliquely,  in  consequence  of  the  lower 
surface  of  the  meatus  being  longer  than 
the  upper.  The  canal  is  partly  cartila- 
ginous and  partly  osseus;  the  osseus 
portion  consisting,  in  the  foetus,  of  a 
ring  of  bone,  across  which  the  mem- 
brane is  stretched,  and  in  many  animals 
remaining  persistently  as  a  separate 
bone.  The  orifice  of  the  meatus  is  con- 
cealed by  a  pointed  process,  which  pro- 
jects from  the  facial  direction  over  it 
like  a  valve,  and  which  is  called  the  tra- 
gus, probably  from  sometimes  being 
covered  with  bristly  hair  like  that  of  a 
goat  (tragus)  ;  and  it  is  further  de- 
fended by  an  abundance  of  ceruminous 
glands,  which  furnish  an  adhesive,  yel- 
low, and  bitter  secretion,  the  cerumen 
or  wax,  which  entangles  small  insects, 


AMERICAN  BALD-HEADED  EAGLE 

socket  projects;  the  head  and  neck  are 
feathered;  the  soles  of  the  feet  bear 
large  callosities.  It  is  a  matter  of  much 
difficulty  to  separate  the  eagles  defi- 
nitely from  the  related  falcons,  buz- 
zards, kites,  and  hawks. 

EAGLE  PASS,  a  city  of  Texas,  the 
county-seat  of  Maverick  co.  It  is  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  and  the  Mexican  Inter- 
national railroads,  and  on  the  Rio 
Grande  river.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
important  coal  mining,  agricultural,  and 
stock-raising  region,  has  an  extensive 
trade  in  cattle,  hides,  and  wool,  is  a  port 
of  entry,  and  has  a  large  international 
trade.  It  has  a  handsome  Federal  bufld- 
ing.     Pop.    (1910)   3,536;    (1920)   5,765. 

EAB,  the  organ  of  hearing;  is  com- 
posed of  three  parts,  the  external  ear, 
the  middle  ear,  or  tympanum,  and  the 
internal  ear,  or  labyrinth.  The  external 
ear  consists  of  two  portions,  the  auricle 
or  pinna  (the  part  popularly  recognized 
as  the  ear),  and  the  auditory  canal  or 
external  meatus.  In  man,  the  auricle, 
on  its  outer  or  more  exposed  surface, 
presents  various  eminences  and  depres- 
sions,  resulting   from   the   form   of   its 


?«'<% 


EAGLE 
Top — Harpy  Eagle       Bottom — Kite 

particles  of  dust,  and  other  small  for- 
eign bodies,  and  prevents  their  farther 
passage  into  the  meatus. 

The  middle  ear,  or  cavity  of  the  tyrn- 
panum,  is  a  space  filled  with  air  which 
is   received  from  the  pharynx  through 


EAB 


462 


EARTH 


the  Eustachian  tube  and  traversed  by  a 
chain  of  very  small  movable  bones, 
■which  connect  the  membrane  of  the 
tympanum  with  the  external  ear.  It 
lies,  as  its  name  implies,  between  the  ex- 
ternal meatus  and  the  labyrinth  or  in- 
ternal ear,  and  opens  posteriorly  into 
the  cells  contained  in  the  mastoid  por- 
tion of  the  temporal  bone,  and  ante- 
riorly into  the  Eustachian  tube.  The 
cavity  is  of  an  irregular  shape,  and  is 
lined  by  a  very  delicate  ciliated  epithe- 
lium, which  is  a  prolongation  of  that  of 
the  pharynx  through  the  Eustachian 
tube.  Its  external  wall  is  in  great  part 
formed  by  the  membrane  of  the  tympa- 
num, which  is  nearly  oval,  and  placed  in 
a  direction  slanting  inward,  so  as  to 
form  an  angle  of  about  45°  with  the 
floor  of  the  auditory  canal. 

The  Eustachian  tube,  into  which  the 
tympanic  cavity  opens  anteriorly,  is 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and 
passes  dov^mward,  forward,  and  into  its 
opening  in  the  pharynx.  It  is  partly 
osseus  but  chiefly  cartilaginous,  and  al- 
lows the  free  passage  of  air  in  and  out 
of  the  tympanum. 

The  internal  ear  or  labyrinth  is  the 
essential  part  of  the  organ  of  hearing, 
being  the  portion  to  which  the  ultimate 
filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve  are  dis- 
tributed. It  is  composed  of  three  parts: 
the  vestibule,  the  semi-circular  canals, 
and  the  cochlea,  which  form  a  series  of 
cavities  presenting  a  very  complicated 
arrangement,  and  lying  imbedded  in  the 
hardest  part  of  the  petrous  portion  of 
the  temporal  bone.  They  communicate 
externally  with  the  tympanum  through 
the  fenestra  ovalis,  and  the  fenestra  ro- 
tunda; and  internally  with  the  internal 
auditory  canal,  which  conveys  the  audi- 
tory nerve  from  the  cranial  cavity  to  the 
internal  ear.  The  very  dense  bone  im- 
mediately bounding  these  cavities  is 
termed  the  osseous  labyrinth,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  membranous  labyrinth, 
which  lies  within  a  portion  of  it.  The 
cochlea,  so-called  from  its  resemblance 
to  a  common  snail-shell,  consists  of  an 
osseous  and  gradually  tapering  canal, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length, 
which  makes  two  turns  and  a  half 
spirally  around  a  central  axis,  termed 
the  modiolus,  which  is  perforated  at  its 
base  for  the  entrance  of  the  filaments  of 
the  cochlear  portion  of  the  auditory 
nerve.  This  spiral  canal  gradually  di- 
minishes toward  the  apex  of  the  cochlea. 
At  its  base  it  presents  an  opening  into 
the  vestibule,  partially  divided  into  two. 
In  the  infant  state,  one  of  these  open- 
ings (scala  tympani)  does  not  communi- 
cate with  the  vestibule,  but  is  closed  by 
the  membrane  of  the  fenestra  rotunda. 
Its  interior  is  sub-divided  into  two  pas- 


sages (scalae)  by  an  osseous  lamina. 
This  is  the  lamina  spiralis,  which  incom- 
pletely divides  the  cochlea  into  an  up- 
per passage,  the  scala  vestibuli,  and  a 
lower  one,  the  scala  tympani — that  is, 
the  division  is  incomplete  so  far  as  the 
skeleton  goes,  but  is  completed  during 
life  by  the  lamina  spiralis  membranacea 
(or  basilar  membrane). 

EABL,  a  degree  of  the  British  nobility 
between  marquis  and  viscount,  the  title 
of  highest  antiquity  in  England.  The 
title  was  made  hereditary  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  for  a  time  was  used 
interchangeably  with  that  of  count,  the 
corresponding  title  on  the  Continent. 
The  wife  of  an  earl  is  still  called  a 
countess.  An  earl's  coronet  is  com- 
posed of  eight  pearls  raised  upon  points, 
with  small  leaves  between,  above  the 
rim. 

EARLE,    MBS.    ALICE    MORSE,    an 

American  writer;  born  in  Worcester, 
Mass.,  April  27,  1853.  She  has  written 
extensively  upon  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  colonial  period  in  New  Eng- 
land and  New  York.  Among  her  numer- 
ous works  are:  "Curious  Punishments 
of  Bygone  Days,"  ''Customs  and  Fash- 
ions in  Old  New  England,"  "Colonial 
Dames  and  Goodwives,"  "Colonial  Days 
in  Old  New  York,"  "Sun  Dials  and 
Roses  of  Yesterday"  (1902);  "Two  Cen- 
turies of  Costume  in  America"  (1903). 
She  died  in  1911. 

EARLHAM  COLLEGE,  an  institution 
for  higher  education,  founded  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Orthodox  Friends  at 
Richmond,  Ind.,  in  1859.  The  college 
is  coeducational.  There  were  in  1919 
400  students  and  25  instructors.  Presi- 
dent, D.  M.  Edwards. 

EARLY,  JURAL  ANDERSON,  an 

American  military  officer;  born  in 
Franklin  co.,  Va.,  Nov.  3,  1816;  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point,  and  served  in  the 
Florida  and  Mexican  wars.  During  most 
of  the  years  1838-1861,  however,  he  prac- 
ticed law  in  his  native  State.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  entered  the 
Confederate  service  as  a  colonel,  and 
commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  and 
a  division  at  Fredericksburg  and  Gettys- 
burg. In  1864,  after  some  successes,  he 
was  defeated  by  Sheridan  in  several  bat- 
tles; and,  Custer  having  also  routed  him 
at  Waynesboro  in  March,  1865,  he  was 
relieved  of  his  command  a  few  days  later. 
He  subsequently  returned  to  the  practice 
of  law.  In  1867  he  published  "A  Memoir 
of  the  Last  Year  of  the  War  for  Inde- 
pendence in  the  Confederate  States."  He 
died  March  2,  1894. 

EARTH,  the  name  applied  to  the 
third  planet  in  order  from  the  sun.     To 


EARTH 


468 


EARTHQUAKE 


the  eye  it  appears  as  if  the  earth  was  in 
the  center  of  the  universe,  the  sun  and 
the  stars  revolving  round  it.  The  phe- 
nomena are  much  better  accounted  for 
by  supposing  the  apparent  revolution  of 
the  celestial  vault  to  be  produced  by  an 
actual  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  in 
about  24  hours,  producing  day  and  night. 

In  possessing  a  satellite  (the  moon) 
the  earth  resembles  various  other  plan- 
ets, except  that  they  have  more  attendant 
bodies  than  one.  In  fact,  the  earth  is  a 
planet,  and,  like  other  planets,  its  figure 
is  not  far  from  spherical,  as  is  proved  by 
its  having  been  sailed  round.  Magellan 
led  the  way,  having  circumnavigated  a 
great  part  of  the  globe  between  1519  and 
1521,  being  killed  in  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands in  the  last-named  year.  Sebastian 
del  Cano,  one  of  his  officers,  completed 
the  enterprise.  Sir  Francis  Drake  re- 
turned alive  from  a  similar  enterprise 
successfully  carried  out  between  1577 
and  1579  or  1580. 

The  sight  of  the  masts  of  a  vessel  ap- 
pearing before  the  hull  comes  in  sight  is 
a  proof  that  at  least  that  portion  of  the 
world  visible  to  us  is  a  curve.  Moreover, 
in  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  the  shadow  of 
the  earth  obscuring  the  face  of  the  lu- 
minary is  found  to  be  circular,  and  there 
are  other  arguments  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. Only  in  a  broad  sense  can  the 
earth  be  described  as  spherical;  it  is 
really  an  oblate  spheroid —  i.  e.,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  two  poles  is  less  than 
that  between  two  extremities  of  a  diam- 
eter drawn  through  the  equator.  This 
form  may  have  been  produced  by  the  ro- 
tation of  a  partially  fluid  sphere.  Ac- 
cording to  Bessel,  the  greater  or  equa- 
torial diameter  is  7,925.604  miles,  the 
lesser  or  polar  one  7,899.114  miles;  the 
diflference  of  diameter,  or  polar  com- 
pression, is  26.471  miles,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  the  equatorial  to  the  polar 
diameter  as  299.15  to  298.15.  The  di- 
mensions given  by  Sir  R.  Airy  slightly 
differ  from  these.  The  force  of  gravity 
at  the  poles  is  to  that  at  the  equator 
very  nearly  as  180  to  179. 

It  is  not  of  uniform  density,  the 
French  mathematician,  Clairvault,  as- 
suming it  to  consist  of  ellipsoidal  strata 
increasing  in  density  as  they  approached 
the  earth's  center,  and,  taking  it  for 
granted  also  that  the  attractive  force 
might  be  calculated  on  the  law  of  liquids, 
proved  that  the  amount  of  gravity  at  the 
poles  to  that  at  the  equator  is  as  180  to 
179,  and  that  the  earth's  polar  axis  was 
to  its  equatorial  one  as  299  to  300,  which 
almost  exactly  agi'ees  with  the  result 
of  observation.  Clairvault  believed  the 
mean  density  of  the  earth,  taken  as  a 
whole,  to  be  about  twice  that  of  the  parts 
near  the  surface.     Henry  Cavendish,  Dr. 


Reich,  and  Francis  Baily  considered  the 
density  of  the  earth  to  be  5.67,  and  Sir 
R.  Airy  believed  it  6.665,  that  of  water 
being  1.  The  number  of  cubic  miles  in 
the  earth  is  about  259,800,000,000,  each 
cubic  mile  containing  147,200,000,000  cu- 
bic feet. 

The  surface  of  the  land  is  to  that  of 
the  water  on  the  earth  in  the  proportion 
of  one  to  three.  The  land  is  unequally 
distributed,  most  of  it  being  in  the  N. 
hemisphere. 

The  universal  opinion  of  geologists  is 
that  the  earth  is  of  immeasurable  an- 
tiquity. The  old  view  that  our  planet  is 
but  a  few  thousand  years  old  now  exists 
only  among  the  uninformed.  It  is  not  yet 
proved  that  astronomical  changes  have 
ever  taken  place  since  the  first  establish- 
ment of  the  solar  system  seriously  to 
modify  the  state  of  things  existing  on  the 
earth. 

The  action  of  the  earth  on  magnetic 
substances  is  like  that  of  a  magnet,  and 
it  has  two  poles  different  from  the  ordi- 
nary poles. 

EARTH,  originally,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  ancient  chemists,  or  alchemists,  one 
of  the  four  elements,  of  which  all  ma- 
terial things  in  the  world  were  held  to  be 
composed,  the  others  being  fire,  air,  and 
water.  Not  even  one  of  the  four  is  really 
a  simple  substance. 

Later,  a  name  given  to  various  sub- 
stances, opaque,  insipid  to  the  taste,  in- 
combustible, and,  when  dry,  friable,  i,  e., 
easily  separated  into  particles.  Five 
divisions  of  them  were  recognized:  (a) 
Boles,  (b)  Clays,  (c)  Marls,  (d)  Ochers, 
and  (e)  Tripolis.  Under  these  cate- 
gories were  ranked  the  oxides  of  the 
metals,  cerium,  aluminium,  beryllium, 
zirconium,  yttrium,  erbium,  thorium,  etc. 
These  oxides  are  insoluble  in  water,  and 
are  all  very  rare  except  aluminum.  They 
are  diflScult  to  separate  from  each  other, 
occurring  together  in  rare  minerals,  and 
hence  the  number  of  metals  belonging  to 
this  class  is  not  known. 

EARTHQUAKE,  the  term  applied  to 
any  tremor  or  vibration  of  the  ground 
produced  by  subterranean  cau.ses.  Many 
earthquakes  are  so  gentle  as  to  pass  al- 
most unrecognized,  others  excite  general 
alarm  without  causing  damage,  while 
some  spread  destruction  over  wide  areas. 
Probably  no  part  of  the  earth's  surface 
is  wholly  free  from  vibration,  but  de- 
structive earthquakes  are  confined  to 
comparatively  limited  regions.  The  al- 
most universal  succession  of  phenomena 
recorded  in  the  case  of  notable  earth- 
quakes is  first  a  trembling  or  vibration, 
next  a  severe  shock,  or  several  in  quick 
succession  and  then  a  vibration  which 
gradually  but  rapidly  becomes  insensib. . 


EARTHQUAKE 


454 


EASLEY 


In  most  cases  each  shock  lasts  enly  a  few 
seconds,  but  the  vibrations  that  follow 
may  be  continued  for  days,  weeks,  or 
even  months.  Noises  of  various  kinds 
usually  precede,  accompany,  or  succeed 
an  earthquake.  Some  of  these  have 
seemed  to  those  who  have  heard  them 
to  resemble  the  howling  of  a  storm,  the 
growling  of  thunder,  the  clanking  and 
clashing  of  iron  chains,  the  rumbling  of 
heavy  wagons  along  a  road,  or  the  shat- 
tering of  enormous  masses  of  glass. 
Such  noises  are  transmitted  through  the 
ground,  the  sea,  or  the  air. 

Some  earthquakes  are  not  attended  by 
subterranean  sounds.  At  the  time  of  the 
terrible  shock  which  destroyed  Riobamba 
in  Ecuador  on  Feb.  4,  1797,  a  complete 
silence  reigned.  Subterranean  sounds 
may  be  heard  without  any  earth-tremor 
being  perceived.  Earthquakes  are  felt 
either  as  vertical  shocks,  from  below  up- 
ward, as  horizontal  or  lateral  shocks,  or 
as  undulatory  movements.  At  the  time 
of  the  great  earthquake  of  Riobamba, 
the  bodies  of  many  of  the  inhabitants 
were  projected  across  the  river  and  fell 
upon  La  Culla,  a  hill  more  than  300  feet 
high.  During  the  Calabrian  earthquake 
of  1783,  the  undulatory  movement  was 
well  marked  by  the  motion  of  the  trees, 
which  swayed  to  and  fro,  their  branches 
touching  the  gi'ound.  The  same  appear- 
ance was  noted  at  New  Madrid,  Mo., 
tVaring  the  earthquake  of  1811-1812, 
where  the  trees  bent  as  the  earth-waves 
passed  under  them,  immediatly  after- 
ward recovering  their  position. 

Observations  of  this  kind  have  led 
physicists  to  the  belief  that  an  earth- 
quake is  a  wave  or  true  undulation  of 
the  crust.  The  wave  produced  by  the 
original  impulse  travels  outward  in  all 
directions  from  the  "focal  cavity,"  or 
"centrum,"  in  successive  spherical  shells. 
The  point  or  area  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground  directly  above  the  "origin"  or 
•,  centrum,  is  called  the  "epicentrum";  it 
is  at  this  point  that  the  shock  is  usually 
felt  as  a  vertical  stroke  coming  from 
below  upward.  As  we  recede  from  this 
point,  the  direction  of  motion  becomes 
more  and  more  nearly  horizontal,  and 
also  gradually  decreases  in  intensity  till 
it  becomes  insensible.  Away  from  the 
epicentrum,  the  earth-wave  at  every 
point  comes  up  obliquely  from  below — 
the  radial  lines  along  which  an  earth- 
quake is  propagated  from  the  centrum 
being  called  "wave-paths."  The  direc- 
tion of  motion  is  also  influenced  by  the 
configuration  or  varying  topographic 
features  of  the  disturbed  district. 

Most  earthquakes  occur  during  the 
cold  months  or  in  winter,  at  which  time 
barometric  fluctuations  are  most  numer- 
ous.      Among     memorable     earthquakes 


may  be  noted  that  of  Lisbon,  Nov.  1, 
1755,  destroying  60,000  lives,  v/hich  left 
the  city  in  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  was  felt 
from  the  Madeiras  to  Great  Britain ;  and 
that  which  destroyed  Aleppo  in  1822. 

Within  the  United  States  only  five 
great  earthquakes  are  known  to  have  oc- 
curred since  the  first  settlement. 

The  earliest  occurred  in  the  year  1755, 
in  Massachusetts,  which,  though  very 
forcible,  was  much  less  so  than  the  other 
four,  but  the  information  about  it  is 
scanty.  The  second,  the  most  energetic 
of  all,  was  that  of  New  Madrid,  Mo.,  in 
1811,  folowed  by  many  forcible  shocks 
in  subsequent  months  and  years.  The 
third  was  in  the  Inyo  Valley  of  Cali- 
fornia in  1868;  and  the  fourth  at 
Charleston  in  1886,  which  was  from  107 
to  120  kilometers  deep  and  was  felt  at 
a  distance  of  1,000  miles.  The  fifth  was 
the  San  Francisco  earthquake  of  1906, 
given  below. 

The  severe  and  destructive  earth- 
quakes since  the  Christian  era  are  as 
follows : 

A.  D.  79.  Destruction  of  Herculaneum  and  Pom- 
peii.   Destruction   of  life  very   great,   includ- 
ing Pliny  the  Elder. 
A.    D.    526.  Around    the    Mediterranean.      Esti- 
mated fatality,   120,000  people. 
Dec.    18,   1631.  Naples.      Fatality,   3,000   people. 
June     7,     1692.  Port     Royal.       Fatality,     3,000 

people. 
A.  D.  1693.   Sicily.     Destruction  of  Catania,  300 

villages  and  60,000  people. 
Oct.   28,   1724.  Lima  and  Callao.    18,000  people 

destroyed. 

Nov.  1,  1755.  Lisbon.    Fatality,  60,000.     It  was 

felt   over  a  twelfth  of  the   earth's   surface. 

Feb.  5,  1783.  Calabria  generally.     30,000  people. 

Feb.    4,    1797.   Riobamba,    Quito,    Cuzca.  40,000 

people. 
March    26,    1812.  Caracas.   More    than    20,000 

people. 
Jan.  11,  1839.   Martinique.  300  people. 
Aug.  13,  1868.  Peru  and  Ecuador.    Especially  at 
Arica,    70,000   people   destroyed   and   $300,- 
000,000    worth    of    property. 
April    3,    1880.  Chios.       14,000    dwellings    and 

3,541    people. 
July  28,  1883.     Ischia.     2,400  people. 
Aug.  27,   1883.      The  Krakatoa  destruction   was 
peculiarly    volcanic,     not    seismic.       It    de- 
stroyed about  35,000  people  by  a  tidal  wave. 
Aufc,-,   31,  1886.  Charleston  earthquake  described 

above. 
Oct.    28,    1891.      Central    Japan    (Owari-Mlno). 
Destroyed   7,000   people,   200,000   dwellings, 
and    .i;22, 500,000    worth   of    property. 
Feb.,  1902.   Caucasus.     4,000  people. 
May  8,  1902.     Guatemala.     Was  very  fatal,  but 
numbers  unknown.  It  was  simultaneous  with 
the   outbreak    of    Mt.    Pel^e   on    Martinique 
which  destroyed  St.  Pierre  and  was  fatal  to 
20.000  people. 
April  18,  1906.   San  Francisco  Bay.     Destroyed 
San   Francisco   and   Santa   Rosa,   uncounted 
building.^.,   about    800   lives   and   more   than 
(est.)     $300,000,000    worth    of    property. 
Dec.  28,  1908.  Messina.     Destroyed  the  city  and 
caused    the    death    of    200,000    people,    the 
worst    earthquake    disaster   in    history. 
May    5,    1910.   Cartage,    Costa    Rica,    destroyed. 
Oct.  11,  1918.  Porto  Rico,  loss  of  150  lives  and 
property  valued   at   $1,000,000. 

EASLEY.    RALPH    MONTGOMERY. 

an  American  economist;  born  in  Schuyler 


EAST    AFRICA,    GEBMAN 


456 


EASTBOURNE 


CO..  III.,  in  1858.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  of  Quincy,  111.,  and  for 
several  years  taught  at  the  public  schools. 
After  several  years  of  newspaper  work 
he  organized  and  became  secretary  of  the 
Civic  Federation  of  Chicago.  In  1900 
he  organized  the  National  Civic  Federa- 
tion and  became  chairman  of  its  execu- 
tive council.  He  promoted  national  con- 
ferences on  primary  election  reforms  in 
New  York  and  promoted  also  other  con- 
ferences on  political  and  economic  sub- 
jects. He  organized  in  1917  the  League 
for  National  Unity.  He  wrote  extensive- 
ly on  sociological  subjects. 

EAST  AFRICA,  GERMAN,  former 
German  possessions  in  East  Africa,  ac- 
quired in  1885-1890,  lying  immediately  to 
the  S.  of  British  East  Africa,  and  hav- 
ing an  estimated  area  of  about  400,000 
square  miles,  and  estimated  population  of 
7,659,898.  They  are  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  a  line  running  N.  W.  from  the  Umba 
river  to  the  E.  shore  of  the  Victoria 
Nyanza,  and  continuing  W.  from  this 
lake  to  the  Kongo  state.  Lake  Tangan- 
yika forms  the  W.  boundary,  and  thence 
a  line  to  Lake  Nyassa  and  the  river  Ro- 
vuma  form  the  S.  W.  and  S.  boundaries. 
In  September,  1894,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  German-Portuguese  frontier  should 
follow  parallel  10°  40'  S.  lat.  from  the 
coast  to  its  intersection  with  the  river 
Rovuma,  leaving  Kionga  and  the  mouth 
of  the  Rovuma  to  Germany,  and  Cape 
Delgado  to  Portugal.  Several  stations 
have  been  established  by  the  German 
East  Africa  Company,  and  the  chief 
ports  are  Dar-es-Salaam,  Bagamoyo,  Ki- 
loa,  and  Tanga.  The  products  of  the 
country  are  coffee,  tobacco,  cotton,  ivory, 
caoutchouc,  and  gum.  The  conquest  of 
German  East  Africa,  in  the  course  of 
the  World  War  (1914-1918),  was  com- 
pleted by  British  forces  in  1918,  and  by 
the  terms  of  the  Peace  Treaty  of  1919 
the  territory  is  divided  between  Great 
Britain  and  Belgium.  The  British  part 
has  been  named  "Tanganyika"  terri- 
tory. Government  seat,  Dar-es-Salaam. 

EAST  AFRICA,  PORTUGUESE,  pos- 
sessions of  Portugal.  It  comprises  the 
province  of  Mozambique,  capital  Lau- 
rence Marques;  and  Companhia  de  Mo- 
zambique; and  Companhia  de  Ny- 
assa. Total  area,  428,132  square  miles. 
Fop.  about  3,000,000  (1,050  whites,  1,100 
Asiatics,  etc.).  Its  coast-line  extends  S. 
from  Cape  Delgado,  the  S.  extremity  of 
the  coast-line  of  German  East  Africa  to 
Kosi  Bay,  just  below  Delagoa  Bay,  at  a 
point  separating  British  from  Portu- 
guese territory,  as  fixed  by  the  Anglo- 
Portuguese  agreement  of  1891;  the  N. 
boundary  is  the  river  Rovuma,  running 
W.  from  Cape  Delgado  to  Lake  Nyassa. 


The  frontier  between  German  and  Portu- 
guese East  Africa  (until  1914)  ran 
along  parallel  10°  40'  S.  lat.  from  the 
coast  to  its  intersection  with  the  river 
Rovuma,  leaving  the  mouth  of  the  Ro- 
vuma and  Kionga  to  Germany,  and  Cape 
Delgado  to  Portugal.  By  the  terms  of 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  in  1919,  to  Por- 
tugal was  allotted  the  territory  south  of 
Rovuma  known  as  "Kronya  Triangle," 
formerly  belonging  to  German  East  Af- 
rica. The  E.  boundary  is  the  lake  and 
British  Central  Africa,  or  the  Nyassa 
Protectorate  down  to  the  junction  of  the 
Shire  with  the  Zambesi ;  while  from  that 
point  the  British  South  Africa  Com- 
pany's territory,  including  Mashonaland 
and  Matabeleland,  and  the  former  South 
African  Republic,  form  the  boundary. 

EAST  AFRICA  PROTECTORATE, 
now  KENYA  COLONY,  British  posses- 
sessions  in  East  Africa,  extending  about 
400  miles  along  the  coast  N.  from  Umba, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Umba  river.  The 
S.  boundary  runs  from  Umba  in  a  N.  W. 
direction  to  the  intersection  of  the  Vic- 
toria Nyanza  while  the  1st  parallel  of  N. 
lat.,  skirts  the  N.  shore  of  the  lake,  and 
thence  W.  to  the  boundary  of  the  Kongo 
Free  State.  The  river  Juba  begins  the 
N.  boundary,  which  from  the  intersection 
of  the  river  with  the  6th  parallel  N.  lat. 
runs  to  the  35th  meridian  E.  Ion.,  and  fol- 
lows that  to  its  intersection  with  the 
Blue  Nile;  the  Kongo  Free  State  and  the 
W.  water  shed  of  the  basin  of  the  Upper 
Nile  forming  the  W.  boundary.  The 
total  area  is  246,822  square  miles,  em- 
bracing a  great  part  of  Somaliland,  the 
Equatorial  province,  Uganda,  Usoga,  Un- 
yoro,  etc.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
2,807,000,  of  which  5,362  are  Europeans. 
The  Imperial  British  East  Africa  Corn- 
pany  opened  up  the  country,  having  in 
1888  obtained  a  concession  of  territory 
from  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  and  a 
charter  from  the  British  Government. 
An  arrangement  for  buying  them  out 
was,  however,  made  in  1895.  The  chief 
ports  are  Mombassa,  the  capital  (pop. 
30,000),  Lamu,  Umba,  and  Kismayu.  In 
1905  it  was  ordained  that  the  Legisla- 
tive Council  should  consist  of  11  elected 
representatives  of  European  countries: 
3  nominated,  2  natives  and  1  Arab.  In 
1920  British  East  Africa  was  annexed 
to  the  British  Crown  under  the  name  of 
Kenya  Colony. 

EAST  ANGLIA.   See  Anglia,   East. 

EASTBOURNE,  a  favorite  English 
watering  place,  especially  for  the 
wealthier  classes,  in  the  Rape  of  Peven- 
sey,  midway  between  Brighton  and 
Hastings,  and  66  miles  S.  of  London. 
Pop.  (1918)  48,784. 


EAST  CAPE  456 

EAST  CAPE,  the  name  of  the  S.  E. 
extremity  of  New  Guinea,  in  Goschen 
Strait,  and  of  the  most  easterly  head- 
lands of  Madagascar,  the  North  Island 
of  New  Zealand,  and  Siberia.  The  last, 
on  Bering  Strait,  and  in  ion.  169°  38' 
W.,  is  the  E.  extremity  of  Asia,  and  is 
a  bold,  rocky  promontory  of  syenite,  al- 
most cut  off  from  the  mainland  by 
swamps  and  shallow  lakes.  On  the  N. 
side  is  a  village,  Uedle,  of  less  than  100 
huts,  with  a  population  of  about  260. 

EAST  CHICAGO,  a  city  of  Indiana, 
in  Lake  co.  It  is  on  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Wabash,  the  Pere  Marquette,  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio,  Chicago  Terminal, 
and  other  railroads.  It  is  on  Lake  Mich- 
igan and  has  excellent  shipping  facilities, 
which  have  been  improved  by  the  con- 
struction of  a  canal  connecting  the  har- 
bor with  Calumet  river.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacturing  of  iron 
and  steel,  cement,  boilers,  chemicals,  and 
foundry  products.  Pop.  (1910)  19,098; 
(1920)  35,967. 

EAST  CLEVELAND,  a  city  of  Ohio, 
in  Cuyahoga  co.  It  is  a  residential  sub- 
ui-b  of  Cleveland.  The  city  contains  the 
laboratories  of  the  National  Electric 
Lamp  Association.  Pop.  (1910)  9,179; 
(1920)  27,292. 

EAST  CONEMAUGH,  a  borough  of 
Pennsylvania,  in  Cambria  co.  It  is  on 
the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  and  on  the 
Conemaugh  river.  Its  principal  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  steel.  It  also  has 
railway  shops.  In  1889  the  borough  was 
partially  destroyed  by  the  Johnstown 
flood.     Pop.  (1910)  5,046;  (1920)  5,256. 

EASTER,  the  appellation  given,  with 
some  small  variation  in  the  several  lan- 
guages and  dialects,  by  the  nations  of 
Teutonic  descent,  to  the  festival  kept  in 
commemoration  of  our  Saviour's  resur- 
rection. The  Latin  nations  called  the 
same  feast  by  words  derived  from  Lat. 
Pascha;  Gr.  Pasclm;  and  remotely  from 
the  Hebrew  Pesaclih,  meaning  the  Pass- 
over, whence  the  French  Pdque  (O.  Fr. 
Pask  and  Pasque)  ;  in  Spanish,  Pascua; 
in  Port.  Pascos;  and  in  Italian  Pasqua. 
From  the  same  source,  also,  the  word 
Pasche  has  been  introduced  into  Anglo- 
Saxon.  Thus  no  distinctively  Christian 
name  exists  for  the  resurrection  festival, 
one  of  the  two  being  of  ethnic  and  the 
other  of  Jewish  origin. 

EASTER  ISLAND,  a  lonely  Pacific 
islet  in  lat.  27°  8'  S.,  and  Ion.  109°  24' 
W.;  discovered  by  Roggeveen  on  Easter 
day  1722,  visited  in  1773  by  Captain 
Cook;  is  47  square  miles  in  area;  en- 
tirely volcanic,  with  many  extinct  cra- 
ters rising  more  than  1,00*0  feet;  and  is 


EAST  HARTFORD 


fertile,  but  with  little  water.  Sheep  an<l 
cattle  grazing  was  started  by  a  French 
house  in  Tahiti,  after  the  departure  in 
1878  of  the  missionaries,  with  300  na- 
tives, for  the  Gambian  Archipelago,  500 
having  been  shipped  to  Tahiti  four  years 
earlier.  The  natives  still  left  are  fair 
Polynesians ;  between  1860  and  1882  they 
dwindled  from  3,000  to  150,  as  well  from 
polyandry  as  from  emigration.  They 
have  little  to  say  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
picturesque  remains  that  have  made 
Easter  Island  famous.  These  include 
over  500  rude  stone  statues  or  busts,  pos- 
sibly portraits  of  famous  persons,  not 
idols,  varying  from  3  feet  high  to  70. 
There  are  besides  100  stone  houses,  with 
painted  interiors  and  (undeciphered)  in- 
cised tablets.  Most  of  the  natives  were 
carried  off  in  1863  by  the  Peruvians  to 
work  guano.  The  island  has  been,  since 
1888,  a  Chilean  convict  station. 

EASTERN  CHURCH,  the  Greek 
Church  which  formerly  had  its  chief  seat 
at  Constantinople,  and  for  its  chief  ruler 
the  patriarch  of  that  capital,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  Western  Church  which 
had  its  metropolis  at  Rome  and  was  ruled 
by  the  papacy. 

EASTERN  EMPIRE,  the  empire 
which  had  its  metropolis  at  Constanti- 
nople, as  distinguished  from  the  Western 
one  which  had  its  capital  at  Rome.  The 
name  did  not  begin  with  the  building  of 
Constantinople;  it  arose  when,  in  a.  d. 
394j  Valentinian,  himself  ruling  al  the 
capital  just  mentioned,  made  his  brother 
Valens  Emperor  of  the  East.  It  came 
still  more  into  use  when  the  final  separa- 
tion between  the  East  and  the  West  took 
place  in  A.  D.  395.  The  Eastern  Empire 
is  held  to  have  continued  till  1453,  when 
its  chief  city  was  captured  by  the  Turks 
and  became  the  Turkish  capital.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  Lower  Empire,  im- 
plying that  it  was  later  in  time  than  its 
more  celebrated  predecessor,  to  which, 
however,  the  name  Higher  is  not  applied. 

EASTHAMPTON,  a  town  of  Massa- 
chusetts, in  Hampshire  co.  It  includes 
three  villages  and  is  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford,  and  the  Bos- 
ton and  Maine  railroads.  Its  industries 
include  a  dyeing  plant  and  manufactories 
of  rubber  goods,  buttons,  shoe  webs,  cot- 
ton goods,  felt,  yarn,  etc.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Williston  Seminary  and  has  a  public 
library  and  other  public  buildings.  Pop. 
(1910)  8,524;  (1920)  11,261. 

EAST  HARTFORD,  a  town  of  Con- 
necticut, in  Hartford  co.  It  is  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
railroad,  and  on  the  Connecticut  river. 
The  industries  include  paper  making,  to- 
bacco  growing,    and   market   gardening. 


EAST    INDIA   COMPAinr 


457 


EAST  MOLINE 


There  are  also  railroad  and  machine 
shops.  The  town  has  a  public  library 
and  the  Raymond  Library.  Pop.  (1910) 
8,138;    (1920)   11,648. 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY,  in  its  origi- 
nal form  "The  Governor  and  Company 
of  Merchants  of  London  trading  to  the 
East  Indies";  so  the  company  is  de- 
scribed in  its  charter,  dated  Dec.  31, 
1600.  Afterward,  on  July  22,  1702,  "The 
United  Company  of  Merchants  trading 
to  the  East  Indies."  In  1749  the  com- 
pany plunged  into  the  native  wars  of  the 
Carnatic,  and  commenced  a  career  of  con- 
quest which  placed  nearly  the  whole  of 
India  either  directly  or  indirectly  under 
the  British  rule.  The  victory  of  Clive, 
at  Plassy  (June  23,  1757),  over  Suraj-u 
Dowla  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
Anglo-Indian  empire. 

The  rise  of  such  power  excited  in  the 
home  government  a  desire  to  reduce  it 
under  their  control;  and  when  as  early 
as  1769  the  company  wished  the  loan  of 
two  ships  of  the  line  and  some  frigates, 
the  ministry  in  granting  their  request  in- 
timated their  intention  of  vesting  in  the 
admiral  power  to  treat  independently  on 
all  maritime  affairs.  In  1773  the  home 
government  claimed  that  the  territorial 
acquisitions  of  the  company  should  be 
transferred  after  six  years'  grace  to  the 
crown,  and  change  made  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  company,  a  Supreme  Court  of 
Judicature  being  also  appointed  in  India. 
Pitt's  act  (1784)  established  a  board  of 
control  over  the  directors,  which  com- 
pletely destroyed  the  independence  of  the 
latter  body.  The  company's  charter  was 
renewed  with  a  few  changes  in  1793; 
subsequently  at  intervals  of  20  years.  In 
1813  they  lost  the  monopoly  of  the  In- 
dian trade,  retaining  that  of  China.  This 
last  was  taken  away  in  1833.  The  next 
renewal,  that  of  1853,  was  the  last  that 
took  place.  The  Indian  mutinies  of  1857 
and  1858,  having  discredited  the  com- 
pany's administration,  its  political  gov- 
ernment was  brought  to  an  end  on  Aug. 
13,  1858. 

On  Nov.  1,  1858,  a  proclamation  made 
at  Calcutta  announced  that  Queen  Vic- 
toria herself  assumed  the  government  of 
India.  Finally  the  East  India  Stock  Re- 
demption Act,  passed  on  May  13,  1873, 
but  not  operative  till  June  1,  1874,  at  the 
latter  date,  dissolved  the  company  itself. 

EAST  INDIES,  the  name  given  to 
India,  the  Eastern  Peninsula  and  the 
islands  of  the  adjacent  archipelago  stop- 
ping in  the  one  direction  short  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  and  in  the  other  be- 
fore reaching  New  Guinea. 

EASTLAKE,    SIR    CHARLES    LOCK, 

an    English    artist,    and    critic    and    his- 
torian of  art;  born  in  Plymouth,  Nov.  17. 


1793.  His  paintings  were  noteworthy; 
and  in  such  books  as  "Materials  for  a 
History  of  Oil  Painting"  (1847-1869)  and 
"History  of  the  Gothic  Revival"  (1871), 
he  manifested  taste  and  discrimination. 
He  died  in  Pisa,  Italy,  Dec.  14,  1865. 

EAST  LIVERPOOL,  a  city  in  Colum- 
biana CO.,  O.;  on  the  Ohio  river,  and  on 
the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Youngstown 
and  Ohio  railroads,  45  miles  W.  of  Pitts- 
burgh. It  has  freight  packet  connections 
with  all  important  Ohio  river  ports,  ex- 
tensive china,  porcelain,  earthenware, 
terra  cotta  and  glass  works,  foundries, 
and  machine  shops.  There  are  electric 
street  railways  and  lights,  public  library, 
water  works,  business  college,  3  National 
banks,  and  several  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1910)  20,387;    (1920)  21,411. 

EASTMAN,  CHARLES  ALEXANDER 
(OHIYESA),  an  American  physician, 
born  at  Redwood  Falls,  Minn.,  in  1858.  He 
was  the  son  of  Sioux  Indians.  lie  grad- 
uated from  Dartmouth  College  in  1887, 
and  after  studying  medicine  became  Gov- 
ernment physician  at  the  Pine  Ridge 
Agency,  serving  until  1893.  He  was  In- 
dian secretary  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  from 
1894  to  1897,  and  was  in  charge  of  the 
field  work  of  that  organization  among  the 
Indians.  From  1897  to  1900  he  was  at- 
torney for  the  Santee  Sioux  Indians  at 
Washington,  and  from  1903  to  1909  held 
an  appointment  to  revise  Sioux  family 
names.  He  married  in  1891  Elaine 
Goodale,  poet.  He  wrote  several  books 
on  Indian  life  and  customs.  These  in- 
clude "Indian  Boyhood"  (1902);  "Old 
Indian  Days"  (1907)  ;  "The  Soul  of  the 
Indian"  (1911);  "The  Indian  To-day" 
(1915)  ;  "Indian  Heroes  and  Great  Chief- 
tains" (1918).  He  also  lectured  on  In- 
dian life  and  history. 

EASTMAN,  ELAINE  GOODALE,  an 
American  writer;  born  at  Mt.  Washing- 
ton, Mass.,  in  1863.  She  was  educated 
privately.  She  early  began  writing  verse 
which  'attracted  considerable  notice. 
From  1883  to  1891  she  was  a  teacher 
and  supervisor  of  Indian  schools.  In 
the  latter  year  she  married  Charles  A. 
Eastman.  Her  writings,  chiefly  poetry, 
include  "Apple  Blossoms"  (1878)  ;  "Lit- 
tle Brother  o'  Dreams"  (1910);  "Indian 
Legends  Re-told"  (1919).  She  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  papers  and  maga- 
zines on  Indian  subjects. 

EAST  MOLINE,  a  city  of  Illinois,  in 
Rock  Island  co.  It  is  on  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  the  Davenport, 
Rock  Island  and  Northwestern,  and  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  rail- 
roads. It  is  an  important  industrial  city 
and    has    manufactures    of    automobiles. 


EASTON 


458 


EAST  ST.  LOUIS 


agricultural  implements,  gas  engines, 
scales,  iron  goods,  cement  blocks,  etc. 
Pop.   (1910)   2,665;    (1920)   8,675. 

EASTON,  a  town  of  Massachusetts, 
m  Bristol  co.  It  is  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroad.  It 
includes  several  villages.  There  are  im- 
portant manufactures  of  shovels,  foun- 
dry products,  hardware,  wire  goods, 
automobiles,  etc.  The  city  has  a  public 
library  and  a  number  of  fine  buildings, 
gifts  of  the  Ames  family.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,139;   (1920)  5,041. 

EASTON,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Northampton  co..  Pa.;  on  the  Delaware 
and  Lehigh  rivers;  the  Delaware,  Mor- 
ris, and  Lehigh  canals;  the  Lehigh 
Valley,  the  Pennsylvania,  Lehigh  and 
Hudson  River  and  the  Lackawanna  rail- 
roads; 67  miles  N.  of  Philadelphia.  It 
has  extensive  water  power  and  shipping 
facilities,  and  contains  the  shops  of 
the  Lehigh  Valley  railroad,  railway  sup- 
ply, chemical,  hosiery,  machine  pumps, 
stores,  blast  furnaces,  woolen  goods, 
and  other  manufactories.  The  city  has 
electric  and  gas  lighting  plants,  electric 
street  railroads,  connecting  with  Bethle- 
hem and  Allentown,  3  National  and  sev- 
eral private  banks,  high  school,  public 
library,  old  ladies'  and  children's  home, 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  and  is  the 
seat  of  Lafayette  College  (a.  v.).  Pop. 
(1910)    28,523;    (1920)    33,813. 

EAST  OBANGE,  a  city  ^n  Essex  co., 
N.  J.,  on  the  Lackawanna  and  Erie  rail- 
roads, 12  miles  W.  of  New  York.  It  is 
a  place  of  residence  for  people  doing 
business  in  New  York  and  Newark.  The 
streets  are  v/ell  paved  and  lighted  by 
gas  and  electricity  and  afford  more  than 
60  miles  of  macadam  road.  The  city 
contains  many  handsome  churches,  and 
private  residences,  public  library,  and 
high  and  graded  schools.  It  was  char- 
tered in  1899.  Pop.  (1910)  34,371; 
(1920)  50,710. 

EAST  PALESTINE,  a  village  of 
Ohio,  in  Columbiana  co.  It  is  on  the 
Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne  and  Chicago 
railroad.  The  industries  include  the 
manufacture  of  pottery,  terra  cotta,  and 
tile.  It  has  also  machine  shops,  and  a 
rubber  factory.  There  are  important 
coal  m.ines  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,537;   (1920)  5,750. 

EAST  PITTSBURGH,  a  borough  in 
Pennsylvania,  in  Allegheny  co.  It  is  on 
the  Pennsylvania,  the  Bessemer  and 
Lake  Erie,  and  the  Union  railroads.  The 
city  contains  factories  of  the  Westing- 
house  electric  and  machine  companies, 
and  there  are  also  manufactures  of  me- 
ters, machines,  steel  rails,  and  furnaces. 
Pop.   (1910)   5,615;   (1920)   6,527. 


EAST  POINT,  a  city  of  Georgia,  in. 
Fulton  CO.  It  is  on  the  Central  of  Geor- 
gia and  the  Atlantic  and  West  Point  rail- 
roads. Its  industries  include  oil  mills, 
fertilizer  factories,  saw  and  planing 
mills,  iron  works,  cotton  mills,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)   3,682;   (1920)   5,241. 

EASTPORT,  a  city  and  port  of  entry 
in  Washington  co..  Me.,  on  Moose  Island, 
in  Passamaquoddy  Bay,  into  which 
empties  the  St.  Croix  river,  the  national 
boundary  between  the  United  States  and 
British  America;  and  on  the  Washington 
County  railroad;  190  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Portland.  It  is  the  N.  E.  frontier  city 
of  the  United  States,  and  has  a  fine  har- 
bor, with  daily  steamship  service  with 
Boston,  Calais,  and  Portland.  The  city 
has  extensive  fishing  and  shipbuilding  in- 
terests, a  sardine  packing  establishment 
with  20  factories,  public  high  school  and 
library,  banks  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1910)  4,961;   (1920)  4,494. 

EAST  PROVIDENCE,  a  town  of 
Rhode  Island,  in  Providence  co.  It  is  on 
the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hart- 
ford railroad,  and  on  the  Seekonk  river, 
which  separates  it  from  Providence.  Its 
industries  include  chemical,  electrical, 
and  wire  works.  Pop.  (1910)  15,808; 
(1920)  21,793. 

EA3T  RIVER,  the  strait  between 
Long  Island  Sound  and  New  York  har- 
bor, separating  the  boroughs  of  Manhat- 
tan and  Brooklyn.  It  is  about  12  miles 
long,  varies  from  one-half  a  mile  to  3V^ 
miles  in  width,  and  is  navigable  by  the 
largest  ships. 

EAST  RUTHERFORD,  a  borough  of 
New  Jersey,  in  Bergen  co.  It  is  on  the 
Erie  railroad.  It  is  chiefly  a  residential 
city  for  New  York  business  men,  and 
has  cotton  and  linen  bleaching  works. 
It  contains  a  mirror  and  a  steam  boiler 
factory.  Pop.  (1910)  4,275;  (1920) 
5,463. 

EAST  ST.  LOUIS,  a  city  in  St.  Clair 
CO.  111.,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  opposite 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  Illinois  Central,  Burlington  and 
Quincy,  and  seventeen  other  railroads. 
It  is  connected  by  a  steel  bridge  vdth  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  and  has  excellent  passenger 
and  freight  steamer  service  with  all 
leading  river  ports.  The  city  contains 
the  St.  Louis  National  Stockyards,  one 
of  the  largest  in  the  United  States;  has 
rolling  mills,  glass  works,  machine 
shops,  grain  elevators,  manufactories  of 
pneumatic  tools,  baking  powder,  locomo- 
tives, fertilizer  and  paint,  and  is  the 
largest  horse  and  mule  market  in  the 
world.  It  has  2  National  and  several 
private  banks,  electric  street  railroads. 


EAST  YOUNGSTOWN 


459 


EBERS 


electric    and    gas    lighting    plants,  high 

schools,     a     public     library,     daily  and 

weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  58,- 
547;   (1920)  66,767. 

EAST  YOUNGSTOWN,  a  village  of 
Ohio,  in  Mahoning  co.  It  is  on  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  railroad,  and  on  the  Ma- 
honing river.  Its  chief  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  iron.  Pop.  (1910)  4,972; 
(1920)   11,237. 

EATON,  CHARLES  AUBREY,  an 
American  Baptist  clergyman,  born  in 
Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  in  1868.  He  grad- 
uated from  Acadia  University  in  1890, 
and  the  Newton  Theological  Institution 
in  1893.  In  the  same  year  he  was  or- 
dained to  the  Baptist  ministry  and  was 
Sastor  of  the  First  Church  at  Natick, 
[ass.;  Toronto,  Can.;  and  Cleveland,  O., 
until  1909,  when  he  became  pastor  of 
the  Madison  Avenue  Church  of  New 
York,  He  resigned  this  position  in  1919 
to  become  associate  editor  of  "Leslie's 
Weekly."  At  the  same  time  he  engaged 
in  the  work  of  an  expert  in  industrial 
relations.  From  1917  to  1919  he  was 
head  of  the  national  service  department 
of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation.  He  was 
the  author  of  "For  Troubled  Hearts" 
(1899)  ;  and  "The  Old  Evangel"   (1900). 

EATON,  CHARLES  WARREN,  an 

American  artist,  bom  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
in  1857.  He  studied  at  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  and  the  Art  Stu- 
dents' League.  He  exhibited  in  London 
and  Paris  in  1900.  He  received  a  medal 
at  the  Charleston  Exposition.  He  re- 
ceived also  prizes  at  other  expositions, 
including  the  Inness  gold  medal,  from 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in 
1904,  and  a  gold  medal  from  the  Paris 
Salon  in  1906.  He  was  an  associate  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design. 

EATON,    WALTER    PRICHARD,    an 

American  writer,  born  in  Maiden,  Mass., 
in  1878.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  in  1900  and  in  the  same  year 
engaged  in  newspaper  work.  He  served 
as  dramatic  critic  on  several  New  York 
papers,  but  in  1908  gave  up  this  work  to 
engage  in  general  writing.  His  books 
include  "The  American  Stage  of  Today" 
(1908);  "The  Man  Who  Found  Christ- 
mas" (1913)  ;  "Plays  and  Flayers" 
(1916);  "In  Berkshire  Fields"  (1919). 
He  also  lectured  on  dramatic  subjects. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  National  Insti- 
tute of  Arts  and  Letters. 

EATON,  WYATT,  an  American  art- 
ist; born  in  Phillipsburg,  Quebec,  May  6, 
1849;  studied  in  New  York  City  and 
abroad.  He  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1876  and  settled  in  New  York 


City.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Society  of  American  Artists  and  later 
served  as  its  secretary  and  president. 
His  works  include  portraits  of  Bryant, 
Longfellow,  Emerson,  Whittier,  Holmes, 
etc.  He  died  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  June  7, 
1896. 

EAU  CLAIRE,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Eau  Claire  co.,  Wis.,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Eau  Claire  river  and  the  head  of 
navigation  of  the  Chippewa  river,  md 
on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  and  sev- 
eral other  railroads;  85  miles  E.  of  St. 
Paul.  It  is  the  commercial  center  for 
northwestern  Wisconsin  and  the  outlet 
of  the  Chippewa  lumber  district,  with 
extensive  water  power.  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  lumber.  There  are  exten- 
sive manufactures  of  iron  and  linen 
goods,  furniture,  machinery,  paper,  steel, 
sashes  and  doors,  and  shoes.  The  city 
is  noted  as  a  summer  resort,  and  has 
electric  railroads  and  street  lights, 
water  works,  public  library  and  high 
school.  Sacred  Heart  Hospital,  National 
and  savings  banks,  and  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  18,310;  (1920) 
20,880. 

EAUX  BONNES  (o  bon),  a  fashion- 
able watering-place  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Basses-Pyrenees,  20  miles 
S.  S.  E.  of  Oloron.  It  stands  in  a  nar- 
row gorge  surrounded  by  rocks.  Eaux 
Bonnes  is  much  frequented  for  its  hot 
sulphurous  springs,  used  for  bathing. 
Their  temperature  does  not  exceed  91° 
F.  There  is  also  a  cold  spring  here  used 
for  drinking.  The  springs  are  said  to 
be  very  valuable  for  their  power  of 
checking  incipient  consumption,  and  of 
curing  various  affections  of  the  lungs 
and  chest. 

EBBSFLEET,  a  hamlet  in  the  Isle  of 
Thanet,  County  Kent,  England;  mem- 
orable as  the  place  where  the  first 
Anglo-Saxon  invaders  landed. 

EBENEZER  (stone  of  help) ,  a  monu- 
ment raised  by  Samuel  after  his  victory 
over  the  Philistines,  was  assumed  by 
early  Christian  hermits  to  be  at  a  place 
now  called  Deiraban,  near  the  W.  bor- 
der of  Judah;  but  the  site  is  not  really 
known. 

EBERS,  GEORG  MORITZ  (a'bers), 
a  German  Egyptologist  and  novelist; 
bom  in  Berlin,  March  1,  1837;  was  edu- 
cated at  Froebel's  school,  and  studied 
law  at  Gottingen.  He  afterward  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  Egyptology 
at  Berlin.  He  established  himself  in 
1865  as  a  lecturer  at  Jena,  where  in 
1868  he  was  made  professor.  Next  year 
he  made  a  long  journey  to  the  East,  and 


EBERT 


460 


ECBATANA 


in  1870  was  called  to  Leipzig  as  Pro- 
fessor of  Egyptology.  His  visit  to 
Egypt  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the 
celebrated  hieratic  medical  "Papyrus 
Ebers"  which  he  published  in  1875.  His 
series  of  historical  romances  comprise  in 
sequence:  "An  Egyptian  Princess" 
(1864);  "Uarda"  (1877);  "Homo  Sum" 
(1878);  "The  Sisters"  (1879);  "The 
Emperor"  (1880);  "Serapis"  (1885); 
"The  Bride  of  the  Nile"  (1886); 
"Joshua"  (1889)  ;  "Per  Aspera"  (1892)  ; 
"Cleopatra"  (1894);  and  "Eli  fen,"  in 
verse  (1888).  He  wrote  several  other 
historical  novels;  including  ''The  Burgo- 
master's Wife"  (1881).  He  died  near 
Munich,  Bavaria,  Aug.  8,  1898. 

EBEST,  FRIEDBICH,  President  of 
the  German  Republic.  During  his  youth 
he  worked  first  as  a  harness  maker  and 
then  as  a  tailor.  He  made  sufficient 
money  by  these  trades  to  purchase  a 
printing    establishment    in    Bremen, 


FRIEDRICH  EBERT 

where  he  also  wrote  for  the  Socialist 
papers.  In  1908  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Reichstag,  elected  there  by  the 
Social  Deiriocrats.  His  service  as  a 
member  of  that  body  was  featured  by  his 
criticisms  of  the   military  budgets  and 


by  his  conservatism  in  restraining  revo- 
lutionary methods.  When  the  war  of 
1914  came,  he  with  the  majority  of  his 
party,  supported  the  Government,  and 
even  defended  the  unlimited  submarine 
warfare.  In  1916  he  was  chosen  leader 
of  the  Socialist  group  in  the  Reichstag 
called  the  Majority  Socialists,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Minority  Socialists 
who  opposed  the  war.  He  was  officially 
chosen  as  the  national  head  of  the  Ma- 
jority Socialists  at  the  Congress  of  that 
party  which  was  held  in  Wiirzburg  in 
1917.  Although  supporting  the  Govern- 
ment,_  Ebert  and  his  group  did  not  fail 
to  criticize  it  severely  and  on  July  19, 
1917,  they  sponsored  the  resolution  of 
the  Reichstag  declaring  for  peace  with- 
out annexations  and  indemnities.  Ebert 
was  one  of  the  few  prominent  Germans 
who  before  November,  1918,  realized  the 
imminent  defeat  of  the  German  arms. 
As  early  as  July  of  that  year  he  had 
demanded  that  the  war  cease.  It  was 
this  foresight  which  caused  Prince  Max, 
the  Imperial  German  Chancellor,  to  turn 
over  his  office  to  him,  and  when  after  a 
few  days  the  office  was  suppressed, 
Ebert  remained  as  the  directing  head  of 
the  Government  in  Berlin.  The  Inde- 
pendent Socialists  and  the  Communists 
refused,  however,  to  support  his  govern- 
ment and  during  1919  Berl^Ti  and  many 
other  German  cities  were  •:•  scenes  of 
considerable  street  fighting.  Ebert's 
government  succeeded  in  quelling  the  re- 
volt and  also  in  securing  the  election  of 
a  National  Assembly  to  form  a  constitu- 
tion for  Germany.  In  March  of  1919  he 
was  elected  by  that  body  President  of 
the  German  Republic.  Hardly  had  the 
Assembly  adjourned  when  the  new  Gov- 
ernment was  overthrown  in  1920  by  a 
coup  d'etat  engineered  by  some  ex-army 
officers.  Ebert  and  the  other  members 
of  his  government  escaped  from  Berlin 
and  succeeded  in  calling  a  general  strike 
which  in  a  few  days  compelled  the  mili- 
tarists to  capitulate.  Ebert  and  the  Re- 
publican Government  resumed  sway  in 
Berlin. 

EBRO  (a'bro),  a  river  in  Spain,  which 
has  its  source  in  the  province  of  San- 
tander,  about  25  miles  S.  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  and  after  a  8.  E.  course  of  about 
500  miles  enters  the  Mediterranean.  Its 
navigation  is  much  interrupted  by  rapids 
and  shoals,  to  avoid  which  a  canal  about 
100  miles  long  has  been  constructed 
nearly  parallel  to  its  course. 

ECBATANA  (ek-bat'a-na) ,  the  chief 
city  or  ancient  metropolis  of  Media,  the 
summer  residence  of  the  Median  and 
Persian  and  afterward  of  the  Parthian 
kings.  It  was  a  place  of  great  splendor 
at    an    early    period..     Its    site    can    no 


ECCLESIASTES 


461 


ECLIPSE 


longer  be  fixed  with  certainty,  though 
many  explorers  agree  in  identifying  it 
•Rrith  the  modern  Hamadan. 

ECCLESIASTES  (-tez),  the  title  by 
which  the  Septuagint  translators  ren- 
dered the  Hebrew  Coheleth  (the  gath- 
erer of  the  people),  a  symbolic  name  ex- 
plained by  the  design  of  the  book  and 
the  dramatic  position  occupied  by  Solo- 
mon in  it,  one  of  the  canonical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament.  According  to  Jew- 
ish tradition  it  was  written  by  Solomon; 
but  the  best  modern  criticism  has  de- 
cided that  its  style  and  language,  no  less 
than  its  thought,  belong  to  a  much  later 
date. 

ECCLESIASTICUS,  the  title  of  a 
book  placed  by  Protestants  and  Jews 
among  the  apocryphal  writings.  The 
author  calls  himself  Jesus  the  son  of 
Sirach.  Originally  composed  in  Ara- 
maic, the  book  was  translated  into 
Greek  by  the  grandson  of  the  original 
author  about  the  3d  century  B.  C. 

ECHEGARAY,  JOSE  (a-cha-gar-a'), 
a  Spanish  dramatist;  born  in  Madrid  in 
1832.  He  is  author  of  several  treatises 
on  mechanics  and  civil  engineering,  and 
was  for  a  time  minister  of  commerce,  of 
public  instruction  and  finance.  Since 
1874,  when  the  production  of  "The 
Avenger's  Bride"  opened  a  new  and  bril- 
liant life  for  the  Spanish  stage,  he  pro- 
duced over  70  plays  rich  in  imagination, 
dramatic  force,  and  lyric  talent,  though 
with  the  true  Spaniard's  love  of  the  hor- 
rible. Of  his  greatest  pieces  may  be 
named:  "The  Great  Galeoto";  "Mad- 
man or  Saint";  "Conflict  between  Two 
Duties";  "A  Merry  Life  and  a  Sad 
Death."  The  best  known  of  his  plays 
in  America  is  a  version  of  "The  Great 
Galeotto"  produced  by  the  Favershams 
as  "The  World  and  His  Wife."  In  1904 
he  shared  the  Nobel  prize  with  Mistral. 

ECKMITHL  (ek'mul),  a  village  of 
Bavaria,  circle  of  Lower  Bavaria,  on  the 
Gross  Laber,  13  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Ratis- 
bon,  the  scene  of  a  sanguinary  battle 
between  the  French  and  Austrians  on 
April  22,  1809,  in  which  the  latter  were 
defeated. 

ECLECTIC  SCHOOL  OF  MEDI- 
CINE, that  school  which  believes  that 
one  should  choose  himself  the  best  in 
medicine  and  not  be  confined  in  his 
choices  by  those  offered  by  any  one 
school  of  medical  thought.  The  idea  is 
an  old  one,  going  back  to  ancient  times, 
that  the  individual  is  capable  of  choos- 
ing what  medicine  is  good  for  him.  Those 
following  the  eclectic  school  usually  re- 
ject the  experience  of  established  medi- 
cal   practice.      The    American    Eclectic 


School  of  Medicine  was  really  founded 
by  Wooster  Beach  in  1826  when  he  es- 
tablished an  eclectic  college  in  New 
York.  By  1914  there  were  four  such 
colleges  in  the  United  States  and  the  Na- 
tional Eclectic  Medical  Association  wa^ 
incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  Stat( 
of  New  York.  The  American  school  haa 
investigated  the  use  of  native  American 
plants  for  medicinal  purposes,  believing 
that  in  the  order  of  Nature  a  cure  for 
the  special  diseases  of  a  locality  has  been 
provided  by  plant  growth  in  that  region. 
Much  valuable  information  has  been 
gained  by  the  painstaking  investigation 
entered  upon  by  this  school.  Beach  was 
the  author  of  a  book  defending  this  ec- 
lectic method,  "The  American  Practice 
of  Medicine"  (New  York,  1838). 

ECLIPSE,  an  interception  or  obscura- 
tion of  the  light  of  the  sun,  moon  or 
other  heavenly  body  by  the  intervention  of 
another  and  non-luminous  heavenly  body 
or  by  its  shadow.  An  eclipse  of  a  star 
or  planet  is  called  occultation.  Eclipses 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  solar, 
lunar,  and  planetary. 

Solar  Eclipses. — An  eclipse  of  the  sun 
is  an  occultation  of  part  of  the  face  of 
the  sun,  occasioned  by  an  interposition  of 
the  moon  between  the  earth  and  the  sun; 
thus  all  eclipses  of  the  sun  happen  at  the 
time  of  the  new  moon.  The  dark  or 
central  part  of  the  moon's  shadow, 
where  the  sun's  rays  are  wholly  inter- 
cepted, is  called  the  umbra,  and  tne  light 
part,  where  only  a  part  of  them  are  in- 
tercepted, is  called  the  penumbra;  and  it 
is  evident  that  if  a  spectator  be  situated 
on  that  part  of  the  earth  where  the  um- 
bra falls,  there  will  be  a  total  eclipse  of 
the  sun  at  that  place;  in  the  penumbra 
there  will  be  no  eclipse.  As  the  earth  is 
not  always  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
moon,  if  an  eclipse  should  happen  when 
the  earth  is  so  far  from  the  moon  that 
the  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  the 
upper  and  lower  limbs  of  the  sun  across 
each  other  before  they  reach  the  earth,  a 
spectator  situated  on  the  earth  in  a  di- 
rect line  between  the  centers  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  would  see  a  ring  of  light 
around  the  dark  body  of  the  moon;  such 
an  eclipse  is  called  annular;  when  this 
happens  there  can  be  no  total  eclipse 
anywhere,  because  the  moon's  umbra 
does  not  reach  the  earth.  People  situ- 
ated in  the  penumbra  will  perceive  a 
partial  eclipse;  an  eclipse  can  never  be 
annular  longer  than  12  minutes  24  sec- 
onds, nor  total  longer  than  7  minutes 
58  seconds;  nor  can  the  duration  of  wxy 
eclipse  of  the  sun  exceed  two  hours.  An 
eclipse  of  the  sun  begins  on  the  W.  side 
of  his  disk  and  ends  on  the  E.;  and  an 
eclipse  of  the  moon  begins  on  the  eastern 

30— Vol.  Ill— Crc 


ECLIPSE 


462 


ECOLE  POLYTECHNIQXJE 


side  of  her  disk  and  ends  on  the  western. 
The  average  number  of  eclipses  in  a  year 
is  four,  two  of  the  sun  and  two  of  the 
moon;  and  as  the  sun  and  moon  are  as 
long  below  the  horizon  of  any  particular 
place  as  they  are  above  it,  the  average 
number  of  visible  eclipses  in  a  year  is 
two,  one  of  the  sun  and  one  of  the  moon. 
Total  eclipses  of  the  sun  offer  brief  but 
intensely  interesting  phenomena  for  the 
astronomer's  study.  The  nature  of  the 
sun's  corona  is  as  yet  undetermined,  and 
the  aid  of  the  spectroscope  and  of  photog- 
raphy has  not  been  sufficiently  applied 
to  the  settling  of  the  various  problems 
presented.  There  were  solar  eclipses 
May  18,  1901,  Aug.  30,  1905,  Aug.  21, 
1914,  June  8,  1918,  May  29,  1919. 

Lunar    Eclipses. — An    eclipse    of    the 
moon  is  an  obscuration  of  the  light  of  the 


formerly  used  to  determine  longitudes 
since  they  are  the  same  viewed  from  all 
parts  of  the  earth.  The  dates  of  a  num- 
ber of  important  events  of  antiquity 
have  been  approximately  determined  by 
calculations  concerning  eclipses  recorded 
at  or  near  the  time.  Eclipses  have  been 
calculated  up  to  the  year  2161. 

ECOLE  DES  BEAUX  ARTS  (a-kol' 
da  bo  zar)  (School  of  Fine  Arts),  the 
French  Government  school  in  Paris, 
founded  by  Mazarin  in  1648,  and  pro- 
vided with  an  extensive  staff  of  teachers. 
The  competitions  for  the  giands  prix  de 
Rome  take  place  at  this  school.  All 
artists  between  the  age  of  15  and  25, 
whether  pupils  of  this  school  or  not,  may 
compete,  after  passing  two  preliminary 
examinations.       The   successful   compet- 


-^n 


PiANE 
OF  THE 
£CUPTfC 


<..' 


PLANE  OF 
TMB  ECUPT/t 


A.  Eclipse  of  the  moon 


ECLIPSE 


EARTH 


B.  Eclipse  of  the  sun 


moon  occasioned  by  an  interposition  oi 
the  earth  between  the  sun  and  the  moon; 
consequently,  all  eclipses  of  the  moon 
happen  at  full  moon ;  for  it  is  only  when 
the  moon  is  on  that  side  of  the  earth 
which  is  turned  away  from  the  sun,  and 
directly  opposite,  that  it  can  come  within 
the  earth's  shadow.  Further,  the  moon 
must  at  that  time  be  at  the  same  time  in 
the  same  plane  as  the  earth's  shadow; 
that  is,  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  in  which 
the  latter  always  moves.  But  as  the 
moon's  orbit  makes  an  angle  of  more 
than  5°  with  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  it 
frequently  happens  that,  though  the 
moon  is  in  opposition,  it  does  not  come 
within  the  shadow  of  the  earth. 

Planetary  Eclipses. — The  eclipse  of  a 
satellite  takes  place  when  the  shadow  of 
the  primary  obscures  it.  Jupiter  offers 
the  most  favorable  field  for  observation 
of  this  phenomenon.     Such  eclipses  were 


itors  receive  an  annual  allowance  from 
the  state  for  three  or  four  years,  two  of 
which  must  be  passed  at  Rome.  The 
school  has  about  2,000  students  enrolled, 
and  about  50  instructors. 

ECOLE  POLYTECHNIQUE  (pol-i- 
tek-nek')  (Polytechnic  School),  a  school 
in  Paris  established  with  the  purpose 
of  giving  instruction  in  matters  con- 
nected with  the  various  branches  of  the 
public  service,  such  as  mines,  roads  and 
bridges,  engineering,  the  army  and  the 
navy,  government  manufactures,  etc.  It 
was  founded  in  1794,  and  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  Minister  of  War.  Can- 
didates are  admitted  only  by  competitive 
examination,  and  have  to  pay  for  their 
board  (about  $200  a  jrear).  The  pupils 
who  pass  satisfactory  examinations  at 
the  end  of  their  course  are  admitted  to 
that  branch  of  public  service  which  they 
select. 


ECONOMIC  ASSOCIATION 


463 


ECUADOR 


ECONOMIC  ASSOCIATION,  AMER- 
ICAN, a  society  founded  in  1885  by 
persons  interested  in  questions  of  polit- 
ical economy  or  the  economic  side  of  so- 
cial and  political  conditions.  Its  2,500 
members  consist  largely  of  teachers  of 
economics  in  the  colleges  and  schools  and 
a  number  of  business  and  professional 
men  interested  in  current  problems.  The 
annual  meeting  of  the  society  takes 
place  during  the  Christmas  vacation  of 
the  colleges  and  is  held  alternately  in  an 
eastern  and  a  western  city.  The  associ- 
ation publishes  a  very  valuable  periodical, 
a  quarterly,  the  "American  Economic  Re- 
view." In  addition  to  this  the  society 
issues  the  reports  of  its  annual  meetings, 
which  contain  valuable  monographs  and 
theses  on  economic  subjects. 

ECUADOR  (ek'  wa-dor),  a  republic 
of  South  America,  situated  under  the 
equator,  whence  it  takes  its  name,  be- 
tween Peru  and  Colombia.  It  is  of  tri- 
angular shape,  its  base  resting  mainly  on 
the  Pacific,  between  lat.  1°  20'  N.  and 
4°  50'  S.,  its  apex  extending  to  about  Ion. 
71°  30'  W.;  area,  about  116,000  square 
miles,  excluding  the  Galapagos  Islands. 
Between  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Colombia 
there  have  been  boundary  disputes.  That 
with  Colombia  was  settled  in  1917. 

Topography. — The  country  is  divided 
into  16  provinces  and  1  territory,  and 
falls,  as  regards  the  surface,  into  three 
sections;  the  comparatively  narrow  and 
low-lying  coast  regions,  the  mountain 
region,  and  the  extensive  plains  on  the  E. 
The  mountain  region  is  formed  by  a 
double  range  of  snow-clad  mountains, 
several  of  them  active  volcanoes,  which 
inclose  a  longitudinal  valley  or  tableland, 
with  a  breadth  of  20  to  40  miles,  and 
varying  in  elevation  from  8,500  to  13,- 
900  feet.  The  most  elevated  of  these 
mountains  are  in  the  W.  range,  Chimbo- 
razo,  Pichincha,  and  Cotacachi,  Chimbo- 
razo  being  20,703  feet  high.  In  the  E. 
range  are  Cayambe,  Antisana,  and  Coto- 
paxi  (19,500).  The  cultivated  land  and 
the  population  of  Ecuador  lie  chiefly  in 
this  elevated  region,  which  extends  along 
between  the  summits  of  the  Cordillera, 
and  may  be  considered  as  divided  by 
transverse  ridges  or  dikes  into  the  val- 
leys of  Quito,  Hambato  and  Cuenca.  The 
chief  towns  here  are  Quito,  the  capital 
(pop.  70,000)  ;  Riobamba  and  Cuenca,  all 
situated  at  a  height  of  9,000  feet  or  more 
above  the  sea.  The  chief  port  of  Ecua- 
dor is  Guayaquil  (pop.  65,000).  The 
most  considerable  rivers,  the  Tigre, 
Nape,  Pastaza,  etc.,  belong  to  the  basin 
of  the  Amazon ;  and  some  of  them,  nota- 
bly the  Napo,  are  navigable  for  long 
distances.  On  the  W.  slope  of  the  Andes 
the  chief  rivers  are  the  Esmeraldas  and 
the  Guayaquil. 


Climate  and  Productions. — The  climate 
on  the  plains,  both  in  the  E.  and  the  W., 
is  moist,  hot,  and  unhealthful.  In  the 
higher  regions  it  is  rough  and  cold,  but 
in  gi'eat  part  the  elevated  valleys,  as 
that  of  Quito,  have  a  delightful  climate. 
Here  the  chief  productions  are  potatoes, 
barley,  wheat,  and  European  fruits.  In 
the  lower  regions  are  grown  all  the  food 
products  of  tropical  climates,  cacao, 
coffee,  sugar,  etc.  Ecuador  is  compar- 
atively poor  in  mammalia,  though  va- 
rious kinds  of  deer  as  well  as  tapirs  and 
pecaries  are  found  in  the  forests.  Par- 
rots and  humming-birds  are  also  numer- 
ous, but  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  birds  is  the  condor,  which  dwells  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Andes.  Reptiles,  includ- 
ing serpents,  are  numerous.  The  forests 
yield  cinchona  bark,  caoutchouc,  sarsapa- 
rilla,  vegetable  ivory,  etc. 

Commerce. — The  international  trade 
passes  almost  exclusively  through  the 
port  of  Guayaquil.  In  1918  the  imports 
for  the  previous  five  years  were  valued 
at  $8,345,360.  Imports  from  the  United 
States  (1918)  $4,766,215.  Exports  $13,- 
745,265.  Exported  to  United  States  $4,- 
793,345.  The  principal  articles  imported 
are  cotton  and  woolen  textiles,  furniture, 
hardware,  cutlery,  provisions,  malt  liq- 
uors and  spirits,  silks,  jewelry,  laces, 
stationery,  wines,  breadstuffs,  leather 
goods,  and  fancy  articles;  the  principal 
exports  are  cacao  (three-fourths  of  en- 
tire export),  coffee, hides,  vegetable  ivory 
and  caoutchouc. 

Industries. — The  principal  product  of 
Ecuador  is  cacao,  and  the  cultivation  of 
this  article  shows  some  increase  in  re- 
cent years.  The  cacao  plantations  are, 
for  the  most  part,  situated  on  the  low- 
lying  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Guaya- 
quil river.  In  1919  the  cacao  crop  was 
22,474  cwt.;  coffee  (1917)  5,562,942  lbs.; 
rubber  (1917)  239,018,  ivory  nuts  3,000 
lbs.  Sugar  is  manufactured  principally 
for  home  consumption  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  tobacco  and  cotton,  though 
some  are  exported.  Pastoral  industry 
is  practically  confined  to  raising  cattle 
to  fill  the  home  demand  for  beef.  Hides 
are  exported  principally  to  the  United 
States. 

Mining. — Very  little  has  been  at- 
tempted in  modern  times  in  the  direction 
of  mining  industry  in  Ecuador.  In  the 
province  of  Esmeraldas  hydraulic  wash- 
ing of  gravel  beds  is  being  carried  on  by 
an  American  company,  and  quartz  crush- 
ing is  also  in  progress  at  Zuruma,  in 
the  province  of  Oro.  The  Indians  do 
some  washing  in  the  beds  of  streams 
and  rivers;  a  small  supply  of  gold  is 
obtained  from  this  source.  The  ex- 
istence of  petroleum  has  been  proved  in 
various   localities,   but   nothing  has    yet 


ECUADOB 


464 


ECZEMA 


been  done  to  develop  an  industry  in  this 
product.  Deposits  of  copper,  lead,  iron, 
and  coal  also  occur,  but  are  not  worked. 
In  the  province  of  Cuenca  valuable  lodes 
of  silver-bearing  ore  are  known,  but  are 
not  exploited.  Quicksilver  is  said  to  ex- 
ist in  the  province  of  Loja.  Careful 
prospecting  of  the  mineral  resources  of 
Ecuador  would  doubtless  disclose  much 
natural  wealth,  but  the  difficulties  and 
cost  of  transport  have  hitherto  proved 
insurmountable  obstacles  to  the  practical 
development  of  the  mining  industry. 

Manufactures. — Manufacturing  indus- 
try is  confined  within  very  small  limits. 
It  is  represented  by  the  chocolate  manu- 
facturing concerns,  some  woolen  and 
cotton  textile  mills  on  a  comparatively 
limited  scale,  four  sawmills,  a  biscuit 
factory,  a  brewery  and  ice  factory  in  the 
city  of  Guayaquil,  and  a  few  soap  fac- 
tories. It  is  now  proposed  to  extend  the 
manufacture  of  woolen  and  cotton  goods, 
and  for  this  purpose  to  utilize  water  to 
obtain  the  required  power.  The  manu- 
I  facture  of  fine  straw  hats  is  a  na- 
tive industry  in  Ecuador,  these  hats 
being  shipped  abroad  under  the  name  of 
Panama  and  selling  for  high  prices. 

Communications. — The  roads  in  Ecua- 
dor are  principally  bridle-paths  generally 
impassible  in  wet  and  winter  weather. 
In  1908  a  company  formed  in  the  United 
States  completed  the  railroad  (297 
miles)  from  Guayaquil  to  Quito.  There 
is  also  a  Central  R.  R.  from  Manta  to 
Santa  Anna,  35  miles,  and  a  road  con- 
necting Bahia,  Caracas  and  Quito,  168 
miles.  Other  railroads  are  projected. 
The  telegraph  system  covers  5,482  miles. 
There  are  six  wireless  stations. 

Education. — The  educational  system  of 
the  country  has  been  greatly  improved 
in  recent  years.  In  1916  new  courses  of 
study  were  introduced  in  the  primary 
schools  and  these  were  extended  in  1918 
to  the  high-school  courses.  Primary  in- 
struction is  free  and  obligatory  for  all 
children,  beginning  with  six  years.  In 
1919  there  were  103  mixed  schools,  241 
primary  schools,  122  grammar  schools, 
16  high  schools,  385  fiscal  schools,  57 
municipal  schools,  and  40  private  schools. 
In  all  these  there  was  an  enrolment  of 
about  48,000.  High-school  instruction 
is  given  in  the  national  colleges.  Each 
of  the  provinces,  with  the  exception  of 
Esmeraldas,  has  one  of  these  colleges. 

Religion.— The  Roman  Catholic,  under 
the  constitution,  is  the  only  form  of  re- 
ligion tolerated. 

Government. — The  executive  govern- 
ment (since  Dec.  1906)  is  vested  in  a 
President,  elected  for  four  vears,  who 
IS  assisted  by  a  Council  of  State  of  five 
members.  The  Congress  is  the  legis- 
lative body,  and  consists  of  two  Houses, 


one  formed  of  senators,  two  for  each 
province,  the  other  of  deputies,  one  for 
every  30,000  inhabitants,  both  elected  by 
universal  suffrage.  The  Congress  has 
extensive  privileges  and  cannot  be  dis- 
solved by  the  President.  The  seat  of 
government  is  at  Quito.  In  1920  the 
estimated  revenue  was  $9,997,830.  The 
money  unit  is  the  sucre,  equivalent  to  a 
5-franc  piece,  but  the  coins  of  the  United 
States,  France,  and  Great  Britain  cir- 
culate. 

History. — Ecuador  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest  of  Peru  by  the  Spaniards  formed 
part  of  the  great  empire  of  the  Incas. 
It  was  erected  first  into  a  viceroyalty  of 
Peru,  then  (from  1564  io  1718)  into  an 
independent  presidency.  In  1718  it  be- 
came part  of  the  presidency  of  New 
Granada.  During  the  revolutionary  war 
against  Spain,  Ecuador,  along  with  the 
neighboring  territories,  secured  its  inde- 
pendence in  1822,  and  was  ultimately 
erected  into  a  separate  republic  in  1831. 
Of  the  present  population,  the  aboriginal 
red  face  forms  more  than  half;  the  rest 
are  negro  and  Indian  blood,  and  Span- 
ish Creoles  or  whites.  The  latter  are 
the  chief  possessors  of  the  land.  Pop. 
2,000,000.  In  April,  1920,  an  Italian 
military  and  commercial  commission  vis- 
ited the  country.  A  tobacco  monopoly 
was  arranged  for  an  Italian  company  in 
Ecuador,  in  consideration  of  which  Italy 
undertook  the  construction  of  public 
works  in  the  country.  On  Aug.  31,  1920, 
Dr.  Jose  Luis  Tamayo  was  inaugurated 
president. 

ECZEMA  (ek-ze'ma) ,  one  of  the  com- 
monest of  all  dieases  of  the  skin,  and  al- 
so the  most  variable  in  its  manifestations. 
It  may  be  acute  or  extremely  chronic, 
may  affect  any  portion  of  the  skin,  and 
may  occur  at  any  age  from  infancy  to 
old  age. 

In  typical  acute  eczema  the  affected 
portion  of  skin  is  red,  and  is  covered 
with  numerous  small  papules,  which 
speedily  turn  into  vesicles.  These  may 
quickly  dry  up,  but  more  commonly 
break,  and  discharge  a  clear,  glutinous 
secretion,  which  hardens  and  forms  scabs 
or  crusts,  or  if  copious  keeps  the  surface 
in  a  moist  "weeping"  condition.  In 
some  cases  the  vesicles  are  replaced  by 
pustules,  and  the  discharge  is  partly  pur- 
ulent. Chronic  eczema  may  follow  the 
acute  form,  or  may  arise  without  an 
acute  stage.  Here  the  skin  is  thickened 
and  hard,  and  covered  with  crusts  or 
scales;  deep  cracks  are  sometimes  pres- 
ent, especially  where  the  skin  is  sub- 
jected to  much  movement,  as  near  the 
joints. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  and  impor- 
tant symptoms  is  itching  of  the  part  af- 
fected; it  is  never  entirely  absent,  and 


EDDY 


465 


EDDYSTONE 


in  some  cases  intolerably  severe,  but  in 
the  acute  stage  is  often  replaced  by  a 
burning  sensation;  it  may  precede  any 
visible  sign  of  the  disease,  and  may  per- 
sist after  the  skin  has  resumed  its  nat- 
ural appearance.  The  scratching  which 
it  occasions  always  aggravates  the  dis- 
ease, and  is  often  very  difficult  to  pre- 
vent. Except  in  extensive  acute  attacks, 
there  is  no  fever  and  very  little  consti- 
tutional disturbance.  The  disease  is 
not  contagious.  When  cured  it  leaves 
no  scar. 

Causes  of  Eczemu.  —  In  many  cases 
it  is  very  difficult,  perhaps  impossible, 
to  assign  a  definite  cause  for  an  attack. 
Generally  speaking,  however,  the  con- 
stitutional or  predisposing  cause  is  some 
defect  in  the  digestion  or  assimilation  of 
the  food;  strumous  and  gouty  individ- 
uals are  particularly  subject  to  the  dis- 
ease. The  local  or  exciting  cause  may 
be  anything  whatever  which  irritates  the 
skin. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  specific  for 
eczema;  different  cases  and  different 
stages  of  the  disease  require  widely  dif- 
ferent management,  and  each  must  be 
considered  and  treated  on  its  own  merits. 
The  diet  must  be  nutritious,  but  as 
simple  and  unirritating  as  possible;  di- 
gestion may  require  aid  from  medicines; 
the  bowels  should  be  regularly  evacuated, 
by  aperients  if  necessary;  a  gouty  or 
strumous  tendency  if  present  must  be 
counteracted.  The  use  of  soap  on  the 
part  affected  must  be  discontinued,  and 
strained  oatmeal  gruel,  or  rice  water,  or 
white  of  egg  with  boiled  water,  used  for 
cleansing  purposes,  but  even  these  as 
seldom  as  possible.  Thorough  removal 
of  scales  and  crusts  by  these  means,  or 
by  oil,  or  simple  bread  poultices,  is  the 
necessary  preliminary  to  satisfactory 
local  treatment.  In  the  acute  stage, 
where  the  swelling  is  great  or  the  dis- 
charge profuse,  a  sedative  lotion  applied 
on  rags  or  lint  and  kept  moist  by  a 
waterproof  covering,  is  generally  most 
useful — e.g.,  thin  starch  or  gruel,  with  a 
teaspoonful  of  boracic  acid  to  the  pint, 
soft  water  with  a  similar  proportion  of 
baking-soda,  or  dilute  lead  lotion.  In 
the  later  stages,  when  the  skin  is  moist, 
soothing  ointments  are  preferable — e.g., 
zinc  ointments,  zinc  and  boracic  oint- 
ments mixed  in  equal  parts,  or  cold 
cream.  The  ointment  should  be  evenly 
spread  on  linen  rag,  and  kept  in  close 
contact  with  the  affected  skin. 

EDDY,  MARY  BAKER  GLOVER,  an 
American  reformer;  born  in  Bow,  N.  H.; 
received  a  public  school  education,  and 
was  connected  with  the  Congregational 
Church  till  1866,  when  she  discovered 
what  are  known  as  the  principles  of 
Christian  Science.     In  1867  she  began  to 


teach  them,  and  in  1879  founded  the 
Church  of  Christ  (Christian  Scientist) 
in  Boston,  Mass.  In  1881  she  was  or- 
dained to  the  ministry;  in  the  same  year 
established  the  Massachusetts  Metaphys- 
ical College  in  Boston;  and  in  1883 
started  the  "Christian  Science  Journal." 
She  is  the  author  of  "Science  and  Health, 
With  Key  to  the  Scriptures"  (the  Chris- 
tian Science  text -book) ;  and  numerous 
other  works.  She  died  Dec.  3,  1910. 
See  Christian  Science. 

EDDY,  SPENCER,  an  American  dip- 
lomat, born  in  Chicago,  111.,  in  1874.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  University  in 
1896.  He  took  post-graduate  studies  in 
Germany.  In  1897-1898  he  acted  as 
private  secretary  of  the  late  John  Hay, 
while  the  latter  was  ambassador  to  Great 
Britain.  In  1899  he  was  appointed  3d 
secretary  of  the  American  Embassy  at 
London.  He  served  successively  in  the 
embassies  of  Paris,  Constantinople,  St. 
Petersburg,  and  Berlin.  In  1908-1909  he 
was  Minister  to  Argentina,  and  in  1909 
was  Minister  to  Rumania,  Serbia,  and 
Bulgaria.  He  resigned  to  enter  the 
Naval  Reserve  as  lieutenant-commander, 
and  during  the  World  War  was  engaged 
in  active  service. 

EDDYSTONE,  a  group  of  gneiss 
rocks,  daily  submerged  by  the  tide,  in 
the  English  Channel,  9  miles  off  the 
Cornish  coast,  and  14  S.  S.  W.  of  Ply- 
mouth Breakwater.  The  rocks  lie  in  lat. 
50"  10'  54"  N.,  and  long.  4°  15'  53"  W., 
and  have  12  to  150  fathoms  water 
around.  The  frequent  shipwrecks  on 
these  rocks  led  to  the  erection  of  a  light- 
house on  them  by  Winstanley  in  1696- 
1700.  It  was  a  wooden  polygon,  100  feet 
high,  with  a  stone  base;  but  the  gi-eat 
storm  of  Nov.  20,  1703,  completely 
washed  away  this  primitive  structure. 
Another  lighthouse,  built  in  1706-1709, 
also  of  wood,  with  a  stone  base,  and  92 
feet  high  was  burned  in  1755.  The  next 
was  constructed  by  Smeaton  in  1757-1759. 
It  was  built  of  blocks,  generally  one  to 
two  tons  weight,  of  Portland  oolite,  in- 
cased in  granite.  The  granite  was  dove- 
tailed into  the  solid  rock,  and  each  block 
into  its  neighbors.  The  tower,  85  feet 
high,  had  a  diameter  of  26 ?i  feet  at  the 
base,  and  15  feet  at  the  top.  The  light, 
72  feet  above  the  water,  was  visible  at 
a  distance  of  13  miles.  As  the  rock  or 
which  this  tower  was  built  became  un- 
dermined and  greatly  weakened  by  the 
action  of  the  waves,  the  foundation  of 
another  was  laid  on  a  different  part  of 
the  reef  in  1879.  The  new  lighthouse, 
completed  in  1882  by  Sir  James  N.  Doug- 
lass, is,  like  its  predecessor,  ingeniously 
dovetailed  throughout.  Its  dioptric  ap- 
paratus gives,  at  an  elevation  of  133  feet. 


EDEN 


466 


EDINBURGH 


a  light  equal  to  159,600  candles,  and  vis- 
ible in  clear  weather  to  a  distance  of 
l?!/^  miles. 

EDEN,  the  garden  of  paradise.  "It 
would  be  difficult,"  says  a  writer  in 
Smith's  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible"  (i. 
482),  "in  the  whole  history  of  opinion, 
to  find  any  subject  which  has  so  invited, 
and  at  the  same  time  so  completely 
baffled  conjecture,  as  the  Garden  of 
Eden.  The  three  continents  of  the  Old 
World  have  been  subjected  to  the  most 
rigorous  search;  from  China  to  the 
Canary  Isles,  from  the  Mountains  of  the 
Moon  to  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  no 
locality  which  in  the  slightest  degree 
corresponded  to  the  description  of  the 
first  abode  of  the  human  race  has  been 
left  unexamined."  Philo  Judssus  (flour- 
ished about  20)  first  broached  the  alle- 
gorical theory  of  interpretation,  teach- 
ing that  paradise  shadowed  forth  the 
governing  faculty  of  the  soul,  and  that 
the  tree  of  life  represented  religion,  the 
true  means  of  immortality.  Origen, 

adopting  a  somewhat  similar  view,  re- 
garded Eden  as  heaven,  the  trees  as 
angels,  and  the  rivers  as  wisdom;  and 
Ambrosius  considered  the  terrestrial 
paradise  and  the  third  heaven,  men- 
tioned by  St.  Paul  (II  Cor.  xii:  2-4), 
as  identical.  Luther  taught  that  Eden 
was  guarded  by  angels  from  discovery 
and  consequent  profanation  until  the 
Deluge,  when  all  traces  were  destroyed. 
Swedenborg,  who  regarded  the  first  11 
chapters  of  Genesis  as  constituting  a 
divine  allegory,  taught  that  Eden  rep- 
resented the  state  of  innocence  in 
which  man  was  orginally  created  and 
from  which  he  degenerated  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Fall. 

EDGAR  ATHELINa,  grandson  of 
Edmund  Ironside  and  son  of  Edward 
the  Outlaw,  was  born  in  Hungary, 
where  his  father  had  been  conveyed  in 
infancy  to  escape  the  designs  of  Canute. 
After  the  battle  of  Hastings,  Edgar 
(who  had  been  brought  to  England  in 
1057)  was  proclaimed  King  of  England 
by  the  Saxons,  but  made  peace  with 
William  and  accepted  the  Earldom  of 
Oxford.  Having  been  engaged  in  some 
conspiracy  against  the  king  he  was 
forced  to  seek  refuge  in  Scotland,  where 
his  sister  Margaret  became  the  wife  of 
Malcolm  Canmore.  Edgar  subsequently 
was  reconciled  with  William  and  was  al- 
lowed to  live  in  Rouen,  where  a  pension 
was  assigned  to  him.  Afterward  with 
the  sanction  of  William  Rufus  he  under- 
took an  expedition  to  Scotland  for  the 
purpose  of  displacing  the  usurper  Don- 
ald Bane,  in  favor  of  his  nephew  Edgar, 
son    of    Malcolm    Canmore,   and    in   this 


object   he   succeeded.  He   afterward 

took  part  in  Duke  Robert's  unsuccessful 
struggle  with  Henry  I.,  but  was  allowed 
to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life  quietly 
in  England. 

EDGEWORTH,  MARIA,  an  English 
novelist  born  in  Black  Bourton,  Oxford- 
shire, Jan.  1,  1767.  Her  principal 
works  are:  "Castle  Rackrent"  (1800); 
"Early  Lessons"  (1801);  "Belinda" 
(1801);  "Moral  Tales"  (1801);  "The 
Modern  Griselda"  (1804)  ;  "Leonora" 
(1806);  "Tales  of  Fashionable  Life" 
(1809-1812);  "Patronage"  (1814);  "Or- 
mond"  (1817);  and  "Helen"  (1834). 
She  died  in  Edgeworthstown,  Ireland, 
May  22,  1849. 

EDICT  OF  NANTES,  an  edict  by 
which,  on  April  13,  1598,  Henry  IV.  of 
France  granted  toleration  to  his  Protes- 
tant subjects.  It  was  revoked  on  Oct.  22, 
1685,  by  Louis  XIV.,  the  unwise  act  caus- 
ing the  expatriation  of  about  50,000 
Protestant  families,  who  carried  their  in- 
dustry to  England  and  other  lands. 

EDINBURGH  (ed'n-bur-6) ,  the  me- 
tropolis of  Scotland  and  one  of  the  finest 
as  well  as  most  ancient  cities  in  the  Brit- 
ish empire;  lies  within  2  miles  of  the  S. 
shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth.  It  is  pic- 
turesquely situated,  being  built  on  three 
eminences  which  run  in  a  direction  from 
E.  to  W.,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
lofty  hills  except  on  the  N.,  where  the 
ground  slopes  gently  toward  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  The  central  ridge,  which  consti- 
tuted the  site  of  the  ancient  city  is  ter- 
minated by  the  castle  on  the  W.,  situated 
on  a  high  rock  and  by  Holyrood  House 
on  the  E.,  not  far  from  which  rise  the 
lofty  elevations  of  Salisbury  Crags,  Ar- 
thur's Seat  (822  feet  high),  and  the  Cal- 
ton  Hill  overlooking  the  city.  The  valley 
to  the  N.,  once  the  North  Loch,  but  now 
drained  and  traversed  by  the  North 
British  railway,  leads  to  the  New  Town 
on  the  rising  ground  beyond.  The  houses 
here  are  all  built  of  a  beautiful  white 
freestone  found  in  the  neighborhood. 

From  Prince's  street,  which  is  lined  by 
fine  gardens  adorned  with  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  monument  and  other  notable 
buildings,  a  magnificent  view  of  the  Old 
Town  with  its  picturesque  outline  maybe 
obtained.  The  principal  street  of  the 
Old  Town  is  that  which  occupies  the 
crest  of  the  ridge  on  which  the  latter  is 
built,  and  which  bears  at  different  points 
the  names  of  Canongate,  High  street, 
Lawnmarket,  and  Castle  Hill.  This  an- 
cient and  very  remarkable  street  is  up- 
ward of  a  mile  in  length,  rising  grad- 
ually with  a  regular  incline  from  a  small 
plain  at  the  E.  end  of  the  town,  on  which 
stands  the  palace  of  Holyrood,  and  ter- 


EDINBUBGH 


467 


EDINBTJRGHSHIRE 


minating  in  the  huge  rock  on  which  the 
castle  is  built,  383  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  houses  are  lofty  and  of  antique  ap- 
pearance. Among  the  notable  buildings 
are  the  ancient  Parliament  House,  now 
the  seat  of  the  supreme  courts  of  Scot- 
land; St.  Giles'  church  or  cathedral,  an 
imposing  edifice  in  the  later  Gothic  style, 
recently  carefully  restored;  the  Tron 
Church;  Victoria  Hall  (where  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  Established  Church 
meets),  with  a  fine  spire;  the  Bank  of 
Scotland,  etc.  From  this  main  street 
descend  laterally  in  regular  rows  numer- 
ous narrow  lanes  called  closes;  those 
which  are  broader,  and  admit  of  the  pas- 
sage of  carriages,  are  called  wynds.  In 
these  and  the  adjacent  streets  the  houses 
are  frequently  more  than  120  feet  in 
height,  and  divided  into  from  6  to  10 
stories,  or  flats.  In  the  Old  Town  the 
most  remarkable  public  building  is  the 
castle.    This  fortress  contains  accommo- 


and  George  IV.  Bridge),  stands  the  re- 
maining portion  of  the  city,  which  is 
mostly  modern.  Besides  the  buildings 
already  noticed  Edinburgh  possesses  a 
large  number  of  important  edifices  and 
institutions,  chief  among  which  are  the 
Royal  Institution,  the  National  Gallery 
of  Scotland,  the  Museum  of  Science  and 
Art,  the  new  Episcopal  Cathedral  of  St. 
Mary's,  etc.  Among  the  more  promi- 
nent educational  institutions  are  the  uni- 
versity, the  high  school,  the  academy,  the 
New  or  Free  Church  Theological  College, 
the  United  Presbyterian  Theological 
Hall,  the  Edinburgh  School  of  Medicine, 
the  Veterinary  College,  the  Fettes  Col- 
lege, the  Heriot-Watt  College  of  Science 
and  Literature.  The  manufactures  of 
Edinburgh  are  neither  extensive  nor  im- 
portant. Printing,  book-binding,  coach- 
building,  type-founding,  machine-making, 
furniture-making,  ale-brewing,  and  dis- 
tilling are  the  principal  industries.    Edin- 


EDINBURGH   CASTLE 


dations  for  2,000  soldiers,  and  the  ar- 
mory space  for  30,000  stand  of  arms. 

The  palace  of  Holyrood,  or  Holyrood 
House,  stands,  at  the  lower  or  E.  extrem- 
ity of  the  street  leading  to  the  castle. 
No  part  of  the  present  palace  is  older 
than  the  time  of  James  V.  (1528),  while 
the  greater  portion  of  it  dates  only  from 
the  time  of  Charles  II.  In  the  N.  W. 
angle  of  the  building  are  the  apartments 
which  were  occupied  by  Queen  Mary. 
Adjoining  the  palace  are  the  ruins  of  the 
chapel  belonging  to  the  Abbey  of  Holy- 
rood,  founded  in  1128  by  David  I.  The 
Advocates'  Library,  the  largest  library 
in  Scotland,  contains  upward  of  250,000 
printed  volumes  and  2,000  MSS. 

On  the  S.  side  of  the  Old  Town,  and 
separated  from  it  also  by  a  hollow 
crossed  by  two  bridges  (the  South  Bridge 


burgh  is  the  headquarters  of  the  book 
trade  in  Scotland,  and  the  seat  of  the 
chief  government  departments. 

The  origin  of  Edinburgh  is  uncertain. 
Its  name  is  thought  to  be  derived  from 
Eadwinsburh,  the  Burgh  of  Edwin,  a 
powerful  Northumbrian  king,  who  ab- 
sorbed the  Lothians  in  his  rule.  The 
town  was  made  a  royal  burgh  in  the 
time  of  David  I.;  but  it  was  not  until 
the  15th  century  that  it  became  the  re- 
cognized capital  of  Scotland.  Pop.  (1918) 
333,833. 

EDINBURGHSHIRE.  EDINBURGH, 
or  MIDLOTHIAN,  a  county  of  Scotland 
in  the  southeastern  part,  with  an  area 
of  366  square  miles.  The  county  has 
over  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  popula- 
tion of  Scotland.     In  the  north  are  fer- 


EDINBURGH  UNIVERSITY 


468 


EDISON 


tile  plains.  Along  the  coast  are  coal 
mining  and  other  industries,  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  area  of  the  county 
is  devoted  to  agriculture.  The  leading 
industry  is  the  making  of  paper.  The 
principal  burghs  are  Edinburgh,  the 
county  town  and  capital  of  Scotland; 
Leith,  and  Musselburgh. 

EDINBURGH  UNIVERSITY,  the 
latest  of  the  Scottish  universities;  was 
founded  in  1582  by  a  charter  granted  by 
James  VI.  The  government,  as  in  the 
other  Scottish  universities,  is  vested  in 
the  Senatus  Academicus,  the  university 
court,  and  the  general  council.  The 
chancellor  of  the  university  is  elected  for 
life  by  the  general  council.  He  is  the 
head  of  the  university  and  the  president 
of  the  general  council.  The  rector  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  three  years  by  the 
matriculated  students.  He  presides  over 
the  university  court.  The  principal  is 
the  resident  head  of  the  college  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Senatus  Academicus.  The 
university  court  consists  of  the  rector, 
principal,  the  lord-provost  of  Edinburgh, 
and  assessors  appointed  by  the  chancel- 
lor, town  council  of  Edinburgh,  the  rec- 
tor, the  general  council,  and  the  sena- 
tus respectively.  The  general  council 
consists  of  the  chancellor,  the  members 
of  the  university  court,  the  professors, 
and  all  graduates  of  the  university. 
There  are  four  faculties,  viz.,  arts,  di- 
vinity, law,  and  medicine.  Some  of  the 
professors  are  appointed  by  the  crown, 
others  are  elected  by  the  university 
court  and  by  special  electors,  and  a  con- 
siderable number  by  the  curators,  who 
also  elect  the  principal. 

In  1919  the  teaching  staff  numbered 
242,  and  the  students  4,300.  The  degree 
of  M.  A.  is  conferred  on  all  who  have 
completed  their  course  and  passed  the 
ordinary  examinations  in  the  classical 
department  (Latin  and  Greek),  the  de- 
partment of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy,  and  that  of  logic  and  meta- 
physics, moral  philosophy,  and  rhetoric 
and  English  literature.  Three  medical 
degrees  are  conferred :  Bachelor  of  Medi- 
cine (M.  B.),  Master  in  Surgery  (C.  M.), 
and  Doctor  of  Medicine  (M.  D.).  The  de- 
grees in  law  are  Bachelor  of  Laws  (LL. 
B.),  Bachelor  of  the  Law  (B.  L.),  and 
Doctor  of  Laws  (LL.  D.).  The  last  is 
purely  honorary.  The  degrees  of  Bache- 
lor of  Divinity  (B.  D.)  and  Doctor  of 
Divinity  (D.  D.),  the  latter  honorary, 
are  bestowed  in  the  faculty  of  divinity. 
Degrees  in  science  are  also  conferred. 
That  of  B.  Sc.  is  conferred  only  in  mathe- 
matical, physical,  and  natural  science,  in 
engineering,  and  in  public  health.  In 
1918  the  university  instituted  a  degree 
in  commerce  (B.  Comm.).  The  present 
university  buildings  were  begun  in  1789. 


The  library  of  the  university  contains 
about  270,000  printed  volumes,  besides 
8,000  manuscripts.  There  is  also  a  sepa- 
rate theological  library  containing  about 
10,000  volumes.  Among  the  new  build- 
ings erected  in  this  century  are  the 
Hughes  Bennett  Physiological  Labora- 
tory, John  Usher  Institute  of  Public 
Health  (1902)  and  a  new  block  of  build- 
ings devoted  to  engineering  (1905).  The 
university's  annual  revenues  are  about 
$500,000. 

EDISON,  THOMAS  ALVA,  an  Amer- 
ican inventor;  born  in  Milan,  O.,  Feb.  11. 
1847.  In  early  life  he  was  denied  the 
privileges  of  continuous  schooling,  but 
acquired  a  large  and  varied  stock  of 
knowledge  by  his  own  industry.  Before 
he  was  12  years  of  age  he  became  a  train 
boy  on  the  Detroit  and  Port  Huron 
branch  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railroad,  and 
learned  to  operate  the  telegraph.  He  be- 
gan to  study  batteries,  wires,  and  instru- 


THOMAS  A.   EDISON 

ments,  wherever  he  could  find  them.  His 
first  invention  to  be  patented  was  a  com- 
mercial stock  indicator,  and  the  proceeds 
of  this  invention,  which  at  once  came  intfl 
wide  use,  enabled  him  to  establish  a  labo- 
ratory  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  afterward  re- 
moved to  Menlo  Park,  and  then  to  its 
present  location  at  West  Orange,  N.  J. 
From  this  beginning  he  became  known  to 


Photo,  International  Film  Soz  ice 

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OF   SULTAN    HASSAN,   CAIRO 


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EDMUND,  ST. 


469 


EDUCATION 


all  the  world  as  one  of  the  greatest  in- 
ventors of  the  19th  century.  Among  his 
more  important  inventions  may  be  named 
the  phonograph,  a  telephone  for  long  dis- 
tance transmission,  a  system  of  duplex 
telegraphy  (vi'hich  he  subsequently  de- 
veloped into  quadruplex  and  sextuplex 
transmission),  the  carbon  telephone 
transmitter,  the  microtasimeter,  the  aero- 
phone, megaphone,  the  incandescent  elec- 
tric lamp,  the  kinetoscope,  and  a  storage 
battery  for  street  railway  cars  and  auto- 
mobiles. In  1913  by  synchronizing  the 
phonograph  and  kinetoscope  he  produced 
talking  moving  pictures;  but  the  inven- 
tion is  still  imperfect.  In  1878  he  was 
made  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
by  the  French  Government,  a  commander 
of  the  Legion  in  1889,  and  was  the  re- 
cipient of  the  insignia  of  a  grand  officer 
of  the  Crown  of  Italy  bestowed  the  same 
year  by  King  Humbert. 

EDMUND,  ST.,  King  of  the  East 
Angles,  began  to  reign  in  855;  was  re- 
vered by  his  subjects  for  his  justice  and 
piety.  In  870  his  kingdom  was  invaded, 
and  he  himself  slain,  by  the  Danes.  The 
Church  made  him  a  martyr,  and  a  town 
(Bury  St.  Edmunds)  grew  up  round  the 
place  of  his  sepulture. 

EDMUND  I.,  King  of  England,  an 
able  and  spirited  prince;  succeeded  his 
brother  Athelstan  in  940.  He  conquered 
Cumbria,  which  he  bestowed  on  Malcolm, 
King  of  Scotland,  on  condition  of  doing 
homage  for  it  to  himself.  He  was  slain 
at  a  banquet  May  26,  946. 

EDMUND  II.,  sumamed  Ironside, 
King  of  England,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Ethelred  II.,  and  was  born  in  989.  He 
was  chosen  king  in  1016,  Canute  having 
been  already  elected  king  by  another  party. 
He  won  several  victories  over  Canute,  but 
was  defeated  at  Assandum  in  Essex,  and 
forced  to  surrender  the  midland  and  N. 
counties  to  Canute.  He  died  after  a 
reign  of  only  seven  months. 

EDMUNDS,     GEORGE    FRANKLIN, 

an  American  lawyer;  born  in  Richmond, 
Vt.,  Feb.  1,  1828;  received  a  common 
school  education ;  began  practicing  law  in 
1849;  and  two  years  later  removed  to 
Burlington,  Vt.  In  1866  he  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  to  fill  an  un- 
expired term,  and  was  thrice  re-elected 
for  full  terms.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  act  of  March  22,  1882,  known  as  the 
"Edmunds  Act,"  which  provided  for  the 
suppression  of  polygamy  in  Utah  and  the 
disfranchisement  of  any  person  convicted 
of  practicing  it.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  the  "Anti-trust  Law"  of  1890.  Dur- 
ing the  term  of  President  Arthur  he  was 
president  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate.  In 
1897  he  became  chairman  of  the  Mone- 


tary Commission  which  had  been  ap- 
pointed by  the  executive  committee  of 
the  Indianapolis  Monetary  Conference. 
After  this  service  Mr.  Edmunds  returned 
to  the  profession  of  the  law.  He  died 
in  1919. 

EDRED,  King  of  England,  son  of 
Edward  the  Elder,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  the  murder  of  his  brother, 
Edmund  I.,  in  May,  946.  He  quelled  a 
rebellion  of  the  Northumbrian  Danes, 
and  died  in  955. 

EDSON,  CYRUS,  an  American  bac- 
teriologist; born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  S3pt. 
8,  1857;  was  graduated  at  the  New  York 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in 
1881  and  in  the  following  year  was  ap- 
pointed a  sanitary  inspector.  In  1893- 
1895  he  was  health  commissioner  of  New 
York.  Dr.  Edson  discovered  a  new  treat- 
ment for  consumption,  malaria,  and  other 
germ  diseases,  in  1896,  which  he  named 
aseptolin.  He  published  about  80  medi- 
cal and  sanitary  papers,  and  invented 
many  surgical  instruments.  He  died  in 
New  York,  N.  Y.,  in  1903. 

EDUCATION,  the  art  of  drawing  out 
or  developing  the  faculties,  the  training 
of  human  beings  for  the  functions  for 
which  they  are  destined.  Education 
means  the  imparting  or  gaining  of 
knowledge  of  every  kind,  good  as  well  as 
evil;  but  specifically  it  signifies  all  that 
broadens  a  man's  mind,  disciplines  his 
temper,  develops  his  tastes,  corrects  his 
manners,  and  molds  his  habits.  In  a  still 
more  limited  sense  it  means  any  course 
of  training  pursued  by  parents,  teachers, 
or  a  whole  community  to  train  the  young 
physically,  mentally,  and  morally.  The 
means  employed  in  education  fall  nat- 
urally under  two  heads:  discipline  or 
moral  training,  and  instruction,  or  the 
imparting  of  information;  though  the 
two  often  run  into  each  other.  Under 
the  head  of  discipline  come  the  forming 
of  habits  of  order,  self-control,  obedience, 
civility,  love  of  truth  and  reverence  for 
what  is  good  and  great.  In  respect  of 
direct  utility  the  things  most  necessary 
to  know  are  those  that  bear  most  directly 
(1)  on  the  preservation  of  life  and 
health,  and  the  proper  performance  of 
the  more  common  industrial  labors. 
This  involves  a  knowledge  of  the  sciences 
of  physiology,  natural  philosophy,  and  ♦ 
the  other  physical  sciences.  (2)  A  knowl- 
edge of  our  moral  relations.  Besides  a 
knowledge  of  the  ordinary  moral  duties, 
and  the  high  religious  sanctions  with 
which  they  are  enfored,  this  implies  some 
acquaintance  with  the  laws  of  economy. 

(3)  As  a  preliminary  step,  there  is  re- 
quired a  knowledge  of  the  mother-tongue, 
and  the  faculty  of  reading  and  writing  it. 

(4)  The   cultivation    of   the   taste    and 


EDUCATION 


470 


EDUCATION 


imagination,  or  the  faculties  which  derive 
pleasure  from  music,  painting,  sculpture, 
architecture,  poetry,  and  works  of  fiction. 
United  States.  —  Education  in  the 
United  States  naturally  divides  itself 
historically  into  two  parts:  Colonial  and 
National.  Education  in  the  13  colonies 
deserves  attention  for  its  originality  and 
its  marked  influence  in  preparing  the 
colonies  for  national  independence.  Im- 
mediately on  landing,  in  1620,  one  of 
the  first  acts  of  the  Plymouth  colonists 
was  to  provide  a  meeting-house  for  re- 
ligious services  and  a  schoolhouse  for 
the  children.  The  citizens  of  Boston  as 
early  as  1635,  by  vote,  appointed  a 
schoolmaster.  By  law  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts colony  in  1642,  the  selectmen  of 
every  township  were  required  to  see 
that  provision  was  made  for  the  educa- 
tion of  all  the  children,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  read  and  have  "knowledge  of  the  capi- 
tal laws."  In  1647  every  township  of  50 
householders  was  required  to  appoint  a 
schoolmaster,  and  every  township  of  100 
families  to  maintain  a  grammar  shool 
in  which  boys  could  be  prepared  for  Har- 
vard College.  The  Colonial  laws  of  Con- 
necticut, New  Hampshire,  and  Rhode 
Island,  with  reference  to  public  educa- 
tion, were  explicit,  and  were  enforced  so 
as  to  secure  practically  universal  ele- 
mentary education.  New  York  was  not 
behind  New  England  in  similar  legal 
educational  provisions,  but  they  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  so  well  enforced.  The 
West  India  Company,  under  whose 
charge  the  first  Dutch  colonists  came  to 
New  York,  enacted  a  law  in  1629  which 
required  the  establishment  of  schools. 
The  first  school  was  opened  in  1633, 
speedily  followed  by  others.  Church  and 
state  united  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the 
schools,  and  no  charge  was  made  directly 
for  tuition;  Dutch  schools  existed  in  the 
towns  and  villages  when  the  English 
obtained  possession  of  the  colony.  After 
this  great  diflficulties  arose  from  the  con- 
flict of  the  two  languages,  and  though 
many  English  schools  were  established 
education  greatly  suffered  for  a  few 
years.  In  1704  a  society  for  the  propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  began  its  work  of 
establishing  schools  in  the  English  lan- 
guage in  several  of  the  counties.  In 
1732  an  act  was  passed  to  establish  a 
public  school  in  the  city  of  New  York; 
King's  College,  afterward  Columbia  Col- 
lege, was  founded  in  1754.  New  Jersey, 
as  early  as  1693,  by  law  enabled  the  in- 
habitants of  any  town  to  establish  a  free 
Sv  hool  and  to  tax  all  the  property  hold- 
ers for  its  support,  under  which  law 
schools  became  numerous.  Pennsylvania 
had  many  private  schools,  but  no  educa- 
tional system  previous  to  the  Revolution. 
In  Virginia  little  attention  was  paid  to 


the  education  of  the  poorer  classes,  but 
the  College  of  William  and  Mary  was 
established  in  1692.  Maryland  passed  an 
act  as  early  as  1723  for  erecting  schools 
in  several  counties.  The  Southern  col- 
onies generally  had  not  succeeded  in 
establishing  public  schools  previous  to 
the  Revolution,  though  numerous  private 
schools  existed. 

Subsequent  to  the  Revolution  educa- 
tion received  a  great  impulse  in  the  new 
nation.  The  New  England  States,  in- 
cluding Vermont  and  Maine,  added,  after 
the  Revolution,  all  adopted  systems  of 
public  schools.  New  York  at  first  en- 
couraged private  schools,  and  in  1785 
created  a  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  New  York,  whose  chief  func- 
tion for  many  years  was  to  encourage 
academies  and  colleges;  but  in  1795  com- 
mon schools  of  the  New  England  type 
were  greatly  encouraged.  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey  both  adopted  similar  sys- 
tems. The  new  States  of  the  Northwest 
were  anxious  to  attract  emigrants  and  to 
provide  for  the  future  good  by  similar 
systems,  and  flourishing  common  schools 
became  the  rule  throughout  these  States. 

Most  of  the  States  have  educational 
funds  for  the  aid  of  the  public  schools 
which  are  distributed  to  the  schools  on 
compliance  with  certain  conditions,  which 
usually  require  the  existence  of  a  State 
supervisor  under  the  direction  of  State 
Boards  of  Education,  with  some  execu- 
tive officer,  or  State  Superintendent  of 
Education.  The  various  school  funds,  so 
called,  have  had  different  origins,  though 
most  of  them  have  come  from  the  g:i'ant 
of  lands  by  the  States  for  this  purpose, 
or  by  the  Federal  grant  of  one  thirty- 
sixth  of  all  the  lands  in  the  States  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  since  1785.  In  1848 
the  United  States  granted  another 
thirty-sixth  of  the  land  for  schools,  so 
that  since  then  all  the  States  admitted 
have  had  one-eighteenth  of  the  land  thus 
appropriated.  In  some  instances  each 
county  has  been  permitted  to  collect  and 
expend  the  result  of  the  sale  of  these 
school  sections  of  land.  Usually  the 
State  has  borne  the  expense  of  selling 
and  collecting  the  money  for  these  lands, 
and  has  charged  itself  with  the  proceeds, 
the  result  of  which  is  called  a  State  edu- 
cational fund,  the  annual  interest  of 
which  is  expended  by  the  State  for  public 
schools.  These  funds  for  public  schools 
in  the  several  States  will  soon  exceed 
$100,000,000.  In  addition  to  the  income 
of  these  funds,  so  collected.  State  school 
taxes  are  raised,  and  in  some  instances 
local  county,  city,  village,  and  township 
taxes. 

The  practice  is  rapidly  growing  of 
maintaining  a  large  public  union  school 
in   every  considerable  village,  in  which 


EDUCATION 


471 


EDUCATION 


several  teachers  are  employed  and  the 
pupils  are  graded  in  classes  through 
which  they  advance  on  examination.  In 
some  cases  a  separate  high  school  is 
maintained.  Graduates  from  the  high 
school  are  admitted  to  the  State  univer- 
sities and  to  some  of  the  private  or 
Church  universities  on  certificate  of 
graduation.  In  the  State  universities 
the  education  is  nearly  if  not  quite 
free  for  the  students  who  reside  in 
the  State.  See  Colleges;  also  Agri- 
cultural Education;  Coeducation; 
Colleges  for  Women;  Common 
Schools;  Medical  Education;  School; 
Secondary  Schools;  Normal  School; 
Technical  Education;  Universities, 
Amertcan;  University  Extension; 
Education. 

England.  —  Before  the  Reformation 
there  were,  with  the  exception  of  the 
universities,  very  few  institutions  for 
the  advancement  of  learning  which  could 
be  called  public.  The  monasteries  had 
been  for  centuries  the  only  seminaries 
in  which  the  sons  of  gentlemen  were  able 
to  obtain  instruction.  Here  and  there 
grammar  schools  had  been  founded  as 
choristers'  schools,  or  were  otherwise 
connected  with  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ments. The  revival  of  learning,  and  the 
increased  mental  activity  at  the  Refor- 
mation produced  a  widely  spread  demand 
for  the  means  of  instruction.  Uniform 
purpose  is  manifest  in  the  testaments, 
deeds  of  gift,  statutes  and  ordinances  by 
which  the  character  and  subsequent  ca- 
reer of  English  schools  were  intended 
by  their  founders  to  be  fashioned.  It  is 
to  encourage  the  pursuit  of  a  liberal  edu- 
cation, founded  on  the  ancient  languages 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  then  the  only  stud- 
ies which  had  been  so  far  formulated 
and  systematized  as  to  possess  a  discip- 
lined character.  The  period  of  the  Civil 
War  was  unfavorable  to  educational  en- 
terprise. The  Act  of  Uniformity  and 
the  secession  of  the  Non-conformist 
clergy  brought  home  to  men's  minds  the 
conviction  that  all  attempts  to  incorpo- 
rate Puritanism  into  the  organic  life  of 
the  English  Church,  which  followed  soon 
after,  must  be  abandoned  as  hopeless; 
and  the  Toleration  Act  compelled  Eng- 
lish churchmen  to  recognize  for  the 
first  time  the  unwelcome  truth  that  dis- 
sent had  to  be  reckoned  with  as  a  fact. 
Whereas  in  the  16th  century  men 
founded  grammar  schools,  in  the  18th 
they  founded  charity  schools  instead. 
These  institutions  rapidly  multiplied  dur- 
ing the  whole  of  the  18th  century  and  in 
the  beginning  of  the  19th.  The  first  sign 
of  interest  in  public  instruction  evinced 
by  Parliament  was  the  appointment  in 
1816  of  a  select  committee  of  the  House 
of    Commons    on    the   education    of    the 


lower  classes  of  the  metropolis.  In  1832 
Lord  Althorp  procured  the  assent  of  the 
House  to  a  vote  of  £20,000  for  the  erec- 
tion of  school  buildings  in  England. 

The  main  provision  for  secondary  edu- 
cation had  for  centuries  been  supplied 
by  endowed  grammar  schools.  Each  of 
these  was,  however,  controlled  exclusive- 
ly by  its  own  body  of  trustees;  and  was 
regarded  as  a  purely  local  and  separate 
institution.  The  elaborate  inquiry  into 
endowed  charities  begun  in  1818  and  con- 
cluded in  1837,  resulted  in  the  accumu- 
lation of  a  mass  of  facts;  but  it  did  not 
attempt  to  furnish  any  information  re- 
specting the  educational  character  and 
public  usefulness  of  those  schools.  In 
1862  Lord  Clarendon's  Commission  in- 
vestigated the  state  of  the  nine  great 
public  schools,  Eton,  Harrow,  Rugby, 
Winchester,  Westminister,  Shrewsbury, 
Charterhouse  St.  Paul's  and  the  Mer- 
chant Tailors.  Sir  Lyon  Playfair  in 
1879,  and  Sir  John  Lubbock  in  1880, 
drafted  and  introduced  without  result, 
measures  which  provided  for  the  registra- 
tion of  teachers  and  for  the  establish- 
ment of  an  educational  council.  Mean- 
while public  elementary  education  in 
Great  Britain  had  been  made  free.  The 
devotion  of  part  of  the  probate  duties  to 
the  remission  of  fees  gave  Scotland  free 
education  in  1890;  England  secured  the 
same  privilege  under  the  provisions  of 
the  budget  of  1891.  In  1885  a  separation 
was  made  of  the  administrative  func- 
tions of  the  Scotch  and  the  English  Edu- 
cation Department;  the  former  has  since 
had  its  own  committee  of  council  and  its 
own  secretary.  The  Local  Government 
Act  for  Scotland  for  1889  allotted  the 
sum  of  $1,005,000  per  annum,  derived 
from  the  probate  duties,  to  the  reduction 
of  school  fees  in  state-aided  schools 
throughout  the  rest  of  Scotland.  The 
result  in  time  will  be  to  make  elementary 
education  in  Scotland  free. 

Ireland. — Up  to  1831,  when  Lord 
Derby  established  the  national  system, 
parliamentary  grants  for  education  had 
been  made  through  the  agency  of  private 
societies.  In  that  year  a  Board  of  Com- 
missioners was  established,  with  very 
large  powers  of  administration,  includ- 
ing the  power  to  aid  in  the  erection  of 
schools,  to  appoint  inspectors  and  other 
officers,  to  award  gratuities  to  teachers, 
to  establish  a  model  and  training  school, 
and  to  edit  and  publish  suitable  school 
books.  The  powers  thus  intrusted  to  the 
Irish  commissioners  were  greatly  in  ex- 
cess of  those  ever  exercised  by  the  com- 
mittee of  council  in  England  or  in  Scot- 
land. From  the  first  it  was  determined 
that  the  rights  of  the  Catholic  popula- 
tion should  be  duly  regarded;  when,  in 
1861,  the  whole  system  was  consolidated 


EDUCATION 


472         EDUCATION,    COMMERCIAL 


by  the  grant  of  a  royal  charter  to  the 
commissioners,  it  was  specially  provided 
that  of  the  20  members  of  the  board,  one- 
half  should  be  Catholics  and  one-half 
Protestants.  Religious  instruction  is 
provided  in  all  the  schools,  but  a  strin- 
gent conscience  clause  protects  the  in- 
terests of  parents  who  do  not  approve  of 
that  given  in  the  school. 

Canada. — The  relation  of  the  prov- 
inces of  Canada  to  the  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment is  very  nearly  analogous  to  that  of 
the  States  of  the  American  Union  to  the 
Federal  Government.  Each  province  has 
its  own  educational  laws  and  its  own  de- 
partment of  public  instruction.  The 
schools  of  Nova  Scotia,  British  Colum- 
bia, Manitoba,  New  Brunswick,  and  On- 
tario are  free;  but  in  Quebec  there  is  a 
school-tax  levied  on  parents  for  all  chil- 
dren of  school  age. 

France. — In  France  there  is  a  very 
completely  organized  system  of  instruc- 
tion, superieure,  secoTidaire,  et  primaire, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction,  the  schools  being  all 
visited  and  examined  by  state  officers. 
The  professors  in  the  universities  are 
remunerated  by  the  state.  The  lycees, 
or  secondary  schools,  also  receive  large 
subventions  from  the  state,  those  of 
Paris  and  Versailles  being  considered 
rather  higher  in  rank,  and  having  a  bet- 
ter paid  staff  of  professors  and  teachers 
than  those  of  the  provinces.  Colleges 
are  establishments  for  intermediate  edu- 
cation, maintained  at  the  charge  of  the 
local  municipalities,  but  without  any  aid 
from  the  central  government,  except  the 
occasional  endowment  of  special  chairs 
and  the  partial  support  of  a  few  profes- 
sors. Primary  instruction  is  everywhere 
throughout  France  gratuitous. 

Germany. — The  German  elementary 
schools  are  divided  into  (1)  those  with 
three  or  more  classes;  (2)  schools  with 
two  teachers;  and  (3)  schools  with  one 
teacher,  either  with  one  class  or  half-day 
schools.  Eighty  is  recognized  as  the 
maximum  number  of  scholars  under  one 
teacher,  even  under  the  most  unfavor- 
able conditions.  The  compulsory  laws 
as  to  ordinary  school  attendance  are  en- 
forced from  the  age  of  6  to  that  of  14, 
but  generally  if  a  child  at  14  fail  to 
reach  the  proper  standard,  he  may  be 
compelled  to  attend  either  another  year 
at  the  day-school,  or  at  a  supplementary 
school  in  the  evening  or  on  Sunday. 
Fines  for  non-attendance  are  imposed, 
and  the  agency  of  the  police  is  called  into 
requisition  to  force  the  child  of  a  negli- 
gent parent  to  attend  school. 

For  the  development  of  educational 
systems  in  other  countries,  see  their  re- 
spective titles  and  in  the  United  States 
see  under  the  various  States. 


EDUCATION,  COMMERCIAL. 
Shortly  before  the  Civil  War  private 
business  colleges  were  established  in  the 
United  States.  Their  purpose  was  to 
train  men  for  active  business  work,  but 
it  was  some  time  before  their  curriculums 
eliminated  many  of  the  subjects  more 
properly  belonging  to  an  academic  educa- 
tion. About  1884  the  Wharton  School  of 
Finance  and  Economy  was  founded  as  a 
part  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  a  regular  four-years'  course  leading 
to  a  baccalaureate  degree  was  instituted. 
While  other  colleges,  notably  Harvard, 
Dartmouth,  Columbia,  and  the  vari- 
ous State  universities,  have  established 
courses  in  commercial  education,  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  is  the  only  one 
of  a  few  to  follow  the  examples  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  and  make  the 
business  course  one  on  the  completion  of 
which  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science 
can  be  secured.  The  high  schools  fol- 
lowed suit  and  began  to  give  courses  sim- 
ilar to  those  offered  in  the  private  busi- 
ness colleges.  In  a  few  of  the  universi- 
ties commercial  education  is  offered  as  a 
graduate  professional  course.  This  is 
the  case  at  the  Harvard  School  of  Busi- 
ness Administration  and  the  Tuck  School 
at  Dartmouth.  Some  colleges  have  or- 
ganized evening  courses  in  business  edu- 
cation; those  situated  in  large  cities  par- 
ticularly. Columbia  University  now  has 
a  three-years'  evening  course  preparing 
students  to  take  the  State  examination 
for  the  certificate  of  Certified  Public  Ac- 
countant. 

Teachers  of  business  law  and  adminis- 
tration are  now  members  of  the  National 
Education  Association,  and  there  are 
many  societies  organized  to  further  and 
improve  the  work  of  commercial  educa- 
tion. The  most  prominent  of  these  are 
the  Eastern  Commercial  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation and  the  National  Federation  of 
Commercial  Teachers. 

Commercial  education  was  well  de- 
veloped in  Europe  before  it  was  begun  in 
the  United  States.  Saxony  in  the  18th 
century  and  Paris  in  1820  had  founded 
schools  of  commerce.  Germany  quickly 
seized  upon  the  idea  and  developed  it 
until,  in  the  19th  century,  she  led  the 
world  in  this  as  in  other  forms  of  edu- 
cation. Higher  schools  of  commerce,  the 
equivalent  of  our  university  courses, 
were  founded  in  Leipzig,  Cologne,  Frank- 
fort, and  Berlin,  while  many  schools  for 
the  education  of  those  between  the  ages 
of  fourteen  and  eighteen  were  estab- 
lished. Antwerp,  Venice,  and  Vienna 
also  have  higher  schools  of  commerce.  In 
England  the  task  of  training  in  business 
law  and  administration  was  taken  up  by 
the  new  universities  established  in  the 
great  industrial   centers,   such   as    Bir- 


EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR 


473 


EDWARD  III. 


mingham,  Leeds,  Manchester,  and  Liver- 
pool. It  was  not  until  after  the  Great 
War  that  any  provision  for  such  educa- 
tion was  made  at  the  ancient  universi- 
ties of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  A  nota- 
ble contrast  between  the  secondary 
schools  of  commercial  education  in  Eu- 
rope and  those  in  the  United  States  has 
been  that  in  the  former  the  leading  busi- 
ness men  organized  in  the  various  cham- 
bers of  commerce  have  had  a  leading 
part  in  establishing  and  directing  the 
schools.  In  the  United  States  the  busi- 
ness men  have  held  aloof  and  allowed 
the  work  to  be  carried  on  by  teachers 
equipped  with  more  or  less  traditional 
academic  training.  This  has  not  always 
been  to  the  advantage  of  the  subject. 

EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR,  son  of 
Ethelred,  succeeded  Hardicanute  in  1041, 
Having  been  reared  in  Normandy,  he 
brought  over  many  of  the  natives  of  that 
country,  whom  he  preferred  at  his  court, 
which  gave  great  disgust  to  his  Saxon 
subjects.  Notwithstanding  this,  he  kept 
i^ossession  of  his  throne,  and  framed  a 
code  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  origin 
of  the  common  law  of  England.  He 
abolished  the  tax  of  danegelt,  was  the 
first  who  pretended  to  cure  the  king's 
evil  by  touch,  and  restored  Malcolm  to 
the  throne  of  Scotland,  which  had  been 
usurped  by  Macbeth.  He  consulted  Wil- 
liam of  Normandy  about  the  choice  of  a 
successor,  and  this  afterward  furnished 
that  prince  with  a  plea  for  invading  the 
kingdom  after  the  death  of  Edward,  in 
1066. 

EDWARD  I.  (Norman  line),  sur- 
named  Longshanks;  born  in  1239,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Henry  III.,  in  1272. 
At  the  time  of  his  father's  death  he  was 
in  Palestine,  fighting  against  the  Sara- 
cens for  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem,  and 
when  he  returned,  completed  the  con- 
quest of  Wales  and  subdued  Scotland. 
To  preserve  Wales,  he  caused  his  son, 
who  was  born  in  Caernai"von,  to  be  called 
the  "Prince  of  Wales,"  which,  ever  since 
has  continued  to  be  the  title  of  the  eldest 
son  of  the  King  of  England.  In  en- 
deavoring to  break  the  spirit  of  the 
Scotch,  he  was  unsuccessful,  the  patriot- 
ism of  Wallace  and  his  followers  com- 
pletely baffling  his  attempts  at  the  entire 
subjugation  of  that  people.  He  died  in 
1307.  While  in  the  Holy  Land,  Eleanor, 
the  wife  of  this  sovereign,  saved  his  life 
by  sucking  the  poison  from  a  wound 
which  he  received  from  a  vengeful  as- 
sassin. She  was  the  daughter  of  Fer- 
dinand III.,  King  of  Castile.  His  second 
wife  was  Margaret,  daughter  of  Philip 
the  Hardy,  King  of  France.  The  laws 
which  he  framed  entitle  him  to  the  name 
of  the  English  Justinian. 


EDWARD  II.,  son  of  the  above,  was 
created  Prince  of  Wales  in  1284,  and 
after  his  accession  to  the  throne  suffered 
himself  to  be  governed  by  his  favorites, 
Gaveston  and  the  Spencers,  which  oc- 
casioned the  barons  to  rise  against  him. 
In  his  reign  the  battle  of  Bannockburn 
was  fought  near  Stirling,  in  Scotland, 
which  restored  to  that  country  whatever 
of  her  independence  she  had  lost  in  the 
previous  reign.  In  1327,  he  was  deposed 
by  his  subjects,  and  his  crown  conferred 
on  his  son,  when  he  was  confined  in 
Berkeley  Castle,  Gloucestershire,  where 
he  was  murdered  in  1327. 

EDWARD  III.,  eldest  son  of  Edward 
II.  and  Isabella  of  France;  born  in  1312, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  deposition 
of  his  father.  Though  a  regrrcy  was 
appointed,  the  chief  power  was  held  by 
the  queen  and  her  paramour,  Roger  Mor- 
timei-.  Earl  of  March.  In  1330,  Edward 
assumed  the  government,  had  Mortimer 
seized  and  hanged,  and  imprisoned 
Queen  Isabella.  In  1333  he  invaded 
Scotland,  and  defeated  the  regent  at 
Halidon  Hill.  The  greater  war  with 
France  soon  withdrew  his  attention  from 
Scotland.  He  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
France,  invaded  the  country  from  Flan- 
ders, but  without  any  successful  result, 
renewed  the  invasion  in  1340,  when  he 
defeated  the  French  fleet  at  Sluys,  be- 
sieged Tournay,  and  concluded  a  truce. 
The  war  was  renewed,  and  another  truce 
made  in  1343,  to  be  broken  the  following 
year.  In  1346  he  won  the  great  victory 
of  Crecy,  took  Calais  in  1347,  and  con- 
cluded another  truce.  During  his  ab- 
sence in  France,  the  Scots  invaded  Eng- 
land, and  were  defeated  at  Nevil's  Cross, 
David  II.  being  taken  prisoner.  In  1356 
Edward  the  Black  Prince  invaded 
France,  and  gained  the  victory  of  Poi- 
tiers, taking  the  French  king  and  his  son 
prisoners.  The  king  was  released  after 
four  years,  on  the  conclusion  of  the 
peace  of  Bretigny.  David  of  Scotland 
was  released  for  a  heavy  ransom  in  1357. 
War  broke  out  again  with  France  in 
1369,  and  in  1373  John  of  Gaunt  marched 
without  resistance  from  Calais  to  Bor- 
deaux. The  long  wars  of  Edward  III., 
though  almost  fruitless  of  practical  re- 
sult, appear  to  have  been  popular;  and 
his  numerous  parliaments  granted  lib- 
eral supplies  for  carrying  them  on,  gain- 
ing in  return  confirmations  of  the  Great 
and  other  charters,  and  many  valuable 
concessions.  His  victories  raised  the 
spirit  and  also  the  fame  of  his  country, 
;\nd  with  the  evident  military  power  of 
England  grew  also  her  commerce  and 
manufactures.  In  this  reign  Wyclif  be- 
gan his  assault  on  the  Church  of  Rome; 
the  Order  of  the  Garter  was  instituted; 


EDWARD  IV. 


474 


EDWARD  VII. 


cannon  began  to  be  used  in  war;  and  the 
first  English  gold  coin  was  struck.  Ed- 
ward died  in  Shene,  now  Richmond,  June 
21,  1377.  By  his  queen  Philippa,  daugh- 
ter of  William  III.,  Count  of  Holland  and 
Hainault,  he  had  six  sons  and  five 
daughters. 

EDWARD  IV.,  son  of  Richard,  Duke 
of  York,  succeeded  Henry  VI.  in  1461. 
He  came  to  the  throne  in  the  midst  of 
the  fierce  struggle  between  the  Yorkists 
and  Lancastrians,  in  which  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself  by  his  courage  and 
military  skill.  He  won  a  great  victory 
over  the  Lancastrians  at  Northampton, 
in  July,  1460,  and  a  second  at  Mortimer's 
Cross,  in  February,  1461;  after  which  he 
marched  on  London,  and  was  proclaimed. 
A  few  weeks  after  his  accession  he  de- 
feated them  a  third  time  at  Towton,  in 
Yorkshire.  The  war  continued  with 
varying  fortunes  till  1464.  In  the  same 
year  he  married  Lady  Elizabeth  Grey, 
which  so  disgusted  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick, conirnonly  called  the  king-maker, 
that  he  joined  the  Lancastrian  party, 
and  the  civil  war  was  recommenced. 
Warwick  defeated  Edward's  forces  near 
Banbury  in  1469.  Soon  afterward  War- 
wick fled  to  France,  from  whence  he  re- 
turned with  a  supply  of  troops,  and  pro- 
claimed Henry.  Edward  escaped  beyond 
sea,  and  Warwick  released  Henry  from 
the  Tower,  and  set  him  on  the  throne; 
but  Edward  returned  with  succor,  and 
marched  to  London,  where  he  took  Henry 
prisoner.  He  shortly  after  won  the  bat- 
tle of  Barnet,  in  which  Warwick  fell. 
Another  victory  at  Tewksbury  secured 
to  him  the  quiet  possession  of  the  throne. 
Preparations  were  made  for  war  with 
France,  and  an  expedition  sent,  which 
was,  however,  fruitless.  War  broke  out 
also  with  Scotland,  but  nothing  of  im- 
portance occurred.  In  1478  Edward  had 
his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  con- 
demned and  put  to  death  as  a  traitor. 
Clarence  had  married  Isabel,  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  and  had  taken 
part  with  him  against  the  king.  He  died 
in  1483. 

EDWARD  v.,  son  of  the  preceding 
whom  he  succeeded  at  the  age  of  12 
years,  was  smothered,  with  his  brother, 
in  the  Tower,  by  order  of  their  uncle  and 
guardian,  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
in  1488. 

EDWARD  VI..  the  only  son  of  Henry 
VIII.,  by  his  queen,  Jane  Seymour;  was 
born  in  1537.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  1547,  but  by  reason  of  his  tender  age 
and  early  death,  had  little  to  do  with  the 
important  measures  that  mark  his  reign. 
His  uncle,  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  was 
Tiamed   protector,  and  created  Duke   of 


Somerset;  but  in  1549  his  place  was 
taken  by  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick, 
created  Duke  of  Northumberland;  and 
Somerset,  two  years  later,  was  charged 
with  treason  and  felony,  and  beheaded. 
Both  of  these,  however,  carried  on  the 
work  of  the  Reformation.  Somerset 
made  an  expedition  into  Scotland,  and 
gained  the  victory  of  Musselburgh,  or 
Pinkie,  in  1547;  Warwick  defeated  the 
insurgents  under  Ket,  the  Norfolk  tan- 
ner, in  1549;  a  very  severe  law  was 
passed  against  vagabonds,  but  had  to  be 
soon  repealed.  The  Act  of  Six  Articles 
was  repealed,  and  the  use  of  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  established.  The 
great  aim  of  Northumberland  was  to  se- 
cure the  succession  to  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land for  his  family.  With  this  view  he 
married  his  son,  Lord  Guilford  Dudley, 
to  Lady  Jane  Grey,  and  obtained  from 
the  weak  and  dying  Edward,  a  document 
settling  the  succession  on  Jane  Grey,  to 
the  exclusion  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth.  He 
died  in  1552. 

EDWARD  VII.,  King  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  of  all  the  British  Dominions  beyond 
the  Seas,  Emperor  of  India,  born  in  Buck- 
ingham Palace,  London,  on  Nov.  9,  1841. 
He  was  the  second  child  and  the  eldest 
son  of  Queen  Victoria  and  Albert,  Prince 


EDWARD      VII. 

Consort.  He  was  christened  Albert  Ea- 
ward.  He  was  made  Prince  of  Wales 
at  his  birth  and  as  heir  to  the  throne 
succeeded  to  many  other  titles.  He  was 
educated  privately  and  among  his  tutors 
was  Charles  Kingsley.  He  attended 
Edinburgh   University  for  one   session, 


EDWAED,  PKINCE  OF  WALES      475 


EDWAEDS 


Christ  Church,  Oxford,  for  one  year;  and 
Cambridge  University  for  four  terms. 
In  1860  he  traveled  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Canada  and  in  the 
year  following  made  a  tour  of  the  Orient, 
accompied  by  Dean  Stanley.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1863,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  on  March  10  of  the  same 
year  married  Princess  Alexandra,  eldest 
daughter  of  King  Christian  IX.  of  Den- 
mark. In  the  years  following  he  made, 
in  company  with  the  Princess,  tours  of 
various  parts  of  the  Empire  where  he 
was  everywhere  enthusiastically  received. 
On  account  of  the  virtual  retirement  of 
Queen  Victoria  he  became  leader  of  Brit- 
ish society  and  represented  the  CrowTi  at 
all  important  functions.  His  genial  dis- 
position and  democratic  bearing  made 
him  a  universal  favorite.  He  became 
King  upon  the  death  of  Queen  Victoria, 
on  Jan.  2,  1901.  The  coronation  was 
set  for  Jan,  26,  1902,  but  the  king  was 
seized  with  a  severe  illness  and  it  was 
postponed  until  Aug.  9  of  the  same  year. 
On  his  accession  to  the  throne  Edward  at 
once  took  a  prominent  part  in  European 
politics,  devoting  himself  especially  to 
the  maintenance  of  European  peace.  He 
interchanged  many  visits  with  the  Ger- 
man Emperor,  with  the  Czar  of  Russia, 
and  with  the  President  of  France.  He 
also  maintained  most  cordial  relations 
with  the  United  States.  At  home  his 
deep  interest  in  the  welfare  of  his  people 
maintained  and  increased  his  popularity. 
He  founded  the  Order  of  Merit  for  dis- 
tinction in  war,  science,  and  literature 
and  the  service  of  man.  The  political 
situation,  especially  the  measures  for  tax 
reform  and  the  crisis  in  the  House  of 
Lords  caused  him  much  anxiety  in  1910. 
He  died  unexpectedly  on  May  6  of  that 
year  from  heart  failure  following  a  bron- 
chial attack.  After  lying  in  state  for 
three  days  at  Westminster  Hall  the  body 
of  the  King  was  buried  at  Windsor.  The 
funeral  was  notable  for  the  attendance 
of  sovereigns  and  of  important  public 
men  from  all  the  countries  of  the  world. 
Six  children  were  born  to  King  Edward 
and  Queen  Alexandra :  Prince  Albert 
Victor,  born  Jan.  8,  1864,  died  Jan.  14, 
1892;  Prince  George,  born  Jan.  13,  1865; 
Princess  Louisa  Victoria,  born  Feb.  20, 
1867;  Princess  Victoria  Alexandra,  born 
Julv  6,  1868;  Princess  Maude  Charlotte, 
born  Nov.  26,  1869;  and  Prince  Alex- 
ander John,  born  April  6,  1871.  He  died 
on  the  following  day. 

EDWARD,  PRINCE  OF  WALES, 
surnamed  the  Black  Prince  from  the 
color  of  his  armor,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Edward  III.;  was  born  in  1330.  In 
1345  he  accompanied  his  father  in  his 
expedition  to  France,  and  displayed  un- 
usual heroism  at  the  battle  of  Crecy:     Ih 


1356  he  gained  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  and 
brought  the  French  king  and  his  son 
prisoners  to  England.  He  died  before 
his  father,  in  1376,  leaving  two  sons,  the 
elder  of  whom,  Richard,  was  the  succes- 
sor of  Edward  III. 

EDWARDS,     GEORGE     WHARTON, 

an  American  artist,  bom  in  Fairhaven, 
Conn.  He  received  an  academic  edu- 
cation in  Antwerp  and  Paris.  From 
1898  to  1903  he  was  director  of  the  art 
department  of  Collier's  "Weekly,"  and 
from  1904  to  1912  was  manager  of  the 
art  department  of  the  American  Bank 
Note  Company.  He  received  medals  for 
excellence  of  work  in  drawing  and 
painting  at  many  expositions.  He 
painted  the  mural  decoration  "Henrick 
Hudson,"  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy.  He  wrote  fiction  as  well  as 
books  on  art  subjects.  These  include 
"Thumbnail  Sketches"  (1886);  "Hoi 
land  of  Today"  (1909)  ;  "Some  Old 
Flemish  Towns"  (1911)  ;  "The  Forest  of 
Arden"  (1914);  "Alsace-Lorraine" 
(1918);  and  "Holland  of  Today" 
(1919). 

EDWARDS,  JONATHAN,  an  Ameri- 
can  theologian;  born  in  East  Windsor, 
Conn.,  Oct.  5,  1703.  He  was  the  son 
of  Timothy  Edwards,  a   Congregational 


JONATHAN   EDWARDS 

n-vinister,  and  was  himself  minister  at 
Northampton,  Mass.,  from  1727  to  1750. 
From   1751   to   1758   he  was   an   Indian 


EDWARDSVILLE 


476 


EGEDE 


missionai'y,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death 
was  president  of  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  (now  Princeton  University). 
His  works  are  the  recognized  exponents 
of  essential  Calvinism  next  to  those  of 
its  founder,  and  rank  high  in  the  theo- 
logical metaphysic  of  all  time.  They 
include  among  others:  "An  Inquiry  Into 
the  Modei'n  Prevailing  Notions  Respect- 
ing that  Freedom  of  the  Will  Which  Is 
Supposed  to  Be  Essential  to  Moral 
Agency"  (1754)  ;  "The  Great  Christian 
Doctrine  of  the  Original  Sin  Defended" 
(1757?)  and  "A  Dissertation  Concern- 
ing the  End  for  Which  God  Created  the 
World"  (1789).  He  died  in  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  March  22,  1758. 

EDWARDSVILLE,  a  city  of  Illinois, 
the  county-seat  of  Madison  co.  It  is  on 
the  Wabash,  the  Illinois  Traction,  the 
Toledo,  St.  Louis  and  Western,  the 
Litchfield  and  Madison,  and  the  St. 
Louis,  Troy  and  Eastern  railroads. 
The  city  is  the  center  of  an  agricultural 
and  coal  mining  region,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  tools,  plumbing  supplies, 
brass  finishings,  radiators,  buggies,  etc. 
There  is  a  public  library.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,014;    (1920)    5,336. 

EDWARDSVILLE,  a  borough  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  Luzerne  co.  It  is  on  the 
Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western 
railroad,  and  is  entirely  a  residential 
suburb  of  Wilkes-Barre.  Pop.  (1910) 
8,407;    (1920)    9,027. 

EDWIN,  King  of  Northumbria,  was 
the  son  of  .^lla.  King  of  Deira,  who 
died  in  588.  His  father  died  when  he 
was  but  3  years  old,  whereupon  .-Ethel- 
ric.  King  of  Bernicia,  seized  his  terri- 
tories. The  child  was  carried  into  north 
Wales,  and  there  brought  up.  At  length 
he  found  refuge  with  Raedwald,  King 
of  East  Anglia,  who  took  up  arms  on 
his  behalf  against  ^thelfrith,  the  son 
of  his  oppressor,  and  defeated  him  in  a 
great  battle,  in  which  the  usurper  fell 
(617).  Edwin  now  obtained  his  father's 
kingdom  of  Deira,  and  ere  long  overran 
Pernicia,  thus  bringing  under  his  rule 
a  united  Northumbria.     He  died  in  634. 

EDWY,  King  of  England,  son  of  Ed- 
mund I.,  succeeded  his  uncle  Edred  in 
955.  Taking  part  with  the  secular 
clergy  against  the  monks,  he  incurred 
the  confirmed  enmity  of  the  latter.  The 
papal  party,  headed  by  Dunstan,  was 
strong  enough  to  excite  a  rebellion,  by 
which  Edwy  was  driven  from  the  throne 
to  make  way  for  his  brother  Edgar.  He 
died  in  959,  being  probably  not  more 
than  18  or  19  years  old. 

EEL,  the  general  name  of  a  family  of 
teleostean  fishes  belonging'  to  the  apodal 


section  of  the  Malacoptey'ygii.  They  be- 
long to  various  genera.  The  genus  An- 
guilla  is  characterized  by  its  serpent- 
like elongated  body,  by  the  absence  of 
ventral  fins,  and  the  continuity  of  the  / 
dorsal  and  anal  fins  round  the  extremity 
of  the  tail.  The  dorsal  fin  commences 
half-way  between  the  head  and  the  anal 
fin,  and  the  lower  jaw  projects  beyond 
the  upper.  In  the  genus  Conger,  which 
is  conclusively  marine,  the  dorsal  fin 
commences  above  the  pectoral,  and 
the  upper  jaw  is  the  longer.  The 
smoothness  of  the  body — the  scales  be- 
ing inconspicuous — and  the  serpentine 
movements  of  eels  are  proverbial.  The 
conger  and  at  least  three  other  species — 
the  sharp-nosed,  the  broad-nosed,  and 
the  snig — belong  to  Great  Britain.  The 
species  of  the  genus  AnguiUa,  which  are 
both  freshwater  and  marine,  seldom  ex- 
ceed  30  inches  in  leng^th. 

In  England  river  eels  are  caught  in 
great  numbers  by  means  of  eelbucks  or 
eelpots.  A  kind  of  trident  is  used  also 
for  taking  them,  called  an  eelspear. 
Eels  avoid  cold,  and  frequently  migrate 
in  winter  to  the  mud  or  brackish  water 
estuaries  where  the  temperature  is 
higher.  They  have  even  been  met  with 
in  large  numbers  performing  migra- 
tions on  land,  mostly  intervening  necks 
of  soil  covered  with  damp  grass.  Some 
eels  spawn  in  the  estuaries  of  rivers, 
and  immense  numbers  of  the  young  eels 
pass  up  the  streams  in  spring,  their 
passage  in  England  being  called  the  eel- 
fare. 

EGAN,  MAURICE  FRANCIS,  an 
American  author;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
May  24,  1852;  was  graduated  at  La 
Salle  College.  Subsequently  he  was 
Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the 
University  of  Notre  Dame,  Ind.,  and 
Professor  of  English  Language  and  Lit- 
erature in  the  Catholic  University  of 
America  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  was 
appointed  U.  S.  Minister  to  Denmark  in 
1907.  His  experiences  in  that  post  he 
described  in  "Ten  Years  on  the  German 
Frontier"  (1919).  He  is  the  author  of 
30  books,  including:  "That  Girl  of  Mine" 
(1879);  "Preludes"  (1880),  a  book  of 
poems;  "Songs  and  Sonnets"  (1885); 
"Stories  of  Duty"  (1885);  "A  Garden 
of  Roses"  (1886) ;  "The  Life  Around 
Us"  (1886);  "Everlasting  St.  Francis" 
(1912),  etc. 

EGEDE,  HANS  (a'ge-de),  the  apostle 
of  Greenland;  was  born  in  1686  in  Nor- 
way. In  1721  he  set  sail  for  Greenland 
with  the  intention  of  converting  the  na- 
tives to  Christianity,  and  for  15  years 
performed  the  most  arduous  duties  as 
missionary,  winning  by  his  persevering 


EGG 


477 


EGGLESTON 


kindness  the  confidence  of  the  natives. 
In  1736  he  returned  to  Copenhagen, 
where  he  was  made  a  bishop  and  di- 
rector of  the  Greenland  missions.  He 
died  in  1758.  His  son,  Paul  Egede, 
born  in  1708,  followed  in  his  father's 
footsteps,  became  Bishop  of  Greenland, 
and  died  in  1789. 

EGG,  a  mass  or  speck  of  protoplasm 
developed  in  the  females  of  all  but  the 
lowest  animals  and  when  impregnated 
with  the  corresponding  substance  of  the 
opposite  sex  capable  of  producing  or- 
ganisms like  the  parents.  The  egg 
throughout  the  animal  kingdom  is,  in 
the  last  analysis,  one  single  perfect  cell, 
in  which  there  are  four  parts,  the  cell 
wall,  the  cell  substance,  the  nucleus  and 
the  nucleolus.  The  eggs  of  animals 
lower  than  the  reptile  have  usually  only 
three  parts,  viz.,  the  germinal  spot  or 
dot,  the  germinal  vesicle,  and  the  vitel- 
lus  or  yolk;  the  first  being  contained  in 
the  vesicle,  and  that  again  in  the  yolk. 
Such  eggs  are  usually  of  microscopic 
size  and  before  being  impregnated  do 
not  differ  from  any  other  cell  or  from 
the  whole  of  a  single-celled  animal.  The 
parts  of  an  egg  named  are  in  general 
terms  the  same  as  those  used  for  cells, 
but  each  part  has  its  special  name.  Thus 
the  nucleolus,  the  smallest  recognizable 
constituent,  is  called  the  germinal  spot 
or  spot  of  Wagner  because  it  was  dis- 
covered by  Wagner  in  1836.  The  nu- 
cleus is  called  the  germinal  vesicle  or 
vesicle  of  Purkinje  because  it  was  dis- 
covered by  Purkinje  in  1825.  The  com- 
mon cell  substance  or  protoplasm  is 
called^  the  vitellus  or  yolk  and  the  cell 
wall  is  called  the  vitelline  membrane. 
Some  eggs  have  other  regular  constitu- 
ents as,  for  instance,  a  quantity  of  col- 
ored albumen  or  food  yolk,  like  that  con- 
stituting the  yellow  of  a  hen's  egg.  Sec- 
ondly, a  quantity  of  colorless  albumen, 
called  the  white  of  the  egg,  which  usual- 
ly coagulates  when  warm  and  is  used 
in  photography  for  preparing  the  paper. 
Thirdly,  the  egg-shell  which,  especially 
in  birds,  consists  of  a  membrane  coated 
with  carbonate  of  lime  and  in  the  eggs 
*f  reptiles  possessses  the  appearance 
and  consistency  of  parchment.  The 
white  and  the  yellow  of  eggs  are  in- 
closed in  the  shell  wall  which,  as  it  in- 
creases in  size,  attains  a  special  thick- 
ness and  toughness  and  is  called  the 
egg-pod  or  putamen. 

Under  the  term  egg  is  included  the 
ovum  of  every  kind  of  mammal ;  but  in 
general  the  English  term  egg  is  used 
only  of  those  animals  that  do  not  pro- 
duce their  young  alive.  All  animals  dif- 
ferentiated by  sex  lay  eggs.  Those  in 
which  the  egg  passes  out  of  the  body  and 


is  hatched  outside  are  called  oviparous, 
those  in  which  the  egg  remains  inside 
the  body  to  hatch  are  called  ovovivipar- 
ous;  those  whose  eggs  are  retained  in 
connection  with  the  parent  by  means  of 
a  placenta  and  an  umbilical  cord  so  that 
the  young  are  brought  forth  alive  are 
called  viviparous.  Through  repeated  di- 
vision of  the  germinal  vesicle  a  multi- 
tude of  cells  is  formed  out  of  which  the 
embryo  is  developed.  In  the  case  of 
birds,  reptiles,  and  the  majority  of  in- 
sects, the  young  is  nourished  in  the  egg 
by  means  of  the  albumen  there  stored 
so  that  after  the  egg  is  laid  the  develop- 
ment continues  till  the  animal  hatches 
out.  Eggs  the  whole  of  whose  yolk 
makes  up  into  the  body  of  the  embryo 
are  called  holoblastic.  Others  with  food 
yolk  which  does  not  undergo  seg- 
mentation are  meroblastic.  Birds'  eggs 
are  meroblastic.  All  birds  lay  eggs  and 
so  also  do  most  reptiles,  amphibians,  and 
fishes;  insects,  crustaceans,  and  mol- 
lusks  are  oviparous.  In  this  class  are 
included  the  ornithorhynchus  and 
echidna.  The  eggs  of  amphibians  are 
usually  found  in  floating  glutinous  mas- 
ses. The  eggs  of  fishes  are  popularly 
known  as  roe  or  spawn. 

Eggs  vary  vastly  in  size.  The  ova  of 
mammals  are  usually  spherical  and  mi- 
croscopic. The  human  ovum  is  among 
the  smallest  known,  being  a  minute 
spherical  body  from  1-120  to  1-125  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  while  the  largest 
known  egg  is  that  of  the  extinct  ele- 
phant bird  Epyomis  Maximus  of  Mada- 
gascar, the  shell  of  which  had  a  capa- 
city of  about  two  gallons  and  was  six 
times  the  size  of  the  egg  of  the  ostrich. 
The  eggs  of  birds,  especially  of  fowls 
and  some  reptiles,  as  turtles,  are  com- 
monly used  for  food.  A  hen's  egg  of 
good  size  weighs  about  1,000  grains,  of 
which  the  white  constitutes  600,  the 
yolk  300,  and  the  shell  100.  There  are 
generally  10.7  parts  shell,  11.9  parts  al- 
bumen, 12.8  parts  fat,  .7  parts  salt,  and 
63.9  water.  Besides  their  use  as  a  food, 
hen's  eggs  are  used  in  the  technical  arts, 
the  albumen  in  which  they  are  so  rich 
serving  in  dying,  manufacture  of 
leather,  and  various  other  purposes. 
The  science  of  birds'  eggs  is  called 
oology. 

EGG,  one  of  the  Hebrides  Islands. 

EGGLESTON.  EDWARD,  an  Ameri- 
can author;  bom  in  Vevay,  Ind.,  Dec.  10, 
1837.  In  fiction  he  has  achieved  celeb- 
rity with  stories  of  life  in  southern  In- 
diana in  pioneer  days.  His  works  include : 
"The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster":  ''The  Cir- 
cuit Rider";  "Roxy";  "The  Graysons  ; 
"The     Faith     Doctor";     "The  „^Hoosier 

31 — Vol.  Ill — Cjrc 


EGGLESTON 


478 


EGYPT 


Schoolboy";  "Queer  Stories  for  Boys 
and  Girl?";  "Schoolmasters'  Stories"; 
"Mr.  Blake's  Walking-Stick" ;  "Duf- 
fels"; "School  History  of  the  United 
States";  "Household  History  of  the 
United  States";  "First  Book  in  American 
History";  "The  Beginners  of  a  Nation," 
the  first  volume  of  a  "History  of  Life  in 
the  United  States" ;  etc.   He  died  in  1902. 

EGGLESTON,     GEORGE    GARY,    an 

American  author;  brother  of  Edward; 
born  in  Vevay,  Ind.,  Nov.  26,  1839.  He 
has  long  been  connected  in  an  editorial 
capacity  with  one  or  another  New  York 
newspaper,  including  the  "World,"  the 
"Evening  Post,"  and  the  "Commercial 
Advertiser."  A  few  of  his  many  books 
are:  ''A  Man  of  Honor";  "A  Rebel's  Rec- 
ollections"; "Red  Eagle";  "Juggernaut" 
(with  Dolores  Marbourg) ;  and  for 
young  people:  "How  to  Educate  Your- 
self"; "How  to  Make  a  Living";  Our 
First  Century"  (1905);  "Recollections 
of  a  Varied  Life"  (1910).  He  died  in 
1911. 

EGMONT,  POUT,  the  principal  harbor 
of  the  Falkland  Isles,  on  the  N.  coast  of 
the  more  W.  of  the  principal  two  islands 
of  the  group,  its  seaward  barriers  be- 
ing the  islets  of  Keppel  and  Saunders. 

EGYPT,  a  country  in  the  N.  E.  of 
Africa,  extending  from  the  Mediterran- 
ean to  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile  at 
Assuan,  from  24°  6'  to  31°  36'  N.  lat. 
Area,  exclusive  of  the  Sudan,  350,000 
square  miles.  Population  (1917)  12,- 
750,918,  exclusive  of  nomad  Bedouins. 
Capital,  Cairo;  pop.  (1917)  790,939. 
Geologically  and  ethnologically,  it  is 
confined  to  the  bed  of  the  flooded  Nile 
and  occupies  little  more  than  11,000 
square  miles.  The  Nile,  after  breaking 
through  the  rocky  barrier  at  Assuan, 
pursues  a  N.  course,  varied  only  by  one 
considerable  bend  near  Thebes,  till,  a 
few  miles  N.  of  Cairo,  it  divides  into 
two  main  streams,  terminating  in  the 
Rosetta  and  Damietta  mouths,  through 
which,  after  a  course  of  3,300  miles,  it 
pours  during  "high  Nile,"  about  700,- 
000,000,000  cubic  meters  daily  into  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  The  other  five 
mouths  which  existed  in  antiquity,  have 
silted  up;  the  triangular  district  in- 
closed by  them,  supposed  by  the  ancients 
to  have  been  recovered  from  the  sea, 
formed  the  delta,  now  called  Lower 
Egypt. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  remarkably 
mild,  especially  S.  of  the  desert.  The 
temperature  in  winter  in  the  shade 
averages  50°  to  60°  F.,  and  in  the  heat 
of  summer  90°  to  100°  in  Lower  Egypt, 
10°  higher  in  the  upper  valley.  From 
June  till  February  cool  N.  winds  prevail, 


then  till  June  comes  a  period  of  E.  or 
hot  S.  sandwinds,  called  the  Khamasin 
or  "Fifties"  (blowing  50  days).  The 
most  remarkable  phenomena  is  the  reg- 
ular increase  of  the  Nile,  fed  by  the  fall 
of  the  tropical  rains.  The  state  of  the 
Nile  marks  the  season  more  accurately 
than  the  variation  of  temperature.  Ex- 
cept in  the  dry  air  of  the  valley  and 
desert,  Egypt  is  not  remarkably 
healthy;  because  of  the  occasional  visi- 
tations of  plague  and  cholera,  ophthal- 
mia, diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  boils. 

Geology. — Egypt  is  separated  from 
Nubia  by  a  low  hilly  region  about  50 
miles  broad  from  N.  to  S.  and  composed 


A  DAHABEAH   OF  THE  NILE,  EGYPT 

of  granitic  rocks.  The  same  crystalline 
rocks  extend  up  the  shore  of  the  Red 
Sea  to  near  the  opening  of  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  stretching  inland  for  fully  30 
miles.  The  scenery  in  this  district  is 
wild  and  rude.  The  granitic  region  ter- 
minates at  Assuan,  the  ancient  Syene, 
whence  most  of  the  materials  for  the 
colossal  monuments  of  Egypt  were  pro- 
cured. The  Arabian  and  Libyan 
ranges,  on  the  right  and  left  of  the 
river,  are  alike  composed  of  cretaceous 
strata,  the  predominant  rock  being  sand- 
stone, which  is  durable  and  easily 
worked. 

Natural  History.— The   signal   peculi- 
arity of  the  vegetation  of  the  Nile  Val- 


EGYPT 


479 


EOYPT 


ley  is  the  absence  of  woods  and  forests. 
The  Pharaohs  got  their  timber  chiefly 
from  Lebanon,  and  modern  Egypt  is 
supplied  from  the  forests  of  Asia  Minor. 
Of  flowers,  the  celebrated  lotos,  or 
water-lily,  has  supplied  many  ideas 
to  Egyptian  architects.  The  lack  of 
jungle  or  cover  of  any  sort  accounts  for 
the  poverty  of  the  Egyptian  fauna ;  the 
crocodile,  like  the  hippopotamus,  is  Iv  at- 
ing  a  retreat  to  the  tropics.  The  ordi- 
nary beasts  of  burden  are  the  ass  and 
camel.  Serpents  are  numerous,  and 
among  them  the  dreaded  cobra  and  the 
cerastes.  The  Nile  is  full  of  fish,  of 
rather  poor  flavor,  Egypt  is  an  agri- 
cultural country;  in  some  parts,  by  the 
aid  of  regulated  artificial  irrigation,  the 
rich  alluvial  deposit  will  bear  three  crops 
in  the  year.    Wheat  is  the  chief  cereal; 


STREET  IN  CAIRO,  EGYPT 

barley,  maize,  durra,  beans,  lentils,  and 
clover  are  also  largely  grown  with  very 
little  trouble.  The  extensive  cultui-e  of 
papyrus,  which  anciently  supplied  ma- 
terial for  paper,  has  in  modern  times 
been  superseded  by  that  of  sugar  cane, 
cotton,  indigo,  and  tobacco. 

Religion. — The  two  main  principles  on 
which  the  religion  of  Egypt  was  based 
appear  to  have  been  the  existence  of  an 
Omnipotent  Being,  whose  various  attri- 
butes being  deified,  formed  a  series  of 
divinities;  and  the  deification  of  the  sun 


and  moon.  Each  ^oup  of  divinities 
formed  a  triad  composed  of  a  chief  male 
deity,  with  a  wife  or  sister  and  a  son,  as 
Osiris,  Isis,  and  Horus,  or  Amun,  Maut, 
and  Khonso.  Among  the  other  gods  of 
the  Egyptian  Pantheon  are  Ra,  the  sun, 
usually  represented  as  a  hawk-headed 
man;  Mentu  and  Atmu  are  merely  two 
phases  of  Ra,  the  rising  and  setting  sun. 
The  worship  of  the  bull  Apis  is  connect- 
ed with  Osiris.  Serapis  is  the  defunct 
Apis,  who  has  become  Osiris.  Seth  or 
Set  represents  the  power  of  evil.  Am- 
mon  (Egyptian  Amen),  ori^nally  a  lo- 
cal god,  owed  his  importance  to  the 
greatness  of  his  city,  Thebes.  Thoth 
was  the  chief  moon-god,  and  is  generally 
represented  as  ibis-headed.  Anubis,  the 
jackal-headed,  belonged  to  the  family  of 
Osiris,  and  presided  over  mummifica- 
tion. Besides  these  deities,  the  Egypti- 
ans worshiped  beasts,  reptiles,  and  even 
vegetables,  probably  as  symbols. 

Ancient  Civilization.  —  When  the 
Egyptians  first  appeared  in  history, 
they  were  already  possessed  of  a  mar- 
velously  advanced  civilization,  which 
presupposes  thousands  of  years  of  devel- 
opment, even  before  the  remote  period,  ^ 
nearly  4000  B.  C,  when  the  pyramid 
builders  reigned.  In  the  sciences,  as 
early  as  the  4th  dynasty  the  notation  of 
time,  and  the  decimal  system  of  num- 
bers, weights,  and  measures,  and  the  di- 
vision of  the  year  were  already  known, 
while  the  form  of  the  buildings  implies 
a  knowledge  of  geometry  and  its  sister 
sciences.  They  had  also  a  knowledge  of 
astronomy  and  chemistry.  The  art  of 
literary  composition  existed  as  early  as 
the  4th  dynasty.  The  language  of  the 
period,  though  concise  and  obscure,  was, 
nevertheless,  fixed.  Architecture  had 
attained  great  refinement.  The  trans- 
port of  enormous  blocks  of  stone  testi- 
fies to  an  early  development  of  engineer- 
ing skill.  The  statues  of  the  4th 
dynasty,  carved  nearly  4,000  years  B.  C, 
were  generally  conventional,  owing  to 
their  employment  in  architecture;  but  in 
portraiture  great  perfection  was  at- 
tained. Painting  appeared  at  the  same 
age  chiefly  in  tempera  or  whitewashed 
surfaces,  though  fresco  was  occasionally 
used.  In  the  art  of  music,  the  harp  and 
flute  appear  in  use  as  early  as  the  4th, 
and  heptachord  and  pentachord  lyres  as 
early  as  the  12th  dynasty;  besides 
which  drums,  tambourines,  flutes,  cym- 
bals, trumpets,  and  guitars  are  seen  in 
the  18th,  and  the  natural  instrument, 
the  jingling  sistrum,  in  the  4th.  Poetry 
was  at  all  times  in  use. 

The  civil  government  was  adminis- 
tered by  the  three  highest  professions; 
the  priests  were  distingruished  by  their 


EGYPT 


480 


EGYPT 


superior  knowledge,  cleanliness,  and 
godliness,  and  the  political  and  civil 
government  was  administered  by  royal 
scribes,  or  secretaries  of  state,  who 
superintended  the  revenue,  justice,  for- 
eign affairs,  and  all  the  interests  of 
the  executive.  Sacred  scribes  attended 
to  the  ecclesiastic  interests,  and  inferior 
scribes  to  the  local  interests.  The  pub- 
lic works,  the  collection  of  grain  and  of 
all  the  linen  dues,  the  cattle,  workmen, 
wells,  irrigation,  had  each  their  separate 
superintendents  and  scribes.  The  mil- 
itary force,  of  410,000  men,  at  a  later 
period,  comprising  all  arms  of  the  ser- 
vice, was  ruled  with  severe  discipline, 
under  the  direction  of  nomarchs,  colo- 
nels, captains,  and  lieutenants. 

History. — The  Egyptians  are  the  ear- 
liest people  known  to  us  as  a  nation,  if 
we  except  the  Chinese.    When  Abraham 
entered    the    delta    from    Canaan,   they 
had  long  been  enjoying  the  advantages 
of  a  settled  government.     The  arrange- 
ment of  Egyptian  chronology  is  still  a 
much-disputed  point.    A  list  of  the  kings 
of  Egypt,  arranged  in  30  dynasties,  was 
given  by  the  priest  Manetho  about  250 
B.  C. ;  this  division  is  still  used.    Accord- 
ing to  tradition  Mena  or  Mones  formed 
the  old  empire  of  Egypt  and  founded  its 
capital  Memphis.     Three  kings,  Khufu, 
Khafra,    and     Menkaura,    of    the    11th 
dynasty,  built  the  largest  pyramids;  the 
date  assigned  to  these  kings  by  Lepsius 
is  2800-2700.     The  shepherd  kings  were 
driven  out  about  1600.     With  their  ex- 
pulsion began  the  reigns  of  those  great 
rulers  who  built  the  magnificent  temples 
and  palaces  at  Thebes.     Rameses  II.,  or 
Sesostris,    was    successful    against    the 
neighboring  Arabs,  and  covered   Egypt 
with     magnificent    buildings.      He    was 
probably    the    Pharaoh    who    oppressed 
the  Hebrews;  the  Exodus  may  have  oc- 
curred  under    his    son    and    successor, 
Maneptah    or    Merenptah.      Under    the 
later   Ramessides   the   Egyptian   empire 
began   to  decay.     Eventually   the  Ethi- 
opians    under     Shabak     (Sabako)    con- 
quered Egypt.     For  a  time  it  was  sub- 
ject  alternately   to   Ethiopian    and    As- 
syrian princes,  but  in  the  7th  century 
the  kings  of  Sais  once  more  restored  its 
independence     and     prosperity.       About 
525,  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia,  overran 
Egypt,  and  it  remained  a  Persian  prov- 
ince till  Persia  was  conquered  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  332  B.  c.     Egypt  now 
became  a  Greek  state.     Alexandria  was 
founded  as  the  new  Greek  capital.     On 
Alexander's  death,  his  general,  Ptolemy, 
took   possession    of  the   throne   and   be- 
came the  first  of  a  Greek  dynasty  which 
for  300  years  made  Egypt  one  of  the 
chief  kingdoms  of  the  world.     Ptolemy 


Auletes  went  to  Rome  to  ask  help  against 
his  subjects,  and  the  famous  Cleopatra 
maintained  her  power  only  through  her 
personal  influence  with  Julius  Caesar 
and  Mark  Anthony.  On  the  defeat  of 
Mark  Anthony  by  Augustus,  30  b.  c, 
Egypt  became  a  province  of  Rome.  Next 
arose  in  Alexandria  the  Christian  cat- 
echetical school,  which  produced  Clem- 
ens and  Origen.  On  the  division  of  the 
Roman  empire  (a.  d.  337),  Egypt  be- 
came a  province  of  the  Eastern  Empire 
and  sank  deeper  and  deeper  in  barbar- 
ism and  weakness.  It  was  conquered  in 
640  A.  D.  by  the  Saracens  under  Caliph 
Omar.  As  a  province  of  the  caliphs  it 
was  under  the  government  of  the  fa- 
mous Abbassides.  The  last  dynasty  was 
overthrown  by  the  Mamelukes  (1250) ; 
the  Mamelukes  in  their  turn  were  con- 
quered by  the  Turks  (1516-1517).  The 
Mamelukes  made  repeated  attempts  to 
cast  off  the  Turkish  yoke.  Bonaparte 
led  an  army  of  35,000  French,  and  de- 
feated them  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyra- 
mids, July  23,  1798.  The  French  held 
Egypt  till  1801,  when  they  were  driven 
out  by  the  British  under  Abercrombie 
and  Hutchinson. 

On  the  expulsion  of  the  French  a 
Turkish  force  under  Mehemet  Ali  Bey 
took  possession  of  the  country.  Me- 
hemet Ali,  a  man  of  great  ability,  was 
made  Pasha  of  Cairo  in  1804  and  great- 
ly extended  the  Egyptian  territories.  At 
length  he  broke  with  the  Porte,  and 
after  gaining  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
Ottoman  troops  in  Syria  he  was  in  1839 
acknowledged  by  the  Sultan  as  Viceroy 
of  Egypt,  with  the  right  of  succession 
in  his  family.  Under  the  rule  of  Said, 
one  of  his  sons,  railways  were  opened 
and  the  cutting  of  the  Suez  Canal  was 
begun.  In  1882  the  "National  party" 
under  Arabi  Pasha  revolted  and  forced 
the  khedive  to  flee.  On  July  11  a  Brit- 
ish fleet  bombarded  Alexandria  and  re- 
stored the  khedive,  and  at  Tel-el  Kebir 
Arabi's  forces  were  totally  crushed  on 
September  13.  A  rebellion  in  the  Sudan 
under  the  leadership  of  Mohammed  Ah- 
med, the  so-called  mahdi,  now  gave  the 
government  trouble.  In  1883  the  mah- 
di's  forces  annihilated  an  Egyptian 
force  under  Hicks  Pasha  in  Kordofan. 
British  troops  were  now  dispatched  to 
Suakim  and  inflicted  two  severe  defeats 
on  the  mahdi's  followers  there.  But  the 
British  cabinet  had  resolved  to  abandon 
the  Sudan;  and  General  Gordon,  famous 
for  his  work  in  this  district,  was  sent 
to  effect  the  safe  withdrawal  of  the 
garrisons  (1884).  By  this  time,  the 
mahdi's  forces  were  strong  enough  to 
shut  the  general  up  in  Khartum.  For 
nearly  a  year  he  held  the  town,  but  was 


EGYPT 


481 


EGYPT 


assassinated  (January,  1885)  before  the 
relief  expedition  under  Sir  Garnet  Wol- 
seley  could  reach  him.  In  1889,  Egypt  was 
invaded  by  14,000  dervishes,  under  Wad 
el  N'Jumi,  and  this  army  was  destroyed 
at  Toski  by  an  Anglo-Egyptian  force 
under  General  Grenfell.  There  was  no 
effort  to  relieve  the  Sudan  from  the 
tyranny  of  Abdullahi,  the  mahdi's  suc- 
cessor, till  1896,  by  which  time  the  fana- 
tical faith  of  the  dervishes  had  decayed 
and  many  tribes  had  become  disloyal. 
Slatin  Pasha,  who  escaped  from  Omdur- 
man  in  March,  1895,  revealed  at  Cairo 
the  altered  situation,  and  during  the  fol- 
lowing winter  the  British  Government, 
as  the  protector  of  Egypt,  resolved  on 
the  reconquest  of  the  Sudan.  General 
Kitchener  was  given  control  of  the  un- 
dertaking. In  June,  1898,  he  attacked 
an  army  of  18,000,  under  Mahmud,  sent 
against  him,  practically  annihilated  it, 
and  by  September  1  arrived  in  sight  of 
Omdurman.  The  khalifa  attacked,  but 
was  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  almost  his 
entire  line  of  battle.    Ascending  the  Nile 


The  strong  hand  of  Lord  Cromer,  the 
British  viceroy,  prevented,  however,  any 
actual  outbreak.  Under  Lord  Cromer's 
rule,  great  strides  were  made  in  the  eco- 
nomic and  social  development  of  the 
country.  He  resigned  in  1907  and  was 
succeeded  by  Sir  Eldon  Gorst.  He  made 
it  evident  from  the  beginning  of  his  rule 
that  Great  Britain  intended  to  maintain 
her  hold  in  the  country,  and  there  were 
general  manifestations  of  dissatisfac- 
tion, including  the  assassination  of  the 
Egyptian  Prime  Minister.  The  govern- 
ment took  repressive  measures  which 
were  effective.  In  1911  Sir  Eldon  Gorst 
died  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Kitch- 
ener, who  at  once  undertook  the  pacifi- 
cation of  the  country  by  economic  re- 
form. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War, 
Great  Britain  at  once  declared  Egypt  to 
be  a  British  protectorate,  thus  ending 
the  suzerainty  of  Turkey.  Sir  Arthur 
McMahon  was  appointed  High  Com- 
missioner. Abbas  Hilmi  was  removed 
as   Khedive,  and  was   succeeded   by  his 


TEMPLE   OF   PHILiE,   EGYPT 


with  gunboats  after  the  battle,  Kitch- 
ener found  Captain  Marchand  holding 
Fashoda,  which  he  had  seized  by  order 
of  the  French  Government.  Under 
threats  of  war  from  England,  Marchand 
was  in  November  ordered  to  evacuate 
Fashoda. 

In  1904,  an  agreement  was  made  be- 
tween France  and  Great  Britain,  by 
v/hich  France  pledged  itself  to  permit 
Great  Britain  a  free  hand  in  the  occu- 
pation of  Egypt.  A  movement  for 
Egyptian  nationalism  developed  in  the 
early  part  of  the  20th  century,  and  con- 
tinued to  grow  in  importance.  The 
Nationalist  party  was  formed  with 
Mustapha  Kemal  as  leader,  and  various 
conflicts  with  the  English  officials  gave 
strength  to  the   Nationalist  movement. 


father's  brother,  Hussein  Kemal,  who 
was  made  Sultan.  The  measures  under- 
taken and  carried  on  by  Lord  Kitchener 
had  proved  remarkably  beneficial.  These 
included  constitutional  reforms,  and  ex- 
tensive changes  in  the  judicial  proced- 
ure. 

The  Suez  Canal  was  one  of  the  vital 
points  of  defense.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  war,  ways  and  means  were  taken  to 
strengthen  it  on  the  anticipation  of  a 
strong  attack  against  it.  These  fears 
were  realized.  Turkish  forces  under- 
took a  campaign  against  the  canal  in 
January,  1915.  They  were  commanded 
by  German  officers..  The  attacks  were 
repelled  with  great  losses  and  the  army 
under  the  Turks  withdrew  to  Palestine. 
Although  this  prevented  for  a  time  at- 


EGYPT 


482 


EIFFEL  TOWEB 


tacks  en  the  canal,  military  operations 
continued  and  several  important  battles 
were  fought.  The  chief  of  these  was  at 
Romani.  The  Turkish  force  was  de- 
feated by  the  English  and  Australian 
troops.  Operations  were  carried  on 
throughout  this  year  under  great  diffi- 
culties, and  the  Sinai  desert  was  finally 
cleared  of  Turkish  troops.  During  the 
progress  of  the  war,  the  Egyptian  Na- 
tionalists continued  to  cause  trouble  and 
demanded  permission  to  submit  their 
claims  to  the  British  Government.  In 
1919  the  Nationalists  placed  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  the  formation  of  a  new 
government.  British  officials  were 
forced  to  deport  the  vice-president  of 
the  Assembly  and  three  other  leaders  to 
Malta.  This  was  followed  by  riots  in 
several  cities.  In  March,  1919,  General 
Allenby,  who  had  been  appointed  Special 
High  Commissioner  arrived  in  Cairo  and 
at  once  released  several  revolutionists 
from  prison  and  temporarily  restored 
order.  There  were  further  outbreaks, 
but  conditions  had  gradually  readjusted 
themselves  by  the  end  of  1919.  In 
spring  of  1920  a  mission  headed  by  Lord 
Milner  was  sent  to  Egypt  for  the  pur- 
pose of  inquiring  into  conditions  and 
recommending  reforms.  The  Egyptian 
Nationalists  had  sent  a  delegation  to 
the  Peace  Conference  in  Paris,  but  it 
was  not  given  a  hearing.  The  Milner 
mission  concluded  its  work  in  April, 
1920.  It  recommended  several  changes 
in  the  formation  of  government,  includ- 
ing the  retention  of  the  Sultan  as  titular 
head,  and  the  return  of  a  bi-cameral 
legislature.  It  recommended  that  the 
Upper  House  should  consist  of  members 
partly  elected  directly  and  partly  nomi- 
nated, and  the  Lower  House  should  be 
entirely^  elected.  A  sweeping  thorough 
remodeling  of  the  Egyptian  Government 
and  a  sweeping  reduction  of  British 
officials  was  advised.  The  Nationalists 
continued  disturbances  and  several  of 
their  leaders  were  arrested  in  July  for 
an  attempt  to  assassinate  the  Premier. 

Law  and  Justice. — There  are  90  sum- 
mary tribunals,  8  central  courts  and  a 
Court  of  Appeals  at  Cairo.  "Cantonal" 
Courts  composed  of  villaye  notables — 
2,360.  By  an  act  of  1905,  serious  offen- 
ses, and  by  Act  of  1910,  press  offenses, 
are  tried  at  Central  Courts. 

Finances. — Revenue  1919-1920  (esti- 
mated) £28,850,000.  Expenses:  £28,- 
850,000.  In  April,  1919,  the  sectional 
debt  was  £93,388,640,  There  is  a  Na- 
tional bank  at  Cairo,  an  Agricultural 
bank,  8  Mortgage  banks  and  5  ordinary 
banks,  one  P.  O.  Savings  bank  and  12 
rural. 

Education.  —  Of  indigenous  schools, 
known  as  "Maktabs"  there  were  in  1918 


3,534.  Teachers,  6,582,  attendance,  209,- 
186.  In  1919  under  Government  direc- 
tion and  of  departments  there  were  275 
schools.  There  are  schools  of  law,  mili- 
tary, agriculture,  veterinary,  police,  and 
for  cadis;  a  reformatory  for  boys  and 
one  for  girls.  The  Azhar  University  at 
Cairo  for  higher  education  is  the  great- 
est Moslem  institution  of  its  kind  m  the 
world. 

Agriculture. — In  1917  areas  cultivable 
7,932,077  feddans  (  =  1.038  acre)  cotton 
is  the  chief  crop.  2,633,539  acres  that 
could  be  reclaimed.  In  1918,  the  wheat 
crop  was  874,720  tons;  barley  214,916 
tons;  and  maize,  millet  and  rice  were 
also  produced  on  a  large  scale.  Cotton 
5,019,689  gantars   (=99.05  lbs.). 

Commerce. — Merchandise  (1918)  im- 
ports £51,155,306.  Exports,  £45,379,020. 
Imports  from  U.  S.  (1918)  £491,326. 
Exports  £4,286^318. 

Co7mnunicatton.  —  In  March,  1919, 
Egypt  had  2,339  miles  of  rails,  double 
and  single.  There  were  726  miles  of 
privately  owned  roads,  exclusive  of 
Sudan  to  Khartoum  R.  R. — 375  miles. 
Telegraph  and  telephone  systems,  6,311 
miles.     Post-offices  and  stations  2,485. 

EGYPTOLOGY.        See     ARCHEOLOGY. 

EHRENBERG  (a'ren-berc),  CHRIS- 
TLAN  GOTTFRIED,  a  German  scientist ; 
bom  in  Delitzsch,  April  19,  1795.  After 
studying  theology,  medicine,  and  nat- 
ural history,  he  joined  in  1820  an  expe- 
dition to  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Abys- 
sinia, returning  to  Berlin  in  1825.  In 
1820  he  accompanied  Humboldt  to  the 
Ural  and  Altai  ranges  and  to  central 
Siberia.  His  great  work  on  "Infusoria" 
appeared  in  1838,  and  was  at  once  recog- 
nized as  the  highest  authority  on  the 
subject.  It  was  followed  in  1854  by  his 
"Microgeology."  He  died  June  27, 
1876. 

EHRENBREITSTEIN  (a'reii-brit- 
stln),  a  Prussian  fortress  of  great 
strength  situated  opposite  the  confluence 
of  the  Moselle  with  the  Rhine,  on  a 
precipitous  rock  387  feet  above  the  river, 
and  inaccessible  on  three  sides.  It  is 
connected  with  Coblenz  on  the  opposite 
shore  by  a  bridge  of  boats.  After  the 
Armistice,  ending  the  World  War  {q. 
v.),  it  was  occupied  by  American  troops. 

EIDER  (i'der),  a  river  of  Prussia, 
which  rises  in  Holstein,  and  forms  the 
boundary  between  Schleswig  and  Hol- 
stein, falling  into  the  North  Sea  at  Ton- 
ning  after  a  course  of  92  miles.  By  its 
junction  with  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
Canal  it  gives  communication  between 
the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic. 

EIFFEL  TOWER,  THE,  a  notable 
structure  in  Paris,  France.     The  plans 


EIGG 


483 


EIGHT-HOUB  DAY 


for  the  Paris  exposition  of  1889  included 
a  monstrous  iron  tower,  to  be  raised  on 
the  Champs-de-Mars,  1,000  feet  high. 
The  designer,  Gustave  Eiffel,  construct- 
ed it  of  iron  lattice-work,  with  three 
elevators  giving  access  to  the  summit. 
The  uses  of  so  stupendous  an  undertak- 
ing are  many,  and  it  became  one  of  the 
chief  permanent  ornaments  of  the  city. 
Its  importance  from  a  meteorological 
point  of  view  cannot  be  overestimated, 
the  tower  enabling  meteorologists  to 
study  the  decrease  of  temperature  at 
different  heights,  to  observe  the  varia- 
tions of  winds,  and  to  find  out  the  quan- 
tity of  rain  that  falls  at  different 
heights,  and  the  density  of  the  clouds. 
Indeed,  in  all  that  relates  to  tempera- 
ture, hygrometry,  air  currents  and  the 
composition  of  the  air  the  tower  affords 
opportunities  for  study  and  research, 
many  of  which  have  hitherto  been  im- 
possible. It  is  equally  useful  to  astrono- 
mers. In  the  World  War  (1914-1918) 
the  tower  was  employed  as  a  wireless 
telegraph  station. 


steam-driven  machinery  in  England,  in 
the  early  part  of  last  century,  together 
with  the  factory  system,  manufacturers 
gained  almost  autocratic  control  of  the 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  workers  at 
their  disposal,  and  the  length  of  a  day's 
work  reached  the  limits  of  human  endur- 
ance. Twelve  and  fourteen  hours  were 
the  average,  while  women  and  children 
were  often  compelled  to  work  sixteen 
and  eighteen  hours  a  day.  These  and 
similar  evils  led  to  organization  of 
the  workers  for  protective  purposes. 
Through  their  efforts,  both  by  economic 
and  political  action,  the  working  day 
was  gradually  shortened.  The  first  de- 
mand for  an  eight-hour  day  was  voiced 
in  England  as  far  back  as  1833,  and  the 
British  Trade  Union  Congress  at  Bir- 
mingham, held  in  1869,  presented  it  as 
one  of  its  fundamental  principles.  In 
the  United  States  the  National  Labor 
Union  declared  for  an  eight-hour  day  in 
1866.  During  the  period  of  so  many 
strikes,  1872-1873,  "eight-hour  leagues" 
were  a  prominent  feature  of  the  labor 


EHRENBREITSTEIN 


EIGG  (eg) ,  an  island  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Scotland,  County  of  Inverness,  about 
10  miles  from  the  mainland,  and  5  miles 
long  by  about  3  broad.  It  has  bold, 
rocky  shores,  and  terminates  to  the  S.  in 
a  lofty  promontory  called  the  Scuir  of 
Eigg,  with  a  peak  of  columnar  pitch- 
stone  porphyry  1,339  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  on  one  side  perpendicular  as  a  wall. 
It  is  the  scene  of  the  massacre,  toward 
the  end  of  the  16th  century,  of  the  Mac- 
donalds  by  the  Macleods  of  Skye,  who 
suffocated  them  in  a  cave  where  they 
had  taken  refuge. 

EIGHT-HOUR  DAY.  the  period  fixed 
by  the  demand  of  the  international  labor 
movement  as  the  maximum  length  of  a 
day's  work.     With  the   introduction   of 


disturbances  of  that  time.  This  princi- 
ple of  limiting  the  day's  work  was 
fiercely  fought  by  the  manufacturers 
and  other  employers,  who  contended 
that  it  was  a  matter  to  be  regulated  only 
by  employer  and  employee,  without  out- 
side interfernce,  but  organized  labor 
and  its  friends  contended  that  the  sta- 
tus of  the  single,  unorganized  workery 
was  economically  too  weak  to  enable 
him  to  have  a  voice  in  regulating  an 
agreement  with  his  employer.  It  was 
the  first  step  in  "collective  bargaining." 
In  the  matter  of  legislation  as  well  as  an 
employer  of  labor  the  Federal  Governt- 
ment  has  taken  the  lead.  In  1869  Con- 
gress enacted  the  first  eight-hour  law, 
applying  it  to  the  workers  in  the  United 


BIMEO 


484 


EISNEB 


States  navy  yards.  Now  all  workers 
directly  employed  by  the  Fedeiial  Gov- 
ernment are  similarly  protected,  and  in 
1912  Congress  enacted  a  law  making  the 
eight-hour  day  a  part  of  the  contract 
with  all  private  firms  or  employers 
working  for  the  Federal  Government, 
with  some  minor  exceptions.  Most  of 
the  States  have  passed  similar  legisla- 
tion for  their  directly  employed  workers, 
and  a  large  number  have  followed  the 
example  of  the  Federal  Government  in 
extending  it  to  contract  work.  The 
tendency  to  enact  and  extend  such  legis- 
lation continues  to  increase;  in  1919 
seven  States  passed  laws  in  this  direc- 
tion— Colorado,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  Ne- 
braska, Nevada,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyo- 
ming. A  smaller  number  of  States  have 
already  begun  to  enforce  the  eight-hour 
day  in  private  industry,  notably  for 
women  and  children  and  mine  workers. 
Among  these  are  Utah  and  North  Da- 
kota. Organized  labor  has  enforced  this 
standard  with  even  more  success ;  at  the 
present  time  the  eight-hour  day  is  uni- 
versal in  the  building  and  printing 
trades  and  in  coal  mining. 

EIMEO  (i'me-o),  one  of  the  French 
Society  Islands,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
about  10  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Tahiti,  the 
principal  member  of  the  group.  Area, 
61  square  miles;  population,  about 
1,500.  It  consists  of  deep  valleys  and 
abrupt  hills — the  former  well  cultivated, 
and  the  latter  heavily  timbered.  Here 
Christianity  was  first  introduced  in  Poly- 
nesia; and  here  the  South  Sea  College 
of  the  London  Missionary  Society  was 
established.  Most  of  the  natives  are 
Protestants. 

EINBECK  (in'-),  or  EIMBECK,  a 
town  of  Hanover;  situated  on  the  Dme, 
23  miles  N.  of  Gottingen  by  rail. 
Though  a  place  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  the  15th  century,  and  a  Hanse 
city,  it  has  decayed  greatly  in  recent 
times. 

EINSIEDELN  (In'ze-deln),  a  town  of 
Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Schwyz, 
27  miles  S.  E.  of  Zurich  by  rail.  In  Ein- 
siedeln  great  numbers  of  prayer-books, 
sacred  images,  wax  candles,  rosaries, 
medallions,  etc.,  are  made.  The  town  is, 
however,  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  Bene- 
dictine abbey,  to  which  some  200,000  pil- 
grims resort  annually  to  worship  at  the 
shrine  of  a  black  image  of  the  Virgin, 
Sept.  14  being  the  principal  day  in  the 
year.  The  abbey  itself  was  founded  in 
the  10th  Century,  and  after  being  re- 
peatedly destroyed  by  fire,  was  rebuilt 
as  a  quadrangle  in  the  Italian  style  in 
1704-1719.  It  contains  a  valuable  library 
with  several  incunabula  and  MSS.,  these 
Jast  dating  from  the  8th  to  the  12th  cen- 


tury; also  a  museum  of  natural  science 
and  natural  history.  Rudolph  of  Haps- 
burg  elevated  the  abbot  of  Einsiedeln  to 
the  dignity  of  a  prince  of  the  empire  in 
1274.  Near  the  town  the  Austrians 
under  Jellachich  were  defeated  by  the 
French  under  Mass^na  on  Aug.  14,  1799. 
EINSTEIN,  ALBERT,  a  Swiss  physi. 
cist,  born  in  1875.  For  a  time  he  held 
a  chair  in  the  Ziirich  Polytechnic  School,. 
and  was  also  for  some  years  a  professor 
in  the  University  of  Prague.  Later  he 
held  a  research  position  in  an  institution 
affiliated  with  the  University  of  Berlin. 
In  1914  he  protested  against  the  mani- 
festo of  the  German  professors.  Einstein 
came  into  prominence  through  his  theory 
of  relativity,  which  grew  out  of  his  par- 
ticipation in  the  effort  to  explain  the 
Michelson-Morley  experiment,  on  the  so- 
called  ether-drift  of  the  earth  and  its 
negative  result.  The  principle  of  the 
theory  is  the  conception  of  time  as  a 
fourth  dimension.  His  theory  of  rela- 
tivity was  published  in  1905  in  a  book, 
"Annalen  der  Physik."  It  was  further 
expounded  in  1916.  This  principle  of 
relativity  and  the  deflection  of  light 
by  gravitation  was  considered  by  scien- 
tists the  most  revolutionary  discovery 
in  physical  science  since  Newton.  In 
April,  1921,  Dr.  Einstein  visited  the 
United  States  in  behalf  of  the  Zionist 
movement. 

EISNER,  KURT,  a  German  socialist, 
born  in  1858  in  Berlin  of  Jewish  parents. 
He  attended  the  University  of  Marburg. 
From  1890  to  1895  he  was  contributing 
editor  of  the  "Frankfurter  Zeitung," 
•  during  which  time  he  wrote  an  article 
attacking  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II,  and  for 
which  he  spent  nine  months  in  prison. 
Upon  his  release  he  became  editor-in- 
chief  of  the  Socialist  paper  "Vorwarts" 
in  Berlin.  From  1907-1910  he  was  con- 
nected with  a  Socialist  paper  in  Nurem- 
berg and  both  in  that  city  and  in  Munich 
he  waged  a  bitter  campaign  to  arouse 
sentiment  in  Bavaria  against  the  union 
with  Prussia.  Arrested  in  1918  for  his 
anti-war  activities,  he  was  released  later 
in  the  same  year  and  when  the  Revolu- 
tion occured  in  November  he  became  a 
leader  in  the  radical  Socialist  party  with 
the  special  objective  of  dividing  the 
south  German  states  from  the  Empire. 
He  became  Prime  Minister  in  the  new 
Bavarian  Government,  and  at  the  Berne 
Conference  of  Socialists,  held  at  Berne, 
Switzerland,  he  attacked  the  moderate 
German  Socialists  because  of  their  re- 
fusal to  acknowledge  Germany's  guilt  in 
bringing  about  the  World  War  of  1914. 
For  this  speech  and  for  his  uncompro- 
mising hostility  to  Prussia  he  ^came 
bitterly  hated  by  large   sections  of  the 


EXATEEINOSLAV 


485 


ELBEBTON 


German  people.  This  hostile  feeling 
finally  resulted  in  his  assassination  on 
Feb.  21,  1919,  while  he  was  walking  in 


KURT  EISNER 

the  streets  of  Munich,  on  his  way  from 
the  foreign  office  to  the  Parliament. 

EKATERINOSLAV  (e-ka-te-re-no- 
8lav'),a  town  of  southern  Russia, capital 
of  a  government  of  the  same  name,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  250  miles 
N.  E.  of  Odessa.  It  was  founded  in 
1787  by  Prince  Potemkin,  and  consists 
of  a  number  of  long,  broad  streets.  Pop. 
about  195,000.  The  government,  which 
is  intersected  by  the  Dnieper  and  at  one 
point  reaches  the  Sea  of  Azov,  mostly 
consists  of  steppes;  area  24,477  square 
miles;  pop.  about  3,150,000. 

EEBON,  the  northernmost  of  the  five 
great  cities  of  the  Philistines,  on  the 
borders  of  Judah  and  Dan.  Beelzebub 
was  its  god. 

ELAM,  a  district  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture, lying  S.  of  Assyria  and  E.  of  Persia 
proper,  apparently  the  same  as  the  Su- 
siana  of  Strabo.  Its  chief  city,  Susa 
(Shushan),  early  attained  great  impor- 
tanoe  in  Mesopotamia.  It  appears  that 
the  primitive  Semitic  Elamites  were 
overcome  at  an  early  period  by  a  Hamitic 
or  Cushite  race  from  Babylon,  called  by 
the  Greeks  Cossseans. 

ELATEEITJM,  a  drug  obtained  from 
the  fruits  of  the  squirting  cucumber,  a 
native  of  the  S.  of  Europe,  common  on 
rubbish  in  the  villages  of  Greece  and  the 
Archipelago.     The  fruit  breaks  from  its 


stalk,  and  violently  expels  its  seeds  with 
the  surrounding  mucus  through  the 
opening  thus  made.  This  is  not  due  to 
any  true  contractility,  but  much,  in 
fact,  as  ripe  gooseberries  burst  after 
prolonged  rainy  weather.  It  is  the  thick 
green  mucus  surrounding  the  seeds 
which  yields  the  elaterium. 

Elaterium  is  used  in  medicine  as  a 
drastic  hydragogue  cathartic.  Its  active 
principle  is  a  body  called  elaterin, 
CrxHisOi,  which  is  probably  the  most 
powerful  purgative  known,  the  ordinary 
dose  being  only  from  7^  to  Vie  grain. 
Both  elaterium  and  elaterin  are  officinal 
in  the  British  pharmacopoeia.  It  is  an 
exceedingly  drastic  purgative,  used  in 
dropsy. 

ELBA,  a  small  island  belonging  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy,  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Tuscany,  and  with 
several  much  smaller  isles,  lying  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Piombino.  The 
island  of  Elba  is  18  miles  from  E.  to  W., 
with  a  width  varying  from  2^/2  to  12 
miles  in  its  widest  part.  The  mountain- 
ous districts  of  the  island  yield  quanti- 
ties of  superior  iron,  marble,  loadstones, 
and  alum,  besides  wines  and  fmits.  On 
the  first  abdication  of  Napoleon  in  1814, 
Elba  was  assigned  to  him  as  a  residence 
and  empire.  Here  he  accordingly  took 
up  his  residence,  in  the  month  of  May; 
and  on  Feb.  26,  1815,  he  secretly  left  the 
island,  and,  landing  in  France,  began 
that  brief  and  final  career  known  in  his- 
tory as  the  Hundred  Days.  Elba  was  a 
place  of  celebrity  in  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  famed  then,  as  now,  for  its 
yield  of  iron.    Pop.  about  25,500. 

ELBE  (el'be),  a  river  of  Germany, 
one  of  the  largest  in  Europe.  It  rises 
on  the  S.  W.  slopes  of  the  Schneekoppe 
or  Snowcap,  one  of  the  Riesengebirge, 
between  Bohemia  and  Silesia.  From  this 
point  it  flows  nearly  due  S.  into  Bohemia 
for  about  50  miles,  when  it  turns  to  the 
W.,  and  after  about  40  miles  takes  a  gen- 
eral N.  N.  W.  direction  till  it  falls  into 
the  North  Sea,  intersecting  Saxony,  a 
considerable  portion  of  Prussia,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  its  course  separating 
Holstein  on  its  right  from  Hanover  on 
the  left.  The  length,  including  wind- 
ings, is  upward  of  780  miles.  The  Elbe 
is  stocked  with  fine  fish. 

ELBEBTON,  a  city  of  Georgia,  the 
county-seat  of  Elbert  co.  It  is  on  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line  and  the  Southern 
railroads.  The  city  is  the  center  of  the 
cotton-growing  region  and  contains  a 
cotton  factory,  cottonseed-oil  mill,  fertil- 
izer works,  iron  works,  etc.  There  is  a 
public  library.  Pop.  (1910)  6,483; 
(1920)   6,475. 


ELBING 


486 


ELECTION 


ELBING,  a  trading  and  manufactur- 
ing town  of  West  Prussia;  48  miles  by 
rail  E.  S.  E.  of  Danzig;  on  the  navigable 
river  of  the  same  name.  The  town, 
founded  in  the  13th  century  by  colonists 
from  Liibeck  and  Bremen,  has  a  church 
of  the  14th  century.  It  is  connected  by 
a  canal  with  the  Dreventz,  a  tributary 
of  the  Vistula,  and  in  1877-1884  a  mole 
was  constructed  in  the  harbor,  3,500 
yai'ds  long  and  5V2  wide.  Steamships 
and  torpedo-boats  are  built  here;  and 
there  are  large  iron  and  brass  rolling- 
mills,  and  tinware,  machine,  and  cigar 
factories.  The  linen  industry  and  the 
export  of  lampreys  are  also  of  impor- 
tance.    Pop.  about  58,000. 

EL  CENTRO,  a  city  of  California  in 
Imperial  co.  It  is  on  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific, the  Holton  Interurban,  and  the  San 
Diego  and  Arizona  railroads.  It  is  the 
center  of  an  important  agricultural  and 
fruit-growing  region  which  has  been 
greatly  developed  in  recent  years.  Its 
industries  include  a  cottonseed  oil  mill, 
cotton  gins,  warehouses,  and  an  ice 
plant.  It  has  excellent  schools,  hotels, 
churches,  and  four  banks.  Pop.  (1910) 
1,610;   (1920)   5,464. 

ELDORADO,  a  city  of  Illinois,  in 
Saline  co.  It  is  on  the  Cleveland,  Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  the  Illi- 
nois Central,  and  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  railroads.  In  the  neighborhood 
are  important  coal  mines.  Its  industries 
include  machine  shops,  flour  mills,  lum- 
ber yards,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  3,366; 
(1920)  5,004. 

ELDORADO,    a   city   of   Kansas,  the 

county-seat  of  Butler  co.  It  is  on  the 
Missouri  Pacific,  the  Atchison,  Topeka, 
and  Santa  Fe',  and  the  Kansas  City, 
Mexico,  and  Orient  railroads.  Its  indus- 
tries include  machine  shops,  carriage 
works,  flour-mills,  and  limestone  quar- 
ries. It  has  an  extensive  trade  in  agri- 
cultural products  and  live  stock.  There 
is  a  public  library.  Pop.  (1910)  3,129; 
(1920)   10,995. 

ELEAZAR  (help  of  God),  the  third 
son  of  Aaron,  and  high  priest  after  him 
(Ex.  vi  :  23;  Num.  xx  :  25-28).  The 
high  priesthood  continued  in  his  family 
through  seven  generations,  till  the  time 
of  Eli,  when  we  find  it  transferred  to  the 
line  of  Ithamar.  In  the  reigns  of  Saul 
and  David  it  was  restored  to  the  line  of 
Eleazar,  and  so  continued  till  after  the 
captivity. 

ELECTION,  in  politics,  the  selection 
by  voting  of  a  person  or  persons  to  oc- 
cupy some  post  or  office.  The  most  im- 
portant elections  are  those  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  supreme  legislative  assem- 


blies of  the  different  countries,  and  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  these  are  carried 
out  strict  laws  are  in  force.  In  such 
elections  voting  by  ballot  is  now  gen- 
eral. The  chief  forms  of  election  in 
Great  Britain  are  parliamentary  and 
municipal  elections,  in  both  of  which  the 
basis  of  the  suffrage  (or  right  of  vot- 
ing) is  the  payment  of  poor-rates.  Mem- 
bers of  Parliament  formerly  required  a 
property  qualification  in  England  and 
Ireland;  but  this  restriction,  which  never 
existed  in  Scotland,  has  been  abolished. 
In  both  parliamentary  and  municipal 
elections  the  ballot  has  been  in  opera- 
tion since  1872.  For  the  prevention  of 
bribery  and  corrupt  practices  many  acts 
have  been  passed,  of  which  that  now  in 
operation  came  into  force  in  October, 
1883,  and  has  been  annually  renewed 
since  1884. 

Jurisdiction  of  election  laws  of  the 
United  States  extends  to  such  officers  of 
Federal  Government  as  are  elective,  viz., 
the  President,  Vice-President  and  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  election  of  officers  of  the  State 
governments  is  regulated  by  the  sev- 
eral State  codes.  The  President  and 
Vice-President  are  elected  by  a  col- 
lege of  electors,  which  college  is  com- 
posed of  as  many  electors  as  there 
are  Senators  and  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress at  the  time  of  the  election  of  such 
electors.  The  people  vote  directly  for 
these  electors.  Members  of  Congress  are 
elected  as  follows:  Each  State  is  en- 
titled to  two  Senators  in  Congress,  who 
are  elected  by  the  Legislatures  of  the  sev- 
eral States;  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  are  elected  directly  by 
the  people.  In  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  all  citizens  of  the  United  States  are 
entitled  to  vote  except  those  residing  in 
the  District  of  Columbia.  In  1870  persons 
of  African  descent  were  given  the  right 
to  participate  in  elections. 

The  several  States  have  enacted  laws 
for  the  regulation  and  management  of 
their  local  elections,  embracing  the  choice 
of  the  officers  of  the  State,  city  and 
county.  The  constitutions  of  the  several 
States  secure  to  citizens  the  right  of  suf- 
frage. The  laws  of  each  State  provide 
the  means  of  effecting  the  ends  of  the 
constitution,  and  prescribe  the  qualifica- 
tions of  voters,  which  vary  somewhat  in 
the  different  States.  In  all  the  States 
the  following  qualifications  may  be 
classed  as  universal:  That  the  elector 
shall  be  over  21  years  of  age,  neither  a 
lunatic  nor  a  pauper,  and  prepared  to 
take,  if  necessary,  an  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  Federal  Government.  The  length 
of  residence  in  the  State  previous  to  an 
election  is  fixed  by  the  State  law  and 
varies    in    the    different    States.      Some 


ELECTIVE  COURSES 


487 


ELECTORAL  REFORM 


States  require  either  property  qualifica- 
tion or  ability  to  read  and  write. 

ELECTIVE  COURSES.  Those  sub- 
jects in  the  colleges  and  preparatory 
schools  which  a  student  chooses  to  take, 
but  which  are  not  required  for  the  com- 
pletion of  his  school  or  college  course. 
Prior  to  1880  the  number  of  electives  in 
the  standard  colleges  of  the  United 
States  was  small,  the  students'  course 
consisting  of  one  largely  mapped  out  for 
him  hy  the  college  authorities.  The  only 
exceptions  to  this  were  found  in  the 
Western  colleges  and  State  universities 
which  allowed  a  wide  latitude  of  choice 
to  the  student.  Yale,  Harvard,  Prince- 
ton, Columbia,  and  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  all  required  Greek,  Latin, 
and  higher  mathematics  for  the  Bache- 
lor of  Arts  degree.  In  a  few  of  the 
Eastern  colleges  a  course  leading  to  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  was  of- 
fered, but  for  the  Arts  degree,  the  above 
work  was  required  for  at  least  the  first 
two  years  of  college  work.  Greek  was  the 
first  to  be  taken  from  the  required  list, 
and  by  1920  the  study  of  that  language 
was  no  longer  obligatory  for  those  aim- 
ing for  the  Bachelor  of  Arts  degree. 
Mathematics  is  required  only  as  far  as 
plane  and  solid  geometry  and  plane 
trigonometry.  Latin  still  is  required 
for  the  Arts  degree,  but  not  anything 
\  like  the  amount  of  time  needs  to  be  spent 
upon  it  in  college  as  formerly.  In  fact, 
in  all  but  one  or  two  colleges  a  four 
years'  course  in  the  preparatory  school 
Latin  will  enable  the  student  to  be  a 
candidate  for  the  Arts  degree.  This 
dropping  of  required  subjects  automati- 
cally increased  the  number  of  elective 
ones  so  that  in  1920  the  college  student 
has  virtually  a  free  field.  This  situation, 
of  course,  is  not  duplicated  in  the  tech- 
nical schools  where  the  work  must  of 
necessity  be  prescribed.  The  latitude  of 
choice  given  students  in  the  Arts  course 
varies  with  the  different  universities.  At 
Harvard,  after  the  student  has  entered, 
his  course  is  entirely  elective.  At  Prince- 
ton there  still  remain  a  few  subjects 
which  are  required.  Quite  a  few  of  the 
universities  have  adopted  the  "group 
system,"  that  is,  allowing  the  students 
to  choose  among  groups  of  related  sub- 
jects. The  fears  expressed  by  many  of 
the  conservative  schoolmen  that  with  the 
elective  system  the  students  would  choose 
all  the  easy  courses  and  avoid  the  diffi- 
cult ones  has  caused  "advisors"  from 
among  the  faculty  to  be  appointed,  with- 
out whose  consent  his  roster  is  not  com- 
plete. Because  of  the  "groups"  and  the 
faculty  "advisors"  this  evil  has  not  been 
a  serious  one,  or  at  least  is  not  so  re- 
garded by  most  schoolmen. 


The  increase  of  elective  courses  in  col- 
lege and  the  variety  of  degrees  offered 
by  the  universities  led  to  an  increase  in 
elective  students  in  the  secondary  schools. 
Those  students  who  showed  a  disposition 
to  prefer  scientific  studies  to  the  ancient 
languages  were  allowed  to  drop  the  lat- 
ter. As  we  have  seen,  such  students  can 
always  secure  the  Bachelor  of  Science 
degree,  and  not  a  few  can  obtain  the 
Arts  degree  upon  the  completion  of  their 
college  course.  This  elective,  then,  is  of- 
fered by  nearly  all  the  high  schools  and 
private  academies,  with  the  exception  of 
the  New  England  private  schools  where 
the  ancient  languages  still  retain  their 
traditional  place.  By  reason  of  the  fact 
that  the  colleges  as  yet  prescribe  closely 
the  work  which  is  necessary  for  en- 
trance, the  secondary  schools  have  not 
been  able  to  increase  the  number  of  their 
elective  studies.  The  public  high  schools 
are  now  doing  so  more  and  more,  but 
that  is  largely  because  less  than  one- 
third  of  their  students  ever  enter  college. 

ELECTORAL    COLLEGE,    in    the 

United  States,  the  body  of  men  elected 
in  each  State  to  cast  the  vote  of  the 
people  of  the  State  for  presidential  can- 
didates. The  State  conventions  of  the 
various  parties  nominate  the  electors, 
one  for  each  Representative,  and  one  for 
each  Senator  in  Congress.  These  per- 
sons are  voted  for  on  the  general  elec- 
tion day.  The  12th  amendment  to  the 
Federal  Constitution  orders  the  electors 
to  meet  in  their  respective  States  and 
vote  by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice- 
President  separately.  They  are  to  make 
distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  by 
themselves  for  the  two  offices,  and  send 
those  lists,  sealed,  to  the  president  of  the 
Senate  at  Washington.  Sections  131  to 
151  of  the  Federal  Revised  Statutes  pre- 
scribe generally  the  proceedings  of  the 
electors.  They  are  to  meet  on  the  last 
Wednesday  in  December  in  the  year  in 
which  they  are  elected,  in  such  place  as 
the  Legislature  of  each  State  may  direct. 
The  governor  is  to  give  them  three  certi- 
fied lists  of  those  chosen  to  be  electors; 
the  electors  are  to  make  three  lists  of 
the  persons  balloted  for  by  them  for  the 
presidency  and  vice-presidency,  and  to 
the  certified  lists  annex  the  certificates 
furnished  by  the  governor.  They  are  to 
appoint  one  of  their  number  to  carry  one 
of  the  certificates  to  the  president  of  the 
Senate  before  the  first  Wednesday  in 
January,  and  to  send  to  the  president  of 
the  Senate,  by  mail,  another  copy  of  the 
certificates;  and  the  third  they  are  to 
give  to  the  judge  of  the  district  wherein 
they  assemble. 

ELECTORAL  REFORM,  the  measures 
taken  in  the  United  States  to  safeguard 


ELECTOBAL  BEFOBM 


488 


ELECTORAL  BEFORM 


elections  from  corrupt  and  illegal  prac- 
tices have  become  much  more  stringent 
in  the  opening  years  of  the  20th  century. 
Generally  speaking,  this  was  a  reform 
era  in  the  States  in  matters  social  and 
political.  Massachusetts  in  1892  passed 
a  law  requiring  all  political  campaign 
committees  to  file  a  written  statement, 
duly  sworn  to,  of  all  expenditures  made 
by  them.  The  object  of  such  a  law  was 
to  secure  publicity  and  no  limit  was 
placed  on  the  amount  that  could  be  spent. 
In  the  succeeding  years  nearly  every 
State  enacted  such  statutes  compelling 
publicity  of  campaign  expenditures.  As 
yet  no  State  has  limited  the  amount 
spent.  Mr.  Bryan  and  other  reformers 
have  demanded  that  these  statements  be 
filed  and  made  public  before  election  day, 
but  the  suggestion  has  nowhere  been 
adopted. 

The  reform  of  the  civil  service  by  tak- 
ing away  from  candidates  their  power, 
when  elected,  to  reward  party  workers 
has  decreased  the  amount  of  illegal  and 
corrupt  practices  by  taking  away  an  in- 
centive to  such  actions.  Many  States, 
such  as  Pennsylvania,  have  passed  per- 
sonal registration  laws  for  the  larger 
cities  requiring  citizens  to  register  their 
names  on  books  kept  by  election  officers 
a  month  before  the  election  occurs.  The 
object  is  to  allow  the  lists  to  be  purged 
of  voters  who  have  no  residence  in  the 
district  and  to  prevent  a  sudden  influx 
of  paid  voters.  Elections  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  were  much  more  honestly 
conducted  following  the  passage  of  this 
law.  The  change  of  election  days  in  the 
various  States  so  as  to  make  the  presi- 
dential elections  all  take  place  on  the 
same  date  has  decreased  bribery  in  such 
elections.  The  tendency  formerly  was 
to  center  attention  on  those  States  voting 
prior  to  November  and  to  attempt  to 
carry  them  regardless  of  cost.  The 
adoption  of  the  Australian  secret  ballot 
has  led  to  a  decrease  in  bribery  and  in- 
timidation of  voters. 

There  has  been  an  effort  on  the  part 
of  reformers  to  discourage  party  voting 
and  to  encourage  so-called  independent 
voting.  Owing  to  the  control  of  the 
legislatures  by  either  of  the  two  well- 
established  parties  efforts  to  legislate  on 
this  reform  have  not  been  uniformly  suc- 
cessful. The  tendency  to  vote  a  straight 
party  ticket  has  always  been  strong  be- 
cause of  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be 
done:  a  simple  mark  at  the  head  of  the 
ticket  being  all  the  voter  is  required  to 
do.  As  there  are  often  two  hundred 
names  on  a  ballot  if  the  voter  undertakes 
to  "split"  his  ticket  he  runs  considerable 
risk  of  losing  his  vote  entirely  by  mak- 
ing some  trifling  mistake  in  the  marking 
of  it.     Reformers   have   suggested  two 


ways  of  coping  with  the  situation.  One 
of  them,  adopted  in  Massachusetts,  pro- 
vides for  the  entering  of  the  names  on 
the  ballot  in  alphabetical  order  without 
any  party  label  and  allowing  no  way  by 
which  the  voter  by  a  single  cross  can 
vote  for  more  than  one  candidate.  This 
is  called  the  "blanket"  ballot.  The  other, 
adopted  in  New  Jersey  and  in  other 
States,  is  the  "short  ballot."  The  num- 
ber of  elective  offices  is  greatly  reduced, 
lessening  the  names  appearing  on  the 
ballot,  and  consequently  increasing  the  1 
importance  and  prominence  of  those  that  A 
do.  In  the  Southern  States  the  colored 
voter  after  1876  was  kept  away  from  the 
poles  by  intimidation  or  by  the  "grand- 
father" clauses  inserted  in  the  State  con- 
stitution. When  these  latter  were  de- 
clared unconstitutional  by  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  educational  quali- 
fications were  substituted.  This  method, 
while  administered  so  as  to  exclude  only 
ignorant  colored  voters,  has  worked  to 
increase  honesty  and  intelligence  in  vot- 
ing. In  many  Southern  States  a  small 
property  qualification  has  been  added  to 
more  effectively  prevent  the  colored  pop- 
ulation from  votmg. 

In  August,  1920,  Tennessee  ratified 
the  nineteenth  amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  thereby 
making  the  necessary  three-fourths  of 
the  States  required  to  make  the  amend- 
ment law.  This  amendment  grants  full 
suffrage  rights  to  women  in  every  State, 
and  while  many  Northern  and  Western 
States  prior  to  1920  had  permitted 
women  to  vote,  this  amendment  makes  it 
obligatory  upon  all  to  do  so.  Thus  ended 
a  long  and  bitter  fight  made  by  the 
women  for  enfranchisement. 

The  main  interest  of  election  reform- 
ers in  the  United  States  is  now  directed 
to  the  primary  elections.  As  these  are 
wholly  within  the  party,  and  the  political 
party  itself  is  not  provided  for  in  the 
State  and  Federal  Constitutions,  the  task 
of  reforming  it  is  rather  a  difficult  one. 
The  right  to  nominate  is  such  an  im- 
portant one  that  if  corrupt  interests  or 
the  political  "boss"  control  the  choice  of 
candidates  the  matter  of  the  elections  be- 
comes chiefly  a  choosing  between  two 
sets  of  "bossed"  nominees.  Most  of  the 
States  had  by  1920  provided  for  the  nam- 
ing of  the  candidates  by  direct  primary 
vote  instead  of  the  old  convention  system, 
believing  that  it  would  be  more  difficult 
for  the  "boss"  to  manipulate  the  votes 
of  thousands  than  it  was  for  him  to 
sway  a  convention.  This  has  proved 
only  partially  true.  In  the  presidential 
primary  campaign  of  1912  many  North- 
ern States  had  what  was  known  as  presi- 
dential preference  primaries  in  which  the 
voters  of  the  party  instructed  their  dele* 


ELECTRICAL  MACHINE 


489 


ELECTRICAL  MACHINE 


gates  to  the  national  convention.  In 
most  States,  however,  it  is  not  obligatory 
upon  the  delegates  to  follow  these  in- 
structions. In  the  primary  elections 
there  is  no  law  compelling  publicity  of 
campaign  expenditures,  and  this  again 
has  tended  to  produce  corrupt  practices 
in  party  elections.  The  revelations  made 
by  the  Congressional  Investigating  Com- 
mittee as  to  the  money  spent  by  the 
rival  candidates  for  the  Republican 
nomination  in  1920  stimulated  the  de- 
mand for  stricter  State  laws  governing 
primary  elections. 

In  England  there  have  been  but  few 
amendments  to  the  excellent  Corrupt 
Pi'actices  Act  of  1883,  which  limits  the 
expenses  of  candidates  and  clearly  ex- 
cludes all  methods  of  intimidation, 
bribery,  or  any  other  means  of  improp- 
erly influencing  the  voter's  choice.  By 
Act  of  Parliament  woman  suffrage  was 
granted  in  1918,  and  in  the  elections  held 


charged  and  the  charge  was  collected  by 
means  of  insulated  metallic  forks,  while 
the  negative  electricity  produced  on  the 
leather  escaped  to  the  ground.  A  modi- 
fication of  this  machine  was  that  of  Ed- 
ward Nairne,  who  used  a  glass  cylinder, 
with  insulated  conductors  on  opposite 
sides.  One  conductor  carried  a  leather 
cushion,  and  the  other  a  row  of  metal 
points,  while  a  silk  apron  covered  the 
surface  of  the  cylinder  from  the  leather 
almost  to  the  points.  Positive  electlncity 
was  formed  on  the  conductor  carrying  the 
points  and  negative  electricity  on  that 
carrying  the  leather  cushion,  while  the 
silk  served  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the 
electric  charge  while  the  cylinder  was 
passing  from  the  rubber  to  the  collecting 
points.  All  these  types  of  frictional  ma- 
chines have  been  rendered  obsolete,  how- 
ever, by  the  introduction  of  the  so-called 
"influence  machines,"  which  operate  by 
induction.     Suppose  a  conducting  body 


ELECTRIC  ENGINE 


in  December  of  that  year  women  cast 
their  votes  for  Members  of  the  House  of 
Commons. 

ELECTRICAL  MACHINE,  a  machine 
for  converting  mechanical  work,  either 
by  friction  or  by  induction,  into  electric 
snergy.  The  earliest  known  form  was 
2onstructed  about  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  by  Otto  von  Guericke.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  ball  of  sulphur  mounted  on  an 
axle  which  was  rotated  as  rapidly  as 
possible  while  the  hand  of  the  operator 
was  pressed  against  the  ball.  The  fric- 
tion of  the  hand  upon  the  sulphur  gen- 
erated electricity.  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
replaced  the  sulphur  ball  with  a  glass 
globe,  and  later  workers  substituted 
woolen  cloth  or  pieces  of  leather  for  the 
hand.  In  1768,  Jesse  Ramsden  con- 
structed the  first  plate  electrical  ma- 
chine, consisting  of  a  glass  disc,  which 
was  rotated  rapidly  between  two  leather 
rubbers.     The   glass    became   positively 


is  brought  near  to  an  electrified  sub- 
stance having  a  positive  charge.  Then 
negative  electricity  is  attracted  by  the 
charged  body,  while  positive  electricity 
is  repelled,  and  if  the  conductor  be  con- 
nected with  the  earth,  the  positive  elec- 
tricity will  escape,  leaving  the  conductor 
charged  with  negative  electricity.  This 
is  the  underlying  principle  of  the  in- 
fluence machine.  In  the  Topler  machine, 
for  instance,  two  glass  discs  are  used, 
one  of  which  is  fixed,  while  the  other  will 
revolve.  On  the  latter  are  fixed  a  num- 
ber of  strips  of  tinfoil  and,  on  the  other, 
two  so-called  "field-plates,"  also  made  of 
tin-foil.  A  charge  is  given  to  one  of  the 
field  plates,  and  then  the  movable  plate 
is  revolved.  Let  us  suppose  that  the 
charge  on  the  field  plate  is  positive.  Then 
as  a  tin-foil  strip  moves  into  place  op- 
posite the  field  plate,  negative  electricity 
is  attracted  and  positive  electricity  re- 
pelled.    A  brass  wire  brush  makes  con- 


ELECTRICAL    UNIT 


490 


ELECTRIC  FURNACE 


tact  with  the  metallic  strip  and  the 
positive  electricity  escapes,  leaving  the 
strip  charged  with  negative  electricity. 
Another  strip  moves  into  place,  and  the 
same  process  is  repeated.  In  the  mean- 
time, the  first  strip  has  moved  on  toward 
metal  collecting  combs,  and  communi- 
cates its  charge  to  them.  The  electricity 
from  combs  passes  to  Leyden  jars,  where 
it  is  stored. 

The  more  modern  Wimshurst  machine 
resembles  the  Topler,  but  consists  of  two 
glass  plates,  each  fitted  with  tin-foil 
discs,  and  each  made  to  revolve  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  the  other. 

ELECTRICAL  UNIT.  A  coulomb. 
The  quantity  of  electricity  that  liberates 
.000162  grain  of  hydrogen  from  water. 


nace  charge,  which  also  acts  as  the 
secondary  of  a  transformer;  current  at 
high  voltage  and  low  amperage  is  sup- 
plied to  the  primary,  thus  inducing  high 
amperage  at  low  voltage  in  the  second- 
ary. 

Electric  furnaces  can  only  compete, 
economically,  with  the  ordinary  direct- 
fired  furnace  where  electric  power  is 
generated  cheaply  by  water-power,  a^, 
for  instance,  at  Niagara.  They  also 
have  the  advantage  that  much  higher 
temperatures  can  be  produced  in  them, 
the  maximum  temperature  obtainable  in 
non-electric  furnaces  being  about  2,000° 
C,  whereas,  in  electric  furnaces,  a  tem- 
perature of  3,500°  C  is  easily  main- 
tained.     There    are    some    processes    in 


ELECTRIC   DYNAMO 
Direct   current,  lighting     and   power  generator. 


ELECTRIC  BATTERY.  See  STOR- 
AGE Battery. 

ELECTRIC  DENSITY,  or  ELECTRIC 
THICKNESS,  the  quantity  of  electricity 
found  on  a  given  surface. 

ELECTRIC  FURNACE.  Electric 
furnaces  may  be  broadly  classified  into 
(1)  Resistance  furnaces,  in  which  heat 
is  produced  by  the  passage  of  an  electric 
current  through  a  poor  conductor,  (2) 
Arc  furnaces,  in  which  the  heat  of  the 
electric  arc  is  used,  (3)  Induction  fur- 
naces, which  are  a  modified  form  of  the 
resistance  furnace,  and  in  which  the 
heat  is  generated  by  an  induced  current. 
In  this  type  of  furnace  the  resistance 
element  is  frequently  formed  by  the  fur- 


which  these  extremely  high  tempera- 
tures are  necessary,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  manufacture  of  carborundum.  In 
this  process,  a  core  of  granular  carbon, 
or  coke,  is  placed  between  electrodes, 
and  around  the  core  is  packed  a  mixture 
of  coke  and  sand.  The  electric  current 
flows  through  the  core  and  raises  the 
temperature  of  the  sand  and  coke  mix- 
ture to  such  a  point  that  combination 
takes  place  with  the  formation  of  car- 
borundum. 

The  induction  type  of  furnace  is 
largely  used  in  the  steel  industry,  one 
of  the  best  known  examples  being  that 
designed  by  F.  A.  Kjellin.  In  this  fur- 
nace, current  at  3,000  volts  is  supplied 
to  the  primary,  inducing  a   current  of 


ELECTRIC  FUSE 


491 


ELECTBICITY 


80,000  amperes  in  the  metallic  charge, 
which  forms  the  secondary. 

Electric  furnaces  are  also  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  aluminum,  calcium  car- 
bide, phosphorus,  various  iron  alloys, 
and  in  the  production  of  artificial  gra- 
phite. 

In  the  laboratory,  small  electric  fur- 
naces are  in  common  use.  In  these  a 
current  is  passed  through  a  high  resist- 
ance wire,  made  of  nichrome  or  some 
similar  alloy,  which  is  wound  around 
the  furnace,  the  latter  being  made  of 
fire  clay.  The  whole  is  inclosed  in  in- 
sulating material  to  prevent  loss  of  heat 
by  radiation. 

ELECTRIC  FUSE.  (1)  A  device 
used  in  blasting  to  explode  the  charge. 
The  fulminate  or  the  charge  itself  is 
lighted  by  means  of  an  electric  spark  or 
a  resistance  section  of  fine  platinum 
wire,  which  is  heated  to  redness  by 
the  passage  of  an  electric  current  in- 
duced by  a  voltaic  or  magneto-electric 
battery. 

(2)  A  safety  device  used  to  protect 
electric  circuits  against  too  great  a  vol- 
ume of  current.  The  regular  or  metal 
circuit  is  broken  by  the  introduction  of  a 
wire  of  lead  or  soft  alloy,  formed  to  melt 
at  a  point  beyond  which  a  current  would 
be  harmful.  The  melting  of  the  fuse 
will  stop  the  current  by  breaking  the 
circuit. 

ELECTRIC  HEATER.  In  electric 
heaters  a  coil  of  metal  of  more  or  less 
resistance  is  wound  around  a  frame  and 
is  made  the  channel  of  a  current  sur- 
rounded by  insulating  material,  the  heat 
closed  in  various  forms  of  receptacle 
which  radiate  it.  The  wire  or  strip  of 
metal  may  be  surrounded  by  air  or  by  a 
•non-inflammable  substance  that  serves 
as  a  conductor.  Porcelain,  asbestos, 
enamel,  or  glass  into  which  the  coils  or 
circuits  are  imbedded  are  largely  in  use 
for  fireproof  insulation,  while  some 
classes  of  heaters  are  imbedded  in  ma- 
terials such  as  hyposulphite  of  sodium 
and  crystallized  acetate  of  sodium. 
There  are  great  varieties  in  the  methods 
used.  In  the  Farville  system  heat  is 
engendered  by  means  of  rods  of  metallic 
powder  mixed  with  fusible  clay,  com- 
pressed by  a  force  of  2,000  kilograms 
per  square  centimeter  and  baked  at  a 
temperature  of  1,350°  C.  The  Prome- 
theus heater  has  a  strip  of  selected 
metal  fused  to  an  enamel  covering  which 
receives  the  heat  sent  through  the  strip 
of  metal.  In  certain  types  a  metallic 
paint  is  fired  upon  mica  strips,  which 
are  so  grouped  as  to  determine  the  size 
of  the  heater.  Electric  cars  are  usually 
heated  by  sets  of  conducting  wires  coiled 
round    porcelain    tubes    and    connected 


with  the  motor.  Electric  heaters  are 
somewhat  too  costly  for  house-heating, 
but  they  are  of  great  use  in  appliances 
such  as  flatirons,  cooking  utensils,  and 
small  radiators.  The  industries  devoted 
to  the  production  of  small  heaters  of  this 
class  have  grown  steadily  in  recent 
years.  The  larger  kind  are  taking  their 
place  in  certain  processes  of  manufac- 
ture and  production  as  in  oil  fields, 
where  electric  heaters  are  used  to  stimu- 
late the  heavy  petroleum  and  cause  it 
to  flow  more  easily. 

ELECTRICITY,  a  powerful  physical 
agent  which  makes  its  resistance  mani- 
fest by  attractions  and  repulsions,  by 
producing  light  and  heat,  commotions, 
chemical  decompositions  and  other  phe- 
nomena. 

About  600  B.  C.  Thales  dicovered  that 
when  amber  was  rubbed  with  silk  it  be- 
came capable  of  attracting  light  bodies. 
The  ancients  seem  to  have  known  no 
more  than  this  regarding  electricity; 
nor  for  the  first  16  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era  was  much  addition  made  to 
the  solitary  known  fact  in  electricity. 

In  1600,  Gilbert,  who  was  surgeon  to 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  to  James  I.,  pub- 
lished a  book,  "De  Magnete,"  in  which 
for  the  first  time  the  word  "electric"  was 
used  in  connection  with  science.  He 
died  in  1603.  He  regarded  magnetism 
and  electricity  as  two  emanations  of  one 
fundamental  force.  He  showed  that  not 
merely  amber,  but  sulphur,  glass,  etc., 
are  electrics.  Otto  Guericke,  of  Magde- 
burg, discovered  that  there  was  a  repul- 
sive as  well  as  an  attractive  force  in 
electricity,  and  about  1647  constructed 
the  first  electrical  machine. 

Newton,  in  1675,  observed  signs  of 
electrical  excitement  in  a  rubbed  plate  of 
glass.  Hawkesbee,  who  wrote  in  1709, 
also  observed  similar  phenomena ;  and 
Dufay,  in  the  "Memoirs  of  the  French 
Academy,"  between  1733  and  1737,  gen- 
eralized so  far  as  to  lay  do-svn  the  prin- 
ciple that  electrified  bodies  attract  all 
those  which  are  not  so,  and  repel  them 
as  soon  as  they  have  become  electric  by 
the  vicinity  or  contact  of  the  electric  body.  ' 

Dufay  also  discovered  that  a  body  elec- 
trified by  contact  with  a  resinous  sub- 
stance repelled  another  electrified  in  a 
similar  way,  and  attracted  one  which  had 
been  electrified  by  contact  with  glass. 

He  thence  concluded  that  the  electric- 
ity derived  from  those  two  sources  was 
of  different  kinds,  and  applied  the 
names  vitreous  and  resinous  to  them. 
Franklin  attributed  this  difference  to  an 
excess  or  deficiency  of  the  electric  fluid, 
the  former  condition  existing  in  elec- 
trified glass  and  the  latter  in  resins. 

Otto  Guericke  had  discovered  that  his 
sulphur  globe,  when  rubbed  in  a  dark 


ELECTRICITY 


492 


ELECTRICITY 


place,  emitted  faint  flashes  of  light,  and 
shortly  afterward  it  was  noticed  that  a 
similar  phenomenon  occurred  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  mercury  when  the  barometer 
was  shaken — a  fact  which  one  of  the 
celebrated  mathematicians,  Bernouilli, 
attempted  to  explain  on  the  Cartesian 
system,  but  which  was  afterward  cor- 
rectly attributed  by  Hawkesbee  to  elec- 
tric charges.  Wall,  in  1708,  observed 
the  sparks  produced  from  amber,  and 
Hawkesbee  noticed  the  sparks  and  "snap- 
ping" under  various  modifications. 

Dufay  and  Abbe  Nollet  were  the  first 
to  draw  sparks  from  the  human  body,  an 
experiment  which  attracted  great  atten- 
tion, and  became  a  species  of  fashionable 
diversion  at  the  time. 

The  discovery  of  the  Leyden  jar  is  at- 
tributed to  Cunaeus  of  Leyden,  in  1746, 
who,  while  handling  a  vessel  containing 
water  in  communication  with  an  elec- 
trical machine,  was  surprised  at  receiv- 
ing a  severe  shock.  A  similar  event 
had  happened  the  year  previous  to  Von 
Kleinst,  a  German  prelate. 

In  the  18th  century  the  names  of  the 
principal  contributors  to  the  advance- 
ment of  electrical  science  are  Nevsrton, 
Hawkesbee,  Dufay,  Guericke,  Cunaeus  of 
Leyden  (to  whom  we  owe  the  Leyden 
jar),  and  Franklin,  who,  1747,  pointed 
out  the  circumstances  on  which  the  action 
of  the  Leyden  jar  depends.  Monnier  the 
younger  discovered  that  the  electricity 
which  bodies  can  receive  depends  on 
their  surface  rather  than  their  mass, 
and  Franklin  soon  found  that  "the  whole 
force  of  the  bottle  and  power  of  giving  a 
shock  is  in  the  glass  itself";  he  further, 
in  1750,  suggested  that  electricity  and 
lightning  were  identical  in  their  nature, 
and  in  1752  demonstrated  this  fact  by 
means  of  his  kite  and  key.  About  the 
same  time  D'Alibard  and  others  in 
France  erected  a  pointed  rod  40  feet  high 
at  Marli,  for  the  purpose  of  verifying 
Franklin's  theory,  which  was  found  to 
give  sparks  on  the  passage  of  a  thunder 
cloud.  Similar  experiments  were  re- 
peated throughout  Europe,  and  in  1753 
Richman  was  instantly  killed  at  St. 
Petersburg  by  a  discharge  from  a  rod  of 
this  kind. 

The  more  important  discoveries  since 
those  days  relate  rather  to  electricity 
produced  by  voltaic  or  magnetic  action. 

In  the  later  history  of  electricity  no 
name  is  greater  than  that  of  Michael 
Faraday,  who  was  born  in  London  in 
1794,  was  appointed  by  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  assistant  in  the  laboratory  of  the 
Royal  Institution  in  March,  1813,  and  in 
1831  commenced  the  publication  of  a 
series  of  splendid  discoveries  in  elec- 
tricity. 

The  past  history  of  electricity  centers 


round  the  frictional  machine  and  the  vol- 
taic battery.  The  first-named  is  now 
only  of  experimental  interest,  and  the 
second,  if  we  except  its  use  in  signaling 
(telegraphy  and  telephony) ,  is  quickly 
being  supplanted  by  the  more  economical 
and  vastly  more  powerful  dynamo- 
machine.  To  this  contrivance,  in  its  ' 
various  forms,  as  designed  by  different  : 
makers,  and  in  less  degree  to  the  second- 
ary battery  (now  quite  in  its  infancy),  . 
electricians  look  for  the  advancement  of 
their  science.  The  fact  that  the  Gramme 
and  similar  machines  are  reversible  is 
considered  to  be  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant discoveries  of  the  century.  By 
reversible  is  meant  its  power  to  act  as  a 
motor  when  coupled  up  with  a  distant 
machine,  under  which  circumstances  its 
armature  rapidly  revolves  in  the  reverse 
direction  to  what  it  would  do  if  used 
directly — as  in  the  production  of  the  elec- 
tric light.  By  such  means  the  electrical 
transmission  of  power  from  place  to 
place  has  become  possible. 

Important  advances  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  connection  between  electricity  and 
matter  have  in  recent  years  been  made 
through  the  observation  of  the  ionization 
of  gases.  The  principal  researches  along 
this  line  were  made  by  Professor  J.  J. 
Thomson,  at  the  Cavendish  Laboratory, 
at  Cambridge,  England. 

All  gases  can  be  made  conductors  of 
electricity  when  the  molecules  of  the  gas 
have  been  broken  into  parts,  that  is,  ion- 
ized. Among  the  methods  for  ionizing 
gas  are  (1)  application  of  high  temper- 
ature; (2)  the  passage  of  a  spark  in  the 
neighborhood;  (3)  exposure  to  Rontgen 
rays  or  to  rays  from  a  radioactive  sub- 
stance such  as  uranium;  (4)  exposure  to 
"cathod"  rays;  (5)  exposure  to  "ultra- 
violet" light.  It  has  been  established 
that  the  negative  ions  of  all  gases,  how- 
ever they  may  be  produced,  are  identical. 

The  practical  application  of  electricity 
to  industry  and  to  domestic  uses  has 
been  one  of  the  great  developments  of 
the  last  generation.  The  development  of 
the  automobile  has  called  for  storage 
batteries  of  high  power  and  electricity 
and  has  also  been  employed  as  a  motor 
power  for  motor  vehicles.  See  Motor 
Vehicle.  In  transportation,  the  use  of 
electricity  has  come  to  be  common,  espec- 
ially in  suburban  lines  of  railroad  whei"© 
a  long  haul  is  not  required.  For  domes- 
tic use  electricity  is  employed  not  only  for 
lighting  and  heating  but  for  devices  in- 
cluding vacuum  cleaners,  electric  irons, 
washing  machines,  and  counties?  other 
devices. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  different  phases 
of  electricity  and  its  use,  see  Storage 
Batteries,  Electrical  Machine,  Trans- 
mission OF   Electric   Power,  Dynamo, 


ELECTRICITY,   ANIMAL 


493       ELECTRICITY  IN  MEDICINE 


Electric   Heater,   Electric   Railways, 
etc. 

ELECTRICITY,  ANIMAL,  the  branch 
of  electric  science  to  which  an  experi- 
ment by  Galvani  gave  birth.  His  wife, 
who  was  making  soup  from  frogs,  hap- 
pened to  put  them,  after  being  skinned, 
in  proximity  to  a  charged  electrical  ma- 
chine belonging  to  her  husband.  On 
touching  them  with  a  scalpel  their  legs 
became  greatly  convulsed,  Galvani  on 
his  return  was  told  what  had  occurred, 
and  repeated  the  experiment  on  several 
occasions.  He  united  the  lumbar  nerves 
of  a  dead  frog  with  its  crural  muscles 
by  a  metallic  circuit.  He  came  to  the 
erroneous  conclusion  that  animal  elec- 
tricity existed  in  the  nerves  and  muscles 
of  frogs,  etc.  In  this  explanation  Gal- 
vani ignored  the  metallic  connecting 
wire.  His  contemporary,  Volta,  gave 
attention  to  this,  and  found  that  the  con- 
traction of  the  limbs  is  more  energetic 
when  the  connecting  arc  is  made  of  two 
metals  instead  of  one.  He  therefore  in- 
ferred that  the  metals  took  the  active 
part  in  producing  the  contraction,  and 
the  disengagement  of  electricity  was  due 
to  their  contact,  and  that  the  animal 
parts  constituted  only  a  conductor,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  very  sensitive  elec- 
troscope. In  1793  he  published  these 
views,  and  in  1800  first  described  and 
constructed  what  has  since  been  called 
after  him  the  voltaic  pile.  Febroni  ob- 
serving that  the  disks  of  zinc  in  the  pile 
became  oxidized  in  contact  with  the 
acidulated  water,  considered,  as  did  Wol- 
laston  and  Davy,  that  the  oxidation  was 
the  chief  cause  why  electricity  was  dis- 
engaged. Now  voltaic  piles  have  nearly 
given  place  to  voltaic  or  galvanic  batter- 
ies of  which  there  are  many  varieties. 

ELECTRICITY  IN  MEDICINE.    The 

use  of  electricity  in  treatment  of  human 
diseases  dates  back  to  the  18th  century, 
when  the  electric  spark  and  frictional 
electricity  were  so  applied.  Franklin 
was  the  first  to  use  shocks  from  Leyden 
jars  for  the  treatment  of  paralysis.  As 
far  back  as  1775  the  effect  of  static 
electricity  on  the  human  system  was 
well  known,  and  was  dealt  with  to  con- 
siderable length  in  the  writings  of  Ti- 
berius Cavallo  in  1777.  The  discovery 
of  voltaic,  or  galvanic,  electricity  in 
1800,  and  of  faradic  electricity  during 
the  past  century  were  further  steps  in 
electro-therapeutics,  since  they  allowed 
of  a  gentler  treatment  than  was  possible 
by  means  of  the  Leyden  jars.  For  a 
long  time  static  electricity  was  not  in 
use,  but  more  recently  there  has  been  a 
return  to  that  method  because  of  mod- 
ern methods  of  application. 
The  application  of  electricity  to  the 


human  body  for  curative  purposes  may 
be  divided  into  three  forms;  static,  gal- 
vanic, and  faradic.  The  first  form  is 
produced  from  the  ordinary  frictional 
machine,  in  which  glass  plates  are  re- 
volved against  chamois,  rubber  or  horse- 
hair brushes,  the  current  being  received 
in  Leyden  jars.  Galvanic  electricity  is 
set  in  motion  by  the  voltaic  battery. 
And  faradism,  or  faradic  electricity,  is 
produced  by  induced,  or  interrupted, 
currents,  generated  by  magneto-electric 
or  electro-magnetic  induction  coil  ma- 
chines. 

The  first  form,  static  electricity,  pro- 
duces many  effects  on  the  human  body. 
It  has  been  long  known  that  the  body 
loses  weight  through  its  application,  and 
that  it  causes  the  temperature  either  to 
rise  or  fall,  due  to  increased  functional 
activity.  It  sets  free  the  potential 
energy  cells,  causes  contraction  of  proto- 
plasm, excites  nerve  fibers,  nerve  cells 
and  nerve  centers,  and  stimulates  nutri- 
tion. It  is,  therefore,  effective  in  the 
treatment  of  lumbago,  spastic  paralysis, 
locomotor  ataxia,  chronic  and  muscular 
rheumatism,  neuritis,  progressive  mus- 
cular atrophy,  insomnia,  congestion  of 
the  liver,  and  sciatica.  It  also  serves  to 
control  nervous  headaches,  hysteria, 
neurasthenia,  and  is  valuable  also  as  a 
general  tonic.  It  has  also  been  effec- 
tively used  in  reducing  sprains.  The  only 
danger  of  its  use,  in  unpracticed  hands, 
lies  in  the  liability  of  a  reduction  of  the 
blood  pressure,  which  in  certain  cases 
may  produce  bad  effects.  For  this  rea- 
son care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the 
numerous  quacks  and  charlatans  who 
advertise  widely  the  use  of  electricity 
for  curative  purposes.  For  this  reason 
it  is  advocated  that  the  use  of  electricity 
be  restricted  to  the  legitimate  medical 
profession. 

Galvanic  treatment  is  produced  by 
passing  a  voltaic  current  from  a  battery 
of  many  elements  through  the  living 
body,  which  causes  a  shock,  or  contrac- 
tion, of  the  muscular  system,  succeeded 
with  a  distinct  interval  by  a  momentary 
sensation  or  flow  of  heat  due  to  the 
eiectric  current.  During  the  continued 
passage  of  the  current,  slight  tingling 
sensations  and  a  raising  of  the  tempera- 
ture are  felt,  especially  in  those  parts 
in  contact  with  the  electrodes,  which  be- 
come painful  and  congested.  On  open- 
ing the  circuit,  the  depolarization  of  the 
tissues  which  follows  is  accompanied  by 
a  second  shock  and  a  glow  of  heat,  which 
are  powerful  in  proportion  to  the  length 
of  time  the  circuit  has  been  closed.  The 
contraction  of  the  muscles  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  intensity,  rather  than 
to  the  amount  of  the  electricity  which  , 
flows  through  the  body.  The  use  of  this  / 
32— Vol  IU— CyT 


ELECTBIC  LAMP 


494 


ELECTRIC   LIGHT 


method  of  application  is  to  exercise 
atrophied  muscles  and  secure  their 
nutrition.  In  surgery  the  electrolytic 
action  of  the  galvanic  current  destroys 
tumors  and  abnormal  growths  in  the 
nasal  cavity.  The  galvanic  current  is 
also  used  in  heating  a  cautery  for  sear- 
ing a  surface  to  secure  a  cicatrix. 

The  use  of  faradic  electricity  is  us- 
ually for  its  tonic  effect.  The  continued 
passage  of  the  interrupted  currents  acts 
chiefly  as  a  mechanical  stimulant,  iirst 
exciting,  and  after  a  time  depressing  the 
vitality  of  the  parts  in  the  circuit.  Vi- 
brations produced  by  purely  mechanical 
means,  without  the  use  of  electricity, 
may  be  made  to  cause  very  similar 
effects.  Faradization  is  especially  appli- 
cable to  those  diseases  in  which  a  defi- 
ciency of  functional  energy  is  involved, 
as  in  mild  cases  of  spinal  and  peripheral 
paralysis.  Changes  of  circulation  or  of 
the  molecular  state  may  be  excited  in 
the  central  organs  by  reflex  irritation. 
It  has  also  been  used  with  good  eifect 
in  the  treatment  of  gout,  rheumatism, 
widespread  ecezma,  and  constipation, 
when  due  to  indigestion. 

Galvanic  electricity,  however,  will  also 
produce  all  the  effects  due  to  the  faradic 
current,  but  to  a  very  much  higher 
degree. 


ELECTRIC      LAMP. 

Light. 


See  Electric 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT,  a  brilliant  light 
emitted  by  the  white-hot  points  of  two 
pieces  of  carbon  when  used  as  the  elec- 
trodes of  a  powerful  voltaic  battery,  or 
other  generator  of  electric  currents; 
also  the  light  emitted  by  the  incandes- 
cence of  a  metallic  wire,  or  carbon  fila- 
ment, when  subjected  to  the  passage  of 
an  electric  current. 

In  1809  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  while 
experimenting  with  a  powerful  battery, 
discovered  the  phenomenon  of  the  vol- 
taic arc.  He  used  as  electrodes  points 
of  charcoal.  Foucault  and  later  experi- 
menters replaced  these  by  pencils  of  gas- 
retort  carbon,  and  this  material  is  yet 
used  in  some  forms  of  regulators.  A 
better  residt,  however,  is  obtained  from 
manufactured  carbon  pencils,  and  this 
naanufacture  already  represents  a  dis- 
tinct trade  both  here  and  in  Europe. 
Coke,  lampblack,  cane  sugar,  etc.,  are 
the  ingredients  used  for  these  pencils, 
which  are  subsequently  placed  in  molds 
and  submitted  to  a  red  heat. 

The  discovery  by  Faraday  (1830) 
that  an  electric  current  could  be  induced 
in  a  coil  of  wire  by  the  approach  to  it 
or  recession  from  it  of  a  magnet  may  be 
said  to  have  given  electricians  the  first 
hope  of  giving  the  electric  light  a  com- 
mercial importance.     The  magneto-elec- 


tric machines  which  followed  upon  Fara- 
day's discovery  were  soon  many  in  num- 
ber, each  one  exhibiting  some  improve- 
ment upon  its  predecessor.  Of  these 
pioneer  machines  may  be  mentioned  that 
of  Siemens,  who  in  1854  introduced  a 
new  form  of  armature  or  coil,  which 
superseded  the  bobbins  formerly  used; 
Wilde,  of  Manchester,  who  produced  a 
powerful  machine  in  which  the  electro- 
magnet was  first  employed  in  this  con- 
nection, it  being  excited  by  a  permanent 
or  ordinary  horseshoe  magnet. 

In  England  the  Gramme  machine  was 
first  used  in  1874,  to  provide  a  light  for 
the  summit  of  the  Westminster  clock 
tower.  Since  that  date  it  has  been 
greatly  improved.  The  Gramme  ma- 
chine gives  a  continuous  current  like 
that  afforded  by  a  voltaic  battery.  An 
electric  current  sent  through  a  bridge 
of  vapor  or  arc  between  electrode  con- 
ductors produces  the  arc  light.    A  varia- 


ELECTRIC   LIGHT — TYPES   OF  ELECTRIC 

BULBS 

1.    Carbon  Lamp  2.    Mazda  Lamp 

3.    New  Mazda 

tion  is  the  incandescent  lamp  in  which 
a  wire  of  carbon  or  metal  of  more  or  less 
resistance  is  mounted  in  an  exhausted 
glass  bulb.  The  reaction  of  the  filament 
to  the  current  generates  a  heat  which 
glows  into  vivid  incandescence.  Djmamos 
moved  by  water  power,  gas  or  steam, 
generate  the  electric  current  at  a  central 
station  or  plant  of  more  or  less  dimen- 
sions according  to  the  volume  of  current 
in  requisition.  The  organization  of  high- 
voltage  power  has  made  it  possible  tc 
distribute  electric  current  over  an  ever- 
widening  radius.  In  cities  in  the  United 
States  the  stations  of  the  electric  light- 
ing systems  have  been  shown  to  be  capa- 
ble of  development  to  the  extent  of 
transmitting  current  over  whatever  area 
required,  but  the  clearest  demonstration 
is  made  by  the  power  stations  at  Ni- 
agara, from  which  center  current  is 
transmitted  to  cities  in  some  cases  al- 
most 200  miles  distant.  There  is  per- 
haps no  larger  electric-lighting  system 
in  any  country  than  that  owned  in  Chi« 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT 


495 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS 


cago  by  the  Commonwealth  Edison  Co., 
in  which  current  is  distributed  by  four 
stations  with  a  total  capacity  of  320,000 
kilowatts,  one  single  generating  unit 
being  of  35,000  kilowatts.  Both  alumin- 
ium and  copper  filaments  are  largely 
used  in  these  systems  of  distribution, 
but  copper  being  superior  in  conduc- 
tivity is  the  wire  most  in  use.  Alumin- 
ium, owing  to  its  lightness,  is  found 
especially  valuable  in  long-distance 
work,  and  the  two  metals,  differing  in 
density  and  consequently  in  bulk,  have 
to  be  employed  variously,  having  regard 
to  the  requirements.  When  electric 
lighting  first  became  general,  overhead 
installation  was  the  method  most  in 
vogue  as  being  the  easier  and  less  expen- 
sive, and  the  more  easily  manageable  for 
repairing  purposes.  It  was  recognized, 
however,  that  the  aesthetic  results  were 
not  quite  desirable  and  as  the  system 
developed  the  underground  cable  was  in- 
troduced in  the  larger  cities.  Despite 
the  larger  expense  it  was  considered 
that  underground  cables  being  protected 
by  conduits  were  less  liable  to  accident, 
while  the  unsightly  overhead  wires  were 
removed.  Of  the  fundamental  divisions 
of  the  distributing  systems  the  parallel 
or  constant-potential  type  is  in  general 
vogue  for  general  power  and  lighting. 
Direct-current  generators  are  used  in 
isolated  plants  and  alternating-current 
generators  in  other  systems.  Where  the 
system  is  large,  as  in  the  central  dis- 
trict of  cities,  substations  receive  the 
alternating  current  at  high  potential 
and  convert  it  by  dynamo  machines  to 
direct  current,  which  is  distributed  by  a 
three-wire  system.  The  alternative  to 
the  parallel  system  is  the  series,  con- 
stant current,  system  in  which  the  cur- 
rent is  sent  from  a  dynamo  through  each 
lamp  successively  returning  to  the  dy- 
namo without  subdivision.  Regulators 
keep  the  current  constant,  the  voltage 
being  differentiated  according  to  the 
number  of  lamps.  Carbon,  flame  car- 
bon, metallic  oxide  and  mercury  arc 
lamps  may  be  used  or  incandescent 
lamps  using  filaments  of  carbon,  metal- 
lized carbon,  tantalum  or  tungsten.  In 
the  arc  lamps  are  the  two  electrodes 
with  regulators  establishing  the  arc  and 
feeding  the  electrodes  as  they  burn,  the 
connection  being  maintained  with  an  ex- 
ternal circuit.  There  are  various  divi- 
sions among  arc  lamps,  such  as  the 
parallel  and  series  type,  and  open  and 
inclosed  arcs.  In  carbon  arcs  cylindrical 
electrodes  are  used  prepared  from  gas 
coke  or  petroleum  coke.  The  metallic 
oxide  arc  is  provided  with  a  positive 
electrode  of  copper,  while  the  mercury 
arc  can  be  produced  only  in  exhausted 
'tubes  of  glass  or  quartz.     In  incandes- 


cent lamps  the  tungsten  metal  filament 
has  been  found  very  efficient.  Its  dense- 
ness  having  been  overcome,  its  high 
melting  point  rendered  it  possible  to 
heat  it  without  too  speedy  evaporation- 
It  has  a  conductivity  much  superior  to 
carbon,  which  is  apt  to  evaporate  much 
below  its  boiling  point.  The  nitrogen- 
filled  tung^sten  lamp  has  been  highly  de- 
veloped for  the  lighting  of  thorough- 
fares. The  average  incandescent  lamp 
is  exhausted  by  methods  of  air  pumping 
supplemented  by  the  consumption  in 
each  chamber  of  phosporus  compound. 
The  lamp  invented  by  Dr.  Nernst  of 
Gottingen  University  had  considerable 
vogue  before  the  advent  of  the  tungsten 
lamp.  Rods  of  earth  oxide,  such  as 
yttria  and  zirconia,  were  used  as  illu- 
minating elements,  but  as  these  ma- 
terials were  lacking  in  conductivity 
when  cold  they  had  to  be  supplemented 
with  an  external  heating  apparatus. 
As  success  was  attained  in  the  use  of 
luminous  elements,  methods  had  to  be 
found  to  temper  the  glare.  As  a  result 
opportunities  for  the  use  of  variously 
formed  and  colored  lamps  and  glass  cov- 
erings has  led  to  considerable  artistic 
development.  The  concealment  of  the 
lamps  by  various  devices  and  the  pro- 
jection of  the  direct  lighting  onto  white 
ceilings  are  methods  that  have  come 
largely  into  vogue  with  a  resultant  dif- 
fusion of  light  resembling  daylight. 

ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS,  cars  driven 
along  tracks  by  electric  power,  supplied 
either  from  a  central  power  station,  or 
storage  batteries,  the  latter  method  being 
no  longer  in  practical  use.  The  first  ex- 
periment made  in  an  electrically  driven 
vehicle,  interesting  from  a  historical 
point  of  view  rather  than  from  any 
practical  results  it  attained,  was  under- 
taken by  Thomas  Davenport,  of  Bran- 
don, Vermont,  a  blacksmith  with  a  self- 
developed  education  in  electricity  and 
mechanics.  In  1835  he  attempted  to 
propel  a  wagon  by  means  of  a  revolving 
electro-magnet,  without  any  degree  of 
success.  A  more  significant  attempt 
was  made  three  years  later,  in  1838,  by 
Robert  Davidson,  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland, 
who  built  a  small  locomotive  which  was 
able  to  move  along  a  track  for  a  con- 
siderable distance.  In  1850  the  first 
practical  electrical  locomotive  was  built 
in  this  country,  by  Prof.  C.  I.  Page,  of 
Washington,  D.  C.  This  electrically 
driven  vehicle,  of  sixteen  horse  power, 
was  tested  on  the  tracks  of  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  railroad,  an3  attained  a 
speed  on  a  level  stretch  of  track  of  nine- 
teen miles  an  hour.  In  both  these  me- 
chanically successful  cases,  however,  the 
commercial  yalUQ  of  the  experiment  was 


ELECTBIC  BAILWATS 


496 


ELECTBIC  BAILWAYS 


handicapped  by  the  limitations  of  the 
storage  battery,  which  was  too  expen- 
sive as  a  means  of  locomotive  power.  It 
was  not  till  the  dynamo  was  invented 
and  developed  that  the  electric  railway 
attained  its  first  possibility. 

It  was  the  development  of  the  dynamo 
which  made  it  possible  to  generate  the 
electric  power  necessary  for  propelling 
the  cars  at  a  central  point  and  transmit 
it  to  the  moving  cars  by  means  of  over- 
head wires  or  third-rail  tracks.  It  was 
on  this  principle  that  the  first  practical 
electric  railway  was  built,  in  1879,  at  the 
International  Exposition  held  in  Berlin, 
by  Siemens  and  Halske.  The  demon- 
stration was  made  by  means  of  a  locomo- 
tive running  on  a  track  a  thousand  feet 
in  length.  In  the  following  year  Thomas 
A.  Edison  and  Stephen  D.  Field,  in  this 
country,  began  experimentation.  In 
1883  they  exhibited  an  electric  locomo- 
tive in  Chicago,  which  was  the  first  of 
the  type  which  is  now  successfully  em- 
ployed all  over  the  country.  So  con- 
vincing was  the  demonstration  that  in 
the  following  year  the  first  track  was 
laid  on  a  city  street  for  practical  elec- 
trical railway  operation,  in  Kansas  City, 
Mo.,  and  there  accommodated  public 
traffic.  This  venture  was  so  eminently 
successful,  from  a  commercial  point  of 
view,  that  several  other  cities  followed 
the  example  of  Kansas  City  with  electric 
railway  service.  Four  years  later,  in 
1888,  Richmond,  Va.,  electrified  its  whole 
urban  street  railway  system,  with  a  total 
of  thirteen  miles  of  track.  Before  the 
close  of  the  year  there  were  thirteen 
electric  railway  systems  in  operation  in 
as  many  municipalities  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  with  a  total  length 
of  track  of  forty-eight  miles. 

From  now  on  the  development  of  elec- 
tric railway  construction  went  on  at  a 
rapid  pace,  existing  municipal  services 
bemg  not  only  converted  to  electric 
power,  but  new  tracks  being  laid  and  ex- 
tended far  into  the  country  districts. 
The  electric  railway,  or  trolley  car,  as  it 
is  more  popularly  called,  has  not  only 
displaced  the  old  urban  horse  cars  and 
cable  cars,  but  it  has  widely  supple- 
mented the  regular  steam  railroads.  It 
has  been  one  of  the  powerful  influences 
in  bringing  the  rural  population  into 
close  touch  with  city  life,  in  that  it  has 
made  transportation  from  the  rural 
communities  into  the  larger  towns  and 
cities  easy  and  cheap.  In  this  respect 
it  stands  perhaps  equal  with  the  auto- 
mobile. In  passenger  traffic  the  electric 
railway  has  been  a  keen  competitor  of 
the  regular  railroads,  especially  in  the 
more  populous  rural  districts. 

Finally  the  steam  railroads  were  them- 
selves affected  and  subjected  gradually 


to  the  transformation  from  steam  to 
electricity.  In  the  urban  districts  many 
railroads  now  employ  electric  locomo- 
tives. Most  notable  example  is  New 
York  City,  into  which  no  passenger 
train  is  now  drawn  by  steam  locomo- 
tives, all  the  lines  entering  the  metro- 
polis being  now  equipped  with  electric 
motive  power.  Most  notable  illustration 
of  the  development  in  this  direction  has 
been  the  electrification  of  five  hundred 
miles  of  track  of  the  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee and  St.  Paul  system,  where  it 
crosses  the  continental  divide  through 
Idaho  and  Montana,  which  took  place  in 
1916.  In  1919  over  two  hundred  miles 
of  track  were  added  to  the  same  system, 
through  the  Cascade  Mountains  in 
Washington.  Along  these  stretches  of 
line  locomotives  112  feet  long,  some  of 
2,000  horse  power,  haul  long  trains  of 
passenger  and  freight  cars  up  and  down 
the  steep  grades  of  the  mountains. 
Coasting  the  down  grade,  the  revolving 
wheels  generate  enough  supplementary 
electric  power  to  contribute  over  40  per 
cent,  of  the  power  needed  for  the  up- 
grade hauls.  The  power,  transmitted 
from  the  pnower  stations  to  the  locomo- 
tives by  wires  or  third  rails,  is  gener- 
ated from  water  power,  of  which  a  great 
deal  may  be  found  in  the  mountain  dis- 
tricts. It  is  this  which  renders  elec- 
tricity as  motive  power  much  cheaper 
than  steam.  Where  water  power  is  not 
available  coal  is  needed  to  generate  the 
current.  Even  under  these  circum- 
stances the  operation  of  railroads  by 
electric  power  is  cheaper  than  steam, 
but  the  necessity  of  building  power 
plants  and  the  interest  absorbed  by  the 
capital  invested  in  them  makes  the  total 
cost  more.  Where  railroads  are  public 
property,  however,  and  are  constructed 
and  maintained  by  collective  capital,  and 
use,  or  service,  is  considered  rather  than 
commercial  profit,  the  tendency  is  to 
apply  electric  power,  as  is  the  case  in 
many  countries  of  Europe.  Were  all  the 
steam  railroad  lines  of  the  United 
States  to  be  electrified,  it  is  estimated 
that  one-sixth  of  the  total  coal  con- 
sumption of  the  country  could  be  saved. 
Specifically,  the  125,000,000  tons  of  coal 
now  being  burned  by  the  railroad  lines 
of  the  country  could  be  reduced  to  40,- 
000,000  tons,  were  electricity  to  be 
adopted  as  the  motive  power  universally. 
There  are  three  methods  by  which 
electric  railways  are  operated;  by  trol- 
ley, or  overhead  wires;  by  underground 
conduits;  and  by  the  third  rail  system. 
The  trolley  system  is  usually  applied  m 
the  surburban  districts.  A  copper  wire 
runs  along  poles  overhead,  along  which 
the  electric  current  is  transmitted  from 
the  power  house.    A  small  wheel  at  the 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS 


497 


ELECTRO-CHEMISTRV 


end  of  the  trolley  pole  on  the  car  effects 
the  necessary  contact,  and  transmits  the 
current  down  the  pole  to  the  motor  un- 
derneath the  car.  The  current  then 
strikes  the  track  and  thence  returns  to 
the  power  station.  The  conduit  method 
is  employed  in  crowded  cities,  where 
overhead  wires  would  constitute  a  dan- 
ger to  traffic.  Trenches  are  dug  along 
the  streets,  as  was  done  with  the  old 
cable  car  system,  and  steel  braces,  or 
girders,  shaped  somewhat  like  horse- 
shoes, are  set  down  into  the  trench  every 
few  feet.  The  sides  and  top  are  then 
covered  in  with  concrete,  a  slot  being 
left  open  along  the  top.  Along  the  bot- 
tom of  the  trench,  under  the  slot,  runs 
the  charged  rail.  A  steel  pole,  with 
what  is  called  the  rubbing  block  at  the 
end,  runs  along  the  slot  and  maintains 
contact  with  the  charged  rail.  By  this 
system  the  danger  to  traflfic  is  eliminated. 
New  York  City  and  Washington,  D.  C, 
are  the  two  chief  cities  in  which  the  con- 
duit system  is  employed.  In  many  cities 
the  old  cable  car  underground  trenches, 
or  conduits,  are  now  used  in  this  way. 
The  third-rail  system  is  employed  on  all 
elevated  railways  and  subways,  where 
the  exposed  rail  does  not  endanger  the 
lives  of  the  people.  Wherever  it  is  em- 
ployed the  tracks  must  be  carefully 
guarded  against  intrusion  by  the  general 
public,  as  contact  with  the  third  rail  is 
immediately  fatal.  The  third  rail  runs 
along  a  track,  beside  one  of  the  regular 
tracks.  A  shoe,  or  flat  piece  of  steel, 
projected  from  the  locomotive,  and  fur- 
nishing contact  for  the  motor,  runs 
smoothly  along  the  track.  This  makes 
possible  the  transmission  of  a  much 
stronger  current  than  could  be  attain- 
able by  a  revolving  wheel,  such  as  the 
wheel  at  the  end  of  the  trolley  pole. 

On  May  31,  1919,  it  was  reported  that 
the  vast  extension  of  the  electric  rail- 
way systems  of  the  United  States  repre- 
sented an  investment  of  six  billion  dol- 
lars. Exclusive  of  main  trunk  lines, 
there  were,  in  1920,  approximately  50,000 
miles  of  trolley  car  track  in  operation  in 
the  United  States.  There  are  experts 
who  believe  that  this  development  has 
now  reached  its  apex,  or  has  even  passed 
it  within  the  past  few  years,  during  the 
war,  for  it  is  a  fact  that  during  the 
recent  increase  in  expense  of  operation, 
due  to  the  higher  cost  of  metals  and 
coal,  many  hundreds  of  miles  of  electric 
railway  track  in  the  country  have  been 
abandoned,  in  many  cases  pei-manently. 
In  a  majority  of  the  cities  fares  have 
had  to  be  raised  to  meet  the  increased 
cost  of  operation.  Here,  and  even  in 
cities  where  fares  have  not  been  I'aised, 
the  gasoline-driven  car  is  now  appearing 
as  a  keen  competitor  of  the  electric  rail- 


way. The  so-called  "jitneys,"  now  a 
familiar  feature  of  every  city  street,  are 
cutting  deeply  into  the  revenues  of  the 
electric  railway  companies,  and  that  at 
a  point  where  they  are  most  vulnerable 
— where  the  short-haul  traffic  is  thickest. 
Bus  lines  require  no  expensive  capitali- 
zation; they  may,  moreover,  adapt 
themselves  quickly  to  sudden  and  chang- 
ing needs  and  they  operate  with  more 
speed  and  despatch.  Whether  they  shall, 
in  the  near  future,  check  the  extension 
of  electric  railway  systems  in  the  cities 
and  surburban  districts  rests,  probably, 
on  the  problem  of  a  cheaper  gasoline 
supply. 

In  1920  there  were  8,300  miles  of 
heavy  trunk  lines  operating  under  elec- 
tric motive  power.  On  these  tracks 
were  employed  four  hundred  electric  lo- 
comotives of  twenty  different  types,  the 
most  powerful  of  which  were  capable  of 
hauling  trains  of  1,200  tons  along  level 
tracks  at  the  rate  of  sixty  miles  an  hour. 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.  See  TEL- 
EGRAPH. 

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY,  that  branch 
of  the  science  in  which  chemical  reactions 
are  brought  about  by  the  agency  of  an 
electric  current.  The  fact  that  common 
salt  can  be  split  up  into  its  elements, 
sodium  and  chlorine,  by  passing  an  elec- 
tric current  through  its  solution,  was 
discovered  in  the  early  years  of  elec- 
trical research,  and  during  the  last  cen- 
tury the  decomposition  by  electricity  of 
all  solutions  of  salts,  acids  and  bases, 
and  the  laws  under  which  that  decom- 
position takes  place,  have  been  very 
thoroughly  investigated.  It  has  been 
discovered  that  when  a  solution  is  elec- 
trolyzed,  it  acts  as  a  conductor,  at  the 
same  time  decomposing  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  metallic  radicle  is  produced 
at  the  negative  pole  and  the  acid  or  hy- 
droxyl  radicle  at  the  positive  pole.  For 
instance,  when  an  electric  current  is 
passed  through  a  solution  of  common 
salt,  sodium  is  produced  at  the  kathode 
and  chlorine  at  the  anode.  The  amount 
of  chemical  decomposition  brought  about 
is  directly  proportional  to  the  amount 
of  current  passing  through  the  solution. 
When  this  method  of  manufacture  is 
employed  on  a  commei'cial  scale,  there- 
fore, it  is  customary  to  use  a  high  am- 
perage (or  current)  and  a  low  voltage 
(or  electromotive  force).  To  obtain 
these  conditions  the  resistance  of  the 
cell  must  obviously  be  kept  as  low  as 
possible,  and  it  has  been  found  that  this 
diminishes  with  rise  in  temperature  and 
with  increase  in  strength  of  the  solution. 
The  cell  is  therefore  filled  with  a  hot, 
concentrated  solution  and  for  a  similar 
reason  the  electrodes  are  placed  as  close 


ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY 


498 


ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY 


together  as  conditions  permit,  and  are 
made  large  in  area. 

The  most  common  application  of  elec- 
tricity to  industrial  chemistry  is  prob- 
ably in  the  manufacture  of  bleach  and 
soda  from  common-salt.  As  has  been 
stated,  when  brine  is  electrolyzed,  sodi- 
um and  chlorine  are  produced.  Sodium, 
however,  reacts  violently  with  water, 
and  cannot  exist,  as  such,  in  aqueous 
solution.  As  soon  as  formed,  it  com- 
bines with  water  to  form  sodium  hy- 
droxide, more  familiarly  known  as  caus- 
tic soda  or  lye.  Unless  special  means 
are  taken  to  prevent  the  soda  and  the 
chlorine  from  coming  in  contact  with 
one  another,  they  will  combine  to  form 
hypochlorite  of  soda,  sometimes  called 
soda  bleach.  Electric  cells  to  produce 
this  soda  bleach  are  in  use  to-day  in 
laundries,  but  they  are  inefficient  and 
require  frequent  repairs. 

Special  types  of  cells  have  therefore 
been  designed  to  prevent  the  combina- 
tion of  the  soda  and  chlorine,  so  that  the 
soda  can  be  drawn  off,  as  such,  and  the 
chlorine  gas  collected  and  combined  with 
lime    to    form    bleaching    powder.      Of 


from  one  compartment  to  another,  or  by 
means  of  an  Archimedean  screw  which 
continually  carries  away  the  mercury 
amalgam,  and  brings  fresh  mercury  to 
take  its  place. 

The  Hargreaves-Bird,  Allen-Moore, 
and  Nelson  cells  differ  in  detail  rather 
than  in  principle.  In  these  cells  the 
chlorine  and  soda  are  prevented  from  re- 
acting with  one  another  by  means  of  a 
diaphragm,  which  separates  the  anode 
compartment  from  the  kathode.  Into 
the  inner,  or  anode,  compartment,  flows 
continuously  a  concentrated  brine  solu- 
tion, and  on  either  side  of  the  compart- 
ment is  a  diaphragm  made  of  an  asbes- 
tos compound,  which  becomes  saturated 
with  the  brine  and  so  permits  passage  of 
the  current  to  the  kathodes  on  the  outer 
sides  of  the  diaphragm.  The  soda  pro- 
duced on  the  kathodes  is  washed  down  by 
steam  which  is  injected  into  the  outer 
compartments  of  the  cell.  In  the  Har- 
greaves-Bird cell,  carbon  dioxide  is  also 
injected  into  the  kathode  compartment, 
so  that  carbonate,  instead  of  hydroxide 
of  soda  is  produced.  The  advantage  of 
the  Castner-Kellner  cell  over  the  other 


FOUR  STAGES  IN  THE  MAKING  OP  THE    AEMATURE 


^ese  cells  the  best  known  are  the  Cast- 
ner-Kellner, the  Hargreaves-Bird,  the 
Allen-Moore  and  the  Nelson. 

In  the  Castner-Kellner  cell,  electrol- 
ysis takes  place  between  an  anode  above 
and  a  kathode  of  mercury  below.  The 
chlorine  gas  rises  to  the  top  of  the  cell 
and  is  dravim  off,  while  the  sodium  com- 
bines with  the  mercury  to  form  sodium 
amalgam.  The  latter  is  decomposed  by 
water  to  form  caustic  soda,  the  mercury 
being  liberated  and  recovered  for  fur- 
ther use.  The  process  is  made  continu- 
ous, either  by  giving  the  cell  a  rocking 
motion,  which  causes  the  mercury  to  flow 


three  is  the  high  purity  and  concentra- 
tion of  soda  produced,  but  owing  to  the 
large  amount  of  mercury  required  the 
cost  of  installation  is  very  high. 

The  production  of  chlorates  is  carried 
out  in  cells  similar  in  type  to  those  de- 
scribed above,  but  no  diaphragm  is  used, 
and  the  oxidation  of  the  hypochlorite  is 
promoted  by  the  use  of  potassium  chro- 
mate.  Oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  pro- 
duced by  electrolyzing  acidulated  water, 
cells  fitted  with  iron  electrodes  being 
commonly  employed  for  this  purpose. 
Other  chemical  processes  in  which  an 
electric  current  is  employed  are  the  pro- 


ELECTROLYSIS 


499 


ELECTRO-METALLUr.GY 


,  duction  of  ozone,  peroxides  and  sodium, 
and  in  the  preparation  of  various  or- 
ganic compounds. 

.  The  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen 
can  be  carried  out  by  passing  an  electric 
spark  through  the  air.  The  nitrogen 
and  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  combine, 
producing  oxides  of  nitrogen,  which  are 
dissolved  in  water,  nitric  acid  being  the 
final  product. 

In  the  laboratory,  the  electric  current 
is  used  in  analysis  for  determining  con- 
centrations, for  titration,  a  galvanome- 
ter being  used  in  place  of  a  chemical  in- 
dicator, and  for  determining  metals 
quantitatively,  by  deposition  on  a  plati- 
num electrode,  and  weighing. 

ELECTROLYSIS,  the  decomposition  of 
chemical  compounds  by  electricity.  This 
word  is  one  of  the  many  that  have  come 
into  common  use  since  electricity  has 
played  so  important  a  part  in  every-day 
affairs,  and  means  the  condition  which 
causes  decomposition  of  gas  and  water 
pipes  buried  near  the  wires  of  electric 
railroads.  As  long  ago  as  1833  it  was 
discovered  that  the  earth  could  be  used 
as  a  part  of  a  circuit  to  carry  electric 
currents,  and  until  the  introduction  of 
electric  cars  the  earth  was  almost  wholly 
depended  upon  for  the  return  current 
required  by  telephone  and  telegraph  ap- 
paratus. Now  the  best  telephone  cir- 
cuits have  carefully  insulated  wires  for 
the  return  current.  The  interference 
with  the  telegraph  is  much  less  than 
with  the  telephone  from  this  cause. 
When  electricity  passes  through  moist 
earth  it  causes  the  decomposition  of  the 
water  and  the  formation  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  gases.  The  oxygen,  reaching 
metallic  pipes,  causes  oxidation  and  ulti- 
mate destruction.  The  time  required  is, 
of  course,  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
conditions,  such  as  the  volume  of  the 
current,  the  size  of  the  conductor,  and 
the  amount  of  oxygen  liberated. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM,  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  development  of  mag- 
netism by  voltaic  electricity,  and  the 
properties  or  actions  of  the  currents 
thus  evolved.  Professor  Oersted,  of 
Copenhagen,  led  the  way  in  the  discov- 
eries which  established  the  science;  Am- 
pere, Faraday,  Barlow,  Arago,  Nobili 
and  others  followed  in  his  track.  The 
temporary  magnetic  moment  is  propor- 
tional to  the  intensity  of  the  currents. 
In  the  case  of  an  iron  bar  it  is  propor- 
tional to  the  number  of  windings.  In  a 
mag:net  it  is  proportional  also  to  the 
square  root  of  the  diameter  of  the  mag- 
net. In  solid  and  in  hollow  cylinders  of 
the  same  diameter  it  is  equal  in  amount. 
The   attraction  of  an  armature  by   an 


electro-magnet  is  proportionate  to  the 
square  of  the  intensity  of  the  current,  as 
long  as  the  magnetic  moment  does  not 
attain  its  maximum.  Two  unequally 
strong  electro-magnets  attract  each 
other  with  a  force  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  sums  of  both  currents. 
For  powerful  magnets  the  length  of  the 
branches  of  an  electro-magnet  is  with- 
out influence  on  the  weight  which  it  can 
support. 

ELECTRO-METALLURGY.  Under 
this  term  are  included  the  processes  of 
extracting  metals  from  their  ores,  puri- 
fying them,  and  dealing  with  them  by 
such  special  processes  as  annealing, 
welding,  plating,  etc. 

Where  electric  power  is  cheap,  or 
where  very  high  temperatures  are  re- 
quired, metals  are  extracted  from  their 
ores  in  the  electric  furnace,  and  under 
that  heading  will  be  found  brief  descrip- 
tions of  the  manufacture  of  graphite, 
carborundum,  and  steel  by  this  process. 
Calcium  carbide  is  also  made  in  the  elec- 
tric furnace,  a  mixture  of  lime  and  coke 
dust  being  heated  to  fusion  by  passing 
through  the  mixture  an  alternating  cur- 
rent of  4,000  amperes  at  110  volts.  In 
a  resistance  furnace  of  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent type,  aluminum,  is  extracted  from 
its  ores.  In  this  case,  a  direct  current 
is  used,  and  the  furnace,  which  consists 
of  a  metal  case  lined  with  aluminum,  is 
filled  with  molten  ore.  Metallic  alumi- 
num is  separated  by  electrolytic  action 
(v.  Electro-chemistry)  and  accumu- 
lates upon  an  iron  or  carbon  plate  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  this  plate 
forming  the  negative  pole.  Magnesium, 
sodium,  and  potassium  are  made  in  fur- 
naces of  a  smilar  type,  while  steel  and 
zinc  are  made  in  arc  furnaces. 

Electric  welding  is  carried  out  by 
one  of  three  processes.  The  first  de- 
pends upon  the  production  of  an  elec- 
tric arc  between  the  metallic  surfaces  to 
be  welded  and  a  rod  of  carbon.  The 
metal  is  connected  to  the  positive  pole 
of  a  generator,  and  the  carbon  to  the 
negative  pole.  The  carbon,  held  in  in^ 
sulated  tongfs,  is  brought  into  contact 
with  the  metal  and  then  drawn  back  a 
few  inches,  an  arc  being  thus  produced, 
the  heat  from  which  melts  the  metallic 
surfaces  together.  In  the  second  proc- 
ess, the  metal  is  connected  to  the  nega- 
tive pole,  while  the  positive  pole  is 
formed  by  a  lead-lined  vat.  This  vat  is 
filled  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  into 
which  the  metal  is  plunged.  Electrolytic 
action  is  set  up,  and  the  metal  becomes 
covered  with  bubbles  of  hydrogen,  thus 
offering  powerful  resistance  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  current.  The  metal  soon 
reaches  the  necessary  temperature,  when 


ELECTBO-METALLURGY 


500 


ELEPHANT 


it  can  be  removed  from  the  bath  and 
welded  on  the  anvil.  The  third  process 
is  known  as  the  incandescent  process. 
The  two  pieces  of  metal  to  be  welded  are 
connected  to  opposite  poles  of  a  genera- 
tor, and  then  brought  together.  The  re- 
sistance offered  raises  the  surfaces  to 
incandescence,  when  they  can  be  welded. 
Electro-plating  depends  upon  the 
electrolysis  of  a  solution  of  a  metallic 
salt,  and  by  its  means  a  coating  of  the 
metal  in  solution  is  deposited  upon  an- 
other metal  which  forms  the  electrode 
of  the  cell  in  which  the  electrolysis  takes 
place.  For  silver  plating  a  solution  of 
potassium  silver  cyanide  is  used;  for 
nickel  plating,  nickel  ammonium  sul- 
phate; and  for  copper  plating,  a  solu- 
tion of  copper  sulphate.  In  all  cases 
the  general  procedure  is  the  same.  The 
metal  to  be  plated  forms  the  kathode  of 
the  cell,  and  must  be  perfectly  clean  and 
free  from  all  traces  of  grease.  The 
solution  must  also  be  kept  moving, 
either  by  means  of  paddles  or  by  mov- 
ing electrodes.  The  current  required  is 
small,  and  seldom  exceeds  12  amperes 
per  square  foot,  being,  in  the  case  of 
nickel  plating,  as  low  as  four  amperes 
per  square  foot. 

Electfic  refining  is  a  similar  process 
to  electro-plating,  but  in  this  case  the 
impure  metal  forms  the  anode  of  the 
cell,  the  pure  metal  being  first  brought 
into  solution  and  then  deposited  on  the 
kathode.  For  instance,  in  the  refining 
of  copper,  a  solution  is  made  containing 
about  2  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  and 
6  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid  per  gallon  of 
water.  This  solution  forms  the  elec- 
trolyte. The  crude  copper  to  be  purified 
forms  the  anode,  while  the  kathode  con- 
sists of  a  graphitized  plate  of  pure 
copper.  When  the  current  is  passed, 
copper  is  dissolved  from  the  anode  and 
deposited  in  very  pure  form  upon  the 
kathode. 

Electro-typing  is  the  process  by 
Which  reproductions  are  made  of  such 
articles  as  medals,  engraved  plates, 
busts,  and  so  on.  A  reversed  cast  is  first 
obtained  in  the  usual  manner,  wax  or 
gutta-percha  being  used  for  the  purpose. 
An  impression  of  the  cast  is  then  made 
in  a  mixture  of  bees-wax,  Venice  tur- 
pentine and  plumbago,  and  the  surface 
of  this  impression  is  covered  with  gra- 
phite, and  carefully  cleaned  with  alcohol 
and  water.  It  is  then  submitted  to  a 
process  very  similar  to  that  of  electro- 
plating, a  deposit  of  metal  being  pro- 
duced all  over  the  surface  of  the  wax, 
until  a  sufficient  thickness  is  obtained. 
The  metal  shell,  thus  formed,  is  removed 
from  the  Avax  and  "backed"  with  metal 
— an   alloy   of   V.^A,   antimony,   and   tin 


being  commonly  used.     See  also  Elec- 
tric Furnace,  Electro-chemistry. 

ELEMI,  gum  resins  derived  from 
various  trees.  The  American  or  Bra- 
zilian elemi  is  from  Idea  Icicariba,  the 
Mexican  from  Elaphrium  elemiferum, 
and  the  Eastern  or  Manila  from  Can- 
urium  commune.  In  commercial  par- 
lance, a  brownish  yellow  resin,  from 
a  species  of  elemi,  used  to  mix  with 
spirit  and  turpentine  varnishes  to  pre- 
vent their  cracking  as  they  dry.  Dis- 
tilled with  water  it  yields  a  transparent 
colorless  oil,  which  boils  at  166°.  In 
pharmaceutical  use  elemi  has  an  odoi 
like  fennel,  and  a  bitter,  aromatic  taste 
It  is  used  to  form  Vnguentum  elemi^ 
ointment  of  elemi,  which  is  applied  as  a 
topical  stimulant. 

ELEPHANT,  the  largest  existing  land 
animal.  Its  ordinary  height  at  the 
shoulder  is  about  8  feet,  but  sometimes 
exceeds  10  feet.  The  weight  of  a  large 
elephant  is  about  five  tons,  the  body 
being  very  bulky  in  proportion  to  its 
height.  To  sustain  this  weight  it  is 
furnished  with  limbs  of  colossal  thick- 
ness and  strength,  which  are  also  re- 
markably straight,  each  bone  resting 
vertically  on  that  beneath  it.  The  flexi- 
bility of  these  limbs  is  sufficient  to  per- 
mit elephants  to  run  with  a  speed  often 
greater  than  that  of  the  best  horse. 
Elephants  live  in  herds,  each  having  a 
leader  who  gives  the  alarm  in  case  of 
danger  and  decides  what  direction  to 
take  in  escaping  from  an  enemy.  When 
the  leader  is  the  special  mark  for  the 
hunter's  attack,  because  he  is  the  larg- 
est and  has  the  finest  tusks,  the  rest  of 
the  herd  do  their  utmost  to  protect  him. 
The  elephant  is  generally  one  of  the 
most  inoffensive  of  animals,  though  in  a 
state  of  domestication  it  shows  a  power 
both  of  remembering  and  resenting  an 
injury.  The  favorite  haunts  of  wild 
elephants  are  in  the  depths  of  forests — 
particularly  in  mountainous  regions. 
Only  two  existing  species  of  elephants 
are  certainly  known,  the  Indian  (Ele- 
phas  hidicus)  and  the  African  (Ele- 
phas  Africanus) . 

The  amount  of  daily  food  necessary 
for  the  elephant  in  a  state  of  domestica- 
tion may  be  stated,  on  an  average,  at 
about  200  pounds  in  weight.  The  ele- 
phant first  became  known  in  Europe 
from  its  employment  in  the  wars  of  the 
East.  Elephants  have  been  taught  to 
cut  and  thrust  with  a  kind  of  scimetar 
carried  in  the  trunk,  and  it  was  formerly 
usual  for  them  to  be  sent  into  battle 
covered  with  armor  and  bearing  towers 
on  their  backs,  which  contained  warriors. 
But  the  principal  use  of  the  elephant  in 
war   is  for   carrying  baggage  and   for 


ELEPHANTA 


601 


ELEPHANT  SEAL 


dragging  guns.  Elephants  are  used  in  ELEPHANT  HAWK-MOTH,  an  in- 
the  East  for  carrying  persons  on  their  sect  with  upper  wings  olive-brown  in- 
backs,  a  number  being  seated  together  dining  to  olive  green,  with  purple- 
in  a  howdah,  while  the  driver  (mahout)  tinged,  rose-red  markings,  a  white  mar- 
sits  on  the  elephant's  neck,  directing  it  gin  and  spot,  and  a  red  fringe.  Under 
by  his  voice  and  by  a  small  goad,  wings  dusky  at  the  base,  and  reddish- 
Elephants  have  always  a  conspicuous  purple  posteriorly,  with  a  pure  white 
place  in  the  great  processions  and  state  fringe.  The  caterpillar  feeds  on  the  wil- 
displays   of   Asiatic   princes,  and  white  lowherbs,  the  vine,  etc.     The  small  ele- 


AFRICAN    ELEPHANT 


elephants — albinos — are  peculiarly  val- 
ued. Instances  are  on  record  of  ex- 
treme longevity  in  domestication  extend- 
ing not  only  to  more  than  100,  but  al- 
most to  200  years. 

ELEPHANTA,  an  island  over  4  miles 
in  circuit,  in  the  harbor  of  Bombay,  6 
miles  E.  of  the  city,  and  4  miles  from 
the  mainland.  It  owed  its  European 
name  to  a  large  figure  of  an  elephant 
which  stood  near  its  former  landing- 
place,  but  which,  after  1814,  gradually 
sank  into  a  shapeless  mass.  Of  the 
island's  far-famed  Brahmanic  rock- 
caves,  four  are  complete,  or  nearly  so; 
the  most  important  is  the  Great  Temple, 
still  used  by  the  Hindus  on  Sivaite  festi- 
vals. The  word  is  also  used  to  designate 
the  thunder  storm  that  marks  the  end 
of  the  rainy  season  in  the  region  around 
Bombay,  India. 

ELEPHANT  APPLE,  a  tree  that 
grows  in  India.  It  is  of  the  orange  tribe, 
and  is  large  and  handsome,  with  pin- 
nate leaves  and  a  large  gray  fruit  with 
a  very  hard  rind. 


phant  hawk-moth  is  one  of  the  smallest 
species  of  the  genus,  being  usually  but 
20  lines  long. 

ELEPHANTIASIS  (-ti'a-sis),  a  cu- 
taneous disease,  especially  prevalent  in 
Egypt.  It  is  so  called  from  its  likeness 
to  an  elephant's  hide. 

ELEPHANTINE  (-ti'ne),  a  small  is- 
land of  Egypt,  in  the  Nile,  opposite  As- 
suan.  It  is  covered  with  ruins  piled  on 
each  other — Egyptian,  Roman,  Saracen, 
and  Arabic,  the  most  important  being  a 
gateway  of  the  time  of  Alexander,  a 
small  temple  dedicated  to  Khnum  and 
founded  by  Amenophis  II.,  and  the  an- 
cient Nilometer  mentioned  by  Strabo. 
The  island  gave  the  5th  dynasty  to 
Egypt. 

ELEPHANT  SEAL,  the  proboscis  seal, 
or  sea-elephant,  the  largest  of  the  seal 
family.  There  are  probably  two  species, 
one  found  only  on  the  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia and  western  Mexico,  the  other 
found  in  Patagonia.  Kerguelen  Island, 
Heard's  Island,  and  other  parts  of  the 
Southern    Seas.      They   vary   in    length 


ELEPHAN'T  EAR 


502 


ELEVATOR 


from  12  to  30  feet,  and  in  girth  at  the 
chest  from  8  to  18  feet.  The  proboscis 
of  the  male  is  about  15  inches  long,  but 
elongates  under  excitement.  The  females 
have  no  proboscis,  and  are  considerably 
smaller  than  the  male. 

ELEPHANT'S  EAR,  a  name  some- 
times given  to  plants  of  the  genus  Be- 
gonia. 

ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES,  festi- 
vals held  annually  at  Eleusis,  a  town  of 
Attica,  in  honor   of  the   goddess   Deme- 


This,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained, 
is  the  first  mention  in  history  of  an 
elevating  device. 

About  1850  platform  freight  elevators 
were  manufactured  by  Henry  Waterman 
of  New  York  City  and  George  C.  Fox  & 
Company  of  Boston,  Mass. 

One  of  the  first  instances  of  a  prac- 
tical elevator  installation  for  carrying 
passengers  was  the  lift  installed  in  the 
old  Fifth  Avenue  Hotel  at  5th  Avenue 
and  23d  Street,  New  York  City.  The 
building  was  six  stories  high  and  the  ele- 


INDIAN   ELEPHANT 


ter.  The  usual  opinion  is  that  they  were 
begun  by  Eumolpus,  the  first  hiero- 
phant,  1356  B.  c.  Great  secrecy  was  ob- 
served in  the  celebration  of  the  festivals, 
consisting  of  the  greater  and  lesser  mys- 
teries; and  it  was  a  capital  offense  to 
reveal  any  of  the  rites.  They  existed 
about  18  centuries,  and  ceased  during 
the  invasion  of  Alaric  I.,  in  396. 

ELEUSIS  (e-lu'sis),  a  decayed  village 
of  Attica,  but  in  ancient  times  a  city  of 
Greece,  12  miles  from  Athens.  It  was 
celebrated  as  the  chief  seat  of  the  wor- 
ship of  Ceres,  whose  temple  here  was 
the  largest  sacred  edifice  in  Greece. 

ELEVATOR,  a  moving  platform  or 
cage  in  a  building,  for  carrying  passen- 
gers or  freight  up  and  down. 

Vitruvius,  an  architect  of  Rome  about 
26  B.  C,  describes  in  his  writings  an  ap- 
paratus built  by  Archimedes  in  the  year 
236  B.  C.  for  lifting  very  heavy  weights. 


vator  consisted  of  a  cast-iron  screw  ex- 
tending the  total  height  of  the  building. 
The  car  was  built  around  the  screw, 
the  rotation  of  which  caused  the  car  to 
move  either  up  or  down. 

The  first  elevator  to  be  operated  suc- 
cessfully by  direct  electric  power,  was 
designed  and  installed  by  the  Otis  Bro- 
thers' Company  in  the  Demarest  Build- 
ing, New  York  City,  during  the  year 
1889. 

The  modern  electric  high-speed  gear- 
less  traction  elevator  was  developed  by 
the  Otis  Elevator  Company,  in  1904,  the 
first  installation  of  this  type  being  in 
the  New  York  Edison  Company's  Build- 
ing, New  York. 

Elevators  may  be  divided  into  five 
general  classes:  electric,  hydraulic, 
steam,  belt,  and  hand  power,  to  which 
may  be  added  the  escalator  or  moving 
stairway. 

Electric  elevators,  constituting  about  90 


ELEVATOR 


603 


ELEVATOR 


per  cent,  of  the  installations  of  the  pres- 
ent time,  are  of  two  types,  namely,  those 
with  winding  di-ums  and  those  with 
traction  sheaves.  The  former  type  are 
designed  with  drums  spirally  grooved 
on  which  the  cables  wind  and  unwind  in 


DRIVtNG 
5HCAVC 


lOLrff 
SHE/tVC 


JOLCR 
SH£/jy£ 

Cou/^TSf? 
W£/GHr 


O/l 
Bl/fr£R 


OiL 

Bomn 


GEARLESS  TRACTION  ELEVATOR 

raising  and  lowering  the  elevator.  Ele- 
vators of  the  traction  type  are  provided 
with     straight     grooved     sheaves     over 


which  the  cables  pass,  the  friction  be- 
tween the  sheave  and  the  cables  being 
utilized  for  raising  and  lowering  the 
elevator.  Figure  1  shows  in  diagram 
the  usual  arrangement  of  car,  counter- 
balance cables,  etc.,  for  an  electric  drum 
machine,  while  Figure  2  shows  a 
similar  arrangement  for  the  traction 
type  electric  elevator.  The  worm-geared 
drum  machine  was  almost  universally 
used  until  the  advent  of  the  high-speed 
gearless  traction  machine  which  was 
desig^ned  to  eliminate  the  excessive  drum 
sizes  required  for  tall  buildings.  The 
worm-geared  traction  machine  has  now 
been  developed  to  cover  the  field  of  the 
worm-geared  drum  type  machine.  The 
elevator  machinery  may  be  located 
either  at  the  base  of  the  hatchway  or 
over  the  top  of  the  hatchway,  the  latter 
location  being  preferable  as  it  simpli- 
fies the  arrangement. 

There  are  three  principal  types  of  hy- 
draulic elevators:  the  vertical,  the  hori- 
zontal and  the  plunger  type.  Both  the 
vertical  and  the  horizontal  types  consist 
of  a  cylinder  with  piston  rods  connected 
to  traveling  sheaves,  around  which  pass 
the  cables  which  are  attached  to  the  car. 
By  introducing  water  into  the  cylinder 
under  pressure,  the  piston  is  caused  to 
move  and  the  car  raised.  To  lower  the 
car,  the  water  is  allowed  to  discharge 
from  the  cylinder,  the  weight  of  the  car 
being  sufficient  to  overcome  the  friction 
of  the  water  through  the  valves,  pipes, 
etc. 

The  plunger  elevator  consists  of  a 
tube  sunk  in  the  ground  a  distance  equal 
to  the  rise  of  the  elevator  and  a  plunger 
attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  car  work- 
ing in  this  tube  through  a  stuffing  box. 
Movement  of  the  car  is  accomplished  by 
water  under  pressure  entering  the  cylin- 
der, causing  the  plunger  and  the  car  to 
rise.  To  lower  the  car  the  water  is 
allowed  to  discharge  from  the  cylinder. 

Except  in  special  cases,  very  few 
hydraulic  elevators  are  being  installed 
at  the  present  time,  the  cost  of  installa- 
tion and  also  the  cost  of  operation  being 
much  higher  than  for  the  electric  type 
of  elevator. 

The  steam  type  of  elevator  consists  of 
a  steam  engine  as  the  motive  power, 
geared  to  a  winding  drum  around  which 
the  cables  to  the  car  pass.  This  type  of 
elevator  is  practically  obsolete  at  the 
present  time. 

The  belt  elevator  is  usually  driven 
from  a  line  shaft  and  is  only  used  for 
slow  speeds. 

The  hand  power  elevator  is  used  only 
when  the  service  is  infrequent  and  the 
expense  of  installing  a  power-driven 
elevator  is  not  warranted.     It  is  oper- 


ELEVATOR 


504 


ELOAB 


ated  by  pulling  an  endless  rope  over  a 
driving  sheave  which  is  geared  to  the 
winding  machine. 

Safety  features  of  elevator. — With  the 
exception  of  the  plunger  type  of  eleva- 
tor, practically  all  elevators  are  provided 
with  what  is  known  as  a  Safety  Device, 
designed  to  grip  the  guide  rails  and  stop 


DRiV/NG 
SMEWS' 


ROPING  FOR  GEARLESS  TRACTION 
ELEVATOR 

the  car  if  for  any  reason  the  speed  of 
the  elevator  becomes  excessive  or  if,  due 
to  the  breaking  of  the  lifting  cables,  the 
car  starts  to  fall.  Additional  safeties 
are  provided  to  automatically  stop  the 
car  at  the  upper  and  lower  terminal 
landings  in  case  the  operator  neglects  to 


do  so,  and  if  the  car  runs  by  these 
landings,  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  cur- 
rent, apply  the  brake,  and  bring  the  car 
to  rest. 

In  connection  with  high-speed  traction 
elevators,  the  gearless  type  of  which  is 
used  for  passenger  service  in  the  modern 
office  buildings  of  our  large  cities,  it  is 
usual  to  provide  oil-cushion  buffers  un- 
der the  car  and  under  the  counter- 
weight. If,  due  to  accident,  the  car  runs 
gast  the  upper  or  lower  landings,  these 
uffers  are  compressed,  bringing  the  car 
gradually  to  rest  and  at  the  same  time 
reducing  the  traction  between  the  lift- 
ing cables  and  the  driving  sheave.  This 
is  a  very  important  safety  feature  as  it 
prevents  any  further  travel  of  the  car 
or  the  counter-weight. 

Taking  the  borough  of  Manhattan  in 
the  city  of  New  York  as  an  example, 
more  than  double  the  number  of  pas- 
sengers are  carried  vertically  in  elevators 
than  are  carried  by  the  surface,  subway, 
and  elevated  lines  combined,  while  the 
percentage  of  accidents  to  passengers 
traveling  in  elevators  is  very  much  less. 
This  is  due  to  the  exceptional  safety 
features  provided  in  connection  with 
passenger  elevators. 

ELF,  a  little  sprite  supposed  to  inhabit 
wild  and  desolate  places,  and  to  exer- 
cise a  mysterious  power  over  man;  a 
fairy,  a  goblin. 

ELF  ARROWS,  ELF  BOLTS,  and  ELF- 
SHOT,  popular  names  in  Great  Britain 
for  stone  arrow-heads,  and  other  similar 
ancient  barbarian  weapons.  They  are 
superstitiously  worn  as  charms  against 
lightning.  They  are  said  to  appear  in 
great  quantities  where  the  day  before 
there  were  none. 

ELGAR,  SIR  EDWARD,  an  English 
composer.  He  was  born  at  Broadheath, 
Worcestershire,  in  1857,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Littleton  House  and  privately. 
He  acted  as  organist  for  a  time,  but 
soon  engaged  in  musical  composition, 
and  since  1896  has  produced  many 
musical  publications.  His  works  in- 
clude: "King  Olaf,"  "Caractacus," 
"Variations,"  "Sea-pictures,"  "Dream  of 
Gerontius,"  "The  Coronation  Ode." 
"Gerontius"  was  produced  in  Diisseldorf 
in  1901,  and  repeated  at  the  Nieder- 
rheinische  Musik-Fest  in  1902.  "The 
Apostles"  was  produced  at  the  Birming- 
ham Festival  in  1903;  the  concert  over- 
ture, "In  the  South,"  Elgar  Festival, 
Covent  Garden,  1904;  the  oratorio,  "The 
Kingdom,"  Birmingham  Festival,  1906. 
"The  Apostles"  was  also  produced  in 
German  at  the  Niederrheinische  Musik- 
Fest  in  Cologne,  1904.  Other  of  his 
works  include:     Symphonies,  violin  con- 


ELGIN 


606 


ELIOT 


certo;  "The  Coronation  March"  (1911); 
"Masque,  The  Crown  of  India"  (1912). 
Elgar  received  many  distinctions,  in- 
cluding the  Order  of  Merit;  Associate, 
Academie  des  Beaux- Arts,  Belgium; 
Hon,  Academician,  Royal  Swedish  Acad- 
emy, Stockholm;  Hon.  Member  Society 
des  Compositeurs,  Paris  j  Member 
Maatschaapij  tot  Bevordermg  der  Toon- 
kunst,  Holland. 

ELGIN,  a  city  in  Kane  co..  111.,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Fox  river;  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern, 
and  the  Chicago  and  Pacific  railroads; 
36  miles  W.  of  Chicago.  The  river  at 
this  point  is  spanned  by  a  handsome 
iron  bridge  and  affords  excellent  water 
power.  Elgin  is  noted  for  its  varied  and 
extensive  manufactures,  and  contains 
the  Elgin  Watch  Works,  the  Borden  milk 
condensing  works,  butter  and  cheese  fac- 
tories, boiler  works,  bicycle  and  sewing 
machine  works,  shoe,  silver  plated  goods, 
and  lumber  factories.  It  has  the  Elgin 
Academy  public  high  school,  St.  Mary's 
Academy,  Illinois  Northern  Hospital  for 
the  Insane.  Gail  Borden  Free  Library, 
several  parks,  electric  lights  and  street 
railways,  waterworks,  4  National  and 
several  savings  banks,  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  25,976;  (1920) 
27,431. 

ELGINSHIRE,  MORAYSHIRE,  or 
MITRRAYSHIRE,  a  county  of  Scotland, 
in  the  N.  E.  part,  with  an  area  of  475.75 
square  miles.  In  the  S.  are  high  moun- 
tains. The  soil  is  fertile  in  the  N. 
part,  and  agriculture  is  an  important 
industry.  There  are  also  salmon  and 
salt-water  fisheries.  The  chief  industry 
of  the  county  is  the  distilling  of  whiskey. 
Pop.,  about  45,000.  The  principal  town 
is  Elgin. 

ELIAS,  SAINT,  a  lofty  mountain  on 
the  N.  W.  coast  of  America.  It  rises 
about  18,000  feet  above  the  sea,  being 
visible  to  mariners  at  a  distance  of  50 
Jeagues.  Physically,  it  marks  pretty 
nearly  the  point  where  the  shore,  after 
trending  in  a  N.  W.  drection,  turns  due 
W. ;  politically  it  divides  itself  between 
the  Territory  of  Alaska  and  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada. 

ELIJAH,  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  prophets  of  Israel,  flourished  in  the 
9th  century  B.  C,  during  the  reigns  of 
Ahab  and  Ahaziah,  and  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  Jehoram,  his 
special  function  being  to  denounce  ven- 
geance on  the  kings  of  Israel  for  their 
apostasy.  He  incurred  the  anger  of 
Jezebel,  wife  of  Ahab,  for  slaying  the  pro- 
phets of  Baal,  but  escaped  to  Horeb, 
afterward  returning  to  Samaria  to  de- 
nounce Ahab  for  the  murder  of  Naboth. 


Elijah  at  Irtigth  ascended  to  heaven  in  a 
chariot  of  fire,  Elisha  his  successor,  be- 
ing witness.  See  I  Kings  xvii.  to  xxi. 
and  II  Kings  i.  and  ii. 

ELIOT,  CHARLES  WILLIAM,  Amer- 
ican educator  and  author;  born  in  Boston, 
Masg.,  March  20,  1834;  president  of  Har- 
vard University  (1869-1909).     President 


DR.  CHARLES  W.  ELIOT 

Emeritus  since  1909.  He  is  the  author 
of  "Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical 
Analysis";  "Manual  of  Inorganic  Chem- 
istry"; "John  Gilley"  (1904);  "The 
Happy  Life"  (1905);  "The  Road  To- 
wards Peace."  He  edited  "The  Harvard 
Classics,"  better  known  as  the  "Five- 
Foot-Shelf  Library."  (Collier,  New  York, 
1910). 

ELIOT,  GEORGE,  the  pen  name  of 
Mary  Ann  or  Marian  Evans,  an  Eng- 
lish novelist;  born  near  Nuneaton,  Nov. 
22,  1820.  She  received  at  Coventry  an 
excellent  education,  and  shortly  after 
her  21st  year  became  a  convert  to  Ra- 
tionalism. Her  first  literary  undertaking 
was  the  completion  of  Mrs.  Hennell's 
translation  of  Strauss'  "Life  of  Jesus" 
(1846).  After  spending  two  years 
abroad    she    became    subeditor    of    the 


ELIOT 


506 


ELIZABETH 


"Westminster  Review."  In  January, 
1857,  she  came  prominently  into  public 
notice  with  a  series  of  tales  entitled 
"Scenes  from  Clerical  Life."  In  the 
following  year  the  publication  of  "Adam 
Bede"  placed  her  in  the  first  rank  of 
writers  of  fiction.  It  was  succeeded  by 
the  "Mill  on  the  Floss"  (1860);  "Silas 
Marner"  (1861);  "Romola"  (1863); 
"Felix  Holt"  (1866)  ;  "Middlemarch" 
(1872),  and  "Daniel  Deronda"  (1876). 
She  published  also  three  volumes  of  verse, 
"The  Spanish  Gypsy"  (1868) ;  "Agatha" 
(1869),  and  the  "Legend  of  Jubal" 
(1874).     Her  last  work  published  during 


GEORGE  ELIOT 

her  life  was  "The  Impressions  of  Theo- 
phrastus  Such"  (1879),  but  a  volume  of 
mixed  essays  was  issued  posthumously. 
For  many  years  she  was  happily  associ- 
ated in  life  and  work  with  George  Henry 
Lewes,  though  a  legal  union  was  im- 
possible during  the  lifetime  of  Mrs. 
Lewes,  In  May,  1880,  after  Mr.  Lewes* 
death,  she  married  Mr,  John  Cross,  but 
did  not  survive  the  marriage  many 
months,  dying  rather  suddenly  at  Chelsea 
on  Dec.  22  of  that  year. 

ELIOT,  JOHN,  "the  Indian  Apostle"; 
born  probably  at  Widford  in  Hertford- 
shire, in  1604.  He  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1622,  and,  after  taking  orders 
in  the  Church  of  England,  emigrated  to 
Boston,  Mass.,  in  1631.  In  1646,  after 
two  years'  study  of  the  language,  he  de- 
livered a  long  sermon  in  the  native  di- 
alect at  Nonantum;  other  meetings  soon 
followed.  He  shortly  after  began  to 
establish  his  converts  in  regular  settle- 
ments, his  work  meeting  with  approval 
both  in  the  colony  and  at  home;  in  Eng- 


land a  corporation  was  founded  in  1649 
"for  the  promoting  and  propagating  the 
Gospel  among  the  Indians  of  New  Engi- 
knd."  In  1674  the  number  of  "praying 
Indians"  was  estimated  at  3,600;  but  the 
decay  of  the  "praying  towns"  was  rapid 
after  the  war  with  a  native  king,  Philip 
(1675),  in  which  the  converts  suffered 
equal  cruelties  at  the  hands  of  their 
countrymen  and  of  the  English.  With 
Thomas  Weld  and  Richard  Mather,  Eliot 
prepared  the  "Bay  Psalm-book"  (1640), 
the  first  book  printed  in  New  England. 
His  great  work  was  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  the  tongue  of  the  Indians 
of  Massachusetts  (Algonquin)  (1661- 
1663).  He  died  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  May 
21,  1690.  There  are  monuments  to  his 
memory  in  the  Indian  burying  ground  at 
South  Natick  and  at  Newton. 

ELIOT,  SAMUEL,  an  American  edu- 
cator and  historian;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Dec.  22,  1821.  He  filled  the  chair 
of  history  and  political  science  in  Trinity 
College,  Hartford,  Conn.  (1856-1864); 
was  president  of  Trinity  College  (1860- 
1864)  ;  and  overseer  of  Harvard  (1866- 
1872).  Among  his  publications  are: 
"The  History  of  Liberty"  (1853) ;  "The 
Liberty  of  Rome"  (1849);  "Life  and 
Times  of  Savonarola"  (1856) ;  "Manual 
of  United  States  History  Between  the 
Years  1492  and  1850"  (revised  ed., 
1873) ;  and  "Stories  from  the  Arabian 
Nights"  (1879).  He  died  in  Beverly, 
Mass.,  Sept.  14,  1898. 

ELIS,  a  maritime  state  of  ancient 
Greece  in  the  W.  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
bordering  on  Achaia,  Arcadia,  and  Mes- 
senia,  and  watered  by  the  rivers  Alpheua 
and  Peneus.  Of  its  capital  Elis  (now 
Kaloskopi)  there  are  few  traces.  Olym- 
pia,  where  the  famous  games  were  held, 
was  near  the  Alpheus.  Elis  and  Achaia 
now  form  a  monarchy  of  Greece. 

ELISHA,  a  Hebrew  prophet,  the  dis- 
ciple and  successor  of  Elijah.  Many 
miracles  of  prediction  and  cure,  and  even 
of  raising  the  dead,  are  ascribed  to  him. 
He  held  the  office  of  prophet  for  fully 
65  years,  from  the  reign  of  Ahab  to  that 
of  Joash  (latter  half  of  9th  century  B.  C). 

ELIZABETH,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Union  co..  N.  J.,  on  Staten  Island 
Sound  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  Lehigh 
Valley,  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  Philadelphia 
and  Reading  and  New  Jersey  Central 
railroads,  14  miles  S.  W.  of  New  York 
City.  It  covers  a  wide  expanse  of  level 
land,  is  laid  out  with  broad  and  hand- 
some streets,  running  at  right  angles, 
has  numerous  business  blocks,  and  is 
noted  for  the  large  number  of  handsome 
residences  of  New  York  business  men. 
The    chief    articles    manufactured    are 


ELIZABETH 


607 


ELIZABETH 


sewing  machines,  oilcloth,  hats,  saws, 
mill  machinery,  stoves,  hardware,  edge 
tools,  harness,  cordage,  and  combs.  A 
large  business  is  done  in  the  shipment 
of  anthracite  coal.  The  Crescent  Steel 
Works  and  Shipyard,  in  which  many 
naval  vessels  have  been  built,  are  located 
here.  Among  public  institutions  are  the 
Alexian  Brothers'  Hospital,  General  Hos- 
pital, Orphan  Asylum,  Home  for  Aged 
Women,  and  Public  Library.  The  edu- 
cational institutions  include  the  Battin 
and  Pingry  High  Schools,  and  a  business 
college.  The  city  has  electric  lights  and 
street  railways,  many  old  and  handsome 
churches,  a  National  and  several  private 
banks,  building  and  loan  associations,  etc. 
Elizabeth  has  considerable  historical  in- 
terest. It  was  settled  as  Elizabethtown 
in  1665,  and  was  the  capital  of  New  Jer- 
sey from  1755  to  17B7.  It  contains  an 
old  tavern  where  Washington  stopped  on 
his  way  to  New  York  for  his  first  inaug- 
uration, Gen.  Winfield  Scott's  home,  the 
Boudinot  House,  and  the  Livingston  Man- 
sion. Pop.  (1910)  73,409;  (1920)  95,- 
682. 

ELIZABETH,  Queen  of  England, 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  of  Anne 
Boleyn;  born  in  Greenwich,  Sept.  7,  1533. 
On  Nov.  17,  1558,  at  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  her  sister,  Mary,  Elizabeth  was 
recognized  queen  by  Parliament.  The 
accuracy  of  her  judgment  showed  itself 
in  her  choice  of  advisers.  The  first  ob- 
ject of  her  reign  was  the  settlement  of 
religion,  to  effect  which  a  parliament  was 
called  Jan.  25,  and  dissolved  on  May  8, 
its  object  having  been  accomplished. 
Freed  from  the  tyranny  of  Mary's  reign, 
the  Puritans  began  to  claim  predomi- 
nance for  their  own  dogmas,  while  the 
supporters  of  the  Established  Church 
were  unwilling  to  grant  them  even  lib- 
erty of  worship.  The  Puritans,  there- 
fore, like  the  Catholics,  were  made  ir- 
reconcilable enemies  of  the  existing  or- 
der, and  increasingly  stringent  measures 
were  adopted  against  them.  But  the 
struggle  against  the  Catholics  was  the 
most  severe,  chiefly  because  they  were 
supported  by  foreign  powers.  Many 
Catholics,  particularly  priests,  suffered 
death  during  this  reign.  Elizabeth's  first 
parliament  requested  her  to  marry,  but 
she  declared  her  intention  to  live  and  die 
a  virgin ;  and  she  consistently  declined  in 
the  course  of  her  life  Due  d'Alen^on, 
Prince  Erik  of  Sweden,  the  Archduke 
Charles  of  Austria,  and  Philip  of  Spain. 
With  the  unfortunate  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  were  connected  many  of  the  po- 
litical events  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  The 
detention  of  Mary  in  England  (1568- 
1587) J  whither  she  fled  to  the  protection 
of  Elizabeth,  Jed  to  a  series  of  conspir- 


acies, which  finally  determined  Elizabetl 
to  make  away  with  her  captive.  The  ex- 
ecution of  Queen  Mary  (1587),  though  it 
has  stained  her  name  to  posterity,  tended 
to  confirm  her  power  among  her  contem- 
poraries. But  Philip  of  Spain  was  not 
to  be  appeased,  the  execution  of  Mary 
lending  edge  to  other  grievances.  He 
called  Elizabeth  a  murderess,  and  re- 
fused to  be  satisfied  even  with  the  sacri- 
fice she  seemed  prepared  to  make  of  her 
Dutch  allies.     The  Armada  sailed   May 


ELIZABETH,  QUEEN   OF  ENGLAND 

29,  1588.  Its  fate  is  well  known.  The 
war  with  Spain  dragged  on  till  the  close 
of  Elizabeth's  reign.  During  her  reign 
the  splendor  of  her  government  was  sus- 
tained by  such  men  as  Burleigh.  Bacon, 
Walsingham,  and  Throgmorton;  but  she 
had  personal  favorites  of  less  merit  who 
were  often  more  brilliantly  rewarded. 
Chief  of  these  were  Dudley,  whom  she 
created  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  whom  she 
was  disposed  to  marry,  and  Essex,  whose 
violent  passions  brought  about  his  ruin. 
He  was  beheaded  in  1601,  but  Elizabeth 
never  forgave  herself  his  death.  Her 
own  health  soo"  after  gave  way,  and  she 
died  March  24,  1603. 

ELIZABETH,  Queen  of  Bohemia; 
born  in  Scotland.  Aug.  19,  1596.  She 
forms  the  connecting  link  between  the 
ancient  royal  families  of  England   and 


ELIZABETH 


508 


ELKHART 


jScotland  and  the  present  reigning  dy- 
nasty. Daughter  of  James  VI.  of  Scot- 
land and  I.  of  England,  she  married  in 
1613  Frederick  V.,  Elector  Palatine,  who 
in  1619  was  chosen  King  of  Bohemia. 
Through  her  daughter  Sophia,  Electress 
of  Hanover,  she  became  the  grandmother 
of  George  I.  of  Great  Britain.  She  died 
in  England,  Feb.  13,  1662. 

ELIZABETH,  Queen  of  Rumania.   See 

Carmen  Sylva. 

ELIZABETH,  the  wife  of  Zacharias 
and  mother  of  John  the  Baptist.  An 
angel  foretold  to  her  husband  the  birth 
of  a  son  to  her  old  age;  and  it  was  also 
foretold  by  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Vir- 
gin Mary,  as  an  assurance  of  the  birth  of 
the  Messiah. 

ELIZABETH  CITY,  a  city  of  North 
Carolina,  the  county-seat  of  Pasquotank 
CO.  It  is  on  the  Norfolk  and  Southern 
and  the  Virginia  and  Carolina  Coast  rail- 
roads and  on  the  Pasquotank  river.  It 
has  an  important  trade  in  cotton,  lumber, 
and  oysters.  Its  industries  include  saw 
mills,  shingle  factories,  cotton  and  ho- 
siery mills,  flour  mills,  iron  works,  ship- 
building yards,  brick  works,  carriage  fac- 
tories, etc.  Pop.  (1910)  8,412;  (1920) 
8,925. 

ELIZABETH  FARNESE  (far-na'se), 
Queen  of  Spain,  daughter  of  Edward  II., 
Prince  of  Parma;  born  in  1692.  On  be- 
coming the  second  wife  of  Philip  V.  she 
surprised  those  who  had  counseled  the 
rnarriage  by  assuming  the  practical  head- 
ship of  the  kingdom;  her  ambition  and 
that  of  her  minister,  Alberoni,  disturbed 
the  whole  of  Europe.     She  died  in  1766. 

ELIZABETHGRAD,  a  town  of  south- 
ern Russia,  on  the  Ingul,  with  an  impe- 
rial palace,  a  theater,  manufactures  of 
soap,  candles,  etc.,  and  several  great 
fairs. 

ELIZABETH  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
16  American  islands  S.  of  Cape  Cod, 
with   a   permanent  population   of  about 

ELIZABETH  OF  VALOIS  (va-lwa'), 
or  ISABELLA,  Queen  of  Spain;  born  in 
1545,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  France 
and  Catherine  de  Medici.  She  was  des- 
tined to  be  the  wife  of  the  infante,  Don 
Carlos,  but  his  father,  Philip  II.,  being 
lett  a  widower,  became  fascinated  and 
married  her  himself.  The  story  of  a 
romantic  relationship  between  Elizabeth 
and  Don  Carlos  has  furnished  tragic 
subjects  to  Otway,  Campistron,  Che'nier, 
Schiller,  and  Alfieri.     She  died  in  1568. 

ELIZABETH  PETROVNA,  Empress 
of  Russia;  born  in  1709.  She  was 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great.    In  1741 


she  usurped  the  imperial  throne,  by  d^ 
throning  the  infant  Ivan.  At  her  ac- 
cession, she  made  a  vow  that  no  capital 
punishment  should  take  place  in  her 
reign.  But  she  afterward  inflicted  on 
the  Countesses  Bestuchef  and  Lapoukin 
the  punishment  of  the  knout,  and  had 
their  tongues  cut  out  for  betraying  some 
of  her  secret  amours.  Though  dissolute 
in  her  manners,  she  was  extremely  su- 
perstitious, and  performed  her  devotions 
with  rigorous  exactness.  In  1756  she 
joined  Austria  and  France  against  Prus- 
sia.    She  died  in  1762. 

ELIZABETH,  SAINT,  daughter  of 
Andreas  II.,  King  of  Hungary;  born  in 
Pressburg,  in  1207.  She  early  displayed 
a  passion  for  the  severities  of  the  Chris- 
tian life,  despising  pomp,  ambition,  and 
exhibiting  the  most  self-denying  benev- 
olence. When  only  14  years  old,  she 
married  the  Landgrave  of  Thuringia, 
Louis  IV.,  who  died  in  1227.  Great  mis- 
fortunes soon  befell  her.  She  was  de- 
prived of  her  regency  by  the  brother  of 
her  deceased  husband,  and  driven  out  of 
her  dominion  on  the  plea  that  she  wasted 
the  treasures  of  the  state  by  her  char- 
ities. The  inhabitants  of  Marburg, 
whose  miseries  she  had  frequently  re- 
lieved, refused  her  an  asylum,  for  fear  of 
the  new  regent.  At  last  she  found 
refuge  in  the  monastery  of  Kitzingen, 
and  when  the  warriors  who  had  attended 
her  husband  in  the  Crusade  returned 
from  the  East,  she  gathered  them  around 
her,  and  recounted  her  sufferings.  Steps 
were  taken  to  restore  to  her  her  sov- 
ereign rights.  She  declined  the  regency, 
however,  and  would  accept  only  the  rev- 
enues which  accrued  to  her  as  landgrav- 
ine. The  remainder  of  her  days  were  de- 
voted to  incessant  devotions,  almsgivings, 
mortifications,  etc.  She  died  Nov.  19, 
1231,  and  was  canonized  four  years  later, 

ELKHART,  a  city  in  Elkhart  CO.,  Ind., 
at  the  confluence  of  the  St.  Joseph  and 
Elkhart  rivers  and  on  the  Big  Four,  the 
Lake  Shore,  and  St,  Joseph  Valley,  Chi- 
cago, South  Bend  and  Northern  Indiana 
railroads,  101  miles  E.  of  Chicago.  It  is 
a  railroad  center  and  shipping  point  for 
a  large  agricultural  region.  The  rivers 
afford  excellent  water  power.  A  large 
dam  and  power  house  were  erected  in 
1913.  The  Lake  Shore  railroad  shops 
are  located  here  and  the  manufacturing 
interests  include  brass,  carriage,  starch- 
machinery,  gas  generators,  rubber  and 
paper.  Elkhart  is  the  seat  ol  Elkhart 
Institute,  and  has  public  schools,  busi- 
ness colleges,  and  high  school,  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers,  gas  and  electric 
lights,  electric  railways,  water  works, 
and  a  National  bank.  Pop.  (1910)  19,- 
282;    (1920)    24,277, 


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C69     encyclopedia 
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